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 BY SAMHEIL MATUHBEM 
 
 LOIT&MAIT. BRO'WIT, GI^EIT & LONGHAITS 
 18 51. 
 
TUE 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY; 
 ^ Dicttoitati> 
 
 OF 
 
 SAMUEL MAUNDER, 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 THE TUEASUUY OK KNOWLEDGE," "THE SCIENTllTIC A5D MTEUARY 
 TUKASUltY," ETC. ETC. ETC. 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION, 
 RE^^SED, CORRECTED, AND EXTENDED TO THE PRESEKT TIME. 
 
 ^^"-^^"^ LONDO]!^: 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 1851. 
 

 •^^ 
 
 l.oKboN : 
 
 Spottiswoodes and StlAvV, 
 
 New-streeC- Square. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE PRESENT EDITION. 
 
 Since the publication of the last edition of tliis worli In 18f7, death his been 
 more tlian usually busy among those whose names and achievements ought to 
 be commemorated iuour " Biographical Treasury." Instead, however, of 
 adding these new names to the work by way of supplement, it has been 
 deemed expedient to embody them in the work itself, together with the 
 various supplements that have appeared from time to time, thus facilitating 
 consultation, and making the work a complete manual of Biographical 
 reference, down to the date of publication. The more satisfactorily to effect 
 this object, the whole work has been reprinted on a larger page, and with a 
 new type ; and the opportunity has been taken to correct mistakes that had 
 crept into former editions, to supply not a few names that had been 
 omitted, to re-write numerous memoirs that appeared either imperfect 
 or inexact, and in a word to maintain the long established character of this 
 work, as a trustworthy repository of Universal Biography. Considerable 
 space has been devoted in this edition to the lives of foreigners, distinguished 
 in science, literature, art, politics, or arms, in whom Englishmen might be pre- 
 sumed to take an interest ; and on the whole it is hopeil that few important 
 names, whether native or foreign, will be found to have been omitted. 
 
 January, 1851. 
 
 PKEFACE 
 
 THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The publication of this volume having been protracted vcTy considerably 
 beyond the time I had originally calculated on, and the task having proved a 
 far more onerous one than my sanguine expectations had led me to anticipate, 
 I freely confess, that, whatever its ultimate fate may be, I feel no ordinary 
 degree of gratification in having at length brought it to a close — agratifica'ion 
 arising from a practical knowledge of the labour required for its producti ni ; 
 
 186096 
 
iar^facc. 
 
 heightened by a recollection of the ser'ous interruption I met with, from 
 severe and prolonged illness, during its early progress. Yet, though some- 
 times daunted, and often discouraged (if I may apply the words of a great 
 man, on an important subject, to my comparatively insignificant undertaking), 
 "despondency has never so far prevailed as to depress me to neglect." 
 
 On the present occasion, I have but little to say. I shall not trouble the 
 reader with a needless dissertation on the uses and value of Biography ; the 
 subject is too obvious to require demonstration — too trite to call for a pre- 
 fatory remark. Neither, in what I deem it necessary to state, do I wish to 
 arrogate to myself any peculiar merit. But let no one imagine that I am 
 indifferent as to the success of this volume, or that I should not honestly 
 exult to learn that it met with the approbation of a discerning public. If 
 I had no other motive, the highly favourable reception given to its precursor 
 would have been a sufficient inducement, I trust, to make me anxious to 
 execute the present Work in a manner that might not be deemed discre- 
 ditable either to my judgment, or my regard for truth and strict impartiality. 
 
 Persons not in the habit of consulting different biographical authorities, can 
 have no idea of the discrepancies that are to be met with in the relation of 
 mere matters of fact ; but this, perplexing as it is, bears no proportion to the 
 wilful perversions that abound where scope is given for the expression of 
 political feeling, or the promulgation of a particular doctrine. So prone, 
 indeed, are many to this corrupt practice, that it appears as though they 
 considered it a paramount duty to carry on^ per fas et nefas, an eternal 
 crusade against all opinions which are not in accordance with their own — 
 against every one who is disposed to take a straightforward and rational 
 view of things, rather than to glance at them through the oblique medium of 
 some wild or fanciful theory. The amount of injury thus done to the cause 
 of truth, it is impossible to estimate : sentiments, glossed over by a false 
 philosophy, are slavishly copied from one work to another, till the dissemina- 
 tion of error becomes general, and the evils inflicted on society are past 
 redemption. 
 
 Throughout the following pages, I have never allowed myself to be satis- 
 fied with one authority, where more were obtainable ; nor have I grudged my 
 labour in any way that I thought would render the volume more acceptable to 
 the public ; — but to expect that it can be immaculate, would be the height of 
 absurdity. If I have fallen into errors similar to those which I have con- 
 demned, a heavy responsibility will rest on me ; if I have committed any of a 
 less serious nature, I hope they will be found so venial, that their obliteration 
 may be an easy employment when revising a future edition. 
 
 The steady patronage bestowed upon " The Treasury of KNowtEnoE" 
 demands my reiterated thanks. Thirty thousand* coj ies of that work have 
 been legitimately sold in this country, and a still greater number, as I am 
 credibly informed, firatcd in America: it is therefore not unreasonable to 
 expect, that, unless there be more defects in the present volume than I am 
 conscious of, it will meet with a proportionate circulation. Nothing but a 
 large sale can ever repay me ; and I naturally cherish the hope that, in a 
 commercial as well as in a moral sense, I may not have laboured in vain. 
 
 !» This WM written in 1838 ; and that " The Treasury of Knowledge" has since that 
 time gi"eatly risen in public estimation, It^increosed sale is a most gratifying proof. 
 

 NEW DICTIONARY 
 
 UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY, 
 
 A A, CiiAni.Es ITexrt Vajt per, a Lu- 
 tltcran minister, born nt ZwuHc, wlio took a i 
 leading part in establiiilung at llaerlcin the 
 Academy of Sciences. Uom, 1718 ; died, I 
 1792. I 
 
 AA, Gekard Van t>kr, and his sons 
 AuoLPiiLS and Piiilip (three distinguished 
 members of an ancient family in the Nether- 
 lands), are honourably mentioned in the an- 
 nals of the United Provinces for the promi- | 
 nent part they took in resisting the tyranny i 
 of Philip II. of Spain, and the subsequent | 
 liberation of their country. I 
 
 AA, Petek Van dek, a distinguished 
 lawyer, born at Louvain, who became jjresi- \ 
 dent of the council of Luxembourg, in 1574. j 
 
 AA, Petek Van pek, an eminent book- ! 
 seller of Lcyden, who, early in tlie 18th cen- ' 
 tury, compiled and published several exten- 
 sive collections of voyages and travels, among 
 which was his " Galerie du Monde," an illus- \ 
 tratcd Atlas, in 6(5 vols, lie also published \ 
 the great collection of Gronovius on Greek, 
 and of GriEvius on Koman, antiquities. I 
 Died, 1730. 
 
 AAGARD, Christian, aDanish poet, and 
 professor of poetry at Sora, and of theology | 
 at Kissen in Jutland. Bom, IGIO ; died, 1(W4. 
 
 AAGARD, Nicholas, brother of the 
 above, a philosopliical writer, and a proles- i 
 sor at Sora. Bom, ltjl2 ; died, ItwZ. I 
 
 AAGESEN, SuEND or Sveno (called also \ 
 SuENO Agonis), a Danish historian and 
 antiquary of the 12th century. 
 
 AAUST, EvEKAHD, a Dutch painter, emi- 
 nent for fruit pieces and armoury. Born at 
 Delft, in l(i02 ; died, lOoS. 
 
 AALST, William, nephew of the above, 
 and still higher in repute as a painter. Boru, 
 1G20 : died, 1(;79. 
 
 AARON, St. a British martyr, who, with 
 his brother Julius, suffered during the perse- 
 cution of the Christians, under the emperor 
 Diocletian, a. d. 3(t3, and was canonized ten 
 centuries afterwards. 
 
 AARON of Alexandria, a priest and 
 physician of the 7th century. He was a 
 voluminous author, and the first who de- 
 scribed the measles and small-pox, diseases 
 which were at tliat time new to Egypt, and 
 by him supposed to have originated there. 
 
 AARON of Bakcelo.va, a Spanisli Jew of j 
 the 13th century ; author of "Precepts on 
 Moses." printed at Venice in 1523. 
 
 AARON BEN ASSER, a learned Jew of 
 the Ml century ; said to be the inventor of 
 Hebrew points and accents. 
 
 AARON BEN CHAIM, a Jew of iforocco; 
 author of " Treatises on the Scriptures," 
 printed at Venice in 1(!09. 
 
 AARON II ACIIARON, a Jew of Nicome- 
 dia, born in 134(!. He was the author of a 
 work on the Jewish doctrines and customs, 
 entitled "The Garden of Eden." 
 
 AARON IIARISCIION, the Caraite, a 
 rabbi of tlie 13th century, author of a Com- 
 mentary on the Pentateuch. 
 
 AARON, Isaac, a Greek ; interpreter to 
 the emperor Manuel Commenus, by whom 
 he was deprived both of liis office ond his 
 sight, on a charge of wilful misinterpreta- 
 tion. He was subsequently reinstated in his 
 office ; and revenged himself on his enemies 
 with savage cruelty; but died in consequence 
 of torture inflicted on him by order of the 
 emi>eror Isaac Angelus, on lus accession to 
 the throne, in 12()3. 
 
 AARON, PiETito, a Florentine of the l(5th 
 century, canon of Rimini, aud an elaborate 
 writer on music. 
 
 AARON SCHASCON, a rabbi of the 17tli 
 century ; author of "The Law of Truth," 
 printed at Venice in 1631. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis Van, lord of So- 
 meldvck and Spyck, in Holland, a celebrated 
 Dutch dii)lomatist, who, after residing ir> 
 years at Paris, first as agent and then as 
 ambassador for the United States, was twice 
 sent as ambassador to England. Born at 
 the Hague in 1572 ; died, 1641. 
 
 AARTGEN, a painter, of very consider- 
 able merit, but of low and dissolute habits. 
 He was bom at Leyden in 1498 ; and is said 
 to have met his death by being drowned in 
 a drunken frolic, in 1564. 
 
 ABA, or ALBON, crowned king of Hun- 
 gary on the deposition of Peter, sumamed 
 the German, in 1041, and put to death for 
 his cruelty in 1044. 
 
 AJJACO, AvAUisTO Felice D' All, acele- 
 brated composer and violinist of Verona, in 
 the 18th century. 
 
 ABACO, Baron, also a native of Verona 
 (in the 18th century), and celebrated as an 
 amateur composer and performer on the 
 violoncello. 
 
 ABAGA, or ABAKA-KHAN, a warlike 
 emperor of the Moguls, and a formidable 
 opponent of the crusaders. He succeeded 
 his father in the empire in 1264, and died in 
 1282. 
 
 ABANO. See Apono. 
 
 ABANTIDAS, son of Paseas, made him- 
 self master of Sicyon, after putting to death 
 
abaI 
 
 ^ ;^ctD Winihct^al 2tjt0crrajpT)». 
 
 [abb 
 
 Clinias, who was regent for his son Aratus, 
 then a minor. He was assassinated B.C. 251. 
 
 ABARIS, a celebrated character of an- 
 tiquity, said to have possessed vast abilities, 
 and to have been endowed with the power 
 of performing miraculous cures, but of whom 
 even the country which gave him birth is 
 very uncertain ; some calling him a Scy- 
 thian, while others maintain that he was a 
 native of one of the Western Isles of Scot- 
 land : a personage, in short, of whom there 
 is far more of fable recorded than of ti-uth. 
 
 ABAS, SoHAH, snrnamed the Great, 7th 
 king of Persia. With tlie assistance of the 
 English, in 1(322, he took Ormus, and made 
 Ispahan the capital of Persia. Died in 1629. 
 
 ABASCAL, Don Jose Fep.nando, vice- 
 roy of Peru during several years of the 
 South American war of independence, was 
 born at Oviedo in 1743, and having entered 
 the military service of Spain, served in the 
 numerous campaigns of that country during 
 the latter half of last century in all parts of 
 the globe. Appointed viceroy of Peru in 
 1804, he governed with a firm but gentle 
 hand till 181(5, when lie was superseded by 
 General Pezuela ; and, on his retirement, he 
 left behind him a character for ability and 
 moderation which is still held in grateful 
 remembrance. Died at Madrid, 1821. 
 
 ABASSA, or ABBASSA, sister of the ca- 
 liph Haroun al Kaschid, who gave her in 
 marriage to his vizier Giafar, on condition 
 that their marriage should never be con- 
 summated ; but having broken the contract, 
 the caliph put Giafar to death, and banished 
 his wife from the palace, giving ordeis that 
 no one should afford her relief. The roman- 
 tic incidents arising irom this strange mar- 
 riage have furnished themes for many an 
 oriental tale. 
 
 ABASSON, an impostor : who was put to 
 death for pretending that he was grandson 
 to Abas the Great. 
 
 ABATE, AxDREA, a Neapolitan artist, 
 who, as a painter of fruit and objects of still 
 life, acquired great celebrity. He was em- 
 ployed, together with Luca Giordio, in 
 adorning the Escurial for Charles II. of 
 Spain. Died, 1732. 
 
 ABATI, NicoLO, more frequently, but 
 erroneously, called Dell' Abate, a renowned 
 painter in fresco. Born at Modena, 1512; died 
 at Paris, 1571. Several of his relations also 
 distinguished themselves as painters. 
 
 ABAUZIT, FiRMix, a French author of 
 great merit, and whose modesty was equal 
 to his erudition. His father died in his in- 
 fancy ; and his mother, in order to secure 
 his education in the Protestant faith, sent 
 him, at two years of age, to Geneva. After 
 finishing his studies he went to Holland, and 
 from thence to England, where he formed 
 an intimacy with Sir Isaac Newton, by whom 
 he was much admired and esteemed. He 
 was also highly panegyrised by "Voltaire and 
 Rousseau. In short, though he published 
 little, he had acquired among literary men 
 a character for profound learning, and his 
 correct judgment was universally acknow- 
 ledged by them. Born at Uzes, 1G79 ; died 
 at Geneva, 17(57. 
 
 ABBADIE, James, an eminent Protestant 
 divine, who accompanied Marshal Schom- 
 
 berg to England in 1688, and was present 
 when that great commander fell at the bat- 
 tle of the Boyne. On his return to I^ondon 
 he was appointed minister of the French 
 church in tlie Savoy, and was subsequently 
 made dean of Killaloe. He wrote many 
 works, chiefly theological and in the French 
 language ; the most esteemed of which is 
 entitled " Traite de la Vuritd de la Religion 
 Chretienne." Born at Nay, in Beam, in 
 1G58 ; died in London, 1727. 
 
 ABBAS, the uncle of Mahomet, of whom, 
 though opposed to him at first, he became a 
 disciple, and served in his army as a general. 
 He died in the 32d year of the Hegira— a.d. 
 653. 
 
 ABBAS, Ebx Abbas Abdalla, son of the 
 foregoing ; chief of the " Sahabah," or com- 
 panions of the Prophet, and author of a 
 "Commentary on the Koran." 
 
 ABB ATISSA, Paul, a poet of Sicily, who 
 flourished about the j'ear 1570, and translated 
 the Iliad and Odyssey into Latin verse. 
 
 ABBE, Louise, a French poet of the 16th 
 century, surnamed La Belle Cm-donnierc. 
 
 ABBIATI, FiLippo, an historical painter, 
 of considerable eminence. Born at Milan 
 in 1640 ; died in 1715. 
 
 ABBON, or ABBO, CEnNTTtrs, a Norman 
 monk of tlie 0th century, who wrote, in 
 Latin verse, nn account of the siege of Paris 
 by the Normans. 
 
 ABBON, or ABBO, Floriacexsis, a 
 learned Frenchman of the lOtli century, 
 and abbot of Fleury ; the author of nume- 
 rous ecclesiastical biographies. For a short 
 time he presided over the monastery of 
 Ramsay, and was a great favourite with 
 Ethelred. He was killed in 1004, while en- 
 deavouring to quell a tumult between two 
 contending parties of French and Gascons. 
 
 ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., 
 and one of the most active political charac- 
 ters of that period. He was born, in 15G2, 
 at Guildford in Surrey, where his father was 
 a weaver and clothworker. After receiving 
 his education at tlie grammar school in that 
 town, he was sent to Baliol college, Oxford ; 
 and became successively master of University 
 college, dean of Winchester, vice-chancellor 
 of Oxford, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, 
 then of London, and lastly, primate of all 
 England. Towards the close of his life an 
 event occurred, which for a time caused his 
 suspension from the archiepiscopal office ; 
 for being at the seat of Lord Zouch in 
 Hampshire, while on a hunting party he ac- 
 cidentally shot one of his lordship's keepers. 
 He was the author of several theological 
 works ; and was one of the eight divines, 
 who, in 1604, by the order of James I. trans- 
 lated the edition of the Bible now in use. 
 He died at Croj'don in 1633, and was buried 
 in his native town, where he had founded 
 and liberally endowed a hospital. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, bishop of Salisbury, and 
 elder brother of the above. He was an emi- 
 nent divine, and famous for his skill in con- 
 ducting polemical discussions and vindi- 
 cating the supremacy of kings. Bom, 1560 ; 
 died, 1617. Dr. Fuller, speaking of the two 
 brothers, says, " George was the more plaus- 
 ible preacher, Robert the greatest scholar ; 
 
 I 
 
George the abler statesman, Robert the 
 deeper divine ; gravity did fi-own in George, 
 and smile in Robert." 
 
 ABBOT, Maukice, youngest brother of 
 the foregoing, was an eminent London 
 merchant, and one of the first directors of 
 tlie East India Company. lie served the 
 office of sheritF in 1627, was afterwards lord 
 mayor, and represented the city in parlia- 
 ment at the commencement of the reign of 
 Charles I., by whom he was knighted. 
 
 ABBOT, Gecko E, son of Sir Maurice, was 
 the author of a Paraphrase on the Book of 
 Job, and several other religious works. He 
 took up arms in favour of the parliament- 
 arians in the civil wars. Born, ICOO ; died, 
 1648. 
 
 ABBT, Thomas, a German writer, was 
 born at Ulm, in Suabia, in 1738. After filling 
 the chair of philosophy at Frankfort on the 
 Oder, and of mathematics at Rintlen in 
 Westphalia, he was fortunate enough to at- 
 tract the notice of the prince of Schaumburg- 
 Lippe, by whom he was held in high estima- 
 tion and eflfcctually patronised. Ilia treatises 
 on " Merit," and on the " Duty of Dying for 
 our Country," are full of talent and promise : 
 but the latter he was not destined to fulfil, 
 as he died at the early age of 28, in 1766. 
 
 ABDALLA, the father of Maliomet. 
 Though origiually only a cainel-drivcr, it 
 appears tliat he was held in high estimation 
 by his tribe : indeed, so extravagant is the 
 praise lx;stowed upon him, that, among other 
 absurdities which arc related, it is said that 
 on his wedding a hundred girls died of grief 
 and disappointment, for having lost the 
 honour of being his bride. ( 
 
 ABDALLA II., caliph of the Saracens, a 
 celebrated warrior, who took Jerusalem, and 
 ordered all the Christians and Jews to be 
 branded in the hand. Died, 781. 
 
 ABDALMALEK, fifth caliph of the race 
 of the Ommiades. His reign, which was 
 very prosperous, commenced in 681, and con- 
 tinued for 21 years, liaving during that time 
 extended his conquests into India and Spain, 
 and conquered Mecca and Medina. On ac- 
 count of liis extreme avarice, he was called 
 the peeler of stone ; whence, we are told, the 
 vulgar saying of skinniiuj a flint is derived. 
 
 ABDALONYMUS, a descendant of the 
 kings of Sidon, but reduced to the condition 
 of a husbandman. When Alexander the 
 Great conquered that country, and allowed 
 llephestion to dispose of the crown, Abdalo- 
 nymus was selected, and brought before the 
 Macedonian hero ; who, observing the dignity 
 of his aspect, said to his courtiers, " I wish to 
 know how he bore his povertj'." Abdalony- 
 mus, hearing this, said, " Would to heaven I 
 may bear my prosperity as well ; " which 
 answer so pleased the conqueror, that he 
 confirmed the appointment. 
 
 ABDAS, a Clvristian bishop in Persia, in 
 the time of Thoodosius the Younger, and an 
 intemperate zealot, to whose frenzy has 
 been attributed the thirty years' persecution 
 of the Cliristians, of which he himself was 
 one of the earliest victims. 
 
 ABDIAS, of Babylon, an impostor who 
 affirmed tliat he was one of the 72 disciples 
 sent by Our Saviour, and that St. Simon and 
 St. Jude had appointed him first bishop of 
 
 Babylon. He was the author of a legend 
 entitled " Historia certaminis ApostoUci," 
 printed at Basle in 1571. 
 
 ABDOA, a Persian, who suffered martyr- 
 dom in support of Clirislianity, A. n. 250. 
 
 ABDOLLATIPH, a Persian historian, 
 bom at Bagdad in 1161. He is said to have 
 been a man of great learning and a volu- 
 minous writer ; but the only one of his works 
 known in Europe is an abridged history of 
 Egypt, entitled " Al-kital Alsager," or the 
 little book, which was published from a MS. 
 in the Bodleian Library, by Professor White, 
 inl8(X). 
 
 ABDOLMTJMEM, or ABDALMON, the 
 son of a potter, but who became a general, 
 and afterwards a monarch, the conqueror of 
 Morocco, and the destroyer of the Almora- 
 vide family. He assumed the title of Emiu 
 Al Mi'MENKv (head of the true believers), 
 and died in 1156. 
 
 ABEILLE, Oaspard, a French poet and 
 dramatic writer, was bom at Riez, in Pro- 
 vence, 1048. His ready wit and conversa- 
 tional pt)wers rendered him a general fa- 
 vourite, and in private life he was greatly 
 esteemed ; but his works though numerous 
 are now nearly forgotten. Died at Paris, 
 1713. His brother, Scipio, was the author of 
 " A History of the Bones," and " The Com- 
 plete Army Surgeon." Died, 1097. 
 
 ABEILLE, Louis Paul, secretary to the 
 council-general of trade, ic, and author of 
 several works on agriculture and commerce. 
 Born at Toulouse, 1719 ; died at Paris, 1807. 
 
 ABEL, king of Denmark, second surviving 
 son of Vladimir II. His fatlier created him 
 duke of Sleswick and South Jutland, and 
 at his death, in 1240, left him independent 
 master of those provinces. Slain in battle, 
 1252. 
 
 ABEL, Charles Frederick, a German 
 musician and composer, remarkably skilful 
 on the viol di Gamba, was born at Cocthen, 
 1725. He resided many years in England, 
 and was api)ointetl musician to Queen Char- 
 lotte. He died iu 1787. 
 
 ABEL, Dr. Clahke, was the historian of 
 Lord Amherst's embassy to China, which he 
 accompanied as chief medical officer and 
 naturalist. He was a deep and philosophic 
 thinker, a close observer of the mysteries of 
 nature, and a man of a benevolent mind. 
 Died, 1826. 
 
 ABEL, Gaspak, a German historian, born 
 at Hindenburg, in 1675 ; died in 1703. 
 
 ABEL, Joseph, a distinguished German 
 painter of the present century, bom near 
 Linz on the Danube, 1780. Many of his 
 historical pictures arc to be seen at Vienna, 
 where he died, 1818. 
 
 ABEL, Thoiias, teacher of music and 
 grammar to Catharine, queen of Henry VIII. 
 Having written a tract against the divorce 
 of Catharine, he incurred Henry's displea- 
 sure ; and for denying the king's supremacy 
 he was tried, condemned, and executed, in 
 1540. 
 
 ABELA, Joiix Francis, commander of 
 the order of St. John of Jerusalem ; author 
 of a valuable and interesting work entitled 
 "Malta lUustrata," whicli was printed iu 
 that island, in 10-17. Died, lO-V.. 
 
 ABELARD, or ABAILARD, Feteb, so 
 
abb] 
 
 ^ ^clD Hnibcr^at 2Si0j3Ta}j|)ij. 
 
 [abb 
 
 celebrated for his learning and his misfor- 
 tunes, the latter arising from his love of the 
 equally celebrated Heloise, was born at the 
 village of Palais, near Nantes, in Brittany, 
 1079. Having made extraordinary progress 
 at the university of Paris, and surpassed all 
 his compeers, he opened a school of theology, 
 philosophy, and rhetoric, which was tlironged 
 with pupils, and where some of the most dis- 
 tinguished characters of the day imbibed 
 their scholastic philosophy. While he was 
 thus in the zenith of his popularity he be- 
 came so violently enamoured with the beau- 
 tiful and accomplished niece of Fulbert, a 
 canon of Paris, as to forget his duty, his lec- 
 tures, and his fame. Under the pretext of 
 teaching her philosophy, he obtained the 
 uncle's permission to visit her, and at length 
 to reside in the house. Though Abelard was 
 at that time in his 40th year, and Heloise 
 only in her 18th, a mutual passion, fatal to 
 the happiness of both, was encouraged. Ful- 
 bert suspecting this, separated the lovers ; 
 but the imprudent intercourse had gone too 
 far for concealment ; and Abelard, who had 
 retired to his sister's house in Brittany, was 
 followed there by Heloise, who gave birth to 
 a son. He then resolved to marry her se- 
 cretly ; but although the uncle's consent was 
 obtained, Heloise, by a strange infatuation, 
 chose rather to be considered Abelard's mis- 
 tress than his wife, and at last very reluc- 
 tantly complied. Still she would not own 
 her marriage, and even had the hardihood to 
 deny it with an oath. This so greatly in- 
 censed her uncle, that he manifested his dis- 
 pleasure by treating her with great severity; 
 and Abelard in consequence determined on 
 releasing her. He accordingly carried her 
 away, and placed her in the convent of Ar- 
 genteuil, where she put on the religious habit, 
 but did not take the veil. Irritated at Abe- 
 lard for placing Heloise in a monastery, the 
 canon hired some ruffians, who broke into 
 his chamber, and subjected the unfortunate 
 victim to an ignominious mutilation. Filled 
 with shame and sorrow, he now became a 
 mofik in the abbey of St. Dennis, and Heloise 
 took the veil. After time had somewhat 
 moderated his grief, Abelard rcsiuned his 
 lectures, but the violence of his enemies in- 
 creased ; he was charged with heterodoxy, 
 and liis works condemned by council. He 
 next erected an oratory in the diocese of 
 Troyes, called the Paraclete, but persecution 
 still followed him ; and after a life of extra- 
 ordinary vicissitudes he died in the priory of 
 St. Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Saone, in 1142. 
 On the corpse being sent to Heloise, she de- 
 posited it in the Paraclete, of which esta- 
 blishment she was at that time the abbess, 
 and with the view of being buried by his 
 side. In 1800 the ashes of botli were taken 
 to the museum of French moniunents at 
 I Paris ; and on the museum being destroyed, 
 in 1817, they were removed to the cemetery 
 of Pere la "Chaise. As an orator, logician, 
 poet, philosopher, theologian, and mathe- 
 matician, Abelard had acquired the highest 
 fame ; but the memory of his splendid at- 
 tainments has been swept down the gulf of 
 oblivion, while the tale of his passionate 
 love and its bitter fruits is likely to descend 
 to the remotest posterity. 
 
 ABELLI, Louis, bishop of Rhodes, and 
 author of " Medulla," and other theological 
 works. Born, 1G04 ; died, 1G91. 
 
 ABENDANA, Jacob, a Spanish Jew ; au- 
 thor of a Hebrew Commentary on some por- 
 tions of the Scripture. Died, 1685. 
 
 ABEKCROMBIE, Joux, M.D., an emi- 
 nent Scotch physician and author, was born 
 at Aberdeen, Nov. 11. 1781. Having t.akeu 
 his degree at Edinburgh in 1803, he perma- 
 nently fixed his residence in the Scotch me- 
 tropolis, where he soon gained the first rank 
 as a practising and consulting physician. 
 Bnt the writings of Dr. Abercrombie con- 
 tributed no less to the maintenance of his 
 fame, than his skill as a physician. His 
 purely professional works procured for him 
 a high place among the modern cultivators 
 of science ; but tlie most permanent monu- 
 ment to his m«ynory are his " Inquiries con- 
 cerning the Intellectiial Powers, &c.," pub- 
 lished 1830, and the "Philosophy of the 
 Moral Feelings," published 1833. In these 
 works he has brought all the medical facts 
 accumulated in the course of his extensive 
 experience and research, to bear on the 
 various moral and metaphysical systems ia 
 vogue, and constructed out of the whole a 
 view of human nature in which tlie facts of 
 science and the revelations of religion are 
 blended in peculiar harmony. To his wide 
 range of acquirements he added a piety as 
 genuine as it was unassuming, and he will 
 long be remembered for his large but unob- 
 trusive benevolence. Died, Nov. 14. 1844. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, a horticulturist ; 
 author of a " Universal Dictionary of Gar- 
 dening and Botany," and a " Gardener's 
 Calendar," published under the name of 
 Mawe. Died, 1800, aged 80. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Alexa^-der, brother of 
 Sir Ralph Abercromby, an eminent lawyer 
 and occasional essayist, was born 1745. Ad- 
 mitted a member of the Faculty of Advo- 
 cates in 1766, he distinguished himself at the 
 bar, and was raised to the bench in 1792, 
 when he assumed the title of Lord Aber- 
 cromby. He was one of the originators of, 
 and contributors to, the " Mirror " and the 
 " Lounger," in connection with Henry Mac- 
 kenzie. Died, 1795. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Patrick, a native of 
 Forfar, in Scotland, physician to James II. 
 of England, and author of the " Martial 
 Achievements of Scotland," and a "Trea- 
 tise on Wit." Died, 1726. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, one of the 
 bravest of British generals, was born in 
 1738, at Tillibodie, Clackmannanshire, and 
 entered the army in 1756, as a cornet in 
 the 2nd dragoon guards. He served with 
 honour during the seven years' war, and in 
 that of American independence ; gradually 
 rising in his profession till he attained the 
 rank of major general in 1787. His military 
 skill was severely put to the test in the dis- 
 astrous campaigns in Flanders and Holland 
 in 1794 and 1795. After this he was em- 
 ployed in the West Indies, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself by taking some of the 
 most valuable islands belonging to the 
 enemy. On his return to Europe he was 
 made" governor of the Isle of Wight, and 
 raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 
abe] 
 
 % ^cta WiniHntxiKl Ma^vu^'^xi* 
 
 [abr 
 
 He was then appointed to the command of 
 the troops in Ireland, wliere he displayed 
 equal firmness and moderation ; and, soon 
 after, lie again shared in the profitless 
 perils of an expedition to Holland. Uis 
 next and last appointment was that of 
 commander-in-cliief of the expedition sent 
 to Egypt to oppose the growing power of 
 the French, and dispossess them of that 
 country. Having defeated the enemy at 
 Aboukir early in March, 1801, he again 
 came to action with them on the 2l8t of 
 the same month, in the neighbourhood 
 of Alexandria, where, after a desperate 
 battle, the British troops were again sig- 
 nally victorious ; but their gallant general 
 was 80 severely wounded, that he died 
 a week after the battle, on board tlie ad- 
 miral's ship, wliich was conveying him to 
 Malta. His widow was created a baroness, 
 with a pension of two thousand pound;). 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Kobekt, younger 
 brother of the above, a general in the army, 
 K.B., and for thirty years governor of the 
 Castle of E(Unburj,'h. Died, 1S27. 
 
 ABEIILI, JouN Loris, an eminent Swiss 
 landscaix; painter. Born at Winterthur, 
 172:J; died at Berne, I'iW. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, an Irish dissenter 
 and divine, of whose sermons tliere ore two 
 volumes, which are held in considerable 
 esteem. Born at Coleraine, 1C80 ; died at 
 Dublin, 1740. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, F.R.S., a surgeon 
 of great repute and extensive practice. He 
 was brouglit up under Sir Charles Blick, 
 surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and 
 was acknowledged to possess great talent 
 and originality ; though he doubtless owed 
 much ot his fame to a blunt ewrentricity of 
 manner, by which he was ever distinguished. 
 He was the author of "Surgical Observa- 
 tions," "Physiological Essays," &c. Born, 
 1764 ; died, 18;31. 
 
 ABGiVRUS, a king of Edessa, in Meso- 
 potamia, cotemporory with Our Saviour, 
 to whom he is said to have written a letter 
 and received an answer to it. Both letter 
 and answer are pronounced by the beat cri- 
 tics to be mere forgeries. 
 
 ABGILLUS, surnamed Pkester Joiik, 
 son of a king of the Frisi. He accompa- 
 nied Charlemagne to the Holy Land ; and 
 after his leader's return to Europe, made 
 vast conquests in Abyssinia, which was long 
 called " Prester John's Dominion." He is 
 reputed to have written an accouut of Charle- 
 magne's deeds in the East. 
 
 ABINGER, Lord, James Scarlett, was 
 the second son of Robert Scarlett, of Jamaica, 
 where the future lord was born in 17G9. He 
 was early sent to England for education, 
 entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 
 178<}, and took his B. A. degree in 171XJ. In 
 1791 he was called to the bar, and may be 
 said to have become eminent from his very 
 first appearance in the courts. A fine figure, 
 a singularly familiar and unpretending style 
 of elocution, ond an almost unrivalled tact 
 in managing a jury, caused him to have im- 
 mense business. In 1818, after having twice 
 been defeated in contested elections, he 
 obtained a scat in parliament through the 
 patronage of Earl Fitzwilliam. For very 
 
 many years Mr. Scarlett was considered a 
 Whig, and voted as well as spoke in favour 
 of the various measures proposed by Romilly 
 and Mackintosh for the amelioration of the 
 criminal code. On the formation of a mixed 
 ministry under Canning, in 1827, he became 
 attorney general and received the honour of 
 knighthood. In 1834, on the formation of 
 the Peel cabinet, he was raised to the lx;nch as 
 chief baron, with the title of Lord Abinger. 
 In his judicial capacity, he gave the highest 
 satisfaction ; nothing could be sounder than 
 his law, or purer than his impartiality. 
 Died, April, 1844, aged 75. 
 
 ABINGTON, Fra^-ces, a celebrated co- 
 mic actress, born in London, 1731 ; died, 
 1815. She was the original Lady Teazle, 
 and that character is regarded as her master- 
 piece. 
 
 ABISB.\L, IIexry O'Donxell, Count of, 
 a celebrated Spanish general, born in Anda- 
 lusia, 1770. Having entered the royal guards 
 at the age of fifteen, he served in the war 
 against the French republic ; and on Napo- 
 leon's invasion of Spain, the part he took in 
 the relief of Gerona in 1809, led to his pro- 
 motion to the command of Catalonia, where 
 he displayed great energy, and reaped much 
 success. Though defeated in the plains of 
 Vich by General Sonham, he a month after- 
 wards forced Angereau to abandon Lower 
 Catalonia ; and, at the village of Abisbal, 
 he comiMjlled the surrender of a whole French 
 column under General Schwartz. From this 
 action he took his title. Towards the close 
 of the war, he commanded with brilliant 
 success at the capture of Pancorvo. In 1819 
 he suppressed a mutiny of tlie troops in the 
 isle of Leon ; but he fell into disgrace on 
 suspicion of treachery, and it was not till 
 182.J, on the invasion of Spain by the French 
 under the Duke d'Angouleme, tliat he re- 
 covered his position and his fume. After 
 the restoration of Ferdinand, he retired to 
 France, where he resided, almost entirely 
 forgotten, till his death in 1834. 
 
 ABNEY, Sir TiioiiAs, an eminent ma- 
 gistrate of London, lord mayor in 1700, and 
 M.P. for the city. When the king of France 
 had proclaimed the Pretender king of Great 
 Britain, he proposed an address to king 
 William, and the measure having been fol- 
 lowed by other corporations, proved of great 
 service to the king, who was thereby en- 
 couraged to dissolve the parliament, and 
 take the sense of the people, which was 
 almost universally in favour of the Protes- 
 tant succession. He was one of the first pro- 
 moters of the Bank of England, and one of 
 its earliest directors. Died, 1722. 
 
 ABOS, chapel-master of the conservatory 
 of La Pieti at Naples, about the middle of 
 the 18th century ; and author of the opera 
 of"TitoManlio." 
 
 ABOU, Joseph, a learned Mussulman and 
 supreme judge of Bagdad, during the cali- 
 phate of Haroun al Raschid. 
 
 ABRABANEL, Isaac, a Jewish rabbi, of 
 Portugal, author of Commentaries on the 
 Old Testament, and various other works, 
 theological and controversial. Bom at Lis- 
 bon, 1437 ; died at Venice, irK)8. 
 
 ABRADATAS, king of Susa, rendered 
 memorable by the afifection of his wife. 
 
abr] 
 
 ^ iJStfio Winibtv^BX IStnflrajptjg. 
 
 [aca 
 
 ABRAHAM, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, 
 and professor of theology in the university 
 of Pont-&,-Mousson ; autlior of a commen- 
 tary on Virgil and some of Cicero's Orations. 
 Born, 1589 ; died, 165G. 
 
 ABRAIIAM, A. Sancta Clara, a native 
 of Suabia, whose real name was Ulrich Me- 
 gerle. He was an Augustine friar, and ex- 
 tremely affected and eccentric as a preacher. 
 Born, 1642 ; died, 1709. 
 
 ABRESCH, Fkederick Louis, a cele- 
 brated critic. He was an admirable Greek 
 scholar, and his scholia on Greek authors 
 are deservedly held in very high esteem. 
 Born at Homburg, 1G99 ; died in Switzerland 
 where he was rector of a college, 1782. 
 
 ABRIAL, Andrew Joseph, a distin- 
 guished French statesman, was born at Paris, 
 1750. After finishing his legal studies, he 
 went to Senegal to superintend one of the 
 French factories ; and some years after his 
 return, he was sent to Naples to organise the 
 republican government, and tlie mildness 
 and moderation he displayed here, gained 
 him general good will. After the 18th Bru- 
 maire, he was appointed by Napoleon mi- 
 nister of justice, and is said to have been 
 one of the framers of the Code Napoleon. 
 But though Napoleon loaded him with 
 honours, he was among tlie first to vote for 
 his dethronement in 1814 ; and after the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, he was created 
 a peer, and continued to devote himself to 
 the improvements of the law, till his death 
 in 1828. 
 
 ABSAIvOM, archbishop of Lunden in 
 Denmark ; eminent as a statesman and 
 warrior, and founder of the castle and city 
 of Copenhagen. Died, 1201. 
 
 ABSTEMIUS, Lauiientius, an Italian 
 author of the 15th century. He is cliiefly 
 known by his fables, which have been ap- 
 pended to some editions of ^sop and Ph»- 
 drus, and by a commentary on some pas- 
 sages of Ovid. 
 
 ABU, Moslem, governor of Khorassan. 
 At an enormous sacrifice of human life, he 
 aided in establishing the Abasside dynasty 
 upon the ruin of tliat of the Ommiadcs ; 
 but his services to the caliph Almanzor did 
 not prevent that prince from causing him 
 to be put to death, a. d. 759. 
 
 ABUBEKER, father-in-law and succes- 
 sor of Mahomet. His original name was 
 changed to that of Abubeker, or " Father 
 of the Virgin," on the occasion of his 
 daughter Ayesha becoming the bride of 
 Mahomet. On succeeding his son-in-law 
 he assumed the title of caliph, which signi- 
 fies both successor and vicar, and wliich was 
 first borne by him. He won vast territory 
 from the Syrians, Persians, apd Greeks. 
 Died, 634. 
 
 ABUCARA, Theodore, bishop of Caria 
 in the 8th century ; author of some contro- 
 versial treatises wliich were published at 
 Ingoldstadt in 1606, and of a treatise " De 
 Unione et Incaruatione," published at Paris 
 in 1685. 
 
 ABUDADHER, chief of the Arabian sect 
 of Karmatians, and a bitter enemy of the 
 Mahometans. On one occasion he plun- 
 dered Mecca, murdered vast numbers of pil- 
 grims, and carried away the celebrated black 
 
 sfOTie, which the Mahometans so highly value 
 on the supposition that it fell from Heaven. 
 The stone was subsequently ransomed. 
 Died, 953. 
 
 ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, originally 
 a physician of Armenia, but subsequently a 
 bishop. Of his various works the most es- 
 teemed is a Universal History, an edition of 
 which, with a Latin translation, was pub- 
 lished at Oxford, by Dr. Pococke, in 1663. 
 He eventually became primate of the East, 
 and died in 1286. 
 
 ABULFAZEL, vizier to the celebrated 
 Mogul emperor Akbar, and author of" Ayeen 
 Akberry"— a statistical and geographical 
 account of the Mogul empire, and an Mstory 
 of the reign of the emperor Akbar : the 
 former work was translated into English by 
 Mr. Gladwin in 1785. Died, by the hands of 
 an assassin, in 1604. 
 
 ABULFEDA, Ismael, prince of Hamah 
 in Syria. He was distinguished as a mili- 
 tary commander ; but still more as an 
 excellent historian and geographer, being 
 the author of a description of Chorasmia 
 and Mawaralnahre, and the lives of Ma- 
 homet and Saladin, &c. The former work 
 has been published with a Latin trans- 
 lation, added to the Arabic original ; and 
 portions of his various works have been 
 separately translated into English. Died, 
 1333. 
 
 ABULGAZI, Bayatur, khan of the Tar- 
 tars, and author of an esteemed Tartar 
 history. Some Russian exiles in Siberia 
 having discovered the MS. of this work, it 
 was brought to Europe and translated into 
 German and Frencli. Born at Urgeus, the 
 capital of Karasm, 1605 ; died, 1663. 
 
 ABU-OBEIDAH, a friend and associate 
 of Mahomet, and tlie conqueror of great 
 part of Palestine and Syria. Died, by the 
 pestilence, 639. 
 
 ABU-TEMAN, a celebrated Arabian poet. 
 Some of his works have been published in 
 England. Died, 845. 
 
 ABUZAID, MiRZA, a soldier in the ser- 
 vice of Uleg Beg, who, taking advantage of 
 the feud between that personage and his son, 
 proclaimed himself in 1450 ; but after gain- 
 ing considerable territory, he perished in an 
 ambuscade, in 1468. 
 
 ABYDENUS, the reputed author of an 
 history of Assyria and Chaldea, whicli is 
 now lost, except some fragments inserted by 
 Eusebius in his Preparatio Evangelica. 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Berea, in Syria, the 
 opponent of St. Chrysostom and Cyril of 
 Alexandria. Died, 436. 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Amida, on the Tigris, 
 a man honourably distinguished for having 
 sold the church-plate to ransom 7000 Per- 
 sians, who had been taken prisoners in the 
 war between Theodosius the Younger, and 
 Varannes, king of Persia. The latter mon- 
 arch was induced by this truly Christian be- 
 nevolence to consent to tlie termination of 
 the war. This good prelate flourished early 
 in the 5th century, but the exact time of his 
 death is unknown. 
 
 ACACIUS, surnamed Moxopiitiialmus, 
 from having lost an eye, was the disciple 
 and successor of Eusebius, bishop of Caesa- 
 rea, whose life he wrote. He was the founder 
 
aca] 
 
 ^ iSJcfit) BnibtrSal aSiosraji^ji. 
 
 [ach 
 
 of a sect called Acaciaui, and died about the 
 year o(i.5. 
 
 ACADEMUS, an Athenian citizen, who. 
 in the time of Theseus, had the honour of 
 foundiug the Academic grove, and of giving 
 his name to a sect of philosophers. 
 
 ACAMAPICHTLI, the first king of the 
 ancient Mexicans, whom he governed forty 
 years. He gave many valuable laws to his 
 subjects, and founded the capital of the 
 kingdom. Died, 1389. 
 
 ACCA, St., an Anglo-Saxon divine, bishop 
 of Hexham, in the 8th century — a patron 
 of learning and the arts ; autlior of " Suffer- 
 ings of the Saints," and epistles, and an im- 
 prover of church music. Died, 740. 
 
 ACCA LAURENTIA, by some called 
 Lf I'A, the wife of Faustulus, tlie shepherd ; 
 to whose honour the Komans devoted a 
 festival, as being the nurse of Romulus and 
 Remus. 
 
 ACCARIGI, James, a native of Bologna, 
 and professor of rhetoric at Mantua ; after 
 which he entered into orders, and wosjnadc 
 bishop of Vesta, where lie died in 1054. 
 
 ACCARIGI, Francis, a native of An- 
 cona, professor of civil law at Sienna and 
 Pisa. Died, l(i22. 
 
 ACCIAIOLI, DojTATis, a noble and 
 learned Florentine of the 15th century ; dis- 
 tinguished for his translatwn of Plutarch, 
 and commentaries on Aristotle. [The name 
 of this family is variously written, AcciA- 
 OM, AcciAiiTOLi, and Acciajitoi.i.] 
 
 ACCIAIOLI, John, a member of the same 
 family as the above ; an author and public 
 lecturer, in the 16th century. 
 
 ACCIAIOLI, Maodalexa, a Florentine 
 lady i authoress of "DaWd Persecuted," and 
 other poems. Died, ICIO. 
 
 ACCIAIOLI, Zenobio, a poet and critic ; 
 also the translator, from the Greek, of 
 Politian's epigrams, and librarian to Leo X. 
 Died, 1520. 
 
 ACCIAIOLI, Rexatus, a noble Floren- 
 tine, who, in the 14th century, comiuered 
 Athens, Corinth, and Bocotia : which he be- 
 queathed respectively to the Venetians, 
 Theodosius PaloBologus, and his natural son 
 Anthony. 
 
 ACCIO, Zuciiio, a poet of Verona in the 
 15th century. 
 
 ACCIUS, Lucius, a Latin poet and dra- 
 matist. He died about B.C. 180. 
 
 ACCIUS, an orator, against whom Cicero 
 defended Cluentius, b.c. GO. 
 
 ACCIUS, TuLUus, prince of the Volsci ; 
 to whom Coriolanus resorted for aid against 
 Rome. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Bexedict, an Italian lawyer, 
 bom at Florence in 1415, and succeeded 
 Poggio as secretary to that republic in 1450. 
 He wag the author of many valuable works, 
 among which was a narrative of the wars in 
 Palestine, to which Tasso was much indebted 
 in composing the "Jerusalem Delivered." 
 Die<l, 1400. 
 
 ACCOLTI, BENEnicT, a relation of the 
 preceding, born in 1407, was so perfect a 
 master of the Latin tongue, that he was 
 called the Cicero of the age. He was highly 
 distinguished by the popes Leo X., Adrian 
 VI., and Clement VII., the last of whom 
 made him a cardinal. Died, 1549. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Peter, son of the above, 
 abandoned the profession of the law to enter 
 the church ; and, as cardinal of Ancona, 
 composed the Papal bull against Luther. 
 Died, l.-.;53. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Berxard, brother of the last 
 named, a poet of considerable powers : his 
 works were published at Florence, in 1513. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Francis, uncle of the above ; 
 a lawyer and scholar of great ability, but 
 even more remarkable for his parsimony than 
 for his talents. Died, 1480. 
 
 ACCOLTI, BKNEincT, a man of violent 
 passions, who conspired with live others to 
 murder Pius IV. He suflered death in 
 1504. 
 
 ACCORSO, Mariaxoelo, a native of 
 Aquila, in the Kith century; an eminent 
 critic and scholar. He published remarks 
 on Ausonius and Ovid, entitled " Diatribas," 
 and an edition of Ammianus Marcellinus. 
 
 ACCORSO, or ACCURSIUS, Francis, 
 an eminent Italian lawver, born at Florence 
 in 1182, and died in 1225), rendered himself 
 famous by his "Perpetual Commentary," or 
 " Great Gloss," in illustration of the code, 
 the institutes, and the digests. He left three 
 sons, all of whom distinguished themselves 
 by their legal attainments. 
 
 ACESIUS, bishop of Constantinople, in 
 the time of Constantine, who said to him, 
 in allusion to his rigid opinions, "Make 
 yourself a ladder, Accsius, and go up to 
 heaven alone." I 
 
 ACEVEDO, Felix Alvarez, a Spanish 
 officer, and one of the principal actors in \ 
 the revolution in his native country, in 1820. \ 
 He was killed in the same year, in an am- ' 
 buscadc, after having defeated a party of 
 the royalists. I 
 
 ACH, VAX, or ACHEN, Joiix, an emi- ! 
 nent historical and portrait painter. Bom j 
 at Cologne, 1.500 ; died, 1621. j 
 
 ACII.(EUS, a Greek poet and satirist, con- ; 
 temporary with jEschylus ; but though he is I 
 said to have written forty tragedies, nothing 
 but a few fragments at present exist. j 
 
 ACUARD, Anthoxv, a learned divine. 
 Born at Geneva, 16SK5 ; died, 1772. j 
 
 ACHARD, sometimes called St. Victor, I 
 from his having been abbot of St. Victor, in 
 Paris, was a bishop of Avranchcs, in Nor- 
 mandy, and the author of some religious : 
 works. Died, 1172. I 
 
 ACHARD, Claude Francis, a physician, 
 secretary to the academy, and librarian, of 
 Marseilles. He was the author of several 
 valuable works, and the compiler of some 
 catalogues, particularly that of the museum 
 of Marseilles. Born in 17.53 ; died, 180t>. 
 
 ACH^iRD, F. C, a distinguished Prussian 
 chemist ; known as the first fabricator of 
 beet-root sugar, in 1702 ; and author of se- 
 veral treatises on chemistry and agriculture. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 ACHARDS, Eleazar, bishop of Avig- 
 non, remarkable for the benevolent courage 
 he displayed when the plague raged in 
 his see. Being sent by Clement XII. to 
 China, to settle the disputes which prevailed 
 among the missionaries, he died there, 
 in 1741, without having accomplished his 
 object. 
 
 ACHEN WALL, Godfrbt, a distinguished 
 
ach] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Bixibtv^Kl 28f0flrapf)i). 
 
 [act 
 
 lecturer on history, jurisprudence, and statis- 
 tics, in the university of Gottingen. Died, 
 1772. 
 
 ACHER, N., a French judge ; author of 
 an " Abroge des Ilommes Illustres de Plu- 
 tarque." Died, 1807. 
 
 ACHERI, Luc I)', a Benedictine monk ; 
 author of " Lives of the Saints," &c. Born 
 at St. Quintin, in Picardy, 1609 ; died, at 
 Paris, 1685. 
 
 ACHILLES TATIUS, a native of Alex- 
 andria, who lived during the Srd century, 
 ajid in his old age was converted to Chris- 
 tianity, and became a biohop. He origi- 
 nally taught rhetoric in his native city, and 
 wrote a " Treatise on the Si)here ; " a 
 " History of Great Men ; " and a Romance, 
 entitled "Tlie Loves of Clitophou and 
 Leucippe." 
 
 ACHILLINI, Ai.EXAXDER, a Bolognese 
 physician, known by his piiblications on 
 anatomy and medicine. Died, l.jl2. 
 
 ACHILLINI, John Philotheus, brother 
 of the above, and author of an eulogistic 
 poem, entitled " Viridario." Died, I'/SS. 
 
 ACHILLINI, Claude, a relation of the 
 above, distinguished for his knowledge of 
 medicine, theology, and jurisprudence. 
 Born, at IBologna, 1574 ; died, 1()40. 
 
 ACHMET I., emperor of Turkey, son and 
 successor of Mahomet III. Bom, 1588 ; died, 
 1017. 
 
 ACHMET II., succeeded his brother So- 
 Ivman on the throne of Constantinople. 
 Died, 1095. 
 
 ACHMET III., son of Mahomet IV., was 
 placed on the throne by the heads of a fac- 
 tion whicli had deposed his brother, Mus- 
 tapha II. He was afterwards deposed, and 
 his nephew, Mahomet V., exalted to the 
 throne. Died in prison, 1730. 
 
 ACHMET, Bacha, a general of Solyman, 
 and governor of Egypt. 
 
 ACHMET, an Arabian writer in the 
 4th century. His book " On the Inter- 
 pretation of Dreams," was published at 
 Paris in 1003. 
 
 ACID ALIUS, "Valexr, a German author, 
 and celebrated critic. Died, 1595, aged 28. 
 
 ACIIjIUS, Caius, a valiant soldier under 
 Julius Cajsar : he grappled an enemy's galley 
 with his right hand, which being cut off, he 
 seized it with his left, and boarded it, uot- 
 witlistanding he was opposed by all the crew 
 upon deck. 
 
 ACINDYNUS, Septimius, a Roman con- 
 sul, and governor of Antioch, in the 4th cen- 
 tury. Having sentenced a man to be hanged 
 for a debt owing by him to the public treasury, 
 if it was not paid by a certain day, a very riclx 
 citizen proposed to pay the sum for him if 
 he would consent to his wife's dishonour ; 
 but having accomplished his base design, lie 
 treacherously gave her a bag of earth, instead 
 of the money ; which being reported to Acia- 
 dynus, he condemned the citizen to pay the 
 debt, and to give the land from whence the 
 earth was taken, to the wife. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Conrar, a German co- 
 median, and founder of the modern German 
 theatre. Died, 1771. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Joux Christian Got- 
 T-iEB, an eminent physician ; author of a 
 " Manual of Military Medicine," and other 
 
 valuable works. Born in 17.5G ; and died at 
 Altdorf, in Franconia, in 1801. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Rudolph, an ingenious 
 and enterprising tradesman, was born at 
 Stolberg, Saxony, in 1704, and came to Eng- 
 land previous to the Frencli revolution. After 
 following for a time the occupation of a car- 
 riage draughtsman, he settled in the Strand 
 as a printseller, where he established a 
 flourishing and extensive concern, furnishing 
 employment to numerous artists, and judi- 
 ciously catering for the public taste in elegant 
 and ornamental works of art. His " Forget 
 me Not" was the first of that class of " An- 
 nuals " which appeared in this country ; and 
 to him also are we indebted for the introduc- 
 tion and much of the success of the litho- 
 graphic art ; while the good taste and spirit 
 he evinced in producing the " Histories " of 
 Westminster, Oxford, &c., and other hand- 
 somely embellished works, entitle him to the 
 respect of all who know how to appreciate 
 them. Died, 1834. 
 
 ACKMAN, William, a Scotch artist of 
 the 18tli century. As a portrait painter, he 
 was held in high estimation ; but is chiefly 
 remembered as the first person who appre- 
 ciated and encouraged the poet Tliomson. 
 
 ACOLUTHUS, Andkew, a learned pro- 
 fessor of languages at Breslaw ; author of a 
 treatise " De Aquis Amaris," and numerous 
 other works. Died, 1704. 
 
 ACONTIUS, James, a native of Trent, 
 eminent, in the 10th century, as a philoso- 
 pher, a divine, and a civilian. 
 
 ACOSTA,Ch]iistopher, a Portuguese sur- 
 geon and naturalist of the lOth centurj'^ ; 
 author of "A Treatise on the Drugs and 
 Medicinal Plants of the East Indies," and 
 otlier works. 
 
 ACOSTA, Gabriel, professor of divinity 
 at Coimbra ; author of a commentary on the 
 Old Testament. Died, 1050. 
 
 ACOSTA, Joseph, a provincial of the 
 Jesuits in Peru. His history, natural and 
 moral, of the West Indies, is particularly 
 celebrated. Died, IGOO. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese of Jewish 
 descent, who made some stir during the 17th 
 century by his freaks in changing his creed. 
 The whole life of this man indicated insanity; 
 and his death by his own hand, in 1647, con- 
 firmed the opinion. 
 
 ACQUAVIVA, Andrew Matthew, 
 prince of Teramo and duke of Atri, was a 
 learned Neapolitan, to whom belongs the 
 merit of lia\'ing published the first Ency- 
 clopccdia. Born, 14.56 ; died, 1523. 
 
 ACRON, a Sicilian physician, celebrated 
 for having expelled the plague from Athens, 
 by burning perfumes, b. c. 473. 
 
 ACRONIUS, John, a mathematician of 
 Friesland, who wrote on the motion of the 
 earth. Died, 1503. 
 
 ACRONIUS, John, a Dutch writer of the 
 17th centurj^, who wrote against the Romish 
 religion. 
 
 ACROPOLITA, George, one of the By- 
 zantine historians of the 13th century, cele- 
 brated for his knowledge of poetry, mathe- 
 matics, and rhetoric. Born, 1220 » died, 1282. 
 
 ACTON, John, son of a physician, bom at I 
 Besan^on, in 1737. He entered into the | 
 French navy, and afterwards into that of i 
 
act] 
 
 ^ ^cU) Bnihtx^Kl 3Biasraa)]^j). 
 
 [ada 
 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ills rescuing 
 4000 Spaniards from the Barbary corsairs, 
 made him known at the court of Naples ; 
 and through the patronage of the queen, he 
 became minister of the marine, and after- 
 wards of the finances. lie was dismissed 
 from the ministry in 1803, and retired into 
 Sicily, where he died in 1808. 
 
 ACTUARIUS, Joii.v, a Greek physician 
 of the 13th century, who distinguished him- 
 self by the analysis and employment of the 
 milder cathartics and simple water. 
 
 ACUNA, CuRiSTOi'HKH, bom at Burgos, 
 Spain, hVJTj became a Jesuit in 1(512, and sub- 
 sequently a missionary in America. On liis 
 return to Spain, ho published " A DescriiJtion 
 of the Great River of the Amazons." 
 
 ACUNA, Fernando de, a Si)anish poet of 
 some celebrity. Died at Grenada in 1(580. 
 
 ADAIR, James, serjcant-at-law, born in 
 London, and educated at Peter-llouse, Cam- 
 bridge, where he took his degree of M. A. in 
 17G7. In 1771, lie was chosen recorder of 
 London ; an office which he held for ten 
 years. At his death, wliich happened in 
 17!>H, he was member of parliament for 
 Higham Ferrers, king's prime serjcant-at- 
 law, and chief-justice at Chester. 
 
 ADAIR, James, a trader and resident 
 among the N. American Indians, whose li- 
 neage he deduces from the Jews, in a pub- 
 lication diUed 1775. 
 
 ADAIU, James Makitticick, a physician 
 of some eminence, and a native of Scotland ; 
 author of a number of medical and other 
 works. Died at llarrowgate, in 1802. 
 
 ADALARD, or ADELARD, a German 
 divine and theological writer, the grandson 
 of Charles Murtel, and cousiii-gcrman of 
 Charlemagne. He is most distinguished for 
 the foundation of a distinct abbey, called 
 New Corbie, as a seminary for the education 
 of missionaries, who were to be employed in 
 the conversion of the northern nations. 
 Born, 7.53 ; died, 827. 
 
 ADALBERON,a celebrated archbishop of 
 Rheiins, and chancellor of France ; who dis- 
 tinguished himself, as a prelate and a politi- 
 cian, under Lothaire, Louis V., and Hugh 
 Cai)et. Died in 988. 
 
 ADALBERON, Ascelinus, ordained bi- 
 shop of Laon, in 977, by the preceding. He 
 treacherously delivered up Arnoul, arch- 
 bishop of Rheiras, and Charles, duke of 
 Lorrain, to Hugh Capet. Died, 1030. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Prague, in 
 the 10th century. He was one of the first 
 founders of the Christian religion in Hun- 
 gary ; and also preached the gospel in 
 Prussia, and in Lithuania, where he was 
 murdered by Sego, a pagan priest. Boles- 
 laus, prince of Poland, is said to have ran- 
 somed his body with an equal weight of gold. 
 
 ADALBERT, an ambitious, eloquent, and 
 designing prelate, created archbishop of Bre- 
 men and Hamburgh, 1043. During the mi- 
 nority of Henry IV. of Germany, he acted 
 as regent, but his despotic conduct rendered 
 him obnoxious to the people. Died, 1072. 
 
 ADAM, RuBEKT, author of "The Reli- 
 gious World Displayed," &c., was born in 
 Aberdeenshire, 1770. After pursuing his 
 studies at Oxford, he entered into holy or- 
 ders, and was appointed to a chiuch in the 
 
 Danish island of St. Croix, where he was 
 much annoyed by the authorities, and com- 
 pelled to return without any redress for the 
 injuries he had sustained. He was sub- 
 sequently appointed to a charge in the island 
 of Tobago ; but he died almost before enter- 
 ing upon his duties, 182(5. 
 
 ADAM, the Right Hon. William, lord 
 chief commissioner of the Jury Court, was 
 born at Blair Adam, 17.51. After finishing 
 his studies at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ox- 
 ford, he obtained a seat in Parliament ; but 
 in consequence of some family losses he re- 
 signed his seat in 1794, and obtained such 
 success in his profession as to be successively 
 appointed counsel for the East India Com- 
 pany, and chancellor of the duchy of Corn- 
 wall. The Prince of Wales, the Duke of 
 York, and many of the nobility honoured 
 him with their confidence ; and in 1815 he 
 was made a privy councillor, and was ap- 
 pointed one of the barons of the Scottish 
 Exchequer, chiefly with the view of enabling 
 him to introduce and establish the new sys- 
 tem of trial by jury in civil cases. In this 
 he was completely successful. Nominated 
 chief commissioner, he continued to discharge 
 his arduous and important duties to the 
 satisfaction of all, till his retirement in 
 1833. In the course of liis parliamentary 
 career, in consequence of something that 
 occurred in a discussion during the first 
 American war, Mr. Adam fought a duel with 
 Mr. Fox, which happily ended without blood- 
 shed, when the latter jocularly remarked, 
 that had his antagonist not loaded liis pistol 
 •with government powder, he would have 
 been shot. Died, 1839. 
 
 ADAM, ScoTus, a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 in the 12th century, and author of a life of 
 David I. of Scotland. 
 
 ADAM, Alexander, LL.D., well known 
 to the literary and scholastic world by his 
 '' I^atin lexicon," " Roman Antiquities,' &c. ; 
 raised himself to great eminence by almost 
 unprecedented eflForts, and became rector of 
 the High School of Edinburgh, an office 
 which he held till his death. Born, 174 L ; 
 died, 1809. 
 
 ADAM, Lambert Sigisbeut, an eminent 
 French sculptor, many of whose works were 
 executed for the decoration of Versailles and 
 St. Cloud. Born, 1700 ; died, 1759. 
 
 ADAM, Nicholas Sebastian, brother of 
 the above, and eminent in the same profes- 
 sion. He executed the admired statue of 
 " Prometheus Chained." Born, 1705 ; died, 
 1778. 
 
 ADAM of Bremen, canon of the cathedral 
 of Bremen about the close of the 11th cen- 
 tury ; author of an ecclesiastical history, and 
 numerous other works ; and indefatigable as 
 a Christian missionary. 
 
 ADAM, Melchior, a German divine and 
 biographical author of the 17th century, to 
 whose voluminous writings subsequent bio- 
 graphers have been greatly indebted. Died, 
 1(522. 
 
 ADAM, Nicholas, a French grammarian; 
 author of " The True Mode of acquiring a 
 Language whether Living or Dead, by means 
 of the French," and other works of consider- 
 able ingenuity. Bom. 171(5 ; died, 1792. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, F.R.S. and F.S.A. ; a 
 
Ada] 
 
 ^ ^^fio Winihtt^al Utograpi^in 
 
 [ADA 
 
 celebrated architect, much employed upon 
 the public buildings and noblemen's man- 
 sions of London. One of his works, executed 
 in conjunction with his brother, is the noble 
 range of buildings called tlie " Adelphi," the 
 name being the Greek word for " Brotliers." 
 He at one time represented the county of 
 Kinross in Parliament. Born at Kirkaldj', 
 Fifeshire, 1728; died, 17a2. His brother 
 James, the coadjutor in most of his labours, 
 died, 1794. 
 
 ADAM, Thomas, an English divine, and 
 for 58 years the rector of Wintringham, in 
 Lincolnshire, having repeatedly refused pre- 
 ferment. He was the author of some religi- 
 ous works. Born at Leeds, 1701 ; died, 1784. 
 
 ADAMANTEO, a learned Italian mathe- 
 matician and orientalist ; author of " Glossas 
 et luterpretationes in Talmud Hebrasorum." 
 Died, 1581. 
 
 ADAM ANTIUS, a Greek physician of the 
 5th century; author of a work on physiogno- 
 my, which has been often printed. 
 
 AD AM AN US, abbot of Icolmkil, in the 
 8th century ; author of a life of St. Columba. 
 
 ADAMI, Leonardo, an Italian scholar, 
 eminent for his skill in the Greek and Ori- 
 ental languages, and librarian to Cardinal 
 Iraperiali. Born, 1C90, at Bolsema, in Tus- 
 cany ; died, 1719. 
 
 ADAMS, George, a celebrated maker of 
 mathematical instruments ; author of " Mi- 
 cographias lUustrata," and other scientific 
 works. Died, 178G. 
 
 ADAMS, Gkokge, son of the above, and 
 of the same profession ; author of "An Essay 
 on Vision, &c." Born, 1750 ; died, 1795. 
 
 ADAMS, JoHX, second president of the 
 United States of America, and a political 
 writer of considerable reputation. Before 
 the Revolution, Mr. Adams attained great 
 eminence as a lawyer, and published an 
 essay " On Common and Feudal Law." On 
 the breach with the mother country, he es- 
 poused the colonial cause, and employed his 
 pen with great activity. He was one of the 
 principal promoters of the memorable reso- 
 lution passed July 4. 177C, declaring the 
 American States free, sovereign, and inde- 
 pendent. Mr. Adams subsequently proceeded 
 with Dr. Franklin to the court of France, in 
 order to negotiate a treaty of peace and alli- 
 ance with that country. He was afterwards 
 nominated plenipotentiary to Holland, and 
 materially contributed to hasten a rupture 
 between the United Provinces and Great 
 Britain. Lastly, he was employed in nego- 
 tiating a general peace at Paris ; and was 
 the first ambassador received b>'tlus country 
 from America after it was effected. This 
 distinguished individual also took a great 
 share, in conjunction with Washington, Ha- 
 milton, and other federal leaders, in forming 
 the present constitution of the United States, 
 in 1787, when General Washington was 
 elected president, and Mr. Adams vice-pre- 
 sident. On the retirement of Washington, 
 Mr. Adams was elected his successor ; and, 
 at the conclusion of his presidency, retired 
 from public life, vnth the character of an 
 able, active, independent, and upright states- 
 man, even among those whose party views 
 were opposed to his opinions. Born, 1735 ; 
 died, 182(j. 
 
 ADAMS, Joiix QuiNCY, formerly president 
 of the United States, son of John Adams, 
 the second president, was born at Boston in 
 1769. His father having been appointed 
 commissioner to France in 1778, embraced 
 the opportunity of securing for his son all 
 the advantages of an European education. 
 Wlien only fourteen years of age he went to 
 Petersburg as private secretary to the Ame- 
 rican minister, and on his return to his 
 native country he entered Harvard Uni- 
 versity, where he graduated with honour in 
 1787, and subsequently commenced the prac- 
 tice of the law at Boston. In 1794 he was 
 appointed by Washington minister of the 
 United States at the Hague ; and in 1796 he 
 went in the same capacity to Berlin, which 
 office, however, he resigned on the defeat of 
 liis father, and Mr. Jefierson's accession to 
 the presidency, in 1801. Here too he wrote 
 his famous " Letters from Silesia," which 
 were favourably noticed in the Edinburgh 
 Review. After representing Massachusets 
 in the United States Senate for six years, 
 he went as ambassador to St. Petersburg 
 in 1809, and to the influence which his 
 character and abilities procured for him at 
 that court is mainly to be attributed the 
 intervention of Russia which terminated in 
 the treaty of peace between the United 
 States and Great Britain. After the peace 
 he was appointed ambassador to the court 
 of St. James's ; and he subsequently acted as 
 secretary of state during the administration 
 of Mr. Monroe. In 1825 he was himself 
 elected president of the United States. His 
 administration was a perfect illustration of 
 the principles of the constitution, and of a 
 republic purely and faithfully governed. 
 On the expiry of liis term of office, he 
 retired into private life ; but he was soon 
 elected by his district as representative in 
 Congress, and though he never afterwards 
 held office, he long continued to benefit his 
 country by his speeches and his pen. Manly, 
 straightforward, and independent, he never 
 swerved from what he believed to be the 
 path of dutj', — no easy matter in the United 
 States, where party feeling runs so high ; 
 and he has left behind him a reputation for 
 purity and disinterestedness of motives, se- 
 cond only to that of Washington. Died, 1848. 
 
 ADAMS, John, "the patriarch of Pit- 
 cairn's Island," is famous for the share he 
 took in the mutiny of the Bounty, in 1789, 
 and in the subsequent establishment of the 
 colony of the mutineers at Pitcaim's Island. 
 His real name was Alexander Smith. Died, 
 1829. 
 
 ADAMS, Joseph, an able English physi- 
 cian ; author of a treatise on epilepsy, and 
 numei-ous other'medical works of great merit. 
 Born, 1758 ; died, 1818. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, an active member of 
 the first American congress, and one of the 
 most powerful advocates of the political se- 
 paration of that country from England. 
 Born, 1722 ; died, 1803. 
 
 ADAMS, Sir Thomas, an eminent citizen 
 of London, of which he was lord mayor in 
 1645. He was a loyal and prudent magis- 
 trate, and distinguished by many public acts 
 of munificence. Bom, at Wem, in Shrop- 
 sliire, 1586 : died, 1667. 
 
ADA] 
 
 ^ i^m BniixtrSal 3Bi0!irap!)jj. 
 
 [ade 
 
 ADAMS, William, an English divine of 
 the 18th century ; author of an answer to 
 Hume on the Miracles. Died, 1789. 
 
 ADAMSON, Patrick, archbishop of St. 
 Andrew's, in Scotland, and ambassador from 
 James VI. to Queen Elizabeth ; but chiefly 
 remembered for his disputes with the pres- 
 bytery, by which he was involved in ruin. 
 Born, 153G ; died, 1599. 
 
 ADANSON, Michael, an eminent French 
 naturalist, of Scottish extraction, born at 
 Aix, in Provence, 1727. At the Revolution, 
 he was reduced to extreme indigence, and 
 died in 1806, leaving behind liim a vast 
 number of manuscripts. 
 
 ADDINGTON, Antiio.vy, a physician, 
 born in 1713, and educated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Oxford. About 17M, he settled at 
 Reading, where he had considerable practice 
 in cases of insanity. He was the father of 
 Viscount Sidmouth. Died in 1790. 
 
 ADDISON, Lancelot, an English di- 
 vine, was born at Crosby Ravensworth, 
 Westmoreland, in 1G32. He early distin- 
 guished himself by Ixis attachment to the 
 Stuart family, and appears to have sup- 
 ported a consistent and upright character. 
 He held the living of Milston, Wilts, with 
 a prebend in the cathedral of Salisbury, and 
 was eventually made dean of Liclifield. He 
 died in 17aJ. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, so highly celebrated 
 in English literature, was the son of Dr. 
 Lancelot Addison. He was bom May 1. 
 1672, at Milston, and, after receiving the 
 rudiments of education at Salisbury and 
 Lichfield, was sent to the Charterhouse, 
 where he contracted his first intimacy with 
 Mr., afterwards Sir Richard Steele. At the 
 age of 15, he was entered of Queen's col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he soon became distin- 
 guished for classical literature, and for his 
 skill in Latin poetry. At 22, he addressed 
 some English verses to the veteran poet. Dry- 
 den ; and sliortly afterwards published a 
 translation of part of Virgil's fourth Georgic. 
 In 1C95, he addressed a complimentary poem, 
 on one of the campaigns of King William, to 
 the Lord Keeper Somers, who procured him a 
 pension from the crown of 300?. per annum, 
 to enable him to travel. On his return home, 
 in 1702, he found his old friends out of place ; 
 but, in 1704, he was introduced by Lord 
 Halifax to Lord Godolphin, as a fit person 
 to celebrate the victory of Blenheim ; on 
 which occasion he produced " The Cam- 
 paign," for which he was appointed com- 
 missioner of appeals. After tliis he accom- 
 panied the Marquis of Wharton to Ireland, 
 aa secretary. While there, Steele com- 
 menced the " Tatler," to which Addison 
 liberally contributed. This was followed by 
 the " Spectator," which was also enriched by 
 the contributions of Addison, whose papers 
 are distinguislied by one of the letters of the 
 word Clio. This publication was succeeded 
 by the "Guardian," a similar work, in which 
 Addison also bore a considerable share. In 
 1713, his famous tragedy of Cato was brought 
 upon the stage, and performed without in- 
 terruption for thirty-five nights. In 1716, 
 Addison married the Countess Dowager of 
 Warwick ; but the union is said to have 
 been far from felicitous. The following year, 
 
 II 
 
 he became secretary of state, which place he 
 soon resigned, on a pension of 15001. a-year. 
 In his retirement he \^Tote " A Defence of 
 the Christian Religion," and also laid the 
 plan of an English Dictionary, upon the 
 model of the Italian Delia Crusca. He 
 closed his life in a manner suitable to his 
 character. When given over by his phy- 
 sicians, Addison sent for his step-son, the 
 jrouug earl of Warwick, whom he was anx- 
 ious to reclaim from irregular habits and 
 erroneous opinions, and grasping his hand, 
 exclaimed impressively, " See in what peace 
 a Christian can die ! ' but whether this af- 
 fecting interview had any effect upon the 
 voung earl is not known, as his own death 
 happened shortly after. Addison died at 
 Holland House, June 17. 1719 ; leaving an 
 only daughter, who died, unmarried, in 1797. 
 Of Addison's numerous and well-known 
 writings, it may be affirmed, that they rest 
 on the solid basis of real excellence, in mo- 
 ral tendency as well as in literary merit ; 
 vice and folly are satirised, virtue and de- 
 corum are rendered attractive ; and while 
 polished diction and Attic wit abound, the 
 purest etlxics are inculcated. May we not 
 then repeat the laudatory and emphatic 
 words of Dr. Johnson : — " Whoever would 
 attain an English style, familiar but not 
 coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, 
 must give his days and nights to the volumes 
 of Addison." 
 
 ADELAIDE, Madame, aunt to Louis 
 XVI. of France. This princess, in order to 
 avoid the sanguinary fury of the revolution- 
 ists, and accompanied by her sister. Mad. 
 Victoire, quitted Paris on the 19th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1791. After seeking protection in 
 Rome. Naples, and other places, they found 
 a temporary asylum in Corfu, from whence 
 they were conveyed to Trieste by the Rus- 
 sian general Outschacord, and there fixed 
 their residence. A'ictoire died the 8th of 
 June, 1799 ; and Adelaide survived her sister 
 only nin» months. 
 
 ADELAIDE, Ecgexe Louisa, princess 
 of Orleans, and sister to Louis Philippe, ex- 
 king of the French, was born 1777. Educated 
 with the greatest care by Madame de Genlis, 
 tlie princess passed her childhood in peace- 
 ful retirement, till the outbreak of the 
 French Revolution compelled her with her 
 governess to take refuge successively in the 
 Netherlands, Switzerland, and Spain, where 
 she resided with her mother till 1808. She 
 then joined her brother Louis Philippe at 
 Portsmouth, and participated in all the 
 subsequent vicissitudes of his career. After 
 the restoration, she contributed in no small 
 degree to rally round her brother all the 
 important men to whose wishes for improve- 
 ment the government of Loins XVIII. made 
 no response ; and during the " three glorious 
 days " in 1830, it was mainly owing to her 
 influence that her brother was induced to 
 accept the crown, then offered — since re- 
 claimed—by the people. She subsequently 
 shared and aided the king's high fortune, by 
 her judicious counsels and reflective courage ; 
 and it is not perhaps going too far to say, 
 that had she lived to witness the 23rd of 
 February, 1848, Louis Philippe might not 
 have persevered in a course which ultimately 
 
^ 0t^ Hniber^al MiaQVK^f^^, 
 
 [adi 
 
 cost him and his family a crown. Madame 
 Adelaide was privately married to General 
 Athalin, a peer of France. Died, Dec. 31st 
 1847. 
 
 ADELAIDE, queen dowager of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, was born August 13. 
 1792. She was the eldest child of George, 
 duke of Saxe Coburg Meiningen, and Louisa, 
 daughter of Christian Albert, prince of 
 Hohenlohe Langenburg. Her father died 
 when she was only eleven years of age, 
 leaving herself and a younger brother and 
 sister under the guardianship of their 
 mother. The early years of the Princess 
 Adelaide were passed in great retirement ; 
 but her great natural abilities were fully 
 matured by the accomplishments whicn 
 form so prominent a feature in many of the 
 small German courts ; and no sooner was 
 her education finished, than she entered upon 
 a career of active benevolence, which gained 
 her "golden opinions" wherever she was 
 known. The mournful event which, on 
 November 6. 1817, left the British empire 
 without an heir to its crown in the third 
 generation, having produced the natural 
 result of hastening the marriages of those 
 princes of the blood royal who still re- 
 mained unwedded, negotiations were set 
 on foot, at the special desire of the queen, 
 for the union of tlie Duke of Clarence 
 with the Princess Adelaide ; and the mar- 
 riage took place on the 11th July, 1818. 
 Few events of any importance marked the 
 domestic life of the Duke and Duchess ol 
 Clarence for many years after their mar- 
 riage. Tiie hopes of providing a future heir 
 to the crown of England were repeatedly 
 raised, only to be disappointed. In March, 
 1819, a daughter was born, but lived only a 
 few hours ; and a second daughter, the 
 Princess Georgiana Adelaide, who was born 
 on the 10th of December, 1820, expired on 
 March 4th, in the succeeding year. On the 
 20th of June, 1830, by the death of George IV., 
 the Duchess of Clarence passed from the 
 retirement of Bushy Park, and from the 
 constrained circumstances arising from a 
 comparatively narrow income to all the 
 publicity and splendour of a throne. An 
 onerous and difficult duty devolved upon 
 her majesty on her accession. Twelve years 
 had passed since there had been a queen 
 consort to preside over the hospitalities 
 and ceremonials of the court, and during 
 that interval the etiquette of presentations 
 and the lists of the presented to the royal 
 presence had become relaxed to a degree 
 which was no longer permissible. In re- 
 forming the persotinel as well as the morale 
 of the court circles. Queen Adelaide under- 
 took a duty which was in many instances as 
 painful and invidious as it was necessary, 
 and which was accomplished with all gentle- 
 I ness and firmness. After a reign of 7 years, 
 j Queen Adelaide passed once again into re- 
 ; tirement, on the death of William IV., whom 
 she had tended with unwearied care during 
 the tedious illness which closed his life, but 
 displaying throughout the resignation which 
 was consonant with the tenor of herwhole life. 
 The Queen Dowager, to whom Marlborough 
 House had been assigned as a residence, 
 with lOO.OOOZ. a year, thenceforward lived 
 
 in a carefully guarded privacy, avoiding 
 even the honours which might be considered 
 due to her rank and position, although 
 oftered under circumstances that would have 
 given singular temptations to a more ambi- 
 tious spirit. Besides her visits to her royal 
 relatives in Germany, tlie Queen had for some 
 time past imdertaken repeated journeys 
 into various parts of the country in search of 
 health. Her winters for several years were 
 spent in some climate less imgenial than 
 tliat of England, and the islands of Malta 
 and Madeira were successively honoured 
 with her Majesty's residence. But she never 
 fully recovered ; and towards the close of 
 1849, her debility assumed an alarming form, 
 and, after lingering a few weeks, she died 
 December 2, sincerely regretted by the people 
 to whom she had endeared herself by her 
 numberless acts of public and private bene- 
 volence, as well as by her constant practice 
 of all the Christian graces. 
 
 ADELARD, a monk of Bath in the 12th 
 century ; a man of considerable learning. 
 He travelled into Egypt and Arabia; and 
 translated Euclid's Elements out of Arabic 
 into Latin, before any Greek copies had been 
 discovered. He also -wTOte several treatises 
 on mathematical and medical subjects, which 
 remain in MS. at Oxford. 
 
 ADELBOLD, bishop of Utrecht, the cathe- 
 dral of which he founded. He wrote the life 
 of his patron, the emperor Henry II., and 
 died in 1027. 
 
 ADELER, CuRTius, named also Servisen, 
 an eminent naval commander, born in Nor- 
 way, 1022. He went to Venice, where he wag 
 made admiral ; and, after performing many 
 gallant exploits against the Turks, retired 
 to Constantinople, where he ended his days 
 in honour and tranquillity, being made 
 admiral-in-chief of the Danish fleet, and 
 created a noble. He died in 1075. 
 
 ADELUNG, John Christopher, a Ger- 
 man philologist of great merit ; chiefly cele- 
 brated for his "Grammatical and Critical 
 Dictionary," 6 vols. 4t0. Born, 1732 ; died, 
 1800. 
 
 ADEM.VR, a monk of the 10th century, 
 who wrote the chronicles of France, pub- 
 lished by Labbe. 
 
 ADER, William, a physician of Toulouse, 
 who wrote a book in 1621, entitled, "De 
 ^grotis et Morbis Evangelicis ; " in which 
 he proves that the diseases healed by Our 
 Saviour were incurable by medicine. 
 
 ADET, P. A., envoy from France to the 
 United States in 1796 ; author of several 
 chemical works, original and translated, 
 and of a design for new chemical characters 
 and nomenclature. 
 
 ADHAD-EDDOULAT, emperor of Persia, 
 born about 935. In 977 he became master of 
 Bagdad, which he adorned with hospitals, 
 mosques, and other public works. He was 
 also a great encourager of learning. Died, 
 982. 
 
 ADHELME, a learned prelate under the 
 Saxon Heptarchy, and nephew to King Ina. 
 He was the first Englishman who wrote in 
 Latin, the first who brought poetry into this 
 country, and the first bishop of Sherborne. 
 He died in 709, and was canonised. 
 
 ADIMARI, an old Florentine family 
 
adl] 
 
 ^ ^eU) BIni&erjSal 3S(ocp:ajp1^in 
 
 [adr 
 
 often mentioned in the liistory of Florence 
 during the middle ages. Two of their 
 descendants were distinguished in literature. 
 Alessandro, bom at Florence LWO, a classical 
 scholar, and poet of some note ; and Ludo- 
 vico, born at Naples 1C44, chamberlain of 
 the Duke Gonzaga of Mantua, and after- 
 wards professor of the Tuscan language at 
 Florence, and a satirical writer of great 
 ability. 
 
 ABLER, James Gkoiige, a learned Danish 
 orientalist, born in 1756; author of " Museum 
 Cuflcum," some works on the Jewish lan- 
 guage, laws, and rites, and several philologi- 
 cal pjiblicotions. 
 
 ADI.ER, Philip, a German engraver of 
 the loth century, whose style of etcliing ap- 
 pears to liave founded a school which gave 
 rise to the Hopfers and Hollar. He died 
 about ir^MK 
 
 ADLERFELDT, Gustavus, a Swedish 
 historian in the time of Charles XII., whom 
 he accompanied tlirobghout his campaigns, 
 of which he wrote an esteemed account ; and 
 it is not a little singular that his history is 
 continued up to the very day when a cannon 
 ball deprived him of Ufe, at the battle of 
 Pultowa, in 1700. 
 
 ADLZREITER, Joiix, a German histo- 
 rian, and chancellor of Bavaria. He wrote 
 the annals of that state in Latin ; and died 
 about the year h!G2. 
 
 ADO, archbishop of Vienne, distinguished 
 by liis piety, and who acquired considerable 
 celebrity as an historian. Died, 875. 
 
 ADOLFATI, an Italian composer and au- 
 thor of several operas. In imitation of Mar- 
 cello, he wrote a piece in which there were 
 two sorts of time in the same air ; the one of 
 two notes, the other of three. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, emperor of Germany, was 
 count of Nassau, and elevated to the im- 
 perial throne in 1292. Slain by Albert, duke 
 of Austria, 129H. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, celebrated 
 by the institution of the Order of Fools, in 
 1380, which consisted of the principal no- 
 blemen of Cleves. This order has long 
 ceased to exist. 
 
 ADOLPHUS FREDERIC II., king of 
 Sweden, born in 1710, succeeded his father, 
 Frederic, in 1751. He died, greatly regretted, 
 in 1771. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, Joiix, for many years well 
 known as a barrister at the criminal courts 
 of the metropolis, was born in London, in 
 176C. He entered the legal profession, and 
 was admitted an attorney and solicitor iu 
 1790. Naturally fluent, ready, and acute, 
 he aspired to higher honours than the is- 
 suing of legal processes, &c., and he was 
 called to tiie bar in 1807, where, although 
 for many years he was regarded as a clever, 
 adroit counsel, his forensic abilities attracted 
 no decided attention until the year 1820, 
 M'hen his ingenious and elaborate defence of 
 Arthur Thistlewood and the other " Cato 
 Street" conspirators brought him promi- 
 nently forword. As an historical writer also 
 he obtained considerable reputation. His 
 principal works are " The History of George 
 the Third," 7 vols. ; " Biographical Memoirs 
 of the French Revolution, 2 vols. ; a " His- 
 tory of England," Svols.; "Memoirs of John 
 
 13 
 
 Bannister, Comedian," 2 vols. &c. Died 
 July IC. 1845, aged 79. 
 
 ADRETS, FuANCis DE Beaumont, Baron 
 des, a Huguenot leader, of a cruel, fiery, and 
 enterprising spirit. Resentment to the Duke 
 of Guise led liim to side with the Huguenot 
 party in 1502 ; and he signalised himself by 
 many daring exploits, the skill and bravery 
 of which, however, were sullied with the most 
 detestable cruelty. The aspect of Adrets. 
 like his character, was most forbidding ; he 
 lived abhorred, and died universally hated, 
 in 1587. It must, however, be admitted, that 
 many of the aspersions with which historians 
 have branded his memory, rest on very 
 doubtful evidence. 
 
 jVDRIA, John James, a Sicilian writer 
 and physician, who practised with great 
 reputation at Palermo, and was made phy- 
 sician-general to Charles V. He died in LVJO. 
 
 ADRIAM, Mahie, a female, who, at the 
 age of 10, fought valiantly during the whole 
 time that her native town, l^yons, was be- 
 sieged, in 1793. After the engagement she 
 was arrested, and being asked how she had 
 dared to use arms? she replied," I used 
 them to serve my country, and deliver it 
 from its oppressors." She was instantly 
 condemned and executed. 
 
 ADRIAN, or II ADRIAN, PuBi.irs iEi.ius, 
 the Roman emperor, born a. p. 70. His 
 father, who was cousin-german to Trajan, 
 died when he was ten years old, and left 
 him in the guardianshii) of his illustrious 
 kinsman. lie married Sabina, the heiress 
 of Trajan, whom he accompanied in his ex- 
 peditions, and became successively prajtor, 
 governor of Pannonia, and consul. On the 
 death of Trajan, in 117, he assumed the go- 
 veniment, made peace with the Persians, 
 and remitted the debts of the Roman people. 
 In 120 he visited Gaul, and thence passed 
 over to Britain, where he built a wall, 80 
 miles in length, from the mouth of the Tyne 
 to Solway Frith, to secure the Roman pro- 
 vinces from the incursions of the Caledo- 
 nians. He next travelled into Africa and 
 Asia, and, on his return, was initiated into 
 the Eleusinian mysteries at Athens. In his 
 reign tlie Christians sutt'ered a dreadful per- 
 secution ; he built a temple to Jupiter on 
 Mount Calvary, and had the images of swine 
 engraven on the gates of Jerusalem. Adrian 
 died at Baias, in 138, aged 03. Though in 
 general he was a just and able ruler, he was 
 often capricious and vindictive. 
 
 ADRIAN. There were several popes of 
 this name. The first who bore it was a noble 
 Roman, raised to the Papal chair in 772. 
 He had a taste for architecture, which he 
 evinced in the embellishment of St. Peter's 
 church, and expended vast sums in re-build- 
 ing the walls, and restoring the ancient 
 aqueducts of the city. He died in 795. 
 
 ADRIAN II. succeeded to the pontificate 
 in 807. During the five years in which he 
 filled it, his ambitious and intriguing dis- 
 position did much towards the subjection 
 of the E uropean sovereigns to the sec of Rome. 
 He died in 872. 
 
 ADRIAN III. was elected in 884, and died 
 the following year, while on a journey to 
 Worms, whither he was proceeding to hold 
 a diet. 
 
adk] 
 
 ^ i^c^ mutber^aX MasKii^X)v, 
 
 [^LF 
 
 ADRIAN IV., the only Englishman who 
 attained tlie Papal dignity, was born towards 
 the close of the 11th century, at Langley, 
 near St. Alban's. Ilis name was Nicholas 
 Breakspear ; and, in his childhood, he was 
 dependent for his daily subsistence on the 
 charity of the monastery, to whicli his father 
 was a servitor. Unable through poverty to 
 attend the schools, he was refused admission 
 into the monastery for deficiency in learning; 
 and went to France, where he became a clerk 
 in the monastery of St. Rufus, near Avignon, 
 of which he was afterwards chosen abbot. 
 Eugenius III. made him a cardinal in 1146 ; 
 and, two years afterwards, sent him legate to 
 Denmark and Norway, where he made many 
 converts. In 1154 he was chosen pope, and 
 assumed the name of Adrian, on which 
 Henry II. of England sent the abbot of St. 
 Alban's with three bishops, to congratulate 
 him. The pope, disregarding the slight put 
 upon him in his youth, treated tlae abbot 
 with great courtesy, and granted the abbey 
 extraordinary privileges ; he also issued in 
 favour of Henry the celebrated bull which 
 sanctioned the conquest of Ireland. In 1155 
 he excommunicated the king of Sicily for 
 ravaging the territories of the church ; and, 
 about the same time, the emperor Frederic 
 having entered Italy with a powerful army, 
 and meeting Adrian near Sutrium, concluded 
 a peace with him. At this interview 
 Frederic held the pope's stirrup while he 
 mounted on horseback ; after which the 
 former was conducted to St. Peter's church, 
 and his holiness consecrated him king of the 
 Romans. The death of Adrian took place 
 in 1159. 
 
 ADRIAN V. was a Genoese, and raised to 
 the pontificate in 1276, but survived liis ele- 
 vation little more than a month. 
 
 ADRIAN VI., who succeeded Leo X., in 
 January, 1522, was a native of Utrecht, of 
 mean parentage, and bom in 1459. He re- 
 ceived his education at Louvain, and suc- 
 cessively became canon of St. Peter, pro- 
 fessor of divinity, dean of the cathedral, and 
 vice-chancellor of the university, where 
 lie founded a college. Ferdinand, king of 
 Spain, gave him the bishopric of Tortosa ; 
 and, in 1517, he was made cardinal. He 
 was also appointed regent during the mino- 
 rity of Charles V., who procured him his 
 election to the Papal chair. Died, 1523. 
 
 ADRIAN, DE Castello, an Italian of 
 great learning and ability, was born at Cor- 
 netto, in Tuscany. By his talents he rose 
 to several employments under Innocent 
 VIII. i and came to England in the reign 
 of Henry VII., who made him his agent at 
 Rome, and gave him first the bishopric of 
 Hereford, and afterwards that of Bath and 
 Wells. Adrian farmed out his latter bish- 
 opric to Wolscy, living liimself at Rome, 
 where he built a superb palace, which he 
 left to the king of England and his succes- 
 sors ; and in 1503 he was made cardinal by 
 Alexander VI. A vague prophecy had gone 
 abroad that Leo X. should be succeeded by 
 an Adrian ; and Castello was so far the slave 
 of superstition as to allow this absurd pre- 
 diction to influence him in organising a 
 conspiracy, tlie object of which was the de- 
 thronement of that pontiff, and his own ele- 
 
 14 
 
 vation to the vacant chair. Before the plot 
 was matured, the vigilance of Leo detected 
 his designs, and a fine of 12,.>00 ducats was 
 imposed upon him, with a peremptory 
 prohibition of quitting the Roman territo- 
 ries. He fled, however, from that city in 
 1518, and was excommunicated ; and it is 
 uncertain what became of him afterwards, 
 though it is supposed he died in Asia. 
 
 ADRIANI, Makcel Virgii-, chancellor 
 of the republic of Florence, was born in 1464. 
 He was higlily accomplished in the Greek 
 and Latin languages, as appeared in his 
 translation of Dioscorides from the former 
 into the latter. Died, 1521. 
 
 ADRIANI, John Baptist, son of the 
 above, was born at Florence in 1513, and 
 became secretary to that republic. He was 
 a man of considerable attainments ; and his 
 chief work is entitled " Dell' Istoria de suoi 
 Tempi," or history of his own times, from 
 1536 to 1574. Died at Florence in 1579. 
 
 ADRIANI, Makcel, son of the preced- 
 ing, succeeded his father in the professorship, 
 and was a member of the academy of Flo- 
 rence. He also published some works, and 
 died in 1604. 
 
 ADRIANO, a Spanish painter of some 
 repute, and a Carmelite friar, wlio is said to 
 have destroyed his paintings almost as soon 
 as he had finished them. Died, 16.50. 
 
 ADRY, J. F., a French professor of rhe- 
 toric, born in 1749 ; author of a great va- 
 riety of publications — " Histoire de Vittoria 
 Accarambono," " Vie du P^re Malebranche," 
 " Vie de la Duchesse de Schomberg," &c. : 
 with new editions, or translations from 
 standard authors, enriched with ingenious 
 prefaces and notes. Died, 1818. 
 
 iEGIDIUS, DE CoLUMXA, a Roman monk 
 of the Augustine order, was distinguished in 
 the 13th century among the scholastics, and j 
 obtained the appellation of the most pro- < 
 found doctor. He was preceptor to the sons 
 of Philip III. of France, and taught philo- 
 sophy and theology with high reputation at 
 Paris. He died in 1316. 
 
 -SDGIDIUS, Peter, a lawyer and notary 
 of Antwerp, and a man of considerable 
 learning, who was '.educated by Erasmus, 
 and obtained the friendship of Sir Thomas 
 More. Born, 1486 ; died, 1533. 
 
 ^GINETA, Paulus, a native of the is- 
 land jEgina J a medical author, and the first 
 who noticed the cathartic qualities of rhu- 
 barb. Died about 630. 
 
 ^GINHARD, a German, was secretary to 
 Charlemagne, and wrote the life of his niias- 
 ter, and also annals from 741 to 889 ; the first 
 edition of which is that of Paris, 2 vols, folio, 
 1575. This writer is famous for a singular 
 love adventure with the Princess Emma, 
 daughter of Charlemagne. Wliile carrying 
 him across a court-yard from lier chamber, 
 to prevent the traces of his footsteps in the 
 snow, she was observed by the emperor, who 
 generously agreed to their union. 
 
 ^LFRIC, son of an earl of Kent, and 
 archbishop of Canterbury in the middle of 
 the 10th century, was a luminary for the 
 dark age in wl\ich he lived. He became a 
 monk of the Benedictine order at Abingdon, 
 under the abbot Athelwold, wlio, on his pro- 
 motion to the see of Winchester, took-^ifric 
 
JELl] 
 
 ^ iSit^ Bnihtx^al 3StOfir<q)f)i|. 
 
 [^so 
 
 with him to instruct youth in his cathedral. 
 Here he drew up liis " Latin Saxon Voca- 
 bulary," which was published at Oxford in 
 1659. He also translated from the Latin into 
 the Saxon language most of the liistorical 
 books of the Old Testament, as well as " Ca- 
 nons for tlie Regulation of the Clergy," which 
 are inserted in Spelman's Councils. lie 
 subsequently became abbot of St. Alban's, 
 and composed a l^iturgy for the service of 
 his abbcv, which was used in Leland's time. 
 In 98S), he was created bishop of Wilton ; 
 and, in 1)04, was translated to the see of 
 Canterbury, where he exerted himself with 
 spirit and prudence in tlie defence of his see 
 against tlie incursions of the Danes. This 
 active and able prelate died in 1005. 
 
 iELIAN, Claudius, an liistorian and rhe- 
 torician, was born in Italy, in ICO. All his 
 productions are written in Greek, which, 
 although he never left his native country, 
 he wrote with the greatest purity. He was 
 Bumamed Honeytongue, on account of the 
 Bwectness of his style. 
 
 ^LIANUS, Meccius, a Greek physician 
 of the second century, and the master of 
 Galen, who mentions him in terms of high 
 praise. He was the first who made use of 
 thetheriaca as a remedy and preservative 
 against the plague. 
 
 JELIVS, Sextus Poetcs CATUS,a Roman 
 lawyer, who was made consul at the close of 
 the second Punic war. He published a col- 
 lection, entitled " Novella," wliich were 
 called, after him, the ^lian laws ; and was 
 author of " Tripartite," the oldest treatise on 
 jurisprudence now known. 
 
 iELST, EvEHUAun vax, a Dutch painter, 
 born at Delft in ICOJ, and died in 1(558. He 
 was famous for his skill in painting fruit 
 pieces and dead game. His nephew, Wil- 
 liam VAX ^LST, also distinguished himself 
 as a painter, and studied in France and Italy, 
 where he received flattering marks of favour. 
 He died in 1C79. 
 
 -(EMILIANI, St. Jerome, a Venetian no- 
 bleman, who, being taken prisoner in liis 
 youth, made a vow that, on his release, he 
 would devote liis life to the care of orphans. 
 In pursuance of this pledge, he laid the 
 foundation of a hospital and religious order, 
 the object of which was to instruct young 
 persons, and particularly orphans, in reli- 
 gion. To this and other pious works he 
 sacrificed his whole income ; and, at his 
 death, iu 1537, was enrolled by a papal de- 
 cree among the saints. 
 
 iEMILIUS, Paulcs, an illustrious Ro- 
 man general, the son of Paulus jEmilius, 
 the consul, who fell at Canna, was bom 
 about 228 B.C. At the age of 46, he served 
 the office of consul ; and, when he was CO, 
 accepted the command of the armies against 
 Perses, king of Macedon, whom he took 
 prisoner, and led in triumph to Rome. He 
 afterwards served the office of censor, and 
 died in the Clth year of liis age, amidst the 
 general lamentations of his countrymen. 
 He greatly enriched his country by the spoil 
 taken in his warfare with Perses, which was 
 BO great, that it freed the Romans from taxes 
 for 12.5 years. 
 
 .^MILIUS, Paultjs, an historian of great 
 celebrity, born at Verona. Thirty years of 
 
 15 
 
 his life were employed in writing the history 
 of France, from Pharamond down to Charles 
 VIII. Died, 1529. 
 
 -/ENEAS, or tENGUS, an Irish abbot or 
 bishop of the 8th century, who compiled a 
 curious account of Irish saints in five books, 
 and also wrote the history of the Old Testa- 
 ment in verse. Died, 820. 
 
 >ENEAS, Gazkus, a Platonic philosopher, 
 who embraced Christianity in the 5th cen- 
 tury. He wrote a book on the Immortality 
 of the Soul. 
 
 .aSNEAS, Tacticus, an ancient Greek 
 writer who flourished about aco B.C. He 
 is one of the oldest authors on the art of 
 war, and is said to have commanded at the 
 battle of Alantiuea. 
 
 iEPINUS, Joiur, a Franciscan friar, who 
 became a zealous and able follower of Lu- 
 ther, and was appointed pastor of the church 
 of St. Peter, at Hamburgh. Born, 1499; 
 died, 1553. 
 
 iKRSENS, Peter, sumamed Lonoo, an 
 eminent painter, bom at Amsterdam, 1519, 
 and died, 1573. 
 
 .^SCHINES, a philosopher of Athens, in 
 the 4th century, B.C. He obtained instruc- 
 tion from Socrates, by whom he was much 
 esteemed. He went to the court of Di- 
 onysius, of Syracuse, who liljerally rewarded 
 him for his Socratic dialogues ; and, on 
 the expulsion of the philosophers from Sicily, 
 he returned to Athens, and taught philoso- 
 phy in private. 
 
 AlSCHINES, a celebrated orator, born at 
 Athens, 327 B.C., and died at Samos, oged 
 75. He was a cotemporary and rival of 
 Dcmostlit'nes. 
 
 ^SCIIYLUS, one of the most famous tra- 
 gic writers of Greece, was bom at Athens 
 about 500 years B.C. His mind very early 
 received an impulse from the poetry of Ho- 
 mer ; and, before his 25th year, he com- 
 posed pieces for public representation. So 
 great was his fertility, that he wrote 70 tra- 
 gedies, of which 25 gained the prize. This 
 great father of the Grecian stage has been 
 very ably translated into Englisli by Arch- 
 deacon Potter, and more recently by Professor 
 Blackic. He died in Sicily, in his C9th year. 
 
 JESOP, the unrivalled fabulist, was born 
 in Phrygia, about 600 b. c. His whole his- 
 tory is very obscure j but we are told that he 
 was sold as a slave to Dcmarchus, an Athe- 
 nian, by which means he acquired a know- 
 ledge of the Greek language ; that he after- 
 wards passed successively into the service of 
 Xanthus and Idmon, of Samos ; and that, 
 having obtained his freedom by the kindness 
 of the latter, he travelled into Greece and 
 Asia Minor, inculcating morality by his fa- 
 bles. Being sent to Delphi with an offering, 
 he so irritated the people by his censures on 
 their manners, that they threw him from 
 the top of a rock. The Athenians erected a 
 statue to his memory, and all Greece la- 
 mented his tragical fate, which happened 
 about ."jtlO B.C. 
 
 iESOFUS, Clodius, a Roman actor, con- 
 temporary and rival of Roscius, and like 
 him the friend of Cicero, to whom he gave 
 lessons on oratorical action. His excellence 
 was in tragedy; and he entered so tho- 
 roughly into his part, as occasionally to lose 
 

 ^ ^ci» Bnihtv^:(X SStosrapIj^. 
 
 [age 
 
 ' all recollection of his own identity. Plu- 
 
 ; tarch asserts, that once, when i)erforming 
 
 I the character of Atreus, he was so trans- 
 
 ; ported with fury, as to strike a servant with 
 
 1 his sceptre, which killed him on the spot. 
 
 -(Esopus was greatly addicted to luxury ; yet, 
 
 notwithstanding, so well was he rewarded, 
 
 that he left a fortune equal to 160,000?. 
 
 ^TION, a Grecian painter, celebrated for 
 his pictures, and particularly for one, repre- 
 senting the nuptials of Alexander the Great 
 and Roxana. 
 
 AETIUS, a physician of Mesopotamia, in 
 the fifth century, who is said to be the first 
 Christian physician whose medical writings 
 have come down to us. 
 
 AETIUS, a famous Roman general, who 
 lived under the third Valentinian, and nobly 
 defended the declining fortunes of the em- 
 pire, thrice vanqmshing the Burgundians 
 and Franks, and driving the ferocious Attila 
 beyond the Rhine ; but having excited the 
 jealousy of the dastardly emperor, he was 
 stabbed by him, in 454. 
 
 AFER, DoMiTius, an ancient orator, bom 
 at Nismes. During the reigns of Tiberius, 
 Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, he made him- 
 self formidable as an informer, and con- 
 temptible as an adulator. Under Caligula 
 he was made consul. Died, a. d. 59. 
 
 ATFLITTO, Matthew, an Italian law- 
 yer, born at Naples in 1448. He attained 
 great eminence, and published several volu- 
 minous works on Sicilian and Neapolitan 
 law. Died, 1521. 
 
 AFFO, Irex.eus, a native of the duchy of 
 Placentia ; author of " Istoria di Parma," 
 and other historical works, valuable for their 
 research, but written in a loose and rambling 
 style, lie died about the close of the 18th 
 century. 
 
 AFFRT, TiOuis Augustine Puii.ir, Count, 
 a Swiss statesman, appointed chief magis- 
 trate of Switzerland after Buonaparte had 
 proclaimed liimself protector of the Helvetic 
 confederacy, was born at Freyburg, in 1743. 
 From the commencement of the French re- 
 volution, when he commanded the army on 
 the Upper Rhine, till his death, he bore a 
 prominent part in the affairs of his country ; 
 but, finding the power of the French irre- 
 sistible, he endeavoured to promote the views 
 of Buonaparte, by assisting in the formation 
 of the government ; while he displayed the 
 skill of an experienced statesman in endeav- 
 ouring to benefit the interests of his coimtry- 
 men, and to shield them from the perils of 
 war. Died, 1810. 
 
 AFRANIO, of Ferrara,the inventor of the 
 bassoon, flourished in the 16th century. 
 
 AFRANIUS, a Latin dramatist, who lived 
 about 100 years b. c, and wrote several 
 comedies in imitation of Menander. 
 
 AFRANIUS, a Roman senator, put to 
 death by Nero for writing a satire on him. 
 
 AFRICANER, CiiRiSTiAif, a Namaqua 
 chief of South Africa, wlio, after a long career 
 of violence and bloodshed, was converted to 
 Christianity, and continued to aid the opera- 
 tions of the missionaries at the Cape of Good 
 Hope till his death in 1823. An interesting 
 account of his life and adventures will be 
 found in Moffat's "Missionary Ijabours and 
 Scenes iu Southern Africa." 
 
 AFRICANUS, Julius, an eminent Chris- 
 tian historian of the 3rd century ; principally 
 known by a chronological work in five books, 
 which contains a series of events from the 
 beginning of the world to the year of Clirist, 
 221. 
 
 AGANDURU, Rodekic Moriz, a Spanish 
 missionary of the 17th century, who distin- 
 guished himself by his zeal in propagating 
 Christianity in Japan, and other parts of the 
 East. 
 
 AGAPETUS I., pope in 635; author of 
 some extant letters : he pawned the sacred 
 vessels of St. Peter, in order to travel to Con- 
 stantinople. The second pope of this name 
 was elected in 946, and died, 95(5. He has 
 left behind him the reputation of a man of 
 wonderful sanctity. 
 
 AGARD, Arthur, an English antiquary 
 of great learning and research, one of the 
 original founders of the Antiquarian Society, 
 was born in Derbyshire, 1540, and died, 1615. 
 
 AGASIAS, a sculptor of Ephesus, cele- 
 brated for his admirable statue called the 
 Gladiator, which was found with the Apollo 
 Belvedere at Nettuno, the ancient Antium. 
 
 AGATHANGELUS, an Armenian histo- 
 rian of the 11th century; author of an account 
 of the introduction of Christianity mto his 
 native countrv. 
 
 AGATHARCHIDES, tutor to Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, and author of numerous 
 works, of which only some fragments re- 
 main, which M'ere preserved by Diodorus 
 and Photius. He was the first author who 
 described the rhinoceros. 
 
 AGATIIARCirS,an ancient painter, born 
 at Samos about iOO years b. c. Vitruvius 
 speaks of him as the first who painted scenes 
 for the theatres. 
 
 AGATHEMERUS, a Greek geographer 
 of the 3rd century, whose " Sketch of Geo- 
 graphy in Epitome " may still be read with 
 great interest from the curious facts with 
 which it abounds. 
 
 AGATHIAS, a Greek historian of the 6th 
 century, who wrote a history of the reign of 
 Justinian. 
 
 AGATHO, a native of Palermo, raised 
 from a monastery to the pontificate in 679, 
 and died in 682. 
 
 AGATUOCLES, the Sicilian tyrant, was 
 the son of a potter, a native of Rhegium, 
 Italy, and became successively a soldier, 
 centurion, general, and pirate. After de- 
 feating the Carthaginians, he proclaimed 
 himself king of all Sicily. His soldiers, on 
 account of arrears, obliged him to fly from 
 his camp, and murdered his sons, whom he 
 had left behind. Returning with a strong 
 force, he put to death the mutineers, with 
 their wives and children. Unable to live iu 
 tranquillity and inaction, though now far ad- 
 vanced in years, he made an expedition into 
 Italy, and thence to the Lipari Islands, 
 which he laid imder contribution, and jjlun- 
 dered of all the treasures of the temples. 
 After his return he is said to have been 
 poisoned by means of an envenomed tooth- 
 pick, aged 72, b. c. 289. 
 
 AGELADAS, an admired Greek sculptor, 
 who lived about 432 B.C. 
 
 AGELIUS, Anthony, a learned ecclesi- 
 astic of Naples in the 16th. century. He was 
 
age] 
 
 ^ ^t\x) Unibtv^Hl JSifljirajpl^p. 
 
 [ago 
 
 one of the curators of tlie Vatican press, 
 and bishop of Acerno. Died ItWS. 
 
 AGELNOTir, an Anglo-Saxon prelate, 
 promoted to the see of Canterbury in W20. 
 He distinguished himself by great religious 
 zeal, and still more by the flrm manner in 
 which he refused, on the death of Canute, to 
 crown llarold, who had seized the throne in 
 the absence of his brother, Ilardicauute. 
 Died, lt«8. 
 
 AGER, or AGERIUS, Nicholas, a phy- 
 sician and botanist in the 10th century, and 
 professor of medicine at Strasburg. Died, 
 1634. 
 
 AGESANDEK, a Rhodian sculptor, sup- 
 posed to have lived in the .5th century b. c. 
 lie is celebrated by having, in conjunction 
 with his sons, executed that admirable mo- 
 nument of Grecian art, the Laocoon, which 
 was discovered in the IGth century in the 
 baths of Titus. 
 
 AGESILAUS, king of Sparta, succeeded 
 his brother A^s. He acquired great renown 
 by his exploits against the Persians, and 
 also agahist the Tliebans and Athenians, but 
 was defeated by Ei)aminonda8. Agesilaus 
 next went to assist Tachos, in liis attempt to 
 take the throne of Egypt, but was bribed to 
 espouse tlie part of Nectanabis, his anta- 
 gonist. On his return, he died in Africa, 
 aco n. c, after a reign of 41 years. 
 
 AGO AS, Ralph, a 8ur\'eyor and engraver 
 of the ICth century, who lirst drew a plan 
 of London, which, although referred to the 
 time of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., ap- 
 pears not to have been made on wood until 
 about 1.5(50. It was rc-publbhed in 1018, and 
 re-engraved by Vertue in 1748. He also 
 drew plans of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dun- 
 wich, in Suffolk. Died, 1.579. 
 
 AGETjULF, king of the Lombards, crowned 
 at Milan in 591. Soon after his accession, 
 he quitted the Arian conununion for the 
 Catholic, in which he was followed by imm- 
 bers of his subjects, many of whom had 
 hitherto been Pagans. In the third year of 
 his reign, he had to sustain a war against 
 some of Jiis own rebellious dukes, whom in 
 the end he forced to submit ; and having 
 secured and augmented his dominions, and 
 employed himself in rebuilding and endow- 
 ing churche3, he died iu 619. 
 
 AGIS III., king of Sparta, succeeded his 
 father, Archidamus, B.C. .34<]. lie was a 
 prince of great magnanimity ; and, though 
 he detested the Macedonian domination, he 
 would not expose his country to ruin by re- 
 sisting it, until Alexander was deeply en- 
 gaged in his Persian expedition ; when he 
 raised an army of 20,(XX) men, which was 
 defeated by Antipater, governor of Alace- 
 don, and Agis himself slain. His end was 
 most glorious ; for, being carried severely 
 wounded from the field, the soldiers who 
 bore him were on the point of being sur- 
 rounded by the enemy ; on which, com- 
 manding them to set him down, and preserve 
 their own lives for the service of their 
 country, he fought alone on his knees, and 
 killed several of the assailants, till he was 
 struck tlirough the body with a dart, n.c. 337. 
 
 AGIS IV. king of Sparta, was the son of 
 Eudamidas, and celebrated by his virtues 
 and death. His first attempt was to renew 
 
 the original law for the equal division of 
 landed property, which was opposed by a 
 party, at the head of which was his col- 
 league, Leonidas. The latter was deposed, 
 and the joint sovereignty devolved to his son 
 Cleombrotus, who entered into the views of 
 Agis. Previously, however, to a partition of 
 the lands, Agesilaus, uncle to Agis, who was 
 deeply in debt, proposed the abolition of all 
 debts, which would render the former mea- 
 sure more palatable. This deed accom- 
 plished, the influential and wily Spartan 
 found means to postpone the other equalising 
 operation, until Agis was obliged to march 
 on an expedition. During his absence, Age- 
 silaus conducted himself so tyrannically, 
 tliat a conspiracy was formed to restore the 
 deposed king, Leonidas ; which succeeding, 
 Agis and his colleague, Cleombrotus, took 
 sanctuary in a temple. The latter was im- 
 mediately dragged forth and banished, but 
 Agis remained a considerable time in safety, 
 until his friends were bribed to betray him, 
 and he was thrown into a prison. He suf- 
 fered death with great magnanimity, B.C. 
 241. 
 
 AGLIONBY, Edwakd, an old English 
 poet, who wrote a genealogy of queen 
 Elizabeth, for which she granted him a 
 pension. 
 
 AGLIONBY, Jonx, a learned divine, born 
 in Cumberland. He was made chaplain to 
 queen Elizabeth, was concerned in the pre- 
 sent translation of the New Testament, and 
 died at Islip, of which he was rector, in ICIO. 
 
 AGLIONBY, William, an English di- 
 plomatist and polite writer, of the 17th and 
 18th centuries ; author of a book entitled 
 " Painting Illustrated." 
 
 AGNELLITS, Anorew, an archbishop of 
 Ravenna, in the 9th century. He wrote the 
 lives of his predecessors in that see. 
 
 AGNESI, Makia Gaetana, an Italian 
 lady of extraordinary talents, bom at Milan, 
 1718. So profound Mere her mathematical 
 attainments, that when, in 1750, her father, 
 who was a professor in tlie university of 
 Bologna, was unable to continue his lectures 
 in consequence of ill health, she obtained 
 permission from the pope to fill his chair. 
 At the early age of 19, she had supported 191 
 theses, which were published in 1738 under 
 the title of " Propositiones Philosophicaj." I 
 She was also mistress of the Latin, Greek, ! 
 Hebrew, French, German, and Spanish Ian- ' 
 guages. Agnesi retired to the monastery of 
 Blue Nuns, at Milan, where she died at an ; 
 advanced age, in the year 1799. I 
 
 AGNESI, Maria Teresa, sister of the 
 above, was a musician of much genius, bom 
 at Milan, 1750. She composed three operas, ; 
 " Sophonisba," " Ciro," and " Nitocri." i 
 
 AGNOLO, Baccio, a Florentine sculptor, | 
 and architect of great reputation ; bom, ! 
 1460 ; died, 1.543. | 
 
 AGOBARD, archbishop of Lyons, was one j 
 of the most celebrated prelates of the 9th 
 centurj-. His works were buried in obscurity, • 
 until the manuscript of them was accident- j 
 ally found in a bookseller's shop at Lyons. 
 Died, 840. 
 
 AGOP, John", a learned Armenian critic ] 
 and grammarian of the 17th century. His I 
 works were printed at Rome, l(i75. 
 
 17 
 
 c 3 
 
ago] 
 
 ^ ^^£d mnihtY^ta ^SmgrajpTjij. 
 
 [agr 
 
 AGORACRITES, a Grecian statuary in 
 the fifth century B.C. He was a pupil of 
 Phidias, and one of tlie most skilful artists 
 of his time. 
 
 AGOSTINI, LiONARDO, an eminent anti- 
 quary of the 17th century, officially em- 
 ployed bv pope Alexander VII. 
 
 AGOSTINO, Paul, of Valerano, a cele- 
 brated musician. Born, 1593 ; died, 1629. 
 He surprised the world with his productions 
 for four, six, or eight choirs or chonzses, 
 some of which miglit be sung in four or six 
 parts only, without diminishing the har- 
 mony. 
 
 AGOULT, William, a Provencal gen- 
 tleman of the 12th century, wlio was one of 
 the most pleasing poets, and amiable per- 
 sons of his time. He died in 1181. 
 
 AGREDA, Maria, the writer of some 
 wild legends, indicative of either insanity or 
 most impudent imposture, was born at Agre- 
 da, in Spain, in 1002 ; took tlie veil, 1(;20, in 
 a convent founded by her father and mother, 
 dedicated to the "Immaculate Conception," 
 of which she was chosen superior, l(i27, and 
 died, 1GC5. The piece of absurdity which she 
 pretended to have divine authority for writ- 
 ing, was translated by Father Crozet into 
 the French language in 1096, and republished 
 at Brussels, 1718, in 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cneius Jlt-ius, an eminent 
 Roman commander, born a.d. 40, in the 
 reign of Caligula. His first military service 
 was under Suetonius Paulinus in Britain ; 
 and, on his return to Rome, he was made 
 qujEstor in Asia, and became tribune of the 
 people, and praetor under Nero. By Ves- 
 pasian, whose cause he espoused, he was 
 made a patrician and governor of Aquitania; 
 the dignity of consul followed ; and, in the 
 same year, 77, he married his daughter to 
 Tacitus, the historian, who has so admirably 
 written his life. Next year he was appointed 
 governor of Britain ; extended his conquests 
 into Scotland ; and built a chain of forts from 
 the Clyde to tlie Frith of Forth, to prevent 
 the incursions of the inhabitants of the North. 
 He defeated Galgacus on the Grampian Hills, 
 and then made peace with the Caledonians. 
 On the accession of Domitian, Agricola had 
 a triumph decreed him, but was recalled, 
 ind sent governor to Syria, where he died, 
 i.p. 93 ; aged 54. 
 
 AGRICOLA, George, the most celebrated 
 metallurgist of his time ; born at Glauchen, 
 Misnia, in 1494, and died, 15.55. 
 
 AGRICOLA, George Andrew, a German 
 physician, author of a curious work on the 
 multiplication of trees and plants, of which 
 aFrcuch translation appeared at Amsterdam 
 in 1720. He was born at Ratisbon, 1672, and 
 died, 1738. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Joiix, a polemical writer of 
 celebrity, born at Eisleben, Saxony, 1492, and 
 died at Berlin, 1566. From being the friend 
 and scholar, he became the antagonist of 
 Martin Luther, against whom, as well as 
 Melancthon, he maintained a spirited con- 
 troversy, advocating the doctrine of faith in 
 opposition to the works of the law, whence 
 the sect, of which he became leader, received 
 the name of Antinomians. 
 
 AGRICOLA, RoDOLFHUs, one of the most 
 learned men of the 15th century, spoken of 
 
 both by Erasmus and Bayle with great re- 
 spect, was born in Friesland, 1442, and died, 
 1484. Agricola was the first who introduced 
 the Greek language into Germany. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Camille, a celebrated archi- 
 tect of Milan in the 16th century, who, under 
 the pontificate of Gregory XIII., accom- 
 plished the removal of a vast obelisk to St. 
 Peter's Square ; an account of which labour 
 he publislied at Rome, 1583. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Hexry Cornelius. This 
 higlily-gifted but eccentric man was born in 
 1486, at Cologne, of a noble family. He be- 
 came secretary to the emperor Maximilian, 
 by whom lie was knighted for his bravery in 
 the Italian wars. He next travelled through 
 various parts of Europe, and, while in Eng- 
 land, wrote a commentary on St. Paul's 
 Epistles. In 1518 he settled at Metz, which 
 place, however, he was obliged to quit, at the 
 instigation of the monks, and went to Co- 
 logne, and thence to Geneva. He next tra- 
 velled to Antwerp, in 1528, and was taken 
 into the service of Margaret of Austria, go- 
 verness of the Low Countries. In 1530 he 
 published his treatise of the " Vanity of the 
 Sciences," and soon afterwards his " Occult 
 Philosophy." In 1535 he was at Lyons, 
 where he was imprisoned for defaming the 
 kiug's mother, but soon obtained his dis- 
 charge, and died the same year at Grenoble. 
 All his works were collected and printed at 
 Lyons, 1.550, in 3 vols. 
 
 AGRIPPA I., Herod, grandson of Herod 
 the Great. He gave great oifence to Tibe- 
 rius, who threw him into prison ; but, on 
 Caligula's succession, was not only released, 
 but received from that emperor a golden 
 chain equal in weight to the iron one he 
 had worn in his confinement, as also the 
 kingdom of Judea. He commenced a per- 
 secution of the Christians, in which the apos- 
 tle St. James perished ; and he is the person 
 represented to have been eaten by worms, on 
 account of his impiety in accepting the ado- 
 ration of the people. 
 
 AGRIPPA II., Herod, son and successor 
 of the preceding, was the seventh and last 
 of the Jewish monarchs of the family of 
 Herod the Great. It was before this prince 
 tliat St. Paul pleaded his cause with so much 
 eloquence, that Agrippa acknowledged he 
 had almost persuaded him to be a Christian. 
 He died at Rome about the year 94. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vu-sanius, the cele- 
 brated friend and general of Augustus Caesar, 
 acquired great fame by his military exploits, 
 for which triumphs were decreed to him. 
 He died b. c. 12. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Mexemus, consul of Rome, 
 B.C. 503. He is celebrated for having ap- 
 peased a commotion among the Romans, by 
 the political fable of the bellj' and the mem- 
 bers ; and died at an advanced age, very 
 poor, but universally esteemed for his wis- 
 dom and intearity. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the elder, daughter of Mar- 
 cus Agrippa, was married in the first instance 
 to Tiberius, who divorced her, and she be- 
 came the wife of Germanicus Ca;sar, whom 
 she accompanied in his military expeditions. 
 On the death of the latter at Antioch, a. d. 
 19, she returned to Rome with his ashes, and 
 took advantage of the public grief for the 
 
1 agr] 
 
 ^ ^tti BiiihtriKl 3Bi0flrapIj8. 
 
 [ain 
 
 death of her husband to accuse Piso, who 
 was suspected of having hastened it. The 
 latter was shortly afterwards found dead in 
 his l)ed ; and Tiberius, jealous of the aflfection 
 of the people for Agrippina, banished her to 
 a small island, where she died of hunger, 
 in 35. 
 ; AGRIPPINA, the younger, daughter of 
 the foregoing, and mother of Nero, was at 
 once cruel and licentious. After losing two 
 Jiusbands, she married her uncle, the emperor 
 Claudius, whom she poisoned in 54, to make 
 , way for her son Nero, who caused her to be 
 assassinated, and exhibited to the senate a 
 list of all the crimes of which she had been 
 , guilty. 
 
 I AGUESSE AU, Henry Francis u', called 
 by "Voltaire the most learned magistrate that 
 France ever produced, was born at Limoges 
 I in 16<>8, and died 1751. His works were pub- 
 lished in 13 vols. 4to. 
 
 AGUILLON, Francis, an eminent ma- 
 thematician at the beginning of the 15th 
 century, was a Jesuit of Brussels, and died 
 at Seville, 1017. 
 
 AGUIRRA, JosErn Saens d', a Spanish 
 Benedictine, made caidinal by Innocent XI. 
 lie wrote voluminously on theology, philo- 
 sophy, &c. Died at Rome, 1G99. 
 
 AGUJARI.LucRETiA, a celebrated singer, 
 who received a salary of 100^ a night for two 
 Bongs. Died at Parma, 178;i. 
 
 AGYL^US, Henry, a lawyer and gene- 
 ral scholar, bom at Bois-le-Duc, 1533 ; died, 
 1595. 
 
 AHLWART, Peter, a learned German, 
 son of a shoemaker at Greifswalde, where he 
 was bom in 1710, and died, 1791. He was 
 the founder of the Society of Abelites, the 
 object of which was to promote sincerity. 
 
 AnMED-BEN-rARES,sumamed£ZiZaw, 
 an Arabian lexicographer and lawyer. Died 
 about 900. 
 
 AHMED-BEN-MOHAMMED, or ABOU 
 AMROU, a Spanish Moor, who wrote poems 
 in the eastern style, and an historical work 
 on the annals of Spain. Died in 970. 
 
 AHMED-KHAN, emperor of the Moguls, 
 succeeded his brother, Abaker Khan, in 1282; 
 and was slain after a short reign of two 
 years. 
 
 AHMED RESMY HAJI, a Turkish his- 
 torian, who was counsellor of the Divan, and 
 chancellor to the sultan Mustapha III. 
 
 AHMED SHAH EL ABDALY, founder 
 of the kingdom of Candahar and Caubul, 
 erected them into a kingdom, and took the 
 royal title. He died in 1773, lea\'ing the 
 crown to his son, Timur Shah. 
 
 AHRKNDT, or ARENTS, Martin Fre- 
 deric, an antiquary and palajographer, was 
 a native of Holstein. He spent forty years 
 in travelling on foot through Norway, Swe- 
 den, Denmark, France, Spain, Italy, and 
 other parts of Europe, in search of Scandi- 
 navian antiquities and Runic monuments, 
 and carried on an extensive correspondence 
 with his learned contemporaries relative to 
 the objects of his investigation. He died at 
 a small village near Vienna, in 1824. 
 
 AIDAN, a monk, who converted a large 
 portion of the northern part of Britain to 
 Christianity. He was afterwards bishop of 
 Lindisfem. Died about C51. 
 
 AIGNAN, Stephen, a French writer, and 
 a member of the Acadt'mie Fran9ai8e. He 
 was a zealous republican, and at the early 
 age of 19, in the fiercest time of the revolu- 
 tion, he was appointed to an ofiicial situation 
 in the district of Orleans. He subsequently 
 filled offices under Napoleon ; and also dis- 
 tinguished himself as the author of several 
 dramas and poems, as well as by the transla- 
 tion of part of the works of Goldsmith and 
 Pope. Born. 1773 ; died, 1825. 
 
 AIGNEAUX, Robert and Anthony, 
 brothers, natives of Vire, in Normandy, who 
 jointly translated "Virgil and Horace into 
 French verse, and wrote several poems. They 
 died about the same time, at the close of the 
 IGth century. 
 
 AIKIN, Edmund, an architect, and the 
 autlior of an account of St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 Died, 1820. 
 
 AIKIN, John, M.D., bora Jan. 15. 1747, 
 at Kibworth, Leicestershire, was the only 
 son of Dr. T. Aikin, a dissenting minister 
 and schoolmaster. In 1764 he became a stu- 
 dent in the imiversity of Edinburgh. On 
 his return he went to Yarmouth, Norfolk, 
 where, with little interruption, lie continued 
 till 1792, when he removed to London, and 
 devoted himself chiefly to literature, in which 
 he was emuiently successful. In 179G he 
 became the editor of the Monthly Magazine, 
 which he superintended from its commence- 
 ment till 1806. In 1709, he published, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Enfield, the first vo- 
 lume of a General Biographical Dictionary, 
 in 4to., which, however, was not completed 
 till 1815. Died, 1822, aged 75. 
 
 AIKMAN, William, a painter of emi- 
 nence, born at Cairney, in Scotland, in 1082. 
 After finishing his education, he travelled 
 to Italy, Turkey, and Smyrna. In 1712 he 
 returned home, and was encouraged by the 
 Duke of Argyle, through whom he was em- 
 ployed at court, and by the principal nobi- 
 Uty. Died, 1731. 
 
 AILLY, Peter d', a cardinal and legate 
 in the time of Charles VI. of France, was 
 born at Compiegne, 1350. He received from 
 that monarch the see of Puy and Cambray, 
 with the chancellorship of the university of 
 Paris ; and, before his elevation to the pur- 
 ple, pre6ide<l at the famous Council of Con- 
 stance, which condemned John Huss to the 
 stake. Died, 1419. 
 
 AIMON, of Aquitainc, author of a legend- 
 ary liistory of France, is supposed to have j 
 lived in the 9th century. The history is i 
 brought down to 1165 by another hand ; and 
 is in the tliird volume of the collection of 
 Duchesne. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Heney, an eminent bib- 
 lical commentator and divine among the 
 English nonconformists, flourished at the 
 latter end of the I6th century. His writings j 
 exhibited much learning and acuteness, and i 
 excited the attention of Hall, bishop of Exe- | 
 tcr, who entered the lists against him. He 
 subsequently went to Amsterdam, where he 
 died in 1022. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, a grammarian 
 and classical author. His most important 
 work is the celebrated Dictionary of the 
 Latin tongue which bears his name. He 
 was a native of Woodyale, in Lancashire, 
 
ait] 
 
 ^ ^eln Unihtx^Kl SStffsrapI)^. 
 
 [ala 
 
 where he was bom in 1G60. He died in Lon- 
 don in 1743. 
 
 AITON, William, an excellent botanist, 
 born in Lanarkshire. He was a great fa- 
 vourite with George III., who appointed 
 him head-gardener to the ro\ al demesne at 
 Kcw in 17o9. In this situation he formed 
 one of tlie best collections of rare exotic 
 plants in the known world, catalogues of 
 which he publislied in 1789. Died, 1793. 
 
 AITZEMA, Leo, an historian of Fries- 
 land, born, 1600, and died, 1069. He was 
 author of the History of tlie United Pro- 
 vinces, in 15 vols. ; an extremely valuable 
 work. 
 
 AKAKIA, MARTiif, physician to Henry 
 III., and author of several medical works. 
 Born, 1479 ; died, 1588. 
 
 AKBAH, a celebrated Saracen conqueror, 
 who overran the whole of Africa, from Cairo 
 to tlie Atlantic Ocean ; but a general revolt 
 among the Greeks and Africans recalled him 
 from the West, and he eventually fell a sa- 
 crifice to it. 
 
 AKBAR, or AKBER, Mohammed, sultan 
 of the Moguls, and a descendant of Timour 
 Tamerlane, was only 14 years of age when 
 he succeeded to the throne. He was a war- 
 like, liberal, and able monarch ; and the 
 first action of his reign was to recover Delhi 
 from the Patans. He reigned 50 years, was 
 eminently successful as a conqueror, and 
 died in 1605, leaving behind him a character 
 for justice, clemency, valour, and a love of 
 learning, surpassed by few monarchs, what- 
 ever their creed or country. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, a poet and physician, 
 but who claims attention from his eminence 
 in the former character, more than from his 
 professional fame, was born in 1721 at New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. He finished his studies 
 at the universities of Edinburgh and Leyden, 
 in the latter of which he took his degree as 
 a doctor of medicine in 1744. In the same 
 year appeared his most distinguished poem, 
 " On the Pleasures of the Imagination," 
 which raised him at once into poetical emi- 
 nence. This was followed by the " Epistle 
 to Curio," a satire ; and, in 1745, he pub- 
 lished ten odes on various subjects. He con- 
 tinued, from time to time, to send forth his 
 poetical effusions, most of which appeared 
 in Dodsley's Collection. Dr. Akenside also 
 wrote a number of medical works. He died 
 in 1770, aged 49. 
 
 AKERBLAD, Johx David, a learned 
 Swede, who accompanied the Swedish em- 
 bassy to Constantinople, and distinguished 
 himself as an oriental linguist and anti- 
 quary. Died, 1819. 
 
 AKIBA, a .Tew, of low origin, but whose 
 devotion to literature raised him to emi- 
 nence, and to the rank of rabbi. On the 
 defeat and destruction of Barcochebas, who 
 had declared himself the Messiah, and to 
 whose faction Akiba had joined himself, he 
 was taken prisoner by the emperor Hadrian, 
 and flaved alive, at the age of 120. 
 
 ALABASTER, William, an English di- 
 vine, born in Suffolk, and educated at Cam- 
 bridge. He was the author of a Latin tra- 
 gedy (jailed "Roxana," and of a Lexicon 
 Pentaglotton. Died, 1640. 
 
 ALAIN, De l' Isle, surnamed the Uni- 
 
 versal Doctor, was a divine of great renown 
 in the university of Paris, and the author of 
 several works. Died, 1294. 
 
 ALAIN, CiiARTiEE, a French writer of 
 the 14th century. He was the author of 
 some esteemed works, of which his " Chron- 
 icles of Charles VII.," to whom he was se- 
 cretary, is the principal. 
 
 ALAMANNI, Louis, a Florentine poet 
 and statesman, born in 1496, and died, 1556 ; 
 he was distinguished from his youth for his 
 progress in philosophy and Greek literature. 
 He had two sons, one of whom, Baptiste, 
 became almoner to queen Catherine de Me- 
 dici, and successively bishop of Bazas and 
 Ma?on. Two others of this family, and both 
 named Loris, also became famous in the 
 world of letters. 
 
 ALAN, of Lynn, Norfolk, was a doctor of 
 divinity in the 15th century, and acquired 
 great reputation both as a student and a 
 preacher. 
 
 ALAN, of Tewkesbury, was author of the 
 "Life and Banishment of Thomas h, Becket, 
 archbishop of Canterbury." Died, 1201. 
 
 ALAN, ALLEYN, or ALLEN, William, 
 an Englishman of good family, was born at 
 Rossal, Lancashire, in 1580. Educated at 
 Oxford by a tutor warmly attaclied to popery, 
 he entered upon the world under a strong 
 prepossession in favour of the Catholic faith ; 
 and, while very young, became principal of 
 St. Mary's College, and proctor of the uni- 
 versity. On the accession of Elizabeth, he 
 went to Louvain, and was appointed head 
 of the English College. He now strenuously 
 exerted himself, both by his writings ^nd 
 example, to advance the papal cause ; and 
 by his suggestions, Philip II. was induced to 
 undertake the invasion of England ; to faci- 
 litate which, Alan published a defence of 
 the pope's bull against Elizabeth, with an 
 exhortation to her subjects to rise in favour 
 of the Spaniards. For these 8er\ices he was 
 made archbishop of Mechlin, and a cardinal. 
 It is said, that towards the close of his life 
 he repented of the measures he had recom- 
 mended against his country ; and, on his 
 death-bed, wished to address the English 
 students at Rome, but was prevented by the 
 ascendant Jesuit. He died in 1594, not with- 
 out suspicion that he was poisoned. 
 
 ALAND, Sir Johx Fortescue (Lord 
 Fortescue), a baron of the Exchequer, and 
 a puisne judge of the courts of King's 
 Bench and Common Pleas, in the reigns 
 of George I. and II., was descended from 
 the famous Sir John Fortescue, lord chief 
 justice and lord high chancellor of England 
 in the reign of Henry VI. He was bom 
 in 1670, and received his education at 
 Oxford ; was an able lawyer, an impartial 
 judge, and yell versed in Saxon literature. 
 He lived in habits of intimacy with Pope, 
 and the other wits of the day ; and wrote 
 the legal burlesque of " Stradling versus 
 Styles." 
 
 ALARD, Francis, a native of Brussels, 
 was bred in the Romish faith ; but, meeting 
 with the works of Luther, he turned Pro- 
 testant, and escaped to Wittemberg. After 
 some time he returned to Brussels, and died 
 in 1578. 
 
 ALARD, William, eon of the above, be- 
 
ALA] 
 
 ^ ijactu Bnibsr^aX ^iaQvai^f^ti* 
 
 [alb 
 
 came rector of the college of Krcmpen, where 
 he died, 1(144 . 
 
 ALARD, Lambert, son of the last named, 
 compiled a Greek Lexicon, wrote some the- 
 ological works and Latin poems, and was 
 inspector of the public schools of Brunswick. 
 Died in K,72. 
 
 ALARIC I., king of the Visigoths, and 
 conqueror of Rome, was descended from a 
 noble family, and for some years served in 
 the imperial armies ; but, being refused pre- 
 ferment, he revolted against Arcadius, and 
 desolated many of the provinces, sparing 
 neither age nor sex. In the year 400, being 
 tlien the acknowledged sovereign of the 
 Visigoths, he invaded Italy, and carried otf 
 immense plunder. In 402, he made a second 
 irruption, but was defeated by Stilicho, and 
 compelled to sue for peace. After this, he 
 was employed in the service of the emperor 
 llonorius, but soon violated liis engagements, 
 and again entered the Roman territory, and 
 laid siege to the capital. His terms were 
 complied witli, and he retired into Tuscany ; 
 but, being joined by liis brother, Ataulplius, 
 he returned again to Rome, which he sacked 
 in 410. After ravaging Italy, he sailed for 
 Sicily; and having taken thecity of Cosenza, 
 died there. 
 
 ALARIC II., king of the Visigoths, suc- 
 ceeded his father Euric in 484, and reigned 
 over all the country Ijetween the Rhone and 
 the Garonne. He adapted to his states the 
 Theodosian collection of laws, and published 
 it as the law of the Visigoths, since known 
 by the title of the code of Alaric. lie was 
 slain in a battle by Clovis, king of the 
 Franks, ,507. 
 
 ALASCO, Jou.v, uncle to Sigismund, king 
 of Poland, was born in 1499. He was in 
 great esteem with most of the learned men 
 of his day, and enjoyed the friendship, of 
 many of them, particularly Erasmus and 
 Zuinglius, through wliich he became a con- 
 vert to tlie Protestant faith ; to which he 
 was so zealously devoted as to obtain the 
 title of the Reformer of Poland. He died at 
 Frankfort, in 1500. 
 
 ALBAN, St., celebrated as the first Chris- 
 tian martyr in Great Britain, was bom at 
 Verulam, near St. Alban's, Hertfordshire, in 
 the 3rd century. In his youth he visited 
 Rome, and served as a soldier under Dio- 
 cletian ; and, on his return to Verulam, be- 
 came a convert to Cliristianity, for which he 
 Buflfered death in 303. 
 
 ALBAXEZE, an Italian musician of great 
 repute, died at Paris, in 1800. 
 
 ALBiVNI, Ale.xa.vder, an eminent vir- 
 tuoso, born at Urbino, 1C92, raised to the 
 rank of cardinal by Innocent XIII. , and 
 died, 1779, aged 87, very highly esteemed. 
 In 1702, his collection of drawings and en- 
 gravings, consisting of 300 volumes, was pur- 
 chased by George III. for 14,000 crowns. 
 
 ALB.(^!NI, Jonx Francis, nephew of the 
 above, was born at Rome, 1720, and in 1747 
 was made a cardinal, which was followed 
 by numerous preferments. He opposed the 
 suppression of the Jesuits, as a measure 
 fraught with danger to the church ; but, in 
 all other respects, was a most enlightened 
 prelate. He imitated his uncle in his en- 
 couragement of letters and learned men ; 
 
 but his liberality could not save him from 
 republican rigour, when the French entered 
 Rome, where they plundered his palace, 
 confiscated his estates, and reduced him, 
 then in his 77th year, to poverty : all his 
 valuable collection was sent off to Paris, and 
 even the plants of his garden were rooted 
 up and sold. Amidst this devastation, the 
 cardinal took refuge in a convent, whence 
 he removed to Naples ; and returned to 
 Rome, in 1800, where he lived in private 
 lodgings till his death in 1803. 
 
 ALBANI, or ALBANY, Countess of, was 
 the Princess Louisa Maria Caroline, M'ho 
 married Charles Stuart, "The Pretender." 
 She was cousin of the last reigning Prince 
 of Stolberg-Gedern ; was bom in 1753 ; mar- 
 ried in 1772, when she took the title of 
 Countess of Albanjr ; but to escape from the 
 barbarity of her husband, who lived in a 
 continual state of intoxication, she retired, 
 in 1780, to a cloister. At his death, in 1788, 
 the French court allowed her an annuity of 
 00,000 li\Te3 ; and she survived the house of 
 Stuart, which became extinct at the death 
 of her brother-in-law, the Cardinal of York, 
 in 1807. She died at Florence, in 1824 ; and 
 Victor Alfieri has transmitted her name and 
 misfortunes to posterity. 
 
 ALBANI, JoHX Jerome, a civilian and 
 theological writer, born at Bergamo in 1504, 
 arrived at the dignity of a cardinal in 1570, 
 and died in 1591. 
 
 ALB^VNO, Frakcisco, a very celebrated 
 painter, bom at Bologna, 1578, and died, 
 IGCO. Albano excelled in delineating femi- 
 nine and infantine beauty, and his pictures 
 are exceedingly valuable. 
 
 ALBANO, Giovanni Baptista, a younger 
 brother of the above, was also a paiuter, and 
 chiefly excelled in landscape. 
 
 ALBATEGNI, an Arabian chieftain and 
 eminent astronomer. He lived in the 9th 
 century, and wrote a work, entitled "The 
 Science of the Stars." 
 
 ALBERGATI, Capacellt, a Bolognese 
 marquis, was a dramatic writer and actor, 
 and called the Garrick of Italy. Died, 1802. 
 
 ALBERIC, a monkish historian of the 13th 
 century, who compiled a Chronicle of Uni- 
 versal History up to 1241. 
 
 ALBERONI, GiULio, a cardinal, and mi- 
 nister of tlie king of Spain, was the son of 
 a gardener ; but being possessed of uncom- 
 mon talents, and with a disposition suited 
 to the intriguing policy of the court, he 
 obtained patronage, and rapidly reached 
 the highest ofl^ces in the state. By his abi- 
 lity and activity he created a naval force, 
 re-organised the army, and rendered Spain 
 more powerful than it had been since the 
 time of Philip II. ; but he was eventually 
 foiled by the combined efforts of England 
 and France, who made his dismissal from 
 the councils of the Spanish monarch the 
 chief condition of peace. Bom, 1CG4 ; 
 died, 1752. 
 
 .jVLBERT, Erasmus, a learned German 
 divine of the 16th century, who composed a 
 Latin work called " The Koran of the 
 Cordeliers." Died, 1551. 
 
 ALBERT, of Aix, or ALBERTUS 
 AQUENSIS, a canon of Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 the 12th century. Ue wrote in Latin what 
 
 21 
 
alb] 
 
 ^ 0tio Winibtv^^l MiOQva^i)^, 
 
 [alb 
 
 is eateemed an accurate " History of the 
 Expedition to Jerusalem, under Godfrey of 
 Bulloyn, and other Leaders," reprinted in 
 1C62. 
 
 ALBERT, marquis of Brandenburg-Culm- 
 bach, surnamed the German Alcibiades, born 
 in 1522, was a principal actor in the trou- 
 bles of Germany during the reign of Charles 
 v., against wliom he made war. Died in 
 indigence and exile, 15o8. 
 
 ALBERT, Louis Joseph, son of TjOiiis 
 Charles, duke de Luynes, born in 1<572, and 
 died, 1758. He distinguished himself in se- 
 veral battles, for which he was aiipointed 
 field-marshal by the emperor Charles VII., 
 who sent him ambassador to France, and 
 created him prince of Grimberghen, 
 
 ALBERT, Chakles, duke of Luynes, 
 bom in 1578. Henry IV. of France, who 
 was his godfather, placed him as a page 
 about his son, afterwards Louis XIII., over 
 whom, by his artful manner, he gained such 
 an ascendancy, that he obtained the highest 
 honours in the state, and was made con- 
 stable of France ; but his ambition and ty- 
 ranny rendered him odious to the people. 
 Died, 1(521. 
 
 ALBERT, of Stade, a monk of the 13th 
 century, who wrote a, " Chronicle from the 
 Creation to 125()." 
 
 ALBERT, of Strasburg, the compiler of 
 a "Chronicle from 1273 to 1378." Ue 
 flourished in the 14th century. 
 
 ALBERT, Hexry Christian, professor 
 of the English language at the university of 
 Halle, Germany, died in 1800. 
 
 ALBERT I., emperor and duke of Aus- 
 tria, surnamed the Triumphant, was son of 
 the emperor Rudolph of Uapsburg, and a 
 competitor for the imperial crown with Adol- 
 phus of Nassau, whom he defeated and killed 
 in battle. He was born in 1248 ; and died, 
 by assassination, in 1308. 
 
 ALBERT II., emperor and duke of Aus- 
 tria, was son of Albert the fourth duke of 
 Austria, and succeeded to tlie kingdom of 
 Hungary and Bohemia on the death of Si- 
 gismund, whose daughter he had married. 
 Died, 1420. 
 
 ALBERT, archduke of Austria, son of 
 Maximilian II., was born, 1559. He was at 
 first destined for the Church, and, when 
 very young, was created cardinal and arch- 
 bisliop of Toledo. In 1598, Philip II. of 
 Sixain contracted his daughter Isabella to 
 Albert, who thereupon renounced his cardi- 
 nalate and ecclesiastical character. Tlie 
 Netherlands, and the provinces of Bur- 
 gundy and Charleroi, were her portion, and 
 they were henceforth considered as joint so- 
 vereigns of those countries. Died in 1C21. 
 
 ALBERT, Jake, daughter of Marga- 
 ret, queen of Navarre, and the mother of 
 Henry IV. of France, at whose birtli the 
 following strange incident is said to have 
 occurred : — The king, her father, promised 
 to put into her hands his will, on condition 
 that during the pangs of child-birth she 
 should sing a Bearnoise song. To this she 
 acceded, and when her father entered the 
 chamber, she sang a popular song in the 
 language of her native country. On this he 
 presented her with a gold box containing 
 his will, and threw round her neck a chain 
 
 of gold, saying, " These are for you, my 
 daughter, but this is mine 1 " at the same 
 time taking the infant in his arms, and 
 carrying it to his chamber. Died, 1572. 
 
 ALBERT, king of Sweden, was elected 
 to the throne on the deposition of Magnus 
 II. in 13G3. The latter, supported by Den- 
 mark and Norway, endeavoured to recover 
 his crown, but was defeated by Albert, and 
 taken prisoner. The nobles, however, be- 
 came dissatisfied with his rule, and applied 
 for aid to Margaret, queen of Denmark and 
 Norway, by whom he was defeated in a 
 bloody battle, taken prisoner, and confined 
 for seven years. He was at length liberated 
 on condition of surrendering Stockholm to 
 Margaret ; and he passed the remainder of 
 his days at Mecklenburg, where he died in 
 1412. 
 
 ALBERTET, a mathematician and poet 
 of Provence in the 13th century. 
 
 ALBERTI, Aristotile, a mechanic of 
 Bologna in the 15th century. It is said lie 
 removed entire tlie tower of St. Mary del 
 Tempis thirty-five paces, and, at Cento, set 
 upright another, which was five feet out of 
 its perpendicular. 
 
 ALBERTI, Cherubixo, a famous Flo- 
 rentine painter, born in 1552, and died, 1615. 
 His works, both in fresco and oil, are much 
 esteemed. 
 
 ALBERTI, GiovAXNi, brother of the 
 above, was also an eminent painter at Rome, 
 and greatly admired for the excellence of 
 his perspective. 
 
 ALBERTI, DoMiNico, a Venetian com- 
 poser and harpsichord player of eminence in 
 the last century. 
 
 ALBERTI, George William, a learned 
 German divine, born, 1725 ; died, 1758. 
 
 ALBERTI, JouN, a German lawyer, who 
 abridged the Koran, with notes, and also 
 published, in 155(5, the New Testament in 
 Syriac, most of the copies of which were 
 sent to the East. He died in 1559. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leandek, a Bologuese monk 
 of the 16th century ; author of a liistory of 
 his native city, and one of Italy. Died, 1552. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leoxi Baptista, an eminent 
 architect, painter, scvdptor, and scholar, 
 born at Venice in the beginning of the 15th 
 century. At the age of twenty he composed 
 a Latin comedy, entitled " Philodoxius," 
 whicli many learned men believed at first 
 was the work of the ancient poet Lcpidus ; 
 and, as such, it was printed by the younger 
 Aldus. The invention of the camera obscura 
 has been attributed to him. Died, 1485. 
 
 ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, Francis, 
 an eminent Italian lexicographer of the 18th 
 century. Born, 1737 ; died, 1803. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Francis, an ecclesiastic of 
 Florence, and an able antiquary, in the be- 
 ginning of the 16th century ; author of se- 
 veral valuable works. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Paul, a Venetian priest 
 and author, so highly esteemed in his day 
 for his skill as a politician, that he was en- 
 trusted with an embassy to Turkey. His 
 preacliing and his writings, chiefly on the- 
 ology, were so much valued, that at his 
 death a medal was struck to his memory. 
 Born, 1430 ; died, 1475. 
 
 ALBERTUS, Magnus, a Dominican, and 
 
alb] 
 
 91 i^tbi WinibcrgKl JStnjjraplbJ?* 
 
 [alc 
 
 one of the most celebrated schoolmen of 
 the 13th century, was bom at Lauingcn, 
 Siiabia. lie was successively vicar-general 
 and provincial of his order; and his celebrity 
 as a public preceptor attracted the attention 
 of pope Alexander rv., who appointed him 
 master of the holy palace. In 12<J0, he was 
 elected bishop of Ratisbon, but afterwards 
 resigned this dignity, and went to Cologne, 
 where he died in 1280. His works, which 
 were voluminous, and on various subjects, 
 were published at Lyons, 1051. 
 
 ALBICUS, archbishop of Prague, whose 
 encouragement of John IIuss caused him to 
 be much abused by the opponents of that 
 rcfiDrmer. 
 
 ALBINOVANTTS, C. Fedo, a Latin poet 
 of the time of Augustus. He was the friend 
 of Ovid, and author of several poems, &c. 
 Two elegies of his are still extant ; one on 
 the death of MoBcenas, the other on the deatli 
 of Drusus. 
 
 ALBIXUS, a Roman, consul in the year 
 lOT B.C. ; and author of a history of Rome, 
 written in Greek, which is commended by 
 Cicero. 
 
 ALBINtJS, Bernard SkEOFREo, one of 
 the ablest anatomists of mo<lem times, was 
 born at Frankfort in lOlK]. lie was a pupil 
 of the celel)rated Boerhaave, and became 
 professor of anatomy in the university of 
 Leyden, which situation he filled for nearly 
 half a century, during which time he pub- 
 lished numerout profesbionol works. Died, 
 1770. 
 
 ALBINUS, Christian BEpyARn, brother 
 of tlie above, professor of anatomy at Utrecht, 
 and author of two valuable works on tliat 
 science. Died, 1778. 
 
 ALBO, JosEi-H, a learned Spanish rabbi, 
 who assisted, in 1112, at a conference be- 
 tween the Christians and Jews, and wrote a 
 book, called " Sepher llikkariin," against 
 the gospels. 
 
 A1.B0IN, king of the Lombards in the 6th 
 century. He succeeded his father, Audoin, 
 in 15C1 ; conquered and slew Cunimund, 
 king of the Gepidaj, whose daughter, Rosa- 
 mond, he afterwards married. He subju- 
 gated great part of Italy ; but having in- 
 curred the just resentment of his wife, by 
 sending her wine in a cup, wrought from 
 the skull of her own father, and forcing her 
 to drink from it, she had him assassinated, 
 A.D. 574. 
 
 ALBOX, Jaques, marquis de Fronsac, 
 and mareschal de St. Andre, a French ge- 
 neral, who acquired great reputation about 
 the middle of the 16tli century. Quesnoy, 
 St. Quentin, Renti, &c., were the chief scenes 
 of his exploits. He was deputed to carry the 
 collar of the order of St. Andre to Henry 
 VIII., of England, who made him a knight 
 of the Garter. At the death of Henry 11., 
 he was chosen one of the regency, and fell 
 in the battle of Drenx, 1M2. 
 
 ALBRECriTSnERGER, a German musi- 
 cian, and one of the most learned of mo- 
 dern contrapuntists, was born at Kloster 
 Neubar, in 173t) ; became court organist and 
 a mcinl)er of the academy at Vienna ; was 
 the instructor of Beethoven ; and died in 
 1803. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian philosopher 
 
 23 
 
 in the 9th century, who combined the study I 
 of physic with that of judicial astrology and 
 astronomy. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE,ALPiioxso,the founder 
 of the Portuguese empire in the East, was 
 born at Lisbon, at the end of the 14th cen- 
 tury. In 1503, he headed an cxiKdition sent 
 out by Emanuel, king of Portugal, and 
 gained large possessions on the coast of Co- 
 chin, took the island of Ormuz, in the Per- 
 sian Gulf, subdued Goa, extended his con- 
 quests over the whole coast of Malabar, and 
 made the islands of Sumatra, Malacca, and 
 various others, tributary to the Portuguese 
 government. An order for his recall had 
 been issued, and even his sucjressor in the 
 command appointed, when death put an end 
 to his career, at Goa, in 1.51."). 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE COELHO, Edward, 
 a Portuguese nobleman in the 17th century, 
 who fought with great bravery against the 
 Dutch in the Brazilian war, of which he 
 wrote a historv. Died, lfi88. 
 
 ALBUQUERQIHE, Matthias, a Por- 
 tuguese general, who was sent to Brazil in 
 1028, and successfully defended the province 
 of Pemambuco against the Dutch. He was 
 recalled in 1C35 ; espoused the cause of the 
 House of Braganza, and was made com- 
 mander of the army in 1G43, when he gained 
 the decisive victory of Campo Major, and 
 was created a grandee of Portugal. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, Cails Silu.s, a Roman ora- 
 tor in the time of Augustus, was a native 
 of Novara, and star^-ed himself to death on 
 account of some insult he had received. 
 
 AIXAMENES, a Greek statuary, who was 
 the disciple and rival of Phidias. 
 
 ALiCiEUS, the Lesbian, an ancient lyric 
 poet, was bom at Mitylene about COO years 
 B.C., and is said to have been enamoured 
 with Sappho. — There was also an early 
 Athenian poet of this name, said to have 
 been the author of some tragedies in the in- 
 fancy of that species of composition. 
 
 ALCIATI, Andrew, a Milanese lawyer 
 of eminence in the ICth century, who en- 
 joyed many dignities. Died at Pavia, l.WO. 
 
 ALCIATI, Francis, nephew of the above, 
 was also a distinguished lawyer, and a pro- 
 fessor at Pavia. Pope Pius VI. made him 
 chancellor of Rome, and a cardinal. He died 
 in 1580. 
 
 ALCIATI, Terence, a Jesuit of the 17th 
 century, who collected the materials from 
 which Cardinal Pallanicino wrote the history 
 of the Council of Trent. 
 
 ALCIATI, John Paul, a native of Milan 
 in the 16th century, who quitted his country 
 and the Roman faith for the Calvinistic 
 doctrine, which he also renounced, and em- 
 braced Socinianism. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, a celebrated Athenian ge- 
 neral and statesman, the son of Cliuias, and 
 a descendant of Ajax, of Salamis, was bom 
 B.C. 450. He is generally quoted as one 
 of the most striking instances on record of 
 an individual imitating, within himself, all 
 the gifts and graces both of nature and for- 
 tune. He early became the disciple of So- 
 crates, who took great pains to form his mind 
 to the love of virtue, and accompanied that 
 philosopher on some of his military expe- 
 ditions. In the Pcloponnesian war, he was 
 
ALC] 
 
 ^ |2eto mnibcx^aX 33i00i7tj|jl^ij. 
 
 [ale 
 
 appointed to command -with Nicias, in an 
 expedition against Syracuse ; but wliile thus 
 employed, a charge was preferred against 
 him of impiety. On one night all the Herma;, 
 or half-statues of INlercury, in Athens, were 
 defaced and mutilated ; and information 
 was given that tliis sacrilege was the work of 
 Alcibiades and his dissolute companions, in 
 one of theirfrequent moments of revelry and 
 intemperance. For this he was ordered home ; 
 but, fearful of the consequences, lie withdrew 
 to Sparta, and stirred up tlie Lacedaemonians 
 to declare war against Athens. He after- 
 wards went over to the king of Persia, by 
 whose interest he obtained his pardon and 
 recall. He then commanded with success 
 against the Lacedajmonians ; and having 
 compelled them to sue for peace, was received 
 at Athens in triumph. The defeat of the 
 Athenian fleet, by Lysander, being attributed 
 to Alcibiades, he was deprived of his com- 
 mand. On tills he retired into Thrace, and 
 afterwards to a small town in Phrygia, 
 where Pharnabazus, the Persian satrap, at 
 the instigation of the Athenian tyrants, 
 caused the house in which he resided to be 
 set fire to in the night, and when he at- 
 tempted to escape, he was slain by arrows, 
 B. c. 404. 
 
 ALCIDA^niS, a Greek rhetorician, who 
 flourished about 400 B.C., of whose orations 
 two are still extant — one appended to Aldus's 
 edition of -lEehines, and the other to Aldus's 
 edition of Isocrates. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a philosopher of the second 
 century, who wrote an " Introduction to the 
 Pliilosophy of Plato," which is deemed a 
 good summary, and has been translated into 
 English by Stanley. 
 
 ALCrPHRON, a Greek epistolary writer, 
 who is supposed to have flourished in the 
 third century before Christ. His letters, 
 which give an excellent picture of Grecian 
 customs and manners, are distinguished by 
 clearness and simplicity ; but it is suspected 
 that they are the production of a much later 
 era. 
 
 ALCMiEON, a Pythagorean philosopher 
 of Crotona, who is said to have been the first 
 anatomist. 
 
 ALCMAN, a lyric poet, of Greece, flou- 
 rished B. c. C72. Some verses of his are pre- 
 served in Athenaeus. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, successively bishop of 
 Rochester, Worcester, and Ely, founder of 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, and of the gram- 
 mar school at Kingston-upon-HulI, was a 
 prelate distinguished for his love of learning 
 and of learned men. His temporal honours 
 kept pace with his ecclesiastical dignities ; 
 Edward IV. conferring on him the presidency 
 of Wales, and the chancellorship of England. 
 Died 1500. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, author of some excellent 
 choral music ; died, 1806. 
 
 ALCOCK, Xathax, an English physician 
 of the IStli century, celebrated for his ana- 
 tomical lectures at Oxford. 
 
 ALCUINUS, or ALBINUS, Flaccus, an 
 Englisli prelate of the 8th century, educated 
 by the venerable Bede. He went on an em- 
 bassy from Ofta to Cliarlemagne, whom he 
 instructed in rhetoric, logic, divinity, &c. 
 Died at Tours, 804. 
 
 ALCYONIUS, Peter, an Italian philo- 
 logist and critic of the 16tli century. He 
 wrote a treatise on Exile, and translated four 
 treatises of Aristotle into Latin. Died, 1527. 
 
 ALDEGR^iEF, a Westphalian, born in 
 1.502, was both a painter and an engraver: 
 liis principal work is a large picture of the 
 Nativity. 
 
 ALDERETE, Diego Gratiax an emi- 
 nent Spanish author of tlie Iflth century. 
 Besides a variety of original writings, he left 
 translations from Xenophon, Thucydides, 
 and other Greek classics. Died, 1580. 
 
 ALDERETE, Beknard, a Spanisli Jesuit, 
 the first of his order on whom the university 
 of Salamanca conferred the degree of doctor. 
 Died, 1657. 
 
 ALDHELM, or ADEEM, St., an English 
 prelate, born at Malmesbury, wliere he found- 
 ed a monastery, of which he was the first 
 abbot. Died, 709. 
 
 ALDIIUN, an English bishop in the 10th 
 and 11th centuries, chiefly memorable as the 
 founder of the bishopric of Durham. Died, 
 1018, liaving enjoyed the prelacy 29 years. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, Sylvester, a Floren- 
 tine lawyer and writer of the IGtli century. 
 He was appointed advocate of the treasury 
 and apostolic chamber, by pope Paul III. 
 Died, 1558. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINL Clemext, son of the 
 preceding, became pope under the name of 
 Clement VIII. 
 
 ALDINI, Tobias, a physician and bota- 
 nist of Cescna. He was supcrintendant of 
 tlie Farnesian garden at Rome, on which 
 account his name was prefixed to the de- 
 scription of it written by Peter Cashell. 
 
 ALDINI, A., nephew of Galvani ; bom at 
 Bologna in 1756 ; author of " Essai Thoorique 
 sur la Galvanisme ; " and " Account of late 
 Improvements in Galvanism," publislied in 
 Loudon. 
 
 AT^DRED, the first English bishop who 
 visited Jerusalem, lived in the reigns of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor, Harold, and William the 
 Conqueror. On the death of Edward, he 
 crowned Harold, and performed the same 
 ceremony for William. Died 1068. 
 
 ALDRICH, Henry, born in Westminster, 
 1647, and educated by Busby. From West- 
 minster School he went to Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and was elected student and after- 
 wards canon and dean. He built an elegant 
 chapel to Trinity College, and the beautiful 
 church of All Saints. He had also great 
 skill in music, and composed many services 
 for the Church. Dean Aldrich died, 1710. 
 
 ALDRICH, Robert, a native of Bucking- 
 hamshire, was educated at Eton, of which 
 college he subsequently became master and 
 provost. In 1537, he was made bishop of 
 Carlisle ; a station for which his learning and 
 piety, which are extolled by Leland, Well 
 fitted him. Died 1555. 
 
 ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, a celebrated 
 natui-al historian, bom at Bologna, 1.522. 
 He was a great traveller, and formed a most 
 superb collection of minerals, plants, ani- 
 mals, &c., by which he ruined his fortune, 
 and died in an hospital, 1605, aged 80. 
 
 ALDUS. SeeMANUTius. 
 
 ALE ANDER, Jerome, a cardinal, bom in 
 1480, distinguished himself in the 16th cen- 
 
ale] 
 
 ^ ^cb) BnibtxSsX aSurgrajjlbL'* 
 
 [ale 
 
 tury as a violent opposer of Luther and the re- 
 formation. He died, 1542. His great nephew, 
 of the same name, inherited the ability of 
 his ancestor, and was eminent as a scholar 
 and an antiquary. 
 
 AI.,EMAX, a cardinal of the 13th century. 
 He was degraded from the purple for his op- 
 position to Eugenius IV. The sentence was 
 reversed by Nicholas V. ; and after the car- 
 dinal's death, in 1400, he was canonised. 
 
 ALEMANNI, Nicholas, a learned (ireek 
 antiquary, born 1583, and became keeper of 
 the Vatican library at Rome. Died, li)2o. 
 
 ALEMBEKT. See D'ALEMiiiiRX. 
 
 ALEN, John van, an eminent Dutch 
 landscajMJ painter. Died, 1098. 
 
 ALENIO, Julius, a Jesuit of Brescia, who 
 rendered himself distinguished by his zeal in 
 propagating Christianity in China, where he 
 laboured for 36 years, and died 1(549. 
 
 ALER, Paul, a learned French Jesuit, 
 died, 1727. Ills " Gradus ad Parnassum " 
 has been long in established use in all the 
 public schools of Europe. 
 
 ALES, Alexanokk, a Scotch divine, who 
 opposed the tenets of Luther, whicli he after- 
 wards eagerly embraced. Died, 1505. 
 
 ALESiO, Matthkw Pekh^z u', a painter 
 and engraver at Rome, whose figure of St. 
 Christopher, in fresco, in the great church of 
 Seville, is much admired. Died, 1000. 
 
 ALE8SI, Galeas, an arcliitect, bom at 
 Perugia, whose works are spread over Ger- 
 many and the south of Europe ; but his fame 
 principally rests on the monastery and 
 churclj of the Escurial. Died, 1572. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT, whose he- 
 roism is so universally a theme, was the son 
 of Philip, king of Macedon, by Olympias, 
 daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, 
 and born b. c. 3.">0 ; the same year in which 
 the temple of Diana at Ephesus was destroy- 
 ed. Alexander received his education under 
 Lysimachus and Aristotle, and gave several 
 proofs of manly skill and courage while very 
 young ; one of which, the breaking-in of his 
 flery steed, Bucephalus, is mentioned by all 
 his historians as an incident which convinced 
 his father of his future unconquerable spirit. 
 Alexander was much attached to his mother, 
 and sided with her in the disputes which led 
 to her divorce from Pliilip. While the latter 
 was making preparations for his grand ex- 
 pedition into Asia, he was assassinated by 
 Pausanias ; and Alexander succeeded to the 
 throne in his 20th year. His youth at first 
 excited an inclination in several of the states 
 of Greece to throw off the yoke of the Mace- 
 donian usurpation ; but the hero soon quelled 
 the design, and was acknowledged general of 
 Greece. He then marched into Thrace, and 
 gained several conquests. During his absence 
 Thebes revolted ; and when Alexander re- 
 turned, he took that city by storm, made a 
 dreadful carnage of the inhabitants, and 
 destroyed all the buildings except the resi- 
 dence of Pindar the poet. This severe ex- 
 ample had its effect on the other states ; and 
 even Athens distinguished itself by a servile 
 submission to the conqueror. Alexander 
 next turned his arms against Darius, king of 
 Persia ; and, at 22, crossed the Hellespont, 
 at the head of 40,000 men. With this force 
 he defeated the Persians at the Granicus, 
 
 and made himself master of numerous places. 
 At Gordium, where lie assembled his army, 
 he is said to have cut the famous knot on 
 which the fate of Asia depended. Shortly 
 after this, he again defeated the king of 
 Persia near Issus, and took immense treasures 
 and many prisoners ; among whom were the 
 mother, wife, and children of Darius. This 
 victory was followed by the conquest of Plice- 
 nicia, Damascus, and several other states. 
 Alexander next besieged Tyre, which long 
 resisted him, and, in revenge, he committed 
 horrible cruelties on the inhabitants. He 
 then went to Jerusalem, passed into Egypt, 
 subdued it, and founded the city of Alexan- 
 dria. Darius now collected another army, 
 and was defeated at Arbela, which decided 
 the fate of Western Asia. This ^reat battle 
 was followed by the capture of Susa and 
 Persepolis ; the last of which Alexander de- 
 stroyed at the instigation of his mistress. 
 He now prepared for an expedition to India ; 
 and, after a perilous march, reached the 
 Indus, B. c. 327, which he crossed at the part 
 where the city of Attock now stands. Alex- 
 ander received the submission of several of 
 the petty princes of the country, but was 
 opposed by Porus, who valiantly withstood 
 the invader ; and, although conquered and 
 made prisoner, the victor, pleased with Ids 
 spirit, restored him his dominions, and made 
 him an ally. The conqueror next entered 
 the fertile plains now called the Punjab, took 
 the city of Sangala, and directed his course 
 to the Ganges ; from which object, however, 
 he was diverted by the rainy season, and the 
 disattection of his own troops. He accord- 
 ingly erected twelve altars of an extraor- 
 dinary size to mark the limits of his progress, 
 remnants of which are said to be still in ex- 
 istence. Alexander, therefore, retraced his 
 steps to the Hydaspes, ou the banks of which 
 he built two cities,NicaBa and Bucephala; and 
 embarked, with his light troops, on board a 
 fleet he had constructed, leaving the main 
 army to march by land. After a severe con- 
 test with the Mallii, in whicli he was wound- 
 ed and his whole army nearly lost, he pro- 
 ceeded down the river to Patala ; and having 
 entered the Indian Ocean, and performed 
 some rites in honour of Neptune, he left his 
 fleet ; giving orders to Nearchus, who had the 
 command, to sail to the Persian Gulf, and 
 thence up the Tigris to Mesopotamia. Alex- 
 ander then prepared to march to Babylon, 
 towards which capital he proceeded in tri- 
 umphal progress. Reaching Susa, he began 
 to give way to a passion for pleasure and 
 joviality, and married Statira, the daughter 
 of Darius. At length he reached Babylon, 
 where he gave orders indicating future un- 
 dertakings of great magnitude ; when he was 
 seized with an illness, in consequence of in- 
 dulging in habits of intemperance, and died 
 of a fever, in the 13th year of his eventful 
 reign, and the 33d of his life, b. c. 323. When 
 required to name his successor, he is said to 
 have replied, " to the most worthy." Pur- 
 suant to his own direction, his body was 
 conveyed to Alexandria in a golden cofliu, 
 enclosed in a sumptuous sarcophagus, sup- 
 posed to be now in the British Museum. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS, emperor of 
 Rome, was bom at Acre, in Phcenicia, in 
 
axe] 
 
 ^ 0m mxiiUvM 33toc!Tapl)in 
 
 [ale 
 
 203. The principal public event of his 
 reign was the war with Artaxerxes, king of 
 Persia, over wliom he gained a great vic- 
 tory in person, and on his return to Rome 
 was lionourcd \\itli a triumph. He next 
 marched against the Germans, who had 
 invaded Gaul ; and, wliile tliere, a sedition 
 brolce out in his armj', headed by Maxi- 
 tnin, and the emperor and Ms mother were 
 murdered, a.i). 23,5. 
 
 ALEXANDER, king of Poland, elected 
 on the death of his brother, John Albert, in 
 1501, was a prince of little genius and of re- 
 markable taciturnity, but courageous and 
 humane. Died, 1,500. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, suc- 
 ceeded Evaristns in the tenth year of Tra- 
 jan, and auftered martyrdom under Hadrian, 
 in 119. This pontiff is said to be the first who 
 introduced the use of holy water into the 
 service of the Romish Church. 
 
 ALEXAifDER II., elected to the papal 
 throne in lOGl, was a man of a humane and 
 tolerant disposition, though the licentious- 
 ness of his life and manners caused great 
 scandal. Died, 107.3. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. succeeded Adrian IV. 
 in 1159 ; was a pontiff of great ability, and 
 deservedly popular with Jiis subjects. Died 
 at Rome, 1181. 
 
 ALEXANDER TV. ascended the papal 
 throne in 12.54, and seemed more concerned 
 to preserve and enlarge the privileges of a 
 monastic order, than to correct abuses or 
 encourage improvements. Died, 1201. 
 
 ALEXANDER V., originally a Greek 
 monk from Candia, was raised to the papal 
 throne in 1409 by the Council of Pisa. His 
 munificence, during his pontificate, was so 
 xmbounded, that he used to say, " When I 
 became a bishop, I was rich ; when a cardi- 
 nal, poor ; and when a pope, a beggar." 
 Died, 1410. 
 
 ALEXANDER VT., a native of Valencia, 
 in Spain, was raised to the popedom in 1492. 
 As au ecclesiastic, Alexander was in tlie 
 highest degree ambitious, bigoted, and in- 
 tolerant ; and formed alliances with all the 
 princes of his time only to break them. 
 This pontifl' pursued his profligate career till 
 1503, when he was cut off by the same means 
 he had used for the ruin of others. At a 
 banquet which he and his son, the infamous 
 Cassar Borgia, had prepared for some newly 
 created cardinals, the poison intended for 
 them was by some mistake administered to 
 the contrivers of the plot ; and Alexander 
 died the next day in great agony. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIL This pontiff ex- 
 pended vast sums in improving and em- 
 bellishing the city of Rome, and was a great 
 friend to the fine arts and literature. He 
 was born at Sienna in 1559, elected to the 
 popedom in 1655, and died in 16G7. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII., the last pope of 
 that name, was elected 1G89, at the advanced 
 age of 80 ; and died two years afterwards. 
 lie was unpopular on account of his exces- 
 sive nepotism. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, son 
 of Malcolm III., ascended the throne in 
 1107 ; and merited, by the vigour and im- 
 petuosity of his character, the appellation of 
 TJie Fierce. Died, 1124. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., son of William the 
 Lion, was raised to the throne of Scotland, 
 1214, being then in his IGth year. In 1221, 
 he married Joan, sister of Henry III., of 
 England ; by which peace was restored to 
 the two kingdoms. Died, 1249. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., son of the preceding, 
 succeeded, 1249, when only eight years of 
 age. He married Margaret, daughter of 
 Henry III. of England, and lived upon 
 terms of close friendship with his father-in- 
 law, wliom, in his wars with the barons, he 
 assisted with 5000 men. Alexander was 
 accidentally killed while hunting, in 1285. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE MEDICI, a licentious 
 duke of Florence, assassinated by Lorenzo 
 de Medici, a relation, at the instigation of 
 Strozzi, a republican, 15.37. 
 
 ALEXANDER, an English abbot, wlio 
 supported the rights of his master, Henry III. 
 at the court of Rome, with such boldnes.^?, 
 tliat Pandulphus, the pope's legate in Eng- 
 land, excommunicated and imprisoned him. 
 Died about 1217. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Noel, a Dominican, a 
 laborious writer, born at Rouen, 16.39, and 
 died at Paris, 1724. Ilis most celebrated 
 work is a Latin Church History, in 26 vols. 
 
 ALEXANDER, of Paris, a Norman poet 
 of the 12th century, who wrote a metrical 
 poem called "Alexander the Great," in 
 verses of twelve syllables, Miiich measure 
 has ever since been called " Alexandrine." 
 
 ALEXANDER, Neuskoi, grand duke of 
 Russia, born 1218. The most noted action of 
 his life was a great victory he obtained over 
 the more northern tribes on the banks of the 
 Neva. Died, 1263. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the Right Rev. Solomon, 
 bishop of Jerusalem, was born of Jewisli 
 parents in the grand duchy of Posen, 1799. 
 Very little is known of his youth and edu- 
 cation ; but from his Hebraic and Talmudic 
 acquirements he exercised the functions of 
 Rabbi at a very early age. After much 
 meditation he was baptized a Christian in 
 1826 at Plymouth, by the Rev. John Hatch- 
 ard, and "his ordination by Dr. Whately, 
 archbishop of Dublin, and induction to a 
 curacy in Ireland, shortly followed. He 
 subsequently became a home missionary of 
 the Society for the Propagation of Chris- 
 tianity among the Jews, and professor of 
 Hebrew in King's College ; and after the 
 mission of Chevalier Bunsen to London for 
 the establishment of a Protestant bishopric 
 at Jerusalem, unSer the joint auspices of 
 the sovereigns of England and Prussia, his 
 character and peculiar acquirements having 
 marked him out as one eminently fitted for 
 this office, he was consecrated the first Pro- 
 testant bishop of Jerusalem in 1841. His 
 mission was at first beset with great diffi- 
 culties, arising from sectarian jealousy at the 
 Ottoman court ; but the good sense and sin- 
 cerity of Bishop Alexander surmounted them 
 all, and he was entering on what promised 
 to be a long and successful career, when he 
 was suddenly cut off during a journey to 
 Cairo, whither he was bound on a mission 
 of sympathy and good will to the Egyptian 
 Christians. Died Nov. 23. 1845. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Sir Willt.\m, earl of 
 Stirling, an eminent Scottish statesman and 
 
ale] 
 
 a ^tb) fSiixibtx^aX 38i0flrajji)i). 
 
 [ale 
 
 poet in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 
 Died, ](!4(). 
 
 ALEXANDER, "William, an ingenious 
 artist, born at Maidstone, 1 786. lie came to 
 London, and studied tlie fine arts with so 
 much success, that he was selected to accom- 
 pany tlie embassy of Lord JNiacartncy to 
 China. On his return, he published a splen- 
 did work on tlie costume of China ; and, on 
 the formation of the Royal Military College 
 at Marlow, Mr. Alexander was appointed 
 drawing-master. At the time of his death, 
 in 181(5, he was keeper of the antiiiuities at 
 the British Museum. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, styled, through 
 courtesy, earl of Stirling, was born at New 
 York, and became a major-general in the 
 service of the United Stales during the Ame- 
 rican war. lie was a brave officer, but 
 more distinguished by his attention to ma- 
 thematics and astronomy than by his mili- 
 tary talents. lie died, 178;3. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Thomas, earl of Selkirk, 
 known as the founder of a colony in Ca- 
 nada, and for his writings on poUtica and 
 statistics. He died in 1820. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., emperor of Russia and 
 king of Poland, eldest son of Taul I., was 
 bom Dec. 22. 1777 ; succeeded. March, 1801 ; 
 and was crowned at Moscow, September fol- 
 lowing ; when a ukase was published for di- 
 minishing taxes, liberating debtors, prohi- 
 biting prosecutions for the recovery of fines, 
 discontinuing the mode of recruiting the 
 army, and granting a free pardon to all 
 deserters. In 1803, Alexander oflered his 
 mediation to effect a reconciliation between 
 England and France ; and in 1805, a con- 
 vention was entered into between Russia, 
 England, Austria, and Sweden, for the pur- 
 pose of resisting the encroachments of the 
 French on the territories of independent 
 states. On the 2d of December the battle of 
 Austerlitz took place, at which Alexander 
 appeared at the head of 50,000 men, but was 
 defeated, and compelled to retreat to his 
 dominions. Ere long, however, he again ap- 
 peared on the theatre of war, but the scene 
 of it was changed to Poland. On November 
 26. 1806, was fought the battle of Pultusk ; 
 and on the 7th and Stli of February, 1807, 
 that of Eylau, neither of which engagements 
 was decisive ; but on the 14th of June the 
 Russians were completely defeated at Fried- 
 land by Napoleon. The result of this victory 
 was an interview between the two emperors, 
 which led to the treaty of Tilsit. The 
 seizure of the Danish fleet by the English 
 occasioned a declaration of war from Russia 
 against this country ; but hostilities only 
 extended to the cessation of trade between 
 the two nations. A second meeting of the 
 French and Russian sovereigns took place 
 at Erfurt, Sept. 27. 1808 ; Buonaparte being 
 anxious to secure the friendship of Alexander 
 previously to his meditated subjugation of 
 Spain. While the former was engaged in 
 this undertaking, the latter made himself 
 master of the Swedish province of Finland, 
 in 1809. The interruption of commerce with 
 England now began to be severely felt by 
 Russia, and Alexander determined to throw 
 off the French yoke. On the 2.Jd March, 
 1812, an imperial ukase was issued, ordering 
 
 a levy of two men out of every 500 throughout 
 the Russian empire, and all matters of dis- 
 pute with Great Britain was pacifically ar- 
 ranged. The invasion of Russia which fol- 
 lowed, though the most important event in 
 the reign of Alexander, is not one in which 
 he was so far personally concerned as to 
 require a detailed relation here. On join- 
 ing his army in Poland, February, 1813, 
 Alexander published the famous manifesto, 
 which served as the basis of the coalition 
 of the other European powers against the 
 rapacity of the French emperor. Germany, 
 and then France, became tlie scene of hos- 
 tilities ; and the capture of Paris, April 30. 
 1814, was followed by the abdication of 
 Buonaparte, and the restoration of the 
 Bourbons. After the conclusion of peace, 
 Alexander visited England, in company 
 with the king of Prussia ; and, on his return 
 to his own dominions, he zealously employed 
 himself in ameliorating the internal con- 
 dition of his empire. Uis death took place 
 at Taganrog, in the Crimea, Dec. 1. 1825 j 
 and he was succeeded by his second brother, 
 Nicholas, agreeable to a document signed by 
 his eldest brother, Constantine, resigning to 
 him the right of succession. Alexander was 
 a sincere lover of peace ; vigilant, brave, and 
 active in war ; tolerant in his religious prin- 
 ciples ; mild and amiable in private life, yet 
 strict in the administration of public justice; 
 a patron of literature and the arts ; and 
 though, as a monarch, ambitious of power, 
 yet recognising the spirit of the age, and fre- 
 quently acting in accordance with liberal 
 principles. 
 
 ALKXANDRINI, JiLiis, a physician of 
 Trent, in the l(!th century. He w^as the 
 first who endeavoured to prove the con- 
 nexion of bodily diseases with the passions ; 
 and was tlie author of several medical 
 works. 
 
 ALEXIS, a Greek comic poet, uncle and 
 instructor of Alexander. Of his writings, 
 only a few fragments remain, which are 
 preser\-ed in the collection of poems of the 
 more ancient Greek authors. 
 
 ALEXIS, MiCHAELOViTSCii, czar of Russia, 
 bom in 1030 ; succeeded liis father Michael 
 in 1046 ; died, 1077. He was the father of 
 Peter the Great, and the first Russian mo- 
 narch who acted on the policy of a more 
 intimate connexion with the other European 
 states. 
 
 ALEXIS, PF.TROviTscn, only son of Peter 
 the Great, bora 1690. This unhappy prince 
 opposed the new policy of his father, and 
 expressed an unalterable attachment to the 
 ancient barbarous usages and customs of 
 his country ; for which the czar resolved to 
 disinherit him. Alexis fled to his brother- 
 in-law, the emperor of Germany, and lay 
 concealed for some time at Vienna, until 
 his retreat was discovered by his father, 
 before whom he was conducted as a crimi- 
 nal, and compelled formally to r.nounce 
 the succession ; after this he was tried by se- 
 cret judges, and condemned to death, 1719. 
 
 ALEXIS DEL ARCO, a Spanish painter, 
 bom at Madrid, in 1025. lie was deaf and 
 dumb ; but his reputation, particularly as a 
 portrait painter, was considerable. Died in 
 1700. 
 
 27 
 
 ■>r THf 
 
 /ERSITY 
 
 :n 
 
 d2 
 
ale] 
 
 ^ ^thi WittifitxiaX SSiotprajiJ^p, 
 
 [alp 
 
 ALEXIUS L, COMNENUS, emperor of the 
 East, bom at Constantinople, 1048. He sig- 
 nalised himself in the wars with the Turks 
 and Saracens, was bountiful to his friends, 
 and clement to his enemies, a lover of letters, 
 and equally versed in the arts of government 
 and of war. lie died, 1118. 
 
 ALEXIUS II., CoMNExus, succeeded his 
 father Alichael on the throne of Constanti- 
 nople, in 1180, when only twelve j'ears of 
 age ; and, with his mother, was murdered 
 two years afterwards by Andronicus, who 
 usurped the crown. 
 
 ALEXIUS HI., Angelus, emperor in 
 1195, gained that station by the basest per- 
 fidy towards his brother, Isaac Angelus, 
 whom he confined in prison, and caused 
 his eyes to be put out. His effeminate 
 reign rendered him despicable, and his 
 capital was besieged and taken, 1203, by 
 an army of Venetian and French crusaders, 
 headed by his nephew, Alexius, son of 
 Isaac. Tlie usurper received the same 
 punishment he had inflicted on his brother, 
 and died a few years afterwards in a mo- 
 nastery at Nice ; and the conqueror placed 
 his blind father on the throne, with whom 
 he rcighcd as Alexius IV. ; but Ms ele- 
 vation was succeeded by a rebellion, and 
 he was deposed, imprisoned, and put to 
 death, 1204. 
 
 ALEXIUS v., DiTCAS, snmamed Mukt- 
 ZUFFLE, from his black shaggy eyebrows, 
 was raised to the throne after the murder 
 of Alexius IV., but deposed by the crusaders, 
 who attacked and took his capital, and he 
 was put to an ignominious death. 
 
 ALEYN, Charles, an English historical 
 poet. Died, 1040. 
 
 ALFjVBABI, an eminent Arabian philo- 
 sopher in the 10th century, who obtained 
 much reputation in his day, as being a great 
 traveller, and master of seventy languages. 
 Among his works are several treatises on 
 Aristotle, and an Encyclopsedia, the manu- 
 script of wliich is in the Escurial. 
 
 ALFARO Y GA3I0N, Juan de, a distin- 
 guished Spanish painter, born 1640. He died 
 in his 40th year, of grief, occasioned by the 
 banishment of his patron, the admiral of 
 Castile. 
 
 ALFENUS VARUS, Publius, a Roman 
 civilian, who became consul, and is men- 
 tioned by Horace and Virgil with gratitude. 
 
 ALFIERI, Victor, a celebrated Italian 
 poet, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1749. 
 His first work was a tragedy, entitled " Cleo- 
 patra," which was acted at Turin, 1773 ; this 
 was followed by a farce, called " The Poets; " 
 and within seven years he produced fourteen 
 dramas, besides various other works. At 
 the age of 48, he began to study Greek, and 
 made several translations from that lan- 
 guage. His incessant labours at length 
 undermined his constitution, and he died, 
 at Florence, in 1803, unexcelled by any poet 
 of his age and country. 
 
 ALFORD, Michael, an English Jesuit, 
 bom in London, 1387. He died at St. Omer's, 
 1652, leaving behind him two celebrated 
 works, " Britannia Illustrata " and " Annales 
 Ecelesiastici Eritannorimi." 
 
 ALFRAGAN, or AHMED BEN FER- 
 GAN, an Aiabian astronomer of the 9th 
 
 century ; author of an " Introduction to 
 Astronomy," and other scientific treatises. 
 
 ALFRAGO, ^\jJDiiEW, an Italian physi- 
 cian ; author of a history of Arabian phy- 
 sicians and philosophers, and other works 
 connected with the East, where he resided 
 for some years. Died, at Padua, 1520. 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT. This monarch 
 was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of 
 the West Saxons, and bom at Wantage, 
 Berks, in 849. On the death of his brother 
 Ethelred, Alfred succeeded to the throne of 
 England, 871, in his 22d year, at a time 
 when his kingdom was a prey to domestic 
 dissensions, and to the invasions of the 
 Danes, whom he engaged at Wilton, but, 
 after a hard conflict, was forced to retreat, 
 and conclude a treaty on disadvantageous 
 terms. The Danes soon violated their en- 
 gagement, and renewed their hostility with 
 such success, that, in 877, the king was un- 
 der the necessity of laying aside the en- 
 signs of royalty, and concealing himself in 
 the cottage of one of his herdsmen. He 
 afterwards retired to the island of Athel- 
 ney, and there received information that 
 one of his chiefs had obtained a great vic- 
 tory over the Danes, and taken their ma- 
 gical standard. Alfred then disguised liim- 
 self as a harper, entered the Danish camp, 
 and gained a knowledge of the state of the 
 enemy. After this, he directed his nobles to 
 meet him at Selwood, with their vassals, 
 which was done so secretly, that the Danes 
 were surprised at Eddington, and com- 
 pletely routed. He now put his kingdom 
 into a state of defence, increased his navy, 
 and brought London into a flourishing state; 
 but, after a rest of some years, an immense 
 number of Danish forces landed in Kent, 
 and committed great ravages ; they were, 
 however, soon defeated by Alfred, who 
 caused several of the leaders to be executed 
 at Winchester. Thus he secured the peace 
 of his dominions, and struck terror into his 
 enemies, after 56 battles by sea and land, 
 in all of which he was personally engaged. 
 But the warlike exploits of Alfred formed, 
 perhaps, the least of the services he ren- 
 dered his country. He composed a body of 
 statutes, instituted the trial by jury, and 
 divided the kingdom into shires and hun- 
 dreds ; was so exact in his government, 
 tliat robbery was imheard of, and valuable 
 goods might be left on tlie high roads. His 
 great council, consisting of bishops, earls, 
 aldermen, and tlianes, was, by an express 
 law, called together twice a year in Lon- 
 don, for the better government of the 
 realni. The state of learning in his time 
 was so low, that, from the Thames to the 
 Humber, scarcely a man could be foimd 
 wlio understood the service of the church, 
 or could translate a single sentence of Latin 
 into English. To remedy this evil, he in- 
 vited men of learning from all quarters, and 
 placed them at the head of seminaries in 
 various parts of his kingdom r and, if he 
 was not the founder of the University of 
 Oxford, it is certain he raised it to a repu- 
 tation which it had never before enjoyed. 
 Alfred himself wrote several works, and 
 translated others from the Latin, particu- 
 larly "Orosius's History of the Pagans," 
 
alp] 
 
 ^ ^ctu Bnihtv^Bl Miafp^n^^v. 
 
 [Afcl 
 
 and "Boiithius's Consolations of Philoso- 
 phy." lie divided the twenty-four hours 
 into three equal parts, one devoted to the 
 service of God, another to public ailairs, 
 and the third to rest and refreshment ; his 
 revenue, also, was divided into two equal 
 moieties, one dedicated to sacred, tlie other 
 to civil uses. To Alfred, England is in- 
 debted for the foundation of lier naval 
 establishment, and he was the lirst who 
 sent OTit ships to make the discovery of a 
 north-east passage. To crown his great 
 public character, Alfred is described as one 
 of the most mild and amiable men in private 
 life ; of a temper serene and cheerful, af- 
 fable, kind, and merciful, and not averse to 
 society, or to innocent recreation ; he was 
 also personally well-favoured, possessing a 
 handsome and vigorous form, and a dignitied 
 and engaging aspect. Died, OiH). 
 
 ALFRED, surnamed " the Thilosophcr," 
 an Englishman, was greatly esteemed at the 
 court of Rome, and attended Cardinal Ot- 
 toboni, the legate, to England, lie wrote 
 five books on the " Consolationa of Boethius," 
 and died, 1270. 
 
 ALFKED, an English bishop of the 10th 
 century ; author of a " History of the Abbey 
 of Malmsbury," a treatise "De Naturis 
 Kcrum," &c. 
 
 ALGARDI, Ai-EXAXDEn, a Bolo^nese 
 sculptor of the 17th century. There is an 
 admirable group of his, at Bologna, of the 
 beheading of St. I'aul. 
 
 ALOAROTTI, FiiANCis, an eminent Ita- 
 lian M-riter, born at Venice, 1742. He was a 
 great connoisseur of the tine arts, and his 
 works are critical and philosophical. Died, 
 17G4. 
 
 ALIIAZEN, an Arabian mathematician, 
 who was the first that showed the import- 
 ance of refraction in astronomy. Ue died 
 at Cairo, in 1038. 
 
 ALI, cousin, son-in-law, and vizier of 
 Maliomct, and one of the main pillars of 
 the new faith. He obtained the name of 
 the Lion of God, always Victorious; but 
 was opposed in his succession to the cali- 
 phate by Omar and Othman, and retired 
 into Arabia, and made a collection of the 
 sayings of the prophet. There he laid the 
 foundation of a new sect, and, after the 
 death of Othman, he was declared caliph, 
 6,5.5 ; but was murdered four years after- 
 wards in the mosque. 
 
 ALI BEG, a man of extraordinary learn- 
 ing and attainments, born in Poland, of 
 Christian parents, but was kidnapped in 
 his infancy by a horde of Tartars, who sold 
 him to the Turks, in whose language and 
 religion he was educated. His skill in lan- 
 guages procured him the post of chief in- 
 terpreter to the grand signior ; while his 
 leisure hours were employed in translating 
 the Bible and the catecliisra of the Church 
 of England into the Turkish language. The 
 work by which he is principally known to 
 Europeans is an account of tiie religious 
 ceremonies, &c. of the Turks. Died, 1C7.5. 
 
 Alil BEY, a Greek, son of a Natolian 
 priest, bom, 1728. He fell when a child 
 into tlie hands of robbers, who carried him 
 to Cairo, and sold him to Ibrahim, lieute- 
 nant of the Janissaries, who reared and 
 
 29 
 
 adopted hira. Ali soon rose to the rank of 
 sangiak, or member of the council ; and 
 when his patron was assassinated by Ibra- 
 him the Circassian, he avenged his death, 
 and slew the murderer with his own hand. 
 Tills action raised him numerous enemies, 
 and he was obliged to fly to Jerusalem, 
 and thence to Acre ; but in time he was re- 
 called by the people, and, being placed at 
 the head of the government, Egypt began 
 to recover its former splendour. Iji a battle 
 fought against the troops of a rebellious 
 Mameluke, Ali was cut down, after defend- 
 ing himself with a degree of desperate va- 
 lour that has scarcely ever been exceeded, 
 and died of his wounds eight days after- 
 wards, 1773. 
 
 AI-.I PACHA (or, more correctly, Ali, 
 pacha of Jannina), a bold, intelligent, and 
 crafty Albanian, was born at Tepelini, in 
 1744. His father, an Albanian chief, died of 
 grief, in consequence of being stripped of his 
 territories ; but his mother, who was re- 
 markable for energy of character, spirited 
 up her son to assume the conduct of a pre- 
 datory troop of his countrymen. With this 
 band he committed so many depredations, 
 that the adjacent tribes took up arms in 
 their own defence, and carried off his mother 
 and sister, whom they treated with great 
 cruelty. This roused the naturally im- 
 placable temper of Ali, and he vowed the 
 extermination of the whole race. He raised 
 a body of 2000 men, assumed great authority, 
 and wreaked his vengeance upon tlie Suli- 
 otes, whom he treated with tlie most horrible 
 barbarity. During fifty years of constant 
 warfare he brought under his sway a wide 
 extent of territory, which the Porte sanc- 
 tioned his holding, with the title of pacha. 
 He received agents from foreign powers, and 
 ultimately intrigued with England, France, 
 and Russia. But the jealousy of the Porte 
 was at length excited, and Hassan Pacha 
 was sent to demand his head. On declaring 
 his errand, Ali replied, " My head is not to 
 be delivered up so easily;'' accompanying 
 the words with a pistol-ball, which broke his 
 opponent's thigh. He shot two more dead 
 upon the spot, but fell the same moment. 
 His head was severed from Ms body, and 
 sent to Constantinople. 
 
 ALIAMET, James, an eminent French 
 engraver of the 18th century. 
 
 ALISON, Rev. Akciiibald, the celebrated 
 writer on Taste, was born, 1757. Educated 
 at Glasgow and Oxford, he entered into holy 
 orders, and obtained successively livings in 
 Durham and at Edinburgh, his native town, 
 where he continued to officiate till 18.iil, 
 when a severe illness compelled him to re- 
 linquish all public duties. Mr. Alison was 
 one of the first members of the Royal Society 
 of Edinburgh ; and he was intimately asso- 
 ciated with most of the men of genius and 
 learning of the present century. His " Essay 
 on the Nature and Principles of Taste " has 
 passed through numerous editions ; and the 
 theory therein set forth has met the ap- 
 proval of the first critics, both at home and 
 abroad. Died, 1830. 
 
 ALISON, RicnARP, one of the ten com- 
 posers, who, by command of Elizabeth, 
 adapted the Psalms to music. 
 
aLi] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Winihtr^aX BiosrapTjji. 
 
 [all 
 
 ALIX, Peter, a Frencli abbot of the 17th 
 century ; author of a " Dialogue entre Ponte 
 noir et la Pillorie," and other works. 
 
 ALKMAAR, Henky, a German poet of 
 the 15th century. 
 
 ALLAINVAL, Leoxor Soulas p', a 
 French al)b6 and dramatic poet, of consider- 
 able merit, lie died at Paris, 1753. 
 
 ALLAN, Daaid, a Scottish portrait and 
 historical painter of the 18th century, born 
 at Alloa, 17-14. There are several engraWugs 
 from his pictures. Died, 179G. 
 
 ALLAN, George, F. A. S., son of the 
 above, M. P. for the city of Durham, and a 
 principal contributor to NichoUs' Literary 
 Anecdotes. Born, 1768 ; died, 1828. 
 
 ALLAN, Sir William, an eminent his- 
 torical painter, was born in Edinburgh in 
 1782. Of humble parentage, he at an early 
 age evinced a decided predilection for art ; 
 and, when still a young man, he pursued his 
 favourite study with equal enterprise and 
 ability, visiting Morocco, Greece, and Spain, 
 and penetrating the remote and semi-bar- 
 barous territories of Russia and Turkey, that 
 he might familiarise himself with the rude 
 and picturesque aspects there presented. 
 " The Polish Captives," " The Slave Jlarket 
 of Constantinople," and various kindred 
 subjects, testify to his skill in this depart- 
 ment of art i but he did much also to illus- 
 trate the historic lore of his own land, as his 
 vivid representation of Mary and of llizzio, 
 the Murder of Archbishop Sharpe, and the 
 Battle of Waterloo amply testify. He was 
 an old and attached friend of Sir Walter 
 Scott; and his amiable, unassuming manners, 
 and his vast fund of anecdote, procured him 
 general love and esteem. In 1841 he suc- 
 ceeded Sir D. Wilkie as president of the 
 Royal Scottish Academy, and was soon after- 
 wards knighted. Died, 1830. 
 
 AI^LARD, Guy, a French writer, known 
 principally by numerous works upon the 
 genealogical liistory of Dauphinj'. Died 
 in 1716. 
 
 ALLARD, Jean Franoots, a French ge- 
 neral officer, much distinguished during the 
 Empire. On the final downfall of Napoleon, 
 he entered, successively, the Egyptian and 
 the Persian ser\ices, and at length became 
 the confidential ad\iser of Runjeet-Singh, 
 whose troops he disciplined in the European 
 manner. Bom, 1785 ; died, 1839. 
 
 ALLATIUS, Leo, a Greek physician and 
 man of letters, librarian of the Vatican at 
 Rome, and professor in the Greek college 
 there. Died, 1669, aged 83. 
 
 ALLEGBAIN, Christopher Gabriel, 
 an eminent French sculptor. Died, 1795. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Alexander, an Italian sa- 
 tirical poet, who first served in the army, 
 and then became an ecclesiastic. He had a 
 great turn for burlesque poetry ; and his 
 principal work, " Rime Piaceovoli," lias 
 gone through several editions. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Gregorio, a celebrated Ro- 
 man musical composer, whose works are 
 still retained in the pontifical chapel. The 
 chief is tJie "Miserere," which is always 
 sung on Good Friday. Died, 1640. 
 
 ALLEIN, Joseph, a nonconformist mi- 
 nister, known chiefly as the author of " An 
 Alarm to Unconverted Sinners," which has 
 
 gone throiigh numerous editions. Born 
 in 1623, at Devizes ; died at Bath, 1688. 
 
 ALLEN, JoHX, archbishop of Dublin and 
 chancellor of Ireland, cruelly murdered by 
 the son of the Earl of Kildare, 1534. 
 
 ALLEN, John, M. D., a distinguished 
 writer on historical subjects, was bom at 
 Bedford, his paternal property, near Edin- 
 burgh, in 1771. He studied at Edinburgh, 
 and took his degree in medicine in 1792. 
 But his predilection for politics soon with- 
 drew him from his medical pursuits ; and 
 he early connected himself with the move- 
 ments for Parliamentary Reform, which 
 commenced in Scotland at the outbreak of 
 the French Revolution. In 1802, having 
 been recommended to the late Lord Hol- 
 land as a medical friend and companion, 
 he accompanied the noble lord and his 
 family on successive tours through France, 
 Italy, and Spain ; and the similarity of their 
 tastes and opinions soon led to a lasting 
 friendship between them, which death alone 
 interrupted. On his return from the con- 
 tinent, he devoted himself to literary pur- 
 suits. The extent and variety of his attain- 
 ments are shown in his numerous contri- 
 butions to the Edinburgh Review, chiefly 
 on subjects connected with the British con- 
 stitution, and with French and Spanish his- 
 tory. But the most lasting monument to 
 his literary fame is his valuable work called 
 an " Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of 
 the Royal Prerogative," of which a second 
 edition has been recently published. In 
 1811 he became warden, and in 1820 master 
 of Dulwich College ; but he continued to re- 
 side chiefly at Holland House, where the 
 manliness, sincerity, and independence of 
 his character, his kindly nature and exten- 
 sive information, gained him the esteem of 
 all who were admitted to that " Temple of 
 Wit" and hospitality. Died, April 10. 
 1843. 
 
 ALLEN, Thomas, an eminent scholar in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, considered the first 
 mathematician of his day. Born, 1542 ; 
 died, 1032. 
 
 ALLEN, Thomas, an industrious writer 
 and compiler of antiquarian and historical 
 works ; the chief of which were, "The His- 
 tory and Antiquities of Lambeth ; " " The 
 History and Antiquities of London, AVest- 
 minster, and Southwark ; " with various 
 county histories. Born in 1803, and died, 
 ofcholera, July 1833. 
 
 ALLERSTAIN, a German Jesuit of the 
 18th century. He was one of the mission- 
 aries to China, where he died ; and was au- 
 thor of some valuable astronomical obser- 
 vations. Died about 1778. 
 
 ALLESTRY, Richard, bom at Upping- 
 ton, in Shropshire, 1619, was a student of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, and originally de- 
 signed for the Church ; but, during the civil 
 wars, he joined the royal army, and was 
 present at the battle of Keinton. At the 
 Restoration he took orders, and subse- 
 quently enjoyed many clerical dignities. 
 Died at Eton, 1680. 
 
 ALLEY, William, a zealous member of 
 the Reformed Church, was born at Great 
 Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, made bishop of 
 Exeter in 1560 by Elizabeth, and died, 1570. 
 
all] 
 
 ^ ^eitt ©liuber^aT 3iJt0srapl)j). 
 
 [alp 
 
 ALLEYN, Edwakd, a celebrated actor in 
 the reigus of Elizabeth aud James, and 
 founder of Dulwich College, was born in 
 London, 15(>6. He was tlie first master of 
 liis own college, and, dying in 1620, was 
 buried in its chapel. 
 
 ALLIOXI, Chaules, a celebrated physi- 
 chiii, medical writer, and professor of bo- 
 tany in the university of Turin. Born, 1725 ; 
 died, 1804. 
 
 ALLIX, Peter, a learned divine, bom at 
 Alenon, in France, 1644, was minister of the 
 Reformed Church at Rouen and Charenton. 
 On tlie repeal of the Edict of Nantes, he 
 came to England, was created D.D. at Ox- 
 ford, and made treasurer of tlie church at 
 1 Salisbury. Died in London, 1717. 
 
 AIjLOISI, Balthazau, a Bolognese his- 
 torical and portrait painter, who obtained 
 the name of Galanixo. Died, 1638. 
 
 ALLOKI, Alexandek, a Florentine 
 painter, who excelled in naked figures. lie 
 • died in 1C07. 
 
 ALLORL CiiKiSTOPHANO, called also 
 Bronzino, the son of the above, was also an 
 eminent painter, chieHy distinguished for 
 his small pictures. Died, 1619. 
 
 ALLY, Vizier, ex-niibobof Oude, wasthe 
 adopted son of the former nabob of Oude, 
 Yusuf ab Dowlah, who declared liimself suc- 
 cessor. The English government, however, 
 deposed him in favour of the brother of 
 Yusuf, but settled on him a pension of 
 2.^),(K)();. While engaged with the agents of 
 the East India Company, who had been sent 
 to meet him at Benares for the purpose of 
 making arrangements for his future resi- 
 dence, he gave a signal, on which his armed 
 followers rushed in and treacherously mur- 
 dered the Company's officers. For a time he 
 made his escape, but surrendered on con- 
 dition that his life should be spared. Died 
 in prison, 1817, aged only 36. 
 
 ALMAGRO, DiEoo i/, a Spaniard of low 
 origin, who accompanied Pizarro in the ex- 
 pedition against Peru, in which his valour, 
 profligacy, and cruelty were equally dis- 
 played. In 1523, he took Cuzco, the capital 
 of Chili, bjr storm, and put Atahualpa, the 
 last of the incas, to a most horrid death ; but 
 quarrelling with the brothers of Pizarro 
 about the division of their spoil, a schism 
 ensued, and Almagro was eventually taken 
 prisoner and strangled, 1.5;i8. 
 
 ALMAMON, or ABD ALLAH, caliph of 
 Bagdad, son of Ilaroun al Roschid, succeeded 
 his brother Al Amin, 814, and died, 8;>3. 
 He founded an academy at Bagdad, to which 
 he invited able professors of languages and 
 sciences, and left behind him a character 
 for clemency and benevolence. 
 
 ^VLMANASOR, Jacob, a caliph of the Sa- 
 racens in Africa, who, after conquering 
 territory to the extent of 1200 leagues in 
 length, met with such a reverse of fortune, 
 that he became a baker at Alexandria, in the 
 exercise of which business he died, in 1205. 
 
 ALMAXZOR, surnamed the Victorious, 
 the second caliph of the house of Abas, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in 753. During his 
 reign tlie city of Bagdad was raised from the 
 foundation, and was made the imperial 
 residence. 
 
 ALMARUS, abbot of the monastery of St. 
 
 Austin, Canterbury, made bishop of Sher- 
 borne, 1022. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Francisco, a Portuguese, 
 appointed, in 1505, the first viceroy of India. 
 After a perilous voyage, he crossed the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and proceeded along the 
 coast of Africa, spreading terror and desola- 
 tion ; he reduced several places under the 
 dominion of Portugal, gained some extra- 
 ordinary victories, and was killed on his 
 return in a quarrel with the natives at the 
 Caiie, in l.TOO. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Lorenzo, son of Francisco, ] 
 was also an enterprising coiinnander and 
 navigator, and distinguished himself by 
 many expeditions in the Indian seas. Ceylon 
 was by him made tributary to Portugal. 
 Lorenzo lost his life in an engagement with 
 the Egyptian fleet in the bay of Cambaya. 
 
 ALJklELOVEEN, Thkodore Jansen 
 van, a physician, bom near Utrecht, was a 
 man of deep reading and research, and pro- 
 fessor of history, tlxe Greek language, and 
 medicine, at llarderwick. He died at Am- 
 sterdam, 1742. 
 
 ALMINARA, Marquis, Spanish envoy to 
 France from Charles IV. j diplomatist, and 
 the author of an able " Reply to Cevallos," 
 respecting the former's abdication, and of 
 "A History of tlie Inquisition." 
 
 ALMON, JouN, a political writer and 
 publisher, and the friend of Wilkes, was 
 born at Liveniool in 1708. In 1774 he com- 
 menced the Parliamentary Register ; he 
 was also the author of a Lilc of I^ord Chat- 
 ham, and various biograpliical, political, and 
 literary anecdotes. He died in 1805. 
 
 AI.OADDIN, commonly called the Old 
 Man of the Mountains, prince of the Arsa- 
 eides, or Assassins. He was the sheik of a 
 Syrian tribe professing the Mahometan re- 
 ligion, and from his followers the word 
 assassin has its derivation. 
 
 ALOJdFRA, the founder of the Burman 
 empire, a man of obscure birth, but who 
 raised himself to independence and sove- 
 reign power, and established a new dynasty 
 about the middle of the 18th century. 
 
 ^VLONZO DE VIADO, a Spanish Liberal, 
 born, 1775 ; author of a plan for reforming 
 the Spanish army, of a treatise on architec- 
 ture, and several translations. 
 
 ALPHERY, Mikepuer or Nicephorus, a 
 Russian prince, who, during the civil dis- 
 sensions in liis countrj', came to England, 
 was educated at Oxford, and, in 1018, ob- 
 tained the living of Warley, Huntingdon- 
 shire, whence he was ejected in the civil 
 war. At the Restoration he was reinstated 
 in his living ; and, although twice invited 
 to return to Russia, for the purpose of be- 
 ing placed on the throne, he preferred re- 
 maining in this country with liis flock. lie 
 died at Hammersmith, at the age of 80. 
 
 ALPHONSO I., or ALONZO ENRIQirEZ. 
 first king of Portugal, son of Henry of Bur- 
 gundy, count of Portugal. lie fought suc- 
 cessfully against the Moors, raised his coun- 
 try to a powerful monarcliy, and died, 1185, 
 alter a reign of 57 years. 
 
 ALPHONSO III., the Great, king of the 
 Asturias, bom 847, succeeded his father 
 Ordogeno, 865, and died at Zamora, 012. 
 He conquered many places from the Moors, 
 
alp] 
 
 ^ ^^ Winibtr^Kl 3Siffgrajil)M. 
 
 [alg 
 
 was a patron of learned men, and distin- 
 guished liimself for piety and justice. 
 
 ALPHONSO IV., surnamed the Brave, 
 BOn of king Denis, whom he succeeded, 1324, 
 was an able and impartial sovereign, and 
 died, 1357. 
 
 ALPHONSO v., surnamed the Magnani- 
 mous, king of Arragon, born, 1384 ; suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ferdinand the Just, 1416, 
 and died at Naples, 14.58, leaving his Neapo- 
 litan dominions to his natural son Ferdi- 
 nand, and those of Spain, Sardinia, and Si- 
 cily to his brother Juan, king of Navarre. 
 Thus monarch was accounted the most ac- 
 complished prince of his time : he gave 
 shelter to the Greek literati expelled from 
 Constantinople, and was in other respects 
 a great patron of learning. 
 
 ALPHONSO X., called the Wise, king of 
 Leon and Castile, succeeded his father, 
 Ferdinand III., 1231, and died, 1284, aged 
 81. As a ruler, Alphonso was misguided 
 and unfortunate ; but as a patron and an 
 encourager of the sciences, he obtained much 
 reputation. lie completed a code of laws, 
 began by his father, still known under the 
 title of " Las Partidas," and preceded the 
 other nations of Europe in substituting the 
 vernacular tongue for the Latin in law pro- 
 ceedings. His favourite pursuit, however, 
 was astronomy, and he employed the most 
 famous astronomers to draw up the cele- 
 brated tables called after him the Alphon- 
 sine Tables, wliich were first published at 
 Venice, 1483. 
 
 ALPHONSUS, Tastadus, bishop of Avila, 
 a voluminous Spanish writer, who flourished 
 during the loth century. 
 
 ALPINI, PiiOsi'EKo, a Venetian physi- 
 cian, born, 1553, and died, 1617. He was 
 the greatest botanist of his day, tlie first 
 who explained the impregnation and gene- 
 ration of plants by the sexual system, and 
 is the author of many valuable works on his 
 favourite pursuit. 
 
 ALSTEDIUS, JoHJT Henkt, a German 
 philosopher and Protestant divine, born 
 about 1588, and died, 16.38 ; author of some 
 celebrated theological collections, but chiefly 
 known for his Encyclopaedia. 
 
 ALSTON, CuARLES, an eminent Scotch 
 physician and botanist ; author of " Tiro- 
 cinium Botanicum Edinburgense," &c. ; 
 and public lecturer at Edinburgh. Born, 
 1683 ; died, 1760. 
 
 ALSTKOEJIER, JoxAS, a distinguished 
 Swede, born of poor parents at Alingas, 
 West Gothland, in 1685, After struggling 
 with poverty for a long time, he visited 
 London, and paying particular attention to 
 the commercial and manufacturing sources 
 of British prosperity, he returned to Swe- 
 den in 1723, resolving to carry the plans he 
 had formed into execution. Having ob- 
 tained a license to establish manufactures 
 in the town in which lie was born, it soon 
 became the seat of industry and activity, 
 which afforded an example to the whole 
 kingdom. He established a sugar house at 
 Gottenburg, and traded to the Indies and 
 the Levant ; improved rural economy ; cul- 
 tivated plants proper for dyeing ; and im- 
 proved the wool trade by importing sheep 
 from Spain and England, and the goat from 
 
 Angora. For these important benefits, Al- 
 Btroemer received a patent of nobility, was 
 made Knight of the Polar Star, and lio- 
 noured with t!ie title of Chancellor of Com- 
 merce ; tlie Academy of Sciences chose liim 
 a member ; and the national states decreed 
 him a statue, to be erected to his memory on 
 the exchange of Stockholm. Died, 1761. 
 
 ALTEN, General Charles, count, a brave 
 and experienced oflScer, was born at Wil- 
 kenburg, at Hanover, in 1764, and in 1781 
 received his commission as ensign in the 
 foot-guards of the electorate. After taking 
 part in the operations of 1793, against 
 the revolutionary troops of France, he was 
 made colonel of the king's German legion 
 in 1803, and from that time till the end of 
 the war he was almost constantly on service. 
 He was at the taking of Copenhagen, and 
 afterwards served under Sir Jolm Moore 
 as a brigadier-general in the fatiguing 
 and arduous duties of the disastrous cam- 
 paign which ended in the battle of Co- 
 runna. At Walchercn also, and at the siege 
 of Flushing, he distinguished himself; and 
 on his return to England, in 1810, he was 
 promoted to the rank of major-general, and 
 placed in command of the south-west dis- 
 trict. From this station, however, he was 
 speedily removed, his brigade being destined 
 for tlie operations of the Peninsula, where 
 he served under Marshal Beresford at the 
 first siege of Badajoz, and at Albuera. In 
 1812, Wellington placed him at the head of 
 the light division, which he commanded in 
 the general actions of Salamanca, Vittoria, 
 Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, and Tou- 
 louse. Like that of many of his brave com- 
 peers, his active duty closed with the battle 
 of Waterloo ; and his services at the head of 
 the third division, during the memorable 
 16th, 17th, and 18th of June, will ever be 
 classed among the most devoted and glorious 
 on military record. He was now created a 
 count ; and when recovered from the dan- 
 gerous wounds he had received, he took the 
 command of the Hanoverian troops forming 
 part of the army of occupation in France. 
 In 1831, Count Alten was nominated one of 
 the ministers of state, and placed at the 
 head of the war department in Hanover. 
 This appointment he held till his death, 
 which took place in April, 1840. 
 
 ALTER, Francis Chakle.s, a German 
 Jesuit and laborious critic ; Greek teacher 
 in the school of St. Anne at Vienna, in 
 which capital he died, 1804. 
 
 ALTHAMERUS, a divine of Nuremberg ; 
 author of various theological works, and a 
 principal promoter of the Reformation in 
 Berne, Switzerland. Died, 1450. 
 
 ALTILIO, Gabriel, aNeapolitan ; author 
 of some l^atin poems of great beauty. He 
 was tutor to Prince Ferdinand, sou of Al- 
 phonso 11. , and was subsequently made 
 bishop of Policastro. Died, 1501. 
 
 ALTING, Hexky, an eminent German 
 divine, born at Embden, 1583 ; died, 1614. 
 He distinguished himself at the synod of 
 Dort, as deputy from the Palatinate, and 
 did much in advancement of the Protestant 
 interest in Germany by his temperate con- 
 duct and abilities as a reasoner. Born, 1583; 
 died, 1644. 
 
 32 
 
alt] 
 
 ^ ^ctu ^ntbcriSal 38tflffrajp]^«. 
 
 [ama 
 
 ALTING, Jamks, son of the above, was 
 educated at Groningen, and came to Eng- 
 land, wliere he was ordained a priest of the 
 chmch by the Bishop of Worcester. In 1«>4;{, 
 he was chosen Hebrew professor at Gro- 
 ningen, and afterwards professor of divinity. 
 Born, IfilS ; died, 1C79. 
 
 ALTING, Mkxson^, a burgomaster of 
 Groningen, author of the best description of 
 the Low Countries now extant. Died, 1713. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, the poetical surname of an 
 Italian poet named Christopher. His sur- 
 name and a poetic crown were given to him 
 on account of his great popularity as an 
 improvisatore. 
 
 ALTAIAN, John George, a Swiss histo- 
 rian and divine, curate of Inns in tlie same 
 canton, and professor of moral pliilosophy 
 and Greek at Berne. Born, ltW7 ; died, 1758. 
 
 ALTDORFER, or ALTORF, Ai.ueut, a 
 
 Bavarian painter, architect, and engraver. 
 
 Ue raised liimself by hb merits to the rank 
 
 j of senator of Ratisbou, wliich city he adorned 
 
 j with many handsome edifices. Born, 1488 ; 
 
 died, 1578. 
 I ALURED, an ancient English historian, 
 who flourished in the beginniug of tlie 12th 
 century. His annals are very valuable, and 
 comprise the history of the Britons, Saxons, 
 and Normans, down to his own time, 1129. 
 
 ALVA, Fekdi.vanu Alvakez, Uuke of, 
 the descendant of an illustrious family in 
 Spain, was a famous general under the empe- 
 rors Charles V. and Philip II. He made his 
 first campaign at the battle of I'avia. At 
 the siege of Metz he performed pnxligies 
 of valour ; and in the war with tlic pope he 
 was completely successful ; but he was as 
 cruel as he was brave. In l.'(G7, Philip sent 
 him to reduce the Low Countries, then in a 
 state of revolt. Here he landed with 10,(X»0 
 men, and immediately commenced a series 
 of cruelties almost unparalleled in the annals 
 of history, annihilating every remaining 
 privilege of the people. He was subse- 
 quently employed against Don Antonio, 
 who had assumed the crown of Portugal, 
 and drove him from that kingdom, the whole 
 of wliich he reduced to Plulip's authority. 
 Died in 1589, aged 74. 
 
 ALVARADO, Don Pedro, one of the ra- 
 pacious conquerors of Spanish America, who 
 accompanied Cortes to America. He was 
 appointed to the government of Guatimala, 
 and was slain in 1.>11. 
 
 ALVAR^VDO, Alpiioxso d' a Spanish 
 adventurer, who accompanied Pizarro in his 
 expedition to Peru ; and who was equally 
 distinguished for his bravery and his cruelty. 
 Died, 1.55.5. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Emanuel, a distinguished 
 Portuguese grammarian, born at Madeira, 
 152(), and died at the college of Evora, of 
 which he was rector, 1582. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Fkaxcis, a Portuguese di- 
 vine, bom at Coimbra, towards the end of 
 the 15th century, and died, 1540, leaving 
 behind him in Portuguese an occount of his 
 embassy to David, king of Abyssinia, and a 
 description of Etliioplan manners and cus- 
 toms, which is deemed the flrst accurate ac- 
 count of Abyssinia. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Gomez, a Spanish poot. The 
 chief of his works, which were written in. 
 
 Latin, is a poem on the Order of the Golden 
 Fleece. Born, 1488 ; died, i:>S8. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Don Jose, one of the most 
 eminent sculptors of the 19th centurj', was 
 born near Cordova in Spain, 17(i8. Patronised 
 by Charles IV., he proceeded to Paris in 
 1799, with a view of prosecuting his studies ; 
 and he soon gained himself a name in the 
 French metropolis. Napoleon presented 
 liim with a gold medal ; but his subsequent 
 conduct towards Spain inspired the artist 
 with such aversion for him, tliat he would 
 never model his bust ; and he afterwards 
 was imprisoned for refusing to take t)ic 
 oath of allepunce to Joseph Buonaparte, 
 when proclaimed king of Spain. Many of 
 his best works are at Madrid. Died, 1827. 
 
 ALVAROTTO. J AMES, a lawyer of Padua, 
 distinguished for liis attainments both in the 
 civil and canon law ; author of "Commen- 
 taria in Libros Feudorum." Born, 1474 ; 
 died. 1542. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, PuiLii- Cuas.. Count 
 of, son of a counsellor of war at Hanover, 
 was a distinguished diplomatist, and in 1791 
 was placed at the head of the department 
 for foreign atfairs at Hanover, in which he 
 gave general satisfaction. The count wrote 
 a "History of the War from the Peace of 
 Munster to that of Hubertsbourg." Born, 
 1745 ; died, 1802. 
 
 ALVIANO, BAUTnoi.OMEW, nn eminent 
 Venetian general, whose exertions against 
 the emperor Maximilian, in l.jdS, caused the 
 republic to decree him triumphal honours. 
 In the siege of Padua by the emperor, and 
 at the battles of La Motte and Alariguano. 
 Alviano displayed the most heroic qualities, 
 His deatli was occasioned by excessive fa- 
 tigue while laying siege to Brescia. Born, 
 1455 ; died, 1515. 
 
 ALXINGER, J. B., bom at Vienna, in 
 1755 ; author of gome admired German poems 
 and translations. Died, 1797. 
 
 ALYPIUS, an architect of Antioch, em- 
 ployed by Julius in his attempt to rebuild 
 the temple of Jerusalem, He was subse- 
 quently banished, on a charge of practising 
 the black art, and died in exile. Alypius 
 wrote a " Geographical Description of the 
 World," publislied in 1028 at Geneva. 
 
 ALYPIUS, bishop of Tagasta, Africa, the 
 friend of St. Augustine, with whom he was 
 baptized at Milan, in 388. He opposed the 
 Donatists and Pelagians with great zeal ; 
 and died in 430. 
 
 AMADEDDULAT, first sultan of the 
 Buiyan dynasty, was the son of a fisherman 
 of Dilem, on the Caspian Sea. He rose to 
 distinction in the armies of Makan, sultan of 
 Dilem, and subsequently gained possession 
 of Persia Proper, Persian Irak, and Kerman, 
 of which he assumed the sovereignty, and 
 fixed the seat of his government at Shiraz, 
 in 933. He died, 940, and left his crown to 
 his nephew, Adadeddulat. 
 
 AMADEUS v., count of Savoy, succeeded 
 to the sovereignty of tliat state, 12a5, and 
 died at Avignon, 1323. Although a prince 
 of such small dominions, he acquired the 
 surname of Great, from his wisdom and 
 success. 
 
 AMADEUS VIII., count of Savoy, elected, 
 1391, and died, 1451. Ue was one of the 
 
AM a] 
 
 % flt^ Wini^itx&^X 2SuJsrapl)i). 
 
 [amb 
 
 most singular characters of his time ; and, 
 from his prudence in keeping peace with his 
 neighbours, obtained the title of the Pacific. 
 
 AMADEUS IX., count of Savoy, although 
 undistinguished by deeds of renown, deserves 
 lionourable mention as a prince who pos- 
 sessed all the Christian virtues in an emi- 
 nent degree, and particularly that of charity, 
 lie married lolaude, of France, who sec- 
 onded him in all his good works ; and his 
 subjects conferred on him the title of the 
 Blessed. He died, universally regretted, 
 1472. 
 
 AMADUZZI, Joiix CiiEiSTorHEK, a 
 learned Roman of the 18th century ; in- 
 spector of the printing office of the Propa- 
 ganda at Rome. 
 
 AMAIA, Francis, a Spanish lawyer of 
 much reputation, and professor of legal sci- 
 ence at Salamanca, but afterwards a coun- 
 sellor at Valladolid, where he died, 1G40. 
 
 AMAK, or ABULNAGIE AL, BOKII ART, 
 a Persian poet in the 5th century, enter- 
 tained at the court of sultan Khedar Khan, 
 who instituted an academy of poets, of 
 which he made Amak president. His chief 
 poem is the " History of the Loves of Joseph 
 and Zoleiskah." 
 
 AMALARIUS, Fortunatus, archbishop 
 of Treves in 810. He established Christianity 
 iu Saxony, consecrated a church at Ham- 
 burgh, and was sent ambassador in 813 to 
 Constantinople by Charlemagne. Died, 814. 
 
 AMALTHEUS, Attix-ius, made arch- 
 bishop of Athens by Paul V., who sent liim 
 nuncio to Cologne. Died, ICOO. 
 
 AMAI.THEUS, Jerome, an Italian phy- 
 sician and poet of some repute ; born, 1507 ; 
 and died, 1574. 
 
 AM^ILTHEUS, John Baptist, brother of 
 the above, was born, 1523 ; attended the 
 Venetian ambassador to England, and, on 
 his return, was mad£ secretary to pope 
 Pius IV. His Latin poems were printed 
 1550 ; and lie died, 1573. 
 
 AMALTHEUS, Cornelius, another bro- 
 ther of the above, was also eminent in 
 physic and poetry. 
 
 AMAND, Mark Anthony Gerard, Sieur 
 de St., a French poet, born at Rouen, 1594, 
 and died, 1661. He was one of the first 
 members of the French academy, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in amatory and comic 
 poetry. 
 
 AMAR DURIVIER, J. A., born in 1763 ; 
 author of a great variety of literary works, 
 translations from Gay, Terence, Lucan, &c. 
 
 AMARA-SLNGHA, a Hindoo author of 
 great antiquity, who compiled a dictionary 
 of tlie Sanscrit language, part of which was 
 published at Rome, 1798. An entire manu- 
 script copy of the original is in the royal 
 library at Paris, written in the century pre- 
 ceding the birth of Christ. 
 
 AMARETTI, Abbe C, a Milanese mi- 
 neralogist, born in 1743 ; author of " Vi- 
 aggio di Trilaghi," "Memoirs of Leonardo 
 da Vinci," &c. &c. He was a knight of 
 Napoleon's order of the Iron Crown. 
 
 AJMASEO, Romulus, an eminent teacher 
 of the belles lettres at Padua, where he 
 had himself completed his education. Re- 
 moving to Bologna, where he married, he 
 acquired so high a reputation that he was 
 
 84 
 
 admitted to the citizenship. His celebrity 
 at length caused him to be invited to Rome 
 by Paul III., by whom he was employed in 
 various embassies ; and by Julius III. he 
 was appointed secretary of the briefs. lie 
 translated Paiisanias and the Cyrus of 
 Xenophon into Latin ; and published a 
 volume of his own Latin speeches. Bom, 
 1489 ; died, 1552. 
 
 AMATI, a celebrated violin maker of 
 Cremona, who lived about the year 1600. 
 
 AMATUS, a Portuguese Jew, born, 1511, 
 at Castel Bianco. He studied medicine 
 with success at the university of Salamaiicn, 
 and afterwards gave lectures on the science 
 at Ferrara, Ancona, and other places. He 
 published two treatises on subjects connected 
 with his profession. ' 
 
 AMAURI, DE CfiARTRES, a French vi- 
 sionary of the loth century, who maintained 
 the eternity of matter, and that religion 
 had three epochs, agreeable to the three 
 persons of the Trinity. His opinions were 
 condemned by the council of Paris, 1209, 
 and some of his followers burnt. To avoid 
 a similar fate, he renoimced his errors, but 
 died of vexation. 
 
 AMBERGER, CHRiSTornER, a painter 
 of Nuremberg in the 16th century, was a 
 disciple of Hans Holbein. His principal 
 work is the history of Joseph, in twelve 
 pictures. Amberger was likewise a good 
 engraver in wood. Died, 1550. 
 
 AMBOISE, Francis, a French writer, 
 educated in the college of Navarre, and 
 afterwards an advocate in the parliament 
 of Paris, and counsellor of state. He pub- 
 lished several poetical pieces in French and 
 Latin, but is chiefly known as the collector 
 and editor of the works of the celebrated 
 Abelard. He died about 1612. 
 
 AMBOISE, George d', a French cardi- 
 nal and minister of state, born of a noble 
 family, 1460. He became successively bishop 
 of Montauban, archbishop of Narbonne, and 
 lastly of Rouen. Louis XII. made him 
 prime minister, and he soon acquired great 
 popularity by taking off the taxes which 
 had been usually levied on the people at 
 the accession of every new monarch. The 
 king, by his advice, undertook the conquest 
 of tlie Milanese, which succeeded. Soon 
 after this, he was appointed the pope's le- 
 gate in France, with the dignity of cardinal, 
 and in that capacity effected a great reform 
 among the religious orders. He died in 1510. 
 
 AMBOISE, Amery d', a famous French 
 admiral, and brother of the above, who 
 gained a splendid victory over the sultan 
 of Egvpt, in 1510. 
 
 AJViBOISE, Michael d', a natural son of 
 Amboise, admiral of France, born at Naples, 
 and died in great poverty, 1547. He was the 
 author of numerous poems in the French 
 language, which he published imder the 
 name of the Signior de Chavillon. 
 
 AMBROGI, Antoine, a Roman Jesuit and 
 poet, was born in 1712. tie translated Virgil 
 and some of the works of Voltaire into 
 Italian. Died, 1788. 
 
 AMBROGIO, Tesco, one of the most 
 celebrated among the early Italian orien- 
 talists, was born at Pavia, in 1469, and died, 
 1540. 
 
AMBROSE, St., bishop of Milan, was 
 born, 340, at Aries, in Gallia Nurboncnsis, 
 of which province his father was lieutenant. 
 While vet a youth he pleaded causes with 
 so much eloquence, that Probus, prefect of 
 Italy, chose him one of his council, and 
 afterwards nominated him governor of 
 Milan, which olfice ho held five years. In 
 374, Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died ; and 
 80 fierce was the contest in the election of 
 a successor to the vacant see, that the go- 
 vernor was called upon to quell the tumult. 
 Tills he attempted by persuasion in the 
 great church ; and at the conclusion of his 
 address, a voice in the crowd exclaimed, 
 "Ambrose is bishop." This circumstance 
 was considered as of divine direction, and 
 Ambrose was declared to be the object not 
 only of the popular choice, but of divine se- 
 lection. His first eiforts were directed to 
 the extermination of Arianism, which was 
 then making great progress. He also suc- 
 cessfully resisted the Pagans, who were 
 attempting to restore their ancient worship. 
 When Maximinua invaded Italy, and ac- 
 tually entered Milan, Ambrose remained 
 at his pogt, to assuage the calamities pro- 
 duced by the invading army. When, in 
 consequence of a tumult at Thessalonica, 
 Theodosius sent an order for a general 
 massacre, Ambrose repaired to the empe- 
 ror, remonstrated with him on his barbarity, 
 and prevailed on him to promise that the 
 command should be revoked. Tlie mandate 
 was, however, carried into execution, and 
 7000 persons were slaughtered in cold blood. 
 Shortly afterwards, when Theodosius, in the 
 anguish of self-reproach, was about to enter 
 the great chnrch of Milan, Ambrose met 
 him at the porch, and sternly forbade him 
 to appear in the holy place. The emperor 
 pleaded the example of David: — "You 
 have imitated David in his crime, imitate 
 him in his repentance," was the reply ; and 
 Theodosius was compelled, not only to 
 perform a penance, but to sign an edict, 
 which ordained that an interval of thirty 
 days should pass before any sentence of 
 death or of confiscation should be executed. 
 He died at Milan, in 397. 
 
 AMBROSINI.Ambrozio, a Fcrrarese; au- 
 thor of several oratorios, cauzoni, and sonnets ; 
 died in 1700. 
 
 AMBROSINT, Giulio, a Mantuan, bom in 
 1580 ; author of a work on Dcmonology. 
 
 AMBROSIUS AURELI ANUS, king of the 
 Britons. He came from Armorica to assist 
 in expelling the Saxons, who had been in- 
 vited over by Vortigern ; and on the death 
 of that monarch the sovereignty was invested 
 in him. Died, at Winchester, in 50S. 
 
 AMEILIION, HtiiERT Pascal, a learned 
 Frenchman, born, 1730; author of "Uis- 
 toire du Bas P^mpire," of a celebrated work 
 on the Commerce of the Egyptians, and of 
 " Researches into the Mechanical Arts of the 
 Ancients." Died, 1811. 
 
 AMELIA, An-xe, princess of Prussia, 
 sister of Frederic the Great; born, 1723; 
 and died, 1787. She was distinguished by 
 her taste for the arts, and set to music 
 " The Death of the Messiah," by Ramler. 
 
 AMELIA, duchess dowager of Saxe Wei- 
 mar, bom, 1739 ; duchess of Brunswick and 
 
 Luneburg. At the age of 17 she married, 
 and in 1737 gave birth to a son, but lost the 
 duke, her husband, tlie year following. In 
 the discharge of her duties as regent she was 
 most exemplary ; and liberally patronised 
 men of learning and genius, among whom 
 were Wicland, Goethe, Scliiller, and Herder. 
 Died, 1807. 
 
 AMELIA, youngest child of George III. 
 and Queen Charlotte ; a princess who in 
 mind and manners was amiable and accom- 
 plished, and whose taste for the fine arts 
 was only equalled by her fervent piety and 
 pure benevolence. She possessed in the 
 highest degree the affection of her royal 
 father, and her death is supposed to have 
 had the most serious effect upon the state 
 of his mind. Born, 17a3 ; died, 1810. 
 
 AMELOT, N., a French minister of state 
 in 1788, who was accused of persecuting one 
 Latude, as the agent of Af. Pompadour, during 
 the ancient regime. For some offence to 
 the republicans, he was imprisoned in the 
 Luxemburg, where his life was saved and 
 prolonged by a young female, who avowed 
 a passion for him ; but at length he died 
 in the prison. His victim, Latude, on es- 
 caping from the Bastile, brought an action 
 of damages, and recovered from Amelot's 
 heirs. 
 
 AMELOT DE LA IIOUSSAYE, Nicho- 
 las, a French historian of the 17th century. 
 He resided for some time at Venice, as sec- 
 retary to the French embassy, and wrote a 
 history of its government, lie also trans- 
 lated the " Prince " (by Machiavcl) and other 
 Italian works into French. I>ied, 1706. 
 
 AMELUNGHI, Jekome, a Pisan poet, 
 preceding Tasso in the mock-heroic style; 
 author of " La Gigantea del Forabosco, ' in 
 1547. 
 
 AMENTA, N., an admired Neapolitan 
 poet, bom in 1059 ; author of " La Costanija," 
 "La For^a," "La Carlotta," " La GemcUe," 
 comedies, &c. &c. 
 
 AMERBACH, Jonx, a printer of Basle, 
 in the 15th century ; the first who used the 
 Roman type instead of Gothic and Italian. 
 Died, 1515. 
 
 AMERBACn, Bo-iFACE, son of the above, 
 syndic of Basle ; an intimate friend of 
 Erasmus. Died, 1562. 
 
 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS, or, more pro- 
 perly, Amekigo Vespucci, an eminent 
 navigator, was bom at Florence, in 1451. 
 After receiving a liberal education, he was 
 sent by his father to Spain for the purpose 
 of conducting his commercial afiairs ; and, 
 being at Seville when Columbus was making 
 preparations for his second voyage, he re- 
 solved to quit mercantile pursuits, and enter 
 on the career of discovery. His first ex- 
 pedition to the new continent was in 1499, 
 under the command of Ojeda, a year after 
 the discovery and examination of that part 
 of the coast by Columbus. After this he 
 entered the sci-vice of king Emanuel of 
 Portugal, and made two voyages in Por- 
 tuguese ships ; the first in 1501 ; the second 
 in 1.503. The object of this last voyage was 
 to find a westerly passage to Malacca. He 
 arrived at Brazil, and discovered the Bay 
 of All Saints. In 1505, he again entered the 
 service of tlie king of Spain, but made no 
 
ame] 
 
 ^ ^0&3 Wixxibtv^Kl 28t0sra3|jT)w. 
 
 [ajim 
 
 more voyages, as appears from memoranda, 
 showing that he was at Seville till 1508, at 
 which time he was appointed principal pilot. 
 His duties were to prepare charts, and pre- 
 scribe routes for vessels in their voyages to 
 the new world, which soon received his 
 name. This honour certainly belonged to 
 Columbus rather than to Amerigo, for the 
 prior discovery of the continent by the for- 
 mer is not to be questioned. He died in 1.516. 
 
 AMES, FisuER, an American political 
 writer. In 1788 he became a member of the 
 house of representatives, and distinguished 
 liimself as a politician. He retired from pro- 
 fessional business in 179C, but was chosen 
 president of Harvard College. Tlie works 
 of Mr. Ames were published at Boston, 1809. 
 Born, 1758 ; cUed, 1804. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, the celebrated historian 
 of British typography, was bom at Yar- 
 mouth, 1(389, and died, 1759. His father ap- 
 prenticed him to a plane-maker in London ; 
 and, after serving out his time, he became 
 a fillip-chandler at Wapping, which business, 
 notwithstanding his antiquarian pursuits, he 
 carried on until his death. lie early dis- 
 covered a taste for English history and anti- 
 quities ; and brought out, in 1749, after a 
 labour of 25 years, " Typographical Antiqui- 
 ties ; " being an liistorical account of print- 
 ing in England, with some memoirs of an- 
 cient printers, and a register of the books 
 printed by them from 1471 to 1600 ; with an 
 appendix concerning printing in Scotland 
 and Ireland to the same time. 
 
 AMES, William, an English divine of 
 the time of James I. and Charles I. He was 
 author of a vast number of controversial 
 treatises, but is now chiefly known by his 
 "Medulla Theologica" and "Treatise on 
 Conscience." Died, 1G33. 
 
 AMHERST, JEFFERr, Lord, a distin- 
 guished British oflBcer, was descended from 
 an ancient Kentish family, near Sevenoaks, 
 where he was bom, 1717. He entered into 
 the army in 1731, and became aide-de-camp 
 to Lord Ligonier, with whom he served at 
 tlie battles of Rocoux, Dettingen, and Fon- 
 tenoy. In 1758 he was sent to America, 
 where he captured Louisbourg, and all its 
 dependencies in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 This was followed by the reduction of Fort 
 du Quesne, Niagara, and Ticonderoga, which 
 paved the way for the entire conquest of 
 Canada. For these services. General Am- 
 herst received the thanks of parliament, and 
 the order of tlie Bath. In 1703 he was made 
 governor of Virginia; and, in 1776, created 
 Baron Amherst. In 1795, he resigned the 
 commandership-in-chief to the Duke of 
 York, and the following year received the 
 rank of field-marshal. He died in 1797. 
 
 AMHURST, Nicholas, an English poli- 
 tical and miscellaneous writer, bom at Mar- 
 den, Kent, 1701, and died, 1742. He was 
 author of the "Terrse Filius," a satirical 
 work on the university of Oxford ; and pub- 
 lished, with the assistance of Pulteney and 
 Lord Bolingbroke, the work by which he is 
 most known, entitled " The Craftsman." 
 
 AMICO, Antoxio, a Sicilian priest, and 
 canon of the cathedral of Palermo, distin- 
 guished by some considerable works in his- 
 tory and antiquities ; for which Philip IV. 
 
 of Spain made him historiographer royal. 
 Died, 1641. 
 
 AMICO, ViTO Maria, a professor of theo- 
 logy in the 18th century ; principally known 
 by his Sicilian antiquities. 
 
 AMICONI, Giacomo, a Venetian liistori- 
 cal and portrait painter, who visited England 
 in 1729. He afterwards went to Spain, was 
 appointed portrait painter to the king, and 
 died there, 1752. 
 
 AMILCAR, a Carthaginian general, of 
 great valour, was descended from the an- 
 cient kings of Tyre ; and being early en- 
 trusted with military command, he distin- 
 guished himself in the wars of Carthage, 
 particularly against the Romans, towards 
 whom he bore an implacable hatred. He 
 was the father of Hannibal. 
 
 AMIOT, Father, one of the most learned 
 of the French missionaries to Cliina, born at 
 Toulon, 1718, and died at Pekin, 1794, aged 
 77. This zealous Jesuit, who arrived at 
 Macao in 1750, was invited to Pekin, in 1751, 
 by the emperor of China, and remained in 
 that capital 43 years. By continued appli- 
 cation he became acquainted with the Chi- 
 nese and Tartar languages ; and, from time 
 to time, remitted to France the result of liis 
 labours, which afterwards appeared in seve- 
 ral publications. 
 
 AAIINTA, T., author of the mock-heroic 
 poem, " La Nanea," in 1566. 
 
 AMMAN. There were three noted phy- 
 sicians of this name. The first, John Cox- 
 EAD, a native of Schaft'hausen, was born, 
 1669, and died, 1724, at Marmund, in the 
 Netherlands. He was chiefly distinguished 
 by liis success in teaching persons born deaf 
 and dumb to speak. — His son, John, was a 
 fellow of the Royal Society in London, and 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Petersburgh, where he lectured on botany, 
 and acquired great reputation ; he died, 
 1740. — The third, Paul, was a native of 
 Breslaw, who settled in 1674 at Leipsic, 
 where lie gave lectures on pliysiology, na- 
 tural history, and botany ; he died, 1691. 
 
 AMMAN, Justus, a famous engraver and 
 painter at Zurich, in the 16th century. He 
 painted with great brilliancy on glass, but 
 excelled chiefly in engraving, both on wood 
 and copper. Died, 1691. 
 
 AMMANATI, Bartolomeo, a Floren- 
 tine architect and sculptor in the 16th cen- 
 tury, whose chief performances are the co- 
 lossal statue of Neptune at Venice and the 
 statue of Hercules at Padua. 
 
 AMMIANUS, Makckllinus, a Latin his- 
 torian of the 4th century, born at Antioch. 
 He wrote the Roman history from the reign 
 of Nerva to the death of Valens, in 31 books, 
 of which only 18 are extant ; and died about 
 390. 
 
 AMMIRATO, Seine, an esteemed Neapo- 
 litan poet, bom in 1531 ; author of a "History 
 of Florence," which he wrote at the instance 
 of the grand-duke Cosmo ; of the " Argo- 
 menti " to " Orlando Furioso ; " and of nu- 
 merous prose tracts, political and historical. 
 Died, 1601. 
 
 AMMON, Andreas, a Latin poet, bom 
 at Lucca, in Italy, of wliose genius Erasmus 
 made frequent and honourable mention. He 
 was sent to England in an official character, 
 
amm] 
 
 ^ i^m ^ixibtr^Kl 2StOfiraqp]^s. 
 
 [ana 
 
 by pope Leo X., an<l was appointed Latin 
 i secretary' to Henry VIII. He Kiibsenucntly 
 became prebendary of Salisbury, having pre- 
 viously received some vuluable church pre- 
 ferment. Died, 1517. 
 
 AMMON'IUS. There were two philoso- 
 phers of this name, of the Peripatetic school ; 
 one flourished at Athens about the year 00, 
 and the other taught at Alexandria in the 
 0th centurj-. The latter was a disciple of 
 Proclus, and obtained great reputation as a 
 preceptor. 
 
 AMiMONIUS, a surgeon of Alexandria, 
 who invented a method of extracting tlie 
 stone from the bladder, which procured liim 
 the surname of the Lithotomist. 
 
 AM.MONIUS, Lkvinus, a monk of Flan- 
 ders, much esteemed by Erasmus for his 
 learning and pictv. Died, 155C. 
 
 AMMONIUS SACCAS, a pliilosopher of 
 the iJrd century, founder of the Neo-platonic 
 sect, was born of Christian parents at Alex- 
 andria, and died about 2l;{. 
 
 AMON TONS, GuiLLAtiME, a French ma- 
 thematician, born in Normandy, 1003, and 
 died, 1705. He devoted himself to the study 
 of natural philosophy ; and constructed a 
 new thermometer, hygroscope, and other 
 philosophical instruments. 
 
 AiMORE, 8. D., a Sicilian poet, bom in 
 1044 ; author of " L' Augusto " and " II Sesos- 
 tri," tragedies, &c. &c. 
 
 AMOttETTI, Charles, a mineralogist, 
 born at Oneglia, in the Milanese, 1740, and 
 died, 1810. lie became one of the keepers of 
 the Anibrositm library, at Milan, and pub- 
 lished, in Italian, "A Tour from Milan to 
 the Three Lakes of Como, Lugano, and 
 Maggiore." I le composed also a great number 
 of memoirs and tracts, for which he was re- 
 warded with the decoration of the order of 
 the Iron Crown. 
 
 AMORY, TiiONfAS, a dissenting minister 
 of eminence, bom at Taunton, 1701, and 
 died, 1774 ; leaving behind several volumes 
 of sermons, and also the lives of Grove, Ben- 
 son, and Chandler. 
 
 AMORY, Thomas, a singular character, 
 was son of Counsellor Amory, appointed 
 by William III. secretary for the forfeited 
 estates in Ireland. He led a very recluse 
 life in his house in Orchard Street, West- 
 minster, carefully shunning company, and 
 never stirring out till the evening. He was 
 the author of "John Biinele," "Memoirs," 
 and other eccentric books. Died, 17t>9, 
 aged 5)7. 
 
 AMPERE, Andke ^Iarie, whose name ia 
 imperishably connected with the great dis- 
 coveries in electro-magnetism, was bom at 
 Lyons, 1775. In 1804 he was nominated pro- 
 fessor in the Polytechnic School of Paris ; 
 and here, in connection with Oersted, Fara- 
 day, and other distinguished men of science, 
 with whom he was in constant correspond- 
 ence, he paved the way for those brilliant 
 discoveries that have already issued in the 
 electric telegraph, and promise an illimita- 
 ble extension of the boundaries of science. 
 Died, 1(05. 
 
 AMURATII IL, emperor of the Turks, 
 was son of Mahomet I., whom he succeeded 
 in 1421. He was an exceedingly warlike 
 prince, and among his numerous victories 
 
 was that of Varna, in 1444, when the Chris- 
 tians were defeated, and numbered among j 
 their slain the king of Hungary. George 
 Castriot, celebrated by the name of Scander- 
 beg, at length put a period to the career of 
 Amurath, who died of chagrin at liis re- 
 verses, in 1451. 
 
 AMURATH III. succeeded his fatlier, 
 Selim II., in 1575. On his accession, he 
 caused his five brothers to be murdered. 
 Died, l.-iOC. 
 
 AMURATH IV. succeeded his uncle Mus- 
 tapha in 1022. He recovered Bagdad from 
 the Persians in 1037 ; after which he put 
 30,000 of his prisoners to the sword. Died, 
 1C40. 
 
 AMYN AHMED, a learned Persian of the 
 17th century, who wrote an elaborate work, 
 entitled " The Seven Climates, or a Geogra- 
 phical Description of the East." 
 
 AMYOT, James, bishop of Auxcrre, and 
 grand almoner of France, bom at Melun, of 
 obscure parents, 1514, and died, 1503. He 
 left the university of Paris at the age of 23. 
 and was recommended to the Duchess of 
 Berri, by whose means he Iwcame professor 
 of Greek and Latin at Bourges. He was 
 afterwards appointed preceptor to the sons 
 of Henry II., and, while engaged in this em- 
 ployment, he translated the Lives of Plu- 
 tordi. Charles IX. gave him the abbey of 
 Cornelius de Compeigne, and conferred on 
 him the high olflces aoove mentioned. 
 
 AMYRAUT, Moses, a learned French 
 theologian, born at Bourgueil, l.'iOO, and 
 died, 1004 ; vfery generally respected, not 
 only for his moderation and abilities, but 
 also for his bcneticence and charity. His 
 voluminous works are chiefly theological. 
 
 AMYRUTZES, a Peripatetic philosopher, 
 bom at Trebizond. He was high in favour 
 with the emperor David, and accompanied 
 that prince to Constantinople, whither the 
 Turks carried him after their reduction of 
 Trebizond in 1401. Here he deserted both 
 his sovereign and his religion, and assuming 
 the name of Mahomet Beg, and embracing 
 the Mahometan creed, he was much em- 
 ployed by Mahomet II. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a .Scythian philosopher, 
 flourished about COO years B.C. lie travelled 
 to Athens, where he was much esteemed by 
 Solon, and was the only stranger the Athe- 
 nians ever admitted to the honour of citizen- 
 ship. On his return to Scythia he attempted 
 to introduce some of the institutions and 
 customs of Greece ; but while in the act of 
 performing a rite to Cybele, he was killed 
 by an arrow. 
 
 ANACLETUS, or CLETUS, reckoned by 
 Roman Catholics the third pope, succeeded 
 Sinus as bishop of the church of the Romans 
 in 79, and held that office till his death in 
 92, when he was enrolled among the saints 
 and martyrs. 
 
 ANACREON, a famous Greek lyric poet, 
 born at Teos, Ionia, about the Cth century 
 B.C. He was enteitained by Polycrates at 
 Samos, and afterwards lived with Hippar- 
 chu8, at Athens, whence he returned to Teos, 
 and remained there till the revolt of Histaeus, 
 when he removed to Abdera, where he was 
 choked by a grape-stone in the act of drink- 
 ing. His poems are exquisitely beautil'ul, 
 
 37 
 
ana] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Winibtvgul 33insrapibB« 
 
 [anc 
 
 lively, and natural. There have been seve- 
 ral English translations, but the one in high- 
 est esteem is by Moore. 
 
 ANARIA, G. L., a noble Calabrian cos- 
 mographer, born iu 15C1 ; author of a cele- 
 brated work on demonology, published at 
 Venice, "apud Aldum," 158'J. 
 
 ANASTASrUS I., emperor of the East, 
 born in Illyrieuni, 430, and died, 518. He 
 was elevated to the throne in 491. 
 
 ANASTASIIJS II., raised to the throne 
 of Constantinople from the condition of se- 
 cretary, 713, was a man of learning, and a 
 zealous Catholic, yet he did not neglect the 
 defence of the empire, then threatened by 
 the Saracens. He was put to death by Leo, 
 who had usurped the crown, 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., pope, a Roman, suc- 
 ceeded Siricius in 328, and died, 402. His 
 epistle to John, bishop of Jerusalem, who 
 had written to him in behalf of Rullinus, a 
 presbyter of Aquileia, is extant, together 
 with Ruffinus' apology. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., son of a Roman citi- 
 zen, succeeded pope Gelasius in 49C, and died 
 iu 498. 
 
 ANASTASIUS in., a Roman by birth, 
 was raised to the papal chair, after Sergius, 
 911, and died two years aftei-wards. 
 
 ANASTASIUS IV. succeeded Eugcnius 
 III., IIXJ, and died the following year. Ten 
 letters of this pope are preserved in the Col- 
 lections of Councils by Labbe and Harduin, 
 and in Du Chesne's History of France. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, Tueopoijxanus, bishop 
 of Antioch in the Gth century, banished by 
 Justin the Younger for holding the opinion 
 that the body of Christ was incapable of 
 suffering even before the resurrection. He 
 was afterwards restored to his see by Mau- 
 ritius, and died, 099. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, called Bibliotiieca- 
 nius, a Roman abbot, of Greek origin, of 
 the 9th century ; author of " Liber Pontift- 
 calis." He was principal librarian in the 
 Vatican. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple, who contended against pope Leo for 
 the equalit V of the two churches. Died, 458. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, of Clazomena:, a cele- 
 brated philosopher, born b. c. 500. He in- 
 herited a considerable estate in his own 
 country, which he relinquished to indulge his 
 tliirst for knowledge at Athens, where he 
 applied to the study of poetry and eloquence, 
 and taught philosophy, having had among 
 his pupils Euripides, the tragedian, and Peri- 
 cles, the orator. His reputation, however, 
 created him enemies, and he was condemned 
 to death on a charge of atheism, but the 
 sentence was commuted into banishment. 
 Anaxagoras then withdrew to Lampsacus, 
 where he taught philosophy undisturbed 
 until his death, which happened iu liis 72d 
 year, B.C. 428. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, a Greek comic poet, 
 said to have been the first who introduced 
 love adventures on the stage. He was a na- 
 tive of Rhodes, and starved to death at Athens 
 for libelling the government, B.C. 400. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS, a Grecian philosopher of 
 the Eleatic sect of Leucippus. He was the 
 friend and companion of Alexander the 
 Great, whom he accompanied on his Asiatic 
 
 expedition, and who admitted him to great 
 freedom. 
 
 AN AXIMANDER, the friend and disciple 
 of Thales, of Miletus, born, B.C. 010. He had 
 a considerable knowledge of astronomy and 
 geography, and was the first who noticed the 
 obliquity' of the ecliptic : he also taught that 
 the moon receives her light from the sun, and 
 that the eartli is globular : and to him is as- 
 scribed the invention of the sphere and geo- 
 graphical charts. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, the pupil and successor 
 of Anaximander. He maintained that airis 
 the first principle of all things ; and Pliny 
 attributes to him the invention of the sun- 
 dial, 
 
 ANAXIJfENES, of Lampsacus, a Greek 
 historian and philosopher, son of Aristocles. 
 He was one of the preceptors of Alexander 
 the Great, whom he accompanied in most of 
 his campaigns, and afterwards wrote the 
 history of his reign, and that of his father 
 Philip. 
 
 ANCHIETA, Jos., a Portuguese Jesnit, 
 surnamed the Apostle of the New World ; 
 born at Teneriffe, 1538, and died, ir,m. At 
 the age of 28, he went to Brazil, where he 
 founded the first college for the conversion 
 of the savage natives. 
 
 ANCHVVITZ, N., theCracovian nuncio to 
 the Polish Diet ; a man as talented as base ; 
 who sold Poland to Russia and her parti- 
 tionary colleagues, in 1782, and was hanged 
 the year after, in an insurrection of Ihe 
 people. 
 
 ANCILLON, J. P. P., a celebrated histo- 
 rian, born in 17f!(5 ; author of " Tableau des 
 Revolutions du SystCme Politique," &c. 
 
 ANCILLON, David, a learned French 
 divine, bom at Metz, 1017, and died, 1092. 
 On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he 
 retired from Meaux, of which he had been 
 for some time the pastor, to Frankfort, and 
 thence to Hanau, where he attained to great 
 celebrity by his theological writings and dis- 
 coveries ; and he afterwards accepted a situ- 
 ation in the French church at Berlin. His 
 eldest son, Charles Aneillon, obtained through 
 his influence the office of historiographer to 
 the king of Prussia, and was afterwards made 
 inspector of the French courts of justice. He 
 was a man of much general reading, wrote 
 several treatises, &c., and died, 1715. 
 
 ANCKARSTROEM, or ANKARSTROM, 
 JoH.v James, a Swedish military oflficer, who 
 assassinated king Gustavus III. at a masked 
 ball ; for which crime he was scourged on 
 three successive days, had his right hand cut 
 off, and was then decapitated. Born, 1758 ; 
 executed, 1792. 
 
 ANCONA, Cyriaco d', an Italian anti- 
 quary, collector of inscriptions, and author 
 of " Itinerariuni Illyricum ;" born in 1420. 
 
 ANCOURT, Floiient Cautox d', a cele- 
 brated French actor and dramatic writer, 
 born at Fontainebleau, ICOl, and died, 172G. 
 He was educated in the Jesuits' College at 
 Paris, and was admitted an advocate at the 
 age of 17 ; but, falling in love with an actress, 
 he married her, went upon the stage, and 
 began to write for the theatres. Retiring from 
 this employment in 1718, to his estate in 
 Berry, he applied himself almost wholly to 
 devotion, and composed a translation of the 
 
ANC] 
 
 ^ ^cU) ^uibtr^al 23t05VflpTji). 
 
 [and 
 
 Psalms in verse, and a sacred tragedy. He 
 was tlie author of ,'>2 dramatic pieces, of wliicli 
 about one lialf still keep the stage. 
 
 ANGUS MARTIUS, fourth king of Rome, 
 elected on the death of Tullus Ilostilius, B.C. 
 (534. During his reign, Rome was enlarged 
 by taking in the walls of the Aventine Hill, 
 and occupying the hill Janiculum, beyond 
 the Tiber. lie also built the bridge called 
 Sublicius, erected a public prison in the fo- 
 rum, extended the territories of Rome quite 
 to the sea, and built the town and port of 
 Ostia, at tlie mouth of the Tiber. Aucus died 
 after a prosperous reign of 2-i years. 
 
 AJSDERSON, AuAM, a native of Scotland, 
 was for many years a managing clerk in the 
 South-Sea House, a trustee for the settle- 
 ments in Georgia, and in the court of the 
 Scotch corporation in London. He wrote a 
 work on the Historical and Chronological 
 Deduction of Trade and Commerce ; aud 
 died, ]7<i.">, aged 75. 
 
 ANDERSON, Alexander, an eminent 
 scholar of the 17th century, born at Aberdeen, 
 and afterwards i)rofe8Sor of mathematics at 
 Paris ; author of various treatises principally 
 connected with his favourite science. 
 
 ANDERSON, Sir Edmund, lord chief 
 justice of the Common Pleas under queen 
 Elizabeth, to which situation he wa« pro- 
 moted in 1.W2. He sat on the trials of the 
 unfortunate Mary, queen of Scots, and of 
 Davidson, the secretary, for issuing the 
 warrant under which she was executed. 
 Anderson's Reports, folio, 1C44, is still a 
 book of authority. He was a native of 
 Lincolnshire, and died, 1(105. 
 
 yVNDERSON, (lEoitciE, a native of Tun- 
 dern, Slcswick. During 1644, and the six 
 following years, he spent his time in tra- 
 velling through the East, and visited the 
 Arabias, Persia, India, China, the Japanese 
 Islands, Tartary, and the Holy Land. The 
 Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, on his return, 
 having vainly endeavoured to induce him 
 to commit his adventures to writing, em- 
 ployed his librarian, Olearius, to take down 
 the account from his own mouth as he re- 
 lated them to his highness, the scribe being 
 concealed behind the tapestry of the apart- 
 ment. This work was afterwards published 
 in Sleswick, lOCy. 
 
 ANDI'-RSON, Geokge, a young man of 
 extraordinary talents, born at Weston, 
 linckinghamshire, in 1700, and died, 1796. 
 His parents were peasants, and he worked 
 as a day-labourer in the fields ; his genius, 
 however, overcame every difficulty, and he 
 attained of himself so great a knowledge of 
 the mathematics, as procured him a clerk's 
 place at the Board of Control, and after- 
 wards the situation of accomi)tant-gen. Mr. 
 Anderson published a " General View of the 
 Affairs of the East India Company, since 
 the conclusion of the War in 1784 ; " and 
 translated from the Greek of Archimedes, 
 " Arenarius, or a Treatise on munbcring 
 the Sand." 
 
 ANDERSON, James, an advocate at the 
 Scottish bar, eminent for his learning and 
 antiijuarian research, born at Edinburgh, 
 1662, and died, 1798, through an apoplectic 
 stroke. His first work, " An Essay, proving 
 the Independence of the Crown of Scotland, 
 
 published 170.5, procured him the thanks of 
 the Scottish parliament, imder whose aus- 
 pices he subsequently produced a series of 
 the " Charters and Seals of the Scottish 
 Monarchs from the earliest Antiquity down 
 to the Union with England." But tlie book 
 which gained him the greatest reputation 
 was, " Selectus Diplomatum etNumismatum 
 Scotiae Thesaurus." 
 
 ANDERSON, James, a Scottish miscel- 
 laneous writer, bom at Ilemnston, near 
 Edinburgh, 1739, and died, 1808. He pub- 
 lished a series of "Essays ou Planting," 
 which procured him much reputation as an 
 agriculturist ; and, in 1780, the university of 
 Alierdeen conferred on him the degree of 
 LL.D. In 178.3, he removed to Edinburgh, 
 and projected the establishment of the North 
 British Eisheries ; for which purpose he was 
 employed by government to survey the coast 
 of Scotland, and received great commenda- 
 tion for his services. Dr. Anderson was the 
 author of a number of publications chiefly 
 on agricultural affairs ; he also wrote for the 
 Encyclopaedia Britaunica, and was a monthly 
 reviewer. 
 
 ANDERSON, Joii.v, F. R.S., professor of 
 natural philosophy in the university of 
 Glasgow, and founder of tlie useful institu- 
 tion in that city bearing his name, was l)orn 
 in 1726, at Roseneath, in Dumbartonshire. 
 His great characteristic was an ardent desire 
 for the instruction of his fellow-men, and he 
 was indefatigable in studying and exempli- 
 fying the application of science to mechanical 
 practice ; for which purpose, in addition to 
 his academical labours, he taught his anti- 
 toga-dass, as he called it, twice every week, 
 during the session, to the end of his life. He 
 died in 1796, directing by his will that the 
 whole of liis proi)erty should be devoted to 
 the establishment of an educational insti- 
 tution in Glasgow, to be denominated An- 
 derson's University, for the use of the un- 
 academical classes j which may justly be 
 considered as the parent of the various 
 Mechanics' Institutions which have of late 
 years arisen throughout the country. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, son of a merchant 
 at Hamburgh, of which city he himself be- 
 came principal magistrate in 1725. He was 
 employed in various negotiations to different 
 Eurojjean courts ; and during his residence 
 there, he cultivated an acquaintance with 
 all whom he found distinguished for their 
 literary attainments, and kept up a volumin- 
 ous correspondence with them after his re- 
 turn. He died, 1743, aged 79. His principal 
 work is, " The Natural History of Greenland, 
 Davis's Straits, and the Countries situated 
 in the Arctic Circle." 
 
 ANDERSON, Lawrence, one of the chief 
 promoters of the reformation of religion in 
 Sweden. He was chancellor to Gustavus 
 ^asa ; but having engaged in a conspiracy, 
 he passed the years of life left to him by the 
 king's clemency, in retirement. Died, 15.")2. 
 
 ANDERSON, Robeist, M. D., a native 
 of Camwath, in Lanarkshire ; author of 
 numerous works, critical and biographical. 
 Of those most highly valued are the follow- 
 ing : — "Lives of the British Poets," in 14 
 vols., published in 1795 ; " Works and Life 
 of Tobias Smollett;" and the "Life of 
 
and] 
 
 ^ ^e&3 Winiiitx^sX ISf0grapT)n. 
 
 AN 
 
 Samuel Johnson." He was the friend and 
 patron of genius wherever it appeared ; to 
 him Campbell dedicated his "Pleasures of 
 Hope," as it was chiefly owing to him that 
 tliat matchless poem was first brought before 
 the world. Died, 1830. 
 
 ANDOCIDES, one of the ten Greek ora- 
 tors, whose lives are written by Plutarch ; 
 he flourished, B.C. 4G8. 
 
 ANDRE', C. C, a laborious German au- 
 thor; born in 1763; editor of the "Com- 
 pendiose Bibliothek," 1789 ; and many 
 works on history, botany, mineralogy, and 
 geology. 
 
 ANDKE', J., born in 1741 ; one of the most 
 celebrated German composers. Died, 1800. 
 His son, J. A., was the first to employ litho- 
 graphy to the printing of music, 1801. 
 
 ANDRE', B., an ex -Jesuit, born in 174.5 ; 
 editor of "Gazette Literaire de Wurtz- 
 bur^," and author of many works, chiefly 
 Latin, on Pedagogy, &c. &c. 
 
 ANDRE', John, a major in the British 
 service in the American war ; who, being 
 led to offer liis services to negotiate between 
 the noted General Arnold and general Sir 
 Ileniy Clinton, was taken ijrisoner by the 
 Americans witliin their lines ; and, owing to 
 his disguise and the nature of his mission, 
 was tried and executed as a spy, Oct. 2. 
 1780. On going to the place of execution, 
 he said, with concern, "Must I die in this 
 manner?" Being told it was unavoidable, 
 he replied, " I am reconciled to my fate, 
 but not to the mode ; it will, however, be but 
 a momentary pang." His fortitude ex- 
 cited the admiration, and melted the hearts 
 of all the spectators. When asked if he 
 had anything to say, he replied, "Nothing, 
 but to request that you will witness to the 
 world that I die like a brave man." A 
 monument is erected to liim in Westminster 
 Abbev. 
 
 ANDRE', Y'vES Mahi, a French Jesuit, 
 and professor of mathematics at Caen ; au- 
 tlior of "Traiti5 sur TUomme," &c. Born, 
 1075 ; died, 1704. 
 
 ANDREA, Caval Caxti, a noble Italian, 
 and voluminous author, remarkable for the 
 copiousness and elegance of his style. He 
 died in 1072, and left a collection of novels, 
 an Italian biograijhy, and many minor 
 poems. 
 
 ANDREA, Cecciiexi, a Tuscan ; author 
 of " Troja Distrutta," a tragedy, and se- 
 veral minor pieces, published in 1063. 
 
 ANDREA, SALVADoni, a Tuscan poet, 
 born about 1600 ; left three volumes of co- 
 medies, masks, operas, and poems — " II 
 JMedoro," " La Flora," " Le Fonti di Ar- 
 denna," &c. 
 
 ANDREADA, Ferdinaxo, a Portuguese 
 admiral, who, in 1518, commanded the first 
 European fleet that ever visited the coast of 
 China. 
 
 ANDREyE, Joiix Gerhard REixnAKD, 
 an ingenious naturalist of Hanover, born, 
 1724, and died, 1793. He published a " Tour 
 in Switzerland," and a "Treatise on the 
 several kinds of Earth in Hanover." 
 
 ANDREAS, James, a German reformer, 
 born at Wirtemberg, 1528, and died, 1590. 
 He was at the diets of Ilatisbon and Augs- 
 burg ; secretary at the conference of Worms ; 
 
 and afterwards made chancellor and rector 
 of the university of Tubingen. 
 
 ANDREAS, JouN, bishop of Aleria, in 
 Corsica, born, 1417, and C.-ied, 1475. He was 
 a zealous promoter of the art of printing, 
 and superintended the impressions of several 
 classical works at Rome. 
 
 ANDREINI, Feancis, a celebrated comic 
 writer of Pistoia ; autlior of " Le Bravure 
 del Capitano Spavento," &c. Died, 1616. 
 
 ANDREINI, Isabella, wife of the pre- 
 ceding, was a celebrated and beautiful im- 
 provisatore, comedian, and comic writer. 
 She displayed great precocity of genius, was 
 well versed in i)hilosophy and languages, 
 sang and played with exquisite taste, and 
 was of irreproachable morals. Born at Pa- 
 dua, in 1562 ; died at Lyons, in 1G04. 
 
 ANDREINI, John Baptist, son of 
 Francis ; and author of several dramas and 
 poems, among which is " L'Adamo," a 
 mystery, which suggested (as it is said) to 
 ^Milton, while at Milan, his Paradise Lost. 
 
 ANDRELINI, Public Fekto, a native of 
 Italy, poet laureat to Louis XII., of France, 
 and professor of poetry and philosophy in 
 the universitv of Paris. Died, 1518. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Francis, an eminent 
 French engineer and mathematician, was 
 born at Paris, in 16;33. He assisted Riquet 
 in forming the canal of Languedoc, the sole 
 merit of which stupendous work has been 
 uujustlj' claimed for him. Died, 1688. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, Anthony Fraxcls, Count, 
 a distinguislied French military officer and 
 engineer, and eminent also as a diplomatist, 
 was descended from the subject of the pre- 
 ceding article, and born in Languedoc, 1761. 
 He was a lieutenant of artillery at twenty ; 
 served with distinction in Italy and Egypt ; ^ 
 and had reached the rank of inspector- \ 
 general of the artillery when Napoleon as- i 
 cended the throne. He was successively 1 
 ambassador to London, Vienna, and Con- ' 
 stautinople ; and received many marks of 
 the imperial favour. On the restoration of 
 Louis XVIII. in 1814, Andreossi was recalled ; 
 from his embassy to the Porte, and pre- ' 
 scnted with the cross of St. Louis : but on | 
 the return of Napoleon from Elba, he again j 
 attached Iiimself to his old master ; and was | 
 one of the commissioners chosen to treat j 
 with the allies by the provisional govern- 
 ment. He wrote " Histoire Gi.'n($rale du 
 Canal du Midi ; " the " Campaign of the 
 Gallo-Batavian Army on the Maine and Rcd- 
 nitz," &c. Died, 1828. 
 
 ANDREOZZI, G., one of the most cele- 
 brated composers of Italy. Born, 1767. 
 
 ANDRES, Don Juan, a Spanish author, 
 celebrated in the controversy respecting the 
 Amalfian origin of the mariner's compass ; 
 author of a work on the " Origin of Letters," 
 in Italian, and of another in Spanish, en- 
 titled " Cartas Familiares a se Hermano." 
 
 ANDRES DES VOSGES, J. F., born in 
 1744; author of " Le Tartarc," "Paris," 
 and many translations from English works. 
 
 ANDREW, John, a learned bishop of j 
 Aleria, in Corsica ; and editor of the works j 
 of Herodotus, Livy, and other classics. He , 
 died, 1493. | 
 
 ANDREW, bishop of Crete, bom at Da- | 
 mascus, and died about 720. He wrote com- 
 
and] 
 
 ^ ^cto Winibtv^&l iStograiJlbJ?* 
 
 [anp 
 
 mentnries on the Scrixitures, &c., published 
 at Paris, 1044. 
 
 ANDREW, of Ratisbon, an historian of 
 the 15th century, wlio wrote a chronicle of 
 the dukes of Bavaria, and a liistory of 
 Bohemia. 
 
 ANDREW, of risa, a sculptor and ar- 
 chitect, bom in 1270, and died in l.'Mo. He 
 built several grand structures at Florence 
 and Venice, and also obtained great reiJU- 
 tation as a painter, poet, and musician. 
 
 ANDREW, of Cyrene, an imijostor who, 
 in the reign of Trajan, had the art to de- 
 ceive his Icllow-countrynien, the Jews, into 
 a lielief that he was ordained to be their 
 liberator. They accordingly revolted, and 
 horrible cruelties were committed on both 
 sides l(cforc they were reduced to obedience. 
 
 ANDREWS, IlEMtY, a self-taught ma- 
 thematician, born of poor parents iit Fries- 
 ton, near Grantham, 1744, and died, Jan. 
 26. 182(>. Having, while in a menial em- 
 ployment, occupied his leisure moments in 
 the study of astronomical science, he at- 
 tained tlierein great proficiency, and for 
 more than 40 years was a computer of the 
 Nautical Eiihcmeris, and the calculator of 
 Moore's Almanack. 
 
 ANDREWS, Jajiks Pettit, an English 
 miscellaneous writer, youngest son of Jo- 
 seph Andrews, Esq., of Newbury, Berks, 
 where he was born, 1737, and died at Bromp- 
 ton, 171(7. He received a private education, 
 and was earlj' distinguished by an attach- 
 ment to literature and the fine arts, to the 
 former of which he may be said to have been 
 professionally attached until his death. 
 
 ANDREWS, Lancklot, an eminent En- 
 lish divine, bishop of Winchester in the 
 reigns of James I. and Charles I., born in 
 I>ondon, irAu't ; died at Winchester House, 
 Southwark, l(>2(i, and buried in the church 
 of St. Saviour, in which an elegant monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory. 
 
 ANDREWS, Milks Pktkr, a dramatic 
 writer, son of a merchant in the city of 
 London, in whose coiuiting-house he was 
 brought up ; but having a decided turn for 
 theatrical amusements, and coming into a 
 considerable fortune by the death of an elder 
 brother, he bade adieu to mercantile pursuits, 
 and amused himself by writing for the stage. 
 He died suddenly in 1814. 
 
 ANDRIEU, BERTiiAxn, a mcdallic en- 
 graver, born at Bordeaux, 17f)l, and died at 
 Paris, 1822 ; considered as the restorer of the 
 art of engraving medals, which had declined 
 after the reign of Eouis XIV. 
 
 ANDRIEUX, F. G. T. S., a clever and 
 voluminous French author, dramatist, poet, 
 and politician, born in 17.'>.5. He was mem- 
 ber of the legislative assembly in 1798 ; op- 
 posed to arbitrary power, he advocated 
 warmly the liberty of the press and the sys- 
 tem of "Ecoles Primaires." He was one 
 of the projectors and chief contributors of 
 the " Decade Pliilosophirjue," and was an 
 active member of the Institute and tl-.e 
 Academic Francalse. Among his dramatic 
 pieces are " Anaximander," " I-es Etour- 
 dis," "Le Vieux Fat," and " Ee Jeune 
 Homme fi I'Epreuve," &c. &c. 
 
 AKDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, 
 who, pretending to be the son of Perseus, 
 
 the last king of Macedonia, took the name 
 of Philip, and was called Pscudo-Philippus. 
 Having obtained a signal victory over Ju- 
 ventus, the Roman prajtor, he assumed the 
 kingly power ; but in the end was conquered, 
 and served to grace the triumph of Melellus, 
 before whom he walked in chains. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, of Crete, physician to 
 Nero ; he wrote, in elegiac verse, a descrip- 
 tion of the Theriaca, a medicine which he 
 invented, and dedicated it to the emperor. 
 
 ANDRONICITS. of Cyrestlies, a Greek 
 architect, who built the famous octagonal 
 temple of the winds, at Athens, which, till 
 lately, was used as a mosque by the Turks. 
 He is also said to be the inventor of the 
 weathercock. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Livius. the oldest dra- 
 matic author in the Latin language, who 
 flourished about 240 years b. c. Nearly all 
 his works are lost. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, of Rhodes, a follower of 
 Aristotle, and to whom we are indebted for 
 restoring and publishing the works of that 
 philosopher. li. c. 03. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, of Thessalonica, a learned 
 Greek of the I'lth century, whose reputation 
 was great at Rome and Florence, where he 
 taught. Died, 1478. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I., emperor of the East, 
 was the son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexis 
 Comnenus. He was of an active martial mind, 
 and eloquent ; but had many vices. On 
 the death of his cousin, the emperor !Manuel, 
 in 1103, he was chosen partner in the govern- 
 ment with Alexis XL, who, being a mere 
 youth, soon fell a sacrifice to his coadjutor's 
 thirst of power ; but the people, exasperated 
 at his various cruelties, proclaimed Isaac 
 Angelus emperor, put out the eyes of An- 
 dronicus, led him through the streets in 
 derision, and at length stabbed him, aged 73, 
 A. D. 1185. 
 
 ANDRONICUS PAL^OLOGUS n.,sur- 
 named the Elder, succeeded Michael VIII., 
 in 128.3 ; but Wiis glad to find refuge in a 
 cloister, in 1325, his grandson having driven 
 him from the throne. 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, James, an 
 eminent French architect of the 10th cen- 
 tury, who designed the Pont Ncuf, and com- 
 menced the building of it in imH. He was 
 also employed, in 1590, to continue the gal- 
 lery of the Louvre ; but was obliged to quit 
 France during the persecution of the Pro- 
 testants, and no further account of him is on 
 record. 
 
 ANDRY, Nicholas, a physician and me- 
 dical author, of Lyons, in the 17th century ; 
 afterwards dean of the faculty of medicine 
 in the royal college of Paris, where he also 
 filled a pi'ofessor's cliair. He died in 1742. 
 
 ANEURIN, a British poet and chieftain 
 of the 0th century, supposed by some authors j 
 to be the same m ith Gildas, the historian : j 
 he took a part in the battle of Cattraetli, 
 which he made the subject of a poem ; this, 
 and " Odes of the Months," form the whole I 
 of his known works ; and are to be found in I 
 the Welsh Archaiology. Died, 570. i 
 
 ANFOSSI, Pasquale, an Italian musi- I 
 cian, born at Naples, 1736 ; died, 1795. He I 
 was composer to the theatre at Rome, and 
 afterwards travelled to Paris, where he pre- I 
 
ang] 
 
 ^ i^tbi WiniiitvSKl 25t05rap!ji?. 
 
 [ani 
 
 sentcd to the Academy of Music his " In- 
 counue," adapted to Freuch words. 
 
 ANGELI, BoNAVicNTUKA, a celebrated 
 historian, of Parma ; died in 1576. 
 
 ANGELI, Peteh, a distinguished modem 
 Latin poet ; born at Barga, Tuscany, 1517 ; 
 died at Pisa, 1596. 
 
 ANGELICO, John, an Italian painter ; a 
 Dominican ; he painted the chapel of Ni- 
 cholas v., who offered liim the archbishopric 
 of Florence, whicli he refused. Died, 1448. 
 
 ANGELIS, Stephen de, an Italian ma- 
 thematician ; he was for some time a Jesuit, 
 but quitted the order, and became a teacher 
 of matliematics at Padua, where he died at 
 the close of the 17th century. 
 
 ANGELO, FiORiozzoLA, a Florentine 
 poet, honoured by Clement Vlllh's friend- 
 ship, and much esteemed ; died in Rome, 
 1548 : author of " Discorso degli Animali," 
 " I Lucidi," and " La Trinuzzia," comedies, 
 and a great variety of other works. lie is 
 chiefly admired by liis countrymen for the 
 purity and beauty of his diction. 
 
 ANGELO, PoLiciANO, born in 1454 ; au- 
 thor of numerous works, in prose and 
 verse, translations from Greek and Latin ; 
 " llusticus," " Orfeo Favola," &c. 
 
 ANGELO, MicuAEL ue Buoxarotti, the 
 descendant of a noble but reduced family in 
 Tuscany, was born, in 1474, in the territory 
 of Arezzo. He was endowed with extraordi- 
 nary abilities, being incomparable as a 
 painter, sculptor, and architect ; wliile as a 
 poet he was far above mediocrity. To record 
 his great acliievements here would be impos- 
 sible. As a designer he is allowed to be 
 without an equal, and his knowledge of ana- 
 tomy was perfection itself. Many of the 
 most splendid edifices in Italy owe their 
 existence to his masterly hand ; and as a 
 painter, in his delineation of the grand and 
 the terrible he has never been equalled. After 
 a life of glory, speut in the most exalted 
 pursuits, he died, immensely rich, at Rome, 
 1564, and was there buried ; but the Grand- 
 duke of Tuscany had his body remo^•ed 
 to Florence, and re-interred with princely 
 honours. Sir Joshua Reynolds, in a dis- 
 course to tlie students of the Royal Academy 
 in 1790, speaking of Alichael Angelo, em- 
 phatically exclaimed — "to kiss the hem of 
 his garment, to catch the slightest of his 
 perfections, would be glory and distinction 
 enough for an ambitious man ! " 
 
 ANGELONI, Francesco, an Italian his- 
 torian, born at Terni, and died at Rome, 
 1652 ; principally known by an elaborate 
 work, published in 1685, on the history of 
 Rome, which he illustrated by a reference 
 to ancient medals. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, Theodoke, an Italian poet 
 and physician, who held a professorship at 
 Padua, was a member of the Academy at 
 Venice, and principal physician at Montag- 
 nana, where he died, 1600. 
 
 ANGELUS, CuKiSTOPHER, a Greek, who, 
 being driven from his own country by the 
 Turks, found an asylum in England in 1608; 
 and, under the patronage of the Bishop of 
 Norwich, he was placed in Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, whence he remoA'ed to Baliol 
 College, Oxford, where he was of great ser- 
 vice to the junior students, and where he 
 
 died, 1638. He puhlislied many works in 
 Greek, English, and Latin. 
 
 ANGERSTEIN, John Julius, a distin- 
 guished patron of the fine arts, bom at St. 
 Petersburgh, 1735 ; died at Blackheath, Jan. 
 22. 1822. He came over to England under 
 the patronage of the late Andrew Thompson, 
 Esq., with whom he lived in partnership 
 upwards of .50 years. Mr. Angerstein ex- 
 liibited much public spirit on several occa- 
 sions, and was the first who proposed a re- 
 ward of 2000^ from the fund at Lloyd's to 
 the inventor of the life-boats. His cele- 
 brated collection of paintings esteemed in- 
 ferior to none of the same extent in Europe, 
 was purchased by the English government 
 for 60,000?., and forms the nucleus of a 
 national gallery. 
 
 ANGILBERT, St., the son-in-law of 
 Charlemagne, and afterwards abbot of St. 
 Riquier. He had a great taste for poetry, 
 but nothing remains of him except a history 
 of his monastery. He died, 814. 
 
 ANGIOLELLO, John Mario, a Venetian 
 historian of the 15th century, taken captive 
 by the Turks, and made slave to Sultan 
 Mustapha, whom he attended in an expe- 
 dition to Persia, 147;5, and wrote the history 
 of Mahomet II., in tlie Turkish and Italian 
 languages ; also the history of Ussun Cassan. 
 He died about l-'ioO. 
 
 AXGOULEME, Charles de Valois, 
 Duke of, natural son of Charles IX. ; bom, 
 1575 ; and died, 1650. Catherine de Medici 
 bequeathed to him. her estates, but the will 
 was set aside in favour of Margaret de Va- 
 lois. Charles, however, retained the title of 
 count d' Auvergne, and in 1619 was made 
 duke of AngoulOme. He gained great re- 
 putation as a military commander, but was 
 twice charged with treason, and the second 
 time condemned to death, which sentence 
 was changed into perpetual imprisonment. 
 He was, however, once more pardoned, and 
 employed both in a military capacity and 
 in various embassies ; he also wrote his own 
 memoirs. 
 
 ANGUIER, Francis and Michael, two 
 sculptors, natives of Eu, Normandy. Fran- 
 cis, the eldest, was keeper of the royal ca- 
 binet of antiquities, and executed several 
 great works, particularly the mausoleum of 
 the Duke of Montmorency. Michael's best 
 piece was a crucifix over the altar of the 
 church of the Sorbonne. The former died, 
 1669 ; the latter, 1686. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, GiovANNE hell', one of 
 the most esteemed modern Italian poets, 
 born in 1517 ; author of " Edipo, Tragedia." 
 His translations of the " Euclid " and 
 " Metamorphoses " are standard Italian 
 works. 
 
 ANGUISCIOLA, SornoNisBA, a famous 
 Cremonese painter, born in 1550. Her style 
 as an author is said to have been as ad- 
 mirable as her paintings. 
 
 ANICII, Peter, a native of Inspruck, son 
 of a labourer, born, 172.3, and died, 1766. 
 His early genius being discovered by Father 
 Hill, a Jesuit, he gave him instructions, and 
 in a short time he became an able astrono- 
 mer and mechanic, and constructed various 
 mathematical instruments. 
 
 ANICHINI, Lev.13, a celebrated me- 
 
 42 
 
I ANN] 
 
 ^ i2ci» ^Kniberjial 33{0sraplj^. 
 
 [ansI 
 
 dalHst. nis chief work is a medal repre- 
 senting the interview of Alexander the 
 Great and the High Priest at Jerusalem, 
 which Michael Angelo pronounced to be the 
 perfection of the art. 
 
 ANNA COMNENA, was the daughter of 
 the emperor Alexius Comnenus I., at wliose 
 death she conspired to place the crown on 
 the head of lier husband, Nicephorus Bri- 
 ennius, but without success. She then 
 turned her attention to literary pursuits, and 
 wrote the " Alexiad," a history of her father's 
 reign. Died, 1148. 
 
 ANNA IVANOWNA, empress of all tlie 
 Russias, daughter of the czar Ivan Alexio- 
 witcli ; born, 1G1»3 ; succeeded to the crown 
 on the death of Peter II., 1730 ; and died, 
 1740. During her reign, Russia was on a 
 peaceable footing with all her neighbours, 
 without engaging in any of their quarrels, 
 except a war witli the Ottoman Porte in 1737. 
 
 ANNE, of Austria, queen of France, eldest 
 daughter of Philip III. of Spain; born, 1(!04; 
 married to Louis XIII. of France, Kilo, at 
 whose death, 1(>43, slie was declared sole 
 regent during the minority of her son, Louis 
 XIV., who assumed the reins of govern- 
 ment, 10(51. Anne then retired, passing the 
 renminder of her life in pious exercbes, and 
 died in KJCil. 
 
 ANNE, of Beanjeu, daughter of Louis XI. 
 of France, and wife of Peter Beaujeu, duke 
 of Bourbon ; appointed by her father's will 
 gouvemante during the minority of his son, 
 Charles VIII. This preference excited a 
 civil commotion, which was terminated by 
 the defeat of the insurgent nobles, 14S8. 
 The princess held the reins with much 
 firmness, and in general acted prudently. 
 She died, l.'-)22. 
 
 ANNE, of Brittany, queen of France, 
 daughter and heiress of Francis II., duke of 
 Brittany ; born, 147(! ; married to Charles 
 VIII., of France, 1491 ; and, on his death, 
 lliiit, to Louis XII. ; and died, 1,'.14. This 
 princess first instituted the order of maids of 
 honour to the queen, first had the prerogative 
 of guards and gentlemen of her own, and was 
 the first who gave audience to foreign am- 
 bassadors. 
 
 ANNE, of Cleves, daughter of John, third 
 duke of Cleves, and wife of Henry VIII. of 
 England, who divorced her. Died, 1557. 
 
 ANNE, queen of Great Britain, second 
 daughter oi'.Jamcs II., by his first wife, Anne 
 Hyde, was born in 1(W4 ; married to Prince 
 George of Denmark, h>H?, ; succeeded to the 
 crown on the death of William III., 1702 ; 
 and died, 1714, aged 50. T)ie contention of 
 parties during the reign of Anne was ex- 
 tremely violent, in consequence of the hopes 
 entertained by the Jacobites that she would 
 be induced by natural feelings to favour the 
 succession of her brother, the Pretender. 
 Her reign was also much distinguished for 
 learning ; and the number of eminent writers 
 who flourished under her, several of whom 
 rose to high stations, has rendered it a sort 
 of Augustan age of English literature, though 
 neither her own disposition or acquirements 
 had any share in making it such. 
 
 ANNESLEY, Aktiiuk, earl of Anglesea, 
 and lord privy seal in the reign of Charles 
 II. ; born at Dublin, 1614 ; and died, 1C86. 
 
 At the commencement of the civil wars he 
 Joined the royal party, and sat in the par- 
 liament at Oxford, 1643 ; but having made 
 peace with the republicans, he was sent com- 
 missioner to Ulster, 1C45. He, however, took 
 an active part in the restoration of the king, 
 for which he was created earl of Anglesea, 
 made treasurer of the navy, and, shortly 
 afterwards, lord privy seal. 
 
 ANNESLEY, Samuei,, an English divine, 
 bom in Warwickslure about 1020 ; died, 1696. 
 At the time of the rebellion, he preached 
 some violent sermons against the crown and 
 churcli, for which he received the vicarage 
 of St. Giles, Cripplegate ; but. in 1002, he 
 was ejected from it for nonconformity. 
 
 ANNETT, Petek, a deistical writer of 
 the 18th century ; author of "The Free En- 
 quirer," and other works of a sceptical turn. 
 He was a native of Liverpool, and died, 1778. 
 
 ANNIUS, of Viterbo, a Dominican monk, 
 who wrote various books which he pretended 
 were the remains of eminent ancient authors, 
 particularly Manetho, Archilochus, and 
 Xenophon. For a time the Imposture suc- 
 ceeded, and they were priuted in 1498. Au- 
 uius died at Rome, 1502. 
 
 ANNO, archbishoj) of Cologne in the lltli 
 century. He was chancellor to the emperor 
 Henry III., and regent during the minority 
 of Henry IV. ; and from the exemplary 
 conduct he displayed in tliose situations, as 
 well as from the sanctity of his life, he ac- 
 quired the title of Saint. 
 
 ANQUETIL, Loris Pierhk, a celebrated 
 historian, born at Paris, 1728 ; died, 1808. 
 Having distinguislied himself as an able 
 teacher of theology and general literature, 
 he was appointed prior of the abbey de la 
 Roe, in Anjou, diiector of the college of 
 Senlis, and prior of Chateau Renard. During 
 the height of the revolution he was thrown 
 into i>rison, where he began his " Universal 
 History," which was afterwards published in 
 twelve volumes. At the formation of the 
 French Institute, Anquetil became one of the 
 original members, and obtained a situation 
 under government. 
 
 ANQUETIL DU PERRGIJT, Abhaiiam 
 Hyacintiie, brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Paris, 1731 ; and died, 1805. In order 
 to gratify his taste for oriental literature, he 
 joined the expedition fitting out for India, 
 in 1574, as a private soldier ; employed every 
 moment of his leisure in the study of the 
 Sanscrit ; and made sufficient progress in 
 tliat tongue to translate the " Vendidade 
 Sade," a dicticmary of the language. On 
 the taking of Pondicherry by tlie English, 
 he retiuned to Europe, visited London and 
 Oxford, and conveyed the various MSS. he 
 had obtained to Paris. He was then ap- 
 pointed oriental interpreter in the king's 
 library, with a pension, and devoted himself 
 to the publication of his researches. 
 
 ANSALDI, C. J., a celebrated suvant, of 
 Piaeenza, born in 1700. His best antiquarian 
 treatises are in Latin. 
 
 ANSART, A.vouEW Joseph, a French 
 historian and ecclesiastical writer ; bom, 
 1723 ; died, 1790. He became a Benedictine, 
 but being appointed to a place of trust in 
 his order, he decamped with the funds, and 
 joined the order of Malta. 
 
JlSS] 
 
 % ^t\xi mnihtxinl %ia^K^\^^, 
 
 [ant 
 
 ANSCARIUS, bishop of Hamburgh and 
 Bremen, born in France, 801 ; died, 8(>4. 
 He preached the gosi^el to the Danes and 
 Swedes, and was very instrumental in con- 
 verting the northern nations to Christianity. 
 
 ANSELM, archbishop of Canterbury in 
 the reigns of William Rufiis and Henry I. ; 
 born at Aost, Piedmont, 10;}3 ; died at Can- 
 terbury, 1109, and canonised in the reign of 
 Henry VII. He was originally a monk, 
 and afterwards superior of the abbey of Bee, 
 Normandy. Visiting England several times 
 during his abbacy, he was called to attend 
 William Rufus in a fit of sickness at Glou- 
 cester, which led to his appointment to the 
 primacy. But ditfereuces arising between 
 the king and the prelate, in consequence of 
 the attachment of the latter to the pope, 
 Anselm left the kingdom, and the king seized 
 liis revenues. On the death of William, he 
 liowever returned to England, and was well 
 received ; but a new rupture arising, in con- 
 sequence of the archbisliop's refusing to be 
 rc-invested bj the king, the dispute was 
 referred to the pope, who decided in favour 
 of Anselm. This was resisted ; and at length 
 the pope made a concession, by allowing the 
 English bishops and abbots to do homage to 
 the king for their temporalities, which re- 
 stored Anselm to favour. 
 
 ANSELME, of Paris, an Augustine monk, 
 bom, 1625 ; died, 1604. He was the original 
 compiler of the Historical Genealogies of the 
 House of France. 
 
 ANSELME, Geokoe. There were two of 
 this name : the elder, a mathematician of 
 some eminence in the early part of the 15th 
 century ; died, 1440. His grandson, who as- 
 sumed the name of Nepos, v.a.s a physician 
 at Parma, of which city he was a native, and 
 died, 1528. 
 
 ANSON, Lord George, a celebrated naval 
 commander, was born at his father's seat in 
 the parish of Colwich, Staffordshire, 1697, 
 and died at Moor Park, Hertfordshire, 1762. 
 He entered early into the navy, and was 
 made post-captain in 1724. Being ordered 
 to tlie South Carolina station, he purchased 
 land, and built a town there, called after his 
 name. In 1739 he was appointed commodore 
 of an expedition against the Spanisli settle- 
 ments in the Pacific Ocean ; and sailed from 
 Portsmouth the following year with five 
 men-of-war, a sloop, and two victuallers ; 
 doubled Cape Horn in March, 1741, after 
 losing two of his ships ; and in June follow- 
 ing arrived otF Juan Fernandez, with only 
 two ships and two tenders. Tliis place he 
 left in September, took some prizes, burnt 
 Paita, and continued on the American coast, 
 in expectation of falling in with the annual 
 Acapulco ship, till May, 1742 ; when, having 
 only his ship, the Centurion, left, he crossed 
 the southern ocean for China, where he 
 stayed several months, and returned in quest 
 of the galleon, which he fell in with, and 
 captured after a smart action. Having sold 
 his prize in China, he sailed for England, 
 i and arrived at Spithead, June 15. 1744, pass- 
 ing in a fog through the midst of a French 
 fleet, then cniising in the Channel. In 1747 
 he commanded the Channel fleet, and cap- 
 tured six French men-of-war, which were 
 convoying a large fleet bound to the East 
 
 and West Indies. Two of these prizes were 
 the Invincible and the Glory, wliich induced 
 the captain of the former to say to the admi- 
 ral, on giving up his sword, " Sir, you have 
 conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows 
 you." For these and other services, he was 
 created a peer, and afterwards made vice- 
 admiral of England. In 1751 he was ap- 
 pointed first lord of the Admiralty, which 
 post he held, excejit for a short interval, 
 until his death. In 1758, he again com- 
 manded the Channel fleet, and was appointed 
 admiral, and commander-in-chief of his ma- 
 jesty's fleets, for the purpose of convej'ing 
 her majesty, queen Charlotte, from Cux- 
 haven to England. 
 
 ANSON, Petkk Hubeut, a miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Paris, 1744 ; died, 1810. 
 
 ANSPACH. Her Serene Highness Eliz- 
 abeth, Margravine of, was the youngest 
 daughter of Augustus, earl of Berkeley. To 
 a good and highly cultivated understanding, 
 this lady joined the most prepossessing man- 
 ners, and a large portion of feminine beauty. 
 When little more than sixteen, lady Eliza- 
 beth married Mr. (afterwards earl of) Cra- 
 ven, by whom she had seven children ; but 
 after living together thirteen years, they 
 separated from mutual feelings of dissatis- 
 faction. Lady Craven made a tour, and took 
 up her residence in the court of Anspach, 
 where she established a theatre, wrote plays, 
 directed the performance, and became a prin- 
 cipal personage with the margrave : the 
 margravine was generally confined to her 
 chamber by ill health, and shortly after died. 
 Lady Craven remained a visitor at Anspach, 
 and accompanied the margrave in his excur- 
 sions to other courts. Six weeks after the 
 death of Lord Craven, his widow married the 
 margrave, and both came to England. The 
 margrave disposed of his principality to the 
 king of Prussia, and having purchased Bran- 
 denburgh House, Hammersmith, it became 
 the scene of fashionable dissipation ; the 
 queen, however, refused to receive the mar- 
 gravine at her drawing-room, and no other 
 influence could obtain her admission to the 
 British court. In 1806 the margrave died, 
 and after that event the margravine resided 
 generally abroad. At Naples the king gave 
 her two acres of ground, on which she erected 
 a handsome villa, and there continued to 
 reside until her death, which took place in 
 1828. 
 
 ANSTEY, Christopher, a poet, was born 
 in 1724; studied at Eton and Cambridge ; 
 and on succeeding to some patrimonial i)ro- 
 perty, resided principally at Bath. He 
 blended the avocations of a country gentle- 
 man with literary pursuits, and, among 
 many other things, produced that humor- 
 ous poem, " The New Bath Guide," which 
 obtained a rapid and deserved popularity. 
 Died, 1805. 
 
 ANSTIS, Jonx, an antiquary, and the 
 author of various heraldic works, was born 
 at St. Neots, Cornwall, in 1669, and educated 
 at Oxford. He was member for St. Germains, 
 and in 1713 appointed garter king at arms. 
 Died, 1744. 
 
 ANTAR, an Arabian chief and distin- 
 guished poet, who lived in the 6th century. 
 His works, which form a portion of the fa- 
 
 44 
 
§( lieto ^nihex^HX aBinsrajl^B. 
 
 [ant 
 
 mous Moallakiih, arc devoted to the descrip- 
 tion of his warlike deeds, and his love for the 
 fair Abla. The celebrated Arabian romance, 
 entitled "Antar," by Asinai, aflbrds a perfect 
 idea of the manners, opinions, and supersti- 
 tions of the early Arabians ; and of this there 
 is an English version, entitled "Antar, a 
 Bedoucen Romance, translated from the 
 Arabic by Terrick IJaniilton," iu 4 vols. 
 12mo. 
 
 ANTIIEMIUS, a Lydian, eminent as an 
 architect, sculptor, and mathematician. He 
 waa employed by the emperor Justiuian ; 
 and died in 53-1. 
 
 ANTIIING, Frkrerick, the companion 
 in arms and biographer of the famous Mar- 
 shal Suwarrow, was born at Ootlia. iu 
 Saxonv, and died at St. Pctersburgh, in 1805. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., the Great, the founder 
 of monastic institutions, was bom a. d. 251, 
 at Coma, iu Ileraclca, a town of Upper Epypt. 
 In 305, having sold all his property and gi\xn 
 the proceeds to the poor, he withdrew into 
 the desert, whither a number of disciples 
 were attracted by his reputation for sanctity; 
 and thus was formed the tirst community of 
 monks. He afterwards went to Alexandria, 
 to seek the honour of martyrdom, amid the 
 persecutions then raging against the Chris- 
 tians ; but as his life was spared, he ogain 
 retired to the desert ; and died at the great 
 age of 105. 
 
 ANTHOXY, of Burgundy, an illegitimate 
 son of Philip, duke of Burgundy. He served 
 with ^reat credit in Switzerland, and against 
 the Moors in Africa ; and was high in the 
 favour of Louis XI. and Charles VIII. of 
 France. Born, 1121 ; died, 1504. 
 
 ANTIGNAC, A., born in 1770 ; a favourite 
 French clntmoimier, charged with celebrat- 
 ing both Bon.aparte and the Bcnrbous. 
 
 ANTIGOXUS, Socii.ris, a Jew, founder 
 of the sect of the Sodducccs, about 300 
 years n. c. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great, and universally sup- 
 posed to be the illegitimate son of Philip, 
 Alexander's father. In the division of the 
 provinces after the king's death, he received 
 Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia ; to which 
 Lycaonia was afterwards added. He was 
 the most powerful of those who shared the 
 Grecian empire, and was the first of them 
 who assumed the title of king, which he did 
 20 years after the death of Alexander. His 
 power at length l)ecfenie so very formidable 
 that a conspiracy was formed against him by 
 Cassander, Lysimaehus, and Seleucus ; by 
 whom he was ultimately defeated, and slain 
 at the battle of Ipsus, b. c. 301. 
 
 ANTIMACO, Mark A-nthovy, a learned 
 Italian author of several Latin poems, and 
 a teacher of Greek at Mantua and Ferrara. 
 He translated much from the Greek, and 
 was a zealous promoter of classical learning. 
 Born, 1472 ; died, 1552. 
 
 ANTINE, Mauk Francois, a French 
 Benedictine monk j author of an essay on 
 the Art of verifying Dates, &c. Born, 1G88 ; 
 died, 1748. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT, king of 
 Syria and Asia. He conquered the greatest 
 part of Greece, of wliich simie cities implored 
 the aid of Rome ; and Hannibal, who had 
 
 taken refuge at his coiu-t, encouraged him to 
 make war against Italy ; but his measures 
 were not agreeable to the advice of Hannibal, 
 and he was conquered and obliged to retire 
 beyond Mount Taurus, and pay a yearly fine 
 of 2000 talents to the Romans. His revenues 
 being unable to pay the fine, lie attempted 
 to plunder the temple of liclus in Susinno, 
 which so incensed the inhabitants, that they 
 killed him with his followers, B.C. 187. 
 
 ANTIOCHl'S, of Ascalon, a philosopher, 
 and disciple of Philo, the Platonist. He was 
 highly esteemed by Cicero for his mode of 
 education, and considered the best public 
 teacher of the Platonic philosophy. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, amonk of Seba, Palestine, 
 who wrote in the 7th century lao homilies on 
 the Scrii)tures, still extant. 
 
 ANTIPATER, a native of Macedon, pupil 
 of Aristotle, and the faithful minister of 
 Philip and Alexander. While Alexander 
 was abroad, he left Antipater in the govern- 
 ment of Macedon ; and by his prudent ma- 
 nagement he kept all Greece in order. On 
 the death of his master, in the distribution 
 of his territories, Antij)ater obtained the 
 European provinces. Not long after the 
 confederate states of Greece attacked liim, 
 but he subdued them, and subverted their 
 democratic forms of government, on which 
 lie was called the father of Greece. He 
 died B.C. 'M^. 
 
 ANTIPATER, L.v.Tiiis C^.Tir.s, a Roman 
 historian, who lived in the time of Gracchus, 
 and wrote an account of the Second Punic 
 War. 
 
 ANTIPATER, of Sidon, a stoic philoso- 
 pher and poet, much jtraiscd by Cicero and 
 Seneca, He lived about 140 is, c, 
 
 ANTIPANES, a Greek comic poet, in the 
 time of Alexander, who gained three prizes 
 at the 0!ymj)ic games. 
 
 ANTIPIIILUS, a painter, rival of Apelles; 
 celebrated for a fine drawing representing a 
 youth blowing a spark of fire. 
 
 ANTIPHON, the Rhamnusian, an Athe- 
 nian orator, who flourished B.C. 430. He 
 was the first who laid down the rules of 
 oratory, and assisted in establishing the ty- 
 ranny of tlie four hundred ; for whicli he was 
 put to death, b.c. 411. 
 
 ANTIQUARIUS,jAMES,alearncd Italian 
 scholar of Cumpanus ; he became chief mi- 
 nister to the dukes of Milan, and died, 1512. 
 
 ANTISTHENES, founder of the sect of 
 the Cynics, by whose means Melilus was put 
 to death, and Anytus banished, for their 
 persecution of Socrates. He was born at 
 Athens, B.C. 42.3. 
 
 ANTOINETTE, Marie, of Lorraine, 
 archduchess of Austria and queen of France, 
 born at Vienna, in 1755, was the daughter of 
 the emperor Francis I. and Maria Theresa. 
 To a beautiful person, and a highly culti- 
 vated mind, she added the charms of gentle- 
 ness and feminine grace ; and when she left 
 Vienna for Versailles, to give lier hand to 
 the son of Louis XV., king of France, after- 
 wards Louis of unhappy memory, the capital 
 of her native land was filled with sorrow. 
 In 1770, when only 15 years of age, she was 
 married ; and when her husband ascended 
 the throne she gained the aftlctions of the 
 people by repeated acts of generosity. It 
 
ant] 
 
 ^ i^t^ Winibtr^al 23i0crrajpT;». 
 
 [ant 
 
 was, however, soon observed that her natural 
 liveliness brouglit upon her tlie s(!andal of 
 her enemies about the court, who attributed 
 the undisguised frankness and cheerfulness 
 of her nature to levity aud indiscretion. An 
 extraordinary occurrence added fuel to tlie 
 flame of calumny, while it subjected the 
 name of the queen to a disgraceful lawsuit. 
 Two jewellers demanded the payment of an 
 immense price for a necklace, which had 
 been purchased in the name of the queen. 
 In the examination which she demanded, it 
 was proved that she had never ordered tlie 
 purchase. A lady of her size and complexion 
 had impudently passed herself off for the 
 queen, and at midnight liad a meeting with 
 a cardinal in the park of Yersaiiles. Not- 
 withstanding this, the enemies of the queen 
 succeeded in casting a stigma on her ; and 
 the credulous and infatuated people laid 
 every public disaster to lier charge. On the 
 5th of October the Parisians rushed to Ver- 
 sailles, and breaking into the castle on the 
 following morning, they murdered several of 
 the body-guards, and uttered against the 
 queen the most furious threats. In the 
 middle of tlie night, a clergyman wrote to 
 her, " Take measures for your preservation ; 
 early in the morning, at 6 o'clock, you are 
 to be murdered." She remained tranquil, 
 and concealed the letter. Tlie infuriated 
 mob rushed into her chamber ; slie fled to the 
 king. To put a stop to the scene of outrage, 
 the king aud queen showed themselves with 
 both their children, in the balcony. This 
 spectacle made a momentary imjiression on 
 the enraged people ; but soon the cry re- 
 sounded from every mouth, " No children ! 
 the queen — the queen alone!" She in- 
 stantly put lier son and daughter into the 
 arms of the king and returned to the balcony. 
 This unexpected courage disarmed the mob; 
 and their threats were followed by sliouts of 
 approbation. But the regicidal mania was 
 now arriving at a fearful height, and those 
 events which in the sequel deluged France 
 with blood, were thickening around tlie royal 
 family with all the fervid gloom of an ap- 
 proaching tempest. At length came the 
 fatal 10th of August, 1792. Prepared for the 
 worst, she exerted all her power to excite the 
 king to meet death sword in hand ; but he 
 thought resistance was in rain, and was led, 
 with his consort, before the legislative as- 
 sembly, where she heard his deposition an- 
 nounced, and then accompanied him to the 
 Temple. There, deprived of every semblance 
 of royalty, and bereft of every comfort, she 
 displayed the magnanimity of a heroine and 
 the patient endurance of a martyr. At 
 length th« Conxeution ordered her to be 
 brought belbre the revolutionary tribunal. 
 She was charged with having dissipated the 
 finances, exhausted the public treasury, cor- 
 responded with the foreign enemies of France, 
 and favoured its domestic foes. To all these 
 charges, and others still more infamous, she 
 replied with firmness and decision, and a 
 just indignation ; and slie heard lier sentence 
 pronounced with perfect calmness. On the 
 following morning, when she ascended the 
 cart which conveyed her to the scaifold, it 
 was observed that grief had distorted her 
 features, and in the damp, unwholesome 
 
 prison, she had almost lost one of her eyes. 
 A deep silence reigned, and the people, be- 
 fore so furious, seemed to be filled with shame 
 and awe. When she reached the top of the 
 scaifold, she threw herself on her knees, ex- 
 claiming, "O God, enlighten and affect my 
 executioner ! Farewell, my children, for 
 ever ; I go to your father ! " Thus perished 
 the lovely Marie Antoinette, in the S8th 
 year of her age, Oct. 16. 1793. 
 
 ANTON, C. Gottlieb, a learned German 
 noble and magistrate, born in 17.51 ; author 
 of a variety of curious philological, histo- 
 rical, and critical works ; among others, a 
 " History of the Ancient Germans ; " " On 
 the Origin of the Sclavonians ; " of the " Or- 
 der of Templars," &c. &c. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Nicholas Maeia, count of 
 Pergola, who rose through various ecclesias- 
 tical promotions to that of cardinal, was 
 bom, 1697, and died, 1767. 
 
 ANTONI, Sebastiano deoli, a Vicen- 
 zan noble author, bom in 1665 ; author of 
 " The Conspiracy of Brutus," a tragedy. 
 
 ANTONIANO, Sylvio, an Italian poet, 
 made a cardinal by Clement VIII., born at 
 Rome, l.'>40 ; died, 1603. 
 
 ANTONIDES, or VANDER GOES, 
 John, a Dutcli poet, bom in Zealand. 1647 ; 
 died, 1684. He is principally known by his 
 poem in honour of the river Y, which flows 
 through Amsterdam ; in which city his 
 works were collected and published, 1714. 
 
 ANTONINE, DE FoKCiGLioNi, a Romish 
 prelate and saint, born at Florence, 1389 ; 
 died, 1459, and canonised 1523. He highly 
 distinguished himself at the Council of Flo- 
 rence, where he disputed with the Greeks. 
 
 ANTONINI. AxNiBAL aud Joseph, two 
 brothers, natives of Italy, in the 17th and 
 18th centuries : they wrote in conjunction 
 the history of Lucania ; and Annibal was 
 the compiler of an Italian grammar and 
 dictionary. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Tixus Aukelhts 
 FuLVius, emperor of Rome, was born at 
 Lanuvium, 86 ; succeeded Adrian, 138 ; and 
 died, 161. His reign was distinguished by 
 tranquillity and by suet °xcellent manage- 
 ment, as procured him tlie title of Pius. 
 
 ANTONINUS, Marcus Annius Auke- 
 Lius, surnamed the Philosopher, bom, 121 ; 
 adopted by Pius Antoninus, whom he suc- 
 ceeded, in conjunction with Lucius Verus, 
 as emperor of Rome ; and died, 180. His 
 death occasioned universal mourning 
 throughout the empire ; the Roman senate 
 and people voted him a god, and his image 
 was long afterwards regarded with peculiar 
 veneration. This emperor's book of medi- 
 tations in Greek and Latin has been often 
 printed, and universally admired for the 
 excellence of its morality. 
 
 ANTONINUS, a geographical author, 
 the writer of a valuable Itinerarium, whose 
 age is unknown. Burton published an ex- 
 cellent commentary on it, as far as relates to 
 Britain. 
 
 ANTONIO or ANTONELLO, bom at 
 Messina, Sicily, 1426 ; died, 1475. He is said 
 to have been the first artist who introduced 
 oil painting into Italy. 
 
 ANTONIO, Nicholas, a Spanish histo- 
 rian, born at Seville, 1617 ; died, 1684. 
 
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 a ^tto WiniheriKl JSiOjjrap]^!). 
 
 [apo 
 
 ANTONTUS, GooEFROV, a celebrated 
 German lawyer, born in Westphalia, and 
 died chancellor of the university of Gicsscu, 
 where also he was a professor of law, 1018. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Makcus, a brave and elo- 
 quent Roman consul, who was afterwards 
 appointed governor of Cilicia, and subse- 
 quently censor. He was one of the greatest 
 orators among the Romans ; and, according 
 to Cicero, it was owing to him that Rome 
 became a rival in eloquence to Greece. He 
 was slain during the disturbances raised by 
 Marias and Cinna, b. c. 07. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Makcits, the celebrated 
 triumvir, born, b. c. 86, was son of Marcus 
 Cretius, by Julia, a lady of the Caisarian 
 family, ot*^ distinguished merit. Anthony, 
 on the death of his father, soon wasted his 
 whole patrimony, then went into Syria, and 
 assisted in the restoration of Ptolemy to the 
 throne of Egypt ; thence he proceeded to 
 join Caisar in Gaul, and on his return to 
 Rome was made quosstor. When Caesar 
 made himself master of that city, he ap- 
 pointed Anthony to the government of Italy, 
 and afterwards master of the horse. An- 
 thony was also the colleague of Cassar in the 
 consulship ; aud, at the death of the latter, 
 strove to get possession of the sovereign 
 power, by ingratiating himself with the peo- 
 ple and the army. In order to check his 
 ambition, the patriots took the part of Octa- 
 vius, the heir of Cicsar ; and Anthony, being 
 defeated in his endeavours to gain Macedonia 
 and S^ria, and also in an attempt upon 
 Cisalpine Gaul, fled to the Alps, and after- 
 wards formed with Lepidus and Octavius 
 the second triumvirate ; to which combina- 
 tion Cicero fell a sacrifice. Anthony was 
 greatly instrumental to the defeat of Brutus 
 and Cassius at Philippl ; he then went into 
 Asia, where he bowed to the all-conquering 
 charms and blandishments of Cleopatra ; 
 and, after his defeat at Actium, put au end 
 to his own existence, B.C. .'iO, aged 60. 
 
 ANTONIUS, iELius Nebkissknsis, a 
 Spanish writer, born ■ at Lebrisa, 1442 ; died, 
 1522. He was an eminent i>rofessor at the 
 university of Salamanca, and wrote the 
 History of New Spain, and other works. 
 
 ANTONY, of Bourbon, son of Charles of 
 Bourbon, duke of Vendome, born 1527 ; mar- 
 ried Joan d'Albrat, queen of Navarre, 1543, 
 who brought him in dowry the principality 
 of Beam, and the title of king of Navarre ; 
 and died from a wound received in the 
 shoulder at the siege of Rouen, 1502. 
 
 ANTONY, St., of Padua, a learned Fran- 
 ciscan monk, was born at Lisbon, 1195 ; died 
 at Padua, 1231 ; and was canonised. His 
 works were printed at the Hague, 1041. 
 
 ANTONY, of Pratovcccliio, Tuscany, an 
 eminent Italian lawyer, in the 15th century. 
 
 ANVAIII, a Persian poet, born at Cho- 
 rasan. He was well versed in astrology, and 
 composed several books on that science ; but 
 having failed in a i)rediction, he retired from 
 the court of the sultan Sangier, and died at 
 Balke in 1200. 
 
 ANYSIUS, or ANISO, Giovasni, an Ita- 
 lian poet of some celebrity, born at Naples, 
 about 1472 ; died 1.54<). 
 
 ANYTA, an ancient Greek poetess, some 
 of whose compositions are preserved in a 
 
 47 
 
 collection of eminent female poets, published 
 at lliiml)iirg, 1734. 
 
 ANYTUS, an Athenian rhetorician, who 
 prevailed on Aristophanes to ridicule Socra- 
 tes in a comedy, and finally, in conjunction 
 with Melitus, procured his condemnation. 
 When the people discovered their error, 
 Anytus was banished, and stoned to death at 
 Hcraclea. 
 
 APACZAT, John, a native of Apatza, 
 Transylvania, who studied the oriental lan- 
 giiapes at Utrecht, and afterwards taught 
 mathematics and natural philosophy in the 
 university of Weissenburg. Died, 1059. 
 
 APEL, or APELLES, Joiix, a German 
 lawyer, and one of the earliest preachers of 
 the Reformation ; born at Nuremburg, 1480, 
 and died there, l.'>36. 
 
 APELBOOM, a Dutch poet of some ce- 
 lebrity, who died about 1780. 
 
 APELLES, the most celebrated among 
 the painters of antiquity, was bom, as Pliny 
 affirms, in the isle of Cos, though other 
 writers name Ephesus as his native place. 
 He lived in the time of Alexander theGreat, 
 who would suffer no other artist to paint his 
 picture. 
 
 APELLES, a native of Syria, in the second 
 century ; the founder of an heretical sect, 
 who denied the prophets, the law of Moses, 
 and the resurrection. 
 
 APELLICON, a peripatetic philosopher, 
 to whom the world is indebted for the works 
 of Aristotle, which he collected and bought 
 at a vast expense, about !K) years B.C. They 
 were afterwards seized by the dictator Sylla, 
 and carried by him to Rome. 
 
 APER, Makcus. a Gaul by birth, and one 
 of the finest orators of the flj-st century : he 
 died about 8.5. 
 
 APHTHONIUS, of Antioch, a rhetorician 
 of the tliird century, who wrote a treatise 
 entitled " Progymnasmata Rhetorica," the 
 best edition of which was published at Am- 
 sterdam, 1045. 
 
 APIAN, Peter, a German mathematician 
 and astronomer, bom in Misnia, 1495 ; died, 
 1589. Ajiian was the first who discovered 
 that the tails of comets are always projected 
 in a direction from the snn, and records his 
 observations upon five which ajipeared in 
 the years 1.531, 1532, 1533, 1538, and 1.539. 
 
 APICIUS, a noted epicure in the reigns of 
 Augustus and Tiberius. It is recorded of 
 him that he spent 2,.5(W,00O/. sterling in pro- 
 viding for the luxuries of his table ; but find- 
 ing his finances reduced to 250,(K)0 crowns, 
 he poisoned himself for fear of starving. 
 There were, however, two other epicures of 
 the same name ; one who lived in the time of 
 Sylla ; and the other, whose extravagance 
 and gluttonous propensities were less enor- 
 mous, contemporary with Trajan. 
 
 APION, a learned grammarian and histo- 
 rian, bom at Oasis, Egypt, in the first cen- 
 tury, and was a professor at Rome in the 
 reign of Tiberius. In his " Antiquities of 
 Egypt," he attacked the Jews, and was an- 
 swered by Josephus. 
 
 APOLI>INARIS, Caius Sulpitius, a na- 
 tive of Carthage, was professor of grammar 
 at Rome in the 2nd century, 
 
 APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, bishop of 
 Ilierapolis, Phrygia, about 177, who wrote 
 
APO] 
 
 ^ ^thi SETniOfViJal 3St05raj>T;i.n 
 
 [aqu 
 
 an apology for the Christian religion, ad- 
 dressed to Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 APOLLINARIUS, a presbyter of Alexan- 
 dria in tlie 4th century, who wrote a history 
 of the Hebrews in Greek heroic verse. He 
 had a son who became blsliop of Laodicea, 
 and wrote a treatise against paganism, which 
 he sent to Julian, lie died about 382. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a grammarian of 
 Athens, flouiislied i).c. 104. Three books of 
 his on the origin of the gods are extant. 
 
 APOLLODOllUS, a famous painter at 
 Athens, n.c. 403. Pliny mentions two pic- 
 tures by him, one of a priest of Ajjollo at the 
 altar.and theotherof the shipwreck of Ajax. 
 
 APOLLODOllUS, a celebrated architect, 
 was born at Damascus, and lived under Tra- 
 jan and Adrian. lie was employed by the 
 former in building the great stone bridge over 
 the Danube and other structures; but, falling 
 into disgrace \vith Adrian, he lost liis life 
 through that emperor's caprice. 
 
 APOLLONIA, a female Cliristian martyr, 
 who, at a very advanced age, fell a sacrifice 
 to intolerance at Alexandria, 248. 
 
 APOLLONIUS COLLATIUS, a monk and 
 poet of Navarre in the loth century, who 
 published an epic on the siege of Jerusalem, 
 and other pieces. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, DvscoLUS, a grammarian 
 of Alexandria in the 2nd century, wlio wrote 
 a work on syntax : a collection of historical 
 curiosities is also ascribed to him. Tliere was 
 another grammarian of this name, who lived 
 in the reign of Augustus Caesar, and compiled 
 a Lexicon Ilomericum, printed at Paris, 1773. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, of Perga, a mathematician 
 of Alexandria, about 240 years, B.C. He com- 
 posed several curious geometrical works, of 
 which his book on conic sections alone exists. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, RiiODins, so called from 
 the city of Rhodes, in which he presided over 
 a school of rhetoric, was a native of Alex- 
 andria, and afterwards became keeper of the 
 celebrated library there, in which situation 
 he remained until his death, B.C. 240. He 
 wrote a poem, in four books, on the expedition 
 of the Argonauts. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, Tyanecs, a philosophic 
 empiric of Ty ana, in Cappadocia; born about 
 the Christian era. He visited Rome, where 
 Vespasian became his dupe ; but Domitian 
 sent hira to prison. He soon obtained his 
 release, and died about tlie end of the 1st 
 century. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, a Roman senator and 
 Christian martyr, who lived in the reign of 
 Commodus, and probably suffered death 
 about 18(5. 
 
 APONO, or ABANO, Peter of, an as- 
 trologer and physician, born at Abano, near 
 Padua, 1250 ; died, 1316. He made himself 
 celebrated by a work, entitled " Conciliator 
 Differeniiorum Philosophorum et precipue 
 Mc'dicorum." 
 
 APOSTOLIUS, MicnAEi-, a learned Greek 
 of the 15th century, whocompiled acoUection 
 of tlie sayings of wise men, and another of 
 proverl)s. 
 
 APPIAN, an ancient historian, born at 
 Alexandria, whence he went to Rome, in 
 the reign of Trajan, and became an eminent 
 pleader. He wrote the history of Rome in 
 Greek. 
 
 APPIANI, AsDKK, a celebrated Milanese 
 painter, born in 1750. His pieces are found 
 in most of tlie palaces of Milan ; but his 
 masterpiece, in fresco, adorns the cupola of 
 Santa Maria de S. Cclso. Died, 1818. 
 
 APREECE, or RIIESE, Joiix, a learned 
 antiquary, born in Wales in the early part 
 of the IGth century, and died in the reign of 
 queen Mary. One of his works, entitled 
 " Fides Historiaa Britannife," is preserved in 
 manuscript in the Cottonian collection. 
 
 APROSIO, AuGELico, an Augustine monk, 
 born at Genoa, 1607 ; died, 1681. He wrote 
 a number of books, but is best known by a 
 work, entitled " Bibliotheca Aprosiana." 
 
 APTHORP, East, a learned divine, bom 
 in New England, 1732, and died at Canter- 
 bury, 1816. The Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel in Foreign Parts sent him out 
 as one of their missionaries to Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, in which state he resided for 
 a short time, and then relumed to England, 
 arid obtained the living of Croydon, Surrey, 
 about 1765. In 1778 lie took the degree of 
 D. D., and was appointed to the rectory of 
 St. Mary-le-Bow, London ; but, in 1793, he 
 resigned his living on obtaining the valuable 
 stall of Finsbnry, in St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 APULEIUS,Lucius,a Platonic philosopher 
 in the 2nd century, born at Madaura, Africa. 
 He composed several books, the chief of which 
 is a romance, entitled " The Golden Ass," 
 M'hich has been translated into almost all the 
 modern European languages. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, AxDKEW Matthew, duke 
 of Atri, Naples, born about 1456, was cele- 
 brated both as a scholar and a soldier, and 
 died, 1528. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Clattde, born at Naples, 
 1542, became general of the order of Jesuits, 
 and died, 1615. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, OcTAVio, a prelate of great 
 reputed piety and learning, died archbishop 
 of Naples, 1612. 
 
 AQUILA, of Sinope, Pontus, an architect 
 and mathematician in the time of Adrian, 
 by whom he was employed in the rebuilding 
 of Jerusalem, where he embraced the Chris- 
 tian religion, but was afterwards excommu- 
 nicated for practising astrology, and turned 
 Jew. 
 
 AQUII./ANO, Serafijto, an admired 
 Italian poet, born at Aquila, Abruzzo, 1466, 
 and died, 1500. 
 
 AQUILANUS, Sebartiani's, a Neapolitan 
 physician of Padua ; died, 1543. 
 
 AQUINAS, St., Thomas, called the 
 Angelic Doctor, descended from the counts 
 of Aquino, in Calabria, Naples, was bom 
 1224; died, 1274; and canonised 1323, by 
 John XXII. His writings, which were held 
 in the highest estimation, gave rise to a sect 
 called, after him, Thomists. 
 
 AQUINO, Charles of, a Neapolitan Je- 
 suit, born, 1654 ; died, 1740. He was an emi- 
 nent teacher of rhetoric at Rome. 
 
 AQUINO, or AQUIN, Louis Claude of, 
 a distinguished musician, born at Paris, 1694 ; 
 died, 1772. At the age of six he performed 
 on the harpsichord before Louis XIV. ; at 
 eight, the celebrated Bemier declared he 
 could teach him no more ; and at twelve, he 
 became organist of a church at Paris. 
 
 AQULNO, Philip, a learned Jew of the 
 
aea] 
 
 ^ IJrto Winihtr^iil SBtosrapTjg. 
 
 [arb 
 
 l7th century, bom at Avignon, converted to 
 the Christian faith, and received baptism at 
 Aquino, Naples, whence he derived liis name, 
 lie was celebrated for his skill in the Hebrew 
 language ; and was entrusted by Le Jay with 
 the care of printing and correcting thellebrew 
 and Clialdce text of his Polyglot Bible. 
 
 ARABSCHAir, a Iklahometan historian, 
 who wrote a History of Tamerlane, and a 
 treatise on the divine unity. He was a na- 
 tive of Damascus, wliere he died, 14.")0. 
 
 AR.VBELL A STUART, commonly called 
 the Lady Arabella, was the only child of 
 Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, the brother 
 of Henry lord Darnley, father to James VI., 
 of Scotland, by Elizabeth, daughter of Sir 
 William Cavendish. This innocent victim 
 of jealousy and state policy, while an infant, 
 lost her father, and thus became heiress to a 
 large estate. Several matches were projected 
 for her at home and abroad ; and her cousin, 
 king James, was inclined to marry her to 
 Lord Esnie Stuart, whom he had created duke 
 of Lennox, and whom, before his marriage, 
 he considered as his heir ; but this union was 
 prevented by queen Elizabeth, who held the 
 Lady Arabella under restraint, and regarded 
 her with a jealous eye. On the death of that 
 queen, an abortive conspiracy was formed 
 for setting up Arabella Stuart in opposition 
 to her cousin James. In ICIO, she was pri- 
 vately marrie<l to Mr. William Seymour, 
 grandson of the Earl of Hertford ; by which 
 union she fell under the royal disjileasure, 
 was placed in confinement at Lambeth, and 
 her husband sent to the Tower. Shortly 
 afterwards they separately made their es- 
 cape ; Mt. Seymour got safe to the Continent, 
 but the Lady Arabella was overtaken, shut 
 np in the Tower, and passed the remainder 
 of her life in close and melancholy confine- 
 ment, which finally deprived her of her rea- 
 son ; and she died September 27. IGl.'i, aged 38. 
 
 ARAGON.TiLMAOF.apoetessof the Kith 
 century ; descended from an illegitimate 
 branch of the royal family of Spain ; and 
 highly celebrated for her wit, beauty, and 
 various accomplishments. 
 
 ARAJA, rnAXCisco, a Neapolitan musi- 
 cian and composer in the ISth century, who 
 entered the service of the empress Catherine 
 of Russia, and produced at St. Petersburgh 
 " Cephalo et Procria," the first opera written 
 in the Russian language. 
 
 ARiV^M, EroKXE, a man no less notorious 
 for his studious habits and great attain- 
 ments, than for the crime which brought him 
 to an untimely end. was the son of a gar- 
 dener, and a native of Ramsgill, in Nether- 
 dale, Yorkshire. Tliough destitute of the 
 advantages of education, and working at his 
 father's humble trade, such was his desire to 
 obtain knowledge, that he soon made con- 
 siderable progress in the mathematics ; then 
 applied so sedulously to the Latin tongue, as 
 to read the Roman classics ; and afterwards 
 studied Greek with great success. Thus 
 qualified, in 1734 he became usher in a school 
 at Knaresborough, where he married. In 
 1714 we find that he taught Latin and writ- 
 ing in London, and transmitted the acts of 
 parliament to be registered in Chancery ; 
 and, in 1757, he assisted in the free-school 
 at Lynn. During this period he studied 
 
 history, antiquity, heraldry, and botany, 
 wrote poetry, and became proficient in the 
 Hebrew. Arabic, and Chaldee languages. In 
 the following year he was apprehended at 
 Lynn for the murder of one Daniel Clarke, a 
 shoemaker, of Knaresborough, which took 
 place thirteen years before, and for which he 
 was tried at York, Aug. 8. 1759. He made a 
 most skilful, argumentative, and eloquent 
 defence, but was found guilty. The next 
 morning he confessed the crime, attributing 
 it to his suspicion of Clarke's having a cri- 
 minal intercourse with his wife. Having in- 
 ettectually endeavoured to commit suicide in 
 the night, by wounding himse'f in the arm, 
 he was conveyed in a state of stupor to the 
 gallows, and afterwards hung in chains in 
 Knaresborough Forest. The singular dis- 
 covery of Clarke's mj^sterious murder, and 
 its commission by a man of Aram's other- 
 wise irreproachable character, learned ac- 
 quirements, and scholastic habits, together 
 with his remarkable defence, were of course 
 calculated to excite a high degree of interest 
 — an interest, indeed, not likely to subside, 
 when we recollect that the melancholy tale 
 has served as a basis for the enchanting fic- 
 tions of a novelist and the exquisite pathos 
 of a poet. 
 
 AJtATOR, a Latin poet of the fifth cen- 
 tury, born in Liguria, and patronised by 
 Pojie Vigilius, to whom he presented the 
 Acts of the Apostles in Latin verse. 
 
 ARATUS, aCicilian poet and ostronomer, 
 born about 300 B.C. His poem, entitled 
 " Phajiiomena," was translated by Cicero 
 into Latin ; and St. Paul quotes a passage 
 from it in his speech to the Athenians. 
 
 ARATUS, of Sicyon, son of Clinias, bom 
 B.C. 273. His father fell in a tumult excited 
 by Abanlidas ; and the escape of young 
 Aratus, then only seven years of age, arose 
 from his taking refuge in the house of the 
 tyrant's sister, who humanely preserved 
 him, and caused him to be brought up pri- 
 vately at Argos. On arriving at maturity, 
 he determined to restore the liberty of his 
 country, which he did without bloodshed. 
 By his activity, he also brought about the 
 Achnean league, and recovered Corintli from 
 Antigonus of Macedon. He wrote Com- 
 mentaries of his own transactions and times ; 
 and died, B.C. 216. 
 
 ARBOGAST, Louis Fr. Ant., a French 
 geometrician, professor of mathematics at 
 Strasburg, associate of the Institute, de- 
 puty to the National Convention, and mem- 
 ber of many learned societies. Died, IKO.'J. 
 
 ARBOGASTES, a Frank by birth, and a 
 eoldier of fortune, who raised himself by his 
 merit to the title of count, under Gratian, 
 after whose death he entered into the service 
 of Valentinian the Younger and Theodosius; 
 by the latter of whom he was sent into Gaul 
 to oi)pose Victor, son of Maximus, whom he 
 defeated and killed. Arbogastes then ingra- 
 tiated himself with the army, who raised him 
 to the post of general, without consulting 
 the court ; but, after the departure of Theo- 
 dosius for Constantinople, he filled every 
 post with his creatures, and reduced Valen- 
 tinian to dependence upon his will. The 
 young cmxK'ror was shortly afterwards found 
 dead 5 and Arbogastes, not choosing to 
 
ARB 
 
 ^ 0tia ^nibtr^aX SStagrap^M. 
 
 [arc 
 
 assume the purple himself, being a barbarian 
 by origin, set up the rhetorician Eugenius, 
 wliom he had raised to the rank of master of 
 the offices. Theodosius immediately pre- 
 pared for war against the usurper, whom he 
 totally defeated. Arbogastes escaped to the 
 mountains, where he wandered for some 
 time, and at length put an end to his life, 
 about 305. 
 
 ARBRISSEL, Robert of, founder of the 
 abbey of Fontevraud, was born in tlie village 
 of Arbrissel, Brittany, about 1047 ; died, 
 1117 ; and was buried in his own abbey. 
 
 ARBUCKLE, Jamks, a Scotch poet, bom 
 at Glasgow, and died in the north of Ire- 
 land, where he had settled as a schoolmaster, 
 1731. 
 
 ARBUTIIXOT, Alexander, a Scottish 
 divine, and a zealous reformer, was born in 
 l.'i.'W, and died in 1583. He edited Buch- 
 anan's llistory of Scotland, and was a 
 strenuous champion for the Reformation. 
 
 ARBUTIINOT, John, a celebrated writer 
 and physician in the reign of queen Anne, 
 was born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, and 
 educated at Aberdeen. He was appointed 
 physician in ordinary to the queen, and ad- 
 mitted a fellow of tlie college. He engaged 
 with Poi)e and Swift in many of their lite- 
 rary schemes, particularly in the satire un- 
 der the title of " Martinus Scriblerus." In 
 1727, Dr. Arbuthnot publislied "Tables of 
 Ancient Coins, Weiglits, and Measures," 
 wliich valuable work was followed by an 
 " Essay concerning Aliments," &c., and 
 another on the " Effects of Air on Human 
 Bodies." So excellent a character did he 
 bear with his contemporaries, that Swift 
 tlius pithily describes him : " He has more 
 wit than all our race, and his humanity is 
 equal to his wit." He died in 1735. 
 
 ARCERE, Anthony, a learned French- 
 man, who applied to the study of the ori- 
 ental languages, made a tour into the East, 
 and returneil richly furnished with manu- 
 scripts ; but died of a fever, 1()99, aged 35. 
 
 ARCERE, Louis Stephen, a French ec- 
 clesiastic, poet, and historian of the 18th 
 century ; chiefly known by Ms works on 
 Bochelle and Amiens. 
 
 ARCESILAUS, a Greek philosopher, the 
 founder of the second or middle academy, 
 was born at Pitane, in iEolia, B.C. 31(3. He 
 maintained that " man knows nothing," and 
 rejected as false and delusive the testimony 
 of the senses. 
 
 ARCHELATJS, king of Macedon, natural 
 son of Perdiccas II., whom he succeeded, 
 after murdering his brother Alcetas. He 
 liberally encouraged literature and the arts, 
 entertained and patronised Euripides and 
 Zeuxis. He died about B.C. 398. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a Greek philosopher, the 
 disciple and successor of Anaxagoras at 
 Lampsacus, but removed afterwards to 
 Athens, where he had Socrates for a pvipil. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a geographer ; author of 
 a treatise on all the countries conquered by 
 Alexander, in whose time he lived. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, a Christian divine, bishop 
 of Mesopotamia, who flourished under Pro- 
 bus, about 278, and was a zealous champion 
 for the Catholic faith against the Mani- 
 cliasans. 
 
 ARCIIIAS, AuLUS LiciNius, a native of 
 Antioch, chiefly kno^^^l from the eloquent 
 orations made by Cicero, to defend his right 
 to the citizenship of Rome. 
 
 ARCHIDAilUS IIL, king of Sparta, so-n 
 of Agesilaus, whom he succeeded, b.c. 3o1, 
 and, in the sacred war, gave assistance to 
 the Pliocians. He was slain in a battle with 
 the Messapians, after a reign of fifteen years. 
 
 ARCIIIGENES, a Greek physician of the 
 pneumatic sect, who flourished in the times 
 of Domitian and Trajan. His works are 
 frequently referred to by Galen. 
 
 ARCHILOCIIUS, a Greek satirist, born 
 in the isle of Paros, b.c. G60. The inven- 
 tion of the Iambic metre is attributed to 
 him ; and so virulent were his poems, that 
 they were prohibited by the Spartan go- 
 vernment. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated ma- 
 thematician among the ancients, was a na- 
 tive of Syracuse, and related to king Hiero. 
 He was equally skilled in the sciences of as- 
 tronomy, geometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, 
 and optics ; his aptness in solving problems 
 had become proverbial in Cicero's days, and 
 his singular ingenuity in the invention and 
 construction of warlike engines, is much 
 dwelt upon by Livy. The combination of 
 pulleys for raising immense weights, the 
 endless screw. Sec, were invented by him ; 
 but his genius for invention was never more 
 signally displayed than in the defence of 
 Syracuse, when it was besieged by Marccl- 
 lus ; for among other astonishing novelties, 
 he produced a burning glass, composed of re- 
 flecting mirrors, by wliich he fired the ene- 
 my's fleet. At length, however, the city was 
 taken by storm, and Archimedes, then in his 
 74th year, was among the slain, e. C. 212. 
 
 ARCHINTO, OcTAVius, a Milanese noble- 
 man, born about the end of the 16th century, 
 and died, 1656 ; he was employed in several 
 political offices, and received from Philip 
 III. of Spain the title of count de Barata. 
 
 ARCHINTO, Charles, a learned Milan- 
 ese of noble family, born in 1609, founded 
 an academy for the sciences and mechanics 
 in his native city, wliich he enriched with 
 an extensive library, &c. 
 
 ARCIION, Louis, an antiquary, chaplain 
 to Louis XIV., bom at Auvergne, 1645 ; 
 died, 1717 ; author of a " History of the 
 Royal Chapel of France." 
 
 ARCHYTAS, a Pythagorean philosopher 
 and mathematician of Tarentum, flourished 
 about 4(X) b. c. He was one of the first who 
 applied the theory of mathematics to prac- 
 tical purposes. 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, JoHX, a Swedish histo- 
 rian, born at Helsingfors, 1695 ; died, 1777 : 
 he published various works, principally re- 
 lating to the history of his own country. 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, John William von, a 
 very voluminous German author ; born, 1743; 
 died, 1812. His two most important works 
 are " Annals of British History," 20 vols., 
 and a " History of the Seven Years' War." 
 
 ARCO, Nicholas, Count, a Latin poet, 
 born at Arco, in the Tyrol, 1479 ; died, 1546. 
 
 ARCON, J. C. Eleonore Lemiceaud, 
 a French officer, born at Pontarlier, 1733 ; 
 died, 1800. He became general of a division, 
 inspector of fortifications, member of the 
 
arc] 
 
 ^ ^eto ?3ni&tr^aT 38tosraij]bl?» 
 
 [are 
 
 Institute, and senator ; and was the inventor 
 of the famous floating batteries used at the 
 siege of Gibraltar in 1782. 
 
 ARGONS, CVesar ok, bom in Gascony, 
 and died, 1G«1 ; was advocate in the Parlia- 
 ment of Bordeaux, and published several 
 treatises on philosophy and theology. 
 
 ARCUDIUS, Petek, a Greek pnest, born 
 in tlie iole of Corfu, and died, lUSo ; he wrote 
 several pieces in defence of the Romish 
 Church, and was sent by Clement Vlll. to 
 Russia, to settle some religious differences. 
 
 AIICUDI, Alexanuek Thomas of, a 
 Dominican of Venice, who wrote several 
 works, cliiefly biographical, of which the 
 " Galatana Letterata" is the principal: he 
 died, 1720. 
 
 ARCULPIIUS. a French divine of the se- 
 venth ceutury, who visited the Holy Laud, 
 and wrote an account of liis travels. 
 
 ARCY, Patkick, a military writer of the 
 18th century, was l>orn at Galway. He en- 
 tered into the military service of France in 
 173!», and served with distinction in Germany 
 and Flanders. Died, 1779. 
 
 ARDERN, Jou.v, an English surgeon of 
 Newark- upon-Trcnt, to wlioni the credit of 
 bciug the reviver of surgery in tliis country 
 in the 14th century has been given. 
 
 ARDEXE, EsritiT Jean ue Rome, s 
 French author, born at Marseilles, 1G84 ; 
 where he died, in 1748. 
 
 ARDENE, John Paul, brother of the 
 preceding, was a priest at Marseilles, and 
 superior of a college ; but more celebrated 
 as a florist thau as an ecclesiastic. On that 
 pleasing subject he wrote soma esteemed 
 works ; and also, " Letters on Physic," for 
 the practice of ecclesiastics. Dit- d, 1709. 
 
 ARDENE, James, an English divine, 
 made dean of Chester by Charles II., and 
 died, Hi!il. 
 
 ARDINGHELLI, Maria, a Neapolitan 
 author, of noble origin, born in I7ii0. II« 
 was distinguished in algebra and the physical 
 sciences. 
 
 AREAGATHUS, a Greek physician, who 
 lived B. c. 2(;y, and practised with repute at 
 Rome ; but having introduced the use of 
 caustics and the knife, he was banished. 
 
 ARENA, AxTUOxr, a French writer 
 of the 16th century, cliiefly known by his 
 poem on the war of Provence, carried on by 
 Charles V. ; died, ir)44. 
 
 ARENA, James ok, a learned ciTilian 
 and writer in the 13th century. He was 
 professor of law at Padua and Bologna, and 
 wrote Commentaries on the Digest and the 
 Code. 
 
 ARENA, Joseph, an officer in the 
 French service, bom in Corsica : arrested 
 at the opera, Aug. 10. 1801, and executed 
 Jan. 31. following, for an attempt on the life 
 of Buonaparte, then first consul. 
 
 ARENDT, Mautix Fuederic, a cele- 
 brated traveller, whose object was the cul- 
 tivation of science, was born at Altona, in 
 1709. He commenced his travels in 1798, 
 visiting the northern parts of Europe, and 
 making researches into the antiquities of the 
 countries through wliich lie passed. He 
 afterwards travelled through Spain, Italy, 
 and Hungary ; and it was his practice to 
 carry all his papers with him, live on the 
 
 charitv of others, and sleep in the open air. 
 Died, 1824. 
 
 ARESI, Paul, bishop of Tortona, Milan, 
 born, lo74 ; died, 1C.44. He taught theology, 
 philosophy, and rhetoric, at Rome and Na- 
 ples, and wrote some philosophical and re- 
 ligious pieces. 
 
 ARET.a2US, a Greek physician in tlie 
 time of Vespasian : his works are held in 
 great esteem. 
 
 ARETIN, A. and J. G., brothers, bom in 
 17C9 and 1771 ; authors of several German ; 
 works on the fine arts, "Magazin des Arts 
 du Dessin," &c. 
 
 ARETIN, J. C, Baron, bom in 1773; a 
 laborious German bibliograph, curator of 
 the Royal Library at Munich, and member ; 
 of the most famous German academies, j 
 Among his works are, "Historical and Lite- i 
 rary Memoirs ; " a " History of the Jews of i 
 Bavaria;" "On the Effects of Printing;" ! 
 and many curious treatises on mnemonics, 
 a universal language, the divining rod, &c. 
 He edited the "Aurora" in 180(5, and pub- 
 lished the "Nouvel Indicateur Litteraire," 
 at Tubinifcn, in 1808. Died. 1824. 
 
 ARETINO, Charles, born in Tuscany, 
 in the 1.5th century. He was secretary to 
 the republic of Florence ; and eminent both 
 as a Greek scholar and a Latin poet. Died 
 in 1470. 
 
 ARETINO, Fraxcis, a learned civilian 
 of Italy in the l.'ith century. 
 
 ARETINO, Gltido, a native of Arezzo, 
 Tuscany, who lived in the 11th century, 
 and is celebrated for having invented the 
 musical gamut. 
 
 ARETINO, Leo.vard, an Italian histo- 
 rian, born at Arezzo, 1370 ; died, 1443. He 
 was secretary to several popes, and after- 
 wards to the republic of Florence ; added a 
 Supplement to Livy on the Punic War, and 
 wrote the History of Italy, &c. 
 
 ARETINO, Peter, an Italian satirical 
 writer of great celebrity, was born at Arezzo, 
 in Tuscany, in 1492 ; and who, though oc- 
 casionally as just as he was severe, may 
 fairly be considered one of the most uni- 
 versal and reckless libellers that ever lived. 
 Yet although he was so licentious a writer, 
 that his very name is expressive of indecency 
 and profligacy, he wrote many works of 
 devotion, and gave the preference to the 
 latter, whenever they accorded with his in- 
 terest. His "Ragionamenti," a bitter satire 
 on the scandalous lives of the nuns, married 
 women, and mistresses of the cardinals, 
 &c. was every where read with disgusting 
 avidity. A multitude of satires on all the 
 European sovereigns, earned him the title of 
 "Scourge of Princes." By some he was 
 bribed to silence ; by others, punished. 
 Licentiousness stains the wit of all his works, 
 comedies, satires, sonnets, Sic. &c. He died 
 in 1.5.57. 
 
 ARICI, C^SAR, an Italian poet, bora in 
 178.5 ; author of an admired didactic poem, 
 called " La Coltivatione dcgli Olivi." 
 
 ARION, a Lesbian poet of the 7th century, 
 n. c. ; the inventor of Dithyrambics ; of 
 whom numerous fables have been written. 
 Of his writings, all that remains is a " Hymn 
 to Neptune." 
 
 ARETIUS, Benedict, an ecclesiastic of 
 
, Beme, Switzerland : eminent as a botanist 
 and tliealogiau. Died, 1574. 
 
 ARGAIZ, or ARGAEZ, GREGonr, a 
 Spanish Benedictine, in the 17tli century, 
 who publislied at Madrid an ecclesiastical 
 history of Spain, which he attributed to 
 St. Gregory, bishop of Granada, but which 
 was afterwards proved to be a forgery. 
 
 ARGALL,, RiciiAKD, an English poet in 
 the reign of James I., patronised by Dr. 
 John King, bishop of London. 
 
 ARGEI.LATI, Philu', a printer of Bo- 
 logna, of which city he became a magis- 
 trate, was born in 1(585. From Bologna he 
 removed to Milan, to superintend the print- 
 ing of Muratori's " Scriptores Italicarum 
 Berum," under the ausi)ices of the emperor 
 Charles VI., who granted him a pension, 
 and made him one of his secretaries. 
 
 ARGELLATI, Francis, son of the above, 
 author of a work entitled " Decamerone," 
 written in imitation of Boccacio. Died in 
 1754. 
 
 ARGENS, JoHX Baptiste T)e Boyek, 
 Marquis of, a French miscellaneous writer, 
 son to the solicitor-general of the Parlia- 
 ment of Aix, in which city he was bom, in 
 1704. He at first chose the profession of 
 arms, and was wounded at the siege of 
 Kell, 1734, but afterwards turned his atten- 
 tion to literary pursuits ; went to Holland, 
 and was invited by Frederic William, king 
 of Prussia, to his court, who made him one 
 of his chamberlains. Died, 1771. 
 
 ARGENTERO, G., a celebrated Pied- 
 montese physician, bom in 1553 ; he trans- 
 lated Galen. 
 
 ARGENTIER, JoH.v, an Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Quiers, Piedmont, 1513 ; died 
 at Turin, 1572. 
 
 ARGOLI, AxDHEW, a mathematician, 
 horn at Tagliacozzo, Naples, 1570 ; died, 
 1653. He was professor of mathematics at 
 Padua, with the title of Chevalier of St. 
 Mark. 
 
 ARGOLI, Joiiy, son of the above, was a 
 poet of some celebrity, and also an archaio- 
 logical writer. He was professor of juris- 
 prudence at Bologna ; and died about 10(50. 
 
 ARGUELLADA, Raymond, born in 17G8: 
 a liberal deputy of the Spanish Cortes. He 
 j was the chief framer of the Spanish Consti- 
 tution, published at Cadiz in 1812. 
 
 ARGUELLES, Adoustus, a Spanish pa- 
 triot, born in 1775 ; joined the constitutional 
 revolution which broke out at Cadiz in 1812, 
 and drew up the official report of that event. 
 He was suddenly arrested by Ferdinand VII., 
 and sent to the galleys for ten years, by the 
 king's arbitrary authority. He refused sub- 
 scriptions from the English, on the ground 
 that they had deserted or betrayed Spanish 
 liberty. 
 
 ARGUSTIN, Antoxio, a Spanish an- 
 tiquarian, born at Saragossa, in 1517; author 
 of " Dialogos de las Medallas." 
 
 ARGYROPYLUS, JoH.v, one of the 
 learned men who, in the 15th century, under 
 the patronage of the Medici, contributed to 
 the revival of Greek learning. In addition 
 to his exertions as a teacher and lecturer, he 
 published translations from Aristotle, and a 
 commentary on the Ethics of that philo- 
 sopher. 
 
 AEI ERODE, an Icelandic scholar of 
 the 11th century, and the earliest of the 
 Northern historians. Of his numerous 
 writings only the Schedte and Laudnama- 
 bok remain. 
 
 ARIOSTI, Attilto, aBolognese composer, 
 who gave lessons to Handel, with whom and 
 Bononcini, he composed the well-known 
 opera of Muzio Scevola. 
 
 ARIOSTO, EuDovico, one of the most 
 celebrated of the Italian poets, Avas born at 
 Reggio, in Lombardy, and even in his child- 
 hood evinced his poetic genius. At Ferrara, 
 where he was educated, he greatly distin- 
 guished himself; but his studies were di- 
 rected less towards the law, for which pro- 
 fession lie was intended, than towards litera- 
 ture. Tlie cardinal Ippolito d' Este became 
 his patron, but seems to have valued him 
 rather as a scholar and man of business than 
 as a poet ; for when Ariosto presented a 
 copy of his immortal Orlando, the cardinal 
 inquired, "Where did you pick up this 
 trumpery, master Ludovico ? " Ariosto's 
 writings were very numerous and various, 
 but the " Orlando Furioso " is the basis of 
 his fame. Born, 1474 ; died, 1.D33. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Gabriel, brother of the above; 
 very inferior to him in genius, but a respect- 
 able Latiu poet. His works were published 
 at Ferrara, in 1582. 
 
 ARIOSTO, Horace, son of the last 
 named ; author of a poem entitled Alphaeus, 
 several comedies, and a defence of the Or- 
 lando against the criticism of Pellegrini. 
 
 ARISi, Francis, an eminent advocate of 
 Cremona ; author of various works, of which 
 the most valuable is his " Cremona Literata." 
 Born, 1(557 ; died, 1743. 
 
 ARIST^NATUS, a Greek writer of the 
 4th century. He is praised by Ammianus 
 Marcelliuus ; but is only known now by two 
 books of Amatory Epistles, of some elegance. 
 
 ARISTARCHIJS,a critic andgrammarian, 
 a native of Samothrace, who flourished about 
 a century and a half b. c. Having settled at 
 Alexandria, he was made tutor to the son of 
 Ptolemy Philomater. His criticisms Mxre so 
 severe tliat his name has become proverbial. 
 He died at Cyprus in his 72d year ; as some 
 assert, bv voluntary starvation. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, the Samian, a Greek 
 philosopher, supposed to have flourished 
 about four centuries b. c. He is said to be 
 the first who knew of the earth's rotatory 
 motion on its own axis ; and a work of his, 
 of wliich an edition in Greek and Latin was 
 published by Dr. Wallis, in 1(588, treats of 
 the magnitude and distance of the sun and 
 moon. 
 
 ARISTE AS, a Jew, in the employment of 
 Ptolemy Pliiladelphus. He is said to have 
 assisted in the Septuagint translation of the 
 Bible ; and a history of it is attributed to 
 him, btit on no satisfactory grounds. 
 
 ARISTIDES, an Athenian patriot, whose 
 unbending integrity procured him the name 
 of "Tlie Just." He was a great admirer of 
 the laws of Lycurgus, and opposed to the 
 headlong democracy of the party headed by 
 Themistocles. At the battle of Marathon 
 he was next in command to Miltiades, and 
 bore himself with great intrepidity. This 
 caused liim to be made archon in the fol- 
 
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 lowing year ; but his rigid integrity in tliis 
 station led to so strong an opi;osition by tlie 
 popular i)arty, that he was ostracised. He 
 was recalled from banisliinent to oppose the 
 Persians under Xerxes, and, both at Salamis 
 and riatsea, exerted himself to the utmost to 
 serve and save his country. A still higlier 
 proof was given of liis love of justice by bis 
 efforts, though ineffectual, to save his rival, 
 Themistocles, from banishment ; and by tiie 
 fact, that though he had borne all the highest 
 offices of the state, he was very poor at liis 
 death, which took place in -W;? b. c. 
 
 ARISTIDES, ^Lius,a native of Adriani, 
 in Mysia ; an orator of great practice and 
 ability during the reigns of Antoninus, Au- 
 rclius, and Commodus. An edition of his 
 worlcs was published in two 4to. volumes, 
 Oxford, 1722. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a Christian philosopljer, of 
 Athens, in the 2nd century. Jerome praises 
 his " Ajjology for the Christian Faith," but 
 none of his writings are known to be extant. 
 
 ARISTIDES, a painter of Thebes in the 
 3rd century B.C., famous for his power of 
 representing tlic passions. 
 
 ARISTIDES, QuiXTiLiAN, a Greek mu- 
 sician, who, about the year 130, wrote a 
 treatise on the music of his country. 
 
 ARISTIDES, of Miletus, an Justorian 
 often mentioned by Plutarch; but liis works 
 were replete with licentious tales. 
 
 ARISTirPUS, founder of the Cyrenaic 
 sect of philosophers, waa bom at Cyrene 
 about four centuries B.C. He became a 
 pupil of Socrates, but his mode of life waa 
 so effeminate as to induce that great man to 
 comiJose the lecture on pleasures, which is 
 preserved in the Memorabilia ofXenophon. 
 Excellent as that lecture is, it had little 
 effect on Aristippus ; who, both in lecturing 
 and living, made pleasure the chief good. 
 At Corinth he was the companion of the 
 courtezan Lais ; and, at Syracuse, he was 
 favoured by the tyrant, Dionysius, to whom, 
 in common with many other philosophers, 
 he paid his court. He established a school 
 of philosophy at Cyrene, wliich continued 
 for about a century, when it was merged into 
 the sect of Epicurus. 
 
 ARISTO, of Chios, a stoic philosopher, 
 B.C. 2«0, who held logic to be useless and 
 physics incomprehensible. 
 
 ARISTO, an Aristotelian philosopher, of 
 Ceos, B, c. 230. A work of his, ontitled 
 " Amatory Similies," is cited by Atlienaeus. 
 
 ARISTOGITON, a citizen of Athens, B.C. 
 51C, who was executed, after being horribly 
 treated, for conspiring with liis friend Har- 
 modius to slay the tyrants Hippias and Ilip- 
 parchus. Ilipparchus they succeeded in 
 glaying ; and Hippias, who put Aristogiton 
 to death, was expelled the state about three 
 years afterwards, when the statues of Aristo- 
 gitoa and Harmodius were placed in the 
 forum, and it was decreed that no slave 
 should ever bear the name of either. 
 
 ARIST03IENES, a Greek, son of Nico- 
 medes, a descendant of the regal family of 
 Mcssene, whose exertions caused the Mes- 
 eenians, in conjunction with the Arcadians 
 and Argives, to commence the second Mcs- 
 scnian war, B.C. 085, in order to shake off the 
 yoke of Sparta. The Messenians, however, 
 
 were imsuccessful, and went over to Sicily» 
 where they founded the city of Messina. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, a dramatic poet of 
 Athens, contemporary with Socrates, Plato, 
 &c. in the 5th century, B.C. His comedies 
 were marked by a severity of satire which 
 made him at once feared and popular ; and 
 his description of Athenian manners was so 
 exact, that when Dionysius, of Syracuse, 
 wished to study the language and manners 
 of Alliens, Plato sent him the comedies of 
 Aristophanes as the readiest means of doing 
 BO. Like most satiri>t8, Aristophanes was 
 unjustly personal, and his comedy of "The 
 Clouds was written in obvious desire to 
 ridicule Socrates. He is said to have written 
 fifty-four comedies, but of these only eleven 
 remain, of which the critics deem " Plutus " 
 the most perfect. Though his wit was de- 
 based by licentiousness, and his satire by 
 personality, his style was beautiful. The 
 time of his death is unknown. 
 
 ARISTOTLE, the great founder of the 
 peripatetic sect of philosophers, was bora at 
 Stagyra, in Thrace, B.C. 381. At the age 
 of 17, he became a pupil of Plato, who called 
 lilm the "m(>i</" of his scliool. The fame 
 of his abilities having reached Philip of Ma- 
 cedon, that prince made liim tutor to his son, 
 Alexander the Great ; and he so carefully 
 attended the young prince, that Philip re- 
 built the town of Stugyra, which he had 
 razed, and restored the expelled inhabitants 
 to their town and privileges. When Alex- 
 ander set out on his expedition to Asia, Aris- 
 totle returned to Athens, and obtained leave 
 to occupy the Lycajum as a school of philo- 
 sophy, where he established the sect called, 
 from his habit of walking as he lectured, 
 the peripatetic. Envy of his abilities caused 
 him to be accused of impiety, and he retired 
 to Chalcis, remarking, in allusion to the 
 judicial murder of Socrates, that he did not 
 wish to see the Athenians a second time 
 guilty of crime against philosophy. He re- 
 mained at Chalcis till his death, in the (uJd 
 year of his age, B.C. 323. His writings are 
 numerous and various ; and of the art of 
 logic, especially of the syllogism, he may 
 almost be called the inventor. Both in phy- 
 sics and metaphysics he had many erroneous 
 opinions, but that was the fault of his age 
 rather than of his individual intellect ; and 
 looking at the extent of his writings, and the 
 value of by far the greater portion of them, 
 we must hold him to rank very high indeed 
 among the most intellectual of mankind. 
 
 ARISTOXENUS, a pliilosopher and mu- 
 sician, pupil of Aristotle. His works are 
 said to have been very numerous, but none 
 have come down to us except his Harmonic 
 Elements, which is considered to be the 
 oldest musical treatise existing. 
 
 ARIUS, a presbyter of the church of Alex- 
 andria in the 4th century. Having main- 
 tained that the Son and the Father were 
 essentially distinct, and that the Son was 
 created out of nothing by the will of the 
 Father, Alexander the bishop, in opposition 
 to whose preacliing he broached this doctrine, 
 called a council, in which the doctrine was 
 condemned, and Arius, and those who sided 
 with him, excommunicated. He was, after 
 much discussion, recalled from banishment 
 
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 by the emperor Constantine, and was just 
 about to be received again into the pale of 
 the church, when he died suddenly. Of his 
 writings, only two epistles are extant ; and 
 thougli there is a sect called " Arians," its 
 doctrines are far more modified and less 
 startling than those held by Arius. 
 
 ARK WRIGIIT,Sir Ricuakd, the inventor 
 of niachinerj', by which our cotton manufac- 
 tures have beeu increased to an almost in- 
 credible extent, was bom at Preston, Lan- 
 cashire, in 1732 ; and his first employment 
 was that of a barber. Notwithstanding the 
 obstacles tlirown in his way at first by poverty 
 and want of mechanical skill to reduce his 
 inventions to practice, and afterwards by 
 tlie unprincipled invasion of his rights by 
 rival manufacturers, he realised a very large 
 fortune ; and his macliincs, but little im- 
 proved upon, have been the cause of almost 
 innumerable fortunes to be made by others. 
 Mr. Arkwright was not knighted, as many 
 suppose on account of his inventions, but on 
 the occasion of presenting an address as high 
 sheriff of the county of Derby, congratulat- 
 ing George III. on the failure of the attempt 
 made on his life by Margaret Nicholson. 
 Died, 1702. 
 
 ARLAND, Jamks Axtuoxy, a Genevcse 
 painter of great merit. His last work was 
 the " Amour of Jupiter with Leda," which, 
 from some whim unexplained, he destroyed 
 by cutting it to pieces. A copy of it was 
 sold in the artist's lifetime for 600 guineas. 
 Born, 1668 ; died, 1743. 
 
 ARLOTTO, MAiiVARDO, a facetious Flo- 
 rentine of the 15th century, and of whose 
 witticisms a collection has been frequently 
 printed, was a parish minister in the bishop- 
 ric of Fiesole ; who, though regarded as a 
 religious buffoon by some, was as benevolent 
 as he was jocose and witty. Bom, 1395 ; 
 died, 1483. 
 
 ARMELLINI, ]VL\riaud, a learned Do- 
 minican, born at Ancona, was the author of 
 "Bibliotheca Benedictino Casinensis," aud 
 other works. Died, 1737. 
 
 ARMFELDT, Gustavus Maurice, Count, 
 a Swedish statesman of some note. He 
 was frequently involved in difficulties, but 
 he surmounted them all, and at his death 
 held several important offices in Russia. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 ARMINIIJS, or HERMANN, who by his 
 intrepidity and success acquired tlie title of 
 " the Deliverer of Germany," was the son of 
 Segimer, a chief of the Catli. Having been 
 sent to Rome as a hostage, he was there 
 educated, served in the Roman army, and 
 for his valour was raised to citizensliip and 
 knighted. But his attachment to his native 
 country induced him to revolt, and he be- 
 came one of the most powerful leaders of 
 the discontented German nations. He drew 
 Varus, the Roman commander on the Rhine, 
 into that ambuscade in which he aud nearly 
 all his troops were slain, and completely 
 baffled Gcrmanicus ; but after having for 
 years withstood the vast power of Rome, 
 Arminius was assassinated by one of his own 
 countrymen, in the 37th year of his age, 
 A.D. 21. 
 
 ARMINIUS, James, or HARMENSEN, a 
 Dutch divine, was the founder of the sect of 
 
 Christians called Arminians, whose distin- 
 guishing tenets are, that the merits of Christ 
 extend to all mankind, and that the g.-ace 
 necessary to salvation is attainable by all. 
 This striking opposition to tlie doctrines of 
 Calvin, caused Arminius and liis followers, 
 who in Holland are called Remonstrants, to 
 be much persecuted. He was learned, pious, 
 eloquent, and the advocate of toleration. 
 Born at Oudewater, in Holland, 1560 ; died, 
 1690. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Johx, a poet and physi- 
 cian, was born at Castleton, in Roxburgh- 
 shire, in 1700. In 1760 he was appointed 
 physician to the army in Germany ; in 1771 
 he made the tour of Italy, with Fuseli the 
 painter ; and died in 1770. His chief work 
 is the poem on "The Art of Preserving 
 Health," which was very deservedly popu- 
 lar, and is, in fact, one of the best didactic 
 poems in our language. His medical works 
 and short poems had but limited success 
 even in his own time, lie lived on terms of 
 intimacy with the wits and poets of the day, 
 and contributed to Thomson's Castle of In- 
 dolence the beautiful stanzas descriptive of 
 the diseases resulting from indolence. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, John, a physician and 
 medical writer, celebrated for his researches 
 concerning the causes and phenomena of 
 febrile diseases, was born at Bishopswear- 
 mouth, Durham, in 1784. He took his degree 
 of M.D. at Edinburgh, in 1807, and was chosen 
 physician to the Sutherland Dispensary in 
 1811 ; but finding that his professional works 
 had blazoned his fame in the metropolis, he 
 resigned his situation in 1818, aud com- 
 menced practice in London. In 1821 he 
 engaged with Mr. E. Grainger in the forma- 
 tion of a medical school in AVebb Street, 
 Borough, where he delivered lectures on the 
 practice of physic. In 1326 he joined Dr. 
 Boot and Mr. E. Bennett in establishing a 
 new school of medicine in Dean Street, Soho, 
 but shortly after relinquished his connection 
 with it. He died in 1829, of phthisis pulmo- 
 nalis. Few men were ever more anxiously 
 devoted to the duties of their profession than 
 Dr. Armstrong, and few have been so suc- 
 cessful in their elucidation of medical sci- 
 ence. His works are numerous, and highly 
 valuable. 
 
 ARNALD, Richard, an English divine, 
 author of " A Commentary on the Apocry- 
 phal Books." Died, 1756. 
 
 ARNALL, William, a political writer 
 during the ministry of Sir Robert Waljiole. 
 His chief work was the "Free Briton," in 
 wliich the measures of NYalpole were indis- 
 criminately defended. He was a man of 
 much talent, but great imprudence ; for 
 though he is said to have received 11,000/. 
 in less than 5 years, he died in great poverty 
 at the early age of 26, in 1741. 
 
 ARN AUD, DE Meheuil, a Provencal 
 poet of the 13th century. His chief pro- 
 ductions were amatory songs and sonnets. 
 Died, 1220. 
 
 ARN AUD, Fraxcis, a French divine and 
 man of letters. He cliiefly wrote for journals. 
 Died, 1784. 
 
 ARNAULD, Anthony, a French lawyer, 
 attorney-general to Catherine de Medici ; 
 author of " Avis au Roi Louis XIII. pour 
 
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 bien regiier," and other works. Bom, 1560 j 
 died, ItilO, 
 
 AKNAULD, Robert, eldest son of tlie 
 preceding, author of " Memoirs of his own 
 time," and translator of tlie " Confessions of 
 Saint Angustin." Born, 1589 ; died, 1074. 
 
 AKNAULD, AxTHOK V, doctor of the Sor- 
 bonne, was brother of the preceding, and the 
 20tli child of tlieir parents. He deeply en- 
 gaged in controversy with botli Jesuits and 
 Jansenists ; and in addition to his numerous 
 ! controversial and theological worlds, he wrote 
 niucli in tlie belles lettics and philosophy. 
 Born, ltJ12 j died, 1694. 
 
 ARNDT, CiiKiSTiAK, logical professor at 
 Rostock, in Germany ; author of " Observa- 
 tions on the right use of Logic iu Divinity," 
 &c. Boni, 102.} ; died, 10X5. 
 
 ARNDT, JusiiUA, brother of the above, 
 and his successor in the chair at Rostock ; 
 author of a "Dictionary of Ecclesiastical 
 Antiquities," and other valuable works. 
 Born, 1020 ; died, 1085. 
 
 ARNDT, C. Gottlieb ton, imperial 
 Russian councillor, assistant to the empress 
 Catherine II. in her literary employment, 
 and author of a learned work on " The Ori- 
 gin of Eurojwan Dialects," published in 1318. 
 lie (lied at Heidelberg in 1829. 
 
 ARNDT, Chakles, son of the last-named, 
 Hebrew professor at Rostock ; author of 
 Philological Discourses, Bibliotlieoa I'olitico- 
 llernldica, &c. Born, 107;5 ; died, 1781. 
 
 ARNDT, Jonx, a native of Anhalt j author 
 of a treatise on true Christianity. Bom, 
 1555 ; died, 1C21. 
 
 ARNE, Dr. Tuomas Augustine, a cele- 
 brated composer of music. At the early age 
 of 18, lie produced an opera entitled " Rosa- 
 mond," and shortly afterwards composed 
 the music for a masque, entitled "Alfred," 
 written by Thompson and Mallet. On the 
 masque of Comus being adapted to the stage, 
 Arne's music for it obtained him so high a 
 reputation, and such constant employment, 
 that a mere catalogue of the various works 
 he was subsequently Uic author of, would 
 demand a far larger space than we can afford. 
 His sister was the celebrated Mrs. Cibber. 
 Born, 1704 ; died, 1778. 
 
 ARNE, Michael, son of the preceding, 
 and, like him, a musical composer ; author 
 of tlie music of Alcmena and of Cymon. 
 
 ARNIGIO, Bartholomew, an Italian 
 poet, was originally ii blacksmith, but at 18 
 years of age he devoted himself to literature, 
 and distinguished himself so much, that the 
 University of Padua gave him the degree of 
 doctor. As a physician, which profession he 
 followed, he was far less distinguished than 
 as a poet. His works are numerous. Born, 
 1523 ; died, 1577. 
 
 ARNIM, LuDwiG AcuiN vox, a German 
 poet, and writer of romances, was bom at 
 Berlin, studied at Gottingen, and passed his 
 life in literary leisure and independence, at 
 Heidelberg, Berlin, and his country seat. 
 His chief works are "Ariel's Offenbarungen," 
 " Der Knabe Wunderhorn," " Der Winter- 
 garten," "Grafln Dolores," "Die Kronen- 
 VVilchter," " Die Gleichen." Died, 1831. His 
 wife, Bettina Brentano, is still more cele- 
 brated than himself, both from her own writ- 
 ings and the interesting relation in which. 
 
 when a child, she stood to the illustrious 
 Goethe. 
 
 ARNOBIUS, an African rhetorician at 
 Sicca, in the 3rd century. He embraced the 
 Christian religion, and published a defence 
 of it, which has been frequently reprinted. 
 
 ARNOLD, Bexedict, an American gene- 
 ral, who during the early part of his career, 
 devoted his best energies to promote the 
 cause he had espoused, and who afterwards 
 disgraced himself by treacherously betraying 
 it, was bred a surgeon ; but on the com- 
 mencement of hostilities between Great 
 Britain and the colonies, he entered into the 
 service of the latter, and was chosen captain 
 of a company of volunteers at Newhaven. 
 He soon rose to the rank of colonel, and 
 commanded an expedition to Canada. He 
 afterwards distinguished himself by his 
 bravery, when commanding a flotilla on 
 Lake Cliamplain, and on other occasions, 
 and was promoted to the rank of general. 
 He subsequently entered into negoeiations 
 with General Clinton, to whom he proposed 
 to surrender a post of great consequence, 
 with which Washington h.id entrusted him. 
 But the capture of the olhcer [see ANRiife] 
 sent by General Clinton, caused the plot to 
 be discovered, and Arnold liastily escaped 
 to the royalist quarters. He wiis emjiloyed 
 under General Clinton against his former 
 comrades, and had the rank of brigadier- 
 general, when he retired to England, where 
 he died, in 1801. 
 
 ARNOLD, CnRLSToniER, a German pea- 
 sant, whose energy and natural genius ena- 
 bled him to become one of the most accom- 
 plished astronomers of his age. The only 
 work ho left was entitled "Signs of Divine 
 Grace, exlubited iu a Solar Miracle." Born, 
 104(5 ; died, 1095. 
 
 ARNOLD, JoHX, an Englisli watchmaker, 
 and author of many inventions towards the 
 accurate mensuration of time. Born, 1744 ; 
 died, 1799. 
 
 ARNOLD, Jonx, a miller, celebrated in 
 consequence of the interference on his behalf 
 of Frederic the Great of Prussia. Believing 
 that Arnold had been wronged of territorial 
 land, by the decision against him of a law- 
 suit, Frederic reversed the sentence, and im- 
 prisoned the judges. 
 
 ARNOLD, Dr. Samuel, a musical com- 
 poser of eminence. He edited the works of 
 Handel, and composed the "Prodigal Son," 
 and other excellent oratorios. His opera of 
 the " Maid of the Mill " still keeps the stage. 
 Born, 1739 ; died, 1802. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, an English physician, 
 eminent for his skill in the treatment of 
 mental insanity. He was the author of 
 " Observations on the Management of the 
 Insane," " A Case of Hydrophobia success- 
 fully treated," &c. Bom, 1742 ; died, 1816. 
 
 ARNOLD, Rev. Thomas, D.D., head-mas- 
 ter of Rugby School, and professor of modern 
 history in the university of Oxford, was born 
 at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, and educated 
 at Winchester and Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford. Dr. Arnold was a most accom- 
 plished scholar, a successful instructor of 
 youth, and an author of sterling value. In 
 proof of the latter it is necessary only to 
 mention his admirable History of Rome, his 
 
aen] 
 
 ^ §t^ Hm'tin'S'al 3^i05i*ajpTjB, 
 
 [art 
 
 edition of Tliucj'dides, and his various pam- 
 phlets on political and ecclesiastical subjects. 
 From the time of liis appointment to the 
 head-mastership at Rugby, in 1828, the 
 school, whicli had previously been at a low 
 ebb, rose rapidly in public estimation, and at 
 his death contained about 870 boys, including 
 those on the foundation. Died, June, 1842, 
 in the 47th j'ear of his age. 
 
 ARNOLUE, RiCHAED, a citizen of London 
 in tlie IGth century, and autlior of a work 
 entitled " Arnolde's Chronicle," containing 
 much valuable information. 
 
 ARNOT, lIiTOO, an eminent Scottish 
 writer. He was educated for the bar, but 
 illness rendering him unlit for so laborious a 
 profession, he devoted liimself to literature. 
 His " History of Edinburgh," and collection 
 of celebrated criminal trials, show him to 
 have possessed very considerable abilities. 
 Born, 1749 ; died, 178G. 
 
 ARNOUL, an eminent French prelate of 
 the 12th century ; author of vari^ms works 
 in prose and verse, to be found in the Spi- 
 cilegium of D'Acheri and the Libliotheca 
 Patrum. 
 
 ARNOULT, an eminent Parisian actress 
 and wit. She was admired by D'Alembert, 
 Rousseau, "and other literati of her time. 
 Born, 1740 ; died, 1802. 
 
 ARNOULT, Jean Bvptiste, a French 
 Jesuit and author. The most valuable of his 
 works is " Le Prt'cepteur," whicli was the 
 model of Dodsley's Preceptor. Born, 1C89 ; 
 died, 1753. 
 
 ARNULPII, or ERXULPHUS, bishop of 
 Rochester in the reign of Henry I. ; author 
 of " Textus Rotfen=is," an account of the 
 charters, &c., of his cathedral. Died, 1124. 
 
 AROMATRI, JosKPii, an Italian phy- 
 sician ; author of " Riposte alle Considera- 
 zione di Alessandro Tassoni sopra le Rime 
 del Petraroa." Born, 1586 ; died, IGGO. 
 
 ARPINO, JosEPUixo, an Italian painter, 
 patronised by pope Gregory XIII. Bom, 
 loGO ; died, 1G40. 
 
 ARRIA, a Roman lady, who, when lier 
 husband, CaBcina Paetus, was ordered to put 
 himself to death, for rebellion against the 
 emperor Claudius, perceiving him hesitate, 
 plunged a dagger into her bosom, exclaim- 
 ing, "My Paitus 1 it is not painful." 
 
 ARRIAX, a Greek historian, who took up 
 his residence at Rome in the 2nd century. 
 He was patronised by tlie emperor Adrian ; 
 and the younger Pliny admired liim so much 
 as to address to him no fewer than seven of 
 his epistles. The historical writings of Arrlan 
 were numerous, but two of them only remain 
 entire, viz. seven books on the expedition 
 of Alexander, and a book on the alfairs of 
 India ; the latter being a sequel to the for- 
 mer. There are some historical fragments of 
 Arrian in Photius. In addition to the 
 above, we have, of Arrian's writings, " En- 
 chiridion," a moral treatise, an epistle to 
 Adj-ian, &c. 
 
 ARRIBAVEXE, Joiix Francis, an 
 Italian poet of the 18th century ; autlior 
 of "Maritime Eclogues," &c. 
 
 ARRIGHETTI, Philip, an ecclesiastic 
 of Florence ; author of a life of St. Francis, 
 and translator of the Rhetoric and Poetics of 
 Aristotle into Italian. Born, 1582; died,16G2. 
 
 ARRIGUETTO, or ARIGGO, Hexky, a 
 Florentine poet and ecclesiastic of the 12th 
 century. His poems are still popular for 
 their pathos and elegance of stjle. 
 
 ARROWSMITII, Aakon, an eminent 
 geographer and hydrographer. His maps and 
 charts are very numerous, and held in high 
 estimation ; and his tract, entitled " A 
 Companion to the Jlap of the World," con- 
 tains much valuable information. Born, 
 1760 ; died, 1823. 
 
 ARSACES I., the founder of the Parthian 
 monarchy, and of the dynasty of the Ajsa- 
 ciUes, flourished in the 3rd century B.C. In 
 revenge for an ungrateful insult offered to 
 his brother by the governor of a province, 
 lie raised the standard of revolt in Parthia 
 against Seleucus ; and, having succeeded in 
 emancipating his countrymen, they elected 
 him their king. He reigned prosperously 
 for ,38 years. 
 
 ARSENITJS, a Roman deacon of the 4th 
 century, and tutor to Arcadius, son of Theo- 
 dosius. The emperor coming into his study, 
 and seeing the pupil sitting and the master 
 standing, ordered his son to rise, and receive 
 his lessons in a becoming posture, which so 
 irritated the prince, that he directed an officer 
 to dispatch Arsenius ; but the officer gave 
 liim information of the prince's baseness ; on 
 wliich he fled into Egypt, where he died at 
 the age of 9.). 
 
 ARSILLI, Francesco, an Italian phy- 
 sician of the 16th century ; author of a poem 
 "Dc Poetis Urbanis." Died, 1540. 
 
 ARTALIS, Joseph, a Sicilian gentleman, 
 who distinguished himself for courage at the 
 memorable siege of Candia ; author of " La 
 Pasife," an opera, and numerous poems. 
 Born, 1628 ; died, 1679. 
 
 ARTAXERXES I.surnamedLongimanus, 
 was the third eon of Xerxes, king of Persia. 
 He slew his brotlier Darius on suspicion of 
 his being guilty of the murder of his father. 
 Artaxerxes then ascended the throne B.C. 
 4G5, and in his time peace v/as restored be- 
 tween Persia and Athens, after a war of 51 
 years. He died B.C. 424. 
 
 ARTAXERXES II., sumamed Mnemon, 
 was the eldest son of Darius Nothus, and 
 began his reign B.C. 404. He died at the 
 age of 94, after reigning 62 years. 
 
 ART^iXERXES III., succeeded his father, 
 the preceding monarch, b. c. 359. He mur- 
 dered two of his brothers, and afterwards put 
 to death all the remaining branches of the 
 family. In Egypt he slew the sacred bull 
 Apis, and gave the flesh to his soldiers ; for 
 wliich his eunuch, Bagoas, an Egyptian, 
 caused him to be poisoned, and after giving 
 tlie carcase to the cats, made knife handles 
 of his bones. This happened B.C. 338. 
 
 ARTAXERXES BEBEGAN, or ARD- 
 SHIR, the first king of Persia, of the race 
 of Sassankles, was the son of a shepherd. 
 On the death of his grandfather he solicited 
 the government, but being refused, he retired 
 to Persia Proper, where he excited the people 
 to revolt. He defeated and slew Ardavan 
 and his son. He married the daughter of 
 Ardavan, who attempted to poison him, for 
 which she was sentenced to death. The 
 officer, however, to whom the execution was 
 committed, concealed the queen, who was in 
 
art] 
 
 ^ ^tfsi Winibtv&Kl Btosraplbl'* 
 
 [asg 
 
 a state of pregnancy, and she was afterwards 
 delivered of a son. 'Die secret LJcing dis- 
 covered to the king, lie applauded the con- 
 duct of the officer, and acknowledged the 
 child as his heir, lie died, .a .d. 240. 
 
 ARTEAGA, Stki'1ie\, a SiJanish Jesuit of 
 the 18th century ; author of a treatise on 
 Ideal Beauty; a history of Italian theatrical 
 music, &c. Died, 1791). 
 
 ARTEDI, Pktek, a Swedish physician 
 and naturalist. After his death, his " Bib- 
 liotheca lethyologica " and " Philosophia 
 Icthyologica " were edited by Linnaius. 
 Born, 171).') ; accidentally drowned, 17iJ.'>. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, Daldiaxi s, an Ephe- 
 sian ; author of a Treatise on Dreams, lie 
 lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius. 
 
 ARTEMIDORUS, also an Ephesian ; au- 
 thor of a geographical work, of which only 
 some fragments remain. lie flourished in 
 the 1st century B.C. 
 
 ARTEMISIA, queen of Caira, and one of 
 the allies of Xerxes at the famous battle of 
 Salamis. 
 
 ARTEMISIA another qneen of Caira, 
 whose splendid monument to her husband, 
 Mausolus, was the origin of the word mau- 
 soleum. Died, Siil B.C. 
 
 ARTEMOX, the inventor of the battering 
 ram and the testudo, was a native of Clazo- 
 ^enc, and cotcmporary with Pericles. 
 ^ ARTEVELLE, James, a rich brewer, of 
 Ghent, who by his wealth, eloquence, and 
 talents, acquired unbounded influence over 
 his countrymen. Having compelled the 
 Count of Flanders to take refuge in France, 
 he formed an alliance with Edward III. of 
 England, and strove to transfer the Flemish 
 sovereignty to the Black Prince. Killed, 
 in a popular tumult, at Ghent, in 13-4.';. 
 
 ARTEVELLE, PiULii', son of the pre- 
 ceding, was chosen by the Flemings as their 
 leader when they revolted against their count 
 in i;?82 ; but after having made himself mas- 
 ter of Bruges, he was defeated and killed at 
 the battle of Rosbecq in tlie same year, 
 
 ARTHUR, a British prince, whose history 
 is so interwoven with romance, that it is 
 difficult to separate the one from the other. 
 He is stated to have succeeded to the rule 
 of Britain, a. d. 51C ; and to have been 
 slain in combat with his nephew, Meudred, 
 in .542. 
 
 AKTIGAS, Dox Jonx, bom at Monte 
 Video, in 1760; first entered the Spanish 
 service ; quitted it, and was foremost among 
 those who fought for independence. He sub- 
 sequently, however, became an object of sus- 
 I>icion to the government of Buenos Ayres ; 
 and, being declared a traitor, took up arms, 
 and possessed himself for some years of the 
 territory called the Banda Oriental ; but 
 having sustained a defeat he was compelled 
 to seek refuge in Paraguay, where he died 
 in ]M2(5. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, IlEyRV, professor of rhe- 
 toric and history at Nimeguen ; author of a 
 treatise " De JVuptiia inter Fratrem et Soro- 
 rem," &c. Born, 1702 ; died, 17r)<J. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, Joiix IIexky, son of the 
 above, professor of law at Utrecht ; author 
 of a work " On the Jurisprudence of the 
 Netherlands," and editor of the works of 
 Arator, &c. Born, 1734 ; died, 1797. 
 
 ARTIZENIUS, Otuo, paternal uncle of 
 the last named, professor of the Belles l.et- 
 trcs at Amsterdam ; author of a dissertation 
 " De Milliario Aureo," &c. Born, 1703 ; died, 
 17(53. 
 
 ARTUSI, Giovanni Jf auia, an ecclesiastic 
 of Bologna ; author of " The Art of Coimter- 
 point," and other musical works. 
 
 ARUNDEL, M A KV, Countess of, a learned 
 lady of the Kith century. She translated 
 the ajiophthegms of the seven wise philoso- 
 phers from the Greek into Latin. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thomas, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in the reigns of Richard II. and 
 Henry IV. and V.. a persecutor of the Lol- 
 lards and AVickliffites, and a chief party in 
 procuring the horrible act De Ileretico Com- 
 burendo. Boni, 1353 ; died, 1413. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thomas Howarp, Earl of, 
 lived in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. ; 
 but he left England at the beginning of the 
 civil wars, and died at Padua, in l<i4ti. The 
 celebrated Arundel ian marbles, presented to 
 the university of Oxford by his grandson, 
 were, with many other valuable relics of 
 antiquity, brought from the Levant at his 
 expense. 
 
 ARUNDEIa Blaxcoe, daughter of the 
 Earl of Worcester, and wife of Lord Arundel; 
 is memorable for having defended Wardour 
 Castle against the parliamentary army under 
 Sir Edward Uuugcrfurd. Boru, 15b3 ; died, 
 1G49. 
 
 ASAPH, St., a British monk of the 5th 
 century, author of the Life of Vortigern,&c. 
 It is from this saint that the Welsh see has 
 its name. 
 
 ASCUAM, RooER, a learned Englishman 
 of the Kith century, who had the honour of 
 directing the studies of queen Elizabeth. Of 
 his writings, the most valuable is his treatise, 
 entitled " The Schoolmaster." Died, 1M8. 
 
 ASCHAM, Anthony, sent by Cromwell, 
 in ICW, as envoy to Spain, where he and his 
 interpreter were assassinated bysome royalist 
 exiles. He was author of a " Discourse 
 on the Revolutions and Confusions of Go- 
 vernments." 
 
 ASCLEPIADES, a Greek physician ; au- 
 thor of" Commentaries on Hippocrates," &c. 
 Died, B.C. 03. 
 
 ASCOLI, Lecco di, a Bologncse mathe- 
 matician of the 14th century ; burned to 
 death at Florence, on an accusation of heresy, 
 in 1.3.58. 
 
 ASDRLTJAL, the son-in-law and succes- 
 sor of Amilcar, the father of Hannibal, in 
 the command of the Carthaginian army in 
 Spain. He extended their conquests in that 
 country, and built New Carthage, now Car- 
 tiiagena. After governing there for eight 
 years, he died by assassination, B.C. 220. 
 
 ASELLI, Caspar, an Italian anatomist of 
 the 17th century. He first discovered the 
 system of vessels called lacteals. 
 
 ASGILL, Sir Charles, a military officer, 
 who was to have suffered death by order of 
 Washington, in retaliation for the death of 
 the American captain Hardy, but was spared 
 at the intercession of the queen of France. 
 Died, 182.3. 
 
 ASGILL, John, an English barrister, ex- 
 pelled from parliament on occount of his 
 blasphemous writings. He fell into poverty, 
 
I ash] 
 
 ^ ^eii) Wimhtxsid ^BtasrapT)!). 
 
 [a ST 
 
 and, for about 30 years, remained a prisoner 
 for debt in the King's Bench. Died, 178;!. 
 
 ASH, JoHX, LL.D., an Anabaptist divine; 
 author of a well known English dictionary. 
 Bom, 1724 ; died, 1779. 
 
 ASHBURTOX, Alexander Bartxo, 
 Lord, the second 'son of Sir Francis Baring, 
 bart., and for many years the head of the 
 great mercantile house. Baring Brothers and 
 Co., was born in 1774. After'due initiation 
 into business in London, he proceeded to the 
 United States to conduct the Transatlantic 
 department of the concern, where he ac- 
 quired all that special information and gene- 
 ral knowledge which he afterwards turned 
 to account in the consolidation of his fortune, 
 and ultimately in the political service of his 
 country. His political life commenced in 
 1812 as member for Taunton, which he con- 
 tinued to represent till 1820 ; after which he 
 sat for Callington in successive parliaments 
 till 1831, and in 1832 he was returned for 
 North Essex. Lord Ashburton commenced 
 life as a Whig. In the House of Commons 
 he spoke frequently on all subjects directly 
 or indirectly connected with commerce ; and, 
 as might have been expected, his position 
 procured him a deferential hearing even from 
 those who were most opposed to his views. 
 On the formation of the Peel ministry in 
 1834, he became president of the Board of 
 Trade ; and in 1835 he was raised to the 
 peerage. In 1842 he was appointed by Sir 
 Robert Peel as a special commissioner to 
 settle the disputes about the Oregon territory, 
 which then threatened to involve this country 
 in a war with America ; and it is but fair to 
 admit that the success of his mission was 
 eminently owing to his personal influence. 
 Lord Ashburton continued to support the 
 policy of Sir Robert Peel, until the final 
 measure of free trade in corn was proi>osed 
 in 1846. His position as a peer and a great 
 landowner probably induced him to view 
 with a different eye the consequences of a 
 measure, to which as a mere merchant he 
 would have lent his support ; but whatever 
 might be his motives, certain it is that he 
 became strenuously opposed to a free trade in 
 corn, which a great part of his life had been 
 spent in promoting. During a long life de- 
 voted to activity, both mercantile and sena- 
 torial, he found leisure to cultivate the fine 
 arts, of which he was a most liberal patron ; 
 and his collection of ancient pictures was 
 unsurpassed by that of any private individual 
 in the empire. Lord Ashburton married, in 
 1798, the daughter of William Bingham, 
 esq., of Philadelphia, and bj-^ that lady, who 
 survived him, he left a numerous family. 
 Died, Unv 13. 1848. 
 
 ASHMOLE, Elias, a celebrated English 
 antiquary of the 17th century. Misled by the 
 notorious Dr. Dee, he dabbled for a time in 
 alchemy ; but fortunately for both his fame 
 and fortune he abandoned that delusive pur- 
 suit, and began to collect materials for the 
 admirable "History of the Order of the 
 Garter," which he afterwards published. 
 Having obtained, by deed of gift, the curi- 
 osities of Tradescant, the famous gardener, 
 he presented them, and subsequently his 
 books and MSS., to the university of Oxford ; 
 and thus laid the foundation of the valu- 
 
 able Ashmolean Museum. Bom, 1617 ; died, 
 1692. 
 
 ASHWELL, George, an English divine 
 of the 17th century ; author of several re- 
 ligious works. Born, 1612 ; died, 1693. 
 
 ASKEW, Akne, one of the victims of the 
 horrible persecutions in the time of Henry 
 VIII. She was burned to death, having 
 previously undergone the torture of the rack, 
 in 1646. 
 
 ASKEW, An?hoky, a physician and scho- 
 lar of the 18th century ; author of an appen- 
 dix to the Greek Lexicon of Scapula, &c. 
 Bom at Kendal, 1722 ; died, 1784. 
 
 ASPASIA, a celebrated Greek lady, a 
 native of Miletus, frequently but en-oneously 
 designated as a courtezan, whose beauty and 
 accomplishments had so powerful an in- 
 fluence, that she numbered even the grave 
 and moral Socrates among her acquaintance; 
 and to marry her the great Pericles divorced 
 Ilia wife. 
 
 ASPINWALL, William, an American 
 physician, was bom in 1743, in Massachusetts, 
 and took his degree at Harvard College, where 
 he was educated. In the war of independ- 
 ence he was appointed a surgeon in the 
 army ; and at the battle of Lexington he 
 fought as a volunteer. He was greatly in- 
 strumental in promoting inoculation for the 
 small-pox ; yet when vaccine inoculation 
 was introduced, he warmly adopted the prac- 
 tice, although it greatly reduced his profes- 
 sional emoluments. Died, 182;i. 
 
 ASSELYN, Joux, a Dutch painter : who 
 chiefly excelled in battle-pieces and liistorical 
 paintings. Born, 1610 ; died, ]6i50. 
 
 ASSEMANI. Stepuex, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding ; keeper of the Vatican library, and 
 author of "Acta Sanctorum Martyrum." 
 
 ASSER, a rabbi of the 5th century ; one 
 of the compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. 
 Died, 427. 
 
 ASSERIUS MENE^TENSIS, a learned ec- 
 clesiastic, the tutor, friend, and biographer 
 of Alfred the Great, by whom he was made 
 bishop of Sherborne. His " Annals " con- 
 tain, at once, the fullest and most authentic 
 account of the life of his august sovereign 
 and friend. Died, 909. 
 
 ASTELL, Mary, the daughter of a mer- 
 chant at Newcastle, and a women of very 
 considerable talent as a polemical disputant. 
 She obtained great popularity among the 
 high church party as one of the most stren- 
 uous impugners of the principles of Locke. 
 Born. 1668 ; died, 1731. 
 
 ASTLE, Thoxlas, an eminent archoBologi- 
 cal writer; author of a treatise " On the Origin 
 and Progress of Writing," &c. &c. Died, 1803. 
 
 ASTLE Y, PiiiLU', author of "Remarks 
 on the Profession and Duty of a Soldier," 
 " A System of Equestrian Education," &c. ; 
 but better known as the founder, and for 
 many years the manager, of the Amphi- 
 theatre, near Westminster Bridge. Bom, 
 1742 ; died, 1814. 
 
 ASTON, Sir Arthur, a brave commander 
 of the roj alist troops in the reign of Charles 
 I., who greatly distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Edge-hill, &c. He was governor of 
 Drogheda in 1649, when it was taken by 
 Cromwell, and is said to have had his brains 
 beaten out ^vith his own wooden leg. 
 
AST] 
 
 ^ IJrlD UniiitrSal 3Bt0grap!)S. 
 
 [att 
 
 ASTON, Sir Thomas, a brave and loyal 
 subject, who, in the civil wars, raised a troop 
 of horse for the king's service ; and was high 
 sheriff of Cheshire, in 1C35. lie was killed 
 while attempting to escai>e after being cap- 
 tured by the republicans, in 164.5. 
 
 ASTORGA, MarqniB, a Spanish grandee, 
 declared a traitor by Napoleon in 1808. 
 
 ASTOIII. Joiiy Anthony, a Venetian 
 scholar of the 17th century ; author of nu- 
 merous dissertations on Greek and Roman 
 literature. 
 
 ASTORINI, Elias, a Neapolitan professor 
 of mathematics ; author of a translation of 
 Euclid, and a Dissertation on the Life of the 
 Foetus, &c. Died, 170S. 
 
 ASTRUC, John, an eminent French phy- 
 sician of the 17th century ; author of the 
 Natural History of Languedoc, some me- 
 dical treatises, &c. Born, IGS-t ; died, 17(>6. 
 
 ATAHUALPA. sometimes written ATA- 
 BALIPA, the last inca of Peru, who was 
 barbarously put to death by the Spaniards, 
 in 15.53. 
 
 ATAIDE, DoM Louis of, a Portuguese 
 noble and military officer, wlio was appointed 
 viceroy of India in 1"»C0, at a period when 
 all the native powers were combined to expel 
 the Portuguese. His eftbrts to quell the 
 revolt were successful, and he returned ; but 
 on being sent out a second time, he died at 
 Goa, 1.580. 
 
 ATANAGL Denis, an Italian author and 
 editor, of the lOth century. Among his 
 works are a " Treatise on the Excellence of 
 History;" an edition of the Rhetoric of 
 Aristotle, &c. 
 
 ATIIANASIITS, St., one of the fathers of 
 the Christian Church, was a native of Egj-pt, 
 and successor of Alexander in the bishopric 
 of Alexandria. His defence of tlie doctrine 
 of the Trinity against Arius and his followers 
 involved him in much difficulty and Buffer- 
 ing, which he Ixire with extraordinary pa- 
 tience and fortitude. Of his numerous 
 writings the most valuable are " The Abridg- 
 ment of the Scriptures," and "The Life of 
 St. Anthony." The creed called by his name 
 is supposed by many to have been written 
 long after his death. Bom, 290 ; died, 373. 
 
 ATHELSTAN, an illegitimate son of Ed- 
 ward the Elder, and his successor on the 
 throne of England, in 92.5. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philoso- 
 pher of tlie 2nd century. He became a con- 
 vert to Christianity, and Clement of Alex- 
 andria was among his pupils. He wrote an 
 " Apology for the Christians," and a treatise 
 " On the Resurrection of the Dead." 
 
 ATHENiEUS, a learned grammarian, 
 born at Naucratis, in Egypt, in the 3rd cen- 
 tury. Tlie only work of his now extant is 
 " The Deipnosophists, or the Table Talk of 
 the Snpliists." 
 
 ATHEN^EUS, of Byzantium, an engineer 
 in the time of the emperor Gallienus ; au- 
 thor of a treatise on the Machines of War. 
 
 ATHENAIS, empress of the West, the 
 daughter of an Athenian sophist, but whose 
 learning and beauty induced Tlieodosius the 
 Younger to marry her, and she took the 
 name of Eudoxia. The emperor, however, 
 became jealous of her, and she was banished 
 to Jerusalem, where she died, in 400. Among 
 
 her writings was a poetical translation of 
 part of the Old Testament. 
 
 ATIIIAS, JosEi'ii, a Jewish printer of 
 Amsterdam in the 17th century ; editor of 
 the Bible in Hebrew, English, Spanish, and 
 Germnn, 
 
 ATHOL, .Toiix MuKR.\T, Duke of, is 
 chiefly remarkable for the events which rose 
 out of' his hereditary connection with the Isle 
 of Man. In 1781 he i>etitioned parliament, 
 complaining of his father's transfer of the 
 sovereignty of that island to the English 
 cro^vn in 1765, for the sum of 70,000/., and an 
 annuity of 2,000/. during the lives of him and 
 his duchess, and praying for a bill to amend 
 it. The question was lost in consequence of 
 a counter-petition from the island ; but the 
 duke was named captain-general and go- 
 vernor-in-chief of the Isle of Man, from I'eb. 
 4. 1793. In 1805 he presented another peti- 
 tion, which met with great opposition on the 
 part of the inhabitants of the island. How- 
 ever, a grant of one-fourth of the customs 
 was made to the duke, in hereditary succes- 
 sion, witli an increase of the annuity. He 
 died in 18,".0, nged 75. 
 
 ATKINSON, TuoMAS, a miscellaneous 
 writer of some note, was bom at Glasgow 
 1801. Among other works, he published (in 
 two senses, for he was a bookseller as well as 
 an outhor) the Chameleon and the Ant, a 
 weekly periodical, and was an extensive con- 
 tributor to many of the local publications. 
 Died on his way to Barbadoes, 1833. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir RouEin', a distinguished 
 lawyer and patriot, who aided in the defence 
 of Lord William Russell, and conducted that 
 of Sir W. Williams, speaker of the House 
 of Commons, when prosecuted for signing j 
 the orders to print Dangerfleld's narrative ' 
 of the Popish Plot. He also distinguished i 
 himself by his opposition to the arbitrary j 
 measures of James II., and at the Revolution 
 was made cliief baron of the Exchequer. 
 He subsequently was made speaker, which 
 office he held till 1093. Born, 1021 ; died, 
 1709. 
 
 ATKYNS, Sir Robert, son of the above, 
 author of " The ancient and present State 
 of Gloucester." Born, 1046 ; died, 1711. 
 
 ATKYNS, RiCHAUD, of the same family 
 with the above ; author of the " Origin and 
 Growth of Printing." Died, 1G77. 
 
 ATRATUS, Hugo, an English cardinal 
 of the 13th century ; a skilful mathemati- 
 cian and natural philosopher ; author of 
 " Canones Medicinales," &c. 
 
 ATTARDI, BoNAVENTURK, provincial of 
 the Augustines in Sicily and Malta, in the 
 18th century; author of "Bilancia della 
 Verita," &c. 
 
 ATTENDOLO, Darius, a military offi- 
 cer of the 10th century ; author of a " His- 
 tory of Duelling," Poems, &c. 
 
 ATTENDOLO, John Baptist, a secular 
 priest and poet of Naples ; author of " Ob- 
 servations on the Poetical Works of Pe- 
 trarch," &c. Died, 1592. 
 
 ATTEUBURY, Francis, an English pre- 
 late, and a preacher of consummate abi- 
 lities, was born in 1002, at Milton Keynes, 
 near Newport Pagnell, and was educated 
 at Westminster School, whence he was sent 
 to Clxrist Church, Oxford. In 1691 he took 
 
att] 
 
 ^ ^ciu miiiO^r^al BtogvajpTji?. 
 
 [aub 
 
 holy orders, and in 1G93 was made chaplain 
 in ordinary to the king, and lecturer at St. 
 Bride's. In these situations, and as preacher 
 at Bridewell, he attracted much notice by 
 the eloquence of his discourses ; but his con- 
 stant advocacy of high cliurch principles 
 exposed him to the attacks of Iloadley, and 
 often of others of less repute. In 1700 he 
 began a controversy on the powers and 
 rights of convocations, in which he acquitted 
 himself so much to the satisfaction of the 
 party with which he sided, that he received 
 the degree of D. D., and the thanks of the 
 lower house of convocation. On the acces- 
 sion of queen Anne, he was made her 
 chaplain in ordinary, and shortly afterwards 
 lie received tlie deanery of Carlisle. His 
 rise henceforth was rapid : he was succes- 
 sively made preacher at tlie Rolls Chaj)el, 
 a canon of Exeter, dean of Christ Church, 
 bishop of Rochester, and dean of West- 
 minster, which last preferment he owed to 
 the recommendation of Lord Oxford. Hi- 
 therto his course had been invariably pros- 
 perous ; but tlie death of queen Anne altered 
 the wliole complexion of his circumstances. 
 His high church principles were sufficiently 
 well known ; and it is asserted that he was 
 imprndent enough to boast, that if a suffi- 
 cient guard could be obtained, he would 
 proclaim the Pretender, and that too in full 
 canonicals. Be this true or false, it is certain 
 that he took several occasions to render 
 himself obnoxious to George I., and was 
 sufficiently active in correspondence with 
 the friends of the Pretender to involve him- 
 self in a "Bill of Pains and Penalties." He 
 died an exile, at Paris, in 1731. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Lewis, LL.D., elder 
 brother of the above ; author of some ser- 
 mons, tracts against Popery, &c. Born, 1650; 
 died, 1731. 
 
 ATTICUS, son of Julius Atticus, and a 
 descendant from the family of Miltiades, ac- 
 quired so much reputation as a teacher of 
 eloquence at Athens, that he was invited by 
 Titus Antoninus to superintend the educa- 
 tion of his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius 
 and Lucius Verus. He subsequen tly became 
 consul, prefect of the free cities of Asia, &c. 
 He employed his great wealth in public 
 works ; but at the close of his life he retired 
 to Marathon, Ms native place, where he died, 
 A.n. 18.5. 
 
 ATTICUS, Titos Pompomus, a Roman 
 
 knight, whose vast wealth enabled him to 
 
 1 aid men of all parties, while his prudence 
 
 j prevented him from siding with any of them 
 
 I in their public measures. He thus escaped 
 
 injury amid the contentions of Cinna and 
 
 Marius, Ca3sar and Pompey, and in the 
 
 horrible times of the Triumvirate. Of the 
 
 ability and influence of Atticus, we may 
 
 form some opinion from the correspondence 
 
 between liim and Cicero. He is said to liave 
 
 written " Annals " of great value ; but it is 
 
 for his prudence, his wealth, and, above all, 
 
 his friendship with Cicero, that he is now 
 
 remembered. Died, r,.c. 33, aged 77. 
 
 ATTILA, king of the Huns, surnamed 
 the Scourge of God. His ruling passion was 
 war ; and the Romans learned to tremble 
 at his name, so terrible were the injuries he 
 inflicted on them. On the last occasion of 
 
 his invading Italy, he spread terror and de- 
 solation over all Lombardy, and the fugitives 
 thence founded the afterwards mighty city 
 of Venice. Died, 453. 
 
 ATTIRET. John Francis, a French Je- 
 suit and painter. Being appointed mis- 
 sionary to Pckin, he acquired great favour 
 with the emperor Kien Long, of whose 
 gardens he wrote a very amusing account. 
 Born, 1702 ; died, 1708. 
 
 ATWOOD, Geouge, F.R. S., an emment 
 mathematician ; author of a " Dissertation 
 on the Construction and Properties of 
 Arches," and many other valuable works 
 on mechanical and mathematical science. 
 Born, 1745 ; died, 1807. 
 
 ATWOOD, Thomas, an eminent musi- 
 cian and composer, born in London, in 1767; 
 commenced his musical education under 
 Dr. Nares, in the choir of the chapel royal, 
 where he early attracted the notice, and 
 gained the patronage of the royal family. 
 In 1783 he set out for Naples, and after 
 studying for a time with Filippo Cinque and 
 Latilla, he proceeded to Vienna, where he 
 reaped great advantages from the celebrated 
 Mozart. In 1790 he was appointed organist 
 of St. Paul's cathedral, and composer to the 
 chapel royal ; he also held the situation of 
 organist at the chapel of the Pavilion, 
 Brighton. His compositions consist of se- 
 veral dramatic pieces, numerous services and 
 anthems, songs, glees, sonatas, and other 
 pieces for the pianoforte. He died March 
 24. 1838, and was buried in St. Paul's. 
 
 AUBAT, Ar.BE, censcnr rnyal in 1784 ; a 
 sarcastic French fabulist, whom Voltaire 
 pronounces first after La Fontaine. 
 
 AUBLET, J. B. C. F., an able French 
 botanist ; author of "llistoires des Plantes 
 de la Guienne Fran<;oise." Born, 1720 ; died, 
 1778. It was in honour of him that Linnreus 
 gave the name of Verbena Aubletia to a 
 species of vervain. 
 
 AUBREY, John, an eminent English to- 
 pographer and antiquary of the 17th century. 
 He left a vast number of MSS., evincing great 
 research : but he only published one work, 
 entitled " Miscellanies," a collection of 
 popular superstitions. Many of his MSS. 
 are in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. 
 Died, abont 1700. 
 
 AUBRIET, Claude, a French painter of 
 natural liistory subjects. Died, 1740. 
 
 AUBRIOT, Hugh, a French merchant, 
 mayor of Paris, and superintendant of 
 finance to Charles V. He was Imprisoned 
 for heresy, but the populace, who had risen 
 against the taxes termed Maillotins, released 
 him, and he escaped to Burgundy. It was 
 from him that the French reformers had the 
 name of Huguenots. 
 
 AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, a French 
 knight of the time of Charles V., who, ac- 
 cording to tradition, was basely murdered, 
 in 1371, by his companion in arms, Richard 
 de Macaire. The murder was discovered by 
 means of a dog of the deceased, who showed 
 the most hostile disposition to the murderer. 
 The king compelled Macaire to fight with 
 his accuser, the dog, in order to decide the 
 case ; and the murderer was conquered. 
 From this story the drama of " The Dog of 
 Montargis " has been taken. 
 
aub] 
 
 ^ ^m SantberiSal MiaQvn^l^u* 
 
 [AUG I 
 
 AUBRY, Jonx Baptist, a French prior, 
 who was deprived of his situation at the re- 
 volution ; author of "Questions Philoso- 
 pliiques sur la Religion Naturelle," &c. 
 Born, IT.'W ; died, 1809. 
 
 AUBRY, Mdlle., a figurante of the French 
 opera, who, in 175)^, publicly personated the 
 " Goddess of Reason " at Paris. 
 
 AUBRY, C. L., a Parisian librarian, and 
 profound mathematician, born in l"4<j ; au- 
 thor of a work addressed to the legislative 
 body in 1799, " On Weights and Measures ; " 
 and iinother " Ou the Decimal System." 
 
 AUBUY, John' Fkaxcis, a French phy- 
 siciiui of the 18th century ; author of " I^s 
 Oracles de Cos," a review of the practice of 
 llilipocrates, and other ancient physicians. 
 
 AUBRY DUBONCIIET, N., a deputy of 
 the Tiers Etat in 1789 ; and author of se- 
 veral works on political economy. 
 
 AUBRY, F.,one of the French Committee 
 of Public Safety in 17i>4, who aimed atcoun- 
 ter-revolution. lie deprived Buonaparte, 
 after the siege of Toulon, of military em- 
 ployments, and reduced him to great dis- 
 tress ; the latter revenged himself after- 
 wards, by preventing his re-entry into 
 France, after his deportation to Cayenne, on 
 the return of some of his fellow-victims. 
 
 AUBRY DE GOUGES, »L\RiE-OLYMriE, 
 a female rei)ul)lican, celebrated for her 
 beauty and talents, born in 1755. She 
 founded the popular female societies called 
 Tricoteuses, aud was a perfect enthusiast in 
 her political opinions. At length she was 
 put to death by Robespierre's party, in con- 
 sequence of their licentious and cruel pro- 
 fligacy having urged her to denounce them 
 in a pamphlet called the " Trois Umes." 
 She died with heroic spirit. She is the 
 author of the "Mt'moires of Madame de 
 Valmont j " of " L' Esclavago des Ntgres," 
 a melodrame ; " Le Marriage de Chi5rubin," 
 a comedy ; aud " Moli&re chez Ninon," an 
 episodical piece, &c. 
 
 AUCIIMUT Y, Sir Samtel, a distinguished 
 English general, lie served with great zeal 
 and ability in North and South America, 
 and when commanding in India, reduced to 
 the dominion of Great Britain the rich set- 
 tlements of Java and Batavia. On his re- 
 turn to Europe, he was appointed to the 
 command in Ireland, where he died in 1822. 
 
 AUCKLAND, William Edex, Lord, an 
 able negotiator, was the third son of Sir 
 Robert Eden, bart., of West Auckland, Dur- 
 ham, lie was appointed tuider -secretary of 
 state in 1772 ; went to Ireland in 1780 with 
 LordCarlisle, as chief secretary ; in 1788 was 
 ambassador to Spain ; and in tlie year fol- 
 lowing was ambassador to Holland. lie 
 wrote " The Principles of Penal Law, " 
 " The History of New Holland," and nume- 
 rous other valuable works. Born, 17-14 ; 
 died, 1814. 
 
 AUDE, Joseph, knight of Malta, bom in 
 1755 ; secretary to the Neapolitan philoso- 
 phical minister, Carraccioli, and subse- 
 quently to tlie French Pliny, Buffon, whose 
 life he published in 1788. He is the author 
 of several dramas; " I,e lleline Angloise," 
 "Le Retour de Camiile," "I^ Nouveau 
 Ricco," and some melodrames ; " The Exiles 
 of Siberia," &c. 
 
 61 
 
 AUDEBERT, Germain, a French lawyer 
 of the ICth century ; author of " Roma," 
 " Venetia," and other Latin poems. Died, 
 1598. 
 
 AUDEBERT, John Baptist, a celebrated 
 French engraver of natural history, born in 
 1739. The spirit of his engravings of 
 monkeys, snakes, birds, &c. is inimitable. 
 Died, 18n<). 
 
 AUDIFREDI, JoHx Baptist, a famous 
 Italian astronomer, born in 1714 ; author of 
 " Demonstrazione delle Stazione della Co- 
 mettt, 17(!9," &c. 
 
 AUDIFFREDY, Therese, born in Gui- 
 nea, in 1757. When returning thither, at IS, 
 from Bordeaux, she was subjected, through 
 the clfect of her youthful beauty, to the re- 
 jected love of the captain of the vessel, but 
 was relieved from his offered violence by 
 Sonnini and tht chevalier Audiffredy, the 
 latter of whom she married ; and becoming 
 one of the richest proprietors in Cayenne, 
 she saved Pichegru, and the numerous de- 
 ported victims of the 18th Fructidor, from 
 being starved to death. 
 
 AUDIXOT, founder of the Thc<atre Audi- 
 not, and the inventor of melodrames, was 
 born at Nancy, about 1750. He was a fa- 
 vourite actor in, as well as author of, many 
 of the latter. He died at Paris, in IHOI. 
 
 AUDLEY, Thomas, chancellor of Eng- 
 land during part of the reign of Henry VIII., 
 and disgracefully subservient to the evil will 
 of that king. Died, 1544. 
 
 AUDRAN, the name of a family of French 
 artists, of whom the following are the most 
 eminent — Charles Audhan, the elder, was 
 bom at Paris, in 1594 ; and died in 1073. 
 
 His works are numerous aud excellent 
 
 Claude, a nephew of the preceding, was 
 born, at Lyons, in 1(W9, and studicil under 
 his uncle. He was employed by I^ Brun in 
 painting part of the pictures of Alexander's 
 battles at Versailles, and became professor 
 of painting in the royal academy of Paris, 
 where he died in 1C84 — Giuakd, the brother 
 of the last-mentioned, and the most cele- 
 brated of the family, was born, at Lyons, in 
 1G40 ; studied under Le Brun at Paris ; and 
 engraved tliat artist's pictures in a masterly 
 style. He died in 1703 — Claude, nephew 
 of Girard, was born, at Lyons, in 1(585. He 
 was celebrated for ornamental designs ; ap- 
 pointed king's painter ; and died in 1734. — 
 Joiix, brother of Claude, was born in l(5(i7 ; 
 studied engraving under hia uncle ; and 
 died, at Paris, in 175G. 
 
 AUDRAN, P. G., was born in Dnuphiny, 
 about 1770 ; and made professor of Hebrew 
 at the College de France, in 1799. Tins 
 scholar taught himself Hebrew by the sy- 
 noptical and analj'tical method first ajjplicd 
 by Dumarsais and De Gebelin to gram- 
 matical science ; and was the author of a 
 "Grammaire Ht'luaique." 
 
 AUDRIEN, Yves M., a French ecclesi- 
 astic, who joined Robespierre, declared for 
 the revolution, and proposed his " Plan d' 
 Education," to withdraw the education of 
 youth from the priesthood. In 1800, while 
 proceeding to his bishoi)rie, he wa.-^ dragged 
 out of his carriage by the Chouans, and as- 
 sassinated. 
 
 AUGE, Daniel Auoentius, a French 
 
AUG] 
 
 ^ fit^ Winihtx^id Mia^YK^lyv, 
 
 [auk 
 
 author of the IfJth centurj'. lie translated 
 portions of St. Macarius and Synesius from 
 the Greek, and wrote numerous dialogues on 
 oratory, &c. 
 
 AUGER, Atiiavasius, a learned ahb'i, 
 and professor of rhetoric at the college of St. 
 Rouen, was born at Paris, in 1734. He pub- 
 lished several political works (among others, 
 " Cati-chisme du Citoyen Francois," &c.) in 
 favour of the revolution. His learned pub- 
 lications are numerous : " Constitution des 
 Remains ;" " De la Tragt'die Grecque;" 
 the complete works of Isocrates, Lysias, Xe- 
 nophon, &e. Died, 1792. 
 
 AUGER, Louis Simox, bom at Paris in 
 1772, was a man of extensive learning, being 
 the conductor of several journals, and one 
 of the principal authors of the Universal 
 Biography. He committed suicide in 1829. 
 
 AUGEREAU,PiEUREFnANCOis Charles, 
 duke of Castiglione, and a marshal of France, 
 was born at Paris, in 1757. Having entered 
 the army early in life, he distinguished him- 
 self, and rose to the rank of brigadier-ge- 
 neral in 1794. At the battles of Castiglione 
 and Arcole, in 179(5, his personal bravery 
 was eminently conspicuous ; and, in short, 
 througli all the campaigns of Napoleon 
 from that time till the memorable retreat 
 from Russia in 1813, he displayed great skill, 
 and filled the most important stations ; re- 
 ceiving as a reward for his services the baton 
 of a field marshal and a dukedom. On the 
 abdication of the emperor, he was among the 
 first to offer his allegiance to the Bourbons, 
 for which lie was amply rewarded ; yet, it is 
 said, he was equally ready on Napoleon's 
 return from Elba to serve his old master, 
 who, however, rejected liis services, and de- 
 clared him a traitor. He died in 1816. 
 
 AUGURELLO, Giovanni Aukelio, an 
 Italian poet and professor of tlie heUes let- 
 tres; author of " ChrysopoBia," and other 
 poems, Latin and Italian. Born, 1440 ; 
 died, 1524. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, St., bishop of Hippo, and 
 one of the fathers of the Christian Church, 
 was born at Tagaste, in Africa, a.d. 354. 
 He was in his youth attached to the Mani- 
 chean doctrines, and of very loose morals ; 
 but his conversion from his errors was com- 
 plete and permanent ; and lie wrote with 
 great zeal, and very voluminously, against 
 all the sects which the Church held to be he- 
 retical. He died in 430. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, St., styled the 
 Apostle of the English, was sent by pope 
 Gregory I. at the head of 40 monks to preach 
 the gospel in England. He landed in 595 ; 
 and so rapid was his success, that the pope 
 made him arphbishop of Canterbury, Kent 
 being the first scene of his invaluable labour. 
 Elated by the success of his mission, he en- 
 deavoured to bring the Welsh bishops, who 
 were descendants of the Britisli converts of 
 the second century, under the jurisdiction 
 of the Cliurch of Rome, to which they had 
 never submitted ; but they asserted their in- 
 dependence, and 1200 monks of Bangor were 
 soon after put to the sword by Etlielfrid, 
 king of Northumberland, at the instigation, 
 it is said, of the ofiended prelate. He died 
 early in the 7th century, but the year of his 
 death is variously given. 
 
 AUGUSTIN, AsTHONY, a Spanish pre- 
 late of the ICth century ; author of some 
 treatises on law and on medals. Died, 
 1586. 
 
 AUGUSTLTLUS, Romulus, the last em- 
 peror of the West, was raised to the throne 
 by his father, the patrician Orestes, who 
 deposed Julius Nepos, in 470 ; but his reign 
 was little more than nominal, and of very 
 short duration ; being soon after conquered 
 and dethroned by Odoacer, king of the 
 Heruli, who spared his life, and allowed him 
 a pension. 
 
 AUGUSTUS, Caius Julius Caesar Oc- 
 TAViANUS, a Roman emperor, was the son 
 of Caius Octavius and Accia, niece of Julius 
 Cassar, who, on the death of his father, which 
 hapi)encd when he was only four years old, 
 adopted him as his son. When Caesar was 
 assassinated, Octavius (for by that name he 
 was called before his accession to the throne), 
 was in Epirus, whence he immediately re- 
 turned to secure his inheritance, and entered 
 into an alliance with Anthony and Lepidus, 
 though he at first was inimical to the former. 
 The triumvirate thus formed shed the best 
 blood of Rome ; and Octavius was fully as 
 guilty as either of his associates. At length 
 Lepidus was deposed, Antony hurried to ruin 
 and death, and Octavius, then 36 years of age, 
 became emperor, with the title of Augustus. 
 As emperor, his course was wise and benefi- 
 cent ; literature and the arts flourished under 
 his auspices ; good laws were enacted ; and 
 he was in many respects deserving of the 
 lavish praise heaped upon him by the writers 
 of that time. Born, B.C. G3 ; died, a.d. 14. 
 
 AULISIO, Doiiixic, a Neapolitan pro- 
 fessor of civil law, but more celebrated as 
 a linguist, and for his great proficiency in 
 general science and the beUes Icftres. He 
 was author of "Commentaries on Civil 
 Law," a " History of the Rise and Progress 
 of Medicine," &c. Born, 1639 ; died, 1717. 
 
 AULNAGE, F. H. S. de, a Spanish writer, 
 bom in 1739 ; author of a work on ancient 
 pantomime, and of " Histoire Gunerale dea 
 Religions," &c. 
 
 AULUS GELLIUS, a grammarian in the 
 reigns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius ; 
 chiefly remembered for his " Noctes Attica;." 
 AUNGERVILLE, Richard, or Richard 
 DE Bury, was the tutor of Edward III., by 
 whom he was made bishop of London, lord 
 high chancellor, lord high treasurer, &e. 
 He was a munificent patron of learning, and 
 the author of a learned work, entitled " Phi- 
 lobiblion." Born, 1281 ; died, 1.345. 
 
 AUNOY, Countess of, a lively French au- 
 thoress of the 17th century. Died, 1705. 
 
 AURELIAN, Lucius Domitius, a Roman 
 emperor, was the son of a peasant, and born 
 in Pannonia, about tlie year 220. Having 
 throughout an active life greatly distin- 
 guished himself as a skilful, valiant, and 
 successful general, he was chosen emperor i 
 on the deatli of Claudius II. in 270. He ' 
 drove the Barbarians from Italy, conquered 
 Tetricus, who had assumed the purple in 
 Gaul, and vanquished the celebrated Zeno- 
 bia, of Palmyra, and carried her a prisoner 
 to Rome ; but while on his march towards 
 Persia, in 275, he was assassinated by his 
 mutinous troops. 
 
aur] 
 
 a iSit\a Winibtxgnl JJtosrapl^g. 
 
 [avi 
 
 AURELIO, Louis, an Italian monk of the 
 17tli century ; author of an account of the 
 Bohemian rebellion, lie also abridged the 
 Universal History of Turselliuus, and other 
 work?. Died, icaz. 
 
 AURIA, ViNCHNTio, a Sicilian author of 
 the 17th century. His priucipal work is a 
 history of eminent Sicilians. Born, lC2o ; 
 died, 1710. 
 
 AURIGNI, Giles, a French lawyer and 
 poet of th« 10th century : author of a poem, 
 entitled " Tuteur d' Amour," and some 
 other works of no great value. 
 
 AURUNGZEHE, the Great Mogul, or em- 
 peror of liindostan, waa the third son of 
 Shah Jehan. His early life was marked by 
 gravity and seeming deTotion, but these 
 were merely the disguise of an ambitiouB 
 and crafty spirit. He deposed his father, 
 put to death two of his brothers, aud the 
 sou of tlie elder of them, aud assumed the 
 sovereign authority. 111. however, m he 
 obtained his power, he used it with skill and 
 courage. He subdued Golconda, the Car- 
 natic, Visapour, aud Bengal, and routed the 
 l>iratcs who had infested the mouth of the 
 Gauges. His achievements obtainc<l him 
 the respect of European ae well as Asiatie 
 powers. But the close of his life was em- 
 bittered bj; th« rebellious conduct of hi« 
 sons, who aimed at deposing him, as he ha<l 
 deposed his father. Born, IGIS ; died, 1707. 
 After the death of Aurungzebe, the might 
 and spleudour of the Mogul empire rapidly 
 declined. 
 
 AUSEGIUS, a Freneh abbot of the 9th 
 century, who made a collection of the capi- 
 tularies of Charlemagne and his son Louis, 
 which has been several times reprinted. 
 Died, 8:M. 
 
 AUSONIUS, Decii's Magnus, a Roman 
 poet of the 4th century ; son of Julius Auso- 
 uius, a physician of Bordeaux. He early 
 gave proof of genius, and was appointed 
 tutor to Gratian, son of the emx>eror Va- 
 lentinian ; and when his pupil came to the 
 throne, he made him priutorian prefect of 
 Gaul, and subsequently raised him to tlie 
 consulship. His poems are rarious both as 
 to suVyect and merit : but though they con- 
 tain much that is beautiful, they are but too 
 frequently deformed by licentiousness. 
 
 AUSTEN, Jaxe, the celebrated authoress 
 of " Pride and Prejudice," " Sense and Sen- 
 sibility," aud other prose fictions, was the 
 daugliter of a clergyman in Hampsliire. 
 Born. 1775 ; died, unmarried, 1817. 
 
 AUSTREA, D. Juas, a Spanish admiral, 
 born in 154o ; remembered as the conqueror 
 of the Turks at Leiianto. 
 
 AUVERGNE, Antuoxy, a French musi- 
 cian and composer of the 18th century, who 
 composed the first comi« opera ever per- 
 formed in France. Died, 1797. 
 
 AVALOS, FEHDijrAJTD, marquis of Pes- 
 cara, a brare Neapolitan soldier, and the 
 author of a " Dialogue on Love," which he 
 wrote while a prisoner of war, and dedicated 
 to his wife, the beautiful Vittoria Colonna. 
 Bom. 1489; died, 152.^ 
 
 AVAI/OS, Alpiionso, marquis del Vasto, 
 nephew of the preceding, was born at 
 Naples, in 1502, and obtained the command 
 of the imperial army at his uncle's death, 
 
 for tlie brilliant valour he displayed at the 
 siege of Pavia. Died, 154*!. 
 
 AVAUX, Claude de Mesne, Count of, a 
 celebrated Freneh diplomatist, and an ac- 
 complished scholar. Died, 1050. 
 
 AVELLANEDA,Alpiionsus Fernandez 
 DK, a Spanish writer, who, to the great 
 annoyance of Cerrantes, wrote a continua- 
 tion of the first part of Don (Quixote. 
 
 AVELLONE, F., an Italian di-amatic 
 writer, born in 1750, whose pieces are nu- 
 merous, and many of them successful ; " Lan- 
 terne Mngique," " Jules Willenvel," &c. 
 
 AVERANI, Be.nedict, a Florentine, was 
 a learned and voluminous prose writer and 
 poet. Born, 1045 ; died, 1707. 
 
 AVERANI, Joseph, brother of the above; 
 author of various scientific treatises, and of 
 a defence of Galileo. 
 
 AVEN TINE, John, a native of Bavaria ; 
 author of the "Annals of Bavaria," and of 
 a curious work, entitled " Numerandi per 
 Digitus," &c. Born, 1400 ; died, 15»4. 
 
 A\ENZOAR, or EBN ZOAR, an Arabian 
 physician of the I2th century, bom at Se- 
 ville ; author of a medical comi)eudium, 
 entitled " Al Theiser." 
 
 AVERDY, Ci.KMENT Charles de l', 
 comptroller-general of France in the 18th 
 century ; author of" Code Penal," and other 
 useful works. lie was guillotined in 1704, 
 on a charge of having caused the scarcity of 
 wheat which then afliicfed France. 
 
 AVEUROES, or AVEN ROSCII, an Ara- 
 bian j>hilosoplier and physician of the 12th 
 century. His talents caused liim to be made 
 chief ruler of Morocco by the caliph, Jacob 
 Almanzor, but being accused of heresy by 
 the Mahonietan priests, ^le was imprisoned 
 and otherwise persecuted. Again, however, 
 lie acquired both the royal favour and the 
 popular confidence, and died at Morocco, 
 in 1108, in possession of the highest honours 
 below the sovereignty. He was author of a 
 paraphrase of Plato's Republic, and several 
 other works. 
 
 AVESBURY, RonERT of, an English 
 writer of the 14th century ; author of a his- 
 tory of Edward III. 
 
 AVIANO, Jerome, an Italian poet of the 
 IGth ceuturv. 
 
 AVICENNA, otherwise EBN-SINA, an 
 Arabian philosopher and physician of the 
 11th century. Of his numerous works the 
 most Tnluable are his " Commentaries on 
 Aristotle." He died in great poTcrty, 10;57. 
 
 AVIENUS, RuKus Festus, a Latin poet 
 of the 4th century. 
 
 AVIGNY, C. J. L., a national French poet, 
 born at Martinique, in 1700 ; author of 
 "Jeanne d'Arc," "Le Depart de la Pu- 
 rouse ; " and some successful dramas, " Les 
 Lettres," " Les Deux Jockeys," " Doria," 
 Sec. His best prose production is on the 
 progress of the British power ia India, in- 
 serted in Michard's " Histoire de Mysore." 
 
 AVILA, John d', a Spanish priest, who 
 for the space of 40 years journeyed through 
 the Andalusian mountains and forests, en- 
 forcing by his precepts and example the doc- 
 trines of the gospel ; on which account he 
 acquired the arpellation of the Apostle of 
 Andalusia. Died, 1509. 
 
 AVLLA Y ZUNIGA, Louis d', adistin- 
 
 63 
 
 q8 
 
AVl] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Bnibtx^aX Masx^i^\iV. 
 
 [azz 
 
 guished diplomatist, warrior, and historian, 
 under Charles V. He wrote " Commenta- 
 ries " on the wars of Jiis sovereign, who so 
 much admired them, that lie deemed himself 
 more fortunate than Alexander, in having 
 such an historian. 
 
 AVIRON, James i.e Bathelier, a French 
 lawyer of the ICth century ; author of 
 " Commentaries on the Provincial Laws of 
 Normandy." 
 
 AVISON, Charles, a composer and mu- 
 sician ; autlior of " Essays on Musical Ex- 
 pression," &c. Died, 1770. 
 
 AVITUS, Marcus M.eciltus, raised to 
 the empire of the West on the death of 
 Maximus, in 455, but deposed after a reign 
 of only 14 months. 
 
 AVOGADRO, Lucia, an Italian poetess, 
 whose early talents won the praise of Tasso. 
 Died, 15(58. 
 
 AYALA, Peter Lopez d', a learned, 
 brave, and eloquent Spanish statesman, was 
 born in Murcia, in 13.32. After serving under 
 four Castilian mouarchs, both in the council 
 and the field, and distinguishing himself 
 also as a man of erudition, he died in 1407. 
 
 AYALA, a Dutch physician who practised 
 at Antwerp in the Kitli century ; author of 
 a '• Treatise on the Plague," " Carmen pro 
 vera jMediciua," &c. 
 
 AYESHA, daughter of Abubeker, and fa- 
 vourite wife of Mahomet. On the death of 
 her husband she resorted to arms to oppose 
 the succession of Ali ; but tliough conquered 
 by him she was dismissed in safety, and died 
 in retirement at Mecca, in 677. The Mussul- 
 mans venerate her memory, and designate 
 her the prophetess. 
 
 AYLMER, JoHff , bishop of Loudon in the 
 reign of queen Elizabeth. He was a ready, 
 but not very rigidly principled writer ; and 
 was more disposed to intolerance than is 
 consistent with the character of a true 
 Christian. Born, 1521 ; died, 1534. 
 
 AYLOFFE, Sir Joseph, an able antiquarj' 
 of the 18tli century. He was keeper of the 
 state papers, and author of " Tlie Universal 
 Librarian," besides numerous other works. 
 Bom, 1708 ; died, 1781. 
 
 AYMON, Joiix, a Piedmontese priest of 
 the 17th century. He abjured Papacy for 
 the doctrines of Calvin, but returned to his 
 original faith, and had a pension from the 
 Cardinal do Noaillcs. Availing himself of 
 his intimacy witli the librarian of the royal 
 collection at Paris, he stole some JIBS., one 
 of which, an account of the synod of Jeru- 
 salem in 1(572, he published in Holland. He 
 wrote a "Picture of the Court of Rome," 
 and some other works. 
 
 AYRAULT, Pierre, a French lawyer of 
 the 16th century ; author of a treatise " De 
 Patris Jure," occasioned by the seduction 
 of his son by the Jesuits, and other works. 
 Born. 1536 ; died, 1601. 
 
 AYRTON, Edmuxd, a composer of cathe- 
 dral music, and one of the directors of the 
 Commemoration of Handel. Born, 1734 ; 
 died, 1808. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, George Edward, son of 
 the Dean of Bristol, by a sister of the first 
 Lord Lyttleton. He was the author of a 
 volume of travels on the continent, and the 
 tragedy of Semiramis. Died, 1779. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, Samuel, an industrious 
 literary character of the last century. He 
 contributed largely to the British Critic and 
 other periodicals ; and compiled a variety 
 of laborious indexes, of which his index to 
 Shakspearc is the principal. He was curate 
 of St. Giles's, and lecturer at Shoreditch. 
 Born, 1745 ; died, 1804. 
 
 AYSCUE, Sir George, a distinguished 
 admiral in the time of Cromwell, and one 
 of the coadjutors of Blake in his famous 
 action w^ith the Dutch admiral. Van Tromp. 
 At the restoration he M-as made rear-admiral 
 of the Blue ; and being captured in Albe- 
 marle's action oif Dunkirk, remained many 
 years a prisoner. 
 
 AYTON, Sir Robert, a native of Fife- 
 shire, in Scotland, a poet of considerable 
 merit, was born in 1570. He wrote in Greek, ! 
 Latin, and French, as well as English. Died, i 
 10S8. I 
 
 AZAIS, P. H., born in 1766 ; author of a ! 
 "Systeme Universel," and the editor of 
 several literary and political works, "Le 
 Mercure," " Ari.starque," &c. 
 
 AZARA, Don Joseph Nicholas d', a 
 Spanish grandee, born in Arragon, 1721 ; 
 ambassador, first to Rome, ancl next to 
 France ; a good writer in Spanish, Italian, 
 and French ; a ripe antiquarian, and a great 
 patron of the fine arts. His " Suite de Pierres 
 Gravees," published in Spain, is much es- 
 teemed. He translated into Spanish "Mid- 
 dleton's Life of Cicero," " Bowles's Natural 
 History of Spain," "Seneca," and "I5o- 
 doni's Horace." He died suddenly, by his 
 fireside, in 1804. 
 
 AZARA, Feli.v d', a Spanish naturalist 
 and traveller of the 18th century ; autlior of 
 a " Natural History of Paraguay ," and other 
 valuable works. Born, 1746 ; the time of 
 his death is uncertain. 
 
 AZNAR, count of Gaseony, distinguished 
 for quelling an insurrection of the Navarrese 
 Gascons in 824 ; but being discontented with 
 Pepin, king of Aquitaine, for whom he put 
 down the insurgents, lie subsequently, in 
 831, seized on a part of Navarre, and became 
 the founder of the kingdom of that name. 
 Died, 830. 
 
 AZUNI, DoMixic Albert, a Sardinian, 
 born in 1760. He was the author of " Systfeme 
 Universel du Droit Maritime de I'Europe, 
 &c., a w^ork of the highest merit, written in 
 the purest French. Made president of the 
 Genoese board of trade by Napoleon, he fell 
 with his patron, and retired to private life. 
 Died, 1827. 
 
 AZZO, Fortius, an Italian jurist of the 
 13th century ; author of "A Summary of the 
 Codes or Institutes." He is said to have been 
 executed for killing a man in a personal 
 conflict. 
 
;aa] 
 
 ^ ^tio Wiiiibtv^Kl 2SiO0rajp]^i|. 
 
 [bag 
 
 B. 
 
 BAAITDTN, Mahomet Gebet Amali, a 
 Persian (lo<:tor ; author of '• A Summary of 
 Canon and Civil Law," which he wrote by 
 order of Alphas tlie Great, and in liis name. 
 
 BAAN, JunN n', a Dutch portrait painter, 
 who was employed in England under the 
 patronage of Charles II. Died, 1702. 
 
 BAAN, James, son of the above, and of 
 tlie same profession. Died, 1700. 
 
 BAARSDORP, Cornki-its, physician to 
 the emperor Charles V. ; author of "Methodus 
 UniversiE Artis Medicaj." Died, loC.S. 
 
 BAART, Pktek, a Fleming of the 18th 
 century ; author of "Flemish Georgies," &c. 
 
 BABA, a Turkish impostor of the l.Jth 
 century, who atFected to have a mission from 
 Heaven. He had many followers in Natolia, 
 which country he overran ; but his success 
 was only temporary, and his sect sunk into 
 obscurity. 
 
 BABACOUSCHI, a mufti of the city of 
 
 Caffii, in Mauris, who died in the year of 
 
 the Ilcgira, 7H3. His real name was Abda- 
 
 rahman Mosthafa ; and he was author of a 
 
 I work, entitled " The Friend of Princes." 
 
 BAUEK, KiioKEMi, a Persian impostor, 
 ] surnamcd the Impious, who, in the early 
 part of the 'Jth century, appeared as the apos- 
 tle of a new religion. For 20 years he baffled 
 all the attempts that were made to put him 
 down ; but at length he was taken prisoner, 
 and suffered a cruel death, in 8H7. 
 
 BABIN, Fkaxcis, a French divine and , 
 professor of divinity at Angers ; editor of 
 " The Conferences of the Diocese of Angers." I 
 Died, 17.<4. I 
 
 BABINGTON, Axthont, a gentleman of , 
 good family and fortune in Derbyshire, who 
 was detected in a conspiracy to assassinate 
 queen Elizabeth, for which he was executed 
 in 1.586. ' 
 
 BABINGTON, Gervase, a bishop of 
 Worcester, at the end of the Kith and begin- 
 ning of the 17th centuries. He was a learned 
 and pious man, and a considerable benefac- 
 tor to the library of Worcester cathedral. 
 He successively held the bishoiirics of Llan- 
 daff, Exeter, and Worcester. 
 
 BABINGTON, Dr. William, an eminent 
 physician, and lecturer on medicine and 
 chemistry at Guy's Hospital, was bom in 
 17"(7 ; and after a long life of usefulness in 
 his profession, of which he was a distin- 
 guished ornament, died in April, ISSii, aged 
 76. He was the author of "A New System 
 of Mineralogy," besides some other scientific 
 treatises. 
 
 BABCEUF, Fraxcis Noel, a violent par- 
 tizan of tiie French revolution. He con- 
 ducted a journal called "The Tribune of 
 the People," the object of which was to 
 overthrow society as at present constituted ; 
 and his share in a conspiracy for this pur- 
 pose being proved, he was condemned to be 
 guillotined, 1797. 
 
 BABUR, or BABR, Mohammed, a sove- 
 reign of the Mogul empire, in Western Tar- 
 tary and Khorassan, who ascended tiie tlu-one 
 in 1491, and who, in 1523, invaded and con- 
 
 quered Hindostan. Tie died in 1530, and 
 his posterity reigned over ludia for two cen- 
 turies and a half. Babur was tlie great 
 grandson of Tnmcrlane. 
 
 BACAI, Ibrahim Bex Omar, author of 
 lives of eminent men, &c. Died, 835 of the 
 Hegira. 
 
 BACCAINI, Benedict, professor of ec- 
 clesiastical history at Modena, and author 
 of various learned works. Born, 1657 ; died, 
 1721. 
 
 BACCALARY SANNA, Vincent, mar- 
 quis of St. Vincent, an able commander and 
 statesman under Charles II. and Philip V. 
 of Spain ; author of "Memoirs of Philip V." 
 &c. Died. 1726. 
 
 BACCHIS, sometimes called BALUS, a 
 king of Corinth, who ruled with such mo- 
 deration and equity, that to commemorate 
 him his successors were called BacchidiE. 
 
 BACCHUS, king of Mauritania, son-in- 
 law of Jugurtha, whom he betrayed into the 
 hands of the Romans under Sylla. 
 
 BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric poet, who 
 flourished about 450 years is.c. He was the 
 cotemporary and rival of Pindar ; and Ho- 
 race is said to have imitated him in some of 
 his Odes. 
 
 BACCIO, Andrew, an Italian physician 
 of the 16th century ; author of several trea- 
 tises on poisons, antidotes, &c. 
 
 BACCIO, FRANcii^co Bartolomeo, an 
 eminent jwrtrait and historical painter, was 
 bom at Savignano, near Florence, in 14<J9. 
 He is considered the inventor of the jointed 
 lay figure, used by painters ; and is the first 
 who painted draperies with grace and cor- 
 rectness. Died, 1517. 
 
 BACELLAR, Anthoxv Barbosa, a Por- 
 tuguese poet, historian, and civilian ; but 
 who is chiefly remembered for a work in de- 
 fence of the house of Bragauza, which paved 
 his way to fortune, and established him as a 
 favourite at the court. 
 
 BACH, John Sebastian, a German mu- 
 sician of first-rate merit. He is said to have 
 equalled Handel as an organist ; and as a 
 scientific composer he has attained a cele- 
 brity rarely excelled. He had 11 sons, all 
 of whom followed their father's profession. 
 Bom, 1085 ; died, 1754. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Francis le Coioneux 
 de, a French lawyer and poet, co-author 
 with Chapelle of a lively and spirited piece, 
 in prose and verse, entitled " A Journey to 
 Montpelier." Born, 1024 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BACHAUMONT, Louis Petit, a French 
 writer ; author of a voluminous work, en- 
 titled "Secret Memoirs towards a History 
 of the French Republic of Letters," &c. 
 Died, 1771. 
 
 BACHELIER, Nicholas, a French sculp- 
 tor, pupil of Michael Angelo. Several of 
 his productions are in the cathedral of Tou- 
 louse, his native city. Died, 1554. 
 
 BACHELIER, John James, a French 
 painter, born in 1724, was director of the 
 royal porcelain manufactory o! Sevres, and 
 the discoverer of an encaustic composition 
 
BAC] 
 
 ^ i^tbi minhex^nl %iag^a^\)\j. 
 
 [bad 
 
 for the preservation of marble statues. He 
 established a school for gratuitously teach- 
 ing the art of drawing. Died, 1805. 
 
 BACHMEISTER, II. L. C, a miscella- 
 neous writer, born at Ilernhorn, in the prin- 
 cipality of Nassau-Dillenbourg, in 1736 i 
 author of " An Abridgment of the Geogra- 
 phy of the Russian Empire," " A Collection 
 of Memoirs relating to Peter I.," " The 
 Russian Library," 11 vols. &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 BACICI, Jous Baptist Gauli, an Italian 
 painter, chiefly of scriptural subjects and 
 portraits. Born, 1639 ; died, 1709. 
 
 BACKER, James, a Dutch historical 
 painter of great ability. Born at Antwerp, 
 in 1530 ; died, 1560. 
 
 BACKER, Jacob, a portrait and historical 
 painter. Born at Harlingen, 1609 ; died, 1651. 
 
 BACKHOUSE, William, an English 
 astronomer and alchemist ; author of " Tlie 
 Complaint of Nature," " The Golden Fleece," 
 &c. Died, 1662. 
 
 BACKIIUYSEN, Rudolph, or LuDOLPn, 
 an eminent painter, whose sea-pieces are 
 worthy of the highest praise. He studied 
 nature attentively in all her forms, and gave 
 to every subject such transparency and lus- 
 tre, as placed him above all the artists of 
 his time, except the younger Vandervelde. 
 Indeed, it is said to have been his frequent 
 custom, whenever he could procure resolute 
 mariners, to go to sea in a storm, in order 
 to store his mind with images of the angry 
 elements, and to work incessantly on his 
 return, while they were vividly impressed on 
 liis memory. Born at Embden, 1631 ; died, 
 1709. 
 
 BACKLER D'ALBE, Baron Aubert 
 Louis, an eminent French militarj' geogra- 
 pher and engineer ; author of a " Cliart of 
 the Theatre of War in the first Campaigns 
 of Buonaparte in Italy," &c. Born at St. 
 Pol, 1761 ; died at Paris, 1824. 
 
 BACON, Robert, an English friar ; di- 
 vinity lecturer at Oxford ; author of " The 
 Life of St. Edmund, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury," &c. Died, 1248. 
 
 BACON, Roger, a celebrated English friar 
 and philosopher. He was bom at Ilchester, 
 Somersetshire, in 1214, and received his 
 education at Oxford and Paris. He was so 
 ardent in his pursuit of knowledge, that he 
 expended 200UZ. in the course of 20 years. 
 His attainments caused him to be much per- 
 secuted by his ignorant contemporaries, who 
 imputed them to magic. Several of his 
 works remain in MSS., but the chief of them 
 are collected in one folio volume, entitled 
 "Opus Majus." Considering the time at 
 which he lived, he was unquestionably a 
 very great man ; for though his natural 
 philosophy is in some particulars erroneous, 
 it is quite clear that he at least approximated 
 to the discovery of the telescope, the camera 
 obscura, and gunpowder ; and he not only 
 detected the error of the calendar, but 
 actually suggested the reformation after- 
 wards made in it by pope Gregory XIII. 
 Died, 1292. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nicholas, keeper of the 
 great seal, and privy councillor to queen 
 Elizabeth. He was the first lord keeper 
 that ranked as lord chancellor. Born, 1510 ; 
 died, 1579. 
 
 BACON, AxNE, second wife of the above ; 
 a lady remarkable for her intimate acquaint- 
 ance with both the ancient and modern lan- 
 guages. She translated "The Sermons of 
 Ochinus " from tlie Italian, and " Bishop 
 Je .\ ell'sApology for the Churcli of England " 
 from the Latin, Born, 1528 ; died, 1600. 
 
 BACON, Francis, an eminent statesman, 
 and still more eminent philosopher, son of 
 the lord keeper, Sir Nicholas Bacon, by his 
 second wife. During the reign of Elizabeth 
 he made no great progress, but on the acces- 
 sion of James I. he was knighted, and made 
 one of the king's counsel. In., tlie following 
 year he was made solicitor-general ; and 
 during the 14 years following he continued 
 to rise till he became high chancellor of 
 Great Britain, baron Verulam, and viscount 
 St. Alban's. His fall was as sudden as his 
 rise had been great : being accused of cor- 
 ruption in his office, he was dismissed and 
 heavily fined ; and though he was subse- 
 quently noticed by Charles I., he spent the 
 remainder of his life in obscurity. It is 
 rather as a philosopher than as a statesman 
 that he demands our admiration. His works 
 are invaluable, and too numerous to be men- 
 tioned here ; but if none of them existed but 
 his "Novum Organum Scientiarum," he 
 would have earned himself a deathless name. 
 Born, 1561 ; died, 1626. 
 
 BACON, Anthony, elder brother of the 
 chancellor, a skilful politician, and a friend 
 of the Earl of Essex. As he spent the greater 
 portion of his time abroad, and was much 
 devoted to learned pursuits, he became per- 
 sonally acquainted with most of the foreign 
 literati, and was also honoured with the 
 friendship of Henry IV. of France. 
 
 BACON, Sir Nathaniel, half brother of 
 the chancellor. He possessed great ability 
 as a landscape painter. Died, 1615. 
 
 BACON, Puanuel, an English divine ; 
 author of some dramas, and a poem, entitled 
 " The Artificial Kite." Died, 1783. 
 
 BACON, John, an eminent English sculp- 
 tor, and the inventor of a method of making 
 statues in artificial stone. His chief works 
 are a bust of George III., in the hall of 
 Cliristehurch, Oxford, Lord Chatham's mo- 
 numents in Guildhall and Westminster 
 Abbey, and those of Dr. Johnson and Mr. 
 Howard in St. Paul's. Bom, 1740 ; died, 
 17t)9. 
 
 BACON, or BACONTHOKPE, John, 
 called the resolute doctor, an English monk ; 
 author of a " Compendium of the liaw of 
 Christ," &c. Died, 1346. 
 
 BACQUET, a French advocate ; author 
 of various law treatises, of which an edition, 
 in 2 vols., was published at Lyons, in 1744. 
 Died, 1597. 
 
 BADCOCK, Samuel, an English divine 
 and author of no mean celebrity, but chiefly 
 known by his critiques in the Monthly Re- 
 view. Born, 1747 ; died, 1788. 
 
 BADEN, James, professor of Latin and 
 eloquence in the universitj' of Copenhagen ; 
 author of a Danish and German Dictionary, 
 a translation of Tacitus, &c. Born, 1735 ; 
 died, 1805. 
 
 BADEN, Richard de, chancellor of Cam- 
 bridge in 1326, when he founded University 
 Hall. That building being bui-nt down, a 
 
b^vd] 
 
 ^ f^cia mnibtt^aX 3BuisrapTji|. 
 
 [bai 
 
 new edifice was erected by the daughter of 
 Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who gave 
 it the name it still bears of Clare Hall. 
 
 BADENS, FuANCis, a portrait and histo- 
 rical painter, born at Antwerp, 1571 ; died, 
 
 imi. 
 
 I BADIA, Domingo, a Spanish traveller, 
 was born in 17(MJ. Being well skilled in 
 I Arabic, he determined on travelling in the 
 I East ; and liaving submitted to a well-known 
 ! Mussulman rite, he waa personally (iualilied 
 i for the task, and assumed the uameof Ali 
 j Bey. Under this disguise he visited Tripoli, 
 I Egypt, Mecca, and Syria undiscovered, and 
 j was everywhere received with favour, as a 
 I true believer. It is now known that he was 
 employed as a political agent by the Prince 
 I of Peace, at the instigation of Buonaparte ; 
 and on his return to his native country he 
 ! espoused the French cause there. After the 
 ' battle of Vittoria, he took refuge in France, 
 
 and died there in 1824. 
 I BADILE, Antonio, an Italian painter, 
 i celebrated for the accuracy and colouring of 
 his portraits, but deriving still greater ho- 
 nour from haviug two such disciples as Paul 
 : Veronese and Baptista Zelotti. Born, 11»U ; 
 died, 1500. 
 
 B A DUEL, Claude, a French Protestant 
 divine ; author of some theological treatises, 
 &c. Died, 15H1. 
 
 BAEHSTKAT, a Dutch painter, cliiefly 
 of sea pieces. Died, lOiJ/. 
 
 BAFFIN, WiLLiAJrt, an English navigator 
 of the 17th century, famous for his disco' 
 vcries in tlie Arctic regions, was born in 1.W4. 
 He visited West Greenland in 1(512, again in 
 mio, and made a voyage to Spitzbergen in 
 1014. In 1C23 aud 1024 he ascertaine<l the 
 limits of tliat vast iulet of the sea, since dis- 
 tinguished by the appellation of BalHu's 
 Bay. 
 
 BAG DE DIN, Mahomet, an Arabian ma- 
 thematician of the 10th century ; author of 
 a treatise " On the Division of Superficies," 
 of which there is a Latia version by John 
 Dee. 
 
 BAGE, RoBEKT, an English novelist, was 
 born at Derby, in 1728 ; and died at Tam- 
 worth, in 1801. During the greater part of his 
 life he followed the occupation of a paper 
 maker. "Mount Kenneth," "Barham 
 Downs," " The Fair Syrian," &c. owe thtir 
 existence to him. 
 
 BAGFOllD, John, a book collector and 
 antiquary. Several of his letters are in the 
 British Museum. Born, 1051 ; died, 1710. 
 
 BAGGER, John, a very learned Dane, 
 bishop of Copenhagen, and author of several 
 treatises in Latin and Danish. Born, 1040 ; 
 died, 1093. 
 
 BAGGESEN, Emaxuel, a Danish poet, 
 lie usually wrote in the German language ; 
 and his chief productions are a pastoral epic, 
 entitled " Parthenais, odcr die Alijciueiese," 
 aud a mock epic, called " Adam and Eve," 
 but his songs and short poems are very nu- 
 merous and popular. Bom, 1764 ; died, 1826. 
 BAGLIONE, Giovanni, an Italian 
 paiuter of the 17th century, distinguished 
 for his works in fresco ; many of which 
 adorn the walls and ceilings of the Koman 
 Church. Died, 1044. 
 BAGLIONI, John Paul, an Italian sol- 
 
 dier of fortune in the IGth century. He was 
 put to death by Leo X., in 1520. 
 
 BAGHVI, GEOKOii, an illustrious Italian 
 physician, born at Apulia, and elected pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Rome ; was author of 
 "The Praxis Aledica," aud several works 
 connected with his profession, all of which 
 were written in Latin. Born, 1607; died,1700. 
 
 BAGNIOLI, Jui.ius C.esak, an Italian 
 poet ; author of " The Judgment of Paris," 
 a poem, &c. Died, 1000. 
 
 BAGOAS, a eunuch, at first the favourite, 
 and afterwards the murderer of Artaxerxes 
 Ochus, king of Persia. He was put to death 
 by Darius Codomauu-:, n.c. 35.'j. 
 
 BAGOPHANES, a governor of Babylon, 
 who, when Alexander approached the city, 
 caused all the streets to be strewed, aud 
 incense to be burnt on the altars. 
 
 BAGOT, Lewis, an English prelate, and 
 broths to the first I-ord Bagot, was born in 
 1740. He was at first a canon of Christchurch, 
 Oxford, then dean, and successively became 
 tlie bishop of Bristol, Norwich, aud St. Asaph. 
 He was the author of " Sermons on the Pro- 
 phecies," &c. Died, 1802. 
 
 BAGRATION, K. A., a Russian prince 
 and councillor, who especially distinguished 
 himself in the campaigns in Italy under 
 Suwarrow, aud was mortally wounded at 
 the battle of Moscow in 1812. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Edwakd, an English civi- 
 lian of the 17th century. In the commence- 
 ment of the rebellion he sided with the 
 Parliament, but subsequently became a 
 royalist. He wrote several works on law 
 aud politics. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Edwahd, son of the pre- 
 cediug, was a clergyman, and an opponent 
 of Baxter. 
 
 BAGSHAW, Wii.MAM, an English di- 
 vine, ejected from his living for non-con- 
 formity, in 1002, He was the author of some 
 works on practical divinity. Died in 1703. 
 
 BAIIIER, John, a French priest, and the 
 author of some Latin poems, which are in 
 the collection of De Brienne. Died, 1707. 
 
 BAIIRDT, CiiAKLEs Fkederic, aGennan 
 divine and author. He was born at Bischofs- 
 werda, and studied at Leipsic, where a pro- 
 secution having been commenced against 
 him at Vienna for the heterodoxy of his 
 writings, he fled to Prussia; and at length he 
 settled at Halle, took a farm and an inn, 
 and openly avowed liimsclf u deist. Died, 
 1792. 
 
 BAIAN, or BAION, Andrew, a native 
 of Goa, who was converted to Christianity, 
 and ordained a priest at Rome about 1030. 
 He translated the ^Eneid into Greek verse, 
 and the Lusiad into Latin.. 
 
 BAIER, John William, a German di- 
 vine ; author of a "Compendium of Theo- 
 logy," .tc. Born, 1047; died, 1094. 
 
 liAIER, John Jamics, a German physi- 
 cian, and director of tlie bot.inical garden 
 at Altdorf ; author of " Dc Hortis celebri- 
 oribus Germanise, et Horti Medici Acade- 
 mici Altdorfini Hist." &c. &.c. Bom, 1077 ; 
 died, 1735. 
 
 BAIF, Lazarus, a French abbot, and 
 counsellor to the parliament of Paris, in the 
 leth century ; author of treatises '• De Re 
 Navali," " De Re Vestiaria," &.Ci 
 
BAl] 
 
 ^ Hit^ Wiixihtr^nl ^tagrapl^i). 
 
 [bai 
 
 BAIL, Louis, a French divine of the 17th 
 century ; author of an Account of celebrated 
 Preachers, a " Summary of Councils," &c. 
 
 BAILEY, Natuax, an English lexico- 
 grapher, was a schoolmaster at Stepney. 
 Besides several school books, he was the 
 author of " Dictionarium Domesticum ; " but 
 his principal work was an Etymological 
 English Dictionary, which may fairly be re- 
 garded as the basis of Dr. Johnson's un- 
 rivalled work. Died, 1742. 
 
 BAILEY, Peter, author of "Sketches 
 from St. George's Fields," " The Queen's 
 Appeal," &c. Died, 1823. 
 
 BAILLET, Adrian, a learned French 
 writer and critic ; author of " Jugemens des 
 Savans sur les prineipaux Ouvrages des 
 Auteurs," "Lives of the Saints," &c. &c. 
 Born, 1649 ; died, 170G. 
 
 BAILLIE, Roche, sumamed La Ejviere, 
 physician to Henry IV. of France, and au- 
 thor of " A Summary of the Doctrines of 
 Paracelsus." He pretended to great skill 
 in astrology. Died, 1G05. 
 
 BAILLIE, llouEUT, a Scotch divine, born 
 at Glasgow in 1599. He was one of the de- 
 putation sent to London to exhibit charges 
 against Archbishop Laud ; and also one of 
 the commissioners sent from the General 
 Assembly of Scotland to diaries II. at the 
 Hague. His letters, and a journal of his 
 transactions in England, were published in 
 1775. Died, 1<;(;2. 
 
 BAILLIE, Mattuew, M. D., a celebrated 
 anatomist and physician. He succeeded Dr. 
 Hunter as lecturer on anatomy, in conjunc- 
 tion with Mr. Cruickshank, at St. George's 
 Hospital ; he was also one of the physicians 
 iu ordinary to their majesties George III. 
 and IV., and was held iu high esteem among 
 Ills professional brethren. lie was the author 
 of several highly esteemed works, as well as 
 of many important papers in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, &c. ; and he presented 
 to the College of Physicians a valuable 
 mu?eum of anatomical specimens. Died, 
 1823. 
 
 BAILLIE, Colonel John, an active and 
 able officer of the East India Company, went 
 out to India as a cadet, iu 1791. At the 
 commencement of the Mahratta war he was 
 selected to superintend the various important 
 negotiations on which depended the estab- 
 lishment of the British power in the pro- 
 vince of Bundelcundy, and in this he was 
 emiuentl}' successful, having effected the 
 peaceable transfer to the British dominions 
 of a territorj' yielding an annual reventie of 
 225,0(X)Z. On returning to England, Colonel 
 Baillie was, iu 1820, elected M.P. for Ilendon ; 
 and subsequently represented the burghs of 
 Inverness, &c. Died, 1833. 
 
 BAILLY, David, a painter, engraver, 
 and author, of I^eyden. Born, 1630. 
 
 BAILLY, John Sylvan us, a learned 
 French astronomer, was born in 1730. At 
 the Revolution, he w.as made president of 
 the first national assembly ; he next became 
 mayor of Paris ; but his conduct in repress- 
 ing tumult, and showing sympathy with the 
 royal family, made him unpopular. He re- 
 signed his office, and in 1793 he was de- 
 nounced by the anai-cliists of the day, and 
 guillotined. 
 
 BAILY, Francis, famous in the annals of 
 astronomical science, was the son of a banker 
 at Newbury, and for many years well known 
 on the Stock Exchange, in which busy arena 
 he realised an ample fortune. The Astrono- 
 mical Society was organised by him, and 
 throughout life he was the most considerable 
 contributor to its memoirs. Systematic or- 
 der and steady perseverance were the secrets 
 of his success. Died, Aug. 30. 184-1, aged 70. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, Dr. John, an eminent 
 physician and astronomer, bom in lo82. 
 He gained considerable reputation by his 
 work entitled a " Description of the late 
 Comet in 1628," and was appointed professor 
 of astronomy at Oxford. Died, 1643. 
 
 BAINES, Edwaro, who Ixas secured for 
 himself an honourable place among the 
 friends of civil and religious liberty in the 
 19th century, was born at Walton-le-Dale, 
 in Lancashire, 1774. At the age of fourteen 
 he was apprenticed to a printer at Preston ; 
 but before his term of apprenticeship expired 
 he removed to Leeds, where he found em- 
 ployment on the Leeds Mercury, of which 
 by prudence, diligence, and intelligence he 
 subsequently became the proprietor. Tlie 
 zeal and ability with which for many years 
 he conducted this great member of the Pro- 
 vincial Press marked him out as a fit rejire- 
 sentative of Leeds ; and in 1833, on Mr. 
 Macaulay's resignation of his seat for the 
 borough, he was triumphantly elected, and 
 held that distinguished position till the close 
 of Lord Melbourne's administration in 1840, 
 when his impaired health induced him to 
 retire. Both in parliament and the press, 
 Mr. Baines never ceased to advocate the 
 cause of freedom, good government, charity, 
 and religion. Thougli decided in his opi- 
 nions, he was most catholic in his disposi- 
 tion ; and he was most ready to co-operate 
 with men of all parties and sects for the 
 objects of which he approved. Besides ful- 
 filling the multifarious duties of a journalist, 
 he found time to devote liimself to literature ; 
 and his " History of the lieign of George 
 III." and "The County Palatine of Lan- 
 caster " are enduring monuments of his 
 patience and research. Died, 1848. 
 
 BAIRD, Sir David, a distingiushed En- 
 glish general, was of Scottish descent, and 
 entered the army as an ensign in the 2d 
 foot in 1772. He served in the East Indies 
 for many years ; and among other brilliant 
 achievements in which he was engaged, was 
 the celebrated taking of Seringapatam, and 
 the siege of Poadicherry. In 1801 he was 
 scut, witli a large body of troops, from India, 
 to assist the British army in Egypt, and 
 joined General Hutchinson a few days before 
 the suiTcnder of Alexandria. In 1802 he re- 
 turned with his troops across the desert to 
 India ; and obtaining permission to return 
 to England, arrived in 1804, after having 
 been captured on his passage by a French 
 privateer, and retaken. In 180.5 he com- 
 manded tlie expedition which took the Cape 
 of Good Hope from the Dutch ; and he was 
 subsequently at tne siege of Coi>enhagen, 
 where he was wounded. On the death of Sir 
 John Moore, at Coninna, the command de- 
 volved upon General Baird, who lost liis 
 arm. For his gallantry on this occasion he 
 
BAj] 
 
 ^ ^ri» Winihtv^al Mia^a^i)^!* 
 
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 WM made a baronet. lie subsequently was 
 governor of Kinsule and of Fort St. George ; 
 and died in 1829. 
 
 BAJAZET I., sultan of the Turks, a re- 
 nowned warrior, but a tyrant ; defeated and 
 made prisoner on tlie plains of Angora by 
 the famous Tamerlane. Died, 1403. 
 
 BAJAZET II., sultan of the Turks. His 
 reigii was turbulent ; he was much engaged 
 against the Venetians and other Chridtian 
 powers, and his latter years were embittered 
 by the enmity of his son Selim, by whom, 
 aher he liad resigned the crown to Ixim, he 
 was poisoned in lol2. 
 
 BAKER, David, an English monk of the 
 Benedictine order, originally a Trotcstant, 
 but being converted to the Komifh faith, he 
 came to England as a missionary I'rom Italy, 
 where his conversion took place, lie wrote 
 an exposition of llyltou's " Scale of Perfec- 
 tion." Died in 1C41. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Richakd, author of a 
 "Chronicle of the Kings of England," &c. 
 Born, 15()8 ; died, 1045. 
 
 BAKER, Thomas, a divine and anti- 
 quary ; author of " Reflections on Jx:arn- 
 ing," &c. &c. Born, 1(W« ; died, 1740. lie 
 lost the living of Long Newton at tlie ac- 
 cession of king William III., for declining 
 to take the oaths of supremacy and alle- 
 giance. 
 
 BAKER, IlENiiy, a diligent and ingeni- 
 ous naturalist. He was originally brought 
 up as a bookseller, and man led one of the 
 daughters of the celebrated Daniel De Foe. 
 He obtained the gold medal of the Royal 
 Society, for his microscopical experiments 
 on saline particles ; and wrote " Tlie Uni- 
 verse," a poem, "The Microscope ma'le 
 Easy," &c. Born, 1704 ; died, 1774. 
 
 BAKER, David Erskisk, son of the 
 above, was author of the " Companion to the 
 Playhouse," subsequently enlarged by Ste- 
 phen Jones, and published under the title of 
 " Biographia Dramalica." Died, 1774. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Geokgk, M. D., born in 1722, 
 was a {ihysician of considerable reputation, 
 and a fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian 
 Societies. He was one of the physicians in 
 ordinary to the king, created a baronet in 
 1770, elected president of the College of Phy- 
 sicians in 1707, and died in 1809. 
 
 BAKEWELL, Rouekt, a country gen- 
 tleman of small fortune, who acquired con- 
 siderable notoriety as a grazier at Dishley, 
 in Leicestershire. He greatly improved his 
 breeds of cattle and sheep ; but it was ob- 
 jected to his stock that they were " too dear 
 for any one to purchase, and too fat for any 
 one to eat." Born, 1720 ; died, 179.5. 
 
 BAKKER, Petkk Huzi.vga, a Dutch 
 poet ; author of a poem on the Inundation 
 of 1740, and of numerous songs and satires 
 on England. Born, 1715 ; died, 1801. 
 
 B^\XASSI, Makio, a Florentine painter. 
 His copy of Raphael's " Transfiguration " 
 was astonishingly exact. Bom, 1U04 ; died 
 1C07. 
 
 BALBI, Adkiax, one of the most distin- 
 guished geographers of modem times, was 
 bom at Venice, 178-1. Devoted from his 
 earliest years to geographical and statistical 
 researches, he first gained a prominent place 
 in the literary world by liis " Essai Statistique 
 
 sur le Royaume de Portugal," &c. (1822). 
 This was followed, in 1820, by his "Atlas 
 Ethnographique du Globe," &c. in which he 
 embodied all the researches of the most cele- 
 brated German philologists and geographers; 
 and continuing to prosecute his studies with 
 unabated ardour in Vienna and Paris con- 
 secutively, he at last gave to the world, in 
 1832, the " Abri'ge de Gt'ographie," a work 
 which comprises the whole compass of geo- 
 graphic science, and has made his name 
 famous throughout Europe and America. 
 His latest years were passed at Padua, in the 
 pursuit of his favourite science. Died at 
 Venice, 1848. 
 
 BALBINU8, Dkcimus C.f.i.u'.s, chosen 
 emperor of Rome, in conjunction with Maxi- 
 mus, in 2.'?7 ; and murdered by the soldiery 
 in the following year. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nuni.z de, a Castilian, 
 one of the first who vi.>ited the West Indies. 
 He established a colony on the isthnms of 
 Panama, where he built the first town on 
 the continent of South America, penetrated 
 into the interior, discovered the Pacific 
 Ocean, and obtained information respecting 
 the empire of Peru. Jealous of his talents 
 and success, rival adventurers accused him 
 of disloyalty, and he was put to death in 
 1517, by Pedrarias Davila, the Spanish go- 
 vernor of Darien. 
 
 BALBUENA, Bkknardo de, a Spanish 
 poet, and bishop of Porto Rico, in America. 
 Died, 1027. 
 
 BALBUS, Lucius Coknelius Theopua- 
 NES, a native of Cadiz, whose military ex- 
 ploits caused Pomjjcy to obtain for him the 
 privileges of a Roman citizen ; and he sub- 
 sequently became consul, being the first 
 foreigner on whom that dignity was con- 
 ferred. 
 
 BAI-CANQUAL, Walter, a Scotch di- 
 vine, who accompanied James I. to England. 
 He was made dean of Rochester and bishop 
 of Durham, but in the civil wars he was a 
 severe sufterer, being driven from place to 
 place for shelter. He wrote the " Declara- 
 tion of Charles I. concerning the late Tu- 
 mults in Scotland," &c. Died, 1042. 
 
 BALCHEN, John, an English admiral, 
 who was lost, with all his crew, on board 
 his ship the Victory, in a violent storm oft' 
 Jersev, October 3. 1744. 
 
 BAILDERIC, bishop of Dol in Britany, 
 in the 12th century ; author of a history of 
 the Crusade to the year W.)0. 
 
 BALDI, Bernard, an Italian mathema- 
 tician and poet ; author of Italian poems, 
 lives of mathematicians, &c. Born at Ur- 
 bino, 155;3 : died, 1017. 
 
 BALDI DE UBALDIS,an Italian lawyer 
 and author. Bom, 1319 ; died, 14W. 
 
 BALDI, James, a German Jesuit and 
 poet. Born, lOWi ; died, 1C08. 
 
 BAJvDI, Lazzaro, a Tuscan painter, em- 
 ployed by Alexander VII. to paint the gal- 
 lery at Monte Cavallo. Died, 1703. 
 
 BiVLDINGER, Ernest Godfrey, a Ger- 
 man physician ; author of a " Dissertation 
 on the Maladies of Soldiers," and numerous 
 other works, cliielly medical. Born, 1738 ; 
 died, 1804. 
 
 BALDINUCCI, PniLTP, a Florentine ar- 
 tist and connoisseur ; author of " A General 
 
 CO 
 
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 ^ 0tixi ^nihtr^nX 28t0grapTj», 
 
 History of Painters," &c. Born, IG&l ; died, 
 1090. 
 
 BALDOCK, Ralph de, bishop of London, 
 and lord high cliancellor in the reign of 
 Edward I. ; author of a " History of British 
 Affairs," whicli was extant in Lelaud's time, 
 but is now lost. Died, i;i07. 
 
 BALDOCK, RoiiKUT de, a divine, who 
 was favoured by Edward II. He shared his 
 royal master's misfortunes, and died in 
 Newgate. 
 
 BALDWIN, WiLLiAjr, an English writer 
 of the 10th century ; one of the chief authors 
 of" The Mirror for Magistrates." 
 
 BAJ^DWIN, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 This prelate accompanied Kichard I. to 
 Palestine, and died tliere, 1291. His writings 
 were published by Tissier, in 1602. 
 
 BALDWIN I., a distinguished leader in 
 the fourth Crusade. On the conquest of 
 Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, he was 
 elected emperor of the East; but being taken 
 prisoner by the Greeks, he was never after- 
 wards heard of. 
 
 BALDWIN II. succeeded his brother Ro- 
 bert as emperor of the East in 1228. On the 
 taking of Constantinople in 1201, by Michael 
 PalfBologus, Baldwin escaped to Italy, where 
 he died, 1278. 
 
 BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, suc- 
 ceeded to that dignity in 1100, took Anti- 
 patria, Caesarea, and Azotus, in 1101, aud 
 Acre in 1104. Died, 1118. 
 
 BALDW^IN II., king of Jerusalem, suc- 
 ceeded the above in 1118 ; Eustace, brother 
 of Baldwin I., having renounced his claim 
 to the throne. Baldwin II. was taken pri- 
 soner by the Saracens in 1124, and gave them 
 the city of Tyre as his ransom. Died, 1131. 
 
 BALDWIN III. succeeded to the tlirone 
 in 1148. He took Ascalon aud other places 
 from the infidels. Died, 1163. 
 
 BAIjDWIN IV., the son of Amaury, suc- 
 ceeded his father on the throne of Jerusalem 
 in 1174. He subsequently resigned in favour 
 of his nephew. Died, 1185. 
 
 BALDWIN v., nephew and successor of 
 the last named, was poisoned in 1186. 
 
 BALE, John, a Carmelite of Norwich, 
 who embraced the Protestant faith, and be- 
 came a zealous writer against Popery. In 
 the reign of Edward VI., he was made bishop 
 of Ossory, in Ireland, and endangered his life 
 by his zealous efforts to reform his diocese. 
 During the reign of Mary, he found safety 
 in Switzerland ; and on his return to England 
 at the accession of Elizabeth, he obtained 
 a prebend of Canterbury. Of his nume- 
 rous works, the most important is a Latin 
 account of eminent British writers. Born, 
 1495 ; died, 1563. 
 
 B.ALE, PkOBEKT, prior of the Carmelites of 
 Norwich ; author of " Annales Ordiuis Car- 
 melitarum," &c. Died, 1503. 
 
 BAXECHOU, Nicholas, a French engra- 
 ver, whose works are held in high estimation. 
 Born, 1710 ; died, 1705. 
 
 B AJiEN, Heindeich vax, a Dutch painter, 
 whose " Judgment of Paris " and " Drowning 
 of Pharaoh " are much admired. John van 
 Balen, his son, was a distinguished historical 
 and landscape painter. Born, 1560; died, 
 1G;52. 
 
 BALES, Peteh, a skilful penman, em- 
 
 ployed by Secretary Walsingham to imitate 
 writings. He published a work called " Tlie 
 Writing Master." Born, 1547 ; died, 1600. 
 
 BAI^ESTRA, Antoxy, a Veronese liisto- 
 rical painter. Bom, 1006 ; died, 1720. 
 
 BALFOUR, Alea'andek, a novelist and 
 miscellaneous writer, was a native of For- 
 farshire, Scotland. He was the author of 
 " Highland Maiy," besides other novels and 
 poems, and for many years a contributor to 
 various Scottish periodicals. Born, 1707 5 
 died, 1829. 
 
 BALFOUR, Sir Axdkew, an eminent 
 botanist and physician, and one to whom 
 medical science in Scotland owes a lasting 
 debt of gratitude for a botanic garden, mu- 
 seum, &c., was born in 1630, at Denmilne, 
 Fife, and died in 1694. 
 
 B^VI^GUY, JoHX, an eminent divine of 
 the Church of England, and a theological 
 writer, was born at Shetheld in 1080, and in 
 1727, became a prebendary of Salisbury. He 
 engaged deeply in tlie Bangorian contro- 
 versy ; and among his several works may be 
 noticed "An Essay on Redemption," a 
 " Letter to a Deist on the Beauty and Ex- 
 cellence of Moral Virtue," &c. Died, 1748. 
 
 BALGUY, Thomas, son of the above, 
 prebend and archdeacon of Winchester ; 
 author of " Divine Benevolence, asserted and 
 vindicated," a sermon on church govern- 
 ment, &c. Born, 1716 ; died, 1795. 
 
 BALIOL, Sir John pe, a native of Dur- 
 ham, who, on the marriage of the daughter 
 of Henry III. to Alexander III. of Scotland, 
 was made one of the guardians of the royal 
 pair. He founded Baliol College, Oxford ; 
 and having sided with Henry III. against 
 his revolted barons, the latter seized upon 
 his lands. Died, 1209. 
 
 BAIylOL, John de, son of the preceding, 
 laid claim to the crown of Scotland on the 
 death of queen Margaret. His claim was 
 disputed by several competitors, one of whom 
 was the famous Robert Bruce. But Edward 
 I., to whom the matter was referred, decided 
 in favour of Baliol. He soon gave offence to 
 Edward ; and being defeated by him in a 
 battle near Dunbar, he Mas sent, together 
 with his son, to the Tower of Loudou. The 
 intercession of the pope having procured his 
 release, he retired to France, where he died 
 in 1314. 
 
 BALL, John, a puritan divine, who, while 
 he disapproved of the discipline of the 
 Church, wrote against separation from it on 
 that ground. Burn, 1585 ; died, 1040. 
 
 BALLANDEN, John, a Scotch divine of 
 the 16th century ; author of various works, 
 both prose and verse, and translator of Hector 
 BiJethius's Ilistorv of Scotland. Died, 1550. 
 
 BALLANTYNE, James, a printer of con- 
 siderable note in Edinburgh, and at whose 
 press the whole of the productions of Sir 
 Walter Scott were printed, was a native of 
 Kelso, where he first opened an office for the 
 " Kelso Mail," of which he was the editor. 
 On removing to Edinburgh he engaged in 
 various important works, the principal of 
 which were those of the great novelist ; and 
 for many years he also conducted the " Edin- 
 burgh Weekly Journal." He survived his 
 friend and patron but a few months, dying 
 in January, 1833. 
 
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 BATXANTYNE, Jony, brother of the 
 preceding, acted during tlie early career of 
 the mysterious " author of Waverley " as his 
 confidant, and managed all the business of 
 the communication of his works to the public. 
 He is also remembered by his contemporaries 
 OS " a fellow of infinite humour," whose 
 anecdotes were as inexhaustible as his mode 
 of telling them was unrivalled. Died, 1821 ; 
 aged 4r>. 
 
 BALT/ARD, George, originally a tailor, 
 was born at Campden, in Gloucestershire, 
 where he acquired so much skill iu the Saxon 
 language, that some gentlemen allowed him 
 a pension, and procured him a situation in 
 the university of Oxford. He wrote " Me- 
 moirs of learned British Ladies." Died, 1755. 
 
 BALLARD, VoLAjfTE Vasiion, a rear- 
 admiral of the British navy, was bom in 
 1774. On entering naval life he accompanied 
 Vancouver on hia laborious voyage of dis- 
 covery to the north-west coast of America, 
 in which he was al)sent from England nearly 
 five years. In 1807, when captain of the 
 Blonde frigate, he captured five French pri- 
 vateers. He afterwards distinguished him- 
 self at the taking of Guadaloupc ; and even- 
 tually attained the rank of rear-admiral, in 
 1825. Died, 1832. 
 
 BALLERINI, Peteh and Jerome, two 
 priests and brothers, natives of Verona, who, 
 iu the 18th century, conjointly wrote some 
 works, and edited several editions of eccle- 
 siastical authors. 
 
 BALLIN, CLAunE, a skilful French gold- 
 smith. He executed some very fine works 
 after antique vases, &c., for Louis XIV. and 
 Cardinal Richelieu, and was made director of 
 the mint for casts aud medals. Born, 1015 ; 
 died, 1(!78. 
 
 B.\LMEZ, James Lucien-, a Spanish ec- 
 clesiastic, wliose political, theological, and 
 philosophic writings have acquired for him a 
 high reputation both at home and abroad, 
 was born at Vich, in Catalonia, in 1810. 
 From his earliest years he was destined for 
 the priesthood, and ha\-ing in his Kith year 
 entered the university of Cervera, he soon 
 attracted notice by his amiable demeanour, 
 the fertility of his mind, and theuniveraality 
 of his acquirements. Quitting the univer- 
 sity in 18a;j, laden with honours and ma- 
 tured in learning, he retired to his native 
 town, and in 1837 was there nominated 
 to the chair of mathematics, which he filled 
 with equal zeal and ability. In 1840 he 
 published a brochure on the property of 
 the clergy, which made a great sensation 
 at Madrid ; and from this time forward 
 his labours in behalf of the cause to 
 which he had devoted himself were in- 
 defatigable. He published papers on the 
 condition of Spain, wrote in periodicals, 
 conducted a review at Barcelona, and finally 
 edited at Madrid the ablest journal in Spain, 
 entitled "El Pensiamcnto de la Nacion," 
 wherein his object was to restore the Roman 
 Catholic Church to her former dignity and 
 influence ; to reconcile and unite all the 
 friends of monarchy, whether belonging to 
 the Carlist or Christina parties ; and to 
 found the institutions of the country on an 
 enlarged and permanent basis. But valu- 
 able to his counti-y as were all these and 
 
 other emanations from his i>en, they are far 
 eclipsed by his "Protestantism and Catho- 
 licism compared in their Ettccts on the Ci- 
 vilisation of Europe," which has been trans- 
 lated into French, German, and English, 
 and may be safely pronounced to be one of 
 the most elaborate works of modern theo- 
 logical literature. Died at Vich, 1848. 
 
 BALSHAM, or BELESALE, Huon de, 
 bishop of Ely, and founder of Peterhouse 
 College at Cambridge. Died, 1280. 
 
 BALTHASAR, Christopher, a French 
 advocate of the 17th century, who renounced 
 his profession to embrace and advocate the 
 Protestant faith, which he defended with 
 great ability against Baronius and others. 
 
 BALTHASAR, J. A. Feli.y de, president 
 of the municipal council of Lucerne ; author 
 of" A Defence of William Tell," &c. Died, 
 1810. 
 
 BALTHAZARINT, an Italian musician, 
 greatly caressed at the court of Henry III. 
 of France. His ballet of " Ceres and her 
 Nymphs " is supposed to be the origin of the 
 French ballet hi'rojque. 
 
 BALTUS, Joux Ikaxci.^, a French Jesuit, 
 librarian of Rheims ; author of " A Reply to 
 Fontenelle's History of Oracles," &c. Born, 
 1C07 ; died, 1743. 
 
 BALUE, Joii.v, a native of France, made 
 a cardinal by poi>c Paul If., and imprisoned 
 for 11 years in an iron cage by Louis XI. 
 for having engaged in treasonable corre- 
 spondence with the Duke of Burgundy. 
 Died, 1491. 
 
 BALUZE, STEniEK, a French writer; 
 author of " Lives of the Popes of Avignon," 
 &c. Born, 10.31 ; died 1718. 
 
 BALZAC, Jon.\ Lolis Giez de, a French 
 writer of great reputation, which he chiefly 
 owed to the elegance of his style ; author of 
 " Letters," " The Prince," " The Christian 
 Socrates," &c. Bom, 1594 ; died, Ifi.vt. 
 
 BAIiZAC, Honors dk, one of the most 
 distinguished as well as prolific novel writers 
 of modern times, was born at Tours, 17i»9. 
 Having completed his studies at Vendomc, 
 he published, between 1821 and 1829, twenty 
 or thirty volumes under various pseudo- 
 nymes, with very equivocal success ; but after 
 this trying apprenticeship, he put forth all 
 his powers under his own name, with what 
 result those who have read "La Peau de 
 Chagrin," "Les Chouans," "La Physiob.gie 
 de Mariage," Le Pfere Goriot," " La Femuie 
 de Trente Ans," &c.,can best testify. Since 
 that iHiriod his productions succeeded one an • 
 other with wonderful rapidity ; and it may l>e 
 truly said that his literary strength grew with 
 his years, for his " Mvdecin de Campagne," 
 and his " Parens Pauvres," his last work, bear 
 the impress of genius in every page. In addi- 
 tion to his romances, Balzac wrote some the- 
 atrical pieces, and for some time edited and 
 contributed to the Mvue Parhienne ; but it 
 is only his romances that exhibit unques- 
 tionable evidence of his great genius. His 
 design was to make all his productions form 
 one grand work, under the title of the 
 " Comedie Humaine, " the whole being a 
 minute dissection of the difierent classes of 
 society ; and for this task he was eminently 
 qualified, pos-sessing, as he did, the secret of 
 probing the human heart to its profoundest 
 
 71 
 
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 ^ |}cb WimhtY^nX %ia%xn^l)\j. 
 
 [ban 
 
 depths, and of laying bare with a masterly- 
 hand all its mj'steries and all its passions. 
 1 Since the revolution of 1848, Balzac was cn- 
 j gaged in visiting the battle-fields of Germany 
 ! and Russia, and in collecting materials for a 
 I series of volumes, to be entitled " Sc&nes de 
 I la Vie Militaire." Next to his celebrity as 
 1 an author, the most remarkable feature in 
 j his career was the deep passion which he 
 i formed for a Russian jirincess, who finally 
 compensated him for long years of imtiring 
 devotion bv the gift of her hand in 1848. 
 Died, Aug. 19. 1850. 
 
 BAMBRIDE, CumsToriiER, archbishop 
 of York, was sent ambassador from Henry 
 VITI. to pope Julius II., who made him a 
 cardinal. Died of poison administered by 
 his servant, l.')14. 
 
 BAMFIELD, Francis, a nonconformist 
 divine ; author of a work on the observance 
 of the Sabbath. He was committed to New- 
 gate for liolding a conventicle, and died 
 there, lfi84. 
 
 BAAIPFYLDE, Sir Charles Warwick, 
 bart., a descendant of one of the oldest and 
 most distinguished families in Devonshire, 
 and during 7 successive parliaments one 
 of the members for Exeter. In 1823, when 
 lie was 71 years of age, he was assassinated 
 close to his own house, in Montague Square, 
 by a man named Moorland, who blew his 
 own brains out immediately after. 
 
 BANGUI, Serafhin, a priest of the Do- 
 minican order at Florence, to whom a fa- 
 natic, named Berriere, disclosed his intention 
 to assassinate Henry IV. Banchi's inform- 
 ation saved the king, who rewarded him with 
 the archbishopric of AngoulOme. 
 
 BANCROFT, Richard, archbishop of 
 Canterbury; a distinguished opponent of the 
 Puritans and a supporter of the English 
 Church. Born at Faruworth in Lancashire, 
 1544 ; died, 1610. 
 
 BANCROFT, Johx, nephew of the above, 
 bishop of Oxford, and builder of the palace 
 of Cuddesdeu for the bishops of that see. 
 Died, 1040. 
 
 BANDELLO, Matthe^v, a Dominican 
 monk of the Milanese. He wrote tales in the 
 manner of Boccaccio, and proceeding to 
 France obtained the bishopric of Agen. Died, 
 1561. 
 
 BANDINELLI, Baccio, a Florentine 
 sculptor and jiainter. His copy of the Lao- 
 coon is highly esteemed. Born, 1487 ; died, 
 15.59. 
 
 BANDINI, Angelo Maria, an Italian 
 antiquary and bibliographer ; author of" De 
 Florentini Juntaruna Typograi)liia," &c. 
 Died, 1800. 
 
 BANDURI, Anselm, a Benedictine, born 
 in Dalmatia,but studied and wrote in France; 
 author of " Antiquities of Constantinople," 
 &c. Died, 1743. 
 
 BANIER, Antony, a French writer ; au- 
 thor of an " Explanation of the Fables of 
 Antiquity," &c. Born, 1673 ; died, 1741. 
 
 BANISTER, John, the first performer 
 of any celebrity upon the violin ; composer 
 of the music of Davenant's opera of" Circe." 
 Died, 1679. 
 
 BANISTER, John, an English physician 
 of the 16th century ; author of various sur- 
 gical treatises. Died, 1624. 
 
 BANKES, Sir John, chief justice of the 
 Common Pleas in the reign of Charles I. 
 His lady, with the family, being at their 
 seat at Corfe Castle, were summoned to sur- 
 render it, but she successfully defended it 
 against the parliamentary troops, till re- 
 lieved by the arrival of Lord Carnarvon, with 
 a body of horse. Sir John died in 1644. 
 
 BANKS, John, a bookseller, and author 
 of a " Critical Review of the Life of Crom- 
 well," &c. Born, 1709 ; died, 17.51. 
 
 BANKS, John, an English dramatist of 
 the 18th century ; author of the " Earl of 
 Essex," a tragedy, &c. 
 
 BANKS, Sir Jo.seph, an eminent English 
 naturalist, and for many years president of 
 the Royal Society, was the son of W. Banks, 
 esq., of Revesby Abbey, l^incolnshire, where 
 he was bom in 1743. His enthusiasm in the 
 study of natural history may be judged of 
 from the fact, that it led him to accomi)any 
 Cook in his first circumnavigation of the 
 world. Sir Joseph wrote but little, and, ex- 
 cepting papers in scientific periodicals, pub- 
 lished only one small work, a treatise on the 
 " Blight, Mildew, or Rust in Corn." Died 
 1820. 
 
 BANKS, Thomas, an eminent English 
 sculptor. Among the best of his works are 
 " Caraetacus taken Prisoner to Rome," and 
 "Achilles mourning the Loss of Briseis." 
 He also executed the admirable monument 
 in Westminster Abbey, to the memory of 
 Sir Eyre Coote. Born, 1735 ; died, 1805. 
 
 BANNIER, John, a Swedish general. 
 He served under Gustavus Adolphus ; and at 
 the death of that prince became commander- 
 in-chief. Born, 1601 ; died, 1641. 
 
 BANNISTER, John, an admirable comic 
 actor, the son of Charles Bannister, well 
 known as a singer and a wit, was born in 
 London, in 1760. Having been favourably 
 noticed by Garrick, he made his debut at 
 Drury Lane Theatre, as " Master J. Ban- 
 nister," when twelve years of age ; he then 
 quitted the boards for a time, but obtained a 
 permanent engagement in 1779. At first he 
 aspired to tragedy, and gave it a decided 
 preference ; but his talents so clearly lay in 
 the opposite direction, that on the death of 
 Edwin he at once supplied his place, giving 
 proofs of first-rate powers, and establishing 
 himself as a public favourite. To name all 
 the various parts in which he excelled his 
 contemporaries, would occupy too much of 
 our space ; but we have a vivid recollection 
 of him in Sylvester Daggerwood, Lingo, 
 Trudge, the Three Singles, Bobadil, Dr. 
 Panglos, Job Thornberry, Colonel Feign- 
 well, Walter in "The Children in the 
 Wood," and many others ; and we do not 
 hesitate to pronounce, without disparagement 
 to the living, that he never has had his 
 equal. Being nmch afldicted with the gout, 
 he retired from the stage in 1815, having 
 had the good fortune to earn a competence 
 by his profession, and the prvidence to keep 
 it. He died Nov. 8. 1836, aged 76, respected 
 and beloved bj' all who knew him. Nature 
 had done much for Bannister, physically as 
 well as mentally : his face, figure, and voice 
 were excellent ; his spirits exuberant ; and 
 an open manly countenance was a faithful 
 index to the heart of" Gentleman Jack." 
 
 72 
 
ban] 
 
 ^ :J9cU) SIiuberiSaT 3St0j[jrapTjj). 
 
 [bar 
 
 BAXTI, SiGNORA, a celebrated Italian 
 singer, wlio enjoyed great popularity both 
 in Germany and England. Died, ISOG. 
 
 BAPTIST, a portrait painter of Antwerp, 
 who was muclx employed in this country. 
 Died, l«tl. 
 
 BAPTISTE, JoHX, Bumamcd MonnoTkr, 
 a Flemish painter, employed by William III^ 
 to decorate Kensington Palace. Born, I(a3o ; 
 died 1G0'.>. 
 
 BAPTISTE, John Oaspard, bom at An- 
 twerp, was the disciple of Bosehacrt ; and 
 was engaged by Sir Peter I.ely and Kneller 
 to jiaint the postures and draperies of their 
 portraits. Died, 1091. 
 
 BAPTISTIN, J. B. S., a Florentine com- 
 poser and musician, who first made the vio- 
 loncello popular in France. Died, 1716. 
 
 BARANZANO, Kkkemptus, a Barnabitc 
 monk ; he was a skilful mathematician, and 
 correspondent with Lord Bacon, who highly 
 esteemed him. He was author of "Urano- 
 scopia," " Campus Philosophicus," &c. Born, 
 1590 ; died, 1022. 
 
 BARATIEK, John Philip, a native of 
 Anspruch, remarkable for the precocity and 
 extent of his learning ; author of " Critical 
 Dissertations," " Auti-Artemonius," &c. &c. 
 Born, 1721 ; died, 1740. 
 
 BAKBA, Alvarez Alonzo, a Spanish 
 priest of the 17th century ; author of a 
 " Treatise on Metallurgy." 
 
 BARBADILLO, Alpiionso Jerome dk 
 Salas, a Spanish dramatist of the 17th cen- 
 tury ; author of " Adventures of Don Diego 
 de Noche," comedies, &c. 
 
 BARBARINO, Frakcesca, nn early 
 Italian poet ; author of " Documcnti d' 
 Amore." Bom, 1201 ; died, 1348. i 
 
 BARBARO, Francis, a Venetian writer ; 
 author of a treatise " De Re Uxorin," trans- 
 lations from I'lutarch, &c. Born, 1098 ; 
 died, 14r,4. 
 
 BARBARO, Ermalao, nephew of the 
 above, bishop of Verona ; translator of 
 portions of ^sop into Latin. Died, 1470. 
 
 BARBARO, Ermalao, grandson of Fran- 
 cis, ambassador from Venice to the emperor 
 Frederic, who knighted him. He was ex- 
 pelled the republic on the pope making him 
 patriarch of Aquileia. lie translated the 
 rhetoric of Aristotle, and commented on 
 Pliny. Born, 1454 ; died, 1 193. 
 
 BARBARO, Daxiel, nephew of the last 
 named, joint patriarch of Aquileia ; author 
 of a treatise "On Eloquence," &c. Born, 
 1513 ; died. l.-,70. 
 
 BARBAROSSA, Aruch, a famous pirate, 
 the history of wliose exploits would fill many 
 pages. He proclaimed himself king of Algiers 
 and Tunis, and took possession of the king- 
 dom of Treniecen ; but was defeated by Uo- 
 niarez, governor of Oran, and put to death, 
 in 1.518. 
 
 B.IRBAROSSA, Hevradin, brother of 
 the aboTe, whom he succeeded in tlie king- 
 dom of Algiers. He commanded the navy 
 of tlie Turks, and reduced Yemen and other 
 places to their dominion. Died, 1547. 
 
 BARBAULD, Anna L^titia, was the 
 daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, and one 
 of the best and most popular female writers 
 of the age ; authoress of Hymns, and Early 
 Lessons for Children. She also edited some 
 
 standard novels, &c. ; and appended to them 
 some clever notices, l)iographical and critical. 
 Born, 1743 ; died, 1825. 
 
 B^UIBAZAN, Arnold William, was a 
 brave and noble French general, whose 
 valour, probity, and disinterestedness dur- 
 ing a long and successful career under the 
 reigns of Charles VI. and VII. gained for 
 him the glorious appellation of " the Irre- 
 proachable Knight." Died, 1432. 
 
 BARBAZAN, Stephen, a French writer ; 
 author of a '* Father's Instructions to his 
 Son," and editor of various old French talcs 
 and fables. Born, 1096 ; died, 1770. 
 
 BARBATELLI, Beienardino, an Italian 
 painter, particularly excellent in delme- 
 ating flowers, fruits, and animals. Born, 
 1542 ; died, 1612. 
 
 BARBERINO, Francis, an Italian poet ; 
 author of " Precei)ts of Love." Born, 1264 ; 
 died, 1348. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, Charles, a FrenfJi phy- 
 sician, whom Locke compared to our own 
 Sydenham ; author of *' Ciuestiones Medicas 
 Duodecim," &c. Born, 1629 ; died, 1699. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, John, nephew of the 
 above ; professor of law at Berne, and sub- 
 sequently at Groningen. To the perform- 
 ance of his duty as a lecturer, he added 
 most laborious exertions as an author. He 
 translated the most valuable portions of 
 Grotius, Puffendorf, and other able civilians 
 into French, and wrote a " History ot An- 
 cient Treatises," &c. Born, 1674 ; died, 1747. 
 
 BARBIEKI, John Francis, also called 
 GUERCINI, an eminent historical painter. 
 Born, 1590; died, 16(56. 
 
 BARBIERI, Paul Anthony, brother of 
 the above, an eminent painter of still life 
 subjects. Died, 1640. 
 
 BARBOSA, Arias, a learned Portuguese 
 professor ot Greek at .'ialamaiica ; author of 
 a treatise "On Prosody," and some Latin 
 poems. Died, 1540. 
 
 BARBOSA, Peter, chancellor of Por- 
 tugal ; author of treatises "On the Digests." 
 Died, ]59(). 
 
 BARBOSA, AnouSTiN, son of the last 
 named, bishop of Ugento ; author of a trea- 
 tise " De Officio Episcopi," &c. Died, 1648. 
 
 BARBOUR, John, a Scotch poet and di- 
 vine, chaplain to David Bruce, of whose life 
 and actions he wrote a history. Bom, 1320 ; 
 died, 1378. 
 
 BARCLAY, Alexanper, a writer of the 
 16th century, whose place of nativity is dis- 
 puted by England and Scotland ; the trans- 
 lator into English of the " Navis Stultifera, 
 or Ship of Fools." Died, 15;i2. 
 
 BARCLAY, Robert, a Quaker, and one 
 of the most eminent writers of that sect ; 
 author of " An Apology for the Quakers," 
 &c. Uniting all the advantages of a learned 
 education to great natural abilities, he be- 
 came the redoubted champion of his reli- 
 gious princii>les ; and as he travelled with 
 the famous ^Villiam Penn through England, 
 Holland, and Germany, he was extensively 
 known and everywhere highly respected. 
 His writings, indeed, not only tended to 
 propagate the doctrines of the Society of 
 Friends, but tended materially to rectify 
 public opinion concerning them, and to 
 procure for them greater indulgence from 
 
BAlt] 
 
 ^ l^eto SHuilicr^al l3ta5r<TpT)i|. 
 
 [bar 
 
 the government. Bohi at Gordonstown, in 
 Scotland, 1C48 ; died, 1000. 
 
 BARCLAY, William, a native of Scot- 
 land, who emigrated to France, and bcoanie 
 professor of law at Angers, where lie was 
 considered one of the most eminent civilians 
 of Ilia time. lie was the author of various 
 treatises on the rights of popes and kings. 
 Died, 160a. 
 
 BARCLAY, Jony, son of the last named ; 
 author of " Euphormion," a Latin satire ; 
 " Argenis," a romance, &c. &c. Born in 
 France, 1582 ; died at Rome, 1021. 
 I BARCLAY, John, an eccentric divine of 
 I the Church of Scotland, was born at Turriif, 
 in the county of Aberdeen, in 1C45. lie 
 completed his education at King's College, 
 Aberdeen, and was appointed minister of the 
 parish of Cruden, in Aberdeenshire, in 1C75. 
 He was the author of a rare and curious work 
 in verse, now very scarce, called " A Descrip- 
 tion of Tlie Roman Catholic Church." Died 
 at Cruden, in 1710. 
 
 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, a Russian ge- 
 neral, who, in the German and Polish cam- 
 paigns of 1806 and 1807, bore a distinguished 
 share, and was made a tield-marshal. He 
 succeeded Kutusof as commander-in-chief, 
 headed the Russians at tJie battle of Leipsic, 
 and led them into France in 181."). He was 
 at one time minister of war, and ultimately 
 was honoured with the title of prince. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 BARCOCHAB, or BARCHOCIIEBAS, a 
 Jewish impostor, who, under the pretence of 
 being the real Messiah, obtained many fol- 
 lowers, overrunning Judaja, and putting 
 many Romans to the sword : but he was at 
 length defeated and slain by Julius Severus 
 in VM. 
 
 BARDAS, uncle and guardian to the em- 
 peror Michael III., put to death for en- 
 deavouring to seat himself on his nephew's 
 throne, by Basilius, the Macedonian, in 806. 
 
 BARDAS, surnamed SCELERUS, a ge- 
 neral of the emperor, John Zimisces. After 
 many vicissitudes, consequent on his aiming 
 at the purple, he was taken into favour by 
 the emperor Basil. 
 
 BARDIN, Pierre, a French writer ; au- 
 thor of" Le Grand Chambellan de France," 
 &c. He lost his life while attempting to 
 rescue a drowning man, IS-V. 
 
 BAREBONE, Praise God, an M.P., and 
 one of the most furious and notorious fana- 
 tics of Cromwell's time, from whom the 
 Barebone's parliament derived its name. 
 
 BARENT, Dietrich, a Dutch historical 
 and portrait painter. Born, 1534 ; died, 1582. 
 
 BARERE, Beutrand, one of the most 
 notorious if not conspicuous actors in the 
 iirst French revolution, was bom in 1755 at 
 Tarbes in Gascony, where his father pos- 
 sessed the small estate of Vieuzac. He was 
 educated for the bar at Toulouse, practised 
 as an advocate with considerable success, 
 and besides occupying himself with literary 
 pursuits of a trivial character, wrote a 
 dissertation which procured him a seat in 
 the Toulouse Academy of Sciences. In 1785 
 he married a young lady of good fortune. 
 Three years later he paid his first visit to 
 Paris ; and the states-general having just 
 then been summoned, he went back to his 
 
 own province, and was there elected one of 
 the representatives of the third estate. 
 Among the crowd of legislators which at 
 this conjuncture poured from all the pro- 
 vinces oif France into Paris, Barfcre made 
 no contemptible figure. His opinions, though 
 popular, were not extreme ; and his learning, 
 his manners, his conversation, and his 
 powers of eloquence were all calculated to 
 gain him favour and esteem. But as the 
 monarchical party became weaker and 
 weaker, he gradually estranged himself more 
 and more from it, and drew closer and closer 
 to the Republicans. On the termination of 
 the labours of the national assembly, he be- 
 came a member of the high court of appeal ; 
 and when, in 1792, the legislative assembly 
 invited the nation to elect an extraordinary 
 convention, Barfcre was chosen one of its 
 members by his own department. He voted 
 for the death of the king, "sans appel et 
 sans sursis," in words that have been oft 
 repeated, "L'arbre de la liberty ne eroit 
 qu'arro3(5 par le sang des tyrans." After the 
 fall of the monarchy, he acted with the 
 Girondists, to whom he made himself useful 
 by the ease and fluency with which he could 
 draw up reports. But ready to side with 
 the strongest on all occasions, he soon made 
 common cause with the Mountain, whose 
 blooflthirsty designs he remorselessly carried 
 out ; and he bore a large share in the 
 infamous schemes subsequently planned 
 during the " Reign of Terror," earning for the 
 levity with which he discharged his dis- 
 gusting office the nicknames of the Witling 
 of Terror and the Anacrcon of the Guil- 
 lotine. He fawned on Robespierre up to 
 the 8th of Thermidor, and on the 9th 
 he moved that Robcsi)ierre should be be- 
 headed without a trial. On the fall of the 
 convention he was sent a prisoner to the isle 
 ofOleron; but he made his escape to Bor- 
 deaux, where he remained four years in 
 obscurity ; and on the establishment of 
 Napoleon's government he enlisted in its 
 service, and for some years officiated in the 
 double capacity of a hireling writer and a 
 spy. On the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, he 
 again became a royalist. During the 
 hundred days he was chosen by his native 
 district a member of the ch.amber of repre- 
 sentatives ; but on the final return of the 
 Bourbons, in 1815, he was compelled to retire 
 into Belgium, where he resided till 18.30. The 
 revolution wliich then called Louis Philippe 
 to the throne enabled him to return to 
 France ; but he was reduced to extreme in- 
 digence, and a small pension from the king 
 and the government alone saved him from 
 the necessity of begging his bread. Died, 
 1841. [Those who wish to see an instance of 
 the literary tomahawk skilfully applied will 
 find it in an article devoted to Barere's life 
 and character iu the Edinburgh Review, 
 vol. Ixxix.] 
 
 BARETTI, Joseph, a native of Turin, 
 who resided many j-ears in this country, and 
 wrote the English language with ease and 
 purity. Dr. Johnson procured him the situ- 
 ation of Italian teacher in Mr. Thrale's 
 family. His works are very numerous, but 
 the most valuable is his Italian and English 
 Dictionary. Born, 1716 j died, 1789. 
 
bar] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Sfm'tin-iJaT SSinjjrjqjl^s. 
 
 [bar 
 
 BARHA:M, Rev. Richard irAUias (bet- 
 ter knovni by his literary name of'Tliomas 
 Iiigoldsby), was a native of Canterbury, in 
 which city he received his early education, 
 and coinj)leted it at Brazenose College, 
 Oxford. Although he adopted the clerical 
 profession, and performed the duties of his 
 sacred calling with strict propriety, he was 
 by nature a humourist, and attempted not 
 to restrain the flow of wit and fancy with 
 which his mind was surcharged. He was a 
 minor canon of St. Paul's, and occupied the 
 house attached to the cauonry of tlic Rev. 
 Sydney Snuth, with whom he was on terms 
 oi the most cordial friendship, and whom in 
 many respects he much resembled. His 
 other church preferment was tlie rectory of 
 St. Augustine and St. Faith, London. " As 
 an author he contributed. much, and during 
 many years, to several popular periodicals, 
 the Edinburgh Review, Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine, and the Literary Gazette among the 
 number, but his most popular series of puiMjrs 
 were given to Bentley's Miscellany, under 
 the title of ' The Ingoldsby Legends,' since 
 collected and published in 2 vols. 8vo. His 
 popular novel, * My Cousin Nicholas,' was 
 also published in 3 vols. Of his poetical 
 pieces it is not too much to say, that for 
 originality of design and diction, for quaint 
 illustration and musical verse, they are not 
 surpassed in the English language.". Died, 
 aged iiG, June 17. 1845. 
 
 BARKER, EnmrND Henry, an eminent 
 classical scholar, and one of the most in- 
 dustrious of modern writers. He was a 
 leading supporter of the Cla.<<sical Journal, 
 the British Critic, and Monthly Maga- 
 zine; and his articles, chiefly on recondite 
 points of philology and antiquities, were his 
 mere WM^re ddicice, with which he amused 
 the intervals of his more serious labour of 
 editing Stephens's " Thesaurus Lingute Gra;- 
 ca;," a gigantic performance. Besides his 
 
 freater work, he edited Prolegomena to 
 lomcr, Lcmpribre, and other school books. 
 Born, 1788 ; died, 1839. 
 
 BARKER, Geokoe, F. R. S., of Spring- 
 field, Birmingham, a gentleman of the legal 
 profession, whose memory is entitled to 
 respect and gratitude, for the success of many 
 of the excellent institutions which do honour 
 to his native town, and from his zeal in the 
 promotion of the arts, manufactures, and 
 sciences. He was mainly instrumental in 
 obtaining acts for making what was then 
 called ' that gigantic absurdity, the Bir- 
 mingham Railroad,' and its now confederate 
 line, the Liverpool, Manchester, and Bir- 
 mingham. He was the bosom friend of Mr. 
 Watt and of Mr. Boulton, and their con- 
 fidential adviser in the vast projects which 
 have been so productive of honour and 
 wealth to themselves and to this country," 
 He died, Dec. 6. 184.'!, aged CO. 
 
 BARKER, Matthew Hexky (better 
 known to the public under his assumed name 
 of The Old Sailor), was the author of several 
 naval novels and sketches ; among wluch are 
 " Tough Yams," " Jem Bunt," " The 
 Victory," " Land and Sea Tales," &c., be- 
 sides " Tlie IJfe of Nelson," and numberless 
 communications in prose and verse, to various 
 highly respectable periodicals. He went to 
 
 sea at the age of IC, but never arrived at 
 higher promotion than the command of a 
 hired armed schooner ; and finding himself 
 unemployed at the cud of the war, he tried 
 his hand at authorship. His delineation of 
 nautical scenes is allowed to be replete with 
 humour and characteristic truth. Died, 
 June, 184(5, aged 5<i. 
 
 BARKER, Robert, known as inventor of i 
 the panorama, was born in Kells, in Ireland, | 
 1740. While viewing the scenery round 
 Edinburgh, whitlier he had removed as a 
 portrait painter, he was struck with the idea 
 of representing similar views in a circular 
 painting, in which lie uliimately succeeded, 
 and thereby eventually realised a consider- 
 able fortune. Died, 180fi. 
 
 BARK HAM, John, an English antiquary, 
 said to be the real author of the " Display 
 of Heraldry," published under the name of 
 Gwillim. Born, 1.''.72 ; died, 1(»42. 
 
 BAR LA AM, a leanied divine of Calabria 
 in the 14th century. He wrote alternately 
 for the Greek and Latin Church ; his advo- 
 cacy of the latter being purchased by the 
 bishopric of Gieraci, in Italy. Hied, i;J48. 
 
 BARLAUD, AnitiA-v, a Dutch critic, and 
 professor of eloquence at I^ouvain ; author 
 of a " Chronicle on the Dukes of Brabant," 
 "Notes on Terence, Meuander," &c. &c. 
 Died, 1.542. 
 
 BARLOW, Thomas, bishop of Lincoln in 
 the reign of Charles II., James II., and 
 William III. He was a man of the most 
 versatile and accommodating principles, if 
 we may judge by his a<:ts. Under the first- 
 named king he wrote against popery ; under 
 the second he wrote in favour of the royal 
 power to dispense with the penal laws 
 against it ; and under the third he was 
 among the most active in punishing non- 
 juring clergymen. He wrote "Cases of 
 Conscience," &c. Born, 1(;07 ; died, 1C91. 
 
 BARLOW, Fhancis, an English artist ; 
 an excellent painter of animals. Died, 1702. 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, a native of the United 
 States of America, and one of the deputies 
 sent by the Constitutional Society to address 
 the French Convention. He was also, in 
 1811, appointed ambassador to Napoleon; 
 and being invited by the Duke of Bassano to 
 a conference with the emperor at Wilna, he 
 proceeded tliither, but the privations he was 
 compelled to endure on his journey, and 
 the fatigue of travelling night and day, 
 caused liis death. He was a political writer 
 and a poet, his principal work being " The 
 Columbiad." 
 
 BARLOWE, William, bishop of Bath 
 and Wells, deprived by queen Mary for 
 having married, but made bishop of Win- 
 chester on the accession of queen Elizabeth. 
 Died, IG.'jS. 
 
 BARLOWE, William, son of the above, 
 archdeacon of Sarum ; he was well skilled 
 in natural philosophy, aud was the first 
 English writer on the properties of the 
 loadstone. Died, 1625. 
 
 BARNARD, John, D.D., prebendary of 
 Lincoln in the reign of Charles II. ; author 
 of a " Life of Dr. Heylyn," &c. Died, 1083. 
 
 BARNARD, Sir Jouk, lord mayor of 
 liOndon, and one of its representatives in 
 parliament for 40 years. He was an able 
 
 75 
 
 H a 
 
bar] 
 
 ^ i^cix) WiiiibtrgBX 28tosrajj!)2). 
 
 [bar 
 
 speaker, and a remarkably conscientious 
 and religious man ; and so greatly was he 
 respected by his fellow citizens, that they 
 erected a statue to his memory in the Royal 
 Exchange. Bom at Reading, IfiBj; died, 1704. 
 
 BARNARD, Tiieodoke, a Dutch painter 
 who settled in England ; said to have 
 painted the kings and bishops in Chichester 
 cathedral. 
 
 BARNAVE, Anthoxy Peteu Joseph, 
 an eloquent and popular member of the 
 French national assembly. He was charged 
 with the conveyance of the king from Va- 
 rennes to Paris ; on which occasion he con- 
 ducted himself with great delicacy. Though 
 he had retired to private life, he was arrested 
 by the faction then in power, and guillotined 
 in 1794. 
 
 BARNES, Joshua, a learned divine, edu- 
 cated at Christ's Hospital, London, and 
 Emanuel College, Cambridge ; author of the 
 "Life of Edward III.," and a poem "On 
 the History of Esther," and editor of tha 
 works of Euripides, Anacreon, aud Homer. 
 Bom, ia';4 ; died, 1712. 
 
 BARNES, Robert, D. D., chaplain to 
 Henry "VIII. ; burned to death in Smithfield 
 for Lutheranism, in 1540 ; authorof a treatise 
 on Justification, &c. 
 
 BARNES, Thomas, a gentleman of first- 
 rate literary ability, and princii)al editor of 
 "The Times," which journal owes much of 
 its celebrity and influence to the powerful 
 political leaders that came from liis pen, as 
 well as to the rare skill and discrimination 
 he evinced in the general control and adapt- 
 ation of the articles furnished by his coad- 
 jutors, &c. Notwithstanding the share he 
 necessarily took in the strife of politics, it is 
 recorded to his honour that he retained the 
 friendship of all who had once intimately 
 known him, how much soever they might 
 chance to differ on questions of public inter- 
 est. Mr. Bames was educated at Christ's 
 Hospital and Pembroke College, Cambridge, 
 where he took his B. A. and M. A. degrees. 
 Died, 1841. aged 5.5. 
 
 BARNE VELDT, John d'Olden, a Dutch 
 statesman, put to death by Maurice, prince 
 of Orange, on an ill-sustained charge of 
 having plotted to betray his country to 
 Spain. Beheaded, 1619. 
 
 BARNEY, Joshua, a distinguished naval 
 commander, was bom at Baltimore, in 
 l?.^. When a boy he made several voyages 
 to Europe ; and in 1776, when not 17, he 
 was presented with a lieutenant's com- 
 mission on account of his bravery. During 
 the struggle for American independence, 
 Barney took several vessels, and performed 
 numerous acts of gallantry ; and after nu- 
 merous adventures arrived in Philadelphia 
 in 1782, when he again entered on active 
 duty, and continued a successful career till 
 the end of the war. In 1795 he received the 
 commission of captain in the French service, 
 and commanded a French squadron, but 
 resigned his command in 1800, and returned 
 to America. In 181.3 he was appointed to 
 command the flotilla for defence of the 
 Chesapeake. During the summer of 1814 he 
 kept up an active warfare with the British ; 
 but he was made prisoner. Died, at Pitts- 
 burg, 1818. 
 
 76 
 
 BARO, Pierhe, a French Protestant di- 
 vine, who came to England in the 10th cen- 
 tury, and was chosen Lady Margaret's pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Cambridge ; author of 
 some polemical works in Latin. 
 
 BAROCCIO, Fkedeuigo, an Italian 
 painter, chiefly of scriptural subjects. Bom 
 at Urbino, 1528 ; died, 1612. 
 
 BARON, BoNADVEXTUKE, the assumed 
 name of Fitzgerald, a native of Ireland, 
 who became a Franciscan monk ; author of 
 Latin poems, and a body of divinity. Died, 
 1606. 
 
 BARONIUS, C^SAR, confessor to Clement 
 VIII., who made him cardinal and librarian 
 of the Vatican ; author of " Ecclesiastical 
 Annals." Born at Sora, 1588 ; died, 16OT. 
 
 BAROZZI, James, a celebrated architect, 
 successor to Michael Aiigelo as architect of 
 St. Peter's ; author of " Rules for the Five. 
 Orders of Architecture," &c. Born, 1507 ; 
 died, 1.577. 
 
 BARRAL, Peter, a French abb(5 ; author 
 of a "Dictionary of Roman Antiquities," 
 &c. Died, 1772. 
 
 BARRAL, Loms Matthias de, bishop of 
 Troyes, was a native of Grenoble. He emi- 
 grated at the Revolution ; but returning to 
 France in 1801, Buonaparte made him bishop 
 of Meaux, and afterwards archbishop of 
 Tours, and almoner to the Empress Jose- 
 phine. Died, 1816. 
 
 BARRAS, Paul Francis John Nicholas, 
 Count de, M-as originally a sub-lieutenant in 
 the regiment of Languedoc, and served for 
 some time in India. Embracing revolu- 
 tionary principles, he assisted at the attack 
 on the Bastile, and voted in the National 
 Conventi<in for the death of the unfortunate 
 Louis XVI. He subsequently became one 
 of the chiefs of the government, but retired 
 from public life when Buonaparte assumed 
 the direction of affairs. For some years he 
 resided at Rome, but returned to France in 
 1814, and remained there till his death in 
 1829. 
 
 BARRE', William Vincent, a native of 
 France, who, after serving in the Russian 
 navy with credit in his youth, returned to 
 his own country on the breaking out of the 
 French revolution, joined his countrymen 
 in arms, and was eventually appointed in- 
 terpreter to the French government ; but 
 having indulged his vein of sarcasm on the 
 legitimacy of tlie First Consul, he was put 
 under arrest. He escaped the vigilance of his 
 enemies, and got to I^ondon, where he pub- 
 lished a " History of the First Consulate." He 
 translated into French Sir Sj'dney Smith's 
 pamphlet on the expedition into Egypt ; for 
 which the English government rewarded 
 him. labile at Dublin, in 1829, he com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 BARRET, George, a landscape painter, 
 of considerable eminence. He was born in 
 Dublin, but passed most of his life in Eng- 
 land, and was a chief founder of the Royal 
 Academv. Born, 1730 ; died, 1784. 
 
 BARRETT, William, an English topo- 
 grapher ; author of a " History of Bristol." 
 Died, 1780. 
 
 BARRINGTON, John Sitote, the first 
 Vi.scoimt Barrington ; author of " An Essay 
 on the several Dispensations of God to Man- 
 
bar] 
 
 ^ ^jrfcD duitJcriSal 3S(0Siai)T)i). 
 
 [bar 
 
 I kind," " The Rights of Protestant Dissent- 
 ers," &c. Born 1(J78 ; died, 17^4. 
 
 HARRINGTON, Dainks, fourth son of 
 Viscount Barrington, was bred to tlie law, 
 and rose to the office of second justice of 
 Cliester. lie was autlior of " Observations on 
 the Statutes," &c. Born, 1727 ; died, 1800. 
 
 BARRINGTON, Samiel, youngest bro- 
 ther of tlie last-named, entered early into 
 tlie navy, and became rear-admiral of the 
 white. lie took St. Ivucia, in the face of a 
 superior force ; and was conspicuous for his 
 aeal and courage at the memorable relief of 
 Gibraltar, bv Lord Howe. Died, 1800. 
 
 BARRINGTON, Sm tk. bisliop of Dur- 
 ham, was the sixth son of the first Viscount 
 Barrington, and born in 17:34. He engaged 
 in some controversial disputes both witli the 
 Calvinists and Romanists ; but though hos- 
 tile to the doctrines of the latter, he was a 
 liberal benefactor of the French clergy who 
 took refuge in England during the Revolu- 
 tion. Died, lba<i. 
 
 BARROS, Jonx de, a learned Portuguese, 
 ti-easurcrof the Indies, and author of a " His- 
 tory of Asia and the Indies." Died, 1570. 
 
 BARROW, Isaac, D.D., a learned divine 
 and mathematician ; author of numerous 
 muthcmatical and theological works ; and 
 one who, for versatility of knowledge, had few 
 rivals. King Charles II. used to say of him, 
 that he was an unfair preacher, lor he ex- 
 hatisted every subject upon which he dis- 
 coursed. Bom in I/ondon, WM ; chosen 
 vice-chancellor of Cambridge, 1G57 ; died, 
 1(577. 
 
 BARROW, Sir Jonx, Bart., r.R.8.,for 
 many years secretary to the Admiralty, a 
 great traveller, and a voluminous writer of 
 travels, biographies, &c. ; was born near 
 Ulvcrston, in Lancashire, June 19th, 17(54. 
 At an early age he displayed a decided in- 
 cliiuitioii for matlieuialical pursuits, and 
 after passing some years as superintending 
 clerk of an iron foundry in Liverpool, he 
 became mathematical teucher at an academy 
 in Greenwich, whence he was appointed, 
 through the interest of Sir George Staunton, 
 secretary to the embassy destined for China, 
 under Lord Macartney, in 1792. In this ca- 
 pacity his talents and acquirements were 
 duly appreciated; and when Lord Macartney 
 was, in 1797, appointed to the government 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, he secured Mr. 
 Barrow's services as private secretary, and 
 subsequently appointed him auditor-general 
 of public accounts, an office which he held 
 till the Cape was evacuated by the Englisli 
 in 180".. In 1801 he was appointed, by 
 Lord Melville, secretary to the Admiralty ; 
 and with t!ie exception of a few months, 
 during the Whig administration, in 1806-7, 
 he continued to fill this office, down to his 
 rclirenieut, in 15M.5. He w;is created a baro- 
 net during the short administration of Sir 
 Rol)crtPccl,)n 18.')o. Besides contributing nu- 
 merous articles on miscellaneous subjects to 
 the Quarterly Review and the Encycloi)oedia 
 Britannica, he published tlie Lives of Lord 
 Macartney, Lord Anson, Lord Howe, and 
 Peter the Great ; Travels in Cliina, Voyage 
 to Co<rhin China, the Mutiny of the Bounty, 
 his own autobiography, &c. The general 
 aim of bis writings was to convey inform- 
 
 77 
 
 ation, to promote the arts and sciences, and 
 to stimulate research and enquiry ; and he 
 had the great privilege to live to see the most 
 beneficial eft'ects prodiiced by his honest 
 and faithful labours. We should not omit 
 to state that Sir John was the constant and 
 successful advocate at the Admiralty of those 
 voyages of discovery which have enlarged 
 the bounds of science, and conferred so much 
 honour on the British name and nation. 
 Died, Nov. 23. 1848. 
 
 BARBUEL, AronsTiK, a French eccle- 
 siastic, and of some note as a man of letters 
 during the French Revolution, was born in 
 1741. He was for some years editor of " IjC 
 Journal Ecclesiastique ; hut as the prin- 
 ciples he thei-e advocated were opposed to 
 the revolution, he was obliged to fly to Eng- 
 land, where, in 1794, he published liis " His- 
 tory of the French Clergy," &c. ; but lushest 
 known work is entitled " Memoirs for a His- 
 tory of Jacobinism, Impiety, and Anarchy," 
 in 5 vols. 8vo. ; a production in which fact 
 and fiction are so closely interwoven as 
 to destroy its authenticity. He returned 
 to France in 1802, and died there in 1820, 
 aged 79. 
 
 BARRUEL DE BEAUVERT, Anthony 
 JosErii, Count de, was born at the castle of 
 Beauvert, near Marseilles, in 175(5. In 17!)0 
 he belonged to the national guard at Bag- 
 iiols ; and on the flight of the royal family 
 to Varenncs he offered liimsclf as a hostage 
 for Louis XVI. In 1795 he was editor of 
 the journal entitled " Les Actes des Apo- 
 tres ;" for which he was sentenced to depor- 
 tation, but cscaiKfd. For a time during the 
 consulate he was under the surveillance of 
 the police j but at length obtaining the pro- 
 tection of tlie Empress Josephine, he was 
 appointed to an office in the department of 
 Jura ; where he died in 1817. He wrote the 
 Life of Rousseau, and various works relative 
 to the Bourbons during tlieir exile. 
 
 BARRY, GiKALD, better known as Giral- 
 dus Cambrensis ; author of " Topographia 
 llibernica," " Itinerarium Cambrias," &c. 
 He flourished in the 12th century, but the 
 date of his death is not known. 
 
 BARRY, Jamks T., a painter of consider 
 able genius, and a skilful writer on his ai t, 
 was born at Cork, in 1741. The celebratid 
 Edmund Burke was his friend and patron ; 
 by whose means he was enabled to travel, and 
 study the great masterpieces of art in Italy. 
 Died, 180(5. 
 
 BARRY, SruANGEn, a celebrated actor ; 
 and, for a time, tlie rival of Garrick, who, 
 iiowever, in the higher walks of the drama, 
 greatly excelled him. Born, 1719; died, 1777. 
 
 BARTAS, William de Sallust i>u, a 
 French poet, warrior, and statesman ; coufi- 
 dcnnally employed by Henry IV. ; author of 
 "The Week of the Creation," &c. Died, 
 1590. 
 
 BARTII, John, a French naval officer, 
 remarkable for his skill and daring as a pri- 
 vateer. Born at Dunkirk, 1(551 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BARTHELEiMI, Nicholas, a monk of the 
 15th century ; author of a treatise " On the 
 Active and Contemplative Life," &c. 
 
 BARTIIELEMON, Fi'.ancis Uiitolite, 
 a musical composer and violinist, wa'? bom 
 at Bordeaux, in 1741, but resided chiefly in 
 
 bS 
 
bar] 
 
 ^ i^tia mnihttSnl I8t0flriipl)j?. 
 
 London, and was for many years leader of 
 the Opera-house. As a composer he was re- 
 markable for rapidity ; and as a performer 
 for taste and execution. Died, 1808. 
 
 BARTIIELEM Y, Jt)nN James, the learned 
 author of '_' The Voyage of the Younger 
 Anacharsis in Greece ; " was born at Cassis, 
 in Provence, 1716 ; died, 1795. 
 
 BARTHEZ, Paul Joseph, an eminent 
 French physician, was bom at Montpellier, 
 in 1734, where he founded a medical school, 
 which acquired great reputation throughout 
 Europe. For many years he practised in 
 Paris, and was consulted upon the most im- 
 portant cases : he also wrote in the Journal 
 des Savans, the Encyclopfedic, &c. ; and 
 was a member ofalmost every learned society. 
 During the revolution he suffered greatly in 
 his fortune ; but Napoleon, who knew his 
 great merits, restored him, in his old age, to 
 wealth and honours. Died, 180C. 
 
 BARTirOEDY, Jacob Solomon, a Prus- 
 sian diplomatist, bom a Jew, but after tra- 
 velling in Greece he abjured Judaism, and 
 became a Protestant. In 1807 he served 
 against the French as an officer in the land- 
 wehr of Vienna, and wrote a tract called 
 " The War of the Tyrol," which produced a 
 great sensation. Died, 182(5. 
 
 BARTOLI, or BARTOLUS, a learned 
 civilian, who flourished in the 14tli century, 
 and is said to have contributed more than 
 any of his predecessors to the elucidation of 
 legal science. Born, 1312 ; died, 13.56. 
 
 BARTOLI, Daniel, a learned Jesuit; 
 author of a " History of the Jesuits," &c. 
 Born at Ferrara, 1608 ; died, 1685. 
 
 BARTOLI, Cosmo, an Italian writer of the 
 16th century ; author of a " Life of Frederic 
 Barbarossa," &c. 
 
 BARTOLO, an Italian lawyer of the 14th 
 century ; professor of law at Pisa, and author 
 of numerous works on law and other subjects. 
 
 BARTOLOZZI, Francis, an engraver of 
 first-rate merit, was born at Florence in 
 1728 ; came to England in 1764 ; admitted a 
 member ofthe Royal Academy in 1769 ; went 
 to Lisbon, at the invitation of the prince- 
 regent oi Portugal, in 1802 ; and there died 
 in 1815. The productions of his graver are 
 numerous, highly esteemed, and eagerly 
 sought after. 
 
 BARTON, Bernard, the celebrated 
 " Quaker poet," was born near I,ondon, 1784. 
 In 1810 he became a clerk in Alexander's 
 bank, at Woodbridge, where he officiated 
 almost to the day of his death. His first 
 volume of poetry was published in 1811, and 
 this was succeeded by numerous others, most 
 of them devoted to homely subjects, but all 
 of them animated by the purest feeling and 
 the most glowing fancy. But it was not 
 only for his merits as a poet that Bernard 
 Barton deserves to be held in remembrance. 
 He was endowed with every quality which 
 endears a man to all tliat come within his 
 influence. His genial good Inmiour and 
 vast stores of information made him a wel- 
 come guest wherever he appeared ; and the 
 native sincerity of his character, which was 
 set forth in every act of his life, was en- 
 hanced by a benignity, liberality, and cha- 
 rity, in entire accordance with the precepts 
 of his faith. Died, Feb. 19. 1849. 
 
 78 
 
 [bA8 
 
 BARTON, ELiZAP.Exn, a religious im- 
 postor, called tJw Holy Maid of Kent, was a 
 poor country girl, born at AUington in that 
 county, who, instructed by priests, declared 
 she was divinely inspired, denounced the 
 heresies of the reformed religion, and pre- 
 tended to the gift of prophecy : but having 
 included the king (Henrj' VIII.) in her 
 predictions and denunciations, she and her 
 associates were tried and executed for high 
 treason, 1584. 
 
 BARTRAM, John, an eminent American 
 botanist, was born in Chester county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1701. He formed a botanic gar- 
 den near Philadelphia, said to have been the 
 first establishment of the kind in America ; 
 and so intimate an acquaintance had he with 
 the vegetable kingdom, that liinnaus pro- 
 nounced him " the greatest natural botanist 
 in the world." Died, 1777. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was also a distinguished naturalist. 
 At the request of Dr. Fothergill, he travelled 
 through tlie Floridas, Carolina, and Georgia, 
 for the purposes of making researches in 
 natural history, and transmitted to his em- 
 ployer in London the valuable collections 
 and drawings which he had made. His 
 " American Ornithology " may be considered 
 the precursor of Wilson's invaluable work. 
 Died, 1823. 
 
 BAR WICK, John, an English divine, who 
 exerted himself with considerable zeal and 
 ability on the royal sidfi in the civil wars. 
 Born 1612 ; died, 1664. 
 
 BARWICK, Peter, brother of the above, 
 an eminent physician; author of a " Defence 
 of Harvey's Doctrine of the Circulation of 
 the Blood," &c. Died, 1705. 
 
 BASEDOW, John Bernard, a German 
 writer, and professor of moral philosophy and 
 belles lettres. His novel plans of education 
 excited great attention in Germany ; and in 
 the seminary he established at Dessau, called 
 " The Philanthropinum," many excellent 
 teachers were formed, and great good effected. 
 Born, 1723 ; d.ied, 1790. 
 
 BASEVI, George, a distinguished archi- 
 tect, was born 1795. Among the edifices built 
 or restored by him are the churches in the 
 early English style at Twickenham and 
 Brompton, the Norman church at Hove, near 
 Brighton, and St. Mary's Hall, at Brigliton, 
 in the Elizabethan style. Belgrave Square, 
 in the metropolis, was erected from his 
 designs ; and he was joint architect with 
 Mr. Smirke of the Conservative Club, in 
 St. James's Street. Having gone to inspect 
 the AVest Bell Tower of Ely Cathedral, then 
 under repair, he accidentally fell through 
 an aperture, and was killed on the spot, 
 Oct. 16. 1845. 
 
 BASIL, St., surnamed the Great, to dis- 
 tinguish him from other patriarchs of tlie 
 same name, was bora, in 326, in Cassarea, in 
 Cappadocia ; and is honoured by the Greek 
 Church as one of its most illustrious patrons. 
 He is chiefly remembered for his ascetic doc- 
 trines, and his zeal to promote monastic dis- 
 cipline. Died, 379. 
 
 BASILIUS I., the Macedonian, emperor 
 of the East ; killed by a stag wliile hunting, 
 in a36. 
 
 BASILIUS II., succeeded Jolm Zimisces, 
 
BAS] 
 
 ^ ^cfio WinihtxiKl 3SJi0(jrajp^g, 
 
 [bat 
 
 in 976. He was gxiilly of abominable cruelty 
 in his war with the Bulgarians. Dieil, 10'J5. 
 
 BASILIirS, an impiystor, who excited a 
 revolt in the eastern emiiire, in 934, and was 
 burnt to death nt Constantinople. 
 
 BASU^OVVITZ, JgiiN, emperor of Russia; 
 he added Astracan to his empire, and was 
 the lirst who assumed the style and title of 
 Czar. Died, 15«4. 
 
 BASIKE, Isaac, a learned divine, prebend 
 of Durham. On tlie breaking out of tlie civil 
 war he lost all his preferments ; on wliich he 
 made a journey to the Morea, where he 
 preached with great success among the Greek 
 Cliristians ; and on his return wrote an ac- 
 count of his travels. Born, 1607 ; died, li!7G. 
 
 BASKEKVILLE, JoHX, a celebrated 
 letter-founder and printer ; and one to whom 
 the typographical art is much indebted. It 
 has been remarked, however, that his l)ooks 
 are far more elegantly than correctly printed. 
 Born at Wolverley, in Worcestersliire, in 
 17(W ; died, 177.5. 
 
 BASKEKVILLE, Sir Simon, an English 
 physician of great eminence and wealth ; 
 knighted by Charles I. Died, 1(J41. 
 
 BASNAGE, Benjamix, a French Pro- 
 testant divine; author of "A Treatise on 
 the Church." Born, 1580 ; died, U',5'2. 
 
 BASNAGE, Antuoxy, son of the above t 
 imprisoned at Havre de Grace on account of 
 his religion. Bom, 1010 ; died, 1(591. 
 
 BASNET, EowAUD, dean of St. Patrick's, 
 Dublin, who exchanged his clerical for 
 a military liabit, and served under the lord 
 deputy against O'Neil, tlie rebel. He died 
 during the brief reign of Edward VI. 
 
 BASSANI, GiAMATTisTA, a musical com- 
 poser of the 17th century. 
 
 BASSANO, or BASSAN, James, an Italian 
 painter, chiefly of landscapes. Bom, 1510 j 
 died, 1.-.92. 
 
 BASSANO, ITuonF-s Bkrward Maret. 
 Duke of, a celebrated French political writer 
 and statesman, was the son of an eminent 
 idiysician at Dijon. On the first outburst 
 of the French revolution he enthusiastically 
 embraced its extremest principles, and pub- 
 lished a paper under the title of the BulMtin 
 de, VAssemblce, which he continued until a 
 bookseller started tlie Monitcur, of which 
 Maret was appointed editor, and which 
 speedily became the official organ of the 
 government. He became acquainted with 
 Buonaparte just as that extraordinary man 
 began to rise into celebrity and influence, 
 and was placed py him in the important 
 office ofdiefile dirigion in the foreign office. 
 In 1792 he was sent to England, ostensibly 
 to secure the neutrality of the British govern- 
 ment, but in reality to hoodwink that go- 
 vernment until tlie moment should arrive at 
 which it could be securely, as well as effi- 
 ciently assailed. But the English minister 
 of that day was too clear-sighted even for 
 French diplomacy. Both Maret and the 
 French ambassador, Chauvelin, were pe- 
 remptorily ordered out of England ; and the 
 former, soon after his return home, was sent 
 as ambassador to Naples, but was captixred 
 on his way thither by the Austrians, and 
 detained as a prisoner until 1795, when he 
 and the Marquis de Lemonville were ex- 
 changed with the French government for a 
 
 79 
 
 daughter of the ill-fated Louis XVI. Being 
 decidedly attached to Buonaparte, both by 
 feeling and by policy, Maret took a bold and 
 active part in the long and complicated in- 
 trigues which were set on foot for the over- 
 throw of the directory and the introduction 
 of the consulate ; and when the establish- 
 ment of the latter crowned the success of 
 those intrigties, he was made secretary to 
 the consular council of state. Subsequently 
 he was for some time private secretary to 
 Buonoparte, to whose dictation, it is said, 
 not a few of his articles in the Moniteur 
 were actually written. In 1811 he was made 
 Due de IJassmiu and minister of ioreign 
 afi°airs ; and in 1812 he conducted and signed 
 the well-known treaties between France, 
 Austria, and Prussia, preparatory to the 
 fatal expedition to Kussia. When the em- 
 peror was sent to Elba, in 1814, the Due de 
 Bassano retired from public life ; but imme- 
 diately after the return of the emperor, he 
 joined him, and was very nearly being taken 
 prisoner at Waterloo. On the utter ruin of 
 Napoleon, the duke was banislied from 
 France, but at the revolution of July, 1830, 
 he was recalled, and restored to all the ho- 
 nours of which he had been deprived. In 
 1^38 he was made minister of the Interior, 
 and president of the council, but the minis- 
 try of which he formed a part, survived only 
 three days. Born, 17.58 ; died, 18;59. 
 
 BASSET, Peter, chamberlain to ITcnry 
 V. of England ; author of a history of that 
 king, which is still extant in MS. 
 
 BASSI, Laika Maria Catharine, a 
 learned Italian lady, whose singular accom- 
 plishments procured her the professor's chair 
 at Bologna, and the title of doctor of pliilo- 
 sophy. Born, 1711 ; died, 1778. 
 
 BASSOM PIERRE, Francis pe, a mar- 
 shal of France, distinguished both as a sol- 
 dier and a statesman, and remarkable for his 
 personal attractions ; who after being patron- 
 ized by Henry IV. and Louis XIII., was 
 imprisoned for 12 years for giving some 
 offence to Cardinal Richelieu. He was author 
 of his own memoirs and several other works. 
 Born, 1.575 ; died, 1(54<5. 
 
 BASSUET, Pierre, an eminent French 
 surgeon ; author of numerous dissertations 
 on subjects connected with his profession. 
 Bom, 170G; died, 1757. 
 
 BASTA, George, an Italian general of 
 the 10th century ; author of two treatises on 
 military discipline. 
 
 BASTIDE, John Francis pe la, an in- 
 dustrious French miscellaneous writer, was 
 born at Marseilles in 1724, He settled in 
 Paris, where he engaged in various literary 
 enterprises ; of which the most voluminous 
 were the " Blbliothoque Universelle des 
 Romains," in 112 vols., and the " Chois des 
 Ancicns Meicures," in 108 vols. 
 
 BASTWICK, John, an English physician, 
 and a furious writer against the Church in 
 the time of Charles I. Born at Writtle, in 
 Essex, 1593 ; died, 1650. 
 
 BATE, George, physician to Charles I., 
 Oliver Cromwell, and Charles II., and one 
 of the first members of the Royal Society. 
 He was the author of a Latin history of the 
 civil wars, and some medical works. Bora, 
 1.593 ; died, 1669. 
 
bat] 
 
 ^ 0ti3i Sljub?rs"al Btofirapl^y. 
 
 [bat 
 
 BATE, Joim, an English divine, and 
 prior of the Carmelite monastery at York, 
 in the l.'ith century ; author of a " Comijen- 
 dium of Logic," &c. 
 
 BATECUMBE, William, an English ma- 
 thematician of tlie 15th century ; author of a 
 treatise, " De Sphjera Solidu," &c. 
 
 BATEMAN, Willi AM, bishop of Norwich, 
 a learned prelate, and the founder of Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge. Died, 1354. 
 
 BATES, JoAH, an eminent musician, born 
 at Hal ifax, Yorksliire, in 1740. lie was una- 
 nimously chosen conductor of the comme- 
 moration of Handel at Westminster Abl)cy ; 
 and till the year 1793 he conducted the clioral 
 performances of ancient music, when he 
 retired, and was succeeded by Mr. Greatorex. 
 He died in 1709. 
 ' BATES, William, a nonconformist di- 
 vine ; author of " Lives of Learned and 
 Pious :Mcn," &c. Born, 102.3 ; died, 1G99. 
 
 BATHE, William, an Irish Jesuit, go- 
 vernor of the Irish seminary at Salamanca. 
 Died, 1641. 
 
 BATHURST, Allex, Earl, a zealous op- 
 poser of the measures of Sir Kobert Walpole, 
 nud the intimate friend of Bolingbroke, 
 Pope, Addison, and the other eminent writers 
 of his time. Born, l(3t*4 ; died, Ur.'i. 
 
 BATHURST, Henry, Earl, son of the 
 above, and lord chancellor of England ; au- 
 thor of the "Theory of Evidence," &c. 
 Bom, 1714; died, 1794. 
 
 BATHURST, Right Rev. Henrt, bishop 
 of Norwicli, was born at Brackley, in North- 
 amptonshire, in 1744 ; and educated at Win- 
 chester, and New College, Oxford. He was 
 presented to the rectory of Witchingham, in 
 Norfolk, in 1770 ; subsequently became dean 
 of Durham ; and, in 1805, was consecrated 
 bishop of Norwich. In the House of Lords, 
 Dr. Bathurst was a strenuous supporter of 
 the Catliolic claims : in his diocese, an ex- 
 emplary prelate. He died, April 5. 1837 
 
 The bishop's eldest son. Dr. HExnr Bath- 
 uusT, archdeacon of Norwich, and rector of 
 the valuable livings of North Creake, Nor- 
 folk, and of Ilollesley, Suffolk, was the 
 author of " Memoirs" of his right reverend 
 fatlier ; a work overflowing with spleen and 
 expressions of disappointment, that one so 
 faitliful to his old friends, the Whigs, should 
 have never been preferred to a richer diocese! 
 I Alas, poor human nature I Died, Sept. 18-14. 
 
 BATHURST, Ralph, dean of Wells ; au- 
 thor of some elegant Latin poems, and one 
 of the founders of the Royal Society. Born^ 
 1620 ; died, 1704. 
 
 BATHYLLUS, the cotemporary of Pyla- 
 des, and one of the most celeVwated panto- 
 mimists of antiquity, was bom at Alexandria, 
 and became the slave of Ma;cenas, who en- 
 franchised him. The art of tliese celebrated 
 mimes consisted in expressing the passions 
 by gestures, attitudes, &c., not by the mo- 
 dern fooleries of harlequin, clown, and scenic 
 changes. Bathyllus excelled in representing 
 comedy ; Pylades in tragedy. 
 
 B ATONI, PoMi'Eo GiKOLAMO, an eminent 
 Italian painter, esteemed as the restorer of 
 the Roman school. His most admired work 
 is the "Contention of St. Peter and Simon 
 the Magician," in St. Peter's, at Rome. 
 Born at "Lucca, 1708 ; died at Rome,;i787. 
 
 BATOU KHAN, grandson of Zenghis 
 Khan, and his successor in the northern part 
 of his vast emi)ire. He died after a long 
 reign and numerous conquests, in 1276. 
 
 BATSCH, AuGUSTU.s Joiiir George 
 Charles, an eminent German naturalist ; 
 author of " Elenchus Fungorum," &c. Born, 
 1761 ; died, 1801. 
 
 BATTELY, Joiiir, archdeacon of Canter- 
 bury, and chaplain to Archbishop Sancroft ; 
 author of " Antiquitates Rutupinse," &c. 
 Died, 1708. 
 
 BATTEUX, Charles, a French writer ; 
 editor and commentator on the poetics of 
 Horace, Vida, &c. Born, 1713 ; died, 1780. 
 
 BATTHYANI, Count Louis, a scion of 
 one of tlic noblest and most ancient Hun- 
 garian families, was born in 1809. For many 
 years he was the leader of the Liberal Oppo- 
 sition in the upper house of the Hungarian 
 parliament ; and had long been distinguished 
 for his devotion to the cause of Hungary, 
 which he longed to see reinstated in its 
 ancient administrative independence. Sum- 
 moned in March 1848, by the emperor-king 
 Ferdinand, to form the first independent and 
 responsible cabinet of Hungary, he strictly 
 adhered, while in office, to the constitution 
 of tlic country ; repeatedly repairing to tlie 
 emperor-king's court at Innspruck, to nego- 
 tiate between the sovereign and the people, 
 and labouring to heal the ruptures that daily 
 threatened to plunge the nation into civil 
 war. Animated l)y the same views, he left 
 Pesth for Vienna, in September of the same 
 year ; but when he saw that all his efforts 
 were likely to be fruitless, he resigned his 
 office and retired to his estates in Eisenberg. 
 On the invasion of Hungary by Jellachich, 
 the ban of Croatia, Batthyani entered the 
 ranks of the National Guard ; but a fall 
 from his horse compelled him to give up all 
 thought of aiding the cause of Hungary in 
 the field. In December he returned to Pesth, 
 and took part in the proceedings of the par- 
 liament, labouring as before, despite of ca- 
 lumny and intrigue, to negotiate Jjctween the 
 king and the country, and to impress all par- 
 ties with his own moderate and practicable 
 views. Meanwhile the revolutionary party 
 in the Himgarian parliament having pro- 
 posed to transfer the seat of government from 
 Pesth to Debreczin, Batthyani strenuously 
 opposed this measure on the ground of its ille- 
 gality ; and all that he could effect was, that 
 a deputation, of which he formed one, should 
 be sent to Prince Wrndischgriltz, once more 
 to attempt a compromise between the king 
 and the people. But the deputation failed in 
 its object. This was Battliyani's last public 
 act. On the 8th of January, he was arrested 
 in the drawing-room of his sister-in-law, at 
 Pesth, transferred successively to Oedenburg, 
 Lay bach, and Pesth, and, after nine months' 
 imprisonmeutjwas tried bj' court-martial, de- 
 clared guilty of high-treason, and sentenced 
 to die on the gallows, Oct. 6. 1849. He heard 
 the sentence with tranquillity and com- 
 posure. Having taken leaVe of his wife, he 
 en<leavoured, in the course of the nigiit, to 
 open the veins of his neck by means of a 
 blunt paper-knife, and thus to escape the 
 last indignity of what the Austrians called 
 the " law." But his attempt was discovered. 
 
bat] 
 
 ^ S^cU) BnibttM 23iasrap]^j», 
 
 [bax 
 
 and though he lost much blood, the surgeons 
 Bucceeded in preserving his life. Still it was 
 the opinion of the medical men, that the 
 sentence, as pronounced by the court-mar- 
 tial, could not be executed ; and it was com- 
 muted to a soldier's death. He died as he 
 lived, calm, majestic, and conscious of inno- 
 cence. His possessions were confiscated ; 
 and his wife (a member of the noble family 
 of Zicliy) und children left the country of 
 their fathers for a foreign land, there to 
 weep, and if possible to forgive. The news of 
 the execution of Batthyani caused astonish- 
 ment and horror throughout the civilised 
 world. It was universally felt that his case 
 dift'ered in all respects from that of men who 
 had taken up arms against Austria in the 
 spirit of reh«llion, and with the avowed 
 object of overthrowing her authoritj'. On 
 the contrary, Battliyani had never aimed at 
 the complete separation of Hungary from 
 Austria ; he had all along been decidedly 
 opposed to the establishment of an Hun- 
 garian republic ; and though far from ap- 
 proving the principles of the Austrian govern- 
 ment, he had, through good and evil report, 
 supported the union between the two coun- 
 tries, on the basis of the constitution of 
 March 1848, voluntarily conceded by the 
 empcror-king. Why then was he sacri- 
 ficed ? The time has not arrived when this 
 question can be satisfactorily answered. But 
 neither the nature nor the manner of his 
 trial, nor the language of the verdict, has 
 been able to justify the " deep damnation of 
 his taking-off." In the absence of an ad- 
 equate motive to such a deed, conjecture 
 must he vain. But thus much may be 
 said, that his devotion to the cause of con- 
 stitutional government had procured him 
 much ill-will at the court of Vienna, from 
 those who were bent on the restoration of 
 the despotic system, overthrown in 1848 ; and 
 it is not improbable that, buoyed up by the 
 success that had followed the Russian inva- 
 sion in 1840, they took occasion to strike, 
 i in the person of Batthyani, at all who might 
 I be inclined to tread in his footsteps ; for 
 despotic governments hold in especial abhor- 
 rence the moderate reformer. 
 
 BATTIE, William, a physician, very 
 skilful in the cure of mental aberrations ; 
 author of a " Treatise on Mental Madness," 
 &c. Born. 1708 ; died, 177(5. 
 
 BATTISIIILL, JoNATHAX, a musical 
 composer of some note ; the author of many 
 deservedly admired anthems, songs, glees, 
 &c. Born, 17:58 ; died, 1801. 
 
 BAUDELOQUE. Joii.v Louis, an eminent 
 French surgeon and accoucheur, whose skill 
 induced Napoleon to appoint him principal 
 midwife to the empress Maria Louisa. His 
 works on midwiferv are much esteemed. 
 Bom, 1740 ; died, ISiO. 
 
 BATJDIN, Pkter Charles, a member of 
 the French National Assembly and Conven- 
 tion ; author of " Anecdotes sur la Consti- 
 tution," &c. Born, 17.51 ; died, 1799. 
 
 BAUDIUS, Dominic, professor of elo- 
 quence at Leyden, and historiographer to 
 the states ; author of Latin poems, &c. Sec. 
 Born, irw.l ; died, 1613. 
 
 BAUDOT DE JUILLT, Nicholas, a 
 French liistorian ; author of the " History of 
 
 81 
 
 Catharine of France, queen of England," 
 &c. Born, ](!78 ; died, 1759. 
 
 BAUDOUIN, Benedict, a French divine 
 of the 17th century ; author of a dissertation 
 " De Itt Chaussure des Anciens." 
 
 BAUDIIAND, Michael ANxnoNY, a 
 French geographer ; author of a " Geogra- 
 phical Dictionary." Born, lfi3.3 ; died, 1700. 
 
 BAUER, Ferdinand, a German artist, 
 highly distinguished as a botanical painter. 
 He came to England, and made drawings of 
 the exotic plants in the royal gardens of 
 Kew ; and was engaged as drau^itsman to 
 accompany Mr. Robert Brown, in Captain 
 Flinders' expedition to the coast of New 
 Holland, between 1802 and 180"), for the 
 purpose of making drawings there from the 
 living plants, which were afterwards pub- 
 lished. Died, at Vienna, ISi'fi. 
 
 BAUHINUS, or BAUIIIN, John, a 
 French physician and celebrated botanist ; 
 author of" Ilistoria Plantarum," &c. Born 
 at Basle, 1541 ; died, KUS. 
 
 BAUHINUS, or BAUHIN, Gaspard, bro- 
 ther of the above ; an excellent botanist, 
 author of " Institutionea Anatomica;," 
 " Phytopinax," "Pinax," and numerous 
 other works. Bom, 1560 ; died, 1624. 
 
 BAULDRI, Paul, professor of sacred 
 history at Utrecht ; author of " Chronolo- 
 gical Tables," &c. Bora, 10.39 ; died, 1700. 
 
 BAUME, Anthony, a French chemist ; 
 author of a " Treatise on Theoretical and 
 Experimental Chemistry," " A Manual of 
 Pharmacy," &c. Died, 1803. 
 
 BAUME.. 1 AMES Francis de la, a French 
 divine ; author of " The Cliristiade," &c. 
 Died, 1757. 
 
 BAL'ME, Nicholas Augustus de la, 
 marquis of Montrevel, and a marshal of 
 France, was born 1030. From his earliest 
 youth he had been distinguished by his 
 daring valour, and had frequently braved 
 death in the -field of battle ; but such was 
 his ridiculous superstition, that on the con- 
 tents of a salt-cellar having been accidentally 
 thrown on him, he instantly exclaimed that 
 he was a dead man, and actually expired 
 from the terror with which it inspired him. 
 Died, 1716. 
 
 BAUMER, John William, a German 
 physician ; author of a " Natural History of 
 the ilineral Kingdom," &c. Born, 1719 j 
 died, 1788. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, Ale.tander Gottlieb, 
 professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Odcr ; author of " Metaphysica," "Ethica 
 Philosophica," &c. Born, 1714 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BAUR, Frederic William von, a Rus- 
 sian general, in the service of the empress, 
 Catharine II.; author of " Memoires llisto- 
 riques et Geograpliiques sur la Valachie," 
 &c. Died, 1783. 
 
 BAUR, John William, a painter of 
 Strasburg ; chiefly noted for his architec- 
 tural subjects. Born, 1010 ; died, 1040. 
 
 BAWDWEEN, William, an English di- 
 vine and antiquary ; editor of two volumes 
 of Doomsday Book. Died in 1816. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, an eminent noncon- 
 formist divine and most voluminous writer. 
 Foremost among his most popular works is 
 the " Saint's Everlasting Rest." In 108.5 he 
 woa tried before the brutal judge Jefferies, 
 
BAX] 
 
 ^ ^ctt) ^uibn-^aT SStosraiJljjj. 
 
 [bea 
 
 grossly insulted by him, and sentenced to fine 
 and imprisonment ; but the punishment was 
 sliortly after remitted by the king. Born, 
 1615 ; died, 1691. 
 
 BAXTER, Andrew, an eminent meta- 
 physician, and author of an " Enquiry into 
 the Nature of the Human Soul," &c. Bom 
 at Aberdeen, 1(587 ; died, 17.50. 
 
 BAYARD, PiERKK Du Teukail, Chevalier 
 de, a noble Frenchman by birth, and one of 
 the bravest military leaders of the IGth cen- 
 tury. So admirable, indeed, was his cha- 
 racter, that he universally obtained the ap- 
 pellation of" the Fearless and Irreproachable 
 Knight." Born, 1476 ; killed at the siege of 
 Rebec, 1521. 
 
 BAYER, Jonx, a German astronomer of 
 the 17th century ; author of " Uranometria," 
 a celestial atlas. 
 
 BAYER, TiiEOPiiiLUS Sieofred, a Ger- 
 man philologist ; author of a very curious 
 and able work, entitled "Musajum Sini- 
 cum." Bom, 1694 ; died, 1738. 
 
 BAYEUX, N., an advocate of Caen : au- 
 thor of " Reflections on the Reign of Trajan," 
 &c. Put to death iu the prison of Orleans, 
 1792. 
 
 BAYLE, Peter, a celebrated French 
 writer, philosopher, and critic ; author of 
 the well-knowTi " Biographical, Historical, 
 and Critical Dictionary," and of several 
 other literarv, philosophical, and theological 
 works. Born, 1647 ; died, 170(5. 
 
 BAYLE Y, AxsELM, an English divine ; 
 author of " A Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- 
 guage," &c. &c. Died, 1791. 
 
 BAYLEY, the. Right Hon. Sir John, a 
 learned and upright judge, was called to the 
 bar in 1792, and appointed a serjeant-at-law 
 in 1799. In 1808 he was made one of the 
 justices of the King's Bench, and received i 
 the honour of knighthood. He was a man | 
 of liberal education and enlarged notions : 
 to a most benevolent heart, he added the I 
 dignified manners of the gentleman, and a 
 degree of professional erudition that placed 
 him in the first rank among his judicial 
 compeers. His work "on the Law of Bills 
 of Exchange " has long been a standard 
 book in the profession, and its value in the 
 commercial world is universally acknow- 
 ledged. On his retirement from the bench, 
 in 1834. he was sworn a member of the privy 
 council and created a baronet. Died, 1841, 
 aged 78. 
 
 BAYLEY, RicHARi*, an em.inent Ameri- 
 can physician, was born in Connecticut, in 
 1745. After studying at home, he completed 
 his professional education in London, and 
 I settled at New York. In 1792 he was ap- 
 ' pointed professor of anatomy in the college 
 of Columbia, where he acquired great cele- 
 brity. In 1799 he published his work on 
 yellow fever, wherein he proved it to be a 
 local malady. Died, 1801. 
 
 BAYLY, Thomas Haynes, a lyrical poet 
 of some merit, and the autlior of several 
 dramatic pieces, and one or two novels. 
 Thougli very popular in his own day, he 
 was far too light and merely amusing a 
 writer to have a hold upon posterity ; and 
 tlie majority of his writings are already 
 rapidly passing into oblivion. Bora, 1797 ; 
 died, 1839. 
 
 82 
 
 . BAYLY, Lewis, bishop of Bangor ; aur 
 thor of " Practice of Piety." Died, 1()82. 
 
 BAYLY, ^^'ILIJAM, an astronomer, who 
 went out with Capt. Cook in the last twcj 
 voyages of that celebrated cii-cumnavigator. 
 Died, 1810. 
 
 BEACON, Thomas, prebendary of Can- 
 terbury in the reign of queen Elizabeth; 
 author of numerous works against popery. 
 
 BEARD, John, an eminent actor, and 
 the successor of Rich, as manager of Covent 
 Garden Theatre. He died in 1768, aged 74. 
 
 BEATON or BETHUNE, a cardinal, and 
 archbishop of St. Andrews, in Scotland ; 
 whose infamous persecutions of his Protest- 
 ant countrymen caused tiim to be assassin- 
 ated in his castle, in 1546. 
 
 BEATON, James, nephew of the above, 
 and bishop of Glasgow ; author of " A His- 
 tory of Scotland." Bora, 1530 ; died, 1603. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, LL.D., a celebrated 
 Scotch writer ; author of " The Minstrel," 
 a poem ; " Elements of Moral Science," 
 " Essay on Truth," and various other works 
 of merit. Bom at Laurencekirk, 1735 ; died, 
 
 BEATTY, Sir William, M.D., F.R.S., 
 physician to Her Majesty's fleet, and also to 
 Greenwich Hospital. This gentleman had 
 the melancholy duty of being othcially pre- 
 sent during the last moments of the hero of 
 Trafalgar, an " Authentic Narrative " of 
 whose death he published. He was knighted 
 in 1831. Died March, 1842. 
 
 BEAUCHAMP, Josei-u, a French astro- 
 nomer and Bernardine monk, born at 
 "Vesoul, in 1752. During the revolution 
 he was employed on a secret mission by 
 Napoleon, but falling into the hands of 
 the English, they delivered him up to the 
 Turks, by whom he was imprisoned as a spy. 
 He was subseouently released, and died at 
 Nice, 1802. 
 
 BEAUCHAl^IP, Richard, an English 
 prelate, admirably skilled in architectiu'e. 
 He was surveyor of the works at Windsor, 
 and rebuilt the chapel there in the reign of 
 Edward IV. The great hall in the episcopal 
 palace of Salisbury, and the sepulchral cha- 
 pel in the cathedral, are also monuments of 
 his taste and science. Died, 1481. 
 
 BEAUCHATEAU, Francis Matthias 
 Ciiatelet de, a French poet, remarkable 
 for his precocious talents ; author of " La 
 Lyre du jeune ApoUon," published when he 
 was only twelve years old. Born, 1C45 ; 
 visited England in 1600, and went to Persia, 
 where he died. 
 
 BEAUCLERK, Topham, a gentleman 
 of great literary talents, and a friend of 
 Dr. Johnson, who said that " Beauclerk's 
 talents were those which he had felt him- 
 self more inclined to envy than those of 
 any one else he had ever known." Bora, 
 1739 ; died, 1780. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry, the half-brother of 
 HenrylV. of England, was a cardinal, bishop 
 of Winchester, and chancellor of the king- 
 dom. He was proud, aml)itious, and im- 
 mensely rich ; but the hospital of St. Cross, 
 at Winchester, which he founded, and nu- 
 merous charitable bequests, prove that his 
 riches were ultimately well applied. Died, 
 1447. I 
 
bea] 
 
 ^ iQcto 2llntbcrs.ll 3iia^vnii\)^. 
 
 [bea 
 
 BEAUFORT, Margaret, countess of 
 Richmond and Derby, inotlier of Henry VII. 
 SJie founded St. John's College and Cluisi's 
 College, Cambridge, and distinguished her- 
 self likewise as an author. Boru, 1441 ; 
 died, 1.509. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Francis dk Vendomb, 
 Duke of, son of Caesar, duke of Vendome, was 
 imprisoned by Cardinal Mazarin. On his 
 escape, he broke Out into open violence, but 
 soon succeeded in making liis peace, and was 
 ajjpointed admiral of France. Killed at the 
 siege of Candia, IfWD. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Louis de, author of " Dis- 
 sertations upon tlic Uncertainty of the First 
 Five Ages of the Roman Republic," and 
 other learned works. Died, 171>5. 
 
 BEAUILVRNOIS, Alexander de, a 
 French nobleman, born in 1760. lie took 
 part in the revolution, and after having been 
 at one time president of the national assem- 
 bly, and served in the armies of France w^ith 
 distinction, was put to death by the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal just previous to the fall of 
 RobeJi>ierre, in 17D4. His widow, JosErniNE, 
 was ai'tcrwards wife of Buonaparte. 
 
 BEAUIIARNOIS, Francis, Marquis de, 
 elder brother of Alexander, was boni in 
 1750. He was appointed major-general in 
 the army of the rrince of Condi', in 1792 ; 
 protested against the unlawful treatment of 
 the king, in a letter to tlic president of the 
 national assembly : and when Buonaparte 
 became first consul, he exhorted him to re- 
 store the sceptre to the house of Bourbon. 
 He was afterwards appointed ambassador 
 to the court of Spain, but fell into disgrace 
 with Napoleon, and was banished, lie re- 
 
 I turned to Paris after the restoration, and 
 
 ! died in IK 19. 
 
 I BEAUIIARXOIS, EiOE.VE DE, son of 
 Francis above-mentioned, was born in 1780 ; 
 
 ! entered the army early, and became one of 
 
 I Napoleon's generals, and his viceroy in Italy, 
 which oflice he filled with credit and distinc- 
 tion, from 1805 to 1814 ; when on his patron's 
 
 I reverses he retired to Bavaria, married the 
 
 j king's daughter, was made duke of Lench- 
 tenlierg, and died at Munich, 1824. 
 
 BEAUIIARNOIS, Uoktense Eugenie, 
 ex-queen of Holland, and duchess of St. Leu, 
 was burn at raris,'in 175^, being the daughter 
 of Viscount Beauhamois (who perished by 
 the guillotine in 1794) by his wife Josephine, 
 afterwards the consort of Napoleon. Hor- 
 tense was married to Louis Buonaparte in 
 1802, but it was an ill-starred union, and 
 they separated in 1807, after she had given 
 birth to three sons ; the eldest of whom 
 (Napoleon Charles) died in childhood ; the 
 second (Napoleim Louis) was killed in an 
 insurrection at Romagna, in 1832 ; and the 
 youngest (Louis Napoleou) is the first presi- 
 dent of the French republic, established in 
 1848. She died Oct. 5. 1837. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Sebastian de Pontaui.t 
 DE, a celebrated French engineer and field- 
 marshal under Louis XIV. ; author of 
 " Views and Plans of the Battles ajid Sieges 
 ofLouis XIV." Died, 1C74. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pkter Auoustin, 
 Baron de, a man of singular versatility of 
 talent ; a politician, an artist, a merchant, 
 and a dramatist. He was author of the 
 
 coiuedies of " The Barber of Seville," " The 
 Marriage of Figaro," &c. ; but it was to a 
 luv\suit that he was first indebted for his 
 popularity as an author ; the memorials and 
 pUadiugs which he drew up being so full of 
 vit, satire, and sound reasoning, as to attract 
 public attention in an extraordinary degree. 
 Brrn, 17:!2 : died. 1799. 
 
 BEAUMELLE, Laukence, a French 
 writer and critic ; author of " Letters to 
 Voltaire," of whom he was a decided oppo- 
 nent ; " Commentary on the Ueuriade," &c. 
 Born, 1727 ; died, 1773. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Sir John, a judge of the 
 Common Pleas, knighted by Charles I. ; 
 author of " Bosworth Field, a poem, &c. 
 Born, l.'R>2 ; died, 1028. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, the -celebrated 
 English dramatic poet, was a younger bro- 
 ther of the above ; and, in conjunction with 
 his friend Fletcher, the author of a number 
 of excellent plays. They were both admi- 
 rable delineators of human nature, and their 
 contemporaries preferred their dramas even 
 to those of Shakspeare, whom they evi- 
 dently made their model ; but impartial 
 posterity has reversed this decision, and ad- 
 judged the palm to the bordof Avon. Born, 
 1585 ; died. HUr,. 
 
 BEAUMONT, JosErii,an English divine, 
 regius professor of divinity at Cambridge ; 
 author of "Psyche, or Love's Mystery," &c. 
 Died, 1089. 
 
 BEAUMONT DE PEREFIX,IIardouin, 
 tutor to Louis XIII., and subsequently arch- 
 bishop of Paris ; author of a " History of 
 Henry IV." Died, 1070. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Ei.ie de, a French advo- 
 cate, distinguished for his memoir in iavour 
 of the unfortunate family of Calos. Born, 
 1732 i died, 178.5. " - 
 
 BEAU^IONT, Madame i.e Princk de, a 
 French lady, who devoted her talents to tlie 
 instruction of youth, and wrote many pleas- 
 ing moral works ; among others, " Magaziii 
 des Adolescentes," " Magazin des Jcuncs 
 Dames," some novels, &c. Born, 1711 ; 
 died, 1780. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Sir George, bart., a dis- 
 tinguished amateur artist, and a great patron 
 of art and artists, was boru at Dunmow, 
 Essex, in 1753 ; died, 1827. 
 
 BEAUMONT, John Thomas Barber, 
 well known as the founder, and many years 
 managing director, of the County I ire Office, 
 &c., was bom in London, in 1774, his pa- 
 ternal name being Barber. In his youth he 
 manifested a strong desire to obtain emi- 
 nence as a painter. He afterwards became 
 an author, and published a " Tour in Wales," 
 besides several tracts upon the best mode of 
 arming the population, so as most elfectually 
 to repel the threatened Frcncii invasion j 
 and he at length put in practice what he 
 had so strenuously recommended to others, 
 by organising a matchless rifle corps, known 
 by the name of the " Duke of Cumberland's 
 ShariJ-shooters," of which corps he was ap- 
 pointed, in 180.}, captain commandant. In 
 1800 he establislied the Provident Institu- 
 tion, which gave rise to the various similar 
 establishments, now better known as "sav- 
 ings banks," throughout the kingdom. He 
 died in May, 1841, having bequeathed the 
 
bea] 
 
 ^ ^cJj) 5iIni&criJal Uiocra})!)!). 
 
 [bec 
 
 bulk of his property to his children, except 
 the sum of ]0,000Z. to establish a philosoplii- 
 cal institutiou ia Beaumout Square, Mile- 
 end. 
 
 BEAUNE, Flokimet de, a French ma- 
 thematician ; discoverer of a method to de- 
 termine the nature of curves by the proper- 
 ties of their triangles. Died, 1052. 
 
 KEAURAIN, JouN de, geographer to 
 Louis XV. ; author of a " Description of 
 the Campaigns of Luxembourg, from lOSK) to 
 1G94." Born, 1G97 ; died, 1771. 
 
 BEAURIEU, Gaspakd Guillakd de, a 
 French writer ; author of " L'Elfeve de la 
 Nature," &c. Born, 1727 ; died, 1795. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Isaac de, a French Pro- 
 testant divine, who settled at Berlin, and 
 became chaplain to the king of Prussia ; 
 author of " Defense de la Doctrine des B,i- 
 formes," and many other valuable works 
 upon theology. Born, 10.^9 i died, 1738. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, William, author of a work 
 on the medals of the Roman empire. Born, 
 1(>98 ; died, 1773. 
 
 BEAUVALS, Charles Nicrolas, a 
 French physician, member of the Convention 
 at the revolution ; author of " Essais llisto- 
 riquessurOrloans," &c. Born, 1745 ; d. 1794. 
 
 BEAUVILLIERS, Francis de, duke de 
 St. Aignan, a soldier, a courtier, and poet, 
 in the reign of Louis XIV. Born, 1C07 ; 
 died, 1(!87. 
 
 BEAUVILLIERS. Paul de, eldest son of 
 the preceding, was highly distinguished for 
 talents and probity. He lield high offices 
 in the state, and shared with the virtuous 
 Archbishop of Cambray in the education of 
 the Duke of Burgundy. Died, 1714. 
 
 BE AUZEE, Nicholas, an eminent French 
 critic and grammarian ; the author of several 
 works, and a contributor to the Encyclo- 
 pudie. Born, 1717 ; died, 1789. 
 
 BE AA'^ER, JoHjr, a monk of Westminster 
 in the 14th century ; author of a " Chro- 
 nicle of the Affairs of Britain," &c. 
 
 BECCADELLI, Louis, an Italian eccle- 
 siastic ; preceptor to Prince Ferdinand of 
 Tuscany, and author of the Lives of Cardi- 
 nals Pole and Bembo. Died, 1572. 
 
 BECCADELLL Antonio, of Palermo; 
 author of a " History of Alphonso, king of 
 Arragon," &c. Bom, 1374 ; died, 1471. 
 
 BECCARI, Augustine, the first Italian 
 pastoral poet. Died, 1520. 
 
 BECCARI, James Baetolomeo, a 
 Bolognese physician ; author of a " Treatise 
 on the Motion of Fluids," &c. Born, 1G82 ; 
 died, 17(56. 
 
 BECCARIA, Giovanni Battista, an in- 
 genious practical philosopher, wliose whole 
 life was devoted to the study of physics. 
 He was professor of philosophy at Palermo 
 and Rome, and publislied several works of 
 great merit, particularly on the nature of 
 the electric iiuid. Born, 1716 ; died, 1781. 
 
 BECCARIA, C.ESAU Bonesana, Marquis, 
 an eminent Italian ; author of the celebrated 
 " Treatise on Crimes and Punishments," &c. 
 Bom at Milan, 1735 ; died, 1794. 
 
 BECCUTI, Francis, surnamed II Cappita, 
 an Italian poet. Died, 1553. 
 
 BECERRA, Gaspard, a Spanish painter 
 and sculptor, pupil of Raphael. His chef d' 
 oeuvre is a statue of the Virgin. Died, 1570. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas a, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was born in London in 111". He 
 was raised to the very liighest offices by 
 Henry II., but the latter having attempted 
 to encroacli on the privileges of the Oiurch, 
 Becket resisted ; and after a long period of 
 mutual contention, during part of which 
 Becket lived in exile, the king apparently 
 gave way ; but having uttered some hasty 
 expressions respecting him, four of his cour- 
 tiers caught them up, and gave effisct to tliem 
 by assassinating Becket at the altar of Can- 
 terbury Cathedral, in 1170. After his death 
 he was canonised. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, one of the most 
 remarkable, and during many years one of 
 the most remarked, men of modem times, 
 was the son of tlie well-known Alderman 
 Beckford, of London, who bequeathed him 
 West Indian and otlier property, said to 
 amount to upwards of 100,000Z. per annum. 
 Mr. Beckford had a strong passion for build- 
 ing ; and in erecting the much-talked-of 
 Fonthill Abbey, he himself confessed to have 
 spent in a very few years the enormous sum 
 of 273,000Z. 1 • Building, however, did not 
 alone occupy Mr. Beckford. An excellent 
 scholar, and possessed of a fine taste in almost 
 every branch of art, he collected in tlie fan- 
 tastic but costly " Abbey " one of the finest 
 and most extensive libraries in England, and 
 his pictures and curiosities were almost un- 
 equalled. His vast expenses, and the loss in 
 Chancery of a large portion of his West 
 Indian property, rendered it necessary for 
 him to sell tlie abbey, and, with a few ex- 
 ceptions, all its rich and rare contents, in 
 1822. When the sale was announced, public 
 curiosity was so generally excited, that the 
 enormous number of 7200 catalogues were 
 sold at one guinea each 1 Though his ec- 
 centric and more than princely lavishness of 
 outlay caused Mr. Beckford to be much 
 talked of both here and in Portugal, where 
 he built a residence, his true claim to any 
 notice here rests upon his undoubted talents 
 as an author in many walks of literature, 
 and his genius as displayed in the wild and 
 singular tale of "Vathek," which is so 
 splendid in description, so true to eastern 
 costume, and so wild and vivid in imagina- 
 tion, that Lord Byron considered it difficult 
 to credit that it was written by a European, 
 and said, " Even Rasselas must bow before 
 it ; the Happy Valley will not bear a com- 
 parison with the Hall of Eblis." In addition 
 to this work, upon which his fame securely 
 rests, Mr. Beclcford wrote a satirical work, 
 entitled "Memoirs of Extraordinary Paint- 
 ers ; " " Italy, with Sketches of Portugal and 
 Spain ; ■' and " Recollections of an Excursion 
 to the Monasteries of Alcoba9a and Batalha." 
 Died, Mav 1844, aged 84. 
 
 BECKINGHAM, Charles, an English 
 dramatist ; author of " Scipio Africauus," 
 a tragedy, &c. Died, 1730. 
 
 BECKMANN, John Anthony, a native 
 of Hanover, and a professor at Gottingen, 
 where he lectured for many years on sub- 
 jects connected with rural and political 
 economy, &c. He was the autlior of several 
 works, of which his "History of Discov- 
 eries and Inventions " is the best known. 
 Born 1739 ; died, 1811. 
 
 M 
 
BECJ 
 
 ^ |2clD S(m'iicr)SaI 3St0firap!jg. 
 
 [bel 
 
 BECLARD, Pktek Augustus, an emi- 
 nent French anatomist, was born at Angers, 
 in 1785 ; became professor of anatomy and 
 physiology at Paris, wliere he attained the 
 higliest reputation as a lecturer and man 
 of science, lie wrote "Anatomical Me- 
 moirs," &c., and died in 182.5. 
 
 BEDE, or BEDA,' surnamed "the Vene- 
 rable," an ancient JSnalish monk, and the 
 most eminent writer of his time ; author of 
 an " Ecclesiastical History of England," and 
 other valuable works. Bom, C73 ; died, 735. 
 
 BEDELL, Wii.i.iAM, bishop of Kilmore 
 and Armagh ; greatly reverenced in Ireland 
 for his learning, piety, and benevolence. 
 Born, 1570; died, 1041. 
 
 BEDFORD, HiLKiAii, an English divine, 
 who was heavily fined as the author of 
 "The Hereditary Right of the Crown of 
 England asserted," a Jacobite work, which 
 was in reality written by George Ilarbin. 
 Died, 1724. 
 
 BEDFORD, Jony, Duke of, third son of 
 king Henry IV. of England ; and one of the 
 most successful commanders ever opposed 
 to the French. He was appointed regent of 
 France by the will of Henry V., and well sus- 
 tained the glory of his country during the 
 arduous struggle there. Died at Rouen, 143,5. 
 
 BEDFORD, John Russell, »Jth duke of 
 Bedford, K. G., an English nobleman, dis- 
 tinguislied even among his own distinguish- 
 ed nice for practical patriotism, and a truly 
 princely patronage of the fine arts, and every 
 brancli of industry which tends to the im- 
 provement of the social condition. A mem- 
 ber of several learned societies, and eminent- 
 ly versed in science and fond of literature, 
 he was no less attached to agriculture, to the 
 improvment of wliich he devoted many years 
 and large sums of money. Of his liberality, 
 wlien any useful object was in view, some 
 opinion may l)e formed from the fact, that 
 he expended upwards of 40,00<)/. in rebuilding 
 Covent Garden Market, in such a style as to 
 render it one of the greatest ornaments of that 
 part of the metropolis. In politics his grace 
 was a Whig ; but his whole course and cha- 
 racter were such as to procure him the esteem 
 of men of all parties, and to obtain for him 
 emphatically the really honourable title of 
 " a good old English gentleman." Bom, 
 17(W', ; died, 1839. 
 
 BEDLOE, William, captain, an infamoua 
 informer, noted for his perjuries, and re- 
 warded with 5<tO/. for pretended information 
 respecting a popish plot, and the death of 
 Sir Edmtmdbury Godfrey. Died, 1C80. 
 
 BEECHEY, Sir William, R. A., an emi- 
 nent English portrait-painter. But he did 
 not wholly confine himself to that branch of 
 the art, having painted some historical com- 
 positions of more than common merit, especi- 
 ally his "Iris bearing to Somnus the com- 
 mand of Juno to warn Alcyone by a dream 
 of the fate of her husband Ceyx." His chief 
 excellence, however, lay in portrait-painting, 
 to.which, indeed, he chiefly confined himself, 
 and in which he greatly surpassed most of 
 his contemporary artists in number. Died, 
 aged 80 years, in l&iO. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Louis vak, one of the 
 greatest composers in modem times, was born 
 at Bonn on the Rhine, in 1770. At the age of 
 
 four years (such was his precocity), he could 
 play admirably on the piano, and in his ninth 
 year he displayed a talent for improvisation 
 which has never been surpassed. Having 
 gained the friendship of Haydn, he set out 
 for Vienna, where he resided "the greater part , 
 of his life. His principal works are the ' 
 oratorio of the Momit of Olives and the opera 
 of Fidelio ; but the grandeur of his concep- 
 tions and his skill in their development are 
 equally set forth in his orchestral works, in 
 his overtures, and more especially in his sym- 
 phonies. For nearly the last twenty yeara 
 of his life he was afflicted with incurable 
 deafness ; a severe infirmity to all, but 
 doubly so to a musician. Died, 1827. 
 
 BEiX)S DE CELLES, Fuancis, a French 
 Benedictine monk ; author of a " Treatise 
 on Dialling," &c. Born, 172(5 ; died, 1779. 
 
 BEGA, Cornelus, a Dutch painter, 
 chiefly of cattle and landscapes. Born , 1G20 ; 
 died, 1004. 
 
 BEGEYN, Abraham, a Dutch landscape 
 painter ; some flue pictures by whom arc at 
 the Hague. 
 
 BEIIAIM, or BEHEM, MAUTirr, a geo- 
 grapher and navigator of the 15th century ; 
 said to have discovered the Brazils and the 
 Isle of Fayal, and to have sailed as far as 
 the Straits of Magellan, 
 
 BEHN, AriiKA, a female writer in the 
 reign of Charles II., of considerable ability, 
 but whose works were remarkable for their 
 disregard of decency and morals ; her pro- 
 ductions were chiefly poems, novels, and 
 plays. Died, 1G89. 
 
 BEICII, Joachim Fkancis, a native of 
 Suahia, eminent as a painter of cattle pieces 
 and landscapes. Born, KVW ; died, 1748. 
 
 BEINASCHI, John Baptist, a native of 
 Piedmont, an eminent historical painter. 
 Born, 103-t ; died, 1088. 
 
 BEK, or BEAK, Antitoxt be, bishop of 
 Durham, a bold and spirited prelate, who 
 united the skill and courage of a soldier to the 
 austerity of a divine. He led the van of the 
 English army under Edward I. in an ex- 
 pedition against the Scots ; built Barnard 
 Castle and other fortresses, and performed 
 many gallant exploits ; but at length broke 
 his heart at being excommunicated by the 
 Archlfishop of York, in 1310. 
 
 BEK, David, a Dutch painter, pupil of 
 Vandyke, and portrait painter to Christina, 
 queen of Sweden. Born, 1021 ; died, ICW. 
 
 BEKKHER, Balthasar, a divine of 
 Amsterdam ; suspended from his functions 
 for publishing " The World Bewitched," a 
 refutation of the popular errors in witch- 
 craft, &c. Bora, HW4 ; died, 1098. 
 
 BEKKER, Elizabeth, a Dutch lady of 
 considerable merit as the writer of works of 
 fiction inculcating the purest morals. Born, 
 1738 i died, 1804. 
 
 BEL, JoHx James a counsellor of Bor- 
 deaux ; compiler of the "Dictionnaire Nl'o- 
 logique," and author of "Letters on Vol- 
 taire's Marianne," &c. Died, 1738. 
 
 BEL, Matthias, an Ilungariun divine, 
 historiographer to the emperor Charles VI. ; 
 author of " Apparatus ad lllstoriam Hun- 
 gariic," &c. Born, 1084 ; died, 1749. 
 
 BFAj, Charles Andrew, son of the above, 
 librarian and professor of poetry to the 
 
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 ^ ^£fio Bnibtx^Kl 23icfffrajpTjg. 
 
 [bel 
 
 university of Leipsic. Born, 1717 ; died by 
 his own hand, 1782. 
 
 BELESIS, a Chaldean, wlio raised Arbaces 
 to the tlirone of Media, and was rewarded 
 with the government of Babylon. 
 
 BELGRADO, Jamks, an Italian Jesuit, 
 eminent as a poet, antiquary, and mathema- 
 tician ; author of a treatise, entitled " The 
 Existence of God demonstrated Geometri- 
 eally," &c. Born, 1704 ; died, 1789. 
 
 BELGR^INO. Manukl, an active partisan 
 and commander in tlie cause of South Ame- 
 rican independence, whose disinterested con- 
 duct proved highly favoural)le to Buenos 
 Ayres and the neighbouring states. Died, 
 1820. 
 
 BELIDOR, Bekxakd Forest de, an 
 emineut French engineer and mathemati- 
 cian ; author of " Dietionnaire portatif de 
 I'Ingenieur," &c. Born, 1C95 ; died 17G1. 
 
 BELING, Richard, an Irish gentleman, 
 
 who took part in the rebellion of IGtl, but 
 
 recovered his estates at the Restoration ; 
 
 ' author of "Vindiciae Catholicorum Iliber- 
 
 i niae." Born, 1(513 ; died, 1G77. 
 
 BELISARIU8, a celebrated Roman ge- 
 neral, to whom the emperor Justinian chiefly 
 owed the splendour of liis reign ; and by 
 whose skill and bravery the Persians, Van- 
 dals, Goths, and Bulgarians were succes- 
 sively conquered. Much has been said of 
 the emperor's ingratitude to his faithful 
 general, as well as of his blindness and of his 
 being reduced to beggary ; but as these 
 stories were never related till the 12th cen- 
 tury, there is every reason to believe them 
 to be mere Actions. Died, 5C5. 
 
 BELL, Andrew, D.D. and LL-D., an 
 English divine, the projector and founder of 
 those excellent establishments called Na- 
 tional Schools ; author of" An Experiment 
 in Education at the Male Asylum, Madras," 
 "Instructions for conducting Schools on the 
 Madras System," &e. &c. Dr. BcU had 
 acquired considerable property in the East 
 Indies, and had some lucrative preferments 
 in this country ; and he bequeathed nearly 
 all that he possessed to institutions con- 
 nected with education and literature. Born, 
 at St. Andrew's, Scotland, 17.53 ; died, 1832. 
 
 BELL, Bkaitpue, a learned English anti- 
 quary of the^ 18th cent. He bequeathed his 
 library and medals to Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he had received his education. 
 
 BELL, Benjamix, an eminent surgeon, 
 and writer on surgery ; author of a " Trea- 
 tise on the Management of Ulcers," &c. &c. 
 Born, at Dumfries, 1719 ; died, 1806. 
 
 BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent anato- 
 mist and professor of surgery in the university 
 of Edinburgh, where he was born in 1774. 
 In 180.') he came to London, and was soon dis- 
 tinguished as a popular lecturer on anatomy 
 and surgery, at the academy founded by 
 the celebrated Hunters in Windmill Street, 
 wliere, as subsequentlj', when appointed a 
 professor at the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 the benches were crowded with attentive 
 auditors. He was tlie author of many pro- 
 fessional works of high repute, on anatomy 
 and surgical operations ; but he is chiefly 
 esteemed for his discoveries in connection 
 with the nerA'ous system, which have gained 
 for him an European name. On the acces- 
 
 sion of William IV. he received the honour 
 of knighthood. As in his professional career 
 Sir Charles was respected for his great talents, 
 so in private life was he admired for the 
 bland simplicity of his manners. He died, 
 1842. 
 
 BELL, Hexrt, the first successful applier 
 of steam to the purposes of navigation in 
 Europe, was born in Linlithgowshire, in 
 1767. After serving an apprentieesliip to 
 his uncle, who was a millwright, he went to 
 London, and was in tlie employ of Mr. 
 Rennie, the celebrated engineer ; but it was 
 not till the year 1812 tliat he produced a 
 vessel calculated to establish the practica- 
 bility and important uses of steam naviga- 
 tion. Mr. Fulton, an American engineer, 
 had launched a boat upon the same principle 
 five years before, which had performed long 
 voyages upon the Hudson river, but Bell 
 must be at least allowed the praise of having 
 done, in his own country, what all other 
 men had failed in doing. He died, at 
 Helensburgh, in 1&30. 
 
 BELL, James, an eminent geographical 
 writer, was born at Jedburgh, in 1709. He 
 was brought up as a weaver, and Itecame a 
 manufacturer of cotton goods at Glasgow ; 
 but left that business, and, being an indefa- 
 tigable student, became a teacher of the 
 classics to young men preparing for the 
 university. ' He was the author of " A Sys- 
 tem of Popular and Scientific Geography," 
 in 6 vols. ; "A Gazetteer of JEugland and 
 Wales," &c. Died, 1833. 
 
 BELL, John, of Antermony, Scotland, 
 author of "Travels from St. Petersburgh 
 to various Parts of Asia ; " was attached as 
 surgeon to an embassy, first from Russia to 
 Persia, and afterwards to another from 
 Russia to Cliina, tlirough Siberia ; of which 
 his "Travels" fnrnisli an interesting ac^ 
 count. Born, 1691 ; died, 1780. 
 
 BELL, John, a distinguished surgeon in 
 Edinburgh, and the author of numerous 
 professional works of high merit, was born 
 in 1762 ; died, at Rome, in 1820. 
 
 BELL, Jo}ix, an active and intelligent 
 London tradesman ; the publisher of an 
 embellished edition of " The British Poets," 
 in 109 vols., and the projector and original 
 proprietor of " Tlie Weekly Messenger." 
 Born, 1746 ; died, 1831. 
 
 BELLAMY, James, a Dutch poet, whose 
 patriotic songs and other lyrics are highlj' 
 and deservedly esteemed. Bom, 1752 ; died, 
 1G21. 
 
 BELLARMIN, Robert, a learned cardi- 
 nal ; author of nimierous controversial 
 works, remarkable for their zealous oppo- 
 sition to the reformed religion. Born, 1542 ; 
 died, 1621. 
 
 BELL AY, Joachim du, often called the 
 French Ovid and Catullus ; author of Latin 
 and French poems. Born, 1524 ; died, 1560. 
 
 BELLAY, John du, archbishop of Paris, 
 and subsequently a cardinal ; autiior of an 
 " Apology for Francis I. ; " " Epigrams," 
 &c. Born, 1492 ,- died, 1560. 
 
 BELLE, Stephen de la, a Florentine 
 engraver, whose works are highly esteemed. 
 Born, 1610 ; died, 1664. 
 
 BELLEGABDE, John Baptist Morvan 
 de, a French Jesuit, expelled from tlie 60- 
 
bel] 
 
 ^ ^0tu SHntlJcriSal 28i05raj3T)jj. 
 
 fsEM 
 
 ciety for Cartesianism; translator of St. Cliry- 
 Bostom, Tliomas Ji K-cmpis, &c. Died, 1734. 
 
 BELiLEISLE, Chakles Louis Augus- 
 TCs FouQUKT, Couut dc, a French mar- 
 shul, whose talents and eminent successes 
 were rewarded by his sovereign, Ix>uis XV., 
 with tlie highest diguitiud. Bum, 1064 ; 
 died, 1701. 
 
 BEO.ENDEN, William, a Scottish 
 writer of the 17th century, distinguished for 
 the purity of his Latin compositions. 
 
 BELLIAKD, Auch'stin Daniel, Count 
 de, a distinguished French general and di- 
 plomatist, was born in 1773, in I<a Vendee. 
 Ue entered tlie military service early, and 
 was soon made an officer of Dumourier's 
 staff: he afterwards served with Buonaparte 
 j in Italy and Egypt ; au<l, returning from the 
 latter country, he partieij)ated in the vic- 
 tories of Ulm and Austerlitz, and fought 
 in all the great battles in the war with 
 Prussia. Ue next wont to Spain ; but in 1812 
 joined the army destined for the invasion 
 I of Kussia, and particularly distinguished 
 ! himself in the battle of Moskwa. At Lcip- 
 I sic, a cannon-ball carried away Ids arm. 
 I After Napoleon's abdication, he was made 
 a peer of I'rance, and major-general of the 
 army under the Duke de Berri. When the 
 Emperor returned from Elba, he dispatched 
 Bclliard to king Joachim at Najjles, but the 
 vussel was intercepted by a British ship, 
 and driven back to France. On the return 
 of the Bourbons, he was for a short time 
 imprisoned, but soon taken into favour 
 again. When Louis Pliilipi-c ascended the 
 throne, he sent Bclliard to Berlin, to treat 
 respecting the acknowledgment of the new 
 dynasty ; and during his embassy to Brus- 
 sels, he contributed more than any other 
 diplomatist to the formation of the new Bel- 
 gian goveniment. He died in 1832. 
 
 BELLIEV'KE, PoiiroNius de, a French 
 statesman, ckancellor to Henry iv. Born, 
 152!) ; died, 1607. 
 
 BELLIN, James NicnoLAS, a French 
 geographer ; author of " Hydrograpliie 
 Fran^oise," &c. Died, 1772. 
 
 BELLINI, Gentile, an eminent Venetian 
 painter, employed to adorn the council 
 hall of that republic. Died, 1301. 
 
 BELLINI, John, brother and assistant 
 of the above ; and the instructor of Titian 
 and Giorgione. Died, 1512. 
 
 BELLINI, Laurence, an Italian physi- 
 cian ; author of several anatomical and me- 
 dical works in Latin. Bom, ltj43 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BELLINI, VixcENZo, a celebrated mu- 
 sical composer, was born at Catania in Sicily, 
 in 180(). He was educated at Naples under 
 Zingarelli, and before he had completed his 
 20th year he had produced " Bianco e Fer- 
 nando " at the tlieatre San Carlo. This was 
 sticceeded by various others, of which " II 
 Pirati," "La Somnambula," "Norma," and 
 " I Puritani," are the best, and have gained 
 for him au undying celebrity. His moral 
 character stood high, and liis manners and 
 compositions were in harmonious accord- 
 ance : agreeable, tender, and elegant. Died, 
 near Paris, September 23(1, 1835. 
 
 BELLMAN, Chakles Micu.vel, a Swe- 
 dish poet, patronised by Gustavus Adol- 
 phus ; and the most original, while strictly 
 
 87 
 
 national, poet of Sweden. Bora, 1741 } 
 died, 1795. 
 
 BELLONI, Jerome, a celebrated Roman 
 banker, created a nianiuis by pope Bene- 
 dict XIV. ; author of au " Essay on Com- 
 merce." Died, 17C0. 
 
 BELLOKI, John Peter, a celebrated 
 Italian antiquary and connoisseur in the 
 polite arts; author of "Lives of Modern 
 Painters, Architects, and Sculptors," &c. 
 Died, WJd. 
 
 BELLOTI, Peter, on Italian painter, 
 chiefly of portraits. Born, 1025 ; died, 1700. 
 
 BELOSIELSKY, Prince, a llussian noble; 
 author of " Pqcsies Francoises d'un Prince 
 Etranger," &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 BEJ .ON, Peter, a French physician and 
 traveller ; author of some able works on 
 natural history, and of a " Description of 
 Palestine, Greece, and Arabia." Assassin- 
 ated in France, IM'A. 
 
 BELSHAM, Thomas, an eminent Unita- 
 rian divine ; author of a discourse " On the 
 Importance of Faith, and the Duty of 
 making Open Professions of it," &c. Died, 
 to his 80th year, 1825). 
 
 BELSHAM, William, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, an eminent writer; author of "Es- 
 says, Political and Literary," " History of 
 Great Britain, from the Revolution to the 
 Treaty of Amiens," in 12 vols. 8vo., &c. 
 Died, aged 75, in 1827. 
 
 BELSUNCE, Hknky Francis Xavierde, 
 a French prelate, celebrated for the courage 
 and benevolence displayed by him when the 
 plague ravaged Marseilles in 1720 ; author of 
 " L liistoire des Evi'ques de Marseilles," 
 Sec. Born, 1671 ; died, 1755. 
 
 BELUS, celebrated in profane history as 
 the founder of the Babylonian empire. He 
 was deilied after his death, and a temple 
 was erected to him at Babylon. He is, pro- 
 bably, the Baal of Phoenicia and the Nirarod 
 of Scripture. Flourished in 1322, n.c. 
 
 BELYN, a British prince and commander 
 under Caractacus. 
 
 BELZONI, JouN Baptist, an enterprising 
 traveller, whose researches in Egypt exhibit 
 praiseworthy industry, and have been of 
 great service to those engaged in the study 
 of its antiquities, was born at Padua. He 
 came to England in 1803 ; and becoming 
 involved in pecuniary difficulties while re- 
 siding in London, he obtained a livelihood 
 by the display of feats of strength and ac- 
 tivity at Astley's Amphitheatre ; for which 
 his colossal stature and extraordinary mus- 
 cular powers eminently qualified him. At 
 length he left this country, and entered on 
 his travels through Egypt, in 1815. In 1816 
 he sent the busts of Jupiter Memnon, &c. to 
 the British Museum ; published a narrative 
 of his operations in 1820 ; and in the fol- 
 lowing year exhil)ited a model of a splendid 
 tomb which he had discovered near Thebes. 
 But, while making preparations for passing 
 from Benin to Houssa and Timbuctoo, he 
 was attacked with dysentery, and died at 
 Gato, in 1823. 
 
 BEMBO, Peter, a noble Venetian and 
 poet ; secretary to Leo X., and promoted 
 to be bisliop of Bergamo and a cardinal by 
 Paul III. ; author of a History of Venice, 
 &c. Born, 1470 ; died, 1547. 
 
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 ^ 0t^ Uniiitx^Kl Mios^apl)^. 
 
 [ben 
 
 BENBOW, Joiiy, a brave English admi- 
 ral, born at Shrewsbury, iu 1650. His skill 
 and valour in an action with a Barbary 
 pirate of superior force, gained him the con- 
 fidence of the nation, and he was soon en- 
 trusted with a fleet. In 1702, during an en- 
 gagement with the French admiral, Du 
 Casse, in the West Indies, he had his leg 
 carried away by a chain shot ; and at this 
 critical instant several of his captains having 
 signed a paper declaring that " nothing was 
 to be done," the enemy effected his escape. 
 Benbow brought the delinquents to a court- 
 martial, and two were shot ; but the effects 
 of his wound, and the vexation he suffered, 
 caused his death. 
 
 BENCIO, Francis, an Italian Jesuit; 
 author of Latin poems, &c. Died, 1594. 
 
 BENEDETTO, Castiglione, an Italian 
 painter, chiefly of pastoral scenes. Born, 
 1616 i died, 1670. 
 
 BENEDICT, St., the founder of the first 
 religious order in the West, was born in 
 Spoleto, in 480 ; and, retiring to a cavern 
 when only 14 years of age, his fame for 
 pious austerities brought him numerous fol- 
 lowers: the monastery of Monte Cassino, 
 near Naples, was founded by him ; and the 
 order of St. Benedict thenceforward estab- 
 lished. 
 
 BENEDICT XIV., Prospeh Lamber- 
 TiNi, the successor of pope Clement XII., 
 was a great patron of the arts and sciences, 
 an enactor of good laws, and one who 
 strove to maintain purity of doctrine and of 
 manners by setting a worthy example in his 
 own person. Born, at Bologna, in 1C75 ; 
 died, 1758. 
 
 BENEDICT, an English abbot of a noble 
 family in Northumberland. He introduced 
 chanting in choirs. Died, 1703. 
 
 BENEVUTI, Charles, a Jesuit ; author 
 of " Reflections on Jesuitism," &c. Born, 
 1716 ; died, 1789. 
 
 BENEZET, Anthony, an American phi- 
 lanthropist ; author of " A Caution to Great 
 Britain and her Colonies," " Historical Ac- 
 count of Guinea," &c. Died, 1784. 
 
 BENGER, Elizabeth Ooilvy, a lady of 
 strong intuitive genius ; author of " Biogra- 
 phical Memoirs;" historical accounts of 
 "Anne Boleyn," "Mary, Queen of Scots," 
 and of the " Queen of Bohemia." Died, 
 1827. 
 
 BENI, Paul, an eminent Italian philo- 
 loger ; author of " Remarks on Ariosto and 
 Tasso," &c. Died, 1627. 
 
 BENJAMIN OF Tcdela, one of the ear- 
 liest travellers of the middle ages who visited 
 the central regions of Asia ; author of a 
 Hebrew work of travels, which, though in- 
 teresting and romantic, is remarkable cliiefly 
 for its misrepresentations. Died, 1173. 
 
 BENINI, Vincent, a learned Italian 
 physician ; author of " Notes on Celsus," 
 &c. Born, 1713; died, 1764. 
 
 BENNET, CHuisTopHER,an English phy- 
 sician ; author of " Tabidorum Theatrum, 
 seu Phthisios," &c. Died, 1685. 
 
 BENNET, Henry, earl of Arlington, one 
 of the cabinet council of Charles II., known 
 in history by the name of the Cabal. Born, 
 1618 ; died, 1685. 
 
 BENNET, Thomas, an English divine ; 
 
 author of a Hebrew Grammar, an Essay on 
 the TJiirty-nine Ai-ticles, &.c. Born, ,1673; 
 died, 1720. 
 
 BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus, Baron, 
 an eminent Russian general, was bom 
 in Hanover, in 1745 ; entered the service of 
 Catharine II., and distinguished himself by 
 great gallantry in the war against Poland. 
 He was commander-in-chief at the mur- 
 derous battle of Eylau. In 1813, he led a 
 Russian army into Saxony, took part in the 
 battle of Leipsic, and blockaded Hamburg. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 BENNITSKI, Alexander Petrovitscu, 
 a Russian poet; author of "Komala," a 
 poem ; a translation of Ossian, &c. Born, 
 1780 ; died, 1808. 
 
 BENOIT, Elias, a learned Protestant 
 divine ; pastor of the church of Delft ; 
 author of a " History of the Edict of Nantes." 
 Born, 1640 ; died, 1723. 
 
 BENSERADE, Isaac de, a poet at the 
 court of Louis XIV., born iu 1612, was pa- 
 tronised by Richelieu, Mazarin, and the 
 king. His madrigals, sonnets, and songs, 
 as well as his wit and general conversational 
 powers, rendered him a great favourite ; and 
 he was called, by way of eminence, " le po&te 
 de la cour." Died, 1691. 
 
 BENSON, George, a dissenting minister ; 
 author of a " Defence of the Reasonableness 
 of Prayer," and various other religious and 
 controversial tracts. Bom, 1669; died, 1762. 
 
 BENT, John van der, a Dutch land- 
 scape painter, pupil of Vandervelde and 
 Wouvennans. Bom, 1650 ; died, 1690. 
 
 BENTII AM, Thomas, bishop of Lichfield 
 and Coventrj% in the reign of queen Eliza- 
 beth ; author of an "Exposition of the Acts 
 of the Apostles," &c. Died, 1578. 
 
 BENTHAM, Edward, an English divine, 
 prebend and treasurer of Hereford ; author 
 of some religious tracts and sermons. Bora, 
 1707 ; died, 1776. 
 
 BENTHAM, James, an English divine 
 and antiquary, brother of the last named ; 
 author of the "History and Antiquities of 
 the Church of Ely." Died, 1794. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, a distinguished 
 jurist and political writer, and the father of 
 that class of political economists styled 
 Utilitarians, whose doctrine it is to view 
 every thing according as it is affected by the 
 principle of " the greatest happiness of the 
 greatest number." His published works are 
 numerous, and those which remain in MS. 
 or unpublished, though printed, still more 
 so. But a very difficult and prolix style has 
 rendered him rather the instructor of writers 
 than of the reading public in general ; and 
 his works, which have been translated into 
 many languages, are better known and ap- 
 preciated on the continent than in England. 
 He was a man of primitive manners, un- 
 blemished character, and zealously alive to 
 what he considered the interest of the people 
 at large. Born, 1749 ; died, 1832. 
 
 BENTINCK, William, first earl of Port- 
 land, was the son of noble Dutch parents, 
 and the intimate friend of William III., 
 whom he accompanied to England. He 
 was employed on various diplomatic mis- 
 sions, and rewarded with an earldom. 
 Died, 1709. 
 
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 a §m Bnibtv^nl •BiflfirapT)?). 
 
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 BENTINCK, William Henry Cavev- 
 nisH, third duke of Portland, was born iu 
 IT.iS. During the American war he acted 
 with the Oiipositiin, and was appointed 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1782, but con- 
 tinued in that office only three months, 
 I owing to the breaking up of the administra- 
 tion by the death of the Marquis of Uock- 
 I ingham. In 17y2 he was appointed chan- 
 j cellor of Oxford, and soon after joined Mr. 
 Pitt's party. He held the office of home 
 secretary from 1794 to 1801, and succeeded 
 Lord Greiiville as first lord of the Treasury 
 in 1807, but shortly after resigned it, and 
 died in 1H08. 
 
 BENTINCK, Lord Georoe, a statesman of 
 great ability and still greater promise, which 
 his untimely death unhappily deprived of 
 fulfilment, was the second son of the fourth 
 i Duke of Porlland" by Henrietta, daughter 
 j and co-heiress of Major-General Scott of 
 Balcomie, and the sister of Viscountess Can- 
 ning, and was bom on the 27th of Feb. 1802. 
 I Lord George was for some time at Eton, and 
 j completed his education at Christchurch, 
 t)xford. After leaving the University, he 
 obtained a commission in the Guards, and in 
 I this corps he rose to the rank of captain, re- 
 I tiring from the army with the rank of major. 
 j In 1828 he was elected for King's Lynn ; and 
 I continued to represent that constituency for 
 j 20 years. He had previously acted as pri- 
 I vate secretary to his uncle by marriage, 
 j George Canning, when prime minister ; and 
 in that capacity he exhibited abilities which 
 gave high satisfaction to his distinguished 
 kinsman. Lord George, from his youth, took 
 a great interest in field sports, and for a long 
 time was known as one of the principal 
 patrons of the turf in the kingdom. In all 
 racing matters, indeed, he was a leading 
 authority, and, under his superintendence, 
 some excellent regulations were established 
 at the principal racing meetings in England. 
 On first entering parliament he may be con- 
 sidered to have been one of the moderate 
 ! Whig school. One of his first votes was for 
 I Catholic Emancipation ; and he voted for the 
 principle of the Reform Bill, but opposed 
 some of the principal details in committee. 
 Soon after he joined the ranks of the Couserv- 
 I ative party, voting with them on important 
 : questions, but seldom addressing the House. 
 i 1 1 was the events of the year 1840, when Sir 
 Ilohert Peel gave in his adhesion to free trade 
 in corn, that first brought Lord George Ben- 
 tiuck prominently forward in the House of 
 Commons, and developed the latent energies 
 [ of iiis mind and character. The Protectionist 
 j party thus suddenly deprived of its head 
 i staggered beneath the blow ; but the daunt- 
 i lesi earnestness, indomitable perseverance, 
 j and unflinching courage, which Lord George 
 ; suddenly displayed in this emergency, joined 
 t J the mass of well-digested statistics whicli 
 I he brought to bear on the subject in debate, 
 I readily obtained for him the unconditional 
 I leadership of his party, which under his 
 ! guidance once more started into life. From 
 ; that period he abandoned his sporting pur- 
 j suits, and sold otf his stud, devoting himself 
 entirely to politics. The change was great 
 and unexpected, but it was complete and 
 i permanent. Hi3 dislike of Sir Kobert Peel 
 
 was decided and undisguised. He accused 
 liim of tergiversation, and of being one of 
 those, who "had hounded to the death his 
 illustrious relative," Mr. Canning. But liis 
 hostility was principally shown in his oppo- 
 sition to the free-trade policy of the Peel 
 ministry. On other questions Lord George 
 pursued an independent course. He ditfered 
 from the majority of his party on the question 
 of civil and religious liberty; he supported 
 the Jewish Relief Bill, his vote on which was 
 followed by his withdrawal from the nominal 
 leadership of the Protectionist party, though 
 he remained its acknowledged head ; and he 
 was favourable to the payment of the Roman 
 Catholic clergy by the landowners in Ireland. 
 Few public events occasioned more general 
 surprise than the short period of time in 
 which Lord George Bentinck built up his 
 parliamentary character. What he might 
 have been in power no man can tell ; but 
 the industry, straight-forwardness, .and in- 
 telligence which he displayed during the 
 brief period of his leadership, warrant the 
 belief that, had his life been spared, he would 
 have gained a distinguished place among the 
 highest and most disinterested of England's 
 statesmen. Died suddenly of disease of the 
 heart, Sept. 21. 1848. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Cornklio, a cardinal, 
 poet, and patron of the fine arts, was born at 
 Ferrara, 1088 ; and died at Rome, 1707. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Gi iDO, a celebrated 
 cardinal, and legate at the court of France. 
 He was an able politician and historian. 
 Among other works he wrote "A History 
 of the Civil Wars of Flanders," " Memoirs,'' 
 &c. Born, 1579 ; died, 1041. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Herciilrs, a poet and 
 diplomatist, was born at Bologna, in 1606, 
 and died in 1573. 
 
 BENTLEY, RicnARD, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish divine, and highly accomplished classical 
 scholar; master of Trinitv College, Cam- 
 bridge, and archdeacon of l!ly. His editions 
 of Horace, Terence, and Phyedrus ; and his 
 part in the controversy on the genuine- 
 ness of the Epistles of Phalaris, dis)>lay vast 
 erudition and sagacity. Born, 1001 ; died, 
 1742. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, son of the above, a 
 dramatic writer ; author of "The Wishes," 
 and other dramas, &c. Died, 1782. 
 
 BENYOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, 
 Count, a native of Hungary, who, after 
 serving in the imperial armies, joined the 
 Polish nobility, and fought against Russia 
 for their independence, but was taken pri- 
 soner and exiled to Kamtschatka. From 
 that remote region, however, he escaped ; 
 and after various fortunes, he was sent out 
 by the French to Madagascar, the sove- 
 reignty of which island lie afterwards at- 
 tempted to assume. He was slain in an ac- 
 tion with the French, 1786. 
 
 BERCHTOLD, Leopold, Count, a dis- 
 tinguished philantliropist, was l>orn in 17.'>8. 
 He spent la years of his life in travelling 
 through Europe, and 4 in travelling through 
 Asia and Africa, for the express purpose of 
 assuaging human misery In its direst forms, 
 and leaving rio method unattempted that 
 humanity or patriotism could suggest. He 
 at length fell a victim to a contagious fever, 
 
ber] 
 
 ^ 0m miiihtv^^a Btccprajpl^j). 
 
 [ber 
 
 at Ills palace of Buchlowitz, in Moravia, 
 whicJi he liad fitted up as an hospital for the 
 reception of the sick and wounded Austrian 
 soldiers. Died, 180!). 
 
 BEREXGARIUS, or BEREN^GER, a 
 French divine of the 11th century, born at 
 Tours, wliose denial of transubstantiation 
 was condemned at Rome. He underwent 
 much persecution, recanted, and again re- 
 turned to his opinions. Died, 1088. 
 
 BERENGER I., king of Italy, who as- 
 sumed the sovereignty on the death of 
 Charles I., in 888. He was defeated by 
 Rodolph of Burgundy, in 922, and shortly 
 afterwards assassinated. 
 
 BERENGER II., became king of Italy in 
 950 ; but was subsequently deposed for his 
 tyranny, and died in confinement in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 BEREXGER, .James, a celebrated anato- 
 mist and physician of the ICtli century, born 
 at Carpi, in Italy, and died at Ferrara, 1550. 
 He made several important anatomical dis 
 coveries, and is said to be the first who used 
 mercury in svphilitic diseases. 
 
 BERENGER, Laukence Peter, a native 
 of Provence, professor of rhetoric at Orleans 
 previous to the revolution ; and, after the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, professor at the 
 Lyceum of Lyons, and inspector of aca- 
 demies; author of " Les Soirees Proven^ales," 
 &c. Died. 1822. 
 
 BERENGER, Peter, a pupil of Abelard, 
 and author of an apology for that celebrated 
 and unfortunate person. 
 
 BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, and wife of Antiochus, king of 
 Syria. She was deserted by her husband in 
 favour of his former wife Laodice, by wliose 
 orders she was strangled in her retirement at 
 Antioch, B.C. 248. 
 
 BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Aule- 
 tes, king of Egypt. She usurped her father's 
 throne, and put her first husband to death ; 
 but the Romans replaced Ptolemy on his 
 throne; and he caused his rebellious daughter 
 to be executed. 
 
 BERENICE, daughter of Agrippa, king 
 of Juda;a, and wife of her father's brother, 
 -Herod, who was made king of Chalcis by 
 the emperor Claudius. Becoming a widow, 
 she gave her hand to Folemon, king of 
 Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and 
 became the mistress of Titus, who, it was 
 thought, would have made her Ms wife but 
 for the murmurs of the Romans. 
 
 BEKESFORD, Rev. James, rector of Kib- 
 worth, Lciceatershire, was born at Upham, 
 in Hampshire, in 3.7(54, and received liis edu- 
 cation at the Charter-liouse, and Merton 
 College, Oxford. He was the author of a va- 
 riety of separate works, besides several excel- 
 lent papers in the " Looker-on," a periodical 
 of considerable interest, published in 1792-3 ; 
 but the work which obtained for him the 
 greatest celebrity, was the well-known hu- 
 morous satire entitled " The Miseries of Hu- 
 man Life,'" /tc. 2 vols. 8vo. Died, Sept. 1840. 
 BERETTINI, Peteu, an Italian architect 
 and painter of great merit. Born, lu9G ; 
 diefl, 1()69. 
 
 BERG, Matthias van der, a Flemish 
 painter, pupil of Rubens. Born, 1G15 ; died, 
 1687. 
 
 BERGEN, Dirk van deij, a celebrated 
 landscape and portrait painter. Died, 1689. 
 
 BERGHEM, Nicholas, an excellent and 
 indefatigable Dutch landscape painter. 
 Born, 1(!24; died, 1C83. 
 
 BERGIER, Nicholas Sylvester, canon 
 of the catliedral of Paris ; anthor of " Deism 
 Self-confuted," &c. Died. 1790. 
 
 BERGMANN, Tordekn Olof, an emi- 
 nent Swedish chemist, and a member of 
 nearly all the learned societies in Europe ; 
 to whom the world is indebted for many 
 valuable additions to scientific knowledge. 
 Born, 1735 ; died, 1784. 
 
 BERIGARD, Claude, professor of phi- 
 losophy at Padua ; author of " Circulus 
 Pisanus," &c. Bom, 1578 ; died, 1GC3. 
 
 BERINGTON, Joseph, a Roman Catho- 
 lic clergyman ; author of a " History of the 
 Lives of HiPloise and Abelard," a "Lite- 
 rary History of the Middle Ages," &c. Died, 
 1827. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, Earl of, one of 
 the piivy council of Charles II. ; author of 
 " Historical Applications and Occasional 
 Meditations." Died, 1C98. 
 
 BERKELEY, Sir William, of the same 
 family as the above ; vice-admiral of the 
 white. He was killed in an action with the 
 Dutch, Ifi.'W. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, bishop ofCloyne, 
 a metaphysical writer of great celebrity, but 
 whose virtues, however manifest, have been 
 somewhat poetically exaggerated by Pope. 
 Besides other works, he is tlie author of 
 " Principles of Human Knowledge," " Dia- 
 logues between Hylas and Philonus," &c. 
 His hypothesis of the non-existence of mate- 
 rial objects in nature otherwise than in the 
 mind, made much noise in his time. Born, 
 1757 ; died, 1753. 
 
 BERKENHOUT, Jonx, an English phy- 
 sician and miscellaneous writer ; author of 
 " Biographia Literaria," " Outlines of the 
 Natural History of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land," &c. Born, 1731 ; died, 1791. 
 
 BERKLEY, John le Franc van, a 
 Dutch physician, naturalist, and poet ; au- 
 thor of " Poems," " Natural History of 
 Holland," &c. Born, 1729 ; died, 1812. 
 
 BERKLEY, Sir "William, governor of 
 "Virginia ; author of " The Description and 
 Laws of Virginia," &c. Died, 1077. 
 
 BEBNADOTTE — CHARLES JOHN 
 XIV., king of Sweden and Norway, whose 
 originai name was John Baptiste Julius 
 Bei'.nadotte, was the son of a lawyer at 
 Pau in Beame, and was born in 1764. He re- 
 ceived a good education, and was designed for 
 the bar ; but he suddenly abandoned his 
 studies, and enlisted as a private in the 
 marines. For nine years from his enlistment, 
 that is, up to the year 1789, the utmost rank 
 that Bernadotte had attained was that of ser- 
 geant ; but the French revolution, by sweep- 
 ing away the arbitrary barrier which till 
 then had rendered plebeian merit of little 
 avail in the French service, gave Bernadotte 
 an advantage which he improved so well, 
 that in 1792 he was a colonel in the army of 
 Custine. In 1793 he so distinguished him- 
 self under the command of Kleber, as to be 
 raised to the rank of general of brigade, and, 
 shortly afterwards, of division. On the 
 
ber] 
 
 ^ ^clM ^Eniiicri^al MiaQvai^ffn, 
 
 [ber 
 
 Rhine and in Italy he more and more dis- 
 tinguished liimself ; and he showed that his 
 talents were not those of a mere soldier, by 
 his conduct in a somewhat ditflcult embassy 
 to Austria. Between him and Napoleon 
 there seems to have been a constant dis- 
 trust, if not actual hatred ; nevertheless, 
 Bemadotte had a marshal's staff on the es- 
 tablishment of the consulate, and was created 
 prince of Ponte Corvo in 180G. In all his 
 campaigns Bemadotte was distinguished 
 from tlie great majority of the French com- 
 manders, by the clemency and generosity of 
 his conduct from the moment that the battle 
 was at an end ; and it was this conduct, even 
 more than his brilliant reputation as a 
 soldier, that caused liim to l>e put in nomi- 
 nation as a successor of Charles XIII. of 
 Sweden. Napoleon, then emperor, could but 
 with difficulty be induced to consent to Bcr- 
 nadotte becoming crown-prince and heir 
 to the throne. " What 1 " said Bemadotte, 
 " will you make me greater than yourself by 
 mctkiiio me refuse a crown ? " The sarcasm 
 told, and Napoleon merely replied, " Go I 
 our fates must be accomplished 1 " From 
 the instant that he became crown-prince of 
 Sweden, the fortunate soldier sliowed a de- 
 termination to give all his energies to his 
 adopted country : he formed a secret alliance 
 with Russia in 1812, and in 1813 he took 
 command of the combined armies of North- 
 ern Germany against France. Never during 
 half a century before his accession liad 
 Sweden known the peace or the prosperity 
 in which he left her in the hands of his son 
 Oscar. Died, 1844, aged 79. 
 
 BERNARD, St., an illustrious abbot of 
 the monastery of Clairvaujc in the 12th cen- 
 turv. Died, 1153. 
 
 BERNARD, Claude, sumamed "the 
 poor priest," was a native of Dijon, whose 
 active benevolence towards the poor and 
 sick was unremitting during tlie whole 
 course of his life, and for whose supjiort he 
 expended his whole inheritance, 20,000i. 
 Born, 1.588 ; died, 1641. 
 
 BERNARD, Edward, an English philo- 
 sopher and critic ; author of " Etymologi- 
 cum Britannicum," a " Treatise on Ancient 
 Weights and Measures," &c. Born, ICSS ; 
 died, lfi97. 
 
 BERNARD, James, a French Protestant 
 divine ; author of an " Historical and Politi- 
 cal Account of Europe," &c. Born, 1658 ; 
 died, 1718. 
 
 BERNARD, Jonx, an actor ; author of 
 " Retrospections of the Stage." Died, 1828. 
 
 BERNARD, of Menthox, an ecclesiastic 
 of the 10th century ; founder of the well- 
 known and invaluable monasteries of the 
 Great and Little St. Bernard, in the passage 
 of the Alps. Died, 1008. 
 
 BERN^VRD, Peter Joseph, a French 
 amatory poet, styled by Voltaire, le genlil 
 Bernard, an epithet by which he is still dis- 
 tinguished. Born at Grenoble, 1710 ; died, 
 
 BERNARD, of TiruRixoiA, an enthusiast 
 of the 10th century, who predicted that the 
 end of the world was at hand, and caused 
 much terror to his ignorant and superstitious 
 believers. 
 
 BERNARD, duke of Weimar, the fourth 
 
 »I 
 
 son of Duke John of Saxc- Weimar, was a 
 general whose magnanimity, skill, and 
 valour were frequently displayed while com- 
 manding the Swedish army after the death 
 of Gustavus ; and who afterwards did great 
 service to the Protestant cause. He died by 
 poison, administered, as his cotemporuries 
 asserted, at the instigation of the Duke of 
 Richelieu, who had become jealous of his 
 power : but of this there is no substantial 
 proof. Born, 1(504 ; died, 1639. 
 
 BERNARD, Simon, general of engineers 
 of France, was bom at D<Me in 1779. The 
 kindness of the parish priest supplied him 
 with sufficient of the rudiments of learning 
 to allow Ilia entering the Polytechnic School 
 at fifteen years of age. La Place, Ilally, and 
 yther great men were then at the head of the 
 Polytechnic School, and so well did Bernard 
 avail himself of their lessons, that he not 
 only became one of the most distinguished 
 engineer officers and aides-de-camp of Na- 
 poleon, but, subsequently to the emperor's 
 fall, executed works in the United States, 
 which are most undoubtedly unequalled 
 elsewhere ; the most distant places being 
 united by canals, actual navigable rivers, 
 and upwards of four thousand live hundred 
 miles of frontier rendered secure against in- 
 vasion by forts and works. Since J uly, 1830, 
 he returned to France, and was for some 
 time minister of war. Died, 1839. 
 
 BERNARDEZ, DiEoo, called by liis 
 countrymen the Portuguese Theocritus, was 
 not more eminent as a pastoral poet than as 
 a brave warrior ; and, after numerous deeds 
 of heroism, was taken prisoner by the Moors 
 at the battle of Alcazarquiver. Died, 1596. 
 
 BERNARDI, Augdstis Fkedeuic, a 
 German philologist, whose great aim was 
 to invent a universal grammar common to 
 all languages, and who, in his endeavours 
 to effect that object, displayed great inge- 
 nuity and learning. Bom at Berlin, 1768 i 
 died, 1S20. 
 
 BERNARDI, Joiiy, a celebrated engraver 
 and architect. Died, 1555. 
 
 BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE, James 
 Henhv, a philosopher and moralist ; au- 
 thor of " Paul and Virginia," " Studies of 
 Nature," "Harmonies of Nature," &c. 
 During the reign of terror he narrowly 
 escaped the guillotine ; but on Napoleon a 
 exaltation to power he received a pension, 
 which cheered the gloom of poverty and dis- i 
 tress that had surrounded him. Born, 1737 ; ! 
 died, 1813. 
 
 BERNARDINE, a Romish saint ; canon- 
 ised for his zeal in causing more than 300 
 monasteries to be founded. Bom at Massa, 
 in Tuscany, 1380 ; died, 1444. 
 
 BERNI, Fraxcesco, an eminent Italian 
 poet, of the 16th century. He remodelled 
 Bojardo's Orlando Innamorato, and was the 
 author of " Rime Burlesche," and various 
 Latin poems. Died, l.')36. 
 
 BERNI A, or BERNI, Francis, a Tuscan 
 poet, called the Italian Scarron. Died, 1543. 
 
 BERNIER, Francis, a French physician 
 and traveller, who resided at the court of 
 Aumngzebe for twelve years as his physi- 
 cian. He afterwards published his travels, 
 which, as a work of interest and authen- 
 ticity, are greatly esteemed. Died, 1688. 
 
bbr] 
 
 ^ i2rin mnibcr^al SSiograpl^s. 
 
 [beb 
 
 BERNINI, GiovAxSXi Loeexzo, called 
 77 cavaliere Bernini, was born in Naples, 
 1598, and obtained among his cotemporaries 
 the reputation of being the Micliael Angelo 
 of modern times, on account of his success as 
 a painter, a statuary, and an architect. At 
 the age of 18 he produced the Apollo and 
 Daphne, in marble, a masterpiece of grace 
 and execution ; and he continued in the in- 
 defatigable pursuit of the arts, as a sculptor 
 and an arcliitect, till the period of his death, 
 in 1G80. 
 
 BERNIS, Cardinal Fraxcis Joachim de 
 PiEKKES DE, a French poet, patronised by Ma- 
 dame de Pompadour, who obtained for him 
 a pension ; he subsequently tilled important 
 offices in the state, was sent as ambassador to 
 Rome, and at length arrived at the dignity jof 
 a cardinal. The French revolution deprived 
 ]iim of his fortune, and reduced him to 
 poverty in his old age, from which he was 
 relieved by a pension from the Siianish court. 
 Born, 1715 ; died, 1794. 
 
 BERNOUILLI, James, a celebrated ma- 
 thematician, bora at Basle iu 1G54 ; died, 
 1705. 
 
 BERNOUILLT, Joux, brother of the 
 above, and like him an eminent mathema- 
 tician. He was regarded as the worthy rival 
 of Newton and Leibnitz. Born, 16(i7 ; died, 
 1718. 
 
 BEBNOUILLI, Daxiel, son of the last 
 named ; professor of philosophy at Basle ; 
 and, like his father and uncle, highly skilled 
 in the mathematics. Born, 17t»0 ; died, 1782. 
 [Several other members of this family were 
 also distinguished for their mathematical 
 attainments.] 
 
 BERNSTORFF, John IIartwio Ekxest, 
 Count, a celebrated statesman in the employ- 
 ment of the king of Denmark ; and founder 
 of the Danish Society of Language and the 
 Fine Arts, and the Economical and Agri- 
 cultural Society. Born at llanover, 1712 ; 
 died, 1772. 
 
 BERNSTORFF, Axdrew Peter, Count, 
 nephew of the above, a Danish minister of 
 state. During the American war he effected 
 the armed nentrality of Russia, Prussia, 
 Denmark, and Sweden, for the protection of 
 the trade of those powers against the belli- 
 gerents J and it was chiefly owing to his 
 skilful policy that Denmark was prevented 
 from being drawn into collision with eitlier 
 Sweden or Russia, when the war broke out 
 between those powers in 1788. Born, 1735 ; 
 died, 1797. 
 
 BEROALDUS, Philip, an Italian pro- 
 fessor of eloquence. Born, 1453 ; died, 1505. 
 
 BEROALDUS, Philip, nephew of the 
 above, an Italian poet ; librarian of the 
 Vatican under pope Leo X. Died, 1518. 
 
 BEROSUS, priest of the temple of Belus, 
 
 at Babylon, in the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
 
 delphus. He wrote a history of Chaldsea, 
 
 i some fragments of which are preserved by 
 
 Josephus. 
 
 BERQUIN, Arxauld, an elegant French 
 writer; author of "Idyls," " L' Amides 
 Enfans," and other interesting works for 
 youth. Born, 1749 ; died, 1791. 
 
 BERRETINI, Nicholas, an eminent his- 
 torical painter, pupil of Carlo Muratti. 
 Born, 1G17 ; died, 1682. 
 
 BERRI, Charles Fekdinant) de Bour- 
 bon, Duke de, second son of the Count d' 
 Artois, afterwards Cliarles X. of France ; 
 assassinated by one Louvel, who attacked 
 him just as he had left tlie opera-house, and 
 was on the point of stepping into his car- 
 riage, Feb. 13. 1820. He shared in common 
 with the Bourbons all the reverses they 
 were doomed to suffer ; and he deserved a 
 better fate, if it were only for the benevo- 
 lence of his character. His son Hei\ri, born 
 posthumously, commonly called the Due <ie 
 Bordeaux, or tlie Comte de Chambord, is the 
 legitimate heir to the throne of France. 
 
 BERRIMAN, Wh.liaji, an English di- 
 vine ; autlior of five volumes of sermons, &c. 
 Born, 1088 ; died, 1750. 
 
 BERRUYER, Joseph Isaac, a French 
 Jesuit, whose writings were condemned at 
 Rome for their too great liberality ; autlior 
 of a "History of the People of God," &c. 
 Died, 1758. 
 
 BERRY, Sir Jony, an English naval 
 commander, knighted for his distinguished 
 bravery at the battle of Southwold Bay. He 
 died of poison, administered to him on board 
 his ship, l(i91. 
 
 BERRY, Rear-admiral Sir Edward, 
 bart., K.C.B. This officer was the only one 
 in the royal navy who had received three 
 medals for his services, having commanded 
 aline-of-battleshipin the memorable battles 
 of the Nile, Trafalgar, and St. Domingo. 
 Died, 18.31. 
 
 BERSMANN, Georoe, a learned Ger- 
 man ; author of Notes on some of the 
 Classics, and of a Latin version of the 
 Psalms of David. Born, 1.538 ; died, 1011. 
 
 BERTAUT, John, a French prelate and 
 poet ; chaplain to Catherine de Medici, and 
 secretary of the cabinet to Henry III. Born, 
 1562 ; died, 1011. 
 
 BERTHIER, Alexander, prince of Neuf- 
 chatel and Wagram, a marshal and ^'icc- 
 constable of France, was born at Versailles, 
 in 175.3, and served with Lafayette in the 
 war of American independence. At the 
 commencement of the French revolution he 
 was made a general officer, fought gallantly 
 in La Vendt-e, and was at the head of Buona- 
 parte's staff in Italy, Egypt, and Germany. 
 He was, in fact, the companion of Napoleon 
 in all his expeditions, dining and travelling 
 in the same carriage ; and his skill in draw- 
 ing up despatches, joined to his unwearied 
 application and methodical habits, proved 
 of incalculable value to the emperor in the 
 vast pressure of his affairs. On the restora- 
 tion of Louis, however, in 1814, he recognised 
 his authority, and was created a peer ; but 
 when his former master returned from 
 Elba, he retired to his family at Bamberg, 
 where, as soon as the music of the Russian 
 troops, on their march to the French borders, 
 was heard at the gates of the citj', he put an 
 end to his life in a fit of frenzy or remorse, 
 by throwing himself from a window of his 
 palace, June 1.1815. 
 
 BERTHIER, Joseph Stephen, a French 
 philosopher of the Society of the Oratory ; 
 author of " Physique des Cometes," &o. 
 Born, 1710 ; died, 1783. 
 
 BERTHIER, William Francis, a learned 
 Jesuit ; one of the editors of the Dictionnaire 
 
de Trevonx, and translator of the Psalms 
 into French. Bom, 1704 ; died, 1782. 
 
 BERTllOIXET, Claude Louis, Count, 
 one of the most eminent chemists of his age, 
 was born at Talloire, Savoy, in 1748, and 
 studied medicine at Turin. He afterwards 
 settled in Paris, where he became intimate 
 with Lavoisier, was admitted a meml)er of 
 the Academy of Sciences, and made professor 
 of the normal school. He accompanied 
 Buonaparte to Egypt ; and, during the em- 
 peror's reign, was made a senator and an 
 oflicer of the legion of lionour ; but he was 
 one of the first to desert his patron when his 
 fortunes were on the decline ; for which he 
 received the title of count from Louis XVIII. 
 His principal work is " Essai de Statique 
 Cliimique ;" but he wrote many other valu- 
 able essays, and had also a large share in the 
 reformation of the chemical nomenclature. 
 Died, 1822. 
 
 BERTHOLON, N. de St. Lazaee, a 
 French chemist and philosopher of the 18th 
 century, whose works on aerostation, elec- 
 tricity, and oHier scientific subjects, evince 
 much learning and ability. Born at Lyons, 
 and died in 1799. 
 
 BEUTHOUD, Ferdinand, a skilful Swiss 
 clock and chronometer maker ; author of 
 "Traitu des Horologes Marines," &c. Born 
 at Neufchatel, 1727 ; died, 1807. His nephew, 
 liouis, inherited his talents, and was not less 
 celebrated than his uncle. Tlie accuracy of 
 their chronometers is proverbial. 
 
 BEUTI, Alexander Pompev, a native of 
 Lucca ; author of " La Cadula de' Decemviri 
 della Romana Ilepublica," &c. Born, 1080 ; 
 died, 17.'-.2. 
 
 BERTI, John Laurence, an Italian 
 monk, and general of the order of the Au- 
 gustines ; author of some Italian poetry, a 
 work "De Disciplinia Theologicis," &c. 
 Born, lf,9»> ; died, 1766. 
 
 BERTIE, WiLLOUGirar, earl of Abing- 
 don ; a nobleman distinguished equally by 
 his talent and his eccentricity. He was au- 
 thor of several political and satirical pam- 
 phlets ; for one of which — the report of a 
 speech he had delivered in parliament — he 
 was prosecuted, and imprisoned in the King's 
 Bench. Died, 1791. 
 
 BERTIX, Anthony, a French military 
 officer and an elegant poet ; author of a 
 "Collection of Elegies " and other poems, 
 which were greatly esteemed. Born in the 
 isle of Bourbon, 1752 ; died at St. Domingo, 
 1790. 
 
 BERTIN, Joseph, a French physician 
 and anatomist ; author of a treatise on 
 Osteology, and other valuable w^orks on 
 anatomy. Born, 1712 ; died, 1781. 
 
 BERTINAZZI, Charles Anthony, a 
 celebrated comedian, and an accomplished 
 wit, was born at Turin, in 1713, and for 
 more than forty years was one of the most 
 distinguished comic actors at Paris. Died, 
 1783. 
 
 BERTOLI, Giovanni Domknico, bom in 
 1676, obtained the name of the patriarch of 
 Aquileia, from his having first directed at- 
 tention to the antiquities of that place, and 
 for his successful endeavours to prevent the 
 inhabitants from mutilating or destroying 
 them. Died, 1758. 
 
 BERTIU8, Peter, professor of mathe- 
 matics, and cosmograplier to the king of 
 France ; author of " Theatrum Geographia 
 Veteris," \c. Born, IMo ; died, 1629. 
 
 BERTRAM, Cornelius Bonavknture, 
 Hebrew professor at Geneva and Lausanne ; 
 author of a " Dissertation on the Republic of 
 the Hebrews," &c. Born, 1531 ; died, 1594. 
 
 BERTRAND, Henry, Count, a distin- 
 guished French general, and the companion 
 in exile of Napoleon Buonaparte, would have 
 earned a bright name on the page of history 
 merely by his military achievements during 
 the wars" of the empire, were not those 
 acliievements cast, comi>aratively, into the 
 shade by the steadfast fidelitv with which he 
 clung to Napoleon. Aiding that great soldier 
 to gain some of his most splendid victories j 
 covering him when in retreat and peril, as 
 after the murderous atl'air of Haunau ; fol- 
 lowing liim to liis/rce exile to Elba; return- 
 ia|r with him to share all the perils of 
 "blood-stained Waterloo;" he, the brave 
 and steadfast Bertrand, feared not the im- 
 prisonment of St. Helena, but voluntarily 
 abode there until he had seen the Jirgt ob- 
 sequies of his sincerely worshipped human 
 idol. Honour to fidelity I Born, 1770 ; died, 
 
 BERTRAND, John Baptist, a French 
 physician ; author of an " Historical Account 
 of the Plague at Marseilles," &c. Born, 
 1670 ; died, 1752. 
 
 BERTRANDI, John Ambrose Maria, an 
 eminent surgeon and anatomist of Turin ; 
 author of a treatise on surgical operations, 
 and various other professioual works. Born, 
 1723 ; died, 1765. 
 
 BERULLE, Pierre de, Cardinal, founder 
 of the congregation of the Oratory. He was 
 employed in many art"alrs of state in France ; 
 and accompanied Henrietta Maria, wife of 
 Charles I., to England. Died, 1629. 
 
 BERWICK, James Fitzjamks, Duke of, 
 natural son of James II. and Arabella 
 Churchill, sister of the Duke of Marlbo- 
 rough ; a distinguished and gallant soldier, 
 and author of a valuable volume of Me- 
 moirs. Balled at the siege of Philipsburgh, 
 in 1734. 
 
 BERYLLUS, an Arabian bishop, of the 
 third century ; converted by Origen from 
 his heterodox opinion, that Christ had no 
 existence prior to his incarnation. 
 
 BERZELIUS, Baron, one of the great 
 chemists of modern times, was born in 1779, 
 in Ostgothland, a province of Sweden, where 
 his father kept a village school. After 
 graduating at Upsala in 1804, he repaired to 
 Stockholm, where he became an assistant to 
 Spawrnman, who had accompanied Captain 
 Cook in one of his voyages round the world ; 
 and at his death, in 1806, he succeeded him 
 in the chair of chemistry, which he con- 
 tinued to fill for forty-two years. It would 
 be impossible within our limits to give even 
 a summary of his labours during this period ; 
 suffice it to say, tliat in a century which has 
 produced a greater number of distinguished 
 cliemists than perhaps of any other class of 
 men of science, Berzelius stood out as a star 
 of the first magnitude. His patient labours, 
 and ingenious investigations, have done 
 more to lay the foiuidations of organic che- 
 
BES] 
 
 ^ ^etD WiniiitYStd 28iOiir<qjfj5. 
 
 [bey 
 
 inistry, than those of any other chemist. To 
 lii'n pre-eminently belongs the lionour of 
 applying the great principles which had been 
 established by Dalton, Davy, Gay-Lussat, 
 and himself, in inorganic chemistry, to un- 
 folding the laws which regulate the combi- 
 nations forming the structures of the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms ; and in thus open- 
 ing the way for the discoveries of Mulder, 
 Liebig, Dumas, and others. To him chemis- 
 try is indebted for the discovery of several 
 new elementary bodies, more especially sele- 
 I nium, morium, and cerium ; and to his skill 
 as a manipulator, may be traced many of 
 tlie analytical processes at jiresent in use. 
 Under these circumstances it is not surpris- 
 ing that all the scientific societies of the 
 world contended for the honour of enrolling 
 liis name among their members ; and the 
 various minor honoui-8 which he received 
 from liis own sovereign from time to time, 
 were finally crowned by his being Urode 
 ., a Knight Grand Cross of the Oi-der of Vasa 
 in 1829, and liis elevation to the rank of a 
 baron in ia3.5. Died, 1848. 
 
 BESOLDE, Christoi'IIEr, a counsellor 
 of "Vienna ; author of a " Synopsis of Poli- 
 tics," a " History of the Ottoman Empire," 
 &c. Born, 1.577 ; died, lf538. 
 
 BESSARION, John', a Greek priest, one 
 of the most eminent revivers of learning in 
 the loth century, and founder of the noble 
 library of St. Mark, at Venice. He trans- 
 lated from Aristotle, Xenophon, &c. ; and 
 zealously defended Plato against tlie attacks 
 of George of Trebizond. He was made a 
 cardinal by pope Eugene, and had the title 
 of patriarch of Constantinople given him by 
 Pius II. Born, 131»5 ; died, 1472. 
 
 BESSEL, Dr. Fhkderick William, a dis- 
 tinguished Prussian astronomer, born 1784. 
 He was professor of astronomy in the uni- 
 versity of Berlin ; and such was the skill 
 and assiduity with which he prosecuted his 
 favourite study, that he was twice presented 
 with a gold medal from the Royal Astro- 
 nomical Society of I^ondon, for tlie number 
 and accuracy of his observations. Died, 1846. 
 
 BESSIEKES, John Baptist, duke of Is- 
 tria, and a French marshal, was bom at 
 Poitou, in 17(59. He distinguished himself 
 in many memorable battles, and was highly 
 esteemed by Napoleon for his honour, skill, 
 and bravery. He fell in the combat that 
 preceded the battle of Lutzen, 1813. 
 
 BETHENCOURT, John de, a Norman 
 baron, and a military adventurer, who con- 
 quered the Canary islands, and afterwards 
 held them as a fief of the crown of Castile. 
 Died, 1425. 
 
 BETHLEM-GABOR, a native of Transyl- 
 vania, whose courage and wily policy made 
 him ruler of that country, and enabled him 
 to die in peaceable possession of it, in spite 
 of the utmost elforts of the emperor of 
 Germany. Died, 1629. 
 
 BETIS, governor of Gaza, who for his 
 brave defence of it was put to death by 
 Alexander the Great, and dragged at liis 
 chariot wheels when dead, B.C. 3o2. 
 
 BETTERTON, Thomas, a celebrated 
 actor : he excelled in the representation of 
 Shakspeare's principal tragic characters. 
 Born, 1635 ; died, 1700. 
 
 L' 
 
 BETTINELLI, Xavier, a Jesuit of Man- 
 tua, and, on the suppression of liis order, 
 teacher of eloquence at Modena. He was 
 an elegant and accomplished writer, epis- 
 tolary, dramatic, and poetical ; his princi- 
 pal work is the " Lettere dieci di Virgilio 
 agli Arcafli." Bom, 1718 ; died, 1808. 
 
 BETTS, John, an English physician of 
 the time of Charles II. ; author of a treatise 
 " De Ortu et Natura Sanguinis," &c. 
 
 BETUSSE, Joseph, an Italian poet of the 
 16th century : he translated into Italian the 
 Latin works of Boccaccio, and wrote a life of 
 him. 
 
 BEUERNONVILEE, Peter Riel, Count 
 of, a French marshal ; minister of war in 
 1793 ; ambassador at Berlin and Madrid 
 during the consulate, and under the empire 
 grand officer of the legion of honour. He 
 voted for the deposition of Napoleon, and 
 attached himself to Louis, by whom he was 
 rewarded with the title of marshal. Died, 
 1821. 
 
 BEUF, John le, n French antiquary ; 
 author of "Memoirs of the History of Aux- 
 erre," &c. Born, 1607 ; died, 1670. 
 
 BEVER, Dr. Thomas, an English civi- 
 lian ; a judge of the Cinque Ports, and au- 
 thor of a treatise on " The Legal Polity of 
 the Romans," &c. Died, 1791. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, William, bishop of St. 
 Asaph ; an eminent orientalist, critic, and 
 theologian, and one of the most distinguished 
 scholars that ever adorned the prelacy, was 
 bom at BaiTow, Lincolnshire, in 16"<8, and 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 He was the author of numerous works ; 
 among which are 12 volumes of "Sermons," 
 " Private Thoughts on Religion," " Institu- 
 tionum Clironologicarum Libri duo," &c. 
 He bequeathed tlie principal part of his pro- 
 perty to charitable uses. Died, 1707. 
 
 BEVERLY, John ok, tutor to tlie vene- 
 rable Bede, and subsequently archbishop of 
 York, He was one of the most learned men 
 of his time, and several of his devotional 
 treatises are still extant. Died, 721. 
 
 BEVERNINCK, Jerome van, a Dutch 
 statesman ; greatly instrumental in promot- 
 ing the treaty of Nimeguen, which pro- 
 duced a general peace. Bom, 1614 ; died, 
 1690, 
 
 BEVERWICK, John de, a Dutch phy- 
 sician ; author of some valuable works on 
 professional subjects. Born, 1594 ; died, 
 1647. 
 
 BEWICK, John, an English artist re- 
 siding at Newcastle, whose "History of 
 Quadrupeds," by the beauty and spirit of its 
 illustrations, gave the first impulse to that 
 improvement in the art of wood engraving 
 which has at length been carried to such 
 exquisite perfection. Died, 1795. His bro- 
 ther Thomas, who followed tlie same pro- 
 fession, died in 1828. 
 
 BEWLY, William, an English chemist 
 and natural philosopher, whose researches 
 and experiments did much for the improve- 
 ment of chemistry. He published some 
 valuable papers in the Monthly Review, but 
 left no separate treatise. Died, 178;^. 
 
 BEYER, or BECER, Augustus, a German 
 divine ; author of historical and critical re- 
 marks on Bcarce books, &c. Died, 1741. 
 
BEZ] 
 
 ^ ^cSd JETnibcrj^al Miatp:np\^Vi* 
 
 [big 
 
 BEZA, TiiEODOHE, a native of France, 
 and, for some time, a Catholic and prior of 
 Lonsjumeau. TJie tutor under whom lie 
 studied imbued his mind with Protestant 
 principles, and an attachment which he 
 formed for a young lady whom he after- 
 wards married, added force to his scruples of 
 conscience. Abandoning the preferment he 
 already enjoyed, and the still higher ones 
 to which he doubtless might have attained, 
 he fled to Geneva. Thence he went to Lau- 
 sanne, where he became professor of Greek, 
 but finally settled at Geneva, and became 
 Calvin's colleague in .both the church and 
 the university. He greatly aided in diffusing 
 and upholding the principles of the Reform- 
 ers, and was a very versatile writer. His 
 Latin poems are elegant, and his controver- 
 sial prose very subtle and vigorous. His 
 Latin version of the New Testament, with 
 notes, is still considered an authority. Born, 
 1->10 ; died 1G03. 
 
 BHERING, ViTirs, a captain in the Rus- 
 sian navy, and a celebrated navigator of the 
 northern seas, who, being cast on a desolate 
 island, perished there, in 1741. This is now 
 called Bhering's Island, and the straits be- 
 tween Asia and America have also received 
 his name. 
 
 BIANCni, Antonio, a Venetian gondo- 
 lier of the 18th century, who obtained great 
 note by his poetical talents ; author of " II 
 Templi owero di Solomone," " A Treatise 
 on Italian Comedy," &c. 
 
 BIANCHI, FnANCis, a musical composer, 
 bom at Cremona ; author of " Disertor 
 Fraiichese," " Semiramide," &c. He came 
 to England, wrote " Castore e Polluce " for 
 Madame Storacc, and " Inez de Castro " for 
 Mrs. Billington ; and died early in the 
 present century. 
 
 BIANCHI, John, known also by the Latin 
 name of Janus Plancus, a celebrated Italian 
 physician, anatomist, and naturalist, and 
 the reviver of the Academy of the Leiucei. 
 Born at Rimini, 1603 ; died, 1775. 
 
 BIANCHINI, Francis, a philosopher and 
 mathematician of Verojia ; author of " Is- 
 toria Universale," &c., and a vast number of 
 scientific and literary treatises. Born, 1CC2 ; 
 died, 1729. 
 
 BIAS, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 and a native of Priene, in Ionia ; celebrated 
 for his knowledge and strict regard to jus- 
 tice. He flourished in the sixth and seventh 
 centuries, B.C., and died at a very advanced 
 age. 
 
 BIBTENA, Bernardo da, a Roman car- 
 dinal, raised from a low origin by Leo X. ; 
 autlior of a comedy entitled " La Calandria," 
 greatly admired in Italy. Born, 1470 ; died, 
 by poison, as is supposed, 1520. 
 
 BIBIENA, Fekdinanii Gai.li, an emi- 
 nent painter and architect. Bom at Bo- 
 logna, 1057 ; died, 17 43. 
 
 BICIIAT, Maiiie Francis Xavier, a cele- 
 brated French physician ; author of " Phy- 
 siological Researches respecting Life and 
 Death," " Anatomy as applied to Physiology 
 and Medicine," &c. Bom, 1771 ; died, 1802. 
 
 BICKERSTAFF, Isaac, a dramatic writer 
 of the 18th century ; author of " Love iu a 
 Village," " Jjonel and Clarissa," &c. 
 
 BICKERSTETH, Rev. Edwakd, an able 
 
 and prolific writer on religious topics, wa8 
 "bom in 1786. His original destination was 
 the law; but after practising for some years as 
 an attorney at Norwich, he was seized with 
 a desire to enter the ministry, and obtained 
 ordination from Bishop Bathurst in 1815. 
 Soon afterwards he was appointed secretary 
 to the Church Missionary Society in London, 
 and at the same time became assistant mi- 
 nister to an episcopal chapel in Spitalflelds. 
 In 1830 he was presented to the living of 
 Wotton, in Hertfordshire, where he laboured 
 with great zeal and efficiency down to the 
 lieriod of his death, 28th February, 1850. 
 >lr. Bickersteth's first work was his " Help 
 to the Study of the Scriptures ; " and this 
 was followed by many other useful works on 
 divinity ; and on all occasions he exhibited 
 himself as a most uncompromising opponent 
 to Popery and Tractaiianism, 
 
 BIDDLE, John, a Socinian writer of con- 
 siderable note in the time of Charles I. and 
 during the Commonwealth, and now re- 
 garded as the founderof Unitarian doctrines ; 
 author of " Confessions of Faith concerning 
 the Holy Trinity," and other works in de- 
 fence of his principles. He was more than 
 once prosecuted and imprisoned, and died of 
 a fever caught in gaol in 1(J22. 
 
 BIDLAKE, John, Dr., a divine of the 
 Church of England ; author of " The Country 
 Parson," and other poems, " An Introduction 
 to Geography," &c. Born, 1755 ; died, 1814. 
 
 BIDLOO, Godfrey, a Dutch anatomists 
 author of " Anatomia Corporis Ilumaui," 
 &c. Born, 1649 ; (Ued, 1713. 
 
 BIEL, John Christian, a German Pro- 
 testant divine, pastor at Brunswick ; author 
 of a valuable I^exicon of the Septuagiut 
 version of the Old Testament. Died, 1745. 
 
 BIELFELD, James Frederic, Baron de, 
 acelebrated modern writer ; author of "Poli- 
 tical Institutions," &c. Born, at Hamburgh, 
 1717 ; died, 1770. 
 
 BIEVRE, Mareschal, Marquis de, a 
 life-guard of the king of France, not un- 
 known as an author, but far more for his 
 puns and repartees. The following anecdote 
 shows the inveteracy of his habit, while it 
 proves " the ruling passion strong in death." 
 He went to Spa to recruit his health, but 
 died there ; and, when at the point of death, 
 said to those around him, "Mes amis, je 
 m'en vais de ce pas " (de Spa). Born, 1747 ; 
 died. 1789. 
 
 BIGLAND, John, a voluminous writer, 
 whose first publication did not appear till he 
 was fifty years of age ; author of " A Sys- 
 tem of Geography and History," "Histo- 
 ries of Spain and England," "Letters on 
 English and French History," &c. Died, 
 1832, aged 82. 
 
 BIGNE, Marquerin de la, a doctor of 
 the Sorbonne ; compiler of the first edition 
 of the " Bibliotheca Patrum." He was bom 
 in 1546, and died at Paris about the close of 
 the Ifith century. 
 
 BIGNICOURT, Simon de, a counsellor 
 of Rheims ; author of " Pensi'es et Reflec- 
 tions Philosopliiqucs. Born, 1709 ; died, 
 1775. 
 
 BIGNON, Jerome, a learned French 
 writer ; author of treatises " On Rome and 
 its Antiquities," "On the Election of the 
 
big] 
 
 ^ ^ciu mm'btr^al 33tffcrrapl)j?. 
 
 [mo 
 
 Popes," &c. ; and editor of the " Formulae " 
 of jMarcuIphus. Born, 1589 ; died, 165G. 
 
 BIGNON, John Paul, grandson of the 
 above ; librarian to tlie king of France ; au- 
 thor of " I>e3 Aventures d'Abdalla Fils d' 
 HanifT," &c. Died, 1743. 
 
 BIGNON, L. P. Edouard, vr&s bom at 
 Melleiraye, of a higlily respectable family, 
 and early entered on the diplomatic career 
 as secretary of legation in Switzerland, and 
 subsequently in Savoy and Prussia, of which 
 last he had the administration of tlie finan- 
 ces subsequent to the battle of Jena. Am- 
 bassador in Poland, both before and after 
 the retreat from Moscow, he rendered the 
 most important services to the French army. 
 He subsequently held many imjiortant of- 
 fices, was a member of the chamber of de- 
 puties under the restoration, and was made 
 peer of I'rance in 1839. He wrote, at the 
 express desire of Napoleon, a " History of 
 French Diplomacy." Born, 1771 ; died, 
 1810. 
 
 BIGOT Americ, an eminent French 
 scholar. He assisted in the publication of 
 several works ; and having discovered Pal- 
 ladius's Life of Chrysostom in the ducal 
 library at Florence, he published both the 
 Greek text and his own Latin translation of 
 it. Born. 162r, ; died, 1089. 
 
 BILDERDYK, G., a modem Dntch poet, 
 born in 1760, and one of the first of his 
 country ; author of the " Death of (Edipus," 
 " The Fairy Urgate," " Winter Flowers and 
 Autumn Leaves ; " and several meritorious 
 translations from the Greek poets and trage- 
 dians, from Pope's Essay on Man, &c. 
 
 BILFINGER, George Bernard, a 
 German writer and professor of philosophy 
 and theology. He was a man of most ex- 
 tensive learning, and the author of " Dilu- 
 cidationcs Philosopliica)," &c. Born, 1G93 ; 
 died, 1750. 
 
 BILGUER, John Elric, a Swiss sur- 
 geon ; author of several professional treatises, 
 in one of which he maintains the inutility of 
 amputation in cases of gunshot wounds. 
 Died, 179(5. 
 
 BILLAUD, Varen^nes t>e, the son of a 
 French advocate at Rochelle, was educated 
 at the same college as Fouche, and proved 
 himself one of the most violent and sangui- 
 nary characters of the French revolution. 
 He bore a principal part in the murders and 
 horrid massacres which followed the destruc- 
 tion of the Bastile ; voted immediate death 
 to the unfortunate Louis XVI ; and officiated 
 as president of the Convention on the 18th of 
 Oct. 1793. He was afterwards deported to 
 Cayenne, and subsisted on a small pension 
 allowed him by Pethion. Died at St. 
 Domingo, in 1819. 
 
 BILLING, SiGiSMOXD, a patriotic and 
 consistent French liberal, born at Calmar, in 
 Alsace, in 1773. He entered the army at the 
 very commencement of the revolution, and 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Genappe 
 and on other occasions ; was commissary of 
 war to the armies of the North, the Rhine, 
 &c. in 1792,.and to the army of Germany at 
 the time of General Moreau's retreat, and 
 was present in many celebrated battles and 
 sieges. In consequence of certain changes in 
 the government, he for a time retired to 
 
 private life, and devoted his time and talents 
 to the formation of Bible Societies and the 
 education of Protestant youth. But he did 
 not wholly abandon the military profession; 
 and, when the reverses of Napoleon had en- 
 dangered the safety of France, Billing, as the 
 commander of a legion of the national guard, 
 surrounded and defended tlie chamber of 
 representatives while it was in the act of 
 pronouncing the emperor's forfeiture, and 
 was otherwise active in bringing about his 
 abdication. He was also, in concert with 
 General la Fayette, greatly instrumental in 
 effecting the revolution of 1830, which seated 
 Louis Philippe on the throne ; preserving 
 throughout his character a love of rational 
 liberty, and a sincere regard for the happiness 
 and morals of the people. He died in 1832. 
 
 BILLINGTON, Emzabetii, the most ce- 
 lebrated English female singer of her time. 
 She was of German extraction, though born 
 in England. Her popularity was equally 
 great in England and on the Continent, and 
 remained undiminished to the very close of 
 her public career in 1809. Died, 1817. 
 
 BILLINGSLEY, Sir Henry, was a native 
 of Canterbury, who, as a London tradesman, 
 acquired great wealth, and became its chief 
 magistrate. He was taught mathematics by 
 an expelled friar, to whom he had generously 
 given shelter and support, and was the first 
 who published Euclid's Elements in English. 
 Died, ir.lO. 
 
 BILSON, Thomas, bishop of Winchester, 
 in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and James 
 I. ; author of a treatise on Christ's Descent 
 into Hell, and one of the translators of the 
 Bible. Bom, 1,5.% ; died, 1616. 
 
 BINGHAM, Joseph, an eminent English 
 divine ; author of " Origines EcclesiasticaB," 
 "Scholastic History of Lay Baptism," &c. 
 Born. 16(58 : died, 1723. 
 
 BINGHAM, Sir George Ridout, a major- 
 general in the British army, was bom in 
 1777. He entered the service in 1793, as an 
 ensign in the 69th foot ; and progressively 
 advanced in difierent regiments, till he be- 
 came lieutenant-colonel of the 53d, being 
 present at the most important transactions 
 in the Peninsula, for which services he was 
 rewarded by knighthood. He afterwards 
 had the charge of Buonaparte from England 
 to St. Helena, where he remained several 
 years, and was promoted to tlie rank of 
 major-general and colonel-commandant of 
 the 2d rifle brigade. Died, Januarv, 18.'>3. 
 
 BINGLEY (descended from English pa- 
 rents, and considered as the Garrick of the 
 Dutch stage), was bom at Rotterdam, in 
 1755, and died in 1818. 
 
 BINGLEY, William, a clergyman ; au- 
 thor of " Animal Biography." " Memoirs of 
 British Quadrupeds," &c. Died, 1823. 
 
 BION, a Greek pliilosopher, in the reign 
 of Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedon, in 
 the 3d century, n.c. Some few fragments of 
 his writings remain. 
 
 BION, a Greek pastoral poet : his poems, 
 published with those of his friend and dis- 
 ciple, Moschus, are remarkable for simpli- 
 city and sweetness. By some he is said to 
 liave lived in the 2d, and by others in the 
 3d century, B.C. 
 
 BION, Nicholas, a French mathemati- 
 
bir] 
 
 ^ i^etu Winihtv^Kl ^Siojjrajjljw. 
 
 [bis 
 
 cian ; author of a " Treatise on the Use of 
 the Globes," &c. Died, 1733. 
 
 BIRAGUE, Clkment, an engraver on 
 gems, said to liave been the first discoverer 
 of the art of engraving on diamonds. He 
 was born at Milan, and flourished during 
 tlie middle of tlie KJth century. 
 
 BIUAGUE, Kkse de, a Milanese of noble 
 family, who sought shelter in France from 
 the vengeance ot Louis Sforza, and became 
 a cardinal and chancellor of France. He is 
 infamously memorable as one of the authors 
 of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Born, 
 1,509 ; died, 1583. 
 
 BIRCH, Samuel, who for many years 
 played a distinguished part as a member of 
 the corporation of London, was born in that 
 city, in 1757, and succeeded his father in his 
 well-established business of a pastry-cook, 
 in Cornhill. He was the first to proiMise the 
 measure of arming and training the inhabit- 
 ants as volunteers; and he had the honour, 
 successively, to become lieutenant, nmjor, 
 and lieutenant-colonel commandant of the 
 first regiment of Loyal London Volunteers. 
 Yet, although never unmindful of his posi- 
 tion as a party man in politics, he found 
 leisure to employ his pen in various walks of 
 literature. Mr. Birch was also among the 
 earliest and most active supporters of the 
 J^iterary Fund Society, to which lie con- 
 tinued attached till his decease, and had 
 long been tlie senior member of its council. 
 In 1814 he filled the civic chair. Died, Dec. 
 10. 1841, aged 84. 
 
 BIRCH, Thomas, originally a Qu.iker, 
 but subsequently a divine of the Churcli of 
 England. He was an industrious historian 
 and biographer ; and author, among many 
 other works, of a " History of the Royal 
 Society," " Memoirs of the Reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth," &c. Born, 17a5 ; died, 17C0. 
 
 BIRD, Edward cR.A.), a painter, chiefly 
 of comic subjects, but who also executed 
 many religious and historical pieces, and 
 was made historical painter to the Princess 
 Charlotte of Wales. Born, 1772; died, 1819. 
 
 BIRD, John', an eminent mathematical 
 instrument maker ; author of " The Method 
 of constructing Mural tiuadrants," &c. Died, 
 
 BIRD, Wiixiam, an eminent musician in 
 the reign of Elizabeth. He chiefly composed 
 sacred music ; and to liim " Non nobis Do- 
 mine " is attributed. Born, 1543 ; died, 1623. 
 
 BIREN, John Ernest de, duke of Cour- 
 land, who, though the son of a peasant, by 
 his handsome person and address, obtained 
 such influence over Anne, daughter of Peter 
 I. and duchess of Courland, that when she 
 ascended the tlirone of Russia, she committed 
 the reigns of government to Biren, made him 
 duke of Courland, and at her death, in 1740, 
 left him regent of the empire. He was sub- 
 sequently banished to Siberia, recalled by 
 Peter III., and his duchy restored to him by 
 Catharine, in 17G3, but which, (5 years after- 
 wards, he relinquished in favour of his eldest 
 son. Bom, 1687 ; died, 1772. 
 
 BIRKBECK, Georoe, M. D., president 
 of the Jjondon Mechanics' Institute, was 
 the son of a merchant and banker at Settle, 
 in Yorkshire, where he was born in 177(J. 
 In his boyhood he displayed a strong incli- 
 
 nation for those mechanical pursuits to 
 which lie afterwards became so devoted ; 
 but his friends having determined that he 
 should embrace the medical profession, he 
 first studied for this object at Leeds, then 
 removed to London to become a pupil of 
 Dr. Baillie, and subsequently went to Edin- 
 burgh to complete his education. At the 
 age of twenty-one he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of natural history in the Andersonian 
 Institution of Glasgow ; and having while 
 there successfully established a mechanies' 
 class, he was induced, in 1822, to found the 
 London Mechanics' Institution in Chancery 
 Lane ; to which society he generously lent 
 3000/. fur erecting a museum, lecture-room, 
 &c. Of this institution Dr. Birkbeck was 
 elected president ; and from it nearly all 
 the various mechanics' institutes throughout 
 Great Britain have been established. As a 
 physician, he enjoyed a considerable share 
 of reputation ; as the promoter of mechanic 
 arts, and as the warm friend of the indus- 
 trious artisan, no man could possibly be 
 more generally or more justly esteemed. 
 He also numbered among his circle of friends 
 the most eminent scientific and literary men 
 of the day. Died, Dec. 1. 1841. 
 
 BIRKBECK, ]^IouKis, an English gentle- 
 man who emigrated to America, where he 
 purchased so vast a tract of land as to acquire 
 the title of " Emperor of the Prairies ; '' au- 
 thor of " Letters from Illinois," " Notes of a 
 Journey in America," &c. He was acci- 
 dentally drowned in 182.». 
 
 BIRKENHEAD, Sir Joii.v, a political 
 writer of tlie 17th century; several times 
 imprisoned during the Commonwealth for 
 writing in favour of the exiled king. Bom, 
 1615 ; died, 1070. 
 
 BIRKHEjVD, Henrt, a modem Latin 
 poet, born in 1617; author of "Otium Lite- 
 rarium," &c. He died at the latter end of 
 the 17lh century. 
 
 BIRON, Arm A Nil de Go.vtact, Baron de, 
 a celebrated French general, honoured with 
 the friendship of Henry IV. He was slain 
 at the siege of Epcruay, in Champagne, in 
 1592. 
 
 BIRON, Chahles de Gontaut, Duke de, 
 son of the above; admiral and marshal of 
 France, and a favourite of Henry IV., who 
 appointed him his ambassador to England, 
 &c., and raised him to the dukedom. He 
 was, however, sedueefl by the intrigues of 
 the court of Spain to join in a conspiracy 
 against his royal and truly generous friend ; 
 for which crime he was tried, condemned, 
 and beheaded, in 1602. 
 
 BIRON, duke de Lauzun, born about 
 1760 ; one of the most celebrated men of the 
 French revolution, remarkable at once for 
 his amours, his attachment to liberty-, and 
 his militarj' exploits. He served with La 
 Fayette in America, and attached himself to 
 the party of the Duke of Orleans, on his re- 
 turn. In 1792 he was joined with Talleyrand 
 in a mission to this country ; on his return, 
 served under Rochamlieau, in Flanders ; and 
 perished by the guillotine at the end of 1793, 
 on a charge of counter-revolution. He died 
 stoically, ordering oysters, and drinking wine 
 with the executioner. 
 
 BISCHOP, John dk, a Dutch historical 
 
bis] 
 
 ^ i^m Bnihtx^aX 23i05rjipl^M. 
 
 [bla 
 
 and landscape painter. Bom, 1G46 ; died, 
 1686. 
 
 BISCOE, RrciiARD, an English divine ; 
 author of " Tlie History of the Acts of the 
 Apostles, conlirmed by other Authors." 
 Died. 1748. 
 
 BISSET, Charles, an able physician, and 
 a writer on fortification, which art lie Bturtiert 
 while in the 42nd regiment, and received 
 promotion for his skill in it at the siege of 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, by the Duke of Cumber- 
 land. Born, 1716 ; died, 1791. 
 
 BISSET, James, an ingenious artist and 
 amusing writer, was bom at Perth, in 1762, 
 but settled early in life at Birmingham, 
 where he established a museum and shop 
 for curiosities, which he afterwards re- 
 moved to Leamington. He had a remark- 
 able facility in writing rhymes ; and being 
 ever ready to make his muse subserve the 
 cause of loyalty, or aid the progress of art, 
 his various works present a motley appear- 
 ance, and are often singularly droll and 
 epigrammatic. " Guides," " Directories," 
 and " Poetic Surveys " of the towns in wliich 
 he lived, look oddly enough when placed 
 in juxtaposition with " Patriotic Clarions," 
 " Critical Essays," and " Comic Strictures on 
 the Fine Arts ; " yet such were among his 
 numerous productions, all of which are more 
 or less indebted for their notoriety to the 
 jingle of rhyme. Died, 1832. 
 
 BISI, BoxAVENTiRE, an esteemed Bo- 
 lognese miniature and historical painter. 
 Died, 1662. 
 
 BISSON, P. T. J. G., bora in 1767 ; a 
 French general, who fought in most of Na- 
 poleon's campaigns, till his death, in 1811. 
 lie was of prodigious size, strength, and 
 appetite. 
 
 BITAirBE, Paul Jeremiah, the son of 
 French refugee parents at Konigsl>erg, where 
 he was bora, in 1732, but in after life settled 
 in Paris. He was an aulhor of considerable 
 repute, and patronised by Frederick II. of 
 Prussia and by Napoleon. He translated 
 Homer, and wrote "Joseph" and other 
 poems. Died, 1808. 
 
 BIVAR, Dox RonniGO Dias de, or <^e 
 Cid, a hero of Spain, whose valour in various 
 encounters with the IMoors, and his unjust 
 banishment, afforded rich materials both for 
 history and romance. Born at Burgos, 1040; 
 died at Valencia, 1099. 
 
 BIZOT, PiEURE, a French writer; au- 
 thor of a curious work, entitled " Histoire 
 MiJdallique de la Republique de ItoUande." 
 Born, 1636 ; died, 1696. 
 
 BLACK, Joseph, an eminent chemist, 
 bora at Bordeaux in France, but of ScottUh 
 parents ; author of " Lectures on Chemis- 
 try," besides other valuable works embody- 
 ing important discoveries. Born, 1728 ; 
 died, 1709. 
 
 BLACKBURNE, Fraxcis, an English 
 divine, eminent as a theological writer, and 
 remarkable for the publication of works 
 favouring dissent from the church to which 
 he belonged. He was archdeacon of Cleve- 
 land and a prebend of York ; but so little 
 of a churchman in his writings, that he was 
 invited to succeed Dr. Chandler as minister 
 of the chapel in the Old Jewry. Born, 1705 j 
 died, 1787. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, TnoMA55, a Scotch divine 
 and poet ; author of " The Graham," an 
 heroic ballad ; " Remarks on Civil Liberty," 
 &c. Born, 1721 ; died, 1791. 
 
 BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a physician 
 and poet, and the author of many works 
 both in prose and verse, the principal of 
 which is his poem, entitled " Creation." 
 j Living as he did in the time of Dryden, 
 Pope, and other wits and satirists, to whom 
 he was opposed in politics, he met with un- 
 merited ridicule ; for though as a poet he 
 was inferior to many, he was by no means 
 destitute of talent, and, what is better, he 
 sustained the reputation of a pious and con- 
 scientious man. Died, 1729. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Sir William, an emi- 
 nent English judge ; author of the well 
 known " Commentaries," and other valuable 
 works on law. &c. Bom, 1723 ; died, 1780. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Alexander, a Scottish 
 physician, who settled in Sweden, and was 
 beheaded there, for supposed participation in 
 a conspiracy, 1748. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Alexander and Eliza- 
 beth, husband and wife : the latter, a woman 
 of talent, in order to procure subsistence for 
 her husband while in prison for debt, pub- 
 lished a " Herbal" in 2 volumes, folio, with 
 .ICX) plates, drawn, engraved, and coloured 
 by herself, all in the space of four years. 
 The work succeeded, and her husband was 
 liberated ; but he seemed doomed to be the 
 sport of fortune ; for after having l)een in- 
 vited to Stockholm, and pensioned by the 
 king of Sweden, in consequence of his being 
 the author of a work on agriculture which 
 attracted the notice of that monarch, he was 
 charged with being concerned in a plot with 
 Count Tessin for overturning the kingdom, 
 tried, and beheaded, in 1747. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Thomas, Greek professor 
 of Aberdeen ; author of " An Diquiry into 
 the Life and Writings of Homer ; " " Me- 
 moirs of the Court of Augustus," &c. Born, 
 1701 ; died, 17-)7. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Adam, a Scotch writer ; 
 author of " The Martyrdom of Mary Stuart," 
 written in French, &c. Born, 15i39 ; died, 
 1613. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, Sir Henry, a meritorious 
 British admiral, was the sixth son of Sir 
 John Blackwood, bart., and born in 1770. j 
 Having entered the naval service at the early j 
 age of 11 j'ears, he was present at the action 
 off the Dogger Bank ; and on the commence- | 
 ment of hostilities with the French, in 1793, 
 he became first lieutenant of the Invincible 
 man-of-war, in which capacity he acted on 
 the "glorious 1st of June," 1794, with dis- 
 tinguished bravery, and was in consequence 
 promoted to the rank of commander. In 
 1798, when captain of the Brilliant, of 28 
 guns, he gallantly maintained a most un- 
 equal combat, off the island of Teneriffe, 
 with two large French frigates, each of 
 which was nearly double his own force, and 
 beat them off. After this he was engaged in 
 various services, as captain of the Penelope, 
 of 36 guns, under Lords Keith and Nelson, 
 Sir Sj'dney Smith, and other eminent men ; 
 and it was owing chiefly to his skill and 
 bravery that the Guillaume Tell, of 80 guns, 
 which escaped from Lord Nelson at Aboukir, 
 
blaJ 
 
 ^ |!rU) ^nibtr^aX 3Bt0jp:apT)e. 
 
 [bla 
 
 was captured. The next scene of his naval 
 glory was the evcr-mcmorable battle of 
 Trafalgar, wliere he perforined the most 
 essential service, as captain of the Eur3'alus, 
 and witnessed tlie death of his friend and 
 heroic commander, whose last words to 
 him were "God bless you, Blackwood — I 
 shall never see you more." In 180C he was 
 appointed to tlic command of the Ajax, of 
 80 guns, and joined Lord Collingwood's fleet 
 on the anniversary of the battle of Trafalgar. 
 Tliis, however, was a melancholy event, as 
 the sequel proved ; for, during the night of 
 the 14th of February, 1807, tlie Ajax was 
 found to be on fire, and in a short time went 
 down with Jialf her crew ; Sir Ilenry, like 
 mnny others, being saved with the greatest 
 difficulty. After this he eommanded the 
 W'arspite, and was present at the blockades 
 of Brest and Rochfort, and engaged in various 
 enterprises. In 1814, His Royal Highness the 
 Duke of Clarence made liim captain of the 
 fleet, and he was appointed to bring over 
 the crowned heads from France to this 
 country : on which occasion he was created 
 a baronet, and promoted to the rank of rear- 
 admiral. In 1819, Sir Henry was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the naval forces in 
 the East Indies, from which station he 
 si)cedily returned ; and in 1827 the lord 
 high admiral raised liim to the command 
 at Chatham. He died in December, 1832 ; 
 leaving Ixjlilnd him the character of a brave, 
 skilful officer, and an amiable man. 
 
 BLADEN, Maktix, a military officer 
 under the Duke of Marlborough ; author of 
 " Ori)heu8 and Eurydice," a masque ; " A 
 Translation of CiBsar's Commentaries," &c. 
 Died, 174^. 
 
 BLAINVUXE, M. dk, professor of com- 
 parative anatomy in the Paris Museum of 
 Natural History, and a wortliy successor to 
 Cuvier, was born in 1778. He was found 
 dead on May 1. 1850, in one of the night rail- 
 way trains between Rouen and Caen. 
 
 BLAIR, Huon, an eminent Scotch divine ; 
 author of a " Dissertation on the Poems of 
 Ossiau," "Lectures on Rhetoric," "Belles 
 Lettres," and "Sermons," in five volumes, 
 which have ever been greatlv esteemed. 
 Born at Edinburgh, 1718 ; died, 1800. 
 
 BLAIR, JoH>f, a prebend of Westminster ; 
 author of " Chronological Tables " and 
 " Lectures on the Canon of tlie Old Testa- 
 ment." Died, 1782. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch divine ; author 
 of the well known and admirable poem 
 " The Grave." Born, 1700 ; died, 174(1. 
 
 BLAKE, RoBKKT, a celebrated English 
 admiral during the Commonwealth, whose 
 skill and courage were equalled only bj' his 
 disinterested patriotism and love of justice ; 
 and whose brilliant achievements proudly 
 sustained the hcmour of his country, and 
 greatly enhanced its naval character. 
 Among his numerous gallant exploits, the 
 most noted are the four desperate engage- 
 ments he fought with the Dutch fleet imder 
 Admiral Van Tromp ; by which he not only 
 gained a decided superiority over our 
 mightiest naval opponent, but, by the bold 
 tactics he introduced, infused that intrepid- 
 ity and spirit of enterprise, by which the 
 British navy has been ever since so highly 
 
 distinguished. Bom, at Bridgewater, 1509 ; 
 died, 1(558. 
 
 BLAKE, William, a highly gifted but 
 very eccentric artist and writer ; author of 
 " Europe," a prophecy ; " America," a pro- 
 phecy ; " Songs of Experience ; " and an 
 infinity of admirable engravings. Born, 
 1759 ; died, 1827. 
 
 BLAMPINI, TnoJLfis, a Benedictine 
 monk ; editor of a splendid edition of the 
 works of St. Augustin. Died, 1710. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Francis, a celebrated 
 French aeronaut, horn in 1738, was distin- 
 guished from his youth by his mechanical 
 inventions. After making his first aerostatic 
 voyage in 1784, he crossed the Channel from 
 Dover to Calais, 1785 ; for which exploit he 
 was rewarded by the king of France with 
 12,000 francs, and a pension of 12(X) fr. He 
 first made use of a parachute in London, in 
 1785 ; went through various countries on 
 the Continent, exhibiting his aeronautic 
 skill ; visited America with the same object ; 
 and, retuniing in 1798, ascended in Rouen 
 with 16 persons in a large balloon, and de- 
 scended at a place 15 miles distant. He 
 
 died in 1809 His wife, Madame Blan- 
 
 ciiAKD, continued to make aerial voyages ; 
 but in June, 1819, having ascended from 
 Tivoli, in Paris, her balloon took fire, at a 
 considerable height, owing to some fire- 
 works which slie carried with her, the car 
 fell, and the hapless aeronaut was dashed to 
 pieces. 
 
 BLANCHARD, James, an eminent and 
 indefatigable painter, denominated the 
 French Titian. Born, ICOO ; died, 1()3«. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Joiix Bai-tist, a French 
 Jesuit, and professor of rhetoric ; author of 
 '• The Temple of the Muses," &c. Born, 
 1731 ; died, 1707. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Lamajt, a graceful pe- 
 riodical writer, was bom at Great Yarmouth 
 in 1803. His father having removed to 
 London when he was 5 years of age, he 
 received his education at St. Olave's School, 
 Lambeth ; and here was laid the ground- 
 work of those literary tastes and habits which 
 distinguished him through life. His first 
 occupation was that of reader at Cox and 
 Baylis' printing office in Great Queen Street; 
 in 1827 he became secretary to the Zoological 
 Society ; and in 1831 editor of the Monthly 
 Magazine. He subsequently became con- 
 nected with the True Sun, the Constitutional, 
 the Courier, the Court Journal, and the Ex- 
 aminer ; and was a constant contributor to 
 the lighter periodicals of the day. Never 
 was there a writer with a readier pen ; but I 
 though radiant with wit, it was never dipped 
 in gall ; and though his political opinions 
 were strongly marked and maintained 
 through good and evil report, his entire 
 freedom from party bigotry and prejudice 
 gained him the respect even of his most 
 decided opponents. But a series of domestic 
 calamities crushed his buoyant spirit to the 
 earth, and in a fit of temporary insanity he 
 committed suicide, Feb. 15. 1845. A collected 
 edition of his writings, with a memoir of the 
 author by Sir Bulwer Lytton, was published 
 in IHiO. 
 
 BLANCHARD, William, a comedian of 
 sterling talent at Covent Garden Theatre, 
 
bla] 
 
 ^ i^efit) HiuberM 2St0Ufajpl^y. 
 
 [blo 
 
 whose faithful representation of many of 
 Sliakspeare's most difficult characters ob- 
 tained for him tlie suffrages of such as were 
 real judges of the histrionic art ; but, though 
 a general favourite, he won not the "mil- 
 lion" by monstrosities, nor the just reward 
 of his talents from theatrical managers. 
 Died, 1835, in the CGth year of his age, having 
 retired from the stage a short time before. 
 
 BLANCHE, of Castile, queen of Louis 
 VIIL of France. She died of grief, on ac- 
 count of the defeat aud imprisonment of her 
 son, Louis IX., in Palestine, in 1252. 
 
 BLANCIIELANDE, P. F., born in 1735 ; 
 governor of St. Domingo when the decree 
 of instant emancipation for the slaves caused 
 a universal tumult. He urged the suspension 
 of the decree, and, being arrested as a 
 counter- revolutionist, was conducted to 
 Paris, and perished by the guillotine in 1793. 
 
 BLAND, Elizabktii, an English lady, 
 eminent for her knowledge of Uebrew. A 
 phylactery of her writings is preserved by 
 tlie Koyal Society. Died, 1720. 
 
 BLANDRATA, Gkokoe, an Italian phy- 
 sician ; privy counsellor to Stephen Barotti, 
 king of Poland. He was strangled by his 
 nephew, whom he had made his heir, 1593. 
 
 BLANE, Sir Gilukht, bart., M. D., of 
 Ayr, was born in 17-19, and, after practising 
 in his profession witli much success, became 
 physician in ordinary to George III., and 
 was, in 1812, created a baronet. He died in 
 June, 1834. 
 
 BLANKEN, Joiix, an eminent Dutch 
 engineer, born in 1755 ; distinguished for his 
 double-power steam-engines ; and for his 
 docks, dikes, drains, and batteries, on almost 
 all the coasts of Holland. 
 
 BLANKOFF, John Teuxiz, a Dutch 
 marine painter, of the 17th century ; par- 
 ticularly skilful in storm pieces. 
 
 BLANTYRE, Lord, was born in Edin- 
 burgh in 1775, and entered the army in his 
 19th year, lie served in the Peninsular 
 war, at the conclusion of which he received 
 public thanks for his services, and after- 
 wards became lord-lieutenant of Renfrew- 
 shire. He was residing with his family at 
 Brussels, during the struggle of the Belgians 
 for a separate government ; when looking 
 out from a window, to see the Dutch troops 
 who were advancing into the park, he was 
 struck in the neck bj' a musket ball, and the 
 effusion of blood was so great that he died a 
 few moments after, Sept. 1830. 
 
 BLAYNEY, Dr. Benjamin', an English 
 divine and biblical critic ; author of a " Dis- 
 sertation on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel," 
 &c. Died, 1801. 
 
 BLEDRI, bishop of Llandaff in 1023 ; 
 surnamed the ivise on account of his great 
 learning. 
 
 BLEISWICK, Peter van", born in 1724 ; 
 grand pensionary of the Dutch states-ge- 
 neral at the revolution, by which he was 
 divested of his office. He was the author of 
 a valuable work, " De Aggeribus." 
 
 BLESSINGTON, Makgaret Power, 
 Countess of, celebrated for her beauty, ac- 
 complishments, and literary productions, was 
 bom in the county of Waterford in 1789. 
 At the early age of 15 she contracted an ill- 
 fated marriage with Captain Farmer, and 
 
 soon after his death the Earl of Blessington 
 sought and obtained her hand in 1818. After 
 her marriage she passed several years abroad, 
 but they are chiefly remarkable for having 
 led to her acquaintance with Lord Byron, 
 which soon ripened into intimacy, and 
 enabled her subsequently to publish one of 
 the most interesting works, her " Conversa- 
 tions with Lord Byron." Soon after her 
 husband's death in 1829, she fixed her resi- 
 dence in London, where she soon gained a 
 distinguished place in literary and so-called 
 fashionable society. Her house became the 
 centre-point of every variety of talent ; and 
 there were few literary celebrities, native or 
 foreign, who did not share in the " feast of 
 reason and the flow of soid," for which Gore 
 House will be long remembered. Lady 
 Blessington'a contributions to literature were 
 at once numerous and diversified. Besides 
 the "Conversations" above mentioned, she 
 published many novels, of which " Grace 
 Cassady, or the Repealers," " The Two 
 Friends," " Meredith," " Stratherne," " The 
 Lottery of Life," "The Victims of Society," 
 &c. are the chief ; and several works full of 
 personal anecdote, epigram, sentiment, aud 
 description, such as " The Idler in Italy," 
 "The Idler in France," "Memoirs of a 
 Femme de Chambre," "The Belle of the 
 Season," &c. For many years she edited the 
 far-famed annuals, " The Book of Beauty " 
 and the " Keepsake." Died at Paris, where 
 she had a short time previously permanently 
 fixed her residence, Aug. 1849. 
 
 BLIGH, George Miller, was the son of 
 Admiral Sir R. R. Bligh. He entered the 
 navy, in 1794, on board the Alexander, 
 commanded by his father, in wliich ship he 
 was taken by the French in the same year ; 
 but from whom he contrived to escape six 
 months afterwards. He was made a lieu- 
 tenant ia 1801, and fought under Nelson in 
 the battle of Trafalgar, in wliich he was 
 severely wounded. He was made a com- 
 mander in 1806 ; and, having taken a 
 French privateer, he was posted, and ap- 
 pointed to the Glatton two years afterwards. 
 He died in 1S3,>. 
 
 BLIZZARD, Sir William, a surgeon and 
 anatomist of considerable eminence, was 
 bom in 1742. During a long life of profes- 
 sional activity and experience he main- 
 tained a higli reputation ; and was for many 
 years professor of anatomy to the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, and a fellow of the 
 Royal and Antiquarian Societies. He was 
 also the author of several valuable works, 
 viz. " Suggestions for the Improvements of 
 Hospitals," " Reflections on Police," 
 " Lecture on the Large Bloodvessels," &c. 
 Died, at the great age of 92, in Sept. 1835. 
 
 BLOCH, Marcus Eliezer, an ingenious 
 naturalist and physician, and a Jew by birth, 
 was born at Anspach, of mean parentage ; 
 but entering into the service of a physician, 
 he studied medicine, anatomy, and natural 
 history with great success, and became par- 
 ticularly eminent in the last-named science. 
 His " Ichthyology," produced at Berlin in 
 1785, at the exjiense of the wealthiest princes 
 of Germany, is a magnificent national work, 
 llis treatise " On Intestinal Worms " is also 
 iu high estimation. Bom, 1723 ; died, 1799. 
 
BLO] 
 
 ^ fic'm mutbcr^aX Miatp:npliv* 
 
 [blu 
 
 BLOCK, JoAN'NA KoEKTEX, a Dutch 
 female, whose HiiguUr talents in cutting 
 landscapes, flowers, portraits, &c. out of 
 paper, entitle her to rank as an artist of no 
 mean skill, so true were her works touaturc. 
 Born, 1050 ; died, 1715. 
 
 BI.OEMART, Abkaham, a Dutch pain- 
 ter of considerable merit, whose brilliant 
 colouring and inventive powers atone for 
 various mhior faults. Born, 15Go ; died, 
 1G47. 
 
 BLOE.MARTS Cornelics, a son of the 
 preceding, who, as an engraver, became 
 eminent, and may be regarded as the 
 founder of a new school, remarkable for the 
 purity and softness of the burin. Boru, 
 1C(K! ; died, KWO. 
 
 BLOMEFIELD, Fran'Cis, an English to- 
 pographer and divine s author of " Collec- 
 tanea Cantabrigiensia," &c. Died, 1755. 
 
 BLOMFIEI.D, EuwAui) Valentixe, a 
 distinguished classical scholar, was the bro- 
 ther of Dr. Blonifleld, bishop of London, 
 and born in 1788. He received his educa- 
 tion at Cains College, Cambridge, where, 
 besides other prizes, he gained, in 18l»9, a 
 medal for writing his beautiful ode, "In 
 Dpsiderium Torsoni." In 1812 a fellowship 
 in Emanuel College was conferred on him. 
 In the following year he visited Germany, 
 and acquired an intimate knowledge of the 
 German language. On his return to Eng- 
 land he published in the " Musreum Criticum, 
 or Cambridge Classical Reseaiches," remarks 
 on German literature. He translated 
 " Matthias's Greek Grammar," and began 
 " Schneider's Greek and German Lexicon." 
 Died, ISKi. 
 
 BLOND, JAitES CiiRiSToniER LE, a mi- 
 niature painter, and author of a treatise on 
 a method of engraving in colours. Born, 
 1670 i died, 1741. 
 
 BLONDEL, a minstrel and favourite of 
 Richard Caur de Lion ; whom he is said to 
 have discovered in his German dungeon, by 
 singing beneath its walls the first part of a 
 song of their joint composition. 
 
 BLONDEL, David, a French Protestant 
 divine, and the successor of Vossius as pro- 
 fessor of history at Amsterdam ; author of 
 " Explications on the Eucharist," &c. Bom, 
 1601 ; died, 16.55. 
 
 BLONDEL, Frakcis, a French architect 
 and diplomatist ; author of " Tlie Art of 
 Throwing Bombs," various treatises on archi- 
 tecture, &c. Born, 1617 ; died, 1080. 
 
 BLONDEL, Joilx Francis, of the same 
 family as the above, and also an architect. 
 He was professor of architecture in the 
 academy of Paris ; and the author of a 
 "Course of Civil Architecture," and other 
 works belonging to the art. Bom, 1705 ; 
 died, 1774. 
 
 BLONDUS, Flavhs. otherwise called 
 Flavio Biondi, an Italian writer of the 15th 
 century ; author of " Roma lUustrata," &c. 
 
 BLOOD, TnoMAS, Colonel, a bold and 
 desperate Irishman, originally an officer in 
 Cromwell's army, and notorious in English 
 history for his daring attempt on the life of 
 the Duke of Ormond, and for his theft of 
 the crown and regalia from the Tower. 
 For some reason, nevtr yet explained, this 
 desperado was not only paidoned by Charles 
 
 101 
 
 II., but received from him a pension of 5001. 
 per annum. Died, 1680. 
 
 BLOOiMFIELD, Roisert, an English 
 poet, was the son of a poor tailor at Ho- 
 nington, Sutl'olk, and himself a shoemaker. 
 His principal work is a poem, entitled " The 
 Farmer's Boy," which pleasingly describes 
 the scenes the author witnessed while in 
 that humble station, and displays very con- 
 siderable genius ; but his subsequent publi- 
 cations, though possessing tlie merit of sim- 
 plicity, were not equal to the first. Although 
 brought forward and patronised by the ex- 
 ertions of Cai>el Lofft and the Duke of 
 Grafton, the modest banl had a large share 
 of the ills which flesh is heir to, and his 
 latter years were clouded by penury and 
 dejection. Born, 1766 ; died, 182.S. 
 
 BLOUNT, Charles, earl of Devonshire. 
 He succeeded to his family title of Lord 
 Mountjoy in 1594, and was much favoured 
 and employed by queen Elizabeth. In the 
 year 1603 he returned from Ireland, where 
 he had been employed in suppressing the 
 rebellion, and brought with him the head 
 of th6 celebrated rebel Tyrone. James I. 
 made him master of the ordnance and earl 
 of Devonshire i hut having manicd the di- 
 vorced Lady Rich, daughter of the Earl of 
 Essex, he fell into disgrace. Born, 1563 ; 
 died, 160(i. 
 
 BLOUNT, Thomas, an English writer ; 
 author of " Bocobel ; or the History of the 
 King's Escape after the Battle of Worces- 
 ter," "Fragmenta Antiquitatis," &c. Born, 
 1619 ; died, 1679. 
 
 BLOUNT, Sir Henry, a trareller tlirough 
 Turkey, Syria, and Egypt ; author of a 
 " Voyage to the Levant." He was knighted 
 by Charles II., but sided with the parlia- 
 ment, and was rewarded with a commission- 
 ership of trade. Born, 1602 ; died, 1682. 
 
 BLOUNT, Sir Thomas Pope, bart., eld- 
 est son of the above ; member of several 
 parliaments, and appointed commi.^sioncr 
 of accounts at the revolution ; author of 
 " Censura celebriorum Auctoruin," &c. 
 Born, 1649 ; died, 1697. 
 
 BLOUNT, Ciiari.es, youngest brother of 
 the last named ; author of some deistical 
 writings. He died, by his own hands, 1693. 
 
 BLOW, John (Mus. Doc), an English 
 musician and composer of great ability ; 
 author of anthems, services, &c., and of 
 some secular compositions, which are pub- 
 lished collectively under the title of " Am- 
 phioQ Anglicus." Died, 1708. 
 
 BLUCHEB, Field-marshal LEBREcnx 
 VON, a distinguished Prussian general, 
 whose impetuous intrepidity and eagerness 
 to attack the enemy gained him the familiar 
 appellation of "Marshal Forward." He en- 
 tered the Swedish service when quite a 
 youth, and in the first campaign was made 
 prisoner by the Prussians, whom he after- 
 wards joined, and rose to the rank of (!ap- 
 tain ; but being discontented with the pro- 
 motion of other officers over his head, he 
 obtained his discharge from the Great Fre- 
 deric, who dismissed him with the pithy re- 
 mark, that " he might go to the devil if he 
 pleased;" and he afterwards lived many 
 years in retirement. Being recalled by his j 
 successor, king William, he was made ma- 
 
 k3 
 
BLU] 
 
 ^ i^clM Hm'bcrjSal 3St0gmji]^y 
 
 [blu 
 
 jor-general after the battle of Leystadt, in 
 1794 ; and commanded the cavalry at the 
 battle of Jena, which decided for a time the 
 fate of the Prussian monarchy. When 
 Prussia entered into the coalition against 
 Napoleon, in 1813, our hero, then 70 years 
 old, was made general of the centre of the 
 allied army ; distinguished himself at Lut- 
 zen and Leipsic, pursued the flying French 
 across the Rhine, and, after a year of ob- 
 stinate conflict in France, headed the right 
 wing of the allied army under the walls of 
 Paris, at the time of Napoleon's abdication 
 in 1814. In England, M-hich he visited with 
 the allied sovereigns, he was received with 
 enthusiasm, and was eminently pojjular. 
 Being re-invested with the command of the 
 Prussian army during the Hundred Days, 
 he was defeated by Napoleon at Lign3', on 
 June 16. 1815 ; on which occasion he was 
 unhorsed, and charged over by both the 
 French and Prussian cavalry. Marshal 
 Grouchy was commissioned by Naj)oleon to 
 push Blucher's retreat, and check his junc- 
 tion with the British army, which Welling- 
 ton required. But having deceived Grouchy, 
 by leaving a body of his troops to mask the 
 operation, he retrograded unmolested, by a 
 skilful and dangerous flank movement ; and 
 his advanced division, imdcr Bulow, arrived 
 at Waterloo at 5 o'clock, just as the whole 
 reserved lilitc of the Frencli army was ad- 
 vancing in dense column to nuike their last 
 desperate eftbrt to break through tlie Bri- 
 tish squares. Tliis fresh flank attack on the 
 advancing column contributed greatly to 
 decide the victory, and Blucher arrived in 
 time to participate in the pursuit. Blucher's 
 conduct afterwards was generally pro- 
 nounced by the liberals at Paris, especially 
 as regarded the bridge of Jena and the 
 spoliation of the Museum, vindictive and 
 illiberal ; but it could not be expected that 
 he should have had any regard for the glo- 
 ries of the French capital. He was a rough 
 and fearless soldier ; brave, honest, and 
 free ; beloved by his comrades, and a sworn 
 foe to the enemies of his country. Born at 
 Bostock, 1742 ; died, at his estate in Silesia, 
 1819, aged 77. 
 
 BLUM, Joachim Christian, a German ; 
 author of "Lyrical Poems," "The Pro- 
 menades," " Dictionary of Proverbs," 
 " The Deliverance of llatheuau," &c. Born, 
 1709 ; died, 1790. 
 
 BLUM, Robert, whose commanding 
 eloquence during his brief political career 
 gained for him the name of the " German 
 O'Connell," was born at Cologne iti 1807. 
 Cradled in poverty, and compelled almost 
 from infancy to assist in eking out his parents' 
 scanty livelihood, his education was com- 
 pletely neglected ; but from his earliest years 
 he manifested a thirst for learning, and what 
 he wanted in opportunity was amply made 
 up in the avidity with which he gleaned 
 such knowledge as came within his reach. At 
 the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a gold- 
 smith ; he afterwards worked as a journey- 
 man in different parts of Germany, especially 
 at Berlin ; but on his return to Cologne in 
 1830, he was obliged to accept the humble 
 office of box-opener in the theatre of that 
 city. Amid all the difficulties with which 
 
 102 
 
 he had to struggle, he had never ceased to 
 cultivate Ms mind ; and when, in 1832, he 
 removed to Leipzig as cashier of the theatre 
 in that city, such were hie attainments, that 
 he undertook with success the management 
 of various literary and political journals, 
 which, besides adding to his scanty income, 
 gaineil him great ascendancy in the growing 
 agitation of the day, and marked him out as 
 a political leader in any crisis that might 
 ensue. In 1844 he took an active part in 
 stemming the torrent of superstition with 
 which the so-called miracle of the Holj'Coat 
 at Treves threatened to overwhelm Germany ; 
 and, in 184.'>, when the Romanist tendencies 
 of Prince John of Saxony had well nigh 
 exasperated the people to rebellion, Blum 
 hastened to the spot, and, by his eloquence, 
 good sense, and persuasive powers, induced 
 his excited fellow-citizens to refrain from 
 violence, and keep strictly within the law. 
 In 1847 he resigned his cashiership at the 
 theatre, and became a bookseller. The events 
 of March, 1848, first brought him before the 
 world as a politician. Elected by the town 
 of Zwickau as its representative in the " vor 
 parlament " at Frankfort, he became a 
 member of the committee of fifty, and at the 
 opening of the national asscml)ly he took his 
 seat as reiiresentative of Leipzig. There he 
 became the leader of " the left " party ; but 
 the good sense for which he had hitherto 
 been remarkable failed him at this crisis of 
 his career, and he was led to expend the 
 vast powers of his eloquence on scliemes 
 which both then and since have been found to 
 be impracticable. On the breaking out of the 
 second revolution at Vienna, in October, 1848, 
 he repaired thither with some other mem- 
 bers of his party, to offer a congratulatory 
 address to the Viennese. Here he harangued 
 the people with great power and effect ; but 
 after the suppression of the rebellion, he was 
 arrested, tried by court-martial, and con- 
 demned to be shot, Nov. 9. 1848. The news 
 of his arrest and execution caused great con- 
 sternation throughout Germany. It was at 
 first supposed that the national assembly 
 would resent his death as an insult offered to 
 itself, but, after a few feeble protests, it re- 
 mained quiescent ; and the Austrian govern- 
 ment enjoyed full immunity in this its first 
 open manifestation of hostility to the Frank- 
 fort parliament, so soon afterwards doomed 
 to fall. 
 
 BLUMAUER, Lewis, a German satirical 
 poet ; author of a " Travesty of the ^neid," 
 &c. Born, 17.')5 ; died, 1798. 
 
 BLUMENBACU, Johajjn Feiederich, 
 one of the greatest naturalists of modern 
 times, was born at Gotha in 1752. He early 
 displayed a great aptitude for scientific pur- 
 suits, and before he had completed his 24th 
 3'ear, his fame as an inquirer into nature had 
 spread throughout the civilised world. In 
 1776, he was appointed professor of medicine 
 in the university of Gottingcn, where he had 
 been educated ; and here, for the long period 
 of 61 years, he continued, by his lectures and 
 his works, to extend the science of com- 
 parative anatomy, which has been so suc- 
 cessfully cultivated in more recent times, 
 and of which he may be truly said to have 
 been the founder. Died, 1837. 
 
BLU] 
 
 ^ ^tbi BiiibtxSal JSur^rapl^M. 
 
 [bod 
 
 BLUTEAU, Don Raphael, a Roman 
 Catholic priest, born in Linden, of French 
 parents « autiior of a valuable Portuguese 
 and Latin Dictionary. Died, 1734. 
 
 BOABDIL, or ABOUABOULA, the last 
 Moorish king of Granada : he was expelled 
 for the last time from Granada by Ferdi- 
 nand of Castile and Arragon, in 1491 ; a,ad 
 afterwards resided in Africa, where he was 
 killed in battle in the service of the king 
 of Fez. 
 
 BOADEN, James, a dramatic author 
 and critic. His plays are numerous, but we 
 believe there is not one of tliem that now 
 keeps possession of the stage. Far more 
 important arc his dramatic memoirs. In 
 them he has left, probably, the very best 
 record that the world can now ever hope to 
 have of John Kemble, Mrs. Siddons, Mrs. 
 Jordan, and Mrs. Inchbald. His " Inquiry 
 into t)»e Authenticity of the various Pictures 
 and Prints of Shakspcare," and a tract on 
 " the Sonnets of Shakspearc," are also very 
 valuable works. Bom, 17G2 ; died, 1839. 
 
 BOADICEA, or BONDUCA, a British 
 heroine, the widow of Prasatagus, and 
 queen of the leeni. Having been ignomi- 
 uiously treated by the Romans, she headed 
 an insurrection against them, attacked 
 their settlements, and reduced London to 
 ashes ; but being at length utterly defeated 
 by Suetonius Paulvnus, she put an end to 
 her life bv poison, a.d. CI. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanxi, n celebrated 
 Italian writer, possessing the most lively 
 imagination, united with tenderness of ex- 
 pression and wajinth of feeling. He was 
 the friend of Petrarcli, and author of " The 
 Decameron," &c. Boccaccio was the son of 
 a Florentine merchant, but born in Paris, 
 1313 ; died. 1375. 
 
 BOCCAGE, Maria A.vxe le Paoe, a 
 French poetess ; author of " Paradis Ter- 
 restre," &c. Born, 1710 ; died, 1802. 
 
 BOCCALINI, Trajan, an Italian satirist; 
 author of the "Political Touchstone," a 
 " Satire on the Spaniards," &c. His wri- 
 tings gave so much oflFence to the Spanish 
 court, that it caused him to be murdered at 
 Venice, 1»>1.3. 
 
 BOCCHERINI, Luioi, a celebrated com- 
 poser of instrumental music, pensioned for 
 his merit by the king of Prussia, and warmly 
 patronised by the king of Si>aiu. Born, 
 1740 ; died, 1805. j 
 
 BOCCIII, AciriLLF.s, a Bolognese, of a 
 noble family, who distinguished himself in 
 the 10th century by his attachment to lite- 
 rature ; author of " Apologia in Plautum," 
 and numerous other works. 
 
 BOCCOLD, Jon.v, or JOHN OP LEY- 
 DEN, a fanatic of tliat city in the 16th cen- 
 tury, who headed some rcvolters, and made 
 themselves masters of Munster, where he 
 assumed the characters of king and prophet. 
 The city was at length taken by the bishop, 
 and Boccold was hanged. 
 
 BOCCONE, Paul, an Italian naturalist ; 
 author of " Musea di Plantc rare." Born, 
 1633 ; died, 1704. 
 
 BOCHART, Samuel, a French Protestant 
 divine ; author of " Geographia Sacra." a 
 treatise on the " Terrestrial Paradise, &c. 
 Bom, 1599 ; died, 1067. 
 
 BOCH, or BOCHIITS, Johk, a Flemish 
 writer of the ICth century ; author of vari- 
 ous Latin works, and styled, from his skill 
 in Latin poetry, the Belgic Virgil. Born, 
 1555 ; dietl, 1009. 
 
 BOCCLCI, Joseph, a Spanish author, 
 bom in 1775. He served at first in the army, 
 in the campaigns of 1793 and 1794, against 
 republican France, but afterwards devoted 
 himself to letters. He is the author of seve- 
 ral comedies played at the Madrid tlieatre. 
 
 BOCQUILLOT, Lazarus Andkkw, a 
 French divine ; author of a " Treatise on the 
 Liturgv," " liife of the Chevalier Bayard," 
 &c. D'ied, 1728. 
 
 BODARD DE TEZAZ, N.M.F., Iwm in 
 1758 ; a French poet and diplomatist ; am- 
 bassador to Naples for the republic in 17it9 ; 
 author of "Le Ballon," a comedy; " Al- 
 lonsko," a melodrame ; " Minette et Ma- 
 rine," an opera, &c. 
 
 BODE, Chkistophek Augustus, a learned 
 German linguist and critic ; who edited the 
 New Testament in Ethiopic, all the Evan- 
 gelists in Persian, St. Matthew in Arabic, 
 &c. Bora, 1723 ; died, 1796. 
 
 BODE, John Ehlkkt, a celebrated Ger- 
 man astronomer ; author of an " Atlas of 
 Celestial Maps," &c. Born, 1747; died. 1H2C. 
 
 BODE, John Joachim Chiustoi'iier, a 
 German writer. He was originally a mu- 
 sician in a Hanoverian regiment ; he then 
 became a bookseller, and finally rose to be 
 privy councillor to the Landgrave of Hesse 
 Darmstadt. He translated some of the best 
 French and Englisli authors into German 
 with considerable taste and judgment. Died, 
 1793. 
 
 BODIN, JoHK, a French lawyer ; author 
 of a treatise " De Republica," &c. Born, 
 15.30 ; died, 1596. 
 
 BODIN, P. J. F., a French surgeon, born 
 in 1700 ; was a meinl)er of the Convention, 
 voted against the death of Louis XVI., and 
 was afterwards judge of Poitiers; he was 
 author of a work on " Accouchemens," &c. 
 
 BODLE Y, Sir Thomas, a native of Exe- 
 ter, but educated partly at Geneva and 
 partly at Oxford. He was on several occa- 
 sions employed on embassies by queen Eli- 
 zabeth ; but he is chiefly remarkable for 
 having rebuilt the University Library of Ox- 
 ford, and bequeathed his fortune to its sup- 
 port and augmentation ; whence it is called 
 the Bodleian Library. Born, 1544; died, 1012. 
 
 BODMANN, T. J., a German, bom in 
 1754 ; professor of political and legislative 
 science at Mayence; author of many esteemed 
 works in this department, and co-editor of 
 the " Magazin pour la Jurisprudence." 
 
 BODMKR, John Jacob, a German poet ; 
 translator of Milton's Paradise Lost, and of 
 the Iliad and Odyssey, &c. ; and author of 
 an epic, entitled "Noah," &c. Born, 1695 ; 
 died, 1783. 
 
 BODONI, John Baptist, an eminent Ita- 
 lian piinter, born in 1740, died in 1813 ; con- 
 sidered as one of the most skilful of modern 
 typographers. 
 
 BODSON, Joseph, a French engraver, 
 born in 1708. He took an active part in the 
 revolution ; was a most influential member 
 of the Electoral Club of the Parisian Com- 
 mune, in 1794 i and was denounced for taking 
 
 103 
 
bob] 
 
 ^ ^cto WinittrStd 33t0grsp!)g. 
 
 [BOI 
 
 off his liat before the royal family in the 
 Temple, while in charge of them. lie was 
 repeatedly arrested, imprisoned, and nar- 
 rowly escaped the guillotine, in consequence 
 of charges by his democratical colleagues. 
 
 liOECE, or BOE'LUIIUS, Hector, a 
 Scotch writer of the lOtli century, remark- 
 able alike for his great learning and too 
 easy credulity ; author of the " History of 
 Scotland," &c. Born, 14(53 ; died, 1530, 
 
 BOEUM, or BCEHMEN, Jacob, a German 
 visionary, whose works on religious subjects 
 had many admirers, and caused much dis- 
 putation. Born, 1575 ; died, 1G24. 
 
 BOEHM, William Anthoxv, a learned 
 German divine, and chaplain to prince 
 George of Denmark. Born, 1(J73; died, 1732. 
 
 BOEHMER, G. G., a professor at Got- 
 tingen, born in 1701. Always a liberal, and 
 attached to the French party, he edited an 
 independent journal in 1791. He congra- 
 tulated the irench republic on its union 
 with Belgium in 179(5, and was complimented 
 with a seat in the convention. He was sub- 
 sequently persecuted by the anti-French 
 party, and imprisoned at Ehrenbreitstein and 
 Erfurt. He was author of a " Memoir to 
 demonstrate tlie Rhine as the Natural Boun- 
 dary of France," &c., and many political 
 German works. 
 
 BOERUAAVE, Hermax, one of the most 
 eminent physicians of modern times, born 
 at Woornout, near Leyden. His knowledge 
 as an anatomist, chemist, and botanist, as 
 well as in the causes, nature, and treatment 
 of diseases, was unrivalled ; and his fame 
 was spread over the world. Peter the Great 
 visited him on his travels ; and a Chinese 
 mandarin wrote to him with this address, 
 " To Bocrhaave, the celebrated physician of 
 Europe.' His writings are numerous, and 
 are regarded as text- books to the profession. 
 Born, 1<!G8 j died, 1738. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Maklius Tor-" 
 QFATUS Sevekinus, a Roman philosopher, 
 whose virtues, services, honours, and tragical 
 end, all combine to render his name memor- 
 able, was born, A.n. 470 ; studied at Rome 
 and Athens ; was profoundly learned ; and 
 filled the highest offices under the govern- 
 ment of Theodoric the Goth. He was long 
 the oracle of his sovereign and the idol of the 
 l)eople ; but his strict integrity and inflexible 
 justice raised up enemies in those wlio loved 
 j extortion and oppression, and lie at last fell 
 a victim to their machinations. He was 
 accused of a treasonable correspondence with 
 the court of Constantinople, and executed in 
 624. His " Consolations of Philosophy," 
 written in prison, arc replete with the loftiest 
 sentiments, clothed in the most fascinating 
 language. 
 
 BOETTCHER, John Frederic, an al- 
 chemist, who, in making vain alcliemical 
 attempts, was fortunate enough to discover 
 the mode of making the famed and valued 
 Dresden porcelain. 
 
 BOFFNAUD, Germain, a French archi- 
 tect ; author of a " Treatise on the Principles 
 of Architecture." Born, 1667 ; died, 17.55. 
 
 BOGAN, Zachary, an English divine ; 
 author of" A Help to Prayer," additions to 
 Rous's " Arclioeologiae Atticas," &c. Bom, 
 1625 ; died, 1659. 
 
 BOGDANOVITSCH, HiPPOLYTrs Tiieo- 
 DOKOViTSCH, a Russian of distinguished 
 literary talents ; the editor of the St. Peters- 
 burg Courier, and author of " Douschenka," 
 a romantic poem ; " Historical Picture of 
 Russia," &c. He filled various official situa- 
 tions under the government of Catharine, 
 and was also employed as a diplomatist. 
 Born, 1743 ; died, 1803. 
 
 BOGORIS, the first Christian king of 
 Bulgaria ; converted by his sister, who had 
 been taken prisoner by the troops of Theodo- 
 sia, and was restored to him by that empress. 
 
 BOGUE, David, a dissenting minister of 
 very considerable acquirements ; pastor of a 
 congregation at Gosport, Hants, where he 
 also kept an establishment for the education 
 of young men destined for the Christian 
 ministry, in connection with the Independ- 
 ents. He is considered as the father of the 
 London Missionary Society, and he also 
 contributed greatly to the formation of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society. He 
 wrote an " Essay on the Divine Authority 
 of the New Testament," a " History of the 
 Dissenters," &c. Born, 1749 ; died, 182.5. 
 
 BOHE.MOND, the first prince of Antioch. 
 He took Antioch in lODS, and subsequently 
 took Laodicea. Died, 1111. 
 
 BOHN, Joiix, a German physician ; au- 
 thor of a " Treatise on the Duties of a Phy- 
 sician," &c. Bom, 1G40 ; died, 1719. 
 
 BOHUN, Edmund, a political writer of 
 note in the reigns of James II. and William 
 II. i author of a " Defence of King Charles 
 II.'s Declaration," a " Geographical Dic- 
 tionary," " Life of Bishop Jewell," &c. He 
 was living at the accession of queen Anne ; 
 but the exact date of his death is uncertain. 
 
 BOIARDO, Matteo Maria, count of 
 Scandiano and governor of Reggio ; author 
 of '' Orlando Innamorato," of which Arios- 
 to's Orlando Furioso is a sequel ; and other 
 poems. Born, 1434 ; died, 1494. 
 
 BOICHOT, Jean, a distinguished French 
 sculptor ; born in 1738, died in 1814. The 
 " Colossal Group of Saint Michael " and the 
 " Sitting Hercules " are among his best 
 works. The bas-reliefs of the rivers on the 
 Triumphal Arch of the Carousal are his. 
 
 BOIELDIEU, Adrien, a celebrated 
 French musical composer, born in 1775 ; au- 
 thor of numerous well-known operas ; " Le 
 Calife de Bagdad," "Jean de Paris," &c. 
 ji" Tclemaque " is thouglit his chcf-d'ceuvre. 
 tlis style is characterised by a sweet and 
 natural melody, much imaginative gaiety, 
 and simple but pleasing accompaniments. 
 
 BOIGNE, Count, a French soldier of 
 fortune, was born at Chamberry, in 17.51. 
 When 17 years old, he entered the French 
 army, which he quitted for the Russian ser- 
 vice in about 5 years, and was taken prisoner 
 at the siege of Tcnedos. After being released 
 he left Russia, and in 1778 went into the 
 service of tlie East India Company ; but 
 fancying himself neglected, he offered him- 
 self to tlie notice of Mahajee Scindiah, the 
 celebrated prince of the Mahrattas, to whom 
 he was of the greatest use during his cam- 
 paigns, and who loaded him with honours 
 and riches. Having remitted his vast fortune 
 to England, and wishing to return to Europe 
 for the sake of liis liealth, he left India in 
 
BOl] 
 
 ^ fitbi Hnibcr^al Ma^tipf^iu 
 
 [bol 
 
 1795, and settled at Chamberry, wlierc he 
 did much good with his money in applying 
 it to benevolent and patriotic purposed. 
 Died in 18a0. 
 
 BOILEAU, Giles, a French writer ; au- 
 thor of a translation of Epictetus, &c. Born, 
 1631 ; died, ICGlt. 
 
 BOILEAU, James, brother of the above, 
 doctor of the Sorbonnc ; author of some 
 learned works on ecclesiastical history. 
 Born, 10.3.5 ; died, 171C. 
 
 BOILEAU, John JAMES,a French divine ; 
 author of " Letters on Morality and Devo- 
 tion," &c. Died, 1735. 
 
 BOILEAU, Nicholas, sieur des Preaux, 
 a celebrated French poet, satirist, and critic ; 
 enjoying a reputation in France very similar 
 to that of Pope in England. Born, ICSG ; 
 died, 1711. 
 
 BOILLY, N., an agreeable and productive 
 French painter, born in 17C8. His most 
 celebrated pieces are " The Arrival of the 
 Diligence," " The Departure of the Con- 
 scripts," and " Interior of M. Isabeau's 
 Atelier." 
 
 BOINVILLE, De. was born of a noble 
 family, at Strasburg, in 1770. He quitted a 
 lucrative office, and joined the French re- 
 publican party in 1791. lie then came to 
 England with La Fayette, as aide-de-camp. 
 He married an English lady of great talent 
 and beauty, accepted a command under 
 Napoleon, and perished in the retreat from 
 Moscow. 
 
 BOIS, John du, a French monk, who 
 served in the army of Henry III. On the 
 death of Henry IV. he accused the Jesuits 
 of having caused the assassination of that 
 prince. For tliis accusation he was con- 
 fined in the castle of St. Angelo, at Rome, 
 where he died, 102(3. 
 
 BOISROBERT, Francis le Metel de, a 
 French abbot, celebrated for his wit, and 
 patronised by Richelieu. His poems, plays, 
 tales, &c. are numerous. Died, 10(52. 
 
 BOISSARD, John James, a French an- 
 tiquary ; author of " Theatrum Vitae Hu- 
 manae," &c. Died, 1G02. 
 
 BOISSAT, Peter de, an eccentric French- 
 man ; at first a priest, then a soldier, and at 
 last a pilgrim ; author of " li'IIistoire No- 
 gropontique, ou les Amours d' Alexandre 
 Castriot." Died, 1062. 
 
 BOISSY D'ANGLAS, Francis An- 
 thony, Count de, a distinguished French 
 senator and literary character, and a man 
 who throughout the revolutionary frenzy 
 constantly displayed great firmness and a 
 disinterested love of liberty. By Napoleon 
 he was made a senator and commander of 
 the Legion of Honour; and in 1814 Louis 
 XVIII. created him a peer ; but he was, 
 for a time only, deprived of his title, in con- 
 sequence of his recognition of the emperor 
 on his return from Elba. His writings are 
 on various subjects: among them are "The 
 Literary and Political Studies of an Old 
 Man," an "Essay on the Life of Male- 
 sherbes," &c. Born, 17.')6 ; died, 1826. 
 
 BOISTE, P. C. v., a French lexicographer, 
 born in 1763 ; author of several valuable dic- 
 tionaries. The name Buonaparte following 
 the article " Spoliateur," in his "Diction- 
 naire Universel," he was compelled by the 
 
 police to substitute Frederic the Great for 
 the former. 
 
 BOIZOT, Louis Simon, born in 1743 ; a 
 French painter and sculptor, but more dis- 
 tinguished as the latter. The " Victory of 
 the Fountain of the Place du Chatelet is 
 his chefd'cKUvre. 
 
 BOL, Ferdinand, a Dutch historical and 
 portrait painter, pupil of Rembrandt. Born, 
 1611; died, 1081. 
 
 BOLANGER, John, an historical painter, 
 pupil of Guido. Died, 1(360. 
 
 BOLD, Samuel, an English divine and 
 controversial writer ; author of a " Plea for 
 Moderation towards DissentcrB," &c. Died, 
 1737. 
 
 BOLDONIC, C, an Italian writer, bom 
 in 1768 ; author of "La Constituzione 
 Francese " (published in 1792), whicli con- 
 tributed to diffuse the renovated seeds of 
 freedom over Italy at that epoch. 
 
 B(.)LESLAUS I., became duke of Poland 
 in 988 ; had his dukedom raised to a king- 
 dom by the emperor Olho III., and made 
 Moravia tributary to his kingdom. Died, 
 1028. 
 
 BOLESLAUS IL, king of Poland, son 
 and successor of Casimir I. The severity 
 with wliich he treated his subjects ou occa- 
 sion of a revolt, chiefly caused by his long 
 absence in Russia, and the consequent in- 
 fidelity of the wives of his soldiers, he was 
 abandoned by his subjects, and died in 
 Hungary alwut 1080. 
 
 BOLEYN, Anne, the daughter of Sir 
 Thomas Boleyn, and one of the maids of 
 honour to queen Catharine, whom Henry 
 VIII. divorced. She then became the wire 
 of Henry, and mother of queen Elizabeth ; 
 but was put to death by her hu^tband for 
 alleged infidelity to his bed. Born, 15<17 ; 
 beheaded, l.">;50. 
 
 BOLINGBUOKE, Henry St. John, 
 Viscount, a distinguished statesman and po- 
 litical writer, was born at Battersea, in 1672, 
 and completed his studies at Oxford. He 
 entered parliament in 1700, became secre- 
 tary at war in 1704 ; resigned his oflfice in 
 1707 ; again formed part of the ministry in 
 1710, and concluded the peace of Utrecht. 
 Two years after this he was created Viscount 
 Bolingbroke ; but, being dissatisfied that he 
 had not been raised to an earldom, he 
 quarrelled with his colleagues, became a 
 prey to the impetuosity of his passions, and 
 exhibited a versatility of conduct that has 
 rendered his patriotism and political honesty 
 open to suspicion. The Whigs having pained 
 the ascendancy on the accession of George I., 
 preparations were made for the impeach- 
 ment of Bolingbroke, who accordingly fled 
 to France, and being invited to Lorraine by 
 Charles Stuart, the Frelender, he became his 
 secretary of state. For this he was impeached 
 and attainted ; and it was not till 1723 that 
 he was allowed to return to England. His 
 estates were restored to him in 1725, but his 
 seat in the House of Lords was still denied 
 him : this raised his indignation ; and he 
 exerted all his talents against the ministry, 
 till at length the overtlirow of Sir Robert 
 Walpole was effected. In 1735 he again 
 withdrew to France, where he remained till 
 the death of his father ; after which event he 
 
 105 
 
BOL 
 
 ^ 0tf3i mnt&er^al Ma^apl)}), 
 
 [bol. 
 
 settled at Battersea, and died in 1751, after 
 a long and painful disease, in his 80th year. 
 He was the intimate friend of Pope, and 
 furnished him with many useful hints ; 
 while his own writings rank among the 
 most eloquent and vigorous in the English 
 language ; but it is to be deplored that he 
 ma.ie tliem the vehicle of many revolting 
 attacks on Christianity. He was ambitious, 
 proud, and passionate ; yet capable of in- 
 spiring the warmest friendship, or becoming 
 a most implacable enemy. 
 
 BOLIVAR, SiMOx, the celebrated Liber- 
 ator of South America, and the most dis- 
 tinguished military commander that has yet 
 appeared there, was born of noble parents 
 in the city of Caraccas, in 1783. Having 
 acquired the elements of a liberal education 
 at home, he was sent to Madrid to complete 
 liis studies ; and afterwards visited Paris, 
 where he formed an acquaintance with se- 
 veral distinguished men. He then made 
 the tour of Southern Eui'ope, again visited 
 the Spanish capital, and married the young 
 and beautiful daughter of the Marquis de 
 Ustariz del Cro ; but soon after his return 
 to his native land, whither she accompanied 
 him, his youthful bride fell a victim to the 
 yellow fever ; and he once more visited 
 Europe as a relief to his sorrow for one so 
 fervently beloved. On returning to South 
 America, in 1810, he pledged himself to tlie 
 cause of independence, and commenced his 
 military career at "Venezuela, as a colonel in 
 the service of the newly founded republic. 
 Soon after tliis he was associated with Don 
 Louis Lopez Mendez, for the purpose of 
 communicating intelligence of the change of 
 government to Great Britain. In 1811 he 
 served under Miranda, and'liad the command 
 of Puerto Cabello ; but the Spanish prisoners 
 having risen and seized the fort, he was ob- 
 liged to quit the town and proceed to Ca- 
 raccas. At length Miranda was compelled 
 to submit to Monte verde, the royalist general ; 
 and Bolivar, entering the service of the pa- 
 triots of New Grenada, soon had another 
 opportunity of assisting his old friends the 
 Venezuelans. For a while he was successful, 
 but reverses followed ; and when, in 1815, 
 the Spanish forces under Morillo arrived, 
 he threw himself into Carthagena, and sub- 
 sequently retreated to St. Domingo. The 
 spirit of resistance was, however, by no 
 means extinguished : he found new means 
 to leatl his countrymen to victory ; and after 
 many desperate conflicts the independence 
 of Columbia was sealed, and Bolivar was 
 chosen president of the republic, in 1821. 
 His renown was now at its height, and 
 every act of his government showed how 
 zealously alive he was to the improvement 
 of the national institutions and the moral 
 elevation of the people over whom he ruled. 
 In 1823 he went to the assistance of the 
 Peruvians, and having succeeded in settling 
 their internal divisions, and establishing 
 their independence, he was proclaimed Li- 
 berator of Peru, and invested with supreme 
 authority. In 1825 he visited Upper Peru, 
 which detached itself from the government 
 of Buenos Ayres, and was formed into a 
 new republic, named Bolivia, in honour of 
 the liberator ; but domestic factions sprung 
 
 up, the purity of his motives wa8 called in 
 question, and he was charged with aiming 
 at a perpetual dictatorship ; he accordingly 
 declared his determination to resign his 
 power as soon as his numerous enemies 
 were overcome, and to repel the imputa- 
 tions of ambition cast upon him, by retiring 
 to seclusion upon his patrimonial estate. 
 The vice-president, Santander, urged him, 
 in reply, to resume his station as constitu- 
 tional president ; and though he was beset 
 by the jealousy and distrust of rival fac- 
 tions, he continued to exercise the chief 
 authority in Columbia till May, 1830, when, 
 dissatisfied with the aspect of interaal atfairs, 
 he resigned tlie presidency, and expresst^d a 
 determination to leave the country. The 
 people ere long became sensible of their 
 injustice to his merit, and were soliciting 
 him to resume the government, when his 
 death, which happened in December, ISSO, 
 prevented the accomplishment of their 
 wishes. In person he was thin, and some- 
 what below the middle size, but capable of 
 great endurance ; his complexion sallow, 
 and his eyes dark and penetrating. His 
 intellect was of the highest order, and his 
 general cliaracter of that ardent, lofty cast, 
 which is so well calculated to take the lead 
 among a people emerging from the yoke of 
 tyrannv. 
 
 BOLLAND, Sir WiLLiASf, one of the 
 barons of the Exchequer, was born in 1773, 
 and received his education at Heading school, 
 under Dr. Valpy, and at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 
 1801 ; admitted one of the four common 
 pleaders of the city of London in 1804 ; and 
 in 1817 he was elected recorder of Reading, 
 .wliich office he held until appointed a baron 
 of the Exche(iuer in 1829. He was a member 
 and one of the originators of the Roxburghe 
 Club, and is often mentioned by Dr. Dibdin 
 among the most ardent admirers of the lite- 
 rature of the olden times. Benevolence, 
 suavity of manner, and honourable principle, 
 distinguished his career both in public and 
 private life. Died, May 1840. 
 
 BOLL^VNDUS, John, a learned Flemish 
 Jesuit ; one of the compilers of the " Acta 
 Sanctorum." Died, 1GC5. 
 
 BOLOGNESE, Francisco, the assumed 
 name of Francis Grimaldi, an excellent 
 landscape painter, pupil of Annibal Caracci. 
 Died, lt;80. 
 
 BOLSEC, Jerome, a Carmelite friar of 
 Paris. He became for a time a Protestant, 
 but again returned to the Romish ftiitli, and 
 marked his zeal against Protestantism by 
 bitter untruths in his lives of Calviu and 
 Tlieodore Beza. Died, 1582. 
 
 BOLS WERT, Scheldt, an engraver of the 
 17th century, a native of Friesland, but who 
 passed most of his life in Antwerp ; distin- 
 guished for the excellence of his engravings 
 from Rubens and Vandyck. 
 
 BOLTON Edmund, an English antiquary 
 of the 17th century ; author of " Elements 
 of Armories," "Nero Cajsar, or Monarchic 
 depraved," &c. 
 
 BOLTON, Robert, a puritan divine ; 
 author of a "Treatise on Happiness," &c. 
 Born, 1571 ; died, 1631. 
 
 BOLTON, Robert, dean of Carlisle j 
 
bol] 
 
 ^ |}flD Slittijcr^al JStnjjrajpl^l'. 
 
 [bon 
 
 author of an " Essay on the Employment of 
 Time," &c. Died, 1703. 
 
 BOLTS, William, an English merchant, 
 of Dutch extraction, born in 1740. lie was 
 invested with hij^h employ in the East India 
 Company's service, and realised a large 
 fortune in India ; but being accused of a 
 design to subvert the Indian government, he 
 wivs arrested, sent to England, imprisoned, 
 and subjected to a seven years' process, which 
 dissipated his large fortune. lie died at 
 last in a jworhouse. lie left a work "On 
 Bengal " and " Considerations on the Affairs 
 of India." 
 
 BOLZAXI, Ukbaxo Valehiano, a learn- 
 ed monk, teacher of Greek at Venice, and 
 the first who wrote a grammar of that lan- 
 guage in Latin. Died, 1524. 
 
 BOMBELLI. Raphael, a celebrated al- 
 gebraist of tlie 16th century, and the first 
 who invented a uniform method of working 
 equations. 
 
 BOMBELLI, Sebastian, an eminent 
 Bolognese historical and portrait painter. 
 Bom, mir^ ; died, 1(»,5. 
 
 BOMBERG, Daniel, a Dutch printer; 
 whose Bible and Talmud are liighly valued, 
 Died, 1.549. 
 
 BOMPART, J. B., a French vice-admiral, 
 born in 17.57 ; brought into notice by his 
 fighting a British frigate of 44 guns, with liis 
 ship, tlie Ambuscade, ao guns, off New York. 
 His ship was taken, and himself made pri- 
 soner, during the exi^edition to Ireland in 
 1708. He always retained his steady repub- 
 lican feelings during Buonaparte's imperial 
 ascendancy, and even during the Hundred 
 Days. Died 1H21. 
 
 BON, L. A., born in 1770 ; one of the most 
 distinguished of the French revolutionary 
 generals ; first in America, next in Italy, 
 and lastly in Egypt ; where he took posses- 
 sion of Suez in 1798. He fell at the siege of 
 Acre in 1799. 
 
 BON AMY, General, born in 1764 ; one of 
 the conquerors of Naples in 1789. In charg- 
 ing the principal redoubt at Moscow, he re- 
 ceived twenty bayonet wounds, and was left 
 in the hands of the Russians. He returned 
 to France in 1814. 
 
 BONAMY, Peter Nicholas, a French 
 ecclesiastic ; historiographer of Paris, li- 
 brarian of St. Victor, and conductor of the 
 journal of Verdun, a clever periodical work. 
 He also contributed largely to the Memoirs 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions. Bom, 1G94 ; 
 died, 1770. 
 
 BONANNI PniLiP, a learned Jesuit of 
 Rome ; author of a " History of the Church 
 of the Vatican," " Collection of the Medals 
 of the Popes," &c. Died, 1725. 
 
 BONARELLI, Guy Ubaldo, an Italian 
 poet ; author of " Filli di Sciro," &c. Born, 
 UM ; died, 1C08. 
 
 BONASONI, GiuLio, a Bolognese painter 
 and engraver of the lOth century. In the 
 latter capacity he especially excelled ; and 
 he engraved many of the chef-d'ceuvres of 
 Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, &c. in a style of 
 great beauty. 
 
 BONAVENTURE, John Fidanza, gene- 
 ral of the order of Franciscans, whose re- 
 putation for probity and wisdom caused the 
 cardinals to leave to him the noniiuation 
 
 of a successor to Clement IV. He named 
 Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, who became 
 pope, with the title of Gregory X., and made 
 Bonaventure a cardinal. He died 1274 ; and 
 was canonised, 1482. 
 
 BONAVENTURE, of Padua, made car- 
 dinal by Urban VI. in 1378 ; a friend of Pe- 
 trarch, and author of several religious pieces. 
 Assassinated, 138<). 
 
 BONCERF, P. F., bora in 174.? ; author of 
 the famous pamphlet, "I.«s Inconvi^niens 
 de« Droits Feodaux," while secretary to I 
 Turgot. Condemned to be burnt, it became 
 the basis of the fundamental decrees of the 
 constituent assembly of 1789. Having been 
 in the service of Egalit(5, he narrowly escaped 
 the guillotine by one vote, on the fall of his 
 patron, and died from the shock he then 
 sustained. 
 
 BONCHAMP, Arthur pe, a celebrated 
 general of the Vendean royalists, and who 
 had served with distinction as an officer in 
 the American war. In him humanity was 
 not less conspicuous than valour, as the last 
 act of his life amply testified ; for it was to 
 his interference that 5000 prisoners, whom 
 the exasperated royalists had taken, were 
 saved from instant death. He was mortally 
 wounded in the battle of Chollet, 1703. 
 
 BOND, Jon.v, an English physician; au- 
 thor of critical notes on Horace, Pcrsius, and 
 other classics. Died, IGIS. 
 
 BOND, Oliver, Iwrn in 1720 : a famons 
 Irish associate with Nai>per Tandy and 
 Theodore Wolfe Tone, in the Irish rebellion 
 of 1797-8. He was arrested in 1798 ; terms 
 were made with government to send him 
 to America ; but he vraa found dead in 
 prison. 
 
 BONDI, Clement, the poetical Delille of 
 the Italians ; author of the " Conversa- 
 zione," which resembles Cowper's Task ; 
 " The iEneid," translated in versi sciolti, &c. 
 Died, 1816. 
 
 BONE, Henry, an eminent artist, cele- 
 brated for Ills skill in enamel painting, was 
 born at Truro, in 1755. On coming to 
 London, he was for many years engaged in 
 that branch of the art which consists in 
 painting devices in enamel for jewellery ; 
 .but he subsequently attained the highest 
 exoelleuce as a miniature portrait painter 
 on ivory and in enamel. Continuing to rise 
 in public estimation, Mr. Bone carried his 
 art to the utmost perfection, increasing the 
 size of his plates beyond anything which had 
 before been attempted, and executing in 
 enamel several copies of pictures bj- the first 
 masters ; one of which, Titian's " Bacchus 
 and Ariadne," he painted on a plate 18 
 inches by 10, and sold it to the late G. 
 Bowles, esq., of Wanstead, for 2200 guineas. 
 Among his most munificent patrons was the 
 Duke of Bedford, who possesses some of the 
 most exquisite of his works, including a 
 series of portraits of the Russell family from 
 the reign of Henry VIII. to the present time. 
 He closed a long life of persevering industry 
 and integrity, in December, 1834. 
 
 BONEFACIO, Vexetiano, an Italian 
 painter of eminence. Died, 1030. 
 
 BONER, Ulkicu, the most ancient Ger- 
 man fabulist, was a Dominican friar of 
 Berne, in the 14th century. He published 
 
bon] 
 
 ^ ^cfio SJiubcr^aT MaQV*iV>^)U' 
 
 [boo 
 
 his fables under the title of " Der Edelstcin " 
 (Tlie Gem). 
 
 BONIFACE, St., whose name was Wil- 
 frid, a saint of the Romish calendar, was a 
 native of England, and made archbishop by 
 Henry III. He travelled through many 
 parts of Germany, of wliicli country he was 
 called the apostle ; and after reclaiming 
 many from paganism, he was slain by some 
 peasants in Friesland, in 754. 
 
 BONIFACE, tlie name assumed by nine 
 popes ; but the lives of whom present no- 
 tliing worthy of particular notice. 
 
 BONIFACE, count of tlie Roman empire 
 in tlie .5th century, and an intimate friend 
 of St. Augustin, at whose desire he devoted 
 himself to public afl'airs. He was slain in 
 a desperate contest witli Aetius, in 432. 
 
 BONIFACIO, BALTiiAZAn, a learned 
 Venetian, bishop of Capo d'Istria ; author 
 of " llistoria Ludicia," Latin poems, &c. 
 Died, l(;r.9. 
 
 BONJOUR, WiiXTAM, a French monk, 
 and missionary to China ; autlior of " Dis- 
 sertations on the Scripture," &c. Died, 1714. 
 
 BONNAIRE, J. G., a French general, 
 born in 1771 ; tried for firing on Col. Gordon ; 
 sent by the king to summon Condc, in ISl.") ; 
 and condemned to degradation and exile in 
 1816, of which sentence he died, broken- 
 hearted. 
 
 BONNEFONS, Joiix, a French writer 
 of Latin poems ; which are printed with 
 those of Beza, in Barbau's edition of 1757. 
 Born, 15.H ; died, 1614. 
 
 BONNELL, James, accomptant-general 
 of Ireland in the reign of James II. ; re- 
 markable for his firmness and integrity in 
 the discharge of his public duty in a trou- 
 blesome and perilous time. Some "Me- 
 ditations" of Ids, printed with his Life, 
 written by Archdeacon Hamilton, show him 
 to have been a man of considerable intel- 
 lect. Bom, 16.5.3 ; died, 1690. 
 
 BONNER, Edmuxd, an English prelate, 
 notorious for his persecution of the Protest- 
 ants during the reign of queen Mary. On 
 the accession of queen Elizalwth, he refused 
 to take the oath of supremacy, and was com- 
 mitted to the Marshalsea, where he remained 
 nearly ten years, and where he died, 1.569. 
 
 BONNET, CiiAULES, a distinguished natu- 
 ralist of Geneva ; author of " Insectology," 
 " Essay on Physiology," " Considerations on 
 Organised Bodies," &c. Born, 1720 ; died, 
 1793. 
 
 BONNEVAL, Claudius Alexander, 
 Count of. a French adventurer, son-in-law of 
 Marshal Biron. After serving under Prince 
 Eugene against the Turks, resentment at 
 having been imprisoned for challenging the 
 prince caused him to go over to the Turks, 
 and become a Mussulman. His services were 
 highly valued by the grand seignior, who 
 gave him the title of Achmet Pacha, and 
 raised him from rank to rank, till he became 
 master of the ordnance, in which office he 
 died in 1747. 
 
 BONNE VIE, Abbe, bom in 1764 ; a great 
 preacher of funeral orations over the Buona- 
 parte family and Buonapartists ; and equally 
 zealous in preaching funeral orations lor the 
 Bourbons, after their fall. " Is the abbiS as 
 virulent against the tyrant as ever ? " asked 
 
 Napoleon, in passing his cur(?, on returning 
 from Elba. But the abb^ had disappeared. 
 
 BONNEVILLE, N., a poet of the French 
 revolution, born in 1760 : he was the friend 
 of Condorcet, La Fayette, and Paine ; and 
 was with Kosciusko when he fell. Though 
 denounced by Marat, in the National Con- 
 vention, as an aristocrat, he was so far from 
 being an ultra in his views as to denounce 
 Buonaparte (on his becoming emperor) as the 
 Cromwell of France, when the latter sup- 
 pressed his periodical, the " Bien Informi'." 
 Among liis works are, " Theatre Allemand," 
 " Pol'sies Republicaines." " Nouveau Code 
 Conjugal," " Esprit des Religions," &c. 
 
 BONNIER, A. E., a French republican, 
 born in 1750. He was sent as plenipotentiary 
 to a " conference " with Prince Metternich, 
 in 1799, at Rastadt ; but the negotiation was 
 broken off by Austria, and Bonnier was mur- 
 dered between that town and Strasburg, and 
 his papers taken away. Bonnier's seat in 
 the Council of Ancients was for two years 
 after covered with crape, as a testimony of 
 respect. 
 
 BONNINGTON, Riciiakd Parkes, a 
 British artist of great merit and of singular 
 precocity. At 3 years old he could sketch 
 most of the objects he saw, and at 15 was ad- 
 mitted to draw in the Louvre at Paris. After 
 visiting Italy he brought back many able 
 specimens of his works, and finished a suc- 
 cessful, though brief, career at the age of 27, 
 in 1828. 
 
 BONNYCASTLE, Joiix, professor of ma- 
 thematics at the Royal Military Academy, 
 Woolwich ; author of "The Scholar's Guide 
 to Arithmetic," "The Elements of Geo- 
 metrv," " A Treatise upon Astronomy," &c. 
 Died" 1821. 
 
 BONOMI, JosErn, an Italian architect of 
 considerable taste and genius ; from whose 
 design the Roman Catholic chapel near 
 Manchester Square was erected. Died, 1808. 
 
 BONTEMPI, Giovanni An'drea Angk- 
 LINI, an Italian musician of the 17th cen- 
 tury ; author of " Nova quatuor Vocibus 
 componendi Methodus," &c. 
 
 BOOKER, the Rev. Luke, LL.D., a 
 clergyman of the Church of England, distin- 
 guished for his literary acquirements, was 
 born at Nottingham, in 1762 ; took holy 
 orders in 1785 ; and eventually became the 
 vioar of Dudley. Dr. Booker was the author 
 of many excellent works, viz. " Poems " on 
 various occasions ; " Christian Intrepidity," 
 " Calista, or the Picture of Modern Life," 
 "Euthanasia, the State of Man after Death," 
 "Discourses and Dissertations," 2 vols. ; and 
 a variety of others. He was a fearless anta- 
 gonist of infidelity, and a powerful defender 
 of the Church against Unitarian or Papal 
 aggressors. Died, October, 1835. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, one of the first ad- 
 venturers who penetrated into the wilds of 
 Kentucky, was born in Virginia, and from 
 his earliest infancy addicted to hunting in 
 the woods. In 1769 he first set out, in com- 
 pany with a few friends ; and after numerous 
 perils and adventures, he founded Boones- 
 borough, the earliest settlement in Kentucky, 
 now a flourishing town, though at that time 
 a wilderness. He was subsequently taken 
 prisoner by the Indians, but escaped ; and, 
 
 108 
 
boo] 
 
 ^ ^m mnfberigal 28t0iiT«P^l!. 
 
 [bor 
 
 being joined by other adventurers, was en- 
 abled to repulse them ou several occasions, 
 though neitlier art nor treachery were left 
 unemployed to take him. At length, in 1798, 
 he removed to Upper Louisiana, where he 
 received a grant from the Spanish authorities 
 of 2000 acres of land for himself, and 8iX) 
 acres for each of his children, friends, and 
 followers. He then settled witli tliem on the 
 Missouri river, at Charettc, some distance 
 beyond the inhabited parts of the country, 
 where he followed his usual course of life — 
 hunting and trapping for bears — until Sept. 
 1822, wlien he died, aged 84. 
 
 BOOTH, Baktox, a celebrated actor in 
 the reigns of queen Anne and George I. ; 
 translator of several of the odes of Horace, 
 and author of" Dido and Eneas," a masque, 
 &c. Born, 1G81 ; died, 1733, 
 
 BOOTH, Sir Fkli.\, bart., an eminent 
 London merchant, who, for his munificent 
 donation of 20,OOOZ. for promoting the arctic 
 expedition under Sir John Ross, was raised 
 to a baronetcy, and had his name affixed to 
 the country called Boothia Felix. Died, 1850. 
 
 BOOTH, Gkokoe, baron Delamere, a 
 zealous partizan of Charles II. Being de- 
 feated by the parliamentary general, Lam- 
 bert, he was confined in the Tower until the 
 death of Cromwell. He then obtained his 
 liberty, and was one of the twelve delegates 
 sent to tlie new king. It was on this occasion 
 that he obtained his title, and a present of 
 10,(KK);. Died, l(iS4. 
 
 BOOTH, Henry, earl of Warrington, son 
 of the above. Having been among those 
 who voted for the exclusion of the Duke of 
 York, when that ixjrsonage became king, he 
 was committed to the Tower, and was tried 
 for high treason, but acquitted, in spite of 
 the efforts of the infamous Jeffreys. On the 
 accession of William III., he was made a 
 privy councillor and chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer. His efforts to limit the prerogative, 
 however, caused him to fall into disgrace ; 
 but he was allowed to retire from office with 
 a pension, and the title of earl of Warring- 
 ton. Died, 1C94. 
 
 BORDA, JoHK Chahlks, a French ma- 
 thematician and astronomer ; author of a 
 "Dissertation on the Construction of Hy- 
 draulic Machinery," a " Narrative of a 
 Voyage to the South Sea," &c. He invented 
 the reflecting circle, and made several im- 
 provements in hydraulics. Born, 1733 ; died, 
 1799. 
 
 BORDE, Andrew, an English physician ; 
 author of " The MeiTie Tales of the Madman 
 of Gotham," and several other quaint works. 
 Died, ir.39. 
 
 BORDE, Joun Benjamin de la, a French 
 miscellaneous writer ; author of " Adcla de 
 Ponthieu," "Essais sur la Musique, An- 
 cienne et Moderne," " Mumoires de Courcy," 
 &c. He was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 BORDEN, TiiEOPiiiLijs de, a French 
 physician ; author of " Recherches sur 
 quelques Tointes de I'Uistoire de la Mede- 
 cine," &c. Died, 1776. 
 
 bORDELON, Laurence, a voluminous 
 French writer ; author of " Dialogues for 
 the Living," " Curious Varieties," several 
 dramatic pieces, &c. Bom, 1653 ; died, 1730. 
 
 BORELLI, Joux Alphonso, an Italian 
 
 philosopher and mathematician ; remem- 
 bered chiefly for Iwing the first who applied 
 mathematical calculation aud mechanical 
 principles to account for the action of the 
 muscles. Born, l(;o8 ; died, 1679. 
 
 BORGHESE, Makia Pauline, Princess, 
 the beautiful sister of Napoleon Buonaparte, 
 was born at Ajaccio, in 1780. Her first 
 husband was General Leclerc, witli whom 
 she went to St. Domingo, but who dying in 
 1802, she became, in tlie following year, the 
 wife of the Prince Camillo Borghese. Na- 
 poleon was much attached to lier ; and that 
 her love for him was equally sincere, was 
 manifest on many striking occasions, though 
 she frequently disputed with him, and re- 
 fused to follow the caprices of his policy. 
 When Napoleon resigne<l his crown in 1814, 
 and retired to Elba, Pauline left her palace 
 in Rome, and followed him to his place of 
 exile. She lived afterwards, separated from 
 her husband, at Rome, and her house was 
 the centre of the most spleiidid society. 
 When she heard of her brother's illness at 
 St. Helena, she repeatedly requested per- 
 mission to go to him : at lengtli her request 
 was granted, and she was just about to 
 depart, when the news of his death reached 
 her. Died, 1825. 
 
 BORGIA, C^SAR, son of Cardinal Rodrigo, 
 afterwards poi)e Alexander VI. He was at 
 first devoted to the Church, and became a 
 cardinal, but more ambitious prospects for 
 him caused his father to secularise him. 
 After serving in the army of Louis XII., he 
 became duke of Romagna, and extended 
 his power and possessions so greatly and 
 remorselessly, that the Italian states became 
 alarmed, and a confederacy was formed 
 against him. After opposing all eftorts 
 against him with equal skill and wicked- 
 ness, he was slain in a skirmish before the 
 castle of Viana, 1507. 
 
 BORGIA, Cardinal Stephen, was a 
 native of Velletri. He had an enthusiastic 
 love for art. It was usual with him to 
 change a valuable piece of plate for some 
 rare article to adorn his museum ; and on 
 one occasion, to purchase an Egyptian 
 mummy, he even parted with the plate 
 from his table, and the buckles from his 
 shoes. Pius VI. created him cardinal in 
 1789 ; and the succeeding pope named him 
 president of the council when the French 
 garrison evacuated Rome. He was the au- 
 thor of some works in support of the papal 
 tsmporalities. Died, at Lyons, 1804. 
 
 BORIE, Jean, one of tlie most sangui- 
 nary monsters of the French revolution, 
 and inventor of the "Farandoles." He 
 was a lawyer ; born about 1770 ; died in 
 1805, in exile. 
 
 BORLASE, William, an eminent English 
 topographer and antiquary ; author of" The 
 Antiquities, historical and monumental, of 
 the County of Cornwall f " the " Natural 
 History of Cornwall," &c. Born, 1696 ; died, 
 1772. 
 
 BORIS, Gadenow, grand-master of the 
 horse to Theodore Ivanowitz, emperor of 
 Russia. He is said to have put to death 
 both the emperor's brother and the emperor 
 himself, whom he succeeded. He governed 
 cruelly and tyranically, but died suddenly, 
 
 109 
 
bor] 
 
 ^ ^e&) WinihtxSKi SSi'OflrajpIjg. 
 
 [bos 
 
 just as Russia was invaded by a Polish 
 army, which was headed by a young monk, 
 who pretended to be Demetrius, the deceased 
 brother of Theodore, in 1605. 
 
 BOROWJLASKI, Count, the celebrated 
 Polish dwarf, who, although less than three 
 feet in height, was of perfect symmetry, and 
 attained the great age of 98. He had been 
 prevailed upon by some of the clergy of 
 Durham, who liad casually seen him when 
 on his " travels," 40 years before his death, 
 to take up his abode near that city. He 
 spoke several languages, was generally well 
 informed and witty, and his company was 
 accordingly much courted by the gentry of 
 Durham and its vicinity. Died, Sept. 1837. 
 
 BORRI, Joseph Francis, an adventurer, 
 of the 17th century, who attracted much 
 notice by his fanatical heresies in religion, 
 and by his pretensions as an alchemist and 
 physician. After a long course of bold and 
 impudent imposture, he was imprisoned, at 
 first in the prison of the Inquisition at Rome, 
 and afterwards in the castle of St. Angelo, 
 where lie died, 1695. 
 
 BORROMEO, CuAELES, a cardinal ; au- 
 thor of a vast number of moral and doc- 
 trinal treatises. Died, 1594 ; and was ca- 
 nonised sixteen years after by Paul V. 
 
 BORROMEO, Frederic, a cousin-ger- 
 man of the above, archbishop of Milan, and 
 also a cardinal ; author of " Sacri Ragion- 
 amenti," " Ragionamenti Spirituali," &c. 
 Died, 1632. 
 
 BORRONI, Paul Michael Bexedict, a 
 painter, who imitated the style of Correggio, 
 and had muchoftlie taste of Michael An- 
 gelo. Pius VI. made him a knight of the 
 golden spur, and the king of Sardinia 
 granted him a pension. He died at Voghera, 
 in 1819. 
 
 BORRONIMI, Fraxcesco, an Italian 
 architect ; the pupil of Muderno, whom he 
 succeeded as architect of St. Peter's at 
 Rome. His best work is the college of the 
 Propaganda. Died, by his own hand, 1667. 
 
 BOS, Lambert, professor of Greek at 
 Franeker ; author of the well-known and 
 valuable work on the Greek ellipses, an 
 excellent edition of the Septuagint, with 
 prolegomena and various readings, &c. 
 Born, 1670 ; died, 1717. 
 
 BOSC, Louis Augustus William, a 
 French naturalist, and the author of several 
 agricultural and other works. He held a 
 responsible situation in the French post- 
 office ; but, in 1793, being driven from his 
 place by the Jacobins, he sought a retreat in 
 the forest of Montmorenci, where he lived 
 three years in solitude, devoting lus time to 
 the study of natural history. 
 
 BOSC, Peter du, an eminent French 
 Calvinist preacher of the 17th century ; 
 author of numerous sermons, epistles, poems, 
 &c. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
 he escaped to Holland, where he died, in 
 1692. 
 
 BOSCAN, Joux Almagayer, a Spanish 
 poet, who first introduced into Spanish the 
 hendecasyllabic verse. His works are pub- 
 lished with those of Garcilasso. Died, 1544. 
 
 BOSC A WEN, Edward, a brave and 
 highly distinguished English admiral. He 
 served under Anson in the engagement of 
 
 Cape Finisterre, and received the thanka 
 of parliament and a pension for his ex- 
 ploits while serving in the Atlantic and in 
 the Mediterranean. Born, 1711 ; died, 1761. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, William, nephew of the 
 above ; author of an " Essay on the Pro- 
 gress of Satire ; " a translation of Horace, 
 &c. Bom, 1752 ; died, 1811. 
 
 BOSCH, Berxard, a Dutch poet, bom in 
 1746; author of " Egotism " and "Bosch's 
 Poems," and co-editor of the Janua and 
 Eclair Politique. 
 
 BOSCH, Jerome, a famous Dutch bib- 
 liomanist ; born in 1740, died in 1811. Hia 
 library catalogue was remarkable for the 
 number oi princeps editions it contained. 
 
 BOSCH, L. A. G., one of the first French 
 naturalists of the age ; bom in 1759 ; pa- 
 tronised by the minister Roland. He had 
 the courage to accompany Madame Roland 
 to the foot of the scatfold. He wrote " His- 
 toire Naturelle des Coquilles," "Dlction- 
 naire d' Agriculture," &c. His brother, 
 (Stephen Bosch) also published some well 
 written works on agriculture and the occu- 
 pation of tlie poor. 
 
 BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, a Jesuit, 
 and professor of mathematics in the Roman 
 college of that order ; author of a Latin 
 poem on eclipses, &c. Born, 1711 ; died, 
 1787. 
 
 BOSSCHA, H., a Dutch poet and miscel- 
 laneous writer ; born in 1766 ; author of 
 " Belgica Libertas ," and a " History of the 
 Revolution of Holland." 
 
 BOSSI, C. A., Baron de, an eminent mo- 
 dern Italian poet, bom at Piedmont in 
 1758. He favoured the French interest on 
 the Republic's invasion of Italy, and was 
 rewarded by posts in France by Napoleon. 
 He is chiefly known by his exertions in 
 this country in favour of the Protestant 
 Vaudois. " Oromasia " is Ms chief work in 
 poetry. 
 
 BOSSU, Ren^ le, an eminent French 
 critic of the 17th century ; author of a 
 "Treatise on Epic Poetry," "Parallel of 
 the Philosophy of Descartes and of Aris- 
 totle," &c. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Bexigxe, bishop of 
 Meaux, an eminent French preacher and 
 controversial writer, contemporary with Fe- 
 nelon ; author of a " Discourse on Universal 
 History," of numerous funeral and other 
 orations of splendid excellence, an " Ex- 
 position of the Roman Catholic Faith," &c. 
 His clear-sightedness and controversial 
 power gained for him the title of the " Eagle 
 of Meaux." Born, 1627 ; died, 1704. 
 
 BOSSUT, C. A., a celebrated French ma- 
 thematician, and the friend and associate 
 of Condorcet, D'Alembert, Bailly, and La- 
 voisier. His " Traits Elementaire de M^- 
 chanique et de Dynamique," is well known. 
 Born, 1730 ; died, 1814. 
 
 BOSTON, Jonx, a monk of St. Edmonds- 
 bury, in the 15th century ; author of " Spe- 
 culum Coenobitarum," &c. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, the friend and bio- 
 grapher of Johnson, was the eldest son of 
 Lord Auchinlech, a Scotch judge. The good 
 taste of this gentleman led him to seek the 
 friendship of Dr. Johnson, of whose life he 
 has given a most interesting account, form- 
 
bos] 
 
 ^ ^e&) ^ttm'bcri^al 33t0ffraijT;ji, 
 
 [bou 
 
 ing the best specimen of faithful biograpliy 
 in the language ; and wliich has secured to 
 the biographer an extent and permanency 
 of fame which his talents, thougli far from 
 inconsiderable, could scarcely have pro- 
 cured him if exerted upon any other sub- 
 ject. Born, 1740 ; died, 3795. 
 
 BOSWELL, Sir Alexa.vdeii, eldest son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1775, and suc- 
 ceeded his fatlier in the possession of the 
 family estate. He was a literary antiquary 
 of no inconsiderable erudition, and the au- 
 thor of many popular songs and iK)etical 
 jeux d'esprit. lie inherited all the Tory 
 spirit of his father ; and some attacks on 
 the character of James Stuart, esq., having 
 appeared in the Beacon and Sentinel news- 
 papers, which were traced to Sir Alex- 
 ander, a duel took place between these 
 gentlemen, when the latter fell, mortally 
 wounded in the neck, March 20. 1822. Mr. 
 Stuart was tried for tliis offence, but honour- 
 ably acquitted. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, the second son of the 
 biographer of Johnson, was bom in 1779, 
 and educated at Westminster SchooL He 
 possessed talents of a suijerior order ; and 
 the skill with which he edited the enlarged 
 and amended edition of Maloue's Shaks- 
 peare in 21 vols., affords ample evidence of 
 his scholarship, judgment, and discrimina- 
 tion. He died in 1822, aged 43. 
 
 BOTELLO, Don Nuno Alvarez de, a 
 celebrated viceroy of India when the Por- 
 tuguese held dominion there ; and whose 
 gallantry and skill tended greatly to aug- 
 ment their Hindostan possessions. He 
 gained several victories over the Dutch, 
 and destroyed the fleet and army of the 
 Achenese which were besieging Malacca ; 
 but lost his life in 1029, by being crushed 
 between his own vessel and one of the 
 enemy's. 
 
 BOTH, Jonif and ANnnK\r, brothers, 
 two Flemish painters, born at Utrecht, in 
 the early part of the 17th century. John 
 chose for liis model the works of Claude 
 Lorraine, while Andrew studied the human 
 figure ; but tliey frequently united in the 
 same works, and their labouis harmonised 
 «o well, that their pictures could not be 
 suspected of being joint productions. 
 
 BOTHWELL, Jamks Hepbukk, Earl of, 
 the second husband of the ill-fated Mary of 
 Scotland ; and the supposed instigator, at 
 least, of the murder of her first husband, 
 Henry Darnley. Bothwell died, iu exile, 
 at Denmark, in 1577. 
 
 BOTT, JoH.v DK, a French architect. 
 Being a Protestant, he had no chance of 
 obtaining patronage in his own country, 
 and therefore entered into the service of 
 William, prince of Orange, whom he ac- 
 companied to England. On the death of 
 that prince, he went into the service of the 
 Elector of Brandenburgli, hy whom be was 
 made a major-general. Tlie fortifications 
 o( Wesel and the arsenal of Berlin are 
 among the numerous proofs of his talents. 
 Died, 1745. 
 
 BOTZARIS, Maeco, a brave and pa- 
 triotic Suliote, appointed stratarch of Wes- 
 tern Greece in 1821. He was killed in a 
 night attack on tlie Turks, 1823. 
 
 Ill 
 
 BOUCHARDON, Edmund, an emment 
 French architect ; many of whose works 
 adorn Paris, Born, 1098 ; died, 1762. 
 
 BOUCHER, Jonathan, an English di- 
 vine ; author of " The Cumberland Man," 
 &c. Died, 1804. 
 
 BOUCHER, FnAJrcis, a French painter 
 of some note, and who, but for the rapidity 
 of his execution, would probably have ar- 
 rived at great eminence, but the ease with 
 which he executed rendered him careless. 
 Bom, 1704 ; died, 1770. 
 
 BOUCHER, Luc, a Jacobin leader of the 
 Faubourg St. Antoine, who, on the 20th 
 May, 1795, forced himself into the National 
 Convention, and seizing Ferrand, one of the 
 members, beheaded him in the lobby witli 
 his own hand, and fixed his head on a pike, 
 parading it through the "Salle." He was 
 afterwards guillotined. 
 
 BOUCHOTTE, J. B., born in 1754 ; he 
 was a second lieutenant in 1775, and was 
 war minister to the French republic in 1793, 
 during its most eventful and victorious pe- 
 riod. He was denounced bj' the ultra Ja- 
 cobins, and narrowly escaped the guillotine, 
 but retired into private life. 
 
 BOUCICAULT, Marshal, count of Beau- 
 fort, a celebrated Frencli soldier of the 15th 
 century. He served against the Turks, and 
 in the Italian strife between the Guelphs 
 and Glubcllines ; and, at the battle of Agin- 
 court, was taken prisoner and brought to 
 England, wlicre he died in 1421. 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, was born at Phila- 
 delphia, in 1740; studied the law, and be- 
 came eminent in that profession ; but dur- 
 ing the American contest he was chosen a 
 member of congress, made its president in 
 1782, and after the adoption of the consti- 
 tution, he entered the house of rei>resenta- 
 tives. On retiring from public life, he de- 
 voted himself earnestly to biblical litera- 
 ture, and, being possessed of an ample for- 
 tune, made munificent donations to various 
 charitable and theological institutions, fore- 
 most among which was the American Bible 
 Society, of which he became president. He 
 died in 1821, aged 82. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, Louis FnANCis.Duke of, a 
 distinguished marshal of France. In 1708 
 he defended Lille for four months against 
 Prince Eugene, who, when he at length 
 took that place, said to the marshal, " I am 
 very proud of having taken Lille, but I 
 should be still more proud of defending it 
 as you have." Died, 1711. 
 
 BOUl'FLERS, Stanislaus, Chevalier de, 
 son of the Marchioness of Boufflers, mis- 
 tress of Stanislaus, king of Poland, born in 
 1737, was distinguished for the elegance of 
 his manners and conversation. He was 
 destined for the Churclj, but declared that 
 his love of pleasure would interfere with 
 tlie duties of this profession, and therefore 
 entered the military service. He emigrated 
 from France in 1792, to Prussia. He left 
 several works of merit, "Le Libre Arbitre," 
 &c. His character has been thus summed 
 up : " A libertine abbt' ; a military philo- 
 sopher ; a song-making diplomatist 5 au 
 emigrant republican." Died, 1815. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Jean Pierre de, a 
 French writer; author of "Philip of Ma- \ 
 
BOU] 
 
 ^ ^etu ^nibn-jSal 33tasrap]bg. 
 
 [bou 
 
 cedon, a tragedy, &c. ; and editor of Freret's 
 great work on Chronology. Born, 1722 ; 
 died, 1703. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Loins Antoine de, 
 a Frcncli officer, distinguished both in tlie 
 military and naval service. When serving 
 in Canada, under Montcalm, he displayed so 
 much bravery that he obtained the rank of 
 colonel, and subsequently became a general. 
 Under the empire he was made a senator, and 
 a member of the Institute. Bougainville 
 circumnavigated the world, and enriched the 
 science of geography by a number of new 
 discoveries. Born, 1729 ; died, 1811. 
 
 BOUGEANT, Guillaume Hyactinthe, a 
 French Jesuit ; author of " Amusement Phi- 
 losophique sur le Language dea BGtes," &c. 
 Born, ICiW ; died, 1743. 
 
 BOUGUER, Piekre, a French mathema- 
 tician and hydrographer ; author of treatises 
 on Navigation and Pilotage, and on the Con- 
 struction of Ships ; and numerous other valu- 
 able works of science. Died, 1758. 
 
 BOUIIIER, JoHX, an eminent French 
 writer of the 17th century ; author of " Let- 
 ters on the Therapeutaj," " Dissertations on 
 Herodotus," &c. Born, 1673 ; died, 1740. 
 
 BOUHOURS, DoMixic, a French Jesuit 
 and critic ; author of " I^s Entretiens d' 
 Ariste et d'Eugfene," "Maniere de bien 
 Penser sur Ics Ouvrages de I'Esprit," &c. 
 Born, 1C28 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BOUILLARD, J., a celebrated French 
 engraver, born in 1744, died in 1806. His 
 "Boreas et Orythea" is a masterpiece. 
 
 BOUILLE', Francis Claude Amour, 
 Marquis de, bom in 1759 ; a distinguislied 
 French general, celebrated by his exploits up 
 to the era of the French revolution ; from 
 which, altliough he sat on liberal principles 
 in the first Assembly of Notables, he detached 
 himself, and, after making excellent prepara- 
 tions to assist the unfortunate Louis XVI. in 
 escaping from Varennes, wliich his sovereign 
 refu.sed to avail himself of, he quitted France 
 and served under the allies. He died in 
 London in 1800. His " Memoirs of the 
 French Revolution " rank deservedly high. 
 
 BOUILLON, Rose, born in 1770; a heroine 
 of tlie French revolution, who entered tlie 
 army as a volunteer, and fought as a private 
 in the 6th battalion of the Haute Saon, at 
 the battle of Limbach, where her husband 
 was killed by her side. She had a pension 
 from the National Convention. 
 
 BOUILLY, J. N., an eminent French 
 diplomatist, born in 1770. In his views of 
 the revolution, he concurred with his friend 
 Mirabeau. Author of " Pierre le Grand," 
 " L' Abb^ de TEpee," " L^onore," " He- 
 lena," " Agnes Sorel," " La Veillesse de 
 Piron," &c. 
 
 BOULAINVILLIERS,ITexry de, comte 
 de St. Saire ; author of a " History of Ma- 
 homet," a " History of the Arabians," a 
 "History of the Peerage of France," &c. 
 Born. 1658 ; died, 1722. 
 
 BOULANGER, Nicholas Antontt, a 
 French mathematician and engineer; author 
 of " Traite du Despotisme Orientale," &c. 
 Born, 1722 ; died, 1759. 
 
 BOULARD, Antoike Marie Henri, a 
 distinguished French savant, born in 17."<4, 
 and member of the Chamber of Deputies in 
 
 1815. He is author of numerous translations 
 from English standard writings, and was 
 honoured by the friendsliip of La Harpe, &c. 
 Died, 1825. 
 
 BOULAY DE LA MELTITHE, A. J. C, 
 bom in 1761 ; one of the most distinguished 
 orators in the French revolution, and author 
 of eminent works on political science. He 
 was president of the civil tril>unal at Nancy, 
 in 1793, and had great share in confirming 
 the expatriation of the emigrants in 1793, 
 when a member of the Five Hundred. He 
 was subsequently faithful to Buonaparte 
 tlirough all his changes of fortune ; and on 
 that account was proscribed, and banished 
 to Frankfort, by the Bourbons, on their last 
 restoration in 1815. 
 
 BOULTER, Hugh, archbishop of Armagh, 
 eminent for his benevolent exertions to al- 
 leviate the distress of the Irish during the 
 scarcity of 1740, and for the part he took in 
 establishing schools for the instruction of the 
 Irish children. Died, 1742. 
 
 BOULTON, Matthew, an eminent en- 
 gineer, whose spirit and talent improved in- 
 numerable mechanical processes, and whose 
 name, with that of his partner, Watt, is in- 
 separably connected with that of the won- 
 derful power of which they made such skilful 
 use, the steam engine, was born at Birming- 
 ham, in 1728. Among the many great under- 
 takings in which Boulton and Watt were 
 engaged, oneof the most useful and important 
 was the improvement of the coinage, the 
 coins struck at the " Soho " manufactory 
 being rarely surpassed in beauty or accuracy. 
 After a long life uninterruptedly devoted to 
 the advancement of the useful arts, and the 
 promotion of the commercial interests of liis 
 country, he died in 1809. 
 
 BOUQUET, Madame, bom about 1773; 
 a victim of affection and hospitality, during 
 the revolution. She concealed Pethion 
 Buzot and lier uncle Guadet, during one 
 of the search warrants of the terrorists, and 
 their retreat being discovered, she was sent 
 to the guillotine with them, and died with 
 great fortitude. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, Duke de, constable 
 of France, a powerful enemy of Francis I., 
 and his opponent at Pa via when Francis was 
 taken prisoner. His life was chiefly spent 
 in warfare, and he was killed while heading 
 the assault on Rome, in 1527. 
 
 BOURBON, Robert the Strong, duke of 
 Neustria, fomider of the family which has 
 so long governed France, Spain, Sicily, &c., 
 lost his life in a battle with the Normans in 
 866. Historians differ as to his descent, some 
 contending that Pepin, of Heristel, was his 
 ancestor ; others trace his genealogy to the 
 kings of Lombardy ; and some say he de- 
 rived his origin from a natural son of Char- 
 lemagne. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, cardinal and arch- 
 bishop of Toledo ; son of Louis, brother of 
 Charles III. of Spain. After the imprison- I 
 ment of Ferdinand at Valen<;ay, he joined 
 the cortes, and ultimately became president 
 of the provisional junta before which the king ' 
 swore, in 1820, to abide by the constitution I 
 of the cortes of 1812. Born, 1777 ; died, 182.'}. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis Henry Joseph, Duke 
 de, and prince de Condt^, was supposed to I 
 
BOU] 
 
 ^ i^cto OniberjSal 3BCoar«jp]^8. 
 
 [bou 
 
 have put an end to his existence, Aug. 27. 
 1830. He fought nobly in the royalist urmy ; 
 «nd after the campaign in 18(XK accompanied 
 his father to England, and was rtsidiiig with 
 him at Waustead House in 1804, when his 
 eon, the Duke d'Eughien, was murdered. 
 The duke's death is attributed to the excite- 
 ment of his mind respecting the revolution 
 of July, 183a His property he 16fl by will 
 to the Duke d'Aumalc, tliird sou of Louis 
 Pliilippe, with the exception of a large be- 
 quest to Sophia Dawes, baroness de Feu- 
 cheres, an English woman, with whom he 
 lived. 
 
 BOURBOTTE, a French Jacobin, remark- 
 able for his ferocity and military courage ; 
 born about 170.'>. Being one of tlic convention 
 in 1794, and aiming at the dictatorship, on 
 the Ist I'rarial he and his colleagues were 
 crushed by Legendre ; aud after poniarding 
 himself before the revolutionary tribunal, 
 but ineflfectually, he was guillotined. 
 
 BOURCHIKR, John, lord Berners, a 
 military commander of great skill and re- 
 pute in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., 
 by the latter of wliom he was made governor 
 of Calais; author of a translation of " Frois- 
 sart," " The Life of Marcus Aurclius," &c 
 Died, 1532. 
 
 BOURCniER, Thomas, cardinal, and 
 archbishop of Canterbury, He crowned no 
 fewer than three of our kings, viz. Edward 
 IV., Richard UL, and Ileury VU. Died, 
 148(5. 
 
 BOURDALOUE, LoDis, a French Jesuit, 
 and one of the most eloquent preachers in 
 France. His sermons even in the i>crusal, 
 deprived as they are of the eloquent eye, the 
 graceful action, and the melodious voice, 
 bear sufficient evidence of his genius to justify 
 the praises that have been bestowed upon 
 him. Born, 16.32 ; died, 1704. 
 
 BOURDELOT, John, a French lawyer, 
 master of requests to Mary de Medici ; author 
 of a "Commentary on the Satires of Juvenal," 
 &c. ; aud editor of the works of Fetrouius 
 and Heliodorus. Died, 1638. 
 
 BOURDELOT, Piekue Mkciigit, nephew 
 of the above ; a physician, patronised by 
 Christina, queen of Sweden, and other emi- 
 nent personages ; author of an " Account of 
 Mount JEtna," &c. Died, 1685. 
 
 BOURDELOT, Pierre Boxxet, nephew 
 of the last named, a physician, and author of 
 some annotations on Colomie's ''Biblloth^ue 
 Choisie," &c. Died, 1709. 
 
 BOURDON, Leonard, bom in 17G0 ; a 
 sanguinary conventionalist, who wished to 
 interdict Louis XVI.^rom seeing his family. 
 Having quarrelled with his colleague Robes- 
 pierre, who, in 1794, had resisted his eSbrts 
 to serve his friends, Vincent and Ronsin, he 
 and Barras headed the National Guards, 
 who dispersed the satellites of that tyrant on 
 his fall, and seized his person. He was sent 
 to the castle at Ham, as one of the insurrec- 
 tionists of 1794; but was afterwards employed 
 by the directory. He was twice publicly 
 called an assassin ; in the convention, in 
 1794, and in the Cinq Cents, in 1797, the 
 whole assembly applauding. This destroyer 
 of grown men was at the same time founder 
 of " L'Ecole des Elfeves de la Patrie," and 
 died a natural death, &a director of it. He 
 
 published a " Memoir on National Educa- 
 tion " and a " Sansculottide Drama," 
 
 BOURDON, Sebastian, a French painter; 
 his chef d'onivre is " The Crucifixion of St. 
 Peter," which he executed for the church of 
 Notre Dame. Died, 1671. 
 
 BOURDONNAYE, Bernard Francis 
 Make de la, a French military and civil 
 officer of great talents. He besieged and 
 captured Madras in 174C ; and the wealth he 
 carried home caused him to be prosecuted 
 and imprisoned. Although he was honour- 
 ably acquitted, this affair ruined his health, 
 and he died in 17.54. 
 
 BOURGELAT, Ci.ai'de, a French vete- 
 rinary surgeon of eminence in his profession; 
 author of " The Elements of Horsemanship," 
 "The Materia Medica of the Veterinary 
 School," &c. Died, 1779. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, Sir Francis, a native of 
 England, but of Swiss family ; painter to the 
 king of Poland, and subsequently to George 
 III. of England. His landscapes and sea 
 pieces arc highly esteemed. He left his fine 
 collection to Dulwich College, with 10,000?. 
 for building a gallery, and keeping the pic- 
 tures in preservation. Bom \7M ; died, 1811. 
 
 BOURGOING, John Francis, Baron de, 
 born in 1748 ; ambassador to Spain on the 
 part of the French republic, and afterwards 
 of Napoleon, who subsequently sent him to 
 Stockholm, and in 1807 to Saxony. He died 
 in 1811. He has left several approved works; 
 "Tableau de TEspagnc Moderne," " Md- 
 moires de Pie VI.," and " Histoire de Char- 
 lemagne." 
 
 BOURIGNON, Antoinette de la Porte, 
 a Flemish fanatic Holding religion to con- 
 sist neither in practice nor in knowledge, 
 but in direct impulses from and communion 
 with the Deity, she mode many disciples, 
 and wrote numerous books, remarkable 
 chiefly for their absurdity where they were 
 at all intelligible. Like many other fanatics, 
 she had a large share of worldly wisdom, 
 and was excessively avaricious and penu- 
 rious. Born, 1616 ; died, 1680. 
 
 BOURMONT, Marshal, a distinguished 
 soldier in almost all the campaigns that have 
 taken place since the French revolution of 
 1789, was born in 1773. In the early periods 
 of the revolution, while second lieutenant of 
 iniantry, he emigrated from France, joined 
 his arms with those of the Bourbon princes 
 on the frontiers against the French repub- 
 licans, and afterwards served the royal 
 cause in La Vend(5e, Bretagne, and Maine 
 with great energy and talent. During the 
 consulate of Napoleon he was arrested on a 
 charge of being concerned in the plot of the 
 infernal machine, but after suffering im- 
 prisonment 8uccessivel3' in the Temple, and 
 at Dijon and Besan<;onj he made his escape 
 and sought refuge with his family at Lisbon, 
 whence however he returned to France, and 
 appeared to devote himself so zealously to 
 Napoleon's interests, that he was appointed 
 to various high commands in the imperial 
 service, and served with great distinction in 
 the Italian and Russian cami>aigns. On 
 Napoleon's return from Elba, he commanded 
 a division of the corps of Ney. At the 
 commencement of the campaign of 1815, he 
 was appointed to the command of a brigade 
 
 113 
 
 1. 3 
 
BOU] 
 
 ^ ^tfa Winibtx^Kl 23tasrapTj|?. 
 
 [bow 
 
 of the grand army ; but on the eve of the 
 battle of Waterloo he abandoned, his colours 
 and repaired to Louis XVIII., who was then 
 at Ghent. This extraordinary coup-de-main 
 — famous or infamous as it is designated by 
 different parties — won for him the signal 
 favour of the restored Bourbons. Ten days 
 after the battle of Waterloo he entered 
 France with the title of commander of the 
 northern frontier, and shortly after the ex- 
 ecution of the gallant Ney, to whose con- 
 demnation his evidence mainly contributed, 
 was appointed to the command of one of 
 the divisions of the royal guards. In 1823 
 he took part in the Spanish campaign under 
 the Duke d'Angoul6mc, on whose return to 
 France he obtainei the chief command of 
 the army of occupation. In 1829, Charles X. 
 having nominated him minister of war, he 
 organised the expedition to Algiers, pre- 
 sided over all the preliminary arrangements, 
 and proceeded in person to superintend the 
 plan of operations which he himself had 
 designed, and which finally resulted in the 
 capture of Algiers, for which he was honoured 
 with the baton of a marshal of France. 
 After the revolution of 1830, which placed 
 Louis Philippe on the throne, he was pro- 
 scribed by the dominant party. He then 
 devoted his services to the cause of foreign 
 absolutism in difierent countries, especially 
 in Portugal ; but he was subsequently per- 
 mitted to re-enter France, where he con- 
 tinued to live in obscurity till his death, 
 which took place, Nov. 9. 1846. 
 
 BOURNE, Vincent, sub-master of West- 
 minster School ; author of Latin poetry of 
 singular elegance and purity. Died, 1747. 
 
 BOURS AULT, Edmund, a French writer, 
 who, though destitute of education, attained 
 a proficiency in authorship, and wrote se- 
 veral dramas and romances. Among his 
 works are " ^sop in Town," " ^sop at 
 Court," and "Letters toBabet." Born,lG38 ; 
 died, 1701. 
 
 BOUTERWEK, Fkedeisic, professor of 
 philosophy at Gottingen, was born in 17G6, 
 and died in 1828. He was the author of 
 many valuable works, of which his " History 
 of Spanish Literature " may be regarded as 
 the chief. 
 
 BOWDICII, Thomas Edward, a writer 
 in the service of the English African Com- 
 pany, was a native of Bristol, born in 1793. 
 He was selected to conduct a mission to the 
 king of Asliantee, of which mission he pub- 
 lished a very interesting account. He again 
 set out to explore the Interior of Africa, and 
 had already reached the river Gambia, when 
 a fever, produced chiefly by anxiety, termi- 
 nated his life in 1824. He was an excellent 
 linguist and a pleasing writer ; and besides 
 the work already mentioned, the public are 
 indebted to him for a translation of MoUah's 
 Travels to the Sources of the Senegal and 
 Gambia ; and other works; 
 
 BOWDITCH, Dr. NatiiAniel, F.R. S., 
 president of the American academy of arts 
 and sciences, was a native of Boston, and, 
 though self-educated, arrived at the en- 
 viable distinction of being a philosopher of 
 the first class. When 23 years of age he 
 published his " Practical Navigator," a work 
 of great merit ; but his admirable transla- 
 
 tion of the " Mechanique Celeste " of La 
 Place, with an elaborate commentary, was 
 the production that raised him to the pin- 
 nacle of fame. Died, 1838. 
 
 BOWDLER, Thomas, an English phy- 
 sician ; author of "Letters from Holland," 
 and editor of the " Family Shakspeare," &c. 
 Born, 1754 ; died, 1825. 
 
 BOWDLER, Hannah, sister of the before- 
 mentioned Thomas Bowdler ; author of 
 "Poems and Essays," in 2 vols., and of some 
 popular "Sermons on the Doctrines and 
 Duties of Christianity." She died, at the 
 age of 76, in 1830. 
 
 BOWDOIN, an American legislator and 
 man of letters, bom at Boston, 1727. He 
 was one of the most determined opponents 
 of the right of colonial taxation, insisted on 
 by England, and was one of the first deputies 
 to Congress. He became governor of Massa- 
 chusets, and president of the Philadelphian 
 Academy of Sciences ; and died in 1790. 
 His " Discourse on the New Constitution of 
 the United States " is deservedly admired. 
 
 BOWER, Akchibald, a Scotch writer of 
 great and versatile ability ; but so lax in 
 principle as to change from Catholicism to 
 Protestantism, and then to Catholicism 
 again, and finally to Protestantism, in which 
 faith, according to the declaration of his 
 widow, he died. He wrote a " History of 
 the Popes," conducted the "Historia Lite- 
 raria," and contributed largely to the " Uni- 
 versal History." Bom, 1676 ; died, 1766. 
 
 BOWLES, Rev. William Lisle, whose 
 sonnets exercised no unimportant inflnence 
 on English literature, was born at King's 
 Sutton, in Northamptonshire, a parish of 
 which his father was vicar, in 1762. He was 
 educated at Winchester and at Trinity 
 College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 
 1792, the contemporary and friend of the 
 late Archbishop Howley, and of several 
 persons not undistinguished afterwards, who 
 adorned the university at that time. On 
 leaving the university he entered into holy 
 orders, and was appointed to a curacy in 
 Wiltshire ; from which he was preferred to 
 a living in Gloucestershire, and in 1803 to a 
 canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. His next 
 step was to the rectory of Bremhill in Wilt- 
 shire, to which he was presented by Arch- 
 bishop Moore. Here he remained till his 
 death, unremitting in his professional duties, 
 zealous in the education of the poor, and 
 manifesting an exemplary, though happily 
 by no means a tare, instance of the union of 
 all Christian graces with the polish of taste 
 and the amenities of literature. His first ap- 
 pearance as a poet was in a small collection 
 of sonnets, which were published in 1789, and 
 may be reckoned among the first-fruits of a 
 new era in poetry. In these sonnets there 
 were observed a grace of expression, a musical 
 versification, and especially an air of melan- 
 choly tenderness, so congenial to the poetical 
 temperament, which still, after 60 years of a 
 more propitious period than that which im- 
 mediately preceded their publication, pre- 
 serves for their author a highly respectable 
 position among our poets. The subsequent 
 poems of Mr. Bowles did not belie the promise 
 of his youth. The chief of these were liis 
 " Hope, an allegorical Sketch," " St. Mi- 
 
 114 
 
bow] 
 
 ^ i^clu Slnifacr^al 23t0flrapl)i). 
 
 [bra 
 
 chael's Mount," "Coombe Ellen," and "Grave 
 of Howard." His " Spirit of Discovery by 
 Sea," the longest of his productions, was 
 published in 18()4. Mr. Bowles published 
 also an edition of Tope, which involved him 
 in the famous controversy with Lord Byron, 
 as well as a great variety of small tracts, 
 literary, antiquarian, and theological. He 
 was, in fact, a very frequent, though he 
 cannot be called a voluminous, contributor 
 to the literature of the present century. Mr. 
 Bowles was very playful in his habits and 
 conversation, and many anecdotes are told of 
 his Parsou Adama-like forgetfulness. Died, 
 1850. 
 
 BOVVYER, William, an eminent English 
 printer and classical scholar. He published 
 several learned works ; but his chief per- 
 formance was a Greek edition of the New 
 Testament, with critical and emeudatory 
 notes. Born, 1699 ; died, 1777. 
 
 BOXUORN, Mark Zuekius, professor of 
 rhetoric, politics, and history in the univer- 
 sity of Leyden ; author of a treatise on the 
 discovery of printing, and of numerous Latin 
 works, both prose and verse. Born, 1G12 ; 
 died, 1(>53. 
 
 BOYCE, William, doctor of music, and 
 an eminent composer, both of sacred and 
 secular pieces. Born, 1710 ; died, 1779. 
 
 BOYD, Zaciiaky, a Scotch divine of the 
 17th century. Among various works which 
 he published is " Tlic Last Battle of the 
 Soul in Death ; " and among the numerous 
 MSS. he left, is a collection of quaint poems, 
 entitled "Zion's Flowers," popularly called 
 " Zachary Boyd's Bible." He died in 1653, 
 leaving a considerable legacy to Glasgow 
 College. 
 
 BOYDELL, JoHX, originally an English 
 engraver, and afterwards an eminent print- 
 seller. His spirit and liberality enabled 
 him to ama.s8 a considerable fortune, and at 
 the same time greatly to elevate our na- 
 tional character as to the art. He was for 
 many years an alderman of London, and 
 served the office of lord mayor in 1790. 
 Born, 1719 j died, 1804. 
 
 BOYER, Abel, a French refugee ; author 
 of a French Dictionary and Grammar, which 
 have had a very extensive circulation ; and 
 of several literary and political publications 
 of merit. Born, 1664 ; died, 1729. 
 
 BOYER, John Bai'tist Nicuolas, a 
 French physician, eminently skilful in the 
 treatment of infectious diseases ; author of 
 a "Pharmacopoeia," tracts on contagious 
 disorders, &c. Died, 1768. 
 
 BOYLE, RiciiAitD, earl of Cork, an emi- 
 nent statesman in the reign of James I., 
 and founder ofafamili' greatly distinguished 
 in the arts, sciences, and literature. Born at 
 Canterbury, 1566 ; died, 1643. 
 
 BOYLE, Roger, earl of Orrery, fifth son 
 of the above. When only seven years old 
 he was created baron Broghill ; and, from 
 an early age, was conspicuous for his zeal 
 in the king's service. But after the king 
 WHS put to death, the baron transferred his 
 services to Cromwell, by whom he was 
 greatly trusted and employed. At the death 
 of Cromwell he aided in bringing back 
 Charles II., and was created earl of Orrery 
 for his service on that occasion. Born in 
 
 Ireland, 1621 ; died, 1679. He was the au- 
 thor of several poems and plays. 
 
 BOYLK, Robert, brother of the last 
 named, a n:ghly distinguished philosopher, 
 not unworthy to be ranked with Bacon and 
 Newton. His whole life was devoted to 
 philosophy ; and his productions, almost 
 without an exception, are of great value, and 
 very numerous. Born at Lismore, Ireland, 
 1627 ; died, 1691. 
 
 BOYLE, Charles, lord Boyle, second 
 son of Roger, earl of Orrery, a statesman and 
 scholar ; editor of the " Epistles of Phalaris," 
 and author of some slight but clever literary 
 papers ; born, 1676 ; died, 1731. 
 
 BOYLE, Joux, earl of Cork and Orrery, 
 only son of the last named ; atithor of a 
 translation, with notes, of the " Epistles of 
 Pliny the Younger," " Remarks on the Life 
 and Writings of Swift," papers in the Con- 
 noisseur and the World, &c. Born, 1707 ; 
 died, 1762. 
 
 BOYLE, Richard, third earl of Burling- 
 ton, and fourth earl of Cork, another branch 
 of the same distinguished family. He was 
 an enthusiastic amateur of architecture, and 
 a very generous friend to men of letters. 
 In him, Bishop Berkeley found his earliest 
 and most efficient patron ; and Pope did him 
 the honour to address to him his fourth 
 epistle. Born, 1695 ; died, 1753. 
 
 BOYLSTON, Zabdiel, an American phy- 
 sician, who introduced the sj'stein of inocu- 
 lating for the small-pox into his native 
 country. Bom, 1680 j died, 1766. 
 
 BOlS, William, an eminent antiquary 
 and naturalist ; author of a " History of 
 Sandwich," " Observations on Kit's Coty- 
 bouse in Kent," published in tlie "Archas- 
 ologia," &c. Died, 1803. 
 
 BOYSE, Sami kl, a clever but eccentric 
 and dissipated English writer ; autlior of 
 " The Deity " and other poems, and of va- 
 rious contributions to periodical works. His 
 bad habits rendered all cflbrts to serve him 
 unavailing, and he died in great misery and 
 poverty, in 1749. 
 
 BOZE, Claude Gros pe, a French writer 
 and archffiologist ; author of the "Medallic 
 History of Louis XIV." &c. Bom, 1680 ; 
 died, 1754. 
 
 BRACCIOLINI, Francis, surnamed Dell' 
 Api, secretary to Cardinal Antonio Barbe- 
 rini ; author of "La Crocc Riaquistrata," 
 " Lo Schemo degli Dei," &c. Born, 1566 ; 
 died, 1645. 
 
 BRACTON, Henry de, an English law 
 writer of the 13th century ; author of the 
 well known and esteemed treatise "De 
 Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglias." 
 
 BRADBURY, Thomas, an eminent non- 
 conformist divine, who took a distinguished 
 part in the Controversy with Dr. Watts on 
 the subject of the Trinity. Died, 1759. 
 
 BRADDOCK, Edward, major-general. 
 He was commander-in-chief, in America, 
 during the war with France in tlie 18th cen- 
 tury ; and was slain when on the eve of in- 
 vesting Fort Duquesr.e, in 1755. 
 
 BRADFORD, Joiix, an eminent preacher 
 of the reformed religion, who was burnt at 
 Smithfleld in the reign of Mary, 1.555. 
 
 BRADLEY, James, an English divine, 
 astronomer, and matliematiciau ; Savilian 
 
 OF rwr ^ \ 
 
bra] 
 
 ^ ^t^ Bnibtt^aX SSiosrapTun 
 
 [bra 
 
 professor of astronomy at Oxford, contri- 
 butor to tlie Pliilosophical Transactions, 
 and author of some Astronomical Observa- 
 tions, published separately. Died, 1762. 
 
 BRADLEY, Richard, professor of botany 
 at Cambridge, and author of several works, 
 chiefly compilations, on Botany and Horti- 
 culture. Dr. Brewster's popular invention, 
 the Kaleidoscope, was at one time said to 
 be due to Bradley ; but it appears that the 
 doctor's instrument and the one proposed by 
 Bradley are quite different, and that the 
 latter would be very inferior. Died, 1732. 
 
 BRADSHAW, John, an English lawyer, 
 noted in our history for having acted as pre- 
 sident on the trial of Charles I. Died, 16.59. 
 He had a magnificent funeral ; but at the 
 restoration his remains were removed from 
 Westminster Abbey, and hanged on a gal- 
 lows at Tyburn, with those of Cromwell and 
 Ireton. 
 
 BBADSTREET, Anxa, an English poet- 
 ess of the 17th century. Her father was 
 governor of New England, where she wrote 
 and published her poems. 
 
 BRADVVARDIN, Thomas, archbishop of 
 Canterbury ; author of a treatise " De Causa 
 Dei," directed against Pelagianisni ; some 
 mathematical tracts, &c. Died, 1349. 
 
 BRADY, Nicholas, Dr., an English di- 
 vine ; translator of the ^neid, and, in con- 
 junction with Tate, of the Bsalms. Bom at 
 Bandon, Ireland, 1C59 ; died, 1726. 
 
 BRAHE, TvcHO, a Dane of a noble fa- 
 mily ; a celebrated astronomer. Though his 
 system is now superseded by that of Coper- 
 nicus, he deserves honourable mention as an 
 ingenious theorist ; and, apart from his error 
 as to tlie earth being the fixed centre of the 
 universe, his observations as a practical as- 
 tronomer are highly valuable. Born, 1546 ; 
 died, 1601. 
 
 BRAINERD, David, a celebrated Ame- 
 rican missionary, who signalised himself by 
 his successful endeavours to convert the 
 Indians on tlie Susquehannah, Delaware, &c. 
 Died, aged 30, 1747. 
 
 BRAITIIWAITE, Jon.v, an ingenious 
 mechanic, constructor of a diving machine, 
 with which he explored the Royal George, 
 sunk off Spithead ; the Hartwell East India- 
 man, off one of the Cape de Verd Islands ; 
 aud the Abergavenny East Indiaman, olF 
 the Isle of Portland. From the first he only 
 succeeded in raising some guns and an 
 anchor ; but from the second and third he 
 brought up property to a very large amount. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 BRAMAH, Joseph, an English engineer, 
 distinguished for the number, value, and in- 
 genuity of his mechanical inventions. Among 
 these were his invaluable hydrostatic press, 
 his safety locks, various improvements in 
 the steam-engine, in the process of making 
 paper, in the construction of main-pipes, 
 wheel-carriages, the beer-machine, &c. Born, 
 1749 ; died, 1814. 
 
 BRAMANTE D'tlRBINO, Lazaro, a 
 celebrated Italian architect, who first de- 
 signed and commenced tlie church of St. 
 Peter at Rome. He was a skilful painter 
 and musician as well as architect, and a 
 volume of poems from his pen was printed 
 in 1756. Died, 1514. 
 
 BRANCAS LAURAGUAIS, Duke de, a 
 French nobleman, distinguished for his 
 scientific attainments ; discoverer of tlie 
 composition of the diamond, and a great 
 improver of the manufacture of porcelain. 
 Born, 1735; died, 1824. 
 
 BRAND, John, an able and voluminous 
 writer on politics and political economy ; 
 author of numerous political pamplilets and 
 some poems. He was rector of Wickham 
 Market, in Suffolk, and of St. George, South- 
 wark. Died, 1809. 
 
 BRAND, John, an English divine and 
 antiquary ; author of the " History and 
 Antiquities of the Town of Newcastle," 
 " Observations on Popular Antiquities," &c. 
 Born, 1743 ; died, 1806. 
 
 BRANDER, GrsTAVUS, an English anti- 
 quary and naturalist. He was of a Swedish 
 family, but born in London, where he was 
 an eminent merchant, and a director of the 
 Bank. He contributed largely to the Trans- 
 actions of the Antiquarian Society, &c. 
 Born, 1720 ; died, 1787. 
 
 BRANDT, a German chemist of the 17th 
 century ; who is said to have discovered 
 phosphorus while attempting to find a sol- 
 vent by which to convert silver into gold. 
 
 BRANDT, Ernevold, Count de, a Danish 
 statesman, convicted of being concerned in 
 the conspiracy of Count Strueusee, and exe- 
 cuted in 1772. 
 
 BRANDT, George, an eminent Swedish 
 natural philosopher ; author of accounts of 
 various valuable experiments made by him 
 upon the metals. Died, 1768. 
 
 BRANDT, Sebastian, chancellor of 
 Strasburg ; author of " Varia Carmina," 
 "Navis Stultifera," &c. Died, 1520. 
 
 BRANTOME, or PIERRE DE BOUR- 
 DEILLES, a celebrated French chronicler. 
 He was a favoured attendant upon Charles 
 IX., Henry III., and the Duke de Alen<;on ; 
 and his memoirs, though somewhat too free 
 in their details, are highly valuable as gra- 
 phic and faithful illustrations of an interest- 
 ing period of French history. 
 
 BRANWHITE, Peregrine, the author 
 of various poems, was born at Lavenham, 
 Suffolk, 1745 ; died in London, 1794. 
 
 BBARENS, Henry, a Danish naval offi- 
 cer, and writer on navigation ; author of a 
 "System of Practical Navigation," &c. Bom, 
 1751 ; died, 1826. 
 
 BRATIIWAYTE, Richard, an English 
 poet ; author of "The Golden Fleece," 
 "The Prodigal's Tears," "The English 
 Gentleman," &c. Born, 1588 ; died, 1673. 
 
 BRAY, Sir Reginald, an English states- 
 man, and favourite of Henry VII. He was 
 a frank friend to that sovereign, disdaining 
 to withhold his disapproval when it was de- 
 served. He is chiefly memorable for having 
 superintended the erection of that beautiful 
 structure, Henry VIL's chapel at West- 
 minster, and for having finished that of 
 St. George at Windsor. Died, 1503. 
 
 BRAY, Dr. Thomas, an English divine, 
 who laboured with great zeal in propagating 
 the gospel in foreign parts, and who went 
 several times to America to promote that 
 object, was bom in 1656 ; and died, rector of 
 St. Botolph's, Aldgate, in 1730. 
 
 BRAY, William, F.S.A., an industrious 
 
 116 
 
bre] 
 
 ^ ^m BniUv^Kl aBiO0rai)l)j). 
 
 [bre 
 
 antiquary ; editor of Evelyn's " Diary and 
 Memoirs," and a contributor to the Arclite- 
 oloRia, &c. Died, 1832 ; aged 07. 
 
 BREDA, John' vax, a Dutcli pointer ; a 
 very close imitator of the style of Wouver- 
 mans. Died, 17.50. 
 
 BREEXBERO, Bartholomew, a cele- 
 brated painter, particularly skilful in small 
 landscapes. Boru at Utrecht, 1C20 ; died, 
 
 iceo. 
 
 BREGUET, Abraham Loi'is, an eminent 
 watch aiid clironometer maker at Paris, by 
 birth a Swiss. Bom, 1747 ; died, 182.3. 
 
 BREISLAK, SciPio, a celebrated Italian 
 
 feologist, born at Rome in 17(38, who under 
 tuonaparte was appointed inspector of the 
 saltpetre works and i>owder mills in Italy. 
 He wrote several scientific works, and was 
 intimate with Cuvier, Chaptal, &c. Died, 
 182fi. 
 
 BREITINGUEK, John James, a S^-iss 
 divine ; editor of a new translation of the 
 Septuagint, &c. Died, 1776. 
 
 BREITKOPF, John Gottlieb Emma- 
 nuel, a printer and type founder of Leipsic; 
 he discovered an improved composition of 
 type metal, and wrote a treatise on Biblio- 
 graphy, &c. Bom, 1719 ; died, 1794. 
 
 BREMER, Sir James John Gokdon, 
 rear-admiral of the Blue, whose name is so 
 well-known for his distinguished services in 
 the war with China, was born in 1786. En- 
 tering the navy in 1794, he rose through the 
 intermediate grades with much personal 
 distinction, and in June, 1814, he became a 
 post-captain. When captain of the Tamar, 
 20 guns, he was dispatched to form a settle- 
 ment on Melville Island, Australia, and 
 joined in the closing scenes of the Burmese 
 war. In 18;?0, he was created a knight com- 
 mander of the order of the Guelph (K.C.U.) ; 
 and in 1837, in the Alligator, of 26 guns, he 
 founded the settlement of Port Essington. 
 He afterwards returned to India, and as- 
 sumed the command in chief of that station, 
 on the death of Sir F. L. Maitland, at the 
 commencement of the Chinese war. To 
 place on record the various distinguished 
 achievements that in design owed their birth, 
 and in execution their success, to his pre- 
 siding genius, from the organisation of the 
 expedition that left Singapore in 1840, on 
 its mission of triumph and glory to China, 
 until the final capture of Canton in 1841, 
 would be to compile a history of the war 
 itself. His services were rewarded by the 
 dignity of K.C.B. being conferred on him ; 
 and the voice of the country was echoed in 
 a vote of thanks to him from both Houses of 
 Parliament. His last employment was as 
 commodore superintendent of Woolwich 
 dockyard, from which office he retired in 
 consequence of ill health, in 1848. Died, 1850. 
 
 BRENNER, Henry, royal librarian of 
 Stockholm, an eminent oriental scholar ; 
 translator of the "History of Armenia" 
 from the language of that country ; and 
 author of " Observations on Czar Peter the 
 Great," &c. Died, 1732. 
 
 BRENNUS, a general of the Gauls, who 
 after ravaging Thessaly and Greece, at- 
 tempted to plunder the temple of Delphi. 
 Being repulsed, he slew himself, 278 B.C. 
 
 BRENNUS, a memorable Gallic general. 
 
 117 
 
 Having invested Rome, he was offered a 
 thousand pounds weight of gold to spare the 
 city. While the gold was being Mcighcd, 
 he threw his sword and helmet into the op- 
 posite scale ; and when reproached for his 
 injustice, replied, with the scornful excla- 
 mation, " VcE vict/s!" — Woe to the van- 
 quished I Enraged at this insolence, Ca- 
 millus put an end to the negociation, gave 
 battle to the Gauls, and put them to flight. 
 This occurred about 388 B. c. 
 
 BRENTON, Captain Edward Pelham, 
 R.N., an officer whose services at sea during 
 the war were scarcely greater than those 
 which he performed on shore and during 
 peace. Gifted with great ingenuity, he made 
 several mechanical improvements connected 
 with his profession, of which naval men speak 
 in the highest terms. He was the liberal sup- 
 porter of several of the most useful charities 
 in the metropolis. Of one of these, "the 
 Children's Friend Society," he was, in fact, 
 the founder ; and it is not too much to say, 
 that to it hundreds of poor children owe 
 their removal from the horrors of vice and 
 want, to a life of virtuous exertion, and its 
 concomitant — comfort and happiness. Cap- 
 tain Brenton was also very favourably known 
 as an author, by his " Naval History of'Great 
 Britain, from 1783 to 1822," and a "Biography 
 of Earl St. Vincent." Died, 1839. 
 
 BREQUIGNY, I>oiis George, Oudard 
 DE Feudkix, a learned French writer ; au- 
 thor of " Histoire des Revolutions de Genes," 
 " Ordonnances des Rois de la Troisiime 
 Race," &c. Died, 179.5. 
 
 BRE RE WOOD, Edward, an English 
 antiquary and mathematician ; author of 
 " The Patriarchal Government of the An- 
 cient Church," a treatise "De Ponderibus 
 et Pretii Vetemra Nummorum," &c. Born, 
 156.5 ; died, 1613. 
 
 BRET, Anthony, a French writer; author 
 of "Commentaries on Moliere," "Quatre 
 Saisons," a poem. See. Died, 1792. 
 
 BRETEUIL, Louis Alouste le Tonne- 
 LiER, an eminent French diplomatist, and 
 at one time secretary of state ; but being a 
 zealous partisan of monarchy, he was com- 
 pelled to flee from France at the commence- 
 ment of the revolution. In 1802 he was 
 permitted to return, and died in 1807. 
 
 BRETON, Nicholas, an English pastoral 
 poet in the time of queen Elizabeth ; author 
 of " An Old Man's Lesson and a Young 
 Man's Love," " Phillida and Corydon," &c. 
 
 BRETON, Raymond, a French friar and 
 missionary to the West Indies ; author of a 
 French and Caribbean Dictionary, &c. Died, 
 1679. 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER, Henry Godfrey 
 VON, an Hungarian, whose versatility of ta- 
 lent was only equalled by the perseverance 
 with which he exercised it in satirising the 
 follies and impostures of the age. Born, 
 1739 ; died, 1810. 
 
 BREUGHEL, Peter, commonly known 
 as " Old Breughel," an eminent painter ; 
 chiefly of common-life subjects, such as 
 rustic merrv-makiugs. Bom near Breda, 
 1510 ; died, 1.570. 
 
 BREUGHEL, John, son of the foregoing, 
 called, from his dress, " Velvet Breughel ; " 
 80 excellent a landscape painter, that Rubens 
 
bke] 
 
 ^ i^tia mniiitt^aX maQva^M* 
 
 [bri 
 
 painted some pictures in conjunction with 
 him, Rubens putting in the figures. Born 
 at Brussels, 1560, died, 1623. 
 
 BREUGHEL, Peter, a brother of the 
 above, and also a painter. His fondness for 
 painting horrible subjects procured him the 
 sobriquet of "Hellish." Died, 1642. An- 
 other brother, Abkauam, excelled in fruit 
 and flowers. 
 
 BREVAL, JouN DtTRANT DE, an English 
 writer and military oflficer ; author of " Tlie 
 History of the House of Nassau ; " " Calpe," 
 a poem, &c. Died, 1739. 
 
 BREWER, Antuoxy, a dramatist of the 
 time of James I. and Charles I. ; author 
 of "The Lovesick King," "The Country 
 Girl," &c. 
 
 BREYNIUS, James, a botanist of Dant- 
 zic ; author of " Fasciculus Plantarum Ra- 
 riorum," &c. Died, lt!97. 
 
 BREYNIUS, Joiixv Philip, a naturalist 
 of the 18th century ; author of a treatise on 
 the kermes insect, &c. 
 
 BRIDAINE, James, an eminent French 
 ecclesiastic, whose indefatigable zeal, or 
 itinerant propensities, induced him to un- 
 dertake 256 journeys, so that his powers 
 were displayed in almost every village 
 throughout France. He was the author of 
 "Spiritual Songs," wliich were extremely 
 popular. Born, 1701 ; died, 1767. 
 
 BRIDGE WATER, Francis Eoerton, 
 Duke of, a nobleman who devoted much at- 
 tention to, and expended large sums in the 
 improvement and extension of canal navi- 
 gation, seconded by the skill of Brindley. 
 Born, 1736 ; died, 1803. 
 
 BRIDPORT, Alexander Hood, Admiral 
 lord, a gallant naval oflScer, and the youngest 
 brother of Admiral Hood. He bore a part in 
 Lord Howe's celebrated victory, June 1. 1794; 
 in the following year he defeated a French 
 squadron, capturing three sail of the line ; 
 and nobly distinguished himself on many 
 other occasions during the war. Died, 1814. 
 
 BRIET, or BRIETIUS, Philip, a French 
 writer ; author of "Annales Mundi," "The- 
 atrum Geographicum Europae Veteris," &c. 
 Died, 1668. 
 
 BRIGGS, Hexrt, an eminent English 
 mathematician and Savilian professor of geo- 
 metry, at Oxford ; author of " Arithmetica 
 Logarithmica," " Tables for the Improve- 
 ment of Navigation," " Animadversiones 
 Geometricae," &c. Born, 1536 ; died, 1630. 
 
 BRIGGS, William, an eminent physician 
 and oculist ; author of " Opthalmographia," 
 an anatomical description of the eye and a 
 new theory of vision. Died, 1704. 
 
 BRILL, ALiTTiiEW, an eminent landscape 
 painter, employed by pope Gregory XIII. 
 in decorating the Vatican. Died, 1584. 
 
 BRILL, Paul, brother of the last named, 
 and also eminent as a landscape painter. 
 Pope Clement VIII. employed him to paint 
 a landscape sixty-eight feet wide for the 
 Scala Clementina ; in which piece he intro- 
 duced St. Clement thrown into the sea with 
 an anchor attached to his neck. Died, 1626. 
 
 BRILLAT-SAVABIN, Anthklme, a 
 French writer, known chiefly from his work, 
 entitled " The Physiology of Taste." Born, 
 1755 ; died, 1826. 
 
 BRINDLEY, James, an eminent English 
 
 118 
 
 mechanic and engineer, to whose great zeal 
 and abilities we owe some of the most im- 
 portant of our navigable canals. So highly, 
 indeed, did he estimate their importance to 
 a commercial nation, that, being jocularly 
 asked, while under examination before a 
 committee of the House, for what purpose 
 he supposed rivers to have been created, he 
 quite seriously replied, " To feed navigable 
 canals." His first great work was the canal 
 from Worsley to Manchester, which he exe- 
 cuted for the Duke of Bridge water. He after- 
 wards completed the Grand Trunk, Bir- 
 mingham, Chesterfield, and others. Bom, 
 1716 ; died, 1772. 
 
 BBINKLEY, Dr. Johx, bishop of Cloyne, 
 an able divine, but still more eminent for 
 his scientific acquirements, was bom in 1760. 
 While a graduate of Oxford he was elected 
 to the professorship of astronomy in Dublin 
 University, an honour to which his previous 
 writings and discoveries in science fully en- 
 titled him. Died, September, 1835. 
 
 BRINVILLIERS, Marguerite d'Au- 
 BRAi, Marchioness of, horribly notorious for 
 having poisoned her father, brother, and two 
 sisters. She had formed a criminal attach- 
 ment for a Gascon officer, named Goden St. 
 Croix, and her family caused him to be sent 
 to the Bastile. There he learned from a 
 fellow prisoner the art of compounding 
 subtle poisons, of which he and his mistress 
 made use to avenge themselves on her family. 
 His mask slipping from his face while he was 
 distilling poison, he died suddenly ; and her 
 anxiety to obtain a casket that had belonged 
 to him, led to inquiries which terminated in 
 her detection. She was beheaded, and her 
 body burnt, 1676. 
 
 BRISBANE, Admiral Sir Charles. He 
 entered the navy, on board the Alcide, in 
 1779 ; received a severe wound in Rodney's 
 fleet on the 12th of April, 1782 ; and was pro- 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant in 1790. He 
 shared the active services of Lord Hood off 
 Toulon, and of Lord Nelson during the siege 
 of Bastia, where he nearly lost an eye ; was 
 made captain in 1795 ; and the following 
 year received the thanks of the Admiralty for 
 his conduct during the capture of some Dutch 
 ships in Saldanha Bay. The firmness with 
 which Sir Charles acted, quelled the dis- 
 position to mutiny which then appeared 
 through the fleet at the Cape. In 1805 he was 
 appointed commander of the Arethusa ; and 
 in 1807 achieved the capture of the island of 
 Cura<?oa, when he received the honour of 
 knighthood. The following year he was 
 made governor of St. Vincent's, in which 
 station he remained till his death ; being 
 raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1805, and 
 to that of vice-admiral in 1820. Died, 1829. 
 
 BRISSON, or BRISSONIUS, Bajinabas, 
 an eminent French lawyer and philologist ; 
 author of a treatise " De Regio Persarum 
 Principatio," &c. During the siege of Paris 
 by Henry IV., in 1579, he remained in the 
 city, and was compelled by the partisans of 
 the League to act as first president of the 
 parliament ; and liis conduct as a magistrate 
 was made the pretext for putting liim to 
 death, in 1591. 
 
 BRISSON, Matiiurin James, a French 
 chemist and naturalist ; author of a treatise 
 
BRi] 
 
 ^ ^ebj BnibtxM Utojjrapl)!?. 
 
 [bro 
 
 on "Ornithology," "Principles of Chemis- 
 try," &i;. Born, 1723 ; died, 180G. 
 
 BRISSOT, PiKKRE, a French physician ; 
 author of a treatise in favour of bleeding in 
 cases of pleurisy and inflammation of the 
 viscera ; and editor of Galen's treatise " De 
 Curatione Morborum." Died, 1522. 
 
 BRISSOT, Jkan Pierre, one of the most 
 active of the French revolutionists, and a 
 clever writer ; author of " Le Courier Bel- 
 
 fique," and other political journals ; " A 
 'Ian of Conduct for the Deputies of the 
 People," " Address to all Republicans," &c. 
 He was a man of great and versatile ability, 
 which he evinced both in the legislative as- 
 sembly and as a member of the convention ; 
 but he had not the moral courage to abstain 
 from a participation in those scenes of revo- 
 lutionary violence which covered so many 
 with eternal infamy, although his fruitless 
 endeavour to save the life of the king shows 
 that he in reality disapproved or them. 
 Unable to resist the power of Robespierre, 
 he endeavoured to escape to Switzerland, but 
 was arrested, condemned, and executed, in 
 1793. Brissot was a great admirer of the 
 Americans, assumed the habits of the Qua- 
 kers, and introduced the fashion of wearing 
 the hair without powder. He was also the 
 leader of the party called the Girondists, or 
 Brissotiiis. 
 
 BRITTON, Thomas, a dealer in small 
 coal, noted, on account of his attachment to 
 music, as the "musical small-coal man." 
 His harmless life was put an end to by a 
 silly trick of a ventriloquist, which frightened 
 him so much that he never recovered. Born, 
 16.54; died, 1714. 
 
 BROCK LESBY, Richard, an eminent 
 physician and literary man ; author of 
 some medical tracts, "A Dissertation on 
 the Music of the Ancients,' ' &c. Bom, 1722 ; 
 died. 1797. 
 
 BROGUE, Victor Fraxcis, Duke de, a 
 gallant French general under the old mon- 
 archy, who emigrated at the commencement 
 of the revolution, and put himself at the 
 head of a corps of emigrants at Champagne. 
 Born, 1718 ; died, 1804. 
 
 BROGNIARTtAuGUSTE Louis, a professor 
 of chemistry, and surgeon to Louis XVI. ; 
 author of " Tableau Analytique des Combi- 
 naisons et Decompositions dea DilKrentes 
 Substances," &c. Died, 1804. 
 
 BROKE, Rear-admiral Sir Philip Bowks 
 Veke, a gallant English otficer, the eldest 
 son of Philip B. Broke, esq., of Nacton, 
 Suffolk, was bom in 1776, and commenced 
 his naval career as a midshipman in 1792. 
 After the usual initiation, during which he 
 was present in several general engagements, 
 he obtained the rank of commander in 1799, 
 and post-captai n in 1 801 . The various services 
 he subsequently performed in different parts 
 of the globe, tliough they were neither few 
 nor unimportant, we shall not enter upon ; 
 but he is chiefly celebrated for the far-famed 
 action between his ship, the Shannon, of 
 38 guns, and the American frigate, Chesa- 
 peake, mounting 49, in June 1813. The news 
 of a victory so nobly gained against such 
 fearful odds — at a time when an opinion was 
 gaining ground that our frigates were not 
 a match for the large vessels (misnamed 
 
 frigates) of the Americans — was hailed in 
 England with every demonstration of na- 
 tional pride, and besides the complimentary 
 congratulations that attended the gallant 
 author of it, he was, for liis " distinguished 
 zeal, courage, and intrepidity," raised to 
 the dignity of a baronet of Great Britain. 
 Died, Jan. 2. 1841, at his seat, Brokehall, 
 Suffolk. 
 
 BRO\LE, Alexander, an attorney and 
 satirical poet, whose writings, on the side of 
 Charles I., are said to have greatly obstructed 
 the progress of puritanism. In addition to 
 writing satirical songs, he translated from 
 Lucretius and Horace, and wrote a comedy, 
 called " The Cunning Lovers." Born, 1620; 
 died, 16«C. 
 
 BROALE, Richard, an English dramatist, 
 contemporary with Ben Jonson, to whom he 
 was originally servant. His comedies were 
 formerly very popular, but they are not now 
 performed. Died, 1632. 
 
 BRONDSTED, Peter Olaf, a distin- 
 guished Danish philologist and antiquary, 
 was born in 1780, entered the university of 
 Co[>enhagen in 17J»6, and took the degree of 
 doctor in philosophy in 1806. In company 
 with his friend Dr. Koes he made a scientific 
 expedition to Greece, and in excavating the 
 temples in ^gina, &c. many fine monu- 
 ments in ancient Greek art were discovered. 
 On his return to Denmark he was assisted 
 with pecuniary means by tlie government, 
 and appointed diplomatic agent to the 
 Papal court in 1818. He afterwards travelled 
 through the Ionian isles, Malta, and Sicily, 
 for the purpose of prosecuting additional 
 investigations ; he subsequently made Paris 
 his principal residence, coming occasionally 
 to England ; and in 1827 he visited his 
 native country, where he received the hono- 
 rary title of privy councillor of legation, 
 and numerous other marks of distinction. 
 The first part of his principal work, entitled 
 "Travels and Researches in Greece," ap- 
 peared in 1826, at Paris, simultaneously in 
 the French and German languages ; the 
 second part in 1830. Died at Copenhagen, 
 in consequence of a fall from his horse, June 
 26. 1842, aged 61. 
 
 BROOCMAN, Charles Ulric, a Swedish 
 writer on education, especially as regards 
 the education of teachers. His principal 
 work is " An Account of the Educational 
 Institutions of Germany, from the earliest 
 period up to his own time." Died, 1812. 
 
 BROOKE, or BROKE, Sir Robert, chief 
 justice of the common pleas in the reign of 
 queen Mary, and author of various legal 
 works. Died. 1558. 
 
 BROOKE, Frances, a clever novelist and 
 dramatic writer ; authoress of " Lady Juliet 
 Mandeville" and other novels ; the tragedies 
 of " Virginia " and the " Siege of Sinope ; " 
 " Rosina," a musical entertainment, &c. 
 Died, 1789. 
 
 BROOKE, Hexry, a political and literary 
 writer ; author of " Letters addressed to the 
 People of Ireland," "The Earl of West- 
 moreland," a tragedy ; the celebrated novel 
 of " The Fool of Quality," &c. Born at 
 Bantavan, in Ireland, 1706 ; died, 1783. 
 
 BROOKES, Joshua, an eminent anatomist 
 and surgeon, was bom in 1761 ; and after 
 
 110 
 
BRO] 
 
 ^ ipcfco miibsx^Kl 3St05rapI)u. 
 
 [bro 
 
 studying under the most celebrated men of 
 his day, commenced his career as a professor 
 of anatomy, pathology, and sui-gery, when 
 about 26 years of age. His museum was en- 
 riched with the choicest anatomical speci- 
 mens and osteological preparations ; and the 
 lectures on anatomy and its kindred sciences, 
 which, during a long life, he was in the habit 
 of delivering to his pupils (of whom he could 
 reckon 7000), laid the foundation of their 
 scientific fame to some of the most distin- 
 guished members of the profession. His last 
 appearance as a lecturer was in 1827 ; and in 
 January, 1833, he died, aged 72. 
 
 BROOKS, John, an able officer in the 
 American army, a skilful physician, and a 
 man of letters. He early distinguished him- 
 self in the war of American iudependenee, 
 and ultimately arrived at the rank of a ge- 
 neral ; but the duties of a soldier did not unfit 
 him for professional pursuits ; he was the 
 president of many literary, religious, patri- 
 otic, and benevolent societies ; and for many 
 years filled the of&ce of chief magistrate for 
 his native town, Medford, in Massachusetts. 
 Born, 1752 ; died, 1825. 
 
 BROOME, Dr. William, an English divine 
 and poet. In addition to Ids own poems, and 
 a translation of Anacreon's Odes, he con- 
 tributed eight books to Pope's translation of 
 the Odyssey ; but having complained of his 
 scanty remuneration, liis brother bard re- 
 warded him with a niche in the Dunciad. 
 He was vicar of Eye, Suffolk, where he died, 
 in 1745. 
 
 BROSCHI, Carlo, better known by the 
 name of Farinelli, one of the finest singers 
 ever known. He was retained to divert the 
 melancholy of Philip V. of Spain, and ac- 
 quired vast political power in the reigns of 
 that monarch and his successor. Unlike the 
 generality of royal favourites, lie behaved 
 with invariable modesty and honoiu-. Born 
 at Naples, 1705 ; died, 1782. 
 
 BROSSARD, Sebastian de, an eminent 
 French musician ; author of " Prodomus 
 Musicalis," &c. Died, 1730. 
 
 BROSSE, Guy de la, a French botanist 
 and physician to Louis XIII. ; author of 
 " L'Overture du Jardin Royal," and other 
 botanical works. Died, 1751. 
 
 BROSSES, Charles de, a French lawyer 
 and the schoolfellow and friend of Buffon ; 
 author of " Letters on Herculaneura," &c. 
 Born, 1709 ; died, 1777. 
 
 BROTHERS, Richard, a fanatic, who, in 
 1793, commenced his career as the apostle of 
 a new religion, and announced himself as 
 " nephew of the Almighty and prince of the 
 Hebrews, appointed to lead them to the land 
 of Canaan." He predicted various absurd- 
 ities, and it is a melancholy fact that his 
 disciples were not confined to the poor and 
 ignorant. The great orientalist, Halhed, 
 and other men of unquestionable ability, ad- 
 vocated this maniac, whose career at length 
 attracted the notice of government, and he 
 was committed to Bedlam for life as a con- 
 firmed lunatic. He published several works, 
 redolent alike of blasphemy and absurdity. 
 
 BBOTIER, Gabriel, a learned French 
 Jesuit, and librarian to the college of Louis 
 le Grand ; author of a treatise " On the 
 Ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Roman Coins," 
 
 an excellent edition of Tacitus, end other 
 classics, &c. Born, 1723 ; died, 1789. 
 
 BROTIER, Andrew Charles, a French 
 abb^, nephew of the above. He was a friend 
 to the royalist cause, and the editor of 
 L'Annee Litteraire, which was so obnoxious 
 to the party in power that he was transported 
 to Guiana, where he died, in 1798. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Hugh, a learned Hebrew 
 scholar and polemical writer, who was edu- 
 cated at the expense of the celebrated Ber- 
 nard Gilpin. Born, 1549 ; died, 1(!12. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Thomas, a prebendary of 
 Salisbury, and a literary character of con- 
 siderable merit ; author of " Christianity 
 distinct from the Religion of Nature,*' 
 " Dissertations on the Prospects of Futurity," 
 " Hercules," a drama, &c. He was also one 
 of the principal contributors to the Biogra- 
 phia Britanniea. Died, 1774. 
 
 BROUNCKER, William, Lord, the first 
 president of tlie Royal Society at Oxford, 
 and author of some papers in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, &c. Died, 1584. 
 
 BROUSSAIS, Francois Joseph Victor, 
 a celebrated French physician, the author 
 of some very learned medical works, which, 
 however, are very much defaced by the 
 crudest and most dogmatical materialism. 
 Bom, 1772; died, 1838. 
 
 BROUSSONET, Peter Auoustits Maria, 
 an eminent French naturalist ; author of 
 " Icthyologia," "Variae Positiones circa 
 Respirationein," &c. Bom, 1761; died, 1807. 
 
 BROWALLIUS, John, bishop of Abo ; an 
 eminent naturalist, and the author of various 
 tracts on botany, &c. Died, 1755. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, an eminent 
 American writer, chiefly known in this 
 country by his powerful novels, " Wieland " 
 and " Edgar Huntley." Died, 1810. 
 
 BROWN, John, D.D., an eminent cler- 
 gyman and indefatigable writer. He was 
 born, in 1715, at Rothbury, Northumberland, 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge ; 
 and after various church preferments became 
 chaplain to the king. The chief of his nu- 
 merous works are " Essays on the Charac- 
 teristics of the Earl of Shaftesbury," " Bar- 
 barossa," a tragedy ; an " Estimate of the 
 Manners and Principles of the Times," a 
 " History of the Rise and Progress of Poetry," 
 and " Thoughts on Civil Liberty, Licentious- 
 ness, and Faction." It is supposed that his 
 mental exertions were too great, for he fell 
 into a state of dejection, which terminated in 
 his death, by his own hand, in 1766. 
 
 BROWN, John, a Scotch painter and au- 
 thor, favourably known in the former cha- 
 racter by his painting of the bust of Homer 
 from the Townley marbles, and by his por- 
 trait of Pope. As an author he is even more 
 distinguished by his " Letters on the Poetry 
 and Music of the Italian Opera," which he 
 addressed to his friend, Lord Monboddo. 
 Born, 1752 ; died, 1787. 
 
 BROWN, John, a very learned, though 
 self-educated Scotch divine ; author of the 
 " Self-interpreting Bible," " Dictionary of 
 the Bible," and numerous other religious 
 works. Born, 1772 ; died, 1787. 
 
 BROWN, John, M.D., an eminent Scotch 
 physician, and the founder of a new system 
 of medicine, which bears lus name. He di- 
 
BRO] 
 
 ^ ^th) mnibtt^Kl 33i0ffrapTjti. 
 
 [bru 
 
 vided all diseases into two great classes, — 
 the one from deficient excitement, and the 
 other from its redundance ; and though his 
 opinions have not been unconditionally re- 
 ceived, they have very materially influenced 
 the practice of his professional successors. 
 Dr. Brown's principal works are " Elements 
 of Medicine " and " Observations on the 
 Old Systems of Physic." Born, 1735 ; died, 
 1788. 
 
 BROWN, Joux, an eminent English en- 
 graver ; his best works are engravings from 
 Salvator Rosa. Died, IHOl. 
 
 BROWN, Lai;nci;lot, an eminent land- 
 scape gardener, whose great merit consisted 
 in imitating nature, and abandoning the 
 stiflf and clipped formalitj^ so universally 
 prevalent at that time m the pleasure 
 grounds of our nobility. From his constant 
 use of the plirase, " this spot has great ca- 
 pabilities," he was called Capability Brown. 
 Born, 171.5 ; died, 1782. 
 
 BROWN, RonEKT, an English clergyman, 
 founder of the sect of Brownists, subsequently 
 better known by the title of Independents. 
 His chief work was a controversial one, " A 
 Treatise on Reformation, without tarrying 
 for any Man." Notwithstanding his violent 
 hostility to the Church, he at length became 
 reconciled to it either through conviction or 
 policy, and obtained a benefice ; but his 
 character remained as violent as ever ; and, 
 when 80 years old, he was imprisoned in 
 Northampton gaol for an assault, and died 
 there in 1G30. 
 
 BROWN, TiioifAS, a humorous writer, 
 more distinguished for wit than for morality. 
 His works, indeed, notwithstanding their 
 great literary merit, have fallen into com- 
 parative oblivion on account of their coarse- 
 ness. Died, 1704. 
 
 BROWN, Dr. Thomas, an able meta- 
 physician and moral essayist ; professor of 
 moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He wrote 
 " Observations on Darwin's Zoonomia," some 
 poems, and several moral and metaphysical 
 essays ; but his fame chiefly rests upon his 
 treatise " On the Philosophy of the Human 
 Mind," a work which is deservedly held in 
 very high estimation. Born, 1777; died, 1820. 
 
 BROWNE, George, Count de, an Irish 
 officer in the Russian service, who so nobly 
 distinguished himself on many great occa- 
 sions, that he was rewarded with the go- 
 vernment of I^ivonia ; from which, when he 
 had held it 30 years, he wished to retire, 
 but Catharine II. would not accept his re- 
 signation, replying, " Death alone shall part 
 us." Born, 1G98 ; died, 1792. 
 
 BROWNE, Isaac Hawkixs, an English 
 lawyer and poet. His best English works 
 are a poem addressed to Highmore, the 
 painter, " On Design and Beauty ; " and a 
 shorter one, called "The Pipe of Tobacco," 
 in which he very skilfully imitated the tone 
 of thought and expression of Cibber,Plulips, 
 Thomson, Young, Swift, and Pope. The 
 work, however, on which his reputation 
 chiefly depends, is a Latin poem, on the Im- 
 mortalitv of the Soul. Bom, 1706 ; died, 1776. 
 
 BROWNE, Pateick, M.D., an eminent 
 naturalist ; author of " The Civil and Na- 
 tural History of Jamaica," catalogues of the 
 birds and fish of Ireland, and of the plants 
 
 of the Sugar Islands. Bom in Ireland, 1720; 
 died, 17SK). 
 
 BROWNE, SiMOX, a dissenting minister 
 of considerable ability, but chiefly remark- 
 able for an unhappy hallucination. He im- 
 agined that "God had annihilated in him 
 the thinking substance, and utterly divested 
 him of consciousness." This delusion per- 
 petually haunted him, and yet he furnished 
 the completest refutation to it by composing 
 several argumentative tracts, and by some 
 very laborious compilations. Died, 1732. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, an eminent phy- 
 sician and learned author. His "Religio 
 Medici " attracted much notice ; and nis 
 treatises " On Urn Burial " and " On ^'ulgar 
 Errors" abound with curious ertidition, in 
 whicli, however, they are excelled by his 
 tract, entitled " The Garden of Cyrus." Of 
 his style Dr. Johnson was the defender ; and 
 also, perhaps unconsciously, in some degree 
 the imitator. Bom 1605 ; died, 1682. 
 
 BROWNE, Edward, son of Sir Tliomas, 
 physician to Charles II., translator of some 
 of the Lives of Plutarch, and author of an 
 amusing book of travels. Bora, 1012 ; died, 
 
 i7as. 
 
 BRO^VNE, Ultsses Ma.vimilian, the son 
 of an expatriated Irish officer, entered the 
 Austrian service, and by his great skill and 
 bravery, when employed against the Turks, 
 rose to the rank of fleld-marshal. He after- 
 wards greatly distinguished himself at Pla- 
 centia and other places in Italy ; and .at 
 length died of the wounds he received at 
 the battle of Prague. Born, 1705 ; died, 1757. 
 
 BROWNE. Sir William, an able and 
 eccentric physician of the 18th century. He 
 was the author of numerous optical and 
 other essays ; and, at his death, bequeathed 
 a sum of money for the provision of three 
 medals, of the value of five guineas each, 
 for Greek and Latin odes and epigrams by 
 undergraduates of Cambridge. Born, 1692 ; 
 died, 1774. 
 
 BROWNE, "William, an English poet of 
 the 17th century ; author of " Britannia's 
 Pastorals," " The Shepherd's Pipe," &c. 
 
 BROWNE, William George, an enter- 
 prising English traveller ; author of " Tra- 
 vels in Africa, Egypt, and Assyria." He 
 •was murdered while on his way to explore 
 the regions south of the Caspian, by a Per- 
 sian banditti, in 1814. 
 
 BROWNRIGG, William, an ingenious 
 physician and natural philosopher ; author 
 of "The Art of making common Salt," 
 treatises on platina and carbonic acid, &c. 
 Died, 1800. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, a descendant of David, 
 earl of Huntingdon, and comi)etitor with 
 Jolm Baliol for the crown of Scotland, at 
 the death of Alexander III. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, grandson of the above, 
 and the most heroic of the Scottish kings. 
 After many desperate struggles he totally 
 defeated Edward II. at the battle of Ban- 
 nockburn, and thus firmly established him- 
 self on tlie throne ; but his life was so com- 
 pletely devoted to his country, that it belongs 
 rather to history than to biography to be 
 his chronicler. He was born in 1274 ; died, 
 1329. 
 
 BRUCE, James, one of the most celc- 
 
 121 
 
BRU] 
 
 ^ 0cbi mnibtv^al 2Stfl5TapT)i». 
 
 [bru 
 
 brated of modem travellers. For a short 
 time he held the post of British consul at 
 Algiers, but resigned it in order to gratify 
 his passion for travelling. After traversing 
 the greater portion of Asia Minor, he set 
 out on a journey to ascertain the source of 
 the Nile. An account of this journey he 
 subsequently published ; and some of his 
 statements, particularly those which re- 
 ferred to the manners and customs of Abys- 
 sinia, were received with mingled incre- 
 dulity and ridicule. Though greatly an- 
 noyed by the disgraceful illiberality with 
 wTiich he had been treated, he bore the 
 taunts and sneers of liis shallow critics with 
 a taciturn pride, not deigning to satisfy dis- 
 belief, or to disarm ridicule, but trusting the 
 day would ere long arrive when the truth of 
 what he had written would be confirmed by 
 others ; and it is now clearly proved, from 
 the statements of many subsequent travellers, 
 that he was every way undeserving of the 
 censure bestowed on him. He was born at 
 Kinnaird House, Stirlingshire, in 1730 ; and 
 died, in consequence of an injury sustained 
 by falling down stairs, at his paternal estate, 
 in 1794. 
 
 BRUCE, John, an able writer on com- 
 merce, moral philosophy, and political eco- 
 nomy ; author of " First Principles of Phi- 
 losophy," "Annals of the East India Com- 
 pany,'"^ &c. Died, 182G, aged 82. 
 
 BRUCE, Michael, a Scotch poet. His 
 parents being of the poorest class, his early 
 life was one of considerable privation. This 
 and his ardent attachment to poetry, pro- 
 bably aggravated a constitutional predispo- 
 sition to consumption, and he died in the 
 2l8t year of his age, in 1767. His poems are 
 few in number, but singularly plaintive and 
 elegant. 
 
 BRUCE, Petek Henry, a German mi- 
 litary officer of Scotch descent. He was at 
 the battle of Pruth, and was several times 
 employed by the Russian court in diplomatic 
 missions. His memoirs, published after his 
 death, give some curious details of his travels. 
 He died in Scotland in 1757. 
 
 BRUCKER, John James, a German Lu- 
 theran clergyman ; author of " Historia Cri- 
 ticaPhilosophia3,"&c. Born, 1696; died, 1770. 
 
 BRUCKNER, John, a Lutheran divine, 
 pastor of the Walloon congregation at Nor- 
 wich ; author of " Theorie du Syst&me 
 Animale," "Criticism on the Diversions of 
 Purley," &c. Born, 1726 ; died, 1804. 
 
 BRUEY8, David Augustin, a French 
 dramatic writer ; in early life a Protestant, 
 but afterwards a bigoted adherent to the Ca- 
 tholic faith. Born, 1640 ; died, 1723. 
 
 BRUEYS, Francis Paul, agallant French 
 admiral, commanding the fleet which con- 
 veyed the army of Buonaparte to Egypt, and 
 killed at the battle of the Nile. 
 
 BRUGM ANS, Skb ald Justinus, a learned 
 Dutchman, physiciau-in-chief of the army, 
 and the author of some valuable medical 
 works. After the union of Holland with 
 France, Najioleon made him inspector-ge- 
 neral of the hospitals ; and it has been re- 
 marked that so skilful were his arrange- 
 ments, that the number of deaths by wounds 
 and diseases was never increased by hospital 
 fevers. After the battle of Waterloo, he 
 
 promptly procured medical aid for upwards 
 of 20.000 men. Born, 1763 ; died, 1819. 
 
 BRUGNATELLI, Louis, an Italian phy- 
 sician and chemist ; author of " Bibliotheca 
 Tisicad'Europe," &c. Born, 1726 ; died, 1818. 
 
 BRUGUIERES, John William, a French 
 naturalist and physician ; author of many 
 essays on subjects of natural history, the 
 best of which is the " Natural History of 
 Worms" in the Encyclopedic Methodique. 
 Died, 1799. 
 
 BRUIIL, Henry, Count of, minister of 
 Augustus in. king of Poland ; one of the 
 most artful and expensive courtiers that 
 ever governed a weak and credulous prince. 
 He kept 200 domestics, paying them better 
 than the king himself, and furnishing a 
 more sumptuous table ; but, as was natural, 
 he plunged the country into debt and dis- 
 grace. Born, 1700; died, 1763. — Various 
 members of this family have attained dis- 
 tinction. Freperic, a sou of the preceding, 
 besides being remarkable for his skill in the 
 line arts, wrote several good plays. Died, 
 1793. Hans Moritz, his nephew, gained 
 some reputation as an astronomer and politi- 
 cal economist, and died while Saxon am- 
 bassador in London, Ij^. 
 
 BRUMOY, Peter, a learned French 
 Jesuit ; author of the " Theatre des Grecs," 
 " History of the Gallican Church," &c. 
 Born, 1688 ; died, 1742. 
 
 BRUNCK, Richard Francis Philip, a 
 profound classical scholar and critic, was 
 born at Strasburg, but educated by the 
 Jesuits at Paris. For some time he was 
 employed in state affairs, but at length de- 
 voted himself wholly to study ; and pro- 
 duced the " Greek Anthology," besides 
 highly valuable editions of Aristophanes, 
 Sophocles, Virgil, &c. When the revolution 
 broke out, he took part in it, and was im- 
 prisoned at Besanpon by the tyrant Robes- 
 pierre, whose death, however, released him. 
 Bom 1729 ; died, 1803. 
 
 BRUNE, W.M.A., a French marshal, 
 born in 1763. Law and literature occupied 
 his attention till the French revolution, 
 when he embraced the military profession, 
 and served as adjutant under Dumourier, in 
 the campaign of 1791. He afterwards served 
 under Buonaparte, in Italy, gaining rapid 
 promotion ; and in 1799 he was commander- 
 in-chief of the French and Dutch forces in 
 North Holland, who so successfully opposed 
 the English under the Duke of York. In 
 1803, he was sent as ambassador to Con- 
 stantinople, and, during his absence, was 
 made a marshal. On his return he was ap- 
 pointed governor 'of the Hanseatic cities, in 
 which station he gave some offence to Na- 
 poleon, and their cordiality ceased. He 
 submitted to the Bourbons in 1814 ; but, on 
 his old master's return from Elba, he joined 
 him and took the command of a division of 
 the army in the south of France ; and, on 
 the emperor's second abdication, he was 
 put to death by a royalist party at Avignon, 
 August 2. 1815. 
 
 BRUNEAU, Mathurin, an adventurer, 
 who in 1818 assumed the title of Charles of 
 France, was the son of a clog maker. After j 
 numerous efforts to pass for some person of [ 
 importance, he was incarcerated ; and from 
 
BRU] 
 
 ^ ^cto mnibtr^al 33iOjirapl)i). 
 
 [bru 
 
 his confinement addressed a letter, signed 
 Dauphin Bourbon, to the governor of the 
 Isle of Guernsey, requesting liim to inform 
 his Britannic Majesty of the captivity of 
 lioiiis XVII. Tliis letter being intercepted 
 by tlie local authorities, Bruneau was trans- 
 ferred to the prison at Rouen : here lie en- 
 gaged a person named Branzon as his se- 
 cretary, who found means so far to impose 
 on the Ducliesi d'AngoulOme, as to obtain 
 her interest ; and at length a party in his 
 favour procured him abundant supplies. 
 This encouraged the enterprise, until the 
 principal, his secretary, and many friends 
 were brought before the bar of justice, 
 where Bruneau Mas declared an impostor 
 and a vagabond, and condemned to seven 
 years' imprisonment. Finding, however, 
 that the fraud was still maintained by a 
 powerful party, he was removed to tlie 
 prison at Caen in 1821, und was afterwards 
 sent to end his days in the castle of Mont 
 Saint Micliael. 
 
 BRUNEL, Sir Isambert, the well-known 
 executor of that great work of engineering 
 skill, the Thames Tunnel, was born at 
 HacqueviUe in Normandy, 1769. lie was 
 intended for tlie Clmrch ; but he soon evinced 
 BO strong a predilection for the physical 
 sciences, and so great a genius for mathe- 
 matics, that he entered the royal navy, 
 made several voyages to the West Indies, 
 and returned home in 1792. During tlie 
 French revolution he emigrated to the 
 United States, where necessity, fortunately, 
 compelled liim to follow the natural bent of 
 his mind, and to adopt the profession of a 
 civil engineer. Here he was engaged in 
 many great works ; but, determined upon 
 visiting England, he offered his services to the 
 British government ; and, after much oppo- 
 sition to his plans for making ship-blocks by 
 machinery, he was employed to execute 
 them in Plymouth Dockyard. With a true 
 discrimination, he selected Mr. Henry 
 Maudsley to assist in the execution of the 
 work ; and thus was laid the foundation of 
 one of the most extensive engineering es- 
 tablishments in the kingdom, and in which, 
 perhaps, a degree of science and skill has 
 been combined and applied to mechanical 
 invention and improvement scarcely ex- 
 ceeded by any other in the world. Tlie 
 block machinery was finished in 1806 ; and 
 has continued ever since in full operation, 
 supplying our fleet with blocks of very 
 8Ui>erior description to those previously in 
 use, and at a large annual saving to the 
 public. The visit of the emperor Alexander 
 to this country, after the peace, led him to 
 submit to the emperor a plan for making a 
 tunnel under the Neva ; where the accumu- 
 lation of ice, and the suddenness with which 
 it breaks up on the termination of winter, 
 rendered the erection of a bridge a work of 
 great difficulty. This was the origin of his 
 plan for a tunnel under the Thames, which 
 had been twice before attempted without suc- 
 cess. The history of that great work is too 
 familiar to require that we should repeat it 
 here, but it only crowned a long life almost 
 wholly devoted to the invention and con- 
 struction of works of great public utility. 
 Mr. Brunei received the honour of knight- 
 
 123 
 
 hood from Lord Melbourne's administration. 
 He M'as a vice-president of the Royal So- 
 ciety, a corresponding member of the In- 
 stitute of France, a vice-president of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, and a che- 
 valier of the Legion of Honour. Died, 1849. 
 
 BRUNELLESCUI, Piiilii-, a Florentine 
 architect, patronised by Cosmo de Medici. 
 Among the chief of his architectural works 
 are the Pitti Palace, the monastery of Fie- 
 sole, and the cupola of the cathedral church 
 of Santa Maria del Friare at Florence. He 
 was also a sculptor and a poet, as well as 
 an architect ; and some of his burlesque 
 verses are published with those of Burchi- 
 ello. Born, 1377 ; died, lUO. 
 
 BRUNNKR, John Conhad, baron de 
 Bruun, a Swiss physician and anatomist ; 
 author of various tracts on physiology and 
 anatomy. Born, 1C53 ; died, 1727. 
 
 BRUNO, a saint of the Romish calendar, 
 and founder of the Carthusian order of 
 monks, the first house of which he esta- 
 blished in the desert of Chartreuse. Born, 
 1030 ; died, 1101. 
 
 BRUNO, surnamed the Great, arch- 
 bishop of Cologne and duke of Lorraine ; an 
 able politician, who took a conspicuous part 
 in all the great transactions of his time. 
 He was the brother of the emperor Otho I., 
 and died in 905. 
 
 BRUNO, Giordano, a Neapolitan, and 
 originally a monk of the Dominican order. 
 The boldness with which he censured the 
 irregularities of liis monastery, obliged him 
 to leave it ; and, flying to Geneva, he em- 
 braced the Protestant religion. Beza and 
 Calvin, however, obliged him to quit that 
 city, and he proceeded to Paris, where lie 
 excited much attention by his strictures on 
 the Aristotelian philosophy. After visiting 
 England he settled at Padua, where his 
 freedom of 8{K;cch attracted the attention 
 of the Inquisition of Venice. He was ap- 
 prehended, and, refusing to recant, he was 
 burnt in 1000. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Ferdinand, Duke of, one 
 of the principal generals in the seven years 
 war in Germany. Born, 1721 ; died, 1702. 
 
 BRUNSWICK WOLFENBUTTEL, 
 
 Maximilian Julius Leoi-old, brother of the 
 preceding, a prince whose name is revered 
 for liis disinterested benevolence and hu- 
 manity, of which the last action of his life 
 is a striking example : — During a terrible 
 inundation of the Oder, which spread de- 
 strustion in the neighbourhood of Frankfort, 
 where the prince commanded a regiment in 
 the garrison, his zeal to save the lives of a 
 family surrounded by the waters, induced 
 lum to put oft' in a boat to tlieir assistance, 
 when he was swept away by the torrent, and 
 perished in the humane attempt. Born, 
 1751 ; died, 1785. 
 
 BRUNSWICK LUNENBURGH, 
 
 Charles William Feri>inand, Duke of, 
 nephew of the preceding. He studied the 
 art of war under his uncle, and highly dis- 
 tinguished liimself in the service of Frederick 
 of Prussia. At the commencement of the 
 French revolution, he took the command of 
 the Prussian and Austrian forces intended 
 for the liberation of Louis XVI. ; but the 
 violent manifesto he published served only 
 
 »2 
 
BRU] 
 
 ^ ^c&j WinibtrSsX 3Si0srajT)e» 
 
 [bru 
 
 to stimulate the republican army under 
 Dumourier, and he was compelled to retreat. 
 The ill success of this expedition caused 
 him to resign the command, and occupy 
 himself with the domestic affairs of his new^ 
 province. In 1806 he was again appointed 
 leader of the Prussian armj', and was mor- 
 tally wounded at the battle of Auerstadt in 
 that year. 
 
 BRUNSWICK OELS, Frederic Au- 
 gustus, Duke of, younger brother of the 
 above, and a general officer in the Prussian 
 service. lie was more distinguished as an 
 author than as a general, his treatise on 
 Great Men, "Remarks on the Character and 
 Actions of Alexander the Great," and nume- 
 rous other works, having been much admired, 
 though only privately circulated. Born, 
 1741 ; died, 1805. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Frederick William, 
 Duke of, youngest son of Charles William 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick, and brother of the 
 persecuted queen Caroline of England, was 
 born in 1771. He soon entered the Prussian 
 army, and, stimulated by his father's un- 
 happy fate and the wrongs of his country, 
 took an active part in the war against revo- 
 lutionary France. In 1809 he raised a body 
 of volunteers in Bohemia ; but finding no 
 chance of making an effectual stand against 
 the power of France, he embarked his troops 
 for England, where they were taken into 
 the British service, and employed in the 
 Peninsula. Foreseeing that great changes 
 were likely to take place on tlie Continent, 
 he hastened to his paternal dominions in 
 1813, raised a large body of troops, and was 
 among the foremost to meet the French 
 army in 1815, when, two days before the 
 decisive battle of Waterloo, he fell, gallantly 
 fighting at the head of his "brave Bruns- 
 wickers." 
 
 BRUNTON, Maey, the daughter of Colo- 
 nel Balfour, was born in one of the Orkney 
 isles ; married a minister of the Scotch 
 church ; and is known as the authoress of 
 the excellent novels, " Discipline," " Self 
 Control," and other valuable works. Bom, 
 1778 ; died, 1818. 
 
 BRUSONIUS, L. DoMiTius, author of a 
 work entitled " Facetiarum Exemplorumque 
 Libri VII. ; " but better known by the title 
 of" Speculum Mundi." 
 
 BRUTO, JoHx Michael, an eminent tra- 
 veller and writer of the IGth century ; au- 
 thor of a " History of Hungary," " Critical 
 Annotations on the Works of Cicero, Ho- 
 race," &c., and of the "Eight first Books of 
 the History of Florence." Died, 1594. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, one of the 
 most celebrated characters of antiquity, was 
 the son of Marcus Junius, a wealthy patri- 
 cian of Rome. The father and brother of 
 Lucius Junius were assassinated by order 
 of their relative, Tarquin the Proud ; and 
 Lucius Junius owed the preservation of his 
 life to an assumed idiotism. So completely 
 did this impose upon the tyrant, that he not 
 only spared his young relative's life, but 
 brought him up m his own family, where 
 he was treated as a mere idiot, and sur- 
 named Brutus. He bore all contumely with 
 patience until the outrage of Sextus Tar- 
 quin [see LucEETiA] afforded him an oppor- 
 
 tunity to arouse the people against both the 
 king and his sons. Throwing off his pre- 
 tended want of intellect, and displaying an 
 energy the more startling by contrast with 
 his former manner, he joined with Lucre- 
 tia's husband, CoUatinus ; caused the gates 
 to be shut, assembled the senate, dilated 
 upon the tyrannies of Tarquin, and caused 
 a decree to be made for banisliing the king 
 and establishing a republic. This great 
 change accordingly took place, and Brutus 
 and Collatinus were appointed chief magis- 
 trates of the commonwealth with the title 
 of consuls. Terrible as the tyranny of Tar- 
 quin had been, his expulsion and the entire 
 change in the form of government gave 
 great offence to many of the Roman patri- 
 cians ; and among tliose who were opposed 
 to the new constitution were the two sons 
 of Brutus and three nephews of Collatinus, 
 all of whom conspired, with other malcon- 
 tents, to murder the two consuls and restore 
 Tarquin and the monarchy. The intentions 
 of the consjiirators were disclosed by a 
 slave to Poplicola Valerius, a senator ; and 
 the conspirators were brouglit before the 
 consular tribunal for judgment. Mischievous 
 as were the intentions of the criminals, the 
 people would fain have punished tliem only 
 by banishment ; and Collatinus, in his af- 
 fection for his nephews, was equally dis- 
 posed to be lenient. Brutus, on the con- 
 trary, determined to show that no rank or 
 relationship should avail the enemies of 
 Roman liberty ; and disregarding the en- 
 treaties of the multitude and his own feel- 
 ings as a parent, he sternly sentenced his 
 sons to death. Collatinus, even after this 
 signal proof of the inflexibility of Brutus, 
 endeavoured to save his nephews. But the 
 young men were executed, and Collatinus 
 retired from the consulship. Poplicola Va- 
 lerius was elected as his successor, and, ir^ 
 conjunction with Brutus, proceeded against 
 the Veientcs, who with Tarquin and his 
 partisans were marching against Rome. The 
 Roman cavalry was commanded by Brutus, 
 while the enemy's cavalry was led on by 
 Aruns, one of the sons of Tarquin. These 
 leaders were speedily engaged hand to hand ; 
 and so great was their mutual hate, that 
 each in his desire to wound his opponent 
 neglected to protect himself ; and they both 
 fell dead upon the field. The conflict end- 
 ing in the victory of the Romans, the body 
 of Brutus was interred with great solemnity, 
 and a statue was erected to his memory. His 
 death took place u.c. 509. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, an illustrious 
 Roman, and a descendant of the preceding. 
 His mother was the sister of Cato ; and as 
 she had disgraced herself by an intrigue 
 with Julius Caesar, Marcus was by many 
 thought to be his son. He at first sided with 
 Pompey, but being treated with great lenity 
 and consideration after the battle of Phar- 
 salia, he attached himself to Caesar, by 
 whom he was greatly caressed and en- 
 trusted. But the stern republican spirit of 
 his reputed ancestor, which he inherited, 
 rendered it impossible for all Ca;sar's kind- 
 ness to him to reconcile him to Caesar's am- 
 bition ; and he at length conspired with 
 Cassius and others, and slew liim, b.c. 39. 
 
BRU] 
 
 ^ IJeto Bnibtv^Kl 23t0OTaji!)i?. 
 
 [buc 
 
 Antony succeeded in exciting the popular 
 indignation against the murderers of Caesar, 
 who fled from Kome, and raised an army, 
 of which Brutus and Cassius took the com- 
 mand ; but being totally defeated at the bat- 
 tle of Pliilippi, where they encountered the 
 army of Antony, Brutus escaped with only 
 a few friends, passed the night in a cave, 
 and, as he saw his cause irretrievably 
 ruined, requested Strato, one of his confi- 
 dants, to kill him. For a long time his 
 friend refused ; but on hearing Brutus call 
 one of his slaves to perform the fatal office, 
 he exclaimed, "Forbid it, Gods, that it 
 should ever be said that Brutus died by the 
 hand of a slave for want of a friend 1 and 
 presenting tlie sword as he turned awoy his 
 face, the noble Roman fell on it and expired, 
 B.C. 42, in the 43d year of Ids age. 
 
 BRUYERE, Jons de la, an eminent 
 French writer ; author of " Dialogues on 
 Quietism," published after his decease ; and 
 of" Theophrastus, translated from the Greek, 
 with the Manners of the present Age." Of 
 this admirable and admired work Voltaire 
 says, " Its rapid and nervous style struck the 
 public at once ; and the allusions to living 
 persons, which abound through its pages, 
 completed its success." Born, 1644 ; died, 
 1696. 
 
 BRYAN, Michael, a connoisseur of paint- 
 ings, whose judgment was highly esteemed, 
 though he lost large sums by his own pur- 
 chases. He was the author of a valuable 
 " Biographical and Critical Dictionary of 
 Painters and Engravers." Born, 1757; died, 
 1821. 
 
 BRYAN, or BRIANT, Sir Francis, a 
 distinguished soldier and statesman. He 
 served with great credit against the French 
 in the Earl of Surrey's expedition, and sub- 
 sequently became chief justiciary of Ire- 
 land, lie is chiefly memorable, however, 
 as a poet ; his works being printed with 
 those of his friends Wyatt and Lord Surrey. 
 Died, 15.50. 
 
 BRYANT, Jacob, a distinguished an- 
 tiquarian and philologist ; author of an 
 able, though singular, " Analysis of Ancient 
 Mythology," published in three vols. 4to ; 
 a treatise on the Truth of Christianity, a 
 work iu denial of tlie existence of Troy, 
 and various other publications of great 
 erudition and ingenuity. Born, 1715 ; died, 
 1804. 
 
 BRYDGES, Sir Samuel Egertox, bart., 
 a gentleman of versatile talents and eccentric 
 character, was born in 1762, at Wootton 
 Court, in Kent, and was educated at the 
 King's School, Canterbury, and at Queen's 
 College, Cambridge. In 1790, after the 
 death of the last Duke of Chandos, he in- 
 duced his elder brother, the Rev. E. T. 
 Brydges, to prefer a claim to the barony of 
 Chandos, the consideration of which was 
 long procrastinated ; but at length, in 1803, 
 the House of liords decided against its va- 
 lidity. On the death of his brother, in 
 1807, Sir Egerton pertinaciously adliered to 
 his favourite, though illusory notion, of 
 obtaining a coronet ; maintaining that, 
 though defeated by parliamentary law, he 
 could, when he pleased, asseri his rights by 
 commou law, while he regularly added 
 
 125 
 
 to the signature of his name — "per legem 
 terroe,B. C. of S." — meaning Baron Chan- 
 dos of Sudely. Ue made several unsuc- 
 cessful attempts to obtain a seat in par- 
 liament, but was ultimately (1812) returned 
 for Maidstone, which borough he continued 
 to represent about six years. In 1814 he 
 was created a baronet ; and in 1818, upon 
 the loss of his seat in the House of Commons, 
 he visited many parts of the Continent. In 
 1826 he returned to England, for two years, 
 and took uj) hia abode at Lee Priory, the 
 seat of Col. Brydges Barrett, his eldest son ; 
 at the expiration of which time, his affairs 
 becoming inextricably embarrassed, he 
 finally quitted his native land, and removed 
 to Geneva, where he remained in great se- 
 clusion until his death. His literary labours 
 were exceedingly • multifarious ; poetry, 
 romance, politics, genealogical antiquities, 
 and topography, were the principal ; and 
 in many he acquitted himself with consider- 
 able skill. His abilities as a genealogist, 
 topographer, and bibliographer, are attested 
 by his " Ceusura Literaria Ilestituta," 10 
 vols. ; " Theatrum Poetarum ; " " Stemmata 
 lUustria;" "British Bibliography-," "Lex 
 Terra;," &c. Besides these, he published 
 the novels of "Mary dc Clifford," " Arthur 
 Fitz-Albini," and "The Hall of Ilelling- 
 sey;" "Imaginary Biography," 3 vols.; 
 " Recollections of Foreign Travels," 2 vols. ; 
 " The Autobiography, Times, Opinions, and 
 Contemporaries of Sir Egerton Brydges," 
 2 vols. ; and numerous others ; independ- 
 ent of contributions to mony periodicals 
 on almost every subject. Died, September, 
 18.37. 
 
 BRYDONE, Patrick, a Scotch gentle- 
 man ; author of " Travels into Sicily aud 
 Malta," &c. Bom, 1741 ; died, 1819. 
 
 BRYENNIUS, Manuel, an early musical 
 composer ; he published, in the 14th cen- 
 tury, a treatise on harmonics, of which a 
 Latin translation, together with the compo- 
 sitions of the author, was published by Dr. 
 Wallis in 1699. 
 
 BUACHE, Philip, an able French hy- 
 drographer ; author of some valuable hydro- 
 graphical and geograpliical works. Born, 
 1700 ; died, 1775. 
 
 BUAT NANCAY, Louis Gabriel du, an 
 eminent French diplomatist and writer ; au- 
 thor of a " History of the Ancient Nations 
 of Europe." "Maxims of Monarchical Go- 
 vernment," &c. Born, 1732 ; died, 1787. 
 
 BUC, Sir George, historian and anti- 
 quary, was gentleman of the privy chamber 
 to James I. ; and author of " The Life of 
 Richard III.," " The Art of Revels," &c. 
 
 BUCHER, Martin, a friend of Luther, 
 and so eminent a preacher of the reformed 
 faith, that Cranmer, when archbishop of 
 Canterbury, invited him to England, and 
 he became professor of theology at Cara- 
 biidge. Born, 1491 ; died, 1551. 
 
 BUCHAN, Right Hon. Stuart Erskixe, 
 Earl of, a noblemau iiidefatigably devoted 
 to literary and scientific pursuits, and who 
 may justly be styled the fotmder of the 
 Antiquarian Society in Scotland. In 1791 
 he instituted an annual commemoration at 
 Eduam, the birthplace of Tliomson, in 
 honour of tlie poet ; and on that occasion 
 
BTJC] 
 
 ^ ^^to Hitibn-j^ar 23t03Taji]5u. 
 
 [bul 
 
 Bums composed his " Address to the Shade 
 of the Bard of Ednam." Died, 1829. 
 
 BUCHAN, William, M.D., a native of 
 Scotland, and avithor of the well known 
 " Domestic Medicine," &c. Eoru, 1729; died, 
 1805. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, an eminent Scotch 
 historian and poet. Tlie few works which 
 he wrote in his Tcrnacular tongue are 
 greatly admired ; but his fame chiefly rests 
 on his Latin works, which are singularly 
 beautiful in their style. Born, liOC ; died, 
 1582. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Claudius, D. D., a Scotch 
 divine, chaplain at Bengal, and professor 
 and vice-provost of the college at Fort 
 William. Of his numerous works the most 
 interesting are " Christian Researches in 
 Asia " and a " Memoir on the Expediency 
 of an Ecclesiastical Establishment in India." 
 Born, 1766 ; died, 1815. 
 
 BUCHOZ, P. JosKi-n, a naturalist and 
 botanist of Metz, who must have been one 
 of the most industrious compilers that ever 
 lived, his works forming more than 300 
 volumes. Born, 1737 ; died, 1807. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, Gkokge VILLIERS, 
 Duke of, the unworthy favourite of James I. 
 and Charles I., was raised to tlie highest 
 offices in the state, became the dispenser of 
 all favours and honours, and conducted him- 
 I self with so much pride and insolence as to 
 excite popular hatred and disgust. Being 
 entrusted with the command of an army, he 
 lost the flower of it in an ill-conducted at- 
 tack on the Isle of Rh^, and returned to 
 refit his shattered armament. When he was 
 again about to sail, he was assassinated at 
 Portsmouth, by a lieutenant of the name of 
 Felton, August 23. 1628. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George VILLIERS, 
 Duke of, son of the preceding, was born in 
 1627 ; studied at Cambridge ; served the 
 king in the civil wars ; had his estates seized 
 by the parliament, which, however, were af- 
 terwards restored to him ; and he eventu- 
 ally became a minister to Charles II., and 
 was one of his most profligate courtiers. 
 His political conduct was, like his general 
 behaviour, characterised by unprincipled 
 levity and imprudence ; and though his lite- 
 rary and conversational powers were far 
 above mediocrity, yet he was an object of 
 contempt, and died, unregretted, at Kirby 
 Mooreside, Yorkshire, in 1688. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM and CHANDOS, Anke 
 Eliza, Duchess of, daughter and heiress of 
 the last Duke of Chandos ; born in 1779 ; 
 married to the Marquis of Buckingham, 
 then Earl Temple, in 179C. Throughout 
 life this amiable and accomplished woman 
 displayed those traits of character which 
 shed the brightest lustre on exalted rank, 
 and hallow tlie memory of their possessors. 
 She was boundless in her charities ; pious, 
 affectionate, and sincere ; withdrawing 
 from the " pomps and vanities " of the world, 
 to indulge in the charms of retirement, 
 where slie could eneoiirage the deserving, 
 reform tlie erring, and minister to the ne- 
 cessities of the distressed. Died at Stowe, 
 1836. 
 
 BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, Joiix SHEF- 
 FIELD, Duke of, son of the Eari of Mul- 
 
 grave, was born in 1649 ; served under 
 Marshal Turcnne, and took a part iu the 
 revolution of 16()8. He also distinguished 
 himself as a poet. Buckingham House, 
 iu St. James's Park, since converted into a 
 royal palace, was originally built for him. 
 Died, 1720. 
 
 BUCKINK, Arnold, an artist of the 
 15th century, and the first who engraved 
 maps on copper. He illustrated an edition 
 of Ptolemy, which was printed by Sweyn- 
 heim, of Rome, one of the earliest printers 
 iu that country. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph Stevens, an 
 American divine, of great reputation as an 
 orator and man of letters ; author of nume- 
 rous sermons and orations ; and editor of an 
 American edition of " Griesbach's Greek 
 Testament." Born, 1784 ; died, 1812. 
 
 BUDDiEUS, JouN Francis, a Lutheran 
 divine ; professor of theology at Jena, and 
 author of a " German Historical Dictionary," 
 &c. Died, 1729. 
 
 BUDGELL, Eustace, a distinguished 
 writer, lionoured with the friendship of Ad- 
 dison, and other great men of his time, was 
 born at Exeter, in 1685. He wrote memoirs 
 of the "Boyles," " The History of Cleome- 
 nes," and numerous papers in the Guar- 
 dian and other periodicals. He committed 
 suicide in 1737. 
 
 BUFFON, George Louis le Ci.erc, 
 Count de, an eminent French writer ; au- 
 thor of the well known " Histoire Naturelle, 
 Generale et Particuliere," a work replete 
 with majestic descriptions of nature and 
 profound thoughts, and one which, however 
 the vagueness of some of its hypotheses may 
 be criticised, will ever command the admi- 
 ration of mankind. Born at Montbard, 
 Burgundy, 1707 ; died, 1788. 
 
 BUGEAUD, Marshal, duke of Isly, a 
 distinguished French soldier, was born at 
 Limoges in 1784. By the maternal side he 
 was descended from an old Irish family. 
 At an early age he showed a decided predi- 
 lection for the army; but his family thwarted 
 his views, and he only succeeded by running 
 away from home, and becoming a private 
 soldier. He was promoted to the rank of 
 corporal on the field of Austeilitz ; and rose 
 through all the grades of his profession, till 
 he reached the rank of general in 1832. His 
 attachment to the cause of Louis Philippe 
 led, in 1833, to his appointment of command- 
 ant of Blaze, a fortress in which the Duchess 
 de Berri was imprisoned ; and his conduct in 
 that capacity having been called in question 
 by Dulong, a member of the opposition, a 
 duel ensued, in which the latter fell. His 
 subsequent exploits in Africa gained for him 
 the baton of a field-marshal, and the title of 
 duke from the scene of his victory over the 
 Moors in 1844. Died of cholera at Paris, 
 1849. 
 
 BULL, JouN, doctor of music, was cham- 
 ber musician to James I. His compositions 
 were very numerous, the national anthem 
 " God save the King " being among them. 
 The time of his death is uncertain, but he 
 was alive in 1622. 
 
 BULL, George, bishop of St. David's, a 
 learned prelate, and a very industrious and 
 able theological writer ; author of " Har- 
 
 i 
 
bul] 
 
 ^ j2eU) Btiibtx^al 28t0firiqil)g. 
 
 [bun 
 
 monia Apostolica," "Defensio Fidei Nicc- 
 nae," &c. Born, 1634 ; died, 1709. 
 
 BULLER, the Kight Honourable 
 CiiAiJLEs, a politician of rare promise, was 
 the only sou of Charles BuUer, esq., of tlie 
 East India Civil Service, and bom at Cal- 
 cutta in 1806. He received his education 
 partly at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cam- 
 bridge, and froiTi an early age gave promise 
 of more than ordinary abilities. In his 24th 
 year he entered parliament on the eve of 
 tlie Reform Bill for the borough of West 
 Looe, which belonged to his family. But 
 family interest was to him as nothing com- 
 pared with that of the public. He voted for 
 the bill ; and the borough of West Looe was 
 consigned to schedule A ; but he was sub- 
 sequently returned for Liskeard, a seat which 
 he retained till his death. In all questions 
 that came before parliament he took an 
 active part ; and on many occasions his 
 opinions were far in advance of tlie Whig 
 party, witli whom he subsequently took 
 office. In 1838 he accompanied Lord Durham 
 to Canada as his private secretary ; and in 
 this capacity drew up the masterly report 
 upon the afl'airs of that colony, v/hich is con- 
 sidered as one of the most effective state 
 papers of the age. In 1841 he was appointed 
 secretary to the Board of Control, an office, 
 however, which he relinquished in 1842 on 
 the formation of tlie Peel ministry. From 
 that time forward his attention was specially 
 directed to the state of the British colonies 
 and to emigration ; and in the meantime he 
 had gained the ear of the House of Commons, 
 which had perceived in the young statesman 
 a desire to achieve something beyond the 
 mere triumph of a party : the playfulness of 
 his manner had become not the mask but 
 the ornament of his political talents, and 
 the attachment universally felt for the man 
 had ripened into confidence in the judgment 
 and courage of the statesman. In 1846, on 
 the formation of the Whig Cabinet, he was 
 appointed judge advocate; in November of 
 the same year he was nominated a queen's 
 counsel, sworn of the privy council in July 
 1849, and in November exchanged the easy 
 office of judge advocate for the onerous duties 
 of chief commissioner of the poor laws, an 
 office which he held till his death. Besides 
 discharging faithfully his official duties, he 
 found leisure for literary pursuits, and many 
 able articles in the Globe and the Edinburgh 
 Review emanated from his versatile pen. As 
 a companion and friend in private life no 
 man's society was more enjoyed by persons 
 of all shades of politics. His wit always told, 
 but never offended. With nothing of the 
 cant of patriotism, and little of the creed of 
 party, he lived in singleness of devotion to the 
 public good ; and though, from his untimely 
 end, he has left no conspicuous monument of 
 his public labours, few men have descended 
 to the grave more universally beloved and 
 respected for public virtue and private ex- 
 cellence. Died, November 28. 1848. 
 
 BULLET, Peter, an eminent French 
 architect of the 17lh century. He con- 
 structed the church of St. Thomas Aquinas, 
 and many other splendid edifices in Paris, 
 and wrote some good architectural works. 
 
 BULLIALDUS, Ism-vel, a French astro- 
 
 nomer and mathematician ; author of " Phi- 
 lolaus — a Dissertation on the True System 
 of the World," " Tabulas Philolaicas," &c. 
 Born, 160,5 ; died, 1C94. 
 
 BULLIARD, Pierre, a French botanist ; 
 author of " Dictionnaire El<?mentaire Bota- 
 nique," " Herbier de la France," &c. He 
 designed and engraved his own plates. 
 Bom, 1742 ; died, 1793. 
 
 BULLINGER, Henrv, a Swiss pastor of 
 the Reformed Church, and the intimate 
 friend of Zuinglius, whom he succeeded as 
 pastor of Zurich. His writings were very 
 numerous, but being almost entirely con- 
 troversial, they are now little regarded. 
 Bom, 1504 ; died, 1575. 
 
 BULOW, FuEUERic William, count 
 von Dennewitz, a gallant Prussian general, 
 whose services were most essential to his 
 country on many perilous occasions. He 
 was actively engaged against the French at 
 the earliest periods of the late war ; and, 
 in 1808, was made a general of brigade. 
 His memorable victories, in 1813, at Mock- 
 em, Luckau, Grosbecren, and Dennewitz, 
 were rewarded by promotion and a title. 
 He afterwards distinguished himself in 
 Westphalia, Holland, Belgium, &c. ; and, 
 as commander of the fourth division of the 
 allied army, he contributed essentially to 
 the victorious close of the battle of Waterloo. 
 Born, 1755 ; died, 1816. 
 
 BULOW, Baron Henry von, distin- 
 guished in the annals of diplomacy, was 
 born in 1790, at Mecklcnburgh Schwerin, 
 wliere his father filled a high office. While 
 student at Heidell>erg, in 1813, he was sum- 
 moned home to take part in the defence of 
 his country against the French, and after ob- 
 taining great distinction in various engage- 
 ments under Count Wallmoden, he once 
 more returned to Heidelberg to finisli his 
 studies, whence he passed into the diplomatic 
 service of Prussia througli the influence of 
 Prince Hardeuberg and Baron Humboldt, 
 whose daughter he subsequently married. 
 In 1826 he was appointed ambassador of 
 Prussia at the court of St. James's ; and to 
 his talents were due several of the most 
 important treaties which allayed the warlike 
 spirit of the times. Here he remained till 
 1841, when he was nominated minister of 
 foreign affairs at Berlin ; but the crisis of 
 affairs in Prussia proved too much for his 
 exhausted energies, and the overstraining of 
 his intellect, in his attempt to guide the 
 vessel of the state, produced a mental aliena- 
 tion, under which he succumbed in 1846. 
 
 BUNYAN, Joiiy, the celebrated author 
 of " The Pilgrim's Progress," &c., was the 
 son of a travelling tinker, and for a time 
 followed his father's occupation. Mean, 
 however, as was his origin, and dissipated as 
 his early habits confessedly were, it appears 
 that he abandoned the latter, and attached 
 himself to the Anabaptists, among whom he 
 soon became distinguished as a preaclier. 
 Being imprisoned for contravening the laws 
 against Dissenters, he employed the twelve 
 years of his confinement in writing the most 
 popular allegory in our language, " The 
 Pilgrim's Progress." He was at length re- 
 leased through tlie interposition of the Bishop 
 of Lincoln, and resumed his ministry at 
 
BUO] 
 
 ^ ^tbj ^Rm'ticriSal 28t0grajpl;j). 
 
 [buo 
 
 Bedford, in the gaol of which town he liad 
 been imprisoned. Bom, lG2d ; died, 1688. 
 
 BUONAFEDE, Appian, an Italian abbot, 
 author of " Tlie Poetical Chronology of 
 Great Men," "The History and Spirit of 
 Philosophy," &c. Died, 1792. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Napoleox, emperor of 
 the French, Icing of Italy, &c., was born at 
 Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, August 15. 
 1769. His father, Charles Buonaparte, was 
 an advocate of consideraJ)le reputation, and 
 his mother, whose maiden name was Marie 
 Letitia Ramoline, was well descended, re- 
 marlcable for beauty, strong-minded, and 
 accomplished. Napoleon was their second 
 child ; Joseph, afterwards king of Spain, 
 being his senior. He was educated at the 
 military school of Brienne, and entered the 
 army as a second lieutenant of artillery, in 
 1785. At the age of 20, the French revolu- 
 tion opened a field to the exertions of Napo- 
 leon ; and during his correspondence with 
 the Corsican general, Paoli, who had vainly 
 endeavoured to enlist him on his side, the 
 germs of future ambition began to be deve- 
 loped. In 1793, during the reign of terror, 
 he was actively employed at the siege of 
 Toulon, on wliich occasion the convention 
 gave him the command of the artillery ; and 
 by his courage and exertions the city was 
 recovered from the English and royalists. 
 Subsequently to this he displayed great 
 talents in the army employed against Pied- 
 mont ; and, in October, 1795, we find him at 
 Paris, commanding the conventional troops 
 which defeated those of the sections, and 
 quelled the revolt. In March, 1790, he mar- 
 ried Josephine, widow of Viscount de Beau- 
 hamois, who suffered under Robespierre : he 
 was now appointed to the command of the 
 army of Italy, and on the 10th of May fol- 
 lowing he gained the battle of Lodi. The 
 subjugation of the various Italian states, and 
 his repeated successes over the Austrians, 
 ended in a peace, when he was within 30 
 miles of Vienna. Thus disengaged, a new 
 theatre for the display of his genius pre- 
 sented itself. With a large fleet, and 40,000 
 troops on board the transports, he set sail 
 for the intended conquest of Egypt in May, 
 1798. On his way tliither lie took Malta ; 
 and on the 22d of September we find him 
 celebrating the battle of the Pyramids at 
 Grand Cairo, but his progress was checked 
 by the heroism of Sir Sidney Smith and his 
 handful of British troops at St. John d'Acre; 
 and the various reverses which the French 
 army continued to meet with, coupled with 
 the fact that his presence seemed necessary 
 at home, induced Buonaparte to embark 
 secretly for France, accompanied by a few 
 officers wholly devoted to him, and to leave 
 his brave but shattered army to the care 
 of General Kleber. He landed at Frejus, in 
 October, 1799 ; hastened to Paris ; overthrew 
 the directorial government ; and was raised 
 to the supreme power by the title of First 
 Consul. He now led a powerful army over 
 the Alps ; fought the celebrated battle of 
 Marengo, in June, 1800 ; and once more be- 
 came master of the whole of Italy. A peace 
 with Austria followed these successes ; and, 
 soon after, a brief and hollow peace with 
 England. On the 20th of May, 1804, he 
 
 was raised to the imperial dignity ; and in 
 December was crowned, with his empress 
 Josephine, by pope Pius VIII. Here, brief 
 as our space is, we must notice an incident 
 too striking to be overlooked : — As soon as 
 the holy pontiff had blessed the crown, the 
 emperor, without waiting for the remainder 
 of the ceremony, eagerly seized it, and 
 putting it first upon his own head, after- 
 wards placed it on the head of Josephine. 
 He now seriously meditated the invasion of 
 England, assembling a numerous flotilla, 
 and collecting 200,000 troops, which were 
 encamped in the neighbourhood of Boulogne, 
 ostensibly for that purpose ; but Austria and 
 Russia appearing in arms against him, and 
 the battle of Trafalgar having nearly anni- 
 hilated the French navy, he abandoned the 
 design, and marched his troops to the banks 
 of the Danube. On the 11th of November, 
 
 1805, the French army entered Vienna ; the 
 memorable battle of Austerlitz took place 
 on the 2d of December, and the humiliating 
 treaty of Presburg followed. This year, 
 
 1806, may be regarded as the era of king- 
 making. New dynasties were created by 
 him, and princes promoted or transferred 
 according to his imperial will : the crown 
 of Naples he bestowed on his brother Joseph, 
 that of Holland on Louis, and Westphalia 
 on Jerome ; while the Confederation of the 
 Rhine was called into existence to give sta- 
 bility to his extended dominion. Prussia 
 again declared war ; but the disastrous battle 
 of Jena annihilated her hopes, and both she 
 and Russia were glad to make peace with 
 the French emperor in 1807. Napoleon now 
 turned his eye on Spain ; treacherously 
 causing the abdication of Charles IV., and 
 the forced resignation of Ferdinand, while 
 he sent 80,000 men into that country, seized 
 all the strong places, and obtained possession 
 of the capital : but this was the great error 
 of his life, and one of the main causes which 
 led to his downfall. In 1809, while his armies 
 were occupied in the Peninsula, Austria 
 again ventured to try her strength with 
 France. Napoleon thereupon left Paris, and 
 at the head of his troops once more entered 
 the Austrian capital, gained the decisive 
 victory of Wagram, and soon concluded a 
 peace ; one of the secret conditions of which 
 was, that he should have his marriage with 
 Josephine dissolved, and unite himself to 
 the daughter of the emperor, Francis II. 
 His former marriage was accordingly an- 
 nulled ; Josephine, with the title of ex-em- 
 press, retired to Navarre, a seat about 30 
 miles from Paris ; and he espoused the Arch- 
 duchess Maria Louisa in April, 1810. The 
 fruit of this union was a son,boni March 23. 
 1811, who was named Napoleon Francis 
 Charles Joseph, and styled king of Rome. 
 Dissatisfied with the conduct of Russia, he 
 now put himself at the head of an invading 
 army, prodigious in number, and admirably 
 appointed, and marched with his numerous 
 allies towards the enemy's frontiers, gained 
 several battles, and at length reached Mos- 
 cow, where he hoped to establish his winter 
 quarters, but which he found in flames. A 
 retreat was unavoidable ; and now was pre- 
 sented to the eye of ambition the most ap- 
 palling scene recorded in modern history — 
 
BUO] 
 
 ^ |5£fio Winihcxial MiaQva^ffv, 
 
 [buo 
 
 a brave and devoted army encountering all 
 the horrors of famine in a climate so in- 
 supportably cold that their freezing bodies 
 strewed the roads, wliile an exasperated 
 phalanx of Cossacks hung upon the rear of 
 the main army, hewing down without re- 
 morse tlie enfeebled and wretched fugitives. 
 Buonaparte fled to Paris, partially disclosed 
 his losses, and called upon the senate for a 
 new armj' of 3rA),(K>0 men ; which was unani- 
 mously agreed to, and he marched to meet 
 the combined Russian and Prussian forces. 
 Victory still for a time hovered over his 
 banners ; but Austria having joined the co- 
 alition, the great battle of I^ipsic, in wlxich 
 lie lost half of his army, was decisive as to 
 the war in Germany. Napoleon, however, 
 again returned to Paris, and demanded 
 another levy of 300,000 men. The levy was 
 granted, and the new campaign, 1814, was 
 attended with various success ; till the over- 
 whelming number of his enemies, who en- 
 tered the French frontiers at different points, 
 at lengtli compelled him to abdicate, and 
 accept the sovereignty of the Isle of Elba, 
 with the title of ex-emperor, and a pension 
 of 2,000,000 livres. From tliis place he soon 
 found means to escape, secretly embarking 
 on the night of the 25th of February, 1815, 
 in some hired feluccas, accompanied by about 
 1200 men ; he landed at Frejus on the 1st of 
 March, speedily reached Paris, and expelled 
 Louis XVIII. from tlie kingdom. But the 
 confederated armies were now in motion ; 
 and though he marched against them with a 
 large army and an immense supply of stores 
 and ammunition, the ever memorable battle 
 of Waterloo put an end to his political career. 
 He withdrew from the army, and proceeded 
 to the coast, with the intention of embarking 
 for America ; but fearful of being captured 
 by the British cruisers, he resigned himself, 
 on the 15th of July, into the hands of Captain 
 Maitland, and went on board the Bcllero- 
 phon. By the joint determination of the 
 allies he was sent to the isle of St. Helena, 
 where, accompanied by several of his old 
 friends and domestics, he arrived on the 
 13th of October, 1815, as a state prisoner. 
 During his exile he was subject to much an- 
 noyance, real or imaginary, and died on the 
 6th of May, 1821, of cancer in the stomach : 
 a disease which was evidently hereditary, 
 his father Imving, at about the same age, 
 died of a similar malady. In giving this 
 sketch of Napoleon's life, we have somewhat 
 exceeded our usual limits ; and it is neither 
 our purpose nor our wish to make a single 
 comment on his character as a man. His 
 wondrous deeds will long afford matter for 
 deep reflection ; and while some may be 
 dazzled by his amazing military talents and 
 stupendous achievements, others will turn 
 from them with sickening disgust. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Nai-oleox Fraxcis 
 Charles Joski-h, duke of Reichstadt, only 
 son of the emperor Napoleon by his second 
 wife, Maria Louisa of Austria. After his 
 father's downfall, he was wholly under the 
 care of his grandfather, the emperor of 
 Austria. He was from infancy of a weakly 
 constitution, and a rapid decline terminated 
 his life in 1832, at the early age of 21. It 
 would appear, from a work by M. de Montbel, 
 
 129 
 
 entitled "I.« Due de Reichstadt," that the 
 young Napoleon possessed many amiable 
 qualities, and was greatly beloved by those 
 who knew him ; while he had all tlie enthu- 
 siasm and passion of youth hi extreme force, 
 •alternating with a distrust, a caution, and a 
 rapidity in fathoming the characters of the 
 persons with whom he was necessarily 
 brought into contact, which are the usual 
 qualities of age ; and that he took the deep- 
 est interest in every thing connected with 
 his father's former greatness, or relating to 
 military affairs. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Joseph, an elder brother 
 of Napoleon, was born in Corsica, in 1708. 
 Educated for the law at the college of Autun 
 in France, he became a member of tlie new 
 administration of Corsica under Paoli ; but 
 soon afterwards emigrated to Marseilles, 
 where he married the daughter of a banker 
 named Clari. In 179G he was appointed 
 commissary of the army in Italy then com- 
 manded by his brother Napoleon; and in 1797, 
 having been elected deputy to the Council of 
 Five Hundred b^ Ids native department, he 
 repaired to Pans, whence he was shortly 
 afterwards sent by the executive directory 
 as ambassador to the pope. During the 
 revolution wliich broke out at Rome under 
 Dupliot, he displayed considerable energy ; 
 and on Itis return to Paris he was made 
 councillor of state, and was subsequently 
 employed by Napoleon to negotiate the 
 treaties of Luneville with tlie emperor of 
 Germany, and of Amiens with England. 
 When Napoleon attained the imperial 
 crown, Joseph was recognised as an imperial 
 prince, and in this capacity he headed the 
 expedition against Naples in 180G, which 
 resulted in liis being proclaimed king of 
 Naples and Sicily. Here he reigned till 1808, 
 effecting beneficial changes in the admi- 
 nistration of tlie law and the institutions of 
 the country. In 1808 he was appointed 
 king of Spain, Murat having succeeded him 
 as king of Naples. But in Spain lie en- 
 countered much greater dilficulties than at 
 Naples ; and during the five years of his 
 reign he was tiirice obliged by the successes 
 of the allied armies to quit his capital ; the 
 last time, in 1813, after the battle of Vittoria, 
 to return no more. He now retired to 
 France. In January of the following year, 
 when Napoleon set out for the army, he was 
 appointed lieutenant-general of the empire 
 and head of the council of regency to assist 
 the empress-regent ; but in tliis capacity he 
 displayed little firmness, and consented to the 
 capitulation of Paris, which resulted in the 
 abdication of Napoleon and his banishment 
 to Elba. He then retired to Switzerland ; 
 but he rejoined Napoleon on his return to 
 Paris in March 1815, and after the defeat at 
 Waterloo he embarked for the United States, 
 where he purchased a large property, and 
 continued for many years to reside there 
 under the name of the Count de Survilliers. 
 Died at Florence, 1844. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Luciex, prince of Ca- 
 nino, the next brother after Napoleon in 
 birth, and after him, too, the ablest of tlie 
 family. He was born at Ajaccio in 1775 ; 
 and having quitted Corsica, with his family, 
 in 1793, he became a commissary of the army 
 
BUO] 
 
 ^ 0cia UnibtxitiX 2St0tjrajpTjtJ, 
 
 [buo 
 
 in 1795, and soon after^vards was elected 
 deputy from the department of Liamone to 
 the Council of Five Hundred. It was here 
 that he first distinguished himself by the 
 energy of his manner, tlie fluency of his 
 language, the soundness of liis arguments, and 
 his apparent devotion to the existing govern- 
 ment. During Napoleon's absence in 
 Egypt, he maintained a constant corre- 
 spondence -with him ; and, on his return, 
 Lucien was the chief instrument of the re- 
 volution which followed. When the sen- 
 tence of outlawry was about to be pro- 
 nounced against his brother, he opposed it 
 with all the force of his eloquence ; and 
 when he perceived that remonstrances were 
 of no avail, he threw down the ensigns of 
 his dignity as president, mounted a liorse, 
 harangued the troops, and induced tliem to 
 clear tlie hall of its members. By his sub- 
 sequent energy, coolness, and decision, lie 
 led the way to Napoleon's election as first 
 consul, and was himself made minister of 
 the Interior, in the room of Laplace. But, 
 great as were the services which Liicien had 
 performed for his brother, the latter became 
 jealous of his abilities, and feared his popu- 
 larity. A coolness between them soon took 
 place ; and, with that cunning which marked 
 so many of his actions, he took care to re- 
 move Lucien from the immediate scene of 
 action, by sending him ambassador to 
 Madrid. In the spring of 1802 he returned 
 to Paris, was outwardly reconciled with the 
 first consul, and entered a second time upon 
 the tribuneship. He had married, at an early 
 age, the daughter of a wealthy innkeeper ; 
 and, his wife liaving been now some time 
 dead, he united himself to one Madame 
 Jouberthou, tlie widow of a stock-broker, a 
 woman distinguished for her gallantries. 
 Tills gave great offence to Napoleon, and 
 was a severe blow to the system he had long 
 contemplated of forming royal alliances for 
 his relatives. He therefore used every means 
 in his power to induce Lucien to consent to 
 a dissolution of the marriage ; but, to his 
 honour be it recorded, he constantly spumed 
 all the proposals that were made to him to 
 sacrifice his wife. For several years he took 
 up liis residence in Rome, where he was a 
 welcome visitor, having merited the grati- 
 tude of the pope by the zealous support he 
 had given the concordat ; and when, in 
 1807, he found that the enmity of his bro- 
 ther rendered his stay in that city no longer 
 safe, he retired to an estate which he had 
 purchased at Canino, and which his holi- 
 ness had raised into a principality. It was 
 not long, however, before he found that the 
 emissaries of Napoleon were hovering round 
 his retreat, and he fled secretly to Civita 
 Vecchia, from which place he embarked 
 in Aug. 1810, with the intention of proceed- 
 ing to the United States. A storm threw 
 him on the coast of Cagliari ; but the king 
 of Sardinia refused him permission to land : 
 he was accordingly forced to put out to sea ; 
 and being captured by two English frigates, 
 he was conveyed first to Malta and after- 
 wards (Dec. 18.) to England. After a time 
 he was permitted to purchase a beautiful 
 estate near Ludlow, in Shropshire, where he 
 spent three calm and peaceful years, com- 
 
 pleting, during that period, a poem upon 
 which he had long meditated, entitled 
 " Charlemagne, or the Church Delivered." 
 Tlie peace of 1814 having opened his way 
 to the Continent, he returned to his old 
 friend and protector, Pius VII. After the 
 battle of Waterloo he urged the emperor to 
 make a desperate stand for the throne ; but 
 the cause was hopeless ; and Lucien, having 
 retired to Italy, devoted the remainder of 
 his days to literature and the fiine arts. He 
 died at Viterbo, June 29. 1840. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Louis, a younger brother 
 of Napoleon and ex-king of Holland, was 
 born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, September 2. 
 1778. He entered the army at an early 
 age, accompanied his brother to Italy and 
 Egypt, and on Napoleon's successive ele- 
 vations to the consulsliip and the empire 
 rose to be a councillor of state and a general 
 of division, and received the titles of con- 
 stable of France and colonel-general of 
 carabineers. After having been successively 
 appointed governor of Piedmont, and go- 
 vernor ad interim of the capital, in place of 
 Murat, he took the command of the army of 
 the North in Holland ; and in 1806 the Ba- 
 tavian republic having been changed into a 
 kingdom by Napoleon, Louis was nomi- 
 nated king at the request of the States of 
 Holland. In this capacity he conducted him- 
 self with equal skill and humanity, and such 
 was the affection with which his Dutch 
 subjects had inspired him, tliat he refused 
 without hesitation tlie crown of Spain which 
 was offered him by the emperor. In 1810, 
 Louis, having long resisted the emperor's 
 commands to enforce the continental block- 
 ade, which would, as he believed, have proved 
 detrimental to his people's interests, abdi- 
 cated in favour of his son ; but the abdication 
 was rejected by Napoleon, who thereupon 
 united Holland to the French empire ; 
 and the ex-king leaving Holland secretly, 
 repaired to Gratz in Styria, where he resided 
 several years under the title of Count de 
 Saint Leu. After the fall of Napoleon, 
 he finally retired to the Papal States with 
 some members of his family, where he 
 devoted himself chiefly to literary pursuits 
 down to the period of his death. His only 
 surviving son, Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, 
 the offspring of his marriage with Hortense 
 Eugenie de Beauharnois (which see), daughter 
 of the empress Josephine, is the first pre- 
 sident of the French republic, established in 
 1848. Died at Leghorn, 25th June, 1846. 
 
 BUONAPARTE, Makie Lktitia, the 
 mother of Napoleon. From the widow of a 
 poor Corsican officer she saw herself ele- 
 vated to the dignity of being the mother of 
 monarchs ; and she lived to witness their 
 removal from the thrones they liad respec- 
 tively usurped. Died, Feb. 3. 183(5. 
 
 [The most authentic genealogical docu- 
 ments ascribe a Florentine origin to the 
 Buonaparte family, and trace them back 
 to the year 1120, when one of them was ex- 
 iled from Florence as a Ghibelline j and in 
 1332 we find that John Buonaparte was po- 
 destd. of that city. In 1404, his descendant 
 and namesake, who was plenipotentiary to 
 Gabriel Visconti, duke of Milan, married 
 the niece of pope Nicliolas V. His son 
 
BUO] 
 
 ^ ^cto CInibcrsal 38t0jji7fjp]5i?. 
 
 [buk 
 
 (Nicholas Buonaparte) was ambassador from 
 the same pontiff to several courts, and vice- 
 gerent of the holy see at Ascoli. In 15G7 
 Gabriel Buonaparte established himself at 
 Ajaccio, and for several generations his 
 descendants were successively heads of the 
 elders of that city. But Napoleon Buona- 
 parte ridiculed the pride of ancestry, and 
 was ready on all occasions to declare, that 
 the exalted station lie liad attained was 
 due to his own merits alone] 
 
 BUONO. a Venetian architect of the 12th 
 century, who erected the well-known tower 
 of St. Mark at Venice, a campanile or bell- 
 tower at Arezzo, and several other grand 
 ediftces. lie is deservedly reckoned among 
 the earliest improvers of modern architec- 
 ture. 
 
 BUONONCINI, Giovanni Baptista, a 
 celebrated Italian composer, and one of 
 Handel's most powerful rivals in England. 
 Besides operas, he composed various can- 
 tatas and sonatas, and the grand funeral 
 anthem for the Duke of Marlborough. He 
 is supposed to have died at Venice about 
 the middle of the 18th century. 
 
 BUPALUS. a famous sculptor of the isle 
 of Chios in the 6th century, B.C. He is 
 said to have hanged himself in vexation at 
 a satire written upon him by Ilipponax, a 
 poet, whose leanness he had caricatured in 
 a statue. 
 
 BURCARD, or BROCARDUS, bishop of 
 Worms, in the 11th century. Assisted by 
 the abbot Albert, he compiled the famous 
 collection of Canons, in 20 books, entitled 
 "Magna Decretorum, seu Canonura Vo- 
 lumeu." Died, 102<!. 
 
 BURCHARD, John, a native of Germany ; 
 master of the ceremonies to the pope, and, 
 subsequently, bishop of Citta di Castello ; 
 autlior of a journal or diary of pope Alex- 
 ander VI., the MS. of which, with a con- 
 tinuation by some other hand, is in the 
 Chigi Library at Rome. Died, 1305. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, John Lewi-^, a Swiss 
 gentleman, who proposed to the English as- 
 sociation for exploring Africa to be their 
 missionary. He was unfortunately carried 
 off by dysentery while waiting for the cara- 
 van with which he was to go to Timbuctoo. 
 His papers were sent to England, and from 
 them have been published his " Travels in 
 Nubia" and "Travels in Syria and the 
 Holy Land." Born, 1784 ; died, 181G. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, John Cuakles, a learned 
 German astronomer ; author of " Tables de 
 la Lune," &c., and of a German translation 
 of La Place's " LaMycanique Celeste." Born, 
 1773 ! died. 1825. 
 
 BURDER, Georgk, an eminent dissent- 
 ing minister ; author of " Evangelical Truth 
 defended," &c., and one of the editors of 
 the Evangelical Magazine. Died, 1»32. 
 
 BURDETT, Sir Erancis, bart., an aris- 
 tocrat by birth and fortune, but for a long 
 series of years one of the most popular 
 members of the British parliament, was 
 bom in 1770, and received his education at 
 Westminster School and Oxford University. 
 On returning from a continental tour, during 
 which he had ample opportunities of wit- 
 nessing the progress of the French revolu- 
 tion, he was evidently imbued with some 
 
 portion of its spirit, which waa in no small 
 degree fostered and encouraged by his 
 friend and instructor, the celebrated John 
 Home Tooke, the well-known author of 
 the Diversions of Purley, of whom, indeed, 
 Sir Francis may fairly be considered the 
 el^ve. In 1793 he married the youngest 
 daughter of Thomas Coutts, esq., the 
 wealthy banker, with whom he received a 
 large fortune ; and in four years afterwards, 
 on the death of his grandfather, succeeded 
 to the baronetcy. In 175)0, Sir Francis was 
 returned to parliament, by the interest of 
 the Duke of Newcastle, as member for 
 Boronghbridge, his colleague being Mr. 
 Scott, afterwards Lord Eldon j and he soon 
 distinguished himself by his resolute hosti- 
 lity to the measures of government, which 
 he denounced as being inimical to the li- 
 berties of the people. In 1802 he offered 
 himself as a candidate for Middlesex in op- 
 position to Mr. Mainwaring, and was re- 
 turned ; but, on a new election in 1804, he 
 was defeated by Mr. Mainwaring, jun., poll- 
 ing a majority of five votes, 2H28 to 2823. 
 At the next general election (1806) he again 
 became a candidate for the county, but was 
 defeated by Mr. Mellish, who outnumbered 
 him by more than 2000 votes. At this time 
 Sir Francis was a person of great influence in 
 the city of Westminster; and a vacancy in its 
 representation occurring through the death 
 of Mr. Fox, the baronet started for the prize, 
 in company with Lord Cochrane, against 
 three other candidates, viz. Sheridan, Elliot, 
 and Paul, with the latter of whom he 
 fought a duel, in which both the combatants 
 were wounded. Sir Francis was returned 
 by a vast majority, at the head of the poll, 
 his colleague being Lord Cochrane. His 
 opposition to ministers was now formidable, 
 unceasing, and so indiscreet, that an oppor- 
 tunity soon presented itself to his political 
 enemies, of making his conduct the subject 
 of legal proceedings. In 1810, having ad- 
 dressed a letter to his constituents, in which 
 he declared that the House of Commons 
 had exercised their power illegally by com- 
 mitting John Gale Jones to prison, the 
 publication of this letter was deemed a 
 gross breach of privilege, and the speaker 
 was directed to issue his warrant for the 
 apprehension and commitment of Sir Fran- 
 cis Burdett to the Tower. He refused to 
 surrender, and barricaded his house ; where- 
 upon, after a lapse of two days, the ser- 
 geant-at-arms, accompanied by police offi- 
 cers and a military force, succeeded in 
 breaking in, and conveyed him to the 
 Tower. On the return of the military the 
 infuriated mob attacked them, and in their 
 defence they shot one man and wounded 
 several others. The prorogation of parlia- 
 ment put an end to his imprisonment ; and 
 recollecting the excitement which prevailed 
 at the time of his committal, he wisely pro- 
 ceeded privately by water to his home, 
 rather than jeopardise the lives of his 
 "iriends and supporters," by indulging 
 them, as they wished, with a public proces- 
 sion through the streets of the metropolis. 
 He afterwards brought an action against the 
 speaker, &c., but was, of course, unsuc- 
 cessful. Though we mention some of the 
 
bur] 
 
 ^ i^t^ Winihtt^al MiOQtapl)^* 
 
 [bur 
 
 most important events of his life, we cannot 
 follov him through his parliamentary ca- 
 reer — his vehement opposition to the sus- 
 pension of the habeas corpus act, his re- 
 iterated speeches in favour of parliamentary 
 reform, his advocacy of Catholic emancipa- 
 tion, &c. ; but pass on to tlie year 1819, 
 when he was prosecuted by the attorney- 
 general for addressing a letter to his con- 
 stituents, strongly animadverting on the 
 proceedings of tlie magistrates and yeo- 
 manry at the memorable meeting of the 
 people at Manchester. The letter was pro- 
 nounced a libel, and he was sentenced to 
 three months' imprisonment in the King's 
 Bench, and to pay a fine of lOOOi. Sir 
 Francis Burdett had ever been a loud and 
 zealous advocate for parliamentary reform, 
 yet, unlike thousands of the demagogues who 
 seized upon the word " reform " when they 
 meant "revolution," he never desired to 
 see the prerogatives of the monarch or the 
 privileges of the house of peers in the slight- 
 est degree invaded. But we feel bound, 
 however reluctantly, to say, that the absurd 
 turbulence of Sir Francis Burdett's earlier 
 years seemed to spring from a restless 
 vanity, and an eager craving after mob 
 applause ; while his departure, at a very 
 advanced period of life, from the party of 
 which till then he liad for nearly two score 
 years been the avowed champion, savoured 
 less of true and higli conservative feeling, 
 than it did of petulant vanity. He died, 
 Jan. 23. 1844, aged 74. — Lady Burdett, who 
 had for many years suffered greatly in her 
 health, died the same month. 
 
 BURDON, William, an able English 
 writer ; author of " Materials for Think- 
 ing," of which Colton largely availed him- 
 self in his Lacon ; " Thoughts on Politics, 
 Morality, and Literature," " Life and Cha- 
 racter of Buonaparte," &c. Died, 1818. 
 
 BURGER, GoDFUEY Augustus, a cele- 
 brated German poet ; well known in this 
 country by his ballad poems of the " Wild 
 Huntsman's Chase " and " Leonora," both 
 of which have been translated into English, 
 and become highly popular. Born, 1748 ; 
 died, 1794. 
 
 BURGESS, Daniel, a dissenting preacher, 
 ver^ popular in his day on account of his 
 quaint and familiar style of pulpit oratory, 
 of which a single specimen will suffice. 
 " If," said he, on one occasion, " any among 
 you want a cheap suit, he must go to Mon- 
 mouth Street ; if a suit for life, he will go to 
 the Court of Cliaucery ; but if you want an 
 eternal suit, you must go to Christ, and put 
 on his robe of righteousness." Born, 1645 ; 
 died, 1713. 
 
 BURGESS, Right Rev. Thomas, bishop of 
 Salisbury, was born in 1756, at Odiham, in 
 Hampshire, where his father carried on 
 business as a grocer. He was educated at 
 Winchester; obtained a scholarship at Corpus 
 Christi College, Oxford, in 1775 ; and, by his 
 talents and diligence, in a short period be- 
 came logic reader and tutor of the college. 
 He had by this time distinguished himself as 
 a scliolar of very considerable pretensions, 
 by the publication of several able works ; 
 and he found a patron in Dr. Shute Bar- 
 rington, who collated him, in 1787, to the 
 
 prebend of Wilsford and Woodford, in Salis- 
 bury cathedral, and afterwards preferred him 
 to a prebendal stall at Durham. His next 
 advancement took place under the adminis- 
 tration of Mr. Addington (who had been his 
 fellow student at Winchester and Oxford), 
 and who conferred on him, in 1803, the 
 vacant see of St. David's. From the moment 
 of his elevation to the episcopal bench, he 
 displayed the most devoted and exemplary 
 attention to tlie concerns of his diocese ; he 
 planned and formed a society for the founda- 
 tion of a provincial college for tlie instruction 
 of ministers of the Welsh Church ; and the 
 establishment at Lampeter stands as a noble 
 monument of his activity and benevolence. 
 On the death of Dr. Fisher, in 1805, he was 
 translated to the bishopric of Salisbury; and 
 throughout the twelve years of liis episcopal 
 duties in that diocese, he zealously contri- 
 buted to promote the interests of those com- 
 mitted to his charge. Among his numerous 
 works are editions of " Burton's Pentalogia " 
 and " Dawes's Miscellanea Critica," " Con- 
 siderations on the Abolition of Slavery," an 
 " Essay on the Study of Antiquities," " First 
 Principles of Christian Knowledge,"^ "Re- 
 flections on the Controversial Writings of 
 Dr. Priestley," " Emendationes in Suidamet 
 Hesychium et alios Lexicogranhos Graecos," 
 4 vols. ; " Tlie Bible, and Nothing but the 
 Bible, the Religion of the Church of Eng- 
 land ; " with many others, theological, clas- 
 sical, and political. Bishop Burgess was 
 mainly instrumental in founding the Royal 
 Society of Literature, of which, in 1821, he 
 became the first president ; but in 1832, on 
 account of his loss of sight, and other in- 
 firmities, he resigned the office in favour of 
 the late Lord Dover. Died, Feb. 19. 1837. 
 
 BURGH, James, the able author of the 
 " Dignity of Human Nature," &c., was a 
 native of Scotland, and educated at St. I 
 Andrew's. Though brought up to a trade, I 
 he afterwards filled several situations, more I 
 or less connected with literature, and for 
 the last twenty years of his life was master | 
 of an academy at Stoke Newington. Born, 
 1714 ; died, 1775. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, an English general. 
 During the American war he led the army 
 which was to penetrate from Canada into 
 the revolted provinces, in which he en- 
 countered difficulties too great for its suc- 
 cessful issue. Little interest is now attached 
 to his memory as a commander, but he de- 
 serves our notice as the author of "The 
 Maid of the Oaks," "The Lord of the 
 Manor," and some other dramatic works. 
 Died, 1792. 
 
 BURIDAN, John, a philosopher of the 
 14tli century. Being expelled from Paris 
 through the influence of his philosophical 
 opponents, he souglit shelter in Germany, 
 and was instrumental in founding the uni- 
 versity of Vienna. He wrote commentaries 
 on the logic, ethics, and metaphysics of 
 Aristotle ; but is now chiefly remembered as 
 the inventor of the well-known dilemma of 
 the ass between two bundles of hay, by 
 which he used to illustrate the doctrine of 
 free-will. Died, 1358. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, an eminent modem 
 writer, an orator of the first class, and an 
 
bur] 
 
 ^ |!c£d BnibttSnl 28t0flrajp!)»» 
 
 [bur 
 
 able statesman, was the eon of a higlily re- 
 spectable attorney in Dublin, where he was 
 born, January 1. 1730. ^Vfter completing his 
 studies at Trinity College, Dublin, he en- 
 tered himself as a law student in the Temple ; 
 but he applied himself far more zealously 
 to letters than to law. His " Vindication of 
 Natural Society" and his "Essay on the 
 Sublime and Beautiful " introduced hira to 
 the best literary society ; and he at length 
 determined upon devoting himself to that 
 pursuit for which he was undoubtedly the 
 best fitted — politics. Of his public course, 
 particularly his hostility to the doctrines of 
 revolutionary France, we need not here 
 speak, for it is a portion, and a prominent 
 portion, of the history of his time. In pri- 
 vate life he waskind andamiable; in public, 
 ardent and indefatigable. As an orator and 
 writer, he was almost without a rival. Died, 
 1797. 
 
 BURKITT, William, an English divine ; 
 author of a "Practical Exposition of the 
 New Testament." Born, IGM ; died, 1703. 
 
 BURLEIGH, William Cecil, lord high- 
 treasurer of England in the reign of Eliza- 
 beth ; bom in 1520, and brought up to the 
 sifidy of the law. He was patronised by the 
 protector Somerset, in Edward the Sixth's 
 reign, and made a privy councillor ; and 
 when Elizabeth came to the throne, his po- 
 litical sagacity and the devotion he sliowed 
 to his sovereign earned for him the liighest 
 honours. His state policy has been admitted 
 on all hands, but it squared little with 
 humanity, as may be gathered from the 
 persecutions which he encouraged against 
 the unfortunate Mary, queen of Scots. Died, 
 1598. 
 
 BURMAN, Peter, a celcbrat«d Dutch 
 critic and scholar ; professor of history, 
 rhetoric, and Greek at the university of 
 Leyden. He wrote a variety of disserta- 
 tions and epistles, philological and critical, 
 and published editions of various Latin 
 classics M ith notes. Born, 1(>C8 ; died, 1741. 
 
 BURMAN, Petek, a nephew of the 
 above, professor of history and rhetoric 
 at Amsterdam ; editor of the works of 
 Claudian, Aristophanes, &c. Born, 1714, 
 died. 1778. 
 
 BURMAN, John, brother of the prece- 
 ding, and eminent equally as a phj'sician 
 and a botanist ; author of " Thesaurus Zei- 
 lanicus," &c. Born, 1707 ; died, 1779. 
 
 BURN, RicuARD, LL.D., an English 
 clergyman ; author of a " History of the 
 Poor Laws," joint author with Mr. Nichol- 
 son of a " History of Westmoreland and 
 Cumberland," and compiler of the well- 
 known work " Burn's Justice." Died, 1780. 
 
 BURNES, Sir Alexander, a lieutenant- 
 colonel in the Indian army, and political 
 resident in the court of the Soojali at Cabool, 
 was born at Montrose, in 1805. Having ob- 
 tained tlie appointment of cadet, he arrived 
 at Bombay in 1821 ; and, on account of his 
 proficiency in the Persian and Hindostanee 
 languages, was at first employed as an in- 
 terpreter and translator. His regiment, the 
 21st native infantry, having been ordered to 
 Bhooj in 1825, Lieut. Bumes joined it, and 
 during the disturbances in Cutch was ap- 
 pointed quarter-master of brigade, though 
 
 at the time he was under 20 years of age. 
 His superior talents and zeal soon attracted 
 tlie attention of the authorities, and he was 
 speedily appointed Persian interpreter to a 
 force of 8,000 men, assembled for the invasion 
 of Scinde, under the command of Colonel 
 M. Napier of the Cth foot. In Sept. 1829, he 
 was appointed assistant to the political agent 
 at Cutch, and was engaged in surveying the 
 north-west frontier. Early iu ISJM) a present 
 of horses having arrived at Bombay from 
 the king of England, to be sent to the 
 Maharajah Runjeet Singh, Lieut. Bumes 
 was selected to proceed with them to La- 
 hore, the capital of the Punjaub country. 
 He was also entrusted with presents to the 
 Ameers of Scinde ; but though this was the 
 ostensible object of his mission, the chief 
 motive was to obtain full and complete 
 information in reference to everything per- 
 taining to the geography of the Indus. This 
 extraordinary journey was performed amid 
 delays, obstructions, and difficulties, but 
 with admirable tact and perseverance ; and 
 the work recording these travels, which was 
 published some little time after his return 
 to England in 1833, possesses the highest in- 
 terest. Soon after his return to India in 
 1835, Lieut. Bumes, in acknowledgment of 
 his diplomatic and other services, was 
 knighted and advanced to the brevet rank 
 of lieut.-colonel ; and on the final restoration 
 of the Shah Soojah, in Sept. 18;}9, he was 
 appointed political resident at Cabool, with 
 a salary of ;iOOO/. But he was not long des- 
 tined to fill the post which his merits had 
 gained ; for, at the very outset of tlie insur- 
 rection in Cabool, it was the melancholy 
 fate of this enterprising and deserving officer 
 — then only in his 37th year — to be assassin- 
 ated, together with his brother, Lieut. 
 Charles Bumes, and several others. Died, 
 Nov. 2. 1841. 
 
 BURNET, Thomas, an English divine 
 and philosopher ; author of " ArchsBologia 
 Antiqua de Rerum Originibus," &c. lie 
 was master of the Charter-house, and is 
 distinguished for the bold resistance he 
 made to James II., who wished to make a 
 Roman Catholic a pensioner of that esta- 
 blishment. Died, 1715. 
 
 BURNET, Gilbekt, bishop of Salisbury ; 
 a learned prelate and an able and industrious 
 writer ; author of the well-known and va- 
 luable " History of the Reformation," " His- 
 tory of his own Times," &c. Born, 1(>43 ; 
 died, 1715. 
 
 BURNETT, James, Lord Monboddo, a 
 distinguished Scotch judge ; author of a 
 " Dissertation on the Origin of Language," 
 &c. Though both learned and acute, he 
 exposed himself to much ridicule by as- 
 serting the existence of mermaids and satyrs, 
 and by other ridiculous theories, particu- 
 larly his whimsical speculations relative to 
 a supposed affinity between the human race 
 and the monkey tribe. Born, 1714 ; died, 
 1779. 
 
 BURNETT, Gilbert Thomas, F.L. S., 
 the lineal descendant of the celebrated 
 Bishop Burnet, was bom in 1800, and hav- 
 ing received a classical and scientific edu- 
 cation, studied with success under medical 
 and anatomical professors ; and, ultimately 
 
 133 
 
bur] 
 
 ^ ^(ia Winihtx&Hl 23i0C|:rapIj». 
 
 [bus 
 
 became profeasor of medical botany at King's 
 College, London. Died in 183.5. 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, the well-kno\vn 
 author of the "History of Music," and per- 
 haps still more celebrated as the father of 
 the authoress of " Evelina," &c., was bom 
 at Chester in 172(5. He early showed a taste 
 for music, and having acquired considerable 
 knowledge of the art under the celebrated 
 Dr. Arne, he settled in London with every 
 prospect of success. But his health failed, 
 and he accepted the place of organist at 
 Lynn, where he resided nine years. In 17G0 
 he returned to London with his health re- 
 stored, and he at once obtained as many 
 pupils as enabled him to support his family 
 in comfort and independence. His profes- 
 sional merit obtained for him, in 1769, the 
 degree of doctor of music from the university 
 of Oxford ; and his attainments, the sua- 
 vity of his temper, and the gentle simplicity 
 of his manners not only gained for him 
 ready admission to the first literary circles, 
 but his own little house in St. Martin's 
 Street, Leicester Square, was long tlic resort 
 of all that was distinguished for talent, rank, 
 or fashion. In 1800 he obtained a pension 
 of 3001. per annum. Besides his History of 
 Music, Dr. Bumey published " The Life of 
 Metastasio," a " Musical Tour through 
 France and Italy," and he contributed nearly 
 all the musical articles to Rees's Cyclopa;dia, 
 for which he obtained lOOOZ. Died, 1814. 
 
 BURNEY, Charles, second son of the 
 musical composer, was a classical scholar 
 and critic of high reputation. Dr. Burney's 
 classical acquirements were first displayed 
 in the Monthly Review, and there were few 
 Greek scholars who could compete with him. 
 Among his works are an Appendix to Sca- 
 pula's Greek Lexicon, the choral odes of 
 .^schylus, &c. His valuable library was 
 purchased by parliament for the British 
 Museum. Bom 1757 ; died, 1817. 
 
 BURNT:Y, Rear-Admiral James, eldest 
 son of the above, entered the navy at an early 
 age, and accompanied the ill-fated Cook on 
 his two last voyages. After long and arduous 
 8ervices,he attained the rank of rear-admiral. 
 He was an able geographer ; and his " His- 
 tory of Voyages of Discovery " and other 
 valuable writings show him to have been an 
 accurate thinker. Bora, 1759 ; died, 1821. 
 
 BURNEY, William, LL.D., master of 
 the Royal Academy, Gosport; a school where 
 many distinguished naval and military offi- 
 cers have been educated. He was the author 
 of "Lives of the Naval Heroes of Great 
 Britain," &c. Born, 1762 ; died, 1832. 
 
 BURNS, John, M. D., and professor of 
 surgery in Glasgow University, was bora in 
 1780. Besides being the author of many 
 valuable works relating to his profession, he 
 published a work on the evidences and 
 principles of Christianity, which has gone 
 through many editions. It was at first 
 published anonymously ; but it was obvi- 
 ously the production of a medical man ; and 
 it is related that the father of Dr. Burns, 
 who was for sixty years a minister in Glas- 
 gow, having read it, expressed himself much 
 pleased with it, and said to his son, "Ah 
 John ! I wish you could have written such a 
 book." Though in his eightieth year, 
 
 Dr. Bums was still active both in body and 
 mind ; but his vigorous old age was suddenly 
 cut short by the calamity which befell the 
 Orion on her passage from Liverpool to 
 Glasgow, June 17. 1850. 
 
 BIJRNS, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, 
 whose rich humour, pathos, and energy have 
 never been surpassed, was born in 1759, near 
 the town of Ayr. His parents were in 
 humble circumstances, but they gave him a 
 good plain education, and as he grew up he 
 added to it an acquaintance with French 
 and mathematics. His poems are too well 
 known and appreciated to need description 
 in this place ; but it is not unnecessary to 
 remark that his prose, consisting chiefly of 
 letters hastily written and never intended 
 for publication, are scarcely less honourable 
 to his genius. He was naturally of a con- 
 vivial turn ; and after having been unfortu- 
 nate in various attempts to gain a living by 
 agricultural and other pursuits, he was made 
 an exciseman : this employment confirmed 
 him in habits of dissipation, which caused an 
 illness, of which he died, in the 37th year of 
 his age, in 1796. An excellent edition of his 
 works, with a Life, &c. by Allan Cunning- 
 ham, was published in 1835. 
 
 BURROW, Reuben, an able mathema- 
 tician ; author of a tract on " Projectiles," 
 a " Restitution of Apollonius on Inclina- 
 tions," &c. He was making a trigonometrical 
 survey of Bengal when he died, in 1791. 
 
 BURTON, the Rev. Edwaud, D.D., regius 
 professor of divinity in the university of 
 Oxford, and rector of Ewelme, was bora in 
 1794 ; educated at Westminster, and matri- 
 culated at Christchurch, Oxford. His talents, 
 close application, and exemi)lary conduct, 
 did not pass unnoticed ; and he rose from one 
 honourable station to another. His various 
 pamphlets and the works he edited, prove that 
 he was able and industrious. Died, 1836. 
 
 BURTON, John, an English divine and 
 critic; author of various theological treatises; 
 poetry in Greek, Latin, and English ; and 
 other productions. Died, 1771. 
 
 BURTON, Robert, an English divine ; 
 author of that singular work, " The Anatomy 
 of Melancholy ; " which Archbishop Herring 
 describes as " the pleasantest, the most 
 learned, and the most full of sterling sense." 
 The archbishop adds, that the wits of the 
 reigns of Anne and the first George were 
 deeply indebted to Burton ; and we may 
 venture to say, that the " wits " of the suc- 
 ceeding reigns have been no less so. Born, 
 1576 ; died, 1640. 
 
 BUSBY, Dr. Richard, the venerable 
 master of Westminster School — celebrated 
 for his abilities as a classical teacher and as 
 an unflinching disciplinarian — was born in 
 1606. He held the situation of head-master 
 from 1640 to the time of his decease, in 1695 
 — a period of 55 years. 
 
 BUSCHE, or BUSCHIUS, Herman von 
 DER, a learned German, friend and fellow- 
 labourer of Luther ; author of Scholia on 
 ancient writers, Latin poems, &c. Died, 1534. 
 
 BUSCHETTO DA DULICHIO, a Greek 
 architect of the 11th century. He erected 
 the cathedral church of Pisa, the first spe- 
 cimen of the Lombard ecclesiastical style of 
 building. 
 
bus] 
 
 ^ ^m BnibtrinX mas^n^M* 
 
 [bux 
 
 BUSCHING, Anthony Fredeimc, an 
 able and industrious writer, to whom tlie 
 science of statistics is greatly indebted ; 
 author of a " Magazine of Modem History 
 and Geography," " Elements of Natural 
 History," "Character of Frederic II. of 
 I Prussia," " History and Theory of the 
 Belles I^ttres," &c. His works, in short, 
 amount to 100 volumes. Bom, 1724 ; died, 
 1793. 
 
 BUSHE, the Right Hon. Sir Charles 
 Kendal, was one of the most eminent of all 
 the lawyers and the statesmen that made 
 the courts and the parliament of Ireland so 
 brilliant towards the close of the 18th cen- 
 tury. Though he had to contend against 
 such opponents aaPonsonby.Pluukctt, Flood, 
 Grattan, Curran, and Saurin, he was never 
 found unequal to the contest, whether at 
 the bar or in the house. He was raised to 
 the chief justiceship of Ireland, and made a 
 privy councillor in 1822, and shone in that 
 high office as brightly as he had shoue as 
 advocate and orator. The infirmities of a 
 very advanced age at length compelled him 
 to retire upon a pension of 3000Z. per annum ; 
 and he had scarcely done so, when he was 
 attacked by effusion upon the brain, and 
 died July 7. 1843. 
 
 BUTE, John Stuart, Earl of, a British 
 statesman, descended from an ancient Scotch 
 family, was born early in the 18th century. 
 In 1738 he was appointed one of the lords of 
 the bedchamber to Frederic, prince of Wales, 
 the father of George III. Soon after the 
 young king's accession, over whom Bute 
 possessed unbounded influence, he was made 
 secretary of state, and, quickly after, first 
 lord of the treasury. Under his ministry, a 
 peace, whicli disappointed the hopes of the 
 people, was concluded with France and 
 Spain ; and what added greatly to his un- 
 popularity, was the marked favouritism he 
 showed for his countrymen, filling the most 
 lucrative offices in the state with Scotchmen. 
 He at length resigned his offices, and retired 
 into private life, which he adorned by his be- 
 nevolent disposition and his love of science. 
 Botany was his favourite study, and he ex- 
 pended vast sums in its pursuit. Died, 1792. 
 BUTLER, Alban, an English Catholic 
 divine. He was for some time chaplain to 
 the Duke of Norfolk, but at length became 
 president of the college of St. Omei's. The 
 chief of his works is the "Lives of the 
 Fathers, Martyrs, and other principal 
 Saints." Died, 1773. 
 
 BUTLER, CuAKLES, a Roman Catholic, 
 bred to the legal profession, and a most in- 
 defatigable and accomplished scholar. His 
 numerous works, with the exception of his 
 "Notes to Coke upon Littleton" and his 
 " Reminiscences," are of a religious or po- 
 litical character ; and, indeed, as the able 
 advocate of his own religious community, 
 he is principally to be regarded. It may be 
 truly said that neither the fire of youth, the 
 interruption of business, the variety of his 
 employments, nor the bustle of the world, 
 could ever moderate his ardour for study. 
 He was the author of " Lives of the Saints," 
 " Historical Account of the Laws against the 
 Roman Catholics," " Book of the Catholic 
 Church," &c. Born, 1750 ; died, 1832. 
 
 133 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, bishop of Durham, an 
 extremely learned and able prelate ; author 
 of the well-known and invaluable work, 
 "The Analogy of Religion, Natural and 
 Revealed, to the Course and Constitution of 
 Nature." Born, 1G92 ; died, 17.52. 
 
 BUTLER, Sami'el, an English poet, 
 whose principal work, "Hudibras," is pro- 
 bably, both in design and execution, the 
 most strikingly original we have. Wit 
 abounds throughout it, and the odd double 
 rhymes in which the author so much de- 
 lighted, are singularly well adapted to add 
 point to the ridicule he chose to inflict His 
 other works are far inferior to Hudibras ; 
 and of the thousand imitations of that work, 
 not one has the true lludibrustic comming- 
 ling of wit, humour, knowledge of the world, 
 and facility of expression. Bom, 1612 ; died, 
 1680. 
 
 BUTLER, Dr. Samckl, bishop of Lich- 
 field, a learned and most exemplary English 
 divine. He was born at Kenilworth, in 
 Warwickshire, and received his education 
 at Rugby School, to which he was admitted 
 in 1783. In 1792 he removed thence to St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, where his course 
 was rapid and brilliant, nearly, if not quite, 
 without parallel, his prizes and distinctions 
 far exceeding in number those obtained by 
 any of his contemporaries. In 1798 he was 
 appointed to the mastership of Shrewsbury 
 School, and, about the same time, he was 
 selected for the arduous task of preparing a 
 new edition of iEschylus for the university 
 press. His learning and his indefatigable 
 exertions soon produced for Shrewsbury a 
 very high rank and reputation among our 
 public schools. After receiving several minor 
 preferments, he was, in 18.%, i)romoted to 
 the bishopric of Lichfield. Tliough a perfect 
 martyr to ill health, he was a very volu- 
 minous author. His "Sketch of Ancient 
 and Modem Geography " and his " Ancient 
 and Modern Atlases" are the best works of 
 their kind. Bom, 1774 ; died, 1840. 
 
 BUTTNER, Christopuek William, a 
 German naturalist and philologist, whose 
 zeal in pvirsuit of his favourite studies 
 was such, that, in order to buy books, he re- 
 stricted himself to what was barely neces- 
 sary to sustain life, never making more 
 than one frugal meal a day. Bora, 171G i 
 died. 1801. 
 
 BUXHOWDEN, Frederic William, 
 Count of, a general in the Russian army. 
 He entered on a military life at an early 
 age, and was engaged in the war against the 
 Turks in 1769 ; till, rising by degrees, he, in 
 1794, obtained the command of Warsaw and 
 the administration of Poland. In 1805 he 
 commanded the left wing of the army at the 
 battle of Austerlitz, which advanced while 
 the centre and right wing were beaten ; but, 
 after the battle of Pultusk, he was unjustly 
 superseded by Bennigsen. He was, however, 
 again made commander-in-chief, and, in 
 1808, conquered Finland. Died, 1811. 
 
 BUXTON, Jedediaii, a singularly gifted 
 person, whose powers of calculation, derived 
 solely from nature, have probably never been 
 equalled. It is said that he was asked this 
 most difficult question — " In a body whose 
 three sides are, respectively, 23,145,789 yards. 
 
 H 2 
 
BUX] 
 
 ^ ia^&j ^uibcr^al 33tO0rap]^i). 
 
 [byr 
 
 6,642,732 yards, and 54,965 j'ards, how many 
 cubical eiglilhs of an inch are there ? " and 
 that, amid all the distractions of the labours 
 of a hundred men, he gave tlie exact an- 
 Bwer in little more than five hours ! But 
 it was only in calculating that he had any 
 intellectual superiority ; in other respects, 
 his mind was rather below than above the 
 average. He died towards the close of the 
 18th centuiy. 
 
 BUXTON, Sir Thomas Fowei.l, bart. 
 This distinguished philanthropist was born 
 at Earl's Colne, Essex, in 1786 ; and received 
 his academical education at Trinity College, 
 Dublin. Having, in 1811, joined the firm 
 of Truman, Hanbury, and Co., the eminent 
 Liondon brewers, his connection with the 
 locality of Sjutalfields made him personally 
 acquainted with the sufi'erings of his poor 
 neighbours ; and the powerful appeals he 
 made in their favour in 1816 led to an ex- 
 tensive and well-organised system for their 
 relief. His success in this charitable un- 
 dertaking induced him (in conjunction 
 with his sister-in-law, Mrs Fry, and his 
 brother-in-law, Mr. Hoare) to examine into 
 the state of our prisons, and to publish the 
 result of liis labours. This not only led to 
 the formation of the Prison Discipline So- 
 ciety, but was the basis upon which many 
 of the modern improvements in our gaols 
 are founded. In 1818 he was returned M. P. 
 for Weymouth, which borough he continued 
 to represent till 1837, when he was defeated 
 by Mr. Villiers. During the time he held a 
 seat in the house, liis energies were almost 
 unceasingly directed to ameliorate the con- 
 dition of the oppressed. He became the re- 
 cognised successor of Mr. Wilberforce, and 
 he had the supreme satisfaction of seeing his 
 eflforts for the abolition of slavery crowned 
 with complete success. To other subjects of 
 paramount interest, viz. tlie reform of our 
 criminal code — the civilisation of Africa, by 
 commercial, agricultural, and missionary 
 enterprise — the support of benevolent in- 
 stitutions, particularly such as had for their 
 objects the education and improvement of 
 the poor — to these, and such as these. Sir 
 Thomas Powell Buxton applied himself with 
 a persevering assiduity tliat did honour to 
 his name. In 1840 he waa created a baronet. 
 Died Feb. 19. 1845. 
 
 BUXTORF, John, a Calvinist divine, 
 professor of Chaldee and Hebrew at Basle ; 
 author of " Tliesaurus Lingua; Hebraicae," 
 " Institutio Epistolaris Hebraica," &c. Born, 
 1564 ; died, 1629. 
 
 BUXTORF, JoHX, son of the preceding, 
 and his successor in tlie professorship atBasle ; 
 author of a " Chaldaic and Syriac Lexicon," 
 &c., besides other classical and theological 
 works. It is recorded of him, that, at the 
 early age of four years, he was able to read 
 
 Hebrew and Latin Two others of the same 
 
 name, his son and nephew, were also noted 
 for their skill in the Hebrew tongue. 
 
 BYNG, John, fourth son of Viscount Tor- 
 rington, was, like his father, an admiral. 
 After having frequently and highly distin- 
 guished himself, he was tried by court- 
 martial for alleged cowardice. He was dis- 
 patched to the relief of Minorca, at that 
 time blockaded by a French fleet ; and bis 
 
 hesitation to engage an enemy of superior 
 strength excited the clamour of the nation 
 against him. When the news arrived in 
 England, the dastard ministry, wishing to 
 avert the public odium from their unsuccess- 
 ful measures, took advantage of the admiral's 
 unpopularity ; and though tlie court by which 
 the ill-fated commander was tried, recom- 
 mended him to mercy, they suffered the un- 
 just sentence to be carried into execution. 
 He was shot at Portsmouth, March 14. 1767 ; 
 meeting his death with the firmness of a hero 
 and the resignation of a Christian. 
 
 BYRNE, William, an eminent English 
 engraver. His works are very numerous, 
 and remarkable for the excellence of their 
 aerial perspective. Died, 1805. 
 
 BYROM, John, an ingenious prose writer 
 and poet, and the inventor of a system of 
 stenography. He was also a contributor 
 to tlie Spectator, under the signature of 
 "John Shadow." Born, 1691 ; died, 1763. 
 
 BYRON, the Hon. John, an eminent na- 
 val commander and circumnavigator, whose 
 sufferings, when wrecked in the Wager, are 
 graphically described in his "Narrative." 
 He rose to the rank of admiral, and com- 
 manded in tlie West Indies during the Ame- 
 rican war. Born, 1723 ; died. 1768. 
 
 BYRON, Right Hon. George Gordon 
 BvKON, Lord, grandson of the preceding, 
 bom, Jan. 22d, 1788, was the sixth in de- 
 scent from his ancestor. Sir John Byron, 
 who received the estate of Newstead as a 
 grant from king Henry VIII. The noto- 
 riously licentious conduct of his father, 
 Capt. Byron, who had deserted his wife and 
 squandered her fortune, made him an exile 
 from England ; and he died in 1791, leaving 
 his widow and son almost destitute. Mrs. 
 Byron having previous to tliis event retired 
 to her native city of Aberdeen, in order to 
 live withiu the limits of her scanty income, 
 she placed her son early in the grammar 
 school of that city ; but when, in 1798, by 
 the death of his great uncle, without issue, 
 he became possessed of the family title and 
 estates, he was placed under the guardian- 
 ship of Lord Carlisle, who sent him to Har- 
 row. His love of liberty and Independence 
 were prominent traits in his disposition, and 
 they were seconded by a fixed aversion to 
 control. In 1804 he went to Cambridge, and 
 there became chiefly remarkable for his ec- 
 centric habits, and his defiance of the rules 
 of discipline. On quitting Cambridge he 
 took up his residence at Newstead Abbey, 
 and soon after published his " Hours of 
 Idleness." Although marked by some fea- 
 tures of juvenility, this production gave un- 
 doubted indications of poetic genius ; but it 
 met with most severe and unmerited censure 
 from the Edinburgh Review. The ridicule 
 thus cast by the critic on the poet was not 
 suffered to rest there: he exerted his powers, 
 and amply revenged himself in the cele- 
 brated satire of " English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers." About that period he expe- 
 rienced a great disappointment in seeing 
 Miss Chaworth, who had been the early 
 object of his love, married to another. His 
 course of life was now marked by extrava- 
 gance and dissipation, impairing both his 
 health and fortune ; and it was probably to 
 
caa] 
 
 ^ ^tlM Bnibsr^aX 38t05rap]^ii. 
 
 [cab 
 
 I extricate himself from the Circean snares by 
 which he was surrounded, tliat he resolved 
 on an excursion to the Continent. He was 
 accompanied by his friend and fellow-col- 
 legian, John Cam Ilobhouse, esq. ; an* after 
 a stay of two years he returned, and gave to 
 the world tlie first two cantos of "Childe 
 Harold's Pilgrimage." This was quickly 
 succeeded by " The Giaour," " The Bride of 
 Abydos," " Lara," " The Corsair," &c. ; and 
 the noble bard became the poetical idol of 
 the day. In January, 1815, he married 
 Anna Isabella, only daughter of Sir Ralph 
 Milbanke Noel ; but the union was not pro- 
 ductive of happiness, and they sejiarated 
 80on after the birth of a daughter. This 
 rupture gave rise to many rumours re- 
 dounding little to Ixird Byron's credit, and 
 he again went to the Continent, with a de- 
 termination not to return to his native 
 country. He often changed his residence ; 
 and during his various travels, while he 
 visited the most celebrated parts of the 
 south of Europe^ his admirers in England 
 were indulged with the productions of his 
 powerful and versatile muse : sometimes 
 proudly soaring into the pure regions of 
 taste, breathing noble sentiments and chi- 
 valric feelings ; at other times, descending 
 to impure voluptuousness, or grovelling in 
 sheer vulgarity. In 182;5 the state of the 
 Greeks awoke his noble feeling of independ- 
 ence ; and, with a disinterested generosity 
 that scarcely has its parallel, he resolved to 
 devote his fortune, his pen, and his sword in 
 their cause. Uia energies, however, were uo 
 
 sooner called into action, than he was as- 
 sailed by disease ; and he expired, of a fever, 
 at Missolonghi, on the 19lh of April, 1824, 
 in the 37th year of his age, to the inexpress- 
 ible sorrow of the Greeks, by whom he was 
 venerated for his personal exertions and 
 liberal pecuniary aid. Few instances have 
 occurred in which inconsistency appeared so 
 glaring as in the various qualifications of 
 this highly gifted nobleman. With powers 
 of reasoning beyond the faculties of most 
 other men, he was capricious and unfixed ; 
 and with a poetic taste that approached the 
 sublime was sometimes mixed a reckless im- 
 alloyed profligacy, ev-idently the oftspring 
 of sensuality, and the parent of immoral 
 consequences in others. In proportion, there- 
 fore, as we admire the commanding talents 
 and poetic eloquence of Byron, so are we 
 compelled to deprecate the unholy purposes 
 to which they were too often made sub- 
 servient. " Prostituted genius is but splendid 
 guilt." We close this sketch by observing, 
 that his only daughter, the Hon. Augusta 
 Ada Byron, was married to Lord King (now 
 Earl Lovelace), in 1835. 
 
 B YTHNEK, Victokinus, was a native of 
 Poland, but educated in England, where he 
 finally established himself as a physician ; 
 author of " Lyra Prophetica Davidis Regis," 
 &c. Died, ltW4. 
 
 BZOVIUS, or BZOVSKI, Abraham, a 
 learned Pole ; professor of theology and 
 philosophy. He wrote the "Lives of the 
 Popes," " Annals of the Church," &c. Bom, 
 1507 ; died, 1037. 
 
 c. 
 
 CAAB, or CAB, Ben Zohaih, an Arabian 
 Jew, rabbi, and poet. He satirised Mahomet 
 so severely, that "the Prophet" made war 
 on the Arabian Jews for tlie purpose of 
 getting the poet into his power ; but when 
 Mahomet's success was no longer doubtful, 
 Caab became his zealous panegyrist, aban- 
 doned Judaism for Mahometanism, and was 
 greatly in Mahomet's favour. He is said to 
 have assisted in the composition of the Ko- 
 ran. Died, A.n. 022. 
 
 CABALLERO, Marquis, a Spanish libe- 
 ral, born in 1769. He adhered to Joseph 
 Buonaparte on the abdication of Charles IV., 
 and was made one of his chief ministers. 
 On the fall of the former, Ferdinand VII. 
 passed a decree of perpetual banishment 
 against him ; but he was recalled by the 
 Constitutionalists in 1818. 
 
 CABANIS, Peteu John George, a 
 French physician of considerable eminence. 
 Becoming intimate with Mirabeau, he was 
 made a member of the council of five hun- 
 dred ; and under the government of Napo- 
 leon he was one of the senators. His writings 
 are cliicfly medical ; but in addition to these 
 he published an interesting account of the 
 last illness and death of Miiabeau. Born, 
 1757 ; died, 1807. 
 
 CABARRUS, Francois, Count, a French- 
 man, who having settled in Spain in a com- 
 mercial character, rendered that country 
 considerable service in establishing a paper 
 currency, when cut off from her resources 
 in America. He was afterwards the Spanish 
 minister of finance ; to which ofiice he was 
 appointed by Joseph Buonaparte. Born, 
 1752 ; died, 1810. 
 
 CABESTAN, or CABESTAING, Wii, 
 LiAM DE, a Provencal poet of the 13th cen- 
 tury, celebrated alike for his talents and 
 misfortunes. Having excited the jealousy 
 of Raymond de Scillans, he had him put to 
 death ; and his heart was dressed and served 
 up to the lady, who, on learning the horrible 
 nature of her repast, died of grief. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, an English navigator 
 of great eminence, was the son of a skilful 
 Venetian pilot, who resided at Bristol. He 
 made several voyages with his father (who 
 had obtained from Henry VIII. letters pa- 
 tent, empowering him and his three sons to 
 discover unknown lands and conquer them), 
 and they on one occasion discovered New- 
 foundland, and on another saw the main- 
 land of America, being the first Europeans 
 who had done so. He was among the first 
 to notice the variations of the needle. His 
 
cab] 
 
 ^ ^ctu ^nihtr^Kl SStOflrapibJ?' 
 
 [CJED 
 
 skill in maritime affairs induced Edward VI 
 to settle a pension on him as grand pilot of 
 England ; and he was consulted on all ques- 
 tions relating to trade and navigation. He 
 published a map of the world, and a work, 
 entitled " Navigazione nelle parte Septen- 
 trionale." Born, 1477 ; died, 1557. 
 
 CABRAL,, or C ABRARA, Pedro Alva- 
 rez, a celebrated Bortuguese navigator of 
 the 16th century. 
 
 CACCIA, GuGLiELMO, surnamed, from 
 his place of residence, II Moncalvo, a very 
 excellent painter. He executed some fine 
 altar pieces, but his fame chiefly rests upon 
 his small Madonnas, which are highly valued. 
 Died, 1625. 
 
 CACCINI, GiULio, an Italian musician 
 and composer. In conjunction with Peri, he 
 composed the opera of " Eurydice," on the 
 occasion of tlie marriage of Henri Quatre 
 and Mary de Medici ; and it is said to have 
 been the first opera performed in public. 
 He was also the author of a work, entitled 
 " Nuovo Musiche." Died, 1615. 
 
 CACCINI, Fraxcesca, daughter of the 
 above, much celebrated at Florence in the 
 17 til century, as a poetess and composer of 
 music. 
 
 CADAMOSTO, Louis, a Venetian navi- 
 gator, patronised and employed by the king 
 of Portugal. He discovered Cape Verd I 
 
 lands. An account of hi 
 
 voyages 
 
 and dis- 
 
 coveries was published after his death, which 
 took place in 1464. 
 
 CADE, Jous, a noted rebel, better known 
 by the familiar appellation of Jack Cade, 
 was a native of Ireland, from which country 
 he had been obliged to flee for his crimes. 
 During the feeble government of Henry VI. 
 he put himself at the head of 20,000 men, 
 collected from the populace in Kent, and 
 marched into London, where he boldly pro- 
 posed the rectifying of various abuses in 
 the state. Elated with his popularity and 
 success, he next assumed the title of Lord 
 Jlortiiner, declaring himself tlie rightful 
 heir to the throne, as a descendant of Ed- 
 ward III. ; but this foolish and presumptuous 
 extravagance induced the citizens to resist 
 him, and the insurgents were soon compelled 
 to submit to the royal authority. All who 
 returned to their homes -were pardoned ; 
 but Cade, who was excepted from the general 
 amnesty, and for whose body 1000 marks 
 were offered by the government, wandered 
 about the woods of Kent and Sussex for a 
 time, till at length he was discovered, and 
 killed in a garden at Holkfield, Sussex, by a 
 gentleman of Kent, named Alexander Eden. 
 
 CADET, J. Maecil, a Corsican, born in 
 1751 ; inspector of the mines in Corsica, and 
 author of some eminent geological, statis- 
 tical, and mineralogical works ; among 
 others, one on Corsican jaspers. 
 
 CADET DE VAUX, Anthoxv Alexis, a 
 French author, editor, and member of va- 
 rious learned societies. He established tlie 
 " Journal de Paris," and wrote several works 
 connected with agriculture. Born, 1743 ; 
 died, 1828. 
 
 CADET DE GASSICOURT, CnARLES 
 Louis, brother of the preceding ; author of 
 the " Diction.ary of Chemistry," in 4 vols. ; 
 various Travels ; " Letters on London and 
 
 the English Nation," &c. Born, 1769 ; 
 died, 1821. 
 
 CADiMUS, the founder of Thebes. Ills 
 history, like that of many other personages 
 of high antiquity, is much mingled with 
 fable. It seems certain, however, that he 
 was born in Phoenicia or Egypt, and that 
 Greece ow^ed to him the sixteen letters of 
 which its alphabet originally consisted. He 
 flourished in the 16th century b. c. 
 
 CADMUS, the Milesian, the first Greek 
 author who wrote a jirose history. Diony- 
 sius, of Halicamassus, ascribes to this writer 
 " The Antiquities of Miletus and all Ionia," 
 but no portion of the work is now extant. 
 
 CADOG, son of Brychan, a saint, and 
 founder of some churches in Wales in the 
 5th century. 
 
 CADOG, surnamed The Wise, a Welsh 
 bard of the 6th century. He was the first 
 who made a complete collection of British 
 proverbs. 
 
 CADOGAN, William, first earl of Cado- 
 gan, entered the army early in life ; and, 
 after he had attained the rank of a briga- 
 dier-general, distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Blenheim. In short, he was present 
 with the Duke of Marlborough in all his 
 great victories ; and, at his death, succeeded 
 him as commander-in-chief and master of 
 the ordnance. Died, 1727. 
 
 CADOGAN, William, M.D., a skilful 
 English physician ; author of a treatise on 
 the gout, in which he wisely insists upon 
 abstinence as the best preventive and cure ; 
 an " Essay on Nursing," &c. Died, 1797. 
 
 CADOtlDAL, Georges, a famous Chouan 
 chief, born in 1769. After the ill success of 
 his efforts for the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons, he came to terms with General Brune, 
 in 1800, dispersed his troops, and proceeded 
 to London. While there, he was accused by 
 the French government of planning the in- 
 fernal machine, Georges having avowed a 
 personal hostility to the First Consul. He 
 afterwards, on receiving the cordon rouge 
 from Monsieur (Charles X.), and a lieu- 
 tenant-general's commission, embarked with 
 Pichegru in a secret expedition, and landed 
 at Falaise. It has been said that the object 
 was to assassinate Buonaparte, as well as to 
 excite a counter-revolution ; and Pitt was 
 accused of sanctioning the enterprise, by a 
 letter to Lord Hutchinson, which is denied. 
 Tliat these charges were fabricated by the 
 emissaries of Buonaparte there is every reason 
 to believe. He was, however, traced by the 
 Parisian police, and put under arrest by a 
 violent seizure, while descending from a ca- 
 briolet, during which he wounded two of 
 the officers ; and, after a summary judicial 
 process, was executed on the 6th of June, 
 1804. He died with great courage. The 
 two brothers Polignac were also involved 
 in the same process, and condemned to 
 death, but escaped tlirough the humane ex- 
 ertions of Murat. 
 
 CADWALADYR, Casail, a Welsh poet 
 of the 16th century ; some of whose works 
 still remain in MS., and indicate much 
 ability. 
 
 CiED^ION, a Saxon ecclesiastic, sup- 
 posed to have flourislied in the 5th century. 
 A fragment of a hymn, by this author, is 
 
cxb] 
 
 ^ ^c&) Bnibtx^Kl Miasx^'bV' 
 
 [CAG 
 
 preserved in king Alfred's translation of 
 Bede ; and is the oldest specimen extant of 
 Saxon poetry. 
 
 C^SALPLNUS, Andrew, an Italian phy- 
 sician and natural philosopher. Tliis en- 
 liglitened man in some degree anticipated 
 the grand discoveries of llurvey and Lin- 
 naeus ; his " Quaestiones Peripatetica;," con- 
 taining some hints on the circulation of tlie 
 blood ; and his treatise " De Plantis," 
 giving the first eacample of a system of bo- 
 
 I tanical arrangement, based on similarity of 
 
 ■ structnre. Died, 1003. 
 
 C^SAR, Cails Julius, the first Roman 
 emperor, and one of tlie greatest men that 
 even Rome ever produced. At the early 
 age of 16 he lost his father, who was a 
 prsBtor ; and, very shortly after that event, 
 he married Cornelia tlie daughter of Cor- 
 nelius Cinna, the friend of Marius. This 
 connection gave great offence to the pow- 
 erful Sylla,who, having vainly endeavoured 
 to bring about a divorce, caused Caisax to 
 be proscribed. Ca38ar, however, escaped 
 the search that was made after him, and 
 Sylla was at length induced to exempt him 
 from prosecution, though he did so very 
 unwillingly, telling those who interceded 
 with him that they would repent their kind- 
 ness, as he could see in Cajsar the germ of 
 man]/ Mariuses. Uavhig distinguished him- 
 self as an orator in the impeachment of 
 Cornelius DolabcUa, he speedily grew a 
 public favourite, and became successively 
 military tribune, quaistor, and sedile. The 
 profusion with which he lavished his liber- 
 ality while in these offices, involved hira 
 very deeply in debt ; but having obtained 
 the government of Spain, he contrived to 
 amass money sufficient for their discharge, 
 though 'tliey are said to have exceeded a 
 million and a half sterling ; a fact which, 
 as he held the government only a year, says 
 but little for his scrupulousness as to the 
 means he used for self-aggrandisement. 
 Having united with Pompey and Crassus in 
 the memorable coaliiion, called "the first 
 triumvirate," he became consul, and then 
 obtained the govermneut of Gaul, with the 
 command of four legions. And now it was 
 lliat his genius had ample scope. His mili- 
 tary career was rapid and brilliant. Bel- 
 gians, Helvetians, and Nervians succumbed 
 to him ; the German tribes were repulsed, 
 and Gaul was wholly subjected to the Roman 
 power. These transactions, and his inva- 
 sions of Britain, are beautifully and gra- 
 phically related in his Commentaries. His 
 successes had tlie effect of exciting the 
 jealousy of Pompey, who had influence 
 enough in the senate to Cause Casar to be 
 recalled from the government of Gaul. He 
 refused to obey this order, and marched with 
 his army into .Italy, Pompey retiring into 
 Greece. Having seized the public treasury, 
 and commissioned Mark Antony to watcli 
 over his interests in Rome, he proceeded to 
 Spain, where a large army remained in Pom- 
 pey's interest, which he defeated, and on his 
 return to Rome was declared dictator. He 
 then followed Pompey into Greece, and de- 
 feated him in the memorable battle of Phar- 
 Balia, from which Pompey escaped only to 
 be assassinated in Egypt. Having crushed 
 
 130 
 
 every attempt at resistance on the part of 
 the sons and friends of Pompey, and having 
 been honoured with four several triumphs, 
 he was declared perpetual dictator ; a title 
 which some of his friends wished to alter to 
 that of king. And as the great body of the 
 I Roman people, dazzled by his military ge- 
 nius, and gratified by the liberality of his 
 largesses, were insensible of, or indifferent 
 to, his insatiable thirst for domination, it is 
 more than probable that he would have be- 
 come on absolute king, but that Brutus and 
 other republicans penetrated his designs, 
 and sternly resolved to make his life the 
 sacrifice to the freedom of his country. 
 Notwithstanding dark hints had been given 
 to him of his danger, he attended a meeting 
 of the senate witliout taking any measures 
 for the safety of his person, and fell beueath 
 the daggers of the conspirators on the ides 
 of March, in the year 43 b. c, and in the 
 56th of his age. 
 
 C^SAR, Sir Julius, an eminent English 
 civilian, who filled various important offices 
 in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and kings 
 James I. and Charles I. His last office was 
 that of master of the rolls, which he held 
 above 20 years. Born, 1557 ; died, KVK). 
 
 CAFFA, Melchiok, an able sculptor, 
 many of whose works adorned the churches 
 of Rome. Died, 1687. 
 
 CAFFARELLI, a republican French ge- 
 neral, born in 1750. He protested against 
 the despotism of Louis XVI., and served 
 with great distinction under Kleber and 
 Moreau on the Rliine* where he lost a leg, 
 and under Buonaparte in Egypt. He was 
 killed at St. Jean d'Acre, in 17i)0, by a can- 
 non-ball ; and his tomb still remains, with- 
 out the walls. 
 
 C^VTF^VRELLI, Gaetano Majorano, a 
 celebrated Italian singer. He studied un- 
 der Porpira, who made him practise the 
 elements of singing from a single sheet of 
 music paper for five years. Me was so well 
 rewarded for bis talent, that he purchased 
 the dukedom of Santo Dorato. Died, 1783. 
 
 CAFFIAUX, JosEi'H, a Benedictine of 
 the congregation of St. Maur ; author of 
 the " Genealogical Treasury," an " Essay 
 towards a History of Music," &c. Died, 
 1777. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Pacl, or PAUL VERO- 
 NESE, a celebrated painter. His works are 
 somewhat deficient in correctness of draw- 
 ing and propriety of costume ; but these 
 defects are amply compensated by his ex- 
 cellence of colouring, and by his grace and 
 harmony of composition. His works are 
 very numerous ; but the best of them are 
 to be found in the churches of Venice, in 
 which city he long resided, and where he 
 died, in 1538. 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, AlexaiJder, Count, the 
 assumed title of an impostor, whose real 
 name was Joseph Balsamo. He was born 
 at Palermo ; and having lost his father at 
 an early age, he was placed under the pro- 
 tection of tlie friars of mercy, whose order 
 he entered as a novice. Here he acquired 
 the elements of chemistry and physic ; but 
 he speedily made his escape, and com- 
 mitted so many frauds in Palermo, that he 
 was obliged to abscond. After visiting va- 
 
CAl] 
 
 ^ ipcljj Hniberj^aT SStOffrapibS* 
 
 [CAJL 
 
 nous parts, he at length reached Naples, 
 where he married a woman of as abandoned 
 a disposition as himself, with whom he tra- 
 yelled to Spain, Portugal, and England, pre- 
 tending to supernatural powers, and wring- 
 ing considerable sums from those who be- 
 came his dupes. In England this exem- 
 plary couple established an order of what 
 they called Egyptian Masonry, and as their 
 dui)cs were of the higher order, they easily 
 obtained from them the loan of valuable 
 jewels, on pretext of some intended cere- 
 monials. With these they went off to Paris, 
 and lived there in the utmost extrava- 
 gance. The count, however, was thrown 
 into the Bastile, on a charge of being con- 
 cerned in the fraud of the celebrated dia- 
 mond necklace of Marie Antoinette ; and 
 when he obtained his liberty, he judged it 
 high time to quit France. He then went to 
 Italy, wnere his wife divulged some of his 
 crimes to the Inquisition, and lie was con- 
 fined in tlie dungeons of the Castle of St. 
 Angelo, and died there in 1794. 
 
 CAIETAU, the assumed name, taken 
 from that of his birthplace, of Thomas de 
 Vio, a Neapolitan monk, and subsequently 
 general of his order ; author of a work on 
 the " Power of the Pope." which procured 
 him the archbishopric of Palermo and a 
 cardinalate ; " Commentaries on Aristotle 
 and Aquinas," &c. Died, 1534. 
 
 CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, an 
 eminent French mathematician and astro- 
 nomer; author of" Elements of Astronomy," 
 and of numerous other valuable works of 
 science. Born, 1713 ; died, 17(52. 
 
 CAIUS, otherwise GAIUS, an eminent 
 Roman lawyer ; author of a valuable body 
 of legal institutes. He died about the be- 
 ginning of the third century. 
 
 CALiAMY, Edmund, a presbytcrian di- 
 vine. He was educated at Cambridge, and 
 obtained a living ; but he resigned it, and 
 joined the Nonconformists, rather than com- 
 ply with the order for reading the Book of 
 Sports. He now entered waimly into the 
 religious disputes of the time, and was one 
 of the writers of the treatise against epis- 
 copacy, entitled, from the initials of its au- 
 thors," Smectymnuus." Though he preached 
 before the House of Commons, and was one 
 of the assembly of divines at Westminster, 
 he opposed both the execution of Charles I. 
 and the subsequent domination of Cromwell. 
 At the death of the latter he actively aided 
 in the restoration, and became chaplain to 
 Charles II. The act of uniformity caused 
 him again to secede, and he died in retire- 
 ment in 1656. 
 
 CALAMY, Edmuxd, grandson of the 
 above, and a dissenting minister of great 
 note. He was a very voluminous writer. 
 Besides numerous sennous» and controver- 
 sial tracts against Echard, Hoadley, and 
 others, he published an abridgment of 
 " Baxter's History of his Life and Times," 
 with numerous supplementary articles. 
 Died, 1732. 
 
 CALANUS, an Indian philosopher, much 
 esteemed by Alexander the Great. At the 
 age of 83, being afflicted with a painful illness, 
 he caused a funeral pile to be erected, which 
 he ascended with a composed countenance, 
 
 and expired in the flames, saying, that having 
 lost his health and seen Alexander, life had 
 no more charms for him. 
 
 CALA8, Joiix, a merchant of Toulouse, 
 memorable as the victim of judicial murder. 
 His eldest son committed suicide ; and as he 
 was known to be attached to the Uoman 
 Catholic faith, a rabble cry arose that he had 
 on that account been murdered by his father. 
 It was in vain that the vinhappy pai-ent 
 pointed out the fact that he had a Roman 
 Catholic servant who was uninjured. He 
 was condemned literally without the shadow 
 of a proof of his guilt, and put to death by 
 being broken on the wheel. Voltaire and 
 others subsequently caused the process to be 
 revised, and the unhappy widow procured a 
 pension. The unjust and ignominious death 
 of Galas took place in 1762. 
 
 CALCAGNINI, CajLio, an Italian mili- 
 tary officer, who bore arms under the em- 
 peror Maximilian, and pope Julius II., and 
 was distinguished equally as a soldier and 
 a negotiator. Quitting the profession of 
 arms, he became professor of belles lettres in 
 the university of Ferrara. His Latin poetry 
 was much esteemed, but as a prose writer he 
 is more valuable for his matter than for his 
 style. Died, 1541. 
 
 CALCRAFT, John, a gentleman of Dor- 
 setshire, and for many years an M.P., entered 
 parliament in 1796. He voted with the Whig 
 party, and especially distinguished himself 
 in favour of George IV. while he was prince 
 of Wales ; it was therefore, with surprise and 
 indignation, that the Whigs saw their friend 
 secede from them, and accept office in the 
 Tory administration formed in 1828 under 
 the Duke of W^ellington. He retired, of 
 course, when that administration was dis- 
 solved ; but he voted on their side until 1831, 
 when he gave the casting vote in favour of 
 the Reform Bill. From this time he seemed 
 dejected, mental alieiiation succeeded, and 
 he committed suicide. 
 
 CALDA8, Francis Joseph, a distinguish- 
 ed Spanish naturalist. He was employed 
 by the Congress of New Granada to complete 
 the Flora of Bogota, when the disturbed state 
 of public affairs interrupted the work ; and 
 this unfortunate gentleman and liis col- 
 league, Don Lozano, having sided with the 
 patriot party, were put to death by the 
 Spanish general Muriilo, in 1816. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCA, PEDno, a 
 distinguished Spanish dramatist of the 17th 
 century. In his youth he bore arms, but 
 subsequently became canon of Toledo, and 
 employed his leisure in literature. His plays 
 are very numerous, but, though popular in 
 Spain, their chief merit to an English reader 
 is in their plots ; his diction being generally 
 inflated, and not unfrequently coarse. Bom, 
 1600 i died, 1687. 
 
 CALDERWOOD, David, a Scotch pres- 
 bytcrian divine of the reign of Charles II. 
 His opposition to episcopacy caused him to 
 be banished, and he went to reside in Holland, 
 where he published his celebrated "Altare 
 Demascenum." He subsequently returned 
 to Scotland, and by his writings and personal 
 exertions greatly aided in the establishment 
 of presbyterianism. Died, 1651. 
 
 CALENIUS, Waltee. a native of Whales, 
 
cal] 
 
 ^ IJcto Bnibtxial 3Bui0ra|jTjjf. 
 
 [cal 
 
 and one of its historians. lie was arch- 
 deacon of Oxford in 1120. 
 
 C ALENTIUS, Elisujs, a Neapolitan poet, 
 and prose author, lie was preceptor to Fre- 
 deric, the son of Ferdinand, king of Naples, 
 and the earliest writer on tlie illegality of 
 putting crimiuals to death except for mur- 
 der. Died, 1.503. 
 
 CALEPINO, Ambkose, an Italian gram- 
 marian and philologist ; author of a very 
 valuable polyglot dictionary, and other 
 learned and useful works. Died, 1.510. 
 
 CALETTI, GiusEiTE, surnamed II Cre- 
 MOXESE, an admirable Italian painter. His 
 principal picture is that of St. Mark, in the 
 church San Benedetto, at Ferrara. In some 
 of his works he so closely imitated Titian, 
 that connoisseurs can scarcely distinguish 
 them. Died, 16C0. 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius C^s.vr AugiTstus 
 GEK.MA.vicus,theRomanemi)eror and tyrant, 
 began his reign a.d. 37,with every promising 
 appearance of becoming the real father and 
 friend of his people ; but at the end of eight 
 months he was seized with a fever, which, it 
 is charitably presumed, must have iwrma- 
 nently deranged his intellect, for his dispo- 
 sition totally changed, and he committed tlic 
 most atrocious acts of impiety, cruelty, and 
 folly. Ue caused sacrifices to be offered to 
 himself, his wife, and his favourite horse ; 
 murdered many of his subjects with his own 
 hands ; had others put to the rack while he 
 was enjoying his meals, or beheaded in his 
 presence. But in the midst of his enormities 
 he was assassinated by a tribune of the 
 people, as he came out of the theatre, a.d. 41, 
 in the 29th year of his age. 
 
 CALIPPUS, a Greek mathematician of 
 the 4th century b. c, famous for having cor- 
 rected the cycle of 19 years, invented by 
 Meton, to show the correspondence of time 
 in the revolutions of the sun and moon. 
 
 CALLCOTT, John Wall, doctor of music, 
 an eminent English composer. The Noble- 
 man's Catch-club having proposed a prize, he 
 sent in a hundred compositions I It was 
 then ruled that no individual should send 
 more than three compositions of a sort ; and 
 Callcott accordingly, in 1789,senttwelve,four 
 of which gained the four medals I For many 
 years he carried olf at least one annual prize, 
 until 1793, when the prizes ceased to be given. 
 He wrote, besides glees, catches, and other 
 compositions, a "Slusical Grammar," and 
 made some progress with a "Musical Dic- 
 tionary." Born, 17C(5 ; died, 1821. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Sir Augustus Wall, R. A. 
 an eminent English landscape painter, was 
 bom at Kensington, in 1779, his eldest bro- 
 tlier being Dr. Callcott, the celebrated mu- 
 sical composer. Originally a chorister in 
 Westminster Abbey, he was induced to try 
 his hand at portrait painting ; and such was 
 his success, that he immediately followed the 
 new pursuit to which his inclination pointed. 
 Year after year his reputation increased ; 
 and from 1799, when he first submitted a 
 specimen of his abilities for exhibition at 
 the Royal Academy, till 1810, when he was 
 elected a Royal Academician, he had ad- 
 vanced almost to the summit of his profes- 
 sion in his own particular branch of art, viz. 
 landscape painting. For many years his 
 
 pictures of sea-coast views and English in- 
 land scenery were in considerable request ; 
 nor were they ever deficient in number, his 
 industry being on a par with his ability. 
 On his marriage with the widow of Captam 
 Graham, they made a continental tour, and 
 it was evident soon after his return that his 
 study of Italian scenery and the Italian 
 masters had wrought an entire change in his 
 style of composition. No longer did we see 
 rural scenes of England — mills, market- 
 carts, or ferry-boats ; but " Morning " and 
 " Evening." Italian compodtions ; " Sunset 
 near Canucglia," " Italian Girls at their 
 first Communion," and others of that class. 
 Though for a time, however, he had aban- 
 doned, he had not forgotten, the studies of 
 his earlier years ; and in 18.'}7 the public 
 were both surprised and delighted with a 
 large picture of " Ilaffaelle and the Foma- 
 rina," with figures the size of life. In that 
 year he received the honour of knighthood. 
 Died, Nov. 2r>. 1844 ; aged fi6. 
 
 CALLCOTT, Makia, Lady, daughter of 
 Rear-admiral George Dundas, was born 1779. 
 Married at a very early age to Captain 
 Graham, R. N., she accompanied him to 
 India, returned to England, and published 
 her travels in the three presidencies before 
 she was twenty-four years of age I Some 
 years later she accompanied her husband to 
 South America, where he died, and she was 
 in Chili during the terrible earthquakes of 
 1822-3. Besides the " Travels " ab<ive named, 
 she published a " History of Spain," a " Scrip- 
 ture Herbal," and several minor works. Her 
 second husband was Sir Augustus Callcott, 
 R.A., the eminent artist. Died, Nov. 1842, 
 aged 63. 
 
 CALLET, Joux Francis, a celebrated 
 French mathematician, hydrographcr, and 
 engineer ; author of " A Memoir on the Dis- 
 covery of the Longitude," a " Supplement to 
 Bezout's Trigonometry," and a " Table of 
 Logarithms, from 1 to J08/KK)." Died, 1798. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, a sculptor and architect 
 of Corinth. He is said to have invented the 
 Corinthianorderof architecture, and to have 
 taken the hint of its capital from a plant ol' 
 the acanthus which surrounded a basket 
 covered witli a tile on a tomb. He flourished 
 in the 6th century b. c. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, a Greek poet and his- 
 torian. The remains of his writings, con- 
 sisting of elegies, hymns, and epigrams, have 
 been published by several eminent editors, 
 and translated into English by Dodd and 
 Tytler. 
 
 CAI.LINUS, a Grecian orator and poet, 
 supposed to have lived in the 8th century b.c. 
 Some of his poetry is in the collection of 
 Stobaius ; and he is said to have been the In- 
 ventor of elegiac verse. 
 
 CALLISTHENES, a Greek philosopher 
 and poet, a relative and pupil of Aristotle, 
 by whom he was recommended to Alexander 
 the Great. He accompanied that prince in 
 the exi)cdition against Persia, and was at 
 first much esteemed by him. It seems, how- 
 ever, that the philosopher had no small 
 portion of arrogance, a quality not likely 
 to serve him with a despotic and irritable 
 prince. He crowned the offences of his free 
 speaking by boldly reprobating Alexander's 
 
c.vl] 
 
 ^ i^cbi mnbtt^al 3Siosrajj]^j). 
 
 [cam 
 
 assumption of divine honours. For this he 
 was put to death. 
 
 CALLOT, James, an eminent French en- 
 graver. His plates are very numerous and 
 highly esteemed, and his drawings scarcely 
 less so. Died, 1636. 
 
 CALLY, Pierre, a French divine and 
 philosopher. lie was a staunch Cartesian, 
 and was much engaged in controversies on 
 that subject. He also distinguished himself 
 in converting Protestants to the Church of 
 Rome ; and envy of his theological success, 
 added to enmity against his philosophy, 
 raised him powerful enemies, who caused 
 liim to be banished from Caen, of which he 
 was cure, to Moulins. On his return, he 
 again renewed his exertions among the Pro- 
 testants, and published a work on the agree- 
 ment between theology and philosophy, upon 
 the subject of Transubstantiation. This 
 work was condemned as heretical, and he 
 was obliged to recant in liis own church. 
 In addition to his controversial works, he 
 wrote some sermons, and an " Introduction 
 to Philosophy," and edited "Boethius de 
 Consolatione." Died, 1709. 
 
 CALMET, AuGUSTiJf, a French Benedic- 
 tine abbot of Senones ; author of a " Uni- 
 versal History," " Dictionary of the Bible," 
 and other learned and well-known works. 
 Born, 1672 ; died, 1757. 
 
 CALO, John, or Johai^xitz, a Bulgarian 
 cliief of the 13th century. He put the em- 
 peror Baldwin to death, and committed most 
 wanton cruelties in Greece ; but was cut 
 short in his evil career by the hand of an 
 assassin. 
 
 CAI^ONNE, Charles Alilxandek de, an 
 eminent French statesman, who succeeded 
 Necker as comptroller-general of the finances 
 in 1783 ; but after four years of incessant 
 endeavours at financial reform, was obliged 
 to retire to England. He wrote "Obser- 
 vations sur plusieurs Matiferes du Droit 
 Civile et Coutumier," &c. Born, 1734 ; died, 
 1802. 
 
 CALPRENEDE, Walter de Costes, 
 Lord of, a French nobleman and friend of 
 the great Cond^, who is said to have aided 
 him in the composition of " Cassandra," 
 "Pharamond," &c., voluminous romances, 
 once very popular, but now sunk into almost 
 entire oblivion. Died, 1663. 
 
 CALPURNIUS, . or CALPHURNIUS, 
 Titus, a Sicilian Latin poet of the 3rd cen- 
 tury. Seven of his eclogues are to be found 
 in the "Poetae Latini Minores," published at 
 Leyden in 1731, and are thought to be second 
 only to the eclogues of Virgil. 
 
 CALVABT, Denis, an eminent Dutch 
 painter, who had the honour of giving the 
 earliest instructions to Guido, Albano, and 
 Domenichino. His chef-d'oeuvre is the 
 picture of St. Michael, in the church of St. 
 Peter, at Bologna. Died, 1619. 
 
 CALVERT, George, first lord Balti- 
 more, an English statesman. He was for 
 some time secretary of state to James I., 
 but was obliged to resign this oflace on be- 
 coming a Roman Catholic. He did not lose 
 the favour of the king, however ; but ob- 
 tained a valuable grant of land in America, 
 and by his wise and just conduct formed the 
 colony which has in modern times increased 
 
 to the populous and wealthy state of Mary- 
 land. Died, 1032. 
 
 CALVERT, Frederick, seventh lord 
 Baltimore ; author of a " Tour to the East, 
 vnih Remarks on Constantinople and the 
 Turks," " Coelestes et Inferi," &c. Died, 
 1771. 
 
 CALVERT, Frederick, an ingenious and 
 enterprising artist residing in London, whose 
 numerous drawings and lithographic prints 
 afford ample evidence both of his versatility 
 and untiring assiduity. Died, 1835. 
 
 CALVI, Lazzaeo, an able Italian artist, 
 but of so jealous and evil a disposition, that 
 he poisoned an artist who rivalled him ; and, 
 on finding Luca Cambraso's portion of the 
 decoration of a church preferred to his own, 
 abandoned his own profession, and did not 
 resume it for 20 years. Died, 1606. 
 
 CALVIN, properly CAUVIN, JohNj after 
 Luther the most eminent of the religious 
 reformers. His writings, both controversial 
 and practical, were very numerous, and 
 marked by great vigour and perspicuity ; 
 and though they are now little read, the 
 principles they inculcate are held by a vast 
 body in all countries in which the reformed 
 religion is established or tolerated. There 
 is, however, a deep stain in the character 
 of this reformer. While vindicating the li- 
 berty of conscience, he so far forgot his own 
 principles and disobeyed the behests of the 
 gospel, as to consign to the flames the im- 
 fortunate Servetus. The principal work of 
 Calvin is his " Christian Institutes." Bom 
 at Noyon, in Picardy, 1509 ; died, 1564. 
 
 CALVISIUS, Sellius, a German writer ; 
 author of " Opus Chronologicum," a work 
 much praised by Scaliger and other learned 
 men ; a treatise on music ; a work against 
 the Gregorian calendar, &c. He also com- 
 posed several psalms and other pieces of 
 church music. Died, 1615. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis, 
 duke of Rome, &c., raised to distinction by 
 the French revolution, was born at Mont- 
 pelier, in 1733, brought up to the legal pro- 
 fession, and by his talents soon attracted the 
 notice of the convention, by whom he was 
 appointed to various judicial offices. In the 
 discussion relative to the fate of Louis XIV., 
 although he was one who declared him guilty, 
 yet he disputed the right of the convention 
 to judge him, and voted for his provisory 
 arrest, or, in case of hostile invasion, his 
 death. For a time he had the management 
 of foreign affairs ; and when Buonaparte was 
 first consul, Cambaceres was chosen second 
 consul. After Napoleon became emperor, he 
 was an especial favourite, and was created 
 archchancellor, grand officer of the legion of 
 honour, and ultimately duke of Parma, and 
 president of the chamber of peers. In fine, 
 he always showed a sincere attachment to 
 Napoleon, and devoted his best energies to 
 his cause ; and though he was banished on 
 the second restoration of Louis XVIII. , yet 
 he was afterwards allowed to return to 
 Paris, where he died in 1824. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, II.R.H., Adolpiius Fre- 
 derick, the seventh and youngest son of 
 George III., was born Feb. 24th, 1774. He 
 received his earliest education at Kew, and 
 having completed his studies at Gottingen, 
 
cam] 
 
 I 
 
 he served as a volunteer under the Duke of 
 I York, during the eampaign of 1793, in 
 j Flanders, wliere he received two wounds ; 
 j and he bore an active sliare in the various 
 ] operations of the arduous campaign in 1794 
 I and 1795. In 1803 he was promoted to the 
 rank of general, and appointed colonel-in- 
 chief of the King's German I<egion ; in 1813 
 he received the field marshal's baton ; and at 
 the close of the war in 1815 he was nominated 
 ! vi(reroy of Hanover ; an office which he held 
 j till 1837, when the death of his brother 
 William IV. opened the succession to the 
 i throne of Hanover to the Duke of Cumber- 
 j land. His administration of the affairs of 
 I that coimtry, if not brilliant, was character- 
 I ised by great discretion ; and in 1831, his 
 j mild yet firm conduct went far to extinguish 
 the strong party animosities, which had 
 I nearly kindled the flames of civil war. 
 i Since the close of 1837 the duke chiefly re- 
 I sided in this country, where he endeared 
 ] himself to all classes of the community by 
 j his affability and bonhommie. He was a 
 zealous supporter of all charitable institu- 
 tions, and few anniversary meetings or festi- 
 vals were thought to be complete if the 
 directors had not secured liim for the chair- 
 man. In politics, tlie duke was a liberal 
 conservative ; but he made it a point of never 
 voting, though he might speak, against the 
 ministers of the crown. Besides being patron 
 of the Art Union, he was exceedingly fond 
 of the fine arts, especially of music, and at 
 one period of his life distinguished himself 
 as an amateur performer on the piano and 
 the violin. We have only to add that on the 
 7th of Mar, 1818, the Duke of Cambridge 
 married the Princess Wilhelmina Louisa, 
 daughter of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse 
 Cassel, who with a son and two daughters, 
 the issue of their marriage, still survive. 
 Died, July 8. mw. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Richard Owex, an Eng- 
 lish writer of great and versatile ability j 
 author of " The Scribbleriad," a satire ; a 
 " History of the Coromandel War," &c. 
 Died, 1802. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierkk Jacqi^es, Baron 
 de, a distinguished French general, was bom 
 at Nantes, 1770. Entering the army in 1790, 
 he served with distinction in the campaigns 
 of the republic and the empire. He accom- 
 panied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned 
 with him in 1815, commanded a division of 
 the Old Guard at the battle of Waterloo, 
 refused to surrender, though his men were 
 nearly destroyed, and fell into the hands of 
 the English, after being severely wounded. 
 In 181(5 he was brought before a council of 
 war ; but though unanimously acquitted, he 
 was placed in retirement, and did not re- 
 enter his country's service till 1830. The 
 celebrated words, " La Garde meurt, et ne se 
 rend pas," are attributed to him. Died, 1842. 
 CAMBYSES, king of Persia, succeeded his 
 father, the great Cyrus, in 529 B.C. He was 
 of a violent and vindictive disposition, which 
 he manifested equally by his invasions of 
 Egypt and Ethiopia, and by his cruel treat- 
 ment of his own subjects. Died, B.C. 521. 
 
 CAMDEN, CiiAKLEs PitATT, Earl, a dis- 
 tinguished British lawyer and statesman, 
 was the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief 
 
 143 
 
 ^ i^tfsi HnibnM 3SiflcjrapT3j?. 
 
 [cam 
 
 justice of the court of king's bench, and 
 was bom in 1713. On the advancement of 
 Henley to the House of Lords in 1757, Mr. 
 Pratt was appointed attorney-general ; and 
 in 17C2 made chief justice of the common 
 pleas. In 1765 he was created a peer, and 
 the year following advanced to the dignity 
 of lord chancellor. On the question of libels 
 Lord Camden always opposed the doctrine 
 laid down by high authority, viz. that juries 
 were only the judges of the matter of fact, 
 and not of the law. In 1782 lie was ap- 
 pointed president of the council, which oflRce 
 he resigned the following year ; but he was 
 afterwards re-api)ointcd, and held it till his 
 death in 1794. 
 
 CAMDEN, Jonrr Jeffreys Pratt, Mar- 
 quis, K. G., &c., was born in 1759, being the 
 only son of Charles, first earl Camden, 
 sometime lord high chancellor of England. 
 He was educated at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge ; and in 1780 was returned to jiarlia- 
 ment as one of the members for Bath ; shortly 
 after which he received the appointment of 
 one of the tellers of the exchequer. In 1794 
 he 8ucceede4 his father in the peerage, and 
 the year following he was made lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland. Besides various other 
 important situations, he held the lucrative 
 office of teller of the exchequer for sixty 
 years ; and during almost half that term he 
 had resigned the large income arising there- 
 from, amounting in the whole to upwards of a 
 quarter of a million of money. This patri- 
 otic act alone throws a lustre over the name 
 and character of the noble marquis, which 
 will be rememl)ered long after the splendour 
 attached to his rank and honours shall have 
 faded from the memory. For his eminent 
 services to the state, he was created marquis 
 Camden and earl of Brecknock in 1812. 
 Died, 1840. 
 
 CAMDEN, WiixiAM, a learned English 
 antiquary. lie received his early education 
 at Christ's Hospital, and subsequently studied 
 at Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree. 
 After filling the situations of second and 
 chief master of Westminster School, his pro- 
 ficiency in antiquarian lore procured him 
 the honourable and lucrative office of Claren- 
 cieux kin"-at-arms. In addition to his great 
 and well-known work, "The Britannia," he 
 published " Annals of Queen Elizabeth," a 
 Greek grammar, &c. Born, 1.551 ; died, 1623. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, Joachim, a learned Ger- 
 man writer, the friend and biographer of 
 Melancthon. In addition to Ids original 
 writings, he published several translations 
 from the Greek. Born, 1500 ; died, 1574. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, Joachim, son of the 
 above ; author of some botanical essays, &c. 
 Bom, 1534 ; died, 1598. 
 
 CAMERON, Lieut.-gen. Sir Ar.r.AX. In 
 1793, he raised, from his private funds, the 
 79th, or " Cameron Highlanders ; " and 
 after a long life spent in the service of his 
 country, died in 1828. 
 
 CAMERON, JoH.v, a Scotch Protestant 
 divine, who after filling the divinity chair 
 at Glasgow, obtained that of Montauban, in 
 France. Mild by nature and tolerant by 
 Christian philosophy, he endeavoured to me- 
 diate l)etween Protestants and Papists ; but 
 some furious zealots belonging to the latter 
 
cam] 
 
 ^ i^cta WinibtrSKl MiasviipM' 
 
 [cam 
 
 caused him to be so severely assaulted, that 
 I he died from the effects of the brutal attack. 
 ! His works were collected and published in 
 I three 4to volumes. Died, l<)2o. 
 
 CAMILLA, daughter of Metabus, king of 
 the Volsci. Ou siicceediug her father she 
 1 distinguished herself in arms, and fell in 
 j battle assisting Turuus against ^neai^. 
 I CAMILLUS, Marccs FtrEics, a Roman 
 I general. After obtaining the highest ho- 
 nours from his applauding compatriots, he 
 j was charged with peculation, and went into 
 I exile. But when Brennus and his Gauls 
 I besieged the capital, Camillus nobly set 
 I aside his private feelings, hastened to Rome, 
 i and freed it from the barbarians ; after 
 ! which he was made dictator. Died, B.C. 363. 
 j CAMOENS, Louis, a Portuguese poet of 
 I first-rate celebrity, was born at Lisbon about 
 ; the year 1520, and received his education at 
 Coimbra. He served with great credit 
 against the Moors in Africa ; and subse- 
 quently joined in an expedition to the East 
 Indies, where he wrote a considerable por- 
 tion of liis " Lusiad." This poem has 
 been several times translated into English. 
 Died, l.'-.ni. 
 
 CAMP AN, Madame de, distinguished no 
 less for her amiability than her acquire- 
 ments, was born at Paris, 1752. Attached to 
 the court in the capacity of companion to the 
 French princesses, she was particularly dis- 
 tinguished by Marie Antoipette, whose good 
 and evil fortune she shared with affecting 
 fidelity and devotion. After the revolution 
 she instituted a celebrated educational es- 
 tablishment at St. Germains ; she was subse- 
 quently appointed by Napoleon head of the 
 institution for the education of the daughters 
 of officers whom he had enrolled in the Le- 
 gion of Honour : but after the restoration of 
 the Bourbons, this establishment was dis- 
 solved, and her relationship to Marshal Key 
 involved her in various unpleasant investiga- 
 tions which embittered her life. She died 
 in 1822, leaving behind her, besides a re- 
 spected name, many educational works (of 
 which her "Education des Filles" deserves 
 particular notice) and valuable memoirs, 
 rich in interesting sketches of the private 
 life of her former mistress and friend. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, Thomas, an Italian 
 monk of the Dominican order. Having 
 strongly opposed the peripatetic philosophy, 
 his enemies caused him to be accused of con- 
 spiracy, and he was confined first at Naples, 
 and afterwards at Rome. From the latter 
 place he escaped to France, where Cardinal 
 Richelieu obtained him a pension. His best 
 works are " De recta Ratione Studendi " 
 and " Aphorisma Politica." Died, 1630. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Archibald, marquis of Ar- 
 gyle, a zealous and gallant partisan of the 
 Covenanters. At the restoration of Charles 
 II. the marquis was committed to the Tower. 
 After remaining a prisoner about 5 mouths, 
 he was sent to Scotland, where he was tried 
 for high treason, and beheaded in 1661. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Ajjcuibald, earl of Argyle, 
 son of the above, and a most zealous and 
 gallant adherent of the royal cause ; so much 
 so, indeed, that he was excepted from the 
 general pardon issued by Cromwell in 1654. 
 Tliough he defeated the endeavours of his 
 
 enemies to bring him to the scaffold, this 
 noble man most unfortunately ventured to 
 return from Holland, where he had found 
 shelter, and being apprehended, was con- 
 veyed to Edinburgh and beheaded in 1685. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Jonx, duke of Argyle and 
 of Greenwich, was distinguished equally as 
 a soldier and a statesman. He was briga- 
 dier-general at the famous battle of Rami- 
 lies, and commanded with brilliant effect at 
 Oudenarde and Malplaquet. To these ser- 
 vices he added that of beating the Earl of 
 Mar at Dumblain, and compelling the Pre- 
 tender to quit the kingdom. These action?, 
 and his exertions in bringing al>out the 
 union, were rewarded with the Garter and 
 the English dukedom of Greenwich. He 
 also held several offices, of which Sir R. 
 Walpole deprived him, but which he re- 
 gained on that minister's removal. Born, 
 1G71 ; died, 1743. 
 
 CjVMPBELL, AEcniBALT), a relative of 
 the above, and bishop of Aberdeen ; author 
 of the very scarce and curious work, " The 
 Doctrine of a Middle State between Death 
 and the Resurrection." He resigned his 
 bishopric in 1724, and died in 1744. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, D.D., a Scotch 
 divine, principal of Marischal College, Aber- 
 deen, and professor of divinity there ; au- 
 thor of the "Philosophy of Rhetoric," — still 
 a standard work, — a " Reply to Hume on 
 the Miracles," "Lectures on Ecclesiastical 
 History," &c. Born, 1709 ; died, 1796. 
 
 CAMPBELL, JoHX, a Scotch arcliitect, 
 surveyor of the works at Greenwich : author 
 of" Vitruvius Britannicus." Died, 1734. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Jonx, a clever and indus- 
 trious Scotch writer ; author of the " Mili- 
 tary Histories of Prince Eugene and the 
 Duke of Marlborough," a "Political Sur- 
 vey of Britain," the "Lives of the Admi- 
 rals," &c. Died, 1775. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Major-gen. Sir Neil, was 
 the officer selected by the British govern- 
 ment to accompany Napoleon to the island 
 of Elba ; and it was during a short excur- 
 sion, which his bad state of health rendered 
 necessary, that Napoleon effected his escape. 
 This brave and meritorious officer, after 
 spending thirty-one years in the service of 
 his country, fell a sacrifice to the noxious 
 climate of Sierra Leone, of which colony he 
 had been appointed commander-in-cliief. 
 Died, 1827. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, LL.D., an eminent 
 poet, was the son of a highly intelligent and 
 respectable Scotch merchant, who gave him" 
 an excellent education at Glasgow, where he 
 greatly distinguished himself. A transla- 
 tion of his from Aristophanes was pronounced 
 by the best judges to be the finest college 
 exercise they ha<l ever seen ; and, when 
 little more than thirteen, he won a bursary 
 in his college from a competitor nearly 
 double his age ! Such a youth could not be 
 followed by an undistinguished maturity. 
 Leaving Glasgow at an early age, he settled 
 in Edinlmrgh as a private tutor ; and here, 
 when only in his twenty-second year, he 
 published "The Pleasures of Hope" — by 
 all judges allowed to be one of the most 
 elegant poems in our language. The suc- 
 cess of this work was such as to allow of 
 
cam] 
 
 ^ ^tb) HiiitJcriJal 2iJi0srapI)y» 
 
 [can 
 
 his making a tour on the Continent, whence 
 he gave the worhl tliose splendid lyrics, 
 " Ye Mariners of England," " The Exile of 
 Erin," and " llohenlinden." At the battle 
 of llohenlinden he was so near, that he 
 could see the returning conquerors wiping 
 their blood-stuined sabres upon their horses' 
 manes ; a circumstance to which, in after 
 years, he was often heard to allude. Soon 
 after his return from the Continent, Mr. 
 Campbell married and settled in London, 
 employing himself not only in occasional 
 composition of poetry, but also in the hard 
 literary drudgery of mere compilation. To 
 such works he could not judiciously put a 
 name which already stood so high on the 
 list of England's noblest poets, but we have 
 reason to believe that, from 1803 to 18()9, his 
 labours in this way were as intense and ex- 
 tensive as they were creditable to his love 
 of inclei>endence. But he now published 
 " Gertrude of Wyoming," " The Battle of 
 the Baltic," " Lord TJUin's Daughter," and 
 " O'Connor's Child ; " and he was engaged 
 by Mr. Murray to write the admirable and 
 well-known " Critical Essays and Si>cci- 
 mens." Subsequently he edited the New 
 Monthly and the Metropolitan Magazines ; 
 and published " Theodoric," a poem, be- 
 sides editing some few reprints and compi- 
 lations. Early in his career he was relieved 
 from the absolute want which too often 
 slings genius into imprudence, by the kind- 
 ness of Charles Fox, who put him on the 
 pension list for 200/. per annum. His health 
 had for some years been but feeble, and in 
 1843 he retired to Boulogne, where he died ; 
 but his remains were conveyed to England 
 and interred in Westminster Abbey. Died, 
 June 15. 1H44, aged G". 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Hknrt, a German 
 writer ; author of a German dictionary, 
 "Letters from Paris, eulogistic of the 
 French Revolution ; " " Tiieophron ? " and 
 the " New Robinson Crusoe." The lost 
 named work, by which he is chiefly known 
 in England, is founded on the popular work 
 of Defoe. Born, 1746 ; died, 1818. 
 
 CAMPEGGIO, Lorenzo, originally a 
 professor of civil law at Bologna, but on the 
 death of his wife he entered the church, be- 
 came a bishop, and at length a cardinal. In 
 1.119 he was sent as legate to England, and 
 while here was nominated bishop of Salis- 
 bury. After being for some time in Germany 
 as legate, and employed in opposing Luther- 
 anism, he again came to England to decide 
 between Henry VIII. and Catharine of 
 Arragon, on which occasion he oifended 
 Henry without being of any real service to 
 the queen. He appears to have been a man 
 of considerable learning and natural ability; 
 for he reckoned Erasmus and other eminent 
 scholars among his friends. Died, 1539. 
 
 CAMPEGGIO, brother of the above, and 
 a bishop ; author of several treatises on 
 canon law. Died, 1504. 
 
 CAMPER, Peter, a Dutch physician and 
 naturalist. His writings on various depart- 
 ments of natural history and philosophy are 
 collected in six volumes ; and, in addition to 
 these, he wrote an ingenious treatise on the 
 physiognomies of men of different nations. 
 Bom, 1722 ; died, 1789. 
 
 CAMPHUYSEN, Dyrk, a Dutch land- 
 scape painter of the 17th century ; distin- 
 guished for the excellence of his moonlight 
 pieces. 
 
 CAMPI, Bernaudin, an Italian painter, 
 and author of an excellent treatise on the 
 principles of his art. Died, 1584 — Various 
 liersons of this name arc distinguialied in the 
 annals of Italian art. 
 
 CAMPIAN, Edmund, an English Jesuit. 
 He was educated at Christ's Hospital, and 
 graduated at Oxford ; but on a visit to Ire- 
 land was induced to turn papist, and enter 
 as a Jesuit at Douay. He wrote " Chrono- 
 logia Universalis," and a drama, called 
 " Nectar and Ambrosia." Being chosen by 
 Gregory XIII. to come to England as a 
 missionary, he was discovered, tried for 
 high treason, and executed in 1581, 
 
 CAMPISTRON, Jean Guaujeut de, a 
 French dramatic poet. Three volumes of 
 his plays are extant ; and some of them are 
 thought to be but little inferior to those of 
 his celebrated contemporary, Racine. Born, 
 16.K ; died, 1723. 
 
 CAMPOMANES, Penno Rodriguez, 
 Count de, a celebrated Spanish statesman, 
 whose profound views in political economy 
 obtained him, in 17fi5, the appointment of 
 fiscal to the council of Castile. He was after- 
 wards made minister of state i wrote many 
 useful works ; and died in 17b9. 
 
 CAMI*S, Francis de, abbot of Ligny ; 
 author of a " History of France," " Disser- 
 tation on Medals," &c. Died, 1723. 
 
 CAMPSON, Gauri, raised by the Mame- 
 lukes to the sultanship of Egypt ; and slain, 
 after a beneficent reign of 12 years, in an 
 action with Sclim, emperor of the Turks, in 
 1510. 
 
 CAMUS, Armand Gaston, was one of 
 the deputies from Paris to the states-general 
 in 1789 ; and, when a member of the con- 
 vention, voted for the death of the king. 
 Although he opposed the establishment of 
 the consular government, yet Buonaparte 
 continued him in his office of archivist, 
 which he held several years. Born, 1740 ; 
 died, 1804. 
 
 CAMUS, John Peter, a French prelate, 
 remarkable for the raillery he introduced 
 into his sermons. He was created bishop 
 of Bellay by Henry IV., but his severe re- 
 proofs of the monks, and his endeavours to 
 check their irregularities, made him man^ 
 enemies, and he at length resigned his bi- 
 shopric and retired to a monastery. Among 
 his writings were several religious romances, 
 written with the intention to supplant the 
 less edifying fictions which were just at that 
 time so popular. Born, 1582 ; died, 1652. 
 
 CAMUSAT, Nicuoi,AS, canon of Troyes ; 
 author of " Melanges llistoriques," " Uis- 
 toria Albigensium," &c. Died, 10.55. 
 
 CANALETTI, or CAN ALE, Antonio, a 
 Venetian painter, whose excellence was 
 chiefly in landscape. To him is ascribed the 
 merit of having been the first to make the 
 camera obscura useful in painting. Born, 
 1G97; died, 1768. 
 
 CANANI, John Baptist, an Italian ana- 
 tomist, professor of anatomy and medicine 
 at Ferrara ; author of a valuable and scarce 
 work, entitled. " Musculorum Humani Cor- 
 
 115 
 
cak] 
 
 ^ ^eli3 ^Iniijcr^al aSiOffrajpl^y 
 
 [can 
 
 poris picturata Dissectio." Some writers 
 attribute to him the discovery of tlie valves 
 of the veins. Died, 1590. 
 
 CANAYE, Philip, sieiir du Fresne, an 
 eminent French statesman and lawyer. He 
 was employed in several embassies from 
 Henry IV., accounts of which are published 
 in three folio volumes. He was converted 
 from Calvinism in the well-known contro- 
 versy between Du Perron and Du Plessis 
 Mornay. Born, 1551 ; died, 1010. 
 
 CANDAULES, a king of I^ydia, put to 
 death by his favourite, Gyges, at the insti- 
 gation of the queen. Gyges subsequently 
 slew her also, and assumed the crowu, 
 B.C. 718. 
 
 CANDIDO, Peter, whose real name is 
 said to have been De Witte, was a native of 
 Bruges, where lie was distinguished as an 
 historical painter. Many of his works have 
 been engraved. 
 
 CANDOLLE, Augustix P. de, whose 
 knowledge of botany has placed him in the 
 same rank with Linnaeus, was bom at Ge- 
 neva, 1778. Having finished his studies at 
 Paris, he soon attracted the notice of Cuvier 
 and Lamarck, whom he aided in various 
 scientific researches ; and in 1808 lie was 
 appointed to the chair of botany in INIont- 
 pelier. Obliged to quit France for having 
 taken office under Napoleon during the 
 Hundred Days, he found refuge in his native 
 city, wliere a chair of natural liistory was 
 expressly instituted for him, and where he 
 continued, for many years, to extend the 
 boundaries of his favourite science by his 
 lectures and publications. His cliief works 
 are a " Th^orie Eli5mentaire de Botanique," 
 "Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale," 
 " L'Organographie et la Pliysiologie "Vegi5- 
 tales," &c. ; in all of which he seeks to 
 enforce what is called the natural arrange- 
 ment. Died, 1841. 
 
 CANGE, Chakles du Fresxe du, a 
 French antiquary ; author of a " History of 
 the Empire of Constantinople," "Byzantine 
 History," &c. Died, 1G88. 
 
 CANNE, John, an English puritan of the 
 17th century. Being obliged to fly from 
 England, he settled at Amsterdam, and 
 succeeded Henry Ainsworth as pastor there. 
 He published a Bible, with numerous mar- 
 ginal references. 
 
 CANNEMAN, Elias, a Dutch statesman, 
 born in 1778. In 1798 he joined the revo- 
 lution, and held a high financial post at the 
 Hague, when Holland was united to France. 
 In 1813 he was among the first to declare 
 the independence of Holland, and chief 
 contributor to the restoration of the house of 
 Orange. 
 
 CANNES, Francis, a learned Spaniard, 
 born in 1737, and died in 1795. He was the 
 author of " A Spanish and Arabian Gram- 
 mar and Dictionary." 
 
 CANNING, the Right Hon. Geoboe, a 
 highly gifted orator and distinguished poli- 
 tician, was born in London, April 11. 1770. 
 His father, who was from Ireland, was a 
 man of considerable literary abilities ; but 
 having ofl^ended his family by marrying a 
 lady without fortune, came to London, en- 
 tered himself of the Middle Temple, and was 
 called to the bar. Like many others simi- 
 
 larly situated, he soon abandoned the law 
 for literature ; but this failing to provide 
 him with the means of support, lie com- 
 menced business as a wine merchant, and 
 failed. Repeated disappointments seriously 
 affected his health and spirits, and he died, 
 broken-hearted, on the very day that liis 
 infant son was one year old. His widow, 
 reduced by dire necessity, had recourse to 
 the stage for support, and married an actor : 
 he also died, and she then became the wife 
 of Mr. Ilunn, a linendraper of Exeter. But 
 she had the happiness to live to see the 
 success of her son, and to receive from him 
 at all limes the tenderest marks of filial af- 
 fection. The friends of his father first placed 
 him at Hyde Abbey School, Winchester, and 
 afterwards at Eton, where he greatly distin- 
 guished himself as a scholar, and formed 
 many connections which were of great ser- 
 vice to him in his after life. While at Eton, 
 he displayed great skill as an author, in 
 his contributions to the "Microcosm," a 
 periodical work conducted by the senior 
 scholars. At Oxford also he distinguished 
 himself, and proceeded thence to Lincoln's 
 Inn, his oratorical talents suggesting the bar 
 as the profession best adapted for him. 
 Being introduced to the House of Commons 
 by Mr. Pitt, he abandoned the bar, and 
 devoted himself wholly to politics. His 
 strenuous and able support of the minister 
 was rewarded in 179u with an under secre- 
 taryship of state ; and in the year 1800 he 
 was placed in aflluence by his marriage with 
 Miss Joanna Scott, the daughter of General 
 Scott, with a fortune of 100,000/. His talents 
 as a poet and political writer were unques- 
 tionable, and lie made an expert use of 
 them in the articles he contributed to the 
 " Antijacobjn," a celebrated publication, in 
 which the Whigs were wittily, unmercifully, 
 and in some cases unjustifiably, held up to 
 popular contempt. After the death of Pitt, 
 and the dissolution of the coalition ministry 
 of Fox and Grenville, Canning became 
 foreign secretary in Perceval's administra- 
 tion ; and to him may justly be ascribed 
 the line of British policy in Spain, which 
 destroyed tlie hopes of Napoleon, and led to 
 his final overthrow ; for, as he once empha- 
 tically declared, " his had been the hand 
 which committed England to an alliance 
 with Spain." Having, as it was alleged, 
 unfairly endeavoured to procure the removal 
 of Lord Castlereagh from office, a duel took 
 place, and both parties had to quit office. 
 In 1812 he was elected a member for the 
 great commercial town of Liverpool ; and 
 in 1816 he again became minister, being ap- 
 pointed president of the board of control. 
 In this situation he made himself extremely 
 unpopular by his defence of the Six Acts, 
 and other no less obnoxious measures. On 
 the return of queen Caroline to England in 
 1820, Mr. Canning retired from office, that 
 he might not have occasion to vote against 
 her. This did not prevent his being ap- 
 pointed governor-general of India in 1822 ; 
 and lie had already made preparations for 
 his departure, when the melancholy death 
 of the ^larquis of Londonderry caused the 
 seals of the foreign office to ])e delivered 
 to Mr. Canning. In conjunction with Mr. 
 
 14C 
 
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 ^ 0t^ Winihex^nl 3Ji05rapTj». 
 
 [can 
 
 Iluskisson, he now advocated a course of 
 both home and foreign jiolity, strikingly at 
 variance with that of which he had for years 
 been the wittiest and readiest, if not the 
 most profound, defender. His new policy 
 was as popular as his old had been obnoxious ; 
 and the Earl of Liveriwol being seized with 
 paralysis, from which there was no hope of 
 Ills recovery, Mr. Canning reached the grand 
 object of his ambition — that of being the 
 acknowledged head of administration. But 
 though the new premier was popular with 
 the country, the party with whom lie had 
 in a great measure ceased to act rendered 
 his task a difficult one. The opposition to 
 hlra was fierce, almost rancorous ; and it 
 was soon obvious that he was suffering both 
 in mind and body from over-exertion and 
 constant excitement. These, aggravating 
 the effects of a severe cold, caught while 
 attending the funeral of the Duke of York, 
 brought on a most painful inflammatory 
 disease, wliich teruiiuated his life at the age 
 of 57, in 1827. As an orator, he has rarely 
 been excelled for finished elegance and clas- 
 sical taste ; pouring forth his eloquence in a 
 persuasive, impassioned, and fearless tone ; 
 or in a happy vein of caustic irony demolish- 
 ing the arguments of his opponents. That 
 he was ambitious of place and power, and 
 that during his political career he made 
 some sacrifices of principle to exi)ediency, 
 no one will deny ; but, as a statesman, his 
 great aim was to uphold the honour of his 
 country, and to pursue a liberal line of po- 
 licy at home and abroad ; while he was a 
 decided enemy to all intermeddling with 
 those institutions which the wisdom and ex- 
 perience of ages had built up and cemented. 
 
 CANO, Alonzo, a Spanish artist ; so mas- 
 terly a painter, sculptor, and architect, that 
 he was surnamed the Michael Angelo of 
 Spain. His colossal statues of St. Peter and 
 St. Paul were so admirably executed, that 
 foreign artists from all parts travelled to see 
 and copy them. Xrnhappily, in the midst of 
 his triumph and celebrity, he became the 
 victim of a horrible suspicion. During his 
 absence from home his wife was murdered, 
 and his house robbed by an Italian servant ; 
 and Cano, being suspected, was put to the 
 rack. The torture itself could not shake his 
 firmness, and as there was no evidence 
 against him he was released. He then en- 
 tered the church ;" and although he strictly 
 attended to his religious duties, yet his love 
 of the arts was unabated, and the " ruling 
 passion" was still so strong, that on his 
 death-bed he averted his face from the 
 crucifix of his confessor, because it was ill- 
 carved. Born, 1C08 ; died, 1(570. 
 
 CANO, James, a Portuguese navigator, 
 who in the 15th century discovered the king- 
 dom of Congo. 
 
 C^iNO, John Sebastian, a Spanish na- 
 vigator, who was employed as principal sur- 
 veying officer by Magellan, who circumnavi- 
 gated the globe in 1520-1. Died, 1526. 
 
 CANORMUS, a German mineralogist of 
 great celebrity, born in 1738 ; director of 
 the mines to tlie emperor of Russia. He 
 published numerous works on his favourite 
 science. 
 
 CAN OVA, Antonio, a celebrated modem 
 
 sculptor. He was born, in 1757, at the little 
 village of Passagno, in the Venetian terri- 
 tory. The seigneur of the village, having 
 seen the figure of a lion modelled by Ca- 
 nova when only 12 years of age, was gene- 
 rous enough to place him with Torretii, of 
 Vienna, at that time the greatest living sculp- 
 tor. At the close of his studies at Vienna 
 he settled at Venice, and manifested the 
 originality of his powers by various works. 
 From Venice he passed to Rome, where he 
 was greatly patronised, and in a compara- 
 tively brief time he was admired by all 
 Euroi)e, and more or less employed by every 
 Euro|>ean potentate. Fortune and honours 
 flowed in upon him, and he used them wisely 
 and honourably. Among his numerous 
 works the finest are "Cupid and Psyche," 
 "Venus and Adonis," "Mary Magdalen," 
 and " Napoleon holding the Sceptre." Died, 
 1822. 
 
 CANOVAI, Stanislatts, an Italian ma- 
 thematician, bom in 1740. He was brought 
 into notice by a work to prove that Amerieo 
 Vespucclo was the first discoverer of the 
 New World. 
 
 CANSTEIN, CiiAKLES Hildebrasd, 
 Baron, a German nobleman, distinguished 
 for an improvement in printing, analogous 
 to stereotyping. He caused bibles and testa- 
 ments to be printed from entire pages, the 
 testaments being sold as low as fourpence 
 each. How the baron's pages were formed 
 does not clearly appear. Died, 1711). 
 
 CANTACUZENE, Prince, a Greek pa- 
 triot, descended from the famous Eastern 
 emperor, John, and one of the first to join 
 Tpsilanti in 1821, when declaring for the 
 liberty of Greece, since re-established. 
 
 CANTACUZENUS, JoH.v, emperor of 
 Constantinople. After filling several im- 
 portant offices he was proclaimed emperor 
 by the nobles and soldiery ; and he endea- 
 voured to heal the wounds which 5 years of 
 civil war had inflicted on the state ; but the 
 jealousy of Palaiologus, the rcljcUion of his 
 own son, and other disasters, induced him to 
 resign the crown and retire to a monastery, 
 where he employed himself in literary la- 
 bours. He died in 1411, being more tlian 
 100 years old ; and he may be considered as 
 one of the greatest among the successors of 
 Constantine. 
 
 CANTARINI, Simon, surnamed the Pe- 
 zarese, an Italian painter, whose works are 
 frequently mistaken for those of his great 
 master, Guido. Died, 1(548. 
 
 CANTEMIR, Demethius, a Moldavian 
 prince ; author of " The System of the Afa- 
 hometan Religion," a "History of the Rise 
 and Fall of the Ottoman Empire," &c. Died, 
 1723. 
 
 CANTEMIR, ANTiocnus, son of the 
 above. He was educated in Russia, and 
 employed in some important embassies from 
 that country. He was the author of several 
 poems, and translated Anacreon into Rus- 
 sian. Died, 1774. 
 
 CANTERBURY, Charles Manners 
 Sutton, Viscount, — eldest son of the Most 
 Rev. C. M. Sutton, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 — was bom in 1780; received his education 
 at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
 and, being destined for the legal profession, 
 
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 ^■i^thi SUniljcrs'nl SJaiogrHp!)!). 
 
 [cap 
 
 was called to the bar ia 1805. He entered 
 parliament in 1807, as member for Knares- 
 borough, which borough he represented till 
 1832, when he was elected for the university 
 of Cambridge. In 1809 he was appointed to 
 the office of judge advocate general ; and 
 on Mr. Abbot (afterwards Lord Colchester) 
 retiring from the speakership of the House 
 Commons in 1817, the talent and political 
 integrity of Mr. Manners Sutton recom- 
 mended him to the house as one eminently 
 qualified to fill so distinguished and honour- 
 able a situation. To a commanding pre- 
 sence, he added urbanity of manners, par- 
 ticularly when addressing his political 
 opponents, which won their esteem ; and he 
 conscientiously discharged the important 
 duties of his office. It being reported that 
 he took an active part in the formation of 
 the Peel ministry in 1834, tlie adherents and 
 friends of Lord Melbourne put Mr. Aber- 
 crombie in nomination for the speakership, 
 and he was cliosen (Feb. 19. 1835) by a ma- 
 jority of 10. Mr. Manners Sutton was shortly 
 after called to the upper house by the titles 
 of viscount Canterbury and baron Bottes- 
 ford. He died July 21. 1845, aged 65. 
 
 CANTIPKATANUS, Tuomas, a divine 
 and philosopher of the 13th century ; author 
 of two rare and curious treatises on the 
 natural history of bees. He is also said to 
 liave translated into Latin the whole of the 
 works of Aristotle ; but Avcntiue attributes 
 it to Henry of Brabant. 
 
 CANTON, Joiiy, M.A., an ingenious 
 Englisli mechanician and experimentalist. 
 The chief of his discoveries was that of the 
 means of making artificial magnets, for 
 which the Royal Society gave him its gold 
 medal, and elected him a member. He 
 contributed some valuable papers to the 
 Trausaciions of the Royal Society, but pub- 
 lished no separate work. Born, 1718 ; died, 
 1772. 
 
 CANUEL, Simon, a French general, born 
 in 1767. He was in the army at the time 
 of the revolution ; and, by embracing the 
 royal cause, rose to the rank of general of 
 brigade in La Vendi^e. Quitting this career 
 on the guillotining of his leaders, in 1790, 
 he took command under the Directory ; but 
 was not emploj'ed under the consular or im- 
 perial regime till the restoration of tlie Bour- 
 bons, when he was made governor of Lyons. 
 His accusation, by Colonel Fabvier, of pro- 
 voking anti-Bourbon conspiracies there for 
 the sake of persecution, gave birth to an 
 action for libel against the former, which 
 excited much notice. 
 
 CANUTE, surnamed the Great, king of 
 Denmark by inheritance, and of England 
 by conquest. Though his authority in En- 
 gland was ill-obtained, it seems to liave been 
 both wisely and justly administered. Died, 
 1035. 
 
 CANUTE IV.. surnamed the Pious, king 
 of Denmark. He endeavoured to invade 
 England, but was unsuccessful, and was 
 slain by one of his subjects in a revolt, con- 
 sequent on a grant he Jiad made to the 
 church. His death took place in 1087. 
 
 CAPASSO, Nicholas, an Italian divine, 
 and professor of civil law in the university 
 of Naples ; author ol some works on theology 
 
 and jurisprudence, which are now but little 
 known ; some spirited and popular poetry, 
 Latin and Italian ; and a translation, which 
 is highly popular in Naples, of " Homer's 
 Iliad" into the Neapolitan patois. Born, 
 1671 ; died, 1746. 
 
 CAPEL, Arthur, Lord, a distinguished 
 royalist, who, in conjunction with Lord 
 Norwich and Sir Charles Lucas, gallantly 
 defended Colchester against the parlia- 
 mentary troops. He at length surrendered 
 on a promise of quarter, but was treache- 
 rously beheaded. While confined in the 
 Tower he wrote some beautiful verses ; and 
 was the author also of a moral work, enti- 
 tled " Daily Meditations." He suffered in 
 1048. 
 
 CAPEL, Arthur, earl of Essex, son of 
 the above. His own merit and the memory 
 of his father caused him to have the honour- 
 able employments of ambassador to Den- 
 mark and lord lieutenant of Ireland. He 
 subsequently, for a short time, held the 
 office of first lord of the Treasury ; but lost 
 his favour at court by voting for the exclu- 
 sion of the Duke of York. Being accused of 
 participation in the Ilj-e-house plot, he was 
 committed to the Tower, where he cut his 
 throat, or, as was suspected, was murdered, 
 
 in leas. 
 
 CAPELL, Edward, an eminent dramatic 
 critic ; editor of a volunle of ancient poetry, 
 entitled "Prolusions," &c. ; but chiefly 
 known for his edition of Shakspeare, a task 
 ■whicli is said to have occupied him more 
 than 20 years. Born, 1713 ; died, 1781. 
 
 CAPELLAN, T. F., a Dutch vice-admiral, 
 born in 1700 ; colleague with LordExmouth 
 in the victorious attack on Algiers. 
 
 CAPELLEN, G. A. P., Baron, a Dutch 
 statesman, born in 1770 ; minister of the 
 interior to Louis Buonaparte. On the union 
 of Belgium with Holland, in 1815, he was 
 appointed secretary of state at Brussels by 
 the new king, and in 1815 governor of the 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 CAPELLO, BiANCA, at first the mistress, 
 and afterwards the wife, of Francis, son of 
 the Grand-duke Cosmo de Medici. She was 
 possessed of great ability, but was both artful 
 and cruel, and her memory is literally de- 
 tested by the Florentines. The fact that her 
 husband and herself died within a few days 
 of each other, caused it to be surmised that 
 they were poisoned, and rumour charged the 
 dark deed upon the brother of her husband, 
 the Cardinal Ferdinand. Died, 1587. 
 
 CAPILLUPI, Camillo, an Italian writer 
 of the 10th century ; author of " The 
 Stratagems of Charles IX. against tlie 
 Huguenots." 
 
 CAPISTRAN, JoHX, a friar, who distin- 
 guished himself in the 14th century by the 
 zeal with wliich he laboured against Turks 
 and heretics. He headed a crusade against 
 the Hussites, of whom he is said to have 
 made many converts. He died in 1456 ; and 
 nearly two centuries afterwards was canon- 
 ised. 
 
 CAPISUCCHI, Blasius, marquis of Mon- 
 terio, and general of the papal forces. He 
 signalised himself by great daring and zeal 
 against the Huguenots, especially in defend- 
 ing Poitiers against them in 1569. The 
 
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 ^ ilelu Bnihtv^aX JStograp|)i|. 
 
 [car 
 
 tained permission to go to Brunswick, and, 
 afterwards, to make the tour of Italy and 
 Greece. On quitting England, she assumed 
 the title of Countess of Wolfeubuttel ; and, 
 while at Milan, took into her service an 
 Italian, named Bartolomeo Bergami, in the 
 capacity of a courier, whom she soon elevated 
 to the office of chamberlain, and appointed 
 his sister one of her maids of honour. For a 
 time she resided at a villa on the banks of 
 the lake of Como ; but afterwards visited 
 Tunis, Malta, Athens, Constantinople, Ephe- 
 8U8, and lastly Jerusalem. While there she 
 exhibited extraordinary munificence in gifts 
 to the conventual fathers as well as to the 
 poor ; and took upon herself to found a new 
 order of knighthood, entitled the order of St. 
 Caroline, of which she constituted Bergami 
 grand master. Her indiscretion in thus ex- 
 alting Bergami, and the improper familiarity 
 with which it was alleged she treated him, 
 became a theme of general conversation ; 
 and commissioners were secretly sent out to 
 Milan by the prince regent, in order to make 
 iniiuiries into her conduct, and to furnish the 
 necessary evidence on which to obtain a 
 divorce. All circumstances appeared favour- 
 able to him for the consummation of this 
 long-desired object. While absent from 
 England, death had deprived her of her 
 friends, George III. and the Duke of Kent ; 
 of her daugliter, the Princess Charlotte ; 
 and her brother, the Duke of Brunswick, 
 who fell in resisting the French previous to 
 the battle of Waterloo. Yet, on the Prince 
 of Wales ascending the throne, January 29. 
 1820, the ministrv offered her an income of 
 60,0(W/. sterling, the title of Queen of Eng- 
 land, and all the dignities appertaining 
 thereto, on the condition that she should 
 continue to reside abroad. This proposal 
 she rejected with great indignation, accused 
 her enemies of the basest conspiracy against 
 her, and returned to England, cheered by 
 the enthusiastic welcome of nine-tenths of 
 the people. She was now publicly accused 
 by the minister. Lord Liverpool, of adultery; 
 and, after a protracted trial, the bill of pains 
 and penalties was passed to a third reading 
 by a trifling majority ; but government 
 thought it prudent to withdraw it, and the 
 disgusting proceedings dropped. After this 
 outrage on public decency, preparations were 
 made for the king's coronation. Tlie queen 
 at first demanded to be crowned with him ; 
 and this being peremptorily refused, she 
 requested to be present at the ceremony, 
 but had to endure the mortification of being 
 repeatedly turned froni the doors of West- 
 minster Abbey and refused admission. The 
 spirit of Caroline sunk under this last effort ; 
 for though she endeavoured to display the 
 courage of a Brunswick, and to appear daily 
 in public, yet scarcely had a fortnight 
 elapsed when she was taken suddenly ill, 
 while witnessing a performance at Drury- 
 lane Theatre, and she died on the 7tli of 
 August, 1821. Having expressed a wish 
 that she should not be buried in England, 
 her remains were removed to Brunswick, 
 and deposited between those of her father 
 and brother. On tlie funeral procession 
 passing through London, a violent conflict 
 took place between the life-guards, who 
 
 were conducting it, and the populace. To 
 what extent the queen was guilty no one 
 can say, the evidence being most conflicting 
 and unsatisfactory ; but never was a woman 
 more decidedly the victim of brutal ven- 
 geance, or one who had so many pleas to 
 urge in extenuation of her crime, if really 
 guilty. 
 
 CARPENTER, Dr. Laxt, an eminent 
 theological writer.was born at Kidderminster, 
 1780. After finishing his education under 
 the care of Mr. Pearsall, a relation of his 
 mother, whose zeal in behalf of the Dissenters 
 is well known, he was sent in 1797 to the 
 academy of Northampton, with a view to the 
 ministry, and on finishing his studies at 
 Glasgow University, he became assistant in 
 a school at Birmingham, subsequently one of 
 the librarians of the Athenwum at Liverpool, 
 where he formed an intimacy with Roscoe, 
 Dr. Currie, and other eminent men, and in 
 1805 one of the ministers of the Unitarian 
 congregation at Exeter. In this capacity he 
 remained twelve years, in the faithful dis- 
 charge of his ministerial duties, and gaining 
 golden opinions even from those most hostile 
 to his religious views, by the gentle yet un- 
 yielding manner in wliich they were enforced. 
 In 1817 he undertook the care of the Uni- 
 tarian church at Bristol ; and here he la- 
 boured till 182(i, when his health, which had 
 long l)een precarious, began to decline, and 
 he endeavoured to reinstate it by travelling 
 in England and on the Continent. He re- 
 turned to Bristol in 1829, and continued as- 
 siduously to promote every good and use- 
 ful work ; but in 18.'!9 his health once more 
 gave way, and while sailing from Naples to 
 Leghorn, whither he had gone for recreation, 
 he fell overboard unperceived and was 
 drowned, flth April, 1840. His body was 
 afterwards found near the site of the ancient 
 Antium, and was interred on the seashore. 
 Dr. Carpenter was a most industrious wri- 
 ter. Besides publishing numerous sermons 
 and polemical pamphlets, he contributed 
 largely to Rees's Cyclopaedia and many 
 periodicals ; and lus substantial works, pub- 
 lished both duriu^ his life and since his 
 death, are masterpieces of style and argu- 
 ment. His " Apostolical Harmony of the 
 Gospels" is referred to as an authority even 
 by his theological opponents. It should be 
 mentioned that Dr. Carpenter was not more 
 distinguished for his piety and moral excel- 
 lence, than for his varied attainments and his 
 literary eminence. 
 
 CARPENTER, Riciiakd, an English di- 
 vine of the 17th century. He was originally 
 educated for the Established Church, but 
 seceded from it, and became a Romish 
 priest. He again recanted, and obtained a 
 vicarage in Sussex ; but at the rebellion he 
 quitted England, and again professed him- 
 self a Catholic. The restoration caused 
 him to return to England, and turn Pro- 
 testant. Here it might have been supposed 
 his turnings would end, but he in fact 
 ahanged once more, and died a Catholic. 
 The writings of this unprincipled man are, 
 " Experience, History, and Divinity," and 
 " The Pragmatical Jesuit." 
 
 CARPI, Uiio DA, a painter and engraver 
 of the IGth century, to whom is generally 
 
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 ^ i^cSD ^ntbcriSal ^BJiograjplip, 
 
 [car 
 
 attributed the invention of the kind of en- 
 graving called chiaroscuro. 
 
 CARPI, GiEOLAJii DA, a painter of the 
 16th century, and a very successful imitator 
 of Correggio and Parmegiano. 
 
 CARPINI, Jous j)E Plano, a Dominican 
 friar of tlie 13th century, and one of tlie em- 
 bassy from pope Innocent IV. to the de- 
 scendants of Zenghis Khan, sent to prevent 
 thera from invading Europe, and to induce 
 tliem ratlier to turn their arms against the 
 Saracens and Turks. 
 
 CARPOCRATES, a heretic of the 2d cen- 
 tury, who denied tlie divine nature of Christ. 
 His followers were accused of lewd and im- 
 moral practices, but Dr. Lardner thinks the 
 accusation to have arisen rather from enmity 
 than fact. 
 
 CARR, Sir Jony, an English attorney 
 and writer ; author of " Tlie Stranger in 
 France," " The Stranger in Ireland," " A 
 Tour through Scotland," &c. While in Ire- 
 land, he was knighted by the lord lieutenant. 
 Died, 1822. 
 
 CARR, William IIolwell, an English 
 clergyman, and a dis'.inguished patron of 
 the fine arts. He spent large sums in pic- 
 tures, wluch lie bequeathed to the National 
 Gallery. Died, 1830. 
 
 CARRA, Joiix Louis, a French writer 
 and politician. In addition to a periodical, 
 entitled "Les Annales Politiques et Litt^- 
 raires," he published several essays. Ilav- 
 ing joined the party of Brissot, he was con- 
 demned on the fall of that leader, and 
 guillotined, 1793. 
 
 CARRANZA, BARTnoLOMEAV, a French 
 Dominican. He distinguished himself at 
 the council of Trent, and had the honour to 
 accompany Philip II. of Spain to England, 
 where he laboured so zealously to establish 
 popery, that the king made him archbishop 
 of Toledo. Here, however, liis success ended ; 
 for being accused of heresy, he was impri- 
 soned at Rome for ten years, and subse- 
 quently sent to a monastery for the remainder 
 of his life. His chief works are, a " Summary 
 of the Council," and a '• Treatise on the 
 Residence of Bishops." Died, 1570. 
 
 CARRE, Louis, an eminent French ma- 
 thematician. Besides many important con- 
 tributions to the Memoirs of the Academy 
 of Sciences, he published an elaborate 
 " Method of measuring Surfaces and Solids, 
 and finding their Centres of Gravity, Per- 
 cussion, and Oscillation." Died, 1711. 
 
 CARREL, Akmanr, chief editor of the 
 National, and a distinguished political 
 writer. Died of a wound he received in a 
 duel with M. Girardin a few days previous, 
 July 24. 1836. 
 
 CARRENNO DE MIRANDA, Juax, Dox, 
 an eminent Spanish painter, patronised by- 
 Philip IV. In colouring he surpasses all his 
 countrymen, with the exception of Murillo. 
 Died, 1685. 
 
 CARRERAS, Jose Miguel, JuAif, and 
 Luis ; three brothers, distinguished in the 
 revolution of Chili ; who for patriotism, 
 talents, and purity of character had not 
 their equals in that country ; yet, by a sin- 
 gularly adverse fortune, they all perished 
 at Mcndoza, under the merciless rule of 
 O'Higgins and Sau Martin. With brutal 
 
 cruelty the latter sent their aged father an 
 account of the expenses of the execution of 
 Juan and Luis, who suffered in 1818 ; with 
 an order for its immediate payment. He 
 paid it, and, two days afterwards, expired 
 of a broken heart. Don Jose Miguel did 
 not meet his unhappy fate till 1822, when 
 endeavouring to take advantage of a popular 
 movement in his favour, he was surrounded 
 by a superior force, made prisoner, and 
 executed on the very spot where his brothers 
 had suffered. 
 
 CARRIER, John Baptist, a monster of 
 ferocity, gendered in the French revolution, 
 was born near Aurillac in 1756. He was 
 sent on a mission to La Vendee, where he 
 caused thousands of victims, men, women, 
 and cliildren, to be drowned, beheaded, or 
 shot, the ordinary mode of execution being 
 too tardy for him. Fifteen thousand indi- 
 viduals jjerished in this way ; in short, tlie 
 banks of the Loire were strewed with the 
 dead bodies, and the water was so polluted, 
 that it was prohibited to drink it. On the 
 fall of the party called the Mountain, he 
 was tried before the revolutionary tribunal, 
 which condemned him to the guillotine, in 
 1794. 
 
 CARRINGTON, N. T., a modern English 
 poet, who for many years followed the ar- 
 duous profession of a schoolmaster at Ply- 
 mouth, devoting his leisure moments only 
 to the service of the Muses. His principal 
 works are, " The Banks of the Tamar " and 
 " Dartmoor." His chief power lay in de- i 
 Bcription ; and the latter poem, especially, ; 
 has merits of a very superior order. Born, | 
 1777 ; died, 1830. 
 
 CARRON, Guy Toussaint Juliex, a 
 French ecclesiastic and writer ; author of . 
 " Reflexions Chretiennes pour tous les Jours 
 de I'Annde," " Pcnsees EccltSsiastiques," 
 &c. Died, 1820. 
 
 CARSTARES, William, a Scotch divine, 
 but of more influence as a politician, was 
 born at Cathcart, in 1049. In order to re- 
 move him from the danger of being led into '< 
 politics,his friends sent him from Edinburgh, 
 where he had commenced his studies, to | 
 Utrecht. Becoming known to the Prince of | 
 Orange he soon obtained his confidence, and 
 was much employed by him in forwarding 
 his intentions upon England. Being privy 
 to the Rye-house plot he was apprehended, 
 and put to the torture, which he bore with 
 much fortitude, but at length was induced j 
 to make a statement, wliich was afterwards j 
 used against his friend, Mr. Baillie. On \ 
 his liberation he returned to Holland, where 
 the prince received him very cordially, and ' 
 made liim his chaplain. He accompanied 
 William to England, and though nominally 1 
 only his chaplain, was in fact one of the 
 most influential and able of his state advisers. 
 Under queen Anne he liad no political power, 
 but she caused him to be made principal of 
 the university of Edinburgh, in which im- 
 portant post he gave satisfaction equally to 
 her majesty and to the Scottish public. By 
 the house of Hanover he was equally patron- 
 ised, and he continued a favourite till his 
 death, which took place, in his 06th year, in 
 1715. 
 
 CARSTENS, AsMus Jacob, a Danish 
 
car] 
 
 ^ ^tia etm'beri^aT Miast^^Vi' 
 
 [car 
 
 painter of very considerable merit. Ilis 
 Bubjects, nearly all taken from the classic 
 authors, exhibit gracefulness of attitude with 
 vigorous expression. Bom, 1754 ; died, 1798. 
 
 CARTE, Samuel, an English divine and 
 antiquary ; author of a valuable and elabo- 
 rate work, entitled " Tabula Chronologica," 
 &c. Died, 1740. 
 
 CARTE, Thomas, son of the above, and 
 like him an antiquary and historian, and 
 a divine. On the accession of George I., 
 feeling that he could not conscientiously 
 take the required oaths, he abandoned his 
 profession ; and during the rebellion of 171.') 
 he was so strongly suspected, that a warrant 
 was issued against him, but he was safely 
 concealed in the house of a clergyman in 
 Warwickshire. He was subsequently in- 
 volved in political strife, but he escaped by 
 timely flight. As an author he is chiefly 
 known by his "History of England," and 
 that of the " Revolution of Portugal ; " his 
 other works, though numerous, being far 
 less able. Bom, 1C86 ; died, 1754. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, an Englisli lady, 
 daughter of a clergyman residing at Deal, 
 In Kent. Under the instructions of her fa- 
 ther she became an admirable Greek and 
 Latin scholar, and was well skilled in Ger- 
 man, French, Spanish Italian, Portuguese, 
 Hebrew, and Arabic ; nor was she a mere 
 reader. She translated Crousaz's critique 
 on Pope's Essay on Man, Algarotti's ex- 
 planation of Newton's philosophy, and Epic- 
 tetus. These dissimilar labours appeared 
 during her life ; and, after her decease, nix 
 volumes of her correspondence was pub- 
 lished, which are calculated to give even a 
 higher opinion of her intellect than her 
 more learned and masculine performances. 
 Bora, 1717 ; died, 1806 ; aged 89. 
 
 CAJITER, JoHff, an eminent draftsman, 
 architect, and antiquary. In the latter 
 character he wrote ably and zealously in re- 
 probation of the disflgurement of the re- 
 mains of ancient beauty by tasteless attempt^ 
 at improvement. Of his ability as a drafts- 
 man and engraver there is abundant proof 
 in the plates of the " Views in England," 
 &c. ; and it is worthy of notice, that his 
 various powers were developed by his own 
 industry, unaided by early education. Died, 
 1818. 
 
 CARTER, Thomas, an eminent Irish mu- 
 sician and composer of vocal music. Among 
 his compositions are the songs, " Oh, Nannie, 
 wilt thou gang wi' me 1 " and " Stand to 
 your guns, my hearts of oak." Died, 1804. 
 
 CARTERET, Jon.v, earl of Granville, an 
 eminent English statesman, was born in 
 1G90. Immediately on attaining his ma- 
 jority, he took his seat in the House of 
 Lords. ^Varmly supporting the Hanoverian 
 succession, he was noticed by George I., and 
 employed by him in various posts until 1721, 
 when he succeeded Craggs as secretary of 
 state. In 1723 lie was appointed lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland ; and though he gave the 
 irritable natives some offence by prosecuting 
 the printer of the Draper's (Swift's) letters, he 
 was on tlie whole a popular viceroy. In the 
 reign of George II. he again held that dis- 
 tinguished post, and with even more success 
 than before. On his return to England he 
 
 155 
 
 became a strong opponent of VValpole ; and 
 when he had succeeded in removing that 
 statesman, and procuring office for himself, 
 he supported measures similar to those he 
 had formerly condemned. But though as 
 secretary of state, and as president of the 
 council, in which office he died, his conduct 
 was marked by much vacillation, he retained 
 his court favour to the last. Died, 1703. 
 
 CARTERET, Philip, a distinguished na- 
 val officer of the 18th century. In conjunc- 
 tion with Captain Wallis he commanded an 
 expedition to the South Seas, in 1766. Of 
 the discoveries they made, some account is 
 given by Ilawkesworth in the introduction 
 to his narrative of Cook's voyage. 
 
 CARTIER, James, a French navigator of 
 the 16th century, who made several voyages 
 of discoverv on the coasts of North America. 
 
 CART WRIGHT, JoHX, an English gen- 
 tleman, distinguished for his zealous attach- 
 ment to political reform. Early in life he 
 served in the navy, but subsequently became 
 a major in the Nottingham militia ; from 
 wliich circumstance he was generally known 
 as Major Cartwright, though he had been 
 superseded for many years previous to his 
 death. As what may be called an amateur 
 politician he was before the public for many 
 years, both by his writings in favour of 
 American independence, and on universal 
 liberty, as well as by the public addresses 
 which he promoted in furtherance of a 
 radical reform of the government. He also 
 displayed great firmness and disinterested- 
 ness on all occasions where multitudes as- 
 sembled to advocate and petition for popular 
 rights ; and he may be considered, on the 
 whole, as a well-meaning rather than as a 
 wise man. He d'ed in 1824. a*ed 84. 
 
 CARTWftlGlIT, Dr. Edmund, brother 
 of the preceding, and a clergyman of the 
 established church. In 1770 he published a 
 pleasing, poem called "Armine and Elvira ;" 
 but he is chiefly known by some valuable 
 discoveries in mechanics, which obtained for 
 him 10,()00Z. from parliament as the reward 
 of his ingenuity. Died, 1824. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Thomas, an eminent 
 puritan divine of the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 James I.; author of " Commentaria Practica 
 in totam Historiam Evangelicam," a " Body 
 of Divinity," "Commentaria Succinta et 
 Dilucida in Proverbia Salomonis," &c. Died, 
 1603; aged 68. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, William, an English 
 divine and poet. Both as a preacher, and as 
 a member of the council of war at Oxford, 
 he zealously and ably served the cause of the 
 unfortunate Charles I. ; and his exertions in 
 the latter capacity caused him to be for a 
 short time imprisoned by the parliament. 
 His literary talents must have been great, 
 for Bishop Fell said that he was " all that 
 man could arrive at ; " and Ben Johnson, in 
 his familiar way, said, " my son, Cartwright, 
 writes all like a man." But the remains of 
 Cartwright are very disproportionate to these 
 high praises, consisting only of four plays 
 and a few poems. He died, at the early age 
 of 33, in 1643. 
 
 CARUSO, Lcioi, an eminent Neapolitan 
 composer. His " II Fanatico per la Musica " 
 is the work by which he is best known in 
 
cab] 
 
 ^ ^etD Bnibtv^Kl MiaQxapf)^* 
 
 [CAS 
 
 this country ; but all his works are very 
 popular in Italy and Germany. He died 
 early in the present century ; but it is not 
 precisely known at what date. 
 
 CARY. See Falkland. 
 
 CARY, Rev. IIenky Francis, the well- 
 known translator of Dante, was born at 
 Gibraltar in 1772. His father was a captain 
 in tlie army ; but soon after the birth of his 
 son he settled in Staffordshire, and sent him 
 when eight years old to Uxbridge School, 
 and aftei-wards successively to Rugby and 
 Birmingham. In 1790 he was admitted as a 
 commoner of Christchurch, Oxford, and 
 after finishing his college studies he was 
 presented successively with the livings of 
 Abbot's Bromley in Staffordshire and Kings- 
 bury in Warwickshire. The delicacy of his 
 health having obliged him to have recourse 
 to the best medical advice, he came to 
 London in 1808, and after holding various 
 cures in the metropolis and the vicinity, in 
 1825 he became assistant keeper of printed 
 books in the British Museum, an oflBce, 
 however, which he resigned in 1837, when 
 his application for the chief librarianship 
 was rejected. Mr. Cary was addicted to the 
 muses and literature froTn his youth up ; he 
 contributed largely to the Gentleman's and 
 the London Afagazine, produced transla- 
 tions of the " Birds " of Aristophanes and 
 the Odes of Pindar, and wrote a series of 
 Lives of the English Poets, in continua- 
 tion of Dr. Johnson's ; besides editing the 
 works of Pope, Cowiser, Milton, Thomson, 
 and Young ; but his chief reputation rests 
 on his admirable translation of Dante, which, 
 though somewhat neglected on its first ap- 
 pearance, has since received the meed of 
 acknowledgment from all competent critics. 
 Died, 1844. 
 
 CARY, Robert, LL.D., an English divine 
 and writer. During the civil war he dis- 
 graced himself by leaving the Established 
 Church and joining the Presbyterian party ; 
 and, at the restoration, he disgraced the 
 church by again espousing its principles. 
 His tergiversation was rewarded by an arch- 
 deaconry, from which, however, he was 
 ejected in 1664. He wrote a learned and 
 useful work, entitled " Palasologia Chronica." 
 Died, 1688. 
 
 CARYL, John, secretary to Mary, queen 
 of James II. He remained faitliful to that 
 unfortunate prince, and was rewarded for 
 his fidelity with the titles of earl Caryl and 
 baron Dartford. In the reign of queen 
 Anne he was living in England, and was 
 intimate with Pope. He was the author of 
 some poems, some translations of psalms 
 from the Vulgate, and of two plays — " The 
 English Princess," a tragedy ; and " Sir 
 Solomon, or the Cautious Coxcomb," a 
 comedy. The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 CARYL, Joseph, an eminent noncon- 
 formist divine ; author of a voluminous and 
 valuable "Commentary on Job." Died, 1673. 
 
 CASA, JoHs DE LA, secretary of state 
 under pope JPaul IV. He was distinguished 
 as a statesman, and as an ecclesiastic ; but 
 his fame rests upon his writings, which are 
 considered among the pm-est specimens of 
 Tuscan composition. His poems, both light 
 and serious, are of a very high order, but 
 
 his chief work is a prose dialogue, " Galateo, 
 or the Art of Living in the World." Bom, 
 1503 ; died, 1.556. 
 
 CASANOVA, Mark Antont, a modem 
 Latin poet. He imitated Martial in his 
 style, and made pope Clement VII. a fa- 
 vourite object of his attack. He at length 
 offended so greatly that he was condemned 
 to die. Clement, however, was induced to 
 pardon him. But the uulucky satirist es- 
 caped execution only to perish still more 
 miserably ; for, on the taking of Rome by 
 the Imperialists, he was reduced to the ne- 
 cessity of literally begging for bread, and at 
 length died of disease, as it is said, produced 
 by hunger, in 1527. 
 
 CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, Jean 
 Jacques, whose career of adventure and in- 
 trigue in almost all the countries of Europe 
 has gained for him the name of the Gil Bias 
 of the 18th century, was born at Venice, 1725. 
 It would be impossible within our limits to 
 give even an outline of his remarkable 
 career ; suffice it to say, that he figured as 
 priest, soldier, and statesman, successively ; 
 found means to gain the favour of some of 
 the greatest potentates of Europe, among 
 others, Frederick the Great and Catharine 
 II. ; and after roaming from place to place 
 (for his intriguing spirit frequently led to a 
 forced change of quarters) he ended his long 
 life of mingled charlatanerie, profligacy, and 
 ability at Vienna, 1803. His love of litera- 
 ture and science, and his proficiency in them, 
 brought him acquainted with Voltaire and 
 other celebrated literati of the day ; and 
 besides other works he left copious memoirs 
 of his life and times. Brockliaus, the Leipsic 
 bookseller, to whom the MS. was entrusted 
 for publication, published tliem in 1822. 
 
 CASANOVA, Francis, brother of the pre- 
 ceding an eminent painter, chiefly of land- 
 scapes and battle-pieces. He was employed 
 by Catharine II., of Russia, to paint the vic- 
 tories of her armies over the Turks. Bom 
 in London, 1727 ; died, 1805. 
 
 CASANOVA, Jean Baptiste, another 
 brother of the adventurer, was bom in Lon- 
 don, 1730. He was a pupil of Mengs, and 
 closely connected with Winckelmann in his 
 antiquarian researches. It is well known 
 that, by way of testing the sagacity of the 
 German antiquary, he sent him two pictures, 
 which he had himself painted in the style 
 of those a short time previously found at 
 Herculaneum, declaring them to be ancient 
 discoveries ; and that Winckelmann was so 
 taken in as to insert engravings of them in 
 the first edition of his " History of Ancient 
 Art," with an elaborate commentary upon 
 their merits. Casanova was professor of 
 painting in the Dresden Academy ; and his 
 works on ancient art are still cited by the 
 Germans as authorities. Died, 1798. 
 
 CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish 
 prelate, distinguished for his generous and 
 constant, though unavailing, exertions in 
 favour of the natives of South America. He 
 was born in 1474, and in his 19th year ac- 
 companied his father, who sailed with Co- 
 lumbus, to the West Indies. On his return 
 to Spain he embraced the ecclesiastical pro- 
 fession, in order that he might act as a mis- 
 sionary in the western hemi8i)here, "there I 
 
CAS] 
 
 ^ ^c&j Winibtv^Kl aStofiraiilbs. 
 
 [CAS 
 
 to spend his days in preaching the gospel to 
 the Indians, aiid iiunianity to t)ieir oppres- 
 sors." Never did man more zealously en- 
 deavour to effect a great and good object. 
 Twelve times he crossed the ocean, to plead 
 at the foot of the Spauisli throne the cause 
 of the wretched Indi.ins, and passed fifty 
 years of his life in attempting, though with 
 little effect, their amelioration. lie was made 
 bisliop of Chiapa in ir>44, but lie resigned his 
 seu in 1,0.51, returned to his native country, and 
 died at Madrid, ixa, in the 92d year of his age. 
 Of t)ie writings of Las Casas, t)»e most valu- 
 able is his " General History of the Indies." 
 
 CASAUBON, Isaac, a native of Geneva, 
 distinguished by hia great erudition and 
 powers of criticism. For several years he 
 held the Greek professorship at Geneva ; 
 but at length feeling dissatisfied with the 
 amount of remuneration, he gave up his 
 professorship, and removed to- Paris. There 
 he was made professor of the belles lettres, 
 and had a pension, not very punctually paid, 
 assigned him by Henry IV. ; at whose death 
 Casaubon came to England, and James I. 
 gave him two prebends. In return, however, 
 the pedantic king required the aid of the 
 great critic in writing against the Roman 
 Catholics. Casaubon's editions of classic 
 authors are very numeroiis, and ilisplay im- 
 mense industry and erudition. Born, IMU ; 
 died, 1014. 
 
 CASAUBON, :MEnic, D.D., son of the 
 above. His " Pietas contra Maledico«," 
 written against the Catholics, and in vindi- 
 cation of liis father, introduced him to the 
 notice of king Charles I., by whom he was 
 presented to some valuable church prefer- 
 ments. During the commonwealth he was 
 persecuted and imprisoned, but remained 
 unshaken in fidelity. At tlie restoration he 
 recovered his livings. Among his writings 
 the best is " A Treatise concerning Enthu- 
 siasm." Died, 1G71. 
 
 CASE. JoHX, an English physician and 
 philosophical writer ; author of " Sumina 
 veterum Interpretum in universam Dialecti- 
 cam Aristotelis." Died, 1599. 
 
 CASENEUVE, PiKUitE ve, a learned 
 French antiquarian ; author of " Origines 
 au Etymologies Frungoises," "La Catalogue 
 Francoise," &c. Died, l(i50. 
 
 CASIMIR III., called the Great, one of 
 the most illustrious sovereigns the world lias 
 ever seen, was born, 1309. Having su<:ceedcd 
 his father on the throne of Poland in lii3:i, 
 he entered upon a course of vigorous and 
 enlightened reform, and closed a long life 
 of devotion to his people's welfare, in 1370. 
 
 CASLON, William, an English letter- 
 founder, to whom we are indebted for much 
 of the superiority of our printing type. 
 Bom, 1092 ! died, 1706. 
 
 CASSAONES, Jacques, a French eccle- 
 siastic and poet. He was of so irritable a 
 natnre, that a satire of Boileau's actually 
 drove him mad, and lie was obliged to be 
 confined in the convent of St. Lazarus until 
 his death, which took place iu 1079. 
 
 CASSANOEK, Geouoe, an able German 
 controversialist. Of his writings, which are 
 very numerous, the ablest and most elabo- 
 rate is his "Consultatio Cassandri." De 
 Thou praises his mildness and modesty ; 
 
 qualities but too rorely belonging to con- 
 troversialists. Born, l.ll.T ; died, LIliO. 
 
 CASSAS, Loris FnA.Vi'ois, an eminent 
 Frencli antiquarian and artist ; author of 
 " Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, de la 
 PlK'nicie, de la Palestine, et dc la Basse 
 Egypte." Born, 175<5 ; died, 1827. 
 
 CAS8ERIO, or CASSERIUS, GiCLin, 
 anatomical professor at Padua. He was at 
 first the menial servant of the great anato- 
 mist, FabriciuM, at Aquapendente, to whom 
 he became assistant, and, finallj', successor 
 in the professorship. His only published 
 work is " Pentaisthesion," or a treatise on 
 tlie five senses. Died, 1016. 
 
 CASSINl, Jou.v Dominic, an eminent 
 ostrouomer, was born at Perinaldo, near 
 Nice, and studied at Geneva with the Jesuits. 
 His fame reaching France, he was invited to 
 pay a visit to that country, where the kind- 
 ness shown to him by Louis XIV., and his 
 great minister, Colbert, caused him to remain 
 for the rest of his life. He was the first re- 
 sident in the royal observatory at Paris, and 
 he continued to inhabit it for upwards of 40 
 years. During that time his services to 
 science were such as to do high honour to 
 himself, as well as to the liberal monarch by 
 whom he was patronised. He determined 
 the parallax of Mars with the sun, demon- 
 strated the diurnal motion of Jupiter round 
 his axis, and discovered the four satellites 
 of Saturn, in addition to that which Huygena 
 had discovered. He died in 1712, having pre- 
 viously been for some years deprived of sight. 
 
 CASSINI, James, son of the precediug, 
 and, like him, an eminent astronomer ; au- 
 thor of " A Treatise on the Figure and 
 Magnitude of the Earth," " The Elements 
 or Theories of the Planets," &c. Burn, at 
 Paris, 1077 ; died, 17r>(\. 
 
 CASSINI DE TIIURY, CcsAn Fkancls, 
 son of tlie last named, and his successor in 
 the royal observatory. Like his father and 
 grandfather, he did much to advance science ; 
 and, having better instruments than theirs, 
 he was enabled to improve upon their labours. 
 
 Bom, 1714 ; died, 1784 The last member of 
 
 this illustrious family, whose iiume is also 
 associated with theirs in the pursuit of sci- 
 ence, died in 1845. 
 
 CASSIODORUS, Marci^s Aurelius, a 
 Roman statesman and historian. He was of 
 a noble family, and lield some of the highest 
 offices of state, including that of consul. His 
 writings arc* extremely valuable, especially 
 his twelve books of epistles, on account of 
 the light they throw upon the manners of 
 his time ; but his style is condemned by 
 Gibbon as being quaint and declamatory. 
 Died, r,7.'>. 
 
 CASSIUS, LoNGiNus Caius, a Roman of 
 the last age of the republic, and the associate 
 of Brutus in the assassination of Julius 
 CsDsar. That his patriotism was sincere may 
 fairly be inferred from liis reply to Antony, 
 who, on the day after the assassination of 
 Cajsar, tauntingly asked him if he had an- 
 other dagger : " Yes," was the reply, " if you 
 become a tyrant." At the battle of Philippi 
 he commanded the left wing, and on its 
 giving way he retired to a tent with his 
 freedman, by whom, as it is thought, he was 
 slain, as he was found with his head severed 
 
 l.-,7 
 
CAS] 
 
 ^ llcSu SJni&erj^al 23t05rap1)». 
 
 [cat 
 
 from his body. Brutus, in lamenting him, 
 called him " ultimus Romanorura." Died, 
 B. c. 42. 
 
 CASTAGNO, Andreas del, so called 
 after the village in which he was born, was 
 the son of very poor parents, and, being early 
 left an orphan, he was adopted by an uncle, 
 who employed him in tending cattle in the 
 fields. In this situation he made some at- 
 tempts at drawing, which caused Bernard de 
 Medici to place him witli a master. While 
 studying at Florence he became acquainted 
 with Domenico Venctiano, who was ac- 
 quainted with the new method of painting 
 in oil and varnish. The splendour of tliis 
 mode of colouring, the art of which was then 
 unknown in Tuscany, was much admired, 
 and Castagno availed himself of Domenico's 
 friendship to obtain the secret ; but not 
 satisfied with this, he was wretch enough 
 1 to murder his friend and benefactor, in order 
 I to be tlie sole possessor. This he c^fccted 
 I without suspicion, but just before his death 
 confessed the horrid crime. Born, 140S) ; 
 died, 1480. 
 
 CAST ALIO, or CASTELLIO, Sebastian, 
 one of tlie earliest friends and fellow 
 labourers of Calvin. Unfortunately for Cas- 
 talio's worldly condition, he differed from 
 j the great reformer on some theological ques- 
 tions. He was in consequence deprived of his 
 office of teacher in the col lege of Geneva, and 
 repaired to Basle, where he occupied himself 
 witli a Latin and a French version of the 
 Bible, gaining a scanty subsistence for his 
 family by teaching Greek. Calvin, unmoved 
 by the indigence to which he had reduced his 
 conscientious and candid opponent, used all 
 his influence to degrade him and thwart his 
 exertions. He had even the meanness to 
 bring against him an accusation of theft, 
 from which Castalio cleared himself trium- 
 phantly. Died, 15«3. 
 
 CASTELL, Edmund, an English divine 
 and lexicographer, was a native of Hatley, 
 Cambridgeshire. He sperit a handsome for- 
 tune, and occupied 17 j'cars in the composi- 
 tion of his "Lexicon Hcptaglottou," a dic- 
 tionary in seven languages ; but nearly all 
 the copies remained unsold, and but for 
 some preferment in the church, and the 
 Arabic professorship at Cambridge, his zeal, 
 learning, and diligence would have been 
 unrewarded. Born, 1606 ; died, 16a5. 
 
 CASTELLI, Bernardo, a Genoese 
 painter, a friend of Tasso, for the plates of 
 whose Jerusalem, engraved by Agostino 
 Caracei. he drew the designs. Died, 1629. 
 
 CASTELLO, Gabriel Launcelot, a 
 Sicilian gentleman, distinguished for his 
 zeal and talent as an antiquarian ; author 
 of "The Litei-ary History of Sicily," 
 " Critical Remarks on a Book printed in 
 Catania, in 1747, " " Dissertation on a 
 Marble Statue found in tlie Campagna of 
 Alessa," &c. Born, 1727 ; died, 1794. 
 
 CASTELNAU, Michael le, lord of 
 Mauvissiere, an eminent statesman and 
 soldier in the reigns of Charles IX. and 
 Henry III. He was very often in England 
 in the character of ambassador from France. 
 While thus resident here he acted with 
 great kindness towards the unfortunate 
 Mary, queen of Scots. He left memoirs of 
 
 his negotiations, of wliich there is an English 
 translation by his daughter. Died, 1592. 
 
 CASTI, GiAMBATXisxA, an Italian poet ; 
 author of an epic, entitled "Gli Animali 
 Parlauti," translated into English by Mr. 
 Rose; a satire, entitled "Tartaro;" some 
 novels, &c. Born, 1721 ; died, 1803. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Balthazar, an Italian 
 statesman and writer. He was employed 
 by various princes in very delicate negotia- 
 tions. In particular he was sent by the pope, 
 Clement VII., as nuncio to the emperor, 
 Charles V., on which occasion he displayed 
 great talent and dexterity. His celebrity, 
 however, chiefly rests upon his writings. His 
 poems, both Latin and Italian, are much 
 admired, as are his letters, which throw 
 much light on the affairs of his time. But 
 Ills chief work is " II Cortegiano," the cour- 
 tier. TJiis work, which is a body of inform- 
 ation on the art of living at court, is so much 
 admired bv the Italians, that they call it 
 " The Golden Book." Born, 1468 ; died, 1529. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, Giovanni Benedetto, 
 a Genoese artist. He excelled in landscapes 
 and animals, but his picture of " The Na- 
 tivity" shows that he had power for the 
 highest walk of art. He was also an admir- 
 able engraver. Died, 1670. 
 
 CASTIlyLO, Bernal diaz del, a Spanish 
 officer of the IGth century, one of the com- 
 panions of Fernando Cortez in his expedi- 
 tion to South America. He wrote a work, 
 rough in style, but full of valuable inform- 
 ation, entitled "Historia Verdadera de la 
 Conquista de Nueva Espagna." 
 
 CASTOLDI, Giovanni Giacomo, a mu- 
 sical composer of the 16th century. 
 
 CASTRACANI, Castruccio, an Italian 
 general of great skill and courage. He ren- 
 dered great service to the em.peror, Louis V. 
 of Bavaria, who rewarded him with the 
 duchy of Lucca. Though he was almost con- 
 stantly in service, he found time to cultivate 
 his mind, and his name is among the minor 
 Italian poets. Born, 1281 ; died, 1328. 
 
 CASTRO, John de, a celebrated Portu- 
 guese general, who attended Charles V. in 
 the expedition against Tunis, and was after- 
 wards made governor of the Portuguese 
 settlements in the East Indies. He was as 
 disinterested as brave, and at his death only 
 three rials were found in Ids coffers. Born, 
 1500 ; died, 1548. 
 
 CASTRFCCI, PiETRO, a celebrated vio- 
 linist, who led the orchestra at the King's 
 Theatre in the early part of the last century. 
 He was of a very irritable disposition ; and 
 Hogarth has given an admirable caricature 
 portrait of him in the well-known print of 
 " The Enraged Musician." 
 
 CATALANI, Angelica, one of the most 
 celebrated singers of modern times, was born 
 at Sinigaglia in the papal states, 1782. Her 
 early years were spent in the convent of 
 Gubio ; and so perfect were her vocal organs 
 even in her infancj', tliat the sanctity of the 
 church itself was violated by the applause 
 which her choral performances called forth. 
 Soon after quitting the convent, she made 
 her debut in the theatre Argentina at Rome, 
 in 1802 ; and the immense success which she 
 achieved on this stage, procured lier imme- 
 diate engagements in all the theatres of 
 
cat] 
 
 ^ i^tio Bnibcvial ^Jtosraplji). 
 
 [cat 
 
 I 
 
 Italy. At Lisbon, Madrid, and Paris new 
 triumphs awaited her ; but even these were 
 far outshone, in 1800, by tlie enthusiasm of 
 lier reception in England, wiiere she re- 
 mained 8 years, deligliting tlie metropolis 
 with her appearance at tlie Italian Opera, 
 and reaping large harvests both of fame and 
 wealth in her provincial tours. After the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, she returned to 
 Paris, wliere she undertook the management 
 of the Opera Buffa ; but this speculation 
 was unfortunate, and Madame Catalani, to 
 repair her shattered fortunes, made a pro- 
 fesbional tour through all the capitals of 
 Continental Europe, and at length returned 
 to England in 1822, when the enthusiasm of 
 her reception suffered no abatement. Here 
 she remained three years. In 1825 she again 
 visited Paris, and after once more going the 
 round of Europe, she retired to Italy in 1S30, 
 when she purchased a villa near Florence, 
 and spent the remainder of her life in the 
 bosom of her family. She had been long 
 married to a French captain, called Vala- 
 br&gue. To an agreeable person and a lively 
 style of acting, Madame Catalani added a 
 voice of extraordinary' brilliancy and power; 
 and in this lay its chief merit, (or we do not 
 find that she possessed the faculty of calling 
 forth the tender and deep emotions for which 
 subsequent performers in the same field 
 have been remarkable. Died of cliolera, at 
 Paris, 1849. 
 
 CATESBY, Makk, an eminent English 
 naturalist, patronised by Sir Hans Sloane 
 and other wealthy lovers of science. He 
 spent many years in America, for the pur- 
 pose of collecting and describing the most 
 curious natural productions of that country. 
 He fixed bis residence in Carolina, whence 
 he made excursions into Florida, Georgia, 
 and the Baliama Islands. The result of his 
 labours was "The Natural History of Ca- 
 nada, Florida, and the Baliama Islands ; " 
 a very splendid work in two folio Tolumes, 
 illustrated by upwards of 200 plates. Bom, 
 1080 ; died, 1749. 
 
 CATHARINE, St., of Sienna, was bom 
 at Sienna in 1347, and when she was 20 years 
 of age became a sister of the order of St. 
 Dominic. Having considerable ability and 
 a very lively imagination, she became cele- 
 brated as a seer of visions. So great an in- 
 fluence, in fact, did her pretended visions 
 and revelations obtain her, that she was 
 able to prevail on Gregory XI. to be recon- 
 ciled to the Florentines, and to remove the 
 papal seat to Rome from Avignon, after it 
 had for 70 years been fixed at the latter 
 place. She wrote six treatises on the " Pro- 
 vidence of God," "The Divine Doctrine 
 delivered by the Eternal Father speaking 
 to the Spirits," some short prose pieces of 
 devotion, and some poems. She died in 
 1380, and was canonised by pope Pius II. in 
 
 CATHARINE OF FRANCE, daughter 
 of Charles VI. of France, and the wile of 
 Henry V. of England, who, on his marriage 
 to her, was declared successor to the French 
 crown. Their sou, afterwards Henry VI., 
 was crowned in both countries while still an 
 infant. Being left a widow, she privately 
 espoused Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, 
 
 ISd 
 
 by whom she had two sons, the elder of 
 whom, Edmund, earl of Richmond, was 
 father of Henry VII. Born, 1401 ; died, 
 1438. 
 
 CATHARINE OF ARRAGON, daughter 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, was 
 born in 1483. In lier 18th year she was 
 married to Arthur, prince of Wales, eldest 
 son of Henry VII. The young prince dying 
 in a few months aftef his marriage, Henry's 
 mercenary dread of losing the rich dowry of 
 Catharine, induced her brother-in-law, after- 
 wards Henry VIII., to marry her. The vast 
 religious changes to which this marriage 
 gave place belong rather to history than to 
 biography. Suffice it, therefore, to say, that 
 after years of anxiety and spirited resistance, 
 she was divorced. But though she was no 
 longer called queen at court, her attendants 
 at Kimbolton Castle, where she took up her 
 residence, were never allowed to address her 
 otherwise than as a queen, as she protested 
 to the last that the divorce was unjust and 
 illegal. Just before her death she wrote so 
 pathetic a letter to Henry in favour of Mary, 
 their daughter, that, stern as the tyrant was, 
 he is said to have shed tears as he perused it. 
 She possessed considerable literary ability, 
 but some devotional pieces, which are some- 
 times attributed to her pen, were in fact the 
 production of queen Catharine Parr. Died, 
 153C. 
 
 CATHARINE PARR, eldest daughter of 
 Sir Thomas Parr, of Kendal, in Westmore- 
 land. She was married early in life to Ed- 
 ward Burghe ; and, surviving him, she was 
 next married to Jolm Neville, lord Latimer. 
 Her second husband, too, she survived ; and, 
 in 1(543, was raised to the throne by king 
 Henry VIII., being the sixth and last wife 
 of tiiat polygamic monarch. If we may feel 
 some surprise at her temerity in venturing 
 to share a throne which had been so fatal to 
 most of those whom her despotic husband 
 had previously raised to it, we cannot deny 
 that she conducted herself in her perilous 
 situation with admirable tact and judgment. 
 One proof of this will suffice. Her attach- 
 ment to the reformed religion, and her kind- 
 ness to those who supported it, gave deep 
 and deadly offence to the still powerful 
 popish faction. Gardiner, Wriothesley, and 
 others, determined to remove, if possible, so 
 dangerous an opponent from court. Taking 
 advantage of the almost frenzied irritability 
 to which continual pain had roused the 
 always violent temper of the king, they ac- 
 cused her to him of heresy and treason, and 
 so far wrought upon him, that he actually 
 signed a warrant for her committal to tlie 
 Tower. Being informed of this appalling 
 fact, she repaired at once to the king's pre- 
 sence. The king turned the conversation 
 upon theological topics, and endeavoured to 
 draw her into argument. This, which to 
 an ignorant person, or even to a person of 
 tact, if not aware of the king's precise object, 
 would have been ruinous, she skilfully con- 
 verted into a means of escape from the peril 
 in which she was placed. Instead of enter- 
 ing into any argument, she humbly replied 
 " that on such topics she always, as became 
 her sex and station, deferred herself to the 
 wisdom of his majesty, he being, under God, 
 
 r 2 
 
cat] 
 
 ^ ilclB Uttiiiet^al IStocjvitijIjtn 
 
 [cat 
 
 her only supreme head and governor here 
 on earth." "Not so, by St. Mary, Kate," 
 replied the king, " you are, as we take it, 
 become a doctor to instruct us, and not to 
 be instructed by us." To this she rejoined, 
 " that she had only ventured to object to 
 his grace's arguments, in order to be bene- 
 fited by his superior learning and wisdom, 
 and in the hope of being able to divert him 
 for the time from the bodily pain wliich he 
 had endured." This prudent and ingenious 
 reply did away at once with all the king's 
 suspicions and anger ; and when Wriothes- 
 ley, attended by some guards, called to con- 
 vey her to the Tower, he found the queea 
 in liigh favour with the king, and instead of 
 making the former a prisoner, was sent from 
 the presence of the latter with knave, fool, 
 beast, and the like gentle terms. Tliough 
 during the king's last illness he was, in tlie 
 words of a writer of that time, " as furious 
 as a chained lion," Catharine continued to 
 retain her ascendancy over him, and at his 
 death lie left her a legacy of 4000/. in addi- 
 tion to lier jointure, " for her great love, obe- 
 dience, chasteness of life, and wisdom." She 
 afterwards married Sir Thomas Seymour, 
 uncle of Edward VI., but they lived by no 
 means happily together ; and when she died, 
 though in childbed, it was currently reported 
 that slie was poisoned. She was very mucli 
 attached to the cause of the reformation ; 
 and her letters, some of which have been 
 printed, as well as some devotional treatises, 
 show that she had literary talents by no 
 means common to ladies at that period. 
 Died, 1548. 
 
 CATHARINE DE MEDICI, the wife of 
 Henry II., king of France, was the daughter 
 of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino. In 
 1519, being then only in her 16th year, she 
 was married to Henry, duke of Orleans, son 
 and successor to Francis I. of France. Her 
 beauty and accomplishments made her tlie 
 ornament of the French court ; and, young 
 as she was, she had deceit and cunning 
 enough to make herself acceptable to all 
 parties. For ten years she brought her 
 husband no children, but she subsequently 
 had ten, of wliom three successively were 
 kings of France. With profound policy she 
 secured the affection and confidence of her 
 children in tlieir earliest youth, thereby as- 
 suring to herself that influence which she 
 desired to exercise over their maturer age. 
 On the death of her husband, and the ac- 
 cession of Francis II., tlie powerful Guises 
 shared her political power ; and it is pro- 
 bable tliat it was in order to avoid collision 
 with them that she joined in their detestable 
 fury against the Huguenots. But the reign 
 of Francis was very brief ; and when Charles 
 IX., then only in his 11th year, succeeded 
 him, Catharine had all tlie authority of re- 
 gent, though not the title. Tlie deatli of 
 the Duke of Guise still farther increased 
 her power, and she was joined heart and 
 soul with the Catholics in persecuting the 
 Huguenots. To characterise her political 
 conduct at this time, we need only name 
 the horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 an atrocity wliich just and humane men of 
 every creed, country, and age will join in 
 reprobating. That Charles IX. was urged 
 
 to this liorrid act by the persuasions of Ca- 
 tharine most historians admit ; and in less 
 than two years after the massacre he died, 
 worn out in mind and body by the stings of 
 remorse. At the death of Charles, Catharine 
 was declared regent until the arrival of her 
 son Henry from Poland. During her re- 
 gency she governed rigorously and saga- 
 ciously, and delivered up the kingdom to 
 Henry III. on his arrival, in such order as 
 with only common prudence and firmness, 
 would have ensured him a peaceable reign. 
 But the new king's weakness soon relaxed 
 the bands which his mother had so firmly 
 drawn around faction, and civil disturb- 
 ances ensued, by which Catharine's later 
 years were much embittered. Admitted by 
 all to be a sagacious, adroit, and courageous 
 woman, but detested by every party in the 
 state, she died, aged 85, in 1581). 
 
 CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, daughter 
 of Jolm IV. of Portugal, and queen of 
 Charles II. of England. The dissolute con- 
 duct of her husband, and the shameful 
 openness of his illicit amours, gave licr 
 much pain. But though neglected by him, 
 she steadily and sternly preserved her own 
 honour, and his so far as it depended on 
 her. After his death she returned to Por- 
 tugal, and when, in 1704, her brother, Don 
 Pedro, was compelled by his increasing in- 
 firmities to retire, she was made regent. She 
 held this office but for a brief space ; but 
 her conduct, both as regards her internal 
 measures and her carrying on the war 
 with Spain, showed considerable political 
 ability. She died, in the C7th yearof her age, 
 1705. 
 
 CATHARINE I., empress of Russia, was 
 the illegitimate daughter of a Livonian pea- 
 sant. After some years spent in the service 
 of a clergyman, slie married a Swedish dra- 
 goon, who shortly afterwards went on an 
 expedition and never returned. She then 
 resided, it is doubtful whether as servant 
 or paramour, with the Russian general, 
 Bauer, when Prince Menkzikoff became 
 enamoured of her charms, and made her liis 
 mistress. Peter I. now dislinguislied her 
 by_ his notice, and she became at first his 
 mistress and afterwards his empress. Dur- 
 ing his lifetime she showed great devotion 
 to him, and at his death she was proclaimed 
 his successor. But her reign was short ; for 
 her indulgence in intoxicating liquors pro- 
 duced a disease of which she died in 1727, at 
 the age of 41. 
 
 CATHARINE II., empress of Russia, was 
 the daughter of the prince of Anlialt-Zerbst, 
 born in 1720, and in 1745 became the wife of 
 the emperor Peter III. This prince was 
 addicted to low society and to the most 
 scandalous excesses ; and Catharine, even 
 in her youth, was by no means remarkable 
 for chastity. With the inconsistency usually 
 to be observed in such cases, each party 
 reproached the other ; Catharine, stung by 
 her husband's brutality, became still more 
 openly indecorous in her conduct, and Peter 
 indulged in low wassail to such an extent 
 that lie must have been deranged. He at 
 length became so infatuated by his disgust 
 for Catharine and his passion for one of his 
 mistresses, the Countess Woronzoff, that lie 
 
1 cat] 
 
 ^ llctu mnibcr^JiT MiaQtnp'i)^, 
 
 [cat 
 
 » 
 
 had detenniiied to divorce and imprison 
 tlie former, and make tlie latter his empress. 
 Informed of hio designs, Catharine promptly 
 exerted herself, causad her liusband to be 
 seized, and sent him as a prisoner to a small 
 palace about 20 miles from St. Petcrsburgh, 
 where Prince Alexis Orloff put him to death, 
 with the connivance, if not at the positive 
 command, of the empress. This occurred 
 in July, 1702, and in the next month Ca- 
 tharine was solemnly crowned empress of 
 all the Kussias. Ill as lier power was ob- 
 tained, she used it wisely and well. She 
 trod firmly in the footsteps of Peter the 
 Great, aiming at once to enrich and civilise 
 her dominions. Scliools and towns were 
 founded, public works of equal magnificence 
 and use were commenced and fiuislied, and 
 the horrible tortures which had been in- 
 flicted on Russian criminals were almost 
 totally abolislied. But her disgusting amours 
 in the mean time disgraced her as a woman, 
 and her tyrannous conduct towards Poland 
 is a foul blot upon her escutcheon as a 
 j sovereign. Ambition, however, and lack of 
 female virtue did not wholly degrade her, 
 for her internal policy was as much directed 
 to the ueeful as to the grand ; and amid all 
 the distractions of business and disjsipatiou 
 she found time to encourage literature. In- 
 deed, she was herself the author of instruc- 
 tions for a code of laws, which she also 
 j translated into German ; and she wrote some 
 dramatic pieces, and some moral tales for 
 ! the use of children ! Died, aged G7, 17S)6. 
 ! CATlIAlilNUS, AiiuKosE, an Italian 
 divine ; author of '* Treatises against the 
 Doctrines of I^uther and Ochinus." He 
 attended the council of Trent, and became 
 successively bishop of Minori and arch- 
 bishop of Canza. Died, l.'ioS. 
 
 CATILINE, Lucius Skugius Catalixa, 
 a Roman, of a noble family and great ta- 
 lents, but of most depraved habits and evil 
 ' ambition. He was high in favour with 
 ! Sylla, who advanced him to the qucestorship 
 I and other offices of honour and profit. After 
 j the death of this powerful patron, Catiline 
 I conspired with other dissolute nobles and 
 . their followers, to murder the consuls and 
 senators, and assume the government, 
 lortunately for Rome, Cicero was one of 
 I the consuls ; and he, on being made aware 
 of Catiline's designs, branded him with them 
 ; in that famous oration which alone would 
 ' snliicc to give him the first rank among 
 orators, ancient or modern. Even the 
 effrontery of Catiline quailed before the 
 ; indignant eloquence of the consul. He left 
 I Rome and marched towards Cisalpine Gaul, 
 ' Iiis confederates in the mean time endea- 
 j vouring to corrupt the ambassadors of the 
 I Allobroges. In this they were defeated by 
 the vigilance and promptitude of Cicero j 
 ! and Catiline being stopped in his march by 
 th^proconsul Q. Metellus Celer, an engage- 
 ment ensued, in whicli Catiline, at the head 
 , of his associates, fighting with the most 
 
 desperate courage, was slain, B.C. G2. 
 
 CATINAT, Nicholas, an illustrious 
 French general, as eminent for his virtues 
 as for his military talents. He was educated 
 for the law, but abandoned the bar for the 
 army, and rose to tlie highest military ho- 
 
 IJl 
 
 nours by his skill and courage. He defeated 
 the Duke of Savoy very signally in 1688, and 
 in 1007 he took the fortress of Ath, in Flan- 
 ders, after experiencing a desperate resist- 
 ance. In 1701 he was appointed to the chief 
 command of the army in Italy ; but either 
 his skill was inferior to that of Prince Eu- 
 gene, to whom he was opposed, or age had 
 somewhat weakened his high qualities, for 
 he was decidedly worsted and compelled to 
 retreat. Died, 1712. 
 
 CATO, Maucus PoRTius, BUinamed the 
 Censor, an illustriouj Roman. At the early 
 age of 17 he commenced his career as a sol- 
 dier, and distinguished himself equally by 
 his courage and by his singular temperance. 
 After some time he was made military tri- 
 bune in Sicily, and then qna;stor in Africa, 
 under Scipio. In both these important situ- 
 ations his conduct was marked by a rigid 
 and honourable economy of the public mo- 
 ney i and, in his 40th year, he arrived at 
 the high dignity of the consulship. In this 
 situation he strongly opposed the luxury of 
 the Romans, and incessantly endeavoured 
 to animate tlieir hatred of the Carthagi- 
 nians, by speeches in the senate, usuallv 
 concluding with " Delenda est Carthago > '' 
 " Carthage roust fall." He composed many 
 works; but only "De Re Rustica," and 
 some fragments of Roman history, are all 
 that we kijow of his writings. He was twice 
 married, and had a son by each of his wives. 
 Born, B.C. 232 ; died, 148. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Poktjus, surnamed, from 
 Ills birthplace, "of lltica," was grandson of 
 the younger son of the last named. Being 
 curly left an orphan, he m as taken into the 
 family of his uncle, Livius Drusus. He 
 served for some time in the army, and 
 obtained the commission of tribune in the 
 army sent against Macedonia. He then Iw- 
 came quiestor, and exerted himself for the 
 reformation of abuses. His conduct in this 
 respect, and the unvarying gravity of his 
 demeanour, rendered him almost proverbial 
 for integrity ; and Cicero, to whose consular 
 exertions he gave his support, called him 
 " the father of his country." Perceiving the 
 designs of Cajsar, he had the honesty and 
 courage to oppose him ; and considering 
 Csesar more dangerous than Pompcy, he 
 ranged himself under the banners of the 
 latter. The fatal battle of Pharsalia com- 
 pelled him to fly to his native Utica j and 
 when the triumphant Caesar arrived before 
 that jdace, Cato calmly retired to his cham- 
 ber, read Plato's Pha;do, or Dialogue on the 
 Immortality of the Soul, and ended his life 
 by falling upon his sword, b.c. 4.5. 
 
 Cato, Valkuius, a Latin poet and gram- 
 marian. All that remains of his writings is 
 " Diras," a poem, which is to be found in 
 Mattaire's " Corpus Poetarum." Died, B.C. 
 
 ao. 
 
 CATROU, Francis, a learned French 
 Jesuit ; author of a translation of Virgil, 
 " A History of the Empire of Mogul," " A 
 Roman History," &c. ; and for many years 
 a contributor to the Journal de Trcvoux. 
 Died, 17:57. 
 
 CATTENBURG, Adrian van, a Dutch 
 divine of the sect of Remonstrants, professor 
 of theology at Rotterdam j author of " Syn- 
 
cat] 
 
 ^ ^ciu SJniiJcr^al ^Stosrapljy. 
 
 [CAV 
 
 tagma Sapientiie Mosaicos," " The Life of 
 Giotius," in Dutch, &c. Died, 1737. 
 
 CATULLUS, Caius "Valerius, an elegant 
 but licentious lloman poet. Died, b.c. 40. 
 
 CATZ, James, a Dutch statesman and 
 poet, was born in 1577, at Brouwershaven, 
 in Zealand. He held various important 
 offices, was twice ambassador to England, 
 and for 15 years filled the high station of 
 pensionary in Holland. Died, 1C60. 
 
 CAULAIJyCOURT, Akmand Augustix 
 Louis ue, duke of Vicenza, a descendant of 
 a noble and ancient family of Picardy. In 
 the early days of the revolution he was im- 
 prisoned as a suspected royalist, but was 
 liberated on being drawn as a recruit for 
 the republican army. There he rose from 
 rank to rank until lie became aide-de-camp 
 to Buonaparte, whom he attended in the 
 campaigns of 1805-6-7. Subsequently he 
 was employed in confidential missions, and 
 in the post of foreign minister. After the 
 restoration he lived in retirement. Born, 
 1773 ; died, 1827. 
 
 CAULET, Fkancis Stephen de, a French 
 bisliop. He was equally zealous for the 
 purity and for the rights of his order ; and 
 while lie took every opportunity to make 
 useful reforms in his own diocese, lie boldly 
 and strenuously opposed tlie riglit of tlie 
 crown to dispose of ecclesiastical benefices 
 during the vacancy of a see. He was de- 
 posed ; and died, 1030. 
 CAUSSIN, Nicholas, a French Jesuit, 
 j confessor to Louis XIII. ; author of a trea- 
 ' tise "De Eloquentia Sacra et Humana," &c. 
 He was banished from court for opposing 
 Cardinal Richelieu. Died, 1C51. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, Baktolomeo, a learned 
 Italian ; author of a work on rlietoric, and of 
 another on the forms of a republic ; both able 
 treatises. He served for some time as a mi- 
 I litary officer, and was employed in some 
 important negotiations by pope Paul III. 
 Died, 1562. 
 
 CAVALCANTI, Guido, a Florentine pM- 
 losopher and poet of the 13th century, was 
 a friend of Dante, and, like him, an active 
 Ghilielline. His poems, which are cliiefly 
 amorous, are above mediocrity. Died, 1300. 
 CAVALIER, John, the sou of a French 
 peasant in tlie time of Louis XIV., was bom 
 in 1679. He became leader of the Camisardes, 
 or Protestants of Languedoc, when they re- 
 volted against the tyranny of the king ; and, 
 led by him, they forced Marslial Villars to 
 make treaty with them. Cavalier then be- 
 came a colonel in tlie king's service, but fear- 
 ing some treachery he transferred his skill 
 and courage to England, and died governor 
 of Jersey, in 1740. 
 
 CAVALIERI, Bona VENTURE, an Italian 
 friar, who became a disciple of Galileo. He 
 was professor of mathematics at Bologna, 
 and wrote some valuable treatises on geo- 
 metry, conic sections, &c. Died, 1647. 
 
 CAVALLINI, PiETRO, a Roman painter, 
 lie was pupil of Giotto, whom he assisted in 
 the famous mosaic in St. Peter's. Died, 1364. 
 CAVAI^LO, Tiberius, an ingenious natu- 
 ral philosopher, born at Naples in 1749, who, 
 on coming to England for commercial objects, 
 was so struck with the discoveries at that 
 period in physical science, that he abandoned 
 
 102 
 
 his pursuits, settled in London, and devoted 
 his future life to the advancement of science. 
 He was author of many treatises on elec- 
 tricity, aerostation, magnetism, &c., and con- 
 tributed largely to the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions. Died, 1809. 
 
 CAVANILLES, AnthOxNY Joseph, a Spa- 
 nish divine and botanist. After accompany- 
 ing the Duke of Infantado's children into 
 France as their preceptor, and remaining 
 there 12 years, engaged in the study of various 
 sciences, he was appointed director of the 
 royal garden at Madrid, where he died, in 
 1804. His principal work in botany is in 
 6 vols., folio, with GOO plates, designed and 
 engraved by himself. 
 
 CAVE, EuwAKD, an enterprising book- 
 seller, was born at Newton, Warwickshire, in 
 1691, and educated at Rugby School. Having 
 been deprived of a clerkship in tlie post-office, 
 in consequence of his resistance to some 
 abuses of the privilege of franking, he took 
 a shop by St. Jolin's Gate, Clerkenwell, 
 and commenced the Gentleman's Magazine. 
 The work was highly successful ; and among 
 the contributors to it was the subsequently 
 famous Dr. Johnson, of whom Cave was one 
 of tlie earliest friends and employers. Died , 
 1754. 
 
 CAVE, Dr. William, a learned English 
 divine ; author of "Primitive Christianity," 
 " Lives of the Apostles and Martyrs," and 
 " Ilistoria Literaria." The last named work 
 Is an account of the writers against and in 
 defence of Christianity down to the 14th 
 century. Born, 1637 ; died, 1713. 
 
 CAVEDONE, GiACOMO, an 'eminent Ita- 
 lian painter. He was a disciple of the Ca- 
 racci ; but though some of his works are said 
 to be equal to those of his masters, he died in 
 absolute destitution, in 1660. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Thomas, an English navi- 
 gator in the reign of Elizabeth, was a native 
 o"f Suffolk, where he inherited a good estate ; 
 but having injured liis fortune by early ex- 
 travagances, he fitted out three vessels to 
 cruise against the Spaniards ; and sailing for 
 the coast of South America, succeeded in 
 taking several valuable prizes. After cir- 
 cumnavigating the globe, he returned to 
 England with a large fortune. This he soon 
 dissipated, and agaiu went to sea ; but meet- 
 ing with no success, died of chagrin while off 
 the coast of Brazil, in 1592. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Sir William, a native of 
 Suffolk, was born in 1505. He obtained the 
 office of usher to Cardinal AVolsey ; and the 
 fidelity he displayed on the fall of his patron 
 endeared him to Henry VIII., who took 
 him into his service, and knighted him. In 
 the succeeding reigns he was equally fa- 
 voured, and his son became the earl of 
 Devonshire. He wrote the life of his early 
 friend and patron, Cardinal Wolsey. Died, 
 1557. 
 
 CAVENDISH, William, duke of New- 
 castle, son of Sir Charles Cavendish, the 
 youngest son of the last named. By James 
 I. he was made a knight of the Bath, baron 
 Ogle, and viscount Mansfield. Charles I. 
 appointed him governor to the Prince of 
 M'alcs, and made him earl of Newcastle. | 
 The earl proved himself worthy of the fa 
 vour shown to him ; for, when Charles I. i 
 
cay] 
 
 <B. J!cto Biiibtr^Kl JStOjjrjqjl^n. 
 
 [CEC 
 
 resolved on an expedition against the Scots, 
 he contributed 10,00(M. — a very large sum at 
 that time — besides raising a troop of horse. 
 During the civil war he behaved with great 
 gallantry ; and when the royal cause became 
 liopeless, he joined Charles II. in his exile. 
 At the restoration, he was created duke of 
 Newcastle. He was the author of several 
 poems and plays, but is now chiefly re- 
 membered as an author for liis treatise on 
 horsemanship. Born, ISOli i died, 1070. 
 
 CAVENDISU, William, tirst duke of 
 Devonshire, was the son of William, third 
 earl of Devonsliire. He was born in lOiO, and 
 attended James, duke of York, as a volun- 
 teer against the Dutch ; but he soon made 
 himself obnoxious at court by his opposition 
 in parliament. He gave evidence in favour 
 of Lord William liussell, and even oU'erod to 
 excliange clothes with that unfurtunatc 
 noblenmn to enable him to escape. In 10c4 he 
 8uccee<led to the title of earl of Devonshire, 
 and was shortly afterwards inij>risoncd, and 
 fined 30,(X)0/. for striking Colonel Culpepjier 
 in the presence chamber. For the payment 
 of this large sum he gave bond, but before it 
 became due, the arrival of the Prince of 
 Orange had put au end for ever to the ty- 
 ranny of James. The earl now became a 
 favourite at court, and in 10'>l his earldom 
 was raised to a dukedom. Died, 1707. 
 
 CAVENDISH, John, Lord, brother of the 
 preceding ; an able statesman, who distin- 
 guislied himself by liis opposition to Lord 
 North, and succeeded that nobleman as 
 chancellor of the exchequer. Died, 17'.W. 
 
 CAVENDISH, Hknhv, a member of the 
 Devonshire family, and one of tlieniost emi- 
 nent natural philosophers of modern times, 
 was the son of Lord Charles Cavendisli. He 
 devoted himself exclusively to scicutiUc pur- 
 suits, acquiring a distinguished rank among 
 those wlio have most contributed to the pro- 
 gress of chemistry j and his researches relative 
 to hydrogen gas, or inflammable air, gave 
 rise to the practice of aerostation. By the 
 death of an uncle, iu 1773, he received a large 
 addition to his fortune ; and, being extremely 
 regular and simple in his manner of living, 
 he left at his death the enormous sum of 
 1,200,000?. to liis relations. It has been truly 
 said of him, that he was " the richest among 
 the learned, and the most learned among the 
 rich men of his time." Born, 1731 j died, 1810. 
 
 CAWDREY, Daniel, a nonconformist 
 diviue, and a leading member of the West- 
 minster Assembly. He wrote some sermons 
 and practical treatises, but tlie chief of his 
 works are diatribes against the Established 
 Church. Died, 1004. 
 
 CAWTON, Thomas, a nonconformist di- 
 vine. Being implicated in Love's plot against 
 Cromwell, he fled to Holland, and became 
 pastor of the English church at Rotterdam. 
 He was skilled in the oriental languages, and 
 assisted in the Polyglot Bible and Dr. Cas- 
 tell's Polyglot Lexicon. Died, 1059. 
 
 CAWTON, Thomas, son of the above, 
 and, like him, a puritan divine and an ori- 
 ental scholar. He officiated to a dissenting 
 congregation in Westminster ; and was au- 
 thor of "Dissertatio de Usu Linguae lle- 
 braicsB in Plulosophia Theoretica," a Life 
 of his Father, &c. Died, 1677. 
 
 163 
 
 CAXTON, William, the earliest English 
 printer, was a native of Kent, and born about 
 1410. Having served his time as a mercer, 
 he went abroad as agent to the Mercers' 
 Company, and afterwards was taken into the 
 suite of Margaret of York, wife of the Duke 
 of Burgundy. While residing in Flanders, he 
 acquired a knowledge of the art of printing, 
 and translated and printed in that country 
 the Recuyell of the History of Troy. Re- 
 turning to England, he set up a press iu 
 Westminster Abbey ; and in 1474 issued the 
 " Game of Chess," the first book ever printed 
 in England. Died, 1491. 
 
 CAYLUS, Anne Claude PiiiLir nr.. 
 Count of, a French writer ; author of the 
 " Description of the Gems in the Koyal 
 Cabinet," a truly splendid work ; " Disser- 
 tations on the Arts," &c. ; and founder of a 
 prize for drawing in the Academy of Paint- 
 ing. Born, 1720 ; died, 1765. 
 
 CAZALES. See De CazalIis. 
 
 CAZES, PiEKKii Jacqi'Es, a French paint- 
 er, pupil of Boulogne and the elder Houassc. 
 His principal work is a noble Scripture iiiecc 
 of " The Woman with an Issue of Blood," in 
 the cliurch of Notre Dame. Born, 1070 ; died, 
 175-1. 
 
 CAZOTTE,JouN,a French writer; autlior 
 of "Le Diable Amoureux," "Olivier," and 
 other poems, chiefly of the humorous kind. 
 In the revolution, which he opposed with all 
 his power, he was thrown into the prisons of 
 the Abbayc, with his daughter £lizal)eth ; 
 and when the massacre of the prisoners took 
 place, his daughter threw herself between 
 him and the murderers, thereby preventing 
 the execution of their purpose i but he was 
 again condemned to death, and perished by 
 the guillotine, Sept. 25. 1792, at the age of 72. 
 From the scaffold he cried with a firm voice 
 to the multitude, "I die, as I have lived, 
 faithful to God and to my king." 
 
 CEBA, AiKALDo, a Genoese poet ; author 
 of two tragedies, a history of Rome, and two 
 heroic poems, " II Furio Cnmillo" and " Es- 
 ther." The last-named poem was prohibited 
 at Rome, on the ground of its blending sacred 
 and profane. Died, 1623. 
 
 CEBES, a Tlieban philosopher, pnpil of 
 Socrates. The Tablature of Hunuin Life, 
 usually printed with the Enchiridion of 
 Epictetus, is generally attril)ute<l to liiin, but 
 by some his authorship is disputed. 
 
 CECCO DE ASCOLI, whose proper name 
 was Fkancis degli Stabili, an Italian 
 physician, mechanician, and itoet ; author of 
 " L' Acerta," a poem, &c. In 1.322, he obtained 
 the appointment of ptofessor of philosophy 
 and astrology at Bologna, and subsequently 
 that of physician and astrologer to the Duke 
 of Calabria ; but being accused of magic, he 
 was condemned by the Inquisition, and burnt 
 to death in 1327. 
 
 CECIL. See Burleigh. 
 
 CECIL, RoBEKT, earl of Salisbury, was 
 the second son of Lord Burleigh, the pru- 
 dent minister of queen Elizabeth. Trained 
 to business under his father, he beeame first 
 the assistant and then the successor of se- 
 cretary Walsingham. Towards the close of 
 Elizabeth's reign, he sedulously cultivated 
 the friendship of James VI. of Scotland. 
 The event justified his foresight, for he was 
 
CKC] 
 
 ^ |}c£a mnibtt^Kl 2Sia0rapT)». 
 
 [CER 
 
 made liigh treasurer and created earl of 
 Salisbury almost immediately after James's 
 accession to the English crown. He was an 
 extremely able, and, generally speaking, 
 upright minister ; but the share he had in 
 causing the deaths of Essex and Raleigh, 
 tends much to sink him in the estimation of 
 posterit}'. Born, IMS ; died, 1G12. 
 
 CECKOPS, an Egyptian, wiio married the 
 daughter of Actaius, a Grecian prince; and 
 founded Athens about 1.55G B.C. 
 
 CEDREMIS, Geokge, a Greek monk of 
 the lltli century, who wrote a " llij-tory of 
 the World, from the Creation to the Year 
 10j7," which was printed with a Latin ver- 
 sion at Paris in 1047. 
 
 CELESTI, Andkea, a Venetian painter. 
 He executed some beautiful landscapes and 
 some fine altar-pieces. Died, 1700. 
 
 CELESTINE I., saint and pope ; succes- 
 sor of Boniface I. He became pope in 422, 
 condemned the doctrine of Nestorius in 430, 
 and died in 402, with a high reputation for 
 piety and wisdom. 
 
 CELESTINE IIL, pope, succeeded Cle- 
 ment III. in 1191. He claimed the king- 
 doms of Naples and Sicily, and conferred 
 the latter on Frederic, son of the emperor 
 Henry VI., on condition that he should be 
 tributary to the holy see. Died, 1108. 
 
 CELESTINE V., a pope and saiut. He 
 was a Benedictine monk, and founder of an 
 order called Celestines, which was suppressed 
 in France. He led a life of great seclusion, 
 and the fame of his austerity caused him to 
 be elected pope in 1294. Cardinal Cajetan 
 persuaded him to resign, and then, having 
 caused himself to be elected, by the title of 
 Boniface VIII., imprisoned Celestine, who 
 died in confinement in 1296. In 1313, he 
 was canonised by Clement V. 
 
 CELLARIUS, CumsTOPiiEn, a learned 
 German writer, professor of history at 
 Halle ; author of "Notitia Orbis Antiqua;," 
 " Atlas Coclestis," &c., and editor of several 
 Greek and Latin authors. Died, 1707. 
 
 CELLIER, Re.m, a learned French Bene- 
 dictine ; author of an " Apology for the 
 Morality of the Fathers," written against 
 Barbeyrac, and compiler of a "General 
 History of Sacred and Ecclesiastical Au- 
 thors." Died, 1761. 
 
 CELLINI, Bknvkxuto, a Florentine ar- 
 tist, of equal genius and eccentricity. He 
 was apprenticed to a goldsmith and jeweller, 
 and at the same time learned drawing, en- 
 graving, and music. Clement VII. employed 
 him both as goldsmith and musician ; and 
 such was his reputation for courage, that 
 when Rome was besieged by the Duke of 
 Bourbon, Cellini was charged with the de- 
 fence of the castle of St. Angelo. During 
 the life of Clement, Cellini was employed to 
 make stamps for the mint, and his coins and 
 medals are exquisite specimens of skill. On 
 the death of hi^ patron he went to France, 
 where he was patronised and employed by 
 Francis I. ; but he soon returned to Rome, 
 and being accused of having robbed the 
 castle of St. Angelo while entrusted with its 
 defence, he was there imprisoned. He how- 
 ever escaped, was retaken, but finally re- 
 leased at the intercession of tlie Cardinal 
 Ferrara. He once more went to France, 
 
 where he executed some magnificent works, 
 especially some large figures in metal. In 
 5 years he left France for Florence, where 
 he was employed by the Grand-duke Cosmo. 
 Working equally well in metal and marble, 
 on the largest and on the most minute scale, 
 Cellini, even as an artist alone, was a most 
 wonderful man. But when we remember 
 that he was a musician, an author, and an 
 admirable master of the sword, it is im- 
 possible to withhold our admiration from 
 the extent and variety of his genius. As 
 an author, he produced a work on sculpture 
 and the casting of metals, a treatise on the 
 goldsmith's art, and an autobiography full 
 of vivid and vigorous writing. This last 
 work, which contains some details scarcely 
 credible, even with a large allowance for the 
 evident vanity of the author, was translated 
 into English by Dr. Nugent in 1771, and a 
 new edition of it, edited by T. Roscoe, ap- 
 peared in 1822. Born, 1500 ; died, 1570. 
 
 CELSIUS, Olaus, a learned Swede ; the 
 early patron of Linnajus, and the first pro- 
 moter of the science of natural history in 
 Sweden. He published various theological 
 and other works, particularly one entitled 
 "Hierobotanicon," an account of the plants 
 mentioned in the Bible. Born, 1070 ; died, 
 175<5. 
 
 CELSUS, AuEELus Cornelius, a Roman 
 physician of the time of Tiberius ; author 
 of treatises on agriculture, rhetoric, and 
 military alfairs, and of 8 books on medicine. 
 All except the last work is lost, but that is | 
 used in tlie medical schools of every nation i 
 in Europe. 
 
 CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher of the j 
 2d century. He wrote a book against the 
 Christian religion. It is not extant, but if | 
 we may judge from Origen's reply to it, 
 C<»lsus was a keen disputant, even with the 
 disadvantage of assailing truth and defend- j 
 lug error. j 
 
 CELTES, CoKKAD, a modern Latin poet, ' 
 native of Germany. He wrote odes, ama- , 
 tory poems, and epigrams, and a prose 
 history of Nuremberg. Died, 1508. I 
 
 CENSORINUS, a Roman, twice consul. I 
 In 270 the soldiery compelled him to accept I 
 the purple, and murdered him a week after 
 he had done so. | 
 
 CENTLIVRE, ScsaxiTaII, an English i 
 dramatic writer and actress ; author of i 
 "The Busy Body," "A Bold Stroke for a ' 
 Wife," &c. Her writings are vivacious and I 
 elegant, but they occasionally approach very 
 closely towards indelicacy. Died, 1723. 
 
 CEOLWULF, a king of Nortliumberland 
 in the 8th century, of whom the Venerable 
 Bede makes honourable mention as a just 
 and pious king. His dominion being over- 
 run by Ethelbald, king of Mereia, Ceolwulf 
 retired to tlie monastery of Lindisfarne, and 
 spent the remainder of his life in retirement 
 and prayer. 
 
 CEPHALON, an Ionian author of an 
 epitome of general history from the time of 
 Kinus to that of the emperor Adrian, in 
 whose reign he flourished, and of a history 
 of Troy. In imitation of Herodotus, he 
 divided his epitome into nine books. 
 
 CERACCIII, Joseph, a Roman sculptor, 
 a pupil of the great Canova. He unfortu- 
 
cek] 
 
 ^ ^cta Hiiibcr^al MiaQta^l^v. 
 
 [CES 
 
 nately involved himself in political disputes, 
 and was obliged to seek shelter in France, 
 where he was engaged in a consiiiracy 
 against the life of Buonaparte, for which he 
 was executed in 18()1. 
 
 CERATINUS, James, a learned Dutch- 
 man, professor of Greek at Leipsic, which 
 office he owed to the recommendation of 
 Erasmus. His true name was Teyng, that 
 which he adopted being a Greek derivative 
 equivalent to Horn, the name of his native 
 place. Ue wrote " De Sono Graecarum Lite- 
 ramm," compiled a Greek and Latiu lexi- 
 con, &c. Died, 1530. 
 
 CERCEAU, JouN Ajs-tiiony nu, a French 
 poet. He wrote several critiques, some 
 comedies, and Latin and French poems. 
 Born, 1G76 ; and accidentally shot, in 1730, by 
 the Prince of Conti, to whom he was tutor. 
 
 CERDA, BEit.NAKDA Fehreira de la, 
 a Portuguese lady of the 17th century, re- 
 markable for the extent and variety of her 
 accomplishments. She was well versed in 
 the ancient and modem languages ; ex,celled 
 in rhetoric, mathematics, and pliilosopliy ; 
 was a most skilful musician ; and wrote 
 various poems and comedies of great merit. 
 
 CERE, JoHX Nicholas, a distinguished 
 French botanist, director of the botanic 
 garden in the Isle of France. He greatly 
 extended the culture of cloves and other 
 8)iices in the island, and published a valuable 
 memoir on the cultivation of rice. Died, 1810. 
 
 CERINI, Giovanni Domemco, an Ita- 
 lian painter, chiefly of historical subjects. 
 Born, 160(i ; died, 1081. 
 
 CERINI, JohErH, an Italian poet and 
 dramatist. Born, 17;{8 ; died, 1779. 
 
 CERINTnUS,a heresiarch of the Ist cen- 
 tury. He was by birth a Jew, and is sup- 
 posed to have been a pupil of Simon Magus. 
 His doctrine was a compound of Judaism, 
 Christianity, and the speculations of the 
 Gnostics. 
 
 CERI8ANTES, Mark Duxcan de, the 
 son of a Scotch physician, resident in 
 France. He had considerable literary and 
 political talents, but a violent temper. He 
 wrote an account, in Latin, of a mission on 
 which he went to Constantinople by order 
 of •Richelieu, and two odes, which are in the 
 Menagiana. He was killed while serving in 
 Italy under the Duke of Guise, in 1G18. 
 
 CERMENATI, John dk, an Italian writer 
 of the 14th century. He wrote, in Latin, 
 the " History of Milan," which is printed 
 in Muratori's collection. 
 
 CERRATO, Paul, an Italian writer of 
 Latm poetry in the IGth century ; author of 
 a poem, " De Virginitate," and other poems 
 to be found in the " Delicias Poctarura 
 Italorum." 
 
 CERUTI, Frederic, a learned Italian 
 schoolmaster. He wrote a Latin dialogue 
 on the right Education of Youth, and an- 
 other on Comedy ; and published editions of 
 Horace, Juvenal, and Perseus, each with a 
 paraphrase. Born, 1.541 ; died, 1579. 
 
 CERUTTI, JosErii Antuony Joachim, 
 a Jesuit, for some time professor in the 
 society's college at Lyons ; author of an 
 " Apology " for his order, and of various 
 miscellaneous pieces. He entered with ar- 
 dour into the affairs of the revolution, 
 
 and conducted a paper called " Feuille 
 Villageoise." Born, 1735 ; died, 1792. 
 
 CERVANTES, de Saavedra, Miguel, 
 the celebrated Spanish novelist, was born in 
 1547. Although he gave early promise of 
 literary talent, he was compelled, through 
 poverty, to seek a subsistence in some other 
 profession, and became a page to the car- 
 dinal Giulio Aquaviva, in Rome. He then 
 entered the navy, and lost his left arm at 
 the famous battle of I.epanto. After this, 
 he joined the troops at Naples, in the service 
 of the Spanish king ; but, returning home- 
 ward, he was unfortunately taken i)risoiier 
 by a corsair, and remained in slavery at 
 Algiers 5 years. When he was at length 
 ransomed, he settled at Madrid, married, 
 and published in the course of JO years about 
 30 dramas ; but, though he showed great 
 genius, he was not so successful as his rival 
 Lope de Vega, and he reluctantly abandoned 
 this species of composition for that whii-h 
 has immortalised his name — the production 
 of " Don Quixote." Cervantes had in view, 
 by this work, to reform the taste and opinions 
 of liis countrymen. He wished to ridicule 
 that adventurous heroism, with all its evil 
 consequences, which was the source of in- 
 numerable novels on knight-errantry. The 
 work was, at hrst, coldly received, but it soon 
 met with applause, and it may now safely be 
 said to be the most popular work tliat was 
 ever written. Still its extraordinary good 
 fortime did not extend to the author, who 
 struggled on for many years with nothing to 
 console him in his poverty but his genius, 
 and a proper estimation of his own merit. 
 He died in ICIO, leaving, in addition to his 
 celebrity as on author, the character of a firm 
 and noble minded man. 
 
 CEKVETTO, a celebrated Italian musi- 
 cian, who performed at Drury Lane in the 
 time of Garrick. He much offended that 
 irritable performer by loudly snoring one 
 night, when the audience was in a state of 
 the most perfect silence. Garrick reproached 
 him in the green-room, but the fiddler ap- 
 peased the actor by exclaiming, "Ah, Jlr. 
 Garrick, it is alvay the vay ven I be ver 
 much please ! " He died in 1783, at the ad- 
 vanced age of 103. 
 
 CESARINI, Julian, a cardinal. He was 
 emi)loyed by Martin V. and by Eugenius IV. 
 in political negotiations. Being sent by the 
 latter pope to Hungary, he persuaded I^a- 
 dislaus to break truce with the Turks. The 
 battle of Varna ensued, and the cardinal was 
 slain, 1414. 
 
 CESARINI, ViRGiNio, an Italian writer, 
 whose Latin and Italian poems are distin- 
 guished by great elegance. Died, 1024. 
 
 CESAROTTI,MELf inoR,an Italian poet, 
 and professor of rhetoric, Greek, and Hebrew 
 in the university of Padua; author of" Essays 
 on the Origin and Progress of Poetry," "On 
 the Italian Language," &c. ; and translator 
 iiit« Italian of the " Iliad " and of " Ossian's 
 Poems." Born, 1730 ; died, 1808. 
 
 CESPEDES, Paul, an eminent Spanish 
 •painter. His principal work is "The Last 
 Supper," an admirable picture in the cathe- 
 dral of Cordova. He was the author of a 
 learucd treatise on ancient and modern 
 painting. Died, 1G08. 
 
CEV] 
 
 ^ ^c-iD Winiiitv^Kl 33tosnTjpTjj). 
 
 [CIIA 
 
 I CEVELLOS, the Chevalier de, formerly 
 minister of foreign affairs tor Spain, and 
 j successively ambassador at Naples, Lisbon, 
 Vienna, and London. It was he who pub- 
 lished the celebrated manifesto when Na- 
 poleon invaded tlie Peninsula, and wliich at 
 the time made a great impression through- 
 out Europe. Born, 17C3 ; died, 1838. 
 
 CEZELLI, CoifSTANCE, a heroine of the 
 ICth century. Her husband, while defending 
 Leucate, was taken by the Spaniards ; and 
 they threatened Constance that they would 
 put him to death if she did not surrender the 
 fortress. She refused, but offered all her 
 property to ransom him. This was unavail- 
 ing ; and being foiled in two assaults, they 
 raised the siege, and put their barbarous 
 threat in force. 
 
 CHABANON, N. de, a French writer; 
 author of a " Dissertation on Homer," " Life 
 of Dante," a " Treatise on Music," and 
 several mediocre dramas. He also translated 
 Tlieocritus and Pindar : tlie latter perform- 
 ance is much praised by Voltaire. Died, 
 17'.):3. 
 
 CirABERT,Josi5PiiBERNAnD, Marquis of, 
 a distinguished navigator, astronomer, and 
 geographer, born at Toulon, in 1724. He 
 performed several distant voyages, and 
 formed the project of a cliart of the ilcdi- 
 tcrranean. But the American war inter- 
 rupted the work, and called Chabert to jiis 
 post, where he distinguished himself so 
 higlily, that, in 1781, he was made com- 
 mander of a squadron. The revolution 
 drove him to England, and he was received 
 bj' Dr. Maskelyne with great kindness. In 
 1800 he lost his sight, in consequence of his 
 intense application to study ; and, in 1802, 
 he returned to Paris, where Buonaparte as- 
 signed him a pension. Died, 180o. 
 
 CHABOT, Francis, a French Capuchin : 
 on the breaking out of the revolution, he 
 became a member of the convention, and 
 was guilty of great cruelty, until executed, 
 as a fellow-criminal of Dauton, in 175)4. 
 
 CIIABRET, Pjekue, an able French ad- 
 vocate ; author of a work entitled " Tlie 
 French Monarchy and its Laws." Died, 1780. 
 
 ClIABRIAS, an Athenian general, to 
 whom a statue was erected, for aiding the 
 Boeotians against Agesilaus. He conquered 
 Cyprus for the king of Egypt, and was 
 slain at Chio, iiSo B.C. 
 
 ClIABRY, Mai!1c, a French painter and 
 sculptor. His best works, including a fine 
 equestrian statue of Louis XIV., adorned 
 the city of Lyons, but they were destroyed 
 by the revolutionary rabble. Died, 1727. 
 
 CIIAIS, CiiAKLEs, a Protestant divine. 
 He was a native of Geneva, but for many 
 years officiated as pastor of the French 
 church at the Hague. He was author of 
 " An Apology for Inoculation," some theo- 
 logical essays, and a French translation of 
 the Bible. Died, 1785. 
 
 CHAISE, Fkancis de la, a French Je- 
 suit, confessor to Louis XIV., over whom he 
 acquired a vast influence. Died, 1709. The 
 site of his house and grounds at Paris is now 
 occupied by the beautiful cemetery which 
 bears his name. 
 
 CHALCIDIUS, a Platonic philosoplier of 
 the third century. He wrote a commentary 
 
 16rt 
 
 on the Timseus of Plato, of which a Latin 
 version was published at Lcyden. 
 
 CH ALCOND YLES, De metiuus, a learned 
 Greek, who, on the taking of Constantinople 
 in 1479, established himself as a teacher of 
 Greek in Italy. He wrote a Greek grammar, 
 and edited the lexicon of Suidas. Died, 
 1513. 
 
 CHALES, Claudius Fraxcis de, a French 
 Jesuit, professor of hydrography and mathe- 
 matics ; author of a " History of Mathe- 
 matics," a " Treatise on Navigation," 
 " Researches on the Centre of Gravity," &c. 
 Died, 1G78. 
 
 CHALLE, Charles Michael Anoelo, 
 a French painter, and professor of painting 
 in the Paris academy. He was a successful 
 imitator of Salvator Rosa and of Guido. 
 Died, 1778. 
 
 CHALMERS, Alexander, M.A. F.S.A., 
 was born in 1759, at Aberdeen, where his 
 fatlier carried on business as a printer. 
 When he was eighteen years of age, an ap- 
 pointment of assistant surgeon in the West 
 Indies was procured for him ; but, instead of 
 sailing for Jamaica he proceeded to I>ondon, 
 where he connected himself with the press. 
 He became editor of the Public Ledger and 
 London Packet newspapers, during the 
 period of the American war. Party politics 
 were then running high, and Mr. Chalmers 
 obtained much credit as a political writer to 
 other journals under the signature of Senex. 
 He was for a long time a contributor to the 
 Morning Chronicle, and afterwards editor of 
 the Morning Herald : he also entered into 
 engagements with several publishers, to edit 
 their books, and published many works in 
 his own name. In 1812 the first portion of 
 the work appeared, which, of all his pro- 
 ductions, has the most largely contributed to 
 his fame, namely, " The General Biographi- 
 cal Dictionary," which was completed in 
 1817 ; and he continued to occupy himself in 
 literary pursuits till ill-health compelled 
 him to abandon them. Died, 1834. 
 
 CHALMERS, George, a Scotch writer of 
 considerable ability and industry ; author 
 of " Caledonia," " An Estimate of the 
 comparative Strength of Great Britain," &c. 
 His statistical ability procured him the situ- 
 ation of chief clerk of the Board of Trade, 
 which he enjoyed for many years. Born, 
 1744 ; died, 1825. 
 
 CHALMERS, Rev. Dr. Tuomas, was bom 
 at Anstruther, in Fife, on the 17th of March, 
 1780, and was early sent to study at St. An- 
 drew's University. His college career was dis- 
 tinguished by some of his subsequent pecu- 
 liarities — energy,good humour, companion- 
 ablencss, and ascendancy over others ; and it 
 was then that his passion for the physical 
 sciences was first developed. Besides theo- 
 logy, he studied mathematics, chemistry, ani 
 some branches of natural history, with more 
 than youthful enthusiasm, and with such suc- 
 cess that, besides assisting his own professor, 
 he made a narrow escape from the mathe- 
 matical chair in Edinburgh. On the com- 
 pletion of his theological studies, he officiated 
 for about two years as assistant in the parish 
 of Cavers, and in 1803 lie obtained a presenta- 
 tion to the parish of Kilmany in Fit'eshire. 
 Here he remained for some years, in the quiet 
 
discharge of his clerical duties, -when he was 
 Biuldenly awakened to a knowledge of " vital 
 Christianity," while engaged in writing the 
 article " Cliristianity " for Brewster'- ^''=" 
 
 Edin- 
 
 burgh Encyclopedia ; and from this moment 
 I his quickened and concentrated faculties 
 I were intent on reviving the old "evangelism 
 ' of the Puritans and the Keformers." The 
 I heroism with which he avowed his change, 
 I and the fervour with which he proclaimed 
 : the gospel, made a great sensation in the quiet 
 j country round Kilmany j and at last the 
 i renown of this upland Boanerges began to 
 I spread over Scotland, when, in 1815, the town 
 council of Glasgow invited him to be the 
 ' minister of their Tron Church and parish. 
 i Thither he repaired, and in that city for 8 
 I years sustained a series of the most brilliant 
 ; arguments and overpowering appeals in be- 
 i half of vital godliness, which devotion has 
 I ever kindled, or eloquence ever launched into 
 the flaming atmosphere of human thought. 
 In 1817 he visited London. Here his popu- 
 larity was not less overwhelming. The 
 churches in which he was to preach were 
 crowded to suffocation long before the service 
 commenced ; and amongst his auditors were 
 a number of the distinguished clergy, peers, 
 members of parliament, and literary cha- 
 racters of all classes and denominations. 
 " All the world," writes Wilbcrforcc in his 
 diary, " wild about Dr. Chalmers. Canning, 
 Iluskisson, Lords Elgin, llarrowby, &c. pre- 
 sent. I was surprised to see how greatly 
 Canning was affected ; at times he was quite 
 melted into tears." Alter continuing about 
 four years minister of the Tron Church, he 
 was removed to the new church of St. 
 John's. In this new sphere he tried to 
 give practical direction to the theories he 
 liad propounded, relative to the support and 
 tlje 8Ui)pression of pauperism. In manage- 
 ment, he expected it to become a model for 
 all the parishes in Scotland, in the inde- 
 pendence of its provision for the abatement 
 of paui)erisni, as well as iu the spiritual 
 agency it was to adopt. But the work he 
 had undertaken, and the invasions made 
 upon his time, deprived him of that solitude 
 so mucli required for pulpit preparations, 
 especially for such pulpit exhibitions as 
 he was wont to give ; and he was fain to 
 seek relief in an academic retreat. In 
 1824 he accepted the chair of moral phi- 
 losophy at St. Andrew's ; in 1828, he was re- 
 moved to the chair of theology in the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh ; and here he prosecuted 
 his multifarious labours, lecturing, preach- 
 ing, publishing, organising schemes for the 
 welfare of the church, and taking an active 
 management in her courts, till the dis- 
 ruption of the Church of Scotland in 1813, 
 when he joined the Free Church, which he 
 ha<l mainly contributed to found, and became 
 principal and professor of theology to the 
 seceding body. From that period till he 
 finished his course, there was no fatigue in 
 his spirit, nor hesitation iu his gait. In the 
 spring of 1847 he repaired to London to give 
 his evidence before the sites' committee of 
 tlie House of Commons. " He preaclied all 
 the sabbaths of his sojourn in England, will- 
 iiigly and powerfully, and on the last sab- 
 bath of May he was again at home. That 
 
 107 
 
 evening he is said to have remarked to a 
 friend, that he thought his public; work com- 
 pleted. Ue had seen the Disruption students 
 through the four years of their course. lie 
 had seen the Sustcntation Fund organised. 
 lie had been to parliament, and borne his 
 testimony in high places. To-morrow he 
 would give in the college report to the Free 
 Assembly ; and after tliat he hoped to be 
 permitted to retire and devote to the West 
 Port poor his remaining days. He was will- 
 ing to decrease, and close his career as a city 
 missionary. But just as he was preparing 
 to take the lower room, the Master 8ai4, 
 'Come up hither,' and took him up beside 
 himself. Next morning all that met the 
 gaze of love was the lifeless form — in 
 stately repose on the pillow, as one who 
 beheld it said, ' a brow not cast in the mould 
 of the sons of men.' " In this meagre outline 
 of the life of Dr. Chalmers, we have not 
 alluded to the many valuable works which 
 from time to time he gave to the world. 
 His works published during his lifetime, in 
 2.5 vols., embrace a variety of subjects, chiefly 
 relating to theology and political economy; 
 among these are his " Astronomical Dis- 
 courses," first published in 1817, when they 
 formed a new era in the history of pulpit 
 oratory, and are even to this day rend witli 
 the same avidit^^ which hailed their first 
 appearance. Besides these, 9 vols, of post- 
 humous works, consisting of" Daily Scripture 
 Readings," " Institutes of Theology," &c., 
 have been published by his son-in-law. Dr. 
 Hanna, to whose interesting memoirs of Dr. 
 Chalmers we must refer the reader for the 
 fullest information concerning the life and 
 works of this illustrious man. But we can- 
 not conclude without briefly inquiring what 
 were the mental powers to whicli Dr. Chal- 
 mers owed the magic of his eloquence, and 
 the energy of his character ? In an analysis 
 of his mind, the first power that meets us is 
 his brilliant imagination. Kept always in 
 check by his capacity for generalising", and 
 made a willing servant by his power of con- 
 centration, it was at all times ready to illus- 
 trate any subject he chose. It mattered not 
 what the subject might be, defending his non- 
 residence as a minister of the gospel, or pro- 
 nouncing an eulogium on mathematics, 
 maintaining his rights against the encroach- 
 ments of heritors, enforcing the claims of 
 patronage, propounding the civic economy 
 of towns, or defending the Established 
 Church, expatiating on the sublime trntlis 
 of the gospel, or combating some popular 
 prejudice — each and all he invested with 
 such a splendour of imagination and mag- 
 nificence of diction, as at once captivated 
 and entranced. But these very powers 
 sometimes led him into seeming incon- 
 sistencies. Alive only to the discussion 
 of his present tlicme, he was apt to forget 
 those wliich liad previously engaged his min<l, 
 and how the arguments previously advanced 
 bore upon his present illustration. Hence a 
 casuist might arraign Dr. Chalmers at the 
 bar of strict political consistency, and object 
 to the part he took in some public movements 
 during his career ; but an acquittal would be 
 given, on the ground, that he never pleaded 
 any cause, unless convinced at the time thiit 
 
it was for the spiritual and temporal welfare 
 of his fellow- men. But such defects in such a 
 character are like motes in a sunbeam. Con- 
 sidered in every view, — the preacher, sway- 
 ing at will multitudes by the fascination of 
 his eloquence, — the philosopher, pointing 
 out and illustrating analogies between the 
 sublime truths of the Scriptures and the 
 wonders of nature, — the philanthropist, ac- 
 tive and laborious in prosecuting the public 
 good — or tlie man of God, humble and meek 
 in disposition, and desirous of being con- 
 formed to the will of heaven, — we see one 
 great by intellectual power, great by sanc- 
 tified attainments — one on wliose like Scot- 
 land will not soon look again. Died, May 
 31. 1847. 
 
 CIIALONER, Sir Thomas, an English 
 Btatesnuin. lie obtained his knighthood by 
 Ills gallantry at the battle of Musselburgh, 
 and was afterwards employed as queen 
 Elizabeth's ambassador to Si)ain and Ger- 
 many. He translated " Erasmus's Praise of 
 Folly," and wrote " De Republica Anglo- 
 rum instauranda, libri decern," &c. Died, 
 15C5. 
 
 CIIALONER, Sir Thomas, son of the 
 above, was distinguished as a chemist and 
 natural philosopher ; author of a tract on 
 the virtues of nitre. Died, 1603. 
 
 CIIALONER, EDWAun, an English di- 
 vine, son of the above, chaplain to James I., 
 and one of the most celebrated preachers of 
 his time. He died of tlie plague, in 1023. 
 
 CHALONER, James, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, a member of parliament, and one of 
 the judges of the ill-fated Cliarles I. His 
 zeal in the parliamentary cause obtained 
 him the governorship of Peel Castle, in the 
 Isle of Man. At the restoration in 16C0, 
 messengers were sent to apprehend him, 
 when he committed suicide. 
 
 CHALONER, Thomas, brother of the last 
 named, and also one of the king's judges ; 
 author of an account of the (pretended) dis- 
 covery of the tomb of Moses. He absconded 
 from England at the restoration, and died, 
 
 m;\. 
 
 CHAMBERLATNE, Robkut, an English 
 poet ; author of" The Swaggering Damsel," 
 a comedy ; " Nocturnal Lucubrations," &c. 
 Died, 1(«7. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE, Edward, LL.D. ; 
 author of an able work, entitled "The 
 present State of England," &c. Died, 1703. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE. Johx, son of the 
 above, translator of the "Religious Philo- 
 sopher," by Nieuwentyt, &c. Died, 1724. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Ephraim, an able and most 
 industrious English writer ; compiler of the 
 well-known " Cyclopajdia " which bears liis 
 name. Died, 1740. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Sir William, an able ar- 
 chitect. He built that fine structure, So- 
 merset House, and was the author of a 
 valuable treatise on " Civil Architecture." 
 Though of Scotch descent, he was by birth a 
 Swede, and his knighthood was conferred by 
 the king of Sweden. Died, 1796. 
 
 CIIAMIER, Daniel, a French Protestant 
 divine ; author of a treatise " De fficume- 
 nico Pontifice," and other learned works. 
 His reputation as a politician was so great, 
 that he was entrusted with the important 
 
 task of drawing up the edict of Nantes. He 
 was killed during the siege of Moutauban, in 
 1021. 
 
 CHAMILLARD, Stephen, a learned but 
 very credulous French Jesuit and antiquary; 
 author of " Dissertations on Medals, Gems, 
 and other Monuments of Antiquity." Died, 
 1730. 
 
 CHAMISSO, Adelbeht vox, son of Louis, 
 vieompte d'Ormont, was born at Roncourt in 
 Champagne in 1781. Driven with his parents 
 from their home by the French revolution, he 
 was educated in Berlin, where he became one 
 of the royal pages, served in the Prussian 
 army till the peace of Tilsit, and then re- 
 turned to France, where he remained till 
 1812, as professor at Napoleonville. But 
 his strong inclination for his favourite study, 
 natural history, and the attachment he had 
 imbibed for the land of his education, once 
 more drew him to Berlin, where he seized 
 the opportunity of accompanying Kotzebue 
 in his voyage round the world in 1815 ; and 
 on his return, in 1818, he was appointed 
 superintendent of the botanic garden in 
 Berlin, an office which he held till his death. 
 Chamisso's works range over various depart- 
 ments of literature. " His Views and Ob- 
 servations during a Voyage of Discovery " 
 are replete with interesting matter ; his 
 poems take rank among his countrymen 
 with those of Uhland ; and, as the author of 
 " Peter tSchlemil," he has obtained a Euro- 
 pean fame. Died, 1838. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, Philip, an eminent 
 Flemish painter, was born at Brussels in 
 1002 ; went to Paris, where he studied under 
 Poussin, and became painter to the queen 
 Maria de Medici, who gave him the direc- 
 tion of the paintings in the Luxembourg, 
 and he was also made directqf of the aca- 
 demy of flue arts. His paintings, which are 
 very fine, adorn the dome of the Sorbonne, 
 the museum of Paris, &c. Died, 1074. 
 
 CHAMPEAUX, William de, a divine 
 and philosopher, teacher of the celebrated 
 Abelard, who subsequently became his rival. 
 Champeaux rose to be bishop of Chalons, 
 and wrote a treatise " On the Origin of the 
 Soul." Died, 1121. 
 
 CHAMPFORT, Sebastian Roche Ni- 
 cholas, a French litterateur ; author of 
 "Elegies of Fontenelle and Moliere ; " 
 " Mustapha," a tragedy, and some other 
 dramas, and conductor 'Of the Journal 
 Encyclopedique. He was very intimate 
 with Mirabeau, and friendly to the revolu- 
 tion, until the outrages of the factious dis- 
 gusted him. Robespierre threw him into 
 prison, and in a fit of iusanity he committed 
 suicide, in 1704. 
 
 CIIAMPIER, Symphorien, a French phy- 
 sician. He wrote several learned works, and 
 founded the College of Physicians at Lyons. 
 He also served under the Duke of Lorraine, 
 by whom he was knighted for his courage. 
 He compiled several works, of which the 
 most valuable is " Les Grands Chroniques des 
 Dues de Savoie." Died, 1.540. 
 
 CIIAMPLAIN, Samuel pe, a French 
 naval officer. He was governor-general of 
 Canada, and founded the city of Quebec ; 
 and there is a lake in Canada which still 
 bears liis name. His " Travels in Canada " 
 
ciia] 
 
 ^ f}cto Winiber^Kl 2SiogrHij!)i). 
 
 [CIIA 
 
 Died, 
 
 contain much curious information, 
 
 CHAMPMESLE, Mary Desmares de. a 
 French actress. She was originally only a 
 member of a strolling companj-, but when 
 she appeared in Paris, the great Raciue 
 praised her tragic performance, and even 
 afforded her instruction. This raised her to 
 eminence in her profession, and she became 
 highly popular. Died, lOiW. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, J. F., a French writer, 
 distinguished for his acquaintance with ar- 
 chajology, especially as regards Egypt, In 
 1828 he went with an expedition of learned 
 men to Egypt, at the expense of the king, 
 and made many important discoveries there. 
 Among his numerous works are "Pri-cis du 
 Systeme Iliuroglyphique des Anciens Egyp- 
 tiens," and " Pantluoa Egyptien." Born, 
 1790 ; died. 1832. 
 
 CHANCELLOR, Richard, an English 
 navigator, and founder of the English Russia 
 Company. By this company he was sent to 
 Russia a second time, and, while on his re- 
 turn with the Russian ambassador and suite, 
 he perished off Norway, in !.">.'>(!. 
 
 CHANDLER, Edward, bishop of Dur- 
 ham ; author of a " Defence of Christianity 
 from the Prophecies of the Old Testament, ' 
 &C. Born, 1(571 ; died, 175(). 
 
 CHANDLER, Mary, au English poetess. 
 Born, 1(W7 ; died, 1745. 
 
 CHANDLER, Richard, a divine and an- 
 ti(iuary. He travelled, in 17tJ4, through Asia 
 Minor and Greece, at the expense of tlio 
 Dilettanti Society; and wrote "Travels" 
 in those countries. 
 
 CHANDLER, Saiiuet,, an eminent dis- 
 senting divine; author of a "Vindication 
 of the Christian Religion," a "Vindication 
 of the History of the Old Testament," a 
 "History of Persecution," "History of the 
 Life of David," &c. Born, ItJlty ; died, 170C. 
 
 CHANDOS, Joii.v, an English general of 
 great celebrity, in the 14lh century ; distin- 
 guished not more for his bravery than for 
 his generosity and moderation. He was 
 killed at the bridge of Leusac, near Poitiers, 
 in 13t)S». 
 
 CHANNING, William ELLKRY,tlie Rev. 
 D.D., was born at Newport, Rhode Island, 
 U. S., in 1780. His maternal grandfather, 
 William Ellery, was one of those who signed 
 the declaration of independence, and his 
 father was a partner in the eminent mer- 
 cantile tirm of Gibbs and Chanuing, at New- 
 j port. Educated at Harvard College, he was 
 I early induced to abandon the profession of 
 I medicine, for which his father intended him, 
 [ and to prepare himself for the Unitarian 
 j ministry ; and in 1803 he commenced his 
 career by taking charge of the congregation 
 <if the Unitarian chapel in Federal Street, 
 Hoston. His eloquence rendered him from 
 that time forth one of the most conspicuous 
 men in America. To deny that his dis- 
 courses display great genius would be absurd; 
 tlicy are, indeed, beautiful specimens of 
 pulpit eloquence ; but, in common with all 
 the Unitarian discourses that we have ever 
 seen, they are the discourses of a mere ora- 
 torical moralist rather than those of a Chris- 
 tian preacher. To the honour of Dr. Chan- 
 niug, however, it must be said, that he was 
 
 109 
 
 ever the advocate of peace, and that though 
 be could not but be aware that his oppo- 
 sition to the slave system must needs di- 
 minish his popularity, he was instant in 
 season and out of season in denouncing it. 
 Died, Oct. 2. 1K42, aged G2. 
 
 CHANTEREAU LA FEVRE, Louls, a 
 learned French antiquary ; author of the 
 " History of Bar and Lorraine." Died, ]6")S. 
 
 CHANTREY, Sir Francis, R.A., F.R.8., 
 F.S.A., &c.,a sculptor of flrst-rate eminence, 
 was born of village parents, at Norton, 
 near Sheffield, in 1781. When a mere child 
 he discovered considerable talent in drawing 
 and modelling ; and during his apprentice- 
 ship with Mr. Ramsey, a carver and gilder 
 at Sheffield, the whole of his leisure hours 
 were most assiduously devoted to the study 
 and practice of his favourite pursuits. Hav- 
 ing made a compensation to his master for 
 the remaining term of his apprenticeship, he 
 paid a short visit to London, and attended 
 the school of the Royal Academy. He then 
 returned to Sheffield, where, at 20 years of 
 age, he may be said to have commenced 
 business ; but his career of fame and fortune 
 was not begun until 180i», when he received 
 an order from Mr. Alexander, the architect, 
 for four colossal busts of Howe, St. Vincent, 
 Duncan, and Nelson, for the Trinity House, 
 and for the Greenwich Naval Asylum. 
 From this period he was unrelaxin^ in his 
 efforts, and continually successful; and, 
 among the admirable productions of his 
 chisel, there api)eared, in 1817, that exquisite 
 group of "The Sleeping Children" (the 
 daughters of the Rev. W. Robinson) in 
 Lichfield Cathedral ; universally a<iknow- 
 ledged as " images of artless beauty and 
 innocent and unaffected grace." Orders 
 now crowded in ui)on him in numlwr beyond 
 his ability to execute ; and as it would be 
 impossible in our limits to enumerate the 
 whole, the mention of a few of the leading 
 busts and statues must suffice. Among 
 them we notice his busts of Lord Castlereagh, 
 Sir Walter Scott, the poets Wordsworth and 
 Southey, Mr. Canning, John Rennic, George 
 IV., William IV., Queen Victoria, Lord 
 Mellwurnc, Sir Robert Peel, and the Duke 
 of Wellington ; and his statues of James 
 Watt, Dr. Cyril Jackson, Grattan, Washing- 
 ton, Sir Joseph Banks, Spencer Perceval, 
 Canning, Sir John Malcolm, Dr. Dalton, 
 R<>scoe, General Gillespie, Lady Louisa 
 Russell (when a child), Bishops Bathurst and 
 Ryder, &c. To this list we ought perhaps 
 to add his principal statues in bronze, viz. 
 George IV. at Brighton and in Edinburgh, 
 Pitt in Hanover Square and Edinburgh, and 
 the equestrian statues of Sir Thomas Muiiro, 
 at Madras, and the Duke of Wellington for 
 the city of London. Died Nov. 25. 1841. 
 
 CHAPELAIN, John, a French poet ; au- 
 thor of " La Pucelle," &c. Died, 1074. 
 
 CHAPELLE. Claude Emaxukl l'Hijil- 
 LiEU, a French poet, and the friend and 
 literary adviser of Moliere. Died, 1088. 
 
 CHAPELLE, John de la, a French wri- 
 ter ; author of the " I^ife of the Prince of 
 Conti," dramas, &c. Died, 1723. 
 
 CHAPMAN, Frederic Hexry, a Swedish 
 vice-admiral ; author of a " Treatise ou 
 Marine Architecture," Died, 1808, 
 
cha] 
 
 ^ l^eiu 2lIui&crs?aX 3Siflcrrapl)i?. 
 
 [cha 
 
 CHAPMAN, George, an English poet. 
 He wrote 17 dramatic pieces, but he is ciiiefly 
 remembered for his vigorous translation of 
 Homer, of wliicli Pope is said to liave made 
 more use than lie cliose to admit. Died, 
 1G04. 
 
 CHAPMAN, John, a learned English 
 divine ; author of " Eusebius, or a Defence 
 of Christianity," &c. Born, 1704 ; died, 1784. 
 
 CHAPONE, Hestei!, was the daughter of 
 a Mr. Mulso, of Twy well, Northamptonshire. 
 Among her first productions is the interesting 
 story of Fidelia, in the Adventurer ; but she 
 is principally known by her valuable "Let- 
 ters on the Improvement of the ^lind," ad- 
 dressed to a young lady, and published in 
 1773. Died, 1801, aged 74. 
 
 CHAPPE D'AUTEROCHE, Joiix, a 
 Frencli astronomer. In 17(50 he went into 
 Siberia to observe the transit of the planet 
 Venus ; and, in 17C8, he gave the public an 
 account of his journey in three volumes. 
 He then went to California for the same 
 purpose, but died there in 1769. 
 
 CHAPPE, Claude, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1763. He introduced 
 tlie use of telegraphs into France ; and the 
 first public event communicated by it was 
 the capture of Conde, in 1793. The honour 
 of the discovery being claimed by others, his 
 mind was so much ulfected that he com- 
 mitted suicide, in 1805. 
 
 CHAPPEE, William, an English topo- 
 grapher. He contributed largely to the 
 Gentleman's Magazine, and edited a part 
 of Risdon's Survey of Devonshire. Died, 
 1781. 
 
 CHAPTAL, JEAfT AxTOixE Claude, 
 count of Clianteloupe, a French peer, states- 
 man, and writer. Being a younger son he 
 was destined for the profession of medicine, 
 and had completed his studies when he was 
 induced to accept the professorship of che- 
 mistry at Moutpelier. His lectures procured 
 him great reputation, and on tlie breaking 
 out of the revolution he took an active part 
 in it, and was selected by the new govern- 
 ment to supply the army with gunpowder. 
 In 1799 the first consul made him counsellor 
 of state ; and, in the following year, minister 
 of the interior. 
 
 CHAPUZEAU, Samuel, a Genevese wri- 
 ter, preceptor to William III. of England ; 
 author of an " Account of Savoy," a " De- 
 scription of Lyons," &c. ; and editor «f 
 Tavernier's Travels. Died, 1701. 
 
 CHARAS, Moses, a Frencli physician. 
 On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he 
 withdrew to Spain, where he became phy- 
 siciau to Charles II. His jealous rivals 
 caused him to be imprisoned in the Inquisi- 
 tion, and he only obtained his release by 
 abjuring his religion. His " PharmacopcEia " 
 was translated into Chinese for the use of 
 the emperor. Died, 1C98. 
 
 CHARDIN, Sir John, a French traveller, 
 whose travels in Persia and the East Indies 
 are extremely valuable. The revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes drove him to England, 
 where he was well received by Charles II., 
 who knighted him. Died, 1713. 
 
 CHARENTON, Joseph Nicholas, a 
 French Jesuit, and for many years a mis- 
 sionary in Persia. He translated Maricana's 
 
 ]70 
 
 History of Spain into French, and appended 
 some valuable notes. Died, 173.5. 
 
 CHARETTE DE LA COINTRE, Fran- 
 cis Athaxasius DE, a French royalist, and 
 leader of the party in La Vendt'e. He dis- 
 played great bravery in numberless combats ; 
 but being at length defeated by the repub- 
 licans, and wounded, he was taken prisoner, 
 and shot at Nantes, in 1796. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, 
 king of tlie Franks, and subsequently em- 
 peror of the West, was born in 742. He was 
 the son of Pepin, and succeeded his elder 
 brother, Carloman, in 771. Having defeated 
 the Saxons, and overrun Lombardy, he was 
 crowned emperor in 800. Though of a war- 
 like turn, and continually engaged in war, 
 he was a great friend to learning, founded 
 several universities, and attracted by his 
 liberality the most distinguished scholars to 
 his court ; among others, Alcuin, from Eng- 
 land, whom he chose for his own instructor. 
 He completed many important national 
 works, encouraged agriculture and the arts, 
 and rendered his name immortal by the 
 wisdom of his laws. In private life, Cliarle- 
 magne was exceedingly amiable, a good 
 father, and generous friend. His domestic 
 economy afforded a model of frugality ; his 
 person, a rare example of simplicity and 
 greatness. He despised extravagance of dress 
 in men, though, on solemn occasions, he ap- 
 peared in all the splendour of majesty ; and 
 as his person was commanding and his coun- 
 tenance noble and beneficent, he inspired 
 those who saw him with sentiments of love 
 and respect. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 in 814, aged 72. 
 
 CHARLEMONT, James Cauxfield, Earl 
 of, an Irish nobleman, distinguished as the 
 political coadjutor of Burke, Flood, Grattan, 
 and the other patriotic advocates of Ireland, 
 and as the commander of the Irish volunteers. 
 His lordship possessed considerable literary 
 talents ; and, after his death, his correspon- 
 dence with Burke and otlier eminent men 
 was published. Born, 1728 ; died, 1799. 
 
 CHARLES IV., emperor of Germany, son 
 of John of Luxemburg, and grandson of the 
 emperor, Henry VII., ascended the throne 
 in 1347. His reign was distinguished by the 
 golden bull of the diet of Nuremburg, by 
 which the Germanic constitution was estab- 
 lished. Died, 1378. 
 
 CHARLES v., emperor of Germany and 
 king of Spain, succeeded his grandfather, 
 Ferdinand, on the throne of Spain, in 1516, 
 and became emperor of Germany on the 
 death of Maximilian, in 1519. His title to 
 the imperial crown was disputed by Francis 
 I. of France ; but, aided by Henry VIII. of 
 England, Charles maintained himself, and, 
 at the battle of Pavia, even took his rival 
 prisoner. His whole reign, however, was 
 stormy — France, the Moors, and the Pro- 
 testant princes of Germany gave him full 
 employment, until, in 1556, he resigned the 
 crown to his son, and sought in private life 
 the happiness he had not found in governing 
 an empire. Taken altogether, he is one of 
 the most remarkable cliaracters in history. 
 He exhibited no talents in his youth, it not 
 being till his 30th year that he showed him- 
 self active and independent ; but, from that 
 
ciia] 
 
 ^ ^eiu BixibtviKl 23iajjrai»!)S» 
 
 [CHA 
 
 time till his abdication, lie was, throughout, 
 a monarch. lie was intlefatigable in busi- 
 ness, weighing the reasons on both sides of 
 every case with great minuteness ; very slow 
 in deciding, but firm of purpose, and prompt 
 to execute. Being equally rich in resources 
 and sagacious in the use of them ; gifted 
 with a cool judgment, and always ma.ster of 
 himself, he steadily pursued his plans, and 
 was generally able to overcome the greatest 
 obstacles. Died, 1558. 
 
 CHARLES VI., son of the emperor Leo- 
 pold, was declared king of Spain by his fa- 
 ther in 1703, and crowned emperor in 1711. 
 Tlie taking of Belgrade by his general, 
 Prince Eugene, compelled the Turks to 
 make peace with him ; and his alliance with 
 Holland, France, and England enabled him 
 to obtain considerable advantages over Spain. 
 Subsequently, however, he was at war with 
 his allies, and thus lost Naples and Sicily j 
 and was also engaged in an injurious contest 
 with Turkey. Died, 1740. 
 
 CHAKLES VIII., elector of Bavaria, was 
 raised to the empire of Germany, in 1742, by 
 the influence of France and Prussia, though 
 he had a powerful rival in Maria Theresa of 
 Hungary, who was supported by England 
 and Sardinia. Died, 1745. 
 
 CHARLES II., surnamed the Bold, king 
 of France. He was crowned king in 840, 
 and elected emperor by the Romans in 875. 
 Died, siipposed by poison, in 877. 
 
 CHAKLES III., king of France, surnamed 
 the Simple. He ascended the throne in SiW. 
 His whole reign was one of struggle against 
 the Normans and his turbulent barons, who 
 at length caused Robert, a prince of the 
 blood royal, to be crowned. In the battle 
 fought l)etween the two sovereigns, Robert 
 was slain ; but his son, Hugh the Great, 
 pressed Charles so hard, that he sought 
 shelter in the castle of the Count of Verman- 
 dois, where he died, in 929. 
 
 CHARLES IV., son of Philip the Fair, 
 succeeded to the crown of France in 1322. 
 His reign lasted only 6 years, and in that 
 brief time he was deprived by England of 
 the province of Guienne. Died, 1328. 
 
 CHARLES v., surnamed the Wise, was 
 the first prince >vho bore the title of dauphin, 
 on the death of his brother, in 13G4. His 
 reign was very beneficial to his people, whose 
 commerce and agriculture he greatly pro- 
 moted. He founded the library of Paris, 
 and gained several advantages over the 
 English. Died, 1380. 
 
 CHARLES VL, surnamed the Well- 
 beloved, was son and successor of the above. 
 Owing to the feuds of the dukes of Burgundy 
 and Orleans, and the misconduct of his mi- 
 nisters, he was unable to resist the warlike 
 Edward V. of England, who conquered 
 France and disinherited the dauphin. Died, 
 1422. 
 
 CHARLES VII., surnamed the Victorious. 
 He was crowned in 14i'2, and recovered the 
 whole of his dominions from the English, 
 with the exception of Calais. Died, 1401. 
 
 CHARLES VIIL, king of France, sur- 
 named the AtTable,wa3 the son of Louis XL, 
 and ascended the throne of France in 1483, 
 at the early age of 13. He was a warlike 
 prince, and, in 1405, obtained a victory over 
 
 an army of Italians five times as niunerous 
 as his own. Died, 141)8. 
 
 CHARLES IX., king of France, succeeded 
 to the throne in 1650. The civil wars, and, 
 above all, the massacre of Paris, have left 
 an indelible stain upon the memory of this 
 prince. Died, 1574. 
 
 CHARLES X., ex-king of France, or 
 
 ClIARLES-PlIILIPPE DE BoURBOX, (knOWn 
 
 as Coxmt d'Artois until the accession of his 
 brother Louis XVIII. , and afterwards as 
 Monsieur,) was the fifth and youngest son 
 of the dauphin Louis, son of Louis XV., and 
 was born in 1757. In early life he had ac- 
 quired a character for dissipation, extrava- 
 gance, and hauteur, which bore a still more 
 unfavourable appearance when contrasted 
 with the conduct of his elder brothers ; and 
 such indeed was his unpoi>ularity, that at 
 the very onset of the revolution he found it 
 necessary for his personal safety to quit his 
 native land. In 1773 he married the prin- 
 cess Maria Theresa, daughter of Victor 
 Amadeus III., king of Sardinia, to whose 
 court he now fled for refuge. He subse- 
 quently visited other parts of Enro|>e, and 
 eventually found an asylum with his bro- 
 ther, Louis XVIIL, first at Holyrood House, 
 Edinburgh, and afterwards at Hartwell, in 
 Buckinglianishire. On his succeeding to 
 the throne of France in 1824, it was seen 
 tJiat he adhered too much to the exploded 
 dogmas of the old rigime to acquire the 
 same degree of popularity that, by good 
 tact and a more complying disposition, his 
 predecessor had enjoyed. On the 25th of 
 July, 1830, in consequence of the result of 
 a general election, Charles X. issued Iiis 
 two fatal ordinances, one abolishing the 
 freedom of the press, and the other changing 
 the mode of election. A popular insurrec- 
 tion, of three days' continuance, which has 
 since been dignilied with the title of "the 
 glorious revolution of 1830," took place in 
 Paris, and paved the way for Louis Philippe. 
 The king retreated from St. Cloud to Ram- 
 bouillet, where he oft'ered to abdicate in 
 favour of his grandson, the Duke of Bor- 
 deaux, and requested from the provisional 
 government a safe-conduct to a sea-port. 
 Embarking at Cherbourg he sailed for 
 England, and for a time took up Ids resi- 
 dence at Lul worth Castle, and then removed 
 to Holyrood House, the scene of his former 
 exile. There he remained about a twelve- 
 month ; afterwards retired to the Austrian ' 
 dominions ; and died, in his 80th year, at 
 Goritz, in Illyria, Nov. 4. 1837. The latter | 
 years of this monarch were passed in acts \ 
 of superstitious devotion : he constantly \ 
 wore hair- cloth next his skin, he fasted much, \ 
 and frequently imposed upon himself, as j 
 a penance for some hasty expression, an 
 absolute silence for several hours. The 
 Dukes d'AngoulOme and do Berri were his I 
 sons. I 
 
 CHARLES II., surnamed the Bad, king 
 of Navarre. He succeeded to his kingdom ' 
 when only 18 years of age, and bis reign 
 was marked by much wickedness. He mur- 
 dered the constable, Charles of Angouleme ; 
 seduced tlie dauphin, afterwards Charles V., 
 into rebellion against his father ; and was 
 accused of employing a person to administer 
 
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 ^ :pcU) ^uibcri^al 3BiO0rap]by. 
 
 [ciia 
 
 poison to Charles V. His dcatli was as hor- 
 1 rible as liis life had been wicked. Being ill 
 j of a leprosy, liis physicians caused him to 
 ] be swathed in cloths dipped in spirits of 
 wine, and covered with brimstone ; and his 
 j page accidentally setting ftre to these in- 
 i flammable materials, Charles died in great 
 I torture, in 1387. 
 
 CHARLES I., king of Naples and Sicily. 
 
 I He was the son of Louis VIII. of France, 
 
 and, marrying the daughter of the Count of 
 
 Provence, he became possessed of Provence, 
 
 I and of Anjou and Maine. Defeating Man- 
 
 : fred, the usurper of Sicily, he assumed the 
 
 ! style of king of Naples ; and taking his rival, 
 
 I Conradin, duke of Suabia, and the Duke of 
 
 ! Austria prisoners, he eternally disgraced 
 
 ! himself by causing them to be put to death 
 
 j on the scaffold. His tyranny at length so 
 
 ! much enraged the Sicilians, that on Easter 
 
 I Monday, in 1282, they massacred S0()() of the 
 
 1 French — an event spoken of in history as 
 
 the "Sicilian Vespers." After this they chose 
 
 Peter of Arragon for their king instead of 
 
 Charles, who died in 1285. 
 
 CHARLES II., son of the above, and his 
 successor on the throne of Naples. At the 
 time of liis father's decease, he himself was 
 a prisoner in the liands of the Sicilians, and 
 lie would most probably have been put to 
 death by them but for the humane interces- 
 sion of Constantia, the wife of Peter of Ar- 
 ragon. At her request he was set at liberty, 
 in 1288, on condition of his renouncing all 
 claim to the crown of Sicily ; a condition 
 from which the pope absolved him. His 
 attempts upon Sicil3' were, however, of no 
 avail, and he was obliged to content himself 
 with Naples, which he governed with wis- 
 dom and moderation. Died, loOO. 
 
 CHARLES IIL, king of Naples, great 
 grandson of the last named. He married 
 Margaret, niece of Joan, queen of Naples ; 
 and when Joan was excommunicated, in 
 lo80, he obtained that kingdom from the 
 pope. He put the deposed queen to death, 
 aud was in his turn excommunicated by the 
 pope. This did not prevent his endeavour- 
 ing to possess himself of the crown of Hun- 
 gary, but he was slain in the attempt in 138fi. 
 CHARLES GUSTAVUS X., king of 
 Sweden. lie was the son of John Casimir, 
 and ascended the throne on the abdication of 
 queen Christina, in 1C54. He was very suc- 
 cessful against Poland, but was compelled 
 to raise the siege of Copenhagen, which he 
 sought to possess himself of on accoimt of 
 Denmark having allied itself with Poland. 
 Died, lOGO. 
 
 CHARLES XL, king of Sweden, son and 
 successor of the preceding. He lost several 
 important places during his war with Den- 
 mark, but they were restored to him at the 
 peace of Nimeguen. He greatly increased 
 the power and resources of his kingdom, 
 and died in HM. 
 
 CHARLES XII., king of Sweden, son and 
 successor of the preceding. He was only 
 15 years of age when he ascended the throne, 
 and his youth encouraged Russia, Denmark, 
 and Poland to unite against him. Those 
 powers, however, found him fully equal to 
 the task of humbling them. Denmark being 
 subdued, he attacked Russia ; and in the fa- 
 
 173 
 
 mous battle of Narva, in 1700, he is said to 
 have slain 30,000 of the enemy, besides 
 making 20,000 prisoners, though his own 
 force was short of 10,000. Poland next felt 
 his power ; he dethroned Augustus, and 
 made Stanislaus king in his stead. Thus far 
 his whole course had been prosperous ; but 
 in seeking utterly to crush Peter the Great, 
 he sustained a terrible defeat at the battle 
 of Pultowa, and was himself so severely 
 wounded, that he was removed from the field 
 on a litter, and compelled to seek shelter in 
 Turkey. Here his conduct was so violent 
 that the grand signior was compelled to be- 
 siege his residence. After desperate resist- 
 ance Charles was overjiowered, and for ten 
 months he was kept a prisoner. He no 
 sooner was allowed to return to his own do- 
 minions than he commenced an attack on 
 Norway, aud in besieging Frederickshall 
 was killed by a cannon shot, in 1718. 
 
 CHARLES XIIL, king of Sweden, was 
 bom in 1748 ; and being appointed, at his 
 birth, high admiral of Sweden, his educa- 
 tion was directed chiefly to the learning of 
 naval tactics, and in 1788 lie defeated the 
 Russians in the Gulf of Finland. On the 
 murder of Gustavus III. he was placed at 
 the head of the regency ; but he resigned 
 tiie government, in 179G, to Gustavus Adol- 
 phus IV., who had become of age, and did 
 not appear again in public life till a revo- 
 lution hurled the king from the throne. He 
 was then elected, and subsequenily be- 
 stowed his entire confidence on Marshal 
 Bernadotte, whom the estates had chosen 
 to succeed Prince Cliristiau in 1810. Died, 
 1818. 
 
 CHARLES ALBERT, king of Sardinia, 
 son of Carlo Emanuele, prince of Carignano, 
 was born 2d Oct. 1798. At his birth he had 
 but little chance of ever swaj-ing the sceptre, 
 for there were seven male heirs of the House 
 of Savoy, through whom the crown might 
 have descended. His early life was conse- 
 quently passed in comparative insignificance, 
 and his name was but slightly known to 
 Europe until the revolution of 1821, which 
 broke out in support of 'the so-called Spanish 
 Constitution of 1812, compelled king Vittorio 
 Emanuele to abdicate in favour of his bro- 
 ther, and led to Charles Albert's nomination 
 as regent of the kingdom. Charles Albert, 
 who had all along been in the secrets of the 
 conspirators, took measures to carry out their 
 designs ; but the Duke of Genevois, in whose 
 favour king Vittorio had resigned the crown, 
 having refused to sanction the proceedings 
 of the new government, and having taken 
 instant measures to put down the insurgents, 
 Charles Albert fled to Novara, and deserted 
 and betrayed the party with whom he had 
 co-operated. Renouncing the opinions he 
 had adopted,. he acted as a volunteer in 1823, 
 in Spain, under the Duke d'Angouleme, and 
 there lent his aid to crush the constitution, 
 the principles of which he had so lately at- 
 tempted to establish in Sardinia. On his re- 
 turn to Turin he remained in retirement 
 until the death of Carlo Felice led to his 
 accession to the throne, 27t]i April, 1831. 
 During the first 17 years of his reign, few 
 events occurred to give a clear insight into 
 the natural bent of his mind ; but in March, 
 
cua] 
 
 ^ |5^&) ^Btntbcr^al 3SiO(jrapTj5. 
 
 [CIIA 
 
 1848, after the Milanese had driven out tlie 
 Austrians from Northern Italy, lie a second 
 time unfurled the revolutionary banner, and 
 in a proclamation to the " people of Lom- 
 bardy and Venice," espoused tlie cause of 
 Italian regeneration against Austria. His 
 arms were at first crowned with success ; hut 
 the Austrian field-marshal Radetzky having 
 regained step by step the positions he had 
 lost, at lengtli compelled the Sardinian 
 forces to evacuate Milan in August of the 
 same year, and in September an armistice 
 was signed by the contending parties. In 
 March, 1849, Charles Albert was forced, by 
 the clamours of his subjects, to renew the 
 war with Austria. But the Sardinian army 
 was defeated at all points by Marshal Ra- 
 detzky in the shortest campaign on record, 
 four days; and innnediatcly afterwards, on 
 the 24th of March, Cliarles Albert abdicated 
 the throne in favour of his eldest son, and 
 precipitately leaving Turin, took up his 
 residence at Oporto, where he died, as it is 
 alleged, of a broken heart, July 18th, 1849. 
 
 CHARLES, LoL'is DE LoHRAixE, arch- 
 duke of Austria, a distinguished military 
 commander, son of Leopold II., and younger 
 brother of Francis II., was born, 1771. He 
 first entered on the career of arms under 
 Prince Coburg in 1793; and liis great abilities, 
 not less than his exalted rank, rapidly pro- 
 cured his elevation in command. After the 
 battle of Nerwinde, which restored that rich 
 province to the imperial power, he was ap- 
 pointed governor of the Low Countries, and 
 was soon after created a field-marshal. In 
 179(5 he was promoted to the command of 
 the imperial armies on the Rhine, gained 
 some advantages over the republican generals 
 Jourdan and Moreau, whom he compelled to 
 retire across the Rliine ; took Kehl in 1797 ; 
 subsequently commanded in Italy against 
 Buonaparte and Massena ; long disputed 
 victory at Caldiero, Eckmuhl, and Essling ; 
 but lost the decisive battle of Wagram, 
 where he was wounded. After this event 
 he lived in retirement, during which he 
 wrote a luminous and impartial narrative 
 of his campaigns, and enriched military 
 science with the profound views set forth 
 in his " Priucipes (le Strategic." Died, 1847. 
 
 CHARLES I., king of England, was born 
 in Scotland, in the year 1000. He was the 
 second son of James VI. of Scotland, and I. 
 of England, by Anne, daughter of the king 
 of Denmark ; and upon the death of Prince 
 Ilenry, his elder brother, in 1612, was created 
 prince of Wales. On the death of his father, 
 in 1G2."(, he ascended the throne, his kingdom 
 being engaged in war with Spain, and much 
 embittered against his friend and minister, 
 Buckingliam. It unfortunately happened 
 for Charles I. that he had to t)ie full as high 
 and exacting a notion of the royal preroga- 
 tive as either his father or Elizabeth, while 
 he had to deal with an entirely different 
 state of public opinion. The parliament 
 impeached Buckingliam, and the king sup- 
 ported him ; war with France was declared, 
 against the popular wish, because Bucking- 
 ham so willed it ; and while the parliament 
 was vexatious in its resistance, the king was 
 obstinate and impolitic in his enforcement 
 and extension of his prerogative. To detail 
 
 L^' 
 
 the events consequent upon the disputes 
 between the king and his people, belongs 
 rather to history than to biography. It may 
 suffice, therefore, to say, that previous to 
 and during the civil war, king and people 
 seem to have been pretty equally in the 
 wrong ; the former closing his ears to the 
 increased power of the public voice, and the 
 latter exerting that power vexatiously and 
 gratuitously, rather than with a just and 
 wholesome reference to sound moral and 
 political principle. The first battle between 
 the king's forces and the parliamentary army 
 was at Edgehill, in which neither party had 
 much to Ixjast of. For some time, however, 
 the royalists were generally successful ; but 
 the battles of Marston Moor, Newbury, and 
 Naseby were all signally unfavourable to 
 the royal cause. Indeed, after the defeat at 
 Naseby, the king was so powerless, that he 
 took the resolution of throwing himself upon 
 the good feeling of the Scottish army, then 
 lying before Newark ; and by that army he 
 was basely sold, and delivered into the hands 
 of the parliament. For a time he was treated 
 with much outward respect, but becoming 
 alarmed for his jHjrsoual safety, he found 
 means to make his escape from Hampton 
 Court. On aiTiving on the coast, whither he 
 went with the intention of quitting the king- 
 dom, he could not obtain a vessel to go 
 abroad, but crossed over to the Isle of Wight, 
 where the governor, Hammond, confined 
 him in Carisbrook Castle. While there, 
 negotiations were carried on between him 
 and the parliament ; but the dominant party, 
 commanding the army, and, as it would 
 seem, anything but sincere in wishing a re- 
 conciliation between the king and his people, 
 cleared the House of Commons of the mode- 
 rate and just members, and erected a court 
 for the trial of the king. Insulted by the 
 rabble, and brow-beaten by the self-erected 
 court, he was condemned to death, and on 
 t!:? 3<)th of January, 1049, beheaded at 
 Whitehall ; his last word to Bishop Juxon 
 being a charge to him to admonish Prince 
 Charles to forgive his father's miuderers. 
 
 CHARLES II., king of England, son of 
 the above, Mas born in 1030. He was living 
 as a refugee at the Hague when the inhuman 
 sentence on his father was carried into exe- 
 cution. He, nevertheless, assumed the regal 
 title, and finding that the Scots had pro- 
 claimed him, he left the Hague for Scotland, 
 and was crowned at Scone. Cromwell ! 
 marched towards Scotland to give him bat- 
 tle, and Charles took the spirited course of 
 passing by forced marches into England. 
 Cromwell, however, whose force was supe- 
 rior, discovering the manoeuvre, retrograded 
 in pursuit ; and the royal army was over- 
 taken at Worcester, and utterly routed. 
 After difficulties and escapes which have 
 rather the air of romance than of stem mat- 
 ter of fact, Charles escaped to France, where 
 he resided for some years, keeping up the 
 mimicry of a court, but frequently reduced 
 to extreme distress. The death of Cromwell, 
 the general discontent of the people with the 
 sordid and narrow-minded bigotry which 
 had thrown a gloom over the whole land, 
 and the dexterous policy of General Monk, 
 restored Charles to his crown and kingdom ; 
 
 03 
 
cha] 
 
 ^ ^fto 2iliul)eriSal 3tjiocimpf)n. 
 
 [CIIA 
 
 and he reigned witli a power far fjreater than 
 j that for aiming at which liis father had been 
 put to death. Untaught by_ adversity, he 
 I was luxurious, selfish, and indolent. Tlie 
 ' English Nonconformists were treated with 
 jealous rigour, and the Scottish Covenanters 
 I were shot and sabred without compunction. 
 I And, perhaps, Charles's reply to some cora- 
 I plaints made to him of Lauderdale's cruelty 
 ; in Scotland, will give quite as full a clue to 
 1 Ills kingly character as can be required : — 
 ! " I perceive," said Charles, " that Lauderdale 
 ! has been guilty of many bad tilings against 
 I the people of Scotland ; but I cannot find 
 i that he has acted against my interest." 
 j Died, 1(J85. During this monarch's reign, 
 i the capital was visited by heavy calamities ; 
 the plague in imn, and the fire of London 
 in the following year ; while pretended plots 
 and conspiracies were made pretexts for 
 bringing some eminent persons, who were 
 obnoxious to the court, to an ignominious 
 death. As to the character of Charles II., 
 he was, in the fullest acceptation of the 
 terms, a sensualist and voluptuary ; en- 
 couraging, by Ids example, a taste for disso- 
 lute manners, which i)oisoned the moral 
 health of society ; and though he preserved 
 a degree of popularity with the multitude, 
 from the easiness of his manners, yet he was 
 totally destitute of exalted sentiments. 
 
 CHARLES EDWAKD STUART, called 
 the Prcttiulcr, was the grandson of James II., 
 and born at Rome, in 1720. In 1745 he 
 landed in Scotland, and published a mani- 
 festo exhibiting the claims of his father to 
 the English throne. He was joined by se- 
 veral of the Highlanders, and on entering 
 Edinburgh, he caused his father to be pro- 
 claimed i on which General Cope hastened 
 towards the capital, but was attacked by 
 the Pretender at Preston Pans, and defeated. 
 Instead of making a proper use of this vic- 
 tory, by advancing into England. Charles 
 returned to Edinburgh, wasting his time in 
 an idle parade of royalty. Afterwards, on 
 being joined by Lords Kilmarnock, Cro- 
 marty, Balnierino, and other discontented 
 chiefs, he marched as far as Manchester ; 
 but hearing that the king was about to take 
 the field, he returned to Scotland, where he 
 defeated the English forces, under llawley, 
 at Falkirk. In the meantime the Duke of 
 Cumberland advanced to Edinburgh, and 
 from thence to Aberdeen, the Pretender re- 
 treating before him. At last the two armies 
 met at Culloden, April 27. 1746, when, after 
 an obstinate conflict, in which the High- 
 landers displayed prodigious courage, his 
 array was signally defeated, and entirely 
 dispersed. Charles, after wandering about 
 in different disguises, chiefly among the 
 Hebrides, effected his escape to France. He 
 died at Florence in 1788. 
 
 CHARLETON, Lewis, bishop of Here- 
 ford, an able prelate, distinguished for liis 
 proficiency in theology and the matheniatics. 
 Died, lfi()9. 
 
 CHARLETON, Walter, M. D., an Eng- 
 lish physician. He resided abroad with 
 Charles II., and returned with him at the 
 Restoration. His writings, in natural his- 
 tory, medicine, theology, and natural phi- 
 losophy, are very numerous and learned, 
 
 174 
 
 especially his " Ouomasticon Zoicon " and 
 " Chorea Gigantum ;" the former a cla:^silicd 
 arrangement of animals, the latter au essay 
 on Stonehenge. Died, 1707. 
 
 CIIARLE VILLE, Chaules William, the 
 Earl of, was the son of John Bury, esq., of 
 Ireland, who, having married a co- heiress of 
 Charleville, the title was re\'ived, by patent, 
 in the person of his son, in 1797 ; who, in 
 1800, was advanced to the dignity of viscount, 
 and six years afterwards to that of earl. 
 His lordship was possessed of high classical 
 attainments, and was, for several years, pre- 
 sident of the Royal Irish Academy. He was 
 a firm supporter of the existing institutions 
 of tlie country, in their connection with 
 church and state ; and during the period of 
 the Irish rebellion, in 1790, he commanded 
 the Tullamore cavalry, and was very active 
 in suppressing outrage. Died, 1835, in his 
 72nd year. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, Peter Francis Xavier, 
 a French Jesuit, and for some time a mis- 
 sionary in America. On his return, he be- 
 came conductor of the Journal de Tre- 
 voiix. In addition to his numerous con- 
 tril)utions to that work, he wrote " Histoire 
 Genurale de Paraguay," " Histoire Gi5nijrale 
 de la Nouvelle France," &c. Died, 17(51. 
 
 CHARLOTTE AUGUSTA, daughter of 
 George IV. and Queen Caroline, was born 
 Jan. 7. 1796, and married to Prince I^eopold 
 of Coburg (now king of Belgium), May 2. 
 1810. From her earliest years she gave 
 strong indications of nobleness of mind and 
 great capacity ; and as she grew up, a feeling 
 of sincere and ardent attachment for her on 
 tlie part of the people was universally dis- 
 played. She was not merely accomplished, 
 according to the common acceptation of the 
 term, but was well- acquainted with history, 
 statistics, and other more abstruse branches 
 of knowledge ; spoke several modern lan- 
 guages, and excelled in music, painting, &c. 
 In tine, she possessed in a high degree the 
 several qualities and endowments necessary 
 for the dignified maintenance of an exalted 
 station ; while her active benevolence and 
 solicitude for the poor rendered her an object 
 of their especial regard. Her marriage with 
 Prince Leopold was the result of mutual 
 esteem, and their domestic life may safely be 
 held up as a pattern for universal imitation. 
 But the hopes of the nation, and the anxious 
 wishes of a husband, were suddenly blighted: 
 on the 5th of Nov. 1817, the princess was 
 delivered of a still-born child ; and, in a few 
 hours after, she was seized with convulsions 
 and expired. Never before, perhaps, wtis 
 national and individual sorrow so strikingly 
 or so sincerely expressed, and never, perhaps, 
 was it more deservedly bestowed. The un- 
 happy dissensions of her royal parents, and 
 the vicious blandishments of courtly para- 
 sites, were strikingly contrasted at Claremont 
 by conjugal affection and the pure pleasures 
 of a virtuous life. No wonder, then, tliat 
 the people should have looked forward to her 
 reign with delight ; nor can it be a matter of 
 surprise that their grief should have been 
 intense when thus bereft of " England's 
 hope." 
 
 CHARNOCK, Jonx, an English naval 
 ofBcer and miscellaneous writer ; author of a 
 
! ciia] 
 
 ^ |3eU) ?Hiuljcv^al 3Sioj3;mjp]bfi« 
 
 [ciia 
 
 " History of Marine Architecture," " Bio- 
 graphia Navalls," a " Supplement to Camp- 
 bell's Lives of the Admirals," &c. Died, 
 1807. 
 
 CHARNOCK, Stkphex, a nonconformist 
 divine. He was a very eloquent and popular 
 preacher, and advocated Calvinistical doc- 
 trines with great force and originality. His 
 " Discourse on Providence " is considered the 
 best of his writings. Died, 1080. 
 
 CIIARONDAS, an ancient legislator. He 
 flourished in the 5th century u. c, and is 
 celebrated for liis code of laws drawn up 
 for the inhabitants of Thurium, in Magna 
 Grajcia. Auiong his regulations, was one to 
 prevent any citizen from apiK-aring with 
 arms in the public assemblies. Having in- 
 advertently broken through tliis law, lie 
 plunged his sword into his breast, saying, 
 that he would seal his law with Ids own 
 blood. 
 
 CIIARPENTIER, Fka>xis, one of the 
 Frencli literati in the time of Louis XIV. 
 He was the author of a treatise " On the Ex- 
 cellence of the French Language," and other 
 works ! but though he hart much talent, liis 
 flattery of the king, and his praise of modern 
 literature at the expense of the ancients, 
 caused him to be severely satirised by Boi- 
 leau. Died, 1703. 
 
 ClIARRERIE, Madame de St. IFva- 
 ciSTiiE DE, a French lady of versatile ability; 
 authoress of " Lettrcs Neuchatclloiscs," " Ca- 
 liste, ou Lettres ^crites de Lausanne," and 
 several successful novels and diamas. Died, 
 180(5. 
 
 CHARRON, Pkteu, a French, divine, and 
 a friend of Montaigne, who, by will, left lilra 
 the privilege of bearing his arms ; a strong 
 proof, considering the pride of a Gascon, of 
 his personal consideration. His chief works 
 are "The Three Smiths," a "Treatise on 
 Wisdom," and a volume of " Christian Dis- 
 courses." 
 
 CHASLES, Fraxcis James, a French 
 writer of the 18th century ; compiler of the 
 " Dictionnairc de Justice." 
 
 CHASLES, Greoobv pe, a French naval 
 officer and a witty writer ; author of " Les 
 Illustres Francoises," " Journal d'un Voyage 
 fait aux Indcs Orientales," &c. Died, 1720. 
 
 CHASSENEUZ, Baktiiolomew ue, an 
 eminent French lawyer ; author of " Cata- 
 logus Glorias Mundi," " Consilia, or Consult- 
 ations on Points of Law," &c. It is greatly 
 to his credit that he used all his power as 
 president of the parliament of Provence to 
 delay the decree issued by that body against 
 the Vaudois of Merindol and Cabrieres. In- 
 deed, it was suspected that his humanity 
 caused the Catholics to hasten his end by 
 poison. Died, 1.541. 
 
 CHASTELAIN, Clavde, a French eccle- 
 siastical writer ; author of a " Universal 
 Martyrology," the "Roman Martyrology," 
 and a Journal of his own Life. Died,.1712. 
 
 ClIASTELARD, Pikkre he Bi.scole de, 
 a French gentleman, whom De Thou sup- 
 I poses to have been grandson of the Chevalier 
 Bayard. He went to Scotland in the suite 
 of the unfortunate Mary, and became so 
 violently enamoured of his royal mistress, as 
 to secrete liimself in her apartment. Being 
 discovered when the queen retired to rest, he 
 
 was committed to prison, and finally be- 
 headed on a charge of treason. 
 
 CHASTELER, John G., Marquis of, an 
 eminent Austrian general. He was severely 
 wounded at the siege of Valenciennes in 
 179;?, and was subseijuently opposed succes- 
 sively to Lefevre and Murat. In 1808, with 
 Hormayer, he was the soul of the famous 
 Tyrolese insurrection ; and he was charac- 
 terised by Napoleon, in a wrathful procla- 
 mation which he had the rashness to issue, 
 as " tlie leader of a band of robbers," and an 
 outlaw. In all his engagements he displayed 
 equal skill and courage, and was at length 
 rewarded with the honourable post of go- 
 vernor of Venice. Born, 17<;3 ; died, 1820. 
 
 CIIASTELET, Gahrieli.e Emilie dk 
 Bheteuil, Marchioness of, a French lady, 
 distinguished by her proficiency in science. 
 She translated the Institutes of the Philoso- 
 phy of Leibnitz from the German, and sub- 
 sequently becoming acquainted ■with the 
 pliilosophy of Newton, she translated his 
 Principia, and added an able commentary. 
 Born, 1700 ; died, 1749. 
 
 CHASTELLUX, Francis John, Marquis 
 de, a French field-marshal ; author of " Tra- 
 vels in North America," and a treatise on 
 " Public Happiness." Died, 17;W. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Au- 
 of STE, Vicomtc de, whose chequered career 
 and numerous productions gained him a 
 prominent place in the history of his time, 
 was born at St. Malo, in 1709, the year that 
 witnessed the birth of Napoleon, Mehemet 
 Ali, and Arthur Wellesley. After pursuing 
 Ids studies at Dol and Rennes, in his 17th 
 year he joined the regiment of Navarre as 
 sub-lieutenant, and repaired to Paris, where 
 he witnessed all the splendours of the throne 
 soon doomed to fall. On the eve of the 
 meeting of the states-general in 1789, ani- 
 mated by a love of adventure, he went to 
 America. Here he spent two years amid the 
 wild grandeur of savage life, " the world 
 forgetting, by the world forgot," when ac- 
 cident threw into his hands a journal which 
 revealed to him the immense events wliich 
 three years had sutficcd to bring about in 
 his native country. The French monarchy 
 existed only in name, a turbulent democracy 
 had takeu its place, and the emigrant nobi- 
 lity were turning tlieir swords aj'ainst their 
 country. It was in their ranks that honour, 
 as understood among "gentils hommcs," 
 had marked out his place ; and thither 
 he betook himself. Wounded At the siege 
 of Thionville in 1792, he was conveyed in a 
 dying state to Jersey ; and after a partial 
 recovery he sailed for England, where he 
 sutfered great privations, which a few trans- 
 lations, and, as he subsequently made known, 
 the timely aid of the Literary Fund So- 
 ciety, enabled him to mitigate rather than 
 relieve. Here he published his first work, 
 entitled "Essai llistorique et Politique sur 
 les Revolutions Anciennes et Modernes," 
 1797. After the 18th Brumaire he returned 
 to France, and contributed to the Mercure. 
 His" Attala" appeared In 1801 ; and was fol- 
 lowed in 1802 by his most celebrated work, 
 the " Gt-nie du Christianisme," which lias 
 become like a household word through the 
 Christian world. Soon afterwards he was 
 
 175 
 
cha] 
 
 ^ ^clu Uni^tx^Kl 3Bt0srapTjy, 
 
 [cha 
 
 oppointed by Napoleon secretary to the 
 French embassy at Home. In March, 1804, 
 he was nominated minister plenipotentiary 
 to Switzerland ; but he resigned on learning 
 the melancholy fate of the Duke d'Eng- 
 hien, and resisted all the overtures which 
 Napoleon subsequently made to him. For 
 a long time he had meditated a grand poetic 
 work founded on the great events of Chris- 
 tianity ; and to qualify liimselr for this un- 
 dertaking, he visited in 180(5 the great scenes 
 of Bible history, and on his return in 1807 
 hepublislicd " I>e3 Martyrs," and four years 
 later his " Itineraire de Paris h Jerusalem." 
 In 1814, Chateaubriand hailed the Restora- 
 tion in a brochure, entitled "Buonaparte et 
 les Bourbons." At Ghent he was considered 
 one of the ministers of Louis XVIII. ; in 
 1815 he was created a peer of France, and 
 the following year he became a member of 
 the Institute. " La Monarchic selon la 
 Charte," which he published the same year, 
 threw him for some years into discredit with 
 the court ; but in 1S20 tlie highest state 
 appointments once more lay open to him, 
 and he became successively' ambaseador at 
 Berlin in 1820, and at London in 1822, and 
 the same year minister of foreign aftairs in 
 the Vilfcle ministry, wlien he organised the 
 invasion of Spain under the Duke d'Angou- 
 IGme, and took part in the Congress of Ve- 
 rona, the history of which he afterwards 
 recorded. In 1824, being summarily dis- 
 missed from office, lie took refuge in the 
 columns of the Journal des Dc'bats, where he 
 \-igorously attacked liis fbrmer colleagues ; 
 and on their fall in 1828, he was sent as 
 ambassador to Rome, but resigned his office 
 in 1829, on the formation of the Polignac 
 administration. On the news of the outbreak 
 of the revolution of 1830, he hastened to Paris, 
 where he was hailed with acclamation by the 
 people, but after delivering a glowing oration 
 in favour oftlie Duke of Bordeaux, he retired 
 from the chamber of peers, never to enter it 
 again. From this period he personally took 
 leave of politics ; but he continued to send 
 forth from time to time pamplilets on the 
 government of Louis Philippe, conceived in 
 so bitter and violent a spirit, that he became 
 an object of suspicion to the ministry, and 
 was summarily arrested, but soon discharged. 
 Hislast years were spent in domestic privacy, 
 cheered by the sympathy of " troops of 
 friends," who looked up to him with respect 
 bordering on veneration ; and he expired 
 almost at the moment when some of the most 
 terrible scenes of his early life were renewed 
 in the streets of Paris. Besides the works 
 above mentioned, Wiateaubriand wrote 
 " Etudes Historiques," "EssaisurlaLitti'ra- 
 ture Anglaise " (a poor production) and 
 many others, including numerous pamphlets 
 upon historical subjects and the politics of the 
 day. A splendid edition of his collected works 
 was published at Paris in 1820, for which he 
 received 25,000/. His " Mc'moires," to which 
 great importance was attached during his 
 lifetime, have been published since his death ; 
 but even the events of his chequered career, 
 set forth with all the gracefulness of his fluent 
 pen and the fervour of his glowing imagina- 
 tion, lose much of their interest from the 
 overweening vanity which peers tlirough 
 
 every page, and which has converted that 
 which might liave been a grand "pifecc 
 justiflcatif" of a life, as remarkable for poli- 
 tical changes as tlie era in which it was 
 passed, into a theme for the regret of the 
 thoughtful, and the satire of the scornful. 
 Died, July 4. 1848. 
 
 CHATE AUBRUN, Jonx Baptist Vivian 
 DE, a French dramatic writer ; author of 
 " Philoctetcs," " Mahomet II.," " Les Troy- 
 ennes," &c. Died, 1775. 
 
 CHATEAIIRENAUD, FRANCia Louis 
 RoussELET, Count of, a distinguished French 
 admiral. lie was a great scourge to the 
 Sallee rovers, and signally defeated the Dutch 
 fleet in 1675. Died, 171C. 
 
 CIIATEL, Fkakcis du, a Flemish painter 
 of the lOth century. His chief work, which 
 is in the town-hall of Ghent, represents the 
 king of Spain receiving the oath of fidelity 
 from the states of Flanders and Brabant. 
 
 CHATEL, PiEKUE DU, bishop of Orleans, 
 a strenuous defender of the Galilean Churcli. 
 He was an excellent scholar, and assisted 
 Erasmus in his translations from the Greek. 
 He wrote a Latin letter against the emperor, 
 Cliarles V., and two funeral orations for 
 Francis I. Died, 1552. 
 
 CIIATEL, Tanneguy du, an able French 
 general. He was in the famous battle of 
 Agineourt ; and when the Burgundians sur- 
 prised Paris, he was fortunate enough to 
 save the dauphin, between whom and the 
 Duke of Burgundy he afterwards brought 
 about a reconciliation. Died, 1449. 
 
 CHATE LET, Paul du Hay, Lord of, a 
 French officer of state in the reign of Louis 
 XIII. ; author of the " History of Bertrand 
 du Guesclin," constable of France. Died, 
 1036. 
 
 CHATHAM, WiLT.iAM PITT, Earl of, one 
 of the most illustrious statesmen that ever 
 graced the British senate, was the son of 
 Robert Pitt, esq., of Boconock, in Cornwall, 
 where he was born in 1708. After studying 
 at Eton and Oxford, he entered the army as 
 a cornet of dragoons, but quitted it on being 
 returned to parliament as a member for Old 
 Sarum. His talents as an orator were soon 
 displaj'ed in opposition to Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole, and had so great an efiect, that the 
 Duchess of Marlborough, who had a deadly 
 hatred to that minister, bequeathed to Mr. 
 Pitt a legacy of 10,000Z. On the change of 
 administration, he was made joint vice- 
 treasurer of Ireland and paymaster-general 
 of the armj', which places he resigned in 
 1755 ; but the year following he was appointed 
 secretary of state. In a few months he was 
 again dismissed from office ; but an efficient 
 administration being wanted in 1757, and 
 the nation being enthusiastically attached to 
 him, he returned to his former situation as 
 secretary of state. His great mind now re- 
 vealed its full force, and his ascendancy 
 was complete over the parliament no less 
 than in the ministry. lie aroused the Eng- 
 lish nation to new activity, and, in the space 
 of a few years, we recovered our superiority 
 over France, annihilating her navy, and 
 stripping her of her colonies. France was 
 beaten in the four quarters of the world. In 
 1700, he advised the declaration of war against 
 Spain, while she was unprepared for rcsist- 
 
 176 
 
cha] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Winihev^al 38t00rap1^tt, 
 
 [cha 
 
 ance, as he foresaw that she would assist 
 France. The elevation of England on the 
 ruins of the house of Bourbon was the great 
 object of his policy. But his plans were sud- 
 denly interrupted by the death of George II., 
 whose successor was prejudiced against Pitt 
 by his adversary, tlie Earl of Bute, a states- 
 man of limited views. Pitt, therefore, re- 
 signed his post in 17C1, only retaining his 
 seat in the House of Commons. Foreseeing 
 the separation of the American colonies from 
 the mother country, if the arbitrary measures 
 then adopted should be continued, he ad- 
 vocated, especially in I'OtJ, a conciliatory 
 policy, and the repeal of the stamp act. In 
 the same year he was invited to assist in 
 forming a new ministry, in which he took 
 the office of privy seal, and was created vis- 
 count Burton, baron Pynscnt,' and earl of 
 Chatham ; but in 17G8 he resigned, as he 
 found himself inadequately seconded by his 
 colleagues. In the House of Lords, he con- 
 tinued to recommend the abandonment of 
 the coercive measures employed against 
 America, particularly in 1774 ; but his warn- 
 ing was rejected, and, in 1770, the colonies 
 declared themselves independent. He still, 
 however, laboured in the cause, and used all 
 his efforts to induce the government to etfect 
 a reconciliation with the Ameri(ian states ; 
 and, na he was speaking with his accustomed 
 energy on the subject, in the House of Lords, 
 April 8. 1778, he fell down in a convulsive 
 fit. He died on the 11th of the following 
 month, and his body, after lying in state, 
 M-as solemnly interred in Westminster Ab- 
 bey, where a superb monument was erected 
 to his memory at the national expense. 
 
 CHATHAM, Joiix, Earl of, &.c.., eldest 
 son of the celebrated statesman whose life 
 we have just given, and brotlier of the late 
 William Pitt. He was bom in 175C, and 
 succeeded to the peerage on the death of 
 his father, in 1778. In the following year 
 he was appointed captain of the 86th regi- 
 ment of foot, and served in the American 
 war. He was afterwards appointed by his 
 brother (then prime minister) first lord of 
 the admiralty ; was sworn a privy-council- 
 lor, and elected a kniglit of the Garter. His 
 promotions, both civil and military, were 
 rapid and numerous under his brother's ad- 
 ministration, and he continued to hold office 
 for many years after, under his successors. 
 As lieutenant-general, he commanded the 
 unfortunate expedition to Walcheren, in 
 1809, and was, tliree years afterwards, raised 
 to the full rank of general. On the death 
 of the Duke of Kent, he was appointed 
 governor of Gibraltar, which he held, with 
 other offices, to the time of his death, in 
 IKi'u He was the last peer of the Pitt family, 
 whose title has now become extinct, and 
 with it the annual pension of 4,000/., besides 
 another pension of 3,000/. per annum, 
 granted to his father for three lives, in 1761. 
 The late earl was married, in 1783, to a 
 daughter of Viscount Sydney, but they had 
 no children. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, an English 
 poet, whose precocious genius and melan- 
 choly fate have gained him much celebrity, 
 was born at Bristol, in 1752. Ilis father 
 was sexton of Bedcliff church, Bristol ; and 
 
 young Chatterton professed to have received 
 from him several ancient MSS. These he 
 palmed upon the world as the poems of 
 Rowley, a priest of Bristol in the 15th cen- 
 tury ; and so admirably was his forgery 
 executed, that it is even now rather as- 
 sumed than proved, though there can be 
 little moral doubt of it, that he did forge 
 and not find the MSS. Having vainly en- I 
 deavoured to persuade Horace Walpole and 
 other scholars of the genuineness of the MSS., 
 Chatterton, though still a mere boy, became 
 a party writer ; but even this resource failed 
 him, and in a state of deep despondency, 
 produced by absolute want, he destroyed 
 himself by jwison, in 1770, at the age of 18 !! 
 
 CHAUCER, Geokfuev, an admirable 
 English poet, to whom is justly given the 
 title of the father of English poetry. He 
 studied law in the Temple, but soon turned 
 his attention to the court, and became suc- 
 cessively yeoman and shield-bearer to Ed- 
 ward III., and comptroller of the customs 
 of London. In the following reign, having 
 embraced the doctrines of Wickliff, he was 
 committed to prison, but released on re- 
 canting his opinions. He now retired to 
 Woodstock, where he composed his treatise 
 on the astrolabe. He seems to have been 
 fortunate beyond the usual lot of poets ; for, 
 independent of bounties he had bestowed on 
 him by the crown, he derived considerable 
 property and influence from his marriage 
 with a connexion of the great John of Gaunt, 
 duke of Lancaster. As a poet, Chaucer is 
 far less read and understood than he deserves; 
 for his writing has a fresh ond lusty vigour, 
 rarely to be met with in more modern poesy. 
 Bom, 1328 ; died, 1400. 
 
 CHAUDET, Antoixe Dexis, an eminent 
 French sculptor and painter. His painting 
 of " ^neas and Anchises amid the Conlla- 
 gration of Troy," produced him great and 
 well merited applause. Died, 1810. | 
 
 CHAUDON, Lot IS Mavell. a French 
 abbe ; author of " Lessons of History and 
 Chronology," "Elements of Ecclesiastical 
 History to the Pontificate of Pius VI.," &e. 
 Bom, 17.37 ; died. 1817. 
 
 CHAUFFEPIE, James George, a biogra- 
 phical and critical writer, was the son of a 
 French Protestant minister, but born in 
 Friesland. In addition to sermons and the- 
 ological essays, he wrote a " Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary," designed as a continu- 
 ation of the great work of Bayle. Born, 
 1702 ; died, 1786. I 
 
 CHAULIEU, William Amfuye de, a. I 
 French lyric poet. His poems, which with 
 those of the Marquis de la Fare have been 
 frequently reprinted, are a mixture of Aiia- 
 creon and the good-humoured i)hilosophy 
 of Horace. Bora, 1639 ; died, 1720. 
 
 CHAULNES, ALBEKT,Duke de, a French 
 nobleman and man of science. He was well 
 skilled in chemistry, and contributed many 
 valuable papers to the Memoirs of the Royal 
 Academy of Sciences. Died, 1769. 
 
 CHAUMETTE, Pierre Gaspard, one of 
 the wretches who outraged humanity during 
 the French revolution. He was of low origin, 
 and after serving some time on board a ship 
 he became clerk to an attorney. At the 
 breaking out of the revolution he became 
 
cha] 
 
 % ^c&j 5Unil)er^aT I3t0srnjp]^i). 
 
 [cue 
 
 one of the street orators, and was so oon- 
 spicuous by his violence, that, in 1792, he 
 was made lirst a member of the municipality 
 of Paris, and then procureur, or attorney. 
 AVhen the Mountain party, in 1793, wished 
 to overwhelm the more moderate Girondists, 
 Chaumette was one of the chief instruments 
 of doing so, and was in consequence ex- 
 tremely popular. During the confinement 
 of the unfortunate Louis XVI. in the Temple, 
 Chaumette and Herbert heaped every in- 
 dignity upon him ; and with them, it is said, 
 originated the most horrible of all the 
 charges made against the queen. He at 
 length met his reward. Robespierre, him- 
 self already on the very verge of ruin, threw 
 him into the prison of the Luxembourg, and 
 lie was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, CiiAKLES, D.D., an Ame- 
 rican divine, and one of the most eminent 
 writers of the sect called Universalists ; au- 
 thor of " Thoughts on the State of Religion 
 in New England," "The Benevolence of 
 the Deity considered," "A true Sketch of 
 the Sufferings and Misfortunes of the Town 
 of Boston," &c. Born, 170,5 ; died, 1787. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, Sir IIexuv, an English 
 lawyer and antiquarian. He was knighted 
 by Charles II. in lOSl, and, in 168S, was 
 made a Welch judge. Just before his death 
 he published the " Historical Antiquities of 
 Hertfordshire," one of the most valuable of 
 our county histories. Died, 17f)0. 
 
 CHAUSSE, Michael Angelo pe la, a 
 French archa:ological writer ; author of 
 "Museum Romanum," 'Tietura; Antiquae 
 Cryptarum Romanarum," &c. Died, 1724. 
 
 ClIEKE, Sir Joiix, an eminent English 
 statesman and scholar. Becoming regius 
 professor of Greek at Cambridge, he strenu- 
 ously laboured to improve the prevailing 
 pronunciation of that language ; and the 
 opposition he met with from Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, produced a literary 
 correspondence between them, which was 
 published at Basle by Ccelius Sccundus Curio. 
 Having taken part in the education of Ed- 
 ward VI., that king, on his accession, granted 
 him considerable property in laud. He 
 also made him a privy councillor and se- 
 cretary of state, and conferred the honour 
 of knighthood upon him. Unfortunately for 
 him he engaged, on the death of Edward "VI., 
 in the cause of Lady Jane Grey, and was 
 consequently sent to the Tower on the ac- 
 cession of Mary. His life was spared, and 
 he was allowed to leave England ; but while 
 he was abroad he gave some new oflfcnce to 
 the queen, and his estates were confiscated. 
 Visiting Brussels he was seized by order of 
 Philip II. and sent to England, where, under 
 fear of being put to death, he renounced 
 Protestantism. Ha'^ing done this, the queen, 
 though slie did not restore his estates, gave 
 him some equivalent for them ; but she em- 
 bittered them by compelling him to sit on 
 the bench at the trial of Protestants whose 
 attachment to their faith was stronger than 
 their fears of death. Besides his correspon- 
 dence with Gardiner, he wrote and translated 
 several treatises. He also left in MS. nn 
 English translation of St. Matthew, in which 
 no word was admitted of other than Saxon 
 origin. Born, 1514 j died, 1557. 
 
 CHELSUM, Ja.mes, D.D., an English 
 clergyman, chiefly known as an author by 
 two pamphlets, in which he severely criti- 
 cised "Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the 
 Koman Empire." Died, 1801. 
 
 CHEMNIZER, Ivan Ivanovitcii, a Rus- 
 sian soldier and poet. He served several 
 campaigns in the imperial guards, and 
 afterwards entered the corps of engineers. 
 When he at length retired he published va- 
 rious tales and fables, which the Russian 
 critics compare to those of La Fontaine. 
 Bom, 1744; died, 1784. 
 
 CHENEVIX, Richard, an Irish gentle- 
 man of great and versatile ability as a 
 writer ; author of " Remarks on Chemical 
 Nomenclature according to the System of 
 the French Neologists," "Observations on 
 Jlineralogical Systems," " The Mantuan 
 Rivals," a comedy ; " Henry VII.," a tra- 
 gedy ; " An Essay on National Character," 
 &c. Died, 1830. 
 
 CHENIER, Marie Joseph, a French 
 writer ; autlior of " Charles IX.," " The 
 Death of Calas," and some other dramas ; 
 of several odes sung on public occasions 
 during the revolution, and of "An Histo- 
 rical Sketch of the State and Progress of 
 French Literature. This writer, who de- 
 dicated one of his dramas to Louis XVI., 
 and commenced that dedication with " Mo- 
 narque des Francois, roi d'un peuple fidfele," 
 was among the most violent of the revolu- 
 tionary agitators, and actually voted in the 
 National Convention for the death of the 
 king wliom he had thus apostrophised. He 
 contrived to survive all the horrors of the 
 "reign of terror," and to thrive equally 
 under the directorial, the consular, and the 
 imperial governments. He died in 1811. 
 
 CHEOPS, a king of Egypt. Diodorus 
 calls him Chemmis, and makes him eighth 
 in succession from Rhampsinitus. It is 
 said that he reigned .50 years, and built the 
 largest of the pyramids in Egypt ; but little 
 is certam of his history, or even of the time 
 when he flourished. 
 
 CIIERON, Elizabeth Sophie, a French 
 lady, eminent as a portrait painter. She 
 possessed considerable talent for music and 
 poetry, and wrote several psalms and can- 
 ticles in French. She remained unmarried 
 until her sixtieth jear, when she gave her 
 hand to M. le Hay, the king's engineer. 
 Died, 1711. 
 
 CIIERON, Louis, brother of the above, 
 and also a painter. Being refused admit- 
 tance to the Academy of Painting in Paris, 
 on account of his being a Calvinist, he came 
 to England in 1695, and remained here till 
 liis death, which happened in 1713. 
 
 ClIERUBIN, a French Capuchin friar, 
 astronomer, and mathematician of the 17th 
 century ; author of " Dioptrique Oculaire," 
 " A Treatise on the Theory, Construction, 
 and Use of the Telescope," and " La Vision 
 Parfaite." 
 
 CHERUBINI, Salvador, a distinguished 
 musical composer, was born at Florence in 
 1700. His precocious skill in music attracted 
 the attention of tlie Grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 who gave him a pension, and this enabled 
 him to complete his studies under Sarti, 
 whom he afterwards assisted in his compo- 
 
cue] 
 
 ^ ^cbj Hniberi^/il Btosrapl^i). 
 
 [cm 
 
 sitions. In 17»4 he repaired to liOnrlon, 
 where lie produced the " Fiuta Principcssa " 
 and " Giulio Sabino." In 1788 he settled in 
 Paris, which thenceforward became his 
 adopted country and the scene of his greatest 
 triumphs. His operas of " Iiihigenia," " Lo- 
 doiska," " Ali Baba " would alone have 
 testified to the extent and variety of his 
 powers ; but his fame chiefly rests npon his 
 sacred music, of which his " Requiem," com- 
 posed for his own obsequies, deserves par- 
 ticular notice, lie was director of the Con- 
 servatoire at Paris, where he died, full of 
 years and honours, 1S42. 
 
 ClIKSELDEN, William, an eminent 
 English surgeon and anatomist ; author of 
 a treatise on " The Anatomy of the Human 
 Body," a treatise '• On the High Operation 
 for the Stone," " Osteography, or Anatomy 
 of the Bones," a translation of " T>e Dran's 
 Surgery," &c. He was an admirable oculist; 
 and though his system of lithotomy involved 
 liim in much controversy, it is undoubted 
 tliat he very greatly improved the means of 
 relieving one of the most terrible complaints 
 to which our nature is obnoxious. He was 
 born in 1C.88, and died, 17.'>2. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Piiiup Dohmkr 
 Stanhoi'E, Earl of, was bom in 1694, and 
 educated at Cambridge. He first sat in 
 parliament as memlier forLostwithicl ; and 
 in 172G, on his father's death, succeeded to 
 the earldom of Chesterfield. He was a par- 
 ticular favourite of George II., on whose 
 accession he was sworn a privy councillor ; 
 was appointed, in 1728, ambassador extraor- 
 dinary to Holland ; made a knight of the 
 Garter in 1730, and was appointed steward of 
 the household. Tlie latter office he soon 
 after resigned, and he continued for seve- 
 ral years the strenuous opponent of Sir R. 
 Walpole, distinguishing himself by lus 
 writings in the Craftsman, as well as by his 
 powerful eloquence in the house. In 174.5 
 the government once more availed itself 
 of his talents, and he was sent to Ireland 
 as lord- lieutenant, where he continued a 
 year, exercising his power in a manner 
 calculated to gain the approbation of the 
 people. He was afterwards secretary of state, 
 but deafness and declining health induced 
 him to relinquish office in 1748. His lord- 
 ship was a man of brilliant accomplishments, 
 but tainted with vanity and infidelity. He 
 wrote some papers in the World, and seve- 
 ral poetical pieces, but he is principally 
 known as the author of "Letters to his Son." 
 Died. 177.3. 
 
 CHETHAM, IIcsmiEUY, a wealthy mer- 
 chant of Manchester, to whose well directed 
 munificence that town owes its college and 
 library. He left funds to purchase the col- 
 legiate church, which, being suppressed at 
 the Reformation, had become the property 
 of the Derby family. Mr. Chetham's trustees 
 having executed his will thus far, next ob- 
 tained a cliarter of incorporation, and founded 
 a college for the maintenance and education 
 of 40 poor boys, and an excellent library. 
 The number of boys is now increased to 80, 
 and the library receives constant additions 
 from funds left by Mr. Chetham for that 
 purpose. Any one resident in Manchester, 
 or merely a visitor, has free access, by merely 
 
 writing his name and address in a book for 
 that purpose. Died, KWO. 
 
 CHETWOOD, Knigutly, Dr., dean of 
 Gloucester; author of a "Life of Virgil," a 
 " Life of Lveurgns," &c. Died, 1720. 
 
 CHETWOOD, William Ruts, a dra- 
 matic writer ; author of some plays, which 
 have long since ceased to keep the stage, 
 and of a "General History of the Stage." 
 Died, 17IJC. 
 
 CHEVALIER, Antony Rodolph de, 
 French tutor to princess, afterwards queen, 
 Elizabeth of England. At the death of Ed- 
 ward VI. he went to Germany, and subse- 
 quently to his native country, France ; but 
 on the breaking out of the civil war there, 
 again sought England, where he was well 
 received by his former pupil, the queen. 
 \Vhen the disputes seemed to be terminated, 
 he again went to France ; but on the break- 
 ing out of the troubles anew, with the hor- 
 rible massacre of St. Bartholomew, he left 
 France, intending again to seek shelter in 
 England, but died at Guernsey. He was an 
 erudite scholar, and published an excellent 
 Hebrew grammar, an improved edition of 
 the " Thesaurus of Sanct. Pagninus," &c. 
 He had commenced a Bible in 4 languages, 
 but did not live to finish it. Died, l'i72. 
 
 CIIEVILLIER, A.MJKEW, a French eccle- 
 siastic and antiquary, and librarian to the 
 Sorbonne. He published a liatin disserta- 
 tion on the " Council of Chalcedon," an 
 historical dissertation on the " Origin of 
 Printing in Paris.' &c. Died, 1700. 
 
 CHEVRE.VU, Urban, an eminent French 
 (scholar. He became secretary to queen 
 Christina of Sweden, and is said to have 
 had considerable share in converting her to 
 Catholicism. After acting as tutor and se- 
 cretary to the Duke of Maine, he at length 
 retired from all public duties, and devoted 
 himself to literature. He wrote " Eftets de 
 la Fortune," a romance ; " A History of the 
 World," some plays, &c. Died, 1701. 
 
 CHEYNE, Geokge, an eminent physician 
 and writer. He was born in Scotland, and 
 was originally intended for the church, but 
 preferring the profession of medicine, he 
 pursued the necessary studies for it under 
 Dr. Pitcairn, and having taken his doctor's 
 degree, settled himself in London. His first 
 publication was a mathematical treatise, 
 entitled " Fluxionum Methodus inversa," 
 which procured him considerable reputa- 
 tion, and a'lmission to the Royal Society. 
 Too free an indulgence in the pleasures of 
 the table having rendered him enormously 
 corpulent as well as asthmatic, he resolved 
 on strictly adhering to a milk and vegetable 
 diet ; and he experienced so much benefit 
 from this course, that all his principal trea- 
 tises urge it upon others. His chief works 
 are "The English Malady, a Treatise on 
 Nervous Disorders," " A Treatise on Gout," 
 and an " Essay on Regimen." Died, 1743, 
 aged 82. 
 
 CHIABRERA, Gabriel, called the Ita- 
 lian Pindar, was born at Savona, in 1552. 
 Besides odes and epic poems, which are 
 chiefly anacreontic, he wrote several dramas. 
 Died, W.S7. 
 
 CIIIARAMONTI, Scirio, an Italian ec- 
 clesiastic and writer. His works are very 
 
 179 
 
CHl] 
 
 ^ i9fiD ^uibn^al IJiogmpIji), 
 
 [CHI 
 
 numerous, and are chiefly on the mathe- 
 
 I matics and natural philosophy. He founded 
 
 I the Academy of the Offuscati, at Osena, in 
 
 I Bologna, and was president of it when he 
 
 died, in 1652. 
 
 CIIIARI, PiETEO, an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and poet of the 18th century. He was a 
 rival of Goldoni, and his comedies attained 
 considerable popularity. Those of Chiari 
 were, however, much inferior to those of his 
 rival. Died, 1788. 
 
 CHICHELEY, Henry, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, an able and accomplislied scho- 
 lar and statesman, was born at Higham 
 Ferrers, in 1302. Tlie parliament having 
 addressed the king, Henry V.,to appropriate 
 some of the revenues of the church, the 
 archbishop had the address to engage the 
 young king in a war with France. On the 
 accession of the infant king, Henry VI., 
 Cliicheley became first privy councillor, and 
 j he wisely directed all his attention to church 
 I affairs, striving at once to check the pro- 
 gress of WickliflSsm, and to moderate tlie 
 ardour of the papal court. In the expendi- 
 ture of his revenue lie was very liberal ; he 
 founded and endowed All Souls College, Ox- 
 ford, made many important improvements 
 in Lambeth Palace, and built tlie western 
 tower of Canterbury Cathedral at liis own 
 expense. Died, 1443. 
 
 CHICOYNEAU, Francis, an eminent 
 physician and professor of medicine at 
 Montpelier. When the plague was raging 
 at Marseilles, he was sent to the relief of 
 the sufferers, whom he re-assured by his 
 calm courage. The important services he 
 rendered on this occasion procured liim a 
 pension and several appointments at court. 
 His principal literary production is a work 
 " On the Origin, Symptoms, and Cure of 
 the Plague ; " a work doubly valuable on 
 account of tlie narratives with which it is 
 j interspersed, being the result of the author's 
 own experience. Died, 1752. 
 
 CHILD, Sir Josiaii, bart., an eminent 
 London merchant of the 17th century, and 
 author of several works on sul)ject8 connected 
 with political economy, among which may 
 be noticed his "Discourse on Trade," &c. 
 Born, 1C30 ; died, 1C99. 
 
 CHILD, William, an English musical 
 composer and musician. He was for many 
 years organist in St. George's Chapel, 
 Windsor, and in the Chapel Royal at Wliite- 
 hall. The simple style of Jiis compositions 
 caused them to be neglected in his own 
 time, but they are now much admired. 
 Died, 1697. 
 
 CIIILDEBERT I., king of France, who 
 ascended the throne in 511. Aided by his 
 brothers, Clotaire andClodomir, he attacked 
 and defeated Sigismund, king of Burgundy. 
 Cliildebert and Clotaire then turned their 
 arms against Spain, but without success. 
 Died, 558. 
 
 CHILDEBERT II., king of France, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Sigebert, in 575. On the 
 death of his uncle, Chilperic, king of Sois- 
 sons, he gained tlie kingdoms of Orleans and 
 Burgundy. Died, by poison, 590. 
 
 CHILDEBERT III., king of France. He 
 ascended the throne at the very early age 
 of 12 years ; of which circumstance Pepin, 
 
 mayor of the palace, took advantage to 
 govern both king and kingdom. Died, 711. 
 
 ClilLDERIC I., king of France. He suc- 
 ceeded his father, Merovaeus, in 450 ; was 
 deposed in the following year, and rein- 
 stated upon the throne in 463. Died, 481. 
 
 CHILDERIC II., king of France, was the 
 son of Clovis II., and succeeded his brother 
 Clotaire III, in 673. He was a debauched 
 and cruel tyrant, and, together with his wife 
 and son, was assassinated in 073. 
 
 CHILDERIC III., surnamed the Idiot, 
 king of France, began his reign in 742, and 
 was deposed in 752. 
 
 CHILLIXGWORTH, William, an Eng- 
 lish divine. He was a sound scholar, an 
 able mathematician, and above mediocrity 
 as a poet. But his chief bent was towards 
 disputation and metaphysics ; and he was 
 so acute in discovering difficulties, tliat he 
 doubted where men of far less natural ca- 
 pacity and acquired knowledge would have 
 been presumptuously certain. By degrees 
 liis habit of doubting became so confirmed 
 and excessive, that Lord Clarendon says of 
 him, " he had contracted such irresolution, 
 and such a habit of doubting, that at length 
 he was confident of nothing." In tliis state 
 of mind a Jesuit convinced him of the truth 
 of the tenets of Papacy, and he actually 
 went to tlie Jesuit's college at Douay. 
 While there, he meditated the publication of 
 a vindication of his conversion to tlieCliurch 
 of Rome, but Laud, then bishop of London, 
 dissuaded liim from liis injudicious purpose. 
 Tliis was the more fortunate, as he subse- 
 quently returned to England and studied so" 
 successfully, tliat he not only became a Pro- 
 testant again, but also wrote and published 
 the masterly treatise, entitled " Tlie Reli- 
 gion of Protestants, a safe Way to Salva- 
 tion," Some hesitation about signing the 
 39 articles prevented him from obtaining 
 preferment in the church ; but he at length 
 consented to sign, and became chancellor 
 of Salisbury, &c. At the breaking out of 
 the civil war, he warmly espoused the 
 royal cause, and publiahed a treatise on the 
 "Unlawfulness of Resisting the Lawful 
 Prince, although most Tyrannous, Impious, 
 and Idolatrous." He also invented a ma- 
 chine, or rather imitated one described by 
 some ancient authors, for the attack of for- 
 tified places. Ill health at length compelled 
 him to retire to Arundel Castle, whieli was 
 surrendered to the parliamentarians under 
 Sir William Waller, who, at his own re- 
 quest, sent liim to Chichester, where he 
 died, at the episcopal palace, in 1044. 
 
 CHILMEAD, EnMUxn, an English 
 mathematician and musician ; author of a 
 treatise " On the Music of Ancient Greece ; " 
 another, which was not printed, "On 
 Sounds," and a "Catalogue of the Greek 
 MSS. in the Bodleian Library." Died, 1054. 
 
 CHILO, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 He flourislied in the 0th century, B.C., and 
 was celebrated for his just conduct as a 
 magistrate. It was he who caused the cele- | 
 brated " Know thyself," to be graven on the i 
 temple of Delphi. 
 
 CHITTY, JosErii, an eminent special I 
 pleader, and the author of many well-known : 
 works, which have become indispensable ; 
 
 i 
 
ch<e] 
 
 ^ ^elM Bni^itY&aX 38iojjrap]^i). 
 
 [CHR 
 
 auxiliaries to every legal student and prac- 
 titioner. Died, Feb. 1841, aged 65, 
 
 CUCERILUS, a Samian poet of the 5th 
 century b. c. His poem on the victory of 
 the Athenians over Xerxes obtained him a 
 large pecuniary reward, and it was ordered 
 to be solemnly recited every year. 
 
 CHOISEUL, Stepbkn' Fuancis de, Duke 
 of. lie entered the army early, and having 
 attained a high rank, was appointed ambas- 
 sador to Rome aud Vienna, and honoured 
 with a peerage. He then became prime 
 minister of France, to which station he was 
 raised through the influence of Madame de 
 Pompadour. I£e made many judicious re- 
 forms and alterations in the French army, 
 increased the navy, and brought about the 
 celebrated family compact. In 1770 he was 
 dismissed from office, and exiled to one of 
 his estates. Born, 1714 ; died, 1785. 
 
 CIIOISI, Francis Timoleov de, a French 
 ecclesiastic and writer. In his youth he was 
 of very debauched and abandoned habits. 
 For some years he wore the dress of a woman, 
 and passed by the name of the Countess dcs 
 Barres ; but a severe illness had the good 
 effect of awakening him to a sense of the 
 disgrace and danger of his way of life, and 
 he became an abh^. If his abandonment of 
 vicious inclinations were not quite as entire 
 as could hare been wished, his conduct was 
 at least more decorous ; aud among his nu- 
 merous writings some were well calculated 
 to produce virtuous inclinations in their 
 readers. Besides a Life of David, a Life 
 of Solomon, and a History of the Church, 
 he gave the " Memoirs of the Countess des 
 Barres," containing some account of his 
 youthful irregularities. He also wrote and 
 translated several other pieces, but they are 
 held in very little estimation. Died, 1724. 
 
 CHOPIN, P'KEDEKic, a great modern com- 
 poser and pianoforte player, was bom near 
 Warsaw, 1810. Compelled to leave Poland 
 in consequence of iwlitical convulsions, he 
 played in public at Vienna and Munich in 
 1831, and soon afterwards repaired to Paris, 
 where he continued to exercise his art till 
 the revolution of 1848 drove him to England. 
 He returned to Paris in 1849 ; but his con- 
 stitution, which had never been robust, sunk 
 under the rude changes of the preceding 
 vear, and he died in the autumn of 1849, 
 leaving behind him a reputation, both as a 
 player and a composer, which will not soon 
 pass away. Every note of his music, whether 
 in his concertos or sonatas, or his scherzi, 
 ballades, polonoiscs, preludes, breathes an 
 unmistakable nationality ; and is marked by 
 distinctness, expression, "and elegance. 
 
 CHOPIN, Rg.Ng, an eminent French 
 lawyer and writer ; author of " The Custom 
 of Anjou," "The Custom of Paris," " De 
 Sacra Politica Monastica," &c. Died, 1606. 
 
 CHORIER, Nicholas, a French lawyer 
 and writer ; author of a " General History 
 of Dauphiny," &c. Died, 1692. 
 
 CHOKIS, Louis, an eminent Russian 
 artist and traveller, born in 1795. He was 
 appointed draughtsman to Captain Kotze- 
 bue's expedition round the world in 1814, 
 and on his return published his "Voyage 
 Pittorewiue," accompanied with Cuvier's de- 
 scriptions. He also published " Les Crslnes 
 
 Humains," with observations by Dr. Gall 
 and others. In 1827, M. Choris sailed from 
 France, with the intention of travelling 
 through America ; but while on his journey 
 in Mexico, in company with an English 
 gentleman, they were attacked by robbers 
 near Xalapa, and Choris lost his life, March 
 19. 1828. 
 
 CHOUL, William dc, a French anti- 
 quarian writer of the 16th century. He 
 wrote an excellent treatise on the Religion 
 of the ancient Romans, and on Greek and 
 Roman Autiquities. 
 
 CHRETIEN, Floue.vt, a French poet. 
 lie was of noble family, and was tutor to 
 Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of 
 France. Besides writing satires and trage- 
 dies, he translated Oppiau, some of the 
 plays of Aristophanes, and Pacatus' pa- 
 negyric of Theodosius. Died, 1596. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, Edward, an English lawyer 
 and law writer ; author of an " Account of 
 the Origin of the Two Houses of Parliament 
 with a Statement of the Piivileges of the 
 House of Commons," a "Treatise on the 
 Bankrupt Laws," &c. He was Downing 
 professor of law in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, aud chief justice of the Isle of I?ly. 
 Died. 1823. 
 
 CHRISTIE, James, the son of an eminent 
 auctioneer in London, was distinguished for 
 his critical taste in the fine arts, and his 
 antiquarian knowledge. Though he followed 
 his father's profession, he found time to give 
 to the world some ingenious and valuable 
 works, viz. an " Essay on the Ancient Greek 
 Game invented by Palamedes," showiug the 
 origin of the game of chess ; a " Disquisition 
 upon Etruscan Vases ; " an " Essay on the 
 Earliest Si)ecies of Idolatry," &c. Died, 1831. 
 
 CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden. She was 
 the only child of the famous Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, whom she succeeded in 1632, being 
 then only 6 years old. During her minority 
 the kingdorn was wisely governed by the 
 chancellor Oxenstiern ; and when she was 
 crowned, in 1660, she formally declared her 
 cousin, the count palatine Charles Gustavus, 
 her successor. For four years she governed 
 the kingdom with an evident desire to en- 
 courage learning and science ; and at the 
 end of that time, weary either of the task of 
 governing, or of the personal restraint which 
 royalty imposed on lier, she abdicated in 
 favour of her cousin, and proceeded to Rome, 
 where she surrounded herself with learned 
 men, and busied herself with learned pur- 
 suits. She also embraced the religion of 
 Rome, though it would seem tliat her moral 
 conduct was such as to evince no great respect 
 for religion of any kind. On this point it 
 will sutflce to say, that while at Paris, on 
 one of the various occasions of her visiting 
 that city, she had her equerry, an Italian, 
 named Monaldeschi, murdered in her own 
 residence, and almost in her own presence ; 
 a crime which seems to have had no other 
 cause than the unfortunate equerry's indif- 
 ference to the blandishments of his mistress. 
 In 1660, the death of the king, her cousin, 
 caused her to go once more to Sweden ; but 
 her change of religion, and the reports which 
 had reached that country of her conduct 
 elsewhere, had so disgusted her former sub- 
 
chr] 
 
 ^ 0cb3 Winibtr^al Miast^i^l)^, 
 
 [CHU 
 
 jects,that they resolutely refused to reinstate 
 her in the sovereignty. Being threatened 
 with the loss of her revenues as well as her 
 crown, she consented to preserve the former 
 by finally renouncing the latter ; and she 
 retired to Rome, whel^e she died in 1689. 
 
 CHRISTOPIIE, Hexhy, a negro, one of 
 the leaders of the insurgent slaves of St. 
 Domingo. He possessed considerable ability, 
 but his courage was carried to ferocity. He 
 successfully opposed the French, whose per- 
 fidious seizure of the negro chief, Toiissaint 
 Liouverture, he amply revenged, and assumed 
 the title of Henry I., king of Hayti ; but he 
 acted so despotically that a conspiracy was 
 formed against him ; and Boyer, the suc- 
 cessor of Petiou, who had established a re- 
 public in the south of Domingo, was invited 
 to take part with the discontented subjects 
 of Christophe, and demanded his deposition. 
 At length, finding that even his body-guard 
 •was no longer to be depended on, he shot 
 himself through the heart, October 8th, 1820. 
 
 CHRISTOPHERSON, John, bishop of 
 Chichester. During the reigns of Henry 
 VIII. and Edward VI. he resided abroad on 
 account of his religion, but on the accession 
 of Mary he came to Rome, and was soon 
 raised to the bishopric atwve named, which, 
 however, he enjoyed barely a year. He 
 translated, from Greek to Latin, Piiilo, Euse- 
 bius, and other authors ; but he was rather 
 industrious than learned, and succeeding 
 authors have been much misled by him. 
 Died, 1558. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS, a native of Ciljcia, who 
 became a disciple of Zeno. He was fond of 
 paradoxes, with which his writing and dis- 
 course abounded ; and he was infinitely more 
 subtle in starting diflleulties in the argu- 
 ments of others, than clear in expounding 
 his own views. He flourished in the 2d cen- 
 tury B. c. 
 
 CHRYSOLOGUE, Noel Axtjre, a French 
 Capuchin, geographer, and astronomer ; au- 
 thor of " Theorie de la Surface Actuellc de la 
 Terre." He also published several maps, 
 charts, and planispheres. Died, 1808. 
 
 CHRYSOLORAS, Maxuel, a Greek of 
 noble family. Being sent to Europe by the 
 emperor Manuel Palaeologus to solicit the 
 Christian princes to aid Constantinople 
 against the Turks, he settled at Florence as 
 a teacher of Greek. Subsequently he taught 
 at Milan ; but when the emperor Manuel 
 caine to that city, he was employed by him 
 in a mission to the court of the emperor 
 Sigismund, and afterwards to the general 
 council at Constance, in which city he died. 
 He was author of a " Greek Grammar," a 
 " Parallel between Ancient and Modern 
 Rome," &c. Died, 1414. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, Joiis, St., was really 
 named Secundus, but was called Chrysostom, 
 which signifies " golden mouth," on account 
 of his eloquence. He was born at Antioch, 
 and was intended for the bar ; but being 
 deeply impressed with religious feelings, he 
 spent several years in solitary retirement, 
 studying and meditating with a view to the 
 church. Having completed his voluntary 
 probation, he returned to Antiot^h, was or- 
 dained, and became so celebrated for the 
 eloquence of his preaching, that on the 
 
 death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, he was raised to that high and im- 
 portant post. He now exerted himself so 
 rigidly in repressing heresy and paganism, 
 and in enforcing the obligations of monach- 
 ism, that Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, 
 aided and encouraged by the empress Eu- 
 doxia, caused him to be deposed at a synod 
 held at Clialcedon, in 403. His deposition 
 gave so much olFence to the people, by whom 
 he was greatly beloved, that the empress 
 was obliged to interfere for his reinstate- 
 ment. He soon, however, provoked her 
 anger by opposing the erection of her statue 
 near th€ great church ; and, in 404, another 
 synod deposed him, and exiled him to Ar- 
 menia. He sustained his troubles with ad- 
 mirable courage ; but being ordered to a 
 still greater distance from the capital, where 
 his enemies still feared his influence, he died 
 while on his journey. His voluminous works 
 abound with information, and are very elo- 
 quent. Thirty years after his death his re- 
 mains were removed to Constantinople with 
 great pomp, and he was honoured with the 
 title of saint. Died, 407. 
 
 CHUBB, Thomas, an English writer; 
 author of " Tlie Supremacy of the Father 
 asserted," " Discourse on Miracles," &c. His 
 writings evince great acuteness, but however 
 candid he might be when he commenced as 
 an inquirer, he seems to have made a regular 
 progress towards deism as he went on. Born, 
 1079 ; died, 1747. 
 
 CHUDLEIGH, Mart, Lady ; author of 
 "The Ladies' Defence," a poem, and a 
 volume of "Essays" in verse and prose. 
 Died, 1710. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Charles, an English cler- 
 gyman and poet. He was educated at 
 Westminster, but m.ade so little use of the 
 advantages afforded by that academy, that 
 he was refused admission at Oxford on ac- 
 count of classical deficiency. A marriage, 
 as early as it was imprudent, rendered a 
 profession doubly desirable : and after stu- 
 dying for some time in private, he was ad- 
 mitted to holy orders, and obtained a Welch 
 curacy of about 80Z. a year. The death of 
 his father, who was curate of St. John's, 
 Westminster, brought him once more to 
 London, and he obtained the vacant curacy. 
 Still his income was small, while his love of 
 gay and expensive pursuits was unbounded, 
 and he was on the verge of imprisonment, 
 when Dr. Lloyd, of Westminster School, in- 
 terfered, and eflfected a composition with the 
 creditors. He now determined to exert the 
 talents he had so long allowed to lie idle ; 
 and his first production was " The Rosciad," 
 an energetic description of the principal ac- 
 tors of that time. Public attention was fixed 
 on this poem by the vehemence with which 
 the players replied to it, and Churchill found 
 it worth his while to give the town a new 
 satire, under the title of an "Apology " for 
 hid former one. " Night," " The Ghost " -- in 
 which he assailed Dr. Johnson, at that time 
 all but omnipotent in the literary world — 
 and the "Prophecy of Famine," followed; 
 and he at length threw aside all regard for 
 his profession," separated from his wife, and 
 became a complete " man of wit about town," 
 and a professional political satirist. He now 
 
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 ^ ^tta Bnibtv^aX JStograpT^g. 
 
 [cic 
 
 rapidly produced an " Epistle to Hogarth," 
 "The Conference," "The Duellist," "The 
 Author," "Gotham," "The Candidate," 
 " The Times," " Independence," and " The 
 Journey." The vigour displayed in these 
 makes it probable that he would in time 
 have devoted himself to higher subjects than 
 party politics, and have produced works cal- 
 culated to give him higher and more lasting 
 fame ; but a fever hurried him to the grave, 
 at the early age of 34, in 1764. 
 
 CHURCIIUX, Sir Wixstox, a cavalier, 
 whose estates were- sequestered during the 
 commonwealth ; but they were restored to 
 him by Charles II., who also knighted him. 
 He wrote " Divi Britannici ; " histories of 
 the English monarchs. Died, 1688. 
 
 CHURCHYARD, Tuomas, an English 
 poet ; author of" The Worthiness of Wales," 
 &c. He floiu-ished in the reign of queen 
 Elizabeth, and died early in tlie 17th century. 
 CIACONIUS, Petkk, an eminent Spanish 
 «cholar. Pope Gregory XIII. employed him 
 to superintend an edition of the Bible, the 
 ♦'Decretal" of Gratian, and other works, 
 which that pontiff caused to be printed at 
 the Vatican press. He wrote some very 
 learned notes on TertulUan, Pliny, Seneca, 
 and other Latin writers ; a variety of tracts 
 on Italian antiquities ; a treatise on the old 
 Roman calendar, &c. ; and he aided Clavius 
 in reforming the calendar. Died, ir>81. 
 
 CIAMPINI, John Justin, a learned Ita- 
 lian ; author of " Vetera Monumenta," a 
 " History of the College of Abbreviators," 
 "Lives of the Popes," &e. He was one of 
 the literary associates of Christina, queen 
 of Sweden, during her residence at Rome, 
 and was much aided by her in forming an 
 academy for the study of mathematics, and 
 another for the study of ecclesiastical liis- 
 tonr. Died, 1608. 
 
 CIBBER, Collet, an actor and drama- 
 tist, was the son of Gabriel Cibber, a cele- 
 brated sculptor, and born in London, in 
 ](!71. He was educated at Grantham Free- 
 school, and being disappointed of a scholar- 
 ship at Cambridge, he entered the army. 
 The military profession did not suit his 
 taste ; and when only about 18 years old he 
 quitted it for the stage. For some time he 
 had but little success ; but liis performance 
 of Fondlewife, in the " Old Bachelor," made 
 him very popular, and obtained him the 
 monopoly of parts of that kind at Drury- 
 lane. His first dramatic effort, " Love's Last 
 Shift," appeared in 169.5 ; and it was followed 
 ! by " Woman's Wit " and " the Careless Hus- 
 { band." His next production as a dramatist 
 j was an adaptation of Moliere's Tartuffe, 
 ! under the title of the " Nonjuror," of which 
 ' the " Hypocrite " of the more modem stage is 
 a new version. The piece was wonderfully 
 popular, and, in addition to the large profits 
 Cibber derived from its performance, it pro- 
 cured him the situation of poet laureate. 
 This apiiointment drew upon him the rancour 
 of contemporary wits and poets, and of Pope 
 among the number ; but Cibber had the good 
 jensc to think solid profit more important 
 than the censure of the envious was injurious ; 
 and he wore the bays, and performed in his 
 own pieces till he was nearly 74 years of age. 
 Besides tragedies and comedies, to the 
 
 number of twenty-five, some of which still 
 continue to be played as stock pieces, Cibber 
 wrote an " Apology " for his own life ; au 
 " Essay on the Character and Conduct of 
 Cicero," and two expostulatory epistles to 
 his assailant Pope. Died, 17.57. 
 
 CIBBER, Thkophilus, son of the above, 
 an actor and dramatist, but very inferior in 
 both capacities to his father. He wrote a 
 musical entertainment called " Pattie and 
 Peggy," and altered some of Shakspeare's 
 plays. " The Lives of the Poets of Great 
 Britain and Ireland " api)earcd with his 
 name ; but the work was said to be written 
 by Shields, subsequently anmnuen.sis to Dr. 
 Jolinson, from materials furnished by 
 Thomas Coxeter. Cibber was of very ex- 
 travagant habits, and his life was conse- 
 quently spent in much distress. He was 
 drowned in his passage to Ireland, 1757. 
 
 CIBBER, An.va Maria, wife of the last 
 named, and an actress of the highest class. 
 Her union with Theophilus Cibber was pro- 
 ductive of both discomfort and disgrace, 
 and she was separated from him for many 
 years. Her conduct, however, made it evi- 
 dent that he had been more to blame for 
 the circumstance that dishonoured them 
 both than she had ; and she was as muck 
 respected in private life as she was admired 
 on the stage. Her style of acting was well 
 adapted to that of Garrick, with whom she 
 frequently peribrmed. Died,.17(>6, 
 
 CICCARELLI, Ali'Honso, an Italian phy- 
 sician ; author of "De ClituninoFlumine," 
 " Istoria di Casa Monaldcsoa," &c. Having 
 forged genealogies, and committed other 
 literary imj^stures, he was executed at 
 Rome, in 1.580. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tuluus, the prince of 
 Roman orators. He was the son of noble 
 parents, and at an early age gave such de- 
 cided indications of his ability, that after 
 having served in a single campaign under 
 Sylla and P. Strabo, he devoted himself, by 
 the advice of his friends, to the bar. For 
 this purpose he studied under Molo, an 
 eminent lawyer, and Philo the Athenian, 
 then resident at Rome ; and, at the age of 26, 
 he commenced practice as a pleader ; his 
 first important cause being the defence of 
 Sextufl Roscius Amerinus, who was accused 
 of parricide by one Clirysogonus, a freedmau 
 of the dictator Sylla. He saved his client, 
 but was obliged to withdraw to Athens from 
 fear of resentment of the dictator. As long 
 as Sylla lived Cicero remained at Athens, 
 turning even his exile into a benefit by dili- 
 gently studying under Antiochus and other 
 eminently learned men. When he returned 
 to Rome he rapidly rose in his profession, 
 and the quaestorship in Sicily was bestowed 
 upon him. In this office he made himself 
 very popular ; and henceforth his course was 
 all prosperous, until he attained the great 
 object of his ambition — the consulship. The 
 bold and evil designs of Catiline made 
 Cicero's consular duty as difficult and 
 dangerous as his performance of it was able 
 and honourable ; and he scarcely, if at all, 
 exaggerated his services to Rome when he 
 said that to his conduct " alone was owing 
 the salvation of both the city and the com- 
 monwealtli." But his popularity declined 
 
 183 
 
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 ^ ;j9c&) ^nibtt^nX 23iOQtap^p. 
 
 [CIN 
 
 very soon after the expiration of his consul- 
 ship, and it was cMefly as an advocate and 
 author that he for some time afterward ex- 
 erted his splendid talents. At length the task 
 of averting ruin from lus own head tasked 
 even liis powers to the utmost. Publius 
 Clodius who liad now become tribune of the 
 people, raised such a storm against him, that 
 he was a second time obliged to go into exile. 
 This time he sought shelter with his friend 
 Plancus.in Thessalonica, until the repentant 
 Romans recalled him, making him magni- 
 ficent recompense for the depredation and 
 devastation by which he had been impover- 
 ished. In the struggle between Csesar and 
 Pompey, Cicero espoused the cause of the lat- 
 ter ; but after the fatal battle of Pharsalia, he 
 made Ids peace with the former, with whom 
 he continued to all appearance friendly, 
 nntil CiEsar fell under the daggers of Bru- 
 tus and his friends. He now took part with 
 Octavius, and pronounced the bitter philip- 
 pics against Antony, which at once shortened 
 liis life, and added to his fame. Antony, stung 
 to the quick, insisted upon the death of 
 Cicero, and Octavius basely consented to 
 the sacrifice. In endeavouring to escape 
 from Tusculum, where he was living when 
 the news of his proscription arrived, he was 
 overtaken and murdered by a party of sol- 
 diers, headed by Popilius Laenas, whose life 
 he had formerly saved by liis eloquence ; 
 and his head and hands were publicly ex- 
 hibited on the rostrum at Rome. Cicero was 
 born at Arpinum, b. c. 106 ; and perished in 
 his 04th year, b. c. 43. He was a perfect 
 model of eloquence ; and, as Augustus truly 
 said, " he loved his country sincerely." Of 
 his works, which are universally known and 
 far too numerous to be even named here, 
 there have been almost innumerable editions. 
 
 CIENFUEGOS, Alonzo de, a Spanish 
 writer of the 18th century. Besides trage- 
 dies, odes, and other poems, he wrote " Elo- 
 gio del Marques de Santa Cruz," " Elogio 
 del Senor Don J. Almazara," and " La Pen- 
 sadora Gladitana." 
 
 CIMALINE, John, a Florentine painter. 
 He painted only in distemper, oil colours 
 being then undiscovered ; and though he 
 painted historical subjects, he had no idea of 
 light and shadow. Dante praises him ; and, 
 considering the barbarism of the time at 
 which he lived, the praise was not unde- 
 served, as all that he accomplished was ac- 
 complished in despite of obstacles now 
 happily unknown, lie died at the close of 
 the 13th or very early in the 14th century. 
 
 CIMAROSA, DosiENico, a Neapolitan, 
 famous as a musical composer. When the 
 army of revolutionised France took pos- 
 session of Italy, Cimarosa so openly sympa- 
 thised with revolutionary principles, that, 
 when the French withdrew, he was thrown 
 into prison, and treated with a rigour which 
 is supposed to have materially shortened his 
 life. Of twenty-six operas which he com- 
 posed, and most of which are comic, "II 
 Matrimonio Segreto " and " II Matrimonio 
 per Susurro," are the most admired. Born, 
 1754 ; died, 1801. 
 
 CIMON, a celebrated Athenian general. 
 He was the son of Miltiades, and first dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Salamis. 
 
 Aristides, surnamed the Just, thought so 
 highly of him, notwithstanding his youth 
 had been very dissipated, that he initiated 
 him into public business. After having re- 
 peatedly beaten the Persians, and enriched 
 his country by the spoils he wrested from 
 the enemy, the party of Pericles caused him 
 to be ostracised, on a charge of having been 
 bribed. At the end of Ave years, which wa» 
 only half the term for which he had been 
 banished, he was recalled, and again led the 
 Athenians to victory over their Persian foe. 
 While besieging Citium, in Cyprus, he died ; 
 having served Athens, not only by his prow- 
 ess as a soldier, but also by his wisdom in 
 founding public scliools. He ilourished ia 
 the 5th century b. c. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucirs Quintts, one of 
 the most illustrious characters of ancient 
 Rome. He was made consul when the se- 
 nate and the people were striving for the 
 ascendancy ; and, being much incensed 
 against the latter for having banished hi» 
 son, he sternly resisted their demands. He 
 was named consul a second time, but refused 
 the office and retired to. his farm, whence he 
 did not again emerge until he was saluted 
 dictator, and entreated to lend his aid 
 against the ^qui, who had closely invested 
 the consul Minucius, and the army under 
 his command. Stepping at once from the 
 petty details of a farm to the momentous 
 duties of a general and a statesman, Cin- 
 cinnatus exerted himself so efficiently, that 
 the ^iqui were fain to retire, after having 
 passed under the yoke. Having caused his- 
 son to be recalled from exile, after the chief 
 witness against him had been convicted of 
 perjury, he laid down his vast authority and 
 returned to his farm. He was again, though 
 80 years of age, made dictator, when Malius 
 conspired to overthrow the republic ; and 
 he put down the domestic conspirator as 
 promptly as he had formerly repelled the 
 .^ui. He flourished in the 5th century B.C. 
 
 CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, Lucius, an old 
 Roman historian, author of a " History of 
 the Wars of Hannibal," and other worka 
 which are now lost ; but Pliny frequently 
 quotes the author of them, and speaks of him 
 as a writer of integrity. 
 
 CINELLI, Giovanni, a Florentine phy- 
 sician ; author of " Bibliotheca Volante." 
 Born, 1625 ; died, 1706. 
 
 CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman ; 
 the friend, partisan, and fellow consul of 
 Marius. He it was who drove Sylla from 
 Rome, and recalled Marius from his African 
 exile. He participated in the numerous 
 murders which followed the return of Ma- 
 rius ; and when in his third consulship, and 
 while preparing for hostilities with Sylla, 
 was assassinated, b. c. 84. 
 
 CINNAMUS, John, a Greek writer of the 
 12th century. He was secretary to the em- 
 peror Manuel Comnenus, of whom, and of 
 his father, the emperor John, he wrote a 
 history. 
 
 CINO DA PISTOIA, an Italian juriscon- 
 sult and poet, born at Pistoia, in 1270,, whose | 
 proper name was Guittone. He was very 
 eminent as a lawyer, and became a senator 
 of Rome, and professor successively at 
 various universities. In addition to some 
 
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 ^ jlefitj ?H[nfta:M SSio^rapIji?. 
 
 [CLA 
 
 elegant poetry, by wliieh he is chiefly kno^vn, 
 he wrote a " Commentai-y on the Digest." 
 Died, law. 
 
 CINQ-M.\JIS, Henry Coiffikk, Marquis 
 of, was son of the Marquis d'Effiat, marshal 
 of France. He was introduced by Cardinal 
 Richelieu to the notice of Louis XIII., and 
 was for some time a most distinguislied fa- 
 vourite of that monarch. Ungrateful equally 
 to the cardinal and to the king, he instigated 
 Gaston, duke of Orleans, the king's brother, 
 to rebellion. They had proceeded so far in 
 their treasonable designs as to set on foot a 
 treaty with Spain, engaging that power to 
 assist them. But the vigilance of the cardi- 
 nal discovered their plans, and the marquis 
 was apprehended, and beheaded in 1U42. 
 
 CIPKIANI, John Baptist, an eminent 
 painter, born at Pistoia, in Tuscany. In 
 1755 he accompanied Sir W. Chambers to 
 London, and was one of the original mem- 
 bers of the Royal Academy. His drawings 
 are greatly admired for tlieir correctness, 
 fertilityof invention, and harmonious colour- 
 ing ; SLiid many exquisite engravings were 
 made from them by Bartolozzi. Died, 1785. 
 
 CIRCIONANO, Nicholas, an Italian 
 painter, several of whose works are in the 
 churches of Loretto and Rome. Died, 1588. 
 
 CIRCIGNANO, ANTiioNr, son of the 
 above, and also eminent as a painter. Died, 
 1(52(>. 
 
 CIRILLO, Dominic, an Italian botanist, 
 president of the Academy at Naples, and 
 professor of medicine in the university of 
 that city ; author of "The Neaiiolitaa 
 Flora," a " Treatise on tlie Essential Cha- 
 racters of certain Plants," &c. When the 
 French entered Naples, Cirillo took an active 
 part against his sovereign ; and when the 
 legitimate government was restored, he was 
 executed as a traitor in 1705. 
 
 CLAGGETT, William, D.D., an English 
 divine ; author of four volumes of sermons, 
 and of some well written tracts against dis- 
 sent and papacy. Died, 1727. 
 
 CLAIRAULT, Alexis, a French mathe- 
 matician ; author of " Elements of Geome- 
 try," "Elements of Algebra," a "Treatise 
 on the Figure of the Earth," &c. He was 
 remarkable for the precocity of his talent i 
 for at four years of age he could read and 
 writ<5, at nine he had so far studied mathe- 
 matics as to be able to solve some difficult 
 problems, and at eleven he publi-shed a work 
 on curves. Born, 1713 ; died, 176.5. 
 
 CLAIRFAIT, Count de, an excellent Aus- 
 trian general. He commanded tlie Austrian 
 troops against those of the French republic, 
 and evinced equal skill and courage, though 
 inferiority in numbers frequently compelled 
 him to give way before the enemy. Died, 
 1798. 
 
 CLAIRON, Clairb Josephine de la 
 TuDE, a celebrated French actress, born 
 near Conde, in 1723, and who, commencing 
 her histrionic efforts at the early age of 12 
 years, soon became the tirst tragic performer 
 of her age and country. She died in 1803, 
 having long before quitted the stage for a 
 life of religious seclusion. 
 
 CLAPPERTON, Captain IIuoH, the cele- 
 brated African traveller, was bom in Annan, 
 Dumfriesshire, in 1788, and at the age of 13 
 
 was apprenticed to the sea-service. Having 
 during his api>renticeship inadvertently vio- 
 lated the excise laws, by taking a few pounds 
 of rock salt to the mistress of a house which 
 the crew frequented, he consented (rather 
 than undergo a trial) to go on board the 
 Clorinda frigate, commanded by Capt.Briggs. 
 Through the interest of friends he was soon 
 promoted to be a midshipman, and in 1814 
 was raised to tlie rank of lieutenant, and 
 appointed to the command of the Confiance 
 schooner, on Lake Erie. In 1822 he was 
 chosen to accompany Dr. Oudney and Lieu- 
 tenant Denham on an expedition to Central 
 Africa, and on his return to England he 
 received the rank of captain. In six months 
 afterwards he was dispatched on a second 
 mission for exploring the country from Tri- 
 poli to Bornou, but was not allowed to enter 
 the place. It was during the period of his 
 detention that he was attacked with dysen- 
 tery, which proved fatal, at Stvckatoo, on 
 the 13th of April, 1827. His journals, which 
 were all saved, give an interesting account 
 of the central part of Northern Africa, and 
 the manners and customs of its inhabitants. 
 
 CLARENDON, Edwakd Hyde, Earl of, 
 lord high chancellor of England, was bom 
 at Dinton, in Wiltshire, in 1008. He was 
 educated at Oxford, and studied law under 
 his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, chief justice of 
 the king's bench. During the civil wars 
 he zealously attached himself to the roval 
 cause, and contributed more than any other 
 man to the restoration. In his judicial 
 capacity his conduct was irreproachable ; 
 and as long as he held office, no one could 
 be more decidedly the supporter of the 
 privileges of royalty, or the defender of his 
 country's freedom against the abuses of the 
 royal power. But he at length became un- 
 popular, was removed from his high employ- 
 ments, and, in order to escape the conse- 
 quences of inii)eachmcnt, found it prudent 
 to go into voluntary exile. He died at Rouen, 
 in 17G4. His " History of the Rebellion," 
 taken as a whole, is an admirable work, and 
 calculated to secure to his memory a lasting 
 fame. His daughter Anne was married to 
 the Duke of York, afterwards James II.; and 
 two daughtei's, Anne and Mary, the fruit 
 of this marriage, both ascended the English 
 throne. 
 
 CLARENDON, IIenky Hyde, Earl of, 
 son of the foregoing, was born in 1638. He 
 was for a short time lord lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, in the reign of James II., and wrote 
 a " History of the Irish Rebellion," &c. 
 Died, 1709. 
 
 CLARKE, Adam, LL.D., one of the most 
 eminent modern scholars in the oriental 
 languages and biblical antiquities; He was 
 born in Ireland, and received the rudiments 
 of learning from his father, who was a school- 
 master in tiiat country ; but subsequently 
 studied at the school founded by John Wes- 
 ley, at Kingswood, near Bristol. At the 
 very early age of 18, he became a travelling 
 preacher in the Methodist connection, and 
 for 20 years continued to be so. But though 
 he was very popular as a preacher, it is 
 chiefly as a writer that he demands notice 
 here. He published a very curious and useful 
 Bibliographical Dictionary ; a supplement 
 
 %S 
 
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 ^ ^tfa 2Snt&er^al 3Bt05rajpl)g. 
 
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 to that work ; a most laborious Commentary 
 on the Bible ; a Narrative of the last Illness 
 and Death of Richard Person ; and Memoirs 
 of the Wesley Family ; and edited Baxter's 
 Christian Directory, and several other reli- 
 gious works. His Commentary on the Bible 
 alone would have been a long labour to a 
 man of ordinary industry. But such were 
 his energy and perseverance, that besides 
 the above works and numerous sermons, he 
 wrote four elaborate and valuable reports 
 on the State of the Public Records, and 
 edited the first volume of a new and labo- 
 rious edition of Rymer's Fcedera. Bom, 
 1762 ; died, of cholera, 1832. 
 
 CLARKE, Edwakd Daniel, LL.D., a 
 celebrated modern traveller, and professor 
 of mineralogy at Cambridge, was born in 
 1767. He accompanied I/ord Berwick to 
 Italy in 1794 ; and in 1799 he commenced a 
 tour through Denmark, Sweden, Lapland, 
 Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia 
 Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and 
 Turkey, returning, in 1802, through Ger- 
 many and France. By his exertions the 
 library of Cambridge was enriched with 
 nearly a himdred volumes of manuscripts, 
 and the colossal statue of the Eleusinian 
 Ceres. He also brought to this country tlic 
 sarcophagus of Alexander, and a splendid 
 collection of mineralogical specimens, which 
 he turned to the best advantage in his sub- 
 sequent popular lectures on mineralogy, 
 when he was appointed to the professor's 
 chair in 1808. He died in 1821, and a com- 
 plete edition of his works, in II vols., was 
 afterwards publislied. 
 
 CLARKE, Henrt, LL.D., professor of 
 mathematics at the military academy at 
 Marlow ; author of " An Essay on the 
 Usefulness of Mathematical Learning," a 
 " Dissertation on Perspective, " another on 
 "Calculating Numbers," a third on "Ste- 
 nography," an "Introduction to Geogra- 
 phy," &c. Died, 1818. 
 
 CLARKE, JAiiES STAifiER,LL.D., having 
 graduated at Cambridge, was for some years 
 chaplain in the navy, and was in that capa- 
 city with Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar. 
 On being introduced to George III., the 
 king was pleased witli him, and he became 
 chaplain and librarian at Carlton House, 
 lie wrote numerous publications, which bear 
 Ills name, and was tlie founder of the Naval 
 Clironicle. Died, at Brighton, 1834. 
 
 CLARKE, Jeremiah, Mus. Doc, organist 
 to St. Paul's cathedral, and joint organist, 
 with Blow, to his majesty. His compositions 
 are not numerous, but they are remarkable 
 for pathetic melody. An imprudent and 
 hopeless passion for a lady of high rank so 
 much disordered the mind of this amiable 
 and gifted man, that he committed suicide, 
 in 1707. 
 
 CLARKE, John, an American divine and 
 writer; autlior of "Funeral Discourses;" 
 a popular tract entitled " An Answer to the 
 Question, ' Why are You a Cliristian ? ' " &c. 
 Died, 1798. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, a learned English 
 divine ; author of " Scientia Metrica et 
 Rhythmica," &c. Died, 1669. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, D.D., a celebrated 
 English theologian and natural philosopher, 
 
 was bom in 1675. He was a native of Nor- 
 wich, of which city his father was an alder- 
 man ; and was educated at Caius College, 
 Cambridge. While at college, he translated 
 " Rohault's Physics," in order to familiarise 
 students with the reasonings of the New- 
 tonian philosophy. When be took orders, 
 he became chaplain to the Bishop of Nor- 
 wich, and appeared as an author in his own 
 profession, in 1699, when he published 
 " Three practical Essays on Baptism, Con- 
 firmation, and Repentance." By this work 
 lie established his reputation as a pioijs and 
 able writer ; and he now entered the lists as 
 a controversialist, by publishing " Reflec- 
 tions " on a book by Toland, entitled 
 "Amyntor." In 1704-5 he was appointed 
 to preach the sermons at Boyle's Lecture, 
 and took for the subjects of his sixteen ser- 
 mons, " The Being and Attributes of God" 
 and "The Evidences of Natural and Re- 
 vealed Religion." In 1712 he published a 
 new and valuable edition of " Caesar's Com- 
 mentaries," and a work entitled " The Scrip- 
 ture Doctrine of the Trinity." This work 
 involved him in a controversy, in which his 
 principal opponent was Dr. Waterland ; and 
 the heterodoxy of Dr. Clarke was made the 
 subject of a complaint in the lower house 
 of convocation. Subsequently he had a 
 controversy with Leibnitz on the principles 
 of religion and natural philosophy ; and 
 gave considerable offence by altering the 
 singing psalms at St. James's, where he wa» 
 chaplain to Queen Anne. Although his 
 alleged heterodoxy had deprived him of all 
 chance of rising in the church, he had so 
 just a sense of what was due to his profes- 
 sion, that wlien offered the mastership of the 
 Mint, on the death of Sir Isaac Newton, he 
 declined it as incompatible with the clerical 
 office and cliaracter. The latter part of 
 his life was distinguished by his letter to 
 Mr.Hoadley, " On the Proportion of Velocity 
 and Force in Bodies in Motion," and his 
 edition of " Homer's Iliad " with a Latin 
 version. After his death, his sermons, in 
 10 vols., were published by his son. Died, 
 1720. 
 
 CLARKE, John, D.D., brother of the 
 above, dean of Salisbury ; author of " Ser- 
 mons on the Origin of Evil," a translation 
 of Grotiuji's " De Veritate," &c. Died,1729. 
 
 CLARKE, William, an English divine 
 and writer ; author of " Tlie Connection of 
 the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins," 
 " A Discourse on the Commerce of the Ro- 
 mans," &c. Died, 1771. 
 
 CLARKE. See Feltre, Duke of. 
 
 CLARKSON, Thomas, a man whose whole 
 life may be said to have almost passed in 
 labouring to effect the extinction of the slave 
 trade, was born at Wisbeach, in Suffolk, in 
 1760. He was first brought into notice as 
 the friend and champion of the negro, by a 
 Latin prize essay upon this important sub- 
 ject, which was afterwards published in 
 English, and became immensely popular. 
 Associations were now formed, and the ques- 
 tion was agitated and discussed throughout 
 the country : at length Mr. Clarkson having 
 become acquainted with Mr. Wilberforce, 
 whose connections and influence were justly 
 regarded as of the highest value, it was agreed 
 
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 ^ i^ctu Bnibcrial 38tojn:npf)j). 
 
 [cla 
 
 that the latter gentleman should bring the 
 subject under the notice of parliament. This 
 ■was in 1787, and it there met with various 
 success until 1807, when tlie memorable 
 anti-slavery law obtained the sanction of the 
 legislature. But though Mr. Wilberforce, 
 by virtue of his position, was enabled to take 
 a lead in this great measure, the original 
 promoter of it was still indefatigable ; and, 
 outside the wallsof parliament, he continued 
 to labour with undiminished zeal. We are 
 bound at the same time to observe, that Mr. 
 Clarkson's active benevolence, though prin- 
 cipally exerted in favour of the poor enslaved 
 African, was by no means contined even to 
 that wide sphere. lie died Sept. 26. 1846, 
 aged S5. 
 
 CLAUDE, JOHX, an eminent French Pro- 
 testant divine. He composed a reply to a 
 w^ork of the Port- Royalists on the eucharist, 
 and was involved, in consequence, in a con- 
 troversy with the Catliolic writers, in which 
 he displayed immense controversial power. 
 No better proof, indeed, can be desired of 
 the formidable liglit in which he appeared to 
 his opponents, than is aflForded by the fact, 
 that at the revocation of the edict of Nantes 
 he was i)eremptorily ordered to quit France 
 in 24 liours, though the other Protestant 
 ministers were allowed 15 days. His learn- 
 ing, eloquence of style, and strict morality of 
 life made him a truly powerful advocate of 
 truth, and his polemical writings show liow 
 well qualified he was to be its defender. 
 Died, 1687. 
 
 CLAUDE LORRAINE, so called from 
 the place of his birth, was an admirable 
 landscape painter. His real name was 
 Claudk Gelee, and he was the son of poor 
 parents, who put him apprentice to a pastry- 
 cook. The love of art, however, prevailed 
 over the circumstances in which he was 
 placed ; and having received some instruc- 
 tion in drawing from his brother, who was a 
 wood-engraver, he went to Rome, and was 
 employed by the painter Tassi, from whom 
 he received instructions in the fundamental 
 principles of his art. But it was from the 
 study of nature that he derived his best 
 lessons, and in that study he was unwearied, 
 passing entire days in the fields, noting 
 every change in the aspect of nature at the 
 various stages of the day, from sunrise to 
 dusk. Died, 1682. The principal galleries 
 in Europe are adorned with his masterly 
 productions, and his name and style are 
 consequently familiar to the veriest tyro in 
 the art. 
 
 CLAUDIANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, 
 whose place of nativity is supposed to be 
 Alexandria, in Egypt. He flourished under 
 the reign of Theodosius, Arcadius, and Ho- 
 noriuB j was patronised by Stilicho ; and a 
 statue was erected to his honour in the forum 
 of Trajan. His larger poems lose some of 
 their value from the subjects of them being 
 court panegyric ; but in all his poems he 
 displayed a brilliant fancy, and much of the 
 polished elegance of Virgil. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Tiberius Drusus, a Roman 
 emperor, was bom B.C. 9, at Lyons, and 
 originally called Germanicus. After spend- 
 ing 50 years of his life in a private station, 
 unhonoured and but little known, he was, 
 
 187 
 
 on the murder of Caligula, his uncle, pro- 
 claimed emperor by the body-guard, and 
 confirmed in the sovereignty by the senate. 
 At first he performed some praiseworthy 
 acts, but he soon became contemptible for 
 his debauchery and voluptuousness ; and he 
 died of poison administered by his second 
 wife, Agrippina, a. d. 54. 
 
 CLAUDIUS II., Marcus Aurelius Fla- 
 vius, sumamed Gothicus, a Roman empe- 
 ror, bom, A.D. 214, was raised to the throne 
 on the death of Gallienus ; and by Ids virtues, 
 as well as by his splendid victories over the 
 Goths, he proved himself worthy of his ex- 
 alted station. Died, 270. 
 
 CLAUSEL, Bertkand, a distinguished 
 French soldier, was born at Mircpoix, 1773. 
 He had already gained distinction in the 
 army of the Pyrenees, at St. Domingo, in 
 Ital^, and Dalmatia, when he was sent to 
 Spam in 1810, under Junot and Massena. 
 He besieged Ciudad Rodrigo, was wounded 
 at Salamanca, and having saved during a 
 retreat, memorable in military annals, the 
 army of Portugal, and led it into Spain, was 
 appointed commander-in-chief in the north 
 of Spain in 1813. He was one of the last to 
 lay down arms in 1814 ; and among the first 
 to declare himself in favour of Buonaparte 
 during the hundred days, when he took the 
 command of Bordeaux, and established the 
 imperial government without striking a blow. 
 Banished on the return of the Bourbons in 
 1815, he retired to the United States, where 
 he remained some years. Immediately after 
 the revolution of 1830 he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the forces in Algeria; 
 but in consequence of some misunderstand- 
 ing with the home government, lie returned 
 to France in 1831, received the marshal's 
 baton, and in 1835 returned to Algeria as 
 governor-geneial of the colony ; but the 
 check lie sustained at Constantine, in 1836, 
 led to his resignation, and the rest of his 
 days were passed in retirement. Died, 1842. 
 
 CLAVEL, John, a highwayman in the 
 time of Charles I. He was taken with some 
 of his comrades and condemned to death, but 
 was pardoned, probably on condition of 
 giving information against his former asso- 
 ciates. He is mentioned here on account of 
 a poem which he wrote after his pardon, en- 
 titled "The Recantation of an Ill-spent 
 Life, or a Discoverie of the Highway Law, 
 with vehement Dissuasions to all OflFenders 
 in that kind ; as also cautclous Admonitions, 
 and full Instructions how to know, shun, and 
 apprehend a Thief." 
 
 CLAVIERE, Etienne, a statesman and 
 financier. He was a native of Geneva, and 
 for some time conducted a bank in that city; 
 but was forced to emigrate to France on ac- 
 count of the part he took in some political 
 oflTences. In conjunction with Brissot, he 
 published a treatise " De la France et des 
 Etats Unis." Displaying great zeal in re- 
 volutionising France and her colonies, he 
 obtained considerable influence, but on the 
 fall of the Girondists he was arrested, and 
 committed suicide in prison in 1793, aged 58. 
 
 CL A VIGERO, Francesco Saveiro, a na- 
 tive of Vera Cruz, in Mexico. Having made 
 himself acquainted with the traditions and 
 antiquities oi the Mexicans, he wrote a very 
 
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 ^ 0t^ Unihtx^nl 23t00rajp1^y. 
 
 [CLE 
 
 valuable work, entitled "The History of 
 Mexico." An English translation of this 
 work was piiblislied in 1787. 
 
 CLAVIUS, Christophek, a German Jesuit 
 and matliematician. By order of pope Gre- 
 gory XIII. lie corrected the calendar ; and 
 he ably defended himself against the ani- 
 madversions on liis labour of the elder Sca- 
 liger and others. He also published some 
 valuable mathematical works, among which 
 was an edition of Euclid, with annotations. 
 Died, 1612. 
 
 CLAYTON, Robert, bishop of Clogher ; 
 author of an " Introduction to the History of 
 the Jews," "The Chronology of the Bible 
 "Vindicated," " A Vindication of the Histo- 
 ries of the Old and New Testament," written 
 against Bolingbroke, &c. The heterodoxy 
 of some portions of his writings gave so much 
 offence, that measures were contemplated 
 for depriving him of liis preferment ; a fact 
 which had such an effect upon him, that he 
 died of agitation on the very day proceedings 
 against him were to commence. Born, IGOo ; 
 died, 1758. 
 
 CLAYTON, TiiCMAS, a worthy repre- 
 sentative of the old school of English gentry, 
 was colonel of the royal Lancashire volun- 
 teers, and served with liis regiment many 
 years in Ireland, during the disturbances 
 before the Union. Colonel Clayton blended 
 genuine courtesy of manners with firmness 
 and decision of character. He was eminently 
 loyal ; in times of danger, active and vigorous 
 in repressing tumult T and up to the period 
 of his death, he discharged his magisterial 
 duties with energj' and promptness. He died 
 in his 80th year, in 1835. 
 
 CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher of the 
 3rd century b. c. He was a native of Assus, 
 in Lydia ; but, visiting Athens, he became a 
 zealous discii)le of Zeno ; and to enable him 
 to attend on that master in the day, he was 
 accustomed to labour by night. His mental 
 and bodily strength was immense, and de- 
 spite of all the obstacles of poverty, he studied 
 so successfully as to become Zeno's successor. 
 Of his writings only some inconsiderable 
 fragments remain ; but his reputation was so 
 great, that, after his death, the senate of Rome 
 decreed him a ttatue in his native place. 
 
 CLEAVER, William, bishop of St. Asaph, 
 and principal of Brazenose College, Oxford ; 
 author of " Directions to the Clergy on the 
 Choice of Books," " Observations on Marsh's 
 Dissertations on the Gospels of Matthew, 
 Mark, and Luke," " Sermons," and other 
 theological works, and a " Treatise on Greek 
 Metres." He was also editor of the cele- 
 brated " Oxford Homer," published under 
 the patronage of Lord Grenville. Died, 1815. 
 
 CLEGHORN, George, a Scotch physician, 
 surgeon, and anatomist ; author of a " Trea- 
 tise on the Diseases of Minorca," &c. He 
 served for many years as an army surgeon, 
 but ultimately settled as anatomical profes- 
 sor at Dublin. Died, 1789. 
 
 CLELAND, James, LL.D., a distin- 
 guished statistical writer, who held the 
 office of superintendant of public works at 
 Glasgow, and by his numerous publications 
 of a local nature, gained tlie est«em of all 
 conversant with political economy. Bom, 
 1770: died, 1840. 
 
 1S3 
 
 CLEMANGIS, Nicholas, a French di- 
 vine ; author of a " Treatise on the Corrupt 
 State of the Church," "Letters," &c. His 
 writings bear very bold testimony to the 
 corruptions of the Romish Church ; and he 
 has consequently been much censured by 
 Papists, and much praised by Protestants. 
 Died, 1440. 
 
 CLEMENCET, D. C, a French Catholic 
 divine ; author of " L'Art de verifier les 
 Dates," "L'Histoire Litteraire de France," 
 &c. The first named of his works lias been 
 truly said to be " a model of chronological 
 knowledge and exactness ;" and though he 
 displayed too much of the odium theologicum 
 id his opposition to the Jesuits, he was a 
 learned, benevolent, and most industrioua 
 writer. Died, 1778. 
 
 CLEMENS, RoMANUS, an early Christian, 
 a fellow traveller of St. Paul, and, subse- 
 quently, bishop of Rome. His Epistle to the 
 church of Corinth is to be found in the Patres 
 Apostolici of Le Clerc. Clemens is said to 
 have died at Rome, at the end of the Ist 
 century. 
 
 CLEMENS, Titus Flavius, known as 
 Clement of Alexandria, one of the fathers of 
 the church. Of his early career so little is 
 known that it is doubtful whether he was 
 born at Alexandria or at Athens ; but about 
 the year 189 he succeeded Pantaenus in the 
 catechetical school of the former city, and 
 taught there until 202, when the edict of 
 Severus compelled him to seek a new abode. 
 In 210 he was in Cappadocia, and he was 
 afterwards in Antioch, but when or where 
 he died is unknown. His chief works are 
 " Prajtrepticon, or an Exhortation to the 
 Pagans," "Pa;dagogus, or the Instructor," 
 " What Rich Man shall be saved," and " Stro- 
 mata;" the last nam6d of which is a very 
 valuable miscellaneous work, containing 
 facts and quotations to be met with in no 
 other writer. 
 
 CLEMENT XIV., pope, whose real name 
 was Ganganelli, was a native of St. Arch- 
 angelo, near Rimini. In 1759 he was raised to 
 the cardinalate by pope Clement XIII., and 
 on the death of that pontiff he was elected 
 his successor. He was at first apparently 
 disinclined to the suppression of the powerful 
 but mischievous order of the Jesuits, but he 
 at length became convinced of the necessity 
 for their suppression, and he signed the brief 
 for it in 1773. Shortly after he had signed 
 this important document he was seized with 
 a disorder, supiwsed to have been the effect 
 of poison ; and, after languishing in agonies, 
 which reduced him to a mere skeleton, he 
 died in 1775. Clement was one of the most 
 enlightened and benevolent characters that 
 ever wore the tiara. His manners were lowly 
 and condescending, his appearance plain and 
 simple ; and when he was told that the papal 
 dignity required a more sumptuous table, he 
 answered that " neither St. Peter nor St. 
 Francis had taught him to dine splendidly." 
 
 CLEMENT, Francis, a French Bene- 
 dictine monk ; author of a completion of 
 " L'Art de verifier les Dates," a " Treatise 
 on the Origin of the Samaritan Bible," &c. 
 Died, 1793. 
 
 CLEMENT, Jean Marie Bernard, a 
 French critic and dramatic writer, who dis- 
 
 i 
 
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 ^ fJcfio ?Eluibcv^al 2Si05rapl)B. 
 
 [CLl 
 
 tinguished himself by his strictures on the 
 worlts of Voltaire, La Harpe, and others. 
 He is the author of the tragedy of " Medea." 
 Born, 1742 ; died, 1812. 
 
 CLEMEJ^TI, Muzio, an eminent composer 
 and pianist ; the father of pianoforte music, 
 and a genius whose fancy was as unbounded 
 as his science ; was born at Rome, in 1762. 
 He early evinced a taste for music, and made 
 such progress in the s<;ience, that in liis 0th 
 year he passed his examination as an organist, 
 and in liis 12th he wrote a highly approved 
 mass for four voices. Under the fostering 
 patronage of the highly-gifted Mr. Beckford 
 he came to England, living with him at his 
 seat in Dorsetshire, where he learnt the 
 English language, studied, composed, and 
 gradually arrived at the acme of liis profes- 
 sion ; enjoying throughout Europe tlie esteem 
 of his brother musicians, receiving the well- 
 merited admiration of amateurs, and ho- 
 noured with public applause. la the year 
 1800 he was induced to engage, as the head 
 of a highly respectable Arm, in the music 
 trade ; in which he continued, but without 
 any interruption of his duties as a composer, 
 till his death, in 1832. 
 
 CLEOBULUS, one of the seven wise men 
 of Greece, was a native of the Isle of Rhodes, 
 in the 6th century b. c. 
 
 CliEOBULIN A, daughter of the above, is 
 spoken of as possessing great genius ; but 
 the enigmas which are attributed to her are 
 by no means remarkable for excellence. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt. She was 
 the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who, at 
 his death, left his crown to her and her 
 younger brotlier, Ptolemy ; but being mi- 
 nors, they were placed nnder the guardian- 
 ship of Pothinus and Achilles, who deprived 
 Cleopatra of her share of tlic government. 
 Caesar, however, who had met her at Alex- 
 andria, being struck with her youthful 
 charms, proclaimed her queen of Egypt ; 
 and for some time Cleopatra exercised a 
 very potent and injurious influence over the 
 Roman warrior. After Csesar's death she 
 exerted her consummate art, and used her 
 beauty and accomplishments to entangle the 
 triumvir, Mark Antony ; and becoming 
 involved, notwithstanding her treachery and 
 duplicity, in the ruin he brouglit upon him- 
 self in his contest with Octavius, she put an 
 end to her existence, by applying an asp to 
 her arm, the bite of which caused her im- 
 mediate death, b. c. 30, aged 39. 
 
 CLEOSTRATUS, a native of Tenedos, 
 and an eminent astronomer and mathema- 
 tician. He first arranged the signs of the 
 zodiac, Aries and Sagittarius, and corrected 
 the error of the length of the Grecian year, 
 by introducing the period termed Octoetaris. 
 According to Dr. Priestley, he flourished in 
 the 6tli century B. c. 
 
 CLERFAYT, Fkancis Sebastian Cns. 
 Joseph de Ckoix, Coimt de, an Austrian 
 general, who served with great distinction 
 in the seven years' war, particularly at the 
 battles of Prague, Lissa, &c. From the 
 conclusion of that war till 1788, when he 
 took the field against the Turks, he lived 
 in a state of happy retirement ; but in the 
 war which arose^t of tlie French revolu- 
 tion, he commanded the Austrian army with 
 
 great credit to himself, in 1793 and 1794, 
 though overborne by numbers, and often 
 defeated in consequence. In 1795 he was 
 made field-marshal, and general-in-chief on 
 the Rhine, and closed his military career 
 by totally foiling tlie plans of the French. 
 He then resigned his command to the Arch- 
 duke Charles, became a member of the 
 Austrian council of war, and died in 1798, 
 at Vienna, where a splendid monument is 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 CLERMONT TONNERE, Antoine 
 Jules de, cardinal, and chief of the French 
 bishops, was bishop of Chalons in 1782, and 
 was an active member from his diocese to 
 the states-general. He is chiefly mentioned, 
 however, as the author of a most interesting 
 " Journal of what occurred at the Temple 
 during the Captivity of Louis XVI." Bora, 
 1749 ; died, 1839. 
 
 CLERMONT TONNERE, Stanislaus, 
 Count de, was one of the first among the 
 nobility to side with the popular party in 
 the opening scenes of the French revolution. 
 Having at length given umbrage to his party, 
 he was put to death in 1792. 
 
 CLEVELAND, John, a political writer 
 of the time of Charles I. He strenuously 
 supported the cause of that monarch, and, 
 for a time, prevented Cromwell from being 
 returned member of parliament for Cam- 
 bridge. When the civil war actually broke 
 out he joined the royal army, and was made 
 judge advocate to tlie troops which garri- 
 soned Newark. When that town was sur- 
 rendered to the parliamentarians, Cleveland 
 made his escape, but was apprehended, in 
 1655, at Norwich. After a detention of some 
 months he gained his liberty by a temjierate, 
 but very manly letter, which he addressed 
 to Cromwell, and in which he justified his 
 opposition to him, on the ground that it was 
 the result, not of any factious or personal 
 motive, but of sincere principle. Of his 
 satires several editions have been printed, 
 but they have shared the fate of most works 
 written on temporary subjects, and are now 
 known to but few. Died, 1659. 
 
 CLIFFORD, Geokge, earl of Cumber- 
 land, an eminent naval commander and 
 scholar of the time of queen Elizabeth. He 
 was present at the trial of the unfortunate 
 queen of Scotland, and in the same year 
 sailed for the coast of South America, where 
 he made himself veiy formidable to the Por- 
 tuguese. He was captain of one of the ships 
 engaged against the memorable " Armada " 
 of Spain, and subsequently commanded 
 several expeditions to the Spanish main and 
 the Western Islands ; in one of which ex- 
 peditions he had the good fortune to capture 
 a galleon, valued at 150,000/. He was a 
 great favourite with queen Elizabeth, who 
 conferred on him the insignia of the order 
 of the Garter. It seems, however, that fame 
 and court favour were the chief rewards 
 of his great talents and industry, as he is 
 said to have died poor. Born, 1558 ; died, 
 1605. 
 
 CLIFFORD, Anne, daughter of the pre- 
 ceding. She was married first to Richard, 
 lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl of Dorset, 
 and second son to Philip, earl of Pembroke. 
 She possessed considerable literary ability. 
 
and wrote memoirs of her first husband and 
 of some of her ancestors. But slie was chiefly 
 distinguished by her generosity and high 
 spirit. She built two Iiospitals, repaired 
 several churches, and erected monuments 
 to the memory of Spenser and Daniels, the 
 latter of wliom had been her tutor. She 
 displayed her spirit when Williamson, 
 secretary of state to Charles II., wished to 
 put a member into parliament for her 
 borough of Appleby. "I have been bullied 
 by a usurper," was her reply, " and I have 
 been neglected by a court ; but I will not be 
 dictated to by a subject. Your man shall 
 not stand." 
 
 CLINE, Hexry, F.R.S., an eminent 
 surgeon and lecturer on anatomy. Ife had 
 a very extensive practice as a surgeon ; and 
 as a lecturer he was lield in the liighest es- 
 timation both by his pupils and by his pro- 
 fessional brethren. Died, 1827. 
 
 CJyINTON, Geokge, an American general 
 and statesman. He first served under Gene- 
 ral Amherst against the French, and, after 
 the conquest of Canada, devoted himself to 
 the study of the law. In 1775 he was a 
 member of the congress ; and, being made 
 brigadier-general, lie succeeded, though he 
 had a very inferior force, in preventing Sir 
 Henry Clinton from aiding General Bur- 
 goyne. Born, 1739 ; died, 1812. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Hexry, an English ge- 
 neral. He succeeded Sir William Howe as 
 commander-in-chief in America ; and his 
 ill success in 1781 and 1782 was so severely 
 animadverted upon, that he thought it ne- 
 cessary to exculpate himself through the 
 medium of the press. After his return from 
 America, he was for some time governor 
 of Limerick, and had just been appointed 
 governor of Gibraltar when he died, 1795. 
 
 CLITUS, a distinguished Macedonian ge- 
 neral, who saved the life of Alexander the 
 Great at the battle of the Granicus, but who, 
 having expostulated with liis imperial master 
 when the latter was in a fit of intoxication, 
 was slain by him. 
 
 CLIVE, Robert, Lord Clive and Baron 
 Pi/ASSEV, was born in 1725, and in liis 19th 
 year went to India as a writer, but soon 
 quitted that employment for the army. 
 Being entrusted with the attack of Devi- 
 cottali, a fort of the rajah of Tanjore, he 
 performed this important duty so well, that 
 he was shortly afterwards made commissary. 
 The French having artfully obtained con- 
 siderable territory in the Carnatic, Clive 
 advised tliat an attack should be made on 
 the city of Arcot, which being entrusted to 
 him, a complete victory was obtained. This 
 unexpected victory drew off the French 
 from Trichinopoly, which they were then 
 besieging, to retake Arcot, which Clive 
 defended in such a manner that they were 
 compelled to raise the siege. This was 
 1 followed by a series of victories ; and in 
 I 1753 he embarked for England, where he 
 received a valuable present from the East 
 India Company, and was raised to the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel in the king's service. 
 After a short stay in England for the 
 benefit of his healtli, he returned to India, 
 and was shortly called upon to march to 
 Calcutta, of which the nabob Surajah Dow- 
 
 ISO 
 
 lah had taken possession. He was again 
 successful, and perceiving that there could 
 be no permanent peace obtained until 
 the nabob was dethroned, he made the ne- 
 cessary arrangements, and in the famous 
 battle of Plassey, put the nabob completely 
 to the rout, and established the power of 
 the English more firmly than it had ever 
 ! before been. As governor of Calcutta, Lord 
 i Clive performed great services, both civil 
 and military ; and when he returned to 
 j England he was raised to the first peerage 
 by the titles which stand at the head of this 
 article. He once more visited India, but 
 was called upon only for civil measures, 
 which lie took with his usual sagacity. In 
 1767 he returned to England, having done 
 more to extend the English territory and 
 consolidate the English power in India, 
 than any other commander. But the large 
 wealth lie had acquired during his long and 
 arduous services exposed him to an accu- 
 sation in tlie House of Commons of having 
 abused his power. The charge fell to the 
 ground, but it had the effect of injuring his 
 mind so deeply that he committed suicide 
 in 1774. 
 
 CLIVE, Cathari>'e, a celebrated actress, 
 was the daughter of an Irish gentleman 
 named Ruftar. At an early age she gave 
 her hand to Mr. Clive, a barrister ; but a 
 separation taking place between them, she 
 took the stage for her profession, and be- 
 came a very great favourite. In private life 
 her wit caused her to be souelit by persona 
 of the highest rank. Died, 1785. 
 
 CLOOSE, NiCHOJ-As, a bishop of Lich- 
 field in the i4th century. He was possessed 
 of considerable arcliitectural knowledge, and 
 is considered as one of the improvers of the 
 pointed style of the middle ages. 
 
 CLOOTS, JoHX Baptist de, a Prussian 
 baron, better known as Anacharsis Cloots, 
 one of the wildest and most violent actors 
 in the early scenes of the French revolution. 
 He was born at Cleves, and very early dis- 
 sipated the greater portion of his fortune. 
 In 1790, being at Paris, he presented him- 
 self at the bar of the National Assembly, 
 attended by a number of men dressed to re- 
 present various foreign nations ; and, de- 
 scribing himself as the " orator of the human 
 race," he demanded the right of confedera- 
 tion. After making himself consj)icuou8 
 by a variety of foolisli projects set forth in 
 no less foolish speeches, he was in 1792 sent 
 to the National Convention as deputy from 
 the department of the Oise. As might be 
 expected from his previous conduct, he was 
 among those who voted for tlie death of 
 the unfortunate Louis XVI. His course, 
 however, was now well nigh run, for, becom- 
 ing an object of suspicion to Robespierre, he 
 was arrested, and guillotined in 1794. 
 
 CLOSTERMAN, John, a German por- | 
 trait painter. He was employed in Spain, 
 Italy, and England ; and in this country 
 there are many of his works ; among them 
 the great picture of queen Anne, in Guild- 
 hall, London. It is said that when paint- 
 ing the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough 
 and their children, the disputes between her 
 grace and the painter we$t so frequent and 
 so obstinate, that the duke protested he had 
 
CLO] 
 
 ^ ^ebi mnibtr^Kl 33i0srajpl;w« 
 
 [cob 
 
 as much trouble in mediating between them 
 as in winning a battle. Died, 1713. 
 
 CLOUET, M., a French cliemist and me- 
 chanician. He published some valuable dis- 
 quisitions in the Journal de Chimic, and 
 some others on metallurgical subjects in the 
 Journal des Mines. He was on his voyage 
 to Cayenne, to make some experiments on 
 vegetation, wlien he died in 1801. Clouet 
 perfected the manufacture of cast steel in 
 France, and added considerably to their 
 skill in cutlery. 
 
 CLO VIS. tlie first Christian kingofF.rance. 
 From a comparatively petty tract he ex- 
 tended his rule far and wide, partly by 
 force of arms and partly by liis marriage 
 with Clotilda, dauglUer of Childeric, the de- 
 ceased king of the Burgundians. This 
 princess was a Christian, and was very de- 
 sirous tliat her husband should be converted 
 to her faith ; an event which took place, 
 though not precisely from her exertions in 
 converting him. Being in some peril of 
 losing a battle with a tril)€ of Germans, 
 Clovis invoked the God of the Christians. 
 The tide of battle changed ; Clovis was vic- 
 torious, and shortly aftei-wards he and JJOK) 
 of his subjects were baptized by St. Remi, 
 bishop of Rheims. Ilaving conquered the 
 petty independent states of Gaul, he added 
 them to his dominions, and established the 
 capital of his kingdom at Paris, where he 
 died in 511. 
 
 CLOWES, John, an Englisli divine, rec- 
 tor of the church of St. John at Manchester. 
 Embracing the doctrines of Swedenborg, he 
 published translations of a large portion of 
 his theological writings, and many works 
 in agreement with them. Born, 1743; died, 
 1831. 
 
 CLOWES, William, an eminent English 
 surgeon in the ICth and 17th centuries ; au- 
 thor of a treatise on syphilis, and of another 
 on the cure of wounds. 
 
 CLUBBE, John, an English divine ; au- 
 thor of a satirical tract, entitled " The His- 
 tory and Antiquities of Wheatfleld," in- 
 tended as a satire on conjectural etymolo- 
 gists ; " A Letter of Advice to a Young 
 Clergyman," &c. Died, 1773. 
 
 CLUBBE, William, son of the above, 
 vicar of Brandeston, in Suffolk ; translator 
 of Horace's Art of Poetry, and of six of the 
 satires of that poet, and author of three 
 lyric odes. &c. Died, 1814. 
 
 CLUTTERBUCK, Robert, an English 
 antiquary and topographer. He was a na- 
 tive of Hertfordshire, and having an in- 
 deiiendent fortune, he devoted his time to 
 scientific and literary pursuits. Having 
 collected materials for a new edition of 
 Chauncey's History of Hertfordshire, lie 
 changed his plan, and produced a new work 
 instead of re-editing the old one. His work 
 consists of three folio volumes, and is em- 
 bellished in a style seldom surpassed. Died, 
 1831. 
 
 CLUVIER, Philip, a Dutch soldier and 
 scholar ; author of " Germania Antiqua," 
 " Sicilia Antiqua," " Italia Antiqua," &c. 
 He is said to have understood and spoken 
 with fluency no fewer than uin« languages. 
 Died. 1C23. 
 
 COBB, JAME3, secretary to the East 
 
 India Company ; author of " The Siege of 
 Belgrade," " The Haunted Tower," and 
 other dramatic pieces. Died, 1818. 
 
 COBB, Samitkl, an English poet. He 
 was educated at Christ's Hospital, of which 
 admirable school he became head classical 
 master. He wrote " Remarks on Virgil," 
 a volume of "Poems," modernised Chau- 
 cer's "Miller's Tale," &c. Died, 1713. 
 
 COBBETT, William, one of the most 
 remarkable men that ever attracted public 
 attention by the force of mental superiority, 
 aided by persevering industry, was born in 
 the parish of Farnham, Surrey, in 17C2, and 
 brought up from his earliest yea^s on his 
 father's farm, in the useful and laborious 
 occupation of husbandry ; so that, in after 
 life, he was enabled, with honest exultation, 
 to declare, " I do not remember the time 
 when I did not earn my own living." In this 
 humble and happy state he continued till 
 1783 ; but having, during the previous year, 
 when on a visit to his uncle who lived in the 
 neighbourhood of Portsmouth, "seen the 
 grand fleet lying at Spithead," his heart be- 
 came inflated with national pride, and he 
 suddenly resolved to share the i)crils and 
 cam the boasted glories of an English sea- 
 man's life. He accordingly applied, first to 
 Captain Berkeley, of the Pegasus, man-of- 
 war, and afterwards to the port admiral, 
 Evans, to get himself enrolled ; but he was 
 refused, and thus " happily escaped," as he 
 himself writes, " from the most toilsome and 
 perilous profession in the world." — "I re- 
 turned," says he, " to the plough, but I was 
 spoiled for a farmer. I had, before my Ports- 
 mouth adventure, never known any other 
 ambition than that of surpassing my brothers 
 in the difterent labours of the field ; but it 
 was quite otherwise now ; I sighed for a 
 sight of the world," &c. Graphic and in- 
 teresting as Cobbett's account of his early 
 adventures is, our limits warn us to indulge 
 but sparingly in the descriptive throughout 
 his " strange eventful history." An accident 
 — the mere sight of the stage-coach on its 
 journey to London while he was going to : 
 Guildford fair — led him suddenly to quit [ 
 his home and rustic pursuits, in order to seek i 
 his fortune in a wider sphere. His first em- ! 
 ployment, unfitted as he was for it by nature i 
 and habit, was that of an " under-strapping ' 
 quill-driver" in Gray's Inn, the miseries of i 
 which he eloquently and wittily depicts, and j 
 thus apostrophises : " Gracious" heaven I if I 
 am doomed to be wretched, bury me beneath 
 Iceland snows, and let me feed on blubber ; ! 
 stretch me under the burning line, and deny | 
 me thy propitious dews ; nay, if it be thy 
 will, suffocate me with the infected and j 
 pestilential air of a democratic club-room ; I 
 but save me from the desk of an attorney I " 
 After nine months' toilsome drudgery in I 
 Gray's Inn, his desire for a different mode of 
 life induced him to enlist as a soldier, and 
 he was sent to the depot at Chatham, where 
 he remained about a year, attending closely 
 to his duty, but applying every leisure 
 moment to the improvement of his mind, 
 and particularly to a knowledge of grammar, 
 with which he was before totally unac- 
 quainted. The regiment at length sailed for i 
 Nova Scotia, and was then ordered to St. 
 
cob] 
 
 ^ i?cfit) ^nihex^aX SSiflgrapTjt). 
 
 [cob 
 
 John's, New Brunswick, where he soon at- 
 tracted tlie notice of his superiors by his in- 
 dustry, regularity, and habitual temperance; 
 and was rewarded by being appointed ser- 
 jeant-major of the regiment. To early 
 rising, and the grand secret of husbanding his 
 time, Cobbett attributes not only his rapid 
 promotion in the army, but much of his 
 future fame. After seven years' service, the 
 regiment returned to England ; and Serjeant- 
 major Cobbett solicited and received his dis- 
 charge. Having by his unparalleled assiduity 
 while he was in the army gained an insight 
 into many branches of knowledge, and being 
 determined on gaining more, he went to 
 France, in order, chiefly, to perfect himself 
 in tlie language ; but seeing that a war with 
 England was inevitable, he embarked for 
 America, where, under the sobriquet of Peter 
 Porcupine, he quickly began to exercise his 
 talents by the publication of his " Observa- 
 tions " and other political pamphlets, all 
 calculated to uphold the dignity of his native 
 country, and oppose the prevalence of French 
 principles. But he found it necessary to 
 quit America ; and, on his return to this 
 country, he commenced a daily paper called 
 the Porcupine,in which at first he strenuously 
 supported the government. But whether it 
 ■was that he became disgusted with the com- 
 promising character of the Addington ad- 
 ministration, or felt indignant at the cold 
 hauteur of Mr. Pitt, who refused to meet 
 him ; or whether some new light had dawned 
 on him, which made him the advocate of the 
 " rights of the jieople," certain it is that his 
 publication, now styled " The Weekly Re- 
 gister," contained various articles which 
 were severely denominated lil)els, and he was 
 arrested, fined, and imprisoned. From this 
 period a gradual change may be discovered 
 in the tone of Cobbett's political disquisitions, 
 and ere long he was looked upon as the 
 mighty leader of the radical reformers. In 
 1809 he again attracted the notice of Sir 
 Vicary Gibbs, at that time his majesty's 
 attorney-general. The libel related to the 
 flogging of some men in the local militia, at 
 Ely, in Cambridgeshire; he was found guilty, 
 sentenced to two years' imprisonment in 
 Newgate, to pay a fine of 1000?. to the king, 
 and at the expiration of the two years to give 
 security for his good behaviour for seven 
 years, himself in 300?., and two securities in 
 100/. each. This severe sentence Cobt)ett 
 never forgot or forgave ; and, in truth, it 
 would require no ordinary share of Christian 
 forbearance to do either. No sooner was he 
 liberated than he showed his enemies that his 
 active mind had received a fresh stimulus ; 
 he reduced his " Register " to 2c?., whereby its 
 sale was immensely increased, and he sought 
 for every possible means of annoying those 
 who had persecuted him. At length the 
 arbitrary " Six Acts " were passed ; and as 
 he firmly believed they were passed for the 
 express purpose of silencing him (particularly 
 the Power of Imprisonment Act), he in- 
 stantly took his departure for America, and 
 settled in Long Island ; from which spot his 
 future " Registers " were dated, till his return 
 to England, in 1819, after that act was re- 
 pealed. Strange and paradoxical as it may 
 appear, and not less so than discreditable, 
 
 Cobbett announced, on his arrival at I^iver- 
 poof, that he had brought with him the bones 
 of the celebrated republican, Tom Paine — 
 the man whom above all others he had for- 
 merly decried as a regicide and an infidel ! 
 yet to the remains of that man he pretended 
 to pay homage, and called upon his coun- 
 trymen to honour them by a magnificent 
 public funeral, and the erection of a splendid 
 monument 1 In 1820 Mr. Cobbett was induced 
 to become a candidate for the representation 
 of Coventry, but met with a signal defeat ; 
 and in 1826 he made a similar unsuccessful 
 attempt at Preston, against Messrs. Stanley 
 and Wood. In 1821) and the two following 
 years, the events in Europe gave a more 
 impassioned tone to his writings than they 
 had for some time exhibited. He had the 
 revolutions abroad — the reform bill at home 
 — and tlie fearful spirit of incendiarism 
 through the agricultural districts, to write 
 about all at once. Nor did the greatness of 
 the several themes exhaust his powers ; his 
 spirit hurried on ; and each subject, as the 
 other was dismissed, came like a fresh sup- 
 ply of oil to brighten and perpetuate the 
 flame. He wrote about the regeneration of 
 France, and here was a stimulus to indig- 
 nation J he passed to talk of borough- 
 mongers and corruption, and here the sti- 
 mulus increased ; but when he leaped from 
 the rotten boroughs into the green fields — 
 peered over burning barns and coni-ricks, 
 and sought the cause of the incendiarism in 
 the distress and despair of the class of men 
 from wliom he, William Cobbett, had 
 sprung, the stimulus waxed stronger than } 
 mere indignation ; and, in giving it expres- 
 sion, he nearly swelled it into sedition 
 against a government, which he had always 
 regarded with an avenging hate. In con- 
 sequence of an article of this description 
 which had appeared in the "Weekly Po- 
 litical Register" on the 11th of December, 
 1830, he was, on the 7th of July following, 
 tried before Lord Tenterden and a special 
 jury for the publication of "a libel, with 
 intent to raise discontent in the minds of 
 the labourers in husbandry, and to incite 
 them to acts of violence, and to destroy corn 
 stacks, machinery, and other property." 
 Sir Thomas Denman, then attorney-general, 
 was the leading counsel for the crown ; 
 while Mr. Cobbett conducted his defence 
 in person ; and a more lucid, vigorous, or 
 powerful answer to charges brought by a 
 public prosecution has rarely, if ever, been 
 delivered. The jury deliberated from six 
 o'clock at night till nine the next morning, 
 and then, stating to the judge that there 
 were six of them of one opinion, and six of 
 another, solicited the court to grant their 
 discharge, and they were discharged accord- 
 ingly. Thus ended this memorable trial. 
 From that hour till the day of his death he 
 never ceased to hold up those to scorn and 
 ridicule who had made this last desperate, 
 but impotent, effort to crush and overwhelm 
 him. From the time of his trial, in 1831, up 
 to the passing of the reform bill, in ia32, 
 Cobbett's time was almost equally divided 
 between tlie three several occupations of 
 writing, travelling, and lecturing ; and as hia 
 fame was evidently again on the increase, he 
 
cob] 
 
 S IJclM ^m'ljcr^al 3Ui0grap]^«. 
 
 [coc 
 
 looked forward to a seat in parliament at 
 the approaching elections. When the proper 
 period arrived (Dec. 1832) he was put in 
 nomination both for Manchester and Old- 
 ham ; and though defeated at the former 
 place, he gained his election at the latter by 
 an immense majority. In 1833 William 
 Cobbett was a British senator — tlie long- 
 Bought object of liis ambition ; and, though 
 far advanced in years, and engaged as ar- 
 dently as ever in his accustomed active pur- 
 suits, he devoted himself to his new duties 
 witli all the energy by which his whole life 
 had been characterised. But it was an ele- 
 ment unsuited to liis habits ; late hours and 
 confinement in a heated atmosphere were 
 never intended for him who " usually went 
 to bed at nine o'clock and rose at four." 
 During a debate on the malt tax, on the 2.')th 
 of May, he was suddenly attacked with a 
 disease of the throat, from which he never 
 recovered, and on the 17th of June, 1833, he 
 expired. As an author, independent of his 
 long-continued political pamphlets and peri- 
 odical works before referred to, he was ex- 
 ceedingly industrious ; and in those which, 
 relate to rural life he was decidedly the most 
 useful writer of the age, as his " Cottage Eco- 
 nomy," "Advice to Young Men," "Rural 
 Rides," &c. abundantly prove. lie also 
 wrote Grammars of the English and French 
 languages, both of which had a most exten- 
 sive circulation ; also, " A Year's Residence 
 in America," 20 volumes of "Parliamentary 
 Debates," &c. ; but his last work, " The His- 
 tory of the Reformation," is so distorted by 
 party views, and so evidently written to 
 serve the cause of popery, that it is difficult 
 to say whether the impartial reader is more 
 likely to be disgusted with its want of can- 
 dour as a book of history, or amused with 
 the time-serving tirades on the popular topics 
 of the day with which it is so copiously in- 
 terlarded. Altogether it is a failure, and 
 does the fame of Cobbett more discredit than 
 all the coarse invectives and political tergi- 
 versations that f^re to be met with in his 
 voluminous writings. 
 
 [Having so much exceeded our usual 
 limits in the preceding sketch of the life of 
 William Cobbett, we plead, as our excuse, 
 the valuable example it affords (to youth 
 especially) of what may be effected by early 
 rising, habitual temi>erance, and unrelaxing 
 industry. We have no fear that we shall be 
 charged with eulogising his public conduct, 
 or of exhibiting his political life as worthy 
 of imitation. On all occasions he appears 
 to have followed the dictates of a proud, 
 indomitable will ; while he indulged in the 
 most offensive personalities against those 
 who differed from him, and supported his 
 dogmas with a coarseness of language, and 
 a disregard for the feelings of others, alike 
 disgraceful and disgusting. What his cha- 
 racter might have been under other circum- 
 stances, or how the powerful energies of his 
 mind might have been directed, had not the 
 all-engulphing vortex of party borne him 
 away, it is useless to speculate on : we are 
 bound to regard liim as one whose " birth, 
 station, employment, ignorance, temper, cha- 
 racter in early life, were all against him; but 
 who emerged from, and overcame them all."] 
 
 193 
 
 COBENTZEL, Chari.es, Count de, an 
 eminent statesman. Ue was a native of 
 Laybach, and at an early age commenced 
 his public career. During the troubles in 
 the reign of the empress Maria Theresa, his 
 services gave so much satisfaction, that in 
 1753 he was placed at tlie head of affairs in 
 the Austrian Netherlands. In this important 
 situation he showed great resi)ect for lite- 
 rature and the arts, and several useful re- 
 formations were carried into effect by him. 
 Among his other services was that of found- 
 ing the Academy of Sciences at Brussels. 
 Died, 1770. 
 
 COBENTZEL, Loris, Count de, son of 
 the above, and, like him, a diplomatist. At 
 the early age of 27, he was entrusted with a 
 mission to Catharine II. of Russia, and his 
 gallantry and compliance with her taste for 
 theatricals made him a great favourite with 
 her. From 1795 he was concerned in many 
 of the important negotiations between Aus- 
 tria and other powers, until the treaty of 
 Luncville, in 1801. That treaty restoring 
 peace between Austria and France, he was 
 shortly afterwards made minister of state 
 for foreign affairs at Vienna. In 1805 he 
 was dismissed from tliis ofiice, and he died in 
 1809. 
 
 COBENTZEI,, John Philip, Count de, 
 a cousin of the last named, and also a di- 
 plomatist. Being sent to Brabant to treat 
 with the Netherlanders, who resisted some 
 edicts of the emperor which they considered 
 oppressive, they refused to receive him, and 
 the edicts were in consequence revoked. 
 This failure prevented him from being em- 
 ployed again during the following ten years ; 
 but at length, in 1801, he was sent ambassa- 
 dor to Paris. Died, 1810. 
 
 COBURO, Fredekic Josias, duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg, an Austrian field marshal, 
 was born in 1737. In 1789 he commanded 
 the imperial army on the Danube, and, in 
 connection with the Russian general, Su- 
 warroff, defeated the Turks, and conquered 
 Bucharest. In 1793 he defeated the Prench 
 at Neerwinden, expelled them from the 
 Netherlands, and invaded France, taking 
 Valenciennes, Cambray, and other places ; 
 but when the English army, under the 
 Duke of York, separated from him, he sus- 
 tained several defeats, retreated across the 
 Rhine, and resigned Ids command. Died, 
 1815. 
 
 COCCEIUS, JoHX, a Dutch scholar of the 
 17th century, professor of theology at Ley den. 
 He taught that the Old Testament was 
 merely a type of the New ; and the book of 
 Revelation being a principal object of his 
 attention, he warmly asserted the doctrine 
 of the Millenium. His followers formed a 
 rather numerous sect, called Cocceians. 
 Besides ten folio volumes of writings on di- 
 vinity, wliich he published during his life, 
 he left a work, not printed till many years 
 after his death, entitled "Opera, .\necdotica 
 Theologica et Philologica." Born, 1603; 
 died, 1CG9. 
 
 COCCEIUS, Hexry, an eminent Dutch 
 civilian ; author of " Prodromus Justitise 
 Gentium, " " Theses," &c. He was raised 
 to the dignity of a baron of the empire in 
 1713, and died in 1719. 
 
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 ^ ^eia ^nibtx^BX SSiojjrajpl^M. 
 
 [COF 
 
 COCCEIUS, Samuel, son of the last named, 
 and successor to his title. He became grand 
 chancellor of Prussia under Frederick tlie 
 Great, and was a chief author of the Frede- 
 rickian code. He also publislied a valuable 
 edition of Grotius, "De Jure Belli et Pacis." 
 Died, 175.5. 
 
 COCHIN, Charles Nicholas, an eminent 
 French engraver and writer, of the 18th cen- 
 tury ; author of " Travels in Italj', " " Let- 
 ters on the Pictures of Herculaneum," 
 " Dissertation on the Eflfect of Light and 
 Shade," &c. His plates are numerous and 
 well executed. 
 
 COCHLyEUS, Johx, an able hut bitter 
 opponent of Luther, Calvin, and other re- 
 formers, but more especially of the first 
 named, whom he censured with great as- 
 perity in his work, "De Actis et Scriptis 
 Lutheri." He published, besides this work, 
 a very curious " History of the Hussites," 
 and he maintained a fierce controversy 
 with Dr. Morrison, an English clergyman, 
 on the subject of the marriage of Henry VIII. 
 and Anne Boleyn. Died, 1552. 
 
 COCHRAN, WiLLiAJf, a Scotch artist of 
 considerable talent and reputation. After 
 studying at Rome, he settled at Glasgow, 
 where his abilities were so well appreciated, 
 that he realised a respectable fortune. Of 
 his historical pieces, "Endymion" and 
 "Daedalus" are held in high estimation. 
 Born, 1738 ; died, 1785. 
 
 COCHRANE, Archibald, earl of Dun- 
 donald, born, 1749. He became a cornet of 
 dragoons, but exchanged from the army to 
 the navj% and had risen to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant when he succeeded to the earldom. 
 He now devoted himself entirely to scientific 
 pursuits, with the intent of making improve- 
 ments in tlie commerce and manufactures 
 of the kingdom. Among the numerous 
 works published by him in the prosecution 
 of this patriotic intention, were " The Prin- 
 ciples of Chemistry applied to the Improve- 
 ment of Agriculture," " An Account of tlie 
 Qualities and Uses of Coal Tar and Coal 
 Varnish," &c. lie made many useful disco- 
 veries, for some of which he obtained patents; 
 but unfortunately, though he did good ser- 
 vice to his country, he was so far from enrich- 
 ing himself, that "he was at one time actually 
 obliged to receive aid from the Literary 
 Fund. Died, 1831. 
 
 COCHRANE, JoHjr Dundas, nephew of 
 the above, an Englisli naval ofiicer. On re- 
 tiring from the naval service, he travelled 
 on foot through France, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal ; and then through the Russian empire 
 to Kamschatka. Of tliis latter journey he 
 published an account in two volumes, which 
 contain much curious information. He was 
 about to travel on foot across South Ame- 
 rica, when he died at Valentia, in Colombia, 
 in 1825. 
 
 COCKBURN, Catharixe, an English 
 authoress. Though almost self-educated, 
 she began to publish at the early age of 17, 
 her first production being a tragedy, entitled 
 " Agnes de Castro." In two years more she 
 produced another tragedy, entitled " Fatal 
 Friendship," which was received with much 
 approbation at the theatre in Lincoln's Inn 
 Fields. Besides these, and a tragedy, enti- 
 
 tled " The Revolution of Sweden," she pub- 
 lished some poems, a " History of the Works 
 of the Learned," "Vindications of the 
 Philosophy of Locke," and several meta- 
 physical treatises. Born, 1G79 ; died, 1749. 
 
 COCKER, Edward, an English penman 
 and arithmetician ; whose fame as a com- 
 putist was formerly held in such .repute, that 
 " according to Cocker " is still used as an 
 arithmetical proverb. Died, 1G77. 
 
 COCLES, Publius Horatius, a valiant 
 Roman. He was a descendant of the Ho- 
 ratii, and proved himself worthy of liis line. 
 When Porsenna, king of the Etruscans, had 
 pursued the Romans to the wooden bridge 
 over the Tiber, Codes and two companions 
 boldly withstood the enemy until the Ro- 
 mans had crossed the bridge. His two com- 
 panions then retired, but Codes remained 
 until the bridge was broken down behind 
 him, and then plunged into the river, and 
 swam to tlie city. 
 
 CODRINGTON, Christopher, a native 
 of Barbadoes, was educated at All Souls 
 College, Oxford ; to which he bequeathed 
 the sum of 10,000?. for the erection of a 
 library, leaving his West Indian estates 
 to the Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel. As an author, this munificent gen- 
 tleman is only known by some verse? ad- 
 dressed to Garth, on the publication of his 
 " Dispensary," and by some Latin poems 
 in the "Musaj Anglicanaj." Born, 1G68 ; 
 died, 1710. 
 
 CODRUS, the 17th and lasfking of Athens. 
 Disguised as a common person, he rushed 
 into the midst of the army of the Heraclidte, 
 and was slain ; a sacrifice he was led to make 
 by the oracle having pronounced that the 
 leader of the conquering party must fall. 
 At his death, the Athenians deeming no one 
 worthy to be the successor of their patriotic 
 monarch, established a republic. 
 
 COELLO, Aloxzo Sanchez, an eminent 
 painter, a native of Portugal, whose works 
 obtained for him the appellation of the Por- 
 tuguese Titian. Born, 1515 ; died, 1710. 
 
 COEN, John Peterson, governor of the 
 Dutch settlements in the East Indies, and 
 founder of the city of Batavia. He went to 
 India as a merchant, and in 1617 succeeded 
 to the governorship of Bantam, when in 
 1619 he removed to the new factory he had 
 founded. After passing a short time in 
 Europe, he, in 1027, returned to Batavia, 
 and bravely defended that place against the 
 emperor of Java. So many men perished 
 in tliis memorable contest, that their bodies 
 produced a pestilence, of which Coen died, 
 in 1629. 
 
 COEUR, James, a French merchant of 
 the 15th century. His trade surpassed that 
 of any other individual in Europe ; and he 
 is said to have had 300 agents in the Medi- 
 terranean. He lent Charles VII. an immense 
 sum, to enable him to conquer Normandy, 
 which was never repaid ; for being falsely 
 accused of peculation, and of poisoning the 
 king's mistress, he was so disgusted, that, on 
 getting his release, he went into voluntary 
 exile. Died, 1456. 
 
 COFFEY, Charles, a poet and dramatist ; 
 author of " The Devil to Pay," &c., and editor 
 of an edition of the works of Drayton. He 
 
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 [col 
 
 was deformed in person, and perfonned the 
 part of ^sop for his own benetit. Died, 
 1745. 
 
 COGAN, Thomas, an English physician, 
 born in Somersetshire, and educated at Oriel 
 College, Oxford. In 1574 he was chosen 
 master of the school at Maucliester, where 
 he also practised in his proi»er profession. 
 He wrote the " Haven of Ilealth, " A Preser- 
 vative from the Pestilence," and an " Epitome 
 of Cicero's Epistles." Died, li)07. 
 
 COGAN, Thomas, a physician, bom at 
 Kib worth, Leicesterslure, in 1730 ; who, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Hawes, founded the 
 Humane Society. He translated tlie works 
 of Camper, and was the author of" A Philo- 
 sophical Treatise on the Passions," " Theolo- 
 gical Disquisitions," &c. Died in 1818. 
 
 COGGESHALLE, Ralph, an English 
 Cistercian monk of the 13th century. He 
 was at Jerusalem wlien that city was besieged 
 by Saladin ; and wrote a " Chronicle of the 
 Iloly Land," which was printed in a collec- 
 tion published at Paris in 1725. 
 
 COHAUSEN, JoHX Henuy, a German 
 physician. He wrote a curious work, in- 
 structing his readers how to live to 115 years 
 of age ; It was translated into English by Dr. 
 Campbell, under the title of " Hermippus 
 Redivivus, or the Sage's Triumph over Old 
 Age and the Grave." Died in his 85th year, 
 in 1750. 
 
 COHORN, Mknito, Baron, a celebrated 
 Dutch engineer, who, after distinguishing 
 himself as a military officer on many im- 
 portant sieges and battles, fbrtitied Namur, 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, and other towns. He was 
 the author of a " Treatise on Fortification." 
 Died, 1704. 
 
 COKAYNE, Sir Astox, a poet and dra- 
 matist of the 17th century. He was educated 
 at Cambridge ; and, after having made the 
 grand tour, tixed his residence at a family 
 estate in Warwicksliire. Espousing the cause 
 of Charles I., he was despoiled of his proper- 
 ty by the triumphant parliamentarians, to 
 whom he was doubly obnoxious as a royalist 
 and a papist. A collection of his plays and 
 poems was printed in 1658, but it is now not 
 often to be met with. Died, 1C34. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, a celebrated English 
 judge and law writer, born at Mileham, 
 Norfolk, in 1549. He pleaded his first cause 
 in 1578 ; and having married a sister of the 
 minister Burleigh, he possessed considerable 
 political influence. In 1592 he had obtained 
 a high reputation, and was appointed so- 
 licitor-general ; and in 1600, being then at- 
 torney-general, he prosecuted the Earl of 
 Essex ; and tlie asperity with which he con- 
 ducted himself to that nobleman amounted 
 to very little less than brutality. In 1603 
 he was knighted ; and we find him pro- 
 secuting Sir Walter Raleigh, and behaving 
 to him as unfeelingly as he had formerly 
 behaved to Essex. In 1606 he was made 
 chief justice of the common pleas; and in 
 1613 he was sworn of the privy council, 
 and removed to the court of king's bench. 
 His activity in the case of Sir Thomas Over- 
 bury's murder made him many enemies ; 
 and his opposition to the king and chancellor 
 Egerton caused him to be removed from office 
 in 1616. Having vainly endeavoured to get 
 
 into favour with the court, he in 1621 joined 
 the popular party, and was committed, 
 though only for a short time, to the Tower. 
 In 1628 he represented the county of Buck- 
 ingham in parliament, and distinguished 
 himself by his zeal against the Duke of 
 Buckingham. In mere legal knowledge he 
 has never perhaps been equalled ; but for 
 the nobler qualities of his mind we may seek 
 in vain. His "Commentary on Littleton" 
 and his " Reports " are invaluable. Died, 
 16;i4. 
 
 COLBERT, Jony Baptist, marquis of 
 Seguelai, a celebrated French statesman, to 
 whose talents, activity, and enlarged views, 
 France owes much of its financial and com- 
 mercial prosperity, was descended from a 
 Scottish family, but bom at Rheims, in 1619, 
 where his father was a wine merchant. In 
 1648 he l)ecame clerk to the secretary of 
 state, Le T«llier, whose daughter he married ; 
 and his conduct in this situation recom- 
 mended him to the king as intendant of 
 finances. Subsequently he became superin- 
 tendant of buildings, secretary of state, and 
 minister of the marine ; and in every capacity 
 he acted so as to merit the love of his coun- 
 trymen, and obtain the approbation of his 
 king. To literature and the arts he con- 
 stantly gave encouragement ; he instituted 
 the Academy of Sciences, and that of sculp- 
 ture and painting ; and it was at his recom- 
 mendation that the Royal Observatory was 
 erected. To him, too, Paris owed the erection 
 of many elegant bulldinjts ; and, if a less 
 brilliant minister than some of his prede- 
 cessors, he certainly conferred more sub- 
 stantial benefits upon his country than most 
 of them. Died, 16H3. 
 
 COLBERT, JoHX Baptist, marquis of 
 Torcy, son of the preceding. He filled, suc- 
 cessively, the offices of secretary of state for 
 the foreign department and director-general 
 of the posts ; and wrote " Memoirs of the 
 Negotiations from the Treaty of Ryswick to 
 the Peace of Utrecht." Born, 1665 ; died, 
 1746. 
 
 COLCHESTER, Charles Abbot Lord, 
 was bom at Abingdon, Berks, in 1757 ; and 
 having received the rudiments of his edu- 
 cation at Westminster School, was entered 
 of Christchurch, Oxford, in 1775. While 
 there he was greatly distinguished for his 
 attainments ; and a Latin poem on the czar 
 Peter gained him not only the prize, but also 
 a valuable gold medal Irom the empress of 
 Russia. After spending some time abroad, 
 he was called to the bar, and practised with 
 every prospect of becoming a popular advo- 
 cate. His forensic pursuits, however, were 
 but of short continuance, for on entering par- 
 liament for Helston he was speedily noticed 
 for his talent and business-like habits, and 
 on the formation of the Addington ministry 
 he was appointed secretary for Ireland, and 
 keeper of the privy seal. He now com- 
 menced some useful reforms in Ireland, but 
 before he could complete them he was elected 
 speaker of the House of Commons. In this 
 situation he <lisplayed not only the talent 
 but the tact and address necessary for the 
 duties of his office ; and so far was he from 
 being bigoted to his party, that on the divi- 
 sion concerning Lord Melville, the numbers 
 
 195 
 
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 ^ 0tisi Winibtx^nl ISiograpl^g. 
 
 [col 
 
 for and against that nobleman being equal, 
 he gave the casting vote against him. In 
 1817 an attack of erysipelas obliged him to 
 resign the office of speaker ; on which occa- 
 sion he was called to the upper house by the 
 title of Baron Colchester, with a pension of 
 4000/. per annum. Much of the remainder 
 of his life was passed abroad and in Scot- 
 land ; and he died in May, 1829, lea\ing two 
 sons. He was chiefly remarkable for his 
 knowledge of the forms of the House, though 
 he was also a fluent and elegant speaker 
 
 COLDEN, Cadwalladek, a Scotch phy- 
 sician and writer. He emigrated to America, 
 and having become a very large and prospe- 
 rous landowner in New York, he was in 
 1761 made lieutenant-governor of that pro- 
 vince. In this office he displayed great 
 talent ; but he is chiefly spoken of here on 
 account of his " History of the Five Nations," 
 which is a valuable work. Linnagus, to 
 whom he sent many American plants, gave 
 the name of Coldenia to a new genus. Died, 
 1776. 
 
 COLE, Hexry, dean of St. Paul's, and 
 judge of the arches' court. In the reign of 
 Henry VIII. he held numerous valuable 
 appointments, all of which he resigned on 
 the accession of Edward VI. The reign of 
 Mary restored his prosperity ; and it was 
 he who preached the sermon when the ve- 
 nerable Cranmer was sacrificed. On the ac- 
 cession of Elizabeth, this fact was doubtless 
 remembered to his prejudice ; for he was 
 not only stripped of all his preferments, but 
 kept in prison till Ms death, in 1519. He 
 was the author of some controversial tracts 
 and sermons ; and a disputation between him 
 and Cranmer and Ridley is also in print. 
 
 COLE, Thomas, a dissenting minister ; 
 author of " A Discourse on Regeneration, 
 Faith, and Repentance," &c. Died, 1607. 
 
 COLE, William, an English herbalist. 
 He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, 
 and became secretary to Dr. Duppa, bishop 
 of Winchester. His works are, " The Art of 
 Simpling," and " Adam in Eden, or Nature's 
 Paradise." Died, 1662. 
 
 COLEBROOKE, Henry Thomas, F.R.S., 
 an eminent Orientalist, and director of the 
 Royal Asiatic Society, was the third son of 
 Sir George Colebrooke, hart., a director of 
 the East India Company. He was born 
 in 1765, and in 1782 was appointed to a 
 writership in India. Being sent as one of a 
 deputation to investigate the resources of a 
 part of the coimtry, it led to his publishing 
 " Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce 
 of Bengal ; " in which treatise he advocated 
 a free trade between Great Britain and her 
 eastern possessions. Soon after this he began 
 the study of the Sanscrit language, in which 
 he subsequently became so eminent. The 
 translation of the great "Digest of Hindti 
 Law," which had been compiled under the 
 direction of Sir W.Jones, but left unfinished 
 at his death, was confided to Mr. Colebrooke; 
 and while engaged in this work, he was ap- 
 pointed to a judicial situation at Mirzapore, 
 where he completed it in 1796. His other 
 works consist of a" Dictionary of the Sanscrit 
 Language," the " Algebra of the Hindoos," 
 and various treatises on their laws, pliilo- 
 Bophy, and arithmetic ; besides numerous 
 
 communications to the society of which he 
 was director. He died in March, 1837. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, eminent 
 as a poet, essayist, and moral philosopher, 
 was born at Bristol in 1770, where he re- 
 ceived the rudiments of his education. He 
 was afterwards sent to Christ's Hospital, 
 London, at which establishment he made 
 great progress in the classics ; and he com- 
 pleted his studies at Jesus College, Cam- 
 bridge, where, in 1792, he obtained the gold 
 medal for the best Greek ode. It appears 
 that he was first inspired with a taste for 
 poetry by the perusal of Lisle Bowles's Son- 
 nets ; and his intimacy with such men as 
 Southey and Wordsworth (which commenced 
 eaily in life) was likely to produce a con- 
 geniality of feelings and lead to similar re- 
 sults. But, great as Coleridge was as a poet, 
 he was equally great as a writer on morals, 
 philosophy, and politics ; and as a public 
 lecturer he was almost without a rival; 
 while such were his powers as an argument- 
 ative debater, that he riveted the attention 
 of his audience by the charm of his elo- 
 quence, and astounded them by the depth of 
 his reasoning. The chief of Mr. Coleridge's 
 works are, " Sibylline Leaves," a collection 
 of poems ; " Biographia Literaria," or bio- 
 graphical sketches of his life and opinions ; 
 " Aids to Reflection, in the Formation of a 
 manly Character," &c. ; and " The Friend," 
 a series of essays, 3 vols. ; besides a variety 
 of minor poems, many of which are replete 
 with beautiful imagery and sublime feeling ; 
 and numerous treatises and essays connected 
 with public events in the moral and political 
 world, some of which were published in a se- 
 parate form, but the major part appeared in 
 the public journals. Died, at Highgate, 1834. 
 His " Specimens of Table Talk," and some 
 of his other productions, were published after 
 his death by his nephew Henry Nelson Cole- 
 ridge, who distinguished himself by various 
 valuable contributions to Knight's Quar- 
 terly Magazine and other works, and who 
 died a victim to rheumatism, 1843. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Haktlky, one of the most 
 original and pleasing writers of the day, son 
 of the above was born in 1797. He was the 
 author of many minor poems of great merit, 
 of " Biographies of Northern Worthies," and 
 an extensive contributor to Blackwood's 
 Magazine. Died, Jan. 6. 1849. 
 
 COLET, Dr. John, dean of St. Paul's, and 
 founder of St. Paul's School, was born in 
 Loudon, in 1436. He was an excellent 
 scholar, and took great pains to encourage 
 learning in others, of which his endowment 
 of the noble institution above mentioned 
 leaves ample testimony. Died, 1519. 
 
 COLIGNI,Gapard de, admiral of France. 
 On the death of Henry II., he became chief 
 of the Calvinist party, and the most efficient 
 of its leaders against the Guises. When 
 peace was temporarily established in 1571, 
 he appeared at court, and was received with 
 every appearance of cordiality. But at the 
 horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 
 1.572, he was among the victims of party 
 rage ; and the infamous Catharine de Medici 
 ordered hi* head to be sent to the pope. 
 
 COLIGNI. Odet, brother of the above, 
 archbishop of Toulouse. He was deposed 
 
 196 
 
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 ^ |!etD ^nibcrjSal 3StOjaTap^L». 
 
 [col 
 
 for having embraced the Protestant faith, 
 and retired to England, where he was poi- 
 soned by a servant, in 1571. 
 
 COLIGNI, Henrietta, countess de la 
 Suse ; an ingenious French poetess, whose 
 odes and songs are printed with the poems 
 ofPelisson. Died, 1673. 
 
 COLLADO, DiKOO, a Spanish Dominican, 
 Buperintendant of the convents of the Phi- 
 lippines ; autiior of a Japanese dictionary, 
 and a treatise on the Japanese grammar. 
 While lie was on his voyage to Europe, tlie 
 vessel was wrecked, and lie perished in 1C38. 
 
 COLLANGE, Gabriel de, a French 
 writer ; author of " Polygraphy, or Uni- 
 versal Cabalistical Writing." This book, 
 which he published under the name of J. M. 
 Trithemius, subjected the autlior to the 
 charge of magic. At the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew in 1572, he was mistaken for 
 a Protestant, and murdered — as one of his 
 biographers naively savs — "by mistake." 
 
 COLLATINUS, L. Takqui.mi's, a nephew 
 of Taniuin Superbus, and husband of liU- 
 cretia. He aided Brutus in expelling the 
 Tarquins, but soon after went into volun- 
 tary exile. 
 
 COLLEGE, STEruEN, a mechanic of the 
 time of Charles II. He was a very zealous 
 supporter of Protestantism, whence he ob- 
 tained the sobriquet of the '• Protestant 
 joiner ; " and probably it was on this ac- 
 count that some villanous informers charged 
 him with being concerned in a plot against 
 tiie king. He defended himself with spirit 
 and ability, but was condemned and ex- 
 ecuted in 1(J81. 
 
 COLLEONE, Bartuolomew, an Italian 
 soldier of fortune, born at Bergamo, in 
 1400. He served at first under De Mon- 
 tone, and then in the army of Queen Joan 
 of Naples. Passing into the service of Ve- 
 nice, he totally destroyed the army of 
 Nicholas Piccinino ; but being ill rewarded, 
 he left the Venetians, and took his troops 
 to the aid of Philip Visconti. He next 
 served with Francis Sforza, and gained the 
 battle of Frascati over the French. The Ve- 
 netians now made him their generalissimo, 
 and when he died, in 1475, the senate erected 
 a statue to his memory. 
 
 COLLET, Philiuert, a French advo- 
 cate ; author of treatises " On Usury," " On 
 Alms," " On Tithes," and on " Excommuni- 
 cation ; " besides some works on botany. 
 Died, 1718. 
 
 COLLIER, Jeremiah, an English non- 
 juring divine and learned writer, was bom 
 In ItioO. He received his education at Cam- 
 bridge, and was presented with the rectory 
 of Amptoii, in Suffolk ; which he resigned 
 on being chosen lecturer at Gray's Inn, 
 At the revolution he refused to take the 
 oaths, and was imprisoned in Newgate for 
 writing in favour of James II. He attended 
 Sir John Friend and Sir William Perkins 
 when they were executed for the " assas- 
 sination plot." Two nonjuring clergymen 
 who accompanied him on this occasion 
 were taken up, but Collier escaped, and lay 
 hidden until the affair had blown over, when 
 he again made his appearance, and published 
 "Essays on Miscellaneous Subjects." Tliis 
 work, in three volimies, obtained him con- 
 
 siderable reputation ; and his next publica- 
 tion was a spirited attack upon the licen- 
 tiousness of the stage. He was, as a matter 
 of course, replied to by many of the dramatic 
 writers of the time ; but he had truth on his 
 side, and his works had good effect. He next 
 translated . and continued Moreri's Dic- 
 tionary ; and his reputation had now so 
 much increased, that queen Anne's govern- 
 ment offered him valuable church prefer- 
 ment, which, with a rare consistency, he 
 steadily declined. His remaining works 
 were, an "Ecclesiastical History," brought 
 down to the death of Charles II., some ser- 
 mons, pamphlets, and a translation of Mar- 
 cus Antoninus. He was consecrated a bishop 
 by Dr. George Hickes, who was himself 
 consecrated suffragan of Tlietford by three 
 deprived bishops ; and of course Collier's 
 consecration was as illegal and void as theirs. 
 Died, 172«!. 
 
 COLLIN D'HARVILLE, John Fran- 
 cis, a French advocate, dramatist, and poet ; 
 author of "The Inconstant," "Le Vieux 
 Celebataire," and various other dramas. 
 Bom, 1750 ; died, 180«;. 
 
 COLLIN, Henkv de, a German poet ; 
 author of six tragedies, some fragments of an 
 epic poem, entitled " The Kudolphiad," and 
 a number of spirit-stirring war songs. Born, 
 1772; died, 1811. 
 
 COLLIN, Henry Joskpii, a German phy- 
 sician and medical writer ; author of a very 
 valuable work on acute and chronic diseases. 
 He has the merit of having added some 
 powerful vegetable remedies to the Materia 
 Medica. Died, 1784. 
 
 COLLINGS, John, D.D., a nonconformist 
 divine ; author of " The Weaver's Pocket 
 Book, or Weaving Spiritualised," and other 
 works of a similar class. At the restoration 
 he was one of the Presbyterian divines at 
 the famous Savoy conference. Died, KjyO. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbekt, Lord, a 
 celebrated English admiral, was born at 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1748. He entered 
 the navy when only 13 years of age, and his 
 services were long, arduous, and valuable. 
 In the action of June 1. 1794, he was flag- 
 captain to Admiral Bowyer on board the 
 Prince ; and at tlie battle of Cape St. Vin- 
 cent, in 1797, he commanded the Excellent. 
 Having attained the rank of vice-admiral of 
 the blue, and being second in command at 
 the battle of Trafalgar, where the hero of 
 England's navy fell, the command of the 
 fleet devolved upon Admiral Collingwood, 
 whose gallant conduct at the onset had 
 called forth an exclamation of delight from 
 Nelson, and to whose admirable skill and 
 judgment, after the battle, the preservation 
 of the captured vessels was chiefly attribu- 
 table. For this and his other important 
 services he was promoted to the rank of 
 vice-admiral of the red, and elevated to the 
 peerage. He was brave, indefatigable, just, 
 and kind ; strictly preserving discipline, 
 while he gained the love of his compatriots, 
 and merited all that a grateful country could 
 bestow on liim. His letters, published since 
 his death, which took place while cruising 
 off Minorca, in 1810, show him to have pos- 
 sessed considerable literary ability. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, Francis Edwari), a 
 
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 ^ ^rbj Hntticr^al SStograjplbs. 
 
 [col 
 
 captain in the English navy, was a mid- 
 shipman on board the Victory, at the battle 
 of Trafalgar ; and to liim is ascribed the 
 honour of being the avenger of Nelson's 
 death, having shot the Frenchman in the 
 maintop of the Redoubtable, who was seen 
 to take deliberate aim at the English hero 
 the moment before he fell. Died, 18;}.5. 
 
 COLLINS, Anthony, a deistical contro- 
 versialist, was bom at Ileston, Middlesex, 
 in 1676, and completed his education at 
 Cambridge. Among his works are " A Dis- 
 course on Free Thinking," " A Discourse 
 on the Grounds and Reasons of the Cliristiau 
 Religion," "Priestcraft in Perfection," &c. 
 Though he was intimate with Locke and 
 other great men, and spent his life in literary 
 pursuits, his writings exhibit him as an in- 
 sidious and determined foe to Cliristianity. 
 Bom, 1676 : died, 1729. 
 
 COLLINS, Akthur, a celebrated English 
 genealogist ; author of an English " Peer- 
 age " and " Baronetage ; " lives of " Cecil, 
 Lord Burleigh" and "Edward the Black 
 Prince," &c. He waa rescued from poverty 
 by a pension of 4001. per annum, granted to 
 him by George II. Born, 1682 ; died, 1760. 
 
 COLLINS, David, grandson of the above, 
 a distinguished military officer, and gover- 
 nor of Van Dicmen's Land ; author of " A 
 History of Botany Bay," which is written 
 in a very unpretending style, and abounds 
 with interesting information. Died, 1810. 
 
 COLLINS, Fkancis, doctor of the Am- 
 brosian college at Milan ; author of a trea- 
 tise, " De AnimabuB Paganorum," &c. 
 Died, 1640. 
 
 COLLINS, John, an able English mathe- 
 matician and accountant. He was for some 
 time in the naval service of Venice against 
 the Turks ; but at the restoration he was 
 appointed to the office of accountant to tiie 
 excise office, the court of chancery, &c. 
 He, however, found time to contribute largely 
 to the Transactions of the Royal Society ; 
 corresponded with Barrow, Newton, and 
 other eminent mathematicians ; and wrote 
 various mathematical works. Born, 1624 ; 
 
 died, leas. 
 
 COLLINS, William, a highly gifted but 
 ill-fated English poet ; autlior of odes, 
 eclogues, &c. He was born, in 1720, at 
 Chicliester, and received his education at 
 Wincliester and Oxford. In 1744, he settled 
 himself in London, but suffered from poverty 
 even beyond the common lot of poets. The 
 death of his uncle. Colonel Martin, who be- 
 queathed liim a legacy of 200^, raised him 
 from this abject condition ; but his health 
 and spirits were broken, and after lingering 
 for some time in a state of mental imbecility, 
 he died in 1756. His odes, which when pub- 
 lished were utterly disregarded, are unques- 
 tionably among the first productions of 
 British poesy ; and the fate of their author 
 is an indelible disgrace to the pretended 
 patrons of genius, and the age in which he 
 lived. 
 
 COLLINS, William, an artist of distin- 
 guished merit, was born in London, 1787. 
 He inherited an enthusfastic admiration for 
 the beauties of nature from both liis parents. 
 His father, who was one of the first picture 
 dealers of his time, was a man of considerable 
 
 198 
 
 literary attainments; and his friendship with 
 Morland the painter early led to his son's 
 initiation into the mysteries of the pencil. 
 In 1807 lie became a student of the Royal 
 Academy, and having prosecuted his studies 
 witli great zeal and success, he was chosen 
 an associate in 1814, and elected an acade- 
 mician in 1820. From this period he con- 
 tinued to produce without interruption those 
 coast and cottage scenes which gained for 
 him his early reputation, and marked him 
 out as one of the most thorough English 
 artists, in the best and truest sense, of his 
 time. With a view of studying the works of 
 the great masters and of observing nature in 
 new forms, lie visited Italy in 1836, and 
 liaving for two years occupied himself un- 
 remittingly in advancing his knowledge of 
 painting, he returned to England provided 
 with a new class of subjects, and prepared 
 for a new field of action in his art. Down 
 to the year 1846 he contributed regularly to 
 every exhibition, displaying the versatility of 
 his powers by most elaborate productions 
 illusitrative of history, and by frequent re- 
 vivals of those more domestic subjects by 
 which he had won his early fame. True to 
 his " first love," his last production, " Early 
 Morning," was an English sea-piece. Mr. 
 Collins was imbued with earnest but unaf- 
 fected piety ; and his death, though not un- 
 expected, caused deep regret to a large circle 
 of attached friends and admirers. Died, 1847. 
 
 COLLINSON, Peter, an English bota- 
 nist, to whom we are indebted for the in- 
 troduction of many ornamental shrubs and 
 plants in our gardens, was born in 1604. 
 He was intimate with Franklin and Lin- 
 naeus, the latter of whom gave the name 
 Collinsonia to a genus of plants. Died, 
 1768. 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS, Jean Marie, a 
 French actor of little repute, but a lieartless 
 savage, and unprincipled republican. On 
 the breaking out of the revolution he be- 
 came a conspicuous agitator, and was the 
 first who voted for the abolition of royalty. 
 When Robespierre was falling he joined in 
 impeaching him, though he so far resembled 
 him in cruelty, that his treatment of the 
 royalist Lyonese obtained him the sobri- 
 quet of the Tiijcr. He wrote some dramatic 
 pieces, and the almanack of Father Gerard. 
 Being transported to Cayenne, he died there, 
 in 179(5. 
 
 COLLUTHUS, an Alexandrian lieresi- 
 arch of the 4th century. He assumed the 
 episcopal office without authority, and was 
 condemned by a council at Alexandria, in 
 324. 
 
 COLLYER, Joseph, senior associate en- 
 graver of the Royal Academy, was born of 
 parents who were conspicuous in the lite- 
 rary world by their translations from Ges- 
 ner and Boder, when the German language 
 was but little known in England. One of 
 those productions, the Death of Abel, by 
 Mrs. Collyer, was received with peculiar 
 marks of public favour. The late artist 
 showed superior talent in the stippled style 
 of engraving ; his portraits in that line stand 
 unrivalled. Died, 1827. I 
 
 COLMAN, George, a dramatic writer I 
 and accomplished scholar of the 18th cen- i 
 
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 tury. He was born at Florence, in 1733, 
 where his father at that time resided as tlie 
 British envoy, and his mother was sister to 
 the Countess of Bath. Having received his 
 education at Westminster School and at 
 Christchurch, Oxford, he turned his atten- 
 tion to the law as a profession ; but his 
 writings in The Connoisseur having 
 met with success, gave him a bias towards 
 polite literature, and he accordingly aban- 
 doned the graver pursuits of legal science. 
 His first dramatic attempt was "Polly 
 Honeycombe," which was performed at 
 Drury Lane with great, though only tem- 
 porary, success. In the following year, 1761, 
 he produced his comedy of the "Jealous 
 Wife," which at once became popular, and 
 has ever since kept tlie stage. " The Clan- 
 destine Marriage," " The English Mer- 
 chant," &c., added to liis fame ; and he 
 wrote a number of other pieces, which, though 
 inferior to these, were by no means deficient 
 in merit. Lord Bath and General Pulteney, 
 at their deaths, left him considerable legacies, 
 I which enal)led him to purclmse a share in 
 I Covent Garden Theatre. Disputes arising 
 I between liimself and the other proprietors, 
 I he very soon disposed of this property, and 
 ! purchased the little theatre in the Hay- 
 I market, which he conducted until an attack 
 ! of paralysis reduced him to a state of mental 
 j imbecility. In addition to his writings, men- 
 tioned above, he translated the comedies of 
 Terence and Horace, Dc Arte Poetica, Died, 
 1794. 
 
 COLMAN, Georoe, "the younger," an 
 eminent dramatist and wit, son of George 
 Colman, was born in 1762, and received his 
 education at Westminster School, Christ- 
 church College, Oxford, and at King's Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen. On his return from college, 
 he was entered a student of Lincoln's Inn. 
 Circumstances, however, as well as incli- 
 nation, led him to abandon the profession 
 of the law, and betake himself to that for 
 which he was so well qualified. In 1784 
 his first acknowledged pla^', called " Two to 
 One," was brouglit forward, and introduced 
 to the public by a prologue from the pen of 
 his father, who announced it as the produc- 
 tion of "a chip of the old block." The 
 success of this exceeded his most sanguine 
 expectations, and naturally strengthened his 
 bias in favour of dramatic composition. In 
 1787 his celebrated opera of "Inkle and 
 Yarico " appeared, and at once stamped his 
 fame. Shortly after this, the elder Colman 
 was attacked with paralysis, which termi- 
 nating in mental imbecility, his son presided 
 over the destinies of the Haymarket Theatre, 
 and subsequently became its proprietor, ca- 
 tering for the public amusement most felici- 
 tously. The prolific pen of " George Colman 
 the younger" seemed never idle; and yet, 
 perhaps, there was scarcely a man in London 
 who spent more hours in convivial pleasures, 
 or whose brilliant flashes of wit so often 
 "set the table in a roar." His principal 
 works, chronologically arranged, were " The 
 Mountaineers," "The Iron Chest," "The 
 Heir at Law," "Blue Beard," "The Re- 
 view, or Wags of Windsor," "The Poor 
 Gentleman," "Love laughs at Locksmiths," 
 " John Bull," " Who wants a Guinea ? " 
 
 "We fly by Night," "The Africans," and 
 " X.Y.Z." These, with numerous preludes 
 and interludes, prologues and epilogues, may 
 be said to embrace his dramatic works : his 
 other compositions, entitled " Itandom Re- 
 cords," " My Nightgown and Sli|)pers," 
 " Broad Grins," " Poetical Vagaries," 
 " Vagaries Vindicated, or Hypocritic Hyper- 
 critics," complete the list. George IV. ap- 
 ix)inted him to the situation of licenser and 
 examiner of plays, an office for which he 
 was admirably qualified. Died, 1836. 
 
 COLOCCI, Angklo, an Italian bishop ; 
 author of some very elegant Latin poems. 
 After the fashion of his time, he assumed a 
 Latin name ; that of Angelus Colotius Bas- 
 sus. Died, 1.549. 
 
 COLOCOTRONIS, Thkod., one of the 
 regenerators of modern Greece, was born 
 in Messenia, 1770 ; distinguished himself in 
 numerous engjigements with the Turkish 
 oppressors of his country, and contributed, 
 by his heroic conduct during tlie insurrection, 
 to the final triumpli of the Greek cause in 
 1828. After the death of Capo d'Istria, he 
 became a member of the provisional govern- 
 ment ; but having conspired against the 
 regency established till the majority of king 
 Otho in 1834, he was condemned to death, 
 and owed liis escape to the clemency of the 
 king. Died, 1843. 
 
 COLOGNE, Pktek de, a Protestant divine 
 of the 10th century. He was a native of 
 Ghent, but settled first at Mentz, and finally 
 at Heidelberg. He wrote on the eucharist, 
 and in defence of the Protestant doctrines. 
 
 COLOM A, Don Carlos, marquis of Espina, 
 a distinguished Spanish officer of the 16th 
 century, and at one time ambassador to Eng- 
 land. He wrote " The Wars of the Nether- 
 lands," and translated Tacitus. 
 
 COLOMBIERE, Claude ue la, a French 
 Jesuit. He instituted a new rite, a service 
 to be performed to the heart of Jesus, which 
 he is said to have stolen from Goodwin, chap- 
 lain to Oliver Cromwell. Six volumes of his 
 sermons were published. Died, 1682. 
 
 COLOMIES, otherwise COLOMESIUS, 
 Paul, a French scholar and critic. He was 
 librarian to the archbishop of Canterbury, 
 but lost that office on the deprivation of 
 Sancroft. He wrote " Icon Theologorum 
 Presbyterianorum," "Bibliothfeque Choisie," 
 &c. Died, 1692. 
 
 COLONNA, Francis, an ingenious philo- 
 sopher ! author of tlie " Natural History of 
 the Uiviverse." He was burnt to death in his 
 house, at Paris, in 1726. 
 
 COLONNA, Pkospero, son of Anthony, 
 prince of Salerno, was a distinguished mili- 
 tary officer. He assisted Charles VIII. of 
 France to conquer Naples, but subsequently 
 aided in retaking it for the house of Arragon. 
 Died, 1523. 
 
 COLONNA, PoMPEO, nephew of the above, 
 a restless and intriguing Roman cardinal, 
 who at length became viceroy of Naples. A 
 poem of his is extant, entitled " De Laudibus 
 Muliebrum." Died, 1532. 
 
 COLONNA, Vjttoria, marchioness of 
 Pescara, a celebrated Italian poetess, whose 
 works are alike remarkable for the l)eauty 
 of tiieir thoughts and the elegance of their 
 diction. Born, 1490 ; died, 1547. 
 
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 fcOL 
 
 COLOTHES, or COLOTES, a Grecian 
 sculptor, contemporary with Pliidias, whom 
 he is said to liave assisted in the statue of 
 Jupiter Olympius. Several of his works are 
 spoken of in very high terms, especially an 
 ivory figure of ^Esculapius. 
 
 COLQUHOUN, Patrick, LL.D., a cele- 
 brated writer on statistics and criminal ju- 
 risprudence, lie was a native of Dumbarton, 
 in Scotland, born in 1745, and early in life 
 went to America. On his return from that 
 country he settled at Glasgow as a merchant, 
 and became lord provost of the city, and 
 president of its chamber of commerce. Sub- 
 sequently he removed to London, and in 1792 
 he was made a police magistrate, in wliich 
 situation lie was distinguished by great 
 ability and untiring assiduity. He published 
 several valuable works, including a " Treatise 
 on the Police of the Metropolis," a tract on 
 the " Education of the Labouring Classes," 
 "A Treatise on the Population, Wealth, 
 Power, and Resources of the British Empire," 
 &c. Died, 1820, aged 75. 
 
 COLSTON, EuwARD, an English mer- 
 chant, memorable for his munificence and 
 philanthropy. During his lifetime he ex- 
 pended upwards of 7(),000i. in aiding various 
 public charities, and he is supposed to have 
 privately given away an equal amount. Not- 
 withstanding his public and private benevo- 
 lence, however, he left 100,000/. among his 
 relatives and dependants. In addition to his 
 other good works, he founded and endowed 
 St. Augustine's School, Bristol, for the edu- 
 cation of 100 boys, besides almshouses in other 
 places. His statue, executed by Rysbach, 
 stands in the church of All Saints, Bristol. 
 Bom, 1636 ; died, 1721. 
 
 COLTON, Caleb C, a writer of consider- 
 able talent, but of eccentric and discreditable 
 habits, wos educated at Eton and King's 
 College, Cambridge, where he graduated and 
 obtained a fellowship. He first attracted 
 notice by the publication of a pamphlet, 
 entitled " A plain and authentic Narrative 
 of the Sampford Ghost," in which he at- 
 tempted to prove that certain occurrences 
 which took place in a house at Sampford 
 Peverell, near Tiverton, originated in super- 
 natural agency. He also wrote a satirical 
 poem, entitled "Hypocrisy," and another 
 on " Napoleon ; " but he obtained most of 
 his fame from " Lacon, or Many Things in 
 Few Words," which he published in 1820. 
 Though a beneficed clergyman, holding the 
 vicarage of Kew with Petersham, in Surrey, 
 he was a well-known frequenter of the 
 gaming-table ; and suddenly disappearing 
 from his usual haunts in the metropolis about 
 the time of Weare's murder, it was strongly 
 suspected that he had fallen by the hand of 
 an assassin. It was, however, afterwards 
 ascertained that he had absconded, to avoid 
 his creditors ; and, in 1828, a successor was 
 appointed to his living. He then went to 
 reside in America ; but subsequently lived in 
 Paris, a professed gamester ; and it is said 
 that he gained by this vicious course of life, 
 in two years only, the sum of 25,000?. He 
 blew out his brains while on a visit to a 
 friend at Fontaiubleau, in 1832. We almost 
 shudder while we copy from his own " Lacon" 
 the following apophthegm : — " The game- 
 
 ster, if he die a martyr to his profession, is 
 doubly ruined. He adds his soul to every 
 other loss, and, by the act of suicide, re- 
 nounces earth, to forfeit heaven ! " 
 
 COLUMBA, St., a native of Ireland, who 
 went to Scotland, and founded the famous 
 monastery of Icolmkill. Died, 597. 
 
 COLUMBUS, CiiRiSTOPHEU, the most ce- 
 lebrated navigator, and in many respects one 
 of the greatest men recorded in history, was 
 born at Genoa in 1437, and is supposed to 
 have been of humble descent. He soon 
 evinced a strong passion for geographical 
 knowledge, together with an irresistible in- 
 clination for the sea. After many years spent 
 in the active duties of a maritime life, with 
 his mind bent on the acquisition of geogra- 
 phical and nautical science, he went to Lis- 
 bon, where an elder brother of his was settled; 
 married the orphan daughter of Palestrello, 
 an Italian navigator ; and studied all the 
 maps and charts he could procure, making 
 occasional voyages ; in which alternation of 
 theoretical and practical improvement he 
 spent several years. IIi« own reflections, 
 corroborated by facts of which he was in- 
 formed by various seamen, led him at length 
 to feel convinced that there were unknown 
 lands separated from Europe by the Atlantic. 
 After vainly seeking aid from Genoa, Por- 
 tugal, and England, he at length induced 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to equip 
 and man three vessels for a voyage of dis- 
 covery ; it being stipulated that Columbus 
 should have a 10th of all profits, and be vice- 
 roy of the land he expected to discover. He 
 set sail from Palos, on his daring adventure, 
 en the 2nd of August, 1492 ; and, after sailing 
 for two months, was in imminent danger of 
 losing the reward of all his study and toil, 
 tJie variation of the needle having so much 
 alarmed his crews, that they were on the 
 point of breaking into open mutiny, and he 
 was obliged to promise that if three days pro- 
 duced no discovery he would commence his 
 homeward voyage. On the third day they 
 happily hove in sight of one of the Bahamas, 
 and subsequently explored some other of the 
 West India Islands. Having thus far suc- 
 ceeded, he built a 'fort at Hispaniola, left 
 some of his men there, and then set out on 
 his return to Europe, where he was received 
 with ever J' mark of admiration and regard. 
 The gold and other valuables which he pre- 
 sented to the king and queen in token of his 
 success, excited the spirit of adventure in 
 both the sovereigns and their subjects, and 
 in his 2nd voyage he had no difficulty in 
 obtaining followers. It was not until his 
 3rd voyage, made in 1498, that he saw the 
 mainland of America, which both Americus 
 Vespucius and SebastianCabot reached before 
 him ; and though there has been much dis- 
 pute as to the actual priority, the honour of 
 giving a name to the new world remains with 
 Americus Vespucius. Having assumed the 
 command of the settlement at Hispaniola, 
 various complaints were made against him 
 by his bitterest enemies, and Columbus was 
 not merely displaced, but Bobadilla, a new 
 governor, who had been dispatched thither 
 by the court of Spain, even sent him to that 
 country manacled as a prisoner, Columbus 
 endured tliis outrage with noble equanimity; 
 
 200 
 
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 ^ ^tlD Bnibtvitd 3Si0tjTajpTu»« 
 
 [com 
 
 I and on his return, having obtained an audi- 
 j eiu;e of his sovereigns, was partially restored 
 I to 1113 dignities ; but he found that full justice 
 I was never intended to be awarded him. 
 Yet, notwithstanding this unworthy treat- 
 ment, he made another voyage, in which lie 
 encountered every imaginable disaster from 
 storms and shipwreck ; and, two years after 
 his return, his noble mind sunk under the 
 load of injustice and oppression. lie died 
 at Valladolid, in 1506, in the 70th year of 
 his age. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Bartholomew, Don, bro- 
 ther of the above, famous for his skill in con- 
 structing sea charts. Died, 1501. 
 
 COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius Modera- 
 TUS, a native of Gades in Spain. He resided 
 at Rome in the reign of the emperor Clau- 
 dius ; and, besides other works, wrote a trea- 
 tise on agriculture. 
 
 COLUTHUS, a Greek poet of the 5th cen- 
 tury. Suidas mentions the " Calydonics " 
 and the " Persies " of this writer ; but all 
 that has reached us from his pen is "The 
 Rape of Helen." 
 
 COMBE, Dr. Andrew, one of the most 
 eminent medical practitioners and writers of 
 our time, was born at Edinburgh, 1797. After 
 going through the customary curriculum of 
 the High School, with the addition of two 
 sessions at the college, he was apprenticed 
 in 1812 to a general medical practitioner. 
 Up to this period he had given little indica- 
 tion of any peculiar talents ; but the arrival 
 of Dr. Spurzheim in Edinburgh, in 1815, 
 opened a new era in his life. Attracted and 
 interested by the lectures of the great apostle 
 of phrenology, he sought his acquaintance, 
 and having in 1817 obtained his diplonja 
 from the College of Surgeons, he proceeded 
 to Paris to prosecute his studies in the hos- 
 pitals of that capital, under the advice of Dr. 
 Spurzheim. Here he remained for two years; 
 and after a short tour in Switzerland and 
 Italy he returned to Edinburgh in 1819, 
 eagerly intent upon the practice of his pro- 
 fession. But in this he was disappointed. 
 Soon after he reached home he was seized 
 with symptoms of pulmonary consumption ; 
 and from this time, 1820, to the day of his 
 death, he was, though with many intervals 
 of comparative health, a confirmed invalid. 
 But as if the element of bodily suftering, 
 which usually impairs the powers and the 
 usefulness of other men, had been necessary 
 to the full development of his, it is to the 
 exertions of these years of pain and anxiety 
 that we owe the remarkable works which 
 have placed Dr. Conil)e so high in the rank 
 of the men whose noble privilege it has been 
 to push visibly onwards the great wheel of 
 human progress, by conferring on man the 
 means of improving his mental and physical 
 condition upon earth. For not alone did he 
 learn in suffering how suffering could best be 
 soothed and ameliorated ; the sympathy it 
 awakened in his heart led him to trace the 
 poisoned stream to its source, and hence 
 resulted those admirable expositions of the 
 causes of the more ordinary forms of diseased 
 action, and also those clear and practical 
 lessons of prevention, which have advanced 
 hygiene almost to the rank of a positive 
 Kience. Immediately upon his seizure he 
 
 determined to go to the south of France, but 
 had not got farther than London when he 
 found himself too unwell to travel, and re- 
 turned home; there he temporarily recovered, 
 helped to found the Phrenological Society, 
 and in the ensuing August set off again to 
 the Mediterranean, on whose shores ho spent 
 two years. At the end of the second year 
 he felt so strong, fliat he determined to begin 
 practice in Edinburgh, where his high stand- 
 ing among his professional brethren, and 
 general character for good sense, talent, and 
 strict conscientiousness, did not leave him 
 long unemployed. During the next few 
 years he attained great repute from his able 
 papers in reply to the opponents of phre- 
 nology, and also rose high in his profes- 
 sion. In 1825 he took the degreee of M.D., 
 and two years later was elected president of 
 the Phrenological Society. During these 
 and several following years, he contributed 
 many interesting papers to the Phrenolo- 
 gical Journal, and published a work on 
 mental derangement ; and in the course of 
 an extensive practice addressed those in- 
 valuable letters to his patients, which, 
 combining so happily the earnest and bene- 
 volent friend with the able physician and 
 philosopher, must have strengthened his in- 
 fluence as well as greatly added to his use- 
 fulness. In 1831 his health again gave way, 
 and he was obliged to pass the winter in Italy, 
 and for some years altogether to abandon 
 the practice of his profession. Indeed, he 
 was never able fully to resume it; for though, 
 by a strict application of his principles to 
 his own state, and an unflinching adherence 
 to the rules he laid down, he seems to have 
 prolonged his life, and enjoyed many inter- 
 vals of comparative health — and of useful- 
 ness (perha[>8 of a higher kind than lies 
 within the scope of mere practice) — he was 
 unfit for hard work, and must soon have sunk 
 under exposure, exertion, or unfavourable 
 circumstances of any sort. In 1830 he had the 
 gratification of being appointed physician to 
 the king of the Belgians, but the moist atmo- 
 sphere of Belgium was probably injurious to 
 his delicate frame, for after a short trial he 
 was obliged to resign the resident appoint- 
 ment, from finding his strength inadequate 
 to the due performance of his duties, and he 
 only returned occasionally to examine, and 
 inspect, and to advise the royal family in 
 hygienic matters. Between the years 1834-39, 
 he published the three great works for which 
 he had been so long and so carefully collect- 
 ing and arranging the materials, " The Prin- 
 ciples of Physiology applied to the Preserva- 
 tion of Health and to Education," " The 
 Physiology of Digestion," and " The Moral 
 and Physical Management of Infancy." In 
 1838 he was appointed one of the physicians 
 extraordinary to the queen in Scotland. 
 By making occasional seasonable journeys 
 to Belgium, Germany, and elsewhere, his 
 health was so far preserved, that for months 
 at a time he was able to act as a consulting 
 physician in Edinburgh, where his well- 
 merited high reputation brought abundance 
 of patients about him. In the autumn of 
 1844 his health at last gave way so threaten- 
 ingly, as to oblige him to give up all work, 
 and to try the climate of Madeira. There 
 
 201 
 
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 he passed two successive winters in tolerable 
 comfort, returning to spend the summer 
 months among those he loved. After this 
 he only left home once again, and that was 
 to make a voj'age to America (which seemed 
 to have been injurious to him), in the sum- 
 mer immediately preceding his death. Sur- 
 rounded by attaclied friends, and tended 
 with faithful and most loving care, his life 
 of usefulness was peacefully closed in the 
 autumn of 1847. 
 
 COMBE, Charles, an eminent classical 
 scholar and a physician, born in 1743. His 
 father wiw an apotliecary in Bloomsbury, 
 and the son was brouglit up to the same pro- 
 fession, but determining to practise in the 
 higher branches of medicine, he obtained a 
 Scotch degree, and became physician to the 
 London Lying-in Hospital. In conjunction 
 with Dr. Parr and Mr. Homer, he produced 
 an edition of Horace, in 2 vols. 4to., and lie 
 was well versed in the science of numis- 
 matics. Died, 1817. 
 
 COMBER, Dr. Thomas, dean of Carlisle. 
 On the breaking out of the civil war he was 
 deprived of his preferments and thrown into 
 prison ; but helived to witness the restoration 
 of Charles II. Died, 1063. 
 
 COMBER, Dr. Thomas, dean of Durham ; 
 author of " A Companion to the Temple," 
 " A Companion to the Altar," " An Account 
 of the Roman Forgeries in the Councils dur- 
 ing the first Four Centuries," &c. Died, 1690. 
 
 COMBER, Thomas, LL.D., grandson of 
 the last named. He was the author of " An 
 Examination of Middleton on the Miraculous 
 Powers," " Tlie Heathen Rejection of Chris- 
 tianity in the first Ages considered," &c. 
 Died, 1778. 
 
 COMENIUS, JoHX Amos, a Moravian mi- 
 nister. He for some time officiated as pastor 
 to a congregation at Fulnec, but was driven 
 thence by the invasion of the Spaniards, and 
 settled in Poland, wliere he published a work, 
 entitled "Janua Linguarum," which ob- 
 tained him so great a celebrity that he was 
 invited to England ; but the breaking out of 
 the civil war rendered his stay both brief 
 and unprofitable, and he settled for the re- 
 mainder of his life at Amsterdam. Born, 
 1592 ; died, 1(571. 
 
 COilES, Natalis, the Latinised name of 
 Natai, Conti, an Italian writer ; author of 
 poems in Greek and Latin, &c., and of a 
 system of mythology. Died, 1590. 
 
 COMMANDINE, Feederic, an Italian 
 mathematician ; the autlior of some original 
 ■works, and translator of Archimedes, Apol- 
 lonius, and other ancient mathematicians. 
 Died, 1575. 
 
 COMMELIN, Jerome, a learned French 
 printer. He established his press first at 
 Geneva, and subsequently at Heidelberg ; 
 and published several of the Greek and 
 Latin fathers, with notes from his own pen. 
 Died, 1598. 
 
 COMMENDOUE. Joh.v Francis, cardi- 
 nal. He was a native of Venice, and at 10 
 years of age was so far advanced in learning 
 as to write Latin verses. Pope Julius III. 
 made him his chamberlain, and entrusted 
 him with several important missions. He 
 was made a bishop by Paul IV., and a car- 
 dinal by Pius IV. Died, 1584. 
 
 202 
 
 COMMERSON, Philibekt, a French 
 physician and botanist. In the latter cha- 
 racter he evinced great zeal and industrj^, 
 and his collection was immense. He wrote 
 " Icthyology," two quarto volumes ; and 
 the " Martyrology of Botany," an account 
 of those who had lost their lives in botanical 
 pursuits. Born, 1721 ; died, 1773. 
 
 COMMINES or COMINES, Philip te, 
 lord of Argenton ; an eminent historian, 
 statesman, and courtier of the reign of 
 Louis XL, born in Flanders, in 1445. His 
 "Memoirs of his own Times " abound with 
 valuable facts and observations, though he 
 is too lenient when speaking of the atrocities 
 of Louis XL On the dea*.h of that monarch, 
 Commines was thrown into prison and 
 treated with great severity, but was at length 
 liberated. Died, 1509. 
 
 COMMIRE, John, a French Jesuit, dis- 
 tinguished for his Latin poetry. Among 
 his works are fables, which some have con- 
 sidered equal to Phaedrus. Died, 1702. 
 
 COMISIODI, Andrea, an Italian historical 
 painter. His best work is a picture painted 
 for Paul v., of tlie angels falling from 
 heaven. Died, 1638. 
 
 COMMODUS, Lucius Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, a Roman emperor, son and successor 
 of Antoninus the philosopher. lie was guilty 
 of the worst crimes, and was poisoned by 
 liis concubine, Marcia, wlio had discovered 
 that he intended to put her to death, a. d. 
 122. 
 
 COSINENUS Demetrius Stephanopoli 
 CoNSTANTi.NE, the supposed descendant of 
 the celebrated family of the Comueni, which 
 for ages sat upon tlie throne of the eastern 
 empire, was born in 1749, in the island of 
 Corsica. Having been driven from their 
 possessions in the East by the Turks, they 
 at length emigrated in the 17th century, 
 and, with a colony of Greeks, settled in 
 Corsica, wliere their leader inherited the 
 title and dignity of capitano, until Corsica 
 became united to France. After studying 
 at Rome, with the intention of becoming an 
 ecclesiastic, Demetrius entered into the ser- 
 vice of France, and obtained a captaincy in 
 a regiment of dragoons in 1778. At the 
 beginning of the revolution, he fought under 
 the banners of Condo, and went into exile 
 with other royalists ; but he returned to 
 France in 1802, and lived on a pension of 
 4000 francs, assigned to him by Napoleon. 
 Louis XVIII. confirmed this stipend, and 
 made him mareclial de camp, and knight of 
 St. Louis. He died in 1821. 
 
 COMPTE, Louis le, a French Jesuit and 
 mathematician. He was for some time a 
 missionary in China, and on his return to 
 Europe published memoirs of tliat country. 
 Died, 1729. 
 
 COMPTOX, Spencer, earl of North- 
 ampton, one of the bravest and most zealous 
 adherents of Charles I. Being overpowered 
 at the battle of Hopton Heath, lie was offered 
 quarter, but indignantly refused it, and was 
 slain. March 19. 1643. 
 
 COMPTON, Henry, son of the above. At 
 the Restoration he obtained a cornetcy of 
 dragoons. He soon, however, quitted the 
 army for the church ; and, after various 
 preferments, was, in 1675, promoted to the 
 
con] 
 
 ^ j^eltj ^nihnSaX Maqva^\)ij* 
 
 [con 
 
 bishopric of London. He opposed the spirit 
 of popery during the reign of James II., 
 and was one of the most zealous friends of 
 the Prince of Orange. Wlxen Archbishop 
 Bancroft refused to crown William and 
 Mary, Compton performed that ceremony. 
 Besides many sermons and letters, he wrote 
 a treatise on the Communion, and translated 
 from the Italian the life of Douna Olympia 
 Maldachini. Died, 1713. 
 
 CONANT^ JoHX, an English divine. He 
 was originally a Nonconformist, but con- 
 formed in l(i70, and became arclideacon of 
 Norwich and a prebendary of Worcester. 
 Six volumes of sermons are all that he is 
 known to have contributed to literature. 
 Died, 1(593. 
 
 CONCA, Sebastiajt, an eminent Italian 
 painter. Died, 1761. 
 
 CONCANEN, Matthew, a political 
 writer of some talent. I lis devotion to the 
 ministry procured him the appointment of 
 attorney-general of Jamaica, in which office 
 he acquired a good fortune, lie published, 
 besides his political writings, some poetry, 
 and by no means deserved that place in tlic 
 Dunciad wliich Pope was induced, in mere 
 party spite, to give him. Died, 1749. 
 
 CONCINA, Danikl, a Dominican monk 
 of Venice. He was very celebrated as a 
 preacher, and so complete a master of canon 
 law, that he was frequently consulted by 
 pope Benedict XIV. Besides numerous 
 other works, he wrote a " System of Theo- 
 logy," in 12 volumes. Died, 175<). 
 
 CONCINO CONCINI (more celebrated 
 and better known by his title of Marshal 
 d'Ancre) was by birth a Flbrentine, and 
 accompanied Mary do Medici, the wife of 
 Henry IV., to France. lie obtained great 
 preferment, and after the death of Henry 
 IV. 80 much abused the influence he had 
 over the queen regent, that wlien her son, 
 Louis VIII., became old enough to act for 
 himself, he consented to the assassination of 
 the marquis, which accordingly took place 
 in 1617 ; and in the same year his wife was 
 burned to death as a sorceress. The judges 
 who tried her on this absurd charge, de- 
 manded of her by what arts she had gained 
 her ascendancy over the queen ; when she 
 made tlie memorable reply, " My only sor- 
 cery has been the influence of a strong mind 
 over a weak one." 
 
 CONDE, Louis, first Prince of. He was 
 the son of Charles of Bourbon, duke of 
 Vendome, and greatly distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of St. Quintin, though he 
 was then very young. At the death of 
 Henry II. he became a leader of the Hugue- 
 nots, and was killed at tlie battle of Jarnac, 
 in 1.569. His memoirs were published after 
 his death. 
 
 CONDE, IlEjfKY, Prince of, who at the 
 request of Henry IV. became a Catholic, 
 was bom in 1.588. In 1616 he was sent to 
 the Bastile, where he remained for three 
 years. After the death of Louis XIII., the 
 prince was lil)erated, and was made minister 
 of state to the regent. Died, 1646. 
 
 CONDE, Louis, Prince of, duke of En- 
 ghiei), the illustrious son of the preceding, 
 and usually called Die Great, was born at 
 Paris in 1621. When he was a mere boy. 
 
 203 
 
 his conversation evinced so much talent, 
 that Cardinal Richelieu predicted that he 
 would become " the first general in Europe 
 and the first man of liis time." When only 
 22 years of age, he gained the victory of 
 Rocroi over the Spaniards ; and followed up 
 that achievement by the capture of Thion- 
 ville and other important places. Subse- 
 quently he distinguished himself in various 
 actions in Germany, whence he was recalled 
 and sent to Catalonia, but was repulsed 
 before I^rida. In 1641 he defeated the Im- 
 perialists iu Flanders, on which occasion the 
 slaughter was prodigious. For a time he 
 sided with the queen mother and her ad- 
 visers, and even succeeded in reconciling 
 them to their opponents ; but being ill treated 
 by Cardinal Mazarin, he joined the malcon- 
 tents and fought against the court in the 
 civil war of 16.52. Refusing to accede to the 
 peace made between the contending parties, 
 he entered into the service of Spain ; but at 
 the peace of 1659 he was restored to the 
 favour of France, and greatly distinguished 
 himself, particularly in the conquest of 
 Franciie CompttS until infirmity of body 
 compelled him to retire to private life. Died, 
 1686. 
 
 CONDER, JoH.v, D.D., an eminent dis- 
 senting minister ; author of an " Essay on 
 the Ministerial Character," some sermons, 
 &c. Died. 1781. 
 
 CONDILL.\C, Stephen, a French meta- 
 physician ; author of an " Essay on the 
 Origin of Human Knowledge," a "Treatise 
 on Animals," a "Treatise on the Sensa- 
 tions," " A Course of Study drawi up for 
 the Instruction of the Prince of Parma," to 
 whom he was tutor, &c. Died, 1780. 
 
 CONDORCET, Joiix Axtony Nicholas 
 Cakitat, Marquis of, a French mathema- 
 tician and pliilosophcr, was born at Ribe- 
 mont, in Picardy, in 174:5, and educated at 
 the college of Navarre. When only 22 years 
 of age he distinguished himself among ma- 
 thematicians by the publication of his work 
 on "Integral Calculations." Two years 
 afterwards he publislied a treatise on "The 
 Problem of the Three Bodies," and in the 
 following year his " Analytical Essays." 
 In 1769 he was chosen member of the aca- 
 demy, and in 1773 became its secretary, in 
 which situation he distinguished himself 
 by the graceful elegance of his elogcs. In 
 1791 he became a member of the national 
 assembly and of the Jacobin club ; and he 
 soon became as noted for his political viru- 
 lence as he had already been eminent for 
 his scientific genius. Becoming obnoxious 
 to Robespierre, that tyrant threw him into 
 prison, where, on the third morning, 28th 
 March, 1794, he was found dead in his bed. 
 Besides the works named above, he wrote 
 " A Sketch of the Progress of the Human 
 Mind," an "Elementary Treatise on Arith- 
 metic," and a tract on "Calculation." 
 
 CONFUCIUS, or CONG-FU-TSE, a Chi- 
 nese philosopher, was born 551 b. c. He 
 sjient his life in endeavouring to enlighten 
 and improve his fellow-subjects ; and his 
 advice was attended to by the king of Lu 
 with a respect little short of reverence. His 
 descendants to this day are mandarins of the 
 higliest button, and his books arc regarded 
 
con] 
 
 ^ i^tia SUm'ber^al SStatrrnpTja. 
 
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 by the Cliinese as treasures of the purest 
 morality. Died, b. c. 470. 
 
 CONGLETON, IIenky Brooke PaRnell, 
 Lord, was the second son of Sir Jol»n Par- 
 nell, bart., chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 was born July 3rd, 1776. His elder brother 
 was born dumb, and a cripple, and, by a 
 somewhat unusual stretch of authority, par- 
 liament set aside the entail upon the family 
 estates, so that the younger son succeeded to 
 the estates on the death of his father in 1801, 
 and to the title on the death of his brother 
 in 1812. He entered parliament in 1802, but 
 ceased to be a member at the close of the 
 same year. He was again returned in 1806, 
 and retained his seat, in spite of all opposi- 
 tion, until 1832, when he voluntarily retired. 
 From 1833 to 1837 he sat for Dundee ; and 
 in 1841 he was raised to the peerage. During 
 his whole parliamentary career he was an 
 extremely useful, though by no means bril- 
 liant, member. Finance in all its various 
 branches he was very familiar with, and 
 upon such subjects he very early became a 
 sort of authority to both sides of the house. 
 Died June 8. 1842, aged 65. 
 
 CONGREVE, William, an eminent Eng- 
 lish dramatist, was born near Leeds, in 1670, 
 and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. 
 He entered himself as a student at the Mid- 
 dle Temple, but, like many more before and 
 since, abandoned the law for literature. His 
 first piece, written at the age of 17, was a 
 romance, entitled "Incognita, or Love and 
 Duty Reconciled." In 1G93, being then only 
 21 years old, he wrote his first comedy, " The 
 Old Bachelor." This produced him not only 
 great reputation, but also the substantial 
 benefit of a commissionership in the hackney- 
 coach office, which was given to him by the 
 Earl of Halifax, who afterwards still further 
 patronised and favoured him. He wrote also 
 "Love for Love," "The Double Dealer," 
 " The Mourning Bride," '• The Way of the 
 World," an opera ; and some poems. Died, 
 1729. Witty and spirited as Congreve's plays 
 are, they are too licentious to keep possession 
 of the stage at the present day ; and in bis 
 own time they received severe castigatiou 
 from the celebrated Jeremiah Collier. 
 
 CONGREVE, Sir William, the son of a 
 lieutenant-general, and the inventor of the 
 Congreve rockets, was born in 1772, and 
 entered the military service early, in which 
 he obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
 He possessed much inventive talent, which 
 he applied to the mechanic arts ; and for 
 several years the rocket which bears his 
 name, and whlcli was first used in the attack 
 of Boulogne in 1800, was considered a grand 
 auxiliary in warlike operations, although 
 it has now fallen into comparative disrepute. 
 Sir William was a fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, and represented Plymouth in parlia- 
 ment. Died, 1828. 
 
 CONNOR, Bernard, an Irish physician, 
 for some time settled at Warsaw ; author of 
 a "History of Poland," and also of a Latin 
 work on the miracles of our Saviour. Died, 
 1698. 
 
 CONON, an Athenian general, was the 
 son of Timotheus. Having been defeated in 
 a naval engagement at ^gospotamos by 
 Lysaudcr, he for a time went into exile ; 
 
 but being aided by Artaxerxes, king of 
 Persia, he returned and defeated the Spar- 
 tans near Cnidos. He then fortified Athens, 
 and restored it to liberty and security ; but 
 being betrayed into the power of Tiribazus, 
 a Persian, he was put to death, 393 b. c. 
 
 CONON, an astronomer of Samos, a friend 
 of Archimedes. To flatter Ptolemy Euergetes, 
 he affirmed that the locks of Berenice his 
 queen were made into a constellation. He 
 flourished in the third century, b. C. 
 
 CONRAD I., count of Franc»feia. In 912 
 he was elected king of Germany, but Arnaul, 
 duke of Bavaria, disputed his title, and en- 
 gaged the Huns to overrun Germany. Con- 
 rad, however, avoided the threatened ruin by 
 engaging to pay a yearly tribute. Died, 918. 
 
 CONRAD 11., son of Herman, duke of 
 Franconia, was elected king of Germany in 
 1024. Attempts were made to displace him, 
 but he beat his opponents, and in 1027 was 
 crowned emperor at Rome. By the will of 
 Rodolphus the kingdom of Burgundy became 
 his in 103;J. Died, 1039. 
 
 CONRAD III., emperor of Germany, was 
 son of Frederic, duke i)f Suabia, and before 
 his election was duke of Franconia. His 
 election produced civil war ; but he termi- 
 nated that and went to the Holy Land, 
 where he lost a vast number of his troops 
 through the Greeks poisoning the fountains. 
 He died, in his own dominion, 1152. 
 
 CONRAD IV., duke of Suabia, was elected 
 emperor at the death of his father, Frederick 
 II. The pope. Innocent IV., pretended that 
 the right of appointment lay in him, and 
 preached a crusade against the new emperor. 
 Conrad replied to this by marching into 
 Italy, and taking several important places. 
 Died, 1254. 
 
 CONRAD or CONRADIN, son of the last 
 named, who left him the kingdom of Naples. 
 Pope Urban IV. gave that kingdom to 
 Charles of Anjou, who defeated Conrad, 
 then only 16 years old, and caused him to 
 be beheaded in 1268. 
 
 CONRI, Florence, an Irish Franciscan 
 friar. He was educated in Spain, and when 
 king Philip wished to make a conquest of 
 Ireland, Conri was sent there to influence 
 the people, the pope making him titular 
 archbishop of Tuam to give him the greater 
 power ; but he was unable to effect the 
 wishes of his patrons, and returned to Spain. 
 He was the author of some Latin commen- 
 taries on St. Augustin, " The Mirror of a 
 Christian Life." Died, 1629. 
 
 CONRINGIUS, Hermann, professor of 
 physic and politics at the university of Helm- 
 stadt ; autlior of valuable treatises on law, 
 German antiquities, and on the Aristotelian 
 system. Died, 1681. 
 
 CONSALVI, Ercole, cardinal and prime 
 minister of pope Pius VII., was born at 
 Toscanella, in 1757. As he had ever op- 
 posed the French party in Rome to the ut- 
 most of his power, he was banished from 
 that city when the French took possession 
 of it. When, however, the papal affairs 
 were in a better condition he returned ; and, 
 as secretary of state, he concluded the famous 
 concordat with Napoleou ; continuing, in 
 fact, at the head of all the political and 
 ecclesiastical affairs of the Roman state till 
 
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 ^ i!etD ^niberSnl SBtograpfjg, 
 
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 the death of the pope, his friend and master. 
 Died, 1824. 
 
 CONSTABLE, Archibald, the most en- 
 terprising bookseller that Scotland has ever 
 produced, was bom at Kellie in Fifeshire, 
 1775. After serving liis apprenticeship to 
 Mr. Peter Ilill of Edinburgh, the friend and 
 correspondent of Burns, he commenced 
 business for himself in 171)5 ; and his oblig- 
 ing manners, general intelligence, and inde- 
 fatigable activity gained him the esteem of 
 all who came in contact with him. Ilis 
 reputation as a publisher dates from 1802, 
 when he published the first number of the 
 Edinburgh Review ; and in 1805 he pub- 
 lished, in conjunction with Messrs. Longman 
 ■and Co., " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," 
 the first of that long series of original 
 and romantic publications in poetry and 
 prose which has limmortalised the name of 
 Walter Scott. His tact in appreciating 
 literary merit, his liberality in rewarding it, 
 and the sagacity he displayed in placing it 
 in the most favourable manner before the 
 public, were amply rewarded by the unpa- 
 ralleled success of his literary projects; but 
 in 182(5 he was overwhelmed by the disasters 
 consequent on the rage for speculation that 
 marked the preceding year, and the fruits of 
 a life of activity, industry, and exertion 
 were all sacrificed in the prevailing wreck 
 of commercial credit. The well-known 
 "Miscellany " that bears his name was his 
 last project : soon after its commencement 
 he was attacked with dropsy, and died in 
 1827. 
 
 CONSTABLE, John, R. A., one of the 
 most eminent landscape painters of our 
 time, was born at East Bergholt, in SufiTolk, 
 177(5. Having early displayed a love of art, 
 he visited London in 1795, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining what might be his chance of 
 success as a painter. Encouraged by the 
 flattering commendations of Farrington, 
 himself a landscape painter of some note, 
 and of " Antiquity " Smith, he laboured 
 hard at the mechanical part of his profes- 
 sion, and in 1802 sent his first picture to the 
 exhibition of tlie Royal Academy. From 
 this period he was a regular contributor 
 down to the year of his death. Few pencils, 
 indeed, have been more prolific ; and the 
 works he has left behind him, both in num- 
 ber and excellence, have earned for him 
 a distinguished place among the landscajie 
 painters not only of England but of the 
 world. In 1829 he was elected an academi- 
 cian. Died, 1837. " Memoirs of the Life " 
 of Mr. Constable have been published by his 
 friend and brother artist Mr. Leslie, full of 
 interest, and showing that both artists could 
 wield the pen no less ably than the pencil. 
 
 CONSTANS I., Flavius JuLirs, one of 
 the sons of Constantine the Great, and his 
 successor in the sovereignty of Africa, Italy, 
 and Western Illyricum. His brother Con- 
 stantine endeavoured to dispossess him of 
 it ; but being defeated and sluin in the at- 
 tempt, Constans became master of the whole 
 empire. His conduct was, however, so of- 
 fensive to the people, that the standard of 
 revolt was hoisted, and Constans was put to 
 death, a.d. 350. 
 
 CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, Bk»ja- 
 
 Mix TIE, a distinguished onitor and nuthor, 
 attached to the liberal or constitutional 
 party in France. He was born at Lausanne 
 in 17(57, and at the commencement of the 
 French revolution went to reside at Paris, 
 where he soon distinguished himself, both 
 by his political writings and his eloquent 
 speeches in the senate ; and when, under 
 the government of the directory, he was 
 elected to the oflSce of tribune, he zealously 
 endeavoured to maintain the equality of 
 citizens, the freedom of the press, and the 
 regular administration of justice. His con- 
 duct, however, rendered him obnoxious to 
 the first consul, and he was dismissed from 
 his office in 1802. After retiring to Ger- 
 many, he again appeared at Pans in 1814, 
 and publicly advocated the cause of the 
 Bourbons; yet we soon after find him as- 
 sisting in forming the constitution of the 
 Champ de Mai. Though, like many others, 
 he had suflicient cause to retire from France 
 on the second restoration of Louts XVIIL, 
 he was allowed to return, and in 1819 was 
 elected a member of the chamber of deputies, 
 where he long remained as a distinguished 
 leader of the opposition, particularly in all 
 the discussions relating to the censorship of 
 the press and the rights of the people. He 
 wrote many works on political questions, 
 was one of the editors of La Minerve, and 
 a contributor to the Biographic Univer- 
 selle. As an orator he was eloquent and 
 profound ; and as a writer lively, imagina- 
 tive, and acute. Died. 1830. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Cails Fi.avuts Vale- 
 rius AuiiELiLs Claudius, surnamed the 
 Great, emperor of the Romans, was the son 
 of Constantius Chlorus, by Helena, and born 
 A.D. 274. On the death of his father, in 306, 
 he was proclaimed emperor by the troops. 
 After defeating the Franks, he crossed the 
 Rhine into Belgium, which he overran. In 
 307 he married Fausta, the daughter of 
 Maximan, but he was soon involved in a 
 war with his father-in-law, who assumed 
 the title of emperor. The usurper's reign 
 was brief ; and on his being taken prisoner, 
 Constantius caused him to be strangled. 
 This involved him in a war with Maxentius, 
 son of Maximinian, in which the latter was 
 defeated and drowned in the Tiber. It was 
 at this time that the emjieror, as he alleged 
 to Eusebius, saw a luminous cross in the 
 heavens witli the inscription, " In hoc signo 
 vinces " (Under this sign thou shalt con- 
 quer). He accordingly caused a standard to 
 be made in imitation of this cross ; marched 
 to Rome in triumph ; published the me- 
 morable edict of toleration in favour of the 
 Christians ; and was declared by the senate, 
 cliief, Augustus, and pontifex nuixhnus. Con- 
 stantine had married his daughter to Li- 
 cinius ; but the latter, jealous of his fame, 
 took jup arms against him, and they met in 
 Pannonia, a.d. 314. Constantine, surrounded 
 by bishops and priests, invoked the aid of 
 "the true God;" while Licinius, calling 
 upon his soothsayers and magicians, relied 
 upon them and their gods for protection. 
 Tlie Christian emperor was victorious, and 
 a peace was granted to Licinius ; but he 
 afterwards renewed hostilities, was again 
 defeated, and finally put to death. Thus 
 
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 ^ iJ^ciD ^nihtx^al SStffffrap?)!?. 
 
 [con 
 
 Constantine became, in 32.% sole head of 
 the Eastern and Western empires ; and his 
 first care was the establishment of peace and 
 order. He displayed great courage and love 
 of justice, and evinced an ardent zeal for 
 the Christian religion, whicli he eventually 
 established in his vast dominions. He also 
 endeavoured to increase tlie solid greatness 
 of his empire, and among other useful works, 
 founded tlie city of Constantinople. But 
 though his actions on the whole entitled him 
 to the proud surname of " Tlie Great," yet 
 various acts of cruelty, and, above all, the 
 murder of his son Crispus, Jmve left a stain 
 upon his character _alike as a man, a Chris- 
 tian, and an emperor. He died in 'MT, after 
 a reign of 31 years ; and he divided his 
 empire between his tliree sons, Constantine, 
 Constantius, and Constans. 
 
 CONSTANTINE II., son of the above. 
 In tlie division of the empire he had for his 
 share, Gaul, Spain, and Britain ; but, dis- 
 contented with the arrangement, he marched 
 against his brother Constans, and was killed 
 at Aquileia, 340. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Flavius Julius, a pri- 
 vate soldier, who was raised by the army in 
 Britain to the imperial dignity in 407^ on 
 which he crossed over to Gaul, and con- 
 quered that country and Spain. He fixed 
 his court at Aries, where he was besieged 
 by Constantius, the general of the emperor 
 Ilonorius, to whom he surrendered on the 
 promise that liis life should be spared ; but 
 it was basely violated, and both Constantine 
 and his son were put to death, a. d. 411. 
 
 CONSTANTINE IV., who was called the 
 Bearded, was son of Constans II., whom he 
 succeeded in 668. The army having set up 
 his two brothers as his coadjutors, he ordered 
 their noses to be cut off. As a soldier he 
 was prompt and brave. He defeated the 
 Saracens, and called a council at Constanti- 
 nople, at which the doctrine of the Mono- 
 thelites was condemned. Died, 685. 
 
 CONSTANTINE VI., was son of Leo H., 
 whom he succeeded. Being only 10 years 
 old when his father died, his mother Irene 
 was his guardian and regent of the empire. 
 On arriving at a mature age lie assumed 
 the government himself ; but Irene, made 
 cruel by ambition, took advantage of an 
 invasion of the Bulgarians to cause her son 
 to be seized and deprived of his eyes. This 
 occurred in 792, and the unfortunate em- 
 peror languished some years in obscurity, 
 and when he died was succeeded by his un- 
 natural parent. 
 
 CONSTANTINE VII., sumamed PoR- 
 PUYKOGENITUS, succeeded I>eo tlie Wise in 
 912. He drove the Turks from Italy, and 
 defeated the Lombards. But military affairs 
 did not prevent him from attending to let- 
 ters ; and besides other writings, he left a 
 treatise on state afiairs, the geography of 
 the empire ; and the "Life of the Emperor 
 Basilius the Macedonian." Died, 959. 
 
 CONSTANTINE IX., was son of the em- 
 peror Romanus, and, in conjunction with 
 his brother Basil II., succeeded John Ri- 
 misces in 976 ; the actual power, however, 
 was chiefly wielded by Constantine. Died, 
 1028. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Dkacoses or Pal^:- 
 
 OLOGus, the last of the Greek emperors, 
 succeeded to the throne in 1449. He was 
 killed in bravely defending Constantinople 
 against Mahomet II., who, in 14.'>3, besieged 
 the city with 300,000 men. The heroic 
 valour displayed by Constantine in this un- 
 equal contest demands our admiration ; but 
 valour was of no avail, the city was taken 
 by storm, and thus ended the Greek empire. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, CiiSAROViTCH Paulo- 
 viTCH, grand-prince of Russia, second son of 
 the emperor Paul, and brother of Alexander, 
 was born in 1779. He attended his brother 
 in all his campaigns, and was distinguished 
 for bravery in the field ; but he possessed 
 the characteristics of a half-civilised ruler, 
 being cruel and tyrannical in all that related 
 to the government of the Poles, over whom 
 he was placed. He formally renounced his 
 right of succession to his younger brother, 
 the emperor Nicholas, and was present at 
 his coronation. Died, 1831. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS, Chlorus, the son of 
 Eutropius, and the father of Constantine 
 the Great. He obtained the title of Cccsar 
 from his victories in Germany and Britain ; 
 and on the abdication of Diocletian was 
 chosen the colleague of Galerius. He died 
 at York, in 306. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS, Flatius Julius, the 
 second son of Constantine the Great, was 
 bom in 317, made Cassar in 323, and elected 
 emperor in 337. The soldiers, to secure the 
 throne to the three sons of Constantine, 
 massacred the uncles and cousins of tliose 
 princes, with the exception of Julian the 
 Apostate and his brother Gallus. After 
 this the sons of Constantine divided the em- 
 pire, Constantius taking the east to his sliare. 
 Magnentius, governor of Rlioetia, murdered 
 Constans, who had reigned over Italy 13 
 3'ears; on which Constantius marched against 
 the murderer, whom he defeated, and his 
 elder brother being also dead, he became sole 
 emperor. lie died on his march against 
 Julian, who had assumed the purple in 361. 
 
 CONTARINI. This is the name of a 
 noble Venetian family, of which several 
 filled the oflice of doge ; but their lives pre- 
 sent nothing sufficiently remarkable for 
 separate notice here. 
 
 CONTAT, Louise, madame de Parny, a 
 French actress, remarkable for her beauty, 
 vivacity, grace, and dignity ; born, 1760 ; 
 sustained her station on the stage 32 years ; 
 and died in 1813. 
 
 CONTE, Nicholas Jacques, a French 
 painter, but more distinguished for the in- 
 genuity of his mechanical contrivances. He 
 accompanied the expedition to Egypt, where 
 his services were of the greatest value ; for, 
 the machines and instruments of the army 
 having fallen into the hands of the Arabs, 
 he constructed corn and gunpowder mills, 
 manufactured swords, engineering instru- 
 ments, telescopes, and, in short, every tiling 
 necessary for a military and scientific ex- 
 pedition. Born, 1755 ; died, 1805. 
 
 CONWAY, Henry Seymour, second son 
 of Lord Conway, was a distinguished military 
 officer and statesman, born in 1720. He 
 served with applause in the seven years' war, 
 was secretary of state from 1765 to 1768, ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief in 1782, and 
 
con] 
 
 ^ ^cli) Unihzx^al 3Si0gra}j]^p. 
 
 [coo 
 
 died in 1795, being at that time the senior 
 British field-marshal. 
 
 CONYBEARE, JoH.v, bishop of Bristol ; 
 author of " An Able Defence of Revealed 
 Religion," against Tindal's " Christianity as 
 Old as the Creation," and of 2 volumes of 
 excellent sermons. Died, 1757. 
 CONYBEARE, Joux Josias, a learned 
 I English divine, critic, and antiquary ; au- 
 thor of a volume of admirable sermons, 
 preached at the Bampton Lecture ; and of 
 various articles on Saxon literature, con- 
 tributed to the Censura lateraria, and the 
 British Bibliographer. He also contributed 
 some valuable papers, on chemistry and 
 mineralogy, to the Annals of Philosophy 
 and the Transactions of the Geological So- 
 ciety. Died, 1824. 
 
 COOK, IlEXKY,an English painter. He 
 studied in Italy under Salvator Rosa ; but 
 for many years after his return to England 
 he lived in obscurity and distress. He was 
 at length employed by king William to re- 
 pair the cartoons, from which time he seems 
 to have been comparatively prosperous, as 
 Horace AValpole mentions several public 
 works which were either wholly or iu part 
 performed by him. Died, 1700. 
 
 COOK, Captain James, a celebrated 
 English navigator. He was bom at Marton, 
 in Yorkshire, in 1728 ; and his parents being 
 poor, his early education included only 
 reading, writing, and the rudiments of com- 
 mon arithmetic. He commenced his naval 
 career in the merchant service, then entered 
 on board the Eagle man-of-war, and after 4 
 years meritorious service was made master 
 of tlie Mercury. This vessel formed part of 
 the 8(iuadi on sent against Quebec ; and Cook 
 performed the difficult task of taking sound- 
 ings in the St. Lawrence, in the very face of 
 the French encami>ment, and of making a 
 chart of the St. Lawrence below Quebec. 
 After various and arduous services he was at 
 length raised to the rank of lieutenant ; and 
 then commenced that series of voyages, the 
 details of which form one of the most popular 
 and delightful books in our language. Un- 
 happily, while touching at Owhyhee, Captain 
 Cook, in s^iiite of the utmost prudence and 
 i humanity, was involved in a dispute with 
 I the natives, and while endeavouring to reach 
 j his boat was savagely murdered, on St. 
 ; "Valentine's Day, 1779. — Ilis wife, Elizabetu 
 Cook, survived him X years ! having died 
 at her residence at Clapham, in 1835, aged 
 03. But she had to mourn the loss of her 3 
 sons in a few years after the unhappy fate of 
 her husband. Nathaniel, their second son, 
 was lost in the Thunderer, which foundered 
 at sea, in 17«0 ; High, a student at Cam- 
 bridge, died in 1793 ; and James, the eldest 
 son, was lost, with his boat's crew, while 
 commander of the Spitfire sloop-of-war, off 
 the Isle of Wight, in 1794. 
 
 COOKE, Sir Anthony, an eminent En- 
 glish scholar. He was one of the tutors of 
 Edward VI., who highly esteemed him. 
 Born, 1508 ; died, 1576. 
 
 COOKE, Benjamin, Mus. Doc, an able 
 musicidn and composer ; author of " How 
 sleep the Brave," " Hark, hark ! the Lark," 
 and many other beautiful and popular elees. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 COOKE, George Fkederick, an eminent 
 modern English actor, was born in 1750. In 
 early life he was apprenticed to a printer, 
 but his attention to theatricals so completely 
 absorbed his mind, that his master soon had 
 his indentures cancelled. He then tried the 
 navy with no better success, his inclination 
 for the stage being unconquerable. After 
 the usual probation among itinerant com- 
 panies, he became a star at the larger pro- 
 vincial theatres, as York, Manchester, and 
 Liverpool, and was at length engaged at 
 Dublin for 3 years. Thence his fame tra- 
 velled to Ix)ndon ; and in October, 1800, he 
 made his appearance at Covent Garden in 
 the character of Richard III. His perform- 
 ance of this character gave him at once a 
 place among the very first histrionic artists 
 of the day, and he soon became highly po- 
 pular in that part, and in Macbeth, lago, Sir 
 Pertinax Mac Sycophant, Shylock, &c. He 
 afterwards accepted an engagement in Ame- 
 rica, where he performed with similar success, 
 but his indulgence in riotous and debauched 
 habits completely broke up his originally 
 vigorous constitution, and he died in 1812. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, an English poet ; trans- 
 lator of the works of Ilesiod, and of some of 
 those of Cicero. He also wrote some political 
 tracts, dramas, and poems ; the latter of 
 which gave offence to Pope, and procured 
 their author a place in the Dunciad. Died, 
 17.56. 
 
 COOKE, Thomas, whose versatility of 
 musical talent has had few equals in our 
 time, was bom at Dublin, 1781. He evinced 
 even in his infancy a genius for music ; and 
 so assiduously did he tultivate his talents, 
 that at the age of 15 he became leader of the 
 band at the Theatre Royal of his native 
 city. His first appearance as a singer was 
 in the character of Seraskier, in the " Siege 
 of Belgrade ;" and so well did he fill the part, 
 that he at once took rank as a first-class 
 vocalist. In 1813 he appeared on the boards 
 of the English Opera House, now the Ly- 
 ceum, in London, where he at once became 
 a public favourite ; and having soon after- 
 wards joined Drury Lane, he filled to the 
 entire satisfaction of all parties, private, dra- 
 matic, and public, the various situations of 
 vocalist, director of the musical department, 
 composer, and leader of the orchestra. On 
 his retirement from the stage, he became 
 successively conneetedwith the Philharmonic 
 Society, the Catch Club, and other musical 
 associations, reaping fresh laurels every year 
 by his glees, duets, and ballads, and gaining 
 golden opinions by his agreeable manners, 
 ready wit, and kindly disposition. Besides 
 being the leader of tliePhilharmonic Concerts 
 for many years, and a conductor on many 
 occasions, he was appointed, in 1846, leader 
 of the Concerts of Ancient Music, and was 
 repeatedly engaged in the same capacity 
 for the great musical festivals throughout 
 the country. Died, 1848. 
 
 COOKE, William, an eminent English 
 lawyer ; author of a " Compendious System 
 of the Bankrupt Laws, with an Appendix of 
 Practical Precedents." He was one of the 
 commissioners who were sent to Milan to 
 take depositions against Queen Caroline, 
 wife of George IV. Died, 1832. 
 
 T 2 
 
coo] 
 
 ^ ^cfio mnibtv^Kl 38tOQrap]b2). 
 
 [coo 
 
 COOKE, William, a poet and biographer, 
 bom at Cork, in Ireland ; author of " The 
 Art of Living in Tiondon," " Elements of 
 Dramatic Criticism," " Biographies of 
 Macklin and Foote," "Conversation," a 
 didactic poem, &c. Died, 1824. 
 
 COOMBE, AViLLiAM, an industrious and 
 clever writer ; author of" "Mie Diaboliad," a 
 satire ; " The Devil upon Two Sticks in 
 England," "Tour of Dr. Syntax in search 
 of the Picturesque," " History of Johnny 
 Quae Genus," "English Dance of Death," 
 &c. Died, 1823. 
 
 COOPER, Antiioxy Ashley, first earl of 
 Shaftesbury, an eminent statesman, bom in 
 1621. lie studied for a short time in Lin- 
 coln's Inn, but at the early age of I'j he was 
 elected member of parliament for Shrews- 
 bury. From this time his whole life was 
 spent in business or political intrigue. At 
 the breaking out of the civil war he at first 
 sided with the king, but afterwards went 
 over to the parliament, raised troops, and 
 stormed Wareham, in Dorsetshire. After 
 serving in the long parliament, and in the 
 convention which succeeded it, and being also 
 one of Cromwell's privy councillors, he be- 
 came one of Monk's colleagues in bringing 
 about the restoration of Charles II. For 
 this important service he was raised to the 
 peerage by tlie title of baron Ashley, and 
 made a lord of the treasury and chancellor 
 of the exchequer. As a member of the noto- 
 rious Cabal ministry, great odium has been 
 thrown upon him by some writers, while 
 others afiirm that he opposed some of its 
 worst measures. At all events, his conduct 
 was satisfactory to the king, who, in 1672, 
 created him earl of Shaftesbury, and raised 
 him to the high and important post of lord 
 high chancellor. This office, however, he 
 held only a year ; and on the seals being 
 taken from him he became one of the opposi- 
 tion. In this capacity he was so violent, 
 that he was at length sent to the Tower, 
 where he remained more than a year, and 
 only obtained his release at last by making 
 a full submission. When he again got into 
 power, he had the merit of bringing forward, 
 and causing to be passed, the invaluable law 
 called the Habeas Corpus act. His unre- 
 mitting efforts to exclude the Duke of York 
 from the succession, "oused that prince to 
 such strenuous exertions, that in 4 months 
 the ministry was turned out, and shortly 
 afterwards the earl was sent to the Tower on 
 a charge of high treason. On this perilous 
 charge he was acquitted, to the great joy of 
 the people at large ; but his triumph was 
 somewhat damped by the withering satire 
 with which his character was depicted in 
 Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel. Wearied 
 with incessant toils, much worn in health, 
 and, probably, apprehensive of a time arriv- 
 ing when corruption might render his ac- 
 quittal on charges, however false, by no 
 means certain, he retired to Holland, where 
 he died in 1683. 
 
 COOPER, Anthony Ashley, third earl 
 of Shaftesbury, and grandson of the last 
 named, was a very eminent English writer, 
 born in 1671. In 1693, after the usual course 
 of education and foreign travels, he was 
 elected member of parliament for Poole, in 
 
 Dorsetshire ; and his parliamentary conduct 
 was marked by an honourable and earnest 
 support of every measure tending to increase 
 the prosperity and maintain the freedom of 
 his fellow subjects. But his public career 
 was stopped by the delicacy of his health ; 
 and from the year 16S)8 he chiefly resided 
 abroad, devoting himself to study, and cor- 
 responding with Bayle, T^ Clerc, and other 
 eminent literati. lie was the author of 
 various works, the principal one of which is 
 entitled " Characteristics of Men, Manners, 
 Opinions, and Times ; " but though lively 
 and elegant, they are all tinged with a degree 
 of indecorous levity. As a man, however, 
 both in his public and private life, he was 
 beloved and respected by all parties. Died, 
 1713. 
 
 COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, bart., a 
 surgeon of distinguished celebrity, was born 
 at Brooke, in Norfolk, in 1768. He was 
 placed with a medical gentleman at Yar- 
 mouth, in 1782, but was soon removed to 
 London, in order to attend the hospitals, and 
 was articled to his uncle, W. Cooper, Esq., 
 then surgeon to Guy's Hospital. With him, 
 however, he remained but a few months, 
 being transferred to Mr. Cline, in which 
 situation his extraordinary aptitude for his 
 profession quickly developed itself. In his 
 twentieth year he went to Edinburgh, but 
 quickly returned to Tx)ndon,and took up his 
 abode with Mr. Cline, his former instructor, 
 who found him so able a coadjutor, in his 
 situation of demonstrator to the students, as 
 to assign him a share in his anatomical lec- 
 tures also. In this prominent position he 
 outshone all who had preceded him as a 
 popular teacher. His class of students in- 
 creased from .50 to 400, which was the largest 
 ever known in London. " He was," says 
 Mr. Pettigrew, " the idol of the Borough 
 school ; the pupils followed him in troops, 
 listening with almost breathless anxiety to 
 catch the observations wliich fell from his 
 lips upon the several cases presented to his 
 view. But on the days of operation, this 
 feeling was wound up to the highest pitch 
 — the sight was altogether deeply interest- 
 ing ; the large theatre of Guy's crowded to 
 the ceiling — the profound silence obtained 
 upon his entry — that person so manly and 
 truly imposing, and the awful feeling con- 
 nected with the occasion, can never be for- 
 gotten by any of his pupils." In 1792 he 
 visited Paris, and attended the lectures of 
 Desault and Chopart ; and on his return he 
 took up his resideuce in the city, first in 
 Jeffery Square, and afterwards in Broad 
 Street. Kis practice had now become im- 
 mense ; and, long before he removed to 
 New Street, Spring Gardens, he was de- 
 cidedly affluent : while there he for many 
 years realised from 18,000?. to 20,000?. per 
 annum. Satisfied with the acquisition of a 
 splendid fortune, and a reputation for ana- 
 tomical and surgical skill never surpassed. 
 Sir Astley Cooper some years before his 
 death retired for a time to the country ; but 
 he found that a life of quiescence and re- 
 tirement would not suit his active mind, and 
 he returned to London, once more to resume 
 his professional avocations. Notwithstand- 
 ing the immensity of his surgical operations, 
 
coo] 
 
 ^ l^eb) CIntbcrM SJtffgrajpIji), 
 
 [cor 
 
 and the time he devoted to aiiatomical and 
 physiological inquiries, he still found time 
 to publish several works of great utility ; but 
 his imperishable fame rests mainly upon his 
 accurate anatomical knowledge, and the ex- 
 traordinary facility with which he performed 
 the most difficult operations. The honour 
 of a baronetcy was conferred on him at the 
 coronation of George IV., to whom he had 
 been appointed surgeon. Died Feb. 12. 1841, 
 aged 72. 
 
 COOPER, John- GiLBEnr, a clever English 
 writer ; author of " The Tower of Harmony," 
 a poem i " The Life of Socrates," "Letters on 
 Taste," "The Tomb of Shakspeare," &c. 
 Died, 1769. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, an eminent English 
 painter, whose excellence in miniature paint- 
 ing gained him the name of the Miniature 
 Vandyke. One of his best works is his por- 
 trait of Oliver Cromwell. Died, 1C72. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, an American clergy- 
 man, distinguished both as a preacher and 
 a patriot. He was among the foremost in 
 opposing Great Britain in her dispute with 
 the colonies, and wrote many political tracts; 
 and he was also an eminent critic and theo- 
 logian. Born, 172.5 ; died. 182^3. 
 
 COOPER, Thomas, D.D., bishop of Win- 
 ch<rster ; author of " An Ei)itome of the 
 Chronicles," " An Exposition of the Sun- 
 day Lessons," " Thesaurus Lingua; Romanae 
 et BritannicsB, et Dictionarium Historicum 
 et Poeticum," &c. He was a very learned 
 and zealous prelate, and much favoured by 
 queen Elizabeth. Died, 1.194. 
 
 COOTE, Sir Eyre, a distinguished mili- 
 tary officer. He was born in Ireland, in 
 172«, and as early as the rebellion of 1745 
 bore arms in the king's service. His regi- 
 ment being ordered to the East Indies in 
 17.')4, he greatly distinguished himself at the 
 siegesofllaughlej-, Chandernogore, andPon- 
 dicherry, and at the battle of Plassey,|&c. 
 In 1780, Hyder Ally having invaded the 
 Camatic, Sir Eyre Coote, with a vastly in- 
 ferior force, arrested his progress, and in 
 various encounters signally defeated liim. 
 He died at Madras, in 1783. 
 
 COPERNICUS, Nicholas, a celebrated 
 mathematician and astronomer. He was a 
 native of Thorn, in Prussia, and received 
 his education at the university of Cracow. 
 He then travelled into Italy, and became a 
 professor of mathematics at Rome. On his 
 return to his native country, his uncle, the 
 bishop of Warmia, gave him a canonry ; 
 and being thus at ease as to fortune, he 
 diligently laboured to improve the science 
 of astronomy ; and the fruits of his re- 
 searches appeared in his Latin treatise 
 " On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs," 
 in which he represented the sun as occupy- 
 ing a centre round which the earth and the 
 other planets revolve. Aware that bigotry 
 would probably assail him, he says, in his 
 prefatory address to the pope — " If there be 
 any who, though ignorant of mathematics, 
 shall presume to judge concerning them, 
 and dare to condemn tliis treatise because 
 they fancy it is inconsistent with some 
 passages of Scripture, the sense of which 
 they have miserably perverted, I regard 
 them not, but despise their rash censure." 
 
 In fact his great work remained in MS. 
 some years after he had completed it, so 
 I diffident was he as to the reception it might 
 meet with ; and it Mas only a few hours 
 before his death that a printed copy was 
 presented to him, giving him assurance 
 that his opinions would see the light, though 
 he would be beyond the reach of censure and 
 persecution. Born, 147;5 ; died, 1.54.3. 
 
 COPI>ESTON, RiglitRev. EnwAitn, bishop 
 of Llandaft', and dean of St. Patil's, was bom 
 at Ott'well in Devonshire, of which parish his 
 father was at once the patron and incum- 
 bent, 1770. His early education was con- 
 ducted under the paternal roof. AVhen he 
 was 15 years old, he was elected to a scholar- 
 ship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 
 1793 he gained the chancellor's prize for a 
 Latin poem ; and in 1795 he was elected 
 fellow of Oriel under the most lionourable 
 circumstances, became college tutor 2 years 
 later, and after filling various higher offices 
 connected with the university, he exchanged 
 his professorial career for the honours of the 
 church, being in 1826 appointed dean of 
 Chester, and in 1827 bishop of Llandaff and 
 dean of St. Paul's. At an early period of his 
 life, Dr. Copleston gained great distinction 
 by his polemical pamphlets in favour of the 
 university ; and besides contributing various 
 articles to the Quarterly Review, gave to 
 the world numerous sermons and charges, 
 all of them distinguished by vigour, clear- 
 ness, and precision of thought. Died, 1849. 
 
 COPLEY, John Sixoleto.v, an eminent 
 painter, was bom at Boston, in the United 
 States, in 1738; visited Italy in 1774; and 
 in 1776 came to England, and was chosen 
 a member of the Royal Academy. As an 
 artist he was self-educated, and had exe- 
 cuted many works of merit l)efore he left 
 America ; but his " Death of I-ord Chat- 
 ham " established his fame in this country. 
 Many other fine historical subjects were 
 subsequently produced by him, among 
 which were " The Siege of Gibraltar," 
 "Death of Major Plerson," "Charles I. 
 in the House of Commons," &c. He died 
 in 1815. Mr. Copley was the father of Lord 
 Lyndhurst, late lord chancellor of England, 
 and since chief baron of the exchequer. 
 
 CORAM, Thomas, a man who deserves 
 the gratitude of his country for devoting a 
 long life to the cause of philanthropy. 
 After great sacrifices, and persevering ex- 
 ertions for years, he established and obtained 
 a charter for the Foundling Hospital, which, 
 added to other benevolent undertakings, so 
 impaired his fortune, that in his old age it 
 became necessary to relieve his necessities 
 by a public subscription. Died, 1751. 
 
 CORBET, RiCHAKD, D.D., an English 
 divine, and a poet ; author of a spirited 
 " Narrative of a Journey to France," and 
 of various other poems, published under 
 the title of " Poetica Stromata." He was 
 remarkable for wit, and no less so for an 
 eccentricity and mirthful jocularity, which 
 did not very well accord with the character 
 of his profession. It did not, however, pre- 
 vent him from being raised, successively, to 
 the bishoprics of Oxford and Norwich. Bom, 
 1582 ; died, 1635. 
 
 CORDARA, Julius Ccsab, an Italian 
 
cor] 
 
 ^ ^eto Winiiitr^aX 28togvapi^s. 
 
 [cor 
 
 Jesuit ; author of an able work, entitled, 
 " Historia Societatis Jesu," &c. Died, 1784. 
 CORDAY D'ARMANS, Marie Anne 
 Charlotte, a female of great beauty and 
 courage, who, in revenge for the death of her 
 lover, an officer in the garrison of Caen, 
 j became the murderer of Marat, a wretch 
 more execrable for his sanguinary fury than 
 any of his infamous compeers. This mon- 
 ster had denounced her lover as an enemy 
 of the French republic, and caused his as- 
 sassination ; and slie determined to rid the 
 country of one whose enormities had risen 
 to such a height, that he was everywliere 
 regarded as the head of that class so em- 
 phatically called buveurs de sang (the 
 drinkers of blood). That she was actuated 
 by a sense of duty, and felt that she was 
 about to perform an act of patriotic hero- 
 ism, there is not the slightest doubt ; and 
 as the circumstances attending it possess 
 more than ordinary interest, the following 
 detailed account will perhaps be here ad- 
 missible, although our limits generally for- 
 bid the insertion of so long a narrative. In- 
 spired with a deep-rooted hatred against 
 Marat, Charlotte Corday left her liome, 
 and on arriving at Paris (July 12. 1793), she 
 went to liis liouse, but was not admitted. 
 On tlie same evening she wrote to him as 
 follows : — " Citizen, I have just now come 
 from Caen. Your love for your country no 
 doubt makes you desirous of being in- 
 formed of the unliappy transactions in tliat 
 part of the republic. Grant me an inter- 
 view for a moment. I liave important dis- 
 coveries to make to you." Tlie following 
 day came, and, with a dagger in her bo- 
 som, she proceeded to the house of Marat, 
 who, just on the point of coming out of his 
 bath, immediately gave orders that she 
 should be admitted. The assemblies at Cal- 
 vados were the first subjects of conversation, 
 and Marat heard with eagerness tlie naniea 
 of those who were present at them. " All 
 these," he exclaimed, " shall be guillotined." 
 At these words Charlotte plunged lier dagger 
 into his bosom, and lie instantly expired, 
 uttering the words, " To me, my friend ! " 
 Meanwhile the maid remained calm and 
 tranquil as the priestess before the altar, in 
 the midst of the tumult and confusion. Slie 
 was afterwards conducted as a prisoner to 
 the Abbaye. A young man, who begged to 
 die in her place, was also condemned to 
 death. Her first care was to implore the 
 forgiveness of her father for disposing of her 
 life without his knowledge. She then wrote 
 to Barbaroux as follows : " To-morrow, at 
 5 o'clock, my trial begins, and on the same 
 day I hope to meet with Brutus and the 
 other patriots in elysium." She appeared 
 before the revolutionary tribunal with a 
 Signified air, and her replies were firm and 
 noble. She spoke of her deed as a duty 
 which she owed lier country. Her defender 
 (Chaveau Lagarde), full of astonishment at 
 such courage, cried out, " You hear the ac- 
 cused herself I She confesses her crime ; 
 she admits that she has coolly reflected upon 
 it ; she conceals no circumstance of it ; and 
 she wishes for no defence. This unshaken 
 calmness, this total abandonment of herself, 
 these appearances of the utmost internal 
 
 210 
 
 tranquillity, are not natural ! Such appear- 
 ances are not to be explained only by that 
 political fanaticism, which armed her hand 
 with the dagger. To you then, gentlemen 
 of the jury, it belongs to judge of what 
 weight this moral view may be in the scale 
 of justice 1 " His words could make no im- 
 pression on the minds of the judges. She 
 was condemned, and led to the scaffold ; 
 retaining her calmness and presence of mind 
 to the last, though pursued by the crowd 
 with yells and shouts of execration. She 
 was born at St. Saturnin, near Seez, in Nor- 
 mandy, 1768 ; and suffered by the guillotine, 
 July 17. 1703. 
 
 CORDIER, Mathhrix, an eminent pro- 
 fessor at Taris in the 16th century, better 
 known by liis Latin name, Cordekius ; 
 author of the "Colloquies" so much used 
 in the education of youth, and various other 
 works. Died, 1,564. 
 
 CORDLNER, Charles, an antiquarian 
 and topographical writer, was born at Peter- 
 head in 1746. He completed his education 
 at King's College, Aberdeen, and was soon 
 after admitted to the order of priesthood by 
 Dr. Traill of Down and Connor. He was 
 afterwards appointed to the charge of St. 
 Andrew's Episcopal Chapel, Banff. Mr. 
 Cordiner was the first of the clergy of English 
 ordination who united with the Scottish 
 Episcopal Church after the abrogation of 
 tlie very remarkable and severe penal laws 
 passed in the reign of George II., and abo- 
 lished under the more paternal government 
 of George III. He early displaj-ed a taste 
 for drawing and painting, which he culti- 
 vated afterwards as an amusement for his 
 leisure liours ; and, during his residence at 
 Banff, he designed the paintings of the win- 
 dows of the mausoleum of Duff House for 
 the Earl of Fife. He was also devotedly 
 attached to the study of antiquities, more 
 especially those of the northern parts of 
 Scotland. He was introduced to Mr. Pen- 
 nant, when on his tour througli Scotland, 
 and at his suggestion he was induced to 
 write "The Picturesque Scenery and An- 
 tiquities of the North of Scotland," 1780, 
 London, 1 vol. 4to ; in a series of letters 
 to Mr. Pennant, being a continuation or 
 supplement of such places in the north of 
 Scotland which had not been visited by that 
 gentleman in the course of his tour. The 
 engravings which accompany this work are 
 from designs by Mr. Cordiner, and are much 
 admired for their accuracv. He died at 
 Banff, 19th November, 1794," aged 48. 
 
 CORDOVA, Jose M., general in chief of 
 the auxiliary Colombian army in Bolivia, 
 who repeatedly distinguished himself by his 
 bravery, and was for a long time the faith- 
 ful adherent of Bolivar ; but he set up the 
 standard of revolt in Antioquia, where he 
 was attacked by General O'Leary, and slain, 
 Nov. 17. 1829. 
 
 CORELLI, Archangelo, a Bolognese 
 musician and composer. His fame chiefly 
 rests upon his solos, which are considered 
 a complete standard work for forming the 
 hand of young violinists. Died, 1713. 
 
 CORIATE, or CORYATE, Thomas, an 
 English traveller and writer. For a consi- 
 derable time he held a situation in the 
 
cob] 
 
 ^ ^ctD SantfatriSal 3Bidfitajj!)s. 
 
 [cor 
 
 1 household of Prince Henry, son of James I., 
 I and was so remarkable for oddity and ec- 
 : centricity, that, as Anthoiiy Wood remarks, 
 ! " he was the whetstone for all tlie wits of 
 I tlie age." In 1(508 he commenced a pedes- 
 I trian tour of Europe ; and having walked 
 j '900 miles with one pair of shoesi, he hung 
 I them up, on his return, in the parish church 
 I of his native place, Odcombe, in Somerset- 
 I shire. This eccentric traveller, who is said 
 j to have introduced into England the use of 
 ; table forks, published " Crudities hastily 
 gobbled up in Five Months' Travel in France, 
 ', Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, Germany, 
 I and the Netherlands ; " " Coriate's Crambe, 
 I or his Colewort twice Sodden," "Traveller 
 j for the English Wits," and " A I-etter from 
 ! the Court of the Great Mogul." He died 
 j while travelling in the East Indies, in 1617. 
 I CORILLA, Maria Marelina Fernax- 
 ' PEZ, a celebrated improvisatrice. Her abi- 
 lities, both as a poetess and a musician, 
 were very great, and so versatile, that a 
 mere enumeration of the subjects upon which 
 ehe could extemporise would demand more 
 space than we can afford. She became a 
 member of the academy of the Arcadi at 
 Rome, and was solemnly crowned at the 
 accession of Pius VI. She was married to a 
 signor Morelli, of Leghorn ; but her conduct 
 after marriage was very unwortliy of her 
 great genius. Died, 1800. 
 
 CORINNA, a celebrated poetess, to whom 
 the Greeks gave the appellation of the Lyric 
 Muse. She composed a great number of 
 poems, of which only a few fragments have 
 come down to us ; and five times obtained 
 the poetic wreath from her great competitor, 
 Pindar. She flourished in the 5th century 
 B.C., and a tomb was erected to her memory 
 in her native city, Tanagra, in Bccotia. 
 
 CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcjus, was a 
 descendant of the patrician family of the 
 Marcii, and was from an early age distin- 
 guished for the courage and pride so much 
 prized by the Romans. In a war with the 
 Volscians, the Romans besieging Corioli, 
 the capital of the Volscians, were driven 
 back to their lines. Marcius rallied his 
 countrymen, pursued the enemy, and pos- 
 sessed liimself of Corioli ; for which he was 
 rewarded with a large share of the spoil, 
 and with the surname of Coriolanus. Sub- 
 sequently, in disputes which took place be- 
 tween the patricians and plebeians, Corio- 
 lanus made himself so obnoxious to the 
 latter, that he was banished. Stung by the 
 ingratitude of his countrymen, he joined the 
 Volscians, and, jointly with TuUus Aufidius, 
 led a numerous army against Rome. He 
 had encamped within five miles of the city, 
 and its ruin seemed inevitable, when, at 
 tlie urgent entreaties of his mother, he with- 
 drew his army. It is generally supposed 
 that, in a tumult of the enraged Volscians, 
 he was assassinated as a traitor to their 
 cause ; but the historian Fabius affirms that 
 he lived many years after this event, b. c. 
 448. 
 
 CORNARO, LcDovico, a Venetian noble, 
 whose precepts derive great force from the 
 
 food result of his own practice of them, 
 [aving greatly injured his health by too 
 free indulgence in the pleasures of the 
 
 table, he had the resolution entirely to 
 abandon that indulgence, and to restrict 
 himself to 12 ounces of food aud 14 ounces of 
 wine in the 24 hours. Having by this re- 
 gimen restored himself to health, he wrote 
 various treatises recommendatory of the 
 system from which he had derived so much 
 benefit. Besides these, which are collected 
 under the title of " Discorsi della Vita 
 Sobria," he wrote " Trattato delle Acque." 
 He commenced his dietary rule when he 
 was 40, and died at the great age of 104, in 
 1566. 
 
 CORNEILLE, Pierre, the greatest of 
 the French dramatic poets. He was bom 
 at Rouen in 1606, and for some time prac- 
 tised in that city as an advocate. His first 
 dramatic performance was " M^lite," a 
 comedy, which met with such distinguished 
 success, that he was encouraged to devote 
 his rare powers to the drama. The tragedies 
 of " Medea," " The Cid." " The Horatii," 
 and " Cinna," followed, and established for 
 their author a pre-eminent station among 
 French dramatists. Besides the foregoing, 
 he wrote many other tragedies ; and trans- 
 lated Thomas A Kempis, " On the Imitation 
 of Jesus Christ." It is melancholy to reflect 
 that the great Corneille, who had achieved 
 fame equally for himself ami his country's 
 literature, ended his days in po^-erty and 
 distress. Died, 1684. 
 
 CORNEILLE, Thomas, brother of the 
 preceding, and also a fertile and successful 
 dramatist, was born in 1625. Several of his 
 tragedies are admirable ; in fact, there seems 
 to be a good deal of truth in Voltaire's asser- 
 tion, that Thomas Corneille would have had 
 a great reputation, if he had not had a great 
 brother. Besides dramatic works, he wrote 
 a ** Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," a " Geo- 
 graphical and Historical Dictionary," and 
 a translation of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. 
 Died, 1708. 
 
 CORNELIA, an illustrious Roman lady. 
 She was daughter of Scipio Africanus, wife 
 of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and mo- 
 ther of the two famous tribunes. She was 
 of a grave and dignified deportment, and 
 possessed so great a control over her feelings, 
 that when a friend condoled with her on the 
 death of her sons, she replied, " The woman 
 who had the Gracchi for sons cannot be con- 
 sidered unfortunate." Her literary talents 
 must have been considerable, as Cicero very 
 highly commends some of her epistles. She 
 flourished in the second century b.c, and 
 after her death the Romans erected a statue 
 to her memory, bearing the inscription, " To 
 Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi." 
 
 CORNELISZ, or CORNELIUS, Lucas, a 
 Dutch painter, who came to England, and 
 was much employed by Henry VIII., who 
 appointed him his painter. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Sir Charles, an able 
 English statesman. He was sent to Spain 
 as ambassador from James I., and was trea- 
 surer to that king's son, Prince Henry. Died, 
 1630. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis of, 
 son of the first Earl Cornwallis, was born 
 in 1738, and entered the army as soon as he 
 had completed his education at Cambridge. 
 In America he acted a conspicuous part. 
 
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 ^ ^tia ^nihtxSaX 28iOflrapIjj|. 
 
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 and greatly distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Brandywine, and at the siege of 
 Charlestown. After gaining the important 
 battles of Camden and Guildford he deter- 
 mined to invade Virginia ; but his plans 
 failing, and owing, as he affirmed, to the 
 inefficient conduct of Sir Henry Clinton, 
 upon ■whom he had relied for support, he 
 and his army were made prisoners. In 1786 
 he was made governor-general and com- 
 mander-in-chief in India. The government 
 of Bengal found it necessary to uphold the 
 rajah of Travancore against the sultan of 
 the Mysore, and the first campaign being 
 unsuccessful, in 1791 he invaded the Mysore, 
 besieged Seringapatam, and compelled Tip- 
 poo Sahib to submit to the humiliating terms 
 imposed on him by his conqueror. Having 
 performed this important service. Lord Corn- 
 wallis returned to England, was raised to the 
 rank of marquis, and made master-general 
 of the ordnance. In 1798 he was sent to 
 Ireland as lord lieutenant ; and in the trying 
 and terrible scenes of the rebellion so con- 
 ducted himself as to gain the good opinion 
 of the public, while vigorously upholding and 
 vindicating the laws. In 1801 his lord-lieu- 
 tenancy expired, and he was sent on a mission 
 to France, where, in 1802, he signed the peace 
 of Amiens. In 1804, he was a second time 
 appointed governor-general of India ; but 
 his arduous services had now completely 
 worn out his frame, and he died, soon after 
 his arrival in India, at Ghazepore, in the 
 province of Benares, in 1805. 
 
 CORONELLI, ViNCXNT, a Venetian eccle- 
 siastic, and a professor of geography and 
 roathematics. He was the author of a very 
 extensive atlas, and the founder of the geo- 
 graphical society at Venice, Died, 1718. 
 
 CORREA DA SERRA, JosEnt Fraxcis, 
 a botanist, and the founder of the Academy of 
 Sciences at Lisbon, was born at Serra, Por- 
 tugal, in 1750. Having gone to France just 
 previous to the revolution, and been intimate 
 with Broussouet, the naturalist, he was 
 charged with being a Jacobin and freemason, 
 and compelled to fly his country, in order to 
 escape from the fangs of the Inquisition, In 
 181(5 he was sent to the United States as 
 Portuguese envoy ; re-called in 1819, to be a 
 member of finance ; and died in 1823, 
 
 CORREGGIO, AsTONio Allegri da, a 
 painter of transcendant ability, was bom in 
 14»t, at Correggio, in the duchy of Modena. 
 He is the founder of the Lombard School, 
 and unrivalled by all competitors for the 
 grace and loveliness of his figures, and the 
 exquisite harmony of his colouring. An 
 absurd story, since disproved, was long cur- 
 rent illustrative of his poverty, and the ill 
 usage he met with from the ecclesiastics of 
 Parma, for the cathedral of Which city he 
 painted the " Assumption of the Virgin," 
 and other noted pictures. Died, 1534. 
 
 CORRI, DoMENico, an Italian musician 
 and composer. Having settled in England 
 he produced '• The Travellers, or Music's 
 Fascination." He also published a variety 
 of songs and other compositions, but his re- 
 putation is chiefly founded upon " The Tra- 
 vellers." Died, 1825. 
 
 CORSLNI, Edward, an Italian monk, pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and metaphysics at Pisa ; 
 
 2J2 
 
 author of " Philosophical and Mathematical 
 Institutions," in six volumes ; " Elementary 
 Geometry," several classical works, " A 
 History of the University of Pisa," &c. Died, 
 1765. 
 
 CORTEZ, or CORTES, Ferkattdo, the 
 conqueror of Mexico, was born, in 1485, at 
 Medelin, in Estremadura, and, after studying 
 the law, quitted it for the military profession. 
 In 1511 he went with Velasquez to Cuba ; 
 and the conquest of Mexico being determined 
 upon, Cortez obtained the command of the 
 expedition for that purpose. In 1518 he set 
 sail with 700 men in 10 vessels ; and on land- 
 ing at Tabasco he caused his vessels to be 
 burned, in order that his soldiers might have 
 no other resource than their own valour. 
 Having conquered the Tlascalans, and in- 
 duced them to become his allies, he marched 
 towards Mexico, where he was amicably re- 
 ceived ; but having seized upon their inca, 
 Montezuma, and treated the people with the 
 utmost insolence, the Mexicans first mur- 
 mured, and then resisted. Cortez besieged 
 the city of Mexico ; and in the desperate 
 strnggle which ensued, it is said that upwards 
 of 100,000 of the faithful and unfortunate 
 Mexicans were killed or perished by famine. 
 Having reduced the devoted city, Cortez 
 completely overran the ^Mexican territories ; 
 in doing which he committed atrocities 
 which would be incredible if related on any 
 less irrefragable testimonies than those which 
 compel our belief. In reward for the addi- 
 tion he bad made to the wealth of Spain, he 
 had a grant of land and the title of marquis ; 
 but on returning he found that the court of 
 Madrid were become jealous of his power, 
 and treated him with cold neglect. Died, 
 1554. 
 
 CORTONA, PiETRODA, properly Pietro 
 Berrettini. an Italian painter. He was 
 a native ofCortona, in Tuscany, and at an 
 early age was placed under the tuition of ! 
 Baccio Ciarpi at Rome. The Barberini I 
 palace, the new works at the Vatican, and 
 many of the churches of Rome, were deco- | 
 rated by him ; and at Florence he adorned i 
 the Pitti palace for the Grand-duke Ferdi- 
 nand II. In addition to being an eminent 
 painter, he was almost equally eminent as 
 an architect. Died, 1669. 
 
 CORVISART, JoHir Nicholas, an emi- 
 nent French physician, was born in 1755. 
 He was intended for the law, but his pre- 
 dilection for medical science induced his 
 friends to change his destination. He was 
 chief physician to Napoleon, who made 
 him a baron, and an officer of the legion of 
 honour. Nor was his great merit over- 
 looked by the Bourbons, the place of ho- 
 norary member of the royal academy of 
 medicine being conferred on him a short 
 time previous to his death, which happened 
 in 1821 . He was the author of some valuable 
 medical books, and translated others. 
 
 C08IN, JoHJf, a learned, pious, and cha- 
 ritable prelate, was born at Norwich, in 1594, 
 and educated at Cambridge. In 1640 he was 
 made dean of Peterborough ; but the Puri- 
 tans deprived him of his preferments, and 
 even went the length of impeaching him on 
 a charge of being inclined to popery. On 
 this he retired to France, where he remained 
 
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 ^ lieto ^nCticriSal 3Bt0(irajplb!?» 
 
 [cot 
 
 until the restoration of Charles II., who 
 raised him to the see of Durham, Among 
 his writings are "A History of Transub- 
 stantiation " and " A Scholastical History 
 of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures." Died, 
 1672. 
 
 COSMAS, sumamed Indicopleustes, a 
 celebrated merchant of Alexandria, living 
 in the 6th century ; who, after making a 
 voyage to India, and writing sereral books 
 on cosmography, quitted commerce and 
 became a monk. 
 
 COSMO I., grand-duke of Tuscany, bom 
 in 1519, was the son of John de Medici ; and 
 on the assassination of Alexander, chief of 
 the house of Medici, was elected head of the 
 republic of Florence, though strenuously 
 opposed by a party who favoured the Floren- 
 tine exiles. Several attempts were made to 
 shake the power of Cosmo, but he succeeded 
 in defeating them ; and it was probably in 
 order to secure himself able and rcalous 
 defenders in case of open revolt, that he 
 instituted the military order of the Knights 
 of St. Stephen. He restored tlic university 
 of Pisa, and held out tl»e most liberal en- 
 couragement to men of scientific and literary 
 eminence to settle there as professors. He 
 also founded tl»e academy of Florence, 
 established its gallery of paintings, and per- 
 formed many other wise and honourable 
 actions ; thus procuring himself a celebrity 
 «nd influence which probal)ly he would in 
 vain have sought by the more dazzling, but 
 infinitely less useful, achievements of the 
 warrior. After a prosiierous reign of 34 
 years, lie died in 1.574. 
 
 COSTA, Emanx^el Mkndez da, a learned 
 naturalist, foreign secretary to the Royal 
 Society ; author of " A Natural History of 
 Fossils, " " Elements of Conchology," and 
 of various useful papers in the Philosophical 
 Transactions. 
 
 COSTA FURTADO DE MENDOCA, 
 HiPPOLYTO Joseph da, a Portuguese gen- 
 tleman of sdentiflc and literary attainments, 
 who, being charged with freemasonry, woa 
 thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at 
 Lisbon. Here he was repeatedly examined. 
 And his answers not being satisfactory to his 
 persecutors, he was remanded to his dungeon, 
 with little prospect that his sufleriiigs would 
 terminate otherwise than in death. By one 
 of those fortunate accidents which some- 
 times make " truth stranger than fiction," 
 his cell was left open, and he was enabled 
 to possess himself of a bunch of keys which 
 opened every lot-.k that was between him 
 and liberty. Having taken these keys, and 
 a, book which lay beside them, he made his 
 escape ; and after lying hidden several weeks 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of his late 
 dungeon, he found means to embark for 
 England. The book which he brought from 
 ills prison contained, iater alia, notes of his 
 examinations before the inquisitors ; and 
 soon after his arrival he published a nar- 
 rative of the persecutions he had under- 
 gone, the aecount of his examinations being 
 taken from the official document of which 
 lie had thus oddly become possessed. His 
 talents, and the interest excited by his ad- 
 ventures, obtained him considerable notice, 
 aad he became foreign secretary to tlie 
 
 Duke of Sussex, and charge d'affaires in this 
 country for the Brazilian government. Died, 
 1824. 
 
 COSTANZA, Angelo di, a Neapolitan 
 poet, of noble birth ; author of sonnets and 
 other poems, and of " Istoria del Regno di 
 Napoli," containing the history of Naples 
 from 12.'» to 1489. Died, 1591. 
 
 COSTARD, George, a learned English 
 divine ; author of " Letters on the Astrono- 
 my of the Ancients," a treatise on "The 
 Use of Astronomy in Chronology and His- 
 tory," " A Commentary on tlie Book of 
 Job," &c. Born, 1710 ; died, 1782. 
 
 C08TE, PiEKUK, a learned French Pro- 
 testant, for some time resident in England, 
 and who acted as amanuensis to Locke, but 
 subsequently returned to his own countrj'. 
 He translated into French Locke's Reason- 
 ableness of Christianity, Newton's Optics, &c. 
 He also wrote the " Life of the Great Condu." 
 Died, 1747. 
 
 COSTER, Lavkenck Jansen, a native of 
 Haerlem, in Holland, to whom his country- 
 men ascribed the invention of the art of 
 printing, in the year 14;}0. The Germans, 
 however, with sufficient proof assert, that 
 the merit is due to Guttemberg, Coster 
 having merely used wooden blocks, and not, 
 as Junius asserts, metal types. Born, 1370 ; 
 died. 14,39. 
 
 COSWAY, RtCHARD, an eminent English 
 artist. He painted miniatures admirably, 
 and was almost equally great as an oil 
 painter. He was much admired and em- 
 ployed as an artist, and highly esteemed as 
 a man, in despite of the most preposterous 
 mysticism and a host of credulous eccentri- 
 cities, which he constantly indulged in to 
 such a degree, that it is but charitable to 
 suppose they had their source in a disordered 
 imagioatian. He was one of the oldest 
 members of tl>e Roj^l Academy, and died at 
 the age of !)0, in 1821. 
 
 COTELIER, Johw, a learned French di- 
 vine and critic ; the author of " Ecclesia 
 Graecaj Monumenta," and the coadjutor of 
 Du Cange in making a catalogue of the 
 Greek MSS. in the royal library at Paris. 
 Died, 1686. 
 
 COTES, Francis, an English artist of 
 great eminence as a portrait painter, as well 
 in oil as in <:rayons. Died, 1770. 
 
 COTIN, Charles, a French poet of the 
 17th century, chiefly known now from the 
 satires levelled at him by Boileau and Mo- 
 liere. He was counsellor and almoner to 
 the king, and a member of the French aca- 
 demy. Born, 1604 ; died, 1682. 
 
 COTOLENDI, CuAitLES, a French advo- 
 cate ; author of " Biographies of S. Francis 
 de Sales, Columbus, and Madame de Mont- 
 morenci," and other works. Died, 1701. 
 
 COTTA, J. G., Baron, an eminent book- 
 seller of Germany, and the proprietor of 
 the Allgemeine Zeitung, a political daily 
 paper, as well as of several others devoted 
 to literature and the arts, was bom at Stutt- 
 gard, in 1764 ; for many years carried on an 
 extensive and flourishing concern ; and died 
 in 1802. 
 
 COTTERELL, Sir Charles, an excellent 
 linguist and scholar of the 17th century. He 
 was master of the requests to Charles II., &o 
 
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 ^ ^efio ^nihtt&Kl 23iflsrapf)ii. 
 
 [coti 
 
 oiRce which was filled by his descendants for 
 several generations. He translated the ro- 
 mance of Cassandra from tlie Frencli, besides 
 some works from the Spanish and Italian. 
 Died, 1087. 
 
 COTTIN, SopuiA DE, an accomplished 
 French lady; authoress of "Matilde," 
 "Claire d'Albe," the well known and 
 highly popular " Elizabeth, ou les Exiles de 
 Siberia," &c. Born, 1773 ; died, 1807. 
 
 COTTON, Charles, an English poet of 
 the 17 th century ; author of " Scarronides, 
 or Virgil Travestie ; " a supplement to 
 Walton's Treatise on Angling, and a vo- 
 lume of original poems, &c. He also trans- 
 lated Cornell le's tragedy of the Horatii 
 and Montaigne's Essays. Born, 1G30 ; died, 
 1(587. 
 
 COTTON, Nathaniel, an English ph;^- 
 sician and poet ; author of " Visions in 
 Verse for the Instruction of Younger Minds." 
 He for some years kept a lunatic asylum at 
 St. Alban's, and the poet Cowper was for a 
 time one of its inmates. Born, 1707 ; died, 
 
 COTTON, Sir Robeet Bruck, a distin- 
 guished English antiquarian, was bom at 
 Denton, in Huntingdonshire, in 1570. In 
 1629 he was brought before the privy council, 
 in consequence of a political treatise of liis 
 in MS. being lent by liis librarian, the con- 
 tents of which gave so much offence at court, 
 that although Sir Robert was unaware of his 
 librarian'sconduct, he was sent to the Tower. 
 He wrote "The Antiquity and Dignity of 
 Parliaments ; " and assisted, both with his 
 literary treasures and his purse. Speed, 
 Camden, and other writers on British ar- 
 chaaology. His valuable library is now in the 
 British Museum. Died, 1631. 
 
 COTUGNO, DoMENico, an Italian phy- 
 sician and anatomist ; author of " De Aqua- 
 ductibus Auris humana; internai Disser- 
 tatio," &c. He discovered that part of the 
 organ of hearing which is named after him 
 Aqueductus Cotunii. Died, 1822. 
 
 COUDRETTE, Cukistoi-her, a French 
 priest, and a very able opponent of the 
 Jesuits ; author o^ " A General History of 
 , the Jesuits," "Memoirs relative to the 
 I Formulary," &c. His bold and liberal tone 
 of thought caused him to be twice impri- 
 soned ; at Venice in 173.5, and at Paris, in 
 the Bastile, in 1738. Died, 1774. 
 
 COULOMB, Charles Augustin de, a 
 French philosopher and officer of engineers, 
 to whose scientific labours many discoveries 
 in electricity and magnetism are owing. 
 He was born at Angouleme in 1736, and died 
 in 1806. 
 
 COUPLET, Philip, a Flemish Jesuit and 
 missionary to China ; author of " Clirono- 
 logical Tables of Chinese History," " A 
 Treatise on the Philosophy of Confucius," 
 &c. He died, while on a second voyage to 
 China, in 1693. 
 
 COURAYER, Petek Francis le, a Nor- 
 man ecclesiastic, was bom in 1681. Al- 
 though of the Catholic Church, he wrote 
 zealously and ably in defence of the ordi- 
 nances of the Church of England, which 
 work was formally censured by an assem- 
 bly of French cardinals and nrchbisliops ; 
 and Courayer consequently left France for 
 
 England. Here he was well received, and 
 the University of Oxford conferred the de- 
 gree of LL.D. upon him. Died, 1776. 
 
 COURIER, Paul Louis, a witty and able 
 French writer, Avas born in 1774. He served 
 for some time as an officer in the army ; but 
 his republican principles prevented his ad- 
 vancement under Buonaparte ; and after 
 the battle of Wagram, he threw up his com- 
 mission, and resided for some time in Italy. 
 On his return to France his name became 
 notorious as the author of several admirable 
 political pamphlets, but his career was cut 
 short by assassination, in 1825. 
 
 COURT AN VAUX, Francis Cesar le 
 Tellier, Marquis de, a French military 
 officer, and also a distinguished natural 
 philosojiher. He served with great ability 
 and courage in Bavaria and Bohemia under 
 his uncle, tlie Marshal de Noailles ; but was 
 obliged to quit the service in 1745 on account 
 of ill health. He then devoted his time to 
 science, and became a member of the 
 acadtmy. He was a good astronomer and 
 mechanician. Died, 1781. 
 
 COLTRT DE GEBELIN, Anthony, a na- 
 tive of France, minister of the reformed 
 church at Lausanne, in Switzerland ; author 
 of " Le Monde Primitif analyse et compariS 
 avec le Monde Moderne," a pamphlet in 
 praise of animal magnetism, &c. Died, 
 1784. He twice received the prize of 1200 
 livres annually given by the French aca- 
 demy. 
 
 COURTILZ, Gamen de, a French mili- 
 tary officer, remarkable for his strong pre- 
 dilection for literature. His works are " The 
 Annals of Paris," "A History of the Dutch 
 War," "The Lives of Coligni, Turenne, 
 and Rochfort," &c. Some of his opinions 
 giving offence to the court, he was thrown 
 into the Bastile, where he jemaiaed nine 
 years. Died, 1712. 
 
 COURT'NEY, John, a member of the 
 noble Devonshire family bearing that name, 
 was bom in Ireland, and became secretary 
 to Marquis Townshend when lord-lieuten- 
 ant. Being elected member of parliament 
 for Tamworth, he attached himself to the 
 Whig party, and was a commissioner of the 
 treasury in the Fox ministry of 1806. He 
 was a witty and eloquent speaker, and also 
 distinguished himself as an author by his 
 " Poetical Review of the Literary and Mo- 
 ral Character of Dr. Johnson," "Philoso- 
 phical Reflections on the French Revolu- 
 tion," &c. Died, 1816. 
 
 COURTNEY, William, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, bom, 1341. He was the fourth 
 son of Hugh Courtney, earl of Devonshire, 
 and Margaret, daughter of Edward I. In 
 1376, then being bishop of London, he dis- 
 tinguished himself by a violent opposition 
 to the king's demand for a subsidy. In 1381 
 he became archbishop of Canterbury and 
 lord high chancellor, in which office he 
 showed a rancorous spirit of persecution 
 against the Wickliffites. His character was 
 resolute and arrogant ; and though he pro- 
 fessed a desire to support the king and the 
 people against the encroachments of the 
 pope, his actions invariably showed that he 
 was in heart a domineering prelate, thorough- 
 ly devoted to Rome, and caring little for the 
 
 214 
 
dignity of the crown, or the weal of the 
 people. Died, 1396. 
 
 COURTOIS, James, sumamed II Bor- 
 GONONE, a French painter, especially emi- 
 nent in battle-pieces. His wife dying of 
 poison, which lie was suspected of liaving 
 administered, he took the habit of a lay 
 brother of the Jesuits, with whom, though 
 he still practised his art, he remained till his 
 death. in 1G76. 
 
 COURTOIS, William, brother of the 
 above, and also an eminent painter. Heex- 
 ce41ed in liistorical pieces, and assisted his 
 brother in some of his works. Died, 1679. 
 
 COUSIN, John, a native of France, and 
 generally regarded as the earliest French 
 historica"! painter. He chiefly painted on 
 glass, but his " Last Judgment," painted on 
 canvass for tlie convent of the Minions at 
 Vineennes, is esteemed an excellent work. 
 He was the author of** Livre de Perspective," 
 and some other treatises connected with the 
 art. Died, 1.J90. 
 
 COUSIN, Louis, a French advocate and 
 miscellaneous writer ; author of transla- 
 tions from Eusehius and other early church 
 historians, &c. He also edited tiie Journal 
 des Savans, from 1687 to 1701. Born, 1627 ; 
 died, 1707. 
 
 COUSTON, Nicholas and William, 
 brothers ; two French sculptors of consider- 
 able eminence in their profession : the former 
 born at Lyons, in 1658 ; died, 1733 : the latter 
 born in 1678 ; died, 1746. 
 
 COUTHON, George, a French advocate 
 and president of the court of justice at 
 Clermont. Becoming a member of the le- 
 gislative assembly and of the national con- 
 vention, .he voted for the trial and death of 
 Louis XVI.; and after hesitating awliile as 
 to the party with which he should act, gave 
 in his adhesion to that of Robespierre. When 
 troops were sent against Lyons, he was com- 
 missioner from the convention, and gave 
 with his own hand the signal for tlie de- 
 struction of the noble buildings of that de- 
 voted city. Sharing the power and par- 
 ticipating in the atrocities of Robespierre, he 
 was also involved in his ruin. Guillotined, 
 1794. 
 
 COUTTS, Thomas, a London banker, emi- 
 nent for his wealth and connexions. He 
 came from Scotland at an early age ; and 
 from being a junior partner in a mercantile 
 house in the city, rose to be one of the most 
 considerable bankers in England. He was 
 twice married ; ttrst to Susan Starkie, by 
 whom he had three daughters ; Susan, mar- 
 ried,in 1796, to the Earl of Guildford; Frances, 
 married, in 1800, to the Marquis of Bute ; 
 and Sophia, married, in 1793, to Sir Francis 
 Burdett. In 1815 his first wife died ; and, 
 three months afterwards, he married Harriet 
 Mellon, an actress of some celebrity, to whom 
 he bequeathed the whole of his immense pro- 
 perty, consisting of 60O,0O0Z. in personals, 
 besides real estates in lands and houses, to a 
 great amount. He died in 1821, aged 86 ; and 
 Jus widow in due time bestowed her hand 
 and fortune on the youthful Duke of St. 
 Al ban's. 
 
 COUVREUR, Adrie.vne le, a celebrated 
 French actress. Slie was tlie mistress of the 
 great Marshal Soxc, and when that celebrated 
 
 21.5 
 
 commander was in great distress for money 
 and troops, she pledged her plate and jewels 
 for 40,000 livrcs, and sent the money to him. 
 Died, 1730. 
 
 COVELL, JoHX, D. D., a learned English 
 divine. He was for some time chaplain to 
 the English embassy in Turkey, and, while 
 resident in that country, obtained much va- 
 luable knowledge on the early constitution 
 of the Greek Church, on which subject, when 
 he returned to England, he published a very 
 valuable work. Died, 1722. 
 
 COVENTRY, Henry, author of " T>etters 
 of Philemon to Hydaspes," and one of the 
 authors of the well-kuowu " Athenian Let- 
 ters." Died, 1752. 
 
 COVENTRY, JoHK, a skilful, self-taught 
 English mechanician, whose genius led him 
 to make experiments in mechanics. He in- 
 vented an hygrometer, which met with the 
 approbation of the Royal Society, and was 
 presented to the king. Subsequently he em- 
 ployed himself in drawing micrometers on 
 ivory and glass ; and to such a perfection 
 did he bring them, that his squares were 
 only the millionth part of an inch super- 
 ficial. He also made two chamber organs, 
 telescopes of extraordinary power, and some 
 balances for the assaying of gold, of such 
 nicety that they would weigh to the 
 thousandth part of a grain. Died, 1812. 
 
 COVENTRY, Thomas, lord keci)er of the 
 great seal in the reign of Charles I., was the 
 son of Thomas Coventry, a justice of the 
 court of common pleas. He was born in 
 1578 ; educated at Baliol College, Oxford ; 
 studied the law in the Inner Temple j and 
 having by various gradations become soli- 
 citor-general, attorney-general, and lord 
 keeper, in 1628, he was raised to the peerage ; 
 and, according to the character given of him 
 by Clarendon, he was well worthy of his 
 great and uninterrupted success. 
 
 COVENTRY, William, son of the above. 
 He was knighted in 166.5, and made a com- 
 missioner of tlie treasury in 1667 ; but having 
 offended the Duke of Buckingham, he was 
 forbidden to apijear at court. On this he 
 retired to his seat in Oxfordshire, and passed 
 the remainder of his life in privacy. He 
 was author of several works of a political 
 tendency, but not now worth enumerating. 
 Died, 1(586. 
 
 COVEKDALE, Miles, an English divine, 
 and one of the earliest reformers. He wiis 
 educated at Cambridge, and became a canon 
 of the order of St. Augustin. Having em- 
 braced the reformed doctrines he went 
 abroad, and, in 1532, joined William Tyn- 
 dale in translating the Scriptures. On his 
 return to England he was made almoner to 
 queen Catharine, and subsequently bishop 
 of Exeter. On the accession of queen Mary 
 he retired to the Continent, but returned on 
 the accession of Elizabeth. He died in 1580, 
 aged 81. 
 
 COWARD, William, an English physi- 
 cian, and author of " Thoughts on the Hu- 
 man Soul ; demonstrating the Notion of the 
 Human Soul united to the Human Body to 
 be an Invention of the Heathens, and not 
 consonant to the Principles of Philosophy or 
 Reason." This work excited considerable 
 indignation among the more zealous divines, 
 
cow] 
 
 ^ ^etu WinihiviKl Btcgraplj^. 
 
 [cow 
 
 who procured an order to have it burned by 
 tlie common hangman. He died about the 
 year 1722. 
 
 COWELL, JoHX, an English lawyer and 
 antiquary ; author of " The Interpreter," a 
 law dictionary, which was burned by the 
 common hangman on account of some un- 
 constitutional doctrines on the king's pre- 
 rogative, and " The Institutes of the Laws 
 of England." Died, 1611. 
 
 COWLEY, Abraham, an eminent English 
 poet, born in London, 1C18. Educated as a 
 king's scholar at Westminster, he very early 
 evinced a taste and aptitude for poetry ; 
 and, while only in his 17th year, published 
 a volume entitled " Poetical Blossoms," 
 which procured him considerable reputation. 
 In 1()3C he was elected a scholar of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ; where he produced a 
 pastoral comedy, entitled " Love's Riddle," 
 and "Naufragium Joculare," a Latin 
 comedy, which was performed by the mem- 
 bers of his college. He resided at the uni- 
 versity until 1643, when he was ejected by 
 the Puritan visitors, and becanie an active 
 partisan of the royal cause. He was much 
 esteemed by Lord Falkland, and accom- 
 panied the king in several journeys. Wlien 
 the queen left the country he accompanied 
 her majesty, and remained abroad for some 
 years ; during which time he was a chief 
 agent in managing the correspondence be- 
 tween the king and qiieen. In 1656 he re- 
 turned to England, and soon after published 
 a volume containing most of the poems 
 printed in the final collection of his works. 
 Being suspected by the party in power, he 
 was thrown into prison, but released on the 
 bail of Dr. Scarborough. He again went 
 abroad, and was again employed in aiding 
 the royal cause. On the Restoration taking 
 place he was for some time neglected ; but 
 at length, by the interest of the Duke of 
 Buckingham, he obtained the lease of a farm 
 at Chertsev, which produced him about 3001. 
 a year. Died, 1067. 
 
 COWLEY, Hannah, an accomplished 
 English dramatic writer ; authoress of " The 
 Runaway," " The Belle's Stratagem," 
 " More Ways than One," &c., besides some 
 poems and farces. The sprightliness of 
 dialogue, and the variety of characters and 
 incidents which this lady introduced in her 
 dramatic works, evince much versatility 
 of genius. Garrick, it is said, could hardly 
 be persuaded that her first piece was the 
 production of a mere boarding-school girl. 
 Died, 1809. 
 
 COWLEY, Henrv Wellesley, Lord, a 
 distinguished diplomatist, and a scion of that 
 illustrious family of which the Duke of Wel- 
 lington is the last surviving representative, 
 was born 1773. His first public debtit was 
 made as a precis writer in the Foreign Office; 
 he then joined the embassy of Lord Malmes- 
 bury to Lille, where he became initiated in 
 diplomatic aff"airs, and in 1797 he accom- 
 panied his brother Lord Wellesley to India, 
 in the capacity of private secretary. Here 
 he was employed in various offices and mis- 
 sions of great delicacy and responsibility ; 
 but Europe had more attractions for him 
 than the East, and he returned to England 
 in 1804. In 1807 he was returned to parlia- 
 
 ment for Eye, and became one of the secre- 
 taries of the Treasury ; but he did not make 
 any great figure in parliament, and in 1809 
 he exchanged his parliamentary duties for 
 the embassy at Madrid ; a mission which, 
 amid great difficulties and obstructions of 
 all kinds, he fulfilled for thirteen years, to 
 his own increasing reputation, and the wel- 
 fare of his country. In 1823 he went as am- 
 bassador to Vienna ; here he remained till 
 1831 ; and for the ability he displayed there, 
 coupled with his length of service, he was 
 raised to the peerage with the title of baron 
 Cowley — the original patronymic of the 
 Wellesley family. In 1841 he was appointed 
 ambassador to the Tuilleries. This office 
 he held till the fall of Sir Robert Peel's 
 ministry in 1846 ; but, long before this event, 
 his declining health had made his voluntary 
 retirement advisable, and, in fact, he did not 
 sur-vive it above a twelvemonth. Died, 1847. 
 COWPER, William, Earl, an eminent 
 English lawyer, who, after passing through 
 various gradations of office, was raised to 
 the peerage in the reign of queen Anne, by 
 the title of viscount Fordwick, and made 
 lord higli chancellor. Tliis office he resigned 
 in 1710, but accepted it again in 1714. lu 
 
 1717 he was created earl Cowper, and in 
 
 1718 wholly retired from office. During the 
 latter years of his public life, he very ably 
 exerted himself in favour of religious liberty; 
 and particularly in causing a bill to be 
 thrown out, by which Unitarians would have 
 been subject to severe penalties. Died, 1723. 
 
 COWPER, William, a . distinguished 
 English poet, was bom at Berkhampstead, 
 Hertfordshire, in 1731. He was the son of 
 a clergyman of good family, and was at an 
 earlj' age removed from a country school 
 to that of Westminster. Being naturally of 
 a timid temper and slight frame, the rough 
 usage he met with from stronger and less 
 sensitive boys rendered his school a place 
 of complete torture to him, as may be seen 
 from the tone of his " Tirocinium." On 
 quitting school, he was articled to an attor- 
 ney, with whom he remained for three 
 years, and then entered himself of the 
 Middle Temple. He seems, however, to 
 have been by nature unfit for the rough 
 paths of life ; for though tlie interest of his 
 family had procured him the valuable and 
 honourable place of clerk to the House of 
 Lords, his nervousness and mauvatse honte 
 were such, that he was obliged to resign 
 it. He now fell into so terrible a state of 
 nervous and mental debility, that he was 
 for some time placed in the "lunatic asylum 
 of Dr. Cotton. Tlie skill and humanity of 
 that gentleman restored him, and he re- 
 tired to Huntingdon. Here he became ac- 
 quainted with the family of the Reverend 
 Mr. Unwin ; and after that gentleman's 
 death he removed, with Mrs. Unwin, to 
 Olney, Bucks, where he contracted a close 
 friendship with the curate of Olney, the 
 Reverend John Newton, and subsequently 
 with Lady Austen. His natural melancholy 
 gave him so gloomy a view of religion, that 
 his mind was frequently reduced to imbe- 
 cility. While this was the case, the influ- 
 ence of Lady Austen tended to rouse and 
 sustain him ; though that of his other friends 
 
cox] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Slni'ijer^al aSiOffrajpibtn 
 
 [CHA 
 
 seems rather to have increased liis weak- 
 ness, by coinciding with his delusions. But 
 although liis mind was so frequently as- 
 sailed by gloom, and bent down by despond- 
 ency, he was not only a very voluminous 
 writer, but a poet or first-rate merit. In 
 addition to translating Homer, which ))£ 
 did with more accuracy than Pope, if with 
 less polish, he wrote " The Task," — the 
 best of all his poems, — " Tirocinium," and 
 a host of smaller poems ; and translated 
 gome of Madame Guyon's spiritual songs ; 
 and his correspondence, which exhibits him 
 as one of the most elegant of English letter- 
 writers, was extremely voluminous. To- 
 wards the close of his life, his gloom deep- 
 ened into absolute despair, from which he 
 never wholly emerged, and he died, 18()(). 
 Ample justice has of late been done to the 
 poet, in splendid rival editions of his com- 
 plete works, —the one by Dr. Southey, the 
 other by the Rev. T. Grimshawe, botli pub- 
 lished in 1836. 
 
 COX, Mrs. Letitia. The name of this 
 female, who died at Bybrook, in Jamaica, 
 June 2(>. 1838, is inserted here as affording 
 the most surprising instance of longevity to 
 be met with in modern times. By her own 
 account she was a grown-up young woman 
 at the time of the destruction of Port Royal 
 by an earthquake (June 9. 1092), bo that she 
 must have been upwards of KiO years of age. 
 It is worthy of observation also, and esi>c- 
 cially interesting to those who advocate the 
 " temperance " system, that slie declared she 
 never drank anything but water during her 
 whole life. 
 
 COX, RiciiARD, bishop of Ely ; was bom 
 at Whaddon, Bucks, in 1500. While at 
 New College, lie embraced the opinions of 
 the Reformation, and was consequently 
 thrown into gaol, but obtained his release 
 through the influence of Cranmer. He was 
 then made master of Eton School, and 
 subsequently became tutor to Edward VI., 
 in whose reign he was made a privy coun- 
 cillor, almoner to the king, dean of West- 
 minster, and chancellor of Oxford. Dur- 
 ing the reign of Mary he resided abroad ; 
 but returned to England on the accession of 
 Elizabeth, and was made bishop of Ely. He 
 contributed the Gospels, the Acts, and the 
 Epistle to tlie Romans, to the " Bishops' 
 Bible," besides writing various controversial 
 tracts. 
 
 COXE, William, an liistorian and tra- 
 veller, was born in 174". After receiving an 
 university education, he successively accom- 
 panied several young noblemen to the Con- 
 tinent in the capacity of tutor ; and on his 
 return obtained various preferments in the 
 church till he became a canon residentiary 
 of Salisbury and archdeacon of Wilts. He 
 was the author of" Travels in Switzerland ; " 
 " Travels in Poland, Russia, Sweden, and 
 Denmark;" a "History of the House of 
 Austria ; " " Historical Memoirs of the 
 Kings of Spain ; " " Memoirs of Sir Robert 
 Walpole ; " and many other works equally 
 interesting, and valuable for their research 
 and adherence to truth. Died, 1823. 
 
 COYER, Gabriel Francis, a French 
 writer, bom in 1707. His principal works 
 are the " History of John Sobleski," " Travels 
 
 into Italy and Holland," and his translation 
 into French of Blackstone's Commentaries. 
 Died, 1782. 
 
 COYPEL, the name of several eminent 
 French painters. Nokl Coyi'el was born 
 in 1028, and died in 1707. He adorned the 
 old Louvre and the Tuilcries, painted some 
 fine pictures for the council hall of Versailles, 
 and executed several scriptural pieces of 
 great merit. His son, Anthony, was dis- 
 tinguished by the richness of his imagination 
 and the dazzling nature of his colouring ; 
 and his fame laid the foundation for the 
 mannerism of the French school. Died, 
 1721. Noel Nicikilas, usually called Coypel 
 the uTiclf, despised the false glitter of this 
 school, and aimed only at truth and nature. 
 He died in 173.5. Charles Anthony, the 
 son of Anthony, was a decided copyist of 
 his father's manner, and accommodated 
 himself to the prevailing taste of the times 
 for gaudy colouring. Bom, 1694 ; died, 
 1752. 
 
 COYSEVOX, Antoink, a celebrated 
 sculi)tor, was born at Lyons, in 1040, and 
 died at Paris, in 1720. Among his best 
 works are the statue of Cardinal Mazarin, 
 in the museum at Paris ; an equestrian 
 statue of Louis XIV. ; Castor and Pollux, 
 &c. On account of the beauty and anima- 
 tion of his portraits, he was called the Van- 
 dyke of sculpture. 
 
 CRABBE, Rev. George, rector of Trou- 
 bridge, Wilts, and author of" The Library," 
 "The Village," "Tales of the Hall," &c. j 
 a poet, whose " short and Bim])le annals of 
 the i)oor" exhibit an accurate knowledge 
 of human nature, and show that liowever 
 homely or painful the scenes may be which 
 he depicts, there is no want of skill or truth 
 in his representations. He had the good 
 fortime to receive the early patronage of tlie 
 celebrated Eilmund Burke, whicli led to 
 other valuable connections, of whom Dr. 
 Johnson was one ; and eventually to church 
 preferment at the hands of the Duke of 
 Rutland. Born, 1754 ; died, 1832. Crabbe's 
 poetry is distinguished for minuteness of 
 description and close analysis in depicting 
 human character, however dark or dis- 
 gusting ; yet, though searching, minute, and 
 often repulsive, it abounds with vigour, 
 pathos, and originality. An elegant edition 
 of his works, with a life and notes, by his 
 son, was published by ilr. Murray, in 1834. 
 
 CRAIG, John, a Scotch mathematician, 
 of the 17th century j famous for a work en- 
 titled "Theologiae Christianae Principia 
 Mathematica." The object of this curious 
 
 tract is to apply mathematical calculation 
 to the credibility of the gospel history ; j 
 upon which principle he maintains that the I 
 Christian religion must end, according to ] 
 the doctrine of chances, in the year 3150, 
 when our Saviour will make his second 
 appearance ! 
 
 CRAIG, Sir Thomas, an eminent Scotch 
 lawyer, bom in 1,548 ; author of a treatise 
 on feudal law, which has often been re- 
 printed. Died, 1008. 
 
 CRAIG, William, a Scotch judge, and a 
 literary character of no mean ability, was 
 born in 1745, received his education at the 
 university of Glasgow : entered at the bar , 
 
cra] 
 
 ^ f?c&j mnibtvial I3t0sfajpl)u. 
 
 [cra 
 
 in 1768, and succeeded Lord Hailes on the 
 bench in 1792. He was a principal con- 
 tributor to the Mirror, wrote many papers 
 in the Lounger, and numbered among his 
 friends some of tlie most eminent literary 
 men of the age. Died, 1813. 
 
 CRAKANTHORPE, RicqARD, a learned 
 English divine, and tlie author of some able 
 worlcs in support of Protestantism. Died, 
 1624. 
 
 CRAMER, Francis, an eminent musician, 
 was born at Mannlieim, 1772. Under tlie di- 
 rection of his fatlier, formerly leader of the 
 opera band in London, he prosecuted the 
 study of music, for which he had sliown an 
 early predilection. In 1799 he succeeded his 
 father as leader of the Ancient Concerts ; for 
 many years he was alternate leader of the 
 Philharmonic Concerts with Loder, T. Cooke, 
 Weichsels, &c. ; and for upwards of 40 years 
 lield the chief place at the great provincial 
 festivals. Died, 1848. 
 
 CRAMER, Gabriel, an eminent geome- 
 trician ; editor of the works of Wolf and the 
 Bernouillis, and author of several mathe- 
 matical and algebraic works. Born, 1704 ; 
 died, 1752. 
 
 CRAMER, Joiix Andrew, a German 
 mineralogist, was born at Quedlinburg, in 
 1710. He was the first who systematised 
 the art of assaying, upon which subject he 
 wrote a very able work. Died, 1777. 
 
 CRAMER, JoHX Axdrew, a German 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 in Saxony, 1723, but principally resided in 
 Denmark, where he died in 1788. Besides 
 his poems, he wrote " The Northern Spec- 
 tator," and " Sermons," in 22 vols. He also 
 translated Bossuet's Universal History and 
 other works. 
 
 CRAMER, John Anthoxy, D.D., dean 
 of Carlisle, a well-known writer on subjects 
 of classical antiquity, was born in Switzer- 
 land, 1793. He received his education in 
 England, and in 1811 was admitted a student 
 of Christchurch, Oxford, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself, and gradually rose 
 through all the university honours, till, in 
 1831, he was appointed principal of New 
 Ilalllnn. During this period he was actively 
 engaged in literary pursuits ; and his de- 
 scriptions of Ancient Italy, Asia Minor, and 
 Ancient Greece are enduring monuments of 
 his accuracy and research. In 1842 he suc- 
 ceeded Dr. Arnold as regius professor of 
 modern history ; and in 1844 he was nomi- 
 nated to the deanery of Carlisle. IMed, 1848. 
 
 CRANMER, ThoMAS, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, whose life is rendered so memorable 
 by the part he took in the R/'formation, was 
 born at Aslacton, Nottingliamshire, in 1489, 
 and educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. 
 The opinion which he gave on the question 
 of Henry Vlllth's divorce from his first 
 wife, Catharine of Arragon, recommended 
 him to that monarch, who employed him to 
 vindicate the measure, and sent him to the 
 foreign universities to obtain their opinion 
 upon the point. On Cranmer's return, the 
 king raised him to the archbishopric of Can- 
 terbury, in which oflice he zealously promo- 
 ted the cause of the Reformation. Through 
 his means the Bible was translated and read 
 in churches ; and he greatly aided in sup- 
 
 pressing the monastic institutions. In 1536, 
 when Anna Boleyn was destined to lose her 
 reputation and her life, Cranmer meanly 
 stooped to promote the sentence of divorce. 
 This and other compliances with the mo- 
 narch's will ensured him the gratitude of 
 Henry ; who upheld him in all his contests 
 with Bishop Gardiner and others who ae^ 
 cused him of heresy and faction. By Henry's 
 will he was appointed one of the council of 
 regency to Edward VI. ; and as the young 
 king was brought up chiefly under the arch- 
 bishop's care, it enabled him to further the 
 objects of the Reformation in a regular and 
 consistent manner, by framing the liturgy, 
 the homilies, articles of religion, &c. When 
 Edward was prevailed on to alter the suc- 
 cession in favour of I^ady Jane Grey, the 
 archbishop opposed it for a considerable 
 time, but at length' consented. On the ac- 
 cession of Mary he was tried on charges of 
 blasphemy, peijury, incontinence, and he- 
 resy, and sentenced to be deprived of office. 
 Tempted however, by the promise of pardon, 
 he was induced to sign a recantation of his 
 principles, and avow his sorrow for having 
 entertained them. This was the great object 
 of his enemies. But when Cranmer, who 
 had been sent to Oxford, was brought into 
 St. Mary's church to read his recantation in 
 public, instead of doing what was required 
 of him, he besought the forgiveness of God 
 for the apostasy of wliich he had been guilty, 
 and exhorted the people against the errors 
 of the Church of Rome, declaring that 
 nothing could afford him consolation but 
 the prospect of extenuating his guilt by en- 
 countering the fiery torments which awaited 
 him. This greatly enraged his adversaries, 
 who, after vilifying him as a hypocrite and 
 heretic, dragged him to the stake opposite 
 Baliol College, which he approached with 
 a cheerful countenance, and met his death 
 with the utmost fortitude, exclaiming, as 
 he held out his right hand for the flames 
 to consume it, " This unworthy hand 1 this 
 unworthy hand I " thus Strikingly proving 
 the remorse he felt at having been induced 
 to sign his recantation. Whatever may be 
 said with regard to his submission to the 
 will of a despotic sovereign, or his occasional 
 unsteadiness of principles, it is certain that 
 no man contributed so much as Cranmer to 
 the establishment and independence of the 
 English Churcli. Died, March 21. 1556. 
 
 CRANZ, or KRANZ, David, a Moravian 
 preacher, born 1723, and resided several 
 years as a missionary in Greenland, of 
 which coimtry he wrote a valuable history ; 
 also "A History of the Moravians." Died, 
 1777. 
 
 CRASHAW, Richard, a poet, bom in 
 London, and educated at Cambridge. He 
 was a friend of the poet Cowley ; and having 
 embraced the Roman Catholic faith, was ap- 
 pointed to a canonry at Loretto. His poems 
 have considerable merit, and contain ideas | 
 which were thought worthy of imitation | 
 both by Milton and Pope. Died, 1650. 
 
 CRASSUS, Lucius Licinius, a Roman | 
 orator, of wliom Cicero speaks in terms of , 
 the highest praise. He was consul B.C. 96, 
 and afterwards censor. I 
 
 CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius, sumamed ' 
 
cra] 
 
 ^ ^cixj Huiljer^al 'MiaQCK^f^u* 
 
 [CRE 
 
 Dives from his riches, was of tiie same family 
 as the preceding. lie defeated Spartacus, 
 and put an end to the Servile war. He was 
 first consul, tlien censor, and formed one of 
 the triumvirate with Ctesar and Pompey. 
 He perished, witli a great part of his army, 
 in an exi^editiun against the Parthions, B.C. 
 53. 
 
 CRATINUS, an Athenian poet, to whom 
 the invention of satirical comedy and comic 
 poetry is attributed. Ills powers of sarcasm 
 are said to have been unriMilIed. He was 
 an exception to the rule that iubcmperance 
 leads to an early grave, having attuined the 
 age of 97, tliough a (x)n vuHxtU in its fullest 
 sense* Died b. c 431. 
 
 CRATIPP'US, a peripatetic philosopher, 
 and tutor to the younger Cicero at Athens, 
 where his lectures were well attended. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Adam, a physician and 
 naturalist of considerable eminence im his 
 profession ; physician to St. Thomas's Hos- 
 pital, and professor of chemistry at Wool- 
 wich. He was the author of several chemi- 
 cal works, and the first who prescribed 
 muriate of barytcs for tltc Bcrofula. Bom, 
 1749 ; died, 1795. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Anne, an actress of great 
 ability, which, combined with her personal 
 beauty, caused her for many years to be 
 highly attractive on the stage. Died, 1801, 
 aged 67. 
 
 CRAWFORD, David, historiographer for 
 Scotland in the reign of queen Anne, and 
 the author of several works relative to that 
 coimtry. Died, 1720. 
 
 CRAYER, Gasi'ak, an eminent painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1582. His productions 
 are allowed to possess great fidelity to nature 
 and excellence of colouring. Died, 1C69. 
 
 CRE BILLON, pKosrER Jolyot de, a 
 French dramatic poet, denominated the 
 Freuch ^Eschylus, was bom at Dijon, in 
 1674. He was intended for the legal pro- 
 fession, but evincing a decided predilection 
 for the drama, the solicitor with whom he 
 was placed encouraged him to pursue the 
 bent of his inclinations. He accordingly 
 devoted himself to the tragic muse, and 
 produced " Idomeneus," which met with 
 success. This was followed by "Atreus," 
 " Electra," and " Rhadamistus," wliich were 
 49till more successfuL He then led a secluded 
 life for many years, but again resumed his 
 dramatic labours, a«d producwl tlie tragedies 
 ot "Catiline" and •* The Triumvirate." 
 Died, 1762. 
 
 CREBILLON, Cr.AUDE Prosper Jolyot 
 DE, sou of the foregoing, was born in 1707. 
 He acquired the name of the French Petro- 
 nius from liis novels ; one of which, entitled 
 "Les Egaremens du Coeur et de I'Esprit," 
 is alluded to by Sterne in his Sentimental 
 Journey. Died, 1777. 
 
 CREECH, Thomas, an English poet, was 
 born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659 ; and 
 after receiving the rudiments of a classical 
 education at Sherborne free-school, finished 
 liis studies at Wadham College, Oxford. He 
 translated, into English verse, Lucretius, 
 Horace, Theocritus, &c. Died by his own 
 hand, 1700. 
 
 CREIGIITON, Robert, D.D., an English 
 divine and musical composer. He shared 
 
 the exile of Charles II., and spent the leisure 
 thus unhappily afibrded him in the study of 
 music. Among his comiwsitions is the cele- 
 brated anthem, " I will arise and go to my 
 father," which is performed in nearly all 
 our cathedrals. Died, 1736. 
 
 CRELLIUS, John, a German divine. He 
 was a Unitarian, and one of the ablest ad- 
 vocates of that sect, which he defended at 
 once ably and courteously against Grotius. 
 His chief works are " Answer to Grotius," 
 " Two Books concerning the One God, the 
 Father," "A Treatise concerning the Holy 
 Spirit," and "A Defence of Religious Li- 
 berty." Died, 1633. 
 
 CRESCEMBINI, Giovanni Makia, an 
 Italian Jesuit and miscelliincous writer ; 
 author of " Istoria della Volgar Poetia," 
 " History of the Academy of Arcadi," of 
 which he was the founder ; " I^ Rime et 
 le Prose degli Arcadi ; " "Notitie Istoriche 
 di diversi Capitani Illustri," &c. Died, 1728. 
 
 CRESCENZI, D. Juan Baptiste, mar- 
 quis de la Torre, was an eminent jiainter, 
 bom at Rome towards the end of the 16lh 
 century. Philip IV. made him a grandee 
 of Castile, and honoured him with his title. 
 
 CRESCENZI, PiETHo, the restorer of the 
 scientific study of agriculture in Europe, 
 M-as born at Bologna in 1230. He spent a 
 long life in acquiring and disseminating 
 agricultural knowledge j and his " Ruraliuni 
 Commodorum" is a masterly production, 
 founded on simple principles, and free from 
 many errors that continued to prevail even 
 for centuries after. 
 
 CRESPI, Giovanni Maria, surnamed 
 II Spagnuolo on account of the coxcombry 
 of his attire, an eminent Bolognese painter 
 of the 18th century. His chief talent lay in 
 caricatures ; but there are many of his more 
 ambitious compositions iu tlie palaces and 
 churelies of Bologna. In order to command 
 a nice observation of the force of light and 
 shadow, he used to point in a room iu whicli 
 there was only a sufficient aiJerture to admit 
 a single ray of liglit. 
 
 CRESSEY, or CRESSY, Iluaii Paulin, 
 on eminent Catholic divine and writer ; au- 
 thor of " Exomologesis," a narration of 
 the cause of his conversion to the Catholic 
 faith ; " The Church History of Brittany," 
 &c He was an able writer, and as much 
 distinguished for his candour and good tem- 
 per in disputation as for his ability in argu- 
 ment. Died, 1674. 
 
 CREUTZ, Gustavus Philip, Count of, 
 a Swedish poet and statesman, born in 1720. 
 His poem, entitled "Atis og Camilla," is 
 considered a very fine producliDU. He was 
 appointed Swedish minister at Paris, where 
 he remained twenty years, and became par- 
 ticularly acquainted with Marmontel and 
 other celebrated French writers. Died, 1785. 
 
 CRE VIER, John Baptist Louis, a French 
 historical writer; author of a continuation 
 of " Rollin's History," " History of tlie 
 Roman Emperors to Constantine inclusive," 
 " History of the University of Paris," " Ob- 
 servations on the Sx)irit of Laws," &c- Died, 
 176-.. 
 
 CREW, Nathaniel, bishop of Durham. 
 He arrived at his episcopal dignity partly 
 through the influence of James II., then 
 
 U 2 
 
CRl] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ^nibtv^td 2iSt00rapl^ji. 
 
 [CBO 
 
 duke of York, and partly througli his con- 
 senting to be guilty of simony, paying a 
 large sum to one of the king's mistresses. 
 During the reign of the ill-fated James this 
 prelate aided and counselled him in all his 
 most obnoxious measures, and yet was 
 among the earliest of tlaose who abandoned 
 the fallen monarch, and voted that the 
 throne was abdicated. But las base and 
 time-serving conduct would not have pre- 
 vented him from losing his bishopric, on the 
 accession of king William and queen Mary, 
 but that he was spared from degradation at 
 the intercession of Tillotson. Died, 1721. 
 
 CRICIITON, James, a Scottish gentleman 
 of the IGth century, who, on account of his 
 remarkable endowments, obtained the sur- 
 name of the Admirable. The most extraor • 
 dinary tales of his prowess, both bodily and 
 mental, have been handed down to us ; but, 
 so far as the latter is concerned, the verses 
 that remain go far to show, that, however 
 astonishing he might be on account of his 
 versatility, he received at least as much 
 praise as he deserved. The late Mr. Ilazlitt 
 remarks, "The Admirable Crichton was a 
 person of prodigious capacity ; but I know 
 of no proof that he had an atom of genius." 
 And, in continuation, he remarks, " he could 
 learn all that was known of any subject ; lie 
 could do any thing if others would shmc him 
 the waytodo it." It seems quite clear, how- 
 ever, that he possessed great powers, and was 
 altogether an extraordinary person. He 
 was educated at St. Andrew's, and gave 
 such early proofs of his learning, that he 
 obtained the degree of M.A. when on'y 14 
 years of age. He is said to have excelled 
 in eloquence ; to have overcome every op- 
 ponent in logic and scientific disputation ; 
 to have known ten languages ; and to have 
 been a perfect master of all military and 
 athletic exercises. Dr. Johnson, who cannot 
 be accused of showing much partiality for 
 Scotchmen, has devoted a paper in the 
 Adventurer to the character of Crichton, 
 which he commences by saying, that " what- 
 ever we may suppress as surpassing credi- 
 bility, yet we shall, upon incontestable 
 authority, relate enough to rank him among 
 prodigies." He is said to have l)een stabbed 
 by his pupil, Vincenzo Gonzaga, son of the 
 Duke of Mantua, and to have died of the 
 wound, in 1.583, aged only 28. 
 
 CRILIyON, L.OU1S DK BKExnojr, an emi- 
 nent French military officer. Though he 
 was a very zealous Catholic, and one of the 
 leaders at the siege of Rochellc in lOTS, lie 
 yet felt bound to aid Henry III. against tlie 
 league. It being proposed to him, by that 
 king, that he should assassinate the Duke of 
 Guise, he nobly replied, " I cannot stain my 
 honour with a deed of shame." On the ac- 
 cession of Henry IV., he became one of the 
 most devoted of that great monarch's friends 
 and generals. By the army he was called 
 " Vhomme sans peur ; " but Henry gave him 
 the name of "te brave dcs braves." His 
 independence and nobleness of spirit were 
 equal to his bravery, and his humanity and 
 virtue were not less famous than his heroic 
 achievements. Born, 1541 ; died, 1616 ; 
 
 CRILI,ON MAHON, Louis de Berton^ 
 DES Balbes be Quiees, Duke de, a descend- 
 
 ant of the above, and, like him, an eminent 
 military officer. He served against England 
 in her war with the United States of America. 
 He commanded at the celebrated siege of 
 Gibraltar, wliere he was repulsed by the 
 ability and courage of General Elliot. He 
 wrote "Military Memoirs," and died in 
 1796. 
 
 CRILLON, LfOuis Atiianasius Balbes 
 Bekton de, brother of the last named ; an | 
 eminent French divine and scholar ; author | 
 of " M^moires Philosophiques de M. le 
 Baron de * * *,Chambellan de S. M. I'lmp. 
 Reine," a treatise "De I'llomme Morale," 
 &c. Died, 1789. 
 
 CRITIAS, an Athenian. He was a pupil 
 of Socrates, but his political conduct was 
 such as to render hira by no means a credit 
 to his great tutor. He was among the 
 number of the rulers who are made noto- 
 rious- in history under the title of the 
 " thirty tyrants," and is said to have dis- 
 tinguished himself even among tliem for 
 cruelty and avarice. When Thrasybulus 
 and his patriotic friends took arms against 
 " the thirty," Critias was slain in an attack 
 made on the Piraeus, in the year 400 b. c. 
 
 CRCESUS, the fifth and last king of Ly- 
 dia. He succeeded his father Alyattes in 
 the year 557 B.C., and was so fortunate in 
 all his enterprises, that he soon became one 
 of the richest monarchs of that time. Vain 
 of his great wealth and influence, he asked 
 the philosopher Solon what he thought of 
 his good fortune : " I pronounce no man 
 fortunate until his death," was the sage's 
 reply. Subsequently the wealthy and pow- 
 erful monarch was overpowered and made 
 a prisoner by Cyrus, king of Persia. Ac- 
 cording to the barbarous practice of the 
 time, the unhappy captive was bound to 
 the stake and about to be burnt to death. 
 In this miserable condition he recalled the 
 impressive words of Solon, and thrice re- 
 peated that philosopher's name. Cyrus, 
 struck with the earnestness of his tone, de- 
 manded an explanation. Croesus gave it ; 
 and Cyrus, probably impressed by it with 
 a more than usual feeling of the mutability 
 of all human greatness, not only spared his 
 life, but also took him into his favour and 
 protection. At the death of Cyrus he re- 
 commended Croesus to the favour of Cam- 
 byses. Tliat prince treated him with great 
 insolence and cruelty, and at length ordered 
 liim to be put to death ; but, through the 
 mercy of the officers to whom it was directed, 
 it was not put into execution, and they were 
 themselves put to death for their disobedi- 
 ence. On tlie time and place of the death of 
 Croesus history is silent. 
 
 CROFT, Sir Herbert, an English baronet 
 and divine. He was originally intended 
 for the bar, but took holy orders, though he 
 never held any benefice. He wrote a life of 
 Dr. Young, which was introduced into 
 Johnson's " liives of the Poets," and a 
 volume of letters entitled " Love and Mad- 
 ness," and supposed to be written by the 
 Rev. James Hackman, who was hanged in 
 1779 for shooting Miss Ray. Died, 1816. 
 
 CROFT, Sir Richard, a relation of the 
 last named, and his successor in the ba- 
 ronetcy. He was very eminent as a sur- 
 
CRO] 
 
 ^ ^efio BniSiex^al 38ioj5rajpl)j?. 
 
 [CRO 
 
 geon and accoucheur ; and was selected to 
 attend the princess Charlotte, the lamented 
 daughter of George IV. and queen Caroline. 
 The unfortunate death of his illustrious 
 patient, in 1817, so preyed on his mind, that 
 lie committed suicide a few months after. 
 
 CROFT, William, Mus. Doc, an excel- 
 lent English musician and composer, llis 
 best anthems and a sublime burial service 
 were published in 1724 in two folio volumes, 
 under the title of "Musica Sacra." Born, 
 1(577 ; died, 1727. 
 
 CROKE, Sir Alexander, knt,, D.C.L., 
 was the son of a private gentleman, and 
 born at Aylesbury. He was an eminent civi- 
 lian, and a most voluminous writer, on both 
 general topics and those more immediately 
 connected with his profession. Died 27th 
 December, 1842. Aged 42. 
 
 CROKE, Dr. Richard, an English divine 
 and scholar ; tutor to the Duke of Rich- 
 mond, the natural son of Henry VIII. He 
 was one oi the earliest English cultivators 
 of the Greek language, and wrote some 
 valuable treatises ou philosophical subjects. 
 Die<i, 1558. 
 
 CROMWELL, TuOMAS, earl of Essex ; 
 one of the ablest statesmen of the time of 
 Henry VIII. Being confidentially employed 
 by Cardinal Wolsey, he got a seat in the 
 Ilouse of Commons ; and to his honour be 
 it said, that when the full tide of popular as 
 well as courtly hate ran against his once 
 powerful friend and patron, he boldly and 
 ably defended him. In all probability tltis 
 very circumstance tended to recommend 
 him to the truculent Henry VUI., who, on 
 the death of Wolsey, distinguished and 
 employed him. In the various high offices 
 he held, he served the king zealously, ably, 
 and faithfully ; but his merit in that respect 
 is greatly diminished by the indifference he 
 displayed as to the welfare of the people. 
 Having, after ail his services, given offence 
 to the king, bj^ promoting the marriage be- 
 tween his majesty and Anne of Cleves, he 
 was arrested while sitting at the council 
 table on a charge of high treason, con- 
 demned even without a hearing, and not- 
 withstanding a most humble and affecting 
 letter to the king, beheaded on Tower Hill, 
 July 28. 1.540. 
 
 CROMWELL, Olivkh, one of the most 
 extraordinary characters in English history, 
 was the grandson of Sir Henry Cromwell, 
 and the son of Robert Cromwell, a man of 
 good property, though he carried on the 
 business of a brewer at Huntingdon, where 
 Oliver was born, April 25. 1599. Having 
 been educated at the free-school of that city 
 and at Sydney College, Cambridge, he be- 
 came a law student at Lincoln's Inn. Here, 
 however, he did not remain long ; as in his 
 2l8t year he married Elizabeth, the daughter 
 of Sir James Bourchier, and settled at 
 Huntingdon. In his youth he is said to 
 have manifested a degree of wildness, that 
 too often marks that period of life ; but as 
 soon as he married he threw the follies of 
 youth aside, and assumed a staid and grave 
 aspect and deportment, well calculated to 
 obtain the esteem and confidence of his 
 neighbours : one ofthe consequences of wliich 
 was his being elected member of parliament 
 
 for Huntingdon in 162,?. Shortly after his 
 election he openly deserted the Church of 
 England, and attached himself to tlie Puri- 
 tans, who were just then rapidly rising into 
 power and influence. In his parliamentary 
 career he was remarkable rather for his 
 Imsiness-like habits and energy of character, 
 than lor elegance of language or graceftil- 
 ness of delivery. His appearance and dress, 
 too, were plain and unprepossessing. He 
 notwithstanding acquired considerable in- 
 fluence even in parliament ; and in 1642, 
 when it was resolved to levy forces to op- 
 pose the king, Cromwell received a com- 
 mission from the Earl of Essex, and raised 
 a troop of horse at Cambridge, of which he, 
 of course, had the command. Small as was 
 this beginning, the energy and self-posses- 
 sion of the man made it sufficient. The 
 steps by which he kept ever risiiiff, until 
 he attained a power greater than that for 
 which the unfortunate Charles I. had been 
 slaughtered for only endeavouring to attain, 
 are matters rather of history than of bio- 
 graphy. Suffice it, therefore, for us to say, 
 that in his case, as in all other cases, great 
 power ill obtained was fatal to his happi- 
 ness as an individual. His courage and his 
 singular slirewdncss and skill in selecting 
 and employing the agents of a system of es- 
 pionage, more extensive and detailed than 
 England had ever before been cursed with, 
 maintained him in power ; but he was at 
 loat both feared and hated by a majority of 
 the people at large, while in his own family 
 even his favourite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, 
 frequently and severely reproached him for 
 his unrignteous tyranny. Conscious of ge- 
 neral dislike, even his strong and stern 
 mind gradually succumbed to wearing and 
 carking anxieties. He constantly carried 
 loaded fire-arms, and wore defensive armour 
 under his clothes. At length he fell into a 
 nervous fever, of which he died, in the 60th 
 year of his age, Sept. 3. 1658. The political 
 administration of Cromwell was energetic 
 and decisive ; the army was regularly paid, 
 and the public revenues were strictly and 
 economically managed ; while the honour 
 of England was well maintained on the 
 ocean, and her foreign commerce assumed 
 a flourishing aspect. He lived without 
 parade or ostentation ; he was temperate, 
 indefatigably industrious, and exact in his 
 official duties ; yet, uuder the guise of piety 
 and virtue, he practised the most subtle 
 Machiavelism, using mankind as the tools 
 of his ambition, and maintaining his power 
 as he had acquired it, by boldness, cunning, 
 and tyranny. He had appointed his eldest 
 son, Richard, to succeed him ; but the reins 
 of government were not to be held by one 
 60 mild and virtuous ; and having been 
 compelled by the mutinous officers to dis- 
 solve the parliament, he voluntarily ab- 
 dicated the protectorship, April 22. 1659, 
 and ended his days in tranquil seclusion at 
 Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, in 1712. His 
 brother Henry, whose Upright administra- 
 tion, as viceroy of Ireland, had gained him 
 many friends, also retired to private life, and 
 died in 1(74. 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver^ great grandson of 
 Henry, second son of tlie Protector. He 
 
 221 
 
CRO] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Uiiihtr^Kl 2Stotira})l)5. 
 
 [CUF 
 
 was for several years a solicitor in London, 
 and held the appointment of clerk to St. 
 Thomas's Hospital. He is noticed here 
 chiefly on account of his valuable publica- 
 tion, entitled "Memoirs of the Protector 
 Cromwell, and his sons Richard and Henry ; 
 illustrated by Original Letters and other 
 Family Papers." He succeeded to the family 
 estate of Theobalds, which descended to him 
 through the children of Richard Cromwell, 
 above named, and died at Cheshnftt Park, 
 Herts, in 1821, aged 79. 
 
 CROUSAZ, John Peter de, a distin- 
 guished Swiss divine, philosopher, and ma- 
 thematician ; author of a " Treatise on 
 Education," an able work on geometry, a 
 powerful criticism on Pope's Essay on Man, 
 a " Treatise on the Human Understanding," 
 &c. Died, 1748. 
 
 CROWNE, Jonrr, a poet and dramatist of 
 the 17th century, and the contemporary of 
 Dryden. He was a native of Nova Scotia, 
 but passed the greater part of his life in 
 England. At the command of Charles II. 
 he wrote the " Masque of Calisto ;" and sub- 
 sequently he ridiculed the Whig party, in 
 liis comedy of " The City Politics." But 
 though he was a very useful writer to the 
 party whose principles he had embraced, he 
 had more stem honesty of speech than was 
 agreeable to a licentious monarch and a cor- 
 rupt court. He consequently lived in com- 
 parative retirement for some time ; but at 
 length was ordered by the king to write that 
 admirable comedy, " Sir Courtly Nice." As 
 the reward for this task, the king had pro- 
 mised to give him a place ; but his majesty 
 died on the very day on which the piece 
 had its flnal rehearsal. Besides seventeen 
 dramas, he wrote " Da;neids," a burlesque 
 poem ; and " Pandion and Amphigeria," a 
 romance. 
 
 CBOXAET/, Samttel, an English divine 
 and writer of the 18th century. He attached 
 himself early in life to the Whig party, and 
 wrote several clever pieces in their favour. 
 These however, as is usually the case with 
 party effusions, are now almost wholly for- 
 gotten. But, besides these, he wrote an 
 " Imitation of the Song of Solomon " and 
 " Scripture Politics." He also translated 
 .SJsop's Fables, and edited, or, as some aver, 
 wrote, " The Royal Manual," a poem which 
 was attributed to Andrew Marvell ; also 
 various sermons, dedications, &c. 
 
 CROZE, Mathurix Veyssuke de la, a 
 French writer and eminent oriental scho- 
 lar ; author of " Histoire du Christianisme 
 des Indes," and other works. He was for 
 some time an ecclesiastic of the Benedictine 
 congregation of St. Maur at Saumur ; but in 
 169(5, being then living at Brazil, he re- 
 nounced the Catholic fiiith. Died, 1739. 
 
 CRUDEN, Alexander, who was better 
 known during his life by his assumed title 
 of " Alexander the Corrector," was a native 
 of Aberdeen, born in 1701, and educated with 
 a view to his becoming a minister of the 
 kirk of Scotland. Unhappily he exhibited 
 such an unsteadiness of intellect, that he was 
 not considered fit for so important a profes- 
 sion ; and, proceeding to London, he for some 
 time maintained himself by giving private 
 lessons in the classics ; but in 1732 he com- 
 
 menced business as a bookseller, near the 
 Royal Exchange. While thus employed, he 
 devoted his leisure in compiling a very ela- 
 borate and useful " Concordance of the Old 
 and New Testaments," which he dedicated 
 to queen Caroline. Soon afterwards he be- 
 came decidedly Itmatic, and was placed by 
 his friends in a madhouse at Bethnal Green ; 
 from which place, however, he contrived to 
 make his escape, and subsequently brought 
 an action for false imprisonment, but was 
 nonsuited. He subsequently resumed his 
 old employment of correcting the press, 
 superintending several classical works ; but 
 he again exhibited such marks of a deranged 
 intellect, that although he continued pretty 
 generally to employ himself in literary 
 matters, and even amassed some money by 
 his labours, the whole tenor of his future life 
 was characterised by a series of intellectual 
 obliquities. As a literary man, however, he 
 was extremely industrious, patient, and able; 
 and his " Concordance " holds, and ever will 
 hold, a very high place in the estimation of 
 all biblical students. Died, 1770, aged 69. 
 
 CRUIKSHANK, William, an eminent 
 English surgeon, anatomist, and writer ; 
 author of " The Anatomy of the Absorbent 
 Vessels of the Human Body," "Experi- 
 ments on the Insensible Perspiration of the 
 Human Body," &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 CRUZ CANO Y OLMEDILLA, Dow 
 Juan ue la, an eminent Spanish geographer 
 of the 18th century ; author of the " Mapo 
 Geographico de America Meridional." 
 
 CTESIAS, a Greek physician and histo- 
 rian, was a native of Cnidus in Caria. Being 
 taken prisoner in the battle between Cyrus 
 the Younger and his brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnenion, he was employed to cure Artax- 
 erxes of a severe wound. ' He wrote a history 
 of the Assvrians, and other works. 
 
 CTESIBIUS, of Alexandria, an eminent 
 ancient mathematician. He is said to have 
 invented the pump ; and he constructed a 
 clepsydra, or water-clock, in which the 
 moving power was a falling column of water. 
 A work of his, entitled " Geodesia, or the 
 Art of dividing and measuring Bodies," is 
 to be found in the Vatican library. He 
 flourished in the 165th Olympiad, or about 
 B.C. 120. 
 
 CTESIPIION or CHERSIPHRON, a 
 famous Ephesian architect. He gave the 
 design for the first temple of Diana of the 
 Ephcsians, which was fired by Erostratus. 
 He flourished in the sixth century b. c. 
 
 CUDWORTH, Ralph, D.D., an English 
 divine and philosopher ; author of a " Dis- 
 course concerning the true Nature of the 
 Lord's Supper," " The True Intellectual 
 System of the Universe," &c. He was an 
 extremely learned and powerful writer ; and, 
 independently of holding some valuable 
 church preferment, he was master of Christ's 
 College, Cambridge. Died, 1688. 
 
 CUFF, Henry, an eminent English scho- 
 lar of tlie 16th century. He was for some 
 time Greek professor at Merton College,'Ox- 
 tord ; but growing weary of a secluded life, 
 he became secretary to Robert, earl of Essex, 
 and in that situation accompanied his lord- 
 ship on the expedition to Cadiz. Being im- 
 plicated in the transactions which led to the 
 
CUJ] 
 
 ^ ^eto Hniber^al 3Bi0j3Tap1b^. 
 
 [CDN 
 
 I apprehension and trial of the Earl of Essex, 
 j the latter charged him with being liis adviser 
 j and abettor in all his violent measures. Cuff 
 I was accordingly tried, condemned, and exe- 
 I cuted in ItJOl. Camden, who was well ac- 
 I quainted with him, says, " he was a man of 
 most exquisite harmony and penetrating 
 will ; but of a seditious and perverse dispo- 
 sition." 
 
 CU.IACIUS, or CUJ AS, James, a cele- 
 brated French jurist. He was professor of 
 law at Turin, and was held in the highest 
 esteem as an exi)Ounder of difficult questions. 
 His writings were collected into live folio 
 volumes. Died, 1590. 
 
 CULLEN, William, a celebrated physi- 
 cian and medical writer, was a native of 
 Scotland, being born at I^anark, in 1712. 
 After serving his apprenticeship to a surgeon 
 and apothecary at Glasgow, he went some 
 voyages as a surgeon. He subsequently 
 settled at Glasgow, and was appointed 
 lecturer on chemistry in the university of 
 that city ; in wliieh capacity he obtained so 
 high a reputation, that he at length became 
 medical professor in the university of Edin- 
 burgh. As an author, he is well known by 
 his " Ivcctures on the ^lateria Medica," " Sy- 
 nopsis Nosologiao rracticac," and his " First 
 Lines on Medical Practice." Died, 1790. 
 
 CULPEPER, Sir Thomas, an English 
 writer of the 17th century ; author of " Con- 
 siderations on Marriage," a "Discourse on 
 Usury," " Brief Survey of the Growth of 
 Usurv in England," &c. 
 
 CULPEPPER. Nicholas, on English her- 
 balist of the 17th century. He was educated 
 at Camb.idge ; and, after serving his appren- 
 ticeship to an apothecary, settled in that 
 profession at Spitalflelds, in London. He 
 wrote a "Herbal" and a "Dispensary;" 
 but the science and industry which he indis- 
 
 putably possessed were in a great degree 
 marred by his absurd pretensions to astro- 
 
 "^MBERLAND, Ricuaud, bishop of Pe- 
 terborough ; author of a treatise " De Legibus 
 Naturae" — a very popular work, in opposition 
 to the philosophy of llobbes ; a translation 
 from Eusebius of Sanconiathon's Phcenician 
 History, an "Essay on the Jewish Weights 
 and Measures," " Origines Gentium Anti- 
 quissimiE," &c. He was an extremely learned 
 man, but not more remarkable for learning 
 than for modest and luiaspiring virtues. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, RiciiAKn, an able dra- 
 matic and miscellaneous Writer, was a son 
 of Dr. Cumberland, bishop of Clonfert, and 
 born in 1732. From Westminster School he 
 went to Trinity College, Cambridge ; and 
 was introduced to public life as the secretary 
 of Lord Halifax, when viceroy of Ireland. 
 His first literary efforts obtained for him but 
 little fame ; but on the appearance of his 
 comedy of " The West Indian," in 1771, his 
 reputation as a dramatist was at once esta- 
 blished. From this period till the time of his 
 decease he continued to be one of the most 
 prolific writers for the stage, though none of 
 his subsequent pieces were so successful as 
 the comedy before mentioned. In 1780 he 
 was employed by the government to conduct 
 a secret negotiation with the courts of Ma- 
 drid and Lisbon ; which, to the disgrace of 
 
 the ministry, involved him in great distress, 
 as they refused to reimburse his expenses, to 
 the amoimt of 50007., which compelled him 
 to part with his hereditary property. To add 
 to his distress, the board of trade was broken 
 up ; and he retired, with a trifling pension, 
 to Tnnbridge Wells, where he devoted him- 
 self to literary pursuits with the most un- 
 abating ardour and industry. Besides his 
 numerous dramatic productions, he published 
 a collection of essays, under the title of " The 
 Observer;" also the novels of "Arundel," 
 " Henry," and " John de Lancaster ; " " Cal- 
 vary," a poem ; and various other works, the 
 lost of which was his own " Memoirs." The 
 comic drama was certainly his forte ; but 
 throughout the whole of his writings there 
 is much merit, and many of them possess 
 the elements of a lasting vitality. Died, 
 1811. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, William Augustus, 
 Duke of, second son of George II., was bom 
 in 1721, and at an early age entered on the 
 duties of a military life. At the battle of 
 Dettingen, in 174:?, he was wounded, while 
 fighting by the side of liis father ; and in 
 17-15 he signalised himself, when commander- 
 in-chief of the British army in Flanders, at 
 the battle of Fontenoy, where, however, he 
 was obliged to yield the palm of victory to 
 Marshal Saxe. On his return to England he 
 took the field against the Scottish rebel 
 troops, wlioin he defeated at the battle of 
 Culloden ; but he stained his laurels by un- 
 necessary crueltv. Died, 176.5. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, Alkxandeh, a Scotch 
 historical writer of the 18th century ; author 
 of a " History of Great Britain, from the 
 Revolution to the Accession of George I." 
 This was elegantly written by him in Latin, 
 but a translation of it was published by Dr. 
 Thompson in 1787. Cunningham also held 
 some government employments, among 
 which was that of resident at Venice. Died, 
 17.S7. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, Allan, an eminent 
 poet, novelist, and miscellaneous writer, was 
 born at Blackwood, in Dumfriesshire, in 1785. 
 His parents were in very humble circum- 
 stances, and he was taken from school when 
 only 11 years of age, and apprenticed to a 
 stone-mason. These disadvantageous cir- 
 cumstances did not prevent him from acquir- 
 ing, by great though desultory reading, much 
 information ; and in 1810 he repaired to 
 London, where he at first earned a main- 
 tenance by contributing to periodicals, and 
 reporting for the press. At a later period he 
 obtained employment in the studio of the 
 eminent sculptor Chantrey, as principal 
 assistant, which enabled him to prosecute his 
 literary tastes without hazard ; and he so 
 well improved his advantages, that he not 
 merely distinguished himself as a critic and 
 historian as to the arts, and as a poet and 
 novelist, but also, by combining the pru- 
 dence and tact of the man of business with 
 the fervour and feeling of the man of genius, 
 acquired considerable pecuniary resources. 
 Among his numerous works are " Sir Mar- 
 maduke Maxwell," a drama ; "Paul Jone?," 
 and " Sir Michael Scott," novels ; the "Lives 
 of Burns and Sir David Wilkie," besides 
 many poems, ballads, and lyrics ; but his 
 
cun] 
 
 ^ ^^J» Winibev^nl ISiniji'ajij]^!), 
 
 [cus 
 
 most important work, and that by which he 
 is best known south of the Tweed, is " The 
 Lives of British Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects." Died, 1842. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, John^, an ingenious 
 Irish poet and dramatic performer ; author 
 of " Tlie Landscape," and other poems, and 
 of "Love in a Mist," a farce, upon which 
 Garrick is said to have founded tliat of the 
 " Lying Valet." Died, 1773. 
 
 CURIO, Celius Secundus, a learned 
 Piedmontese. Becoming a convert to the 
 reformed religion, the boldness of his 
 preaching gave so much offence to those 
 in power, that he was obliged to fly from 
 Milan, and subsequently from Venice and 
 Ferrara. He at length obtained the ap- 
 pointment of professor of eloquence and the 
 belles lettres at the university of Basle. 
 His principal works are " De Amplitudine 
 beati Regni Dei" and " Pasquillorum tomi 
 duo." Died, 1569. 
 
 CURL, Edmund, a bookseller, whose 
 name is handed down, like many others, 
 by the satirical wit of Pope, kept a shop in 
 the purlieus of Covcnt Garden, and had his 
 ears cut off in the pillory as a just reward 
 for publishing obscene books. What pity it 
 is that a punishment so salutary should 
 have become obsolete ! 
 
 CURRAN, John Puilpot, a celebrated 
 Irish barrister, of humble origin, was born 
 near Cork in 1750 ; received his education 
 at Trinity College, Dublin ; and, coming to 
 London, studied the law in the Temple. In 
 course of time he was called to the bar ; 
 and though at first he had to struggle with 
 great difficulties, his brilliant talents, ex- 
 erted in defence of various persons charged 
 with political offences, overcame all ob- 
 stacles, and he quickly rose to forensic emi- 
 nence. He became a member of the Irish 
 House of Commons in 1784 ; and was a 
 powerful member of the opposition until 
 the Whigs came into office, in 1806, when 
 he was made master of the rolls in Ireland. 
 This office he held till 1814, and received a 
 pension of 3000Z. on retiring ; after which 
 period he generally resided in London. His 
 oratorical powers were of the most splendid 
 kind ; his wit, pathos, and withering sar- 
 casm being alike irresistible ; and though 
 mean in personal appearance, and not always 
 using his intellectual weapons with good 
 taste, they enabled him to support the cha- 
 racter of a popular advocate and an effective 
 debater. Died, 1817. 
 
 CURRIE, James, M.D. He was a native 
 of Scotland, but settled as a medical man at 
 Liverpool, where he enjoyed an extensive 
 and very lucrative practice. The fatigues 
 necessarily attendant upon this did not, 
 however, prevent him from devoting con- 
 siderable time to literature ; and he is fa- 
 vourably known as a professional writer by 
 a paper " On Tetanus and Convulsive Dis- 
 orders " and " Medical Reports," &c. But 
 his literary celebrity rests less upon his pro- 
 fessional treatises than upon his biography 
 of the poet Burns, an edition of whose works 
 was superintended by Dr. Currie in a manner 
 which obtained him great and well-merited 
 applause. Died, 1805. 
 
 CURTIS, William, an eminent English 
 
 botanist. He was a native of Alton, in 
 Hampshire, and was apprenticed to an 
 apothecary in that place. But his love of 
 botanical pursuits induced him to relin- 
 quish his profession to establish a botanical 
 garden, and exhibit as a botanical lecturer. 
 Besides his lectures, which were published 
 with expensive and handsome illustrative 
 plates, he wrote " Practical Observations on 
 the British Grasses," "Flora Londinensis," 
 an accurate and beautiful work ; a Botanical 
 Magazine, &c. Died, 1799. 
 
 CURTIS, Sir William, hart., a well- 
 known citizen and magistrate of London, 
 I whose father had carried on, in an extensive 
 i way, the business of a sea-biscuit baker. 
 The son, however, quitted that trade, to 
 engage in the Greenland fisheries ; and 
 having secured a considerable portion of 
 wealth, employed it in the banking business, 
 under the firm of Robarts, Curtis, and Co. 
 He was senior alderman of Bridge-ward, 
 and father of tlie corporation of the city of 
 London, which he represented in parliament 
 during 28 years. Sir William was a loyal 
 and benevolent citizen, of most honourable 
 character in his public transactions, greatly 
 beloved in his private connections, and ho- 
 noured with the notice and friendship of his 
 majesty George IV. He was raised to the 
 baronetcy in 1802, and died, possessed of 
 great wealth, in 1829. 
 
 CURTIUS, Marcus, a celebrated Roman. 
 Livy relates, that in the year 362 B.C. a vast 
 chasm appeared in the midst of the Forum, 
 which the oracle pronounced could only be 
 closed by the Romans throwing into it that 
 by which they were most powerful. Curtius 
 declared that the arms and courage of the 
 Romans were their most valuable possessions, 
 and having solemnly devoted himself, he 
 put on his armour, mounted his horse, and 
 galloped headlong into the gulf. 
 
 CURTIUS, RuFUs QuiNTUs, a Roman 
 historian, who wrote the History of Alex- 
 ander the Great in ten books, the first two 
 of which are lost. The exact period in 
 which he flourished is not known ; for 
 though his style would indicate that he 
 lived in one of the best periods of the Latin 
 language, no -wTiter of any earlier date than i 
 the 12th century has made any mention of j 
 him. 
 
 CURWEN, John Chiiistian, a member I 
 of the ancient family of M'Christen, of the ] 
 Isle of Man, was for many years the repre- ! 
 sentative in parliament for the county of 
 Cumberland. He devoted a great portion of 
 his useful life to the study of agriculture ; 
 and his skilful operations have banished 
 many erroneous practices in the science, and \ 
 given a new impulse to agricultural ex- ! 
 ertions throughout the kingdom. Died, ! 
 1828. j 
 
 CUSA, Nicholas de, an eminent cardiual, j 
 who took his name from that of the village ] 
 of Cusa, in the diocese of Treves, where he i 
 was bom. After some minor preferments in [ 
 the church, he was sent by pope Eugeuiua [ 
 IV. as legate to Constantinople, to endeavour j 
 to bring about a union between the Greek ! 
 and Latin Churches. He was made a car- j 
 dinal by pope Nicholas V., who also gave 
 him the see of Brixen, in the Tyrol. Besides 
 
CDS] 
 
 ^ ^ebi mnihexidLl aSiflsrajptjy. 
 
 [CZE 
 
 metajihysical, theological, mathematical, 
 nnd other treatises, which form three vo- 
 lumes folio, he wrote a very learned and 
 powerful refutation of the Koran. Died, 
 14(i4. 
 
 CUSS AY, M., the governor of Angers at 
 the time the infamous Charles IX. carried 
 into effect the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 He deserves a niche in every biographical 
 work, for having refused to obey the tyrant's 
 orders, in tliese memorable words : — "I will 
 not stain 50 years of a spotless life by the 
 most cowardly of assassinations." 
 
 CUSSON FiERKE, an eminent French 
 botanist and physician. During his travels 
 in Majorca and Spain he made a very 
 valuable collection of the plants of those 
 countries, which, unfortunately, a female of 
 his family, niistaking it for so much mere 
 lumber, threw into the street, and it was ut- 
 terly destroyed. Besides assisting Sauvagcs 
 in his celebrated work on nosology, he 
 wrote, and had completely prepared for 
 the press, an elaborate treatise on the 
 umbelliferous plants ; a work which could 
 not but have been a valuable contribution 
 to science, but wliich from some unexplained 
 cause has not been printed. Died, 1784. 
 
 CUSTINE, Adam Puimp, Count de, was 
 born at Metz, in 1740 j and having entered 
 the army early in life, attracted the notice of 
 Frederic of Prussia, under whom he served 
 in the seven years' war. He afterwards ac- 
 cepted a commission in one of the French 
 regiments that assisted the Americans in 
 resisting the English ; and on returning to 
 France was made governor of Toulon. In 
 1792 he had the command of the army of the 
 Rhine ; but being suddenly summoned to 
 France, the tyrants of the hour sent him to 
 the guillotine, August, 1793, there to expiate 
 the crime of non-success. 
 
 CUTHBERT, an English saint, who had 
 the honour to baptize Egfred, king of Nor- 
 thumberland, and the good fortune to be 
 made bishop of that district. lie founded a 
 monastery at Lindisfarne, and died in 666. 
 
 CUVELI-IER DE TRIE, John William 
 AuuusTus, a French dramatist of great fe- 
 cundity and considerable talent, was born 
 in 1700, and died in 1824. He was sometimes 
 called the Corneille of the boulevards. 
 
 CUVIER, Geouoe Leopold Christian 
 Fredkric Daoobert, Baron ; the most 
 eminent naturalist of modern times ; was 
 born at Montbeliard, in the duchy of Wir- 
 temberg, in 1709. Having a decided par- 
 tiality for natural history, he devoted his 
 leisure hours to the pursuit of that inter- 
 esting science, while acting in the capacity 
 of private tutor in the family of Count d' 
 Hericy,in Normandy. As soon as he quitted 
 this situation he established himself in Paris ; 
 and such was his talent, and such the per- 
 severance with which he followed up his 
 examinations and inquiries, that he was ere 
 long acknowledged to be one of the first 
 zoologists in Euroiie. His profound know- 
 ledge and comprehensive views, his inge- 
 nious classifications and elegant illustra- 
 tions, delighted the accomplished visitors of 
 the Lycie, where he lectured ; and his fame 
 reaching the ears of Napoleon, the most 
 important offices in the department of pub- 
 
 223 
 
 lie instruction were given to hipi. He twice 
 visited England, namely, in 1818 and in 
 1830 ; and died at Paris In 1832. To Baron 
 Cuvier, France is indebted for the finest os- 
 teological collection in the world ; while 
 the whole world is indebted to him for the 
 immense addition he has made to the ge- 
 neral stock of zoological science. 
 
 CYAXARES I., king of the Medes, was a 
 very powerful prince, and subdued all Asia 
 beyond the river Halys. Died, B. c. 685. 
 
 CYPRIAN, TiiASCius C.kcilius, was a 
 learned father of the church, born at Car- 
 thage, and who embraced Christianity in 
 240. He wrote a work, entitled "Gratia 
 Dei ; " succeeded Donatus, as bishop of Car- 
 thage ! and suffered martyrdom in 258. 
 
 CYRII*. St., originally named Constax- 
 TIXE, and called the Philosopher, was the 
 apostle of the Slavi, in the 9th century, and 
 invented the Sclavonic alphabet. He died 
 at Rome, in 822. 
 
 CYRUS, king of Persia, a renowned con- 
 queror, was the son of Cambyses and Man- 
 dane, daughter of Astyages, king of Media, 
 by wiiom he was sent to Persia. Here he 
 soon collected a formidable army, and de- 
 posed his grandfather, b. c. 500. He also 
 conquered Croesus, the rich and powerful 
 king of Lydia, and Nabonadius, kin^ of 
 Babylon, whose capital he took, after a siege 
 of two years. Extending his conquests on 
 all sides, till his dominions in Asia rcoched 
 from the Hellespont to the Indus, he at 
 length marched against the Massugctse, a 
 people of Scythia, then ruled by a queen 
 named Tomyris ; but though successful in 
 the first great battle, he was defeated in the 
 second, and slain, b. c. 529. 
 
 CYRUS the Youxoeu was the son of 
 Darius Nothus, and brother of Artaxerxes, 
 whose life he attempted, in order to obtain 
 the throne. He was, however, pardoned, and 
 made governor of Lydia; but he treaclierously 
 raised an army, marched against his brother, 
 fought a desperate battle, and was killed, 
 B. c. 400. 
 
 CYRUS, of Panapolls, a Latin poet and 
 soldier, in the time of Theodosius the 
 Younger. He was made consul and prefect 
 of Constantinople ; afterwards embraced 
 Christianity, and was made bishop of 
 Phrygia, where he died. 
 
 CZERNI-GEORGE, whose real name was 
 GEonoE PETKoviT.scH, the appellation of 
 " George the Black " being given him on 
 account of the darkness of his complexion, 
 was born of humble parents, near Belgrade ; 
 but he raised himself to the rank of a prince 
 by the force of his natural talents, and a 
 degree of courage rarely equalled. With 
 an ardent desire to liberate Scrvia, his native 
 country, from the Turks, he first raised a 
 small troop, was succefsful in various en- 
 counters, and at length, in 18(W, made him- 
 self master of Belgrade. A long and arduous 
 struggle followed ; and though for a time 
 Czerni-George was the acknowledged prince 
 of Servia, he was eventually compelled to 
 retire to Russia, where he was received with 
 distinction, and created a Russian prince. 
 But he was still bent on repossessing Servia ; 
 and having entered that territory, in 1817, 
 he was taken prisoner and beheaded. 
 
DAC] 
 
 ^ ^tbi mniiiex^sX JStosrajiTjg. 
 
 [dai. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACIER, Andhew, a critic and classical 
 commentator of some eminence, bom, in 
 1651, at Castres, in Upper Languedoc. He 
 was made perpetual secretary of the French 
 Academy in 1731, and had tlie care of the 
 cabinet in the Louvre entrusted to him. He 
 translated Horace, Plato, Plutarch, Epic- 
 tetus, &c. into French. Died, 1722. 
 
 DACIEK, Annk Lefevre, vrife of the 
 preceding, was born, in 1C51, at Saumur, 
 at the university of which place Tanaquil 
 Lefevre, her father, was a professor. Her 
 love of classical literature was displayed at 
 an early age ; and her proficiency was so 
 great, that at tlie age of 22 she produced an 
 admirable edition of " CalHmachus," whicli 
 was followed by various others of the Del- 
 phin classics. She subsequently translated 
 Homer, Anacreon, Sappho, Terence, with 
 portions from Aristoplianes, Plautus, &c. 
 In 1(583 she married M. Dacier, and soon 
 after they both renounced the Protestant 
 religion. Though her life was spent in con- 
 stant literary labour, she was far from being 
 ostentatious of her eminent abilities. Died, 
 1720. 
 
 DiEDALtrS, a celebrated Greek architect 
 and sculptor, who is said to have flourished 
 at Athens in the 10th century B.C., and to 
 have been the inventor of many useful in- 
 struments, viz. the axe, the saw, the plum- 
 met, the auger, &c. There was also an- 
 other Daedalus of less note, a sculptor of 
 Sicyon. 
 
 DAGOBERT, Loms Augustus, a French 
 general, who in 1793 was chief commander 
 of the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and 
 was killed in the following year at the cap- 
 ture of Urgel, where he greatly distinguished 
 liimself. He waa also the author of a work 
 on military tactics. 
 
 DAGOBERT I., king of the Franks, sur- 
 named the Great on account of his military 
 successes, began his reign in G28, and died 
 at the age of 32. 
 
 D'AGUESSEAU, Hexry Francis, called 
 by Voltaire the most learned magistrate that 
 France ever^produced, was born at Limoges 
 in 1668, and'died 1751. His works were pub- 
 lished in 13 vols. 4to. 
 
 DAILLE, John, a Protestant minister of 
 the 17th century ; author of several theo- 
 logical works, the chief of which is entitled 
 " Of the Use of the Fathers." As a contro- 
 versialist he was singularly impartial, and is 
 esteemed even by Roman Catholics. Bom, 
 1593 ; died, 1670. 
 
 DALBERG, Charles Theodore An- 
 thony Maria, a baron of the German 
 empire, prince-primate of the confederation 
 of the Rhine, grand-duke of Frankfort, and, 
 finally, archbishop of Ralisbon, was bom 
 near Worms, in 1744. He always espoused 
 the new ideas to which the French revolu- 
 tion gave impulse ; and though he opposed 
 the invasion of Germany by the French in 
 1797, he assisted at the coronation of the 
 emperor Napoleon in 1804. Throughout life 
 
 he was distinguished for industry in the 
 discharge of his official duties, and for an 
 incorruptible love of justice ; he was also 
 the encoiirager of learning and science, and 
 himself the author of several ingenious trea- 
 tises, legal, scientific, and philosophical. In 
 1813 he voluntarily resigned all his posses- 
 sions as a sovereign prince, and retired to 
 private life, retaining only his ecclesiastical 
 dignity. Died, 1817. 
 
 D'ALBRET, Charlotte, sister of John 
 d'Albret, king of Navarre, and wife of Caesar 
 Borgia. She was a poetess of no mean 
 poM'crs, and as remarkable for virtue as her 
 husband was for vice. Died, 1514. 
 
 D'ALBRET, Charles, constable of 
 France in the reign of Charles VI., to whom 
 lie was related by blood. He commanded 
 the French army at the famous battle of 
 Agincourt, in which he lost his life, 1514. 
 
 D'ALBRET, Jeanne, daughter of Marga- 
 ret, queen of Navarre, and mother of Henry 
 of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., of France. 
 Died suddenly in 1572. 
 
 DALE, Richard, an American naval 
 officer, was born, in Virginia, in 1756; was 
 sent to sea at 12 years of age, and at 19 had 
 the command of a merchant-vessel. HTiile 
 serving as a midshipman on board of the 
 American brig of war Lexington, he was 
 taken by a British cutter ; but, after being 
 confined a twelvemonth in Mill prison, he 
 effected his escape into France, where he 
 joined the celebrated Paul Jones, then com- 
 manding the American ship Bon Homme 
 Richard, and was the first man that boarded 
 the English frigate Serapis, which was cap- 
 tured. In 1801 he had the command of an 
 American squadron, and hoisted his pendant 
 on board the President. He was a brave, 
 honourable, and intelligent seaman. The 
 adventures of his early days were of the 
 most romantic and perilous kind ; but his 
 latter j-ears were passed in the peaceful 
 enjoyment of a competent estate at Phila- 
 delphia, where he died, in 1826. 
 
 DALE, David, a skilful mechanic, and 
 the originator of the well-known Lanark 
 Mills, was bom. in 1739, at Stewarton, in 
 Ayrshire. From being a journeyman weaver 
 he became a cotton manufacturer on a most 
 extensive scale, first in conjunction with Sir 
 R. Arkwright, and afterwards on his own 
 account. By his means employment was 
 given to thousands, old and young ; nor did 
 he leave the latter without the means of 
 mental instruction, but provided teachers 
 and established schools at all Ma works. 
 Died, 1806. 
 
 D'ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond, a cele- 
 brated philosopher and mathematician, and 
 an elegant writer, born at Paris, 1717. He 
 had the name of Le Rond from the church 
 near which he was exposed as a foundling. 
 The sciences were greatly enriched by him ; 
 and his writings display great genius, judg- 
 ment, and taste. His name will remain for 
 ever attached to the great " Encyclopudie " 
 
DAI.] 
 
 ^ |5cto SIniljcriSal 3Si0Q:raj|jTjji. 
 
 [dal 
 
 wliich he founded, and to wliich he con- 
 tributed numerous articles. Died, 1783. 
 
 DAI.IN, Oi,AUS Vox, called the father of 
 modern Swedish poetry, was the author of 
 many spirited satires, songs, epigrams, and 
 fables. He also wrote " The Argus," a work 
 on tlie plan of the Spectator ; " A General 
 History of Sweden;" "Brunihilda," a tra- 
 gedy, &c. He was born in 1708, and died 
 chancellor of the coiu-t of Sweden, in 17G3. 
 Queen Louisa Ulrica erected a mausoleum 
 to his memory. 
 
 DAL.LAS, Ai.EXANDEK James, an Ame- 
 rican statesman and financier, was a native 
 of Janraica, where his father was an eminent 
 and wealthy physician. He was sent at an 
 early age to England, and completed his 
 education at Westminster Scliool. Finding, 
 at his father's death, that the wliole of his 
 property was left at the disposal of his widow, 
 who married again, he went to the United 
 States, was naturalised, and admitted to 
 practise in the supreme court of Pennsyl- 
 vania, filling up his leisure time by being 
 a contributor to the periodical press. He 
 subsequently obtained several government 
 appointments, and in 1801 was made se- 
 cretary of the treasury of the United States. 
 This situation he discharged with consum- 
 mate ability, and in 1815 he undertook the 
 additional trust of secretary of war. Died, 
 1817. 
 
 DALLAS, Sir Geouoe, lord chief justice 
 of the common pleas, was born in liondon, 
 1758, educated principally at Geneva, and 
 at the age of 18 he went to India as a writer, 
 where his talents soon raised him to high civil 
 offices. He warmly esiwused the cause of 
 Hastings when impeached, and in 1789 he 
 wrote a pamphlet, in which he attributed to 
 him tlie British supremacy in India. In 1793 
 he published his " Thoughts upon our present 
 Situation, with Remarks upon the Policy of 
 a War with France," wliich created con- 
 siderable sensation, and especially excited 
 the admiration of Mr. Pitt. He was also the 
 author of various other political works, 
 relating more particularly to the state of 
 Ireland ; besides some elaborate treatises 
 on the subject of the East India trade and 
 policy ; and, lastly, a " Biographical Memoir 
 of his son-in-law, Captain Sir Peter Parker." 
 The works of Sir George Dallas were all 
 elegant and correct compositions, displaying 
 a thorough knowledge of the subjects on 
 which he treated. Died, Jan. 1833. 
 
 DALLAS, RoBEiiT Charles, known as 
 the friend and biographer of Lord Byron, 
 was born at Kingston, Jamaica, and studied 
 the law in the Inner Temple. After resid- 
 ing for a time in France and America, he 
 returned to England, and devoted himself 
 to literature. He translated several works 
 from the French, and wrote the novels of 
 " Aubrey," " Perceval," " The Morlands," 
 &c. ; but he is now more remembered for his 
 •' Recollections of Lord Byron." Died, 1824. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Alexanueij, hydrogra- 
 pher to the Admiralty and the India Com- 
 pany, was born at New Hailes, near Edin- 
 burgh, in 1737, and spent the early part of 
 his life in India, as a writer. He wrote 
 "The Oriental Repertory," three "CoUec- 
 tiong of Voyages," &c. Died, 1808. 
 
 DAUIYMPLE, Sir David, a Scotch judge 
 and antiquary, was born at Edinburgh in 
 1726, and educated at Eton and Utrecht. On 
 his becoming a judge of tlie court of session 
 in 1700, he took the title of lord Hailes. His 
 principal works are " Annals of Scotland," 
 which Dr. Johnson assisted in revising, and 
 " Memorials relating to the History of Great 
 Britain." Died, 1792. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Sir John, for many 
 years a baron of exchequer in Scotland, and 
 the author of "Memoirs of Great Britain 
 and Ireland," in 3 vols. Died, aged 84, in 
 1810. 
 
 DALTON, JoHX, an English divine and 
 poet, was born at Dean, in Cumberland, in 
 1709, and educated at Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford. He obtained the living of St. Mary-at- 
 Hill, London, and a prebend at Worcester. 
 He wrote a volume of sermons, some poems, 
 &c. ; and adapted Milton's Comus to the 
 stage. Died, 1763. 
 
 DALTON, JoHX, D.C.L., F.R.S., a ma- 
 thematician and natural philosopher, was 
 born at Eaglesfleld, near Cockermouth, in 
 17(;(>, and gave early indications of his future 
 scientific celebrity. From teaching a school 
 as a boy in his native village, we find him at 
 a subsequent period similarly engaged at 
 Kendal ; and in 1793, when in his 2;5rd year, 
 he became professor of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy in the new college in 
 Moscley Street, Manchester, with which he 
 remained until the removal of that estab- 
 lishment to York. He made his first ap- 
 pearance as an author in a volume of " Me- 
 teorological Observations and Essays," in 
 1793. In 1808 he published " A New System 
 of Chemical Philosophy," and a second part 
 in 1810. He also frequently contributed to 
 Nicholson's Journal, the Annals of Phi- 
 losophy, and the Memoirs of the Literary 
 and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 
 of which for half a century he was an active 
 member, and latterly the president. In 182(j 
 he was presented with a gold medal by the 
 Roval Society for his scientittc discoveries ; 
 and in 1833 the sum of 2000?. was raised by 
 his friends and townsmen for the erection of 
 a statue (by Chantrey) to perpetuate his 
 remembrance. His "atomic theory" must 
 ever render his name memorable. Contem- 
 poraneously with Gay-Lussac, with whom 
 many of his researches run parallel, he dis- 
 covered the important general law of the 
 expansion of gases ; and his contributions to 
 meteorology were also of the most Important 
 kind. A severe attack of paralysis in 1837 
 considerably impaired his powers, and he 
 died in August, 1844. 
 
 DALTON, MiciiAET,, an eminent lawyer 
 of the IGth century ; the author of a book 
 on the " Office of a Justice of the Peace," and 
 another on the " Duties of Sherifi"8." Died, 
 1620. 
 
 DALZIEL, Thomas, a Scotch general, 
 who was with Charles II. at the battle of 
 Worcester ; after which he entered into the 
 Russian service, but was recalled at the 
 Restoration. After the tragical fate of 
 Charles I. he never would suffer his beard 
 to be shaved, and he was also remarkable for 
 other eccentricities in regard to his dress. 
 Hia devotion to the royal cause rendered 
 
 227 
 
dam] 
 
 ^ ^ciu SHiiibcr^al 28tflgi\"CjpIj». 
 
 [dan 
 
 him an especial favourite at the court of the 
 "merry monarch." 
 
 DAMER, Anne Seymour, eminent as a 
 sculptor as well as for lier general accom- 
 plishments, was the daughter of Field-mar- 
 shal Conway, and born in 1748. She took 
 lessons in the art from Ceracci and Bacon, 
 and afterwards studied in Italy. Died, 1808. 
 
 D AMI AN, General, born in 17G3 ; a French 
 royalist, engaged in repeated abortive at- 
 tempts to rouse France against the revolu- 
 tionary and imperial regimes, in favour of 
 the Bourbons ; and afterwards enjoying a 
 pension of 300i. per annum from the British 
 government. 
 
 DAMIENS, Robert, who, owing to his 
 vicious inclinations, obtained the appella- 
 tion of Robert-le-diahJe, was born in 171.'), at 
 TieuUoy, a village of Artois. While at Paris, 
 in a menial employment, he was accused 
 of having poisoned one of his masters and 
 robbed anotlier ; and having evaded the law 
 by flight, he in course of time returned, to 
 practise new enormities. In January, 17.57, 
 he stabbed Louis XV. in the midst of his 
 guards, as he was getting into his carriage. 
 Fortunately, the wound was not mortal, and 
 Damiens was instantly seized ; but the most 
 cruel tortures wliich lie was doomed to suffer 
 could not induce him to confess that he had 
 any accomplices ; and the horrid sentence, 
 which condemned him to be torn in pieces 
 by horses, was executed. March 28. 1757. 
 
 DAMM, CuRiSTiAN Tobias, a Protestant 
 divine, eminent as a Greek scholar, was born 
 at Leipsic in 1699. His principal work is a 
 "Greek Etymological Lexicon." Died, 1778. 
 
 DAMOCLES, a sycophant at the court of 
 Dionysius of Syracuse. He was one day 
 extolling the happy condition of princes, 
 on which the king invited him to a sump- 
 tuous entertainment, but caused a naked 
 sword to be suspended over his head bj' a 
 single hair ; thereby intimating the danger 
 that awaited the great, though surrounded 
 by vassals and revelling in luxury. This is 
 said to have produced a salutary effect on 
 the courtier, wlio begged that the king would 
 dismiss him to any mean station, so that he 
 might live in safety. 
 
 DAMON, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 rendered memorable for his friendsliip with 
 Pythias. Dionysius having condemned him 
 to death, he obtained leave of absence to go 
 home and settle his affairs, Pythias pledg- 
 ing himself to endure the punishment in his 
 Btead if he did not return at tlie appointed 
 time. Damon was punctual ; and this in- 
 stance of friendship so pleased the king, that 
 he pardoned Damon, and requested to be- 
 come one of his friends. 
 
 DAMPIER, William, an English navi- 
 gator, was born at East Coker, Somerset- 
 shire, in 1652, and became a mariner at an 
 early age. During many years of active 
 service in privateers and trading vessels, he 
 several times visited the South Seas ; and 
 the result of liis observations were given to 
 the public in a work of 4 vols., entitled 
 " Voyages round the World," which for 
 accuracy and interest, as well as for profes- 
 sional knowledge, possess very considerable 
 merit. He died, as is supposed, in 1712, but 
 tlie exact time is not known. 
 
 DANCER, Daniel, a noted miser, was 
 born in 1716, near Harrow, in Middlesex. 
 In 1736 lie succeeded to his family estate, 
 and led the life of a hermit for above half a 
 century. His only dealings with mankind 
 arose from the sale of his hay ; and he was 
 seldom seen, except when he was out gather- 
 ing logs of wood from the common, &c. As 
 he was frequently robbed, he nailed up his 
 door, and by means of a ladder, which he 
 drew up after him, got into his liouse through 
 the upper window. This miserable specimen 
 of humanity continued to vegetate till 1794, 
 when he died, bequeathing his estates to. 
 liady Tempest, for the cliaritable attentions 
 she had bestowed upon him. 
 
 DANCKERTS, the name of a family of 
 Dutch artists, of whom Cornelius, born 
 in ]5<)1, appears to have been the first of 
 any note. He excelled as a portrait and 
 historical engraver, and several among his 
 successors attained celebrity in the same art. 
 
 DANCOURT, Flore .N'CE Carton, a 
 French actor and dramatic poet, was born 
 in 1G61, at Fontainbleau, and was originally 
 a barrister, but quitted that profession for 
 tlie stage. He produced an immense number 
 of plays, and was particularly successful in 
 introducing subjects of real occurrence, 
 whicb gave to his comic pieces great pi- 
 quancy. Died, 1726. 
 
 DANDINI, C^SAR and Vincent ; two 
 Florentine painters of the 16th century, 
 both eminent for their historical pieces ; as 
 was also their nephew Pietro, who died in 
 1712. 
 
 DANDOLO, Henry, a celebrated doge of 
 Venice, to which liigh office he was chosen 
 in 1192, when in his 84th year. At the 
 siege of Constantinople, during the fourth 
 crusade, the venerable doge commanded his 
 men to run up to the walls, and was himself 
 the first who leaped on shore. He died in 
 1205, aged 97. 
 
 DANDOLO, Vincent, a Venetian chem- 
 ist, descended from the famous doge and 
 captor of Constantinople, was born in 1758. 
 At all times zealous for the independence of 
 Italy, he became a member of the council 
 of the Cisalpine republic, after the treaty 
 of Campo Formio. He died in 1819. Among 
 his works are "Fondamenti della Scienza 
 Fisico-Chemica," &c. 
 
 D'ANDRADA, Anthony, a Portuguese 
 Jesuit, who discovered in 1624 the country of 
 Cathay and Thibet, of which he published 
 an account. He died at Goa, 1634. 
 
 D'ANDRADA, Diego de Payva, a 
 learned Portuguese divine, who distin- 
 guished himself at the council of Trent by 
 his talents and eloquence, and wrote an 
 elaborate defence of it against tbe attack 
 of Chemnitius ; he died, 1575 — His brother, 
 Francis D'ANDRADA,was historiographer to 
 the king of Spain, and wrote the History 
 
 of John III., king of Portugal Another 
 
 brother, Thomas d' Anprada, an Augustine 
 friar, called by his order Thomas of Jesus, 
 attended Don Sebastian in his expedition 
 against the emperor of Morocco, was taken 
 prisoner, and shut up in a cave by the 
 Moors, in which place he wrote a book 
 called " The Sufferings of Jesus." 
 
 DANGEAU, Philip de Coukcillon, 
 
dan]. 
 
 ^ ^tbi BnihtrgKi 38tOffrap]^M. 
 
 [dan 
 
 Marquis of, was born in 1G38, and distin- 
 guislied himself not less by his own talents 
 than by the patronage he afforded to the 
 literati of his day. He wrote an extensive 
 "Journal of the Court of I^ouis XIV.," ex- 
 tracts from whieh have been published, but 
 not the work entire. Died, 1720, 
 
 D'ANGIIIERA, Pktkii Martyr, an 
 Italian scholar of a noble Milanese family, 
 born, 145.5 ; died, 152ii, at Granada ; leaving 
 several historical works, which are usually 
 quoted under the name of Peter Martvr. 
 
 DANICIAN, Andre, better known" by the 
 name of Philidok, a celebrated player and 
 writer on chess, was born at Paris, and 
 resided several years in England, where he 
 published his " Analysis " of that celebrated 
 game, and also some musical compositions. 
 Died, 17S)5. 
 
 DANIEL, Gabriel, a French Jesuit ; 
 author of a " History of France," and a 
 " Voyage to the VVorld of Descartes," a 
 severe satire on the system of that philoso- 
 pher. Born, 1649 ; died, 1728. 
 
 DANIEL, Samuel, a poet and historian, 
 was born in 1562, near Taunton, Devon, 
 and educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. 
 He became poet laureate on the dcatli of 
 Spenser, and was subsequently ai)pointed 
 to the office of groom of the bed-cliamber 
 to James I. Besides various poems, some 
 of wliich possess considerable merit, he wrote 
 a " History of England " to the end of the 
 reign of Edward III. Died, 1619. 
 
 DANIELI, F., an Italian savant, medal- 
 list, and antiquarian, l)orn in 1741. In the 
 Neapolitan revolution of 1799, he joined the 
 French republican party i and on the resto- 
 ration of the king of Naples, by Lord Nelson's 
 means, suffered by the loss of his post in the 
 academy, and the confiscation of his pro- 
 perty. Joseph Buonaparte made him per- 
 petual secretary of the Academy of Anti- 
 quities at Naples, and in tikis employment 
 he was continued by Murat. He died in 
 1812. Among his works are " 1-e Forche 
 Caudine Illustrate," " Monete Antiche di 
 Capua," " I Regali Sepolclxri del Duomo di 
 Palermo," &c. 
 
 DANIELL, John Frederick, D.C.L., 
 professor of chemistry in King's College, and 
 foreign secretary to the Royal Society ; au- 
 thor of " Meteorological Essays," an " Intro- 
 duction to Chemical Philosophy," &c., be- 
 sides numerous papers in the Quarterly 
 Journal of Science and Art, and the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions, was bom in Essex 
 Street, London, in 1790. As a proof of the 
 estimation in which his scientific attainments 
 were held, it is only necessary to state that 
 he obtained all the three medals in the gift 
 of the Royal Society, an honour never before 
 conferred on any individual. While attend- 
 ing a meeting of the council of the R. S., 
 Marcli 14. 1845, he was seized with apoplexy, 
 and immediately expired. In his official 
 capacity he was zealous and indefatigable ; 
 in his private character, irreproachable. 
 
 DANIELL, Samuel, an artist, who tra- 
 velled into the interior of Africa, made nu- 
 merous drawings there, and on his return 
 published a work entitled " African Scenery." 
 He also spent six years in the island of Cey- 
 lon, where he died in 1811. He left an ex- 
 
 tensive collection of drawings, chiefljr iUus- | 
 trative of the natural history of the island ; 
 and a volume was published, entitled " The 
 Scenery, Animals, and Native Inhabitants of 
 Ceylon." 
 
 DANIELL, William, R.A., an eminent 
 draughtsman, bom 1769, was initiated in 
 the pictorial art at a very earlj' age, and 
 accompanied his uncle to India, when he was 
 only 14, for the express purpose of assisting 
 in depicting the scenery, costume, &c. of 
 that interesting country. Immediately on 
 their return, the large work, entitled " Orien- 
 tal Scenery," in 6 folio volumes, was com- 
 menced, and continued with the most per- 
 severing ardour, until its completion in 1808. 
 He also published " A Picturesque Voyage 
 to India," a work entitled " Zoography," 
 and a great variety of separate views, &c. 
 In 1814, he commenced the " Voyage round 
 Great Britain," a most gigantic undertaking 
 for an unassisted individual. Two or three 
 months in each summer were devoted to 
 collect drawings and notes, and the work 
 was finished in 1825. In 1832, Mr. Daniell, 
 and his friend Mr. Parris, executed the 
 '•Panorama of Madras)" and he subse- 
 quently painted two others, without assist- 
 ance, namely, the "City of Lucknow " and 
 the "Mode of Hunting wild Elephants in 
 Ceylon." He was particularly successful in 
 depicting the ocean in all its varied aspects ; 
 and his glowing representations of Eastern 
 scenery are well known to the public by his 
 splendid " Oriental Annual." Died, 1837. 
 
 DANNECKER, John Henuv, whose 
 statue of Ariadne on the leopard, in M. 
 Bethmann's garden at Frankfort, would 
 suffice to place him in the first rank of 
 modem sculptors, was bom at Stuttgard, in 
 17.'>8. He early gave indications of a talent 
 for art ; and after passing some years in the 
 school of design, he set out for Paris in 1783, 
 where he studied under Piijou, and sub- 
 sequently spent 5 years at Rome.in the con- 
 templation and imitation of tlie master- 
 pieces of art that adorn that metropolis. 
 The rest of his life M'as spent chiefly at 
 Stuttgard. His female figures have rarely 
 been surpassed ; and his busts of Schiller, 
 Lavater, Gluck, and many of the members of 
 the royal family of Wurtemberg, are models 
 of artistic skill. Died, 1841. 
 
 DANTE, Alighieki, or more properly 
 DURANTE, the most renowned of all the 
 Italian poets, was born at Florence in 1265. 
 In the early part of his life he served his 
 country both as a soldier and a statesman, 
 and was employed on many occasicms as tlio 
 Florentine envoy to Rome. Unfortunately 
 for himself, he was made one of the priors, 
 or principal magistrates of his native city, 
 in 1300, during the time it was divided be- 
 tween two parties, the Bianclii and the Neri ; 
 and the former (to whom he belonged) being 
 the weakest, he was banished, his property 
 confiscated, and he was long doomed to en- 
 dure all the sorrows and sufferings of pro- 
 tracted exile. At length he found an asylum 
 with Guido Novello, lord of Ravenna, who, 
 as a friend of the muses, willingly afforded 
 him protection during the remainder of his 
 life. Dante's fame chiefly rests on that ex- 
 traordinary production, entitled "Divina 
 
dan] 
 
 ^ jjHeiu Winibtx^Kl Mia^vK^'^tj* 
 
 [dar 
 
 Commedia," consisting of three parts, Ilell, 
 Purgatory, and Heaven ; a work alike re- 
 markable for its terrific grandeur and wild 
 display of creative genius, while at times it 
 is equally graceful, tender, and pathetic. 
 He died in 1321. 
 
 DANTE, Ignatius, 0. Dominican, of the 
 same family as the poet. He was a celebrated 
 mathematician, and wrote a treatise on the 
 astrolabe. He became bishop of Alatri, and 
 died in 1586. 
 
 DANTE, Jony Baptist, professor of ma- 
 thematics at Venice in the loth century, was 
 also a member of the above family, and is 
 said to have made a pair of wings, with 
 which he flew over the lake Thrasimenus. 
 
 DANTON, Georoe James, born in 1759, 
 was an advocate by profession, but became 
 one of the most active among the sanguinary 
 demagogues of the French revolution. After 
 the imprisonment of Louis XVI. at Varennes, 
 he took the lead in the meeting of the Champ 
 de Mars, which paved the way to the de- 
 thronement of the king, and ended in those 
 scenes of blood and cruelty that has for ever 
 rendered execrable the name of Jacobin. 
 Well qualified for the position he assumed, 
 by his colossal figure, stentorian voice, and 
 fierce demeanour, he became one of the 
 executive council, and prepared measures 
 for the defence of the capital when it was 
 threatened by the Prussian invaders under 
 the Duke of Brunswick. He was afterwards 
 a member of the convention and of the com- 
 mittee of public safety, and was a chief pro- 
 moter of all the sanguinary acts of that 
 terrible period. At length a struggle for 
 supremacj^ took place between him and Ro- 
 bespierre, in which the latter succeeded, and 
 Danton was sent to the guillotine, in 1794. 
 
 D'ANTONELLE, Peter Antony, Mar- 
 quis ; a conspicuous character in the French 
 revolution. He voted for the death of the 
 queen, and for the destruction of the Girond- 
 ists. He was himself near meeting the fate 
 to which he so readily consigned others, as 
 he was tried for complicity in the conspiracy 
 of Babeuf ; but he was fortunate enough to 
 be acquitted, and died at an advanced age, 
 in 1817. 
 
 D'ANVILLE, JeanBaptiste Bourguig- 
 NON, first geographer to the king of France, 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Belles Lettres, of the Antiquarian Society of 
 London, and adjoint-geographer to the Pa- 
 risian Academy of Sciences ; born at Paris, 
 1697 ; died, 1782. D' Anville devoted his whole 
 life to geographical studies, and the nume- 
 rous valuable maps and works he published 
 left him without a rival. Among the best of 
 his works are the " Atlas of Ancient Egypt," 
 " Orbis Veteribus Notus," and " Orbis Ro- 
 manus." He published 78 treatises and 211 
 maps, all of which are distinguished for their 
 accuracy and perspicuity. 
 
 DANZI, Francis, an eminent musical 
 composer and performer on the violoncello, 
 born at Mannheim in 1763 ; author of several 
 operas, " Azakia," the "Midnight Hour," 
 "Iphigenia," &c., and a great variety of 
 instrumental music. He held the situation 
 of director of the opera at Carlsruhe. Died, 
 1826. 
 
 DARAN, James, an eminent French sur- 
 
 geon, born in 1701, was celebrated chiefly for 
 his skill in diseases of the bladder. For a 
 considerable time he was surgeon-major in 
 the imperial army, but settled in Paris, 
 where he acquired both fame and fortune 
 by his practice. Died, 1784. 
 
 D'ARBLAY, Madame (Frances Btns- 
 NEY), was the daughter of Dr. Bumey, 
 the celebrated composer and author, and 
 may be reckoned among the most distin- 
 guished novelists of the last century ; her 
 first work, "Evelina," having created a 
 greater sensation among the literati of her 
 time than was probably ever caused by any 
 similar production. Her other chief works 
 were " Cecilia, or the Memoirs of an Heiress," 
 "Camilla, or a Picture of Youth," "The 
 Wanderer, or Female Difficulties," and 
 " Memoirs of Dr. Burney." In 1793 she was 
 married to M. d'Arblay, a French emigrant 
 artillery officer ; and having quitted Eng- 
 land for a short residence at Paris during 
 the peace of 1802, their detention by Napoleon 
 was the consequence. Her husband after- 
 wards resumed his rank in the army of his 
 native country ; and they continued to re- 
 main in France till the peace of 1814, when 
 they came to England, and took up their 
 residence at Bath. In that city M. d'Arblay 
 (then a general) died, in 1818. There also 
 died Madame d'Arblay, Jan. 6. 1840. Her 
 memoirs have since been published. 
 
 DARCET, John, a French chemist and 
 physician, who contributed much to the pro- 
 gress of chemical science, was bom, in 1725, 
 at Douazit, in Guienne. He made several 
 improvements in the manufacture of porce- 
 lain, tried the effect of fire on various mine- 
 rals, and demonstrated the combustibility of 
 the diamond. During the reign of terror his 
 name was in Robespierre's list ; but the in- 
 terest of his friend Fourcroy saved him from 
 the tyrant's murderous fangs ; and he died in 
 1801, a member of the Institute and of the 
 conservative senate. — His son, John Peter 
 Joseph, also an ingenious practical chemist, 
 has greatly contributed to the improvement 
 of science by a number of valuable disco- 
 veries. 
 
 D'ARCQ, Philip ArousTus, Chevalier, a 
 supposed natural son of the Count de Tou- 
 louse, born at Paris, and died, 1779 ; he 
 wrote several works on history, &c., and at 
 the close of his life retired to Gentilly, where 
 he devoted the remainder of his days to re- 
 ligion. 
 
 DARCY, Patrick, Count, an eminent en- 
 gineer, was born at Galway, in Ireland, in 
 1725, and educated at Paris. He entered the 
 French army, and progressively rose to the 
 rank of major-general. He also distinguished 
 himself by his mathematical works, viz. " An 
 Essay on Artillery," " A Memoir on the Du- 
 ration of the Sensation of Sight," &c. Died, 
 1779. 
 
 D'ARGENSOLA, Lupercio Leonardo, 
 a Spanish poet, born at Balbastro, Arragon, 
 in 1565, was secretary of war at Naples, 
 under the viceroy there. He was the author 
 of three tragedies and various poems. Died, 
 1613. 
 
 D'ARGENSOLA, Bartholomew, brother 
 of the preceding, was chaplain to the empress 
 Maria of Austria, and the writer of some 
 
dar] 
 
 ^ ^t\33 mnibtviKl masta^fft). 
 
 [das 
 
 historical works of merit, viz. a " Ilistorv 
 of the Conquest of the Molucca Islands, 
 " Annals of the Kingdom of Arragon," &c. 
 Died, 1731. 
 
 D'AJtGENSON, Mark RCn^ lk Voter 
 Paulmv, Marquis, a distinguished states- 
 man in the reign of Louis XIV., born at 
 Venice, 16.52 ; died, 1721. He was lieutenant- 
 general of the police in Paris, and the first 
 who introduced lettres-de-cachet : he was 
 subsequently chancellor ; but finally retired 
 under some disgrace to a monastery, in wliich 
 he died. 
 
 D'ARGENTAL, Chahles Augustin 
 Fkukiol, Count, a French writer of the 
 18th century, to whom some writers attribute 
 the novel, entitled " Mt'moires du Comte de 
 Comminges." Died, 1788. 
 
 D'ARGENTRE, Chables DuI'lessis, a 
 learned French prelate ; bom, 1C73 ; died, 
 1740 : he became doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 almoner to the king, and bishop of Tulles. 
 
 D'ARGENVILIiE, Antoine Joseph De- 
 SALLiER, a native of Paris, in which city 
 his father was a bookseller. He was one 
 of the members of the French academy, en- 
 gaged in the compilation of the Encyclo- 
 pt^die, and a corresponding associate of most 
 of the European literary societies. He died, 
 1766. 
 
 D'ARGILLATA, Peter, a physician 
 and professor of logic at Bologna ; died, 
 1423 : his surgical observations in six books 
 passed through many editions, and are very 
 valuable. 
 
 D'ARGONNE, Norl Bonavexture, a 
 French Carthusian monk of the 17th century. 
 His " MtManges d' Histoire et de Litterature," 
 published under the name of Vigneul de 
 Marville, is a very clever collection of anec- 
 dotes, accompanied by striking and just re- 
 marks. Argonne is also favourably known 
 as the author of "Traits de la Lecture des 
 Pferes de TEglise." 
 
 D'ARGOTA, Jerome Contador, a Por- 
 tuguese monk, born at Collares, 1076 ; died, 
 1749. He was a member of the Portuguese 
 academy of history, and author of several 
 works on antiquities, &c. 
 
 D' ARGUES, Gerard, a mathematician, 
 born at Lyons, 1597 ; died, 1661. He wrote 
 several treatises on perspective, conic sec- 
 tions, stone-cutting, &c. 
 
 DARIUS, surnamed the Mede, by some 
 supposed to be the same as Cyaxeres, son of 
 Astyages, and maternal uncle to Cyrus, died 
 at Babylon about 348 b. c. 
 
 DARIUS I., king of Persia, was the son of 
 Hystaspes. He entered into a conspiracy, 
 with six others, against the usurper Smerdis, 
 and having slain him, they agreed that he 
 should have the crown whose horse should 
 neigh first in the morning. By a well-con- 
 certed plan of his groom, the horse of Darius 
 neighed immediately he came to the spot 
 where they were to meet, in consequence of 
 which he was saluted king. He took Babylon 
 after a siege of ten months, rebuilt the temple 
 of Jerusalem, and sent the captive Jews to 
 their own country. His forces suflfered a 
 defeat from the Greeks at Marathon ; on 
 which he resolved to carry on the war in 
 person, but died in the midst of liis prepara- 
 tion, iJ. c. 485. 
 
 DARNLEY, Henry, Earl of, the husband 
 of Mary, queen of Scots, whose hand he re- 
 ceived in 1565, and perished about two years 
 afterwards, owing to the house in which he 
 resided being blown up with gunpowder. 
 Whether Mary was privy to this horrid crime, 
 or not, has never been clearly proved ; but 
 there are strong reasons to conjecture that 
 her illicit passion for Bothwell, or resentment 
 for the death of her favourite, Rizzio, might 
 have been the cause of the catastrophe. 
 
 D'ARNAUD, Francis T. M. Baculakp, 
 a French writer of the 18th century ; author 
 of numerous poems, plays, and prose fictions. 
 He was favourably noticed by Voltaire, and 
 Frederic, king of Prussia. 
 
 D'ARNAUD, George, a French critic, 
 whose works are very numerous and erudite. 
 He gave promise of critical excellence, but 
 was cut short in his learned career by death, 
 at the early age of 29. Born, 1718 ; died, 
 1747. 
 
 DARQUIER, AcousTiN, a French astro- 
 nomer, was born at Toulouse in 1718, and 
 died in 1802. He was a member of the na- 
 tional institute ; and his observations were 
 printed in Lalande's " Histoire Ctleste." 
 
 DARU, Pierre Antoink Noel Bruno, 
 a i)eer of France, eminent as a statesman, 
 poet, and historian, was born at Montpelier, 
 in 1767. At the age of sixteen he entered the 
 army, and at the breaking out of the revolu- 
 tion adopted its princii)les ; but though en- 
 gaged in active service, he devoted much of 
 his time to literary pursuits. He first pub- 
 lished a translation of the works of Horace, 
 which, with his " Cli?op(-die," or Theory of 
 Literary Fame, established his reputation as 
 a poet. It was not long before Napoleon 
 discovered his abilities, and rewarded him 
 by various oflflcial appointments of trust, in 
 which Darn conducted himself with zeal and 
 ability ; and at the time of the first restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons he held the portfolio of 
 the war department. Though his estate at 
 Meulan was sequestrated by Blucher, the 
 allied monarchs soon restored it, and he was 
 called to the chamber of peers by Louis 
 XVni. He afterwards wrote the " Life of 
 Sully" and the "History of Venice," the 
 latter work being one of the most important 
 productions of modern literature. Died, 1829. 
 
 DARWIN, Erasmus, a poet and physician, 
 was born at Elton, near Newark, in 1721. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, took his 
 doctor's degree at Edinburgh, and settled at 
 Lichfield as a physician till 1781, when he 
 removed to Derby, where he died in 1802. 
 He was a man of great talent but of remark- 
 ably eccentric opinions, as his works abun- 
 dantly prove. His poetic fame rests upon 
 his "Botanic Garden," the versification of 
 which is highly polished but too mechanical. 
 His other great work is entitled " Zoonomia, 
 or the Laws of Organic Life," which, though 
 able and ingenious, is built upon the most 
 absurd hypotheses. He also wrote " Physo- 
 logia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and 
 Gardening," several papers in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, &c. 
 
 DASCHKOFF, Catharine Romanowna, 
 Princess of, born in 1744, was a woman of 
 great courage, and of considerable literary 
 abilities. Having led a body of troops to the 
 
 xa 
 
empress Catharine, the latter placed herself 
 at their head, and precipitated her husband 
 from the tlirone. Tor tliis service she desired 
 to have the command of aregiment of guards, 
 which the czarina refused ; but was made 
 director of the academy of sciences, and 
 president of the newly established Russian 
 academy. She was the author of some co- 
 medies and other works. Died, 1810. 
 
 D'ASPREMONT. Francis, Viscount, the 
 famous governor of Bayonne, wlio, when 
 commanded by Charles IX. to massacre the 
 Calvinists, heroically replied, " Sire, among 
 the citizens and soldiers I have found men 
 devoted to your Majesty j but not a single 
 executioner." 
 
 DASSIER, John', a French medallist, who 
 engraved a great number of medals of emi- 
 nent men of the age of Louis XIV. Died, 
 1763. 
 
 DASSIER, Jacob Axtiiony, son of the 
 preceding, was also a medallist, and engraved 
 numerous medals of illustrious men, in a 
 very suijerior style of workmanship, preserv- 
 ing the likenesses with wonderful correct- 
 ness. He was for some time actively em- 
 ployed in the mint of England, but went to 
 St. Petersburgh, and died at Copenhagen, 
 while on his return to London, in 1709. 
 
 DAT AMES, a general of the army of Ar- 
 taxerxes, king of Persia, to which station he 
 was raised from the ranks. He was assassin- 
 ated B c 361 
 
 D'ATTAIGNANT, Gabkiel Charles, 
 a French ecclesiastic and poet; author of 
 " Pieces Derobees & un Ami," &c. Born, 
 1697 ; died, 1779. 
 
 DAUBENTON, Louis Jean Marie, a 
 French naturalist and physician, was born 
 at Montbar, Burgundy, in 1716. He was the 
 friend and coadjutor of Buflfon in his Na- 
 tural History of Quadrupeds, the anatomical 
 part of which was prepared by him with 
 great clearness and accuracy. He is the 
 author of " Instructions to Shepherds," " A 
 Methodical View of Minerals," and other 
 works ; and at the time of his death, in 1800, 
 was a member of the senate and the institute. 
 His wife was the author of a popular ro- 
 mance, called " Zelie dans le Di-sert." She 
 died in 1824. 
 
 D'AUBIGNE, Theodore Agrippa, a 
 French Calvinist of good family, remark- 
 able for his attachment to Henry IV., and 
 for the honesty with whicli he spoke the 
 truth to that king even when it was least 
 agreeable. He spent the latter part of his 
 life in retirement at Geneva. Died, 1630. 
 
 D'AUBIGNE, Constant, son of the above, 
 and father of the notorious Madame de 
 Maintenon. His moral character was very 
 inferior to that of his father ; but as an 
 author, his Universal History, and his satires, 
 poems, memoirs, &c., do him considerable 
 credit. 
 
 D'AUBUSSON, Peter, surnamed the 
 Buckler of the Church, after having served 
 with great distinction under the emperor 
 I Sigismund against the Turks, entered the 
 j order of St. John of Jerusalem, became 
 j grand-master, and, in 1480, compelled Ma- 
 homet II. to raise the siege of Rhodes. 
 1 Died, ].-)03. 
 
 D' AUDIGUIER, Vital, a French noble- 
 
 man ; author of a " Treatise on the true and 
 ancient Usage of Duels." Died, 1630. 
 
 DAUN, Leopold Joseph Maria, Count, 
 an Austrian field-marshal, was born in 1705. 
 He commenced his military career in the 
 war against the Turks, and greatly distin- 
 guished himself; but it was as commander- 
 in-chief, when opposed to Frederic of Prussia, 
 during the seven years' war, that he obtained 
 Ills fame as a great general. He died in 
 1766. 
 
 DAUNOU, Pierre Claude Francois, a 
 very learned French writer and professor, 
 was bom at Bovilogne-sur-mer. Being sent 
 to the convention by the department of 
 Calais, he strove to save the king and the 
 Girondists, was thrown into prison by Ro- 
 bespierre, and only owed his escape from 
 death to that monster's full. He was a very 
 voluminous writer, and his " Course of His- 
 torical Study " fully displays the pliiloso- 
 pher, the critic, the writer, and no less the 
 honest man, who were all united in his 
 person. Bom, 1761 ; died, 1840. 
 
 DAVEN^VNT, Sir William, an eminent 
 poet, was born at Oxford, in 1606, and there 
 educated. After liaving been in the service of 
 the Duchess of Richmond and Lord Brooke, 
 he began to write for the stage ; and upon 
 the death of Ben Jonson, he was created poet 
 laureate. During the civil wars he fought 
 for the king, was made a lieutenant-general, 
 and received the honour of knighthood. On 
 the decline of the royal cause he went to 
 France, and formed a design for carrying 
 over a number of artificers to Virginia ; but 
 his ship was taken by a vessel belonging to 
 the parliament, and brought to England, 
 where an ignominious death would have 
 awaited him, had it not been for the in- 
 tercession of Milton ; an act of kindness 
 which he afterwards returned. On the resto- 
 ration of Charles II., he obtained a patent 
 for a theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. He 
 died in 16(i8, and was interred in Westminster 
 Abbey. His works consist of plays and 
 poems, all of which display talents far above 
 mediocrity. 
 
 DAVENANT, Charles, eldest son of the 
 preceding, an eminent author and civilian, 
 was bom in 1656. He was successively joint 
 inspector of plays, commissioner of excise, 
 and inspector-general of exports and imports. 
 His "Essays on Trade," in 5 vols., was his 
 principal work ; but he also WTOte " Circe," a 
 tragedy, and some other plays. Died, 1714. 
 
 DAVENANT, John, bishop of Salisbury, 
 was the son of an eminent merchant in 
 London, where he was born in 1570. He was 
 elected professor of divinity at Cambridge in 
 1609 ; but is chiefly known as liaving been 
 sent bv James I. to the synod of Dort. 
 
 DAVENPORT, Christopher, an English 
 Franciscan friar and theological writer. 
 He was chaplain to the queen of Charles I. 
 Born, 1598 ; died, 1680. 
 
 DAVID, St., the patron saint of Wales, 
 was the son of the prince of Ceretica, now 
 Cardiganshire, and born towards the end of 
 the 5th century. On the death of St. Du- 
 bricius, he became archbishop of Caerlon, at 
 that time the metropolitan church of Wales; 
 but he translated it to Alenevia, now St. 
 David's. He had the reputation of great 
 
DAV] 
 
 ^ ^eia BnibtvM Mio^VKp'^n, 
 
 [dav 
 
 learning and piety, and was tlie founder of 
 twelve monasteries, the principal of which 
 was in the vale of Ross. 
 
 DAVID I., king of Scotland, succeeded his 
 brother Alexander the Fierce in 1124. He 
 married Maud, grand-niece of William the 
 Conqueror ; and was earl of Northumberland 
 and Huntingdon when called to the Scottish 
 throne. On the death of Henry I., king of 
 England, he maintained the claim of his 
 daughter Maud against king Stephen, and 
 seized Carlisle, but was defeated at the battle 
 of Northallerton in 1138. A negotiation was 
 entered into the following year, by which 
 Carlisle was suifered to remain in the pos- 
 session of David. He died tliere in 1153. 
 
 DAVID II., king of Scotland, was the son 
 of Kobert Bruce, at whose death he was only 
 five years old. On the invasion of Scotland 
 by Baliol, David was sent to France ; but his 
 party prevailing, after a bloody contest, he 
 returned home in 1342. He made several 
 inroads on England, but was taken prisoner 
 after a brave resistance, and conveyed to the 
 Tower, and did not recover liis liberty till 
 1357, on paying a heavy ransom. Died, 1371. 
 
 DAVID, Francis Anne, an eminent 
 French engraver, who published many illus- 
 trated works, among which were " Uistoire 
 de France, sous le K6gue de Napoleon le 
 Grand," " EK-mens du Dcssin," &c. Died, 
 1824. 
 
 DAVID DE St. GEORGE, John Joseph 
 Alexis, a French litterateur, who devoted 
 much time to the formation of a sclieme, 
 originally suggested by the president Des 
 Brosses, for showing tlie connection between 
 the roots of all languoges. He was a member 
 of several learned societies, and tlic trans- 
 lator of some of Smollett's novels and other 
 English works. Born, 1759 ; died, 1809. 
 
 DAVID AB GWILYM. a celebrated 
 Welsh poet, of the 14th century. 
 
 DAVID, Jacques Louis, a celebrated 
 modem French painter, was born at Paris in 
 1750, and was a pupil of Vien. In 1774 he 
 went to Rome, where his talents for historical 
 paintings were quickly developed ; and in 
 1789 he finished a large picture, representing 
 Brutus condemning his son to death. But 
 whatever were his merits as a painter, his 
 character as a man is for ever degraded by 
 the blind idolatry with which he worshipped 
 those human demons, Robespierre and Marat, 
 as well as by the eagerness with which he 
 accepted oflice in the worst periods of the 
 revolution. Seated in the National Conven- 
 tion, he became one of the Jacobin Mountain, 
 and appears to have worked himself up to 
 the imaginary belief of a similarity between 
 Collot d'Herbois and Marias — of Phocion 
 and Robesi)ierre. He presented paintings of 
 republican heroism to the National Assem- 
 bly ; he depicted, in a funeral oration, the 
 patriotic deatti of Marat ; avowed his destiny 
 as for ever joined with Robespierre ; voted 
 for the death of Louis XVI., and for the civic 
 festival destined to the goddess of Liberty, 
 and the re-acknowledgment of a God for 
 some of the constituent details of which he 
 supplied gratuitous designs. In the sudden 
 changes, however, which at that time took 
 place, he was committed to the Luxembourg, 
 and only escaped the guillotine from the 
 
 celebrity he had gained as an artist. In 
 1800, Buonaparte appointed him painter to 
 the government ; and, during the imperial 
 domination, David exercised considerable | 
 influence over the measures adopted for the 
 cultivation of the fine arts. On the restora- , 
 tion of the Bourbons he was banished from 
 France, and died at Brussels in 1825. His 
 best paintings are, the Rape of the Sabines, 
 the Oath of the Horatii, the Death of Socrates, | 
 Napoleon presenting tlie Imperial Eagles to j 
 the Troops, Mars disarmed by Venus and the 
 Graces, and the Coronation of Napoleon, j 
 David's style of painting, formed on a fas- 
 tidious deference to the classic models of j 
 Greece, has a cold and statue-like tameness 
 in the midstof striking elegance of form, and | 
 accuracy of costume and design, being defi- | 
 cient in that vitality which forms the beau 
 ideal of the English school. 
 
 DAVIDSON, John, a celebrated traveller, 
 was the son of Mr. Davidson, an opulent 
 tailor, in Cork Street, Dublin. In 1814, he 
 was apprenticed to Messrs. Savory and Moore, 
 chemists, and became a partner in that firm 
 at the expiration of his time ; but his in- 
 clination for travel induced him to quit the 
 business in 1826 ; and from that period up 
 to the time of his death, he had been almost 
 constantly en^'aged in exploring distant re- 
 gions. He visited North and South America, 
 India, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Greece, Italy, 
 France, and Germany ; enriching his mind 
 with the most valuable information, and 
 afterwards imparting it to the public in his 
 lectures. His last exj)edition was to Africa, 
 and it proved a fatal one. Whilst vainly 
 attempting to reach the great object of 
 European curiosity, the far-famed city of 
 Timbuctoo, and when about 25 days' journey 
 from it (near the southern confines of the 
 district of Egucda), he was robbed and mur- 
 dered by a party of the tribe of El Harib, 
 Dec. 18. 1836. 
 
 DAVIDSON, LrcRETiA Maria, an Ame- 
 rican poetess of extraordinary talent, in- 
 dustry, and precocity, was born at Platts- 
 burg in 1808. When she was only four 
 years old she was in the habit of retiring to 
 some secluded place, while her schoolmates 
 were at play, and there occupying herself 
 in making rude drawings, with verses de- 
 scriptive of them, written in the characters 
 of the printed alphabet. Her parents not 
 being in good circumstances, she was much 
 employed in domestic services ; but still she 
 devoted every interval of leisure to intel- 
 lectual pursuits, and with such a fatal ar- 
 dour, that it laid the foundation of a dis- 
 ease which terminated in death, August 
 27. 1825, in the 17th year of her age. Her 
 poetical pieces were afterwards published, 
 with a biographical sketch by Mr. Morse. 
 Her features were singularly beautiful, but 
 an expression of melancholy pervaded them, 
 and in her latter effusions there is an evident 
 consciousness of her premature decay. 
 
 DAVIE, William Riciiakuson, a native 
 of England, but brought up in America, 
 and graduated at the college of Nassau 
 llall, New Jersey. He was intended for the 
 law ; but yielding to the military spirit 
 which the war of independence had excited 
 in Carolina, he obtained the command of a 
 
 X3 
 
DAV] 
 
 % ^t^ Wnxi'ozx^^X 33ifl0rHjiT)i?. 
 
 [dav 
 
 company in Count Pulaslti's legion, quickly 
 rose in rank, and greatly distinguislied 
 himself by his zeal, courage, and skill. In 
 1799 he was elected governor of North 
 Carolina, and, soon after, appointed by 
 President Adams one of the envoys to 
 France. He possessed a commanding figure, 
 a noble and patriotic spirit, and was gifted 
 with a masculine, ready eloquence, alike 
 serviceable to himself and the cause of his 
 country. Died, 1820. 
 
 DAVIES, Sir John, an English poet and 
 judge, born in 1570, was a native of Wilt- 
 shire, and studied at Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford ; from whence he removed to tlie 
 Middle Temple, and was called to the bar. 
 On tlie accession of James I. he was created 
 a knight, and appointed to the oflRce of at- 
 torney-general for Ireland. In 1G2(> he was 
 made chief justice of the king's bench, but 
 died during the same year. His principal 
 poem, entitled "Nosce Teipsum," has very 
 considerable merit, and his work on the 
 state of Ireland contains many sound 
 political arguments and reflections. 
 
 DAVIES, Dr. Johx, a learned Welsh 
 divine ; author of a grammar of the Welsh 
 language, and a dictionary, Welsh and 
 Latin. Died, 1044. 
 
 DAVIES, Robert, a modern bard of 
 Wales, and one whose knowledge and love 
 of Cambrian literature were never exceeded, 
 died at Nantglyn, near Denbigh, on New- 
 year's Day, 183G, aged 66. lie gained nu- 
 merous medals and premiums at tlie diiferent 
 Eisteddfodan, for his Welsh effusions on 
 popular and patriotic subjects ; and was 
 also the author of an excellent " Welsh 
 Grammar," &c. Among the admirers of 
 the ancient British language, Mr. Davies 
 was known by the bardie appellation of 
 Bard Nantgh/n. 
 
 DAVIES, Rev. Walter, vicar of Llhan- 
 rhai-adhr, one of the Cambrian patriots, to 
 whom, since the middle, and, more particu- 
 larly, since the last decenniura of the 18th 
 century, tlie principality became indebted 
 for a new epoch in the development of old 
 British literature, and, at the same time, of 
 the national life and spirit of the Welsh 
 people ; was born at Wern, in the parish of 
 Llhan-y-Mechain, in 1761. Though born of 
 poor parents, he could trace his origin to a 
 long line of illustrious ancestors. At the 
 age of 11, he was teacher in a rural school ; 
 and afterwards matriculated at All Saints, 
 Oxford. Among his countrymen, he ranks 
 with their most distinguished bards, both 
 ancient and modern ; and besides innume- 
 rable minor prose contributions to various 
 Welsh journals, illustrative of the liistory, 
 topography, and language of his native 
 country, lie wrote " A General View of the 
 Agriculture and Domestic Economy of North 
 Wales and South Vv^ales," published by order 
 of the Board of Agriculture, four volumes, 
 1810—1818 ; a work full of shrewd observa- 
 tion, lively description, and excellent prac- 
 tical advice : and published an edition of 
 Haw Morus and of Lewis Glyn Gothi, a 
 historical poet of the 16th century. Died, 
 1840. 
 
 DAVILA, Arrigo Cateeixo, an eminent 
 historian, Was born in the territory of Padua, 
 
 in 1576 ; and being brought up in France, 
 served with reputation in the French army. 
 On his return to his native country, he held 
 several high offices under the Venetian go- 
 vernment ; but in 1631, while on his jour- 
 ney to take the command of the garrison at 
 Crema, he was assassinated. He wrote 
 " The History of the Civil Wars of France," 
 a work which still ranks among the best 
 Italian productions. 
 
 D'AVILER, Augustine Charles, a 
 French architect of the 17th century ; author 
 of some valuable works on architecture. 
 
 DAVIS, Hexut Edward, an English di- 
 vine, born at Windsor, in 1756. He was the 
 author of " An Examination of Gibbon's 
 Rome," and the only opponent whom the 
 historian deigned to answer. Died, 1784. 
 
 DAVIS, John, an eminent navigator, was 
 born near Dartmouth in Devonshire, and 
 went to sea at an early age. In 1585 he was 
 sent out with two vessels to find a north- 
 west passage, when he discovered the straits 
 which still bear liis name. He afterwards 
 explored the coasts of Greenland and Ice- 
 land, proceeding as far as latitude 73"^ N. In 
 1571 lie went, as second in command, with 
 Cavendish, in his unfortunate voyage to the 
 South Seas. After this he made five voyages 
 to the East Indies, in the last of wliich he 
 was killed in an engagement with some 
 Japanese pirates off the coast of Malacca, 
 1605. He wrote an account of his voyages, 
 and invented a quadrant. 
 
 DAVIS, Richard Hart, an eminent mer- 
 chant and banker in Bristol, and for many 
 years one of the representatives of that city 
 in parliament, from which, however, he 
 withdrew on the passing of the reform bill. 
 On four different elections he maintained 
 his seat after severe contests, having for his 
 opponents on two occasions, Henry Hunt 
 and William Cobbett, and Sir Samuel Ro- 
 milly. On his secession from parliament, a 
 handsome service of plate, of the value of 
 756/., was raised by subscription, and pre- 
 sented to him by the electors, as a mark of 
 their esteem. Died February, 1842, aged 75. 
 
 DAVIS, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, 
 by turns a bookseller and an actor, was the 
 author of "The Life of Garrick," "The 
 Life of Henderson," " Dramatic Miscel- 
 lanies," &c. Died, 1705. 
 
 DAVISON, William, a native of Scot- 
 land, and secretary of state to queen Eliza- 
 beth. A great part of his life was spent in 
 diplomatic missions ; but he was ultimately | 
 sacrificed on the pretence of precipitating j 
 the death of Mary, queen of Scots. In order ; 
 to give a colour of probability to the charge, I 
 he was condemned to pay a fine of ten I 
 thousand marks, and to be imprisoned 
 during pleasure. I 
 
 DAVOUST, Louis Nicholas, duke of | 
 Auerstadt and prince of Eckmuhl, a marshal i 
 and peer of France, was born of a noble ! 
 family, at Annoux in Burgundy, in 1770. | 
 He studied at Brienne with Buonaparte, 
 and entered the array in 1785. Being an 
 ardent republican, and distinguishing him- 
 self on many previous occasions, he accom- 
 panied Buonaparte to Egypt ; but it was in 
 those brilliant campaigns which took place 
 from 1803 to 1800 that he obtained his high 
 
DAV] 
 
 % i2c&) ^nibcr^al JJin^rapl^n. 
 
 LDEC 
 
 reputation, and was rewarded with the titles 
 of marshal, duke, and prince. He adhered 
 to the fortunes of Napoleon through all his 
 reverses ; and was commander of the army 
 which, in 181.5, capitulated to the allies under 
 the walls of Paris. Died, 182:3. 
 
 D'AVKIGNY, Hyacinth Robillard, a 
 French Jesuit and liistorical writer, was born 
 at Caen in 1075, and died in 1719. 
 
 DAVY, Sir Uumpiirv, bart., one of the 
 most eminent among modern chemists, was 
 born at Penzance, in Cornwall, in 1778. He 
 was intended for the medical profession, 
 and placed with an ajjotliecary for the ne- 
 cessary initiation ; but he gave himself up 
 to the study of chemistry, and, with the 
 consent of his master, quitted him in his Ifith 
 year, in order to prepare for graduating as 
 a physician at Edinburgh. Indefatigable in 
 the pursuit of his favourite science, his pro- 
 gress in it was most rapid ; his friends en- 
 couraged the bent of his genius, and he was 
 induced to suspend his design of going to 
 Edinburgh, and to accept the superintend- 
 ence of a pneumatic institution at Bristol. 
 While there he published his "Chemical 
 and Philosophical Researches," the fame of 
 which immediately obtained him the pro- 
 fessorship of chemistry at the Royal Insti- 
 tution, where his popularity as a lecturer 
 was unbounded. In 1802 he became pro- 
 fessor to the Board of Agriculture ; in 1818 
 he was created a baronet ; and in 1820 he 
 was elected president of the Royal Society ; 
 and a series of scientific discoveries and pro- 
 fessional honours flowed on without inter- 
 ruption till his death, which took place at 
 Geneva, in 1829. The invention of the 
 safety-lamp, the discovery of the metallic 
 baaes of the alkalies and earths, and of the 
 principles of electro-chemistry, and nume- 
 rous other discoveries and inventions not 
 less important, attest his skill and industry, 
 and give him an imperishable fame. Be- 
 sides his separate works of a scientific cha- 
 racter, he was the author of numerous 
 papers in the Philosophical Transactions ; 
 and when, during his illness, he was dis- 
 posed to divert his mind with lighter studies, 
 he wrote " Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing," 
 and " Consolations in Travel." 
 
 DAVY, JoH.v, a musical composer of some 
 notoriety, was bom in 1765, and died in 1824. 
 He was a pupil of Jackson, discovered a very 
 early genius for music, and composed some 
 successful operas and songs. 
 
 DA WE, Gkokge, R. A., an eminent pain- 
 ter, who held the situation of first painter 
 to the emperor of Russia, and was a mem- 
 ber of the academies of St. Petersburgh, 
 Stockholm, and Florence, excelled both in 
 portraits and historical subjects, and for 
 several years was a regular exhibitor at 
 Somerset House. He was the author of 
 " The Life of George Morland." Died, 1829. 
 
 DAWES, Manasseh, a barrister of the 
 Inner Temple, but wlio had long retired 
 from practice, and distinguished lumself as 
 a writer of tracts and pamphlets on juris- 
 prudence, morals, and political economy. 
 Died, 1829. 
 
 DAWES, Riciiakd, a learned critic, was 
 born in 1708, and educated at Market Bos- 
 worth, tmder Anthony Black well. In 1738 
 
 235 
 
 he was appointed master of the grammar 
 school at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1745 he 
 published his "Miscellanea Critica," or a 
 collection of remarks on various ancient 
 autliors, a work of high value. In 1749 he 
 resigned his school, and died in 17()0. 
 
 DAY, Thomas, an English writer, was 
 bom in 1748, and received his education at 
 the Charterhouse, from whence he was 
 removed to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 
 after which he entered of the Middle Tem- 
 ple, but never followed the law as a pro- 
 fession. His manners were eccentric, and 
 his opinions romantic. He wrote many 
 works, but the only one by which his name 
 will be perpetuated is the " History of 
 Sandford and Merton." Died, 1789. 
 
 DE BERNARD, Chaklks, one of the 
 most graceful and lively modern writers of 
 fiction, was bom in 1803. His works, " La 
 Femme de Quarante Ans," "Gerfaut," &c., 
 are chiefly illustrative of French domestic 
 life ; and some of his most attractive tales 
 appeared in the feuilleton of the Journal des 
 Debttts. He was of a shy anil reserved dis- 
 position, and many curious anecdotes arc 
 told of his abstraction and absence of mind. 
 Died at Paris, 1850. 
 
 DECATUR, STErnEjf,an American naval 
 officer, distinguished for skill and bravery, 
 was bom in 1779, became captain of the 
 President frigate, and performed many gal- 
 lant exploits during the late war with this 
 country. In 1812 he fell in with and cap- 
 tured the Macedonian, English frigate, a 
 vessel of inferior class to hi« own, after an 
 engagement of an hour and a half. In 
 1815 he endeavoured to elude the vigilance 
 of the British squadron blockading New 
 York, but was captured after a running fight 
 of two hours and a half. He lost his life in 
 a duel with Commodore Barron, in 1820. 
 
 DECEBALUS, king of the Dacians, who 
 resisted the Romans in the reign of Do- 
 mitian. He entered the province of Mcesia, 
 defeated and slew Oppius Sabinus, the 
 Roman commander, and took a number of 
 places. Afterwards he was defeated him- 
 self, but still resisted till Domitian agreed 
 to pay him a tribute yearly, which was con- 
 tinued by Nero, but refused by Trajan, who 
 subdued Dacia, on which Decebalus put an 
 end to himself, a. d. 105. 
 
 DECIUS, Mus. P., a valiant Roman, who 
 served as military tribune under the consul 
 Cornelius Cossus, B.C. 343, and when the 
 army was in danger of being cut oflf by the 
 Samnites, he volunteered his services with 
 his party, and completely routed them. 
 Two years afterwards he was chosen consul 
 with Manlius Torquatus, at which time the 
 Romans were at war with the Latins. On 
 this occasion it was agreed between the two 
 consuls, that he whose army first receded 
 from the enemy should devote himself for 
 the good of his country. The division un- 
 der Dccius being hard pressed, gave way, 
 on which he stripped himself of his military 
 habit, and, rushing into the midst of the 
 enemy, was slain. The army under Man- 
 lius then gained a terrible victory, and the 
 body of Decius was buried with military 
 honours. 
 
 DECIUS, the son of the above, was consul 
 
dec] 
 
 ^ fim Unittv^iil 28tot!TajpT;p. 
 
 [del 
 
 three times, and also censor. Being engaged 
 against the Gauls and Samnites, and victory 
 dubious, he imitated his father by devoting 
 himself, and was slain, after which the 
 Romans defeated the enemy with great 
 slaughter. 
 
 DECIUS, a Roman emperor, was born in 
 Pannonia. He distinguished himself by an 
 expedition against the Persians, and by per- 
 secuting the Christians. In his marcli against 
 the Goths he entered a morass, where he 
 and his army perished by the attack of the 
 enemy, in 251. 
 
 DECKER, Thomas, an English dramatist 
 of the 17th century. He was cotemporary 
 with Ben Johnson, who satirised him in his 
 Poetaster, imder the name of Crispanus, 
 but Decker retorted in his Satyromastix, or 
 untrussing of a humorous poet. He wrote 
 several plays, some of which possess merit. 
 He died after 1638. 
 
 DECRES, a French admiral, bom in 1761. 
 He commanded the Guillauine Tell at the 
 battle of Aboukir, and when that vessel was 
 blown up, was saved and made prisoner by 
 the victors. It is singular that he peri<*hed, 
 after rising to the portfolio of minister of 
 marine in 1820, by being blown up by a train 
 of gunpowder deposited in his mattrass, 
 the mj'sterious cause of which (although 
 robbery by a servant is alleged) has never 
 been discovered. 
 
 DE DUNSTANVILLE, Francis, Lord, a 
 descendant of the Bassets of Devonshire, 
 whose ancestoi-8 came over to England at 
 the time of the Norman conquest, was bom 
 at Walcot, Oxfordshire, in 1757. He was 
 elected to represent Penryn in 1780, and 
 joined the Tory party under the adminis- 
 tration of Lord North. He had however, 
 in the year preceding, gained much credit 
 in havinig headed the miners of Cornwall, 
 and led them on to the relief of Plymouth, 
 wlien the combined fleets of France and 
 Spain had cast anchor in the Sound. Upon 
 that occasion, Mr. Francis Basset was created 
 a baronet. He afterwards clianged his view 
 of political affairs, and withdrew his hitherto 
 strenuous support of Lord North and his 
 party. He was created a peer in 1796. Died, 
 1835. 
 
 DEE, John, a mathematician and astro- 
 loger, was born at London in 1527, and 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 In the reign of Mary he was imprisoned on 
 a suspicion of treasonable practices ; but 
 was in great favour with queen Elizabeth, 
 who visited him at Mortlake, where he had 
 collected a library. In 1581 he and Edward 
 Kelly commenced their magical operations, 
 which lasted two years, and in which they 
 were joined by a Polish nobleman called 
 Laski, who persuaded them to go to Poland, 
 where they remained some time. The two 
 worthies at length quarrelled, and their 
 adventures abroad made so much noise, that 
 Dee thought it prudent to return to England. 
 In 1596 he was made warden of Manchester 
 College, and died in 1608. He published 
 several mathematical works in Latin and 
 English, and wrote many more which were 
 never printed. 
 
 DEERING, J. P., R.A., a distinguished 
 English architect, better known to the pub- 
 
 lic by his original family name of Gandy, 
 was born in 1780. He took the name of 
 Deering for a large estate, and sat in par- 
 liament for Aylesbury after the passing 
 of the reform bill. In his early life he 
 travelled in Greece under the auspices of the 
 Dilettanti Society ; some of the results of 
 which he exhibited in very fine drawings at 
 the annual exhibitions of the academy, of 
 which, in 1827, he was chosen an associate, 
 and, in 1838, an R.A. Several buildings in 
 the metropolis are altogether or partly the 
 fruits of his talents. Exeter Hall is his de- 
 sign. Died, 1850. 
 
 DEFFAND, Maria de Vichy Chamroud, 
 Marchioness du, a French lady, who for 
 many years was a conspicuous character 
 among the literati of the age, and whose 
 "Correspondence" has been published, was 
 born in 1697. Few females possessed more 
 natural or cultivated talents, and her abode 
 was regarded as the rendezvous of wit and 
 genius ; but the laxity of her morals formed 
 a sad contrast to the superiority of her in- 
 tellectual powers. Died, 1780. 
 
 DEFOE, Daniel, an English writer, 
 whose family name was Foe, was the son 
 of a butcher, and born in 1600. In 1688 he 
 kept a hosier's shop in Cornhill, but failing, 
 he had recourse to his pen for a subsistence. 
 In 1695 he was made accomptant to the 
 commissioners of the glass duty, which 
 office he held till that impost was taken off. 
 In 1701 he produced his " True-born Eng- 
 lishman," a satire, coarse but characteristic. 
 The year following appeared his "Shortest 
 Way with the Dissenters," for which he was 
 sentenced to the pillory, fined, and impri- 
 soned. He was instrumental in promoting 
 the union of England and Scotland. In 
 1713 he was again committed to prison for 
 some political pamphlets, but Lord Oxford 
 procured his pardon. In 1715 he published 
 the "Family Instructor," a religious per- 
 formance of merit ; and in 1719 appeared 
 his admirable "Robinson Crusoe." Defoe 
 wrote a number of other books, among which 
 was a " Journal of the Plague in 1665," by a 
 supposed witness of it ; and died in 1731. 
 
 DELABORDE, Jean Benjamin, a cele- 
 brated French musical composer and per- 
 former on the violin. He was born in 
 1734 ; was a great favourite with Louis XV., 
 in whose household he was originally ; be- 
 came afterwards fermier-general, and was 
 guillotined during the reign of terror, as a 
 favourer of monarchy. 
 
 DELACAPEDE, Bernard Germain 
 Stephen Laville, a celebrated French na- 
 turalist, bom in 1756. He held the situation 
 of keeper of the cabinets in the Jardin du 
 Roi at Paris, which he greatly improved ; 
 but the events of the revolution interfered 
 with his scientific employments, and he was 
 by no means an inactive spectator of the 
 6c«ne. He was successively secretary and 
 president of the National Assembly, and on 
 the formation of the Institute he was chosen 
 one of the first members. Under the regime 
 of Buonaparte he became president of the 
 conservative senate, and grand-ohancellor 
 of the legion of honour ; but when, in 1814, 
 the reverses of the emperor tried the fidelity 
 of his friends, Delacapede appeared to waver. 
 
del] 
 
 ^ ^ebi Bnibtv^nX 38i0sraj)Iji). 
 
 [del 
 
 At the restoration of the Bourbons he re- 
 turned to his studies in natural liistory, and 
 he died in 1825. 
 
 DELACOUR, Jamks, an Irish poet ; au- 
 thor of " The Prospect of Poetry," and a 
 poem in imitation of Pope's, entitled " Abe- 
 lard to Eloisa." His intellect becoming de- 
 ranged, he possessed the notion that he was 
 gifted with the spirit of prophecy ; and hav- 
 ing, it is said, made one lucky guess respect- 
 ing the exact day when the garrison at the 
 Havannali, which was then in a state of 
 siege, would surrender, he went on prophesy- 
 ing ever after. Born, 1709 ; died, 1781. 
 
 DELAMBRE John Baptist Joseph, one 
 of the most eminent French astronomers, 
 and a pupil of Leiande, was bom at Amiens 
 in 1749. Though he did not commence the 
 study of astronomy till he was 3(5 years of 
 age, he rapidly acquired great fame, and 
 produced numerous works of great merit ; 
 among whicli are his "Theoretical and 
 Practical Astronomy," 3 vols. 4to., and a 
 "History of Astronomy," iu 5 vols. 4to. 
 Died. 1822. 
 
 DELANDINE, Anthony Francis, a 
 modern French writer, born at Lyons in 
 1756, of which city he became the librarian. 
 In the early part of the revolution he dis- 
 tinguished himself by his judgment and 
 moderation ; but this was too great a crime 
 for tlie terrorists to pardon, and lie was de- 
 nounced and imprisoned. To the overthrow 
 of Robespierre's party he owed his life, and 
 he devoted the remainder of his days to 
 literature. He wrote " Mt'moircs Biblio- 
 j graphiques et Littcraires," aud other works. 
 ' Died. 1820. 
 
 DELANY, PATr.iCK, a learned divine, was 
 a native of Ireland, and bom about 1686. 
 He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 and obtained some church preferment from 
 Lord Carteret. In 1732 he publislied " Reve- 
 lation examined with Candour ; " and in 
 1738 appeared his " Reflections upon Poly- 
 gamj'." His next publication was the 
 " Life of David ; " and in 1754 he published 
 "Observations on Lord Orrery's Remarks 
 on the Life and Writings of Swift." Died, 
 1768. 
 
 DE LA RITE, Gekvaise, a French abbd 
 and an eminent antiquarian ; knight of the 
 legion of honour, and a member of many 
 learned societies in Europe ; died, at the age 
 of 87, in September, 1835. His works are 
 chiefly elucidatory of Anglo-Norman poetry. 
 
 DELAVAL, Edwakd Hl'SSEY, a chemist 
 and natural philosopher. He particularly 
 directed his attention to optics ; and his 
 principal work was " An Experimental In- 
 quiry into the Cause of the Clianges of 
 Colours in opaque and coloured Bodies." 
 He was brother to LordDelaval. Died, aged 
 85, in 1814. 
 
 DELAVIGNE, Casimir, one of the most 
 eminent of the modern French poets, was 
 born of respectable parents at Havre-de- 
 Orace. His works were very numerous, and 
 to the honour of French taste be it said, 
 they were very popular also ; for never since 
 the days of Conieille has French verse em- 
 bodied sentiments more noble or magnificent. 
 Died, December, 1843, ogcd 49. 
 
 DELAUNEY, Count d'Antraigues, a 
 
 distinguished political agent during the 
 revolutionary era of France. When Robes- 
 pierre was in his zenith he emigrated to 
 Germanj', and in 1797 he was employed in 
 the service of Russia. While thus engaged 
 in Italy, he was arrested by the agents of 
 France, and thrown into prison ; from whicli 
 he was liberated through the intercession 
 of Madame St. Iluberti, a celebrated actress 
 belonging to the French opera, whom he 
 afterwards married. In 1806 he was sent 
 on a mission to England by the emperor of 
 Russia, and he was often emploved by the 
 government. He resided at Barnes, Surrey ; 
 and, from some cause wholly unaccounted 
 for, he was there assassinated by his Italian 
 servant, in the following manner: — As he 
 was about to step into his carriage to go 
 to London with his wife, on the 3rd of July, 
 1812, Lawrence, the Italian footman, fired 
 a pistol at the count, wliich slightlv grazed 
 his hair ; but perceiving he had missed his 
 aim, the fellow rushed into the Jiouse^ and 
 immediately returned with a pistol in one 
 hand and a dagger in the otlier, with wliich 
 he stabbed both the count and his wife, who 
 expired almost instantaneously. He then 
 ran into the house again, aud blew his own 
 brains out. 
 
 DEIiEYNE, Alexander, an ingenious 
 French writer ; author of " An Analysis of 
 the Works of Lord Bacon," "The Genius 
 of Montesquieu," " The Spirit of St. Evre- 
 mond," several articles iu the Encyclopedic, 
 &c. Died, 1797. 
 
 DELILLE, Jacqi'es, 'a modern French 
 poet, of first-rate eminence, was born at 
 Aigue Perse, in V'iS. His translation of 
 Virgil's Georgics, in 1769, established his 
 fame, and obtained him admission to the 
 French academy ; and though a royalist, his 
 poetical genius ensured him the respect 
 even of the tyrant Robespierre. He was 
 professor of Latin poetry at the college of 
 France, and of the belles lettres at the uni- 
 versity of Paris ; but in 1794 he witlidrew 
 from France, though lie relumed again in 
 1801, and was chosen a member of the In- 
 stitute. He again, however, emigrated ; 
 and it was in London that he translated the 
 " Paradise Lost " of our divine poet. After 
 his final return to his own country he wrote 
 his admired poem, " La Conversation," be- 
 came blind, and died in 1813. Besides the 
 poems already mentioned, the most pro- 
 minent of his productions are the " Three 
 Reigns of Nature," "Imagination," and 
 " Misfortune and Pity." Without pos- 
 sessing so large a share of creative genius 
 as some others, he was excelled by none in 
 exquisite versification, purity of moral sen- 
 timent, or true pathos. 
 
 DELISLE, Claude, a French historian, 
 was born at Vaucoleurs, in 1644, and died in 
 1720. His works are, " Relation llistoriquc 
 du Royaurae de Siam ;" "Abridgment of 
 the Universal History," 7 vols. ; and a " Ge- 
 nealogical and Historical Atlas." — William 
 DE, son of the preceding, was born at Paris, 
 in 1675. He was appointed geographer to 
 the king, to whom he had the honour of 
 
 giving lessons in that science. Died, 1726 
 
 Louis DE, brother of the preceding, an able 
 astronomer and geographer, made several 
 
del] 
 
 ^ ^0lu Unibtv^nl MiaQtnpl)^, 
 
 [dem 
 
 journeys on tlie coast of the frozen ocean, to 
 determine the situation of a variety of places 
 in the countries lying nearest to the north 
 pole ; after which lie traversed Siberia ; and 
 in 1741 went alone to Kamtschatka.with the 
 same object ; but died the same year. — 
 Joseph Nicholas de, the youngest and 
 most celebrated of the three brothers, was 
 born at Faris, in 1G88 ; visited England, 
 where he formed an acquaintance with 
 Newton and Halley ; and in 1726 was ap- 
 pointed astronomer-royal at Petersburg, 
 where he resided twenty-one years, during 
 which he published " Memoirs illustrative of 
 the History of Astronomy," 2 vols. 4to.; and 
 an atlas of Russia. On his return to Paris, 
 in J 747, he was appointed professor of 
 mathematics iu the royal college. Died, 
 17(18. 
 
 DELISLE, John- Baptist Isoard, a 
 French writer, known also under the name 
 of Delisle de Sales, was born at Lyons in 
 1743. He was the author of "La Philoso- 
 phic de la Nature," which being denounced 
 as immoral and irreligious, he was tried and 
 imprisoned, thereby acquiring a temporary 
 celebrity. He afterwards wrote romances, 
 histories, and Platonic dreams ; was im- 
 prisoned during the reign of Robespierre ; 
 subsequently became a member of the Insti- 
 tute ; and died in 1816. 
 
 DELIUS, Christopher Frauoott, a 
 mineralogical writer, was bom at Walhau- 
 sen, in Thuringia. He died in Italy in 1799, 
 aged 51. He wrote a " Dissertation on Moun- 
 tains," 8vo. ; and an " Introduction to the 
 Art of Mining," 4to. ; both highly esteemed. 
 
 DELLA MARIA, Dominique, a musical 
 composer, of Italian extraction, though bom 
 at Marseilles, in 1778. He studied under the 
 first masters in Italy, and acquired a style 
 at once pure, natural, and graceful. He died, 
 aged 28, in 1806. 
 
 DELMONT.Deodat, a painter of history, 
 born at St. Tron in 1581, was a disciple of 
 Rubens, who highly valued liim for his 
 genius. He died in 1634. 
 
 DELOLME, JoHx Louis, a native of 
 Geneva, was born in 1745, and bred to the 
 practice of the law ; but, taking an active 
 part in the political events of his country, 
 he was obliged to repair to England, where 
 he at length became known by liis cele- 
 brated work on the " Constitution of Eng- 
 land." He also wrote a "History of the 
 Flagellants ; " and, returning to Switzer- 
 land in 1775, died there in 1806. 
 
 DELPINI, Charles Anthony, was born 
 in the parish of St. Martin, Rome, and drew 
 his last breath in the parish of St. Martin, 
 London, Feb. 13. 1828. He was the best 
 clown of his day, and the author of several 
 dramatic works. He got up the grand 
 masquerade called " La Fiera di Venegia," 
 which was intended for the entertainment of 
 George IV. on his attaining the age of ma- 
 jority. It was the most superb thing of the 
 kind ever exhibited in this country ; and, 
 though the tickets of admission to the Pan- 
 theon were three guineas each, Delpini was 
 considerably out of pocket by it. Like too 
 many of his professional brethren, he had 
 failed to provide for the exigencies of old 
 age, and suffered great distress for many 
 
 years, which being told to the late king, his 
 majesty sent him a present of 200?. 
 
 DELUC, John Andrew, a Genevese na- 
 turalist, latterly residing in England, where 
 he obtained a pension from queen Charlotte, 
 who appointed him her reader. He was the 
 author of several geological works. Bom, 
 172<J ; died, 1817. 
 
 DEMARATUS, king of Sparta, who ac- 
 cused Clemens before the ephori, as the dis- 
 turber of Greece, for which he retorted upon 
 Demaratus the charge of illegitimacj', and 
 having bribed the priests of Delphi, the 
 oracle, when consulted, confirmed the charge. 
 Demaratus then resigned the crown, and 
 entered into the Persian service, where he 
 was entertained by Darius Hystaspes and 
 Xerxes as a king. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, sumamed Poliorcetes, 
 king of Macedou, was the son of Antigonus. 
 At the age of twenty-two his father en- 
 trusted him with an army against Ptolemy, 
 by whom he was defeated near Gaza. But 
 he soon repaired the loss, and with a fleet of 
 250 ships sailed to Athens, which he delivered 
 from Demetrius Phalereus. He afterwards 
 defeated Cassandcr at Thermopylae ; but the 
 successors of Alexander, alarmed at his pro- 
 gress, collected their forces, and marched 
 against him. They met at Ipsus, b. c. 301 1 
 and after an obstinate battle, the army of 
 Demetrius was defeated, and his father slain, 
 but he himself fled to Ephesus. He, how- 
 ever, mustered a new army, and relieved 
 Athens from the tyranny under which it 
 groaned. He then slew Alexander, the son 
 of Cassander, and seated himself on the 
 throne of Macedonia. At the end of seven 
 years he was obliged to quit his dominion 
 and retire into Asia, where he was reduced 
 to great distress ; on which he went to the 
 court of Seleucus, his son-in-law ; but a dif- 
 ference breaking out between them, war en- 
 ensued, and Demetrius was defeated. De- 
 serted by his soldiers, he surrendered him- 
 self at length to his son-in-law, who exiled 
 him to PcUa, iu Syria, where he died, B.C. 
 284. 
 
 DEMETRIUS L, king of Syria, sur- 
 named Soter, was the son of Seleucus Phi- 
 lopater. He was sent hostage to Rome by 
 his father, on whose death Antiochus Epi- 
 phanes, and after him his son Antiochus 
 Eupator, the one the uncle, and the other 
 the cousin of Demetrius, usurped the throne 
 of Syria. He applied to the Roman senate 
 for assistance to recover his right, but in 
 vain. The Syrians, however, recognised 
 him for their lawful prince, and at last he 
 obtained the throne. He then declared war 
 against the Jews, in which Jiulas Macca- 
 bajus lost his life, bravely fighting for the 
 liberties of his country. A confederacy of 
 the neighbouring kings was formed against 
 Demetrius, who was slain b. C. 150. 
 
 DEMETRIUS II., called Nicator (con- 
 queror), was the son of the preceding. Pto- 
 lemy Philometor, king of Egypt, placed him 
 on the throne of his father, after expelling 
 the usurper, Alexander Balas, B.C. 146. He 
 married Cleopatra, the wife of the same 
 Alexander, and daughter of Ptolemy. He 
 was subsequently taken prisoner by the king 
 of Parthia, who gave him his daughter in 
 
dem] 
 
 ^ ^rttj BnihtrgaX ^BmtjrajplbC. 
 
 [dem 
 
 marriage, which so incensed Cleopatra, that 
 she married Antiochus Sidetes, her brother- 
 in-law. Sidetes, however, fell in battle, and 
 Demetrius recovered his throne ; but he did 
 not retain it long, for he waa once more ex- 
 pelled by Alexander Zebina, and was killed 
 by the governor of Tyre, b. c. 127. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, PHALEKEUS,a philosopher 
 of the peripatetic sect. The Athenians were 
 BO charmed with his eloquence, as to erect 
 statues to his honour, lie afterwards fell 
 into disgrace, and retired to the court of 
 Ptolemy Lagus, king of Egypt, whose son 
 banished lum from his dominions, and he 
 died by the bite of an asp, 2:34 n. c. He 
 wrote several books, and, it is said, furnished 
 the library of Alexandria with 200,000 
 volumes. 
 
 DEMETRniS, czar of Russia, commonly 
 called the false Demetrius, was, according to 
 most historians, a native of Jarowslaw, and a 
 novice in a monastery, where he was tutored 
 by a monk to personate Demetrius, son of 
 the czar John Basilowitz, wlio liad been 
 murdered by Boris Gudenow. Having learnt 
 his tale he went into Lithuania, embraced 
 the Roman Catholic religion, and married 
 the daughter of the palatine Scndomir. In 
 1604 Demetrius entered Russia at the head 
 of a small army, was joined by a number of 
 Russians and Cossacks, and defeated an army 
 sent against him. On the death of Boris, the 
 people strangled his son, and placed Deme- 
 trius on the throne ; but his partiality to the 
 Poles, and contempt of the Greek religion, 
 occasioned an insurrection, and he was as- 
 Bossinated in 1606, after reigning about eleven 
 months. 
 
 DEMOCEDES, a Grecian physician, who 
 with his family became captives to the Per- 
 sians, and were carried to Susa, where he 
 worked with the other slaves. But happen- 
 ing to cure Darius, he was liberally re- 
 warded, and admitted to the royal table. 
 He returned to his own country, and married 
 the daughter of Milo. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, one of the most cele- 
 brated philosophers of antiquity, and of the 
 Eleatic school was born at Abdera, B.C. 460. 
 He studied under Leucippus ; and on the 
 death of his father, who was a wealthy 
 citizen, he travelled to Egypt, Chaldea, and 
 other countries, by which he greatly en- 
 larged his stores of knowledge ; and when 
 he returned to his native city, though at 
 first slighted, his intellectual acquisitions 
 gained the respect of his countrymen, and 
 he was placed at the head of public affairs ; 
 but, indignant at the follies of the Abde- 
 rites, he resigned his office, and retired to 
 solitude, devoting himself wholly to phi- 
 losophical studies. In his system he de- 
 veloped still farther the mechanical or atom- 
 ical theory of his master Leucippus, and 
 applied it not only to the formation of the 
 universe, but to the soul of man, the senses, 
 the elements, &c. He was also a practical 
 philosopher and a moralist, his grand axiom 
 being, that the greatest good consists in a 
 tranquil mind. He has been absurdly called 
 the " laughing philosopher " (in contrast 
 to the weeping Heraclitus), which epithet 
 is supposed to have originated in his prac- 
 tice of humourously exposing the absurd- 
 
 209 
 
 ities of his countrymen, whose stupidity was 
 proverbial. He wrote numerous works, but 
 none of them now exist ; and he lived to 
 the great age of 105. 
 
 DEMOIVRE, Abraham, bom at Vitri, 
 in Champagne, in 1677, was driven from 
 his native country by the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, and settled in England, 
 where he obtained a livelihood by his skill 
 in teaching the mathematics. He waa un- 
 doubtedly one of the first calculators that 
 ever existed ; and published " Tlie Doctrine, 
 of Chances," " Miscellanea Analytica," &c.' 
 Died, 17.54. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, the greatest orator of 
 antiquity, was tlie son of an opulent sword- 
 blade manufacturer at Athens, and was bom 
 about 380 B.C. Having lost his fatlier when 
 a mere child, his education was neglected ; 
 but at the age of seventeen he determined 
 to study eloquence, though his lungs were 
 weak, his pronunciation inarticulate, and 
 his gestures awkward. These impediments 
 he conquered by perseverance, till by de- 
 grees he surpassed all other orators in the 
 power and grace of eloqjience. When tlie 
 encroachments of Pliilip of Macedon alarmed 
 the Grecian states, he depicted his ambi- 
 tious design with so much etfcct, that similar 
 orations are to this day called Pliilippics. 
 When that monarch was about to invade 
 Africa, Demosthenes was sent as ambassa- 
 dor to prevail on the Bceotians to assist 
 them, in whicli mission he succeeded. He 
 was also at the battle of Cheronea, but his 
 conduct tlicre showed that he was as defi- 
 cient in personal courage as he was inimi- 
 table in the senate. The influence of De- 
 mosthenes being on the decline, ^schines 
 took advantage of it to bring an accusation 
 against him on tlie subject of his conduct at 
 Cheronea, and his having had a crown of 
 gold awarded him ; but the orator so well 
 defended himself in his celebrated oration 
 De Corona, that he was honourably ac- 
 quitted, and his adversary sent into exile. 
 Shortly after, however, Demosthenes was 
 convicted of receiving a golden cup and 
 twenty talents from Ilarpalus, one of Alex- 
 ander s generals, who had retired to Athens 
 with a quantity of plunder, which he had 
 gathered in Asia. To avoid punishment, he 
 fled to ^gina, where he remained till the 
 death of Alexander, when he was recalled 
 by his countrymen, and brought home in 
 triumph. But this change of fortune was 
 of short duration. The victory of Antipater 
 was followed by an order to the Athenians 
 to deliver up Demosthenes, who fled to the 
 temple of Neptune, at Calauria, where he , 
 poisoned himself, b. c. 322. The speeches | 
 of Demosthenes were natural, concise, vi- 
 gorous, and logical : he was by turns calm, 
 vehement, or elevated, as the ease required ; 
 in energy and power of persuasion, in beauty 
 and vigour of expression, and in language at 
 once strong and melodious, he surpassed all 
 his predecessors. 
 
 DEMOUSTIER, C. A., a French author 
 of celebrity, descended by the father's side 
 from Racine, and by the mother's from La 
 Fontaine. He was born in 1760, and died 
 in 1801. Among his works are "Le Sii'ge 
 de Cythfere," a' poem, and many successful 
 
dem] 
 
 ^ ^f£D Bnibtv^al ^taiflflrapTjw. 
 
 [deo 
 
 comedies, " Les Femmes," " Les Troix Tils," 
 " Le Divorce," " Alceste," " La Cliauniifere 
 Indienne," &c. 
 
 DEMPSTER, Thomas, a Scotch writer, 
 was born in 1579, and studied at Cambridge, 
 from whence he removed to Paris. He was 
 afterwards professor of philology at Pisa, and 
 died at Bologna in 1C25. He wrote several 
 works, the most curious of which are a " Mar- 
 ty rology of Scotland," a "List of Scottish 
 Writers," and a " History of the Etruscans." 
 
 DENHAM, Lieut.-col. Dixon, an enter- 
 prising traveller and intrepid soldier, was 
 born in 1786, and entered tlie army as a 
 volunteer in 1811, serving with honour in the 
 peninsular war, where he obtained a lieu- 
 tenancy. In 1821 he was chosen to proceed 
 to Central Africa, in company with Captain 
 Clapperton and Dr. Oudney, for tlie purpose 
 of exploring those regions ; liis courage per- 
 severance, address, and conciliatory manners 
 peculiarly fitting him for such an under- 
 taking. On his return to England, in 1824, 
 he published a "Narrative" of his travels. 
 In 1826 he was sent to Sierra Leone as super- 
 intendant of the liberated Africans, and in 
 1828 was appointed lieutenant-governor of 
 the colony ; soon after which he was seized 
 witli a fever, which quickly proved fatal. 
 
 DENHAM, Sir John, a poet of some ce- 
 lebrity, was born in 1615, at Dublin, where 
 his father was chief baron of tlie exchequer, 
 but afterwards became a judge in England. 
 In 1641 appeared his tragedy of" The Sophy," 
 and soon after he was made governor of 
 Fareham Castle for the king. In 1643 he 
 published his " Cooper's Hill." He attended 
 Charles' II. in his exile, and was sent by him 
 ambassador to Poland. At the Restoration 
 he was knighted and appointed surveyor- 
 general of the royal buildings. Died, 1668. 
 
 DENINA, GiACOMO Carlo, an Italian 
 historian, was bom in 1731, at Revel, in 
 Piedmont. For many years he was a pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Turin, and ultimately 
 became librarian to Napoleon. His principal 
 works are " History of the Revolutions of 
 Italy," " The Political and Literary History 
 of Greece," " The Revolutions of Germany," 
 &c. He died at Paris, in 1813. 
 
 DENMAN, Dr. Tuomas, an eminent phy- 
 sician and medical writer, was bom at Bake- 
 well Derbyshire, in 1733. He first ser\ed in 
 the navy as a surgeon, and having obtained 
 much experience, on quitting it he com- 
 menced practice in I^ondon, where he even- 
 tually attained great professional celebrity. 
 In 1770 he commenced giving lectures on the 
 obstetric art, and was appointed licentiate in 
 midwifery of the College of Physicians in 
 1783. He wrote an " Essay on Puerperal 
 Fever," an " Introduction to the Practice of 
 Midwifery," and " Aphorisms " for the use 
 of junior practitioners. His son was the late 
 distinguished chief justice of the court of 
 king's bench. Died, 1815. 
 
 DENNIS, John, a dramatist and critic, 
 was born in London, in 1657, studied at 
 Cambridge, and devoted himself to litera- 
 ture. Tliroughout life he was almost per- 
 petually in broils with one or other of the 
 wits of the age ; and Pope, in return for his 
 animadversions, gave him a conspicuous 
 place in the Duneiad. He originally had a 
 
 240 
 
 considerable fortune ; but having dissipated 
 it, the Duke of Marlborough obtained for him 
 the place of land -waiter at tlie Custom House; 
 this he mortgaged, and his latter days were 
 spent in poverty, aggravated by blindness. 
 Died, 1734. 
 
 DENON, Dominique Vivant, Baron de, 
 was born, in 1747, at Chalons-sur-Saone, in 
 Burgundy. Though originally destined for 
 the law, he was appointed to the office of 
 " gentUhomme oj-dinaire " about the person of 
 Louis XV. He afterwards resided several 
 years in Italy, as secretary of embassy, during 
 which period he applied himself sedulously 
 to the study of the arts. He was so fortunate 
 as to pass through tlie years of terror without 
 incurring the displeasure of any of the re- 
 publican tyrants ; and having attracted the 
 notice of Buonaparte, he accompanied him 
 to Egypt, alternately wielding the pen, the 
 pencil, and the sword. On returning to 
 Paris, he was appointed general director of 
 the museums, and had the superintendence 
 of the medallic mint, and all works of art 
 executed in honour of the French victories. 
 After the abdication of the emperor, he re- 
 tained his office, but was deprived of it in 
 1815, in consequence of having joined him on 
 his return from Elba. He was a man of 
 great and varied talents ; and his able work, 
 entitled " Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt 
 during the Campaign of General Buona- 
 parte," has gained him an imperishable 
 fame. Died at Paris, 1825. 
 
 D'EON, the Chevalier. Eon de Beau- 
 mont, Charles Genevieve Louise Au- 
 GUSTE d', was bom at Tonnerre, in 1728, and 
 known until 1777 as the Chevalier D'Eon, 
 He was equerry to Louis XV., chevalier, doc- 
 tor of law, parliamentary advocate, military 
 officer, ambassador, royal censor, &c. ; oc- 
 cupying in short, during his eventful life, 
 the most varied stations with consummate 
 skill, and involving his sex and real charac- 
 ter in unparalleled^ mystery. Sent as envoy 
 on a difficult mission to the Russian court, 
 his insinuating manners gained him tlie fa- 
 vour of the empress Elizabeth, and for five 
 years he was the medium of a secret corre- ' 
 spondence between her and the king of ' 
 France. In consequence of these services, he : 
 was made captain of dragoons, and received 
 a pension of 2400 livres. He returned to 
 France in 1758, and subsequently distin- 
 guished himself in the military service. 
 After the conclusion of peace, he went to 
 London as secretary of legation, under the 
 Duke of Nivernois, and obtained possession 
 of some important papers. On the return 
 of the duke, he remained as resident, and 
 afterwards as minister plenipotentiary, but 
 was finally dismissed from his employment, 
 and lived 14 years at London in a kind of 
 exile. During this period, suspicions arose 
 as to his sex, which led to several extraor- , 
 dinary wagers. In July, 1777, a curious ' 
 trial took place before Lord Chief-justice 
 Mansfield, on an action brought against Mr. 
 Jaques, a broker, who had received several 
 premiums of 15 guineas, to return 100, when- 
 ever it should be proved that the chevalier 
 was a woman. By the evidence of Louis 
 Legoux and M. de Morande this fact was 
 supposed to be so well established, that Hayes, 
 
der] 
 
 ^ ^t\a Winibtx^al 33i0fira|iTjy. 
 
 [des 
 
 the plaintiff, obtained a verdict, but it was 
 afterwards set aside on the ground of the 
 illegality of the wager. D'Eon after this 
 put on female attire, and returned to France ; 
 but on the commencement of the revolution, 
 which deprived him of Ids pension, lie re- 
 turned to England. Being reduced to po- 
 verty, he supported himself for some time 
 by giving lessons in fencing, and by publicly 
 exhibiting his skill in that art in the prin- 
 cipal towns in the kingdom. When age had 
 enfeebled him, and the notoriety of his cha- 
 racter had abated, he depended in a great 
 measure for subsistence on the aid of his 
 friends. Among these was Elisee, first sur- 
 geon of Ijouis XVIII., who kindly assisted 
 him till his death, in London, in 1810, and 
 attended the dissection of his body. Tlie 
 account of this witness, with other unde- 
 niable evidence, leaves it beyond doubt that 
 D'Eon was of the male sex. What the 
 reasons were that could induce the cheva- 
 lier, who was undoubtedly a brave soldier 
 and an able diplomatist, to assume female 
 attire, and to join in the deception when 
 there was no apparent reason for it, remain 
 undiscovered ; but they were probably of a 
 political nature, and might have been sug- 
 gested by the manoeuvring policy of the 
 French court to attain some particular ob- 
 ject. That D'Eon was a man of talent is 
 sufficiently evident by his works, which ap- 
 peared under the title of " Loisirs du Che- 
 valier D'Eon," in 13 vols. 8vo. 
 
 DERBY, James Stanlkv, Earl of, a gal- 
 lant English nobleman, who in the action 
 at Wjgan, in Lancashire, with (}00 horse 
 bravely withstood a body of 3000 horse and 
 foot, commanded by Colonel Lilbume. lie 
 was taken prisoner at the battle of Worces- 
 ter, and beheaded, in violation of a promise 
 of quarter which hod been given him, in 
 
 le.'-.i. 
 
 DERHAM, William, D. D., a learned 
 divine and philosopher, was bom at Stow- 
 ton, near Worcester, in lCo7. lie was a 
 large contributor to the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society, and published many separate 
 works upon theologico-philosopliical sub- 
 jects. Died, 1735. 
 
 DERMODY, TuoMAS, a poet of some 
 merit, was the son of a schoolmaster, and 
 born at Ennis, Ireland, in 1775. He ob- 
 tained through Earl Moira a commission in 
 the army ; but so confirmed were his habits 
 of intemperance, that he died, a victim to 
 disease, in 1802. His poems, which were 
 written under the pressure of necessity, and 
 often in great haste, possess considerable 
 merit. 
 
 DERRICK, Samuel, a native of Ireland, 
 who, on the death of Beau Nash, was ap- 
 pointed master of tlie ceremonies at Bath 
 and Tunbridge Wells. On coming to London 
 he attempted the stage ; but being unsuc- 
 cessful as an actor, he had recourse to his 
 pen. He wrote "A View of the Stage," 
 "The Third Satire of Juvenal in English 
 Verse," " Sylla," a dramatic piece ; and 
 edited " Dryden's Poems," 4 vols., a " Col- 
 lection of Voyages," &c. Born, 1724 ; died, 
 1769. 
 
 DERSCHAWIN, or DERZHAVINE, 
 Oabki£lRomanovitscu, a Russian poet and 
 
 statesman, was born at Casau, in 1743. In 
 1700 he entered the army as a common sol- 
 dier, but soon distinguished himself; and, 
 after a military service of 14 years, entered 
 the civil service, in wlxich he arrived at the 
 important situations of treasurer of the em- 
 pire and minister of justice. He holds a 
 high place among the bards of his country. 
 Died, 1819. 
 
 DERYCK, or DERICK, Peter Cor- 
 nelius, a painter of Delft, born in 1508, and 
 died in 1630. He excelled in landscape. 
 
 DESAGULIERS, John Theoi-hilis, an 
 ingenious philosopher, was born in 1683 at 
 Rochelle, and educated at Oxford, where he 
 succeeded Dr. Keil as lecturer in experi- 
 mental philosophy. He published a " Course 
 of Experimental Philosophy," a "Disser- 
 tation on Electricity," &c. He was a useful 
 member of the Royal Society, and contri- 
 buted several papers to their Transactions. 
 Died, 1749. 
 
 DESAIX DE VOIGOUX, Louis Charles 
 Anthony, a French general, was born in 
 1768. In the early part of the revolution 
 he became aide-de-camp to General Custinc ; 
 and contributed greatly, by his talents, to 
 the famous retreat of Aloreau. In the buttle 
 of Rastadt he commanded the left wing, and 
 forced the Archduke Charles to retire. He 
 afterwards defended tlie bridge of Kehl with 
 great bravery, and was wounded. He ac- 
 companied Buonaparte to Egypt, was ap- 
 pointed governor of the upper part of the 
 country, and signed tlie treaty of El-Arish 
 with tlie Turks and English. He was killed 
 at the battle of Marengo, to which victory 
 he greatly contributed, June 14. 1800. 
 
 DESAULT, Peteu Joseph, a French sur- 
 geon, born in 1744, who, during the violence 
 of the revolution, was confined some time in 
 the Luxembourg prison, but his usefulness 
 saved his life. He died while attending the 
 dauphin, June 1. 1795, which induced a sus- 
 picion that he was dispatched because he 
 would not poison that unfortunate prince. 
 He wrote a work, entitled " Traite des Ma- 
 ladies Chirurgicales," &c. 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene, a celebrated French 
 philosopher, was born at I^a Haye, in Tou- 
 raine, in 1596, and received his education at 
 the Jesuits College at La Flcche. On leaving 
 that seminary he removed to Paris, and ap- 
 plied to the study of mathematics. In 1616 
 he entered into the arm^ of the Prince of 
 Orange ; and, while serving in the garrison 
 at Breda, solved a difficult mathematical 
 problem which had been posted in the public 
 streets. This introduced him to the ac- 
 quaintance of the learned Beckmann, the 
 principal of the college of Dort. Wliile at 
 Breda, he wrote, in l^atin, a treatise on 
 music, and projected some other works. 
 He next served in the army of the Duke of 
 Bavaria, but soon after quitted the military 
 life, and travelled into Italy, where he saw 
 the famous Galileo at Florence. In 1629 he 
 settled at Amsterdam, and applied assidu- 
 ously to the mathematical sciences, particu- 
 larly dioptrics, in which he made some im- 
 portant discoveries. About this time he 
 visited England, and during his stay made 
 observations on the declination of the mag- 
 netic needle. His philosophy now became 
 
 2H 
 
DES] 
 
 ^ 0t^ mnihtx&Kl 2Stfl(irapl)y. 
 
 [des 
 
 the subject of much discussion, and met 
 with an extensive reception, tliough with 
 considerable opposition. At the invitation 
 of Christina, queen of Sweden, he went to 
 j Stockholm, where he died in 16">0. His prin- 
 I cipal works are " Principia Philosophise," 
 I " Dissertatio de Methodo recte regendoB 
 Rationis," &c. ; " Dioptricas," " Medita- 
 tiones," and " Geometry." 
 DESEERICIUS, or DESERITZ, Joseph 
 j Innocent, an Hungarian divine, was born 
 : in 1702. Being called to Rome, he was 
 i created a cardinal, and was appointed by 
 j Benedict XIV. ambassador to the hospodar 
 of Wallachia. He wrote several books, and 
 died in 1765. 
 I DESEZE, Raymond, or Romain, a native 
 ' of Bourdeaux, and an able counsellor of 
 the parliament of that city, was born in 
 1750. He afterwards practised at Paris, and 
 his acknowledged talents caused him to be 
 : named one of the counsel for the unfortu- 
 nate Louis XVI., whose cause he most ably 
 defended, after Target had declined the 
 1 dangerous task. He was imprisoned for a 
 I time, but escaped the scaffold ; and on reco- 
 j vering his liberty, he was never induced to 
 i serve the directory, the consulate, or the 
 I imperial government. On the return of the 
 ! Bourbons he received, as the only survivor 
 I of the three selected by Louis for his counsel, 
 j the grateful notice of Louis XVIII. for his 
 I devotedness to his royal and unfortunate 
 ! predecessor. He held several distinguished 
 j offices : was a peer of France, a knight of 
 the order of Malta, a member of the French 
 academy, and president of the court of repeal. 
 Died, 1828. 
 
 DESFORGES, Petek John Baptist 
 Choudakd, a dramatic writer and actor, 
 was born at Paris, in 1746. His taste for 
 the drama was very early evinced ; and he 
 not only wrote for the stage, but commenced 
 his career as a performer in 1769. He, 
 however, quitted the stage in 1782, and de- 
 voted his time principally to dramatic com- 
 position. He is the author of 24 comedies, 
 besides some romances, which latter afford 
 unequivocal proofs of a sensual mind. 
 
 DESGODETS, Anthony, a French ar- 
 chitect, was born in Paris, in 1653. On his 
 passage to Rome in 1674, he was taken by 
 the Algerines, and kept in slavery 16 months. 
 On being exchanged he repaired to Rome, 
 where he composed a work, entitled " The 
 Ancient Edifices of Rome ; " and, on his 
 return to Paris, he was made comptroller of 
 the royal buildings, and architect to the 
 king. Died, 1728. 
 
 DESHAYS, John Baptist Henry, a ce- 
 lebrated painter, was born at Rouen, in 1729. 
 Died in 1765. 
 
 DESHOULIERES, Antoinette du Li- 
 GiER, a handsome, witty, and accomplished 
 woman, and a writer of much versatility, 
 was born at Paris, in 1634 ; married a gen- 
 tleman of family, and was on terms of 
 friendship with the principal literati of the 
 age. She produced numerous plays and 
 operas, few of which were successful ; but 
 her "Idyls," "Eclogues," and "Moral Re- 
 flections " are still admired. She died, after 
 12 years of suffering, of a cancer in her 
 breast, in 1694. 
 
 ^DESHOUT.IERES, Antoinette The- 
 KESE,a daughter of the preceding, and the 
 inheritor both of her talents and her suffer- 
 ings ; having written various poems, &c., 
 and been for 20 years the victim of cancer. 
 Died, 1718. 
 
 DESIDERIUS, or DIDIER, the last king 
 of Lombardy, succeeded Astolphus in 756. 
 His daugliters were married to the two sons 
 of Pepin, king of France, Carloman and 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 DESMAIZEAUX, Peter, a biographical 
 writer, was born in 1666. On the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes he took refuge 
 in England, became fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and died in London, in 1745. He 
 translated into English Bayle's Dictionary, 
 and wrote the Lives of Cliillingworth and 
 John Hales. 
 
 DESAIOULINS, Benoit Camii.le, bom 
 in 1762, was a fellow-student with the tyrant 
 Robespierre. He was a man of strong 
 mind, possessing powerful talents, which 
 became injurious owing to the extreme vio- 
 lence of the measures at that time adopted. 
 In 1789, Desmoulins was the favourite orator 
 of the people, whom he harangued in all 
 places, and on all occasions. His colleagues 
 having no further need of him as an aux- 
 iliary, conspired to hasten him to the 
 scaffold, where he suffered on the 4th of 
 April, 1794. 
 
 DESPARD, Edward Marcus, an officer 
 in the British army, was a native of Queen's 
 County, in Ireland. At the close of the 
 American war he served in the West In- 
 dies, where he distinguished himself by an 
 expedition on the Spanish main. For his 
 services there he was made lieutenant- 
 colonel, and in 1784 appointed superintend- 
 ant of the English affairs at Honduras ; but 
 his conduct giving offence to the settlers, 
 complaints were sent home against him, 
 and he was suspended. He applied to go- 
 vernment for an investigation of his con- 
 duct, which was rejected, as were also his 
 claims. This naturally irritated him ; and 
 conceiving that he was at least entitled to 
 a fair hearing, he became a violent democrat, 
 and for his inflammatory conduct was im- 
 prisoned. Having collected some followers 
 from the lowest classes, they held secret 
 meetings, to which no persons were admitted 
 without taking a treasonable oath. At these 
 assemblies various plans were devised for 
 the murder of the king ; and at last it was 
 determined to make the attack when his 
 majesty went to the parliament house. The 
 plot being discovered, the colonel and se- 
 veral others were taken up, and brought to 
 trial by a special commission, Feb. 5. 1803 ; 
 when the charges being proved, Despard 
 and 7 others were found guilty, and executed. 
 
 DESPARD, General John, entered the 
 army at an early age, and saw much service 
 in different quarters of the globe. He had 
 been in 24 engagements, had two horses shot 
 under him, was three times shipwrecked, 
 taken prisoner once, and had the standard 
 of his regiment shot out of his hand, when 
 an ensign, at 15 years of age. After all these 
 " hair-breadth escapes " he lived to attain his 
 85th year, and died in 1829, at Swan Hill, 
 Shropshire. 
 
DES] 
 
 ^ Jiefio Unibttiiil 38i0flraji]^g. 
 
 [dia 
 
 DESSALINES, John James, originally a 
 slave in St. Domingo, but having an oppor- 
 i tunity of showing great courage and talents 
 I during the disturbances in that colony, 
 became second in command to Toussaint 
 Louverture ; on whose imprisonment he 
 was chosen emperor of Uayti, under the 
 title of James I. Tliis was in 18()4 ; but he 
 retained his imperial dignity only two years, 
 having perished the victim of a conspiracy, 
 in 1806. 
 
 DESTOUCriES, PiiiLTP Nericault, an 
 eminent French dramatic writer, was born 
 at Tours in 1080. Being sent to London, in 
 1717, to aid the negotiations then carrying 
 on, he continued there seven years, and 
 married. On his return to France ne re- 
 tired into the country, where he devoted 
 himself to agriculture and the belles lettres. 
 His principal pieces are " Le Pliilosophe 
 Marie " and " Le Glorieux." Died, 1754. 
 
 DEVEREUX, RoBEKT, Earl of Essex, 
 born in 1567, accompanied the Earl of Lei- 
 cester to Holland, wJiere he beliaved with 
 mucli bravery at the battle of Zutpheu, and 
 on his return to England was made master 
 of the horse. In 15'J1 he commanded the 
 forces sent to the assistance of Henry IV. 
 of France ; and in 1.596 he was apiKjinted 
 joint-commander with Lord Howard in an 
 expedition against Spain, where he contri- 
 buted to the capture of Cadiz. In 15WI he 
 was made earl marshal of England, and, 
 on the death of Lord Burleigh, chancellor 
 of Cambridge. About this time he incurred 
 queen Elizabeth's displeasure in a remark- 
 able manner : at a private council lield re- 
 specting tlie appointment of a proper per- 
 son to govern Ireland, he had the impru- 
 dence to oppose her majesty with rudeness, 
 on which slie gave him a box on the ear. 
 The earl instantly laid his hand on his 
 sword, and swore he would not have taken 
 such treatment even from her father. He 
 then withdrew, and instead of making his 
 submission, continued to complain of tlxe 
 treatment he had received. At length a 
 reconciliation was effected ; and on the 
 breaking out of the rebellion of Tyrone, 
 Essex was appointed to the government of 
 Ireland ; but being unsuccessful there, the 
 queen became displeased, and sharp letters 
 passed between them. He, therefore, re- 
 turned to England, and waited on the queen, 
 wlio gave him a better reception than 
 could have been expected. However, he 
 soon fell into disgrace, and was imprisoned. 
 In 1000 he regained his liberty, but instead 
 of conducting himself with caution, he gave 
 vent to his indignation in coarse and viru- 
 lent terms. His enemies having intelligence 
 of his actions and speeches, sent for him to 
 attend the council, which he refused, and 
 began to arm in his own defence. Some 
 blood was shed before he surrendered, on 
 which he was made close prisoner, tried, and 
 beheaded, in 1001. Essex was rash, bold, 
 and presumptuous, but at the same time 
 generous and affectionate : he was also the 
 friend and patron of literature. 
 
 DEVEKEUX, RoBEUT, earl of Essex, son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1502, and re- 
 stored to his family lionours by James. In 
 1020 Essex served under Sir Horatio Vere 
 
 in the Palatinate, and afterwards under 
 Prince Maurice in Holland. On his return 
 to England he appeared as a member of the 
 opposition against the court ; and on the 
 breaking out of the rel>ellion had the com- 
 mand of the parliamentary army. He 
 gained the battle of Edgehill, after which 
 he took Reading, raised the siege of Glou- 
 cester, and fought the first battle of New- 
 bury. By the self-denying ordinance in 
 1645 he was deprived of his command, and 
 died the year following. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, Georoiana Catendish, 
 Duchess of, a female alike remarkable for 
 personal graces and mental accomplish- 
 ments, was the eldest dauglitcr of Earl 
 Sijencer ; born in 1757, and married to the 
 Duke of Devonshire in her 17th year. Her 
 " Passage of Mount St. Gothard,' and such 
 other of her poems as have been published, 
 bear the impress of a highly cultivated 
 mind. She also evinced very considerable 
 powers in musical composition, and had a 
 decided taste for the fine arts. Died, 180(5. 
 
 D'EWES, Sir SiMOXUS, an antiquary, 
 was born in 1602, and created a baronet in 
 1C41 ; but on the breaking out of the civil 
 war he espoused the cause of democracy, 
 and died in 1650. He was the author of 
 " The Journals of the Parliaments during 
 the Reign of Elizabeth." 
 
 DE WINT, Petek. a distinguished artist, 
 whose numerous drawings formed for forty 
 years an attractive feature in the exhibitions 
 of the Old Society of Painters in Water 
 Colours, was born at Stone, in Staffordsliire, 
 where his father practised as a physician, 
 1783. English landscape scenery formed 
 the chief theme for his fertile pencil ; and 
 his free and masterly handling of his sub- 
 jects was only equalled by their truthfulness 
 to nature, and the care which he bestowed 
 on the minutest details. Died, 1849. 
 
 DE WITT, John, an enlightened states- 
 man, was born in 1025, at Dort, in Holland. 
 At the age of 23 he published an excellent 
 mathematical work, entitled " The Elements 
 of Curved Lines." In 1650 he was chosen 
 pensionary of his native city ; and, after 
 distinguishing himself in public affairs, was 
 elected pensionary of Holland. While in 
 that capacity he concluded a peace with 
 Cromwell, one article of which excluded 
 the House of Orange from the stadtholder- 
 ship ; and in 1667 he established the per- 
 pelual edict for abolishing the oflice of 
 stadtholder, for which he received public 
 thanks. However, in 1072, when Holland 
 was invaded by the French, and civil dis- 
 sension overspread the country, both John 
 de Witt and his brother Cornelius were bar- 
 barously murdered by the populace. 
 
 DIAZ, Bautholomew, a Portuguese 
 navigator, who, in 1486, with two small 
 vessels, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which he named the Cape of Tempests, and 
 perished there in a storm, in 1500. The 
 king, however, changed it to its present 
 more auspicious appellation. 
 
 DIAZ, JoHx, a martyr to the frantic zeal 
 of his brother, was a native of Cuenza, in 
 Spain. He studied at Paris, where, by 
 reading the works of Luther, he became a 
 Protestant. He then quitted France, and 
 
dib] 
 
 ^ iSSclM Unibtv^Kl 3Si0ffx*apT)y. 
 
 [dig 
 
 visited Calvin at Geneva ; afterwards he 
 went to Strasburg, and lastly to Neuberg, 
 whither he was followed by his brother 
 Alphonsus, a zealous Catholic. Alphonsus 
 finding his exhortations could not reclaim 
 him, pretended to close his visit and take his 
 departure, but secretly returned at break of 
 day, with a companion, and murdered him 
 with an axe. The assassins were pursued 
 and taken ; but as they were about to be 
 brought to trial, Charles V. took tlie affair 
 into his own hands, by saying that he would 
 take cognisance of it at the approaching 
 diet. This horrid deed was perpetrated in 
 1546. The miserable fratricide afterwards 
 hanged himself. 
 
 DIBDIN, Charles, a dramatist, poet, 
 and actor, but mostly celebrated as a writer 
 of songs and a musical composer, was bom 
 at Southampton, in 1745. He was intended 
 for the church, and received his early edu- 
 cation at Winchester ; but, seduced by his 
 love of music, and relinquishing all thoughts 
 of the clerical profession, he flrst became a 
 candidate for the situation of organist at a 
 village church in Hampshire, and then took 
 up his abode in London. He made his first 
 appearance as a performer, in 1762, at the 
 Richmond theatre, and two years afterwards 
 appeared on the London boards, as Ralph, 
 in the Maid of the Mill ; but he never shone 
 as an actor, though both as a writer of light 
 dramatic pieces and musical compositions 
 he was very successful. He invented a new 
 kind of monodramatic entertainment, con- 
 sisting of music, songs, and recitations, of 
 which he was the sole author and performer. 
 His sea songs were eminently popular ; some, 
 indeed, are of a very superior character, and 
 doubtless had a most favourable influence 
 with British sailors, whose feelings they de- 
 scribed, and whose heroism they lauded. For 
 a while Dibdin enjoyed a pension of 200?. 
 a-year from government, but lost it by a 
 change of the ministry ; and so improvident 
 had he been while in the zenith of his popu- 
 larity, that in the closing years of his life he 
 would have suffered extreme indigence, had 
 not an anrtuity been purchased for him by 
 public subscription. Altogether he produced 
 about 1400 songs and 30 dramatic pieces ; 
 besides which he wrote " A History of the 
 Stage, " his " Professional Life, " " A 
 Musical Tour," three novels, &c. He died 
 in 1814. 
 
 DIBDIN, Thomas, a dramatic author and 
 song writer, was the eldest son of the cele- 
 brated Charles Dibdin, whose " naval songs " 
 he was engaged in editing at the time of his 
 death. He had tlie honour of having Garrick 
 for his godfather ; and in 1775, when only 
 four years of age, he arpeared on the stage 
 as Cupid, in Shakspeare's "Jubilee," to the 
 Venus of Mrs. Siddons. At 10 he was ap- 
 prenticed to itr. (afterwards Sir William) 
 Rawlins, to learn the trade of an upholsterer ; 
 but bom and bred to " the profession," it 
 was no wonder that after a few years he 
 quitted the shop, and sought his fortune on 
 the boards of various provincial theatres. 
 From that time until 1795 he is said to have 
 performed in every department of the drama, 
 and written more than 1000 songs. He after- 
 wards obtained an engagement at Covent 
 
 Garden Theatre ; and numerous were the 
 operas, farces, and entertainments which, 
 for that and other establishments, were pro- 
 duced by his fertile and inventive genius, 
 during the term of half a century. From 
 among them we may select "The Cabinet," 
 "The English Fleet," "Mother Goose" 
 (which yielded more than 20,000Z. profit to 
 the managers of Covent Garden Theatre), 
 " The Iligli-mettled Racer " (a clear gain to 
 the proprietors of Astlcy's of 13,000Z.), " The 
 Jew and Doctor," " Past Ten o'Clock," &c. 
 But, alas I prolific as was his brain, and suc- 
 cessful as were his pieces, the latter days of 
 liis long and active life were uncheered by 
 tlte result of his previous labours. Died, 
 Sept. 1841. 
 
 DIBDIN, the Rev. Thomas Frogxall, 
 D.D., nephew of the celebrated song writer, 
 and himself the most zealous bibliographer, 
 and one of the most voluminous and miscel- 
 laneous writers of his time, was bom at 
 Calcutta, 1775, and after receiving his edu- 
 cation under the care of an uncle at Reading, 
 matriculated at Oxford, as a commoner of 
 St. John's College, where his taste for lite- 
 rature and history commenced. The law 
 being his destination, he became a pupil of 
 Mr. Basil Montague ; but he subsequently 
 changed his views, and after waiting some 
 time for a degree, he was ordained a clergy- 
 man in 1804. His early preferments con- 
 sisting chiefly of preacherships or lecture- 
 ships in the metropolis, he was enabled to 
 prosecute his favourite studies with equal 
 zeal and satisfaction ; and for nearly thirty 
 years the press may be saicnto have teemed 
 with the works that emanated from his 
 fertile and versatile pen. A bare list of 
 these would inconveniently crowd our 
 columns ; but we must make room for the 
 "Bibliomania," which was published in 
 1809, and at once established the author's 
 fame in this peculiar department ; the " Bio- 
 graphical Decameron," published in 1817 ; a 
 "Biographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque 
 Tour," the result of a continental sojourn in 
 1818 ; " Reminiscences of a Literary Life," 
 in 1836 ; a " Northern Tour," in 18.38, besides 
 various sermons and innumerable other 
 works on literary, bibliographical, and kin- 
 dred" topics. Dr. Dibdin was one of the 
 founders of the Roxburghe Club, founded 
 in 1812. In 1823 he obtained, through Earl 
 Spencer, whose filendship he enjoyed 
 through life, and in whose magnificent 
 library he could at ease pursue his favourite 
 studies, the vicarage of Exming, near New- 
 market ; and in 1824 he was presented to 
 the rectory of St. Mary's, Bryanstone Square, 
 which he held till his death, Nov. 18. 1847. 
 
 DICK, Sir Alexander, a Scotch physi- 
 cian, was born in 1703, and studied at Ley- 
 den under Boerhaave. In 1750 he was chosen 
 president of the college of physicians at 
 Edinburgh, to which he was a benefactor. 
 He died in 1785. He was the flrst who paid 
 attention to the culture of the true rhubarb 
 in Britain ; for which he received, in 1774, 
 the gold medal from the London Society for 
 promoting arts and commerce. 
 
 DICK, Major-general Sir Robert Henry, 
 was the son of the late Dr. Dick, of Tul- 
 limet in Perthshire. He entered the army 
 
Die] 
 
 ^ i^m ^ffitibcrrfat SBirrgrapl^s. 
 
 [die 
 
 aa an ensign in the 75th foot, in 1800 ; and 
 in 1804 obtained a company in the 78th. He 
 accompanied the expedition to Sicily, and 
 was wounded at the battle of Maida ; joined 
 Abercromby, and was present at tlie battle 
 of Alexandria, and was severely wounded 
 at Rosetta. In 1808 he was appointed to 
 the 42d Highlanders ; accompanied the 2d 
 battalion to the Peninsula, and commanded 
 a light battalion at Busaco and Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, and the Ist battalion of the 42d at 
 the storming of Fort St. Michael, and during 
 the siege of Burgos, &c. He served in the 
 campaign of 1815, and was severely wounded 
 at Quatre Bras while commanding the 42d. 
 On the restoration of peace lie retired to 
 his paternal estate at Tullimet ; but his 
 wife dying in 1830, retirement had no longer 
 any charms for him, and he again sought 
 the tented field. He obtained an honour- 
 able command in India, and fell in the 
 memorable victory over the Sikhs at Sobraon, 
 Feb. 10. 184<>, while (as the commander-in- 
 cliief expressed it) "personally animating, 
 by his dauntless example, the soldiers of her 
 majesty's 80th regiment in their career of 
 noble daring." 
 
 DICKONS, Mrs. (whose maiden name 
 was Poole) was a celebrated singer, who, 
 though not equal to Mrs. Billington, many 
 years sustained the same cast of characters 
 at the opera, and was regularly engaged as 
 a principal vocalist at the oratorios. She 
 was the pupil of Rauzzini, who also taught 
 Braliam ; commenced her professional career 
 at Covent Garden, in 1793 ; and retired from 
 public life, in consequence of long-contiaued 
 illness, in 1818. Died, 1833. 
 
 DICKSON, J.\MKS, a Scotch divine, but 
 known chiefly as a writer on agriculture, 
 was a native of East Lothian ; and died, by 
 a fall from his horse, in 177G. His " Treatise 
 on the Agriculture of the Ancients " is much 
 esteemed. 
 
 DIDEROT, Dexis, a French writer, was 
 born at I.angres, in 1713. In 174(5 he pub- 
 lished "Pensc-es Philosophiques," and was 
 concerned in a Medical Dictionary, which 
 suggested to him the idea of a Dictionnaire 
 Encyclopi'dique ; which, with the assistance 
 of D'Alembert and others, he completed. 
 While engaged in the Encyclop<5die, he 
 wrote a licentious novel, called "I^s Bi- 
 joux Indiscrets," and two comedies, "Le 
 Fils Naturel" and "Le Pfere de Famille." 
 In 1749 appeared his " Letters to the Blind," 
 the free sentiments in which occasioned his 
 being imprisoned six montlis at Vincennes. 
 He died in 1784. 
 
 DIDO or ELISSA, queen and founder of 
 Carthage, was the daughter of Belus, king 
 of Tyre. Died, B.C. 950. 
 
 DIDOT, FuANcis Ambrose, a celebrated 
 printer, was born at Paris in 1730. He 
 greatly raised the typographic art ; improved 
 the construction of paper-mills ; and in- 
 vented many curious and useful machines 
 relative to the art of type-founding, stereo- 
 typing, and printing. At the age of 73, he 
 read over five times, and carefully corrected, 
 every sheet of the stereotyjie edition of Mon- 
 taigne, printed by his sons. Died, 1804. — 
 His brother, Pierke Fkaxjois (who died in 
 1795), aa well as his sons and nephew, have 
 
 each eminently contributed to the improve- 
 ments of the arts of type-founding and print- 
 ing. Nor were their abilities entirely con- 
 fined to the mechanical part. They paid the 
 greatest attention to correctness as well aa 
 beauty ; and the elder sou, Pierre Didot, 
 is known aa an excellent classical scholar, 
 and the author of several works, both prose 
 and verse. 
 
 DIDOT, FiRMiN, the most celebrated and 
 skilful of modern printers, and son of Fran- 
 cois Didot, (whose editions, especially of 
 classic works, are in request all over Europe,) 
 was born in 1764, and was carefully in- 
 structed in both the ancient and the modern 
 languages with a view to succeeding his 
 father. Not only, however, did he prove to 
 be in the highest sense of the word " a learned 
 printer," but he also made some most im- 
 portant improvements in the details of the 
 art, and invented stereotyping. His editions 
 of Sallust, the Lusiad, and the Henriadc, 
 are much sought. He was an excellent 
 translator, and no mean original writer. 
 Born, 17(i4 ; died, 1830. 
 
 DIEBITSCH, Count Sabalkaxskv, a 
 distinguislied Russian general, was the son 
 of a brave olfiecr who had served under 
 Frederic the Great, but who afterwards 
 quitted the Prussian service for the Russian, 
 where he obtained an important command. 
 Through his father's influence and liis own 
 talents, young Diebitsch rose rapidly in the 
 army. In the campaigns of 1812, lbI3, and 
 1814, he signalised himself by his skill and 
 bravery, and was advanced to the rank of 
 quarter-maater-general to the emperor 
 Alexander. He displaced great courage in 
 the battles of Austerlitz, Dresden, Eylau, 
 and Friedland. He at length became head 
 of the stafl'; and in 1829 was entrusted by 
 the emperor Nicholas with the chief com- 
 mand of the Russian army in the expedition 
 against Turkey. For his brilliant services 
 in that campaign he was promoted to the 
 rank of field-marshal, and rewarded with 
 the title of count Sabalkansky (or the crosser 
 of the Balkan), the orders of St. Andrew 
 and St. George, a million of roubles, &c. 
 Possessing the entire confidence of his sove- 
 reign, it was natural that, on the breaking 
 out of the Polish insurrection, he should be 
 selected to command the forces sent thither 
 for its suppression ; but a variety of unfore- 
 seen obstacles presented themselves, and his 
 plans were in a great measure baffled, when 
 that dreadful scourge, the cholera, which 
 had carried off great numbers of his troops, 
 attacked him, and he died in a very few 
 hours after the first symptoms had appeared, 
 June 10. 1831. 
 
 DIEFFENBACII, Johanx Friederich, 
 one of the most distinguished surgical ope- 
 rators that ever lived, was bom at Konigs- 
 berg, in 1795. After studying for the church 
 at Greifswalde, he took part in the war of 
 liberation of Germany ; and it was not till a 
 year or two after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, 
 that he began the study of medicine and sur- 
 gery, in which he has secured undying fame. 
 His surgical studies being finished at Vienna 
 and WUrtzburg, he took up his residence at 
 Berlin, where hi« operative talents soon raised 
 him to distinction, and in 1832 he was ap- 
 
 245 
 
die] 
 
 ^ ^t^ WiwihtvM JSiatjrffpl^M. 
 
 [dim 
 
 pointed to the cliair of surgery. In this 
 capacity he published several valuable works; 
 but his chief fame rests on the skill with 
 which he performed the most difficult surgical 
 operations, such as supplying artificial noses, 
 lips, cheeks, and ej'elids ; and to him also the 
 world is indebted for the recently discovered 
 method of curing or removing the most in- 
 veterate cases of strabismus or squinting. 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 DIEMEN, Anthony Van, governor of 
 the Dutch East India possessions, was born 
 at Kuilenberg, of which place his father was 
 a burgomaster. He went to India, where he 
 was employed as accountant to the govern- 
 ment. In 162') he became a member of the 
 supreme council. In 1C31 he returned to 
 Holland as commander of the India fleet, 
 but the year following went out again as 
 director-general ; and not long after he 
 became governor-general, greatly extending 
 the Dutch interest in the East, In 1642 he 
 sent Abel Tasman on a voyage to the South, 
 the consequence of which was, the discovery 
 of that part of New Holland called "Van 
 Dicmen's Land. He died in 1645. 
 
 DIETRIC, JouN CoNKAT), a Lutheran 
 divine, was born at Butzbach, in Wetteravia, 
 iu'1612. After studying at various imiver- 
 sities, he became professor of Greek and his- 
 tory in his own country, and in 1653 removed 
 to Giessen, where he died in 1667. He wrote 
 "De Percgrinatione Studiorum," "Anti- 
 quitates llomanaj," "Lexicon Etymologico- 
 Graecum," " Antiquitates Biblicae," &c. 
 
 DIETRICH, John William Eknkst, 
 an excellent painter, was born in 1712 at 
 Weimar, where his father was painter to 
 the court, and celebrated for his portraits 
 and battle pieces. After studying under his 
 father, he went to Dresden, and was in- 
 structed in landscape painting by Alexander 
 Thiele. He next visited Italy, and in 1763 
 became professor in the academy of Dresden, 
 and director of the school of painting at 
 Meissen. He died in 1774. For versatility 
 and general excellence few have surpassed 
 him. 
 
 DIEZ, Juan Martin, better known as 
 the Empecinaclo of modern Spanish guerilla 
 warfare, was the son of a peasant of Valla- 
 dolid, and born in 1775. He first served in 
 the regular army as a dragoon ; but in 1808, 
 with a chosen band of about 50 brave fel- 
 lows, he commenced that harassing guerilla 
 system, which so much contributed to the 
 disasters of the enemy in the Peninsula ; 
 and the value of his services being properly 
 appreciated, he was at length made a bri- 
 gadier-general of cavalry. Wheu the Duke 
 of Wellington entered Madrid in triumph, 
 Diez attended him, and received his com- 
 mands to join the army at Tortosa, at the 
 head of 5000 men. On the re-establishment 
 of Ferdinand's government, the Empecinado 
 became obnoxious to the ruling powers, who, 
 regardless of his former great services, had 
 him seized on a charge of conspiracy, tried, 
 and executed, in 1825. 
 
 DIGBY, Sir Evekakd, an English gen- 
 tleman, who, though born of Protestant 
 parents, became a partisan in the Gun- 
 powder Plot, for which he was executed in 
 
 DIGBY, Sir Kenelm, son of the preced- 
 ing, was born at Gothurst, in Buckingham- 
 shire, in 1603, and educated at Gloucester 
 Hall, Oxford. He was knighted by James I., 
 and by Cliarles I. he was appointed to seve- 
 ral offices. On one occasion, when some dif- 
 ference existed between England and the 
 "Venetians, he was sent with a fleet into the 
 Mediterranean, where he attacked the fleet 
 of the republic in the bay of Scanderoon. 
 About 1686 he quitted the Church of England 
 for that of Rome. At the commencement of 
 the civil war he was imprisoned by the par- 
 liament in Winchester House, but in 1643 
 he regained his liberty, and went to France. 
 When Cromwell assumed the government, 
 heventured to visit his native country, and 
 paid great court to that usurper. He wrote 
 a " Treatise on the Nature of Bodies," " On 
 the Operations and Nature of Man's Soul," 
 and " Peripatetic Institutions." Died, 1665. 
 
 DIGBY, John, earl of Bristol, bom in 
 1580, was gentleman of the bedchamber to 
 James I., who sent him to Spain to negotiate 
 a marriage between prince Charles and the 
 Infanta, and the same year he was created 
 carl of Bristol. When the civil wars broke 
 out he emigrated, and died at Paris in 1653. 
 
 DIGBY, Lord George, son of the above, 
 was born at Madrid in 1612. He received 
 his education at Oxford, and became a mem- 
 ber of the long parliament, wherein he at 
 first opposed the court, but afterwards joined 
 the royal partj', and exerted himself in the 
 service of Charles I. Died, 1676. 
 
 DIGGES, Thomas, an astronomer and 
 mathematician ; author of " Alse sive Scalse 
 Mathematicaj," " Perfect Descriptions of the 
 Celestial Orbs," &c. Died, 1595. 
 
 DIGGES, Sir Dudley, son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1583, and educated at Oxford. 
 He was knighted by James I., who sent him 
 ambassador to Russia ; but in the parliament 
 of 1621 he resisted the court measures, and so 
 continued to do till 1086, when he was brought 
 over by the grant of the mastership of the 
 rolls. He died in 1639. He wrote " A De- 
 fence of Trade," " A Discourse concerning 
 the Rights and Privileges of the Subject," &c. 
 His son Dudley, M-ho died in 1643, was a 
 loyal and learned man, and wrote some tracts 
 against rebellion. 
 
 DILLENIUS, John James, an eminent 
 botanist, was born in Darmstadt, in Germany, 
 in 1087, and educated at the imiversity of 
 Giessen. In 1721, he accompanied Dr. Sher- 
 rard to England, where he spent the remain- 
 der of his days. Soon after his arrival he 
 undertook a new edition of Ray's Synopsis ; 
 and was appointed the first botanical pro- 
 fessor at Oxford on Sherrard's foundation. 
 He wrote " Hortus Elthamensis" and a 
 " History of Mosses." Died, 1747. 
 
 DILLON, Wentworth, earl of Roscom- 
 mon, was born in Ireland about 1633, and 
 educated at Caen in Normandy, by the fa- 
 mous Bouchart. After dissipating his pro- 
 perty by gaming, he was made master of the 
 horse to the Duchess of York. He then 
 married a daughter of the Earl of Burlington, 
 and applied to poetry. Died, 1684. 
 
 DIMSDALE, Thomas, a physician, who 
 became celebrated by his successful mode of 
 inoculating for the small-pox. In 1768 he 
 
din] 
 
 ^ llttD BnibtviKl Bi0sr«jpf)e. 
 
 [dis 
 
 went to Russia, and inoculated the empress 
 and grand-duke, for which Dr. Dimsdale was 
 created a baron of the empire, physician to 
 her majesty, and counsellor of state. A 
 gratuity of V2,000l. was given him for his 
 journey, and a pension of 5001. a-year. In 
 1781 the baron again visited Russia, to in- 
 oculate the two sons of the grand -duke. In 
 the year preceding he was elected into par- 
 liament for Uertford, and again in 1784, on 
 which he quitted practice. lie wrote Tracts 
 on Inoculation, in which is an account of 
 his first journey to Russia. Died, 1800. 
 
 DINEZ DA CRUZ, Antuon v, au eminent 
 Portuguese poet, was born in 1730, and die<l 
 in 1798. As a writer of odes, sonnets, and 
 lyrical pieces generally, he holds the first 
 rank among his countrymen. 
 
 DINOCRATES, a Macedonian architect, 
 who was employed by Alexander in building 
 the city of Alexandria. He also rebuilt the 
 temple of Ephesus, and proposed to cut 
 Mount Athos into a statue of the Macedonian 
 liero. He died ia Egypt, under the reign of 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, Caius Valerius, a Ro- 
 man emperor, in whose reigu the Christians 
 suffered a persecution, was born of au obscure 
 family in Dalmatia. He rose from being a 
 common soldier to the rank of general, and 
 on the death of Numerian, in 284, was 
 chosen emperor. He renounced the crown 
 in 304, and retired to Salona, where he died 
 in 313. He was prudent, beneficent, and 
 brave. 
 
 DIODATI, JoHS, an eminent divine, born 
 at Lucca, in 1589, was descended from a 
 noble family, and brought up in the Catholic 
 faith ; but he embraced Protestantism, be- 
 came professor of Hebrew at Geneva, and is 
 much celebrated for a translation of the liible 
 into Italian. Died, 1049. 
 
 DIODORUS, SicuLus, a native of Argj- 
 rium, in Sicily, who wrote a Universal His- 
 tory, of which only 15 books and a few frag- 
 ments remain. He flourished about 44 b. c. 
 DIOGENES, sumamed the Ci/nic, was born 
 at Sinope, a city of Puntus, u.c. 414. He 
 accompanied his father to Athens, where he 
 applied to the study of philosophy under 
 Antisthenes, the founder of the cynics. He 
 distinguished himself by the excessive rude- 
 ness of his manners, with which was blended 
 a great knowledge of human nature, and a 
 zeal for the interests of virtue, on which ac- 
 count Plato called him the " mad Socrates." 
 Being on a voyage to ^gina, the vessel was 
 taken by pirates, who sold Diogenes to a 
 rich Corinthian citizen named Xeniades, who 
 entrusted to him the care of lus sons. His 
 famous interview with Alexander took place 
 at Corinth, where, at the age of 90, he died. 
 
 DIOGENES, sumamed the BaJbylonian, 
 was a stoic philosopher, who flourished about 
 200 B. c. 
 
 DIOGENES, Laertius, a Greek historian, 
 was born in Cilicia. He wrote the " Lives of 
 the Philosophers," in 10 books, and died, 222. 
 DIOGENES, a Cretan philosopher ; suc- 
 ceeded his master Anaximenes in his school 
 of Ionia, about 3(iO B. c. 
 
 DION, a celebrated patriot of Syracuse, 
 was the disciple and friend of Plato when 
 that philosopher was at the court of Dio- 
 
 247 
 
 nysiusi whose daughter Arete he married. 
 Bein^ accused of treason, he was banished 
 by Dionysius, and went to Athens, where he 
 acquired considerable popularity ; which so 
 provoked the tyrant, that he confiscated his 
 estates, and compelled his wife to marry 
 another man. Dion, irritated at this treat- 
 ment, resolved to attempt the deliverance of 
 liis country ; and with a small force he landed 
 in Sicily during the absence of Dionysius, 
 and entered Syracuse in triumph. After 
 various successes he perished, the victim of 
 a conspiracy, headed by one Calippus, au 
 Athenian, b.c. XA. 
 
 DION CASSIUS, an historian of the third 
 century, born at Bithynia; was twice consul; 
 and wrote, in Greek, the " History of Rome, 
 from the Building of the City to the Reign of 
 Alexander Severus." 
 
 DIONYSIUS I., of Syracuse, who, from 
 being a citizen, became commander of the 
 forces, overthrew the government, and as- 
 sumed the title of king b. c. 404. 
 
 DIONYSIUS II., the Y'ounger, the son and 
 successor of the above, was diiven from Sy- 
 racuse B.C. 343, but again returned about 10 
 years afterwards, and was expelled by Ti- 
 moleon, on which he fied to Corinth, where 
 he supported liimsclf as a schoolmaster. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, an ancient geographer, who 
 was sent by Augustus to survey the Eastern 
 part of the world, was called Peimeoetes, 
 from his poem of " Pcriegesis, or Survey of 
 the World." Died about 150. 
 
 DIONYSIUS, an historian and critic of 
 Halicamassus in Caria, who was invited to 
 Rome about 30 years B.C., and there wrote 
 his "Roman Antiquities," only H books of 
 which are extant. 
 
 PIONYSIUS, the Areopagite, was a na- 
 tive of Athens, and a member of the Are- 
 opagus, where he sat when St. Paul was 
 brought before it, and made his famous 
 speech respecting the " unknown God." 
 
 DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of.Alex- 
 andria, to whom is attributed the invention 
 of algebra, is sujiposed to have existed at 
 the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 DIOSCORIDES, Pkdanius, a physician 
 and botanist, was born at Anazarba in Ci- 
 cilia, in the 1st century of the Christian era ; 
 and distinguished himself as tlie author of 
 a work on the Materia Medica, in which the 
 medicines are nearly all taken from the 
 vegetable kingdom. 
 
 DIPPEL, John Conrad, a German phy- 
 sician and celebrated alchemist, was born at 
 Frankenstein, in Hesse, in 1072. He led a 
 wandering kind of life, made himself ob- 
 noxious to various governments, and was 
 often imprisoned. He pretended to have 
 discovered the philosopher's stone, and i>ro- 
 phesied that he would not die till 1808. He, 
 however, falsified his prediction, by suddenly 
 departing this life in 1734 ; and instead of 
 finding the philosopher's stone, he discovered 
 Prussian blue, and the animal oil which 
 bears his name. 
 
 DISNEY, John, an English divine and 
 magistrate, was born in 1077 at Lincoln. He 
 zealously distinguished himself, botli by Jiis 
 writings and his actions, in the suppression of 
 immorality, for which he repeatedly received 
 the thanks of the judges on the circuits. At 
 
DIS] 
 
 ^ 0e\3i Hniijer^al ISwffrajpl)". 
 
 [dod 
 
 the age of 42 he took orders, and in 1722 ob- 
 tained the living of St. Mary in Nottingham, 
 where he died in 1730. 
 
 DISRAELI, Isaac, the illustrious author 
 of the " Curiosities of Literature," the " Quar- 
 rels " and " Calamities of Authors," " Illus- 
 trations of the Literary Character," was born 
 at Enfield, 1767. lie was the only child of 
 Benjamin Disraeli, a Venetian merchant ; 
 and was originally destined for his father's 
 occupation ; but having shown a premature 
 inclination for the muses, he was sent off first 
 to Amsterdam, and afterwards to Bourdeaux, 
 to be initiated into the mysteriesof a mercan- 
 tile life. But all in vain. Rousseau and Vol- 
 taire had superseded the ledger in his estima- 
 tion ; and he returned to England with such 
 an antipatliy to embark in commerce, that he 
 at length gained a reluctant consent from his 
 father to abandon it altogether ; and he 
 thenceforward devoted his long life to lite- 
 rary pursuits. Besides the works above men- 
 tioned, which have carried liis name through- 
 out the whole civilised world, he published 
 " Commentaries on the Life and Reign of 
 Charles I.," the " Amenities of Literature," 
 and was for many years a contributor to the 
 Quarterly Review and the Gentleman's Ma- 
 gazine. Mr.Disraeli was smitten with blind- 
 ness in 1839, and the last years of liis intel- 
 lectual pursuits were impeded, though not 
 interrupted, by this affliction. Few writers 
 have been so much devoted to literature from 
 a pure love of it for its own sake ; and many a 
 mind has been excited to literary effort by his 
 graceful and entertaining works. Died, 1848. 
 
 DITTON, HuMPUKY, a learned mathe- 
 matician, was born at Salisbury in 1675, 
 became mathematical master of Christ's 
 Hospital, and died in 1715. He wrote several 
 papers in the Philosophical Transactions ; 
 but he is best known by a treatise, entitled 
 " the Institution of Fluxions." 
 
 DOBSOX, WiF>LiAM, an English painter, 
 wlio succeeded Vandyke in the appointments 
 he held under Charles I., was born in 1610, 
 and died in 1646. Some of his portraits pos- 
 sessed great merit. 
 
 DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, to whom 
 several important public works owe their 
 origin, was a native of Northumberland, and 
 born in 1761. He was the projector of Vaux- 
 hall Bridge, the South Lambeth Waterworks, 
 tJie Gravesend Tunnel, &c. ; and wrote seve- 
 ral able works connected with his profession. 
 He died in 1822, at Cheltenham, in conse- 
 quence of an injury he had sustained by the 
 explosion of the boiler of a steam-boat. His 
 eon, Geokoe Dodd, who followed the same 
 profession, was the planner, and for a time 
 the resident engineer, of Waterloo Bridge. 
 He died in 1827. 
 
 DODD, Dr. William, was born in 1729, 
 at Bourne, Lincolnshire ; and after being 
 ediicated at Cambridge, entered into orders, 
 became a popular preacher in London, and 
 was made one of the king's chaplains. But 
 he kept high society, and was extravagant ; 
 and finding himself unable to support an 
 expensive establishment, he endeavoured to 
 procure the living of St. George's, Hanover 
 Square, by offering a bribe of 3000?. to tlie 
 lady of the lord chancellor. She was, how- 
 ever, indignant at the offer, and on her in- 
 
 forming the chancellor, Dodd was struck off 
 the royal list. The Earl of Chesterfield, to 
 whom he had been tutor, afterwards pre- 
 sented him with a living ; but being pressed 
 for money he forged a bond for 4200/. on his 
 former pupil and patron, probably intending 
 to take it up before it became due ; but the 
 fraud was soon discovered, and he was tried, 
 convicted, and executed at Tyburn, in 1777, 
 notwithstanding great interest was used, and 
 the most extraordinary efforts made to ob- 
 tain his pardon. He was the author of 
 several works ; the principal of which are 
 "Sermons on the Miracles and Parables," 
 in 4 vols., " Sermons to Young Men," 3 vols., 
 "Poems," " Reflections on Death," "Thoughts 
 in Prison," and " The Sisters," a novel. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, or DODDERIDGE, Sir 
 John, an English judge, and the author of 
 several works on le^al science, was born in 
 1555, at Barnstaple m Devonsliire, and edu- 
 cated at Exeter College, Oxford. In 1613 
 lie became one of the judges of the king's 
 bench, and died in 1028. His chief works are 
 " Tlie Lawyer's Light," " Tlie English Law- 
 yer," "The Law of Nobility and Peerage," 
 " Tlie Complete Parson," &c. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Philip, a pious and 
 highly-gifted dissenting minister, was born 
 in the metropolis in 1702. He was succes- 
 sively a minister at Kibworth, Market Har- 
 borough, and Northampton, and acquired, 
 a great and deserved reputation. Being 
 afflicted with a pulmonary complaint, he 
 went to Lisbon for the benefit of his health, 
 but died there in 1751 . His principal works 
 are " The Family Expositor," 6 vols. 4to., 
 " The Life of Colonel Gardiner," " Sermons," 
 and " Hymns." 
 
 DODINGTON, Geohoe Bubb, Lord Mel- 
 combe Rkgis, a statesman, remarkable for 
 political versatility, was born in 1691, in 
 Dorsetshire, and educated at Oxford. In 
 1715 he came into parliament for Winchel- 
 sea ; was soon after appointed envoy to 
 Spain ; became a lord of the treasury during 
 Walpole's administration ; and, after years 
 of political intrigue, in which the most 
 shameless dereliction of principle was mani- 
 fest, he was raised to tlie title of lord Mel- 
 combe. Tliough servile as a politician, he 
 was generous, witty, and hospitable in pri- 
 vate life ; and had the merit of associating 
 with and patronising men of talent. His 
 celebrated " Diary," publislied in 1784, is 
 liighly interesting, revealing, as it does, much 
 of the art and mystery of statesmanship. 
 Died, 1762. 
 
 DODSLEY, Robert, an author and book- 
 seller, was born in 1703, at Mansfield, Not- 
 tinghamshire. His parents being poor, he 
 was apprenticed to a stocking-weaver, which 
 trade he left, and became footman to the 
 Hon. Mrs. Lowther. While in this situation 
 he published a volume of poems, entitled 
 "The Muse in Livery," and a dramatic 
 satire, called "The Toyshop," which being 
 patronised by Pope, and successfully brought 
 out on the stage, enabled Dodsley to com- 
 mence business as a bookseller in Pall Mall. 
 He still continued his literary pursuits, and 
 produced "Cleone," a tragedy, and four 
 light dramas ; many poems ; " The Economy 
 
 of Human Life," &c. He also edited and 
 
dod] 
 
 ^ ^eia Umhtvial 33tagrajpTjy. 
 
 [dom 
 
 published a "Collection of Old Plays," in 12 
 vols, i and was the projector of " The An- 
 nual Register." After a prosperous career, 
 he retired from business, and died in 17G4. 
 
 DODSON, MiciiAiiL, a theological writer 
 of some eminence, was born at Marlborough, 
 Wilts, in 17o2, brought up to the legal pro- 
 fession, and in 1770 became a commissioner 
 of bankrupts. His principal works are a 
 translation of Isaiah, with notes and re- 
 marks, and a life of Judge Foster, his ma- 
 ternal uncle, to whose instruction he wua 
 indebted for his professional knowledge. 
 Died, 1709. 
 
 DODS WORTH, Roger, an English to- 
 pographer, was bom in Yorkshire, in 1585, 
 and died in 1G54. lie collected the anti- 
 quities of his native country, in 1(;2 folio 
 volumes, which are in the Bodleian library, 
 Oxford. 
 
 DODWELL, Henry, a learned critic and 
 theologian, was born at Dublin, in 1041, and 
 educated at Trinity College. In 1G«8 he 
 was appointed Camden professor of history 
 at Oxford, but lost his office soon after the 
 Revolution. He wrote several books : but 
 the work which excited most notice was 
 " On the Natural Mortality of the Soul." 
 Died, 1711. — His sons, Hkkky and Wil- 
 liam, were also both distinguished by their 
 writings ; the former, who was bred to tlie 
 law, by his scepticism ; the latter, who was a 
 prebendary of Salisbury, by his orthodoxy. 
 
 DOEDERLEIN, John Cubistoi'Ueu, a 
 learned Lutheran divine, professor of theo- 
 logy in the university of Jena. He was the 
 author of several works illustrative of the 
 sacred writings, and enjoyed a high repu- 
 tation for biblical knowledge. Died, 179:i. 
 
 DOES, Jacou Van dek, a Dutch painter, 
 born in 1(523, aad died in 1673 ; he studied at 
 Rome, and adopted the style of Bamboccio, 
 — His sons, Jacob and Simon, were both 
 good artists ; the former, celebrated for his 
 historical pieces, died in 1013; the latter, 
 who excelled in landscapes and cattle, died 
 in 1717. 
 
 DOGGETT, Thomas, an actor and dra- 
 matic poet, was a distinguished comic iier- 
 former at Drury Lane, of which liouse he 
 was joint-manager. He is now remembered 
 for the legacy he left to provide a " coat and 
 badge," wluch is rowed for annually on the 
 Ist of August, from London Bridge to Chelsea, 
 by six watermen. Died, 1721. 
 
 DOLABELLA, T. Cornelius, the son-in- 
 law of Cicero, who attached himself zealously 
 to Julius CiEsar, by whom he was made 
 consul. Cassius besieged him in Laodicea, 
 where he killed himself, in the 27th year of 
 his age. 
 
 DOLCE, Louis, a Venetian writer, was 
 bom in 1508. He translated into Italian 
 great portions of Horace, Ovid, Seneca, 
 Euripides, &c. ; but was chiefly celebrated 
 for his heroic poem, entitled "L'Achille et 
 I'Enea." He also wrote a life of Charles V. 
 Died, 1508. 
 
 DOLCI, Carlo, a celebrated painter, bom 
 at Florence, in 1010, was remarkable for the 
 felicitous manner in which he treated sacred 
 subjects. His heuds of madonnas and saints 
 are inimitable. Died, 1080. 
 
 DOLGORUCKI, John Michaelovitsch, 
 
 a Russian noble, who greatly distinguished 
 himself in several campaigns against tlie 
 Turks and Swedes, was born in 1704, and 
 died in 1824. Latterly he held several high 
 offices, and he was also known as a poet of 
 considerable merit. 
 
 DOLLOND, John, an eminent optician, 
 was born in Spitalfields, London, in 1706, 
 and brought up as a silk-weaver ; but, de- 
 voting himself to the study of astronomy, 
 his attention became directed to the im- 
 provement of telescopes, &c. ; and, in con- 
 junction with his eldest son, Peter, lie 
 commenced business as an optician. He 
 invented the achromatic object-glass, the 
 application of tlie micrometer to reflecting 
 telescopes, Stc. Died, 1701. — His son Peter 
 also, who died in 1820, made many valuable 
 improvements in optical instruments, and 
 tliey Iwth enjoyed a well-deserved repu- 
 tation. 
 
 DOLOMIEU, Deodatus, a French geo- 
 logist and mineralogist, was born in Dau- 
 phin*.', in 1750, and entered into the order 
 of Malta. He accompanied Buonaparte to 
 Egypt, and on his return was taken prisoner 
 and confined at Messina. Sir Joseph Banks 
 obtained his release in 1801, but he died 
 during the same year. Dolomieu had tra- 
 velled, for scientific purposes, in many parts 
 of EurojJC ; and he was the antiior of many 
 esteemed works, of which his " Mineralogical 
 Philosophy" and a "Voyage to the Lipari 
 Islands " are the chief. 
 
 DOMBEY, JosEi'H, one of the most emi- 
 nent French botanists of the last century ; 
 born in 1742. After a life of i^crsecution, 
 from which his ultra-philanthropy did not 
 protect him, he was captured by corsairs, in 
 returning from St. Domingo, and died in the 
 prisons of Montscrfat. 
 
 DOMENICHINO, a celebrated painter, 
 whose real name was Domenicho Zampieki, 
 was born at Bologna, in 1581, and was a 
 pupil of the Caracci. Though at first his 
 progress was so slow that his fellow-students 
 in derision called him " the Ox," yet he rose 
 to first-rate eminence in his art. He was 
 also well skilled in architecture, and held 
 the situation of architect to Gregory XV. 
 Died, 1041. 
 
 DOMINIC, St., founder of the order of 
 monks which bears his name, was born, in 
 1170, at Calahorra, in Old Castile. He was 
 employed by pope Innocent to convert the 
 Albigenscs ; but, failing in his endeavours, 
 he commenced a horrible crusade against 
 them ; and, dying iu 1221, was canonised 
 for his zeal. 
 
 DOMINIS, MAR* Anthony de, a Dal- 
 matian archbishop, who came to England, 
 and was made dean of Windsor ; but being 
 disappointed of higher preferment, he ac- 
 cepted an invitation from pope Gregory XV. 
 and went to Rome, where he abjured his 
 "errors," in the expectation of receiving 
 a cardinal's hat ; but instead of receiving 
 preferment, he was sent to the castle of 
 St. Angclo, where he died in 1625. He 
 wrote " De Ilepublica Ecclesiastica ; " and 
 was the first who gave a true explanation of 
 the colours of the rainbow. 
 
 DOMOTT, Admiral Sir William, was 
 l>orn in Devonsliire, and entered the navy 
 
dom] 
 
 ^ ^ctD HnibenJal Btotjrap!)!). 
 
 [dob 
 
 tinder the patronage of Lord Bridport. He 
 served several years on tlie West India 
 station, and afterwards took a share in 
 many actions under Sir Samuel Hood and 
 Sir George Kodney ; and in 1793 received 
 the command of the Royal George, which 
 he retained more than 7 years. He was 
 then made a captain of the fleet, to act in 
 the Baltic, under Sir Hyde Parker. In 1808 
 he was called to a seat at the admiralty 
 board, which he resigned to act as com- 
 mander-in-cliief at Plymouth. In 1819 he 
 was promoted to the rank of admiral, and 
 died in 1828. 
 
 DOMITIAN, Titus Flavius, the second 
 son of Vespasian, and the last of the 12 
 Cassars, was born a. d. 51, and succeeded his 
 brother Titus in 81. He was voluptuous, 
 cruel, and malignant ; and though at his 
 accession he made some show of justice, ajid 
 even of kindness to the citizens, yet the 
 cruelty of his disposition was too deep-rooted 
 for concealment, and he was both feared and 
 hated for his tyranny. He was in continual 
 dread of conspirators, and at length fell by 
 the hands of an assassin, in the 45th year of 
 his age, a.u. 96. 
 
 DOMITIANITS DOMITIUS, general of 
 Diocletian's army in Egypt. He caused him- 
 self to be proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, 
 and was put to death, in 288, two years 
 afterwards. 
 
 DONALD v., king of Scotland, succeeded 
 his brother Kenneth II. The ancient laws 
 of Scotland were revised and confirmed 
 under his authority. He died, after a reign 
 of four years, in 8C4. 
 
 DONALD VI. succeeded Gregory the 
 Great on the Scottish throne, in 891. In 
 this reign the Danes liaving invaded his 
 kingdom, he fought and defeated them. 
 He died at Forres in 904. 
 
 DONALD VII., commonly called Donald 
 Bane, usurped the throne in 1093. He was 
 expelled from the throne by Duncan in 1094, 
 but regained it again by the murder of that 
 prince. He did not, however, long enjoy it, 
 for he was finally dethroned by Edgar 
 Atheling in 1098. 
 
 DONALDSON, Joseph, a native of Glas- 
 gow, and author of " The Eventful Life of a 
 Soldier," and " Scenes and Sketches of a 
 Soldier's Life in Ireland." Died on the 5th 
 of October, 1830, at Paris. 
 
 DONATELLO, or DONATO, an eminent 
 sculptor, was born at Florence, in 1383. 
 His statues and ba?so-relievos adorn many 
 of the Italian churches ; and it is said that 
 Michael Angelo held his works in high 
 esteem. Died, 14G(3. 
 
 DONATI, ViTALiAxo, an Italian physi- 
 cian, born at Padua, in 1717 ; author of a 
 " Natural History of the Adriatic Sea." He 
 travelled to the East for scientific purposes, 
 and died at Bassorah, in 17C3. 
 
 DONDUCCI, Geokge Axdeew, a Bo- 
 lognese artist. He was born in 1575 ; studied 
 under Annibale Caracci ; and his pictures 
 «re remarkable for their strong contrasts of 
 light and shade. 
 
 DON 1) US, or DONDI, James, a physician 
 of Padua, who acquired the name of Aggre- 
 gator, on account of the numerous medicines 
 he made. He was also well skilled in me- 
 
 chanics, particularly in horology. He died 
 in 13.50. 
 
 DONNE, JoHX, an English divine and 
 poet, was bom in London, in 1573. Being 
 the son of a Catholic, he was brought up in 
 that faith ; but after completing his studies 
 at Oxford, he embraced Protestantism, and 
 became secretary to the lord chancellor 
 Ellcsmere. After having lost tliis office, 
 and even been imprisoned for clandestinely 
 marrying the chancellor's niece, lie took 
 orders ; when king James made him one of 
 his chaplains, and he afterwards became 
 preacher of Lincoln's Inn and dean of St. 
 Paul's. He died in 1631. Donne has been 
 termed by Dr. Johnson the founder of the 
 metaphysical school of poetry. Though 
 rugged in his versification, he often displays 
 great force and originality ; and his prose 
 works, though quaint and sometimes pe- 
 dantic, show deep thinking and strong 
 powers of reasoning. His works comprise 
 letters, sermons, theological essays, &c. 
 
 DOODY, Samuel, F.R.S., superintendant 
 of the botanical garden at Chelsea, was a 
 native of Staffordshire, and a member of 
 the medical profession. His knowledge of 
 botany was very extensive ; he assisted in 
 the publication of Ray's Synopsis ; but he 
 devoted his attention more particularly to 
 the class cryptogamia, in which he made 
 some interesting discoveries. Died, 170<5. 
 
 DORAT, or DAURAT, John, a French 
 poet, born in 1507, was professor of Greek 
 at the Royal College, and poet laureate to 
 Charles IX. He has the reputation of 
 greatly contributing to the revival of clas- 
 sical literature in France, and of having 
 written a host of Greek and Latin verses, 
 besides some French poems. Died, 1588. 
 
 DORAT, Claude Josepu, a French poet, 
 born in 1734. His works are voluminous, 
 and embrace poetry of every class, with 
 dramas and romances. They possess con- 
 siderable merit ; but, though popular at 
 the time, are now generally neglected. 
 Died, 1780. 
 
 DORIA, Andrew, a Genoese naval com- 
 mander of great renown, was born of a noble 
 family at Oneglia, in 1468. Having dis- 
 tinguished himself in the service of dif- 
 ferent Italian states, and successfully con- 
 tended against the African pirates and other 
 enemies of his native country, he entered 
 the French service, in the hope of counter- 
 acting the revolution that had broken out 
 in Genoa by putting that city in posses- 
 sion of the French ; but failing in his de- 
 sign, he joined with the Imperialists in en- 
 deavouring to expel them. This object being 
 effected, the Genoese senate gave him the 
 title of " the Father and Defender of his 
 Country," erected a statue to his honour, 
 and built a palace for him. His whole life 
 was a scene of great exploits and brilliant 
 successes ; and he died, at the great age of 
 92, in 1560. 
 
 DORIGNY, Michael, a French painter 
 and engraver in aqua-fortis, was born in 
 1617, and died in 1665. 
 
 DORIGNY, Nicholas, a son of the fore- 
 going, born in 1657, was the engraver of the 
 celebrated cartoons of Raphael at Hampton 
 Court, for which he received the honour of 
 
 I 
 
dor] 
 
 <xi ^clu ?aiu'l)C«lal ^StOflTHpT)!?. 
 
 [dou 
 
 knighthood from George I. lie died at 
 Pans, in 174<5, aged 90. 
 
 DORISLAUS, Isaac, a Dutchman, and 
 doctor of civil law at Ley den, from wlience 
 he came to England, and was made lecturer 
 of history at Cambridge ; but avowing re- 
 publican principles, he was silenced. lie 
 next became judge advocate in the king's 
 army, but deserted his monarch and assisted 
 in drawing up tite charges against liim. 
 In 1()49 he was sent ambassador to Holland, 
 where he was assassinated by some exiled 
 royalists. The honour of interment in 
 Westminster Abbey was decreed by the par- 
 liament, but at the Restoration the corpse 
 was removed to St. Margaret's churchyard. 
 
 D'ORLEANS, Petek Joseph, a i'rench 
 historian, and one of the society of Jesuits, 
 was the author of " A History of the Re- 
 volutions of England," 3 vols. 4to. ; and 
 " A History of the Revolutions of Spain," 
 3 vols. 4to. Bom, 1C44 ; died, 1698. 
 
 DORSCH, EvEKAKD, a celebrated engraver 
 on gems, was born at Nureraburg in 1(549, 
 and died in 1712. 
 
 DORSET, Thomas SACKVILLE, Earl 
 of, the son of Sir Richard Sackville, was 
 born in 15'27, and educated at Oxford and 
 Cambridge. He was distinguished both as 
 ' a statesman and an author ; havini; been 
 I ambassador to Holland, chancellor of Ox- 
 ford, and lord treasurer. He was first cre- 
 ated lord Buckhurst, and subsequently in- 
 vested with the order of the Garter, and 
 made earl of Dorset. He wrote the " In- 
 duction to the Mirrour for Magistrates," 
 and the "Complaint of Henry, Duke of 
 Buckingham," &c. Died, ir.08. 
 
 DORSET, Chaiu.es SACKVILLE, Earl 
 of, was bom in 16.17. He was one of the 
 distinguished wits and revellers at the court 
 of Charles II. ; but he was of an heroic 
 turn ; and while acting as a volunteer, un- 
 der the Duke of York, in the Dutch war, 
 he wrote on the eve of a battle the cele- 
 brated song, "To all you ladies now on 
 land." At tlie revolution he was made lord 
 chamberlain of the household. His poems 
 possess considerable point and liveliness. 
 Died, 1706. 
 
 DOSSI, Dosso, a painter of Ferrara, some 
 of wliose works have much of tlie style both 
 of Titian and Raphael. Ariosto mentions 
 him in terms of liigh commendation. Born, 
 1479 ; died, 1560. 
 
 DOUCE, FRAifcis, an antiquarian, well 
 known to the literary world by his "Illus- 
 trations of Shakspeare and of Ancient 
 Manners." He also contributed various 
 papers to the Archseologia, the Gentleman's 
 Magazine, &c. ; and shortly before his 
 death published a beautiful volume, illus- 
 trating the "Dance of Death," by disser- 
 tations on the claims of Holbein and Maca- 
 ber. He was for many years a member of 
 the Royal Antiquarian Society, and for- 
 merly keeper of manuscripts in the British 
 Museum. Died, \SM. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Gawkv, a Scotch divine, 
 and poet of some eminence, was the son of 
 Archibald, (>th earl of Angus, and born at 
 Brechin in 1474. After receiving a liberal 
 education he entered the church, was made 
 provost of St. Giles's, and eventually ob- 
 
 tained the abbacy of Aberbrothick and the 
 bishopric of Dunkeld. Political dissensions 
 induced him to seek refuge in England, 
 where he was lil)erally treated by Henry 
 VIII., but he fell a victim to the plague of 
 London, in 1522. He wrote "The Palace 
 of Honour," and other works ; but his chief 
 performance is a translation of Virgil's 
 ..Eneid. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, an eminent anato- 
 mist, was born in Scotland in 1675 ; settled 
 in London, and was patronised by the cele- 
 brated Dr. John Hunter ; and died in 1742. 
 He is the author of a " Comparative De- 
 scription of all the Muscles," and other 
 works on medical science. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Sir James, a renowned war- 
 rior, who on the death of Robert Bruce, 
 king of Scotland, was commissioned to 
 carry the king's heart to the holy sepulclire 
 at Jerusalem ; upon which errand he sailed 
 in June, 1330. On arriving off Sluys, in 
 Flanders, where he exjicctcd to find com- 
 panions in his pilgrimage, he learned tliat 
 Alphonso XL, the young king of Leon and 
 Castile, was engaged in a war with Osman 
 the Moor ; and such was the crusading zeal 
 of Douglas that he entered the lists against 
 the foes of Christianity. The Moors were 
 defeated ; but Douglas, giving way to his 
 impetuous valour, pursued tliem too eagerly, 
 and throwing among them the casket which 
 contained the heart of his sovereign, cried 
 out, " Now pass onward as thou wert wont, 
 Douglas will follow thee or die." The 
 fugitives rallied, surrounded the Christian 
 knight, who with a few of his followers 
 perished while attempting the rescue of Sir 
 Walter St. Clair of Roslin. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Archibald, brother of the 
 preceding, was appointed regent for Scot- 
 land for king David Bruce, and fell at the 
 battle of Halidon Hill, July 22. 1333. 
 
 DOUGLAS, William, lord of Liddisdale, 
 was a warrior of considerable renown in 
 the 14th century ; but whose fame was tar- 
 nished by an act of baseness and inhumanity. 
 The brave Alexander Ramsay having taken 
 the castle of Roxburgh from the English, 
 was rewarded with the custody of the castle 
 and the shrievalty of the adjoining district; 
 and while holding his court at Howick, 
 Douglas suddenly entered with a band of 
 armed followers, slew several of Ramsay's 
 attendants, and having bound him with 
 fetters, threw him into a dungeon of Her- 
 mitage castle, and left him tliere to perish. 
 Enormous as this crime was, the king par- 
 doned him, but he was killed by the Earl 
 of Douglas, in 1353, while hunting in Ettrick 
 Forest. 
 
 DOUGLAS, William, first earl of Doug- 
 las, was taken prisoner with David Bruce 
 at the battle of Durham, but soon ransomed. 
 He recovered Douglasdale and other districts 
 from the English; afterwards went to France, 
 fought at the battle of Poictiers, and died in 
 1384. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, second earl of that 
 name, after performing many valorous ex- 
 ploits, was killed at the battle of Otterbum, 
 in 1388. 
 
 DOUGLAS, William, lord of Nithsdale, 
 called "The Black Douglas," whose very 
 
DOU] 
 
 ^ ^rfit) Winibtx^aX 33t05rapT)i). 
 
 [dou 
 
 name was said to be a terror to the English, 
 married Egedia, daughter of Robert II. ; 
 and after a life of bold and successful war- 
 fare, was murdered by the Earl of Clifford, 
 in 1390. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Akciiibald. the fourth earl 
 of Douglas, succeeded his father Archibald 
 in his title and estates, and married Mar- 
 garet, daughter of Robert II. When Henry 
 IV". of England laid siege to the castle of 
 Edinburgh, in 1400, Douglas successfully 
 defended it ; but he lost an eye and was 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Ilomildon. 
 He afterwards joined Percy in his rebellion 
 against his king, was taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Shrewsbury, but recovered his li- 
 berty and went to France, where he was 
 slain at the battle of Vernoil, in 1424, 
 
 DOUGLAS, AucHiBALD, the fifth earl of 
 Douglas, was the ainbassador to England for 
 the release of James I. Died, 1438. 
 
 DOUGI>AS, Wu.r.iAM, the sixth earl of 
 Douglas, is remembered on account of the 
 tragical fate wliich awaited him, almost as 
 soon as he came to his family titles and 
 estates. Under the specious pretext that 
 the young earl's presence was necessary at 
 the meeting of parliament, which was about 
 to be held at Edinburgh, after the recon- 
 ciliation of Livingston and Crichton, he 
 and his brother accepted an invitation to a 
 royal feast at the castle. The entertainment 
 was prolonged with unusual pomp, and 
 every delicacy spread on the table ; till at 
 length a bull's head was suddenly placed 
 before the two noble guests, which they 
 knew to be the herald of death. They then 
 hastily sprung from their seats, and made 
 some vain efforts to escape ; but a body of 
 armed men, at a given signal, rushed in, 
 bound their hands, and led them to instant 
 execution. This happened in 1437. 
 
 DOUGLAS, William, the eighth earl of 
 Douglas, was a haughty and ambitious 
 noble, wielding at times an imcontrolled in- 
 fluence over tlie king, and at others openly 
 bearding his authority. He raised the power 
 and grandeur of the house of Douglas to its 
 loftiest height ; and, not content with the 
 sway he exercised at home, caused himself 
 to be received at Rome and France with 
 those honours which are only due to sove- 
 reign princes. Among other despotic acts 
 which he committed, was his beheading 
 Macallan of Bombic, for having refused to 
 join the earl in his attack on Crichton, 
 between whom and Douglas tliere was a 
 deadly feud. The indignation, however, 
 with which king James received the news 
 of this and similar actions, determined him 
 at length to get rid of the opposition of a 
 subject so daring and powerful. The earl 
 was therefore invited to attend his sovereign 
 in parliament at Stirling, which he accepted; 
 and while vainly remonstrating with him 
 on the impropriety of his conduct, the king 
 drew a dagger and plunged it into the heart 
 of Douglas, Feb. 13. 1452. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, brother of the fore- 
 going, and ninth and last earl of Douglas, 
 took up arms to revenge his brother's death, 
 and, assembling all the members of tlie 
 league, brought a large army into the field. 
 The king, however, being active, and well 
 
 provided with forces, lay siege to the castle 
 of Abercorn, the best fortified seat of the 
 earl, and the two armies lay encamped 
 within a short distance of each other ; but 
 without coming to an engagement, Douglas 
 fled to Annandale, with his brothers, the 
 Earls of Ormond and Moray. Thither they 
 were pursued by the king's forces, under 
 the command of the Earl of Angus ; Moray 
 slain, Ormond made prisoner, and Douglas 
 himself driven to provide for his safety in 
 England. Several years after, Douglas 
 returned with Percy, earl of Northumber- 
 land, upon an expedition against his coun- 
 try, in which Douglas was taken prisoner ; 
 and James contented himself with sending 
 his rebel captive to the abbey of Lindores, 
 where he died, in monkish confinement, in 
 1488. 
 
 DOUGLAS, George, fifth earl of Angus, 
 was commander of the forces that defeate<l 
 the Earls of Douglas and Northumberland, 
 when Douglas was taken prisoner, and his 
 estates forfeited. Died, 1402. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Archibald, sixth earl of 
 Angus, commanded the right wing of the 
 royal army at the battle of Torwood, where 
 James III. lost his life ; and at the fatal 
 battle of Flodden Field he endeavoured, 
 though unsuccessfully, to dissuade James IV. 
 from that engagement. His eldest son, 
 George, was there slain ; and the earl died 
 in the year following. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Jamks, earl of Morton, was 
 for some time regent of Scotland, and was 
 a chief actor in the transactions which took 
 place in that country during the reign of 
 !Mary, and in the minority of her son James 
 VI. He was beheaded in WSl. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, earl of Morton and 
 Aberdeen, was bom at Edinburgh in 1707. 
 He established the Edinburgh Philosophical 
 Society, and in 1733 was elected president 
 of the "Royal Society of London. Died, 1768. 
 
 DOUGLAS, JoH?r, a learned divine and 
 critic, born at Pittenweem, Fifeshire, in 
 1721 ; was travelling tutor to Lord Pulteney ; 
 obtained the deanery of Windsor ; was 
 raised to the see of Carlisle in 1787 ; trans- 
 ferred to that of Salisbury in 1792 ; and died 
 in 1807. Dr. Douglas was a distinguished 
 writer, and the friend of Dr. Johnson and 
 most of the eminent literary characters of 
 his day. He vindicated Milton from the 
 charge of plagiarism brought against him 
 by Lauder ; entered the lists against David 
 Ilume, by publishing " The Criterion, or a 
 Discourse on Miracles," and prepared for 
 the press Captain Cook's second and third 
 voyages. 
 
 bOUSA, JoHJT, whose real name was 
 VANDER DOES, was born at Noordwick, 
 Holland, in L545. He became eminent both 
 as a soldier and a scholar. After being sent 
 as ambassador to England, he was made 
 governor of Ley den in 1574, and heroically 
 defended it against the Spaniards : he was 
 also the first curator of the university of that 
 city, and died there, of the plague, in 1604. 
 As an author, Dousa distinguished himself 
 by his " Annals of Holland," in Latin verse, 
 as well as by various other Latin poems and 
 criticisms. His son JoHX, who died in his 
 20 th year, assisted his father in the Annals, 
 
|dou] 
 
 ^ i^clD Bnihex^aX 28t0ffrap]^». 
 
 [dra 
 
 ! ttiid vas an emii^cnt classical scholar and 
 I mathematician. He had also three other 
 sons, of great classical attainments. 
 
 DOUW, or DOW, Gekakd, an eminent 
 Dutch painter, and the pupil of Ilcmbrandt, 
 was born at Leyden in 1C13, and died there 
 in 1674, or, as some say, iu 1C80. For the 
 excellence of his colouring, delicacy of 
 finish, and attention to every minutia of 
 his art, this master's compositions are un- 
 rivalled i and the prices which some of his 
 paintings have obtained arc almost without 
 parallel. 
 
 DOVER, Gkorge James Wei.hork Agar 
 Ellis, I^ord, was born in the year 1797, and 
 completed his education at Christchurch, 
 Oxford. In 1818 he was returned as member 
 for Heytesbury ; in succeeding parliaments 
 he sat for Seaford, Ludgershall, and Oak- 
 hampton ; and in 1830 he was appointed cliief 
 commissioner of woods and forests. But it is 
 us a patron of the fine arts, and as a pro- 
 moter of literature, that Lord Dover will be 
 chiefly remembered ; his acquaintance with 
 the former entitling him to the character of 
 a connoisseur, and liis talents as an author 
 being highly respectable. In 1828 he pub- 
 lished "Historical Inquiries respecting the 
 Character of Edward Hyde, Earl of Claren- 
 don ; " after which appeared the " Ellis Cor- 
 I respondence, " which was followed by his 
 " Life of Frederick the Great j " and his last 
 literary task was that of editing the " Inciters 
 of Hoiace VValpole to Sir Horace Maim." 
 He was also an occasional contributor to the 
 Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews, &c. ; and 
 in 1832 he was elected president of the Royal 
 Society of Literature. Died, 183^3. 
 
 DOW, ^tLEXAXDKR, was a native of Scot- 
 land, and a lieutenant-colonel in the East 
 India Company's service. He translated 
 several works from the Persian, was the 
 author of two unsuccessful trogedies, and 
 died in 170<t. 
 
 DOWNMAN, IIuou, a physician and 
 poet, born at Exeter, in 1740 ; studied at 
 Oxford J and settled in his native city, 
 where he died in 1809. He is the author of 
 " Editlia," a tragedy ; " Infancy," a iK)em ; 
 " Tlie Land of the Muses," &c. 
 
 DOYEN, Gabuiel Francis, an eminent 
 French painter, pupil of Vanloo. The 
 " Death of Virginia." " Death of St. Louis," 
 and other works of great merit, were pro- 
 duced by him. He afterwards resided in 
 Russia, and died there in 180«. 
 
 DRACO, an Athenian legislator, the ex- 
 traordinary and indiscriminate severity of 
 whose laws has rendered his name odious to 
 humanity. During the period of his archou- 
 ship, n. c. (523, he enacted a criminal code, 
 in which the slightest offences were punished 
 with death, no less than murder or sacrilege. 
 Hence it was said to be " written in blood." 
 It was abolished by Solon ; and its san- 
 guiiiary author was, according to tradition, 
 smothered by the populace of ^gina, on 
 his appearance at the theatre there. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Fraxcis, an eminent navi- 
 gator and commander, was born at Tavi- 
 stock, Devon, iu 1545. He first served in 
 the royal navy under his relative. Sir John 
 Hawkins ; and distinguished himself by his 
 valour at the unfortunate expedition against 
 
 2ra 
 
 the Spaniards, in the harbour of Vera Cruz. 
 Iu 1570 he went to the West Indies, on a 
 cruise against the Spaniards, which he soon 
 repeated with success ; and in 1572, having 
 received the command of two vessels, for the 
 purpose of attacking the commercial ports 
 of Spanish America, he took possession of 
 two of their cities, and returned laden with 
 booty. On his return he equipped three 
 frigates at his own expense, with which he 
 served as a volunteer, under tlie Earl of 
 Essex, in Ireland, where he distinguished 
 himself so much by his bravery, that Sir 
 Christopher Hatton introduced him to queen 
 Elizabeth. Drake disclosed to her his i)lan, 
 and being furnished with five ships, he sailed, 
 in 1577, to attack the Spaniards in the South 
 Seas. In this expedition he ravaged the 
 Spanish settlements, coasted the North Ame- 
 rican shore as far as 48° N. lat., and gave I 
 the name of New Albion to the country he I 
 had discovered. He then went to the East 
 Indies, and having doubled the Cape of Good 
 Hope, returned to Plymouth in 1580. U'he 
 queen dined on board his ship at Deptford, 
 and knighted him. In 158.') he ogain sailed 
 to the West Indies, and succeeded in taking 
 several places and ships. In 1587 he com- 
 manded a fleet of 30 sail, witli which he 
 entered the liarbour of Cadiz, and destroyed 
 the shipi)ing ; and, in the following year, 
 he commanded as vice-admiral under Lord 
 Howard, and had his share in the destruction 
 of the Spanish armada. He died off Nombre 
 de Dios, in 1596. Sir Francis represented 
 Plymouth in parliament ; and to him that 
 town is indebted for a supply of water, which 
 he caused to be conveyed to it from springs 
 at several miles distance. His victories have 
 been equalled, nay surpassed, by modern 
 admirals ; but his generosity has never been 
 rivalled ; for he divided, in just proportional 
 shares among liis seamen, the booty Jie took 
 from the enemy. 
 
 DRAKE, Fran'Cis, an eminent antiquary 
 and surgeon at York j author of " Ebora- 
 eum" or the history and antiquities of that 
 city. Died, 1770. 
 
 DRAKE, James, an English physician 
 and political writer, was born at Cambridge 
 in l(i(i7, and ediicutcd at tJiat university. 
 In 1704 he published a pamphlet, entitled 
 " The Memorial of the Church of England," 
 which gave such offence, tliat a proclamation 
 was issued for discoveiing tlio author, who 
 kept concealed. He was afterwards prose- 
 cuted for the publication of a newspaper, 
 called " Mercurius Politicus ; " but though 
 he was acquitted, it produced in him such 
 violent excitement as to cause his death. 
 He was also the author of a "System of 
 Anatomy," 3 vols.; a translation of Herodo- 
 tus, &c. Died, 1707. 
 
 DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, was born at York, 
 in 176<> ; graduated at lidinburgh in 1789 ; 
 and settled as a physician at Hadlcigh, Suf- 
 folk, in 1792, where he practised 44 years. 
 He was an author of considerable powers, 
 and devoted them chiefly to essays and 
 ingenious illustrations of our standard lite- 
 rature. Died, June 7. 183<5. 
 
 DRAPARMAUD, James Philii' Ray- 
 mond, a French physician, and professor of 
 natural history at the School of Medicine, 
 
was born at Montpelicr, in 1772, and died 
 in 1805. lie left behind him in MS. two aide 
 works on natural history, which have since 
 been printed. 
 
 DRAPER, Sir William, a military officer, 
 well known also as a controversial writer, 
 ■was born at Bristol in 1721. He received his 
 education at Eton and Cambridge. Having 
 entered the army, he distinguished himself 
 in the East Indies, was raised to the rank of 
 a colonel in 17(50, and in 17G3 he commanded 
 the troops at tlie capture of Manilla, for 
 which he received the honour of knighthood. 
 In 1779 he was appointed lieutenant- 
 governor of Minorca ; and when that place 
 surrendered to the enemy he preferred 
 charges against General Murray, the go- 
 vernor, but which lie failed to substantiate, 
 and was commanded by the court to make 
 an apology to him. He owes his literary 
 celebrity to the circumstance of his having 
 imdertaken the defence of his friend the 
 Marquis of Granby against the attacks of 
 Junius. He died in 1787. 
 
 DRAYTON, Michael, a poet, was bom 
 at Atherstone, Warwickshire in 1,5(5.3, and 
 educated at Oxford. He was indebted for 
 a great part of his education to Sir Henry 
 Goodere, and afterwards lived for a long 
 time in the family of the Earl of Dorset, as 
 it would seem, in a state of dependence. 
 He wrote " The Shepherd's Garland," 
 "Baron's Wars," "England's Heroical 
 Epistles," " Polyolbion," " Nymphidia," 
 &c., and is reckoned a standard author 
 among the early poets. Died, 1031. 
 
 DREBBEL, Cornelius Van, a Dutch 
 chemist and natural philosopher, was born 
 at Alkmaar in 1572. With a considerable 
 share of cliarlatanism, he combined real 
 talent, and made several useful discoveries ; 
 such as the invention of the thermometer, 
 the method of dyeing scarlet, and the im- 
 provement of telescopes and microscopes. 
 He died at liondon in ir>34. 
 
 DRELINCOURT, Charles, a French 
 Protestant divine, was born at Sedan in 
 159.'>, and died at Paris in 1(5(59. He was the 
 author of several religious books, but the 
 only one by which he is now remembered 
 is tliat entitled "Consolations against the 
 Fears of Death." 
 
 DREW, Samuel, M.A., the son of poor 
 parents at St. Austell, Cornwall, was born 
 in 17(55, and at ten years of age apprenticed 
 to a shoemaker. Though he was almost 
 destitute of education, as he grew up he 
 became a shrewd and subtle disputant among 
 his shopmates ; while his jocose manner and 
 vivacious disposition led him, in early life, 
 not only to slight the solemn truths of re- 
 ligion, but to ridicule those of his acquaint- 
 ance who embraced tliem. He was at length, 
 however, aroused to a sense of their import- 
 ance by the preaching of the late Dr. (then 
 Mr.) Adorn Clarke ; and, joining the Metho- 
 dist society, he determined to abandon his 
 former practices, and devote every moment 
 he could spare to the acquirement of re- 
 ligious knowledge. Indefatigable in its 
 pursuit he soon appeared as a local preacher, 
 while he still carried on his business ; not 
 venturing before the world as an author till 
 1799, when he published his " Remarks on 
 
 Paine's Age of Reason." This was very 
 favourably received ; but it was from his 
 next production, entitled " An Essay on the 
 Immiiteriaiity and Immortality of the Soul," 
 that Mr. Drew is cliiefly indebted for his re- 
 putation as a theological metaphysician 
 
 Quitting trade, he now wrote several valu- 
 able works, among which must be noticed 
 his " Treatise on the Being and Attributes 
 of God ; " and from the year 1819 to his 
 death he edited the Imperial Magazine 
 with singular ability ; his knowledge ex- 
 tending to various branches of science, and 
 the careful and dispassionate view he took 
 of every subject under his review eminently 
 qualifying him for the office of critic. He 
 died in March, 1833. 
 
 DROUET, John Baptist, one of the 
 French revolutionists, was born in 1763. 
 He was postmaster of Menehould when 
 Louis XVI. and his family, in 1791, passed 
 through that town in their endeavours to 
 escape from France ; and it was owing to 
 Drouet that they were conducted back to 
 Paris. For this important service the Na- 
 tional Assembly offered hiin 80,000 francs, 
 which he refused. In 1792 he was nomi- 
 nated a deputy to the convention, in which 
 he distinguislied himself by his support ot 
 the most violent measures. He was after- 
 wards sent a commissioner to the army of 
 the north, and being taken prisoner by 
 the Austrians, was exchanged in 1795, with 
 others of Jiis party, for the daughter of the 
 unfortunate Louis. He subsequently be- 
 came a member of the council of five hun- 
 dred ; and, under the consulship, sub-pre- 
 fect of St. Menehould. In 1815 li£ was cho- 
 sen deputy from the department of Marne 
 to the chamber of representatives ; but, 
 being excepted from the amnesty at the be- 
 ginning of the following year, and con- 
 demned to exile, he returned to Macon, 
 where he died in 1821. 
 
 DROUOT, General Count, the well-known 
 commander of the artillery of the guard 
 under Napoleon, was born, as he himself 
 says, " of poor parents, who earned by the 
 sw-eat of their brow the bread of a numerous 
 family," at Nancy, 1774. Scarcely had he 
 finished liis education when the wars of the 
 revolution broke ont in 1792. The following 
 3'ear he was admitted into the school of 
 artillery as sub-lieutenant, and gradually 
 rose through the different ranks to that of 
 general of division, which he attained in 
 1813. It would occupy more space than we 
 can afford to give even an outline of the 
 achievements of this remarkable man. In 
 abilities as an officer of artillery, in bravery 
 and steadiness, and above all in single- 
 minded honesty, staunch fidelity, and unim- 
 peachable virtue, he had no superior and but 
 few equals in all that band of heroes who 
 raised the emperor to his throne of glory. 
 Nor must his fervent piety be oveilooked. 
 He always had a small Bible with him ; to 
 read this constituted his chief delight, and 
 he did not scruple to avow the fact. His 
 modesty was equal to his skill, and his 
 fidelity to his courage ; and he gave a strik- 
 ing proof of the latter by accompanying 
 Napoleon to Elba amid the general defection 
 that disgraced the emperor's proteges. After 
 
DRO] 
 
 ^ ^tta mm'brrtfal 3Bt0j3Tnp!)l». 
 
 [dby 
 
 the defeat at Waterloo, General Droiiot was 
 included in the ordinance of proscription ; 
 but he immediately surrendered to take his 
 trial, and having been found "not guilty," 
 he returned to liis native town, where he 
 " gave himself up to the charms of a quiet 
 private life." The return of the a-shcs of tlie 
 emperor in 1840 filled him with great joy ; 
 all his last hopes and wishes were fulfil led 
 by this event ; and it should seem that from 
 this iHiriod he longed for the moment to 
 arrive when he should be admitted " to that 
 everlasting dwelling, where those who have 
 well loved and well served their country 
 will meet their recompense." Died, 18-t7. 
 
 DUOZ, Peter JAcyvEX, a skilful me- 
 chanician, was a native of Switzerland, and 
 bom in 1721. Among other curious things 
 he made a writing automaton, the motions 
 of whose fingers, &c. corresponded exactly 
 with those of nature. Died, 179(). 
 
 DllOZ, llE.VKY Louis Jacquet, a son of 
 the foregoing, born in 17.59, excelled even 
 his father, by whom he was taught, in the 
 construction of mechanical figures. At the 
 age of 22 he went to Paris with some of the 
 products of his ingenuity ; among which was 
 an automaton, representing a female play- 
 ing on the harpsichord, which followed tlie 
 notes in the music book with the eyes and 
 I head, and having finished playing, got up 
 and made an obeisance to the comiwiny. 
 lie died at Naples, in 1791. 
 
 DKUMMOND, Geohoe, an active, en- 
 terprising, and patriotic Scotchman, was 
 born in 1(^87. When the Earl of Alar reared 
 the standard of rebellion in 171.5, Mr. G. 
 Drummond was the first to apprise the mi- 
 nistry of it ; and, raising a company of 
 volunteers, he joined the Duke of Argyle, 
 and assisted at the battle of SheritFinoor. 
 This loyal conduct he repeated, upon the 
 approach of the rcljcls in 174.5, and was 
 present at the battle of Preston, lie held 
 various offices in the excise and customs 
 from an early age ; and in 1737 he was made 
 one of the commissioners of excise, an ofiice 
 which he retained during the remainder of 
 his life, lie was also lonl provost of Edin- 
 burgh, and to his patriotic, zeal the city is 
 indebted for many of its improvements and 
 most valuable institutions. He died in 1766, 
 aged 80. 
 
 DRUMMOND, TuoitAS, under-gecretary 
 of state for Ireland. Very early in life he 
 was distinguished for his mathematical pro- 
 ficiency ; and when he became private se- 
 cretary to Lord Althorp, who was then chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, his punctuality in 
 attendance to his official duties, and the at 
 once tried and unpretending plainness of 
 the various official communications which 
 his position obliged him to make, as well 
 to public bodies as to individuals, marked 
 him, in the opinion of those who were best 
 able to appreciate such qualities, and who, 
 fortunately for the public service, had both 
 the will and the power to reward and em- 
 ploy them, as the fittest possible person for 
 the situation of under-seci-etary for Ireland 
 — as difficult a post, from circumstances to 
 which we need not allude, as any in the 
 whole range of our civil service. But the 
 cares of oflicc did not prevent him from 
 
 indulging his taste for study and experi- 
 mental service ; one of the fruits of wliich 
 is the brilliant light which he invented, and 
 which bears his name. Died, 1840. 
 
 DRUMMOND, William, a Scotch poet, 
 was the son of Sir John Drummond of 
 Uawthomden, and bom there m 1,58.5. He 
 was educated at the university of Edin- 
 burgh, and studied civil luw at Boursres ; 
 but Parnassus had more charms for liim 
 than legal science, and, on coming to the 
 family estate, the romantic beauties of 
 Uawthomden inspired him with a love for 
 poetry and polite literature. His poems are 
 replete with tenderness and delicacy. He 
 died in 1649 ; and his death is said to have 
 been accelerated by grief for the tragical 
 fate of Charles I. 
 
 DKUMMOND, Sir William, F.R.S., a 
 learned antiquary, a statesman, and the au- 
 thor of several works, classical and histori- 
 cal. He was a i)rivy councillor, and at one 
 period filled the office of envoy extraordinary 
 and minister plenipotentiary from Great 
 Britain to the king of the Two Sicilies ; and 
 at another (1801), went on an embassy to 
 Constantinople, when he was invested with 
 the Turkish order of the Crescent. His prin- 
 cipal works are " A Review of the Govern- 
 ments of Sparta and Athens," " Herculauen- 
 sia," "Odin," a poem; and " Origincs, or 
 Remarks oh the Origin of several Empires, 
 States, and Cities." He died at Rome, in 
 1828. 
 
 ■ DRYANDER, Jonas, a naturalist, by 
 birth a Swede, who came to England, and 
 was patronised by Sir Joseph Banks. He 
 became librarian to the Royal Society, and 
 vice-president of the Linnroan. Died, 1810. 
 
 DRYDEN, JoH.v, one of the most cele- 
 brated English i>oet8, was born at Aldwinkle, 
 Northamptonshire, in 1(K31, and received his 
 education at Westminster School and Tri- 
 nity College, Cambridge. On the death of 
 his father, in 16.54, he came to London, and 
 acted as secretary to his relation. Sir Gill)ert 
 Pickering, who was one of Cromwell's coun- 
 cil ; and on the death of the protector, he 
 wrote his well-known laudatory stanzas on 
 that event. At the Restoration, however, 
 he greeted Charles II. with a poem, entitled 
 " Astrea Redux," which was quickly fol- 
 lowed by a panegyric on the coronation ; 
 and from that time his love for the royal 
 house of Stuart appears to have known no 
 decay. In 1661 he produced his first play, 
 " The Duke of Guise," but the first that was 
 performed was " The Wild Gallant," which 
 appeared in the year following. In 1667 he 
 published his "Annus Mirabilis;" and his 
 reputation, both as a poet and a royalist, 
 being now established, he was appointed poet 
 laureate and historiograjjher royal, with a 
 salary of 2001. per annum. He now became 
 professionally a writer for the stage, and 
 produced many pieces, some of which have 
 been strongly censured for their licentious- 
 ness and want of good taste. In 1681 he 
 commenced his career of political satire ; and 
 at the express desire of Charles II. composed 
 his famous poem of " Absalom and Achito- 
 phel," which he followed up by " The Medal " 
 and " A Satire on Sedition." His next satire 
 was " Mac Fleckuoc ; " after wliich appeared 
 
 z2 
 
dub] 
 
 ^ Him mniUx^nX SSmsrap^y. 
 
 {[dug 
 
 " Religio Laici," a compendious view of 
 the arguments in favour of revelation. At 
 the accession of James II., Dryden became 
 a Roman Catholic, and, liki; most converts, 
 endeavoured to defend his new faith at the 
 expense of the old one, in a poem called 
 " The Hind and Panther," which was ad- 
 mirably answered by Prior and Montague, 
 in " The Country Mouse and City Mouse." 
 The abdication of James deprived Dryden 
 of all his official emoluments ; and during 
 the 10 concluding years of his life, when he 
 actually wrote for bread, he produced some 
 of the finest pieces of which our language 
 can boast. His translation of Virgil, which 
 alone would be sufficient to immortalise his 
 memory, appeared in 1(5{)7 ; and, soon after, 
 that master-piece of lyric poetry, "Alex- 
 ander's Feast," his " Fables," &c. Tlie 
 freedom, grace, strength, and melody of his 
 versification have never been surpassed ; 
 and in satire he stands unrivalled ; but as a 
 dramatic writer, though he has mafiy strik- 
 ing beauties, he does not generally excel. 
 His prose essays afford a fine specimen of 
 composition, and are replete with critical 
 ability. He died in 1700, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 DUBOCAGE, Marie Akne le Page, a 
 French lady of considerable literary abili- 
 ties, and a member of the academies of Rome, 
 Bologna, &c., was born at Rouen, in 1710. 
 She translated Pope's Temple of Fame, 
 Milton's Paradise Lost, The Death of Abel, 
 &c.,into French; and wrote " The Colum- 
 biad," an epic poem on the discovery of 
 America ; " The Amazons," a tragedy ; and 
 " Travels through England, Holland, and 
 Italy." Died, 1802. 
 
 DU BOIS, Edward, who gained a high 
 reputation in the lighter literature of the day, 
 was born, 1775. Educated at Christ's Hos- 
 pital, he was called to the bar at the Inner 
 Temple in 1809, but he took little interest 
 in his profession, though it subsequently 
 enabled him to fill with advantage the only 
 two public offices he ever held, the deputy 
 judgeship of the court of requests, and the 
 secretaryship to the commissioners in lunacy. 
 He commenced his literary career as the 
 editor of the Monthly Mirror, while Thomas 
 Hill was its proprietor, and Theodore Hook 
 was a contributor. He at the same time 
 filled the lighter departments of the Jlorning 
 Chronicle, under Air. Perry ; and he main- 
 tained his connection with the press to liis 
 latest years. In 1808 appeared " My Pocket 
 Book, or Hints for a ryghte merry e and con- 
 ceitede Tour in Quarto," written in ridicule 
 of the books of travels manufactured by Sir 
 John Carr. This little work, which was 
 anonymous, ran through numerous editions. 
 The only works published with liis name 
 i were the " Wreath," " Old Nick," a satirical 
 j story, 3 vols., the " Decameron of Boccaccio, 
 : with Remarks on his Life and Writings," 
 i 2 vols., and an edition of Francis's Horace. 
 We ought also to add, that among his ano- 
 nymous writings was a work attributing the 
 authorship of " Junius " to Sir P. Francis, 
 with wliom he was, it is said, in some way 
 i connected. M. Du Bois' powers of conversa- 
 tion were great, and his good-humoured 
 ■ pleasantry and knowledge of the world 
 
 made him the idol of a large circle of friends. 
 Died, 18 -.0. 
 
 DUBOIS DE CRANCE, Edmund Louis 
 Alexis, a modern French statesman, was 
 born at Cliarleville in 1747. He was one of 
 the deputies to the states-general in 1789, 
 and in tlie convention he voted for the death 
 of tlie king. To him tlie republican army 
 owed its first organisation, by his having 
 procured the decree for the levy of 3(X),000 
 men, promotion according to seniority, &c. 
 While at Lyons, whither he was sent to 
 suppress the insurrection, he was accused 
 of moderatism, recalled, and arrested, but 
 recovered his liberty ; and was subsequently 
 appointed by the directory inspector-general 
 and minister of war. He opposed Buona- 
 parte, and was consequently deprived of 
 his posts. He died in 1814. Dubois wrote 
 several works connected with passing events 
 of tlic revolution. 
 
 DUBOIS, William, a French cardinal 
 and statesman, notorious for his ambition 
 and his vices, was the son of an apothecary, 
 and born at Brive la Gaillard, in the Li- 
 mousin, in l')5(5. Having obtained the situ- 
 ation of preceptor to the Duke of Orleans, 
 he pandered to the passions of his pupil, 
 and secured his attachment ; till at length 
 he became his privy councillor, and overseer 
 of the household; and, when the duke became 
 regent, he was appointed to the situation of 
 minister of foreign affairs. The archbishopric 
 of Cambray having become vacant, Dubois, 
 though not even a priest, liad the boldness to 
 request it, and succeeded ; and by his con- 
 summate address he afterwards obtained a 
 cardinal's hat, and was made prime minister. 
 Died, 1723. 
 
 DUBOS, Jean Baptiste, an author of 
 merit, and secretary to the French academy, 
 was born at Beauvois in 1670, and distin- 
 guished himself both as an historian and a 
 writer on the polite arts. Died, 1743. 
 
 DUBY, Petkk Auciier Tobiesen, a cele- 
 brated Swiss medallist and antiquarian, was 
 born in 1721, and died in 1782. He was 
 linguist to the royal library at Paris, and 
 the author of an able and extensive work on 
 medals. 
 
 DUC AREL, Andrew Coltee, an eminent 
 antiquary and civilian, was born at Caen, in 
 Normandy, in 1713. After receiving his 
 education at Eton and Oxford, he became a 
 fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian So- 
 cieties, and held a situation in the state 
 paper office. His piincipal works are 
 " Anglo-Norman Antiquities " and " Histo- 
 ries of Lambeth Palace and of St. Catherine's 
 Church." Died, 1785. 
 
 DUCASSE, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 naval officer in the reign of Louis XIV., who 
 as governor of St. Domingo rendered himself 
 formidivble to the English, and who also 
 had the good fortune to obtain a victory 
 over the gallant Benbow. Died, 1715. 
 
 DUCHANGE, Gaspard, a clever French 
 engraver, and coimsellor of the Academy of 
 Painting. Born, 1G()2 ; died, 1756. 
 
 DUCHESNE, Andrew, geographer ajid 
 historiographer to the king of France, was 
 born in 1584, and died in 1640. So prolific 
 a writer was he, that he published 22 works, 
 among wliich were Histories of England, of 
 
dug] 
 
 ^ l^rlij SJuibcriSaT 3^iac[inp\)}}, 
 
 [dud 
 
 the Popea, and of the Dukes of Burgundy, 
 &c. ; and he left in MS. more than a 100 
 folio volumes. 
 
 DUCHESNE, JosEPiT, better known bv 
 the Latin name of Quercetanus, a French 
 physician and writer ; author of a " Phar- 
 niacopccia," and several medical works now 
 very rarely referred to. In bis own time he 
 was very popular, and became physician and 
 conncillor to Henry IV. Died, WOO. 
 I DUCHESXOIS, Jo.sEnnxE Ki'fin, acele- 
 brated French actress of whom it is said that 
 8hc was so much attracted by the rei)re8cn- 
 tation of MeiUa, which she witnessed when 
 only 8 years of age, that she secretly begun to 
 prepare for her future career, and api)eared 
 in the i)art of Puliiii/ra, in '• Mahomet," when 
 only 1.1. Slie performed at the Theatre Fran- 
 <;ais from 1802 until 1830. Bom, 1777 ; died, 
 
 DUCIS, Jean Fraxcois, a distinguished 
 French dramatist, was born at Versailles in 
 173;i. He took Shakspcare for his model, 
 and the majority of his pla3'3 arc free imi- 
 tations of the English hard ; though some 
 of them are so altered to suit the taste of 
 his countrymen, that the genius of Shaks- 
 pcare is but dimly discovcruLle. He died 
 in 1817. aged 84. 
 
 DUCK, STEriiEy, an English poet, was 
 originally an agricultural labourer, born 
 near Marlborough, Wilts. Some of liis po- 
 etical attempts having l)een sliown to queen 
 Caroline, she first granted liim a small an- 
 nuity, but afteiR'arda had him ordained, 
 and procured for him the living of Byfleet, 
 in Surrey, where he lived several years, but, 
 in a fit of mental derangement, drowned 
 liimself, in \7'>Ct. 
 
 DUCKWOUTir, Admiral Sir John Tho- 
 mas, an English admiral, was born in Surrey, 
 in 1748, and entered the navy in 1709. He 
 had frequent opportunities of distinguishing 
 himself during the late war, from the me- 
 morable action of the first of June, 17!H, in 
 which he took a conspicuous part, to his 
 destruction of the French squadron otf St. 
 Domingo, in 1800. He was appointed go- 
 vernor of Newfoundland, in 18i0, which si- 
 tuation he held three years, and died in 1817. 
 
 DUCLOS, Chaules Pineau, a French 
 novelist and biographer, was born at Dinaut, 
 in Brittany, in 170.5 ; became secretary of 
 the French academy, and on the death of 
 .Voltaire was appointed to the office of histo- 
 riographer of France. All his writings are 
 lively and satirical, descriptive of love, 
 women, and intrigue ; the principal are 
 "Memoires sur le Moeurs du XVIIIme 
 Sit'cle," " Confessions du Compte de B." 
 Died, 1772. 
 
 DUCREST, Ciiari.es Louis, Marquis, was 
 a brother of Madame de Genlis. Having, in 
 1790, made claim for a large sum on the 
 Duke of Orleans, who was then at the height 
 of his popularity, and who refused to pay 
 the debt, Ducrest sued him ; but as no ad- 
 vocate would plead his cause, the marquis 
 himself conducted the proceedings, and 
 gained the suit. He publit^hed, in 1817, 
 "Faite de la Monarchic Absolue," a work 
 containing, among other singular proposi- 
 tions, one to teach the military discipline on 
 the Lancasterian system. 
 
 DUDIiEY, EnMixn, a celebrated states- 
 man, born in H<j2, who on the death of 
 Henry VII. was sent, with Empson. to the 
 Tower, and beheaded in l.')10. While in 
 confinement, Dudley wrote a piece entitled 
 "The Tree of the Commonwealth." 
 
 DUDLEY, John, duke of Northumber- 
 land, was a son of the preceding, and born 
 in 1502. He was first created vi.scount Lisle, 
 then carl of Warwick, and after being ap- 
 pointed lord high admiral, reached his 
 dukedom in IMl. He clfected a marriage 
 between his son. Lord Guildford Dudley, 
 and Lady Jane Grey, daughter of the Duke 
 of SufiblK. He afterwards prevailed on the 
 young king, Edward, to set aside his sisters, 
 Mary and Elizabeth, from the succession in 
 favour of Lady Jane, whom he caused to be 
 proclaimed at the king's death. But an in- 
 surrection being raised in favour of Mary, 
 she was proclaimed in London, and the 
 duke executed as a traitor, in 15.53. 
 
 DUDLEY, RouEKT, earl of Leicester, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1.5,S2. 
 Queen Elizabeth proposed him as a husband 
 for Marv queen of Scots, but she rejecte<l 
 him with disdain i and in 1.572 he married 
 privately Lady Douglas, but never acknow- 
 ledged her as his wife. He afterwards mar- 
 ried the Countess Dowager of Essex, and 
 finding Lady Douglas intractable to his pro- 
 posals tor a separation, is charged with 
 having poisoned her. For a short time he 
 held the situation of governor of the Pro- 
 testant I>ow Coimtries ; but returning to 
 England by command of the queen, he was 
 made lieutenant-general of the army as- 
 sembled at Tilbury in 1588, and died during 
 the same year. 
 
 DUDLEY, Sir Robert, the son of the 
 Earl of Leicester by the l>a<ly Douglas, was 
 born in 1573. Having commenced a suit to 
 prove his legitimacy, the Countess Dowager 
 of Leicester filed an information against 
 him for a conspiracy, on whicli he went to 
 Florence, and was appointed chamberlain 
 to the grand duchess, sister to the emperor 
 Ferdinand II., who, creating him a duke of 
 the Roman empire, he assumed the title of 
 the duke of Northumlierland. He drained 
 the morass between Pisa and the sea. by 
 which Leghorn became one of the finest 
 ports in tiie world. He was the author of 
 "Del Arcauo del Mare," and other works. 
 Died, 1630. 
 
 DUDLEY, Sir Hexry Bate, was born 
 in 1745, educated for the ehureh, and took 
 orders. Much of his early life was, how- 
 ever, spent in political, literary, and con- 
 vivial society ; and, in spite of his sacerdotal 
 calling, he was engaged in several duels. 
 " Parson Bate," as he was familiarly called, 
 established the Morniug Post and Morning 
 Herald daily papers; and wrote "The 
 Woodman," "Rival CandidateK," and se- 
 veral other dramatic pieces. His political 
 connections eventually procured him a ba- 
 ronetcy and valuable cliurch preferment. 
 Died, 1824. 
 
 DUDLEY, the Right Hon. John Wil- 
 liam Ward, Earl of, was a man of powerful 
 talents, but remarkable for his absence of 
 mind and the haljit of " thinking aloud," 
 of wliieh many ludicrous anecdotes are told. 
 
 7. 3 
 
duf] 
 
 ^ ^t^ ?SiTtl3cr^al 3S{ff5rajp!)u. 
 
 [duh 
 
 The following is recorded as a fact. When 
 he was secretary for foreign affairs, in Mr. 
 Canning's administration, he directed a let- 
 ter intended for the French to the Russian 
 ambassador, shortly before the affair of Na- 
 varino ; and, strange as it may appear, it 
 gained him the highest lionour, Piince 
 Ivieven set it down as one of the cleverest 
 ruses ever attempted to be played off, and 
 gave himself immense credit for not falling 
 into the trap laid for him by the sinister 
 ingenuity of the English secretary. He re- 
 turned the letter with a most polite note, in 
 which he vowed, of course, that he had not 
 read a liiie of it, after he had ascertained 
 that it was intended for Prince Polignac ; 
 but could not help telling Lord Dudley at 
 an evening party, that he was " trap fin, but 
 that diplomatists of his standing were not so 
 easily caught." His lordship was born in 
 1781, and entered parliament first for Down- 
 ton in 1802 ; he afterwards successively re- 
 presented Worcestershire, Warcham, and 
 Bossiney. In 1823 he succeeded to the peer- 
 age ; was appointed secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs, and sworn a member of the 
 privy council in 1827 ; raised to the rank of 
 an earl in the same year ; and died in 1833. 
 
 DUFAU, FoirruNE, a native of St. Do- 
 mingo, who studied under David, and be- 
 came an excellent painter. His "Count 
 Ugolino in Prison " is an admired produc- 
 tion. Died, lb21. 
 
 DUFRESNOY, Ciiaules Alphoxso, a 
 French painter and poet, was born in 1611. 
 He was intended by his father for the legal 
 profession ; but the sister arts of poetry and 
 painting were more attractive than the law, 
 and lie devoted his undivided attention to 
 them. In 1631 he went to Italy, where he 
 completed his well-known poem, "De Arte 
 Graphica;" though it did not appear till 
 after Ids death, when his friend De Piles 
 published it, with annotations. It has been 
 three times translated into English, by 
 Drj'den, Graham, and Mason. In painting, 
 Titian and tlie Caracci appear to have been 
 his models ; and though he benefited but 
 little by his artistical labours, they are now 
 highly valued. Died, 1665. 
 
 DUFRESNY, Charles Riviere, a ver- 
 satile and witty French dramatist and comic 
 writer, was born in 1648, and died in 1724. 
 He held a situation in the household of Louis 
 XIV., and is said to have been a great- 
 grandson of Henry IV. 
 
 DUGDAliE, Sir William, an eminent 
 antiquary and herald, was born near Coles- 
 hill, Warwickshire, in 160.5, and educated 
 at St. John's College, Oxford. He was 
 made Chester herald in 1644, accompanied 
 Charles I. throughout the civil war ; and 
 after the Restoration, on being appointed 
 garter-king-at-arms, received the honour 
 of knighthood. His chief work is the '• Mo- 
 nasticoii Anglicanum ; " but he also wrote 
 "The Baronage of England," 3 vols., "The 
 History of St. Paul's Cathedral," " Origines 
 Juridicales," and several other works of 
 merit. Died, 168:>. 
 
 DUGOMMIER, General, was a native of 
 Martinique, where he possessed a large es- 
 tate previously to the French revolution. 
 He espoused the republican cause, and being 
 
 nominated colonel of the national guards of 
 the island, he defended it against a body of } 
 royalist troops sent from France. He after- 
 wards went to France, and being made com- | 
 mander-in-chicf of the army in Italy, he i 
 gained many important advantages over the I 
 Austro-Sardinian arIn}^ He took Toulon, 
 after a sanguinary contest, in 1793. He next 
 commanded the army of the Eastern Py- 
 renees, and, in 1794, gained the battle of I 
 Alberdes, and seized the post of Montes- | 
 quieu, taking 200 pieces of cannon and 2(X)0 ■ 
 prisoners. He continued his career of victory ; 
 till he fell in an engagement at St. Sebastian, < 
 on Nov. 17. 1794. | 
 
 DUGUAY TROTJTlSr, Rene, one of the | 
 most celebrated naval officers of France, 
 was born at St. Malo in 1673. His love for 
 a maritime life soon showed itself, and at 
 the age of 18 he was the commander of a 
 privateer. -At 20, he maintained an action 
 with a 40-gun ship, which he commanded, 
 against 6 English vessels, but was captured. 
 After a series of gallant exploits, by which 
 he essentially served his country, and raised 
 its naval rejjutation, he died in 1736. 
 
 DUGUESCLIN, BektkanD, a renowned 
 French warrior and statesman, who was 
 constable of France in the 14th century, 
 may be regarded as a model of valour, pru- 
 dence, and high-minded heroism. Though 
 deformed in person, and of an unamiable 
 disposition in his youth, he persevered in 
 his endeavours to eclipse these defects by 
 the brilliancy of his actions ; and mainly to 
 him must be attributed the expulsion of 
 the English from Normandy, Guienne, and 
 Poitou. So highly, indeed, was he esteemed 
 even by his enemies, that, at his death, 
 which took place while he was besieging 
 Randam, the governor insisted on placing 
 the keys of the fortress on the coffin of the 
 hero. 
 
 DUIIALDE, John Baptist, a French 
 Jesuit, was the author of " A Geographical 
 and Historical Description of China," which 
 he compiled from the records of successive 
 missionaries, and is allowed to furnish the 
 best account ever published of that immense 
 empire. BOrn, 1074 ; died, 1743. 
 
 DUU>;1lMEL, Joiix Baptist, a French 
 ecclesiastic and a philosopher, was born at j 
 Vire, in Lower Normandy, in 1624. He 
 studied at Caen and Paris ; became a mem- i 
 ber of the Congregation of tlie Oratory, but 
 left it for the living of Neuilli upon the | 
 Marne ; and when the Royal Academy of , 
 Sciences was established, he was appointed I 
 secretary. In 1G78 appeared his "Philo- i 
 Sophia Vetus et Nova," 4 vols., to which 
 were aftei-wards added two more volumes. 
 In 1697 he resigned Ms situation in the aca- 
 demy, to devote himself to theology. His 
 chief works, besides the one mentioned 
 above, are " Regiis Scicntiarum Academiaa 
 llistoria," 4to., and an edition of the Vulgate 
 Bible, with notes and tables, chronological 
 and geograpliical. He died, 1700. 
 
 DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, Hexkt 
 Louis, an eminent French philosopher and 
 writer on agriculture, born at Paris, in 
 1700. His whole life was dedicated to the 
 cultivation of useful science ; and besides 
 largely contributing to the transactions of 
 
DUl] 
 
 ^ ^etn dixiberj^nl 3i5t0grapfj». 
 
 [JDCM I 
 
 different learned societies, of which lie was 
 a member, the following are among hia 
 separate works : — " Traite de la Culture dcs 
 Terres," 6 vols., "Elements of Agriculture," 
 2 vols., "Traite des Arbres et Arbustes qui 
 se cultivent en France en pleine Terre, 2 
 vols. 4to., "Physique dea Arbres," 2 vols. 
 4to., "De I'Exploitation dea Eois," 2 vols. 
 4to., " Traite dcs Arbres Fruiticrs," 2 vols. 
 4to., " Ek'mcns de 1' Architecture Navale ; " 
 besides many otlier treatises on various arts 
 and manufactures. Died, 1782. 
 
 DUIGENAN, Dr. Patieick, an Irish ci- 
 vilian, was born of humble parents in 173.5, 
 and obtained his education as a sizcr at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, lie practised as a 
 barrister, was afterwards king's advocate, 
 then judge in the prerogative court ; till by 
 persevering Industry he raised himself to 
 tlie post of vicar-general of the diocese of 
 Armagh, witli a seat in the Irish House of 
 Commons, and the rank of a privy councillor, 
 lie was a strong promoter of the Union, and 
 as firm an opponent of Catliolic emancipation. 
 He wrote " Laclirymne Academicaj," and 
 various political pamphlets. Died, 1816. 
 
 DU.JAKDIN, CuAitLES, an eminent 
 Dutch painter, a pupil of Berghem, was 
 born at Amsterdam, iu IG40 ; and died at 
 Venice, in 1(578. 
 
 DU JAKRY, LAUREJfCK Juillahd, emi- 
 nent botli for his pulpit oratory and liia 
 poetry, was born in 16.>8, and died in 1730. 
 He gained the poetical prize of the French 
 academy in 1G79, and again in 1714, on which 
 last occasion he had Voltaire for a comi)eti- 
 tor. His works consist of theological trea- 
 tises, sermons, and poems. 
 
 DULAVKE, M., author of the " Histoire 
 de Paris ct sea Environs." He wasameml-er 
 successively of tlie constituent assembly, 
 the national convention, tlic council of 
 five hundred, and the legislative body. Died 
 at Paris, in his 80lh year, Aug. 1835. 
 
 DULON, Louis, a <listinguished ilute- 
 playcr and musical composer, was born at 
 Orianenburg, near Berlin, in 17(59. He lost 
 his sight at a very early ago, but evincing a 
 decided taste for music, he was put uiider 
 the first ijerformers, and soon arrived at 
 singular eminence in his profession. He 
 prepared an autobiographical work, enti- 
 tled " The liife and Oi>inions of tlie Blind 
 Flutist," which was edited by tlie celebrated 
 Wieland. Died. 182(5. 
 
 DULONG, a celebrated French chemist, 
 was one of the many pupils of the Poly- 
 technic School, who have done it lionour. 
 To him we owe the discovery of the " Chlo- 
 rure d' Azote," by an exiilosiou of wliich 
 dangerous substance he lust an eye and a 
 finger. Born, 1785 ; died, 1838. 
 
 DUMANIANT, John Andrew, an actor 
 and dramatic writer, was born, in 1754, at 
 Claremont, and died in 1828. He produced 
 about 50 pieces, some of which possessed 
 considerable merit, and were popular. 
 
 DUAIARESQ, Lieut.-colonel Henky, 
 who at the time of his death was chief com- 
 n\is3ioner of the Australian company in New 
 South Wale.?, entered the army as a lieu- 
 tenant in the 9th foot, at the age of 16 ; and 
 served in 8 campaigns, of which 6 were in 
 tlie Peninsula, one in Canada, and the 
 
 2c-9 
 
 last that of VV^aterloo. He was present in 
 the 13 battles for which medals were be- 
 stowed, and at several sieges ; attained the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel after years' 
 service ; was employed on the stuff upwards 
 of 18 years ; and was twice dangerously 
 wounded. At the battle of Waterloo he 
 was on tlie stalfof General Sir John Byng, 
 and was shot through the lungs at llougo- 
 mont; but being at the time charged with 
 a message for the Duke of Wellington, he, 
 as if supported by the resolution to do his 
 duty, rode up to the duke, delivered his 
 message, and then, as Sir Walter Scott de- 
 scribes it, dropped from hia horse, to all 
 appearance a dying man. The ball, wliicli 
 waa never extracted, is sui)posed to have 
 eventually induced paralysis, and caused his 
 death, March, 1838. 
 
 DUMESNIL, Maime Frak<?oise, a cele- 
 brated French actress, who rose to the 
 liigheat eminence aa a tragical performer, 
 was bom in 1713, first appeared on the 
 stage in 17.37, retired from it in 1775, and 
 died in 1803. Like our Siddoiis, she sur- 
 passed all her con tern poraiies in parts re- 
 quiring queenly dignity, deep pathos, or 
 the vehement display of the fiercer paasiona. 
 
 DUMONT, GKoiuiE, a statistical writer, 
 and at one time secretary to the French 
 embassy at St. Petersburgh, was born at 
 Paris in 172.5, and died in 1788. Among his 
 works are a "History of the Commerce of 
 the English Colonies," a "Treatise on the 
 Circulation of Credit," &c. 
 
 DUMONT, John-, an eminent publicist, 
 was a native of France, but settling in 
 Austria, became historiographer to the em- 
 peror, by whom he was created baron of 
 Carlscroon. He published a voluminous 
 work, entitled "A Universal Diplomatic 
 Code of the Law of Nations," besides 
 " Voyages," &c. in 4 vols. Died, 1726. 
 
 DUMONT, STEi'HE!f, a distinguished 
 writer on legislation, and a member of the 
 order of Jesuits, was born at Geneva, in 
 17.50. He resided for several years in Eng- 
 land, and was on i'riendly terms with the 
 celebrated Jeremy Bentlmm, who entrusted 
 him with the manuscript of his "Traite 
 de Legislation Civile," which Dumont pub- 
 lished in 1802. He subsequently translated 
 and edited Bentham's " Theorie des Peines 
 et des R>'compenses," and also published 
 his "Tactics of Legislative Assemblies." 
 Since his death, which happened in 1829, 
 at Milan, an interesting work by him, under 
 the title of "Souvenirs sur Mirabeau," has 
 been published. 
 
 DUMONT D'URVILLE, Jples Sebas- 
 tian C.iiSAi!, one of the most skilful and in- 
 trepid navigators that modern France, rich 
 as she undoubtedly is in naval skill and in- 
 trepidity, can boast of. He was not merely 
 a good sea-captain ; he was a good botanist, 
 entomologist, draughtsman, and writer, us 
 may be seen from his interesting account of 
 the French expedition of 1819-20 to the shores 
 of the Archipelago ami the Black Sea. As 
 second in command to M. Duperre, in La 
 C'oquillc, he visited Peru, China, Oceana, 
 &c., and he brought home immense stores of 
 both knowledge and specimens of natural 
 history. In 1828 he was entrusted with a 
 
dum] 
 
 ^ ^c£d ^uibcr^aX Ma^vn^fiU' 
 
 [dun 
 
 mission to discover, if possible, some traces 
 of the unfortunate La Perouse. On his 
 return lie published a most interesting ac- 
 count, in which he pretty clearly proved 
 that the shipwreck occurred oif an island 
 to the south of Santa Cruz. Being 6ul)se- 
 quently sent to approach as nearly as pos- 
 sible to the south pole, he acquitted himself 
 with his usual skill. We have from his pen, 
 besides the narrative already mentioned, 
 " A Picturesque Journey round the World." 
 This skilful and brave man was killed with 
 his -wife and child, by the fatal Versailles 
 railway accident. May 8. 1842, aged 52. 
 
 DUMOURIER, CuAULES Fkaksois, an 
 eminent French general, was born at Cam- 
 bray, in 1739. He entered the army early 
 in life, and at 24 years of age had received 
 22 wounds, and was made a knight of St. 
 Louis. In 1772, Louis XV. sent him with 
 communications to Sweden, but he was ar- 
 rested, and for a long time coniined in the 
 Bastile. However, in 1789, we lind him a 
 piincipal director of the Jacobin Club, which 
 was composed of all who aspired to be ac- 
 counted the friends of libertj'. He after- 
 wards became a minister of Louis XVI., and 
 he strongly advised the monarch to yield 
 the direction of the interior affairs of the 
 kingdom to the council of the assembly then 
 sitting, and to declare war against the foreign 
 foes of France. " Such a step," said Du- 
 niourier, " would cool the democratic fever 
 now raging, would restore public confidence, 
 and disperse all the evils which now threaten 
 France." The advice was disregarded, and 
 Dumourier was dismissed. Still determined 
 to devote himself to the service of the army, 
 he proceeded to Valenciennes, where he soon 
 gained immortal fame by his valour and 
 his firmness, displayed at the head of the 
 French soldiers, having succeeded La Fayette 
 in the command of the army of the Nortii. 
 Notwithstanding the success which con- 
 tinued to result from his superiority of 
 military talents, the directory entertained 
 suspicions regarding his designs, because it 
 was known that he was desirous to spare the 
 life of the king, and Dumourier retired into 
 Switzerland. Finding that a reward of 
 300,000 francs was offered for his head, he 
 went to Hamburgh, where he lived on a 
 small pension from the landgrave of Hcsse- 
 Cassel until 1804, when he accepted an 
 asylum in England, wrote his own memoirs, 
 and employed Ids mind in otlier literary 
 pursuits, at Turville Park, near Henley- 
 upon-Thames. He was honoured with the 
 friendship of his late royal highness the 
 Duke of Kent, with whom he kept up a 
 correspondence. Died, 182.'5. 
 
 DUNBAR, William, a Scotch poet of 
 considerable merit, was born about 1465, 
 and died in 1535. For the age in which he 
 lived, his poems display much skill, and 
 are not deficient either in imagination or 
 energy. " The Thistle and Rose " and 
 " The Friars of Berwick " are favourable 
 specimens of his poetical vein. 
 
 DUNCAN, Adam, Viscount Duxcax, of 
 Camperdown, &c., a gallant and distin- 
 guished naval officer, was a native of Dun- 
 dee, and born in 1731. He went to sea 
 when young, rose to the rank of post-cap- 
 
 tain in 1761, and steadily advanced till he 
 became admiral of the blue, and commander 
 of the North Sea fleet in 1795. He was 
 with Lord Keppel at the taking of the 
 Havannah, and had a full share in Rod- 
 ney's victory over the Spaniards, the relief 
 of Gibraltar, &c. While in command of 
 the North Sea fleet, he had for two years 
 the tedious duty of watching the motions 
 of the Dutch squadron, and was at length 
 forced to quit the station, in consequence 
 of a mutiny breaking out among his men, 
 during which the enemy put to sea. The 
 gallant admiral, however, after displaying 
 tlie most undaunted resolution during the 
 mutiny, came up with the Dutch fleet off 
 Camperdown, totiUiy defeated them, and 
 captured 8 sail of the line, June 11. 1797. 
 Upon this he was created a viscount, with 
 a pension of 3,000/. per annum to himself 
 and the two next heirs of the peerage. 
 Died, 1804. 
 
 DUNCAN, W^iiuam, a learned writer, 
 was born, in 1717, at Aberdeen, wliere he 
 was educated, and afterwards became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy in tlic Marischal Col- 
 lege. He was the author of a " Treatise 
 on Logic," and tlie translator of Cicero's 
 Orations and Caesar's Commentaries. 
 
 DUNCOMBE, William, born in London, 
 in 1690, was tlie author of "Lucius Junius 
 Brutus," a tragedy. He also translated 
 Horace, and wrote various minor poems 
 and prose pieces. He died in 1709. — His sou 
 John, who was born in 1730, and died in 
 1786, was the author of " The Femeueid " 
 and other poems. 
 
 DUNDAS, Sir David, a general in the 
 English army, and a member of the privy 
 council, was born at Edinburgh in 17;j6, 
 and entered the military service in 1758. 
 He became colonel of the first regiment of 
 dragoon guards, and had the reputation of 
 being a most able tactician. On the tem- 
 porary resignation of the Duke of York, he 
 was made commander-in-chief. His " Prin- 
 ciples of Military Movements" and "Regu- 
 lations for the Cavalry ]' are both acknow 
 ledged standard works iu the army. Died; 
 1820. 
 
 DUNN, Samuel, a mathematician, who 
 having acquired considerable property in 
 the exercise of his profession, bequeathed 
 it at his death towards the foundation of a 
 mathematical school at his native town of j 
 Crediton, in Devonshire. He publisheil an j 
 atlas, treatises on bookkeeping, navigation, 
 &c. ; and died in 1792. i 
 
 DUNNING, Jonx, Lord Asiiburtox, a 
 celebrated lawyer, was born at Ashburton, I 
 Devon, in 1731. After serving his clerkship ! 
 in his father's office, he studied for the bar ; 
 and rapidly attaining an eminence in the 
 profession, he became counsel for Wilkes, [ 
 whose cause he conducted in such a manner i 
 as to establish his fame as a sound lawyer 
 and adroit pleader. He became attorney- 
 general in 1767, chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster in 1782, and was raised to the 
 peerage, but died in the following year. 
 
 DUNOIS, JoHX, count of Orleans and 
 Longueville, an illegitimate son of the Duke 
 of Oi leans, was born in 1402. So successful 
 was he in his military career, particularly 
 
in the share he bore in the expulsion of the 
 English from France, that Charles VII. 
 honoured him with the title of " Kestorer 
 of his Country." Died, 14(!8. 
 
 DUNS, Joii.v, usually styled Duns Scottis, 
 a. theological disputant, who acquired the 
 title of " the most subtle doctor " by his 
 metaphysical abstractions, was born at 
 Dunstance, in Northumberland ; studied at 
 Mcrton College, (Jxford ; and having en- 
 tered the University of Paris, was soon ap- 
 pointed professor and regent in the theo- 
 logical schools. Great as was his fame, the 
 works which obtained it are now disregarded 
 as a mass of misapplied talent and intel- 
 lectual lumber. Died at Cologne, in 13<)9. 
 
 DUNSTAN, St., archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, an accomplished prelate and eminent 
 statesman, was born at Glastonbury, in 925, 
 in the reign of Athelstan. lie took a con- 
 spicuous part in the political struggles of 
 the day; and assumed, as was the custom 
 of the clergy in that age, as great a share 
 in the temporal authority of the kingdom 
 as in its spiritual affairs. Died, !)88. 
 
 DUNSTEH, Charles, an English divine 
 and scholar, was the son of the Kev. Siimuel 
 Dunster, who is known as the translator of 
 the satires and art of poetry of Horace 
 into English prose. Besides Mr. Charles 
 Dunster's theological writings, of wliich 
 " Discursory Considerations on the Gospels 
 of St. Matthew and St. Luke " is the prin- 
 cipal, he wrote a treatise "On the Early 
 Reading of Milton," a commentary on Pa- 
 radise Regained, and other works. lie died 
 at Pctworth, Sussex, of which place he was 
 the incumbent, in lsl6. 
 
 DUNTON, Joiix, a noted London book- 
 seller, was born at Graffliam, lluntingdou- 
 shire, in 16.')9. He projected and carried 
 on "The Athenian Mercury," a selection 
 from which, under the title of " The Athe- 
 nian Oracle," in 4 vols., was reprinted. He 
 was also tlie author of " Alheniauism," 
 consisting of numerous treatises in prose 
 and verse j and a curious work, entitled 
 " Dnnton's Life and Errors." Died, 1733. 
 
 DUPATY, .Teax Baptibte Meucier, 
 president in the parliament of Bourdcaux, 
 was born at Rochelle, in 174(i ; and died at 
 Paris, in 1788. He was the author of 
 " Historical Reflections on Penal Laws," 
 "Academical Discourses," and "Letters on 
 Italy." 
 
 DUPATY, Charles, son of th« president, 
 was a celebrated sculptor, whose produc- 
 tions are remarkable for their classic purity. 
 Died, 182.). 
 
 DUPERRON, James Davy, a Swiss Pro- 
 testant, who, having abjured his religion, 
 was successively promoted by Henry III. 
 and IV., till he at length obtained the arch- 
 bishopric of Sens, and was elected a cardinal. 
 Born, 15.^ ; died, 1(318. 
 
 DUPIN, Louis Ellis, an eminent French 
 historian and ecclesiastic, was born in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1637. He became professor of 
 divinity in the Royal College, but lost the 
 professorship in consequence of his religious 
 moderation. He was the author of an ex- 
 tensive and valuable work, entitled "Bib- 
 liotlu'que UniverscUe des Auteurs Ecclesi- 
 astiqucs," in 58 vols. ; and for the freedom 
 
 and tolerance of his opinions therein he 
 was exposed to much persecution. He was 
 also the author of various other works on 
 church government and practical divinity. 
 He died in 1719. 
 
 DUPLEIX, Joseph, was a celebrated 
 French merchant, who, as the head of the 
 factory at Chandemagore, had raised it to 
 such a pitch of prosperity, that, in 1742, he 
 was appointed governor of Pondicherry, 
 and director-general of the French factories 
 in India. In 1748 he successfully defended 
 it against the English, for which he was 
 raised to the rank of marquis ; and during 
 his whole administration lie displayed first- 
 rate talents, both civil and military. But 
 his valuable services did not shield him from 
 the shafts of envy : he was recalled ; and ll»e 
 man who had been surrounded by all the 
 splendour of an eastern court, was left to 
 languish in poverty, vainly soliciting justice 
 from an ungrateful government. He died, 
 the victim of anxiety, iu 1703, 9 years after 
 his recall. 
 
 DUPLEIX, SciPio, h58toriograr)her of 
 France, was born in 15<5(5. He wrote " Me- 
 moirs of the Gauls," a "History of France," 
 « vols, folio ; a " History of Rome," 3 vols, 
 folio ; " A Course of Philosophy," &c. It 
 is asserted, that, having written a work on 
 the liberties of the Galilean Church, which 
 he took to the chancellor Scguier to be li- 
 censed, that magistrate threw it into the 
 lire ; which so preyed upon his mind that it 
 caused his death, in 10(51. 
 
 DUPONT DE NEMOURS, Peter 
 Samuel, a French political economist, was 
 born at Paris, in 1739. Though he twice sat 
 as president of the constitutional assembly, 
 and held other high official situations under 
 the revolutionary government, he invariably 
 opposed the anarchists, and narrowly es- 
 caped becoming their victim, in 1797, by 
 his timely retreat to America. From that 
 country he returned in 1805, and became 
 president of the chamber of commerce ; and 
 in 1814 he was appointed secretary to the 
 provisional government. In the following 
 year he finally retired to America, where he 
 died in 1817. Dupont was the author of 
 various treatises on different branches of 
 political economy J he also wrote "Philo- 
 sophic de rUnivers," and other works of 
 merit. 
 
 DUPPA, Brian, a loyal prelate and the 
 faithful friend of Charles I., was born at 
 Lewisham, Kent, in 1589, and educated at 
 Christchurch Oxford, of which he was after- 
 wards dean. He attended the captive king 
 in the Isle of Wight, and is said to have 
 assisted him in his Icon Basilikc. He was 
 successively bishop of Chichester, Salisbury, 
 and Winchester. Died, 1';G2. 
 
 DUPPA, Richard, a barrister, and as a 
 literary character remarkable for the ver- 
 satility of his talents, was educated at Trin- 
 ity College, Oxford, and took the degree of 
 LL.B. at Cambridge, in 1814. He wrote 
 many interesting works, among which are 
 "The Life and Works of Michael Anselo 
 Buonarotti," " The Life of Raffaclle," " Tra- 
 vels in Italy," &c. Died, 1831. 
 
 DUPUIS, Charles Fraxcis, a modem 
 French philosopher, was born at Trie-le- i 
 
 261 
 
 ^ OF THC A 
 
 UNIVERSITY \ 
 
DUPj 
 
 ^ ^cbi ^nibtx^til 38t0jgTapl)?n 
 
 [dujr 
 
 Chateau, near Gisors, in 1742, and educated 
 at Harcourt Collc're. During tlie revolu- 
 tionary era he was a distinguished politician, 
 became president of the legislative body, 
 and was also a member of the Institute and 
 of the legion of honour. lie was the in- 
 ventor of the telegraph, and the author of 
 a noted work, entitled "Origine de tons les 
 Cultes, ou la Religione universelle." Died, 
 1800. 
 
 DUPRE DE ST. MAUR, Nicholas 
 Francis, a French writer, born in 1G95, and 
 died at Paris, in 1775. lie translated Mil- 
 ton's Paradise I^ost, and wrote some works 
 on numismatics. 
 
 DUPUYTREN, Baron William, one of 
 the most renowned surgeons of modern 
 times, was born of poor parents in the de- 
 partment of Haute Vienne in France, 1777. 
 At the age of 3 years he was stolen from his 
 home by a lady of rank, who wished to adopt 
 him ; but he was subsequently returned to 
 his parents, and he owed his future eleva- 
 tion to the accidental circumstance of an 
 ofiBcer seeing him in liis native village, and 
 being struck with Ills address, made pro- 
 posals that he should go with liim to Paris, 
 where his education should be attended to. 
 Placed by this olficer in the College de la 
 Marche, he soon evinced a great aptitude for 
 medical science ; in 1«03 he took his degree 
 of M. D., and after passing with distinction 
 through various grades of the profession, he 
 obtained in 1815 the chair of clinical sur- 
 gery in the Hotel Dieu, the laborious duties 
 of which he discharged with equal ability 
 and success for 20 years. Dupuytren was 
 equally distinguished as a physiologist and 
 as a surgeon ; and there are few among the 
 most enlightened practitioners of France 
 who do not acknowledge him as tbcir 
 master. Died in 18o5. 
 
 DUQUESNE, AuKAiiAM, a brave and 
 skilful naval officer in the French service, 
 was born at Dieppe, in ICIO. He distin- 
 guished himself by numerous acts of intre- 
 pidity during a long career, and added much 
 to the maritime character of his country. 
 Died, 1088. 
 
 DURAND, David, a French Protestant 
 minister, who, after some perilous escapes 
 from the dangers of death and the Inquisi- 
 tion, came to England, and was preacher at 
 the Savoy chapel , London. He was the author 
 of a "Life of Vanina," a "History of the 
 Sixteentli Century," and a Continuation of 
 Rapin. Born, KiHl ; died, 17C3. 
 
 DURAND DE MAIIXANE, Peter 
 Touissast, an eminent French lawyer, 
 was born in 1729, and died in 1811. He was 
 a member of the National Convention, and 
 published many able works relating to the 
 canon law. 
 
 DURANTE, Fraxcesco, a celebrated 
 musical composer, was born at Naples, in 
 1693, where he died in 1755. He is prin- 
 cipally known as the composer of vocal 
 church music. 
 
 DURAS, Duchesse de, a French lady of 
 considerable literary talents and accom- 
 plishments. Her father, Count Kersaint, 
 fell a victim to his loyalty, in liaving voted 
 against the regicides in the National Con- 
 vention. Died, 1827. 
 
 DURE AU DE LAMALLE, Joiix Baptist 
 Joseph Rexe, a native of St. Domingo, 
 where he was born in 1782. He was a 
 member of the legislative body and of the 
 Institute ; and as a literary character distin- 
 guished himself by his versions of Tacitus, 
 Sallust, and other classics. Died, 1807. 
 
 DURELL, JouN, an eminent divine, bom 
 at Jersey, 1020 -, became dean of Windsor, 
 and died in 1683. He translated the Liturgy 
 into French and Latin, and wrote a " Vin- 
 dication of the Church of England against 
 Schismatics," &c. 
 
 DURELL, David, a descendant of the 
 preceding, was born at Jersey in 1728, and 
 died in 1775. He was the author of various 
 dissertations on parts of the Old Testament. 
 
 DURER, ALiiEiiT, an eminent painter 
 and engraver, was born at Nuremberg in 
 1471. His father was a goldsmith, in wliich 
 profession tlie non had made considerable 
 progress before he turned his attention ex- 
 clusively to the arts. He was the first who 
 in Germany taught the rules of perspective, 
 and of the proportions of the human body, 
 according to mathematical principles. 
 Though particularly eminent as a painter, 
 he also excelled as a sculptor and architect, 
 wrote several works illustrative of those 
 arts, and made great imi)rovements in 
 copper- plate and wood engraving. He was 
 patronised by the emperors Maximilian I. 
 and Charles V., and died at his native town, 
 in 1523. 
 
 D'URFEY, Thomas, a facetious poet, once 
 highly popular, but now nearly forgotten, 
 was the son of a French refugee, and born at 
 Exeter in 1628. He abandoned the study of 
 the law for the life of a dramatist, and was 
 the author of about 30 comedies, all of which 
 have justly become obsolete from their licen- 
 tiousness. He was also a writer of songs and 
 party lyrics, which were printed in 6 vols., 
 under the title of " Pills to purge Slelan- 
 choly ; " and being the boon companion of 
 Charles II. his society was courted by the 
 witty and profligate frequenters of his court. 
 Died, 1723. 
 
 DURHAM, JoHX Georoe Lambtok, 
 Earl of, was the eldest son of W. H. Lamb- 
 ton, esq., of Lambton Castle, M. P. for the 
 city of Durham, by Lady Anne Villiers, 
 daugliter of the Earl of Jersey. He was 
 educated at Eton, served in the 10th hussars, 
 and at the age of 20 married Miss Harriet 
 Cholmondeley, by whom he had three 
 daughters, all now deceased. In 1815 this 
 lady died ; and in the following year he 
 formed a matrimonial alliance with Lady 
 Louisa Elizabeth, the second daughter of 
 Earl Grey. During the whole of his par- 
 liamentary career he denounced Tory influ- 
 ence, and steadily adhered to the doctrine 
 of reform as originally propounded by his 
 noble father-in-law ; but in 1827 we find 
 him a supporter of Mr. Canning's ministry, 
 and on the dissolution of Lord Goderich's 
 cabinet, in 1828, he was raised to the peer- 
 age by the title of Baron Durham. On the 
 formation of Earl Grey's government in 
 1830, he became a member of the cabinet, 
 as lord privy seal ; and to him is mainly at- 
 tributed the great extent and liberality of 
 the reform bill, and its eventual triumph. 
 
duk] 
 
 ^ ^etx) ainibcriSal 38t0flrapl;p. 
 
 [dutI 
 
 He was now hailed as tlie great leader of 
 the movement party, and became a popular 
 idol ; Ilia presence was eagerly solicited at 
 all the great radical meetings, and his ad- 
 mirers were on tip-toe in the expectation 
 that he would be raised to the head of pub- 
 lic aftairs. In ISiW his lordship went to 
 Russia as ambassador, and remained there 
 till the summer of 1S37, when he returned 
 to England ; and in the following year he 
 went out as governor-general to Canada, 
 entrusted with extraordinary powers ; but 
 finding himself not supported as he expected 
 by the ministry, he returned home the same 
 year. So opposite have been the sentiments 
 with regard to Lord Durham's general 
 policy and his cxualiflcations as a statesman, 
 that to a mind disposed to be impartial it 
 is dilHcult to form a correct opinion of them ; 
 but we believe that we may safely reiterate 
 the following encomium on him : — "From 
 his first appearance on the field of politics 
 to the last, no man ever thought of even 
 doubting his rectitude and determined ad- 
 herence to his conscientious convictions." 
 Born, April 12. 1792 ; died, Julv 28. 1840. 
 
 DURHAM, Admiral Sir Philip Ciiakles 
 Caldeuwood, was born at Largo, in Fife- 
 shirc, in 17(>3, and entered the navy in 1777, 
 as a midshipman on board the Edgar, of 74 
 guns. He was afterwards acting lieutenant 
 in the Viceroy, lOl, flag-ship of Admiral 
 Kempenfclt, whom he followed on his re- 
 moving to the Royal George. When that 
 
 I noble ship " went down " at Spithcad, Aug. 
 
 j 29. 1782, the subject of this memoir was 
 officer of the watch ; and his miraculous 
 escai)e on that fatal day is so extraordinary 
 and interesting, tliat we shall briefly relate 
 
 ; the circumstances. Finding the ship m'hs 
 sinking, Lieut. Durham threw off his coat 
 and plunged into the water, where he was 
 seized by a drowning marine, by whom he 
 was twice carried down ; on rising the second 
 time, lie succeeded in extricating himself 
 from the dying man's grasp by tearing olF 
 his waistcoat, and he, with one of the sea- 
 men, was eventually saved by seizing the 
 halyards from the mizen-topmast-head, by 
 which they reached the mast-head, from 
 wlienee they were taken with great difficulty 
 by a boat. The poor marine's body was 
 washed on shore a fortnight afterwards, 
 with tlie waistcoat by which he had caught 
 liold of Lieut. Durham so firmly twisted 
 round his arm, that a pencil case, bearing 
 the lieutenant's initials, was found in the 
 pocket, and restored to the owner. When 
 Lieut. Durham had reached a place of tem- 
 porary security, he observed the captain 
 (Waghorn) holding by the weather mizen- 
 topsail-yard-arm, and sent a boat to his 
 aid ; and these two were the only officers 
 saved. Soon after this event he was ap- 
 pointed acting lieutenant of tlie Union, 98, 
 at the relief of Gibraltar, by Lord Howe; 
 and after various promotions, to which his 
 services well entitled him, he commanded 
 the Defence, of 74 guns, at the battle of Tra- 
 falgar, Oct. 21. 180.",; but, in fact, he was 
 almost continuously employed from 1780 to 
 181.'), when the last Buonapartcan flag that 
 waved in the AVest Indies struck to liim. 
 He was made vice-admiral in 1819, and full 
 
 20.3 
 
 admiral in 1820. His last service was that of 
 commander-in-chief at Portsmouth, which 
 post he resigned in 18;19. Sir Philip was M.P. 
 for Queenborough in 18.jO. and for Devizes 
 in 18.'5.5. Died, April 2. \Mr>. 
 
 DUROC, Michael, duke of Friuli and 
 a marshal of France, was bom in 1772, and 
 entered the army in 1792. Being subse- 
 quently appointed aide-de-camp to Buona- 
 parte, he accompanied him to Egypt, where 
 lie eminently distinguished himself, and 
 was severely wounded by the bursting of a 
 howitzer. On the formation of the imperial 
 court in 180.'5, he was created grand -mar- 
 shal of the palace ; and was afterwards em- 
 ployed in diplomatic missions, though he 
 still took his full share of peril and glorj- in 
 the wars of France, till the time of his death, 
 which happened at the battle of Wurtzen, in 
 1813. Napoleon, who was firmly attached to 
 Duroc, wept over him on his death-bed ; and 
 perhaps he never had to lament the loss of a 
 more faithful friend or a braver soldier. 
 
 DUSART, CoiiNKLius, a Dutch painter, 
 who cxeclle<l in tavern scenes, revelry, &c. 
 was the discijile of Adrian Ostade. Bom, 
 !&]', ; died, 1704. 
 
 DUSSAULT, John Josei-ii, a French 
 journalist and critic, was bora at Paris, in 
 17C9. He contributed largely to the Journal 
 des IX'bats, and the articles he furnished 
 were afterwards published in .'> vols., entitled 
 " Annules Littoraires." He also wrote va- 
 rious pamphlets and essays, and was, in short, 
 a litterateur of considerable notoriety. Died, 
 1824. 
 
 DUSSEK, Jonx Louis, an eminent mu- 
 sical composer, was born at Czaslau, in 
 Boiiemia, in 17(;2, and studied at Hamburgh, 
 under the famous Emanuel Bach. From 
 the north of Europe he went to France, but 
 being compelled to leave that country dur- 
 ing the revolution, he came to London in 
 179(5, and, in conjunction with Corri, opened 
 a musical establishment. In 1799 he re- 
 turned to the continent, and died in 1812. 
 
 DUTENS, liOiiis, a miscellaneous writer, 
 was born at Tours in 1730. He became 
 secretary and chaplain to the British mi- 
 nister at Turin, who left him there, on his 
 return to England, as charge d'affaires. He 
 afterwards obtained the living of Elsdon. in 
 Northumberland, and died in London, 1812. 
 His principal works are, " An Inquiry into 
 the Origin of Discoveries " and " Memoirs of 
 a Traveller in Retirement." 
 
 DUVAL, Alexandre Vince.vt Pindkr, 
 a popular and voluminous French author. 
 He so well understood the difficult art of 
 constructing a diamatic piece, says a French 
 critic, that he could naturally and grace- 
 fully introduce touching scenes even into a 
 comedy, and that too without sinking to 
 melodramc. He was a member of the In- 
 stitute and keeper of the arsenal library. 
 Born, 1707 ; died, 1842. 
 
 DUVAL, Valenti.ve Jamerai, the son 
 of a peasant, was born at Artonay, in Cham- 
 pagne, in 1095. Being left an orphan at the 
 age of 10, he was employed as a shepherd's 
 boy. and underwent great privations ; but 
 at 18, he became keeper of the cattle belong- 
 ing to the hermits of St. Anne, near Lune- 
 and by one of that fraternity he was 
 
 igtc 
 ille. 
 
DITV] 
 
 ^ ^eSn miitbcr^aX Btograp!)!). 
 
 [eak 
 
 tauzlit to read. Thenceforth he displayed 
 at) earnest desire for acquiring knowledge ; 
 and being discovered by two noblemen while 
 he was studying geography under a tree, 
 with his maps stretched out "before liini, they 
 were so pleased with his conversation, that 
 they introduced him to the Duke of Lorraine, 
 who sent him to college, afterwards made 
 him his librarian, and eventually procured 
 him tlic situation of keeper of the books and 
 medals ef the imperial cabinet of Vienna. 
 He died in 1775. 
 
 DUVERNEY, Joseph Guiciiard, a cele- 
 brated French anatomist, was born at Feurs, 
 in 1G48 ; apiKiinted professor of anatomy at 
 tlie royal garden in 1C79, and died in 17.J0. 
 He was the author of several works illus- 
 trative of the science he professed. 
 
 DU VOISIN, JoHX Bai'tisx, a French ec- 
 clesiastic, who, in 1792, suffered deportation 
 with a great number of his clerical brethren ; 
 but, on returning in 1802, he was raised to 
 the bishopric of Nantes, and obtained the 
 esteem of Buonaparte, who created liim a 
 baron, and made him a member of the legion 
 of honour. He wrote several theological 
 works, and died at Paris in 1813. 
 
 D WIGHT, Timothy, an American divine, 
 of great reputation both as a pulpit orator 
 and a writer, was born in Massachusetts, 
 in 1752 ; became president of Yale College 
 in 1795 ; and died in 1817. His " System of 
 Theology," in 5 vols., is regarded as a work 
 of great merit, and has been frequently re- 
 printed. 
 
 DYER, Sir Edward, a poet of the Eliza- 
 bethan age, was born about 154(), and educated 
 at Oxford. He received many proofs of the 
 royal favour after he had returned from his 
 travels, being employed in various embassies 
 by tlie queen, who conferred on him tne 
 chancellorship of the garter in 159G. His 
 poetical pieces consist chiefly of pastoral odes . 
 and madrigals. | 
 
 DYER, George, a classical scholar and 
 miscellaneous writer, whose long life of 
 literary toil may in some sort be exem- 
 plified by quoting from the Gentleman's 
 Magazine the following mournful record : 
 " Tlie greatest labour of his life was the 
 share he had in the production of Valpy's ; 
 edition of the classics in 141 volumes, being 
 a combination of the Delphin, Bipont, and i 
 Variorum editions. With the exception of i 
 the preface, Dyer contributal all that ions 
 original in this ixist work, upon wltich lie 
 was engaged from the year 1819 to 1830 1 
 
 He had scarcely completed this work whera 
 his eyesight gave way, and sho7-tly after- 
 ivards left him in total blindness." The 
 writer adds (and let %is not grudge the 
 space which the iniatFected tribute occu- 
 pies), " Tlie memory of George Dyer -will 
 be ever cherished by his friends as of one 
 who passed through the world without hav- 
 ing contracted one blemish of worldliness ; 
 his gxiileless simplicity endeared him esj)e- 
 cially to his friend Charles Lamb, wlio 
 would often, indeed, indulge his humorous 
 vein at the expense of one whom he knew 
 to be of invulnerable innocency, but who 
 has also declared that, in doing so, it M'as 
 his ambition to make familiar to the public 
 a character which, for integrity and single 
 hcartedness, he has long been accustomed 
 to rank among the best patterns of his spe- 
 cies." Mr. Dj'er was born in 1755 ; received 
 his education at Clirist's Hospital and Ema- 
 nuel College, Cambridge ; and died in 1841, 
 aged 85. His writings are varied and nume- 
 rous ; historical, poetical, classical, and 
 political; amongst them his "History of 
 the University and Colleges of Cambridge," 
 2 vols., and "The Privileges of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge," &c., 2 vols., are the 
 most important. 
 
 DYER, Sir James, chief justice of the 
 common pleas, and speaker of the House of 
 Commons, was born in 1512, and died in 1581. 
 Dyer's " Reports " are still highly valued by 
 the profession. 
 
 DYER, JoHx, a poet of considerable re- 
 putation, was born at Aberglasney, Caer- 
 marthenshire, in 1700, and educated at 
 Westminster School. He was intended for 
 the law, wliich he abandoned for painting, 
 but not arriving at excellence as an artist, 
 he took orders, and obtained some respectable 
 church preferment. In 1727 he published 
 his poem of " Grongar Hill," which met 
 with deserved success. He then made the 
 tour of Italy, where, besides the usual study, 
 he often spent whole days in the country 
 about Rome and Florence, sketching those 
 picturesque scenes tliat there abound ; and 
 it is very naturally imagined that the beauti- I 
 ful landscapes depicted in his two subsequent ! 
 poems owe their existence in no slight degree 
 to tiiat cause. These are entitled "The 
 Ruins of Rome " and " The Fleece." His , 
 poetry displays a lively imagination, and ! 
 combines great originality with the warmest | 
 sentiments of benevolence and virtue. He 
 died in 1758. 
 
 E. 
 
 E ACHARD, JoHX, an English divine, was 
 bora in 1636. After studying at Catharine 
 Hall, Cambridge, ho was chosen master in 
 1675, and died in l';97. He wrote a work, 
 entitled " The Grounds and Reasons of the 
 Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquir- 
 ed into," and was also known as the author 
 of two dialogues, in which the system of 
 Hobbes is attacked with satiric humour. 
 
 EADMER, an English Benedictine monk 
 of the 12th century, wlio became abbot of 
 St. Alban's. He wrote a " History of the 
 Liberty of the Church," and various other 
 ecclesiastical works. Died, 1124. 
 
 EARLE, JoHx, an English prelate, was 
 horn at York, and entered of Merton College. 
 Oxford, in 1620. He became chaplain and j 
 tutor to Charles, prince of V.'ales, and suf- I 
 
 2G4 
 
ear] 
 
 ^ llffio ^niijtvial MiaQvupX)^. 
 
 [kdq 
 
 fcred much in the rebellion. At the Restora- 
 tion he was made dean of Westminster and 
 bishop of Worcester, from which see lie was 
 translated to Salisbury in 1C38. Dr. Earle 
 was the author of an ingenious work, entitled 
 " ALicrocosmography, or, a Piece of the World 
 characterised, in Essays and Characters." 
 lie also translated the Icon Basilike into 
 Latin. Died, 1(5(55. 
 
 EARLOJI, RuiiAiiD, a mezzotinto engra- 
 ver, was born in London, in 17-10. His taste 
 for design is said to have been excited by in- 
 Bpecting the ornaments on tlie lord mayor's 
 coach, which had been painted by Cipriani. 
 He was employed by Boydell to make draw- 
 ings from the celebrated collection of pictures 
 at Houghton, which he afterwards engraved 
 in mezzotinto — an art in which he was his 
 own instructor. He also engraved and pub- 
 lished two volumes of plates from Claude's 
 Liber Veritatis ; several fine flower pieces 
 from Van Huysum ; a tiger hunt, and other 
 subjects, from Zottuny, S:c. Died, 1822. 
 
 EATON, William, an American officer, 
 whose adventures have furnished incideuts 
 for an interesting volume, was born at Wood- 
 stock, in Connecticut, in 17G4, and at the 
 I age of 16 enlisted as a soldier. Being dis- 
 charged in 1783, he studied Latin and Greek, 
 and after filling the situation of classical 
 assistant in a school at Vermont, was ap- 
 pointed clerk to the house of delegates of 
 that state. In 1792 he received a captain's 
 commission in the American army, and in 
 1794 obtained the appointment of American 
 consul at Tunis. War being declared in 
 1801 against tiie United States, by the bey of 
 Tripoli, who was an U8uri>er, Haniet Pacha, 
 the ex-bey, who was then an exile at Tunis, 
 induced Mr. Eaton to join him in the des- 
 perate attempt of recovering possession of 
 his dominions. A series of singular events 
 followed, which our limits prevent us from 
 eiitering on ; but his services were so highly 
 valued by his countrymen, that on his return 
 home he was received with the most flattering 
 marks of favour ; and the legislature of 
 Massachusetts bestowed on him a tract of 
 land insisting of 10,000 acres. Died, 1811. 
 
 EBELING, CiiKisToi'HEK Daniel, a dis- 
 tinguished geographer, was born in 1741 ; 
 died, 1817. 
 
 ECIIARD, Laukence, an English divine 
 and historian, was born in lt571 ; received 
 his education at Cambridge ; became arch- 
 deacon of Stowe, and obtained some valuable 
 livings in his native county, Suffolk. He 
 was a very voluminous writer : " Tlie Roman 
 History," "A General Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory," a " History of England," and a " Ga- 
 zetteer," are the moat promineut of liis works. 
 Die.l, 1730. 
 
 ECHINUS, Sebastiak, a Venetian noble- 
 man, eminent for his writings, particularly 
 on medals. Died, 158o. 
 
 ECKIIARD, Joii.v Fkkderick, a learned 
 and voluminous writer on philology and bi- 
 bliography, was director and librarian of the 
 college of Eisenach ; born in Saxony in 1723, 
 and died in 1794. 
 
 ECKHARD, John George, an antiquary 
 and historian, was born in the duchy of 
 Brunswick, in lf!74, and brought up a Pro- 
 testant ; but abjuring his religion, he vas 
 
 made historiograi)her and keeper of the ar- 
 chives at Wurzburg. His principal works 
 are, " A Body of History of the Middle Ages," 
 " The Origin of the Families of llapsburg 
 and Cruclph," &c. Died, 17;ki. 
 
 ECKHEL, JosKPU Hilauy, a learned 
 Jesuit, well skilled in numismatics, was born 
 in Upper Austria, in 173(5. He was keeper 
 of the imperial cabinet of medals at Vienna, 
 and few men possessed so extensive a know- 
 ledge of the science. His two works, entitled 
 "Doctrina Nummorum Veterum" and 
 " Nummi Veteres Anecdoti,"are both replete 
 with sound information on the subject. Died, 
 1798. 
 
 ECLUSE, Charles de l', better known 
 by the name of CLi:.sri;s, was born at Arras, 
 in Flanders, in l.'iSt;, and became eminent as 
 a physieian and botanist. He travelled into 
 various i)arts of Europe, in searcli of botanical 
 information; was made superintendant of the 
 imperial garden at Vienna; and ultimately 
 accepted a professorship in the imiversity of 
 Leyilen, where he died in 1C09. 
 
 EDELIXCK, Gerard, an eminent en- 
 graver, born at Antwerp, in 1049, was patnm- 
 ised by Louis XIV. of France, and executed 
 many great works from historical subjects, 
 as well as the portraits of distinguished cha- 
 racters. Died, 1707. 
 
 EDEN, Sir Freuerick Morton, a writer 
 on statistics and political ecouimiy. His 
 principal work is entitled "The State of the 
 Poor, or a History of the Labouring Classes 
 in England, from the Conquest to the present 
 Time,^' 3 vols. 4to. Died, 1809. 
 
 EDEN, Sir Morton, a diplomatist, who, 
 after being employed as ambassador to va- 
 rious continental powers, at the commence- 
 ment of the late war, was raised to the 
 peerage by the title of lord Hexlev, and 
 died in 1802. 
 
 EDGAR, one of the most distinguished 
 Saxon kings of England, succeeded his bro- 
 ther Edwy in 9.")9, at the age of 1(J. The 
 moderatitm of his reign procured him the 
 name of Peaceable. He vanquished the Scots, 
 and laid Wales under a yearly tribute of 
 a certain number of wolves heads, which 
 cleared the country of those animals. He 
 subdued part of Ireland, and maintained u 
 large fleet, which secured his kingdom from 
 invasion. On the death of his queen Egel- 
 flida, he sent Earl Athelwold to see whether 
 the report of the beauty of Elfrida, daughter 
 of the Earl of Devon, was true. The earl 
 fell in love with the lady, gave his master a 
 false report, and married her. He was af- 
 terwards killed while hunting, and Elfrida 
 became the wife of Edgar, who died in 975, 
 aged ;W. Edward the Martyr succeeded him. 
 
 EDGEW(3RTH, RicHARU Lovell, of 
 Edgeworthtown, Ireland, was born at Bath, 
 in 1744, and completed his studies at Oxford. 
 Being jwssessed of a good fortune he devoted 
 mucli of his time to agricultural improve- 
 ments, as well as to the amelioration of the 
 existing modes of education, by writing, in 
 conjuuotion with his highly gifted daughter, 
 many usefid works. He also wrote his own 
 " Memoirs ; " and among his various meelian- 
 iciil inventions was a telegraph. Died, 1817. 
 
 EDGEWORTH, Mauia, the celebrated 
 Irish novelist, whose works have had great 
 
edg] 
 
 ^ ^e£o ^aitibcr^al Miao^n^\)\j, 
 
 [edr 
 
 influence in promoting the cause of educa- 
 tion, and of social morality, was born in 
 Oxfordshire, in 17B6. She was the daugliter 
 of Richard Lovell Edgeworth above men- 
 tioned, and was 12 years old before she was 
 taken to her paternal home. She commenced 
 her career as an authoress about 1800 ; and 
 1 in her early literary eltbrts slie was greatly 
 assisted by the advice and sound practical 
 suggestions of her father, to wliom she was 
 in tlie habit of submitting the first designs of 
 her works. The famous " Essay on Irish 
 Bulls," the joint production of lierself and 
 her father, was published in 1801. Her 
 " Castle Rackrent" abounds in some of those 
 admirable sketches of Irish life and manners, 
 for which most of her tales and novels are 
 80 much distinguished. Her " Belinda," a 
 novel of real life and ordinary characters, 
 is also descriptive of some of the striking 
 traits of the Irish character. In 1804 she 
 published her " Popular Tales," 3 vols. ; and 
 two years afterwards, " Leonora," a novel 
 in 2 vols. In 1809 she issued 3 vols, of 
 " Tales of Fashionable Life," of a more 
 powerful and varied cast than any of lier 
 previous productions. Three other vols, 
 of " Fashionable Tales " appeared in 1812, 
 and fully sustained the high reputation 
 which she had now attained. In 1814 her 
 novel of " Patronage," in 4 vols., was pub- 
 lished. Its object is to show the miseries 
 resulting from a dependence on the great, 
 and she paints the manners and charac- 
 ters of high life with her usual vigour and 
 fidelity. In 1817 appeared two tales named 
 " Harrington " and " Ormond ; " the inten- 
 tion of the first of these being the removal 
 of the prejudices entertained by many 
 against the Jews ; the other is an Irish 
 story. In 1822, Miss Edgeworth published a 
 work of a diffeient kind, namely, "Rosa- 
 mond," a sequel to " Early Lessons," which 
 liad been previously published, being tales 
 for the young. In 182.5 she issued 4 vols, of 
 similar tales, under the title of " Harriet 
 and Lucy," being a continuation of that 
 course of moral instruction for youthful 
 readers on which she had so ably and so 
 successfully entered, and in which she had 
 so few predecessors or equals. Miss Edge- 
 worth's last work of fiction, a novel entitled 
 " Helen," in 3 vols., appeared in 1834. It is 
 not inferior to any of her other works. Be- 
 sides those already mentioned, she also 
 wrote "The Modern Griselda," "Frank," 
 "Garry Owen," "Laurent le Paresseux," 
 " Little Plays for Young People," " Moral 
 Tales," " Parent's Assistant," " Patronage 
 and Comic Dramas," &c. For many years, 
 indeed, literary composition formed the 
 chief business of her life. Originality and 
 fertility of invention, and a power of depict- 
 ing Irish manners, unequalled among mo- 
 dern authors, are her chief characteristics as 
 a novelist. She especially shone, however, 
 in her stories, which are written in a beauti- 
 fully simple style, and in which the youth- 
 ful mind is made first to comprehend its 
 part in the great drama of social life. But 
 ntuTierous and valuable as her producti(ms 
 are, these were not the only serWce which 
 she rendered to literature. Sir Walter 
 Scott, with whom she lived in the closest ties 
 
 of friendship, has acknowledged that to her 
 descriptions of Irish character and manners 
 we are indebted, in a great measure, for the 
 " Waverley Novels." " The rich humour, 
 pathetic tenderness, and admirable tact " of 
 her Irish delineations, he declared, led him 
 first to think that something might be at- 
 tempted for his own country of the same 
 kind witli that which Miss Edgeworth so 
 fortunately achieved for Ireland. In private 
 life. Miss Edgeworth was highly beloved and 
 respected by all who knew her ; and, in her 
 intercourse with society, slie was most un- 
 alFeeted and agreeable. But she had long 
 ceased to take an active part in life, or in 
 the world of literature of which she was 
 once so bright an ornament, her last years 
 being passed in tranquillity at the family 
 seat at Edgeworthtown. Died, 1849. 
 
 EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, Henry 
 Es.sKX, confessor to Louis XVI., was born 
 at Edgeworthtown. Ireland, in 1745. His 
 father, who was a Protestant clergyman, be- 
 came a Catholic, and went with his family to 
 France, where Henry was educated. Being 
 devoted to the cause of royalty, he offered | 
 personally to attend the kiiig to the place of | 
 execution, ascended the scaffold with him, 
 and exclaimed, as the axe fell, " Son of Saint 
 Louis, ascend to heaven I " He succeeded in 
 escaping to this country, in 1790, when Mr. 
 Pitt, in the name of the king, offered him a 
 pension, which he declined. He followed 
 Louis XVIII. to Blankenburg,iu Brunswick, 
 and thence to Mittau, where he died in 1807. 
 
 EDMONDES, Sir Thomas, a statesman in 
 the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles 
 I. He was also distinguished as a political 
 writer. Died, 1639. 
 
 EDMONDSON, Joseph, a genealogist and 
 heraldic painter, died in 1780. His principal 
 works are, " A Body of Heraldry," 2 vols, 
 folio ; and " Baronagium Genealogicum, or 
 the Pedigrees of English Peers," 6 vols. 
 
 EDMUND, St., king of the East Angles, 
 was so illustrious for his piety as to obtain a 
 place in the Roman calendar. In 870 he was 
 defeated and taken prisoner by the Danes 
 under Ivar, who caused him to be fastened 
 to a tree, and to be shot to death with arrows. 
 His remains were interred at Bury St. Ed- 
 mund's. 
 
 EDMUND I., king of England, son of 
 Edward the Elder, succeeded his brother 
 Athelstan in 941. He subdued Mercia, North- 
 umberland, and Cumberland. He was killed 
 in 948, while at a banquet, by an outlaw, 
 named Leolf, who entered among the guests, 
 and provoked the king to a personal attack 
 upon him. 
 
 EDMUND II., surnamed Ironside, on 
 account of his prodigious strength, was the 
 son of Ethelred, whom he succeeded in 1010; 
 but being opposed by Canute, he agreed to 
 share the crown with him. After a reign 
 of nine months only, he was treacherously 
 murdered, in 1017, at Oxford, by two of his 
 chamberlains. 
 
 EDRIDGE, Henry, an eminent landscape 
 and miniature painter, was born at Padding- 
 ton, in 1768. His earlier portraits are prin- 
 cipally drawn on paper, with black lead and 
 Indian ink ; but in later years he produced 
 [ an immense number of elaborately finished 
 
edr] 
 
 ^ ^e&) mnibtxial mastai?l)v» 
 
 [edw 
 
 jjictures, in wliich were combined the depth 
 und richness of oil-paintings with the free- 
 dom of water-colour drawings. Died, 1821. 
 
 EDKISSI, Ai;u Abuai.lah Moiiammkd 
 BEN Mohammed, adcscendantof the African 
 princes of the race of Edris, was born in 
 Spain in 10t>9, and settled at the court of 
 Roger, king of Sicily ; for whom he framed 
 an inunense terrestrial globe of silver, and 
 wrote in ^Uabic a geographical work to cx- 
 pluiii it. 
 
 EDWARD THE Ei.r-KR, son of Alfred the 
 Great, succeeded his father in 901. He en- 
 couraged learning, and improved the uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. Northumbria and 
 East Anglia were subdued by him ; and he 
 cxtcn<led his dominions by conquests in 
 Scotland and Wales. Died, 023. 
 
 EDWARD THE MAKXvit, son of Edgar, 
 king of England, was born in !)G2, and crown- 
 ed in i)7r>. He was murdered by order of his 
 steiimother EUVida, at Coric Castle, after a 
 reign of three years. 
 
 EDWARD THE Coxfkssok, king of Eng- 
 land, was the son of Ethelred, and suc- 
 ceeded llardicanutc in 1041. He restored 
 Malcolm to the throne of Scotland, which 
 had been usurped by Macbeth. He caused 
 the Saxon laws to be revised, amended, 
 formed into one body, and translated into 
 I/atin ; hence they were called his laws. 
 He consulted William of Normandy about 
 the choice of a successor, which fumialied 
 that prince with a plea for invading the 
 kingdom after the death of Edward, whicli 
 liappened in 1W3. 
 
 EDWARD I. (of the Norman line), king 
 of England, called I-ongshnnks, succeeded 
 his father, Henry III., in 1272. After firmly 
 establishing his authority at home, he led 
 an army iuto Talestine against the Saracens, 
 where lie signalised his valour on many 
 occasions ; and having, on his return, con- 
 quered Wales, he created his son prince of 
 that country, which title has from that time 
 been given to the heir-apparent. He also 
 brought Scotland into subjection, and took 
 the king, John Baliol, prisoner. Edward 
 died at Carlisle in 1307, aged 68. 
 
 EDWARD II. was the son of the pre- 
 ceding, and born at Caernarvon. He was 
 governed by his favourites, Gaveston and 
 the Spencers, which occasioned the barons 
 to rise against him. After resigning his 
 crown, he was confined in Berkeley Castle, 
 Gloucestershire, where he was traitorously 
 murdered by the contrivance of his queeu, 
 Isabella, and her favourite, Roger Mortimer, 
 carl of ^larch, in 1328. His deposition took 
 place in 1327. 
 
 EDWARD in., the son and successor of 
 the above, was one of the most celebrated 
 heroes of his country. Being but fifteen 
 when the crown devolved t > him, the queen 
 dowager and her inlanions paramour go- 
 verned during the first three years of his 
 reign ; but in 13.'!() the king took the reins 
 of government into his own hands ; dis- 
 graced and confined his motlicr ; and caused 
 Mortimer to be tried and executed for the 
 murder of his father, and his uncle the earl 
 of Kent. He then put himself at the head 
 of his army, reduced the Scots, and took 
 their king, David, prisoner, lie next in- 
 
 vaded France, laid claim to the crown, as 
 heir to liis mother, the sister of Chailes the 
 last king, who died without issue. Victo- 
 rious by sea and land against France and 
 Spain, he was cle(;tcd emperor of Germany, 
 but refused the hni)eriul throne, and re- 
 turned in tritmiph to England ; leaving his 
 sou, Edward the Black Prince, to command 
 the army in his absence. He died in 1377, 
 m the 51st year of his reign, and the C'.th 
 of his age. His gallant son dying before 
 him, he was succeeded by his grandson, 
 Richard II. 
 
 EDWARD, Prince of Wales, surnamed 
 the Black Prince, son of Edward III., was 
 born in 1330; and, accompanying his father to 
 France iu 1345, took a leading part in gain- 
 ing the glorious victory of Crcey in the 
 year following. During his stay in France 
 he performed many other acts of heroism, 
 till at length, in 135(5, he won the great 
 battle of Poictiers, when he took king John 
 and his son prisoners, and distinguished 
 himself as much by his courtesy and true 
 chivalry to his captives, as he had in the field 
 by his unrivalled valour. He was created 
 prince of Aquitaine by his father ; and died, 
 univcrsallv regretted, in 137<i, aged 45. 
 
 EDWARD IV., son of Richard duke of 
 York, succeeded Henry VI. in 1461. He 
 married l^ady Elizabeth Grey, which so dis- 
 gusted the Earl of Warwick, commonly 
 Allied the king-maker, that he joined the 
 Lancastrian party, and defeated Edward's 
 forces near Banbury in 1469. Soon after- 
 wards he took Edward prisoner, who ef- 
 fected his escape, and obtained a victory 
 over Warwick at Stamford Wells. That 
 nobleman fled to France, from whence he 
 returned with a supply of troops, and pro- 
 claimed Henry. Edward on this escaped 
 beyond sea, and Warwick released Henry 
 from the Tower, aiul set him on the throne ; 
 but Edward returned with succours, and 
 marched to Eondon, where he took Henry 
 prisoner. He shortly after defeated War- 
 wick, who was slain. Another victory at 
 Tewkesbury secured to him the quiet pos- 
 session of the tluoue. He died in 1483, 
 aged 41. 
 
 EDVV^ARD v., son of the preceding, 
 whom he succeeded at the age of 12 years. 
 Richard duke of Gloucester, his uncle, took 
 the guardianship of him ami his brother 
 into his own hands, and placed them in the 
 Tower, where they were smothered in their 
 beds in UKi. 
 
 EDWARD VI., the only son of Henry 
 VIII., by Jane Seymour, his tliird queen, 
 ascended the throne when only nine years 
 old ; and, considering his extreme youth, 
 displayed many qualities of the fairest pro- 
 mise. He promoted the Reformation, and 
 established the service of the Church of 
 England, in 1552, by act of parliament. He 
 founded the hospitals of Christchurch, 
 Bridewell, and St. Thomas ; but the hopes 
 of the nation were blighted by his imtimely 
 death in 1553, in the seventh year of his 
 reign, and the 16tli of his age. 
 
 EDWARD Plantaoexet, earl of War- 
 wick, the only surviving male descendant 
 of the house of York, was kept a iirisoner 
 iu the Tower several years, through jcalou.sy, 
 
EDW] 
 
 ^ |}ctM mnibtx^aX BtograpTjj), 
 
 [ege 
 
 that he entered into a conspiracy with 
 j Perkin Warbeck against Henry VIII. 
 
 EDWARDS, Bryax, an ingenious writer, 
 I was bom in 1743, at Westbury, in Wiltshire, 
 I and, on the dcatli of liis father, was taken 
 j under the care of an uncle in Jamaica. He 
 afterwards settled in England, and was re- 
 turned member of parliament for Gram- 
 pound in Cornwall. Mr. Edwards wrote 
 *' The History;, Civil and Commercial, of the 
 British Colonies in the West Indies," 2 vols. 
 4to. ; " The Proceedings of tiie Governor 
 and Assembly of Jamaica in regard to the 
 Maroon Negroes ; " and " An Historical 
 Survey of tlie French Colony in the Island 
 of St. Domingo," 8vo. He died in 1800. 
 
 EDWARDS, George, an eminent natu- 
 ralist, was born in 1693, at Stratford, in 
 Essex. He was bred to trade, but on the 
 expiration of his apprenticeship he went 
 I abroad, and f(jr some years applied himself 
 I to the study of natural history, for which he 
 had alwaj's shown a predilection. On his 
 return to England he was appointed libra- 
 rian of the college of physicians ; and wliile 
 holding that situation he published a " His- 
 tory of Birds," in 7 vols. 4to ; " Gleanings of 
 Natural History," in 3 vols. 4to. ; and a 
 volume of Essays. Died, 1773. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, an American, 
 celebrated for his metaphysical knowledge, 
 was born at Windsor, in Connecticut, in 
 1703. In 1722 he became a preacher at New 
 York to a presbyterian congregation, and 
 in 1724 was chosen tutor of Yale College. In 
 1726 he resigned that station, and became 
 assistant to his grandfather, who was a 
 minister at Northampton. Here he con- 
 tinued till 17.J0, when he was dismissed for 
 refusing to administer the sacrament to those 
 who could not give proofs of their being con- 
 verted. The year following he went as 
 missionary among the Indians, and in 1757 
 was chosen president of the college of New 
 Jersey, where he died in 1758. He wrote a 
 " Treatise concerning religious Affections ; " 
 the " Life of David Brainerd, a Missionary ; " 
 an "Inquiry into the modern prevailing 
 Notion of that Freedom of Will, which is 
 supposed to be essential to Moral Agency," 
 &c. 
 
 EDWARDS, TnoMAS, an ingenious poet 
 and critical \\iriter, was born in London in 
 1699, and bred to the bar. In 1744 he at- 
 tacked Warburton's edition of Sliakspeare, 
 which being coarsely noticed by the haughty 
 editor, was followed by a humorous publi- 
 cation, entitled, " Canons of Criticism, with 
 a Glossary," which passed through several 
 editions. He was also the author of some 
 sonnets. Died, 1757. 
 
 EDWARDS, Thomas, an English divine, 
 was educated at Cambridge, where he took 
 his degree of M. A. in 1609. He was a fu- 
 rious presbyterian, and wrote with equal 
 zeal against the episcopalians aud inde- 
 pendents. When the latter party gained 
 the ascendancy, he withdrew to Holland, 
 where he died in 1647. His " Gangrajna " 
 exhibits a curious picture of the religious 
 divisions of that period. 
 
 EDWARDS, William, a self-taught ar- 
 chitect, was born in Glamorganshire, in 
 
 1710. He was only a common mason, but 
 by the force of genius he acquired an extra- 
 ordinary skill in building bridges, the prin- 
 cipal of which is that on the river Taafe. It 
 is the segment of a circle, the chord of which 
 at the surface of the water is 147 feet. His 
 skill aud success in this instance soon 
 brought him into note, and he left many 
 other proofs of his great abilities as a bridge- 
 builder. Died, 1789. 
 
 EDWIN, John, a comic actor of very con- 
 siderable talents, was born in London, in 
 1750. He made his first appearance on the 
 London boards, at the Haymarket Theatre, 
 in 1775, and subsequently performed at 
 Covent Garden, where he was a decided 
 favourite. Died, 1790. 
 
 EDWY, king of England, son of Edmund 
 I., succeeded his uncle Edred in 955. He 
 ojiposed the temporal power of St. Dunstan, 
 and called him to account for his share in 
 the administration of the preceding reign ; 
 but the wily ecclesiastic proved too much for 
 the monarch, and Edwy was driven from his 
 throne, to make way for his brother Edgar. 
 He died in 959. 
 
 EGBERT, the first king of all England, 
 and the last of the Saxon heptarchj-, was a 
 prince of great accomplishments ; but, while 
 young, he was obliged by Brilhric, king of 
 Wessex, to withdraw to France, where he 
 lived at the court of Charlemagne. There 
 he acquired both the arts of war and govern- 
 ment ; and being recalled to take possession 
 of the kingdom of Wessex, to which he was 
 the rightful heir, he soon united all the 
 other kingdoms under him, giving the whole 
 the name of England. His dominions were 
 twice afterwards invaded by the Danes with 
 great force, but he signal Ij' defeated them on 
 both occasions. He died in 838, and was 
 succeeded by Ethelwolf. 
 
 EGEDE, Hans, a Danish divine, bom in 
 1686, was the fonnr'er of the religions mis- 
 sions to Greenland, whilher he went in 1721, 
 and presided over the establishment there 
 for fifteen years, gaining the confidence of 
 the natives by his piety and benevolence. 
 Died, 1758. 
 
 EGEDE, Paul, son of the preceding, was 
 his assistant in the mission, and imitated his 
 example. He composed a dictionary and 
 grammar of the language ; translated into 
 it a part of the Bible ; and published a 
 journal of his residence in Greenland, from 
 1721 to 1788. Died, 1789. 
 
 EGERTON, Daniel, a theatrical per- 
 former, who, for many years, supported an 
 extensive range of characters of a second- 
 ary class at Covent Garden Theatre. He was 
 bom in 1772, made his debut at Birmingham 
 in 1799 ; and after taking the lead at Bath 
 for some years, came to Covent Garden in 
 1809, where he remained till 18o2, when, in 
 conjunction with Abbot, he embarked his 
 money and talents in the management of the 
 Victoria Theatre. This was an unfortunate 
 speculation, and proved liis total ruin. Died, 
 1835. I 
 
 EGERTON, John, an eminent prelate, 
 born in London in 1721, was the son of the I 
 Bishop of Hereford ; studied at Eton and i 
 Oxford ; was made dean of Hereford in 17.50; 
 and afterwards successively preferred to the 
 
ege] 
 
 ^ ^ebi Wittibtr^al 'Miatixnp'^i}, 
 
 [eld 
 
 bishoprics of Bangor, Liciifielil, and Dur- 
 ham, lie was an eloquent preaclier, and a 
 liberal contributor to several impoitaut 
 works in his diocese. Died, 1787. 
 
 EGEIITON, Thomas, lord chancellor of 
 England in the reign of James I., was the 
 natural son of Sir Richard Egerton, in 
 Cheshire, and born in 1540. He was made 
 attorncy-geueral in 15ST2 ; soon after, master 
 of the rolls ; and then lord-keeper. In 1(51)3 
 he was appointed lord-ciiancellor, with the 
 title of baron Ellesmcre ; and in ItilO he 
 was created yiscount Bracklcy, but died tlie 
 year following. His principal work is en- 
 titled " Tlie Privileges and Prerogatives of 
 the High Court of Cliancery." 
 
 EGG, JoHX Ga.spak, a Swiss agricultu- 
 rist and political economist, born in 17^8. 
 He was the founder of several industrious 
 agricultural colonics, working with common 
 funds, iu the manner of those projected by 
 Mr. Owen of Lanark. 
 
 EGIL, ScALLEGiiiM, an Icelandic warrior 
 and poet of the 10th century, wlio distin- 
 guished himself by his warlike exi)loit8 in 
 predatory invasions of Scotland and North- 
 uinl)erlaud. The son of Eric Blodtcxe, king 
 of Norway, being slain by him in combat, 
 he was doomed to death on being subse- 
 quently taken prisoner by that prince ; but 
 having extemporaneously composed and re- 
 cited a poem in praise of Eric, he obtaiucd 
 his life and lilK-rty. 
 
 EGINIIAUT, or .(EGINIIARD, a cele- 
 brated lilstoi'ian, was a native of Germany 
 and the pupil of Alcuin, wlio reconuntnded 
 him to Charleniagne. At lirst he was the 
 emperor's secretary, and it appears that he 
 gained his esteem and confidence ; but the 
 story of his nightly interview and marriage 
 witli Clmrlemague's daughter, Imma, is now 
 believed to be as fabulous as it is incredible. 
 He wrote a "Life of Charlemagne," "Annals 
 of France, from 741 to 829," and some Epis- 
 tles. He became abbot of the monastery of 
 Seligenstadt, and died there in 8^!). 
 
 EGINTON, Fkancis, an artist celebrated 
 for Ills paintings on glass, and to whom we 
 are indebted for the restoration of that art, 
 was born in 1737, and died at Handsworth, 
 in Shropshire, in 1805. 
 
 EGLANTINE, Fabre d', was one of those 
 misguided beings who played a conspicuous 
 part in the French revolution. He possessed 
 a degree of playful talent, which is pour- 
 trayed in some light dramatic pieces, but his 
 character wanted consistency ; for he aimed 
 at being a painter, an engraver, a musician, 
 and a poet, but did not acquire excellence in 
 any profession. At length his puerile ambi- 
 tion led him to become a violent revolu- 
 tionist ; and he tried to l)e loudest in the 
 assembly of the Convention in voting for the 
 death of Louis XVI. without appeal. Yet 
 the same man shortly after was an acknow- 
 ledged moderate, a, sin for which Robespierre 
 and llebert persecuted him with a bitterness 
 that brought his head to the block, at the 
 age of 39. Eglantine suffered with Danton 
 and others in April, 1794. 
 
 EGMONT, Lamoual, Count of, a distin- 
 guiehed nobleman in Flanders, was born in 
 1522, and served in the armies of Charles V. 
 with great reputation. lie was made gene- 
 SCO 
 
 ral of horse bv Philip II., and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of St. Quintin in 1557. 
 But the Duke of Alva fearing his power, and 
 that his designs wei-e in favour of the Prince 
 of Orange, caused him to be beheaded at 
 Brusfcls, in 15fi8, together witli Count Horn. 
 
 EGllEMONT, GK01K5K O'BuiE.v Wvnd- 
 ham. Earl of, was born in 1751, and suc- 
 ceeded to the peerage when lie was only 12 
 years old. This illustrious nobleman dis- 
 played throughout the whole course of his 
 long and useful life a liberal spirit and pa- 
 trician magnificence. Though he never took 
 a very prominent part in the dis^cussions of 
 the legislature, he enjoyed much political 
 consideration ; and in times of pressure and 
 peril, his purse, his example, and his exer- 
 tions were nobly devoted to his country's 
 cause. His mansion at Petworth contained 
 the noblest productions of genius, including 
 one of the best libraries iu the kingdom ; 
 and his patronage of British artists was un- 
 bounded. When the earl succeeded to the 
 title and estates, the yearly rental amounted 
 to not quite 45,000/. per annum, which at 
 tlie time of his decease had been increased 
 to81,(KHJ/. ; and in the last CO years he had 
 distriliuted in acts of charity and liberality 
 the immense sum of 1,200,000/., or about 
 20,000/. per annum I Died, Ibi^J, aged 85. 
 
 EICHHOliN, John Gkouuk, an eminent 
 German divine and biblical critic, was \mrn 
 in 1752, and became professor of Oriental 
 literature at Jena ; from which place he 
 went to the university of (iolti)igen, where 
 he was long one of its brightest ornaments. 
 His works are erudite und voluminous ; but 
 our limits will allow us to mention only a 
 few of the principal. "The History of 
 Literature from the Earliest to the Latest 
 Times," 11 vols.; a "General Library of 
 Biblical Literature," 10 vols. ; " Repertory 
 of Biblical and Oriental Literature," 18 
 vols.; "Introductions to the Old and New 
 Testaments," each 5 vols. &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 ELBEE, GicoT v\ generalissimo of the 
 "Vendean royalists, was bom at Dresden, in 
 1752. lie entered the French army as lieu- 
 tenant of cavalry ; and having, at the com- 
 mencement of the revolution, retired to his 
 estate in Anjou, the insurgent peasants of 
 La Vendee, in 1793, chose him their leader. 
 He displayed great courage and firmness, 
 won many victories, and was often defeated 
 by superior numbers ; at length he was 
 wounded and taken prisoner, brought before 
 a court-martial, and sliot, January 2. 1794. 
 
 ELDON, John Scott, Earl of, a distin- 
 guished lawyer and statesman, who for 25 
 years filled the office of lord high chancellor 
 of England, was the third son of William 
 Scott, coal-fitter, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
 and a younger brother of the late Lord Sto- 
 well. He was born on the 4th of June, 1751 
 (the birthday of his friend and master, George 
 III.) ; and, after receiving the rudiments of 
 his education at the grammar-school of New- 
 castle, was admitted a commoner of Uni- 
 versity College, Oxford. He was elected 
 fellow in 1767 ; gained the chancellor's 
 prize, " On the Advantages and Disadvan- 
 tages of Foreign Travel," in 1771 ; and there 
 was every prospect of his obtaining college 
 preferment, had he remained single. Having, 
 
ele] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Bnihtv^Kl JSmsrapTjy, 
 
 [eli 
 
 however, contracted a marringe with Miss 
 Surtees, a young lady of Newcastle, he re- 
 solved on making tlie law his profession, 
 and to that end he studied late and early. 
 In 1773 he was admitted a member of the 
 Middle Temple ; but he resided chiefly in or 
 near Oxford, till he was called to the bar in 
 1776. Years of laborious study passed away, 
 with little encouragement to him, and he 
 had seriously resolved to quit London, to 
 practise as a provincial counsel in his native 
 town ; but his knowledge and application 
 had not been unobserved by some of the 
 brightest ornaments of the profession, who 
 persuaded him to remain, assuring him his 
 success was certain ; and the result quickly 
 I)roved the correctness of their predictions, 
 for he shortly after became the leader on the 
 northern circuit. In 178.3, Mr. Scott came 
 into parliament for the borough of VVeobly, 
 and attached himself to tlie parly of Mj. 
 Pitt, wIjo was his personal friend. His pro- 
 gress towards the highest legal honours now 
 appeared certain : he was made solicitor- 
 general in 1788, received the honour of 
 knighthood, and became attorney-general in 
 1793. In 179(5 Sir John Scott was returned 
 for Boroughbridge, fts the colleague of Sir 
 rrancis Burdett ; succeeded Sir James Eyre 
 as lord chief justice of the common pleas ; 
 and in July, 1799, was raised to the peerage 
 as baron Eldon, of Eldon, in the county of 
 Durham. In 1801 he became lord high 
 chancellor of England, and in the same year 
 was elected high steward of the university 
 of Oxford, when tlie degree of D.C.L. was 
 conferred on him. In February, 1800, he 
 resigned the great seal ; but was re-appointed 
 in April, 1807, from which period he held it 
 until April 30. 1827, being altogether nearly 
 2.5 years. At the coronation of George IV. 
 the lord cliancellor was promoted to the 
 dignities of viscount Encombe and earl of 
 Eldon. His whole life was an example of 
 unremitting diligence in the most arduous 
 of all professions ; and there are few who 
 will dispute the character given of him by 
 that able and upright advocate Sir Samuel 
 Romilly, who in the House of Commons 
 declared, " there never was a man in the 
 court of chancery who more endeared him- 
 seli" to the bar, or exhibited more humane 
 attention to the suitors : there never presided 
 in that court a man of more deep and various 
 learning in his profession ; and in anxiety 
 to do justice, that court had never seen, he 
 would not say the superior, but the equal of 
 the lord chancellor. If he had a fault, it 
 was an over-anxiety to do justice." His 
 politics will yet be viewed through the 
 various lights and shades of party feeling ; 
 but no one, with due reflection, will attribute 
 to Lord Eldon a want of integrity, or a de- 
 parture from any principle which lie con- 
 scientiously believed would tend to the good 
 of his country. He died at his house in 
 Hamilton Place, London, Jan. 13. 18;58, being 
 in his 87 Ih year. [Lady Eldon died in 1831.] 
 ELEANOR, duchc.^sofGuienne, succeeded 
 her father \^'illiam IX. in 1137, at the age 
 of 1.5, and the same year married Louis VII. 
 king ol France, whom she accompanied to 
 the Holy Land. A separation ensued be- 
 tween her and Louis, and in 1153 she married i 
 
 the Huke of Normandy, afterwards Henry 
 II. king of England, which occasioned a 
 succession of wars between the two king- 
 doms. Her jealousy of Henry, and her con- 
 duct to Fair Rosamond, have aflforded a 
 copious subjeat to poets and romance- writers. 
 She excited her sons to rebel against their 
 father, for which she was imprisoned 16 
 years. On the accession of Richard I. she 
 was released, and in his absence to the Holy 
 Land she was made regent. Died, 1204. 
 
 ELGIN and KINCARDINE, Thomas 
 BisrcE, Earl of, was born in 1771, succeeded 
 to the peerage in his childhood, and received 
 his education at Harrow and Westminster 
 Schools, and at the university of St. An- 
 drew's. On many occasions the Earl of Elgin 
 was honoured with diplomatic missions, the 
 last of which was as ambassador extraor- 
 dinary to the Sublime Porte, in 1789, where 
 he continued till the French were finally 
 driven out of Egypt. Being desirous of 
 rescuing the remains of Greece also from 
 destruction and oblivion, he availed himself 
 of the opportunities of his station, and suc- 
 ceeded in forming a vast collection of statues, 
 specimens of architecture, medals, and other 
 valuable antiquities, which were eventually 
 purchased by government for 3.5,000/., and 
 deposited in the British Museum. Much 
 censure has been lavi-shed by l.,ord Byron 
 and others on the Earl of Elgin for removing 
 these antiquities from Athens ; but if it be 
 true, as is asserted, that the cost, including 
 interest of money, amounted to 74,W0l., the 
 " mercantile spirit" with which he has been 
 charged is altogether without foundation, 
 inasmuch as he lost more than one half of 
 that sum in endeavoin-ing to secure these 
 invaluable treasures. Died, 1841, aged 7.5. 
 
 ELIAS, Matthew, an eminent painter, 
 was born at Cassel in 10.58, and settled at 
 Dunkirk, where he painted a grand altar- 
 piece. His portraits are iu high estimation. 
 Died, 1741, 
 
 ELICAGARY, Dosiinique, a Frencli 
 ecclesiastic, was born at Bayonne in 17<>0 ; 
 quitted France in 1791, because he would 
 not subscribe to the new constitution of the 
 chmch, but returned under the directorial 
 government, and exercised the functions of 
 rector of the academj'. During the " hun- 
 dred d.'iys " he accompanied the Duchess of 
 Anaoulerae to England, as almoner. Died, 
 1822. 
 
 ELIO, FnANCis Xaviek, a Spanish gene- 
 ral, who nobly defended his country against 
 the French, and at the restoration of Ferdi- 
 nand VII. was appointed governor of Va- 
 lencia ; but when the resolution took place, 
 in 1820, part of tlie population rose against 
 the governor, and declaring him guilty of 
 tyrannical acts, he was imprisoned, tried by 
 a military commission, and sentenced to the 
 punishment of death, whi(rh was inflicted, 
 Sept. 3. 1822. When Ferdinand recovered 
 his authority in 1823, the proceedings were 
 reversed, and a pension was granted to his 
 widow and family. 
 
 ELIOT, Joux, an English divine, styled 
 the apostle to the Indians, was born in 1C04 ; 
 went to New England in 1031 ; and there 
 learned the Indian language, that he might 
 devote himself to the conversion of the na- 
 
 ^70 
 
ELl] 
 
 ^ f.tta Winibtri:d I3iogr?tj)^i»» 
 
 [ell 
 
 lives. In this he met with great success, and 
 obtained a considerable influence over tlie 
 
 ! various tribes. lie translated the Bible into 
 their language, and wrote several pieces of 
 practical divinity. Died, 1689. 
 
 i ELIOT, Thomas, an English writer in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. lie was a native 
 of Suttblk, but resided chiefly at Cambridge. 
 He compiled a Latin and English dictionary, 
 and died in 154<;. 
 
 I ELIOTT,or ELLIOT, George AcorsTus, 
 lord Ileathfield, was the son of Sir Gilbert 
 Eliott, of Stobs, lioxlnughshirc, and l>orn 
 about 1718. After receiving his education 
 at I^eyden he in 1735 attaclied himself 
 to the engineer corps ; from which Jie re- 
 
 • moved, and obtained an adjutancy in the 
 2nd troop of horse grenadiers, with which 
 he went to Germany, and was wounded at 
 the battle of Dettingcn. In 1759 he was 
 appointed to raise the 1st regiment of light 
 horse, with wliich he served on the Continent 
 witii great reputation; and on his recall from 
 Germany he was sent to the Huvannali, in 
 the reduction of which he had an eminent 
 share. In 1775, General Eliott was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief in Ireland ; 
 from whence lie returned soon after, and was 
 
 ' made governor of Gibraltar, which fortress 
 he deliended with consimimate talent and 
 
 i persevering fortitude. He was very abste- 
 
 , miuus, his constant food being vegetal)Ie8, 
 
 ; and his drink water. He never allowed 
 himself but four hours sleep at a time ; and 
 was so accustomed to hardiness that it was 
 become habitual. On his return to Kngland 
 
 1 he was raised to the peerage by the title of 
 lord Heathfleld, baron Gibraltar; and died 
 in 179(). 
 
 ELISSE (Perc), a name once of great 
 diplomatic influence ; born in 17()9, died in 
 1817. He was surgeon to I^uis XVIII., 
 while at Hartwell, and returned to France 
 in 1814, in his train, on tlie restoration. 
 He has been accused, in conjunction with 
 Blacas, of having contributed to tlie return 
 of Napoleon from p]lba, by the re-action 
 wliich tlieir ultra-royal zeal provoked. 
 
 ELIZABETH, queen of England, was the 
 daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, 
 and born in 1.533. She was educated in the 
 Protestant religion ; and in the reign of Mary, 
 in consequence of her known attachment to 
 it, she was sent to the Tower, from whence 
 she was afterwards removed to Woodstock. 
 On the death of her sister in 1558, she was 
 proclaimed queen, amid the acclamations of 
 assembled multitudes, and to the great joy 
 of the nation. Philip of Spain made her an 
 offer of marriage, which she declined. The 
 French and Spaniards having formed a league 
 for the extirpation of heresy, Elizabeth was 
 induced to protect the Protestants ; and this 
 she did so effectually as to separate tlie United 
 Provinces from the Spanish throne. The 
 king of Spoin, in return, sent a body of troops 
 to invade Ireland, but they were all cut off 
 by Lord Grey, tlie deputy. In the me.in time 
 various offers of marriage were made to the 
 queen, the most remarkable of which was 
 that of the Duke of Anjou, who came to 
 Eii;;land for the purpose, but after staying 
 some time, the affair was broken off. In 1588, 
 Pliilip sent against England lua famous Ar- 
 
 271 
 
 mada, to which the pope gave the appellation 
 of Invincible. On this occasion the queen 
 distinguished herself by her great presence 
 of mind and inflexible courage. She rode 
 on horseback in the camp of Tilbury, and 
 inspired her people with heroism by her 
 deportment and her speeches. The English 
 fleet, however, assisted by the winds, pre- 
 vented the Spaniards from landing, and 
 their boasted armada was destroyed. Eliza- 
 beth combined prudence with fortitude, and 
 judgment with vigour ; but she was violent, 
 haught}', and insatiably fond of admiration. 
 During her reign the nation was raised to a 
 high degree of prosperity, and its foreign 
 enemies were eftcctually humbleil ; but her 
 deceptive and cruel contluct in the afiair of 
 Mary, queen of Scots, has left an indelible 
 stain on her memory. She had strong na- 
 tural talent, was well versed in Greek and 
 Latin, and gave repeated proofs of her skill 
 in the art of governing a brave and free 
 people. Died, 1002. 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROWNA, daughter of 
 Peter the Great, was born in 17t»9. In 1741 
 she usurped the imperial throne, bydetliron- 
 ing the infant Ivan, which revolution was 
 effected without the shedding of blood. At 
 her accession she made avow that no capital 
 punishments should take place in her reign. 
 But her humanity was equivocal, as is in- 
 stanced in the shocking inini.-^hment which 
 she inflicted upon the Countess Bestuchef 
 and Lapookin, who were ptd)licly knouted, 
 and had their tongues cut out, for betraying 
 some Beciets relating to the amours of the 
 empress. She died in 17(!1. 
 
 ELIZ.VBETH, PniLii-nxK ^Iarie He- 
 lens, sister of Louis XVI., was born at Ver- 
 sailles, in 1704, and perished by the guillo- 
 tine, in 1794. When Louis fled from Paris, 
 she Bccomi>anied him, and was brought 
 back with him from Varennes. With the 
 royal family she was carried into the Temple, 
 but removed from it. May 9lh, 1794, to the 
 Conciergerie, because it had been discovered 
 that she corresponded with the princes, her 
 brothers. The next morning, when carried 
 before the revolutionary tribunal, and asked 
 her name and rank, she replied with dignity, 
 " I am Elizabeth of France, and the aunt of 
 your king." Though she was compelled to 
 submit to the horrible necessity of witness- 
 ing the execution of 24 victims who were 
 sentenced with her, she met her fate with 
 heroic calmness, and breathed not a word 
 against her merciless judges. 
 
 ELLENBOROL'GU, EiJWART) Law, lord 
 chief justice of the king's bench, and a 
 distinguished lawyer, was the son of the 
 Bishop of Carlisle, and born in 1748 at Great 
 Salkfleld, Cumberland. On the trial of 
 Warren Hastings, in 1785, Erskine having 
 refused to undertake the defence, he served 
 as leading counsel, and obtained the victory. 
 In 1801 he was made attorney-general, and 
 next year, on the death of Lord Kenyon, 
 became lordchief justice of the king's bench, 
 and was created a peer. During a period of 
 great difliculty. Lord Ellcnborough filled the 
 arduous office with great acuteness, and pro- 
 found legal knowledge. It is said, that the 
 result of the trials of Hone, who was pro- 
 secuted for impious parodies and libels (the 
 
ell] 
 
 ^ iflrio Hntiier^al JJiogvajpT)!?. 
 
 [ell 
 
 jury having found verdicts contrary to liis 
 lordship's charges), hofl a great ettbct on liis 
 declining state of health ; and though he 
 continued to appear in court, and performed 
 his functions with his usual energy of mind, 
 his frame was fast sinking. Died, 1318. 
 
 EIxLEY, Lieutenant-general Sir Jonx, a 
 distinguished English otficer, whose services 
 are the more worthy of record, because, by 
 his own sheer merit, he rose to almost the 
 highest military rank, and to a liost of other 
 honours, from the very humble situation of 
 a private iu the royal horse guards blue. 
 After passing through the inferior grades, 
 and serving with great credit as a quarter- 
 master, he, in 1791, obtained a cornctcy in 
 the Blues. He served in the campaigns of 
 the Low Countries in 179-'5 and two following 
 years, and was present at nearly every 
 action, including the siege of Valenciennes. 
 By the year 180d he had fought his way up 
 to a lieutenant-colonelcy ; in 1808 and 1809 
 he served as assistant adjutant-general to 
 the cavalry iu Spain, and was present at all 
 the sanguinary affairs in that country and 
 Portugal throughout the remainder of the 
 Peninsular war. He subsequently served in 
 the Netherlands, and was at the final shock 
 of battle, " Waterloo," where he was service- 
 able not merely as an officer, but even as an 
 individual trooper ; for we read in Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott's " Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk," 
 that several of Napoleon's cuirassiers were 
 found cleft to the very chine by Ellcy's stal- 
 wart arm. In addition to his high military 
 rank, Sir John was K. C. B., K. C. H., and 
 governor of Galway. Died, 18o9. 
 
 ELLIOTT, Ejsknezek, " The Corn-Law 
 Rhymer," was born at Masborough near 
 Rotherham in 1781, where his father was a 
 commercial clerk in the iron works. His 
 early years were not marked by any of the 
 shrewdness or ability for whiclx he was after- 
 wards distinguished ; but his love of nature 
 was intense, and his first publication, "The 
 Vernal Walk," written in his 17th year, 
 showed to what extent the scenery of his 
 native country had impressed itself on his 
 mind. From this period his poetic effusions 
 were unceasing. Poem after poem succeeded 
 each other without interruption ; he con- 
 tributed to the New Monthly Magazine, 
 Tait's Magazine, and many other periodi- 
 cals ; and in originality, power, and beauty, 
 his writings may vie with those of any con- 
 temporary writer. The great object of his 
 political life was the abolition of the corn 
 laws ; and it is not too much to say that the 
 "Corn-Law Rliymes " were as instrumental, 
 especially in the manufacturing districts, in 
 fanning the excitement which ultimately led 
 to the abolition of the corn laws, as the 
 eloquence of any member of the Anti-Corn- 
 Law-League. But while Ebenezer Elliott 
 courted tlie muses, he did not neglect the 
 more practical business of life ; and though 
 at first unsuccessful in the iron trade, his 
 energy and perseverance were ultimately 
 crowned with great success. The last edition 
 of his poems appeared in one volume in 
 1840. Died, 1849. Some posthumous poems 
 have also been published, besides a not very 
 felicitous account of his life. 
 ELLIS, Geouge, a miscellaneous writer 
 
 of considerable talent, was born in London 
 in 1745, and died in 1815. He commenced 
 liis literary career as the author of various 
 political satires and essays ; and he subse- 
 quently produced " Specimens of early Eng- 
 lish Poets," "Specimens of early English 
 Metrical Romances," &c. 
 
 ELLIS, Joiix, an English poet, was bom 
 in London in 1698, and brought up a scri- 
 vener. Mr. Ellis was the intimate friend of 
 Dr. Johnson, and wrote several pieces in 
 Dodsley's Collection. Died, 1791. 
 
 ELLIS, John, a naturalist, was born in 
 London in 1710, and died in 1770. Ilis prin- 
 cipal works are " An Essay towards a Na- 
 tural History of British Corallines," and "A 
 Natural History of inicommon Zoophytes." 
 
 ELLIS, William, a practical agriculturist 
 of the 18tli century, who lived at Great Gad- 
 desdcn, Herts, and enjoyed considerable re- 
 putation both as an inventor of farming im- 
 plements, and as the author of" The Modem 
 Husbandman," in 8 vols. 
 
 ELLISTON, RoBEuT William, an emi- 
 nent comedian, was born in London in 1774. 
 lie was educated at St. Paul's School, and 
 intended for the church ; but at the age of 
 1(5 he quitted school, without the knowledge 
 of his friends, went to Bath, and there first 
 gratified his ambition for scenic celebrity. 
 With the Bath company he remained one 
 season ; he then joined that of York, under 
 Tate Wilkinson, but returned to his former 
 quarters in 1793, where for about four years 
 he continued to play a variety of characters 
 in tragedy, comedy, opera, or pantomime ; 
 for such was his versatility and tact, that he 
 appeared advantageously in all. His first 
 bow to a London audience was made at the 
 Haymarket Theatre, June the 24th, 179G ; 
 but though engaged occasionally for Covent 
 Garden, it was not till 1804 that he became 
 fixed at either of the winter houses. This 
 occurred on Kemble's retirement from Drury 
 Lane ; and till the destruction, by fire, of 
 that edifice in 1809, he continued to be one 
 of its most active and etiicient supporters. 
 He then took the Circus, and having given 
 it the name of the Surrey Theatre, he com- 
 menced performing the plays of Shakspeare, 
 &c. under new titles, and with such inge- 
 nious alterations as brought them within the 
 licence granted to the minor theatres. His 
 speculation, however, turned out by no 
 means successful : he relinquished it, and 
 returned to Drury Lane, where for several 
 years he maintained his ground as a decided 
 public favourite ; but becoming the lessee of 
 tliat theatre in 1819, at an annual rent of 
 10,200/., it ended in his bankruptcy in 1826. 
 After this he was concerned in the Olympic 
 Theatre ; and, lastly, he a second time under- 
 took the superintendence of the Surrey, which 
 appeared to be in a prosperous state at the 
 time of his death, which took place in 1831. 
 No man who ever trod the stage was more at 
 home on it ; and while he excelled in a 
 varied range of first-rate characters belong- 
 ing to genteel comedy, he was more than 
 merely respectable in tragedy ; but comedy 
 was decidedly his forte, and nature had 
 given him a large share of those main re- 
 quisites for it — buoyant spirits, mirthful 
 hilarity, dry humuur, and fervid gallantry. 
 
 I 
 
ell] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ?lfm'bcrs'al 33t0firapTj|). 
 
 ELLWOOD, Thomas, was born at Crowell 
 in Oxfordshire, in 16o!). He was bred in 
 the tenets of tlie Cliurch of England, but 
 was induced to join tiie Quakers, tlirough 
 which he lost the favour of his father. He 
 became reader to Milton, whicli tended 
 greatly to his iinprovcmciit in learning. 
 Eliwood suft'ered imprisonment for lus pro- 
 fession, and wrote a number of books iu its 
 defence. He also edited George Fox's Jour- 
 nal, and publi.-ihed a History of the Old and 
 New Testaments ; a sacred poem on the life 
 of Huvid, &<;. Died, 1713. 
 
 ELMSLEY, Pkter, D.D., an eminent 
 philologist and classical scholar, was bom 
 in 1773, and received his education at West- 
 minster and Oxford. In pursuit of his phi- 
 lological studies he visited the principal 
 libraries on the Continent ; and iu 1819, in 
 conjunction with Sir Humphry Davy, he 
 accepted a comn\ission from government for 
 the development of the Hercuianean papyri, 
 but their labours proved abortive. On his 
 return lie settled at Oxford, where he ob- 
 tained the Camden professorship of ancient 
 history, and was elected principal of St. 
 Alban's Hall. He produced editions of 
 various classics, and contributed to the early 
 numbers of the Edinburgh Review, and at a 
 subsequent period to the Quarterly. Died, 
 1«L>5. 
 
 ELPHINSTON, ABxnuR, Lord Balme- 
 KiNO, was born in 1688. He had the com- 
 mand of a company of foot in Lord Shan- 
 non's regiment in the reign of queen Anne ; 
 but at the accession of George I. resigned 
 that commission, and joined the Earl of 
 Mar, under whom he served at the battle of 
 Sheriffmuir. After that engagement, James's 
 affairs being in a desperate situation, Elphin- 
 ston found means to escape out of Scotland, 
 and to enter into the French service, in which 
 he continued till tlic death of his brother 
 Alexander in 1733, when he returned home. 
 When the Chevalier de St. George arrived in 
 Scotland in 1744, Elphinston was one of the 
 flrst that repaired to his standard, and was 
 api)ointed colonel and captain of the second 
 troop of life-guards. At the decisive battle 
 of CuUoden, Lord Balmerino (for he had 
 succeeded to the title a few weeks preceding) 
 was taken prisoner by the Duke of Cumber- 
 land's army. Being conducted to London, 
 he was committed to the Tower, and brought 
 to trial iu Westminster Hall, 29th July, 
 1746, along with the Earls of Kilmarnock 
 and Cromarty, both of whom pleaded guilty. 
 Tlie Earl of Cromarty obtained a pardon, 
 but the other two suffered decapitation on 
 Tower Hill, 18th August, 1746. 
 
 El>PUINSTON, Jamks, a native of Edin- 
 burgh, whose attempts to effect an ima- 
 ginary reformation iu the orthography of 
 the English language, by spelling all words 
 as they are pronounced, occupied a great 
 part of his life, and ended, as he ought to 
 have foreseen, in complete disappointment. 
 In this vain pursuit he published various 
 works, among which we may mention " En- 
 glish (Jrthography epitomised," and " Pro- 
 priety's Pocket Picture." Born, 1721 ; died, 
 18(>9. 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, George Keith, Vis- 
 count KEITH, born in 1747, was a distin- 
 
 [els 
 
 guished naval officer. He entered the ser- 
 vice early in life, and arrived at the rank of 
 post-captain in 1775. During the American 
 war he served with great credit at the attack 
 on Mud Island, at Charlestown, &c. ; he also 
 captured L'Aigle of 40 guns and COO men ; 
 and when the war broke out with France he 
 was among the first who so nobly sustained 
 the credit of the British navy. In 17i)3 he 
 o-isisted at the reduction of Toulon ; and iu 
 1795 he commanded the fleet destined for 
 the capture of the Cape of Good Hope, in 
 which he not only succeeded, but compelled 
 the Dutch, who advanced to tlie relief of the 
 colony, to surrender at discretion. His 
 services on numerous other occasions were 
 highly valuable j and at length, afrer his 
 exertions in the Foudroyant on the coast 
 of Egypt, lie was elevated to the peerage. 
 Died, 1823. 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, Major-general Geokok 
 William Keith, C. B., was born, 1782. 
 Early in life this distinguished, but even- 
 tually unfortunate, officer entered the service 
 as ensign in the 24th infantry. After serv- 
 ing with much distinction in various parts 
 of the globe, he was made lieutenant-colonel 
 of the 33rd foot in 1813 ; and being present 
 with that regiment at Waterloo, his services 
 were rewarded witli the distinction of C.B. 
 He was made major-general in 18,37, and 
 was commander-in-chief of the Bengal 
 arm}', when our arms received so awful and 
 disgraceful a check in Affghanistan. He 
 was at this period enfeebled by long service 
 and by the climate of India, and was, more- 
 over, almost heljiless from the effects of gout, 
 yet he was assailed by calumny, and waa 
 to have been tried by court-martial, had not 
 death occurred while proceedings were 
 pending, and thus proved, alas I too fatally, 
 at once the reality of the sutfcring that he 
 had endured, and the malice of his slander- 
 ers. Died, April 23. 1842, aged 60. 
 
 ELRINGTON, Dr. Thomas, bishop of 
 Leighiin and Ferns. In 1781 he was elected 
 a fellow of Dublin University, and in 1794 
 became the first Donnellau lecturer. In 
 1811 he was appointed provost of Trinity 
 College ; and in 1820 was consecrated bishop 
 of Limerick ; from which he was translated, 
 in 1822, to the see of Leighiin and Ferns. I 
 He distinguished himself by various polem- 
 ical writings, and produced excellent edi- | 
 tions of Euclid and Juvenal, which of them- | 
 selves are sufficient to hand down his name | 
 as a scholar of first-rate merit. Died at | 
 Liverpool, July, 1835. 
 
 ELSTOB, William, a learned divine, 
 was horn at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1673, ! 
 und died in 1714. He was profoundly skilled | 
 in the Saxon language and antiquities, and 
 published a Latin translation of the Saxon ; 
 Homily of Lupus ; and the Homily on St. i 
 Gregory's Day, in Saxon and Latin. He 
 also wrote "An Essay on the Affinity and 
 Agreement between the Two Professions of 
 Law and Divinity," &c. 
 
 ELSTOB, Elizabeth, sister of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Newcastle, in lUbS. 
 She resided with her brother at Oxford, and 
 became the partner of his studies. She ac- 
 companied his Homily on St. Gregory with 
 an English version and a preface, and i)ub- 
 
els] 
 
 ^ ^t^ Winihtv^al 33tograpT)w. 
 
 [-EKP 
 
 lished a Saxon grammar. After lier bro- 
 ther's death, queen Caroline allowed her a 
 small pension, which slie lost on the death 
 of her benefactress ; but was saved from 
 want by the kindness of the Duchess-dowager 
 of Portland. Died, 1750. 
 
 ELSYNGE, Hexrv, born at Battersca, 
 Surrey, in liiOS ; held the place of clerk of 
 the House of Commons, which he resigned 
 in 1048 ; and died in 1054. lie wrote an ex- 
 cellent book, entitled " The Ancient Method 
 and Manner of holding Parliaments in Eng- 
 land." 
 
 ELVIUS, Peter, a Swedish mathema- 
 tician, and secretary of tlie royal academy 
 of sciences at Stockholm, was born at Upsal, 
 in 1710 ; and died in 1749. 
 
 ELWES, Joux, an extraordinary miser. 
 His family name was Meggot, which he al- 
 tered in pursuance of the will of Sir Harvey 
 Elwes, his uncle, who left him at least 
 250,000/., and he was possessed of nearly as 
 much of his own. At tliis time he attended 
 tlie most noted gaming houses, and after 
 sitting up a whole niglit at play for thousands, 
 he would proceed to Smithficld to meet his 
 cattle, wliere he would stand disputing with 
 a cattie-bntcher for a shilling. He would sit 
 in wet clotlies to save tlie expense of a fire ; 
 eat his provisions in the last stage of putre- 
 faction ; and, in short, subject liimself toany 
 privation, or be guilty of any beggarly con- 
 duct, by whicli a sixpence might be saved ; 
 yet, if by liis personal exertions l>e could 
 assist another, provided it cost him nothing 
 but his labour, he was active and ready. In 
 1774 he was chosen member for Eerksliire, 
 and liis conduct in parliament was perfectly 
 independent. He died in 1789, aged about 
 77, leaving a fortuue of 500,000/., besides 
 entailed estates. 
 
 ELZEVIK. Tlie name of a celebrated 
 family of printers, residing at Amsterdam 
 and Lcj'den, whose beautiful editions were 
 chiefly publislied between the years 1594 
 and 1680. — Louis, the first of them, began 
 to be known at Leyden in 1595, and was 
 the first who made the distinction between 
 the V consonant and the u vowel. He took 
 for his device an eagle holding seven ar- 
 rows, with the motto, " Concordia res 
 parva3 crescunt." This he afterwards ex- 
 changed for that of a man standing, w^ith 
 the motto " Non solus;" and this was 
 adopted by his successors. Tlieir names 
 were Joiix, Daniel, Mattuew, Isaac, 
 BuoNAVENTUUA, and Abuaiiam. The two 
 latter prepared the smaller editions of the 
 classics, in 12mo. and lOmo., which are still 
 valued for their beauty and correctness. 
 Although the Elzevirs were surpassed in 
 learning, and in Greek and Hebrew editions, 
 by the Stephenses of Paris, they were un- 
 equalled in their choice of works, and in the 
 elegance of their typography. 
 
 EMANUEL, king of Portugal, succeeded 
 John II. in 1495. He restored the nobility 
 to their privileges, and greatly encouraged 
 maritime adventures, by which means a new 
 passage to India was discovered by Gama, 
 and to Brazil in 1501, by Cabral. Emanuel 
 also sent an expedition to Africa, and es- 
 tablished a conmiercial intercourse with the 
 kingdom of Congo. He died in 1521. 
 
 EMERY, John", an actor of very consi- 
 derable merit (.particularly in rustic cha- 
 racters, where his perfect knowledge of the 
 Yorkshire dialect rendered him so effective), I 
 was bom at Sunderland, in 1777. For many 
 years he drew from a London audience the 
 most unequivocal proofs of their delight ; 
 and he will long be remembered for the 
 power he evinced when pourtraying the 
 rough nature and genuine simplicity of un- 
 sophisticated country life. Died, 1822. 
 
 EMILIANUS, Maucl's Julius, pro- 
 claimed emperor by the army in 253, was a 
 native of Mauritania, who had risen by his 
 courage to be governor of Moesia. Like 
 Gallus, whom he succeeded on the throne, he 
 too was murdered by those who advanced 
 him to it, after a reign of only four months. 
 
 EMLYN, TuoMAS, a Protestant dissent- 
 ing minister, memorable for the persecution 
 he sustained in consequence of his religious 
 sentiments with regard to the Trinity, was 
 born at Stamford, Lincolnshire, in 1003, and 
 studied at the university of Cambridge. In 
 1091 he settled at Dublin, as assistant to the 
 Rev. Joseph Boy ce, but was soon interdicted 
 from his pastoral duties, on suspicion of 
 Arianism. Finding himself the object of 
 much odium and misconception, he published 
 " A Humble Enquiry into tlie Scripture 
 Account of Jesus Christ;" upon w^hich he 
 was arrested on the charge of blasphemy, 
 tried, and sentenced to a year's imprison- 
 ment and a fine of lOOOl. The fine was 
 afterwards reduced to 70/., through the in- 
 terposition of the Duke of Ormond and 
 other humane persons ; and after a little 
 more than a year's confinement he was set 
 at liberty. His character was amiable, and 
 he was on terms of intimacy with Dr. Clarke, 
 Whiston, and other eminent men. Died, 
 1743. 
 
 EMMETT, Robert, the son of a physi- 
 cian at Cork, was educated for the legal 
 profession ; but, on the breaking out of the 
 Irish rebellion, he was drawn into its vor- 
 tex, became secretary to the secret direct- 
 ory of United Irishmen, and in 1803 suffered 
 the death of a traitor. His youthi'ul ardour, 
 eloquence, and intrepidity have been greatly 
 extolled. 
 
 EMMETT, Thomas Addis, elder brother 
 of the preceding, was also bred to the pro- 
 fession of the law, but becoming involved 
 in the Irish rebellion, he fled his country, 
 and settled in the United States of America, 
 where he practised as an advocate. He 
 died at New York, in 1S27. 
 
 EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher, 
 whose doctrines were nearly allied to those 
 of Pythagoras, was born about b. c. 400, 
 at Agrigentum, in Sicily. The sovereignty 
 was offered him by his fellow citizens ; but 
 being a friend to pure democracy he refused 
 it, and established a popular government. 
 He was skilled in philosophy, poetry, and 
 medicine. The time and manner of his 
 death are uncertain ; the story of his having 
 thrown liimself into the crater of Mount 
 Etna being, in all probability, a fiction. 
 
 ENFIELD, Dr. AVilliam, a dissenting 
 minister, and a writer of much judgment, 
 was born at Sudbury, in 1741 ; and after 
 filling the situation of resident tutor and 
 
eng] 
 
 ^ i5eto mntber^flT JJiosrapT^tn 
 
 [epi 
 
 lecturer on the belles lettres at Warrington 
 Academy till the dissolution of that esta- 
 biishinent, he died in 1797. lie was one of 
 the principal contributors to Dr. Aikiu's 
 Biographical Dictionary ; and is known as 
 the author or compiler of several useful 
 works, viz. "Tlie Speaker," "Exercises on 
 Elocution," " Natural Pliilosophy," &c. 
 
 ENGEL, Joiix James, a German writer, 
 whose philosophical works are held in high 
 esteem, was born in the territoiy of Mcck- 
 lenburgh, in 1741 ; and, after studying at 
 several German universities, he accepted 
 the oliice of professor of morals and litera- 
 ture at Berlin, where he was made a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and 
 wrote tlie greatest parts of his works. He 
 died in 1802. 
 
 ENGELBRECIIT. John-, a religious fa- 
 natic, was born at Brunswick, in 1,")99. lie 
 travelled for several years through Ger- 
 many, fasting at times for a forlniglit to- 
 gether, and not unfrequently falling into 
 trances, during which he pretended to re- 
 ceive divine revelations and missions for 
 proselytising mankind. Died, 1C42. 
 
 ENGIIIEN, Louis Antoine IIen'ri dk 
 BouiJBON, Duke of, son of the Duke of 
 Bourbon, and a descendant of the great 
 Condi', was born at Chantilly, in 1772. 
 Having served witli credit in the armies op- 
 posed to the French republic, he went to 
 Baden, in 1804, married, and lived there as 
 a private citizen. He was, however, re- 
 garded with tt jealous eye, as one who might 
 bectmie a dangerous foe to the ambitious 
 designs of the lirst consul ; and an order to 
 arrest him was accordingly issued. The 
 situation of his house having been ascer- 
 tained, it was surrounded on the night of 
 March 17. 1804, witli a body of soldiers and 
 gendarmes. The duke at first wished to 
 defend himself, but the force was too great 
 to lie opposed ; and thus, with several friends 
 and domestics, he was seized and carried 
 prisoner to Strasburg. Early upon the 18th, 
 the escort set oft' with the duke for Paris ; 
 but upon arriving at the gates of the ca- 
 pital, they received an order to conduct 
 their prisoner to Vincennes, where he ar- 
 rived exhausted by hunger and fatigue, and, 
 just as he had dropix-'d- asleej), he was 
 awakened, at 11 o'clock at niglit, to un- 
 dergo his trial. Tlie troops, which were 
 marched to Vincennes on this occasion, 
 were commanded by Savary, who formed a 
 court-martial, consisting of General Hullin, 
 the president, together with five colonels, 
 and a cai)tain. lie was accused of having 
 taken part in conspiracies against tlie life 
 of the first consul ; and though nothing 
 was proved against him. he received sen- 
 tence of death^ and was led into the fosse 
 of the castle, where he heroically and 
 firmly submitted to it. Tliis atrocious as- 
 sassination, without even the plea of state 
 necessity to justify it, has notwitlistandiiig 
 found its defenders in some of those who, 
 with the sacred name of freedom on their 
 lips, have done servile homage to the me- 
 mory of the arch assassin. 
 
 EN'GLEFIKLD, Sir Henry Chaeles, a 
 fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Soci- 
 eties, to whose " Transactions " he contri- 
 
 buted largely, was born in ]7.';2. He was 
 the author of a work "On the Determina- 
 tion of the Orbits of Comets," "A Descrip- 
 tion of the Picturesque Beauties and Geo- 
 logical Phenomena of the Isle of Wight," &c. 
 Died, 1S22. 
 
 ENNIUS, QuiNTCs, a celebrated Latin 
 poet of the earlier times of the republic, 
 was bom at Calabria, b. c. 2,'iO. Cato the 
 Censor became acquainted with him in Sar- 
 dinia, was his pupil, and brought him to 
 Rome, where he soon gained the friendship 
 of the most distinguished individuals, and 
 instructed young men of rank in Greek. 
 Of all his writings, nothing is extant but a 
 few fragments. Died B. c. 2(;0. 
 
 ENTICK, Jonx, an English divine, died 
 in 1780. He published a "History of the 
 War which ended in 17(x?," 5 vols. 8vo. j a 
 "History of London," 4 vols. 8vo. ; a well 
 known and approved "Latin and English 
 Dictionarv," &c. 
 
 ENTINOPUS, an eminent architect of 
 Candia in the 4th century, who may pro- 
 perly be styled the founder of Venice. 
 Having fled from the ravages of the Goths 
 to the morasses on the Adriatic coast, he 
 built the first house there for himself, and 
 afterwards assisted the inhabitants of Pa- 
 dua, who also took refuge there, in building 
 tlie 80 houses which formed the first city. 
 Died about 420. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, a Theban general, il- 
 lustrious for his talents and his virtues, was 
 the son of Polymnis. He was the friend of 
 Pelopidas, and by him appointed to tlie 
 command of tlie Theban armies. He de- 
 feated Cleombrotus, and gained the battle 
 of l/cuctra ; overcame Alexander, tyrant of 
 Phcraja ; and fell in the moment of victory 
 at the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 'MS. He 
 was brave, patriotic, and incorruptible ; and 
 to him Cicero assigns the first place among 
 the heroes of Greece. 
 
 EPEE, Charles Michael pe l*, a French 
 abbe, founder of the institution in Paris for 
 the deaf and dumb, was born at Versailles 
 in 1712, and deserves grateful remembrance 
 for the philanthropic occupation in which 
 the greater part of his life was spent. He 
 entered into holy orders, and became a Ca- 
 tholic priest ; but his great object being to 
 impart instruction to the deaf and dumb, he 
 spent his whole income, besides what was 
 contributed by benevolent patrons, in the 
 education and maintenance of his pupils, 
 for whose wants he provided with such dis- 
 interested devotion, that he often deprived 
 himself of the necessaries of life, restricting 
 himself to the plainest food, and clothing 
 himself in the coarsest appaiel. Dc I'Epec 
 died in 1789, and was succeeded by the 
 Abb^ Sicard, who much improved the sys- 
 tem of cultivating the minds of that unfor- 
 tunate class for whom his j)redecessor had 
 so benevolently laboured. 
 
 EPICHARMUS, of Cos, a philosopher of 
 the Pythagorean school, lived in the latter 
 part of the ."ith century Ijcfore Christ, at 
 Syracuse, and there wrote his celebrated 
 comedies, all of which are now lost. He 
 also wrote upon medical and philosophical 
 subjects, and attained the age of 97 years. 
 
 EPICTETUS, a Stoic philosopher, who 
 
EPi] 
 
 ^ 0tbi ^nibtr^Kl IJmsrapIjn. 
 
 [era 
 
 lived in the 1st century, was a native of 
 Hierapolid, in Plirygia, and was originallj' 
 a slave to Epaphroditus, one of Nero's' fieed- 
 men. Having been emancipated, he gave 
 himself up wliolly to the study of ijliilo- 
 eophy, and his life alTorded an example of 
 unblemished virtue. When Domitian ba- 
 nished the philosophers from Rome, Epic- 
 tetus settled at Nieopolis, but returned on 
 the death of that tyrant, and was in great 
 esteem with Adrian ami Marcus Aurelius. 
 lie resided in a humble cottage, where he 
 wrote his admirable " Enchiridion ; " and 
 such was the esteem in which he was held, 
 that the earthen lamp which gave him light 
 sold, at his death, for 30()0 draclimas, being 
 upwards of 90Z. of our money. 
 
 EPICURUS, tlie founder of the Epicurean 
 sect of philosophers, was born at Gar- 
 gcttui, B.C. 312, and studied at Athens. 
 For a time he resided successively at Colo- 
 phon, Mitylene, and Lampsacus, but finally 
 •ettled at Athens, where he purchased a 
 garden, and there expounded his system of 
 philosophy. His doctrines became popular ; 
 and though the pursuit of pleasure was the 
 chief aim, yet he taught nothing that ad- 
 ministered to sensual gratification, or that 
 was inconsistent with virtue. In short, 
 he recommended moderation, temperance, 
 firmness of soul, and the contempt of Hie. 
 lie died B.C. 271. 
 
 EPIMENIDES, a celebrated philosopher 
 and poet of Crete, who flourished during the 
 6tli century before Christ. He is represented 
 as favoured with divine communications, 
 and as an infallible prophet. 
 
 EPINAY, Louise, Madame d', a female 
 of considerable talents, and notorious for 
 her connection witli Rousseau, was the wife of 
 M. Delalive de Bellegarde, who filled the 
 office of farmer-general. During the earlier 
 part of her life, she formed an acquaintance 
 with the philosopher of Geneva, to wliom 
 •she gave a cottage in her park of Chevrette 
 (afterwards the well-known hermitage), 
 where he passed many of his days, which 
 were rendered happy by this romantic attach- 
 ment, until he became jealous of Baron 
 Grimm, whom he had himself introduced to 
 his mistress. She was the author of "Les 
 Conversations d'Emilie," " Lettres h mon 
 Fils," and " Mes Moments heureux." Died, 
 1783. 
 
 EPIPHANIUS, a father of the church, 
 who displayed great zeal against the writings 
 of Origen. He was chosen bishop of Salamis, 
 and died in 403. 
 
 EPIPHANIUS, an heresiarch, who al- 
 lowed liis followers a community of wives ; 
 and after his death he was worshipped by 
 them as a deitv. 
 
 EPISCOPIUS, SiMOX, a learned divine, 
 born at Amsterdam, in 1.583. In 1G12 lie was 
 chosen divinity professor at Eeydeu ; was the 
 princitml of the remonstrants, or Arminians, 
 at the synod of Dort, which arbitrary assem- 
 laly deposed him and the other deputies from 
 tlieir ministerial functions, and banished 
 them tlie republic. He then went to An- 
 twerp, but in 1626 he returned to Holland, 
 and became minister to the remonstrants at 
 Rotterdam, where he died, in 1()-13. 
 
 EPONINA, a Roman female, whose 
 
 strength of conjugal affection is worthy of 
 record, was the wife of Julius Sabinus, who. 
 after being defeated in his revolt against 
 Vespasian, took shelter in a subterranean 
 cave, where during nine years he and Epo- 
 niua lived concealed. Their retreat being 
 at length discovered, and Sabinus being 
 condemned to sutt'er deatli, the faithful wife 
 having vainly implored the emperor's cle- 
 mency for her husband, heroically refused 
 to survive his loss, and died a willing mar- 
 tyr to her cimstancy, a. d. 78. 
 
 ERASISTRATUS, an ancient physician, 
 who acquired great reputation at the court 
 of Seleucus Nicanor, king of Syria, was one 
 of the first who dissected human bodies, and 
 accurately described the brain. He was 
 decidedly averse to the practice of blood- 
 letting ; and is said to have put an end to 
 his own existence, at an extreme old age, 
 rather than endure the pain of an ulcer in 
 his foot. 
 
 ERASMUS, DERiDEnius, one of the most 
 eminent scholars of the age in which he I 
 lived, was born at Rotterdam, in 1467. He [ 
 was tiie illegitimate son of one Gerard, by ! 
 the daughter of a physician ; but his father j 
 and mother dying when he was only nine 
 years old, he was left to the care of three 
 guardians, wlio determined on bringing him 
 up to a religious life that they miglit enjoy 
 his patrimony ; for which purpose they 
 removed him from one convent to another, 
 till at last, in 1486, he took the habit among 
 the canons-regular at Stein, near Tergou. 
 The monastic life being disagreeable to liim, 
 he accepted an invitation iVom tlie Arch- 
 bishop of Cambray to reside with him. 
 During his abode with this prelate he was 
 ordained priest ; but in 1496 he went to 
 Paris, and supported himself by giving pri- 
 vate lectures. In 1497 he visited England, 
 and met with a liberal reception from the | 
 most eminent scholars. On liis return he j 
 spent 12 years in France, Italy, and the 
 Netherlands ; and during that time he pub- I 
 lished several works of great merit. In 1^0(5 j 
 lie took his doctor's degree at Turin, and j 
 went to Bologna, where he continued some ; 
 time ; thence he removed to Venice, and [ 
 resided with the famous Aldus Manutius. i 
 From Venice he went to Padua and Rome, 
 where many offers were made him to settle ; | 
 but having received an invitation from i 
 Henry VIII. he came to England again in 
 1510 I wrote his " Praise and Folly," while 
 residing with Sir Thomas More ; and was 
 appointed Margaret professor of divinity, 
 and Greek lecturer, at Cambridge. In 1514 j 
 he once more returned to the Continent, and 
 lived chiefly at Basle, where he vigorously 
 continued liis literary labours, and prepared 
 Ills edition of the New Testament, with a 
 Latin translation ; his "Ciceronianus," and 
 his celebrated " Colloquies," which latter 
 gave such oflFence to the monks, that they 
 used to say, " Erasmus laid the egg which 
 Luther hatched." With Luther, however, 
 whom he had provoked by his treatise on 
 Free Will, he was in open liostility. In 
 1528 appeared his learned work, "De recta 
 Latinis Gra:cique Serraonis Pronunciatione," 
 and his last publication, which was printed 
 the year before his death, was entitled 
 
era] 
 
 ^ llelD ?atiilJCi'^aT JJioffrajpTjj?. 
 
 [ers 
 
 " Eficlesiastes, or the Manuer of Preaching." 
 Ue <lied at Basle, in 1530. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, a native of Cyrenc, in 
 Africa, B.C. 275, was librarian at Alcxaiuliia, 
 and improved the science of mathematical 
 geography, which he corrected, enlarged, 
 and reduced to system. He was also a phi- 
 losopher, poet, and grammarian ; while he 
 rendered much service to the sciences of 
 astronomy and geography, by first observing 
 the obliquity of the ecliptics, and by disco- 
 vering the method of measuring the circum- 
 ference of the globe. 
 
 ERCILI.A y ZUNIGA, a Spanish poet 
 and soldier, was born in the province of 
 Biscay, about 1530. He was brought up at 
 the court of Charles V., and joined an ex- 
 pedition which was sent out to Chili against 
 u tribe of natives called the Aracoaniaus. 
 Hence came his admirable epic of "La 
 Araucana," which desciibes the perils and 
 exi)loit8 of that fierce and dangerous contest: 
 this he wrote on scraps of paper, and on bits 
 of leather when paper could not be had, 
 during those brief intervals wliicli could be 
 snatched from active duty. 
 
 EKEJIITA, Daniel, a writer of the 17th 
 century, was a native of Antwerp, and be- 
 came secretary to the Duke of Florence. He 
 was very unsettled in his religious opinions, 
 being successively a protestant, catliolic, 
 rieijt, and at his death an avowed atheist. 
 He wrote several works, the principal one 
 being entitled "De Aulicd Vitd ac Civili." 
 Died, IC13. 
 
 ERIC IX., king of Sweden, Denmark, and 
 Norway, succeeded Margaret in 1412. He 
 married the daughter of Henry IV. of Eng- 
 land. He made a pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land, but was taken prisoner in Syria, and 
 paid a large ransom for his liberty. Soon 
 after his return the Swedes revolted, and 
 were followed by the Danes, on which he 
 withdrew to the Isle of Gothland. In 1439 
 he was formally deposed. He afterwards 
 settled in Pomerania, where he died in 1459. 
 He compiled a " History of Denmark to the 
 year 1288." 
 
 ERIC XIV., son and successor of Gusta- 
 vus I., king of Sweden. lie courted the prin- 
 cess Elizabeth, afterwards queen of England, 
 but being refused, he married the daugliter of 
 a j)easant. This alienated from him the hearts 
 of his subjects, and, together with his cruel- 
 lies, occasioned a revolt. Eric was compelled 
 to renounce his throne in 1508. He died iu 
 prison, in 1578. 
 
 ERICEIRA, Fekdinand de Mexezes, 
 Count, a Portuguese historian, was born at 
 Lisbun, in 1(!14. He devoted himself to 
 military service, and distinguished himself 
 as an able general at Tangier. He wrote 
 "The History of Tangier," "History of 
 Portugal," &c. 
 
 ERICEIRA, Fraxcis Xavieh Mexezes, 
 Count, great-grandson of the above, was 
 born at Lisbon, in 1703 ; and died in 1713. 
 Ue wrote on " Academical Studies," " Pa- 
 rallels of illustrious Men and Women," &c. 
 
 ERIGENA, Joiix Scotus, a learned man 
 of the 9th century, was born in Scotland, 
 though some make him a native of England, 
 and others of Ireland. He is said to have 
 travelled to Athens, where he acquired the 
 
 Greek and Oriental languages. He resided 
 many years at the court of Charles the Bald, 
 king of France, with whom he lived on terms 
 of the greatest familiarity. At the request 
 of his patron he translated the works of 
 Dionysius into Latin, which drew upon him 
 the resentment of the pope, to avoid whose 
 fury he went to England, where he was 
 courteously received by Alfred the Great, 
 who placed him at the head of his newly- 
 founded college at Oxford ; but after a resi- 
 dence there of about three years, he retired 
 to the abbey of Malmesbury. His greatest 
 work was the " Division of Nature, or the 
 Nature of Things," printed at Oxford in 
 KWl. 
 
 ERNESTI, John Augustus, an eminent 
 German critic, and professor of theology at 
 Leipsic, was born in 1707. He published 
 several valuable editions of Xenoidion, Ci- 
 cero, Suetonius, Tacitus, Homer, and Cal- 
 limachus, accompanied with learned notes ; 
 and a "Theological Library," in 10 vols. 
 Died, 1781. 
 
 ERNESTI, Augustus William, a nephew 
 of the preceding, was also a distinguished 
 classical scholar, and published several 
 learned works. Born, 1753 ; died, 1801. 
 
 ERSCH, John Samuel, a German bibli- 
 ographer, born in i7W, was principal libra- 
 rian, and professor of geography and statis- 
 tics, at the university of Halle. He wrote a 
 " Manual of German I^itcrature ; " a " Dic- 
 tionary of French Writers, from 1771 to 
 1805 ;" was ^oint editor with Professor GrUber 
 of the " Universal Encyclopaidia," published 
 at I^ii)sic ; and editor of the " Jena Literary 
 Gazette." Died, 1828. 
 
 ERSKINE, Rev. Ebenezer, the founder 
 of the secession church in Scotland, was bom 
 at Dryburgh, in Berwickshire, 1080. Having 
 passed through the usual literary and theo- 
 logical curriculum at Edinburgh University, 
 he was ordained minister of Portmoak, in 
 Kinrosshire, in 1703, and soon began to take 
 a prominent part in the religious contests 
 of the period. In 1731 he accepted of a call 
 to Stirling ; and circumstances soon after- 
 wards having occurred to augment the hos- 
 tility he had always shown to the law of 
 patronage, he declared the church judicato- 
 ries to be illegal and unchristian, and, after 
 some delay and discussions, was " deposed 
 from the olfice of the holy ministry " in 1740. 
 But he was soon joined by his brother Raii)h, 
 minister of Dunfermline, and other min- 
 isters ; and having constituted themselves 
 into a presbytery, they founded the Secession 
 church of Scotland, which has since shot up 
 into a goodly tree, and borne ample fruit. 
 Died, 1704. 
 
 ERSKIXE, Dr. Joiix, son of an eminent 
 Scotch lawyer of the same name, was born 
 at Cardross, in 1721, and destined for the 
 bar ; but his inclination leading him to the 
 study of theology, he was, in 1742, licensed 
 to preach by the presbytery of Dumblane ; 
 and in July, 1759, he and Dr. Robertson were 
 admitted collegiate ministers of the Old 
 Grey-Friars church there. His " Theological 
 Dissertations " appeared in 1765 : but his 
 " Sketches and Hints of Church History and 
 Theological Controversy " were not pub- 
 lished till many years after. These, with a 
 
ERS] 
 
 ^ jjiclj) ^m'ber^al SSiasrapf)!?. 
 
 [esp 
 
 volume of sermons, are his principal works. 
 Died, 1803. 
 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord, third son of 
 David Henry Erskine, earl of Buchan, was 
 born in 17,50. lie received his education at 
 Edinburgh High School and St. Andrew's 
 University ; but the contracted means of his 
 family rendering a profession necessaiy, 
 he went to sea as a midshipman ; but he 
 quitted the service after four years, and en- 
 tered into the royals, or 1st regiment of 
 foot, with whom he embarked for Minorca 
 in 1770. Ilis friends, however, and par- 
 ticularly his mother, who properly appre- 
 ciated his great talents, advised him to laj' 
 aside all thoughts of a military life, and 
 embrace the legal profession. Accordingly, 
 at the age of 26, he entered at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Caml)ridge, in 1777, mei-ely to obtain 
 a degree, to which he was entitled as the 
 son of a nobleman ; and, at the same time, 
 became a student of Lincoln's Inn. He also 
 placed himself as a pupil in the office of Mr 
 (afterwards judge) Buller, then an eminent 
 special pleader, and subsequently in that of 
 Mr. (afterwards baron) Wood. He was 
 called to the bar in 1778, and obtained im- 
 mediate success. In May, 1783, he received 
 a silk gown, and, the same year, was elected 
 member of Parliament for Portsmouth, and 
 unanimously rechosen for the same borough 
 on every succeeding election, until raised to 
 the peerage. In 1792, being employed to 
 defend Thomas Paine, when prosecuted for 
 the second part of his Rights of Man, he de- 
 clared that, waiving all personal convictions, 
 he deemed it right, as an English advocate, 
 to obey the call : by the maintenance of w liich 
 principle, he lost his office of attorney-gene- 
 ral to the Prince of Wales. The rnost ar- 
 duous eflFort, however, in his professional life, 
 arose out of the part cast upon him, in con- 
 junction with Mr. (afterwards Sir Vicary) 
 Gibbs, in the trials of Hardy, Tooke, and 
 others, for high treason, in 1794. Tliese 
 trials lasted for several weeks, and tlie 
 ability displayed by Mr. Erskine on this 
 eventful occasion was admired and acknow- 
 ledged by all parties. He was a strenuous 
 opposer of the war with France ; and wrote 
 a pamphlet, entitled " A View of the Causes 
 and Consequences of the War with France;" 
 when such was the attraction of his name, 
 that it ran through the unprecedented num- 
 ber of 48 editions. In 1802, the Prince of 
 Wales not only restored him to his office of 
 attorney-general, but made him keeper of 
 his seals for the duchj' of Cornwall. On the 
 death of Mr. Pitt, in 1806, when Lord Gren- 
 ville received the commands of George III. 
 to form a new administration, Mr. Erskine 
 was created a peer, and raised to the dignity 
 of lord high chancellor of Great Britain ; 
 but the dissolutioia of the administration of 
 wiiich he formed a part happening during 
 the following year, he retired with the usual 
 pension. During the latter years of his life 
 Lord Erskine laboured under considerable 
 pecuniary difficulties ; while numerous follies 
 and eccentricities (to use no harsher epithets) 
 obscured the brilliancy of his former fame. 
 He was the author of a political romance, in 
 2 vols., entitled " Armata," and some pam- 
 phlets on the Greek cause. But it was at j 
 
 278 
 
 the bar that he shone with peculiar lustre. 
 There the resources of his mind were made 
 apparent by instantaneous bursts of elo- 
 quence, combining logic, rhetorical skill, 
 and legal precision ; while he triumphed 
 over the passions and prejudices of his hear- 
 ers, and moulded them to his will. He died 
 in 1823. 
 
 ERXLEBEN, Jons CiiRisTrAir Poly- 
 CAKP, a German naturalist, born at (iued- 
 linburg, in 1744. He studied physic at 
 Gottingen, and gave lectures there on the 
 veterinary art and natural history. His 
 "Principles of Natural History " is par- 
 ticTilarlv valuable. He died in 1777. 
 
 ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, Anthont, a 
 celebrated Spanish Jesuit, born at Valla- 
 dolid, in 1589, and died in 1669. He was a 
 popular preacher and a voluminous author. 
 His most noted works are his " Moral The- 
 ology," and his " Cases of Conscience." 
 
 ESCOIQUIZ, Dox JiTAN, a Spanish di- 
 plomatist and author, born in 1762. He 
 was the confidential friend of Ferdinand 
 VII., whom he defended zealously against 
 the machinations of the Prince of Peace, and 
 of Napoleon at Bayonne ; jet for having ad- 
 vised the king to accept, at least in part, the 
 constitution of the Cortes, he was banished 
 on his restoration, and died in exile, in 1820. 
 Among liis works are the "Conquest of 
 Mexico " anl translations from Milton and 
 Young. 
 
 ESMENARD, Joseph Alphoxse, a French 
 poet and political writer, was born, in 1770, 
 at Ptlissane, in Provence. During the revo- 
 lution he was connected with many literary 
 and political journals ; accompanied General 
 Leclerc to St. Domingo ; and on his return 
 became acquainted with Marmontel. His 
 poem, "La Navigation," is highly descrip- 
 tive ; lie also wrote the operas of " Trajan " 
 and " Ferdinand Cortez." He died in 1811. 
 
 ESPAGNAC, John Baptist, Baron d', a 
 French general, born in 1713. He served 
 under Marshal Saxe, and wrote a number of 
 books on the military art, and a history of 
 the marshal, in 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 ESPEJO, N., bom about 1764 ; one of the 
 earliest champions of Spanish South Ameri- 
 can liberty. He was massacred in 1814, with 
 the garrison of Valencia, by the royalist 
 general Boves, after capitulation. 
 
 ESPER, John- Frederic, a naturalist and 
 astronomer, was born at Drossenfeld, in 
 Bayreuth, in 1732. He published " A Method 
 of determining the Orbits of Comets, and 
 other celestial Bodies, without astronomical 
 Instruments, or mathematical Calculations;" 
 and was the first who examined and described 
 the curious fossil remains in the subterranean 
 caverns of Barreuth. Died, 1781. 
 
 ESPREMENIL, James Duval d', a coun- 
 sellor of the parliament of Paris, and deputy 
 from the nobility to the states-general in 
 1789. He had from his youtli entertained the 
 project of restoring to France the states- 
 general ; and for the violence of his speeches 
 on that subject he was seized and banished 
 to the isle of St. Margaret ; but being re- 
 called to Paris in 1789, he defended the mo- 
 narchy against innovators with as much 
 warmth as he had before opposed the despo- 
 tism of the ministry. He was ultimately 
 
est] 
 
 ^ ^flD Winihct^al 38i0grap!)M. 
 
 [eto 
 
 condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, 
 and perislicd on the scaffold in 1793. 
 
 ESTAIMG, CUAKLES IIknry, Count, a 
 French commander, was born of a noble 
 family in Auvergne ; and commenced his 
 career in the East Indies, under Lally, when 
 he was taken prisoner by the English. In 
 the American war he was employed as vice- 
 admiral and general of the French armies 
 on that station, where he took the island of 
 Grenada. In 1787 lie became a member of 
 the assembly of notables, and commandant 
 of tlie national guards at Versailles at the 
 commencement of the revolution ; but like 
 many others who had promoted the revolu- 
 tion, he was accused of counter-revolution- 
 ary projects, and suffered, in 1793, by the 
 guillotine. 
 
 ESTE, one of the most ancient and illus- 
 trious families of Italy, wliich owed its ori- 
 gin to those petty princes who govenied 
 Tuscany in the time of the Carlovingians. 
 In later times, they received from the em- 
 perors several districts and counties, to be 
 held as fiefs of the empire, with the title of 
 marquis. Of this family was Guelfo IV., 
 who. having received the investiture of the 
 duchy of Bavaria, founded the house of 
 Brunswick. 
 
 ESTRADES, Godfrey, Count, a French 
 general and diplomatiist, born in 1G07, and 
 died in 161(5. He served with distinction in 
 the Netherlands, under Prince Maurice ; 
 concluded several important treaties ; and 
 for his various services was created a marshal 
 of France. 
 
 ESTllEES, Gabrielle, duchess of Beau- 
 fort, mistress to Henry IV. of France, was 
 born about 1571, and was descended from 
 an ancient and noble family in I'icardy. 
 So passionately was she loved by Henry, 
 tliat he intended to raise Gabrielle to the 
 throne as his lawful consort ; for which 
 purpose he procured a divorce from Margaret 
 of Valois. The design was strongly opposed 
 by Sully, who often represented to tlie mo- 
 narch the bad consequences of such a 
 measure, and succeeded in rendering it 
 abortive. Her death took place under very 
 suspicious circumstances, in 1599. Having 
 eaten an orange one day after dinner, she 
 was suddenly seized with convulsions, and 
 died during the same week in excruciating 
 torments. She is descril>ed as possessing 
 qualities of rare occurrence in one so situ- 
 ated, namely, gentleness, amiability, and a 
 modest demeanour. 
 
 ETHELBEKT, king of Kent in 500. He 
 married Bertha, daughter of Caribcrt, king 
 of France, by whose means he embraced 
 Christianity, which he had permitted to be 
 preached to his subjects by Augustine the 
 monk, who made many converts, and was 
 afterwards canonised. Etlielbert enacted a 
 code of laws, and died in CIC). 
 
 ETHELBEKT, king of England, the se- 
 cond son of Ethelwolf, succeeded his bro- 
 ther Ethelbald, in 8(iO. He was a virtuous 
 prince, and beloved by his subjects. 
 
 ETHELIIED I., king of England, son of 
 Ethelwolf, succeeded his brother Etlielbert 
 in atV). The Danes became so formidable 
 in his reign, as to threaten the conquest of 
 the whole kingdom. Assisted by his brother 
 
 Alfred, Ethelred drove them from the centre 
 of Mercia, where they had penetrated ; but 
 the Mercians refusing to act with him, he 
 was obliged to trust to the West Saxons 
 alone, his hereditary subjects. After various 
 successes, the invaders continualljr increas- 
 ing in numbers, Ethelred died, in conse- 
 quence of a wound received in an action with 
 them, in 871. 
 
 ETHELRED II., king of England, the 
 son of Edgar, succeeded his brother Edward 
 the Martyr in 978, and, for his want of vi- 
 gour and capacity, was surnamcd the Un- 
 ready. He paid a tribute to the Danes by 
 a tox levied on his subjects, called Danefjc.lt. 
 To free himself from this ojipression, he 
 caused all the Danes in England to be trea- 
 cherously massacred in one daj'. On this, 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark, entered Ids king- 
 dom, and compelled him to fly to Kor- 
 mandy, but Sweyn dying soon after, Ethelred 
 returned and resumed the government. He 
 died in lOlC. 
 
 ETHELWOLF, king of England, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Egbert, in 838, and gave 
 to his son, Athelstan, the sovereignty over 
 Essex, Kent, and Sussex. In the year 851 
 tlie Danes invaded the kingdom in excessive 
 numbers, and threatened its total subjuga- 
 tion ; for, thougli vigorously opposed by 
 Athelstan and others, they fixed tlieir win- 
 ter quarters in England, and next year burnt 
 Canterbury and London. During these 
 troubles, Ethelwolf, accompanied by Alfred, 
 his youngest son, made a pilgrimage to 
 Rome, where he remained a year, and, on 
 his return, found Athelstan dead, and suc- 
 ceeded by his next son, Ethelbald, who had 
 entered into a conspiracy with some nobles 
 to prevent his father from again ascending 
 the throne. To avoid a civil war, the king 
 gave up the western division of the kingdom 
 to his son, and soon after, summoning the 
 states of the whole kingdom, solemnly con- 
 ferred upon the clergy the tithes of all the 
 produce of the lands. Died, S.")?. 
 
 ETHEREDGE, Sir Gkoi:«k, an English 
 dramatist, and one of the wits of the court 
 of Charles II., was born about 1(53(5. After 
 he returned from his travels, he studied at 
 one of the inns of court, but soon relin- 
 quished legal science for the pursuit of that 
 fashionable course of dissipation which cha- 
 racterised the era in which he lived. Not- 
 withstanding this, he devoted considerable 
 attention to light literature, and wrote songs, 
 panegyrics, lampoons, and dramas ; which, 
 though tinctured with licentiousness, possess 
 humour, ease, and spirit. His comedies are 
 entitled " The Comical Revenge, or Love in 
 a Tub," " Slie Would if She" Could," and 
 "Tlie Man of Mode." Having injured his I 
 constitution and fortune, he sought to ! 
 marry a rich elderly widow, who made his ' 
 acquirement of the honour of knighthood 
 the condition of her acceptance. This, 
 on the accession of James II., he attained, 
 and was appointed envoy to Ratisbon, 
 where he is said to have lost his life, in 1083, 
 by falling down stairs when in a state of 
 intoxication. 
 
 ETOILE, Peter pe j/, a French writer, 
 born in ir>4(», wliote diary of events fumished 
 the matter for the "Journal of Henry HI.," 
 
ett] 
 
 %. i2cl\3 mniSitx^Kl 3St0SVKi3lj». 
 
 [eul 
 
 in 6 vols. ; and the "Journal of IlcnrylV.," 
 in 4 vols. Died, 1011. 
 
 ETTY, William, R.A., a distinguished 
 artist, was born at York, 1787. At a very 
 early age he evinced a talent for drawing 
 and colours ; and having served his appren- 
 ticeship asa printer, he abandoned that vo- 
 cation for one in which he ultimately at- 
 tained so eminent a position. On his arrival 
 in London in 180,5, he soon attracted the 
 attention of Ojiie, Fuseli, and Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence ; and the death of an uncle, who 
 t)equeathed him a considerable fortune, 
 having enabled him to prosecute his studies 
 as he pleased, he proceeded on a tour to 
 Italy, the home of art, where he applied 
 himself with zeal and perseverance to his 
 profession, and imbibed that taste for Vene- 
 tian art which he subsequently carried out 
 in the numerous works that proceeded 
 from his pencil. :Many of liis works were of 
 colossal magnitude. A year liefore his death, 
 a collection of them was made in the rooms 
 of the Society of Arts, under his own super- 
 intendence ; and their dazzling brilliancy 
 surpassed the expectations of even his most 
 cordial admirers. His " Judith " and " Joan 
 of Arc " may rank with the best compositions 
 of modern times. Died at York, 1850. 
 
 EUBULIDES, a philosopher and dramatic 
 writer of Miletus, was a disciple of Euclid, 
 and preceptor to Demosthenes and Alexinus. 
 He wrote some comedies, and a book against 
 Aristotle. There was another of the same 
 name, but of the cynic sect. 
 
 EUCLID, an eminent philosopher of 
 Megara, and the disciple of Socrates, from 
 whom he differed in the manner of teaching; 
 for, instead of instructing his pupils in mo- 
 rals, he confined their attention wholly to 
 the subtleties of logic. He flourished about 
 four centuries before the Christian era, and 
 was the founder of the Megaric sect. 
 
 EUCLID, a celebrated mathematician of 
 Alexandria, who flourished B.C. 300. He 
 immortalised his name by his books on 
 geometry, in which he digested all the pro- 
 positions of the eminent geometricians who 
 preceded him, as Thales, Pythagoras, and 
 others. Ptolemy became his pupil, and his 
 school was so famous, that Alexandria con- 
 tinued for ages the great university for ma- 
 thematicians. His " Elements " have gone 
 through innumerable editions ; and though 
 he wrote on music, optics, and other subjects, 
 it is as a geometrician that he will ever be 
 remembered. 
 
 EUDOCIA, a learned female of Athens, 
 whose original name was Athenais, was the 
 daughter of Leontius tlie philosopher. In 
 421 she was married to the emperor Theodo- 
 sius, who afterwards divorced her in a fit of 
 jealousy. She then went to Jerusalem, where 
 she built churches, and led a life of great 
 devotion. She died in 4G0. This empress 
 wrote several Greek poems, and paraphrases 
 on some of the prophets. 
 
 EUGENE, Franci,^, of Savoy, known 
 as Prince Eugene, a distinguished military 
 commander, and a grandson of the Duke 
 of Savoy, was born at Paris, in 16G3. He 
 was intended for the church ; but his predi- 
 lection for a military life was so strong, that 
 I on being refused a regiment in the French 
 
 ai-my, he entered the service of the emperor, 
 as a volunteer against the Turks ; where 
 his bravery attracting notice, he was soon 
 appointed to the command of a regiment of 
 dragoons. He was afterwards placed at the 
 head of the army of Hungary ; and so highly 
 did Louis XIV. think of his abilities, that 
 he offered Mm a marshal's staff, a pension, 
 and the government of Champagne ; but 
 these he indignantly refused. He was the 
 companion in arms of the great Duke of 
 Marlborough, and participated in the vic- 
 tories of Blenheim, Oudenarde, &c. He like- 
 wise saved Turin, expelled the French from 
 Italy, reduced Lisle, and, in short, raised 
 his name to the very pinnacle of military 
 renown by repeated demonstrations of skill 
 and bravery. He routed the Turks at Peter- 
 waradin, in 1716, and compelled Belgrade to 
 surrender, after inflicting on them another 
 ruinous defeat. After the peace in 1718 he 
 retired to private life, and spent his time in 
 cultivating and patronising the arts, till he 
 was again, in 1733, called into the field as 
 commander on the Rhine : this service, how- 
 ever, was unproductive of any remarkable 
 action. He died, aged 72, in 1736 ; and, in- 
 dependently of his military renown, he left 
 behind him a character in private life worthy 
 of imitation. 
 
 EUGENIUS, an obscure man, who from 
 being a grammarian, was proclaimed em- 
 peror in Datii)hin<5 by Count Arbogastus, 
 after the death of Valentinian the Younger, 
 in 392. He crossed the Alps, and made 
 himself master of Milan ; but in 394 he was 
 defeated and slain by the emperor Theo- 
 dosius. 
 
 EULER, LEONAno, a celebrated mathema- 
 tician, born at Basle, in 1707, and was a pupil 
 of John Bemouilii. He was one of the lite- 
 rati invited to St. Petersburg by Catharine I., 
 and for a time sustained the whole weight 
 of the mathematical department in the new 
 university, with great talent and industry. 
 In 1741 he accepted an invitation from Fre- 
 derick the Great, and remained at Brienne 
 till 1766, when he returned to the Russian 
 capital, where he died in 1783. Though he 
 had been blind for many years before his 
 death, he still continued his literary labours; 
 and in that state he produced his " Elements 
 of Algebra " and his " Theory of the Moon." 
 His writings, which are numerous, are able 
 and original, both in metaphysics and philo- 
 sophy ; and, in fact, he may justly be re- 
 garded as one of the greatest mathematicians 
 of the age. 
 
 EULER, John Albert, Charles, and 
 CHinsToriiER, three sons of the preceding, 
 were each eminent in their respective walks 
 of lil'e. — The eldest, John Albert, an able 
 mathematician, was born at St. Petersburg, 
 in 1734, and died there in 1800. He was a 
 counsellor of state, and secretary of the 
 Imperial Academy of Sciences ; and wrote 
 many treatises on astronomy, optics, &c — 
 Charles, the second son, who was bom 
 at St, Petersburg, in 1740, was physician to 
 the cburt, and a member of the Imperial 
 Academy of Sciences. He died in 1766 ; and 
 to him is attributed an able treatise on the 
 
 motion of the planets Christopher, the 
 
 youngest son, was born at Berlin, in 1743 ; 
 
eum] 
 
 ^ ^cU) ^nibrrj^fll 3Si0jQT<ip!)y» 
 
 [eva 
 
 besides being eminent as a mathematician, 
 l>e was an excellent astronomer, and was one 
 of the persons selected to observe the transit 
 of Venus in 1709. He first held a commis- 
 sion in the Prussian artillery service, and 
 afterwards in that of Russia ; but the time 
 and place of his death are unknown. 
 
 EUMENES, a celebrated general under 
 Alexander the Great, after whose death he 
 became very powerful, the government of 
 Cappodocia and Faphlogonia being assigned 
 to him ; but he was at last conquered by 
 Antigonus, and put to death B.C. 316. He 
 was a man of strict probity, and of a mild 
 and generous nature. 
 
 EUNAPIUS, a writer and physician of 
 the 4th century, who wrote a book of the 
 Lives of the Pliilosophers and Sophists, in 
 which he speaks rancorously of Cliristinnity. 
 lie also composed the history of the Ccesars, 
 which is lost, but the substance of it may be 
 seen in Zosimus. 
 
 EUPHUllION, a Greek poet and histo- 
 rian, born at Chalcis in Euba-a, is. c. 274. 
 Only a few fragments of his poems are 
 extant. 
 
 EUPIIRANOR, an Athenian painter and 
 sculptor, who lived about uii2 years B.C. 
 He wrote some books on the arts which he 
 professed, but they are lost. 
 
 EUPOLIS, a comic poet of Athens, who 
 lived about 435 b.c. Alcibiades is said to 
 have caused him to be cast into the sea for 
 writing a play against him, but yElian says 
 that he died at Egiua. Some fiagmeutsof 
 his remain. 
 
 EURIPIDES, a Grecian tragic poet, was 
 born in the island of Salamis, B.C. 480. 
 He studied at Athens under Anaxagoias the 
 philosopher, and Prodicus the rhetorician ; 
 but left that city in disgust, on account of 
 the rivalship of Sophocles and the raillery 
 of Aristophanes, and went to the court of 
 Archelaus, king of Maeedon. He wrote an 
 immense number of tragedies, nineteen of 
 which are extant. As he was walking one 
 evening in a wood, he was attacked by the 
 king's hounds and torn in pieces. He was 
 then in his 7.")th year. 
 
 EUSDtIN, Laurexce, an English poet, 
 was born in Yorkshire. In 1718 he obtained 
 the laureateship, which raised him seve- 
 ral enemies, particularly Pope, who placed 
 him in the Dunciad. He became rector 
 of Coningsby, in I.incolnshiie, where he 
 died in J730. His poems are in Nichols's 
 collection. 
 
 EUSEBIUS, Pampiiimts, an ecclesiastical 
 historian, was born in Palestine about 270. 
 In the i>ersecution by Diocletian, he assisted 
 the suffering Christians by his exliortations, 
 particularly his friend Pamphilus, whose 
 niinie out of veneration he assumed. liuse- 
 bius was chosen bishop of Ca;sarea about 013. 
 He was at first the friend of Arius, because 
 lie considered him as persecuted, but on per- 
 ceiving the dangerous extent of his opinions, 
 he abandoned Iiim, and assisted at the coun- 
 cil of Nice, which he opened with an address. 
 He was also at that of Antioch. The emperor 
 Omstanline had a particular esteem forliim, 
 and showed liim several tokens of favour. 
 He died about 338. He wrote an "Ecclesi- 
 astical History," the "Life of Constantinc," 
 
 and other works, the principal of which is 
 "Evangelical Preparation." 
 
 EUSTACUIUS, Baktholomeav, an emi- 
 nent Italian physician of the ICth century. 
 He settled at Rome, wlicre he formed his 
 anatomical tables, and nuide several im- 
 portant discoveries, among which is the 
 passage from the throat to the internal ear, 
 called the Eustachian tube. Boerhaave pub- 
 lished this author's Opuscula Anatomicu in 
 1707. He died in 1570. 
 
 EITSTATHIUS, an eminent critic and 
 archbishop of Thessalonica, was born at 
 ConstantiJiople, and lived in the 12lh century. 
 He wrote commentaries on Homer and Dio- 
 njsius the geographer ; displaying, in the 
 former more especially, profound philological 
 learning. 
 
 EUTROPIUS, Flatii-s, a Latin historian 
 of the 4th century. He was secretary to 
 Constantine the Great, and served under 
 Julian in his Persian expedition. He wrote 
 an epitome of the history of Rome, of which 
 numerous editions have been printed. 
 
 EUTYCHES, an ecclesiastic of the 5th 
 century, from wliom the sect of Entychians 
 sprung, was a man of strict piety, l)Ut who, 
 in opposing the doctrines of Nestorius, fell 
 into the opposite extreme, and denied the 
 human nature of Christ. For this he was 
 excommunicated ; but he had many follow- 
 ers, and the sect existed for a long period 
 after hia death. 
 
 EVAGORAS, a Greek writer in the time 
 of Augustus. He wrote a History of Egypt, 
 the Liie of Tlmagencs, "De AriiflcioThucy- 
 didis Oratorio," &c. 
 
 EVANS, Abkl, commonly called Dr. 
 Evans, the epigrammatist, was one of the 
 Oxford wits, and intimate with the most 
 eminent poets of the age. He was a member 
 of St. John's College, and viciir of St. Giles, 
 Oxford. He took his degree of D.D. in 1711. 
 
 EVANS, Akise, an astrologer of the 17th 
 century, was a native of Wales, and educated 
 at Oxford. He removed to London, where 
 he taught the mathematics, practised astro- 
 logy, and had the reputation of a necro- 
 mancer. 
 
 EVANS, Caleb, was an eminent Baptist 
 minister at Bristol, and the author of " Ser- 
 mons on the Scripture Doctrine of the Son 
 and Holy Spirit," " Christ Crucified, or the 
 Scripture Doctrine of tlie Atonement," &c. 
 He died in 1791. 
 
 EVANS, Cornelius, an impostor, was 
 born at Marseilles, but his father was a 
 Welsliman. In 1048 he came to P^ngland, 
 and pretended to be the prince of Wales, to 
 wliom he bore a great resemblance. After 
 carrying on this farce a few weeks he was 
 sent to Newgate, from whence he effected his 
 escape, but what became of him afterwards 
 is not known. 
 
 EVANS, Joiix, n general Baptist minister, 
 and theological writer, was I)orn at Uskc, 
 in Monmouthshire. Having completed his 
 studies at the universities of Aberdeen and 
 Edinburgh, in 1792 he became pastor of a 
 congregation in Worship Street, London, 
 and 8ul)se(itiently opened an academy for 
 youth at Hoxton, which he removed to Is- 
 lington, and finally rclintiuished it in 1K25. 
 He wrote and compiled several works, but 
 
 281 
 
eva] 
 
 ^ flfin mntbtr^al SSiagraiJl^M. 
 
 [exji 
 
 is chiefly known as the author of " A Brief 
 Sketch of the several Denominations into 
 which the Christian World is divided." 
 Died, 1827. 
 
 EVANSON, Edward, a divine, was born 
 at Warrington, in Lancashire, in 1731, and 
 educated at Cambridge. He obtained the 
 rectory of Tewkesbury, but liaving adopted 
 Sociuian doctrines, he was compelled to quit 
 his living, and afterwards settled at Mitcham, 
 in Surrey. He wrote the " Dissonance of the 
 Four generally received Evangelists," " A 
 Letter to Bishop Hurd on the Grand Apos- 
 tasy," " Reflections on the State of Religion 
 in Christendom," and some other works. 
 Died, 180.5. 
 
 EVELYN, John', was the son of Richard 
 Evelyn, esq., of Wotton, Surrey, where he 
 was born in 1G20. Throughout life he evinced 
 a love for the liberal and useful arts ; and 
 having at an early period been induced to 
 leave England on account of the civil war, 
 he added greatly to liis stock of knowledge 
 by the good use he made of his time while 
 travelling in France and Italy. He re- 
 turned home in 1(5.51, and made some efforts 
 in favtjur of the royal cause ; on which ac- 
 count he was much favoured by Charles II. 
 after lii.s restoration. On the foundation of 
 the Royal Society, he was nominated one of 
 the first fellows ; soon after which he pub- 
 lished his most celebrated work, entitled 
 " Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees," &c. 
 In 1004, Evelyn was appointed one of the 
 commissioners of sick and wounded seamen; 
 also a commissioner for rebuilding St. Paul's 
 cathedral; and he afterwards had a place at 
 the board of trade. Jn the reign of James II. 
 he was made one of the commissioners for 
 executing tlie oflice of lord privy seal, and 
 after the Revolution he was appointed trea- 
 surer of Greenwich Hospital. Evelyn has 
 the honour of being one of the first who im- 
 proved horticulture, and introduced exotics 
 into this country. Of liis garden at Sayes 
 Court, a curious account may be seen in the 
 Philosophical Transactions. Besides liis 
 " Sylva," he wrote " Xerra, a Philosophical 
 Discourse of Earth," "Kumismata, or a Dis- 
 course of Medals," " Sculptura," " Acetaria," 
 &c. His "Memoirs," comprehending a 
 curious Diary and Correspondence, have 
 been published ; besides an interesting " Me- 
 moir of Mrs. Godolphiu " (which he left in 
 MS.), edited by the present Bishop of Ox- 
 ford ; and still more recently a " History of 
 Religion." Died, 1706. 
 
 EVELYN, Sir George Augustus Wil- 
 liam Shuckburgii whose original name 
 was Shuckburgh, but having married the 
 daughter of James Evelyn, esq., of Fal- 
 bridgc. Surrey, heiress of the Evelyn estates, 
 he took that name. lie was M.P. for War- 
 wick, and a member of tlie Royal and An- 
 tiquarian Societies ; to the " Transactions " 
 of the former of which he was a valuable 
 contributor. Born, 1751 ; died, 1804. 
 
 EVERARD, Johannes Secl-xdus, son of 
 Nicholas Everard, president of tlie council 
 of Holland, was born at the Hague in 1511, 
 and became Latin secretary to tlie emperor 
 Charles V.. wliom he accomjianied to the 
 siege of Tunis. He wa.s the author of 
 "Basia," a collection of Latin poems, ele- 
 
 gant in language, but licentious in principle: 
 it is therefore to be lamented that they 
 have been translated into most modern Eu- 
 ropean languages. Johannes Secundus, as 
 he is usuallv called, died in 1536. 
 
 EVERDINGEN, Aldek Van, a Dutch 
 painter, celebrated both for landscapes and 
 sea pieces, was born in 1021. The date of 
 his death is unknown. 
 
 EVREMOND, St., Charles Marquetel 
 DE St. Dknis, Lord of, was born in 1613, and 
 became one of the most lively and amusing 
 writers of his time. He studied the law, but 
 subsequently entered the military service, 
 and obtained the rank of general under the 
 Prince of Conde ; but he lost his commission 
 for having indulged his propensity for satire 
 at the expense of the prince. He then got 
 embroiled with Cardinal Mazarin, was im- 
 prisoned in the Biistile, and afterwards es- 
 caped a second arrest only by flying to Eng- 
 land. He was well received at the gay court 
 of Charles II. ; and, after indulging in a life 
 of ease and enjoyment, died in 1703. 
 
 EWALD, John, an eminent Danish poet, 
 was the son of a clergyman, and born at 
 Copenhagen, in 1743. Having lost his father 
 while young, and disliking the clerical life, 
 he left his home when but 15 years of age, 
 and enlisted in the Prussian army. Desert- 
 ing to the Austrian service, he was made a 
 Serjeant, but not being able to obtain his 
 discharge when he wished, he deserted again 
 and returned to Denmark. His youthful 
 follies being now at an end, he pursued a 
 literary life with great ardour, and produced 
 several very excellent works ; but that one 
 to which he owed his earliest distinction as 
 a poet, was an " Elegy on the Death of Fre- 
 deric V." His " Songs of the Scalds," and 
 other pieces after the manner of Ossian,g.'ive 
 him great reputation ; and he may be said to 
 have surpassed all preceding Danish poets in 
 spirit and originality. Died, 1781. 
 
 EWING, JoUN, an eminent American 
 divine, natural philosopher, and mathema- 
 tician, was born in Maryland, in 1732. He 
 was pastor to the first Presbyterian Church 
 in Philadelphia ; and on visiting Great Bri- 
 tain in 1773, he received from the university 
 of Edinburgh the diploma of D.D. In 1775 
 he returned home ; and in a few years after- 
 wards was made provost of the university of 
 Philadelphia. He also became one of the 
 vice-presidents of the American Pliilosophi- 
 cal Society ; and was justly esteemed as a 
 mathematician of distinguished reputation. 
 Died, 1802. 
 
 EXMOUTH,EDAVARn Pellew, Viscount, 
 was descended from a Cornish family of 
 respectability, and born at Dover in 1757. 
 At the age of 13 he entered the navy as a 
 midshipman on board the Juno frigate ; and 
 during the American war we find him in 
 the Blonde frigate, contending for naval su- 
 premacy on Lake Champlain, where he at- 
 tracted" the notice of his superiors by his 
 bold and matchless daring. Continuing to 
 signalise himself in various ways, during the 
 American contest, he was at length sent 
 home with disjjatches, and strong recom- 
 mendations for promotion ; and having ob- 
 tuined it, he proved, by repeated successes, 
 how much he deserved it. At the com- 
 
 I 
 
etc] 
 
 ^ iUeiD 5Huiber^aI 38iOffrapTjn. 
 
 [fab 
 
 meiiccment of the war \iitli France in 1703, 
 his services were called into immediate action 
 as captain of the Nymphe, a 3(5-gun frigate, 
 which he manned chiefly with Cornish mi- 
 ners ; and meeting the Cleopatre, of 4() guns, 
 a "crack ship of France," he had the good 
 fortune to make her his prize, after sustaining 
 one of the most gallant lights on record. 
 Tiiis being the first frigate captured after 
 the commencement of hostilities, he was gra- 
 ciously received at court, and had the honour 
 of knighthood conferred on him. lie was 
 now appointed to the command of the Are- 
 thusa of 44 guns, and hence followed many 
 gallant exploits, wlule cruizing in the Chan- 
 nel with Sir J. B. Warren's squadron. After 
 this he commanded the Indefatigable, and 
 his devotion and energy continued to be re- 
 warded with liis usual succesa. But it was 
 not merely by beating the enemies of his 
 country that Sir Edward distinguished him- 
 self : many acts of self-devotion, courage, 
 and presence of mind were displayed by 
 him in saving human life : for one of which, 
 namely, the preservation of tlic crew of the 
 Button, which was shipwrecked, he was 
 created a baronet, and received for an 
 honourable augmentation to his arms a 
 stranded ship for a crest. From 179G to 
 17tt8 a series of daring enterprises well sus- 
 tained his hourly increasing reputation. 
 lu 1799 he removed into L'Impetueux, of 
 74 guns ; and in 1800 was dispatched, with 
 a squadron, to assist General Maitland in 
 co-operating with the French royalists at 
 Quibcron. During the short peace he was 
 ( elected to represent Barnstable in parlia- 
 i ment ; but on the resumption of hostilities 
 he hoisted his flag on board Le Tonnant, of 
 80 guns. Soon after this he was advanced 
 to the rank of rear-admiral, and proceeded 
 to the East Indies, as commander-in-chief 
 on that station, which he held till 1809. He 
 ' had not long returned to this country before 
 he received the command of the fleet in the 
 North Sea ; and a year afterwards succeeded 
 Sir Charles Cotton in the more important 
 I command of the Mediterranean fleet. For 
 I a long period he was incessantly engaged 
 I in upholding the patriot cause on the eastern 
 i coast of Spain, and in co-operating with 
 the British forces there. His valuable ser- 
 vices were properly appreciated, and on his 
 return he was raised to the peerage by the 
 title of Baron Exmouth, with a pension of 
 2000L per annym. In March, 181(5, his lord- 
 ship proceeded to the Barbary States, and 
 concluded a negotiation for the liberation 
 of all Christiou slavea in those dominions ; 
 
 but he had scarcely been welcomed home 
 before it was discovered they had violated 
 all their engagements ; and he returned to 
 Algiers witli a force sufficient to carry into 
 effect the object of his former mission. He 
 drew up his fleet in order of battle, and sent 
 in a flag of truce ; but no answer being re- 
 turned, it was followed by one of the fiercest 
 and most destructive bombardnients ever 
 known. The result of this was, that the 
 ferms prescribed by the British government, 
 for the total abolition of Christian slavery, 
 &c. were nnconditioually subnutted to. 
 Lord Exmouth was now created a viscount, 
 and on the death of Admiral Duckworth, in 
 1817, he was appointed to the chief command 
 at Plymouth, where he continued till 1821, 
 when he finally retired from the active du- 
 ties of his profession, but obtained the high 
 station of vice-admiral of England, in 18;}2. 
 Few men in the naval service of this coun- 
 try, eminently distinguished as many have 
 been, ever bore so prominent a part, or 
 evinced more determined courage and cool- 
 ness in discharge of their arduous duties, 
 than did this gallant, humane, and active 
 officer. He seemed to be the very beau ideal 
 of a British sailor ; his undaunted courage 
 and enterprise was strikingly denoted in his 
 manly aspect ; and, though a perfect disci- 
 plinarian, his hearty and encouraging ex- 
 pressions produced a magic eftect on his 
 officers and men, while they always felt the 
 fullest confidence in his skill and intrepidity. 
 He died in January, 1HS3. 
 
 E YCK, UuBEUT and John Vak, brothers, 
 both eminent as painters, were born at 
 Maaseyk, in Holland ; the former in l.'iGO, 
 the latter in 1.J70. Hikekt is regarded as 
 the founder of the Flemish school ; and 
 JouN, who from his place of residence is 
 known as Johii of lirugcs, was certainly the 
 first who brought the art of painting in oil 
 to perfection. He also made great improve- 
 ments in the art of perspective ; and is 
 allowed to have excelled all others in paint- 
 ing on glass, delicately blending his colours, 
 and yet so firmly fixing them that oblitera- 
 tion was impossible. He died in 1441. 
 
 EYKE, FKA^•cls, a gentleman of the Ro- 
 man Catholic persuasion, and a public ad- 
 vocate of its principles, was descended from 
 a respectable family in Northamptonshire, 
 many years resident at Warkworth Castle. 
 He engaged in a theological controversy 
 with Mr. Churton, and wrote " Remarks on 
 the History of the Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire," &c. Died, 1801. 
 
 FABER, BASir,, a learned German Pro- 
 testant, who published in 1.571, a work, 
 entitled " Thesaurus Eruditionis Scholias- 
 tica!," since improved by Cellarius and others 
 into 2 vols, folio. He was a native of Sorau, 
 and died in l.">7<!. 
 
 FABER, Joiix, a German divine, was 
 
 bom at Heilbron in 1600. His works were 
 printed at Cologne, in 3 vols, folio. There 
 was another of this name, termed Malleus 
 Ifereticontm, or the Cruslier of Heretics, 
 who wrote several publications against the 
 Protestants, for which he was raised to the 
 archbishopric of Vienna. Died, 1542. 
 
fab] 
 
 % iSclD Winibtr^aX 2St05rapT)p, 
 
 [fab 
 
 FABERT, Abraham de, a French mili- 
 tary commander of great reputation, was 
 ))orn at Metz in 1599. When oniy 1 a years 
 old, his father procured him a commission 
 in the army ; and such was his skill and 
 ardour for the service, that he rose to the 
 first rank in his profession, and distinguished 
 liimself by a series of exploits which have 
 had but few parallels in modern warfare. 
 He refused the cordon bleu, which was 
 offered to him by Louis XIV., and to which 
 none but those of ancient descent were pro- 
 perly entitled, because, said he, " I will not 
 have my mantle decorated by a cross, aud 
 my name dishonoured by an imposture." 
 In fact, so highly was lie esteemed for his 
 sense of honour, that Mazarine declared, 
 "If Fabert can be suspected, there is no 
 man living in whom we can place con- 
 fidence." Died, 1GC2. 
 
 FABIAN, Robert, an English chronicler 
 of the 1.5th century. He was a tradesman 
 of London, anil ser\'ed the offices of alder- 
 man and sheriff. His " Chronicle of Eng- 
 land and France " was first printed at Lon- 
 don in 1510. 
 
 FABIUS, Maximus Rijllianus, an illus- 
 trious Roman. In 303 B.C. he served the 
 office of censor, and obtained the name of 
 Maximus for lessening the power of the 
 populace in elections. He triumphed over 
 seven nations, and served the office of dic- 
 tator a second time, b.c. 287. 
 
 FABIUS MAXIMUS, QtnxTtrs, surnamed 
 Va-rucosiis, was a lineal descendant of the 
 above. He was employed against Hannibal, 
 in opposition to whom he adoi)ted a liarassing 
 and protracted mode of warfare, instead of 
 risking the fortunes of Rome upon the event 
 of a single battle ; and thus the Fabian 
 manner of conducting a campaign lias be- 
 come an adage. He distiiiguislied himself 
 by his prudence, valour, and generosity. He 
 was consul tlie first time b. c. 233, when he 
 gained a great victory over the Ligurians. 
 In his advanced years he was superseded by 
 Scipio, yet his death was lamented by the 
 people as a common loss. Died b.c. 203, 
 aged near 100. 
 
 FABIUS PICTOR, the first wiitcr of the 
 Roman history, who flourished B. c. 225. 
 There is a work extant under his name, but 
 it is a manifest forgery. 
 
 FABRE, John Cj.AtDius, a French writer 
 of some note, was born at Paris in l(>i;8, and 
 died about the middle of the last cen- 
 tury. He wrote a Continuation of Fleu- 
 ry's Ecclesiastical History, a French and 
 l^atin Dictionary ; and translated Virgil, 
 Phajdrus, &c. 
 
 FABRE, John, a native of Nismes, whose 
 name deserves to be handed down to pos- 
 terity as a noble instance of filial piety. 
 At a period when the spirit of persecu- 
 tion was rife in France, his father was con- 
 demned to the gallej's for having made one 
 of a Protestant congregation. The son was 
 no sooner informed of the cruel sentence than 
 he solicited to be exchanged for him, and 
 was accepted. Though compelled to herd 
 with the vilest of mankind, he remained in 
 this degrading state of slavery upwards of 
 G years, having refused to purchase his li- 
 berty on the condition of prevailing upon 
 
 the Protestant pastor to quit the kingdom. 
 Bom, 1729 ; died, 1797. 
 
 FABRETTI, Raphael, an Italian anti- 
 quarian of great merit. Ilia principal works 
 are " De Aquis et Aquaeductibus veteris 
 Roma;, Dissertationes Tres ; " " De Columna 
 Trajana," and " Inscriptionum Antiquarum 
 Explicatio." Born, at Urbino, 1G20 ; died, 
 at Rome, 1700. 
 
 FABRI, HoNORius, a learned Jesuit, was 
 born in 1007 at Bellay, and died at Rome in 
 1088. He wrote " Physica sen Rerum Cor • 
 porearum Scientia," 6 vols. 4to. ; " Synop- 
 sis Optica," 4to. ; " De Plantis, de Gene- 
 ratione Animalium, et de Homine," 4to. 
 &c. He is said by some to have discovered 
 the circulation of the blood before Harvey. 
 
 F ABRIClUS, Caius (surnamed Luscinus), 
 a Roman general, who was twice consul, 
 and gained several victories over tlie Sam- 
 nites and Lucanians. He was a pattern of 
 virtue, in his integrity and contempt of 
 riches. When consul, he discovered to Pyr- 
 rhus, king of Epirus, a plot formed to poison 
 him by his physician ; and in gratitude for 
 so noble an act, Pyrrhus released the Roman 
 prisoners without ransom. He died in po- 
 verty about 2.")0 B. c. 
 
 F ABRICI US, Davip, a German astrono- 
 mer and divine, who is chiefly remembered 
 for his attempting to reconcile the Pto'e 
 maic system with the observations of Kep- 
 ler, ife is also the author of a Chronicle of 
 East Friesland, of which country he was a 
 native, and where he died in l.'')79. 
 
 FABRICIUS, John, son of the foregoing, 
 was also an astronomer, and the first who, 
 by means of refracting telescopes, disco- 
 vered the spots on the sun's disk, before, as 
 it appears, they were noticed l)y Galileo. 
 Died, about 1025. 
 
 FABRICIUS, or FABRIZIO, Jerome, an 
 Italian physician, usually called Aquapcn- 
 detite, from the place of his birth. He was 
 a pupil of Fallopius, and professed anatomy 
 with extraordinary reputation at Padua 40 
 years. He died in 1619. His works on ana- 
 tomv and surgery form 2 vols, folio. 
 
 FABRICIUS, John Albert, a learned 
 critic and divine, was born at Leipsic in 
 1668. He became professor of eloquence at 
 Hamburgh, where he died in 1736 ; leaving 
 behind him a justly-acquired fame for pro- 
 found and comprehensive erudition. He is 
 the author of "Bibliotheca Latina," 2 vols. 
 4to. ; " Bibliotheca Grseca," 14 vols. 4to. ; 
 " Codex Ai)ocryphus Novi Testamenti," 3 
 vols. 8vo., and many other learned works. 
 
 FABRICIUS, JoHX Christian, a distin- 
 guished entomologist, and the friend and 
 pupil of Linnajus, was born at Tundern, in 
 Sleswick, in 1742, and died at Copenhagen in 
 1807. He was counsellor to the king of 
 Denmark, and professor of rural and poli- 
 tical economy ; on both of which subjects 
 he wrote ; but his life was mainly devoted 
 to the pursuit of liis favourite science, and 
 for the purpose of improving it he visited 
 most of the museums in Europe. Ilis 
 "Systema Entomologiae," and other works 
 on entomology, are in high repute. 
 
 FABRIS, NiciioLA-s, an Italian mecha- 
 nician, was born at Chioggia in 1739, and 
 was made counsellor to tlie bishop of that 
 
fab] 
 
 ^ |leh) BniiinSKl ^ia^ra^f^^. 
 
 [fai 
 
 city in 1801. He was of the clerical pro- 
 fession, but studied mathematics and music 
 with singular ardour and success, lie made 
 a pianoforte, which, while it played, wrote 
 down the music ; also a time-piece, which at 
 thesame time marked the French and Italian 
 hours, minutes, and seconds, with the equi- 
 noxes and solstices ; besides various other 
 curious instriunents. 
 
 FABROXI, Anoiolo, a learned Italioji, 
 was born at Marradi, in Tuscany in 1732. 
 lie is generally known by his biographies 
 of Italian literati of the 17th and 18th cen- 
 turies, of wliich work he published IB vo- 
 lumes, and left another ready for the press. 
 lie also wrote the lives of l-oreuzo and 
 Cosmo de Medici, and of Leo X. ; besides 
 editing a literary journal, which exteuded 
 to 110 volumes. Towards the close of his 
 life he retired to Pisa, became curator of 
 that university, and there died in 1802. 
 
 FABRONI, Giovanni, an Italian writer 
 of great celebrity, whose works on political 
 economy, agriculture, and physical science 
 are alike remarkable for the sound maxims 
 they contain, and the extensive views in 
 which they abound. He was director of 
 bridges and highways (under the imperial 
 government) for the department beyond 
 the Alps, and held many honourable situa- 
 tions connected with literature and science. 
 Born, 1752 ; died, at Florence, 1823. 
 
 FABllOT, Charles Anniual, a learned 
 jurist, was professor of jurisprudence at Aix, 
 in Provence, where he was born in l.TSl. 
 His principal work, entitled " Basilicon," in 
 7 vols, folio, is a translation of the basilics 
 or laws of the Eastern empire ; but he wrote 
 several professional works, and edited many 
 of the Byzantine historians. Died, lGo9. 
 
 FABRY, John Baptist Gkumain, secre- 
 tary to Fouche, duke of Otranto, Buona- 
 parte's minister of police. He was the au- 
 thor of " Le Spectateur Frangais au 19me 
 Sitcle," 12 vols., and many other works. 
 Born, 1780 ; died, 1821. 
 
 FACCIOLATI, James, an Italian philo- 
 logist, was bom at Torreglia, near Padua, 
 in 1682. He devoted great attention to re- 
 viving the study of ancient literature ; and 
 having conceived the idea of a Latin lexicon, 
 in which every word, with all its significa- 
 tions, should be contained and illustrated 
 l>y examples from the classical writers, this 
 immense undertaking occupied for nearly 
 li» vears both him and his pupil Forcellini. 
 Died, 1 700. 
 
 PACINI. Petei!, a native of Bologna, who 
 was first a t)Upil, and afterwards tlic rival, of 
 Aunibal Caracci. He was extensively em- 
 ployed in ornamenting churches and man- 
 >i(;ns ; but his works being painted in fresco, 
 few of them are preserved. Born, 15(51 ; 
 died, 1S02. 
 
 FADLALLA, an oriental historian in the 
 13th century, was the son of a physician of 
 Hamadan, in Persia ; and, on being ap- 
 pointed vizier to the sultan Cazan, who 
 reigned at Tauris, was ordered by him to 
 write a history of the Moguls ; which hav- 
 ing performed, he afterwards added to it a 
 civil and geographical description of all the 
 territories and people of the Moguls and 
 Tartars. 
 
 FAGE, Raimond de la, a French artist, 
 celebrated for the extraordinary facility and 
 beauty of his pen-and-ink drawings, some 
 of which have been engraved and published. 
 Died, lf)90. 
 
 FAGEL, Gaspar, an eminent Dutch 
 statesman, born at Haerlem, in 1(529, was 
 grand pensionary of Holland, and distin- 
 guished himself not more by the firmness 
 with which he opposed Louis XIV., when 
 he invaded his country, than by the activity 
 with which he supported the Prince of Orange 
 in his plans for the expulsion of James II. 
 from England. Died, l(i88. He was never 
 married ; but the name has been well kept 
 up by his nephews and great nephews, live 
 of whom have filled the most important 
 offices in the state; and one of them, Francis 
 Nicholas, was a renowned military com- 
 mander. He greatly distinguished himself 
 at the battle of Fleurus, 1(!!)0 ; the defence 
 of Mons, 1G91 ; the siege of Namur, and the 
 capture of Bonn, 1703 ; in Portugal and 
 Flanders ; and at the great battles of Ramil- 
 
 lies and Malplaquet. He died in 1718 
 
 Henrv, the last of the Fagels, who has 
 figured as a statesman, signed the treaty of 
 peace between Great Britaiu and the Nether- 
 lauds, in 1814, and has at all times sliowii a 
 devoted attacliment to the House of Orange. 
 
 FAGIULOLI, John Baptist, an Italian 
 poet, celebrated for the fucetiousness and 
 drollery of his writings, was born at Flo- 
 rence, in 1(5(50, and died in 1742. He wrote 
 seven volumes of comedies, two volumes of 
 burlesque poetry, and one of miscellanies 
 in prose. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, Oabhiel Da:tiel, an 
 experimental philosopher, whose arrange- 
 ment of the thermometer and barometer 
 which bear his name, was a work of great 
 utility. He was a native of Dantzic ; born 
 in 1(58(5, and died in 1730. 
 
 FAIPOULT, Guillaume Marie, was a 
 French republican statesman, born of a 
 noble family in Champagne, in 17.52. For 
 ten. years he was prefect of the department 
 of the Scheldt ; he subsequently held the 
 otfice of minister of finance under Joseph 
 Buonaparte in Spain, and on his return to 
 France in 1813, he was sent on a mission to 
 Italy by Napoleon. On the second restora- 
 tion he was made prefect of the department 
 of Saone and Loire. Died, 1817. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Edward, was the son of Sir 
 Thomas Fairfax, of Denton, in Yorkshire, 
 and is regarded as one of the great improvers 
 of English versification. Settling at New- 
 hall, in Knaresborough Forest, he led the 
 life of a retired country gentleman, devoted 
 to literary pursuits. His chief reputation 
 as a poet rests on his translation of Tasso's 
 " (jrodfrey of Bouillon," which is written in 
 the same stanza with the original, and com- 
 bines fidelity to the sense of the author, with 
 striking harmony of style. He also wrote 
 Eclogues, and a prose work on Demonology, 
 in which he was, it seems, a believer. He 
 died about 1632. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, a distinguished 
 commander in the civil wars, and one of 
 the leading characters of that turbulent 
 period, was the eldest son of Lord Fairfax, 
 to whose title and estates he succeeded in 
 
PAl] 
 
 ^ ^cto Winihtv^nl ^fiiasrapfju. 
 
 [fal 
 
 1647. When the disputes between Charles I. 
 and tlie Parliament terminated in open rup- 
 ture, Fairfax warmly espoused the cause of 
 the latter, and joined his father in making 
 active preparations for the approaching 
 contest. In the earlier part of his career, 
 he suffered various checks from the royalist 
 forces, but he retrieved his character at 
 Marston Moor, and was appointed general- 
 in-chief when Essex resigned. He was after- 
 wards victorious at Naseby, reduced the west 
 to obedience, and compelled Colchester to 
 surrender. But he was hostile to the exe- 
 cution of the dethroned monarcli ; and con- 
 siderable jealousy appears to have been en- 
 tertained of him by Oliver Cromwell. At 
 length he resigned the command of the army, 
 and retired for awhile from public life. At 
 the Restoration he crossed over to Holland 
 for the purpose of congratulating Charles II. 
 on his accession, and was formally recon- 
 ciled to that monarch. He devoted his lei- 
 sure hours to the encouragement and cul- 
 tivation of letters, and left behind him a 
 volume of poems and miscellanies, including 
 an interesting sketch of his own life. Died, 
 1671. 
 
 FAITHORNE, William, an English 
 engraver and painter of the 17th century, 
 whose works, though numerous and popular 
 in his day, seldom rise above mediocrity. 
 Died, 1691. ■ 
 
 FALCONER, Thomas, an ingenious 
 scholar, and the author of " Chronological 
 Tables," &c., was born at Chester, in 1736, 
 and died in 17S2. 
 
 FALCONER, William, an English poet 
 and writer on naval aflfairs, was born at 
 Edinburgh, about 1730. When very young, 
 he went to sea in the merchant service, and 
 had risen to the situation of second mate, 
 when the vessel to which lie belonged was 
 cast away. Thus furnished with the inci- 
 dents of his " Shipwreck," it was published 
 in 1762, and dedicated to Edward, duke of 
 York, by whose patronage the author was 
 appointed a midshipmivn on board the Royal 
 George, and next a purser in the Glory. 
 In 1769, he was appointed purser of the 
 Aurora, which ship was never heard of after 
 she quitted the Cape of Good Hope, in De- 
 cember, 1769, and was therefore supposed to 
 have foundered at sea, and all her crew to 
 have perished. Besides " The Shipwreck," 
 he wrote some minor poems, and a " Marine 
 Dictionary." 
 
 FALCONER, William, a skilful physi- 
 cian, residing at Bath, was an able writer 
 on chemical and medical subjects ; and 
 many able treatises owe their existence to 
 liis professional skill and industry. To him 
 belongs the discovery of the properties of 
 carbonic gas, which has been erroneously 
 attributed to Dr. Priestley. Born, 1743 ; died, 
 1824. 
 
 FALCONET, Stephen- Mairice, a cele- 
 brated French sculptor, was born at Paris, 
 in 1716. Although, owing to his humble 
 origin, he had been apprenticed to a cutter 
 of barber's blocks, he became an excellent 
 modeller, and, assisted by Lemoine, the 
 sculptor, rose to eminence as an artist ; 
 while, owing to his persevering application, 
 he also shone as an author. In 1766 he was 
 
 286 
 
 invited to Russia, to execute the colossal 
 statue of Peter the Great, and there he re- 
 sided 12 years. His writings on the fine arts 
 form 6 vols. 8vo. Died, 1791. 
 
 FALCONETTO, John Maria, an Italian 
 architect, was born at Verona, in 14j8. He 
 built palaces, and much improved the style 
 of architecture in the Venetian states ; and 
 a building of his at Padua is said to liave 
 suggested to Palladio the idea of the famous 
 Villa Capra, which served as the model of 
 Lord Burlington's villa at Chiswick. lie died 
 in 1534. 
 
 FALCONIA, Proba, a Christian poetess, 
 born in Etruria, who flourished in the reign 
 of the emperor llonorius, in the 4th century. 
 
 FALIERI, Makino, a Venetian noble, 
 succeeded Andrew Dandolo as doge of 
 Venice, in 1354. He had previously com- 
 manded the troops of the republic at the 
 siege of Zara, in Dalmatia, where he gained 
 a brilliant victory over the king of Hun- 
 gary ; and was afterwards ambassador to 
 Genoa and Rome. When he succeeded to 
 the office of doge, he was 76 years of age, 
 and had a young and beautiful wife. Jealous 
 of Michael Steno, he quarrelled with and 
 was insulted by him at a masquerade ; but 
 Steno being sentenced to no more than a 
 month's imprisonment for his offence, Fa- 
 lieri, burning with revenge, entered into a 
 conspiracy with the plebeians to overturn 
 the government and massacre the patri- 
 cians. On the night before it was to be 
 carried into effect, the plot was discovered, 
 and Falieri suffered decapitation, April 17. 
 1355. His character is delineated with his- 
 torical truth by Lord Byron, in one of his 
 noblest tragedies. 
 
 FAI<K, Jonx Daxiel, was the son of a 
 poor wig-maker at Dantzic, who would 
 scarcely allow him to be taught even to 
 read and write before he employed him in 
 his trade ; but his love of knowledge was 
 sufficient to overcome the difficulties that 
 lay in his way of attaining it, and all his 
 little savings were laid out at the circulating 
 library. Having thus obtained a tolerable 
 education, he published some admirable 
 satires, but afterwards wrote principally 
 upon religious subjects. Born, 1770 ; died, 
 1826. 
 
 FALK, or FALCK, Jonx Petek, a Swe- 
 dish naturalist and traveller, and a pupil 
 of Linnceus. Having finished his studies at 
 Upsal, he went to St. Petersburgh, and was 
 engaged by the Imperial Academy of Sci- 
 ences to assist in exploring the Russian 
 dominions. After some years spent in this 
 employment, he was afflicted with hypochon- 
 dria to such a degree, that, while at Kasan, 
 in 1774, in one of his paroxysms, he put a 
 period to his existence with a pistol. His 
 travels were afterwards published in 3 vols. 
 
 FALKENSTEIN, Johx Henry, a volu- 
 minous writer, was born in Franconia, in 
 1682. He wrote the " Antiquities of Nord- 
 gau," 3 vols, folio ; and other works of a 
 similar kind. He died at the court of the 
 Margrave of Anspach, in 1760. 
 
 FALKLAND, Henrv Cary, Viscount, 
 son of Sir Edward Cary, master of the jewel 
 office to queen Elizabeth and to James I., 
 was made comptroller of the king's house- 
 
fal] 
 
 ^ ^cix) mntbcriEfaX 38t00rapl)J?. 
 
 [far 
 
 hold, and elevated to the (Scotch) peerage 
 of Falkland in 1<!17. Subsequently he was 
 made lord deputy of Ireland, but did not 
 long hold the office, the Catholic party being 
 much opposed to him. lie was a man ot 
 considerable literary talcut, and published 
 "Letters to the Duke of Buckingham," 
 " A Ilistory of that unfortunate Prince, Ed- 
 ward II.," &c. Died, IG33. 
 
 F.(\X.KLAND, Li c:ius Caky, Viscount, son 
 of the preceding. His course is a strong and 
 painful proof that the best intentions may 
 lead to fatal results, if not guided by solid 
 judgment. lie was much favoured by Charles 
 I., and was one of the gentlemen of the bed- 
 chamber to that monarch. Yet, unaware of 
 the extremities to which the (so called) pa- 
 triots of the day desired to proceed, he 
 warmly supported them. It is true that 
 when he did perceive the real intentions of 
 the parliamentarians he decidedly embraced 
 the cause of the king. But he had done 
 immense mischief by lending the weight of 
 his high character, social, intellectual, and 
 moral, precisely at the time when the weight 
 of that character would most have benefited 
 the cause of social order. Learned, and the 
 patron of learning, he was also as brave as 
 he was gentle ; and when he discovered the 
 error of liis opposition, he fought boldly and 
 zealously for his king ; and died honourably 
 at the battle of Newbury, in the 34 th year 
 of liis age, KiW. 
 
 FALKLAND, TIe.vuy Lucius Gary, Vis- 
 count, son of the above, died young. He is 
 said to have been a man of talent, but the 
 only proof we have of it is a play, culled 
 " The Wedding Night." Died, If56i5. 
 
 FALKNEB, Thomas, was originally an 
 English surgeon, but afterwards a Jesuit, 
 and employed as a missionary in Paraguay. 
 After the suppression of the order to which 
 he belonged, he returned to England, and 
 passed the remainder of his life in retire- 
 ment. He wrote a "Description of Pata- 
 gonia," &c. Died, 1780. 
 
 FALLOPIUS, CxAnuiEL, an eminent ana- 
 tomist and physician, was born at Modcna ; 
 studied at Ferrara and Padua ; was professor 
 of anatomy for three years at Pisa ; and, 
 lastly, filled the chair of anatomy and sur- 
 gery at Padua, where he remained till his 
 death, in LW.^. He was the first who accu- 
 rately described the vessels and bones of 
 the foetus ; and his account of the Fallopian 
 tubes has served to i)erpetuate his name. 
 His chief work is entitled " Observationes 
 Anatomicae." 
 
 FALLOWS, Feakox, was a distinguished 
 mathematician and astronomer, who in 1821 
 was appointed to the office of astronomer 
 royal at the Cape of Goo<l Hope. During 
 the two following years, though furnished 
 with but few instruments, he formed a cata- 
 logue of 27;i stars belonging to the southern 
 hemisphere ; nor is there a doubt but that, 
 had his life been spared for a few years, and 
 his observatory made complete, he would 
 have succeeded in making the catalogues of 
 the stars in the southern hemisphere equal 
 in accuracy to those of the northern. He 
 died in IS-Sl. 
 
 FANSHAWE, Sir Richard, a statesman 
 and poet, was bom at Ware Park, Herts, in 
 
 1008, and educated at Cambridge. In 1C35 
 he was sent ambassador to Spain, whence, 
 in 1(>41, he returned, and acted steadily for 
 tlie royal cause. He was taken prisoner at 
 the battle of Worcester, and closely confined 
 for a considerable time ; but at last recovered 
 his liberty, and went to Breda, where he was 
 knighted by Charles II., in 1(5«5. At the 
 Restoration he was made master of requests, 
 and sent to Portugal to negotiate the marriage 
 with the king and the Infanta Catharine. 
 In 1004 he was sent ambassador to Spain, and 
 died there in 1000. He translated into Eng- 
 lish the Pastor Fido, or Faithful Shepherd, 
 of Guiarini ; also the Lusiad by Camoens. 
 His letters during his embassies iu Spain 
 and Portugal were printed in 1702. 
 
 FANTIN-DESODOARDS, Antoine Eti- 
 ENNE Nicolas, a French historian and po- 
 litical writer, was born, in 17^8, at Pont de 
 Beauvoisin, in Dauphine. He was originally 
 an ecclesiastic ; but becoming acquainted 
 with Danton and Robespierre, he employed 
 his pen in defending the revolutionary career 
 of his cotemporaries. He was the author of 
 several extensive works, but his " Histoire 
 Philosophique de la R''volution Fran(;aise," 
 in vols. 8vo., is sufficient of itself to attest 
 liis principles. 
 
 FARE, Charles Augustus, Marquis de 
 la, a French poet, and captain of the guards 
 to the Duke of Orleans, was born iu 1044, and 
 died in 1712. According to Voltaire, Fare 
 did not begin to write poetry till he was 
 nearly 00. His compositions are remarkable 
 for sweetness and elegance. He was also 
 the author of "Mcmoires sur le Regne de 
 Louis XIV.," a work containing satirical 
 reflections on cotemporary characters. 
 
 FAREL, William, a Protestant divine, 
 and one of the associates of Calvin in the re- 
 formation of the church, was born at Gap, in 
 Dauphin^. While at the university of Paris, 
 he greatly distinguished himself by his phi- 
 losophical and classic attainments; but being 
 invited by the Bishop of Meaux to preach in 
 that city, he propagated the principles of the 
 Huguenots, and was consequently soon com- 
 pelled to seek safety in flight. He found an 
 asylum at Strasburg, wlience he removed to 
 other parts of German J', exercising his talents 
 as a preacher, with great zeal and success. 
 It seems, liowever, that he was intemperate 
 and bigoted : and, though defended by Cal- 
 vin, the portrait drawn of niin by Erasmus 
 places him in a very unfavourable light. He 
 wrote some theological treatises ; but the 
 cause of the reformed church was more pro- 
 moted by his preaching than by his writings. 
 He died at Neufchatel in 150.5. 
 
 FAREY, John, an eminent surveyor and 
 geologist, was born atWoburn, Bedfordshire, 
 in 1700. He made a survey of the county of 
 Derby, which was published in 2 vols. ; but 
 his great merit consists in the pains he took 
 to examine the relative position of the strata 
 throughout Britain, and to collect mineral 
 specimens to illustrate this useful branch of 
 science. Died, 1820. 
 
 FARIA Y SOUSA, Ma.vuel de, a Por- 
 tuguese historian and poet, was born at 
 Souto, in Portugal, about 1 '.90, and for some 
 time secretary to the Marquis of Castel 
 Rodrigo, ambassador of Rome. He wrote 
 
FAR 
 
 ^ ^tiD Wnihu^Hl ^iastn^iyyi* 
 
 [far 
 
 various historical works relative to Portugal 
 and its distant possessions, 7 volumes of 
 poems, &c. Died in 1649. 
 
 FARINATO, Paul, an eminent painter 
 of Verona, whose numerous works were dis- 
 tinguished by freedom of design, boldness 
 of colouring, and great facility of execution. 
 Born, 1522 ; died, lOOfi. 
 
 FARINELLI, a Neapolitan singer of great 
 eminence, whose real name is said to be 
 Carlo Bho.sciii, was born at Naples, in 1705. 
 He studied under Porjwra, and went from 
 Rome to Vienna, M'here the emperor, Charles 
 VI., loaded him with rich presents. In 1734 
 lie came to l^ondon, and, by the magic of 
 his singing, so delighted the public, that 
 Handel was obliged to dismiss a rival com- 
 pany over which he presided, in spite of all 
 his powers and popularity. Manj' extra- 
 ordinary stories are related of his vocal skill, 
 and his command over the feelings and 
 sympathies of his audience appears to have 
 been unrivalled. 
 
 FARINGTON, Geokoe, an historical 
 painter, and a pupil of West. In 1780 his 
 painting of the incantation scene in Macbeth 
 was rewarded with a gold medal by the 
 Royal Academy. Died at Arcot in the 
 East Indies. Born, 1754 ; died, 1788. 
 
 FABINGTON, JosKi-ii, brother of the 
 preceding, and eminent as a landscape 
 painter. lie made many drawings for the 
 "Britannia Depicta," and left behind him 
 several good pictui-es of lake and landscape 
 scenery. Died, 1818. 
 
 FARMER, Hugh, a dissenting minister, 
 was born in 1714, near Shrewsbury ; studied 
 under the celebrated Dr._ Dodd.Mdge ; and 
 was pastor of a congregation at A\'altliam- 
 stow, where he died in 1787. He was the 
 author of several tlieological tracts ; "On 
 Miracles," " On the Temptation in the Wil- 
 derness," " On Demoniacs," " On the Worship 
 of Human Spirits by the Heathens," &c. 
 
 FARMER, Richard, a divine and anti- 
 quary, was born at Leicester in 1735, and 
 educated at Emanuel College, Cambridge. 
 In 17(j7 lie took the degree of B.A., and 
 became one of the preachers at Whitehall, 
 lie subsequently became vice-chancellor 
 and librarian of the university ; and also 
 obtained prebends at Lichfield and Canter- 
 bury, the latter of which he exchanged for 
 a canonry at St. Paul's. In his " Essay on 
 the Learning of Shakspeare," which is a 
 work of great critical merit, he proved that 
 all the knowledge of ancient history and 
 mythology possessed by the immortal bard, 
 was drawn from translations. Died, 1797. 
 
 FARNABY, or FARNABIE, Thomas, an 
 eminent schoolmaster, was born in London 
 about 1575, and admitted a servitor of Merton 
 College, in 1590. Hence he was drawn away 
 by a Jesuit, whom he accompanied to Spain ; 
 but being disgusted with his new connection, 
 he escaped, and entered on board the Eng- 
 lish fleet ; after which he served as a soldier 
 iu the Low Countries. On his return to 
 England he kept a school at Martock, in 
 Somersetshire, whence he removed to Lon- 
 don, and gained great reputation as a teacher. 
 From Loudon he removed with many of his 
 pupils to Sevenoaks, in Kent ; in the neigh- 
 bourhood of which town he purchased an 
 
 estate, still in the possession of the family, 
 which has been raised to the baronetage. 
 He wrote various school books ; and his 
 Commentaries on Juvenal, Persius, Martial, 
 and other classic authors, are clear, com- 
 prehensive, and erudite. Died, 1047. 
 
 FARNESE ; the name of an illustrious 
 family in Italy, many of the members of 
 which filled the highest situations in church 
 
 and state Alexander, the s(m of Peter 
 
 Louis the first grand-duke of Parma and 
 Placentia, was born in 1520, and created a 
 cardinal by his grandfather, pope Paul III. 
 He was dean of the sacred college, and dis- 
 tinguished himself highly by his learning 
 and his virtues ; while as a statesman his 
 talents were such as to obtain for him the 
 office of nuncio to the courts of Vienna and 
 
 Paris. Died, 1589 Alkxandek, nephew 
 
 of the preceding, was the third Duke of 
 Parma, and highly distinguished as a mili- 
 tary commander under Philip II., who sent 
 him to Flanders, where the situation of the 
 Spaniards was becoming desperate. He re- 
 covered several cities, and succeeded iu re- 
 conciling the Catholic part of the population 
 to the Spanish government, lie afterwards 
 invaded France, and compelled Henry IV. 
 to raise the siege of Rouen. On his return 
 from that expedition, he received a wound 
 in his arm before Caudebec, in consequence 
 of the neglect of which he died, at Arras, in 
 1592, aged 4(5. 
 
 FARNEWORTH, Ellis, an English di- 
 vine, was born in Derbyshire, and educated 
 at Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1762 he 
 obtained the rectory of Carsington in Derby- 
 shire, where he died the year following. He 
 translated the Life of Vope Sixtus V. from 
 the Italian, 1754, folio ; Davila's History of 
 the Civil Wars of France, in 1757, 2 vols. 
 4to. ; the works of Macliiavel, 1761, 2 vols. 
 4to. ; and Flcury's History of the Israelites, 
 12mo. 
 
 FARQL'HAR, Geokge, a comic writer 
 was born at Londonderry, in Ireland, iu 
 1678, and educated at Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, from which he either eloped or was ex- 
 pelled for irregular conduct, and repaired to 
 London with his friend Wilks the actor, 
 where he commenced his career of dramatic 
 authorship. His first production was " Love 
 in a Bottle," performed at Drury Lane Thea- 
 tre with success in 1698, about which time I 
 he attracted the favour of I^ord Orrery, who 
 procured him a lieutenancy in his own regi- 
 ment. In 1700 he added to his reputation by 
 " The Constant Couple," a comedy in which, 
 under the character of Sir Harry Wildair, he 
 exhibited a lively picture of the foppish tine 
 gentleman of the end of the 17th century. 
 He died in 1707, at the premature age of 29, 
 and during the run of his last and best play, 
 " The Beaux Stratagem." Farquhar's wit 
 is genuine and spontaneous, his characters 
 are obviously drawn from nature, and his in- 
 cidents well arranged. His libertinism of 
 language and sentiment are, however, highly 
 reprehensible ; but it was the vice of the age 
 rather than of the author, whose offence may 
 be extenuated on the ground of its being less 
 glaring than in many of his cotemporaries. 
 
 FARRANT, Richard, an English musi- 
 cian. He held situations in the Chajjcl 
 
far] 
 
 ^ ^ctD jam'tjcnSal 3Si00rajpl)». 
 
 [fah 
 
 Royal and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, 
 from 1564 to l.'iSO, and is remarkable for tlie 
 devout and solemn style of his compositions. 
 
 FAIIREN, Ei.izA, countess of Dekby, was 
 the daugliter of a surgeon at Cork, who 
 failing in his profession, became a provincial 
 actor, and died young, leaving liis family in 
 destitute circumstances. Eliza was born in 
 1759 ; made lier first appearance at Liverpool, 
 wlien 14 years of ;ige ; and, in 1777, apjjeared 
 at the llaymarket Theatre, London, as Miss 
 Hardcastle, in "She Stoops to Conquer." 
 She afterwards played at Drury Lane and 
 Covent Garden rand eventually succeeded 
 Mrs. Abington in her principal characters, 
 which she played with great eclat, and es- 
 tablitihed her theatrical fame. At this 
 peri(xi she was much noticed bj' persons of 
 distinction, and conducted the private the- 
 atricals at the Duke of Newcastle's house in 
 Privy Gardens, where Lord Derby, Lord 
 Henry Fitzgerald, Cliarles Fox, Lord John 
 Towushend, the Hon. Mrs. Darner, and 
 others, assumed the principal characters. 
 An honourable attachment for the accom- 
 plished actress was soon after formed by 
 Lord Derby ; and, in 1797, on the death of 
 Lady Derby, from whom his lordship had 
 been for some years separated, he raised Miss 
 Farren to the rank of a countess. Died, 1H29. 
 
 FASTOLF, Sir John, the supposed proto- 
 type of Shakspeare's Falstatf, was a native 
 of Norfolk. Adopting the profession of a 
 soldier, he served with some distinction in 
 Ireland, under Sir Stephen Scrope, deputy 
 to the lord lieutenant, and married his 
 ■widow, who was an lieiress ; through the ac- 
 quisition of wliose property he obtained the 
 honour of knighthood, and the order of the 
 garter. He was wounded at the battle of 
 Agincourt, and rewarded for his bravery ; 
 but at the battle of Patay he shamefully 
 tarnished his laurels by fleeing, panic- 
 stricken, from Joan of Arc. Died, 1469. 
 
 FATIO DE DUILLIER, an ingenious 
 mathematician, was bom at Basle, in 1664 ; 
 settled in London in 1087, and distinguished 
 himself as a geometrician and astronomer ; 
 but, becoming a zealous partisan of a fana- 
 tical sect, called the French prophets, he was 
 tried and put in the pillory. Many inven- 
 tions in the mechanical arts owe their ex- 
 istence to him ; among others, was the jew- 
 elling of watches. 
 
 FAUCHET, Claude, a French historian 
 and archajologist in the 16th century, and 
 historiographer to Henry IV. He wrote 
 various antiquarian works, of which his 
 " Antiquitt's et Histoires Gauloises et Fran- 
 coises " is the chief. Died, 1601. 
 
 FAUCHET, Claudk, a native of Dome, 
 France, was grand-vicar to tlie archbishop 
 of Bourges and preacher to the king. Just 
 previous to the French Revolution he joined 
 the sect of the lUuminati, and became one 
 of theirchiefs ; and during the popular com- 
 motions in Paris, he took an active part, ap- 
 pearing sword in hand at the head of the 
 mob which attacked the Basiile. In 1791 he 
 was elected constitutional bishop of the de- 
 partment of Calvados, and chosen a member 
 of the legislative assembly. He continued 
 to distinguish himself by his revolutionary 
 furor till the trial of Louis XVL, for whose 
 
 imprisfmment he voted instead of his death ; 
 and having joined the Girondists, he was 
 persecuted by the opposite party. At last he 
 was condemned to death on the unfounded 
 charge of being an accomplice of Charlotte 
 Corday in the assassination of Marat, and 
 suffered by the guillotine in October, 1793. 
 
 FAUJAS DE ST. FOND, Baktiiolo- 
 MEW, an eminent French geologist, was born 
 at Montclimart, in 1750 ; became professor at 
 the Museum of Natural History ; and wrote 
 various works connected with his favourite 
 pursuit ; among which are " The Miner- 
 alogy of Volcanoes," " A Natural History 
 of Dauphini'," "A Journey in England, 
 Scotland, and the Hebrides,' &c. 
 
 FAULHABER, John, an ingenious ma- 
 thematician, and the friend of Descartes, 
 was born at Ulm, in Suabia, where he died, 
 in 16.^5. 
 
 FAUQUE, a French authoress, known in 
 England by the name of Madame de Vau- 
 cluse, was born at Avignon, at the beginning 
 of tlie ISth century. She had been forced 
 by her parents to become a mm against her 
 will ; and having obtained a dispensation 
 from her vows, slie retired to England, where 
 she supported herself by writing for the press. 
 Among her productions are " Dialogues 
 Moraux et Amusans " and " Histoire de 
 Madame de Pompadour." Died, 1777. 
 
 FAUST, or FUST, John, one of the three 
 artists to whom the invention of printing has 
 been ascribed, was the son of a goldsmith at 
 Mentz. The other two were Guttemberg 
 and Schajffer ; to the former of wliom the 
 invention of printing with wooden blocks is 
 attributed ; and to the latter, who married 
 the daughter of Faust, is allowed the honour 
 of having invented punches and matrices, by 
 means of which this grand art was carried to 
 perfection. It has been pretended that, 
 when Faust went to Paris to sell a second 
 edition of his Bible of 14(i2, he was arrested 
 on the supposition that he effected the print- 
 ing of them by magic ; but this story appears 
 to be a mere fiction. There is reason to 
 believe that he died of the plague in 1466. 
 
 FAUST or FAUSTUS, Dr. John, who 
 lived in the beginning of the 10th century, 
 was born at Knittlingen, in Suabia. After 
 receiving an education at Wittemberg, he 
 went to Ingoldstadt, where he studied me- 
 dicine, astroh>gy, and magic ; and occupied 
 himself in alchemical experiments. That 
 he was a man of great scientific acquire- 
 ments there is little doubt ; and, according 
 to legendary tradition, he made use of his 
 power in a manner calculated to inspire his 
 countrymen with a firm belief that he had 
 familiar dealings with the devil. The super- 
 natural feats performed by him and his ser- 
 vant, Mephistopheles, have been immortal- 
 ised by the genius of Goethe. 
 
 FAVART, Cuables Simon, a dramatic 
 poet, to whom the comic opera in France is 
 greatly indebted, was born in 1710. At an 
 early period he devoted himself to poetical 
 pursuits, continuing, with little intermission, 
 to write for the stage till his death, which 
 happened in 1792. 
 
 FAUVEL, , an eminent French anti- 
 quary, chiefly known for his researches, at 
 first alone in Greece, and subsequently in the 
 
FAV] 
 
 ^ ^t\33 Winibtxial SStDflrapT)^. 
 
 [fea 
 
 East with M. de Choiseul-Gouffler, whom he 
 aided in valuable researches. M. Fauvel is 
 well-known in connection with the " Voyage 
 Pittoresque de la Grfece." Born, 1753 ; died, 
 1838. 
 
 FAVIER, , an eminent French 
 
 statesman, was bom at Toulouse, in the 
 beginning of the 18th century ; and at the 
 age of 20 he succeeded liis father as secretary 
 general to the states of Languedoc. He 
 afterwards sedulously applied himself to the 
 study of politics, and was employed on 
 several secret missions in Spain and Russia, 
 under the ministry of the Duke de Choiseul ; 
 but engaging in certain covert transactions 
 of the French government at the instigation 
 of the Count de Broglie, he became involved 
 in difficulties, and was obliged to quit France. 
 He was subsequently arrested at Hamburgh, 
 and taken to Paris ; but procured his liber- 
 ation in 1773, and on the accession of Louis 
 XVI. obtained a pension. He was the au- 
 thor of several political treatises, some of 
 which have been collected and published by 
 M. Segur ; and he was one of the principal 
 contributors to, and conductors of, the Jour- 
 nal Etranger. Died, 1784. 
 
 FAVORINUS, a Platonic philosopher and 
 rhetorician of the 2nd century, was a na- 
 tive of Aries, in Gaul, and taught at Athens. 
 Being once on a visit at Rome, in the reign 
 of Adrian, and being reproached with having 
 meanly submitted to the emperor, with 
 whom he was disputing on some literary 
 topic, he ironically exclaimed, " Would you 
 have me pretend to be wiser than the com- 
 mander of thirty legions ? " 
 
 FAVRAT, Francis Andrew, a Prussian 
 general, so remarkable for his strength, that 
 he is said to have once lifted up a horse and 
 its rider, and to have often carried a cannon 
 on his shoulder with as much apparent ease 
 as a soldier carries his firelock. He was 
 governor of Glatz, and wrote " Memoirs of 
 the History of the War of the Polish Revo- 
 lution from 1794 to 17%." 
 
 FAWCETT, John, an eminent theatricial 
 performer, was the son of an actor of humble 
 pretensions at Drury Lane, and was born in 
 London, in 17C9. At the age of 13 he was ap- 
 prenticed to a linendraper, but clandestinely 
 left the shop for the Margate Theatre, where, 
 under the name of Foote, he made his first 
 appearance. He afterwards joined Tate 
 Wilkinson on the York circuit ; and in 1791 
 made liis bow to a LondoH audience, at 
 Covent Garden, as Caleb, in " He would be 
 a Soldier." His dramatic reputation wasNit 
 length fixed by his representation of Dr. 
 Pangloss, OUapod, Caleb Quotem, and Job 
 Thornberry. In 1798 he joined the Haymar- 
 ket company, and became acting manager, 
 in 1800, of that theatre. In 1813 he appeared 
 at the English Opera, and in 1816 rejoined 
 the Hayraarket. He afterwards became 
 manager of Covent Garden Theatre, which 
 situation he held till his retreat from the 
 stage in 1836. In private life his conduct 
 was irreproachable, but there was a bluntness 
 in his manners, which, to a stranger, often 
 appeared like intentional rudeness. Died, 
 1837. 
 
 FAWCETT, Sir William, a distinguished 
 military officer, was a native of Yorkshire. 
 
 290 
 
 Entering young into the army, he served 
 under General Elliot, with reputation, in the 
 German wars of George II., and vl^s made 
 aide-de-camp to the Marquis of Granby. He 
 was soon after promoted to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel in the guards, and continued 
 to rise gradually till he became a general in 
 the army, a knight of the Bath, and governor 
 of Chelsea Hospital. Sir William wrote some 
 useful " Rules and Regulations," and trans- 
 lated the " Reveries of Marshal Saxe." Born, 
 1728 ; died, 1804. 
 
 FAWKES, Francis, an English poet and 
 divine, was bom in Yorkshire about 1721, 
 and educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. 
 On entering into orders he settled at Bram- 
 ham in his native county, but afterwards he 
 obtained the vicarage of Orpington in Kent, 
 which he exchanged for the rectory of Hayes, 
 where he died in 1777. He published a 
 volume of poems and translations of Ana- 
 creon, Sappho, Bion, Moschus, and Tlieo- 
 critus. His poetry, though not of first-rate 
 talent, is elegant and correct. 
 
 FAY, Charles Francis de Cisternai 
 DU, the son of an officer of the French guards, 
 was born in 1698 ; and though he first em- 
 braced the military profession, soon quitted 
 it for pursuits more congenial to his nature, 
 the study of chemistry and natural philoso- 
 phy. He was a member of t).-; Academy of 
 Sciences, and distinguished himself by his 
 researches concerning the phosphoric light in 
 the mercurial vacuum of the barometer, the 
 magnet, and tlie nature of electricity, which ! 
 he divided into two kinds, the vitreous and 
 the resinous, answering to the positive and 
 negative electricities of Franklin. Died, 
 1739. 
 
 FAYDIT, Anselm, a troubadour of the 
 13th century, patronised by Richard Coeur 
 de Lion, whose praises he celebrated in a 
 funeral elcgv. 
 
 FAYETTE, Marie Madeleine de la 
 Verge, Countess of, a female of great lite- 
 rary attainments, wife to the Count de la 
 Fayette, in the reign of Louis XIV. She 
 was in habits of friendly intimacy with many 
 of the most distinguished men of letters ; 
 and her romances of " Zaide " and " The 
 Princess of Cleves" affind ample testimony 
 that the fame she acquired for delicacy of 
 sentiment and graceful description was not 
 exaggerated. She wrote also " Memoirs of 
 the Court of France." Died, 1693. 
 
 FAZIO, Bartholomew, an historian and 
 biographer of the 15th century, was by birth 
 a Genoese, and patronised by Alphonso, king 
 of Naples, at whose instance he translated 
 Arrian's History of Alexander into Latin ; 
 but his most important work is entitled "De 
 Viris lUustribus," containing brief accounts 
 of the most famous of his cotemporaries. 
 
 FEARNE, Charles, a writer on meta- 
 physics and jurisprudence, was bom in 
 London, in 1749, and educated at West- 
 minster School. He became a student at the 
 Inner Temple, and attained a first-rate re- 
 putation as a chamber counsel and convey- 
 ancer. He was the author of " An Essay on 
 Contingent Remainders," &c. Died, 1794. 
 
 FEATLEY, Daniel, an eminent Eng- 
 lish divine of the 17th century, was bom 
 at Charlton Kings, Oxfordshire, in 1582 ; 
 
FEC] 
 
 ^ |3eto ^Kmbrr^al 3Bi0gra|jT;g, 
 
 [fel 
 
 studied at Corpus Christi College, where he 
 obtained a fellowship ; and was afterwards 
 presented with the rectory of Lambeth by 
 Archbishop Abbot. Soon after this he dis- 
 tinguished himself by maintaining a public 
 dispute with two Jesuits, for which he was 
 rewarded by the archbishop with the livings 
 of All Hallows, Bread Street, and Acton, 
 Middlesex. He was the author of " Clavis 
 Mystico, a Key opening divers difficult 
 Texts of Scripture," &c. ; and among his 
 controversial tracts is one bearing the quaint 
 title of "The Dipper dipt, or the Anabaptist 
 plunged over Head and Ears, and shrunk in 
 the Washing." 
 
 FECKENHAM, Joii.v de, the last abbot 
 of Westminster, was born in a village of 
 that name in Worcestershire. VViien the 
 Reformation commenced, he opposed it with 
 spirit, and was sent to the Tower, where he 
 continued till the accession of queen Mary, 
 when he was made abbot of Westminster. 
 Died, 1585. 
 
 FEITU, Rhyxtis, a modem Dutch poet, 
 was born at Zwolle in 17.>J. He studied 
 law at Leyden, and, returning to his native 
 city, was made burgomaster, and afterwards 
 receiver at the admiralty college ; but he 
 did not relinquish tlie art of i)oetry. He 
 wrote " Inez de Castro," and several other 
 good tragedies ; many poems, hymns, and 
 odes, remarkable for feeling and elevated 
 sentiment; and his "Grave" stands fore- 
 most among the best didactic poems in the 
 language. Died, 1824. 
 
 FEITHIUS, EvEKARD, a Protestant phi- 
 lological writer of the 6th century, was a 
 native of the Netherlands, who, flying into 
 France to escape the persecution of the 
 Spanish government, then dominant in his 
 own country, is supposed to have been 
 assassinated at Rochelle in 1590. He wrote 
 " Antiquitates Homericae," a useful work, 
 descriptive of tlie sacred and profane rites 
 and customs of the Greeks, &c. in the heroic 
 ages. 
 
 FELIBIEN, Andhew, a writer on and 
 encourager of the fine arts, was born at 
 Chartres, France, in l(il9. He studied at 
 Paris ; after which he went as secretary to 
 the French embassy at Rome, where he 
 formed an intimacy with tlie celebrated 
 painter, Nicholas Poussiu, wliich naturally 
 heightened and matured his taste for the 
 works of art. On his return to France he 
 was appointed superintendant of the royal 
 buildings, and of arts and manufactures. 
 His works, which are much esteemed, illus- 
 trate the principles of i)aintiug, architecture, 
 and sculpture. Died, 1(!95. 
 
 FELIBIEN, Joan Fiiancis, eldest son of 
 the foregoing, succeeded to the offices held 
 by his father, and wrote a work on the lives 
 and writings of the most celebrated archi- 
 tects. Died. 1733. 
 
 FELIX I. succeeded pope Dionysius in 
 269. He suffered death in 274, and was ca- 
 nonised. An epistle by him against Sabel- 
 lius and Puulus Samosanctus is extant — 
 FELIX II., antipope. He was placed in the 
 papal chair in 355 by the emperor Constans, 
 during the exile of Liberius, on the return 
 of whom he was expelled. Constans would 
 have bad the two popes reign together, but 
 
 the people exclaimed. One Ood, one Christ, 
 and one binhop! Felix was then exiled, and 
 
 died in .365 FELIX III. succeeded Simpli- 
 
 cius in 483. He had a violent dispute with 
 the emperor Zeno in behalf of the Western 
 charch, and died in 492. — FELIX IV., a na- 
 tive of Beneventum, ascended the chair after 
 John I. in 526. He governed the church 
 with zeal and piety, and died in 630. He 
 introduced extreme unction. 
 
 FELL, John, a dissenting minister, was 
 bom at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, in 
 1735, and bred a tailor; which occuiiation 
 he followed in London for some time ; but 
 his turn for literary pursuits, and his natural 
 talent being too obvious to escape notice, he 
 was enabled by a friend to pursue his studies 
 at an academy, after which he became in 
 succession pastor of a congregation at Beccles, 
 near Yarmouth, Thaxted. and Homerton. 
 He wrote " An Essay on the Love of One's 
 Country," "Genuine Protestantism," "A 
 Letter to Mr. Burke on the Penal Laws," 
 " An Essay towards an English Grammar," 
 &c. Died, 1797. 
 
 FELL, Samuel, dean of Christchurch, 
 was born in London in 1594, and educated 
 at Westminster School, wlience he pro- 
 ceeded to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1601. 
 During tlie civil wars he was a staunch ad- 
 herent of the royal cause, on which account 
 he was ejected in 1647, from the office of 
 vice-chancellor of the university ; and he 
 died in the following year. The news of the 
 execution of Charles I. is said to have broken 
 his heart. 
 
 FELL, Dr. Jonx, bishop of Oxford, son 
 of the preceding, was born at Longworth, 
 in Berkshire, in 1625, and educated at Christ- 
 church, Oxford, of which his father was 
 dean. In the rebellion he was, like his 
 father, ejected from the college for his 
 loyalty. At the Restoration he was made 
 canon and dean of Chri^-tchurch, and 10 
 years after he had obtained the deanery he 
 was raised to the see of Oxford. He was a 
 learned prelate, and a liberal benefactor to 
 his college, the magnificent tower of which, 
 called the "Tom Gate," he built. Several 
 valuable works from his pen are extant ; 
 among others, a Latin translation of Wood's 
 " History and Antiquities of Oxford," in 2 
 vols, folio ; " In Laudem Musices Carmen 
 Sapphicum," a " Paraphrase on St. Paul's 
 Epistles," &c. Died, 1686. 
 
 FELLENBERG, Emanuel de, whose la- 
 bours in the cause of education have earned 
 for him immortal fame, was bom at Berne 
 in Switzerland, in 1771. His father was of 
 patrician rank, and a member of the govern- 
 ment of Berne ; his mother, a great grand- 
 daughter of the celebrated Dutch admiral 
 Van Tromp. After a somewhat desultory 
 education at home and luidcr different mas- 
 ters, young De Fellenberg repaired to the 
 university of Tubingen in 1790, to complete 
 his studies in civil law ; but these he soon 
 abandoned for the more congenial pursuits 
 of politics and philosoi)hy. In order to ac- 
 quaint himself with the moral state of his 
 countrymen, he spent much of his time in 
 travelling through Switzerland, usually on 
 foot, with his knapsack on his back, residing 
 In the villages and farm-houses, mingling in 
 
fel] 
 
 ^ i^m Huifacr^al 3St05tapl)tt. 
 
 [fen 
 
 the labours and occupations and partaking 
 of the rude lodging and fare of the peasants 
 and mechanics, and often extending his jour- 
 ney to the adjacent countries. Immediately 
 after the fall of Kobespierre in 1795 he visited 
 Paris. During his sojourn there he perceived 
 the storm which was impending over Swit- 
 zerland from tlie schemes of the French Re- 
 volutionists, and hastened hack to warn his 
 countrymen of their danger, and to concert 
 measures to avoid it. But his predictions 
 were disbelieved, and his warnings disre- 
 garded. Berne was consequently taken, and 
 the cause lost, before any efficient force could 
 be organised ; and Fellenberg, wlio had taken 
 an active part in raising and leading on tlie 
 levy en masse to resist the invaders, was pro- 
 scribed, a price was set upon his head, and 
 he was compelled to fly into Germany. He 
 was, however, soon afterwards recalled to 
 Switzerland, and sent on a mission to Paris, 
 to remonstrate against the rapacity and op- 
 pressive conduct of the agents of tlie French 
 republic ; but the want of faith and public 
 spirit which he found on the part of his own 
 government confirmed his disgust with 
 public life, and he resolved to exchange the 
 tortuous paths of political career for the more 
 peaceful pursuits of agriculture and educa- 
 tion. To promote the object so dear to his 
 heart, he became a member of the council of 
 education at Berne, but was soon convinced 
 that nothing adequate could be accomplished 
 on this subject through the medium of legis- 
 lative commissions ; and having come into 
 possession of an ample fortune, he resolved 
 to devote this to his great object, and to form 
 on his own estate, and on an independent 
 basis, a model institution, in which it should 
 be proved what education could accomplish 
 for the benefit of humanity. In pursuance 
 of his great design, he purchased, in 1799, 
 the estate called Hofwyl, two leagues from 
 Berne ; and his life forms, henceforward, an 
 important page in the records of benevolent 
 enterprise. But it would be impossible 
 within our limits to give even an outline of 
 the various schemes for the improvement 
 and diffusion of education that emanated 
 from M. de Fellenberg during the long 
 period of forty-five years that followed ; of 
 the skill and tact with which he defeated 
 the combinations of interested and jealous 
 opponents ; and the success which ultimately 
 crowned his labours. Died, Nov. 21st, 1844. 
 
 FELLER, Francis XAViER,born at Brus- 
 sels in 1735 ; author of an " Historical Dic- 
 tionary," " Remarks on the Newtonian Phi- 
 losophy," &c. Died, at Ratisbon, 1802. 
 
 FELLER, Joachim, a German poet, was 
 born at Zwickaw in 1638 ; chosen professor 
 of poetry at Leipsic in 1601 ; and became 
 librarian to that university in 1676. His 
 death, which happened in 1691, was occa- 
 sioned by his falling from a window, in a 
 fit of somnambulism. His talent for poetry 
 was very early developed, and his compo- 
 sitions were chiefly in Latin. 
 
 FELLER, Joachim Fkederic, son of the 
 foregoing, was secretary to the Grand-duke 
 of Weimar ; a situation he filled during 20 
 years ; travelling a considerable part of the 
 time, under his patron's auspices, for the 
 purpose of examining the principal libraries 
 
 of Europe. He wrote a valuable work, en- 
 titled " Monurnenta varia Inedita," and 
 some others. Died, 172G. 
 
 FELLOVVES, Robert, LL.D., a writer 
 chiefly on religious and political subjects, 
 was born in Norfolk, 1770. He was educated 
 at St. Mary Hall, Oxford, where he attained 
 the degree of M.A. in 1801 ; and was ordained 
 in 1795 ; but he gradually relinquished the 
 doctrines of the Church of England, and at 
 length adopted the opinions maintained in 
 the work which he published in 1836, unde? 
 the title of " The Religion of the Universe." 
 He was tlie intimate friend of Dr. Parr and 
 the Baron Maseres : the former presented 
 him to queen Caroline, whose cause he es- 
 poused with great zeal ; and the latter left 
 him nearly 200,000Z., which enabled him at 
 once to gratify his own tastes for literature, 
 and to benefit his fellow-creatures. He en- 
 tered with much spirit into the project of 
 establishing a university in London, support- 
 ing it both by his counsel and his purse ; and 
 on recovering from a tedious illness, to indi- 
 cate his gratitude to Dr. EUiotson in a way 
 which he thought would be most agreeable to 
 tliat gentleman, he founded two annual gold 
 medals, called the Fellowes medals, for the 
 greatest i)roficicnts in clinical science. Died, 
 1847. 
 
 FELTHAM, OwEX, was born about the 
 middle of the 17th century in Suffolk. I-ittle 
 more is known of him than that he resided 
 many years in the family of the Earl of Tho- 
 mond, during which period he published a 
 work of great merit, entitled " Resolves, 
 Divine, Political, and Moral," which went 
 through 12 editions before the year 1709. 
 Died, about 1678. 
 
 FELTRE, Henry James Wiliiam 
 Clarke, Duke of, was born in 1765, at 
 Landrecies, where his father was a keeper 
 of the public stores. In 1781 he entered the 
 military school at Paris ; in 1790 he went to 
 London with the French embassy, and after- 
 wards served in the infantry and cavalry, 
 until he was suspended, and imprisoned as 
 a noble. He was subsequently employed by 
 Carnot ; and the directory, in 1795, created 
 him general of division. In 1807 he was \ 
 made minister of war, and shortly after 
 created duke of Feltre. Though indebted to 
 Buonaparte for his dukedom, he contributed 
 towards the restoration of the Bourbons, and 
 held office under the government at Ma. 
 death, which took place in 1818. 
 
 FENELON, Fkaxcis de Salionac de la 
 MoTTE, archbishop of Cambray, was born 
 in 1651, at the chateau Fenelon, in Perigord, 
 of a family illustrious in cliurch and state. 
 He studied at Cahors and Paris, where he 
 made such astonishing progress in the most 
 difficult studies, that, in his loth year, he 
 preached with great applause. At tlie age 
 of 24, Fenelon took holy orders, and com- 
 menced his regular ministerial functions in 
 the parish of St. Sulpice. He was after- 
 wards appointed chief of a mission for the 
 conversion of heretics in Saintonge and 
 Aunis ; and on his return he became knowTi 
 to the public as a writer, by a work, " Sur 
 le Ministere des Pasteurs," and a treatise, 
 " De 1 Education des Filles." In 1689, 
 Louis XIV. entrusted to him the education 
 
fen] 
 
 ^ ^cfa iHuihcrjSal 3Bi0flTap^i.K 
 
 [fer 
 
 of his grandsons, the Dukes of Burgundy, 
 Anjou, and Berri. Fenelon was successful 
 in forming the mind of the young Duke of 
 Burgundy, heir presumptive to the throne 
 of France, and sowed the seeds of every 
 princely virtue in his lieart ; but his prema- 
 ture death blasted the pleasing anticipations 
 entertained resi)ecting him. In KJVH, Fenelon 
 was created archbishop of Cambray ; soon 
 after which, a theological dispute with Bos- 
 suet, his former instructor, respecting the 
 devotional mysticism of the celebrated Ma- 
 dame Guyon, whose opinions Fenelon fa- 
 voured, terminated in his condemnation by 
 pope Innocent XII., and his banisliment to 
 his diocese by Louis XIV. From this time 
 he lived in his diocese, sustaining the ve- 
 nerable character of a Christian philoso- 
 pher, and scrupulously performing his sa- 
 cred duties. His works in the departments 
 of pliilosophy, theology, and the belles 
 lettres, liave immortalised his name. He 
 was familiar with the best models of an- 
 cient and modern times, and his mind was 
 animated by a mild and gentle spirit of be- 
 nevolence. In person and manners Fene- 
 lon was one of the most engaging of men, 
 joining to a noble manner a distinguishing 
 politeness, and adding to a flowery elo- 
 quence the jwwer of making himself under- 
 stood upon the most abstruse subjects. He 
 wrote many excellent works ; among the 
 chief of which may he reckoned his " Dia- 
 logues of the Dead," "]Jialogues on Elo- 
 quence," " Letters on diiferent Religious 
 and Metaphysical Subjects," &&. But his 
 most celebrated production, and the one 
 which for ages will survive, is his " Adven- 
 tures of Telemachus," in which he endea- 
 voured to exhibit a model for the education 
 of a prince ; and more pure and elevated 
 maxims were never woven into a tale either 
 of truth or fiction. His death was accele- 
 rated by the overturning of his carriage, 
 which brought on a fever, and the amiable 
 and virtuous prelate expired in Jan. 1715. 
 
 FENESTELLA, Lucius, a Roman his- 
 torian, who flourished during the reigns of 
 Augustus and Tiberius. Died, a. d. 20. 
 
 I ENN, Sir Joiuv, on antiquary of great 
 research, was born in 1739, at Norwich ; 
 educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and 
 died in 1794. He published two volumes of 
 an interesting collection of letters, written 
 by members of the Paston famil3', with 
 which he was proceeding when his death 
 took place. 
 
 FENTON, Elijah, a poet of considerable 
 talent, was born in 108;5, at Shelton, near 
 Newcastle, in Staffordshire. Having re- 
 ceived a classical education, the Earl of 
 Orrery, in 1710, made him his private sec- 
 retary, and placed his eldest son under his 
 care. He afterwards lived with Lady Trum- 
 bull as tutor to her son, and died at her seat 
 in Berkshire, in 1730. He became acquainted 
 with most of the wits of the age, and as- 
 sisted Pope in his translation of the Odyssey. 
 Besides this, he published " Mariamne," a 
 tragedy, and the lives of Milton and Waller. 
 
 FENTON, Sir Geoffkev, an English 
 writer, was born in Nottinghamshire, and 
 died at Dublin, in 1608. He translated 
 Guicciardini's History of the Wars of Italy. 
 
 FERAUD, JoH.v Fraxcis, a French gram- 
 marian, and a professor of rhetoric and phi- 
 \o8ijphy at Besan^on, was born in 1725, and 
 died in 1807. He wrote "A Grammatical 
 Dictionary of the French Language," 2 vols. 
 8vo., and " A Critiual Dictionajy," 3 vols. 
 4to. 
 
 FERBER, Jon.v James, a Swedish miner- 
 alogist of note, was born at Carlscrona, in 
 1743 ; and died in Switzerland, while on a 
 scientific tour. In 1790. He wrote "Letters 
 from Italy," wlijch are much esteemed ; 
 and his other works are all more or less de- 
 scriptive of mines and minerals in different 
 parts of Germany. 
 
 FERDINAND V., king of Arragon, sur- 
 named the Catholic, on account of the ex- 
 pulsion of the Moors from Spain, was the 
 son of John II. of Arragon, and born in 
 1453. By his marriage with Isabella, queen 
 of Castile, he founded the union of the differ^ 
 ent Spanish kingdoms ; overcame Alphonso, 
 king of Portugal, at the battle of Toro, in 
 147C ; totally subjugated the Moorish i)ower 
 in Spain, which had for so many centuries 
 baffled all the efforts of his ancestors ; and 
 brought under his rule a large proportion 
 of the Neapolitan dominions. But the most 
 extraordinary feature in his reign is the 
 discovery of America by Columbus, which 
 opened to him and his successors the sove- 
 reignty of a new hemisphere. He died in 
 151(5 J having, by a course of sinistrous policy, 
 lost the rc8i)ect of his contemporaries, al- 
 though the splendour of his arms placed 
 him at the head of European princes. 
 
 FERDINAND I., emperor of Germany, 
 succeeded his brother, Charles V., in 1558, 
 at which time Ferdinand was king of the 
 Romans, and of Hungary and Bohemia. — 
 FERDINAND II. was the son of the Arch- 
 duke of StyrJa ; elected king of Bohemia in 
 1017, and of Hungary in Kill. Soon after- 
 wards he succeeded Muthias as emperor. 
 He died in 1037.— FERDINAND III., sur- 
 named Ernest, was the son of the preceding, 
 and born in 1008 ; made king of Hungary in 
 1025, of Bohemia in 1027, and succeeded his 
 father in 1(537. He died in 1057. 
 
 FERDINAND, king of Naples and of Si- 
 cily, succeeded Alphonso in 1458. He died 
 in 1494, aged 70, detested for his debauche- 
 ries and cruelties ; yet he enacted many 
 good laws, and restored the university of 
 Naples. 
 
 FERDINAND of Cordova, a learned 
 scholar and accomplished cavalier of the 15th 
 century, whose attainments in every art and 
 science that can adorn the mind, or add a 
 dignity to manliood, have been handed 
 down for the admiration of posterity. That 
 he was possessed of great and versatile abi- 
 lities may fairly be supposed ; but the ac- 
 counts related of him are so extravagant as 
 to stagger the belief of the most credulous. 
 
 FERDINAND I., king of the Two Sici- 
 lies, was born in 1751, and succeeded his 
 father Charles III. on the throne of Naples, 
 in 1759, on the accession of the latter to that 
 of Spain. During his minority, the govern- 
 ment was conducted by a council of regency; 
 and at that time Ferdinand was a great 
 favourite with the people, in consequence of 
 the familiarity of his demeanour. In 1708 
 
 cc 3 
 
FEB] 
 
 <M 0t^ ^nibn^nX 2Si0fi^np]^g. 
 
 [fer 
 
 he married Maria Caroline, daughter of the 
 empress Maria Theresa, who soon acquired 
 sucli a decided influence over him, that he 
 consulted her upon all occasions. His faith- 
 ful minister, Tanucci, who had been the 
 president of the council of regency, having 
 lost the favour of Charles III. of Spain, gave 
 in his resignation in 1777, and was succeeded 
 by the Marquis Sambuca. This minister, 
 observing that the influence of the queen 
 over her husband was unbounded, attempted 
 to alienate the king from her, by means of a 
 beautiful English woman, who had married 
 a Frenchman named Goudar, at Naples ; 
 but the queen discovered the plot ; M. and 
 Mme. Goudar were banished from Naples, 
 and Sambuca thought it prudent to retire. 
 Acton, his successor, followed implicitly the 
 wishes of the queen ; and the cabinet of 
 Madrid now lost all influence in that of 
 Naples, which became more closely united 
 with that of Austria and Britain. But a 
 new era was approaching. The French 
 revolutionary government demanded that 
 Naples should renounce all connection with 
 Britain, and enforced its demand by sending 
 a fleet into the bay of the Neapolitan capital. 
 On the death of Louis XVI., however, Fer- 
 dinand joined the coalition against France, 
 and took part in the general war from 1793 
 to 179(3. After two years of peace, the victory 
 of Nelson at Aboukir again engaged Ferdi- 
 nand against the French, who, on the defeat 
 of the Neapolitans under General Mack, took 
 possession of the whole kingdom, and pro- 
 claimed the Partlienopean republic, in 1799. 
 But, during the same year, the capital again 
 fell into the hands of the royalist army, 
 under Cardinal Ruffo, and many adherents 
 of the republic were executed. In this way, 
 under the imbecile rule of Ferdinand, Naples 
 continued to change sides, according to the 
 power and influence of the two great belli- 
 gerent nations, until the Congress of Vienna, 
 in 1814, Bnally re-established him in all his 
 riglits as king of the Two Sicilies. Unfit 
 as this monarch was to wield the sceptre, all 
 agree that he felt a strong sympathy for the 
 sufferings of his subjects, that he was a pa- 
 tron of charitable institutions, and decidedly 
 good-natured. He died Jan. 24. 182.). 
 
 FERDINAND VII., king of Spain and 
 the Indies, son of Charles IV. and Maria 
 Louisa of Parma, was born at St. Ildefonso, 
 in 1784. He was recognised prince of Astu- 
 rias when 6 years old. It was at this epoch, 
 in 1790, that the deputies of the Spanish 
 provinces demanded the re-establishment of 
 the Cortes, which Charles IV. had abolished; 
 but after some difflculties the claim was 
 abandoned. The Duke of San Carlos and 
 Don Juan Escoiquiz were appointed go- 
 vernors of the young prince, who is said to 
 have made brilliant progress in mathe- 
 matical studies. Spain was at that time 
 governed by Godoy (prince of Peace) with 
 little short of absolute royal power. This 
 minion saw an insurmoinitable obstacle to 
 his ambition in the heir apparent to the 
 crown, and aimed at obtaining the same 
 influence over Ferdinand as he had obtained 
 over his parents ; but the design was defeated 
 . by his two governors, who succeeded in in- 
 spiring him with a disgust and dread of 
 
 294 
 
 Godoy. Finding he could not sljcceed, he 
 sought to thwart him in all his designs and 
 wishes. In 1801, Ferdinand married Maria 
 Antonia, a princess of Naples, who was 
 highly accomplished, possessed great inde- 
 pendence of character, and attracted all 
 hearts by her beauty and talents. The 
 envy of the queen-mother, thus excited, was 
 speedily converted into hatred ; and the 
 princess from that time was subjected to the 
 most cruel persecutions ; nay, it is even 
 alleged that she was despatched by poison 
 given to her in a cup of coffee, in 1806. The 
 designs of Napoleon on Spain now began to 
 operate. Beauharnols, the French ambas- 
 sador at Madrid, was instructed to open a 
 secret conference with Ferdinand, to detach 
 him from the projects of Godoy, and induce 
 him to connect himself with the Buonaparte 
 family by marrying the eldest daughter of 
 Lucien Buonaparte. Ferdinand assented by 
 letter to this overture. Godoy was informed 
 of it, and, trembling for his interest, hastened 
 to detail the secret transaction to Charles IV., 
 taking care to paint it in the most odious 
 colours, and accusing Ferdinand of a design 
 to possess himself of the throne. The king 
 was so enraged, that he immediately ordered 
 the prince to be imprisoned at the Escurial, 
 and his papers to be seized. On the 30th of 
 October following, a decree was addressed to 
 the council of Castile, declaring Ferdinand, 
 and all those who had abetted his design, 
 traitors to the state. This extreme measure 
 was the work of Godoy ; but, with his usual 
 hypocrisy, he opened negotiations with Fer- 
 dinand, offering to act as mediator between 
 him and his father. He induced him to write 
 a letter of unconditional submission to the 
 king, and the consequence was a public re- 
 conciliation of the parties. But astonishment 
 succeeded to the expressions of public joy 
 caused by this event, when it was now for 
 the first time learned that the French army 
 had crossed the frontiers, and was marching 
 directly on Madrid. The king then gave 
 out that he was on the point of setting out 
 for Andalusia. The mob rose at Aranjuez 
 and elsewhere, proceeding to violence, and 
 asserting a determination not to allow the 
 king to quit the kingdom ; but it was against 
 Godoy, and with a view to his dismissal, that 
 the public indignation was chiefly excited. 
 Alarmed at these popular tumults, Charles 
 abdicated his throne ; and Ferdinand, being 
 proclaimed his successor, began his reign by 
 reducing taxes, and issuing a decree for 
 devoting the crown lands to public purposes. 
 Meanwhile, the French advanced towards 
 Madrid, and all parties (including the new 
 king) were ignorant that this proceeding was 
 the result of a treaty concluded between 
 Godoy and Napoleon at Fontainebleau. Fer- 
 dinand sent the latter a deputation request- 
 ing tlie preservation of amity ; to which 
 Napoleon replied, that Charles IV. was his 
 ally and friend, and that he could not re- 
 cognise the rights or pretensions of any j 
 other claimant to the throne. Muratj then | 
 advancing on Madrid, returned a similar | 
 answer, and was in actual possession of that | 
 capital when Ferdinand made his public I 
 entry. Being apprised by Murat and the | 
 Duke of Kovigo that Napoleon was coming i 
 
fer] 
 
 ^ iSttD ^anibcr^al Biograplb^ 
 
 [FEB 
 
 to Bayonne, the former persuaded Ferdi- 
 nand to meet Napoleon there, with a view 
 to separate him from his subjects. On his 
 arrival lie was not long before he was made 
 aware of tlie'snare into which he had fallen. 
 After diuing with Napoleon, wlio treated 
 liim witli cordiality, he was apprised by 
 I Savary that Napoleon claimed the title of 
 disposing of the Spauisli crown, and abso- 
 I Ititely demanded his renunciation of it. 
 I Napoleon afterwards proposed to give him 
 one of liis nieces in marriage, and make him 
 king of Etruria ; but Ferdinand refused to 
 I assent, and was from that time, notwith- 
 standing the remonstrances of his minister 
 j Cevallos, treated with the rigour of a pri- 
 I soner. Godoy shortly after arrived with 
 j Charles IV. and the queen. The latter in- 
 I stantly reclaimed the crown of Ferdinand, 
 who then made a public resignation of it 
 I to his father. Meanwhile, the Spaniards, 
 I stimulated by the junta left by Ferdinand 
 I at Madrid, with powers to convoke the 
 I Cortes, were rising ia arms in all directions ; 
 ; and Napoleon, alarmed, now induced the 
 I whole of the royal family of Spain to go to 
 Bourdeaux, and there make a formal cession 
 ; of the crown. lie immediately proclaimed 
 his brother Joseph king, and placed Ferdi- 
 nand in confinement at Valengay, where he 
 and his family were kept under the rigorous 
 surveillance of the police, and remained in 
 custody till December, 1813 ; when Napo- 
 leon, after his disasters in Russia, found it 
 inii)o3sible to retain possession of Spain, and 
 a treaty of peace was signed at Valengay 
 between him and Ferdinand ; by which the 
 latter was restored to the exercise of his royal 
 powers. Tlius released from a captivity of 
 six years, the young monarch reached the 
 Catalonian frontier, March 24. 1814. lie was 
 received every where with the distinctions 
 api)ertaining to royalty by the retiring 
 French army, and with the warmest testi- 
 monies of affection by the people. But he 
 constantly refused to sign the constitution 
 established by the Cortes during his absence, 
 although he had promised to do so before 
 quitting Valen^ay. On arriving at Madrid 
 he dissolved the Cortes, and assumed all 
 the odious privileges of absolute power. 
 The old institutions were replaced, and the 
 inquisition was re-establislied. These causes 
 of dissatisfaction were long producing their 
 effects, but at length, in 1»20, Riego, a lieu- 
 tenant-colonel, placed himself at the head 
 of a party at Cadiz, and, although supported 
 by a very trivial force, proclaimed the con- 
 stitution of 1812, established by the Cortes ; 
 and Ferdinand, compelled to yield, convoked 
 the Cortes on the 7th of March, and shortly 
 after swore fidelity to the constitution of 1812. 
 But from this time the noblesse and the dig- 
 nitaries of the church set themselves secretly 
 and openly to oppose the march of the revo- 
 lution, and perpetual shocks and collisions 
 occurred between them and tlie popular 
 party. Popular tumults occurred, which 
 were instantly pleaded against the cause of 
 the constitution. Protests were made by 
 Russia against the continuance of this revo- 
 lutinnary anarchy ; France was prompted 
 to adopt a pretended cordon sanitaire, with 
 an obvious intention to seize the first oppor- 
 
 295 
 
 tunity of invading Spain ; mutual charges 
 and recriminations were made between the 
 Spanish and French ministers ; and Eng- 
 land's voice, as an umpire, was appealed to, 
 but was scarcely heard. At length France 
 declared war ; and the Duke d'Angouleme 
 entered Spain, with an avowed design of 
 putting down the constitutionalists, and re- 
 storing Ferdinand to absolute power. It-is 
 not our place in this biography to detail the 
 events of the campaign. It is sufficient to 
 record that Ferdinand was restored, at its 
 termination, to the exercise of an unmiti- 
 gated arbitrary tyranny, which he indulged 
 m, without compunction, till his death. In 
 1816, Ferdinand married Maria Theresa, a 
 princess of Portugal, for his second wife ; in 
 1819, Maria-Josepha Amelia, a princess of 
 Saxony, for his third. She died in 1828j and in 
 1829 he married Maria Christina, the daugh- 
 ter of Francis I., king of Naples, mother of 
 the present queen of Spain. Died, 1833. 
 
 FERDINANDI, Erii'HANius, a physician 
 of Otranto ; author of several professional 
 treatises — " De Vita Propaganda," "De 
 Peste," &c. Bom, 1.509 ; died, 1G38. 
 
 FERDUSI, or FERDOUSI, a celebrated 
 Persian poet, whose talents having attracted 
 the notice of Mahmoud, the reigning sultan, 
 he gave him a distinguished reception at 
 Ills court, and employed him to write a 
 metrical history of the Persian sovereigns. 
 This work, which is called the Schahnameh, 
 contains UU,(X)*j stanzas, and occupied him 
 3(1 years, during wluch long period the 
 enemies of Ferdusi succeeded in prejudicing 
 Mahmoud against him. Instead of being 
 rewarded, according to promise, with fiO,()00 
 liieces of gold, the same number of the 
 smallest silver coin was sent to him, which 
 the poet indignantly distributed among the 
 menials, wrote a severe satire on the sultan, 
 and tted to Bagdad. Born, 91« ; died, 1020. 
 
 FERGUSON, ADAMvan eminent historian 
 and moral philosopher, was born, in 1724, 
 at Logierait, Perthsliire, of which parish his 
 father was minister. He was educated at 
 Perth, St. Andrew's, and Edinburgh ; was 
 chaplain to the 42nd regiment, in Flanders, 
 till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and, on 
 his return to Edinburgh, was chosen pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy, which chair he 
 subsequently resigned for that of moral phi- 
 losophy. In 17C7 appeared his "Essay on 
 Civil Society," which procured him the de- 
 gree of LL.D. In 1773 he accompanied the 
 Earl of Chesterfield on his travels ; and, in 
 177G, having replied to Dr. Price on Civil 
 Liberty, he was appointed to the secretary- 
 ship of a reconciliatory mission sent out to 
 America in 1778. On his return he resumed 
 his professorial duties, and composed his 
 "History of the Roman Republic," in 3 
 vols. 4to. Several years after this appeared 
 his " Treatise on Moral and Political Sci- 
 ence," 2 vols. 4to. ; and " Institutes of 
 Moral Philosophy." Died, 1816. 
 
 FERGUSON, James, an experimental 
 philosopher, astronomer, and mechanist, 
 was the son of a labourer, and born, in 1710, 
 at Keith, in Banffsliire, Scotland. His ex- 
 traordinary genius quickly displayed itself, 
 as he learned to read in infancy by hearing 
 his father teach one of his brothers ; and 
 
fer] 
 
 ^ I^cUj Bnibev^nt 3BtflfltaptJ?« 
 
 [fer 
 
 when only 8 years of age he constructed "a 
 wooden clock. Wlien old enough to work, 
 he was placed out as a servant to a farmer, 
 who employed him in keeping sheep ; iu 
 which situation he acquired a surprising 
 knowledge of the stars ; and his abilities 
 being discovered by some neighbouring 
 gentlemen, one of them took him to his 
 house, where he learnt decimal arithmetic 
 and the rudiments of algebra and geometry. 
 From a description of the globes in Gordon's 
 grammar, he made one iu three weeks suffi- 
 ciently accurate to enable him to work pro- 
 blems ; and, having a taste for drawing, 
 began to draw portraits with Indian ink, 
 by which he supported himself creditably 
 some years. In 1743 he came to London, 
 where he published some astronomical 
 tables and calculations, and gave lectures in 
 experimental pliilosophy, which he repeated 
 with success throughout the kingdom. In 
 1754 he published a brief description of the 
 solar system, with an astronomical account 
 of the year of our Saviour's crucifixion, 8vo. ; 
 also an idea of the Material Universe, de- 
 duced from a Survey of the Solar system. 
 But his greatest work is liis " Astronomy 
 explained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Princi- 
 ples, and made easy to those who have not 
 studied Mathematics*" On the accession of 
 George III., who had attended his lectures, 
 he received a pension of 501. a year ; and 
 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 lie published numerous works on astro- 
 nomy, mechanics, drawing, electricity, &c., 
 all of which were successful ; and he died 
 possessed of considerable property — the 
 sole result of a persevering industry in the 
 application of those talents with which 
 nature had so liberally endowed him. In 
 his manners he was meek and unassuming ; 
 in his religious principles, sincerely devout. 
 Died, 1776. 
 
 FERGUSSON, RoBEijT, a poet, was born 
 at Edinburgh in 1750. He was educated for 
 the ministry, but a love of poetry and dissi- 
 pation disqualified him for tliat profession, 
 and he obtained a place in the sheriff-clerk's 
 office at Edinburgh. His conversational 
 powers rendered his company highly attrac- 
 tive ; and the excesses into which he was 
 led are said to have impaired his naturally 
 feeble constitution, and rendered him an 
 inmate of tlie Edinburgh lunatic asylum, 
 where he died in 1774. His poems, written 
 in the Scottish dialect, have considerable 
 merit, but those in English are often below 
 mediocrity. 
 
 FERISHTA, Mohammed Casem, an In- 
 dian historian, who flourished in the ICth 
 and 17th centuries, was born at Ahmedna- 
 gur, in the Deccan. He was liberally pa- 
 tronised by the sovereign of Visapour, under 
 whose auspices he published his " History of 
 India under the Mussulmans," a work of ac- 
 knowledged merit for impartiality and truth. 
 
 FERMAT, Petek de, an eminent mathe- 
 matician, civilian, and poet, was bom at 
 Toulouse, in 1590, and died in 1664. He was 
 a good scholar, and wrote poetry in the 
 Latin, French, and Spanish languages. His 
 prose works were collected and published 
 under the title of " Opera Varia Mathe- 
 matica." 
 
 FERNANDEZ, Juan, a Spanish pilot and 
 navigator, who, in 1572, discovered the island 
 which bears his name. 
 
 FERNANDEZ XIMENES DE NAVA- 
 RETTE, John, a celebrated Spanish pain- 
 ter, and a pupil of Titian, was born, at 
 Logrono, in 1526, and surnamed El Mudo, 
 in consequence of being deaf and dumb. 
 He was appointed painter to Philip II. ; and 
 died in 1579. 
 
 FERRACINO, Baetholomew, a self- 
 tauglit genius of Padua. He was bom in 
 1095, and bred a sawye/. His first invention 
 was a saw worked by the wind. He made 
 curious clocks and hydraulic engines, but 
 his greatest work is the bridge over the 
 Breuta^ which is remarkable for the bold- 
 ness of the design, and its firmness. He 
 died about 1764. 
 
 FERRAND, Anthony, a French coun- 
 sellor, who died at Paris in 1719 ; author of 
 various songs, epigrams, and madrigals. 
 
 FERRANDO, Gonsalvo, a native of 
 Oviedo, in Spain ; author of a tract on the 
 virtues of the Lignum Guiacum, which he 
 brought from America at the close of the 
 15th century, and introduced into Europe 
 for its valuable medical properties. 
 
 FERRAR, Robert, an English prelate 
 of the 16th century, was born at Halifax, 
 Yorkshire, and became prior of the monas- 
 tery of St. Oswald, which he surrendered 
 on the dissolution in 1540, and, embracing 
 the principles of the Reformation, was made 
 bishop of St. David's by Edward VI. But, 
 neglecting some form admissive of the king's 
 supremacy, he was fined beyond bis ability 
 to pay, and imprisoned. On the accession 
 of Mary he was brought before Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, tried, and declared 
 guilty of heresy, and burnt at Caermarthen 
 in 1555. 
 
 FERRARI, the name of a Milanese family, 
 many of whose members, during the 16th 
 and 17th centuries, were distinguished by 
 their scholastic attainments. Octavian 
 Ferrari, born in 1518, professor of politics 
 and ethics successively at Milan and Padua, 
 translated the works of Athenaeus into Latin, 
 and wrote two treatises on the works of 
 Aristotle, &c. He died in 1586.— Francisco 
 Bernardino Ferrari, born in 1577, was 
 a doctor of the Ambrosian college of Milan, 
 and celebrated thoughout Europe for his 
 intimate acquaintance with books and lite- 
 rature in general. His collection of rare 
 books formed the foundation of the cele- 
 brated Ambrosian library ; and his own 
 writings, several of which are yet extant, 
 display great erudition. Died, 1669 — Oc- 
 TAVio Iekrari, born in 1607, was pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric and historiographer at 
 Milan. He aftei-wards settled at Padua, 
 where the fame of his learning brought 
 him numerous scholars, and the patronage 
 of crowned heads. Among these were 
 Christina of Sweden and Louis XIV., from 
 the latter of whom he enjoyed a pension of 
 600 crowns. Distinguished as he was by 
 his great talents, he was not less remarkable 
 for suavity of manners and disposition, uni- 
 versally acquiring thereby the appellation 
 of Pacificator. He followed Scaliger in 
 an able work, entitled " Origines Linguae 
 
FEr] 
 
 ^ i9etM Huiber^al 3SiflcjrnpTjy. 
 
 [fes 
 
 Italicffi," and wrote various treatises on an- 
 cient manners, customs, &c. Died, 1682. 
 
 FERRAKI, Gaudexzio, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Valdugio,in 1484, and 
 assisted Raffaelle in ornamenting tlie Vati- 
 can. Died, 1.5.50 Giovanni Anduea, ce- 
 lebrated as well for Jjis paintings of fruit 
 and flowers, as for his landscapes and liis- 
 torical pieces, was born at Genoa, in 1599, 
 and died in 1G69. 
 
 FERRARI, L.OUIS, an Italian mathema- 
 tician, was born, in 1552, at Bologna, wliere 
 he became professor, lie was a pupil of 
 Cardan, and the discoverer of the metliod of 
 resolving biquadratic equations. 
 
 FERRARIS, JosEPU, Count de, an Aus- 
 trian general, distinguislied as a geogra- 
 pher and skilful engineer. He was born at 
 Luneville, in 1720 ; entered the army in 
 1741, and in 177(J was appointed director- 
 general of artillery for the Netherlands, at 
 which time he undertook and completed 
 the 2d sheet map of that country, which bears 
 his name. lie served against the French in 
 the campaign of 1793 ; afterwards became 
 vice-president of the aulic council of war at 
 Vienna ; was made a field-marshal in 1808 ; 
 and died in 1814. 
 
 FERRARS, Edward, a native of War- 
 wickshire ; author of some tragedies and 
 comedies. Died, 1.564. 
 
 FERRARS, George, a lawyer and poet, 
 was born in 1512, near St. Alban's ; edu- 
 cated at Oxford ; and studied at Lincoln's 
 Inn. He was in great esteem with Henry 
 VIII., who gave him a large grant of lauds 
 in Hertfordshire. He wrote some pieces 
 inserted in the Mirror for Magistrates, ijub- 
 lished in 1559 ; and the History of Queen 
 Mary, in Grafton's Chronicle. One event of 
 his political life is, however, more memor- 
 able than his personal history, as it records 
 the recognition of a valuable parliamentary 
 privilege. While attending his duty as a 
 member of the House of Commons, he was 
 arrested and sent to prison for debt, which 
 the Commons no sooner heard of than they 
 demanded his release. This was refused, 
 and their serjcant had his mace broken 
 while defending himself in an affray with 
 the officers of the Compter. The case was 
 referred to the lords, who judged the con- 
 tempt to be very great ; and although the city 
 magistrates at length submittedto the autho- 
 rity of Parliament, their tardy obedience did 
 not exempt the parties from punishment ; for 
 the sheriffs, and the plaintiff at whose suit 
 Ferras was arrested, were committed to the 
 Tower, and the clerks to Newgate ; and an 
 act of parliament passed, discharging Ferrars 
 from liability for the debt. Died, 1579. 
 
 FERREIRA, Antonio, a poet ranked by 
 the Portuguese as one of their classic authors, 
 was born at Lisbon, in 1528. He carried to 
 perfection the elegiac and epistolary style, 
 and his " Ines de Castro " is the second 
 regular tragedy that appeared after the 
 revival of letters in Europe. Died, 1560. 
 
 FERRERAS, Joiix DE, a learned Spanish 
 historian and ecclesiastic, was born at La- 
 baneza, in 1652, of a poor but noble family, 
 and completed liis studies at Salamanca. 
 He wrote several works in philosophy, theo- 
 logy, and history, the most considerable of 
 
 297 
 
 which is his " History of Spain," in 10 vols. 
 4to. He also assisted in the compilation of 
 the great Spanish Dictionary. Died, 1735. 
 
 FERRETI. or FERRETO, an historian 
 and poet of Vicenza, was born about 129C, 
 and contributed greatly to the restoration of 
 polite literature in Italy. 
 
 FERRIAR, Jou>% a physician and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Chester, in 
 1764 ; took his medical degree at Edinburgh, 
 and settled at Manchester, where he was 
 chosen physician to the infirmary and lunatic 
 asylum, and became an efficient and active 
 member of the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society. He wrote many professional tracts, 
 published under the title of " Medical His- 
 tories and Reflections ; " also " Illustrations 
 of Sterne," which display much research in 
 tracing that eccentric author's literary ob- 
 ligations to Burton, Hall, and other satirical 
 moralists ; besides other works, in verse and 
 prose. Died, 1815. 
 
 FERRI, CiBO, an eminent Italian painter 
 and architect, was born at Rome in 1634. 
 He was a pupil of Pietro de Cortona, to 
 whose style his pictures bear a strong re- 
 semblance. Died, 1689. 
 
 FERRIER, Arnold du, an eminent 
 French lawyer and diplomatist, was born at 
 Toulouse, in 1506. Having a strong predilec- 
 tion for the Protestant religion, although 
 brought up a Catholic, he at length openly 
 avowed his opinions, and availed himself of 
 the patronage of the King of Navarre, who 
 made him his chancellor. Father Paul was 
 greatly indebted to Ferrier for his assistance 
 in compiling the History of the Council of 
 Trent, where he had attended in his capacity 
 of advocate, and been distinguished for the 
 boldness of his language. Died, 1585. 
 
 FESCH, Joseph, senior priest-cardinal of 
 the sacred college, and archbishop of Lyons, 
 and brother of La;titia Ramolini, mother of 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, was born at Ajaccio, 
 in Corsica, in 17<>4, educated in France, and 
 was in that country when the revolution 
 broke out. Young and ardent, he instantly 
 became attached to the new state of things, 
 threw off the clerical attire of the seminary 
 at which he was studying, and entered the 
 army at Montesquieu, in Switzerland, in the 
 capacity of a store-keeper. In 1796 we find 
 him commissary-general to the army of 
 Italy, which was then commanded by his 
 nephew, Buonaparte. Having in this capa- 
 city realised a princely fortune, he retired 
 from the army, resumed his clerical studies 
 and profession, and in 1802 was consecrated 
 archbishop of Lyons. Early in the following 
 year he received a cardinal's hat, and went 
 to Rome as ambassador from France. There 
 he was received with peculiar distinction ; 
 but it would seem that the cardinal's hat, 
 any more than the monk's hood, does not 
 always cover true piety. His luxurious way 
 of living, and a certain air of the camp that 
 appeared both in his mien and in his con- 
 versation, gave considerable scandal to the 
 graver Romans ; and that scandal was es- 
 pecially increased by his obstinately persist- 
 ing in giving concerts at his palace, even in 
 Lent, in defiance of a jiarticular and very 
 strict order to the contrary. In 1804 the 
 cardinal accompanied Pius VII. to FarLn, 
 
feu] 
 
 ^ 0tbi Wiuibtr&aX 23tO0raj)l)2). 
 
 [fib 
 
 and assisted in the consecration of Napoleon; 
 by whom, in tlie following j'ear, he was made 
 grand almoner of France, a principal officer 
 of the legion of honour, and a member of the 
 senate. As president of the council of Paris, 
 he opposed his self-willed nephew in many 
 of his unjust schemes, and both boldly and 
 constantly, though ineffectually, protested 
 against tlie violence with which he insulted 
 the unfortunate pope. Naisoleon, who was 
 as incapable of sympathising with such true 
 greatness of mind as he was of practising it, 
 showed how deeply he felt his uncle's opposi- 
 tion, by depriving him of his succession to 
 the arch-chancellorsliip, and nominating in 
 his stead Eugene Beauharnois, with the title 
 of grand-duke of Frankfort. When his 
 disgrace with the emperor was thus published, 
 he retired at first to Lyons, and subsequently 
 to Rome, where, with Madame Buonaparte, 
 he lived a quiet but most luxurious life. 
 His library and picture gallery were the finest 
 that even Rome, that city of the arts, could 
 boast. Died, 1839. 
 
 FETJILLEE, Louis, an eminent natu- 
 ralist, geograplier, and mathematician, was 
 born at Provence, about the middle of the 
 17th century. Louis XIV. sent him to 
 South America to make researches in natu- 
 ral history and philosophy, of which he 
 wrote a "Journal," in 2 vols. 4to. He was 
 afterwards employed in an expedition to the 
 Canary Islands, to ascertain the relative 
 position of the meridian of Ferro, which, 
 having satisfactorily performed, he was re- 
 warded with a pension and the situation of 
 botanist to the king. Died, 1732. 
 
 FE VRE, Guy le, a French poet, was born, 
 in 1541, at La Boderie, in Lower Normandy. 
 He was the autlior of several works relating 
 to oriental literature, besides several poems, 
 which obtained for him considerable reputa- 
 tion. Died, 1598. 
 
 FEVRE, Anthony le, a brother of the 
 preceding, an eminent statesman, was am- 
 baasador at Brussels in 1597, when he dis- 
 covered the conspiracy of Marshal Biron 
 against his master, Henry IV. He was 
 twice ambassador to England, and died in 
 1615. 
 
 FEVRE, or FABER, Tanaquil, a classi- 
 cal sdiolar, of great eminence, was horn 
 at Caen, in Normandy, in 1C15. Cardinal 
 Richelieu procured liim a pension of 2000 
 livres, with the office of inspector of works 
 printed at the Louvre. He was subsequently 
 professor of classical literature at Saumur, 
 and died there in 1672. His works, which 
 are very numerous, chiefly consist of com- 
 mentaries on, and translations from, the 
 Greek and Latin authors. The celebrated 
 Madame Daeier was his daughter. Died, 
 1672. 
 
 FEYJOO Y MONTENEGRO, Benedict 
 Jerome, a Spanish Benedictine monk of the 
 last century, who published his thoughts on 
 a vast variety of topics, in the form of essays 
 designed for popular use, whence he has been 
 sometimes styled ihQ Spanish Addison. His 
 " Teatro Critico Universal," and his " Cartas 
 eruditas y curiosas," both works of merit, 
 are devoted to a common object — the refuta- 
 tion of error, and the removal of prejudice. 
 A selection from Ma essays and discourses 
 
 was translated into English, and published 
 in 4 vols, in 1780. 
 
 FICHTE, John Theophilus, a celebrated 
 German philosopher and metaphysician, 
 was bom, in 1762, in Upper Lusatia ; studied 
 at Wittenberg and Leipsic ; and was succes- 
 sively professor of philosophy at Jena, Er- 
 langen, and Berlin. In most of his writings 
 he unfolds the doctrines of transcendental 
 idealism, representing the life of the mind 
 as the only real life, and all the reality in 
 the universe being expressed in what he 
 called the "absolute I." His works have 
 been translated into English. Died, 1814. 
 
 FICINUS, or FICINO, Marsilius, an 
 eminent scholar of the 15th century, and 
 one of the revivers of a taste for Platonic phi- 
 losophy in Europe, was born at Florence, in 
 1433. His father was physician to Cosmo 
 de Medici, and was himself patronised by 
 Cosmo, Peter, and Lorenzo. He was such 
 an enthusiastic admirer of the writings of 
 Plato, that he not only made a Latin version 
 of them, but descanted upon them in an 
 academy, and even preached their doctrines 
 from the pulpit. Died, 1499. 
 
 FIDDES, Richard, a clergyman of the 
 Church of England, and author of several 
 works, was born at Hunmanby, Yorkshire, 
 in 1671 ; educated at University College, 
 Oxford ; and obtained the rectory of Hail- 
 sham. W^hile there he contracted an illness, 
 which ever after nearly deprived him of 
 utterance, and this led him to devote himself 
 to literature. Among his various works are, 
 " A Body of Divinity," 2 vols, folio ; " Fifty- 
 two Practical Discourses ; " and a " Life of 
 Cardinal Wolsey ; " the last evidently a 
 party work, written to favour the views of 
 the Pretender and of popery. Died, 1725. 
 
 FIELD, Richard, a learned divine, was 
 born in 1561, at Hemel Hampstead, Herts, 
 and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 In 1598, being then a D. D., he was made 
 chaplain in ordinary to Queen Elizabeth, 
 and afterwards a prebendary of Windsor. 
 He was a great favourite of James I., who 
 bestowed upon him the deanery of Glouces- 
 ter, and proposed sending him into Germany 
 to compose the differences between the Lu- 
 therans and Calvin ists ; but for some reason 
 this appointment did not take place. He 
 gained great reputation by a work, entitled 
 " Of the Church ; " and he commenced "A 
 View of the Controversies in Religion," 
 which he did not live to finish. Died, 1616. 
 
 FIELDEN, John, M.P., whose exertions 
 in behalf of the labouring classes deserve 
 honourable mention, was originally him- 
 self a labouring man, but gradually worked 
 his way up to competence, influence, and 
 authority ; and when through the medium 
 of his combined industry and intelligence 
 he had become a master, his fidelity to 
 his caste made him the earnest and untiring 
 champion of the rights of his fellow toilers. 
 He sat in parliament for Oldham, from 1832 
 to 1847. His exertions in regard to the me- 
 morable ten hours' bill will not speedily be 
 forgotten. Died, 1849. 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, an English novelist 
 and a political writer, pre-eminently distin- 
 guished for genuine humour and a know- 
 ledge of the world, was the son of Lieut.- 
 
fie] 
 
 ^ ^etn mnihtv^aX 3B{0JirapTjy. 
 
 [fii, 
 
 general Fielding, of Sharpham Park, Somer- 
 set, where Henry was born, April 22. 1707. He 
 waa first sent to Eton,\vhence he removed to 
 Leyden ; but the straitened circumstances of 
 his father shortened his academical studies, 
 wliich, added to a love of gaiety and dissipa- 
 tion, led him to turn his attention to the 
 stage. His first piece, which came out in 
 1727, was entitled " Love in sevei-al Masks," 
 and its success induced him to iwrsevere. 
 Some of his dramatic eflForts were, however, 
 failures ; tliough neither wit, humour, nor 
 spriglitliness is generally wanting in them. 
 In his 27th year, he married Miss Craddock, 
 a lady of some fortune ; and, at the same 
 time, by the death of his mother, became 
 possessed of a small estate in Dorsetshire. 
 Unfortunately, instead of husbanding these 
 resources, he immediately set up for a country 
 gentleman, on a scale which, in 3 years, re- 
 duced him to greater indigence than iCver, 
 with a young family to support. He then, 
 for the first time, dedicated himself to the 
 bar as a profession, and, for immediate sub- 
 sistence, employed his pen on various mis- 
 cellaneous subjects, " The History of Jona- 
 than Wild " being among the early fruits of 
 his literary industry. In 1742 appeared his 
 first novel, " Joseph Andrews," in which the 
 Cervantic style of humour is admirably imi- 
 tated. It immediately received the attention 
 to which it was entitled ; but success as a 
 novel-writer was not very likely to advance 
 his practice at the bar ; nor was the emolu- 
 ment attached to it sufficient for a manner 
 of life never sufficiently regulated by the 
 rules of prudence. He was further impeded 
 in his profession by repeated attacks of the 
 gout ; added to which, his domestic affliction 
 was greatly increased by the death of his 
 wife. Neither disease nor grief, however, 
 paralysed the efforts of his pen. In rapid 
 succession he brought forth 4 periodical 
 papers, called " The Champion," " The True 
 Patriot," "The Jacobite Journal," and "The 
 Covent Garden Journal," " Essays on Con- 
 versation, and on the Knowledge and Cha- 
 racters of Men," " A Journey from this 
 World to the Next," and the novels of " Tom 
 Jones " and " Amelia." During the rebel- 
 lion of 1745, he lent the assistance of his 
 literary talents to the government, and was 
 rewarded with the then not altogether re- 
 putable office of a Middlesex justice. To the 
 credit of Fielding, however, he did much to 
 render it more respectable by the prevention 
 of crimes, and the improvement of the police. 
 Ill liealth at length obliged him to try the 
 milder air of Lisbon, and a Narrative of his 
 "Voyage to that place was the last of his 
 works. He, unhappily, received no benefit 
 from the change, but died in the Portuguese 
 capital, in 1754. Notwithstanding the lapse 
 of a century, and the change in manners, the 
 inimitable wit of Fielding is still relished, 
 and his accurate knowledge of character uni- 
 versally admitted. 
 
 FIELDING, Sir Jonif, half-brother of 
 Henry, and his successor as a justice for 
 Middlesex. Though blind from his child- 
 hood, he discharged his office with great 
 credit, and in 1701 received the honour of 
 knighthood. He published some tracts on 
 the penal code, and a miscellaneous coUec- 
 
 299 
 
 tion, entitled "The Universal Mentor." 
 Died, 1780. 
 
 FIELDING, Sarah, the third sister of 
 Henry Fielding, was born in 1714, lived un- 
 married, and died at Bath, in 17C8. She 
 was a woman of talent, and wrote several 
 novels, &c., of which " David Simple " is the 
 principal. She also translated from the 
 Greek " Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates." 
 
 FIENNES, William, lord Say and Sele, 
 was bom in 1582, and educated at New 
 College, Oxford. In 1624 he was made a 
 viscount ; yet, like many others who had ex- 
 l)erienced the favours of" the court, he joined 
 the parliamentarians. He, however, con- 
 curred in the Restoration, and was made 
 lord privy seal and chamberlain of the 
 household. He died in 1662. 
 
 FIENNES, Nathaniel, second son of the 
 above, was born in 1608, and educated at 
 New College, Oxford, after which he went to 
 Geneva. He was a considerable leader of 
 the independent party, and commanded at 
 Bristol when that city was taken by Prince 
 Rupert, and would have suffiired death for 
 his disloyalty, but for the influence of his 
 father. Died, 16(!9. 
 
 FIESCO, Joii.v Lotns, count of Lavagna, 
 a Genoese of an illustrious family, and a 
 victim of unsuccessful ambition, was at the 
 head of the conspiracy which was formed 
 against the celebrated Andrew Doria and 
 his nephew. On the evening of the Ist of 
 January, 1547, Fiesco, who had prepared a 
 galley under pretence of a cruise against the 
 corsairs, waited upon Doria to request per- 
 mission to depart from the harbour early in 
 the morning. Having succeeded in lulling 
 his intended victims into a false security, he 
 sallied forth in the night at the head of 500 
 men ; and dispatching parties to take posses- 
 sion of different posts, himself proceeded to 
 the dock, where the galleys lay ; but in pass- 
 ing on a plank from one galley to another, 
 he fell into the water, and, owing to the 
 weight of his armour, was unable to rise 
 again. His confederates failed in their at- 
 tempt on Andrew Doria, though Giannetino, 
 his nephew, fell beneath their swords ; and 
 the family of Fiesco were made to pay the 
 penalty of liis ambition by ruin and pro- 
 scription. 
 
 FIESOLE (so called from the monastery 
 to which he belonged) was one of the most 
 celebrated restorers of painting in Italy. His 
 family name was Santi Tosini. Born, 1387 ; 
 died, 1584. 
 
 FIGUEROA, Bartholomew Carascosa 
 DE, a Spanish poet, was a native of Logrono, 
 and studied at the university of Salamanca. 
 Born, 1510 ; died, 1570. 
 
 FILANGIERI, Gaetano, a celebrated 
 writer on political economy and legislation, 
 was born at Naples, in 1752. He was at first 
 intended for the army, but being of studious 
 habits, he was allowed to gratify his inclina- 
 tion for a literary life. His great work, en- 
 titled "The Science of Legislation," not- 
 withstanding it was never completed accord- 
 ing to his original design, attracted great 
 attention, from its bold and original views, 
 and the liberality of its sentiments ; and 
 places him in the rank of a first-rate writer 
 upon one of the most difficult and important 
 
fil] 
 
 ^ iflciM Winibti'Sal MiaQtKpffVi. 
 
 [fI8 
 
 subjects that can engage the mind of man. 
 In 1787 he was made a member of the su- 
 preme council of finance, and died in 1788. 
 
 FILICAIA, VixcENZO da, an eminent 
 Italian poet, was born at Florence, in 1642, 
 and studied at Pisa. His " Canzoni," com- 
 memorating the deliverance of Vienna by 
 John Sobieski, fully establislied his poetical 
 fame, and obtained for him from the Duke 
 of Tuscany the title of senator, while more 
 solid rewards awaited him in being appointed 
 governor, first of Volterra, and afterwards of 
 Pisa. Died, 1707. 
 
 FILMER, Sir Robekt, an English writer, 
 was born in Kent, and educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge. He wrote " The Anarchy 
 of a limited and mixed Monarchy," " Patri- 
 archa," in which he contends that govern- 
 ment was monarchical in the patriarchal 
 ages ; and " The Freeholder's Grand In- 
 quest." He was a man of talent, but a 
 more bigoted champion of absolute monarchy 
 has seldom appeared ; and it was to refute 
 the doctrines of Filmer that l/ocke wrote his 
 Treatises on Government. Died, 1747. 
 
 FINCH, IlEN-EAOE, first earl of Notting- 
 ham, was the son of Sir Heneage Finch, re- 
 corder of London. He was born in 1621, and 
 educated at Westminster School, from whence 
 he removed to Cliristchurch, Oxford, and 
 afterwards to the Inner Temple. Charles II. 
 made him solicitor-general, and created him 
 a baronet. He was returned to parliament 
 for the university of Oxford, in 1061. In 
 1670 he was appointed attorney-general, and 
 soon after lord-keeper, with the rank of a 
 peer. In 1675 he was made lord chancellor, 
 and in 1681 created earl of Nottingham. His 
 powers as an orator were highly rated ; and 
 Dryden has handed down his portrait to 
 posterity in his poem of " Absalom and Achi- 
 tophel," under the character of Amri. Died, 
 1682. 
 
 FINCH, Daniel, eldest son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1647, and finished his edu- 
 cation at Christchurch, Oxford. In 1680 he 
 was appointed first lord of the Admiraltj% 
 and in 1692 succeeded his father as the earl 
 of Nottingham. On the death of Queen 
 Anne, he was one of the lords justices for 
 the administration of affairs, and 800n after 
 was made president of the council ; but in 
 1716 he was dismissed, on account of a speech 
 which he made in behalf of the Scottish lords 
 condemned for high treason. He devoted 
 his remaining years to tlie enjoyment of re- 
 tirement and literary leisure, the fruits of 
 which appeared in an eloquent reply to 
 Whiston, on the subject of the Trinity. 
 Died, 1730. 
 
 FINCH, Robert, an ingenious antiquary, 
 was born in London, in 1783 ; educated at 
 St. Paul's School and Baliol College, Oxford; 
 and entered into holy orders. He travelled 
 through the south of Europe and Palestine ; 
 and died at Rome, in 1830 ; bequeathing to 
 the Ashmolean Museum, at Oxford, his 
 valuable library, medals, coins, pictures, and 
 antique curiosities. 
 
 FINET, Sir John, a man of wit in the 
 court of James I. and Charles I., was born 
 near Dover, in 1571, and died in 1641. He 
 was the author of "Fineti Pliiloxenus, or 
 Observations touching the Reception, Pre- 
 
 cedency, &c. of Foreign Ambassadors in 
 England." 
 
 FINGAL, celebrated in the poems of Os- 
 sian his son ; was prince of Morven, a pro- 
 vince of ancient Caledonia, and was bom 
 about the year 282. He constantly strug- 
 gled with the Romans, who at that time 
 ruled in England ; and frequently made ex- 
 peditions to Sweden, the Orkney Islands, 
 and Ireland. Fingal's character, as sketched 
 by Ossian, is that of a noble hero, the father 
 of his people. 
 
 FINIGUERRA, Tommaso, a celebrated 
 sculptor and goldsmith, to whom is ascribed 
 the invention of copperplate printing. He 
 lived at Florence, about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, and practised the art called 
 niello, which consisted in encliasing dark 
 metallic substances into cavities worked on 
 gold or silver, and fixing them by fusion. 
 Died, 1475. 
 
 FINLAY, John, a modem Scotch poet, 
 was born at Glasgow, in 1782, and educated 
 at the university of that city. He was the 
 author of " Wallace of Ellerslie," a " Life 
 of Cervantes," and the edition of " A Col- 
 lection of Scottish Ballads, historical and 
 romantic," in 2 vols. Died, 1810. 
 
 FIRENZTJOLA, Angelo, an Italian dra- 
 matic poet, born at Florence in 1493. He 
 was originally bred to the bar, but left it for 
 the church, and devoted himself to literary 
 pursuits. Died, 1545. 
 
 FIRMIAN, Chakles, Count de, adminis- 
 trator of the Austrian government at Lom- 
 bardy, was born in 1718. So exemplary was 
 his love of justice, and his zeal for the hap- 
 piness of the people, that the Austrian go- 
 vernment rewarded him with the highest 
 honours ; while he emploj'ed his wealth and 
 influence in the encouragement of literature 
 and the arts, of which he was a liberal and 
 discriminating patron. Died at Milan, 1782. 
 
 FIRMIN, Thomas, a distinguished phi- 
 lanthropist, was born at Ipswich, in 1632, and 
 brought up to business in London, as a linen- 
 draper, which he carried on with good suc- 
 cess. Although he had adopted anti-trini- 
 tarian opinions, in consequence of having 
 formed an intimacy with the persecuted 
 Socinian, John Biddle, whose necessities he 
 relieved ; yet his upright conduct, piety, and 
 liberality were so conspicuous, that Arch- 
 bishop Tillotson and other eminent prelates 
 were proud of his friendship. Having es- 
 tablished a linen manufactory for the pur- 
 pose of giving employment to those who 
 would otherwise have been vagrants, he pub- 
 lished, in 1678, " Some Proposals for the Em- 
 ployment of the Poor, and especially in and 
 about the City of London, and for the Pre- 
 vention of Begging," &c. His charity was 
 extended to all sects and parties, and his 
 useful life terminated in 1697. 
 
 FISCHER, John Bernard, an eminent 
 German architect, born at Vienna, in 1560. 
 He erected the palace of Schoenbrunn, the 
 church of St. Boromeo, and a number of 
 other fine edifices at Vienna ; and was ap- 
 pointed chief architect to Joseph I., wlio 
 created him baron d'Erlach. Died, 1724. 
 
 FISH, Simon, a native of Kent, and a 
 member of the legal profession, who, having 
 acted a part in a play written for the pur- 
 
FIS] 
 
 91 j5ctD ^mbcrM 2St05rapT;i». 
 
 [fit 
 
 pose of ridiculing Cardinal Wolsey, was 
 obliged to flee to the Continent. lie there 
 wrote a satire upon the Popish clergy, en- 
 titled " The Supplication of the Beggars," 
 which was answered by Sir Thomas More in 
 his "Supplication for Souls." Fish was 
 ultimately recalled home by Henry VIII., 
 but died of the plague soon after his return, 
 in l.Wl. 
 
 FISHER, John, bishop of Rochester, a 
 learned divine, was born at Beverley, in 
 Yorkshire, in 1459. He became vice-chan- 
 cellor of Cambridge ; and being appointed 
 confessor to Margaret, countess of Rich- 
 mond, it was through his influence that she 
 founded St. John's and Christ's colleges. In 
 1504, he was unexpectedly promoted to the 
 see of Rochester, and subsequently declined 
 translation to a more valuable bishopric ; 
 styling his church his wife, and declaring 
 that he would never exchange her for one 
 that was richer. Deeply prepossessed in fa- 
 vour of the ancient faith, he opposed with 
 zeal and perseverance the principles of Lu- 
 ther and his followers ; and having denied 
 the supremacy of Henry VIII. as head of 
 the church, he was convicted of high trea- 
 son, and beheaded on Tower Hill, in 15.3.5. 
 
 FISHER, John, bishop of Salisbury, was 
 born at Hampton, Middlesex, in 1748 ; edu- 
 cated at St. Paul's School, and at Peterhouse, 
 Cambridge ; became a fellow and tutor of 
 St. John's ; and subsequently was apjiointed 
 tutor to Prince Edward, the late duke of 
 Kent. In 1803 he was raised to the bishopric 
 of Exeter, and had the honour of superin- 
 tending the education of the late princess 
 Charlotte of Wales, which he performed with 
 equal ability and success. In 18W he was 
 translated to the bishopric of Salisbury, which 
 diocese he continued to hold till his death 
 in 1825. 
 
 FISHER, Payjte, a poet of the 17th cen- 
 tury, chiefly memorable for having held the 
 otttee of laureate under Oliver Cromwell. 
 He was a native of Dorsetshire, studied at 
 Oxford and Cambridge ; and served on the 
 royalist side in the civil wars ; but on the 
 decline of the king's affairs he joined the 
 republicans, and celebrated their successes 
 in several Latin poems. He also wrote a 
 " Synopsis of Heraldry," and various poems. 
 Died, 1G93. 
 
 FISHER, Thomas, F.S. A., a gentleman 
 whose love of literature and antiquarian 
 research rendered him a most acceptable 
 contributor to many periodical works, was 
 a native of Rochester, and for many years 
 held the situation of searcher of records in 
 the service of the East India Company. To 
 the Gentleman's Magazine, Mr. Fisher was 
 a contributor for nearly 50 years. He was 
 also a contributor to the Asiatic Journal, 
 and one of the first projectors of the Con- 
 gregational Magazine. He was also a di- 
 rector of the London Missionary Society, of 
 which the knowledge he had obtained of the 
 East made him a valuable member. Few 
 persons, indeed, were more earnest in their 
 endeavours to extend the empire of Chris- 
 tianity generally, or who were better ac- 
 quainted with its progress and success ; nor 
 was he ever known to shrink from assisting, 
 to the utmost of Ms ability, in a pecuniary 
 
 301 
 
 way, any cause which could plead for its 
 object religious instruction, or Christian be- 
 nevolence. Born, 1772 ; died, IH'M, 
 
 FITZGERALD, Euwakd, Lord, a mis- 
 guided and unfortunate political partisan, 
 was the son of the Duke of Leinater, and 
 born on the 15th of October, 17(53. At a 
 time wken the revolutionary spirit was at 
 its height in Ireland, he joined the malcon- 
 tents, became the object of i)ro8cription, and 
 met with his death in the following manner. 
 Having disguised himself as a countryman, 
 and taken refuge in a house in Thomas 
 Street, Dublin, a party commissioned to ap- 
 prehend him arrived, headed by the two 
 town majors, Sirr and Swan, and a Captain 
 Ryan. Swan and Ryan entered the room 
 together, and summoned I^ord Edward to 
 surrender ; but he made a bold attempt to 
 escape, and closing with Captain Ryan, 
 killed him with a dagger on the .<!pot. Be- 
 fore, however, he could well disengage him- 
 self from the dying man. Swan threw himself 
 upon l-.im, and pinioned him round the 
 body ; and Sirr, who had been standing at 
 the door during the conflict, shot him through 
 the body with a pistol. He was instantly 
 removed to a plac* of security, where, after 
 lingering for a day or two in extreme agony, 
 he died, 1798. He had before attracted con- 
 siderable notoriety, not merely from the 
 rashness of his jwlitical conduct, but from 
 having married the celebrated Pamela, the 
 protege and supposed natural daughter of 
 the Duke of Orleans and Madame de Genlis. 
 
 FITZGERALD, Lady Edward, wife of 
 the preceding, (commonly called Pamela), 
 was supposed to be the daughter of Madame 
 de Genlis, by the Duke of Orleans (Egaliti-). 
 But according to the statement of Madame 
 de Genlis, she was the daugliter of a man of 
 high birth, named Seymour, who married, in 
 spite of his family, a young woman of the 
 lowest cla.s8, called Mary Syms, and went off' 
 with her to Newfoundland, on the coast of 
 America, where he established himself at a 
 place called Fogo. There Pamela was born, 
 and received the name of Nancy. Her father 
 died, and the mother returned to England 
 with her child, then 18 montlis old. As her 
 husband was disinherited, she was reduced 
 to great misery, and forced to work for her 
 bread. She had settled at Christchurch, 
 and a Mr. Forth having been commissioned 
 by the Duke of Orleans to send him a young 
 English girl, he saw Pamela, and obtained 
 her from her mother. " When I began," 
 continues M. de Genlis, " to be really at- 
 tached to Pamela, I was very uneasy lest 
 her mother might be desirous of claiming 
 her by legal process ; that is, lest she might 
 threaten me with doing so to obtain grants of 
 money it would have been out of my power to 
 give." She at length got over this difficulty, 
 by the mother's acceptance of 25 guineas, 
 and signing an agreement not to claim her 
 child till she had paid M. de Genlis all the 
 expense she had been at for her maintenance 
 and education. Pamela's arrival at the 
 Palais Royal, however, had occasioned odd 
 conjectures. She was educated with the 
 princes and princesses, as a companion and 
 friend : she had the same masters, was taken 
 equal care of, partook of their sports ; and 
 
fit] 
 
 ^ ^tia mntljer^al 3StOffrap]b«. 
 
 [fit 
 
 I her astonishing resemblance to the duke's 
 I cliildren would have made her pass for their 
 ristPr, were it not for her foreign accent. 
 ! Whilst Pamela and the young princesses 
 I were pursuing their studies in the delightful 
 I retreat of Belle-chasse, the revolution broke 
 I out. The Duke of Orleans and his two sons, 
 [ the Dukes of Chartres and Montpensier, 
 I warmly supported its principles. Madame 
 j de Genlis was then an admirer of the con- 
 I stituent assembly ; Pamela participated in 
 I her enthusiasm for liberty ; and every Sun- 
 day the distinguished members of that as- 
 1 Bembly met at Belle-chasse. When the con- 
 stituent assembly had terminated its labours, 
 Madame de Genlis proceeded to England 
 with Mademoiselle d'Orleans and Pamela, 
 and attended by two deputies, Petion and 
 i Voidel. It was then Lord Edward Fitz- 
 gerald first saw Pamela. The brilliancy of 
 her beauty, the graces of her mind, and the 
 free expression of her feelings of liberty, 
 made a deep impression on the young Irish- 
 man ; and when Madame de Genlis, alarmed 
 at the turn things were taking in France, 
 retired with her pupils to Tournay, where 
 the presence of Dumouriez and the duke 
 assured them a safe asylum. Lord Fitzgerald 
 accompanied them, and soon became the 
 husband of Pamela. A few years after his 
 unhappy fate, she married a Mr. Pitcaim, 
 an American, and consul at Hamburgh ; 
 from whom she was subsequently divorced. 
 Slie then resumed the name of Fitzgerald, 
 and lived in great retirement in one of the 
 provinces, until the revolution of 1830 placed 
 the associate of her childhood upon a throne. 
 Lady Fitzgerald was, in consequence of this 
 event, tempted to visit Paris; but she received 
 little notice from Louis Philippe, or any of 
 his family. She died in indigence, at Paris, 
 Nov. 1881. 
 
 FITZGIBBON, Joiix, first earl of Clare, 
 and lord chancellor of Ireland, was born in 
 1749 ; and was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, and at Oxford. He rapidly rose in 
 the legal profession, till he became a chan- 
 cellor, in 1789, with the title of baron Fitz- 
 gibbon i and in 1795 was raised to the peerage 
 as the earl of Clare. He was an eminent 
 lawyer, and a decided promoter of the Union. 
 Died, 1802. 
 
 FITZUERBERT, Sir Anthoxy, an able 
 and learned judge in the reign of Henry 
 VIII., was born at Norbury, in Derbyshire, 
 and educated at Oxford, from whence he 
 removed to one of the inns of court. In 1523, 
 he was made a judge in the court of common 
 pleas, and died in 1538. He wrote "The 
 Grand Abridgment," a " Collection of Law 
 Cases," "Tlie Office and Authority of Jus- 
 tices of the Peace," " The Office of Sheriffs," 
 " Natura Brevium," &c. He is also supposed 
 to have written a book on the Surveying of 
 Lands, and another on Husbandry, .tliough 
 some have ascribed these to his brother, Jolm 
 Fitzherbert. 
 
 FITZUERBERT, Nicholas, grandson of 
 the preceding, was born about the middle of 
 the 16th century ; was educated at Oxford ; 
 went to Italy, and held the situation of secre- 
 tary to Cardinal Alan, whose life he wrote ; 
 and is said to be the author of a treatise on 
 the " Antiquity and Duration of the Roman 
 
 Catholic Religion in England." He was 
 accidentally drowned in 1012. 
 
 FITZHERBERT, Sir William, a de- 
 scendant of tiie same family as the preceding, 
 was born in 1748, and received his education 
 at Cambridge. Though called to the bar, he 
 did not practise as a counsellor, but employed 
 himself in writing on professional subjects. 
 He held the office of gentleman usher to the 
 king, who created him a baronet in 1784. 
 Died, 1791. 
 
 FITZHERBERT, Maria Anxe, a lady 
 who at one period of her life occupied a pro- 
 minent place in the history of this country, 
 was the sister of the late Walter Smythe, 
 esq., of Bambridge, near Winchester, and 
 was married in 1775 to Edward Weld, esq., 
 of Lulworth Castle, uncle to the late Cardinal 
 Weld. Her husband died, without issue 
 within a twelvemonth after their marriage, 
 and she was soon after united to Thomas 
 Fitzherbert, esq., who also died, leaving no 
 offspring, in 1781. Having found it necessary 
 to allude to Mrs. Fitzherbert, at some length, 
 in our memoir of George IV., we shall here 
 merely observe, that, attracted by the beauty 
 and fascination of the blooming widow, the 
 prince urgently pressed his suit, and a 
 marriage, according to the forms of the 
 Catholic Church, is believed (but never was 
 thoroughly ascertained) to have taken place 
 about 1787. She naturally became the ob- 
 ject of great public and political interest ; 
 but the influence she possessed was always 
 exercised for the honour of him to whom she 
 was united ; and she found, after her retire- 
 ment from the meretricious splendour that 
 had once surrounded her, ample means for 
 the employment of her mind in acts of un- 
 ostentatious benevolence. Died, March, 1837. 
 
 FITZJAMES, Edward, Duke of, was the 
 great-grandson of the Duke of Berwick, who 
 was natural son of James II. of England, by 
 a sister of the Duke of Marlborough. At the 
 time of the French revolution, the name of 
 the Duke of Fitzjames was placed on the list 
 of proscription, in consequence of his having 
 emigrated ; but, at the restoration of the 
 Bourbon family, he returned to France, and 
 became aide-de-camp and first nobleman of 
 tlie chamber to the Count d'Artois, after- 
 wards Charles X. In the chamber of peers 
 he was remarkable for the constancy yet mo- 
 deration with which he upheld the monarch. 
 After the revolution of 1830, he was no less a 
 favoured person than before it, having 
 readily sworn allegiance to the new state of 
 things. He is chiefly noticeable as being in 
 some sort a member of our ill-fated Stuart 
 family. Died, 1839. 
 
 FITZSTEPIIEN, William, a learned 
 English monk of the 12th century, and the 
 friend of Thomas k Becket, archbisliop of 
 Canterbury, whose life he wrote. Prefixed 
 to this life is a " Description of the City of 
 London, and of the Manners and Customs 
 of its Inhabitants," which is curious on 
 account of its being the earliest account of 
 London extant, and has been preserved by 
 being printed at the end of Stowe's Survey. 
 Died, 1191. 
 
 FITZWILLIAM, the Right Hon. Wil- 
 liam Wentwoktu FiTZWiLLiAM, Earl, was 
 born in 1748 ; commenced his education at 
 
fla] 
 
 ^ ij^ftn Bnihtr^aX SSiflflrajpljM. 
 
 [fle 
 
 Eton, finished it at Oxford, and took his seat 
 in the House of Peers in 17G9. Inheriting a 
 good fortune from his father, and coming 
 into possession, on the death of tlie Marquis 
 of Rockingham, of tlie fine domain of Went- 
 worth and other large estates, his lordsliip 
 was naturally looked up to as a nobleman of 
 influence and high connections, which his 
 marriage with Lady Charlotte Ponsonby had 
 of course extended. Up to the period of the 
 French Revolution, Earl Fitzwilliam acted 
 with the Whigs ; but when Mr. Fox held up 
 the Gallic system of liberty and equality as 
 a model for imitation, and the levelling prin- 
 ciple was spreading far and wide throughout 
 the kingdom, the warning voice of Edmund 
 Burke was not lost upon him ; and seeing 
 the necessity of sacriflcing the attachments 
 of party to the general good, like many 
 others of the hereditary nobility, he joined 
 the Duke of Portland and Mr. Pitt, thus 
 giving strength to the ministry and confi- 
 dence to the nation. This was an extraor- 
 dinary period of popular clamour and dis- 
 content ; and at this critical juncture Earl 
 Fitzwilliam was appointed to the government 
 of Ireland. Finding that the Catholic party 
 there was all powerful, and dreading the 
 propagation of revolutionary principles at 
 the very time the French fleet was hovering 
 on the island, his lordship favoured those 
 who were seeking " emancipation," and en- 
 deavoured to conciliate, rather than punish, 
 the disaffected ; but his measures were not 
 approved of by the ministry, and he was re- 
 called, to make room for Earl Camden. In 
 1798 he was appointed lord lieutenant of the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire ; and on Mr. Pitt's 
 death, in 180<3, he became president of the 
 council, which he retained until the fall of 
 the Grenville administration in the following 
 year. After this he gradually retired from 
 public life ; and on the 8th of February, 1833, 
 he died, aged 84. 
 
 FLACCUS, Caius Valerius, was a Ro- 
 man poet of the 1st century, who lived at 
 Padua, and died young. He wrote an epic 
 poem, entitled " Argonautica," of which 
 seven books, and part of the eighth, were 
 completed by himself, and the others sup- 
 plied by ApoUonius. 
 
 FLAMINIO, GiovAJfxi ANTOmo, M-hose 
 family name was Zarrabini, was a Genoese, 
 and born in 14(54. He was a teacher of the 
 belles lettres in the university of Bologna, 
 wrote the lives of Albertus Magnus and St. 
 Dominic, and was also the author of various 
 poems. Died, 1.5.'36. 
 
 FLAMINIO, Makc Antoxio, son of the 
 preceding, was born, in 1498, at Seravale, 
 educated by his father, and distinguished 
 himself by the extent and variety of his 
 erudition. He was secretary to the cardinals 
 Pole and Farnese, at tlie council of Trent, 
 and died, at Rome, in looO. He was the 
 author of " Carmina Sacra," and other 
 poetical works in Latin, which are admired 
 for their sweetness and purity. 
 
 FliAMSTEED, John, an eminent astro- 
 nomer, was born at Denby, in Derbyshire, 
 in 1C4<5, and received his education at tlie 
 free-school of Derby. He was led to the 
 study of astronomy by perusing Sacrobosco's 
 work, "De Sphaera;" and he prosecuted 
 
 his studies with so much assiduity, as to be 
 inferior only to Sir Isaac Newton, his co- 
 temporary, who, in fact, availed himself of 
 some of Flamsteed's calculations in his 
 " Principia." He was appointed astronomer- 
 royal, and the observatory at Greenwich was 
 erected for him, where, during the remainder 
 of his life, he assiduously cultivated the sub- 
 lime science. His principal work is entitled 
 "Historia Ccelestis Britaunica;" Died, 1719. 
 
 FLAVEL, John, a nonconformist divine, 
 was born in Worcestershire, and educated 
 at University College, Oxford. In 1G50 he 
 settled at Dartmouth, in Devonshire, where 
 he wrote his " Navigation Spiritualised." 
 He was ejected from his living in lG(i2, but 
 continued to preach privately. At the ac- 
 cession of James II. he returned to Dart- 
 mouth. He died suddenly at Exeter, in 
 1(591. He was a man of exemplary piety 
 and conduct, and his works are liighly 
 esteemed by all who hold Calvinistic sen- 
 timents. 
 
 FLAXMAN, Jous, an eminent sculptor, 
 whose father was for many years cm- 
 ployed by Roubillac, was born at York, In 
 1755 ; and was admitted a student of the 
 Royal Academy, in 1770. Having made 
 considerable progress in his own country, 
 he visited Italy, and, during a seven 
 years' residence there, executed several im- 
 portant works in sculpture, besides making 
 drawings for the illustration of Homer, 
 .^Cschylus, Hesiod, and Dante. This esta- 
 blished liis fame as an artist of classical 
 taste, and he was elected a member of the 
 academies of Florence and Carrara. In 1794 
 he returned to England ; and from that 
 period till his death, he was almost unin- 
 terruptedly employed in works of first-rate 
 character. Among them may be named. 
 Lord Mansfield's monument in Westminster 
 Abbey ; and those of Collins, the poet ; Lord 
 Nelson, Earl Howe, Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 and tlie Baring family. He also finished a 
 set of drawings and a model for the shield 
 of Achilles, as described in Homer's Iliad. 
 In 1810 he was appointed professor of sculp- 
 ture to the Royal Academy ; and died in 
 182(5. 
 
 FLECHIER, Esprit, a famous French 
 bishop, was born in 1()32, at Femes, in the 
 county of Avignon. He was greatly admired 
 as a preacher at Paris, and his funeral ora- 
 tions set him on a level with Bossuet. In 
 1(579 he published his " History of Theodo- 
 sius the Great." In 1685 he was made bishop 
 of Lavaur ; on which the king said, "I 
 should have rewarded you much sooner, but 
 that I was afraid of losing the pleasure of 
 hearing your discourses." Shortly after he 
 was promoted to the see of Nismes ; and 
 died in 1710. His entire works were pub- 
 lished after his death, in 10 vols. 8vo. 
 
 FLECKNOE, Richard, an English poet 
 and dramatic writer, whose name is now 
 more remembered on account of its having 
 been held up to ridicule by Drj'den, in his 
 invective against Shadwell, than for the 
 value of his own compositions. Died, 1C78. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, Charles, a parliament- 
 ary general in the civil wars, was the son of 
 Sir William Fleetwood, who belonged to the 
 household of Charles I. He entered the 
 
fle] 
 
 ^ i5el» Hnilicr^aX ^tSiOflrapl^t). 
 
 [fle 
 
 army, and, on the breaking out of the civil 
 wars, declared against the king ; commanded 
 a regiment of cavalry in 1(344 ; and at the 
 battle of Worcester bore the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general. Becoming allied to the 
 family of the protector, by marrying his 
 daughter, on the decease of her first hus- 
 band, Ireton, he was sent as lord deputy to 
 Ireland ; but, on the death of Cromwell, he 
 joined in inducing his son Richard to abdi- 
 cate ; thus hastening the restoration of 
 Charles II., an event which, he did not long 
 survive. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, William, an English 
 lawyer, and recorder of London in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, was born in Lancashire. He 
 received his education at Oxford, from 
 whence he removed to the Inner Temple. 
 He wrote the history of Edward V., Rich- 
 ard III., Henry VII. and VIII. ; the " Office 
 of a Justice of Peace," &c. He was a great 
 favourite of Dudley, earl of Leicester ; and 
 his professional writings were much es- 
 teemed. Died, irm. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, William, an eminent 
 prelate, was born in London, in 165G, and 
 educated at Eton and Cambridge. Soon 
 after the Revolution he became chaplain to 
 William and Mary, and fellow of Eton. In 
 1702 he obtained a canonry of Windsor, and 
 in 170G he succeeded Bishop Beveridge in 
 the see of St. Asaph, from whence, in 1714, 
 he was translated to Ely. He wrote " In- 
 8crii)tionum Antiquarum Sylloge," " Chro- 
 nicon Preciosum, or an Account of the 
 English Money, the Price of Corn," &c. 8vo., 
 "A plain Metljod of Christian Devotion," 
 8vo., " An Essay on Miracles," &c. Died, 
 1723. 
 
 FLEMING, a poetical writer and trans- 
 lator of the Elizabethan age. He was the 
 author of numerous poems, chiefly devo- 
 tional, translated some of the classic au- 
 thors, and was the editor of Hollinshed's 
 Clironicle. 
 
 FLEMING, Robert, a Scotch Presbyte- 
 rian minister, who retired from his pastoral 
 charge at Cambuslang on the establishment 
 of prelacy, and went to Rotterdam, and is 
 known as the author of a work, entitled 
 "The Fulfilling of the Scriptures." Born, 
 1630 ; died, 1694. 
 
 FLEMING, Robert, son of the preceding, 
 accompanied his father to the Continent, and 
 was a member of the universities of Leyden 
 and Utrecht. He was for some years minis- 
 ter to the Scotch church at Amsterdam ; but 
 on coming to England he was chosen pastor 
 to the. Scotch church at Lotlibury, and lec- 
 turer at Salter's Hall. He is principally 
 known by his work entitled " Christiology,'' 
 a "History of Hereditary Right," and a 
 discourse on the rise and fall of Popery, in 
 which are many passages that correspond 
 remarkably with the early events in the 
 French revolution. Died, 171(5. 
 
 FLEMING, or FLEMMYNGE, Richard, 
 an English prelate, was born at Croston, in 
 Yorkshire. He received his education at 
 University College, Oxford, and in 1408 ob- 
 tained a prebend in the cathedral of York. 
 He founded Lincoln College, and died in 
 1431. 
 
 FLETCHER, Andrew, a Scottish politi- 
 
 cal writer, was the son of Sir Robert Fletcher 
 of Saltoun, and born in 1653. When a child, 
 he had been placed under the tuition of 
 Dr. Gilbert Burnet, and he acquired from 
 him that attachment to free principles of 
 government which distinguished him 
 through life. Having given offence to the 
 Scottish parliament, of which he was a 
 member, he was outlawed ; but in 1683 he 
 came over to England to concert with others 
 who were opposed to the designs of James 
 II. ; and in 1685 joined the enterprise of the 
 Duke of Monmouth. While on this expe- 
 dition, having killed in a quarrel another 
 partisan of the same cause, the duke dis- 
 missed him. He then repaired to Spain, 
 and afterwards to Hungary, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself in a war against the 
 Turks. When the revolution took place, 
 he resumed possession of his estate, and 
 opposed the Scottish union. As a political 
 writer he possessed great powers ; and, as 
 he wrote with great boldness on the popular 
 side, his readers were generally willing con- 
 verts to his opinions. Died, 1716. 
 
 FLETCHER, James, author of a "His- 
 tory of Poland," a volume of poems, &c., 
 was bom in 1811, and filled the situation of 
 assistant in a school at St. John's Wood, 
 London ; which, in consequence of the suc- 
 cess of his work on Poland, he relinquished ; 
 but shortly after meeting with unexpected 
 pecuniary disappointments, he committed 
 suicide, in a fit of temporary insanity, ia 
 1832 ; being then only 21 years of age. 
 
 FLETCHER, Richard, an English pre- 
 late, was bom in Kent, and educated at 
 Cambridge. In 1583 he was made dean of 
 Peterborough, and in 1586 he attended 
 Mary, queen of Scots, at her execution, with 
 a view of converting her to the Protestant 
 religion, but failed. He was raised to the 
 see of London, and died in 1596. 
 
 FLETCHER, Jonx, an eminent English 
 dramatic poet, was the son of the Bishop of 
 London, and born in 1576. He received his 
 education at Cambridge, and wrote several 
 plays in conjunction with Beaumont. In 
 this dramatic partnership, it is said that 
 Fletcher found fancy, and Beaumont judg- 
 ment. He died of the plague at London in 
 1625, and was buried in St. Saviour's church, 
 Southwark. The principal piece of his own 
 writing is a dramatic pastoral, entitled 
 " The Faithful Shepherdess," and there is 
 no doubt it suggested the idea of Milton's 
 " Comus." Edward Phillips, the nephew 
 of Milton, classes him with Shakspeare and 
 Ben Johnson, as one of the "happy trium- 
 virates" of the age. 
 
 FLETCHER, Giles, brother of Dr. Rich- 
 ard Fletcher, in the reign of Elizabeth, was 
 a native of Kent, and finished his education 
 at Cambridge, where he acquired the repu- 
 tation of being a good poet. In 1588 he 
 was sent ambassador to Russia, of which 
 country he published an account on his 
 return, but it was quickly suppressed, lest 
 some strictures on the brutal tyranny of 
 Ivan Basilovitch should offfend the reigning 
 prince. He enjoyed some civic oflSces, and 
 was treasurer of St. Paul's. Died, 1610. 
 
 FLETCHER, Giles, son of the preceding, 
 ■was born in 1588 ; educated at Cambridge ; 
 
fle] 
 
 ^ Jlcto ^nihtr^al 33ioflTap]^y. 
 
 [flo 
 
 and died at his living of Alderton, Suffolk, 
 in 1<)23. He was the author of a fine poem, 
 entitled " Christ's Victory and Triumph in 
 Heaven and Earth, over and after Death." 
 
 FLETCHER, Piiineas, brotlier of the 
 foregoing, was born about 1582, and educated 
 at Eton and Cambridge. In l(i2l he obtained 
 the living of Hilgay, in Norfolk, where he 
 died in 1G50. He is best known by a poem, 
 entitled " The Purple Island," which is an 
 allegorical description of man, in 12 books, 
 written in Spenserian verse. He also wrote 
 "Piscatory Dialogues," "Poetical Miscel- 
 lanies," and a work in prose, entitled "De 
 Literatis Antiquse Britanuise." 
 
 FI-EURIEU, CUAULE3 PiEURE Claret, 
 Count de, a French naval officer, and one 
 of the most learned hydrographers of mo- 
 dern times, was born at Lyons, in 1733. 
 Having turned his attention to nautical 
 studies, he invented the sea-chronometer. 
 In 179<)he was made minister of the marine ; 
 but the revolution obliged him to discon- 
 tinue his public occupations, and he was 
 committed to prison in 1793. Having, how- 
 ever, survived the reign of terror, he was 
 nominated by Buonaparte, in 1799, a mem- 
 ber of the council of state ; and he was also 
 made intendant of cavalry and governor of 
 the Tuilleries, which offices be resigned iu 
 1805, and died in 1810. 
 
 FLEURY, Andre Hercule de, a car- 
 dinal and prime minister of France, imder 
 Louis XV., was born at Lodlve, in Langue- 
 doc, in 1053. Coming to court, he won 
 general favour by his pleasing person and 
 fine understanding ; became bishop of Fre- 
 jus ; and, through the interest of Madame 
 Maintenon, was appointed instructor to 
 Louis XV. In 1720 lie was made cardinal, 
 placed at the head of the ministry, and from 
 his 73rd to his 90th year, he administered the 
 affairs of his country with great success. 
 Died, 1743. 
 
 FLEURY, Claude, a French historian 
 and divine, was born in 1040. He was edu- 
 cated as an advocate, and became a coun- 
 sellor of the parliament of Paris in 1068 ; 
 but subsequently took orders, and acquir- 
 ing a great reputation for learning, was ap- 
 pointed preceptor to the Princes of Conti, 
 and afterwards associated with Fenelon in 
 the task of educating the young Dukes of 
 Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri. He subse- 
 quently obtained the priory of Argenteuil, 
 where he resided till 1710, when he left 
 it to become confessor to Louis XV. His 
 most important works are " Ecclesiastical 
 History," "Manners of the Israelites," and 
 " Manners of the Christians." Died, 1723. 
 
 FLINDERS, Matthew, an eminent Eng- 
 lish navigator, was born at Donnington, 
 Lincolnshire, and entered early into the 
 merchant service, from which he removed 
 into the royal navy, as a midshipman, in 
 1795, In 1801 he was appointed to the com- 
 mand of an expedition of discovery to New 
 Holland, having previously distinguished 
 himself by the discovery of Bass's Straits ; 
 and after exploring a considerable part 
 of the coast, his vessel was wrecked on a 
 coral reef, and he was obliged to return to 
 Port Jaekson. On his passage homeward, 
 in 1803, having touched at the Mauritius, he 
 
 305 
 
 was detained liy General Decaen, the go- 
 vernor, who, notwithstanding he had pass- 
 ports from the French government, thought 
 proper to make him a prisoner. There he 
 was kept till 1800, when, through the inter- 
 cession of the Royal Society of London and 
 the National Institute of France, lie was set 
 at liberty, and had his vessel restored. He 
 died in 1814, having prepared an account of 
 his researches, under the title of " A Voy- 
 age to the Terra Australis," &c,, which wa» 
 published after liis decease. 
 
 FLOIUAN, Jean Pierre Claris de, a 
 popular French writer, was born in 1755. 
 He was recommended by Voltaire as i)age to 
 the Duke of Pentluevre, who gave him a 
 company in his own regiment, and on dis- 
 covering his talents and literary tastes, ul- 
 timately treated him as a confidential friend, 
 and afforded him the means of pursuing a 
 literary career. Among his earliest works 
 were "Galatea," "Estelle," and " Numa 
 Pompilius." He also produced some ad- 
 mirable " Fables," and various dramatic 
 pieces. During the tyranny of Robespierre 
 he was arrested and imprisoned for having 
 affixed to his Numa some verses in praise of 
 Maria Antoinette ; and while in confinement 
 he composed the first book of his "Guil- 
 laume Tell." His life was distinguished by 
 a spirit of benevolence and moral feeling ; 
 and sucli, indeed, is the characteristic sen- 
 timent of all his writings. Died, 1794. 
 
 FLORIDA BLANCA, Francis Antony 
 MoNiNA, Count de, a Spanish statesman, 
 distinguished as an opponent of the French 
 revolution, but who, becoming unpopular, 
 was dismissed fiom office in 1792, and sub- 
 sequently committed to the castle of Pam- 
 peluna. He was, however, speedily re- 
 leased ; and, after several years of seclu- 
 sion, chosen president of the cortes in 1808, 
 in which year he died, aged 80, 
 
 FLORIO, John, the descendant of a fa- 
 mily of Italian refugees iu England, was 
 bom in London, in the reign of Henry VIII,; 
 taught French and Italian at Magdalen 
 College, Oxford ; and on the accession of 
 James I. was appointed tutor to Prince 
 Henry, and clerk of the closet to the queen. 
 His works are, "First Fruits," "Second 
 Fruits," and the " Garden of Recreation," 
 besides a " Dictionary, Italian and English." 
 Died, 1025, 
 
 FLORIS, Francis, a Flemish painter, 
 who acquired the title of the Raphael of 
 Flanders, was born at Antwerp, in 1620, and 
 died there in 1570. 
 
 FLORUS, Lucius Ann^us, a Latin his- 
 torian of the same family as Seneca and 
 Lucan, He is the author of a " Compen- | 
 dium of Roman History," in four books, 
 which is concise and elegant. He lived in 
 the reisns of Trajan and Adrian. 
 
 FLOWER, Benjamin, a political writer, 
 who, while engaged in commercial pur- 
 suits in 1783, lost the whole of his property 
 by a speculation in the funds. He after- 
 wards became a printer at Cambridge, 
 where, in 1793, he commenced the publica- 
 tion of a weekly newspaper, called "The 
 Cambridge Intelligencer," which he con- 
 ducted for some time successfully ; but the 
 freedom of his remarks subjected him to a 
 
FLO] 
 
 ^ ^c&j mniljcrgaX 2SiflcrraajI;j). 
 
 [fol 
 
 prosecution for a libel, and he was im- 
 prisoned. His paper henceforth declining, 
 he went to Harlow, in Essex, where he 
 commenced a periodical journal, called 
 "The Political Review," which was con- 
 tinued montlily for some years. He was 
 the author of many political tracts ; and 
 died, aged 74, in 1829. 
 
 FLUYER, Sir Joux, an eminent physician, 
 was born at Hinters in Staffordshire, in 1C49 ; 
 settled at Lichfield ; was knighted ; and died 
 in 1734. His works are, "The Touchstone 
 of Medicines, 2 vols., " The Virtues of Cold 
 Water," 2 vols., '• The Physician's Pulse 
 Watch," 2 vols. ; " The Galenic Art of Pre- 
 serving Old Men's Health," &c. 
 
 FLUDD, Robert, an English philosopher, 
 was the son of Sir Thomas Fludd, and bom 
 at Milgate, in Kent, in 1574. His writings 
 are wholly on alchemy, and the mysticism 
 of the Rosicrucians. Died, 1637. 
 
 FOGLIETTA, Ubekto, an historian and 
 orator of Genoa, from which city he was 
 banished and his property confiscated, for 
 censuring the nobles, in a book entitled 
 " Delia Republica di Genova." He wrote 
 several works of merit during his exile. 
 Born, 1518 ; died, 1.581. 
 
 FOIX, Gaston de, the nephew of Louis 
 XII. of France, was born in 1489. He had 
 the command of the army, and on account 
 of his daring exploits was denominated the 
 thunderbolt" of Italy. After performing 
 prodigies of valour, lie was killed at the 
 battle of Ravenna, in 1512. 
 
 FOIX, Loiis DE, a French architect in the 
 employ of Philip II., of Spain, who was en- 
 gaged in the erection of the Escurial, near 
 Madrid. On his return to France he con- 
 structed tlie canal of the Adour, and built 
 the tower of Cordouan. 
 
 FOIX, Paul ue, archbishop of Toulouse, 
 was born in 1528, and distinguished himself 
 as much lor his diplomatic abilities as for 
 his virtuous and tolerant conduct as a church- 
 man. He was employed on embassies in 
 England, Scotland, Venice, and Rome ; and 
 died in 1.584. 
 
 FOLARD, JouN Charles, an eminent 
 military tactician, was born at Avignon, in 
 1609, and entered the army early in life. He 
 served with distinguished reputation under 
 Vendome, in Italy, during the war of succes- 
 sion. In 1714, he volunteered his services, 
 and assisted in the defence of Malta against 
 the Turks ; and fought under Charles XII. 
 of Sweden till the death of that prince, when 
 he returned to France and obtained the com- 
 mand of a regiment. His system of tactics 
 was allowed to be very judicious, and the 
 works he published were held in considerable 
 repute. Died, 1752. 
 
 FOLCZ, John, a barber of Nuremberg, 
 born at Ulm, in the loth century, was a ce- 
 lebrated German poet, belonging to the class 
 called Mastersingers, — a class which sprung 
 up in Germany in the 14th century, after the 
 extinction of the Minnesingers, or Suabian 
 bards. Tliese Mastersingers belonged to the 
 humbler sort of artisans, who met at taverns, 
 where they established clubs for the cultiva- 
 tion of this branch of literature. Their great 
 merit was that of being able to invent some 
 new and difficult species of metre, subject to 
 
 certain rhythmical laws laid down for this 
 species of" composition ; and Folcz distin- 
 guished himself by the invention of a number 
 of them. The earliest of his pieces was 
 printed at Nuremberg, in 1474. 
 
 FOLENGO, TiiEOPiiiLUS, an Italian bur- 
 lesque i)oet, who wrote under the name of 
 Merlin Coccaie, was born near Mantua, in 
 1491 ; became a monk of the Benedictine 
 order, which he quitted for several years, 
 and wrote Macaronic verses ; and died in 
 1554. 
 
 FOLEY, Sir Thomas, a veteran admiral, 
 was descended from a respectable family in 
 Wales, and served as lieutenant in the Prince 
 George, of 98 guns, at the time his majesty, 
 William IV., was a midshipman in that ship. 
 In 1790 he was promoted to post rank ; and, at 
 the commencement of the war in 1793, he had 
 the command of the St. George, and assisted 
 in the recapture of the St. Jago, a Spanish 
 ship of immense value. He also bore a part 
 in capturing the Ca Ira, of 80 guns, and the 
 Censeur, of 74, wlien engaged, under Admiral 
 Hotham, with the Toulon fleet. At the me- 
 morable battle off Cape St. Vincent, as well 
 as at the Nile, Captain Foley displayed great 
 skill, having, on the latter occasion, tlie 
 honour to lead the British fleet into action ; 
 and again, with his friend the gallant Nelson, 
 he shared in the danger and glory of the 
 conflict before Copenhagen. In 1812 he was 
 advanced to the rank of vice-admiral ; and 
 in 1830" received the appointment of com- 
 mander-in-chief at Portsmouth, in which 
 station he died, January, 18.53. 
 
 FOLKES, Maktin', an English philoso- 
 pher and antiquary, was born at Westmin- 
 ster in 1690, and educated at Clare Hall. At 
 the age of 23 he was chosen a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and in 1741 he succeeded Sir 
 Hans Sloane as president of that learned 
 body, and was elected a member of the royal 
 academy of sciences at Paris. Mr. Folkes 
 wrote, besides a number of papers in the 
 Philosophical Transactions, a " Table of 
 English Silver Coins, from the Norman Con- 
 quest to the Present Time." Died, 1754, 
 
 FOLLETT, Sir William Webb, an emi- 
 nent lawyer, was born at Topsham, Devon, 
 in 1798. His education commenced imder 
 Dr. Lempriere, at the Exeter Grammar 
 School, and was completed at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. In 1818 he became a 
 member of the Inner Temple, commenced 
 practice as a special pleader in 1823, and in 
 the following year lie was called to the bar. 
 His legal abilities were of the first order, and 
 his rise to eminence was rapid, his superiority 
 as an advocate on the western circuit being 
 universally admitted. Sir William aspired 
 to parliamentary honours in 1832, but he did 
 not succeed till three years later, when he was 
 returned for the city of Exeter. On Sir R. 
 Peel's accession to place as prime minister, 
 in 1834, Sir W. Follett was appointed soli- 
 citor-general ; but upon Sir Robert's resigna- 
 tion in 1835, he also quitted office, and was 
 knighted. At the general election of 1837, 
 and again in 1841, he was re-elected member 
 for Exeter. On Sir Robert Peel's resumption 
 of office, he was once more appointed solicitor- 
 general. On Sir F. Pollock's elevation to 
 the judicial bench in 1844 he succeeded him 
 
 306 
 
fon] 
 
 ^ ^eta Hiiiljcr^al 3SiD5raj|)T)B, 
 
 [fon 
 
 as attorney-general. The health of Sir V»\ 
 Follett had never been robust in his youth, 
 and it was unequal to the exertions neces- 
 sary to fulfil the duties of his extensive 
 practice. After repeated attacks of illness 
 in previous years, and occasional relaxations 
 from his professional labours, he at length 
 sought to restore his health by a residence 
 ' on tiie Continent : it was thought that he had 
 received benefit from the change ; but he had 
 not long returned to his native country, and 
 engaged agabi in the busy scene of his for- 
 mer activity, before the hand of " the De- 
 I stroycr " was upon him. Died, June 28. 1845. 
 I roNBLANQUE, John de Gkeniek, an 
 ' eminent barrister, was descended from a 
 i noble family in the south of France, some 
 of whom, on the revocation of t)ie edict of 
 I Nantes, came to England, and founded the 
 ! celeljrated house of agency, into which they 
 ' subsequently admitted as a partner, Mr. 
 Thelluson, originally their book-keeper, 
 but who afterwards realised that prodigious 
 j fortune whicli has since so often occupied 
 public attention, through its singular testa- 
 j mentary disposition. John Fonblanque, the 
 subject of this article, was born in 1759 ; 
 received his education at Harrow and Ox- 
 ford ; and in 1783 was called to the bar. 
 In 1790 he acted as leading counsel for tlie 
 liOndon merchants, in opposition to the 
 Quebec bill, at the bar of the House of 
 Commons. In 1793 appeared his celebrated 
 " Treatise on Equity," wliicli went through 
 several editions, and is regarded by the courts 
 as an authority on the subject. In 1802 he 
 was elected M. P. for Camelford, and con- 
 tinued a member until the dissolution in 18U(3. 
 In 1804 he obtained a silk gown with a patent 
 of precedency, and for many years enjoyed 
 an extensive equity practice. He was an 
 able advocate of the Whig party, and a per- 
 sonal friend of the Prince of Wales, for whom 
 he now is supposed to have written the cele- 
 brated letters to the king, on the subject of 
 his royal highness's exclusion from the army, 
 which were generally attributed to Lord 
 Moira. He died, Jan. 4. 18:^7. 
 
 FONESCA, Eleaxoka, Marchioness de, a 
 lady of great beauty and talents, was bi.rn 
 at Naples, in 17G8. She cultivated the study 
 of botany, &e. with success, and assisted 
 Spallanzani in his philosophical investiga- 
 tions. She warmly espoused the cause of 
 the French revolution, and when the French 
 invaded Italy, she engaged in intrigues 
 against that court, though less perhaps from 
 principle than from her having formerly 
 been dismissed from her situation of attend- 
 ant on the queen. During the triumph of 
 the republican party she was in the zenith of 
 her fame, and edited a paper called " The 
 Neapolitan Monitor ; " but the royal cause 
 again succeeding, she was ultimately arrested 
 and hanged, in 1799. 
 
 FONTAINE, John de la, the inimitable 
 fabulist, was born in 1621, at Chateau Thierry, 
 where his father was overseer of the forests. 
 His taste for poetry was first aroused by 
 hearing one of Mallierbe's odes recited ; but 
 to the patronage of the Duchess of Bouillon, 
 who invited him to Paris, and encouraged 
 him to write his Tales, he owed much of 
 the distinction in literature he afterwards 
 
 acquired. For 35 years he lived in Paris, 
 residing successively with the Duchesses of 
 Bouillon and Orleans, Madame de Sabliere, 
 and Madame d'Hervart ; and was in habits 
 of intimacy with Moliere, Boileau, Racine, 
 and all the first wits of the French capital, 
 by whom he was much beloved for the can- 
 dour and simplicity of his character. Yet, 
 with this simplicity, which amounted almost 
 to stupidity, he united the talent of making 
 severe, shrewd, and sensible observations on 
 human life, and decorating his verse with 
 touches of exquisite grace and delicacy. Be- 
 sides his " Tales " and " Fables," I^a Fon- 
 taine was the author of "Les Amours de 
 j?8yche," " Anacreontiques," two comedies, 
 &c. Died, 1095. 
 
 FONTAINE, Nicholas, a voluminous 
 French writer, of the Jansenist connection, 
 was born at Paris, in 1G25, and died at 
 Melun, in 1709. 
 
 FONTANA, Charles, an Italian archi- 
 tect, and the author of various architectural 
 works, among which arc descriptions of the 
 Vatican and the Amphitheatre of Vespasian, 
 was born in 1034, and died in 1714. 
 
 FONTANA, Dominic, an eminent Italian 
 architect, was born, in 1.543, at Miii, on the 
 lake of Como. He was employed by popes 
 Sextus V. and Clement VIII., and after- 
 wards appointed to the situation of first 
 architect to the two kingdoms of Naples and 
 Sicily. Among the many edifices he built, 
 no one is more remarkable thun the Egyp- 
 tian obelisk in front of St. Peter's at Itome. 
 Died, lti07. — John Fontana, his brotiier, 
 was distinguished as a hydraulic architect, 
 and performed some extremely imi)orlant 
 works in that department of the art. Born, 
 1540 ; died, 1640. 
 
 FONTANA, Felix, an eminent philoso- 
 pher and naturalist, was born at Pomarlo, 
 in the Tyrol, in 1730. He was ai)|)ointed 
 professor of philosophy at Pisa by the Grand- 
 duke of Tuscany ; and afterwards invited to 
 Florence by Leopold II., who made him his 
 physician, and employed him to form a 
 cabinet of natural history. To this he added 
 a variety of anatomical figures in coloured 
 wax, most exquisitely finished, which, with 
 other objects of interest and curiosity, to- 
 gether form at present one of the attractions 
 of the Florentine capital. He was the author 
 of some important works on chemistry, 
 physics, and physiology. He died iu 1806. 
 
 FONTANA, Gkeookv, a mathematician, 
 and brother of the preceding, was born in 
 1735. He filled the oflice of mathematical 
 professor at Pisa for more than thirty years, 
 was elected a member of the Cisalpine re- 
 public in 17%, and died in 1805. 
 
 FONTANA, FuANCis, a Neapolitan astro- 
 nomer of the 17th century, to whom the in- 
 vention of the telescope has been erroneously 
 attributed, first studied jurisprudence and re- 
 ceived the degree of doetor of laws, but after- 
 wards devoted himself to astronomical and 
 mathematical researches, and mode improve- 
 ments in several instruments. Died, 16.>(>. 
 
 FONTANA, Fkancis Louis, an Italian 
 cardinal, who adhered to pope Pius VII., 
 whom he accompanied to Paris, and was 
 afterwards imprisoned in the castle of Vin- 
 ceunes. Died, 1822. 
 
^ i^tio Winihtv^nX SStosrapTig, 
 
 [for 
 
 FONTANA, Gaetano, an astronomer of 
 Modena, who corresponded with Cassini, 
 and was regarded by him as one on whose 
 accuracy he could ever depend. He died, 
 aged 74, in 1719. 
 
 FONTANEL.LE, John Gaspar Dubois, 
 a popular French writer ; author of " Averi- 
 tures Philosophiques," " Naufrage et Aven- 
 tures de Pierre Viaud," " Cours de Belles 
 Lettres," several plays, &c Born 1737 ; 
 died, 1812. 
 
 FONTANES, iMVis DE,an eminent French 
 writer, was born in 1761. At the commence- 
 ment of the revolution he edited a journal, 
 called " The Moderator," and after the fall 
 of Robespierre joined La Harpe and others 
 in the publicatioii of anotlier, culled " The 
 Memorial," which with many others was 
 suppressed by the National Convention in 
 1797, and the proprietors, editors, &c. in- 
 cluded in one common sentence of banish- 
 ment and confiscation of property. When 
 the amnesty was granted on the elevation 
 of Buonaparte to the consulship, he took a 
 share in the management of the " Alercure 
 de France," and soon after obtained a seat 
 in the legislative assembly of which he be- 
 came the president. He afterwards at- 
 tained the rank of senator, and was one of 
 the first in 1814, to propose the recall of 
 Louis XVIII., who made him a peer and a 
 privy-councillor. He died in 1821, having 
 acquired the reputation of being a good 
 orator and political writer, and a poet of no 
 mean rank. 
 
 FONTENAY, Peter Clacde, a French 
 Jesuit ; author of a " History of the Gal- 
 lican Church," 11 vols. Born, 1683 ; died, 
 1742. 
 
 FONTENELLE, Bernard LE Bovierde, 
 a nephew of the great Corneille, and an 
 author of great and varied talents, was born 
 at Rouen, in 1657. He studied the law at the 
 request of his father, who was an advocate ; 
 but soon devoted himself exclusively to lite- 
 rature. At the outset of his career he met 
 with little encouragement in his poems and 
 dramas, but on the appearance of his " Dia- 
 logues of the Dead," and his " Conversations 
 on the Plurality of Worlds," his fame was at 
 once fully established. In 1699 he was made 
 secretary to the Academy of Sciences, which 
 post he held forty-two years, and of the 
 proceedings of which body he published a 
 volume annually. He continued to write 
 on general subjects, agreeably combining a 
 taste for the belles lettres with more ab- 
 struse studies, with little intermission, till 
 he had almost reached the patriarclial age of 
 100 years. He died in 1757. 
 
 FOOTE, Sir Edavaed James, a British 
 vice-admiral, was the son of a clergyman in 
 Kent, and entered the naval service when a 
 boy. In 1799 he took charge of the blockade 
 of the bay of Naples, by order of Lord Nelson ; 
 and whilst engaged on that service, in con- 
 junction with Cardinal RuflTo, he signed a 
 treaty, with the insurgents. This was disap- 
 proved of and annulled by Nelson, and the 
 circumstance ^ave rise to much animadver- 
 sion at the time ; some considering that 
 Captain Foote had been the dupe of the car- 
 dinal, and others blaming the British ad- 
 miral for having greatly exceeded his au- 
 
 thority. He was promoted to the rank of 
 rear-admiral in 1812, and vice-admiral in 
 1821. Died at his residence, Highfield House, 
 near Southampton, 1833, aged 66. 
 
 FOOTE, Samcel, a comic writer and 
 actor (whose satiric wit and imitative 
 powers, though perhaps never surpassed, 
 were often indecent and personally ott'en- 
 sive), was born, in 1721, at Truro, Corn- 
 wall ; educated at Worcester College, Ox- 
 ford ; and intended for the bar. After a 
 course of dissipation, to which his small 
 fortune fell a sacrifice, he turned his atten- 
 tion to the stage, and appeared in " Othello," 
 but having little success, he struck out an 
 untrodden path for himself in the double 
 cliaracter of dramatist and performer. In 
 1747, he opened the Haymarket Theatre 
 with some very humorous imitations of well 
 known individuals ; and tlius, having dis- 
 covered where his strength lay, he wrote 
 several two-act farces, and continued to 
 perform at one of the winter tlieatres every 
 season, usually bringing out some pieces of 
 his own, and regularly returning to Ms 
 summer quarters. In 1766, he was thrown 
 from his horse, and fractured his leg in such 
 a manner, that amputation was rendered 
 necessary. He soon, however, recovered his 
 health and spirits, and even improved the 
 incident to the suggestion of characters for 
 his own acting. This accident also proved 
 of service to his fortune, as it induced the 
 Duke of York to procure for him a patent 
 for life of the Haymarket Theatre. In 1777, 
 having been charged with an infamous 
 crime by a discarded manservant, he was 
 tried for the crime, and, though fully ac- 
 quitted, it had such an effect upon his mind 
 and health, that he died in a few months 
 after. He wrote twenty-six dramatic pieces, 
 all replete with wit, humour, and satire ; 
 but "The Mayor of Garratt" is the only 
 one which at present keeps possession of 
 the stage. 
 
 FOPPENS, JoHx Francis, a learned 
 Flemish divine and critic, was bom about 
 1689, and died in 1761. He was professor 
 of divinity at Louvain, and canon of Ma- 
 lines ; compiler of the " Bibllotheca Bel- 
 gica," 2 vols. 4to., containing an account of 
 Flemish writers ; and the author of various 
 works, historical and theological. 
 
 FORBES, Sir Charles, bart., an eminent 
 Indian merchant, was born in Aberdeenshire, 
 1773. He was for more than 40 years the 
 head of the first mercantile and financial 
 house in India ; and his name stood in the 
 highest repute in the commercial world for 
 ability, foresight, and rectitude of character. 
 He was returned to parliament in 1812 for 
 Beverley ; and during five parliaments, 
 from 1818 to 1832, he sat for IMalmesbury. 
 Connected from early youth with India, and 
 devoted to the welfare of its people, he was 
 ardent in his advocacy for " justice to 
 India ; " and he had tlie happiness to see 
 many of his benevolent schemes for the well- 
 being of his numerous clients completely 
 realised. On returning from India he was 
 presented by the natives with a magnificent 
 service of plate j and 27 years after his 
 departure from Bombay, a statue from the 
 chisel of Chantrey was erected to his honour 
 
fob] 
 
 f[ ^t\o Winihixitd 3StOQTajJl)M. 
 
 [for 
 
 in the town hall of Bombay. But it was in 
 his private cliarities tliat the character of 
 Sir C. Forbes was peculiarly manifested : 
 they were distributed without reference to 
 any other consideration than the necessities 
 of the recipient ; and so unostentatiously 
 were they administered, that almost literally 
 it ought to be said of him, that his riglit 
 hand knew not what his left bestowed. . He 
 was created a baronet in 182.3. Died, 1849. 
 
 FORBES, DUxNCAN, an eminent Scottish 
 judge, was tuorn atCulIoden,in 1G85 ; studied 
 at Paris, Utrecht, and Ediuburgh ; and rose 
 to the rank of president of the court of 
 session, discharging the functions of his 
 high office with zeal, ability, and patriotism. 
 It was mainly owing to his exertions that 
 the rebellion of 174.5 was prevented from 
 spreading more widely among the clans ; 
 but so ungratefully was he treated by the 
 government, that he was never able to ob- 
 tain repayment of the various sums he had 
 expended to uphold it. He was the author 
 of •' Thoughts on Religion," &c. Died, 1747. 
 
 FORBES, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, 
 descended of a noble family, was born in 
 15ti4, took orders in 1592, and was raised 
 to the episcopal bench by James VI. in 
 1618. He was a munificent patron to the 
 university of Aberdeen, which owes to him 
 the revival of the dormant professorships of 
 theology, medicine, and civil law. He was 
 the author of an elalwrate " Commentary on 
 the Apocalypse." Died, 1013. 
 
 FORBES, RouEKT, nn eccentric Scotch- 
 man, was born at Peterhead, about the 
 year 172.5. He completed his education at 
 King's College, Aberdeen, where he took the 
 degree of A. M. He was soon after appointed 
 schoolmaster of the parisii of Peterculber, 
 where he continued for some time, but found 
 it expedient to leave, on account of an in- 
 trigue, which he has humorously described 
 in a well-known local poem, called the " Do- 
 minie Deposed," written in the Buchan dia- 
 lect, published about 1750. He then removed 
 to London, where he commenced the busi- 
 ness of a hosier, in a shop on Tower Hill. 
 Here he composed that celebrated travestie 
 on "The Speech of Ajax to the Grecian 
 Chiefs," also in the Buchan dialect, begin- 
 ning with 
 
 " The Grecian chiefs upo' their doupa sat 
 
 down, 
 A rangel o' the common folk in bou- 
 
 racks a* 
 Steed roun," &c. 
 
 The MS. having been shown to Ruddiman, 
 the grammarian, he pronounced it the best 
 he had ever seen on any subject. It was 
 printed at Edinburgh, in 8vo., in 1754. 
 Forbes is supposed to have died about the 
 year 1783. 
 
 FORBES, William, the first bishop of 
 Edinburgh, to which see he was raised on 
 its foundation in 1633, was born at Aber- 
 deen in 1585 ; and died three months after 
 he came to his episcopal dignity, early in 
 UVM. 
 
 FORBES, ALEXANnER, lord Forbes of 
 Pitsligo, commanded a troop of horse in the 
 rebellion of 1745; and after the battle of 
 CuUoden he fied to France, but returned to 
 
 Scotland in 1749, and died in 1762. He was 
 the author of "Moral and Philosophical 
 Essays," and is said to have been the pro- 
 totype of the Baron of Bradwardine in the 
 novel of Waverley. 
 
 FORBES, Sir William, born at Pitsligo, 
 in 1739, was the founder, in conjunction 
 with Sir James Hunter Blair, of the first 
 banking establishment in Edinburgh. Al- 
 though born to an ample fortune, he de- 
 voted himself to the commercial prosperity 
 of his country, though without neglecting 
 the study of elegant literature, to which he 
 was greatly attached. He was an early 
 member of the celebrated literary club, 
 which numbered, amongst its illustrious as- 
 sociates, the names of Johnson, Reynolds, 
 Garrick, and Burke. Some time previous 
 to his death, wliich happened in 1806, he 
 published an account of the life and writings 
 of Dr. Beattie, which exhibits throughout 
 sound judgment and discriminating taste. 
 The support and encouragement of all pub- 
 lic concerns engaged much of his attention ; 
 and in public and private charity his libe- 
 rality was at once exemplary and unosten- 
 tatious. 
 
 FORBIN, Claude, Chevalier de, a dis- 
 tinguished French naval commander, born 
 in 1656. In l(i8.5 he accompanied the French 
 ambassador to Siain, where he remained two 
 years, as high admiral, general, &c. to his 
 Siamese majesty ; and on his return to Europe 
 he signalised himself on several occasions. 
 In 1708 he was entrusted with conveying the 
 Pretender to Scotland, but owing to the 
 vigilance of Admiral Byng he could not effect 
 a landing. Died, 1733. 
 
 FORCELEINI, Giles, an eminent critic 
 and lexicographer, was born at Treviso, in 
 the Venetian States, in 1688, and died there 
 in 1768. He was associated in his literary 
 labours with Facciolati ; jointly producing, 
 among others of less note, that important 
 work, " Lexicon totius Latinitatis." 
 
 FORD, John, an English dramatic author 
 of the 17th century, was born, in 1586, at 
 Ilsington, in Devonshire, where his father 
 was a justice of the peace. He became a 
 member of the Middle Temple in 1602, and 
 died about 1639. His first tragedy, "The 
 Lover's Melancholy," was printed in 1629 ; 
 and he was the author of many other plays, 
 besides some which he wrote in conjunction 
 with Drayton and Decker. 
 
 FORD, Sir Joux, was bom at Harting, 
 Sussex, in 1605 ; educated at Oxford ; and 
 knighted by Charles I., after having served 
 the office of sheriff for his native county. 
 During the civil wars he commanded a re- 
 giment of horse, and suffered much in the 
 royal cause, being imprisoned on suspicion 
 of aiding the king's escape from Hampton 
 Court ; but owing to the interest of Ireton, 
 whose sister he had married, he obtained 
 his release. He was a man of considerable 
 mechanical ingenuity ; and at the request 
 of the citizens of London, he contrived ma- 
 chinery for raising the Thames water into 
 all the high streets, which machinery was 
 afterwards used to drain mines and lands in 
 other parts of the country. He projected 
 various other beneficial improvements, and 
 died in 1670. 
 
for] 
 
 ^ ^fiD HititJCr^aX 23tO0r<tpf;s. 
 
 [roR 
 
 FORDUN, John de, a Scotch historian of 
 tlie 14th century ; author of a history of 
 Scotland, entitled " Scotichronicon," which 
 would be a valuable document, were it not 
 disfigured by much that is absurd and 
 fabulous. 
 
 rORDYCE, David, an ingenious writer, 
 was born at Aberdeen, in 1711. He was 
 educated at that university, and became 
 professor of moral philosophy in Maris- 
 chal College. In 1750 he made a tour to 
 Italy, and on his return the following year, 
 was drowned on the coast of Holland. He 
 wrote "Dialogues concerning Education," 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; " The Elements of Moral Phi- 
 losophy," &c. 
 
 FORDYCE, James, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born, in 1720, at Aberdeen, and 
 educated at that university. His first settle- 
 ment, as a minister, was at Brechen, from 
 whence he removed to Alloa ; and having 
 obtained the degree of D.D. from the uni- 
 versity of Glasgow, he came to Monkwell 
 Street Chapel, London, where he drew 
 crowded audiences by his eloquence and the 
 beauty of his sermons. In 1782 he resigned 
 his situation, and went to live first in Hamp- 
 shire, and next at Bath, where he died in 
 1796. He published "Sermons to Young 
 Women," 2 vols. ; " Addresses to Young 
 Men," 2 vols. ; " Addresses to the Deity ; " a 
 volume of poems ; and some single sermons. 
 
 FORDYCE, Geokge, an eminent physi- 
 cian, nephew of the preceding, was born in 
 1736 ; educated at the university of Aber- 
 deen, and obtained the degree of M. A. at tlie 
 age of 14. The year following he was placed 
 with his uncle, who was a surgeon and apo- 
 thecary at Uppingham, in Rutlandshire. 
 He went from thence to Edinburgh, and next 
 to Leyden, where, in 1758, he took his doctor's 
 degree. In 1759 he settled in London, and 
 commenced lecturer on the materia medica 
 and practice of physic, in which he acquired 
 an unrivalled reputation. In 1770 he was 
 chosen physician to St. Thomas's Hospital, 
 and in 1776 a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1787 he was elected, speciali gratia, a 
 fellow of the College of Physicians. Dr. 
 Fordyce is known by his " Dissertations on 
 Fever," a " Treatise on Digestion," " Ele- 
 ments of the Practice of Physic," &c. He 
 was also an excellent experimental chemist, 
 and published " Elements of Agriculture and 
 Vegetation." He died in 1802. 
 
 FOREST, JoHx, painter to the king of 
 France, was born at Paris in 1636, and died 
 in 1712. His landscapes are much admired. 
 
 FORESTI, or FORESTA, James Philip, 
 usually called Philip of Bergamo, an Augus- 
 tine monk, and author of a " Chronicle from 
 the earliest Period to 1203," &c. Died, 1520. 
 
 FORKEL, JoHX Nicholas, an eminent 
 writer on the history and theory of music, 
 and director of music in the university of 
 Gottingen, was born in 1749, and died in 
 1819. His " General History of Music," 2 
 vols. 4to., is reckoned tlie most valuable of 
 his numerous works. He was also a com- 
 poser and a good pianist, and a man of ge- 
 neral and extensive knowledge. 
 
 FORSKAL, Petek, a young Swedish na- 
 turalist, the scholar and friend of liinnaeus, 
 who, after completing his studies at Upsal, 
 
 travelled into the East with Niebuhr, but 
 died at Djerim, in Arabia, during the 2nd 
 3'ear of his travels, and before he had at- 
 tained his 28th year. On Niebuhr's return 
 he published, in 3 vols. 4to., Forskal's re- 
 marks on the productions of the countries 
 through which he had passed. 
 
 FORSTER, Geokge, an English traveller, 
 was in 1782 engaged in the civil service of 
 the East India Company. He was well ac- 
 quainted with the oriental languages, which 
 rendered him a fit person to undertake a 
 journey from Bengal to Persia, and thence 
 through Russia to England. A full narra- 
 tive of this was published in 1798, in 2 vols. 
 4to. Died at Allahabad, in 1792. 
 
 FORSTER, John Reinuold, an eminent 
 naturalist and geographer, was born, in 
 1729, at Dirschau, in Polish Prussia ; edu- 
 cated at Berlin and Halle ; and officiated as 
 minister of Dantzic, and afterwards at Nas- 
 senhuben. He then came to England, as 
 teacher of the French and German lan- 
 guages, and natural history, at tlie dis- 
 senting academy at Warrington. In 1772 
 he accompanied Captain Cook in his second 
 voyage round the world, as naturalist to 
 the expedition, and took his son with him 
 as a companion. On his return, in 1775, the 
 university of Oxford conferred on him the 
 degree of LL.D.,and he seemed on the high 
 road to preferment ; but he was appointed 
 professor of natural historj', &c. at Halle, in 
 Saxony, to which place he retired ; and died 
 in 1798. Besides his "History of Voyages 
 and Discoveries in the North," he wrote 
 several other original works, and translated 
 many into German. He united great pene- 
 tration and quick apprehension with asto- 
 nishing powers of memory. He spoke or 
 wrote 17 living and dead languages, and was 
 well-acquainted with almost every depart- 
 ment of literature ; while in history, botany, 
 and zoology, he stands among the first in- 
 vestigators of the last century. 
 
 FORSTER, John Geokge Adam, son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1754 ; accompanied 
 his father in the voyage round the world ; was 
 professor of natural history in Hesse Cassel, 
 and afterwards at Wilna. He subsequently 
 settled at Mentz as a bookseller, and entered 
 warmly into the revolutionary principles of 
 France ; on which account he was nominated 
 a deputy to the Rhenish convention, and sent 
 to Paris, but Mentz being besieged and taken 
 by the Prussians, Forster was obliged to re- 
 main at Paris, where he died in 1794, while 
 preparing, as it is said, for a voyage to Hin- 
 dostan and Thibet. He was the author of 
 several works on geography, natural history, 
 philosophy, and politics. 
 
 FORSTER, Nathaniel, a learned divine 
 and writer, was born, in 1717, at Plymstock, 
 Devon ; educated at Eton and Oxford ; ob- 
 tained a prebendal stall in the cathedral of 
 Bristol, and the vicarage of Rochdale, in 
 1754 ; in the following year elected F. R. S., 
 and appointed one of the royal chaplains ; 
 and died in 1757. He was the author of 
 " Reflections on the Antiquity, Government, 
 Arts, and Sciences in Egypt," " A Disserta- 
 tion on Josephus's Account of Jesus Christ," 
 and a " Hebrew Bible without points." 
 
 FORSYTH, Alexander John, A. M., 
 
for] 
 
 ^ ^etu Winibtr^al %ia^Kpf)v, 
 
 [fos 
 
 LL.D., "the discoverer of the percussion 
 principle," was bom 1st of January, 1769. 
 He was the son of the Rev. James Forsyth, 
 minister of Belhelvie, near Aberdeen, and 
 Isabel Syme, daughter of the Rev. Gilbert 
 Syme, minister of Tullynessle. (A son of 
 Mr. Syme married a daughter of Principal 
 Robertson, of Edinburgh, whose only 
 daughter, Eleonora Syme, was married to 
 Henry Brougham, esq., of Brougham Hall, 
 Westmoreland, and was the mother of 
 Henry, lord Brougham and Vaux.) He 
 completed his education at the nniversity of 
 King's College, wliere he took the degree of 
 A. M. He succeeded his father in the pas- 
 toral charge of the parish of Belhelvie, 24th 
 of August, 1791. Soon after his settlement, 
 lie commenced for his amusement, a series 
 of chemical experiments, principally on 
 fulminating powders, and other explosive 
 compounds. In the year 1805, he was called 
 to London, to make experiments for the 
 government on the percussion principle, 
 which he had about two years previously 
 discovered. His stay in London was pro- 
 longed to nearly a twelvemonth, and he had 
 all but succeeded in convincing the officials 
 at the ordnance office of the propriety of 
 adopting the percussion lock, when a change 
 of ministry, and the bustle of new appoint- 
 ments, or tlie contempt for every thing done 
 or proposed by predecessors, led to an order 
 to him to remove from the Tower, where he 
 had been experimenting, and take his " rub- 
 bish " with him. That " rubbish " consisted 
 of beautiful and ingenious applications of 
 the percussion principle ; a principle which, 
 now after nearly half a century has elapsed, 
 is partially, and will soon be generally, used 
 in the British army, as it has long been in 
 the armies of our continental neighbours. 
 About a year previous to his death, his 
 claims were acknowledged by government, 
 who gave liim an annuity of 2007. As a parish 
 clergyman he was much esteemed, and by the 
 gentleness and modesty of his demeanour 
 secured for himself the warm attachment of 
 a wide circle of friends and acquaintance. 
 He died suddenly, 11th June, 1843, aged 74. 
 
 FORSYTH, William, an able horticul- 
 turist, was bom at Old Meldrum, Aberdeen- 
 shire, in 1757. He was a pupil of the cele- 
 brated Philip Miller, and succeeded him at 
 the physic-gardens of the apothecaries' com- 
 pany at Chelsea. In 1784 he was made 
 superintendant of the royal gardens at 
 Kensington and St. James's, and died in 1804. 
 
 FORTESCUE, Sir Jonx, an eminent 
 judge and writer on the law, was a son of 
 Sir Henry Fortescue, lord chief justice of 
 Ireland. He studied at Lincoln's Inn, was 
 called to the bar, and in 1442 was made chief 
 justice of the court of king's bench. He 
 was a principal counsellor in the court of 
 Henry VI., aud for his devotion to that mon- 
 arch he was attainted by the Parliament 
 under Edward IV.; and in 1403 he fled, with 
 Queen Margaret and her suite, to Flanders, 
 where he remained in exile several years ; 
 during which time he wrote his well-known 
 work,"De Laudibus Legum Anglite." Re- 
 turning to England, to join in the struggle 
 for the restoration of the house of Lancaster, 
 he was taken at the battle of Tewkesbury ; 
 
 311 
 
 but obtained his pardon from Edward, and 
 was allowed to retire to his seat in Gloucester- 
 shire, where he died, in his 90th year. 
 
 FORTESCUE. See Aland. 
 
 FORTIGUERRA, Nicholas, an Italian 
 prelate and poet, was bom at Pistoia in 
 1674, and died in 1735. He was the author 
 of a burlesque poem, entitled " Ricciardetto," 
 a lively and elegant production, in which the 
 style of Ariosto and Pulci is by turns very 
 happilv imitated. 
 
 FOSBROOKE, Rev. Thomas Dudley, 
 F.S.A.,a learned and industrious antiquary 
 and archaBologist, was born in 1770, and 
 received his education at St. Paul's School, 
 London, and Pembroke College, Oxford. 
 Mr. Fosbrooke commenced his literary ca- 
 reer in 1796, with a poem entitled " The 
 Economy of Monastic Life ; " and in 1799 he 
 produced his "British Monachism," 2 vols. 
 8vo., having previously api)lied himself with 
 extraordinary diligence to the study of the 
 Saxon language. His next great work was 
 the " History of Gloucestershire," in 2 vols. 
 4to. ; and in 1819 appeared his " History of 
 the City of Gloucester." These were fol- 
 lowed by the " Wye Tour," " Ariconensia," 
 and the " Berkeley Manuscripts." In 1824 
 he published his most important work, the 
 " Encyclopa:dia of Antiquities, and Ele- 
 ments of Archaeology," 2 vols. 4to. ; and, in 
 1828, a kind of sequel to it, called "Foreign 
 Topography." " The Tourist's Grammar," 
 and several other works, also appeared from 
 his pen ; and he was for many years a pro- 
 lific contributor to the " Gentleman's Ma- 
 gazine." Mr. Fosbrooke's church prefer- 
 ment was aa scanty as his literary industry 
 was great. For 16 years he officiated as 
 curate of Horsley, in Gloucestershire; during 
 the next 20 years he was curate at Walford 
 (on tiie banks of the Wye) ; and for the last 
 12 years of his life he was its vicar. Died 
 on New-year's-day, 1842. 
 
 FOSCOLO, Ugo, a distinguished Italian 
 writer, was born at sea, in 1776, in a Vene- 
 tian frigate, lying near Zante, of which 
 island liis father was governor. He was 
 educated at Padua, and produced his tragedy 
 of "Thyestes" before he was 20. He wag 
 soon after employed as secretary to Battoglia, 
 who was sent ambassador to Buonaparte, to 
 endeavour to preserve the independence of 
 the Venetian republic. The embassy was j 
 unsuccessful, and Foscolo retired into Lom- 
 bardy, where he produced his celebrated 
 "Letters of Ortis," which established his ' 
 fame. Having enlisted in the 1st Italian | 
 legion that was formed, he was shut up in I 
 Genoa during the famous siege of 1799, with j 
 General Massena, and while there he com- 
 posed two of his finest odes. He remained 
 in the Italian army till 1805, when he was 
 sent to Calais with the troops professedly 
 destined for the invasion of England ; but he 
 soon after quitted the service. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of literature at Pavia, in 
 1809 ; when the bold language of his intro- 
 ductory lecture is said to have oflfended 
 Buonaparte, and the professorship was imme- 
 diately suppressed. In 1812 he produced his 
 tragedy of " Ajax," which was represented at 
 the theatre Delia Scala, at Milan ; but it 
 being supposed to convey a satire on the 
 
FOS] 
 
 ^ ^cijj mniiitr^nl ^iaQtapf)^, 
 
 [fou 
 
 character of Buonaparte, he found it neces- 
 sary to withdraw to Florence. He is said to 
 liave subsequently engaged in a conspiracy 
 to expel the Austrians from Italy ; but a dis- 
 covery taking place, he was obliged to de- 
 camp, first to Switzerland, from whence lie 
 shortly after removed to England, where he 
 was well received by the most eminent lite- 
 rati, and noticed by people of distinction. 
 Besides publishing his " Essays on Petrarch," 
 "Disputations and Notes on Dante," &c., he 
 contributed to the Edinburgh, Quarterly, 
 and other reviews ; and he might have en- 
 joyed an easy competence, if he had not 
 unnecessarily involved himself in pecuniary 
 diffleulties. Died, 1827. 
 
 FOSSE, Chakles de la, an eminent pain- 
 ter, was born at Paris, in H'AO. He became suc- 
 cessively professor, director, and chancellor 
 of the academy of painting, and died in 1716. 
 
 FOSSE, Anthoxyde la, sieurd'Aubigny, 
 nephew of the preceding, was bom at Paris, 
 in 1653. He was secretary to the Duke 
 d'Aumont, but he devoted considerable time 
 to literary pursuits, and wrote several suc- 
 cessful tragedies, of which the best is entitled 
 " Manlius Capitolinus." Died, 1708. 
 
 FOSTER, Henrv, a naval officer who ac- 
 companied Sir Edward Parry in his voyages 
 to the arctic regions ; and, in 1828, had the 
 command of the Chanticleer sloop of war, 
 to prosecute a voyage of scientific research 
 in the southern regions of the globe. After 
 having visited various islands in the Pacific 
 and Atlantic oceans, in order to determine 
 points relative to the figure of the earth, 
 meridians, &c., he was drowned, by falling 
 out of a canoe which he had used in ascend- 
 ing the river Cliagres, Feb. 5. 1831. 
 
 FOSTER, James, D.D., an eminent dis- 
 senting minister of the sect called Independ- 
 ents, was born at Exeter, in 1697 ; and com- 
 menced preaching there in 1718. He after- 
 wards removed to Trowbridge, in Wiltshire, 
 where he turned Baptist ; and in 1724 was 
 cliosen successor to Dr. John Gale, of the 
 chapel in Barbican, London, where he acted 
 as a pastor nearly 20 years, and also as a 
 lecturer at a meeting-house in the Old Jewry. 
 He was so eloquent a preacher that crowds 
 flocked to hear him, and Pope has made 
 honourable mention of him in his satires. In 
 1746 he attended Lord Kilmarnock to the 
 scatTuld, which is said to have made so strong 
 an impression upon his own spirits as to 
 aflSict him with a settled melancholy, from 
 whicli he never entirely recovered. He wrote 
 a "Defence of Revelation," in reply to Tin- 
 dal ; " Tracts on Heresy," " Discourses on 
 Natural Religion and Social Virtue," &c. 
 Died, 1753. 
 
 FOSTER, Jonu^, a learned divine, was 
 born in 1731, at Windsor, and educated at 
 Eton, from whence he was sent to King's 
 College, Cambridge. He was for a time 
 head-master at Eton, and was appointed to 
 a stall at Windsor, in 1772 ; but died in 1773 
 at Spa, wliither he had gone for liis health. 
 He published an " Essay on the Nature of 
 Accent and Quantity," &c. 
 
 FOSTER, Rev. John, one of the most 
 able writers and original thinkers of modern 
 times, was born in Yorksliire, 1770. At an 
 early age he entered the Baptist college at 
 
 Bristol, and on the completion of his theologi- 
 cal studies, was successively settled as a prea- 
 cher at various places, the last of which was 
 Downend, near Bristol ; but he afterward re- 
 linquished his pastoral duties, and the last 20 
 years of his life were chiefly devoted to lite- 
 rary pursuits. He was a frequent contributor 
 to the " Eclectic Review " (some of his articles 
 have been collected and published separate- 
 ly) ; but his chief reputation is founded on 
 his " Essays," which have gone through nu- 
 merous editions, and whose popularity seems 
 to increase with the lapse of time. Died, 1843. 
 
 FOSTER, Sir Michael, an eminent law- 
 yer, was born at Marlborough in Wiltshire, 
 m 1689, entered the Middle Temple, and in 
 regular course was called to the bar. In 
 1735 he was chosen recorder of Bristol ; and, 
 in 1745, appointed one of the justices of the 
 king's bench, on which occasion he received 
 the honour of knighthood. He published a 
 tract against Bisliop Gibson's Codex on 
 Church Power, and a Report of the Trials 
 of the Rebels in the year 1746. He was an 
 independent and fearless asserter of the 
 liberty of the subject. 
 
 FOTHERGILL, George, an eminent di- 
 vine, was bom in Westmoreland, in 1705, 
 and educated at Kendal School, from whence 
 he removed to Queen's College, Oxford, 
 where he became fellow and tutor. In 1751 
 he was elected principal of Edmund Hall, 
 and presented to the vicarage of Bramley in 
 Hampshire. He wrote 2 vols, of sermons, 
 which were highly esteemed. Died, 1760. 
 
 FOTHERGILL, John, an eminent phy- 
 sician, was born in 1712, at Carr End, in 
 Yorkshire, his parents being highly respect- 
 able members of the Society of Friends. He 
 served his time to an apothecary, after which 
 he went to Edinburgh, where, in 1736, he 
 took his doctor's degree. In the same year 
 he became a pupil in St. Thomas's Hospital, 
 and in 1740 made a tour of the Continent. 
 On his return lie settled in London ; and in 
 1748 acquired much reputation, by a tract 
 entitled "An Account of the Sore Throat 
 attended with Ulcers." In 1754 he became 
 a member of the Edinburgh College of Phy- 
 sicians, and in 1763 a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. For 30 years he may be said to 
 have stood at the head of the medical pro- 
 fession, and died in 1780. His works, con- 
 sisting chiefly of medical pieces, have been 
 printed in 3 vols. 8vo., with his life prefixed. 
 
 FOUCHE', Joseph, duke of Otranto, was 
 the son of a captain of a merchant ship, and 
 born at Nantes in 1763. It was intended he 
 should follow the same profession as his 
 father, but he adopted that of the law, and 
 the events of the Revolution soon brought 
 him into notice. He headed a popular so- 
 ciety at Nantes, by which he was sent, in 
 1792, as their deputy to the National Con- 
 vention ; and on the trial of Louis XVI. he 
 voted for his death. In 1793 he was sent to 
 Lyons with CoUot d'Herbois, and the cold- 
 blooded cruelties he tliere committed are 
 recorded in his own letters and reports. Re- 
 turning to Paris, he joined in the destruction 
 of Robespierre, merely from the fear of be- 
 coming one of his victims. He, however, had 
 several narrow escapes during the turbulent 
 times that followed ; but circumstances at 
 
FOC] 
 
 ^ ^tto mnihtvinl 2Si0gra4jTji?. 
 
 [fou 
 
 length placed him at the head of the Parisian 
 police, in which office he was a useful in- 
 strument in the hands of Buonaparte, who 
 thought it might be easy, through Fouch^, 
 to hazard a political stroke without compro- 
 mising his own character. To the superin- 
 tendence of police Buonaparte added the 
 management of the interior, and in 1805 he 
 made him duke of Otranto. He then opened 
 his drawing-room to the ancient nobility, 
 many of whom he employed as spies ; but 
 the emperor grew suspicious of this minister, 
 and after his second marriage he resolved on 
 dismissing him, for which an opportunity 
 goon offered. As they felt no conlidence in 
 each other, both employed a secret agent at 
 the English court ; which agents, not being 
 known to each other, had no means of con- 
 certing measures together ; consequently 
 their communications did not agree, and the 
 English minister concluded, from the want 
 of coincidence in their proposals, that France 
 was merely trifling, and complained loudly 
 of the insult. This led to some investigation, 
 when tlie contractor Ouvrard was proved to 
 have been secretly employed by the Duke of 
 Otranto. Immediately upon this, the Duke 
 of Rovigo was made prefect of the interior, 
 and Fouche was required to deliver up his 
 papers. He was then sent into a sort of 
 honourable exile, with the empty title of 
 governor of Rome. In 1814 he returned to 
 France, and was well received by the restored 
 government. When Napoleon re-appeared 
 in France, Fouche was suddenly called to the 
 ministry, and filled his post with skill. After 
 the battle of Waterloo he was appointed i)re- 
 sident of the provisional government, when 
 he appeared as negotiator between the em- 
 peror and the allied powers ; and seeing the 
 uselessness of Paris offering a defence, he 
 acted honourably in advising Napoleon to 
 abdicate. Louis XVIII. continued Otranto 
 as one of his ministers, until by the law of 
 the r>th of January, 181(5, he was obliged to 
 quit France. After travelling some time in 
 Germany, he took up his residence at Trieste, 
 where he died in ISliO. He was certainly one 
 of the most celebrated, and, perhai)s, the 
 most designedly wicked of all the French 
 revolutionists. One of his countrymen has 
 summed up his character in this short sen- 
 tence. "Fouche effected some good, and a 
 great deal of evil." 
 
 FOULIS, Robert and Axorew, two 
 eminent printers in Glasgow, distinguished 
 for the beauty and accuracy of their books, 
 particularly the Latin and Greek classics. 
 They continued for 30 years to carry on 
 business with great success ; but having 
 endeavoured to establish an acailemy for 
 the instruction of youth in painting and 
 sculpture, their resources were unequal to 
 the undertaking, and it ultimately ruined 
 them. Andrew died in 1774, and Robert 
 in 1776. 
 
 FOUNTAINE, Sir Andrew, an English 
 antiquary, was born at Narford, in Norfolk, 
 and educated at Christchurch, Oxford, 
 where he studied the Anglo-Saxon language, 
 and wrote a piece inserted in Dr. Hickes's 
 Thesaurus, entitled " Numismata Anglo- 
 Saxonica et Anglo-Danica." King William 
 conferred on him the honour of knighthood, 
 
 and in 1727 he was appointed warden of the 
 mint. Died, 1753. 
 
 FOUQUIER TINVILLE, Aktiiony 
 QL'ENTi>',one of the most execrable monsters 
 of the French revolution, was born in 1747. 
 As director of Robespierre's revolutionary 
 tribunal in 1793, he boasted of pronouncing 
 only one word — "Death." It was he that 
 accused Marie Antoinette of incest with the 
 dauphin ; to which infamous accusation she 
 replied, "I appeal to all mothers whether 
 the charge is possible." He called the guil- 
 lotine the coining machine of the revolution) 
 and to such a state of savage. fury had his 
 thirst for blood risen, that its repeated grati- 
 fication appears to have produced a real in- 
 sanity. At length, after the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, in 1795, this human demon was de- 
 nounced by Freron in these appropriate 
 words, "I demand that Fouquier Tinville 
 may wear off the remains of his drunken 
 surfeit of blood in hell." Being tried and 
 condemned to the guillotine, the people used 
 his own death-dealing phrase as he went to 
 execution, while he replied with hoarse 
 curses and distorted gesticulations to their 
 execrations, but his courage failed him at 
 the foot of the scaffold, and he died like a 
 coward. 
 
 FOUQUIERES, James, a Flemish painter, 
 was born at Antwerp in 1580. He was the 
 disciple of Velvet Breughel, and became so 
 excellent in painting landscapes, as to be 
 ranked with Titian. Died, UVjQ. 
 
 FOURCROY, Antoixe Francois t>e, an 
 eminent French chemist and natural phi- 
 losopher, was born at Paris, in 175,'> ; and, 
 having adopted the profession of medicine, 
 he applied himself closely to the study of 
 the sciences connected with it, especially 
 to chemistry. In 1784 he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at the Jardin du 
 Roi ; and about this i>eriod he became as- 
 sociated with Lavoisier, Berthollet, &c. in 
 researches which led to vast improvements 
 and discoveries in chemistry, and, in con- 
 junction with them, he drew up the new 
 "Methode de Nomenclature Chimique." 
 When the Revolution took place, he en- 
 gaged in politics, and was chosen a deputy 
 from Paris to the National Convention. In 
 1794 he became a member of the committee 
 of public safety, and, next year, passed into 
 the council of ancients. In 1799, Buona- 
 parte gave him a place in the council of 
 state, when he was entrusted with the 
 management of all affairs relating to public 
 instruction, and acquitted himself in a 
 manner highly meritorious. He was the 
 author of many valuable works on chemical 
 science and natural philosojihy. Died, 1809. 
 
 FOURCROY, Charles Rkxe de, an 
 eminent French officer and engineer, who 
 served with distinction in various campaigns, 
 and attained the rank of marechal de camp. 
 Born, 1718 ; died, 1791. 
 
 FOURIER, Charles, the son of a Be- 
 sangon clothier, is known as the author of 
 the co-operative system, in which he pro- 
 posed a division of profits proportioned to 
 the labour, talent, and capital employed. 
 He has left several works bearing on his 
 favourite views, which, under the names of 
 Socialism and Communism, have since taken 
 
FOU] 
 
 ^ ^fUj mnibcrs'al Mia^VKpf)^, 
 
 [fox 
 
 such deep hold of the French character, that 
 it is to be feared nothing will eradicate tliem 
 until the tremendous ordeal through which 
 they must pass in the experiment shall prove 
 them to be impracticable. Bom, 1772 ; died, 
 1837. 
 
 FOURMONT, Stephen, an eminent lin- 
 guist, was bom, in 1083, at Herbelai, near 
 Paris. He was member of many learned so- 
 cieties, and held the situation of secretary 
 to the Duke of Orleans. Died, 1746. 
 
 FOURNIER, PiEiiRE SiMOX, a Parisian 
 tyiie founder and engraver ; author of 
 " Manuel Typographique," and other works 
 illustrative of his art. Born, 1712 ; died, 
 1768. 
 
 FOUVIER, Baron, a secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris ; who had 
 been a priest of the Oratory, but devoted 
 himself to the study of mathematics. He 
 accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, but 
 afterwards lost liis favour, as he also did 
 that of the Bourbon family ; neither of the 
 governments reposing confidence in his 
 services. He published some discussions in 
 the journal of the Polytechnic School, &c. 
 Died, 1830. 
 
 FOWLER, Edward, a learned English 
 prelate, was born, in 1.632, at Westerleigh, 
 Gloucestershire. Though at first a non- 
 conformist, he was afterwards distinguished 
 for his attachment to the Church of Eng- 
 land ; and, after enjoying several livings, 
 he was raised to the see of Gloucester for 
 his refusal to read the faMous declaration 
 of James II. in 1668, and his subsequent 
 exertions in favour of the Revolution. He 
 was the author of various theological tracts, 
 and died in 1714. 
 
 FOX, Edward, an eminent English pre- 
 late and statesman in the 16th century, was 
 born at Dursley, Gloucestershire ; educated 
 at Eton, and King's College, Cambridge, 
 at which latter he became provost ; and was 
 sent by Cardinal Wolsey on a mission to 
 Rome, in conjunction with Gardiner, to 
 procure the divorce of Henry VIII. from 
 queen Catliarine. He was subsequently en- 
 gaged in embassies to France and Germany ; 
 and, in 1535, he was promoted to the see of 
 Hereford. He is said to have secretly pro- 
 moted the cause of the Reformation ; but 
 though he might have used his influence in 
 that cause as a politician, as a divine he 
 never openly espoused it. Died, 1536. 
 
 FOX, George, founder of the society of 
 Friends, or Quakers, was bora at Drayton, 
 Leicestershire, in 1624, and apprenticed to 
 a_ grazier. At the age of 19 he persuaded 
 himself that he had received a divine com- 
 mand to devote himself solely to religion. 
 He accordingly forsook his relations, and 
 wandered from place to place, leading a 
 life of itinerancy, in which he fasted much, 
 walked abroad in retired places, studying 
 the Bible, and sometimes sat in a hollow 
 tree for a day together. In 1648 he began 
 to propagate his opinions, and commenced 
 public preacher. _ At Derby, his followers 
 were first denominated Quakers, in conse- 
 quence of their tremulous manner of de- 
 livery. He was taken up in 1635, and sent 
 a prisoner to Cromwell, who, being satisfied 
 with his pacific intentions, set him at liberty. 
 
 In fact, he was more than once indebted 
 to the Protector for his freedom, when 
 committed to prison by the country ma- 
 gistracy for his frequent intermption of 
 ministers while performing divine service. 
 In 1666 he was liberated from prison by 
 order of Charles II., and immediately com- 
 menced the task of forming Jiis followers 
 into a formal and united society. In 1669 
 he married the widow of judge Fell, and 
 soon after went over to America, for the 
 express purpose of making proselytes. On 
 his return he was again thrown into prison, 
 but was soon released, and went to Holland. 
 Returning to England, and refusing to pay 
 tithes, he was cast in a suit for the recovery 
 of them, and again visited the Continent. 
 His health had now become impaired J)y the 
 incessant toil and suffering he had endured, 
 and he again revisited his native land, living 
 in a retired manner till his death, in 1690. 
 He was sincere in his religious opinions, 
 and a rigid observer of the great moral 
 duties. His writings consist of his "Jour- 
 nals," " Epistles," and " Doctrinal Pieces." 
 
 FOX, Sir Stephex, a statesman, was 
 bom at Farley, Wilts, in 1627. From his 
 attachment to Charles II., he was at the 
 Restoration made clerk of the green cloth, 
 and paymaster of the forces. By opposing 
 the bill for a standing army, he lost the 
 favour of King William, but was replaced 
 in the reign of Anne. He built a new church 
 at Farley, founded some almshouses, and 
 was the first who projected Chelsea College 
 as a military asylum. He was twice mar- 
 ried, being father by his first wife to the 
 first Earl of Ilchester", and by the second to 
 the first Lord Holland, the subject of the 
 following paragraph. 
 
 FOX, Henry, the first Lord Holland, an 
 eminent statesman, was born in 1705, and 
 educated at Eton. After filling lower oflSces 
 in the state, he was in 1746 appointed sec- 
 retary at war ; retired in 1756, to make way 
 for Mr. Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, 
 but returned to office the following year as 
 paymaster of the forces ; and in this situa- 
 tion his public conduct has been much ani- 
 madverted upon. In 1763 he was created 
 baron Holland of Foxley, and died in 1774. 
 
 FOX, Charles Jame.s, the second son 
 of the preceding, was bom Jan. 13th, 1748 ; 
 and received his education at Westminster, 
 Eton, and Oxford, where his proficiency 
 in classical literature attracted considerable 
 notice. It was the intention of his father, 
 who had a high opinion of his capacity, that 
 he should occupy a prominent station in 
 the political world, and he accordingly 
 procured for him a seat in parliament for 
 the borougli of Midhurst when he was only 
 19. He, however, prudently remained 
 silent till lie had attained the legal age of 
 a member, and then we find him, in 1770, 
 aiding the ministry, who rewarded him 
 witli the oflSce of one of the lords of the 
 admiralty ; but he resigned that situation 
 in 1772 ; and, in 1773, was nominated a 
 commissioner of the treasury, from whence 
 he was suddenly dismissed, in consequence 
 of some disagreement with Lord North. 
 Mr. Fox now entered the lists of opposition, 
 and throughout the whole of the American , 
 
fox] 
 
 ^ ^cU) ?am'&crjSal 3Sioj5ra}j]^i). 
 
 [fra 
 
 •war proved a most powerful antagonist to 
 tlie ministers of tliat period. On the down- 
 fall of Lord North he was appointed, in 17it2, 
 one of the secretaries of state, whicli situ- 
 ation he resigned on the death of tlie Mar- 
 quis of Rockingliam ; when the Earl of Sliel- 
 burne, afterwards Alarquis of Lansdowne, 
 was appointed to succeed him. On the dis- 
 solution of that short-lived administration, 
 he formed the coalition with Lord North (a 
 coalition which was odious to the great 
 mass of the people), and resumed his for- 
 mer oSice. He now brought in his India 
 bill, which, after having passed the House 
 of Commons, was unexpectedly thrown out 
 by the House of Lords, and occasioned tlie 
 resignation of the ministry, of which he 
 formed a part. Mr. Pitt tlien came into 
 power ; while Mr. Fox placed himself at 
 the head of the opposition, and a long eon- 
 test took place between these illustrious 
 rivals. Worn out, and perhaps disgusted, 
 with public business, he, in 1788, repaired 
 to the Continent, in company with Mrs. 
 Fox, and after spending a few days with 
 Gibbon, the historian, at Lausanne, entered 
 the classic regions of Italy. In conse- 
 quence, however, of the sudden illness of 
 the king, and the necessity of constituting a 
 regency, he was soon recalled. Tlie re- 
 gency, the trial of Mr. Hastings, and, above 
 all, the French revolution, and its relative 
 effects on this country, gave ample scope 
 to display his talents and eloquence, both 
 of which he continued to exert against 
 the administration of Mr. Pitt ; inveighing 
 against the war with France, and denoun- 
 cing tlie measures of his great rival on every 
 sul)ject of importance. However men may 
 differ as to the soundness of Mr. Fox's po- 
 litical views, no one denies that he was a 
 sincere friend to the freedom and best in- 
 terests of mankind, or that in private life 
 a more amiable and pleasant companion 
 could not be found. In the senate he was 
 argumentative, bold, and energetic ; in the 
 domestic circle, no one was more ingenuous, 
 bland, or courteous. His literary abilities 
 were of the first order ; and had he lived in 
 less stirring times, tliere is every probability 
 his country would have benefited by his 
 writings. As it was, he left little beliind 
 him for our admiration but his eloquent 
 speeches, and " The History of the early 
 Part of the Reign of James II." On the 
 death of Mr. Pitt ht- was again recalled to 
 power, and set on foot a negotiation for peace 
 with France, but did not live to see the issue 
 of it. He died in the 59th year of his age, 
 on the 13th of September, 1806. 
 
 FOX, John, a celebrated church historian 
 and divine, 'syh-s born, in 1.517, at Boston, 
 Lincolnshire, and educated at Oxford. 
 Applying himself closely to the study of 
 theology, he became a convert to the prin- 
 ciples of the Reformation, was expelled liis 
 college on a charge of heresy, and suffered 
 great privation. A short time before the 
 death of Henry VIII., he was employed as 
 tutor in the family of the Duchess of Rich- 
 mond, to educate the children of her brother, 
 the Earl of Surrey, then a state prisoner. 
 In the reign of Edward VI. he was restored 
 to his fellowship ; but when Mary ascended 
 
 815 
 
 the throne he found it prudent to retire to 
 tlie Continent, where he gained a livelihood 
 as corrector of the press for an eminent 
 printer at Basle. On Elizabeths accession 
 he returned to his native country, and settled 
 in the family of his former pupil, the Duke 
 of Norfolk, where he remained till his death ; 
 and he also received a prebendal stall in the 
 cathedral of Salisbury. He was the author 
 of many controversial and other works ; but 
 the only one which now obtains perusal is 
 his "History of the Acts and Monuments 
 of the Church," commonly called "Fox's 
 Book of Martyrs." There is scarcely any 
 book in existence, perhaps, concerning 
 which such opposite opinions have been en- 
 tertained ! but, while we are ready to admit 
 that a recital of liorrid cruelties practised 
 by persecuting bigots is repulsive to the 
 feelings of humanity, and calculated to per- 
 petuate the animosities arising from religious 
 feuds, rather than to promote peace and 
 good-will, these " Acts and Monuments " are 
 in general too veracious in their details to 
 be regarded as the fictions of a zealot. Fox 
 died in 1587, aged Cy. 
 
 FOX, RiciiAUi), an English prelate and 
 statesman, was bom about 14(i(j, at Ropes- 
 ley, near Grantham, and educated at Ox- 
 ford and Cambridge. He was in high fa- 
 vour witli Henry VII., who employed him 
 on various missions ; and successively made 
 him bisliop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, 
 Durham, and Wincliester. But in the fol- 
 lowing reign he found himself supplanted 
 by Wolsey, whom he had introduced and 
 fostered ; lie therefore retired to his dio- 
 cese, and passed the remainder of his days 
 in acts of charity and munificence. He 
 was a patron of leaiTiing, and the founder 
 of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and of 
 the free-schools of Taunton and Grantham. 
 Died, 1528. 
 
 FOY, Maximilian- Sebastiait, General, 
 was a native of Ham, in Picardy, wliere he 
 was born in 1775. He entered the army at 
 15 years of age, and made his first campaign 
 under Dumouriez in 1792. He displayed 
 his military talents to great advantage in 
 Italy, Germany, and Portugal ; and suc- 
 ceeded Marmont, as commander-in-chief 
 after the battle of Salamanca ; where he 
 conducted a skilful retreat to the Douro. 
 He received hia 15th wound on the field of 
 Waterloo, but refused to quit his post until 
 the close of tliat engagement. He was af- 
 terwards employed as inspector-general of 
 infantry ; and in 1819 was elected a member 
 of the chamber of deputies at Paris ; when 
 he distinguished himself as an orator, and 
 was a great public favourite. He died in 
 1825 ; and having left his widow and family 
 in destitute circumstances, a most liberal 
 subscription was immediately entered into, 
 to provide for them, and to erect a monu- 
 ment to his memory. From his MS8. a 
 "History of the Peninsular War" has been 
 published by his widow. 
 
 FRA DIAVOLO, a Neapolitan robber, 
 whose real name was Michael Pozzo, was 
 born about 1769. He was at first a stocking- 
 maker, afterwards a friar, and in the latter 
 capacity united himself as leader to a gang 
 of outlawed banditti in Calabria. In hia 
 
fka] 
 
 ^ |5fto BnibtY^Rl SStflffrnplii'. 
 
 [fra 
 
 double character of robber and priest, he 
 offered his services, in 1799, to Cardinal 
 RufFo, who headed the counter-revolution- 
 ary party in favour of the Bourbons of Na- 
 ples. For his services, altliough a price 
 had been previously set on his head, he 
 obtained pardon, distinction, and a pension 
 of 3600 ducats, with which he retired to an 
 estate which he purchased. On Joseph Na- 
 poleon becoming king, the expelled govern- 
 ment again set him in motion. He made 
 a descent in 180G, with a large body of ban- 
 ditti and recruits, at Sperlonga, threw open 
 the prisons, and was joined by numerous 
 lazzaroni ; but, after a severe action, he was 
 defeated and taken prisoner, condemned by 
 a special commission, and executed. He 
 died with disdainful indifference. He often, 
 like Robin Hood, restored their liberty and 
 property to captives who interested him, 
 especially females, even making them pre- 
 sents, and affecting to protect the poor. 
 
 FRAMERY, Nicholas Stephen, an emi- 
 nent French musician and dramatist ; born 
 at Rouen in 174.5. lie was the composer 
 both of the poetry and music of several 
 operas ; wrote many critical tracts, &c., and 
 for a time conducted the Journal de Mu- 
 sique. Died, 1810. 
 
 FRANCIA, Francesco, an eminent pain- 
 ter, was born at Bologna in 1450. He had 
 been a goldsmith and an engraver of me- 
 dals, but afterwards applied wholly to paint- 
 ing. Being employed by Raphael to place 
 a pictixre of his in a church at Bologna, it 
 is said that he was so struck with its beauty, 
 and convinced of his own inferiority, that he 
 fell into a desponding state. Died, 1518. 
 
 FRANCIA, Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodei- 
 odez, the celebrated dictator of Paraguay, 
 was the son of a small French proprietor in 
 the country, and born at Assumgion, in 1767. 
 His mother was a Creole. Arrived at the 
 proper age, he was sent to the university of 
 Cordova, with a view to entering the church ; 
 but his plans underwent a change while he 
 was still a student, and on his return to his 
 native town with the degree of doctor of 
 laws, he began his public career as a bar- 
 rister. His high reputation for learning, 
 but still more for honesty and independence, 
 procured him an extensive practice ; and he 
 devoted himself to legal pursuits for thirty 
 years, varying his professional avocations 
 with a perusal of the French Encyclopedian 
 writers, and with the study of mathematics 
 and mechanical philosophy, to which he re- 
 mained addicted throughout his life. In 
 1811, soon after the revolution of the Spanish 
 possessions of South America became gene- 
 ral. Dr. Francia, then in his 54th year, was 
 appointed secretary to the independent junta 
 of Paraguay ; and such was the ability he 
 displayed in this capacity, that on the for- 
 mation of a new congress, called in 1813, Ire 
 was appointed consul of the republic, with 
 Yegros for his colleague. From this moment 
 the affairs of his country underwent a fa- 
 vourable change ; the finances were hus- 
 banded ; peace was obtained in Paraguay, 
 while the rest of the South American conti- 
 nent was a prey to anarchy ; and the people's 
 gratitude to their deliverer was characteris- 
 tically exhibited In conferring upon him, 
 
 in 1817, unlimited despotic authority, which 
 he exercised during the remainder of his life. 
 Died, 1840. 
 
 FRANCIS I., king of France, ascended 
 the throne in 1515, at the age of 21. He 
 was the son of Charles of Orleans, and of 
 Louisa of Savoy, grand-daughter to Valen- 
 tine, duke of Milan, in riglit of whom he 
 laid claim to that duchy. Tiie Swiss op- 
 posed his passage through their territories, 
 and were defeated at the battle of Marig- 
 nana. Francis then entered the Milanese, 
 and forced Maximilian Sforza to relinquish 
 the sovereignty. A war afterwards broke 
 out between him and the emperor Charles 
 v., in which Francis lost a considerable part 
 of his territories, was made prisoner, and 
 conveyed to Madrid. In 1526 he regained 
 his liberty, after renouncing his claim to 
 Naples, the Milanese, Flanders, and Artois. 
 In 1635 he marched again into Italy, and 
 possessed himself of Savoy ; but a peace 
 was hastily made up, which was soon after 
 broken, and Francis again lost a consider- 
 able part of his own dominions. He died 
 in 1547. He was the patron and friend of 
 literature, and possessed a generous and 
 chivalric spirit ; and had he been content to 
 reign in peace, France might have been 
 happy imder his rule. He founded the 
 Royal College of Paris, and furnished a 
 magnificent library at Fontainebleau, besides 
 building several palaces, which he orna- 
 mented with pictures and statues, to the 
 great encouragement of the fine arts. He 
 is frequently termed " the Great," and " the 
 Restorer of Learning ; " and though, per- 
 haps, not entitled to these appellations in 
 their strictest sense, he may be fairly con- 
 sidered as one of the most distinguished 
 sovereigns that ever swayed the sceptre of 
 France. 
 
 FRANCIS, of Lorraine, emperor of Ger- 
 many, was bom in 1708, and married in 
 1736 Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. 
 On the death of her father in 1740, Maria 
 Theresa appointed her husband to tlie ad- 
 ministration of the government, and on the 
 death of Charles VII. in 1745, he was elected 
 emperor. Died, 1765. 
 
 FRANCIS, St., or FRANCIS OF ASSISI, 
 the founder of the order of Franciscan friars, 
 was born at Assisi, in Umbria, in 1182. 
 He was the son of a merchant, and said to 
 be of dissolute habits ; but on recovering 
 from a dangerous illness he became enthu- 
 siastically devout, and devoted himself to 
 solitude, joyfully undergoing every species 
 of penance and mortification. Thinking his 
 extravagance proceeded from insanity, his 
 father had him closely confined ; and at 
 length, being taken before the bishop of 
 Assisi, in order formally to resign all claim 
 to his paternal estate, he not only assented 
 to it, but literally stripped himself. He 
 was now looked upon as a saint ; and great 
 numbers joining him in his vow of poverty, 
 he drew up rules for their use, which being 
 sanctioned by pope Innocent III., the order 
 of Franciscans was established. So rapidly 
 did they increase, that in 1219 he held a 
 chapter, which was attended by 5000 friars. 
 After having made a fruitless effort to con- 
 vert the sultan Meleddin, he returned to 
 
fKA] 
 
 ^ ^m Winibtx^Kl l8t0Qtajp]^j). 
 
 [fra 
 
 Aseisi, where he died in 122<;, and was ca- 
 iioiiised by pope Gregory in 1230. 
 
 FRANCIS or PAULO, a Romish saint, 
 born ut Paulo, in Calabria, in 14iG. He was 
 brought up in a Frauciscau convent ; and 
 in order to exceed the preceding saint in 
 austerity of life, he retired to a cell on the 
 desert part of the coast, where he soon ob- 
 tained followers, built a monastery,, and 
 thus commenced a new order, called Minimt. 
 He enjoined on his disciples a total absti- 
 nence from wine, flesh, and fish ; besides 
 Which they were always to go barefoot, and 
 never sleep on a bed. He died in France, 
 aged 91, in 1508, and was canonised by 
 Leo X. 
 
 FRANCIS DE SALES, another samt of 
 the Roman calendar, was born of a noble 
 family at the castle of Sales, near Geneva, 
 1507. He obtained great praise for the suc- 
 cess which attended his missions for the 
 conversion of his Protestant countrymen. 
 He was ultimately made bishop of Geneva ; 
 and he performed the duties of his station 
 with exemplary diligence and charity. He 
 died in 1022, and was canonised in 10G5. 
 
 FRANCIS, Philip, son of the dean of 
 Lismore, M-as a poet and dramatic writer, 
 though much more celebrated for his trans- 
 lation of Horace and other classic authors, 
 than for his original compositions. He was 
 educated at Dublin ; and having taken or- 
 ders, first settled at Esher, Surrey, where 
 he kept an academy, and had Gibbon the 
 historian among his pupils. He afterwards 
 held the living of Barrow, Sufl:olk, and was 
 chaplain to Chelsea Hospital. He wrote 
 "Eugenia" and " Constantia," two tragedies, 
 some controversial tracts, &c. Died, 1773. 
 
 FRANCIS, Sir Philip, a i)olitical cha- 
 racter of some distinction, and a son of the 
 preceding, was boin at Dublin in 1740, and 
 received his education at St. Paul's School. 
 He entered into public life as a clerk in the 
 secretary of state's office ; after which he 
 went out as secretary to the embassy to 
 Portugal ; and, in 1773, he became a mem- 
 ber of the council of Bengal. He remained 
 in India till 1780, during wliich time he was 
 the constant and strenuous opponent of the 
 measures of Governor Hastings ; and his 
 opposition savouring too much of personal 
 hostility, a duel was the result. On his re- 
 turn to England he was chosen member for 
 the borough of Yarmouth, in the Isle of 
 Wight ; and, joining the opposition, he took 
 a prominent part in most of their measures, 
 particularly in the impeachment of Mr. 
 Hastings. He published many political 
 pamphlets and speeches, all of which are 
 imbued with considerable spirit and party 
 feeling. The celebrated " Letters of Junius " 
 have l)een attributed to him, and many cir- 
 cumstantial proofs are brought forward to 
 support the opinion ; he, however, always 
 disavowed the authorship ; the supposition 
 therefore rests only on strong conjecture, 
 founded on certain events of his life and a 
 supposed similarity of style between them 
 and his acknowledged productions. He died 
 in 1818. 
 
 FRANCIS I., Joseph Charles, emperor 
 of Austria, king of Lombardy, &e., was born 
 in 17()8, and succeeded his father, Leopold 
 
 317 
 
 II., in 1792. At that time he was styled 
 emperor of Germany, by the name of Fran- 
 cis II. ; but, in 1804, when France had been 
 declared an empire, he assumed the title of 
 hereditary emperor of Austria ; and, on the 
 establishment of the confederation of the 
 Rhine in 1806, he renounced the title of 
 Roman emperor and German king, and re- 
 signed the government of the German em- 
 pire. At the age of 20 he accompanied his 
 uncle, the emperor Joseph II., on a campaign 
 against the Turks. From his position, he 
 necessarily became a most important pivot 
 upon which the mighty attkirs of Europe 
 turned during the continuance of the wars 
 arising out of the French revolution. France 
 declared war against him in 1792 ; and 
 Prussia, though at first his ally, concluded 
 a separate peace with the republic ; but the 
 emperor Francis continued the war with 
 energy. In 1794 he put himself at tlie head 
 of the army of the Netherlands, and defeated 
 the French at Cateau, Landrecy, and Tour- 
 nay. In 1797 he procured a temporary repose 
 by the peace of Campo Formio ; but in 1799 
 he entered into a new coalition with Russia 
 and England against France ; which was 
 dissolved by Austria and Russia being com- 
 pelled to conclude the peace of Luneville in 
 1801. War again broke out between France 
 and Austria in 1805 ; but, after the battle of 
 Austerlitz, the terms of an armistice and 
 basis of a treaty were settled in a personal 
 interview between Francis and Napoleon, at 
 the bivouac of the latter. This peace lasted 
 till 1809, when the restless ambition of the 
 French emperor induced Francis to declare 
 war against him once more. A disastrous 
 campaign followed.; but a favourable peace 
 was obtained, and, by the marriage of his 
 eldest daughter, Maria Louisa, to Napoleon, 
 a strong tie seemed to be formed between 
 the two imperial houses. Tins family tie, 
 however, was not sufficient to appease the 
 aggrandising ambition of his son-in-law. 
 In 1813, Francis found himself again com- 
 pelled to enter into an alliance with Russia 
 and Prussia against France ; and, to the 
 close of the contest, he was present with 
 the allied armies; He died, March 3. 1835, 
 leaving a more extensive empire to his 
 successor than any of Ixis ancestors ever 
 possessed; 
 
 FRANCKLIN, Dr, Thomas, was the son 
 of the printer of the celebrated anti-minis- 
 terial paper called Tiie Craftsman, and 
 born in 1721. He was educated at West- 
 minster School and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge ; became Greek professor at Cam- 
 bridge ; obtained successively the livings of 
 Ware, Thundridge, and Brasted, and was 
 made king's chaplain, and died in 1784. He 
 translated Lucian, Sophocles, and other 
 classic authors ; wrote a " Dissertation on 
 Ancient Tragedy," four volumes of Ser- 
 mons, " The Earl of Warwick," and various 
 other dramas ; and left behind him the cha- 
 racter of a learned but eccentric man. 
 
 FRANCKS, or FRANKEN, Fkancis. 
 There were two eminent Dutch painters of 
 this name, father and son ; distinguished 
 for the beauty of their scriptural pieces. 
 The elder Francks died in 1016 ; the other 
 in 1642. 
 
tRX] 
 
 ^ ^cto ^m'ber^al ISwgrajpIjy. 
 
 [fra 
 
 FRANCO-BARRETO, a Portuguese poet, 
 soldier, and churchman, was born in 1606, 
 and died in KiO-l. After flgliting against 
 the Dutch in Brazil, Jie returned to Portu- 
 gal, entered the church, and became vicar 
 of Barreiro. 
 
 FRANCOIS DE NETJFCHATEAU, Ni- 
 cholas, was born in 1750, at Neufchateau, 
 in Lorraine. He was bred to the law, and 
 sent as attorney-general to St. Domingo in 
 1782 ; but returning at the commencement 
 of the revolution, he espoused its principles, 
 and obtained a seat in the legislative as- 
 sembly. In 1797 he was chosen one of the 
 five directors ; and under the reign of Na- 
 poleon lie became a count, a senator^ and 
 grand officer of the legion of honour. He 
 was a man of great ability, both as a states- 
 man and an author ; and left various works 
 in different branches of polite literature. 
 
 FRANK, Pkter, a German pliysician, 
 born in 1735 ; was director-general of the 
 hospitals of Jyombardy ; but quitte<l Italy in 
 1795, to become clerical professor at Vi- 
 enna. He afterwards went to Russia as 
 imperial archiater, but ill health compelled 
 him to return : and after having refused to 
 visit France, whither he was invited by Na- 
 poleon, he died in 1821. Professor Frank's 
 most important works are, " Systfeme de 
 Police Medicale," 11 vols. 8vo. ; " Choix 
 d'Opuscules appartenant ii la Medecine," 12 
 vols. 8vo. ; and " De I'Art de Traiter les 
 Maladies," 9 vols. 8vo. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, an eminent phi- 
 losopher and politician, was born at Bos- 
 ton, in the United States, in 1706. His fa- 
 ther, who had emigrated from England, was 
 a tallow-chandler ; and Benjamin^ the fif- 
 teenth of seventeen children, was appren- 
 ticed to his elder brother, a printer and 
 publisher of a newspaper at Boston. His 
 early passion for reading, which lie had 
 always manifested, was now gratified ; and 
 lie was able also, through the medium of 
 the newspapert to try his powers at literary 
 composition. Some political articles in this 
 journal having offended the general court of 
 the colony, the publisher was imprisoned, 
 and forbidden to continue it. To elude this 
 prohibition, young Franklin was made the 
 nominal editor, and his indentures were os- 
 tensibly cancelled. After the release of his 
 brother, he took advantage of this act to 
 assert his freedom, and thus escaped from a 
 severity of treatment which he thought 
 savoured more of the rigorous master than 
 the kind relation. He therefore secretly 
 embarked aboard a small vessel bound to 
 New York, without means or recommenda- 
 tions ; and not finding employment there, 
 he set out for Philadelphia, where he arrived 
 on foot with a penny roll in his hand, and 
 one dollar in his purse. Here he obtained 
 employment as a compositor, and having 
 attracted the notice of Sir William Keith, 
 governor of Pennsylvania, was induced by 
 his promises to visit England, for the pur- 
 pose of purchasing types, &c., to establish 
 himself in business. TJpon reaching London, 
 in 1725, he found himself entirely deceived 
 in his promised letters of credit and recom- 
 mendation from governor Keith ; and being, 
 as before, in a strange place, without credit 
 
 or acquaintance, he went to work once more 
 as a compositor. While he was in London 
 (a period of about eighteen months) he be- 
 came a convert to deistical opinions, and 
 wrote a "Dissertation on Liberty and Ne- 
 cessity, Pleasure and Pain ;" wlierein he 
 endeavoured to show that tliere was no dif- 
 ference between virtue and vice. This he 
 afterwards regarded as one of the grand 
 errors of his life. In 1726 he returned to 
 Philadelphia ; soon after which he entered 
 into business as a printer and stationer ; 
 and in 1728 he established a newspaper. 
 His habitual prudence, combined with ac- 
 tivity and talents, soon raised him to tlie 
 rank of a highly respectable tradesman ; 
 and, chiefly by his exertions, a public li- 
 brary, an Insurance company, and other 
 useful institutions were established in Plii- 
 ladelphia. In 1732, he published his " Poor 
 Richard's Almanack ; " which became noted 
 for the concise and useful maxims on in- 
 dustry and economy with which it was 
 sprinkled. In 1736 he was appointed clerk 
 to tlie general assembly at Pennsylvania, 
 and, the year following, post-master of Phi- 
 ladelphia. In the French war, in 1744, he 
 proposed and carried into elfect a plan of 
 association for the defence of that province ; 
 whicli merits notice, as it served to unfold to 
 America the secret of her own strength. 
 About the same time he commenced his 
 electrical experiments, making several dis- 
 coveries in that branch of philosophy, the 
 principal of which was the identity of the 
 electrie fire and lightning ; and as practical 
 utility was, in his opinion, the ultimate 
 object of all philosophical investigation, he 
 immediately applied his discoveries to the 
 invention of iron conductors for the pro- 
 tection of buildings from lightning. In 
 1747 he was chosen a representative of the 
 general assembly, in which situation he 
 distinguished himself by several acts of 
 public utility. By his means a militia bill 
 was passed, and he was appointed colonel of 
 the Philadelphia regiment. In 1757 he was 
 sent to England as agent for Pennsylvania. 
 At this time he was chosen fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and honoured with the 
 degree of doctor of laws by the universities 
 of St. Andrew's, Edinburgh, and Oxford. 
 In 1762 he returned to America ; but two 
 years afterwards he again visited England, 
 in his former capacity, as agent ; and it was 
 at this period that he was examined at the 
 House of Commons concerning the stamp 
 act. In 1775 he returned home, and was 
 elected a delegate to the congress. He was 
 very active in the contest between England 
 and tlie colonies ; and was sent to France, 
 where, in 1778, he signed a treaty of alliance, 
 offensive and defensive, which produced a 
 war between that country and England. In 
 1783 he signed the definite treaty of peace, 
 and in 1785 returned to America, where he 
 was chosen president of the supreme coun- 
 cil. He died in 1790. Besides his political, 
 miscellaneous, and philosophical pieces, he 
 wrote several papers in the American Trans- 
 actions, and two volumes of essays, with his 
 life prefixed, written by himself. He was a 
 man of much practical wisdom, possessing a 
 cool temper and sound judgment ; and 
 
fra] 
 
 ^ ^cio Sluiljcr^al l3i0£n:ai>I)M. 
 
 [frb 
 
 though never inattentive to liis own interest, 
 he united with it a zealous eolicitnde for ttie 
 advancement of the general interests of 
 mankindi 
 
 IRANKLIN, Eleanor Anne, the wife 
 of Captain Franklin, the celebrated navi- 
 gator, but known as an authoress as Miss 
 rordcn, was the youngest daughter of Mr. 
 roiden, an architect ; and born in 1795. In 
 early youth she exhibited great talent and a 
 Btrong memory, and acquired a considerable 
 knowledge of Greek and other languages. 
 Her ttrst poem, " The Veils," was written 
 when she was seventeen. Her next was 
 " The Arctic Expedition," wliich led to her 
 acquaintance with Captain Franklin ; but 
 her principal work is the epic of " Cceur de 
 Lion." She died in 1»25, a few days after 
 her husband had sailed from England on his 
 second expedition. 
 
 FBAUENliOFER, Joseph VON, professor 
 of philosophy in the Koyal Bavarian Aca- 
 demy, was the son of a glazier at Straubing, 
 and apprenticed to a glass-cutter. After 
 struggling with many difficulties, he ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the theory of optics 
 and mathematics, constructed a glass-cut- 
 ting machine, and ground optical glasses. 
 His subsequent discoveries and inventions in 
 optics, the excellence of the telescopes which 
 he manufactured, and his " Researches con- 
 cerning the Laws of Light," printed in Gil- 
 bert's Annals of Physics, all contributed to 
 establish his fame ; and he died in 182(5, after 
 having been raised to deserved celebrity as a 
 man of science. 
 
 FREDERIC I., Bumamed Barbarossa, 
 emperor of Germany, born in 1121, was the 
 son of Frederic, duke of Suabia, and suc- 
 ceeded his uncle Conrad on the imperial 
 throne in 1152. His principal efforts were 
 directed to extend and confirm his power in 
 Italy, but the events of the war, which lasted 
 almost twenty years, were not particularly 
 favourable for him. Saladin having retaken 
 Jerusalem from the Christians, the pope 
 preached a new crusade, and Frederic, with 
 an immense army, undertook it. The Greek 
 emperor had secretly entered into an alli- 
 ance with Saladin, and attempted to pre- 
 vent the march of the Germans through his 
 dominions ; but Frederic, after gaining two 
 great battles, penetrated into Syria, where 
 he met his death in 1190, by being drowned 
 while bathing. Independent of his military 
 prowess, this monarch deserves notice for his 
 political capacity and literary talent. 
 
 FREDERIC II., the grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, and son of Henry VI., was born in 
 1194 ; elected king of the Romans in 1190, 
 and emperor in 1210, in opposition to Otho. 
 He afterwards went to the Holy Land, and 
 concluded a truce with the sultan of Baby- 
 lon, which so provoked pope Gregory IX. 
 that he anathematised him. On this, Fre- 
 deric returned to Europe and laid siege to 
 Rome, which occasioned the famous parties 
 of the Guelphs and the Ghibelines. Gregory 
 was obliged to make peace, but in 123ti he 
 again excommunicated Frederic, and the 
 war was renewed, which proved unsuccess- 
 ful to tlic emperor. He was brave, bold, 
 and generous ; possessed enlightened views 
 of government ; and, for the age in which 
 
 319 
 
 he lived, was highly accomplished. Died, 
 1250. 
 
 FREDERIC -SVILLIAM, generally called 
 the sp-eat elector, was born in l(i20, and at 
 the age of 2U years succeeded liis father as 
 elector of Brandenburg. He is considered 
 as the founder of the Prussian greatness ; 
 and from him is derived much of that mili- 
 tary spirit which is now the national cha- 
 racteristic. By affording protection to the 
 French Protestant refugees, he gained, as 
 citizens of the state, 20,000 industrious manu- 
 facturers, an acquisition of no slight import- 
 ance to the north of Germany ; and he also 
 gave great encouragement to agricultural 
 improvements. He founded the library at 
 Berlin, and a university at Duisburg ; and 
 at his death he left to his son a country 
 much enlarged, and a well supplied treasury. 
 Died, 16H8, aged t)9. 
 
 FREDERIC WILLIAM I., king of Prus- 
 sia, son of Irederic I., and father of Fre- 
 deric the Great, was bom in 1088, and as- 
 cended the throne in 17 Ui, having i)reviou8ly 
 married a daughter of the elector of Ha- 
 nover, afterwards George I. of England. 
 His habits were entirely military ; and his 
 constant care was to establish tlie strictest 
 discipline among his trooi)S. But he had 
 such a ridiculous fondness for tall soldiers, 
 that, in order to fill the ranks of his favour- 
 ite regiment, he would use force or fraud, 
 if money would not efl'ect his object, iu 
 order to obtain the tallest men in Europe. 
 Being void of science and ornamental litera- 
 ture, he treated their professors with every 
 kind of discouragement. He was rigorous 
 in his punishments, and always showed an 
 inclination to aggravate rather than miti- 
 gate them. He died in 1740, leaving an 
 abundant treasury, and an efficient army of 
 Oe.WX) men. 
 
 FREDERIC II., king of Prussia, com- 
 monly called the Great, and sometimes 
 erroneously styled Frederic III., was born 
 in 1712. He obtained but a scanty educa- 
 tion, owing to his father's predilection for 
 military discipline, and his determination 
 to check the strong inclination which he 
 perceived in the heir-apparent to cherish 
 literature. This led him, in 1730, to at- 
 tempt an escape from Prussia ; but the 
 scheme being discovered, the prince was 
 confined in the castle of Custrin, and his 
 young companion, Katte, executed before 
 his lace. After an imprisonment of some 
 months, a reconciliation was eft'ected ; and 
 in 1733 he married the Princess of Bruns- 
 wick VVolfenbuttel, in obedience to his 
 father's command ; but it is said the mar- 
 riage was never consummated. In 1740 he 
 succeeded to the throne, and it was not long 
 before he added Lower Silesia to his do- 
 minions. In 1744 he took Prague, with its 
 garrison of 10,000 men. In 1745 he de- 
 feated the Prince of Lorraine at Freidburgh, 
 and then marched into Bohemia, where he 
 defeated an Austrian army. Shortly after 
 he took Dresden, laid it under heavy exac- 
 tions, and there concluded a highly favour- 
 able peace. During the ten years of com- 
 parative tranquillity that followed, Fre- 
 deric employed himself in bringing his 
 troops into a state of discipline never be- 
 
fre] 
 
 ^ i^elD Unihn^aX SStngrapIjn, 
 
 [fre 
 
 fore equalled in any age or country. He 
 also encouraged agriculture, the arts, manu- 
 factures, and commerce, reformed the laws, 
 and increased the reveniics ; thus improving 
 the condition of the state, and rendering it 
 more than a match for foreign enemies. 
 Secret information of an alliance between 
 Austria, Russia, and Saxony gave him 
 reason to fear an attack, which he hastened 
 to anticipate by the invasion of Saxony, 
 in 1756. This commenced the seven years' 
 war, in which he contended single-handed 
 against the united force of Russia, Saxony, 
 Sweden, France, Austria, and the great 
 majority of the other German states ; till 
 at length, after various changes of fortune, 
 he was left, in 1763, in the peaceful posses- 
 sion of all liis paternal and acquired domi- 
 nions. He now entered into a league with 
 his former enemies, which in 1772 was ce- 
 mented by the partition of Poland, an act 
 which was then, as it is now, denounced by 
 every lover of freedom and national secu- 
 rity. The remainder of his life, with the 
 exception of a short demonstration of hos- 
 I tility towards Austria, which was termi- 
 nated by the mediation of Russia, was passed 
 in the tranquillity of literary leisure, and 
 in an unreserved intercourse with learned 
 men ; among wliom Voltaire and Mauper- 
 tuis were for a long time his especial fa- 
 vourites. His own literary attainments were 
 far above mediocrity, as may be seen by 
 his " History of his own Times," " The 
 History of the Seven Years' War," "Con- 
 siderations on the State of Europe," " Me- 
 moirs of the House of Brandenburgh," 
 poems, &c. Frederic, on ascending the 
 throne, found in his states a population of 
 only two millions and a quarter, and left it 
 with six millions, a result to which nothing 
 but his talents as a general and a legislator 
 contributed. His talents, his armj', and his 
 treasure were his sole means of govern- 
 ment. His habits were singularly simple 
 and unostentatious ; he rose constantly at 
 five, when he employed himself in reading 
 despatches and reports, all of which were 
 addressed to himself in person, and to each 
 of which he marked an answer in the 
 margin, consisting generally of no more 
 than a single word ; at eleven he reviewed 
 his regiment, and dined at twelve ; the re- 
 mainder of tlie day was passed in literary 
 pursuits, and in the enjoyment of musical 
 performances ; and at ten he invariably re- 
 tired to rest. He was an avowed sceptic in 
 matters of religion, yet he encouraged the 
 observance of it among his subjects ; and 
 though he is justly chargeable with immo- 
 derate ambition, by which his subjects were 
 continually involved in war, yet his vigor- 
 ous understanding and undaunted courage 
 rendered him equal to Ixis position ; while 
 the splendour of his reign endeared him to 
 the people, and they willingly accorded to 
 him the epithet of "the Great." He died 
 in 1786, aged 75. 
 
 FREDERICK- WILLIAM III., king of 
 Prussia, was born in 1770, and ascended the 
 throne, on the death of his father, in 1797. 
 It is rather the province of history than of 
 biography to describe the events, important 
 though they be, which distinguish the reign 
 
 820 
 
 of a monarch : we shall therefore observe 
 generally, that during all the extraordinary 
 vicissitudes to which he and his country 
 were subjected by the successes of Napoleon, 
 his conduct ensured fbr him the confidence 
 of his army and the regard of liis subjects ; 
 though an impartial biographer feels him- 
 self called on to state, that the convulsions 
 which shook the Prussian throne to its 
 foundations in 1848 may in no small de- 
 gree be traced to his refusal to grant those 
 constitutional privileges which Jiad long 
 been promised to his people, and which they 
 were well fitted to exercise. Died, June 7. 
 1840. 
 
 FREDERICK, Colonel, son of the un- 
 fortunate Theodore, commonly called King 
 of Corsica, of whose misfortunes and im- 
 prudence he partook. He obtained the 
 rank of cohmel, with the cross of the order 
 of merit, from the Duke of Wirtemburg, for 
 whom he acted as agent in England. Being 
 greatly reduced in circumstances, he shot 
 himself in the portal of Westminster Abbey, 
 in 1796. He wrote "M^moires pour servir 
 h I'Histoire de Corse," a "Description of 
 Corsica," &c. 
 
 FREELING, Sir Francis, bart., secre- 
 tary to the general post-oflSce, was born 
 at 13ristol, in 1764, and commenced his offi- 
 cial career in the post-office of that city. 
 On the establishment of the new system of 
 mail coaches by Mr. Palmer, in 1785, he 
 was selected by that gentleman, on account 
 of his superior ability and intelligence, to 
 assist him in carrying his improvements 
 into effect, and was introduced into the 
 general post-office, in 1787, where he suc- 
 cessively filled the offices of surveyor, joint 
 secretary, and sole secretary, for nearly 
 half a century. The luiremitted attention 
 which he bestowed upon the duties of his 
 office, the skill with which he managed its 
 most difficult transactions, and the un- 
 bounded confidence which he enjoyed both 
 of his sovereign and the highest function- 
 aries in the state, together with his unim- 
 peachable character, enabled him to effect 
 improvements of the highest importance 
 and value to the interests of commerce and 
 the prosperity of the country. The honour 
 of a baronetcy was conferred upon him in 
 1828, and was the spontaneous act of 
 George IV., from whom, as well as from his 
 royal father, he had received many flatter- 
 ing testimonials of approval. Sir Francis 
 was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, 
 and one of the original members of the 
 Roxburgh Club. He died July 10. 1836, 
 aged 72. 
 
 FREEMAN, William Peere Williams, 
 Admiral, entered the service in 1757, and 
 Was, at the time of his death, the senior 
 officer in the British navy. Though he dis- 
 tinguished himself in the American war, he 
 was not employed during the late war with 
 France, owing to his political principles 
 being opposed to those of the Pitt ministry ; 
 but on the accession of William IV. to the 
 throne, the situation of admiral of the fleet 
 became vacant, and his majesty appointed 
 him to it. He died in 1832, aged 90. 
 
 FREIND, JoHx, a learned physician and 
 writer on medical science, was born in 1675, 
 
pre] 
 
 ^ ^ctxj Hnil) tribal 23i0gTajpl)S» 
 
 [fri 
 
 at Croton, in Northamptonshire. In 1703 
 he distinguished himself by an able work 
 on diseases peculiar to females, which raised 
 him to eminence as a physiologist. Tlie 
 next year lie was appointed chemical pro- 
 fessor at Oxford ; and in 1705 he accom- 
 panied the Earl of Peterborough in his ex- 
 pedition to Spain, as physician to the army. 
 On his return in 1707 he published a vindi- 
 cation of the earl's conduct in Spain, which 
 gained him considerable reputation. He 
 tlien obtained his diploma of M.D., and in 
 1709 publislied his " I^ectures on Chemistry." 
 In 1711 he was chosen a member of tlie 
 Koyal Society, and the same year he accom- 
 panied the DukeofOrmond in his expedi- 
 tion to Flanders. In 171(5 he was elected 
 a fellow of the college of physicians, and 
 in 1722 he was brought into parliament for 
 Launceston. The year following he was 
 sent to the Tower on suspicion of being con- 
 cerned in Atterbury's plot, but was soon 
 released on bail. While in confinement, 
 he wrote an epistle to his friend Dr. Mead, 
 "De quibusdam Variolarum Generibus." 
 He also formed the plan of his greatest 
 literary undertaking, which he afterwards 
 published, under the title of "The History of 
 Physic," &c. At the accession of George II. 
 he was appointed physician to the queen. 
 Died, 1728. — Dr. Rt)BEnT Fkeind, his bro- 
 ther, was master of Westminster Scliool, and 
 died in 1754, ased 83. 
 
 FREINSHEM, or FREINSHEMIUS, 
 John, a learned German, was born at Ulm, 
 in 1608, and became professor of rhetoric 
 in the university of Upsiil, and librarian to 
 queen Christfna of Sweden ; but returned 
 to Germany in consequence of ill health, 
 and died at Heidelberg, in 1G60. He showed 
 himself a profound scholar, particularly by 
 his celebrated supplements to the lost books 
 and passages of Curtius and of Livy. 
 
 FREMINET, Maktuv. chief painter to 
 Henry IV. and Louis XIII., was born at 
 Paris, in 1.507, and died in 1(J19. 
 
 FRENICI.E DE BESSY, Beuxard, a 
 French mathematician, celebrated for his 
 skill in solving mathematical questions 
 without the aid of algebra. He kept his 
 method a secret during his life, but a de- 
 scription of it was found among his papers, 
 and is called the method of exclusion. Died, 
 1675. 
 
 FRERE, Right Hon. John Hookham, a 
 gentleman distinguished for his diplomatic 
 talents, was born in 1769, and was educated 
 at Eton, where, in conjunction with Can- 
 ning, &c., he appeared as one of the youth- 
 ful writers of the Microcosm. He entered 
 parliament in 1796 as member for West 
 Looe ; in 1799 succeeded his friend Mr. 
 Canning as under- secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs, and subsequently filled va- 
 rious diplomatic missions in Spain, Portugal, 
 and Prussia. Mr. Frere was a good scholar, 
 and a man of great and varied talents ; 
 but most of his writings were of a fugitive 
 kind, and have not been published in a col- 
 lected for"i. He had resided at Malta many 
 years, and there he died, of apoplexy, Jan. 7. 
 1840. 
 
 FRERET, Nicholas, a French writer, 
 was born at Paris, in 1688, and abandoned 
 
 821 
 
 his profession of law to devote himself to the 
 study of history and chronology. His trea- 
 tises and controversies on these subjects, 
 among others with Newton, compose a great 
 l>nrt of the memoirs of the academy at that 
 time. His first work, " On the Origin of the 
 French," wounded the national vanity so 
 deeply, that it occasioned his imprisonment 
 in the Bastile. Died, 1749. 
 
 FRERON, Elie Catiiekine, a French 
 critic, was born at Quimper, in 1719, and 
 was originally a Jesuit, but quitted the so- 
 ciety at the age of 20. In 174!) he com- 
 menced his " Letters on certain Writings of 
 the Times," which extended to 13 vols. ; 
 and, as he freely criticised the works and 
 actions of others, it procured liim some 
 powerful enemies, among whom was Vol- 
 taire. He then began his "Aunte Litt^- 
 raire," which he continued till his death, 
 in 1776. Resides the above works, he wrote 
 Miscellanies, " Les Vrais Plaisirs," " Opus- 
 cules," &c. 
 
 FRERON, Loris Stanislaus, son of the 
 preceding, was one of the most violent of 
 the French revolutionists. In 1789 he com- 
 menced an incendiary journal, called 
 "L'Orateur du Peuple," associated him- 
 self with Marat, and was guilty of many 
 enormities at Toulon and elsewhere. Born, 
 17.^)7 ; died, 1802. 
 
 FRESNEL, AVGUSTINE JoiiN, an expe- 
 rimental Irench philosopher, distinguished 
 by his admirable experiments on the inflec- 
 tion and polarisation of light ; was born at 
 Broglie, in 1788, and died in 1827. 
 
 FRESCOBALDI, Gikolamo, an eminent 
 musician and composer, born at Ferrara, in 
 1601, and appointed organist at St. Peter's, 
 Rome, in 1624. He is the first Italian who 
 composed in fugue for the organ, which is 
 a German invention ; and is considered as 
 the father of that species of organ playing 
 known in England by the name of " volun- 
 taries." 
 
 FRISCH, John Leonard, a German 
 naturalist and divine, was born in Sulzbach, 
 in 1666. He was the founder of the silk 
 manufactory in Brandenburg, and was the 
 flrot who cultivated mulberry-trees in that 
 country. He was the author of a " German 
 and Latin Dictionary," a "Description of 
 German Insects," &c. Died, 1743. 
 
 FRISCHLIN, NicoDEMUs, a German 
 writer, who distinguished himself by his 
 classical attainments, and still more by his 
 poetical satires. He was born at Balingcn, 
 in the duchy of Wirtemburg, in 1547 ; stu- 
 died at the university of Tubingen, where he 
 obtained a professorship at 20 years uf nge ; 
 and wrote a critical work, entitled " Strigil 
 Grummatica," which involved him in much 
 angry controversy. Having written an 
 abusive letter to the Duke of Wirtemburg, 
 for refusing to grant him some pecuniary 
 favour, he was arrested, and sent to the 
 prison of Aurach ; from which he attempted 
 to escape, but fell down a frightful precipice, 
 and was dashed to pieces. This hai)pened 
 in 1590. 
 
 FRISI, Paul, a mathematician and phi- 
 losopher, was born at Milan, in 1727 ; ob- 
 tained professorships in several colleges ; 
 and ultimately was placed by the govern- 
 
fro] 
 
 ^ ^c&) mm'tjcrj^al aSiosrajpTjj). 
 
 [PRT 
 
 ment at the head of the architectural de- 
 partment in the university of his native city. 
 He was the author of many useful treatises 
 on electricity, astronomy, hydraulics, &c. 
 Died, 1784. 
 
 FROBENIUS, or FROBEN, Johx, a 
 learned printer, was born at Ilammelburg, 
 in Franconia, in 14t;0. He established a 
 press at Basle, at wliich Erasmus, wJio was 
 his intimate friend, and lodged in his house, 
 had all his works printed. Died, 1527. 
 
 FROBISHER, Sir Martin, a celebrated 
 English navigator, was born near Doncaster, 
 Yorkshire, and brought up to a maritime 
 life. The discovery of a north-west passage 
 to the Indies excited his ambition ; and, 
 after many fruitless attempts to induce 
 merchants to favour his project, he was 
 enabled, by the ministers and courtiers of 
 queen Elizabeth, to fit out a private adven- 
 ture, consisting only of two small barks and 
 a pinnace. In tliis enterprise, he explored 
 various parts of the arctic coast, and en- 
 tering the strait which has ever since been 
 called by liis name, returned to England 
 with some black ore, which being supposed 
 to contain gold, induced queen Elizabeth to 
 patronise a second, and even a third voyage, 
 but all of them proved fruitless. In 158,5, 
 Frobisher accompanied Drake to the West 
 Indies ; and, at the defeat of the Spanish 
 Armada, was honoured with knighthood for 
 his bravery. In 1590 and 1592, he com- 
 manded squadrons successfully ag.ainst the 
 Spaniards ; and in 1594, being sent with 
 four sliips of war to the assistance of Henry 
 IV. of France, he was wounded in attack- 
 ing fort Croyzan, near Brest, and died on 
 his return home. 
 
 FROISSART, John, an early French 
 chronicler and poet, was born at Valen- 
 ciennes, in 1337. He was originally destined 
 for the church ; but liis inclination for 
 poetry was soon apparent, and was accom- 
 panied by a great passion for the fair sex, 
 and a fondness for feasts and gallantry. In 
 order to divert liis mind from the chagrin 
 attendant on an unsuccessful love-suit, or, 
 what is more likely, a desire to learn from 
 their own mouths the achievements of his 
 cotemporary warriors, induced him to travel; 
 and he visited England, where he was kindly 
 patronised by Philippa of Hainault, queen 
 of Edward III., whose court was always 
 open to the gay poet and narrator of chival- 
 ric deeds. In 13t>6 he accompanied Edward 
 the Black Prince to Aquitaine and Bour- 
 deaux. On the death of his protectress, 
 Philippa, Froissart gave up all connection 
 with England ; and, after many adventures 
 as a diplomatist and soldier, he became 
 domestic chaplain to the Duke of Brabant, 
 who was a poet as well as himself, and of 
 whose verses, united with some of his own, 
 he formed a kind of romance, called " Me- 
 liador." On the duke's death, in 1384, he 
 entered the service of Guy, count of Blois, 
 who induced him to continue his chronicles. 
 He paid another visit to England in 1395, 
 and was introduced to Richard II., but on 
 the dethronement of this prince he returned 
 to Flanders, where he died, in 1401. His 
 historical writings strikingly exhibit the 
 character and manners of his age, and are 
 
 322 
 
 highly valuable for their simplicity and 
 minuteness. 
 
 FRONTINUS, Sextus Jrnus, a Roman 
 autlior, of a patrician family. He was 
 thrice consul, and commanded the Roman 
 army in England as pro-consul. He died 
 in the reign of Trajan, early in the 2nd 
 century. 
 
 FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, an orator 
 and teacher of eloquence at Rome. He was 
 a native of Crete, and received his education 
 at Cirta, a Roman colony in Numidia. He 
 lived in the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and 
 Lucius Verus, both of whom he instructed 
 in oratory, and the former in ethics. AH 
 his works, except a few grammatical frag- 
 ments, were supposed to have been lost, till 
 so lately as 1815, wlien Angelo Maio, libra- 
 rian of the Ambrose library at Milan, found 
 several, and then first published them. A 
 critical edition of his works, by Niebulir, 
 was published in 1816. 
 
 FRUGONI, Charles Innocent, a cele- 
 brated Italian poet, born at Genoa, in 1692. 
 He originally belonged to one of the mo- 
 nastic orders, but obtained leave to quit it, 
 settled at Parma, {ind was appointed court 
 poet. He was a fertile and elegant writer, 
 and his works include almost every variety 
 of poetical composition. Died, 1768. 
 
 FRUMENTIUS, St., usually called the 
 Apostle of Ethiopia, was a native of Tyre, 
 flourished in tlie 4th century, and estab- 
 lished numerous churches tliroughout the 
 empire. 
 
 FRY, Mrs. Elizabeth, whose active ex- 
 ertions and pious zeal in administering 
 to the moral and spiritual wants of the 
 wretched will hand down her name to pos- 
 terity as a benefactor of mankind, was the 
 wife of Joseph Fry, esq., of Upton, Essex, 
 and sister to Joseph Gurney, esq., of Earl- 
 ham Hall, near Norwich ; also sister to Lady 
 Buxton, widow of Sir Fowell Buxton. Mrs. 
 Fry has been emphatically called " the 
 female Howard ; " and although she did not 
 confine her sphere of observation to the un- 
 happy inmates of the prison alone, but dis- 
 pensed her blessings to the poor and helpless 
 wherever found, her main object through 
 life was the alleviation of the sorrows of the 
 captive. " She took the gauge of misery, not 
 as a matter of curiosity and philosophical 
 speculation, but with the hope of relieving it. 
 The lips that had been seldom opened but 
 to blaspheme their Maker, were taught to 
 praise him ; the hands hitherto employed 
 in theft were employed in honest labour. 
 Infants, in a doubly- lamented sense, born 
 in sin and bred in vice, were snatched from 
 a destruction which had appeared inevitable, 
 and put into a train of improvement. The 
 gloomy mansion, which had lately been a 
 scene of horror only to be exceeded by those 
 more dreadful future mansions to which it 
 was conducting them, changed its face. The 
 loathsome prison, which had witnessed no- 
 thing but intoxication and idleness, and 
 heard no sounds but those of reviling and of 
 imprecation, gradually became a scene of 
 comparative decency, sobriety, and order." 
 Died, Oct. 12. 1845, aged 65. 
 
 FRYE, TuoMAS, an artist, bom in Ire- 
 land, in 1710. He ia said to have been th« 
 
fry] 
 
 ^ ^tlo mniiitv^Kl 3Bt0ffrai)lbS» 
 
 [fug 
 
 first manufacturer of porcelain in England, 
 but the heat of the furnaces having injured 
 his health, lie adopted the profession of a 
 portrait painter and mezzotiuto engraver. 
 Died, 1762. 
 
 FRYTH, John, a martyr to the Protest- 
 ant religion, in the reign of Henry VIII. He 
 was the son of an inn-keeper at Scvenoaks, 
 in Kent, and educated in King's College, 
 Cambridge. Thence he removed to Oxford, 
 where he became- acquainted with William 
 Tyndale, a zealous Lutheran, who converted 
 him to Lutherauism. Avowing his opinions 
 publicly, he was apprehended, examined, 
 and coi'-flued to his college. After under- 
 going various hardships, he was apprehended 
 for making proselytes, and sent to the Tower. 
 Refusing to recant, he waa burnt in Smith- 
 field. July 4. 153a. 
 
 FUCA, Juan de, whose real name was 
 Apostolos Valerianos, was a native of Ce- 
 phalonia, and died at Zante, in 1632. For 
 upwards of forty years he acted as a pilot 
 in the Spanish American possessions ; and, 
 in 1592, he was sent i)y the viceroy of Mexico 
 to explore the west coast of North America 
 for an inlet which might lead to a commu- 
 nication with the Atlantic. But the account 
 of his discovery was mingled with such 
 romantic tales, that it remained disbelieved 
 in modem times, until the trading vessels 
 which frequent this coast, in the fur trade, 
 having approached the shore from which 
 Captain Cook had been driven by contrary 
 winds, discovered the inlet mentioned by 
 De Fuca between the 48th and 49th paral- 
 lels. This strait was thoroughly explored 
 by Vancouver, in 1792. 
 
 FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, Leovaiid, a Ba- 
 varian physician and botanist, was born in 
 1501, at VVembdingen, and educated at In- 
 goldstadt. He settled at Tubingen, where 
 he practised for 35 years, and was ennobled 
 by the emperor Charles V. Besides works 
 on medicine and anatomy, he was the author 
 of " Historia Plantarum," and his name has 
 been perpetuated by being applied to a genus 
 of plants, of which the scarlet fuchsia is a 
 well-known species. 
 
 FUCHS, Theophilus, a German poet, 
 born at I^eppersdorf, in Upper Saxony, was 
 the son of a poor peasant, whose labours he 
 shared till he was 18. He afterwards stu- 
 died theology at Leipsic, became a country 
 clergyman, and wrote many lyrical pieces. 
 Died about 1810. 
 
 FUENTES, Don Pedro HEireiQnEZ 
 d'Azevkdo, Count of, a Spanish general and 
 statesman, born at Valladolid, in 1.560. He 
 served his first campaign in Portugal, under 
 the Duke of Alva, and greatly distinguished 
 himself ; as he also did in the Low Coun- 
 tries, under Alexander Farnese. lie was 
 afterwards sent on important embassies to 
 foreign courts. In the reign of Philip III. 
 he was made governor of Milan, and ren- 
 dered himself formidable to the Italian 
 states, by causing them to feel the superi- 
 ority of the Spanish power. In 1643, when 
 Spain wished to take advantage of the death 
 of Louis XIII., and the minority of his suc- 
 cessor, Fuentes, then 82 years of age, was 
 sent with an army into Champagne. He 
 laid siege to Rocroy ; but the young and 
 
 brave Duke d'Enghien (afterwards the great 
 Conde) attacked the besiegers with inferior 
 forces, and, falling with his cavalry upon 
 the Spanisli infantry, destroyed nearly the 
 whole army. The old general, who at the 
 time was severely afflicted with the gout, 
 caused himself to be carried, in a chair, 
 into the midst of the fight, and there pe- 
 rished by the sword. 
 
 FUESSLI, JoHx Gaspard, a Swiss artist, 
 born at Zurich, in 1706 ; author of a " His- 
 tory of the Artists of Switzerland," in 5 
 vols. &c. He died in 1781, leaving three 
 sons : — RoPOLi'H, afterwards librarian to the 
 emperor of Germany ; Henry, the eminent 
 painter, better known by the name of 
 FusELi [which see] ; and Caspar, a skilful 
 entomologist, who resided at Leipsic, and 
 published several works on his iavourite 
 science. 
 
 FUGER, Frederic Henry, an eminent 
 painter, and director of tlie imperial picture- 
 gallery in Belvidere, at Vienna, was born at 
 Heilbron, in 1751. He began by painting 
 miniatures while a mere child; but as he 
 grew up, his passion for historical subjects 
 led him to emulate the great masters in that 
 branch of the art. In 1774 he went to 
 Vienna, and w;is sent as a pensioner to 
 Rome by the empress Maria Theresa. After 
 a diligent study of seven years there, he 
 went to Naples, and resided two years in 
 the house of the imperial ambassador. Count 
 Von Laml)erg. where he had a fine oppor- 
 tunity of exerting his talents. On his return 
 to Vienna in 1784, he was appointed vice- 
 director of the school of painting and sculj)- 
 ture at Vienna. He painted many large 
 portraits, miniatures, and historical pieces ; 
 some of which are highly esteemed. His 
 " St. John in the Wilderness," painted for 
 the imperial chapel, in 1804, is a master- 
 piece, and for it he received 1000 ducats. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 FUGGER. The name of a rich and noble 
 family, whose founder was John Fugger, a 
 weaver, residing in a small village near Augs- 
 burg. His eldest son, John, likewise a weaver, 
 obtained, by marriage, the rights of a citizen 
 of Augsburg, and carried on a linen trade 
 in that city, then an important commercial 
 place. He died in 1409. His eldest son, 
 Andrew, acquired such great wealth, that 
 he was called the rich Fugyer. He died 
 without issue; and his three nephews, Ulrich, 
 George, and James, married ladies of noble 
 families, and were raised to the rank of 
 nobles by the emperor Maximilian. Under 
 the emperor Charles V. this family rose to 
 its highest splendour. When Cliarles held 
 the memorable diet at Augsburg, in 1530, 
 he lived for a year and a day in Anthony 
 Fugger's splendid house near the wine 
 market. The emperor derived considerable 
 pecuniary aid from him, and in return raised 
 him and his brother Raimond to the dignity 
 of counts and bannerets, invested them with 
 the estates of Kirchberg and Weissenhom, 
 and granted them letters giving them 
 princely privileges, and the right of coining 
 money. Anthony left at his death 6.000.000 
 gold crowns, besides jewels and other valu- 
 able property, and possessions in all parts of 
 Europe and the Indies. It was of him that 
 
ful] 
 
 ^ ^ciB Mm'facr^aX 2St0flrap!)». 
 
 [ful 
 
 the emperor Charles, when viewing the 
 royal treasure at Paris, exclaimed, " There 
 is at Augsburg a linen weaver, who could 
 pay as much as this with his own gold." 
 And it was he also who did one of the most 
 graceful and princely courtesies on record, 
 as the following anecdote will show : — When 
 Charles V. returned from Tunis, and paid 
 Anthony a visit, the latter produced the em- 
 peror's bond for an immense sum of money 
 with which he had supplied him ; and on a 
 fire made of cinnamon wood which had 
 been lighted in the hall, he nobly, though 
 somewhat ostentatiously, made a burnt- 
 oft'ering of it to his imperial visitor. " This 
 noble family," says the Mirror of Honour, 
 " contained, in live branches (1G19), 47 counts 
 and countesses, and, including the other 
 members, young and old, about as many 
 persons as the year has days." Even while 
 counts, they continued to pursue commerce, 
 and their wealth became such, that, in !)4 
 years, they bought real estate to the amount 
 of 941,«)0 florins, and in 1762 owned 2 coun- 
 ties, 6 lordships, and 57 other estates, besides 
 their houses aud lands in and around Augs- 
 burg. They had collections of rich treasures 
 of art and rare books. Painters and musi- 
 cians were supported, and the arts and 
 sciences were liberally patronised by them. 
 Their gardens and buildings displayed good 
 taste, and they entertained their guests with 
 regal magnificence. But while the industry, 
 the prudence, the honours, and the influence 
 of the Fugger family is mentioned, we ouglit 
 also to state that these were equalled only 
 by their unbounded charity and tlieir zeal 
 to do good. In acts of private benevolence, 
 and in the foundation of hospitals, schools, 
 and charitable institutions, they were un- 
 rivalled. 
 
 FTJLDA, Charles Frederic, a Protestant 
 divine, born at Wimpfen, in 1722 ; author of 
 several learned treatises, viz. " On the 
 Goths," " On the Cimbri," " On the Ancient 
 German Mythology," &c. Died, 1788. 
 
 FULLER, Thomas, an eminent historian 
 and divine of the church of England, in the 
 17th century, was born at Aldwinkle, North- 
 amptonshire, in 1008, and educated at Queen's 
 College, Cambridge. His first clerical ap- 
 pointment was that of minister of St. Ben- 
 net's parish, Cambridge, where he acquired 
 great popularity as a preacher. He was 
 afterwards collated to a prebend in Salisbury 
 Cathedral, and obtained the rectory of Broad 
 Winsor, Dorsetshire. His first literary pro- 
 duction was entitled "David's heinous Sin, 
 hearty Repentance, and heavy Punishment." 
 In 1(540 he published his "History of the 
 Holy War ; " soon after which he removed 
 to London, and was chosen lecturer at the 
 Savoy church, in the Strand. On the de- 
 parture of Charles I. from London, previously 
 to the commencement of hostilities. Fuller 
 delivered a sermon at Westminster Abbey, 
 ou the anniversary of his majesty's inaugur- 
 ation in 1642, from 2 Samuel, xix. 30 " Yea, 
 
 let them take all, so that my lord the king 
 return in peace ; " which greatly offended the 
 popular leaders of the day, and endangered 
 the safety of the preacher. About this time 
 he published his " Holy State." In 1643 he 
 went to Oxford, and joined the king, became 
 
 chaplain to Sir Ralph Ilopton, and employed 
 his leisure in making collections relative to 
 English history and antiquities. In 1650 
 appeared his " Pisgah Sight of Palestine," 
 and liis " Abel Redivivus ; " but it was not 
 till after his death that his principal literary 
 work was published, entitled " The Wor- 
 thies of England" — a production valuable 
 alike for'the solid information it affords re- 
 lative to the provincial history of the country, 
 and for the profusion of biographical anec- 
 dote and acute observation on men and 
 manners. In 1648, he obtained the living of 
 Waltham, in Essex, which in 1658 he quitted 
 for that of Cranford, in Middlesex ; and at 
 the Restoration he was reinstated in his 
 prebend of Salisbury, of which he had been 
 deprived by the parliamentarians. He was 
 also made D. D. and chaplain to the king. 
 Dr. Fuller's writings possess much learning, 
 wit, and humour, with an elaborate display 
 of quaint conceit — a quality highly esteemed 
 at the time he wrote, aud one which appears 
 quite natural to him. Many extraordinary 
 stories are told respecting his prodigiously 
 retentive memory, which we omit ; but the 
 following punning anecdote, old as it is, and 
 tliough not strictly biographical, we take the 
 liberty of here introducing. The " worthy " 
 Dr. Fuller was, it seems, an inveterate pun- 
 ster ; but once attempting to play off a joke 
 upon a gentleman named Sparrowhawk, he 
 met with the following retort : — " What is 
 the difference," said the Dr. (who was very 
 corpulent), " between an owl and a sparrow- 
 hawk ? " " It is," replied the other, " fuller 
 in the head, fuller in the body, and fuller all 
 over." 
 
 FULLER, Andrew, an eminent Baptist 
 minister, and secretary to the Baptist Mis- 
 sionary Society, was born at Wicken, in Cam- 
 bridgeshire, in 1754. His father was a small 
 farmer, who gave his son the rudiments of 
 education at tlie free school of Soham ; aud 
 though principally engaged in the labours of 
 husbandry till he was of age, yet he studied 
 so diligently, that in 1775 he became, on 
 invitation, the pastor of a congregation, first 
 at Soham, and afterwards at Kettering. In 
 the establishment of the Baptist Missionary 
 Society, by Dr. Carey and others, Mr. Fuller 
 exerted himself with great energy, and the 
 whole of his future life was identified with 
 its labours. He was also an able controver- 
 sialist. His principal works are, a treatise 
 " On the Calvinistic and Socinian Systems 
 compared as to their Moral Tendency," " So- 
 cinianism Indefensible," " The Gospel its 
 own Witness," " Discourses ou the Book of 
 Genesis," &c. Died, 1815. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, an American engineer 
 and projector, of considerable celebrity, was 
 born in Little Britain, Pennsylvania, in 1765. 
 Having acquired some knowledge of portrait 
 and landscape painting, he came to England, 
 and studied under his distinguished country- 
 man. West, witli whom he continued an in- 
 mate several years ; and, after quitting him, 
 he made painting his chief employment for 
 some time. He afterwards formed an ac- 
 quaintance with another fellow-countryman, 
 named Rumsey, who was well-skilled in 
 mechanics, and hence he ultimately adopted 
 the profession of a civil engineer. He also 
 
 1 
 
fun] 
 
 ^ ^fiu Unihtv^al %iatp:K^\)ij, 
 
 [fus 
 
 became acquainted with the Duke of Bridge- 
 water, 8o famous for his canals, and with 
 Earl Stanhope, a nobleman celebrated for his 
 attachment to the mechanic arts. In 170(5, 
 he published a treatise on " Inland Naviga- 
 tion ; " and after making public some clever 
 inventions and useful contrivances, in spin- 
 nin;?, sawing, &c. Mr. Fulton went, in 17'J7, 
 to Paris, where he lived seven years, and 
 studied the higher mathematics, physics, 
 chemistry, and perspective. It was there, in 
 18(K), that he projected the first panorama ever 
 exhibited ; and there also that he perfected 
 the plan for his submarine boat, or torpedo. 
 Returning to America in 1800, he imme- 
 diately engaged in building a steam-boat, of 
 what was then deemed very considerable di- 
 mensions, and which began to navigate the 
 Hudson river in 1807, its progress tlirough 
 the water being at the rate of five miles an 
 hour. He had meditated on this experiment 
 since 1793, and was the first who applied 
 water-wheels to the purpose of steam-navi- 
 gation; and though he claimed the invention, 
 lie certainly was not the real inventor — tliat 
 credit being due to Mr. Miller, of Dalswinton, 
 Dumfries-shire. [See the Scots Magazine, 
 for Nov. 1788.] It is said that vexation at 
 being denied the merit of this discovery, and 
 prevented from deriving the whole benefit 
 of it, preyed on his mind, and hastened liis 
 death. 
 
 FUNES, Gregorio, a patriot of La Plata, 
 in South America. He was dean of the ca- 
 thedral church of Cordova, in which station 
 he employed all his influence in support of 
 the revolution. In 1810 he was sent as a 
 deputy from Cordova to the congress of 
 Buenos Ayres, and on various subsequent 
 occasions he took a prominent part in the 
 political transactions of his country, lie 
 was also distinguished as an historical writer, 
 especially by his " Essays de la Historia Civil 
 del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, y Tucumau." 
 Died, 1829. 
 
 FURETIERE, Axtiioxy, abbot of Cha- 
 livoy, was a French philologist, born in 1620. 
 He distinguished himself by various literary 
 productions, and was a member of the French 
 academy, but was expelled from it on a 
 charge of having pillaged the unpublished 
 lexicographical labours of his colleagues to 
 enrich a dictionary of his own ; and his ex- 
 pulsion gave rise to a virulent paper war 
 between him and his former associates. Be- 
 sides this "Dictionary," which served as the 
 basis of the " Dictiunnaire de Trevoux," he 
 published" Gospel Parables," " Five Satires," 
 " I^ Roman Bourgeois," &c. Died, 1083. 
 
 FURIETTI, Joseph Alexaxdeu, a car- 
 dinal, born at Bergamo, in 1085 ; author of 
 a treatise on the mosaic art of painting. 
 Died, 1704. 
 
 FUIIIUS, Frederic, sumamed Coriola- 
 nus, was a learned Spaniard, whom the em- 
 peror Charles V. sent into the Netherlands, 
 and placed with his son Philip, who made 
 him his historian, and with whom he re- 
 mained during his life. He wrote some es- 
 teemed works, and died in 1592. 
 
 FURNEAUX, PiiiLir, a Nonconformist 
 divine, born at Totuess, Devon, in 1726. In 
 17.>5 he was appointed pastor of the congre- 
 gation at Clapliom, where he continued till 
 
 325 
 
 1777, when he retired in consequence of an 
 illness, which ended in mental derangement, 
 and he died in 1783. He was the author of 
 " An Essay on Toleration." 
 
 FURST, Walter, was a native of Altorf, 
 Switzerland, by whose means, aided by the 
 heroic William Tell and Arnold of Melcthal, 
 the liberty of liis country was established, in 
 1307. 
 
 FURSTEMBERG, Ferdinand de,, an 
 eminent prelate, born at Bilstern, in West- 
 phalia, in 1(!20. He was raised to the bishop- 
 ric of Paderbom in 1061, by pope Alexander 
 VII., who afterwards made him apostolical 
 vicar of all the north of Europe. He collected 
 a number of MSS. and other monuments of 
 antiquity, and published them under the title 
 of " Monumenta Paderbornensia : " he also 
 published a valuable collection of Latin 
 poems. Died, 1083. 
 
 FUTRADO, Abraham, a French Jew, 
 who was one of the leading members of 
 the Sanhedrim, convoked by Buonaparte in 
 1808, at Paris. He wrote several works, and 
 is said to have possessed great eloquence. 
 Bom. 17.'')9 ; died, 1817. 
 
 FUSELI, Henry, or FUESSLI, the more 
 correct way of spelling the family name, was 
 the second son of Gaspard Fuessli, and born 
 at Zurich, about 1739. He was originally in- 
 tended for the church ; but he had employed 
 Itimself, while under his father's roof, in 
 making copies from the works of Michael 
 Angelo and Raphael, and this had inspired 
 him with an insurmountable desire to devote 
 himself to the profession. While at the 
 Humanity College, in Zurich, he formed an 
 intimate friendship with the celebrated La- 
 va ter, and became enamoured with literature. 
 He studied English, read the be.^t authors in 
 that language, and translated the tragedy of 
 Macbeth into German. In 1703, Fuseli came 
 to England ; he was then in his 22nd year ; 
 and on his showing his specimens of painting 
 to Sir Joshua Reynolds, the latter expressed 
 himself in terms of high commendation, and 
 advised him to go to Rome. This he did ; 
 and after eight years spent in studying the 
 Italian masters, he returned to England. 
 Having suggested to Alderman Boydell tlic 
 idea of forming his " Shakspeare Gallery," 
 for which he painted eight of his best pic- 
 tures, that splendid design was accordingly 
 executed. In 1790, Fuseli became a royal 
 academician; and during the next nine years 
 he painted a series of 47 pictures, afterwards 
 exhibited as the " Milton Gallery." In 1799 
 he was appointed professor of painting, and, j 
 in 1804, keeper of the Royal Academy. Fu- 
 seli was an excellent scholar, and enjoyed 
 the friendship of his most eminent literary 
 cotcmporaries. His imagination was lofty 
 and exuberant ; but, in aspiring to the sub- I 
 lime, which he often reached, he occasionally j 
 fell into extravagance and distortion. His 
 anatomical knowledge was extensive ; and ! 
 so predominant is it in some of his paintings, | 
 that while admiring the grandeur of his con- | 
 ceptions, the thoughts of the spectator are 
 involuntarily carried to the dissecting-room. 
 Fuseli experienced the unchanged attach- 
 ment of the late Mr. Coutts, the banker, who 
 was on all occasions his sincere and generous 
 friend ; and the artist was on a visit to Lady 
 
res] 
 
 ^ !Jl?c&) 2Entbtr^aI 23totjr«P^S. 
 
 [gad 
 
 Guildford, when he was seized with his short, 
 but fatal illness ; and he died at lier house, 
 Putney Hill, on the 16th of April, 1825. in 
 the 84th year of his age. 
 
 I'USS, Nicholas xo's, a distinguished 
 mathematician and natural philosopher, 
 born at Basle, in 175.5. He first studied 
 under Bernouilli, then professor of mathe- 
 matics at the university of that place, who 
 procured him a situation, when he was 17, 
 with his friend, the celebrated Euler, at St. 
 Petersburgh, who wished to obtain a young 
 man of talent in the prosecution of his phi- 
 losophical inquiries. Here he soon obtained 
 distinction and preferment. In 1770 he was 
 appointed adjunct of the Academy of Sciences 
 for the higher mathematics. In 1784, Ca- 
 tharine II. gave him a professorship in the 
 corps of noble land cadets ; and in 1792 he 
 was appointed secretary to the free econo- 
 mical society. In 1800 he was raised to the 
 dignity of a counsellor of state ; in 1805 he 
 was constituted one of the council for the 
 organisation of military schools ; and, con- 
 tinuing to advance tiie interests of science in 
 the various honourable stations to which he 
 was promoted, he was rewarded with the 
 order of Vladimir and a pension. He was a 
 regular contributor to the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh during 
 a period of 50 years, and published various 
 works, chiefly on mathematics and astro- 
 nomy. Died, 1826. 
 
 rUX, John JosEre, a celebrated musical 
 composer during the reigns of the emperors 
 Leopold I., Joseph I., and Charles VI., was 
 born in Styria, about the year 1660, and held 
 the office of imperial chapel-master for about 
 40 years. He composed several operas, and 
 had great influence on the musical taste of 
 his time. His Musical Gradus and some of 
 his sacred pieces are still highly esteemed. 
 Died, UM. 
 
 FUZELIER, Louis, a French dramatic 
 poet ; born, 1672 ; died, 1752. He wrote a 
 number of operas, light comedies, and other 
 theatrical piece.^, some of which are still 
 occasionallv performed. 
 
 FYOT DE LA MARCHE, Claitde, Count 
 de Bosjan, nlmoner to Louis XIV., and an 
 honorary counsellor of the parliament of 
 Dijon, was born in 1630, and died in 1721. 
 lie was abbot of the collegiate church of 
 St. Stephen, at Dijon, of which abbey he 
 wrote a history, and founded and endowed a 
 seminary for the education of young ecclesi- 
 astics there. 
 
 FYT, Joiix, a Dutch painter, born at 
 Antwerp, iu 1625. His pencil was so prolific, 
 that almost every important collection of 
 paintings has some of his productions. His [ 
 subjects are chiefly game, beasts, birds, fruit, j 
 and flowers ; and they are remarkable for 
 their fidelity to nature in the drawing, and 
 for their rich and glowing colours. The year 
 of his death is unknown. 
 
 G. 
 
 G ABBI ANI, AxTONY Domimc, an Italian 
 painter ; born at Florence in 1652, and ac- 
 cidentally killed by falling from a scatt"old, 
 while employed in painting the large cupola 
 of Castello, in 1726. 
 
 GABRIEL, Severus, a Greek bishop in 
 the 16th century, born at Monembasia in the 
 Peloponnesus. He was consecrated bishop 
 of Philadelphia, and was afterwards bishop 
 of the Greek church at Venice. 
 
 GABRIEL, SiosiT.4, a learned Maronite, 
 and professor of the Oriental languages at 
 Rome and at Paris, where he died in 1648. He 
 assisted Le Jay in his Polyglot Bible, and 
 published a translation of the Arabic geo- 
 graphy, with the title of " Geographia Nu- 
 biensis." 
 
 GABRIELLI, Julio, a Catholic prelate 
 and a cardinal, who held the office of pro- 
 secretary of the holy see, during the period 
 of discussion between the pope and Buona- 
 parte, and was driven into exile by the latter. 
 He returned to Rome in 1814, and attained 
 his 74th year, dying in 1822. An interesting 
 account of the proceedings, which were con- 
 ducted by Cardinal Gabrielli, are to be found 
 in " Correspondance authentique de la Cour 
 de Rome avec la France." 
 
 GACON, Francis, a French satirist, who 
 wrote against Eossuet, Rousseau, and Le 
 Motte. He was born at Lyons, in 1666, and 
 became a priest of the Oratory ; gained the 
 
 prize for poetry of the academy in 1717, and 
 died at his priory of Baillon in 172.5. 
 
 GADBURY, John, an astrologer, who, in 
 the latter part of the 17th century, attracted 
 considerable notice. He was originally a 
 tailor ; afterwards became an assistant to 
 Lilly the fortune-teller (the Sidrophel of 
 Butler) ; and, like his master, he published 
 astrological almanacs and other works of a 
 similar description. He was a Roman Ca- 
 tholic, and having made some ambiguous 
 remarks iu his almanacs, he was taken up 
 as an accomplice of Titus Oates, but after- 
 wards liberated. He is said to have perished 
 by shipwreck, iu a voyage to Jamaica. 
 
 GADD, Peter Adrian, a Swedish chem- 
 ist and natural philosopher ; professor of 
 chemistry in the university of Abo, in 
 Finland. He wrote several treatises on 
 geology, &c. ; and died about the end of the 
 18th century. 
 
 GADDESDEN, John of, an English phy- 
 sician of high repute in the 14th century. 
 He was appointed physician to Edward III., 
 and was the first Englishman that held that 
 oflSce. He wrote a work on the practice of 
 physic, entitled " Rosa Anglica," which is 
 replete with absurdities and superstitious 
 ceremonies, proving how low medical science 
 in this country must have been at tliat time ; 
 yet it appears he was acquainted with the 
 mode of procuring fresh water from salt by 
 
gae] 
 
 ^ iSit\3i l^nibtv^Kl 38fosrap]^», 
 
 [OAL 
 
 distillation ; a process supposed to have been 
 a modem discovery. 
 
 GAELEN, Alexander vatt, a Dutch 
 painter, was born in 1C70, and died in 1728. 
 lie settled in London, and painted some 
 battle pieces, particularly one of the Boyne. 
 GAEKTNER, JosiiPU, an eminent Ger- 
 man naturalist, was born at Calu, in Suabia, 
 in 1732. Ilaving graduated in the uuivtrsity 
 of Gottingen, he travelled through a great 
 part of Europe in the pursuit of his botanical 
 studies. In 1759 he went to Leyden, where 
 he attended the botanical lectures, and ap- 
 plied himself to vegetable anatomy. With 
 this view he visited England, and commu- 
 nicated some interesting papers to the Plxi- 
 losophical Transactions. In 17C8 he went 
 to Petersburgh, and was appointed professor 
 of botany and natural Iiistory. After fllling 
 that place with great credit, and exploring 
 the Ukraine for botanical discoveries, he 
 returned to liis native place in 1770. Died, 
 1791. 
 
 GAFFARELLI, James, a French vriteT, 
 who applied himself to tlie study of the lie- 
 brew language and rabbinical learning, was 
 born at Maunes, in Provence, about 1001. 
 lie adopted the doctrines of the Cabala, in 
 defence of which he wrote a quarto volume 
 in Latin. He became librarian to Cardinal 
 llichelieu, who gave him several preferments, 
 lie died at Sigonce, of which place he waa 
 then abbot, in 16«i. Besides the above, he 
 wrote a book, entitled " Unheard-of Curi- 
 osities concerning the Talismanic Sculpture 
 of the Persians, the Horoscope of the Patri- 
 archs, and the Reading of the Stars." 
 
 GAFURIO, Franchixo, an eminent Ita- 
 lian composer and professor of music, was 
 born at Lodi in 1451. He was in orders, and 
 l)ecame head of the choir in the cathedral of 
 Milan, where also he was appointed musical 
 professor. lie died about 1520. His works 
 are, " Theoricum Opus Musicae Disciplinae," 
 "Practica Musicaj utriusque Cantus," " An- 
 gelicum et Divinum Opus Musicae," " De 
 Harmonica Musicorum Instrumentorum," 
 &c. UU works were highly esteemed at the 
 time, and his rules generally adopted. 
 
 GAGE, Thomas, a native of Ireland, who, 
 travelling into Spain, assumed the tonsure in 
 a convent of Dominican monks, whence he 
 was sent as a missionary to the Philippines, 
 in l(j2.5. lie contrived to amass a good pro- 
 perty during his journey ; and on his return 
 to Europe, he settled in England, abjured the 
 Romish religion, and obtained the living of 
 Deal, in Kent. In 1(551 he published "A 
 Survey of the West Indies." 
 
 GAGER, William, a dramatist of the 
 16th century, and vicar- general to the dio- 
 cese of Ely. His dramatic works are written 
 in Latin. 
 
 GAGNIER, Joiix, a celebrated orientalist, 
 was a native of Paris. He was bred a Ro- 
 man Catholic, entered into holy orders, and 
 became a canon in the church of St. Gene- 
 vieve ; but turned Protestant and settled in 
 England. He was patronised by Archbishop 
 Sharp and many other eminent persons, and 
 received the degree of M. A. at Cambridge 
 and Oxford. In 170(5 he published an edition 
 of Ben Gorion's History of the Jews, in He- 
 brew, with a Latin translation and notes. 
 
 In 1723 he edited Abulfeda's Life of Mo- 
 hammed, in Arabic, with a Latin translation 
 and notes, folio. He succeeded Dr. Wallis 
 in the Arabic professorship at Oxford ; and 
 died in 1740. 
 
 GAILLARD de LonjumeatJ, bishop of 
 Apt, in Provence, was the first who pro- 
 jected a universal historical dictionary, and 
 employed Moreri, who was his almoner, to 
 execute the work. Died, IfiOS. 
 
 GAILLARD, Gabriel Hknry, a French 
 historian, born at Ostel, near Soissons, in 
 1728, and died in 1806. He was the author 
 of" Histoire de Charlemagne," " Rhdtorique 
 Fran^oise," " Histoire de Francis I.," and 
 many other works of a similar character. 
 
 GAILLARD, Joii.v Ernest, a musical 
 composer of considerable merit, was born at 
 Zell, in 1087, and became a pupil of Farinclli. 
 He came over to England with George, 
 prince of Denmark, the husband of queen 
 Anne, qnd was appointed chapel-master to 
 the queen dowager. At that time the whole 
 musical world was occupied with the rivalry 
 between Handel and Buononcini, and Gail- 
 lard was glad to enter into an agreement 
 with Rich, the manager of the theatre in 
 Lincoln's Inn Fields, to compose the music 
 for his operatic and pantomimic entertain- 
 ments, some of which were very popular. 
 Died, 1749. 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH, Thomas, a celebrated 
 landscape painter, waa born at Sudbury, in 
 Sutfolk, in 1737. He was self-taught, and 
 used to entertain himself by drawing land- 
 scapes from nature, in the woods of his native 
 county. From Sudbury he came to London, 
 and commenced portrait painter, in which 
 line he acquired great eminence. His chief 
 excellence, however, was in landscape, in 
 wliich he united the brilliancy of Claude 
 with the precision and simplicity of Ruys- 
 dael. He was highly esteemed by Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, who bestowed on him a high but 
 well-merited compliment in one of his aca- 
 demical discourses. Died, 1788. 
 
 GALAS, Matthew, one of the greatest 
 generals of his time, was bom at Trent in 
 1589. He served in Italy and Germany, and 
 rendered eminent services to the emperor 
 Frederic II. and Philip IV. king of Spain. 
 He was deprived of the command, after being 
 defeated by the Swedes near Magdeburg, but 
 was restored, and died at Vienna in 1047. 
 
 GALATEO, Antonio, a learned phy- 
 sician, was descended from a Greek family, 
 and born, in 1444, at Galatino, in the terri- 
 tory of Otranto. He was appointed physi- 
 cian to the king of Naples, and died at 
 Leece, in his native province, in 1510. He 
 wrote "De Situ lapygiae," "De Situ Ele- 
 mentorum," " De Situ Terrarum," " Dc Marl 
 et Aquis," &c. 
 
 GALATIN, Peter, a Franciscan monk, 
 who flourished about 1530. He wrote "De 
 Arcanis Catholicaa Veritatis," a work of 
 considerable reputation. 
 
 GALBA, Sekvius SuLncius, emperor of 
 Rome, was descended from the ancient 
 family of Sulpicii. He was successively 
 praetor, proconsul of Africa, and general of 
 the Roman armies in Germany and Spain. 
 He retired to avoid the jealousy of Nero j 
 but the tyrant having issued an order for his 
 
 V» 
 
gal] 
 
 ^ ^ctn Winibtr^aX 23tagrajjTj». 
 
 [gal '' 
 
 death, Galba revolted against the emperor ; 
 and Gaul declaring for him, Nero put a 
 period to his own existence. Galba gave 
 himself up to the government of 3 obscure 
 men, whom the Komans called his school- 
 masters ; and he was slain by the prtEtorian 
 band, who proclaimed Otho in his stead, 
 A. D. 09. 
 
 GALE, John, an eminent Baptist divine, 
 was born in I^ondon, in 1C80. At the age of 
 17 he was sent to Leydeu, where he received 
 the degrees of master of arts and doctor of 
 philosoi)hy. The History of Infant Baptism 
 by Mr. Wall, published in 1705, attracting 
 his notice, he wrote a reply to it ; which, 
 however, did not appear till 1711. About 
 this time he was chosen minister of the 
 Baptist congregation in Barbican, where he 
 continued till his death, in 1721. His ser- 
 mons, in 4 volumes, were subsequently pub- 
 lished. 
 
 GALE, Theopiiilus, an eminent noncon- 
 formist divine, was born, in 1628, at King's 
 Teignton, in Devonshire, and in 1(547 entered 
 as a student of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 He commenced as a preacher at Winchester 
 to a congregation of Independents, from 
 which lie was ejected in consequence of tlie 
 act of uniformity, in lOGl. He then became 
 tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, with 
 whom he went to Caen in Normandy. In 
 1665 he returned to England, and was pastor 
 of a dissenting congregation, and master of 
 a seminary at Newington. He died in 1078. 
 He wrote many works, the principal of 
 which is his " Court of tlie Gentiles," 3 vols. 
 4to. ! in which he proves that the theology 
 and philosophy of the pagans were borrowed 
 from the scriptures. 
 
 GALE, Thomas, a learned English divine, 
 was born in 1630 at Scruton, in Yorkshire. 
 He was educated at Westminster School, 
 and elected to Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 of which he became fellow. In 1600 he was 
 chosen Greek professor, and in 1672 master 
 of St. Paul's School. In 1697 he was pro- 
 moted to the deanery of York, where he died 
 in 1702. He published a collection of tlie 
 Greek Mythologists, " Historise Poeticae 
 antiqui Scriptores GrjEcae et Latinos," " lle- 
 rodoti Halicarnassensis Historiarum," " Uis- 
 torise Britannicae, Saxonicas, Anglo-Danicse," 
 &c. Dr. Gale corresponded with some of the 
 most eminent scholars on the Continent, by 
 whom his abilities were highly esteemed. 
 
 GALE, Roger, the eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding. He published some valuable books, 
 the principal of which was an edition of his 
 father's Commentary on Antoninus. Died, 
 1744 — Samuel, his brother, was also eminent 
 for his knowledge of antiquities. Died, 1754. 
 
 GALEANO, JosEi'H, a physician of Pa- 
 lermo, was born in 1005, and died in 1675. 
 Besides several works on medical subjects, 
 he published a collection of the Sicilian 
 poets, in 6 vols. 
 
 GALEN, Christopher Bernhard vax, 
 the warlike bishop of Munster, first entered 
 the military service, which he afterwards left 
 for the church. In 1660 he was chosen prince- 
 bishop of Munster, but was obliged to besiege 
 the city on account of the opposition of the 
 citizens ; he, however, conquered it, and 
 built a citadel to secure his power. In 1604 
 
 he was appointed one of the leaders of the | 
 imperial army against the Turks in Hungary, j 
 He afterwards fought against the Dutch, first 
 in alliance witli England, and then with 
 France, taking from them several cities and 
 fortresses. After this he joined the Danes 
 against the Swedes, and made new conquests; 
 and in 1764 he formed an alliance with 
 Spain, and again gave battle to his old ene- 
 mies the Dutch. He was a man of extra- 
 ordinary enterprise, one of the greatest gene- 
 rals of his time, and an adroit diplomatist. 
 Died, 1678, aged 73. 
 
 GALEN, Claudhts, one of the most cele- 
 brated pliysicians of ancient times, was born 
 at Pergamus in Asia, in 131. After studying 
 philosophy and general literature, he tra- 
 velled though Egypt and other countries in 
 the East for the purpose of acquiring medical 
 and anatomical knowledge. On his return, 
 he practised 4 years in his native city, and 
 then went to Kome, but was driven from 
 thence by the intrigues of his jealous rivals, 
 who attributed his success to magic. From 
 Home he returned to Pergamus ; but was re- 
 called by an especial mandate of the emperor 
 Marcus Aurelius, who, on quitting Rome to 
 make war on tlie Germans, confided to Galen 
 tJie care of the health of his son Commodus. 
 The place.and time of his death are uncer- 
 tain ; but he is supposed to have died at 
 Rome, in about the 70th year of his age. A 
 part only of his very numerous writings has 
 been preserved ; but even that part forms 5 
 folio volumes, and afltords undoubted proofs 
 of his practical and tlieoretical skill. 
 
 GALERIUS, Caius Valerius Maximi- 
 anus, a Roman emperor. Entering tlie 
 army as a common soldier, he rose to the 
 highest ranks by his bravery, and was 
 adopted by Dioclesian, who gave hira his 
 daughter in marriage. He ascended the 
 imperial throne in 305, and died in 311. He 
 was naturally of a cruel disposition, and 
 during his reign the Cliristians suffered great 
 persecution. 
 
 GALILEI, Galileo, an illustrious astro- 
 nomer, mathematician, and philosopher, was 
 the son of a Florentine nobleman, and born 
 at Pisa, in 1504. He was intended by his 
 father for the medical profession ; but his 
 love for mathematical studies was so deci- 
 dedly evinced, and his aversion for the other 
 so strong, that he was allowed to pursue >he 
 former, which he did with such unwearied 
 diligence, that at the age of 24 he was ap- 
 pointed mathematical professor at Pisa. 
 There he was constantly engaged in asserting 
 the laws of nature against the Aristotelian 
 philosophy, which raised up such a host of 
 enemies against him, that, in 1592, he was 
 obliged to resign his professorship. He then 
 went to Padua, where he lectured with un- 
 paralleled success, and students flocked to 
 hear him from all parts of Europe. After 
 remaining there 18 years, Cosmo III. invited 
 him back to Pisa, and soon after called him 
 to Florence, with the title of principal ma- 
 thematician and philosopher to the grand 
 duke. Galileo had heard of the invention 
 of the telescope by Jansen ; and making one 
 for himself, a series of most important as- 
 tronomical discoveries followed. He found 
 that the moon, like the earth, has an uneven 
 
gal] 
 
 ^ i^efio ©IntbcriEfal 2SiOfli*apT)e» 
 
 [gal 
 
 surface ; and he taught liis scholars to mea- 
 sure the height of its mountains by their 
 shadow. A particular nebula he resolved 
 into individual stars ; but his most remark- 
 able discoveries were Jupiter's satellites, 
 Saturn's ring, the sun's spots, and the starry 
 nature of the milky way. The result of his 
 discoveries was his decided conviction of the 
 truth of the Copernicau system ; though the 
 blind and furious bigotry of the monks 
 charged him with heresy for it, and he was 
 twice persecuted by the Inquisition, first in 
 1015, and again in 1633. On both occasions 
 he was compelled to abjure the system of 
 Copernicus ; but it is said, that in tlie last 
 instance, when he had repeated the abjura- 
 tion, he stamped his foot on the earth, indig- 
 nantly muttering, " yet it moves 1 " The 
 latter years of his life were spent at his own 
 country-house near Florence, where he de- 
 voted himself to the perfecting of his tele- 
 scope ; and he died, at the age of 78, in 1G42, 
 the year in which Newton was born. 
 
 GALL, Joiix JosBru, the celebrated 
 phrenologist, was born, in 1758, at Teifen- 
 brunn, Wirtemburg. He studied medicine 
 under Professor Shermann, and settled in 
 Vienna, where he attracted much attention 
 by his " Anatomical and Physiological In- 
 quiries respecting the Brain and Nerves," on 
 accoimt of the principles it contained, that 
 certain talents and tendencies depend on the 
 formation of certain parts of the head, — that, 
 in fact, each faculty of the mind has a se- 
 parate organ in the brain, and that those 
 organs are marked externally by elevations 
 or protuberances on the cranium. lie after- 
 wards travelled through the north of Ger- 
 many, Sweden, and Denmark, delivering 
 lectures ; and, in 1807, established himself in 
 Paris, thinking France the most likely part 
 in wliich to circulate his doctrines. Prince 
 Metternich consulted him m his physician, 
 and, in 1810, guaranteed the expense of pub- 
 lishing the work of Gall and Spurzheim on 
 phrenology. Dr. Gall died at Paris in 1828. 
 He directed that no clergyman should attend 
 his funeral, and that his head should t>e 
 dissected and placed iu the museum he had 
 collected. 
 
 G ALLAND, Antuony, an able orientalist, 
 was born, in 1(540, at RoUot, in Picardy. He 
 was employed to travel on account of the 
 French government ; and his zeal and in- 
 dustry are evinced by several treatises, wliich 
 he published on his return, illustrative of the 
 manners and customs of the Mohammedan 
 empire and religion. He is now principally 
 known by his " Mille-et-un Nuits," a curious 
 collection of eastern romances, translated 
 into all the languages of Europe, and known 
 to us as the " Arabian Nights' Entertain- 
 ments." Galland was Arabic professor to 
 the college of France, and antiquary to the 
 king. Died, 1715. 
 
 GALLI ANI, Ferdixand, an Italian abb^, 
 celebrated for his writings, was born at 
 Chieti, in the province of Abruzzo, Naples, 
 in 1728. He made a rapid progress in his 
 studies, and was no less remarkable for 
 playful wit than for more solid acquirements. 
 Having made a collection of specimens of 
 the various volcanic productions of Vesuvius, 
 he sent them to the pope in a box, thus la- 
 
 belled, " Beatissime Pater fac ut lapides isti 
 panes fiant " — " Holy Father, command that 
 these stones be made bread," which the pope 
 virtually attended to by giving him the 
 canonry of Amalfl, worth 400 ducats per 
 annum. One of his earliest productions was 
 a volume written on the death of the public 
 executioner, in order to ridicule the academi- 
 cal custom of pouring forth lamentations, in 
 prose and verse, on the death of great per- 
 sonages. In 1759 he was appointed secretary 
 to the French embassy, and soon took a lead 
 among the wits and literati in Paris. He 
 wrote a number of able works ; among which 
 are a " Treatise on Money," " Annotations 
 upon Horace," " Dialogues on the Corn 
 Trade," " On the Reciprocal Duties of Neu- 
 tral and Belligerent Princes," &c. He held 
 several important offices under the Nea- 
 politan government, and died, greatly es- 
 teemed, in 1787. 
 
 GiVI^LIENUS, PuBLius LiciNius, a Ro- 
 man emperor, who reigned in conjunction 
 with Valerian, his father, for seven years, 
 and became sole ruler in 2ijO. Iu his youth 
 he gave fair promise to become an excellent 
 sovereign, but he grew indolent and sen- 
 sual ; and was at length assassinated, at 
 Milan, in 208. 
 
 GALLOIS, John, a French critic of the 
 17th century, celebrated for the univer- 
 sality of his knowledge. He was one of the 
 projectors of the "Journal des Savans," 
 and its conductor for many years. Died, 
 1707. 
 
 GALLOWAY BEY, second son of Alex. 
 Galloway, esq., engineer of London. This 
 young man had devoted his talents and 
 energies in the service of the pacha of Egypt, 
 whose chief engineer he had been for 12 
 years ; and in reward for his services, and as 
 a high token of his esteem, the pacha was 
 pleased to confer on him, in 1824, the title 
 of l>ey. Died, July, 18;J0. 
 
 GALLUS, Caius Vibius Trkboniaxus, 
 emperor of Rome, was an African by birth ; 
 but holding a command in Mojsia, under 
 Decius, at the time that monarch was slain 
 in a battle with the Goths, he was pro- 
 claimed emperor by the army, in 251. He 
 proved unworthy of his station, and he fell 
 by assassination in 253. 
 
 GALLUS, CoKNELius, a Roman poet, 
 was born, b. c. 70, at Forum Julii, and was 
 intimate with Virgil, whose tenth eclogue 
 is inscribed to him. He was employed by 
 Augustus in his war with Antony, and re- 
 warded for his services with the government 
 of Egypt. He was there guilty of excessive 
 tyranny ; and being charged with peculation 
 and conspiracy, he was condemned to exile ; 
 upon which he committed suicide, aged 42. 
 His works are lost. 
 
 G^VLT, John, a voluminous author on a 
 great variety of subjects, but chiefly known 
 as a novelist, was born in Ayrshire, 1779. 
 The scene of his novels is in general laid in 
 Scotland, and his intimate acquaintance with 
 every light and shadow of Scottish life, 
 makes them really important to all who 
 would know Scotland — especially the Scot- 
 land of middle and lower life — as it really 
 is. The list of his works is formidably long: 
 perhaps the licst of them arc, " The Entail, ' 
 
gal] 
 
 ^ i9e&3 Winibtr^Kl 3St0ffraj>f)t)» 
 
 [gan 
 
 *' The Annals of the Parish," " The Ayrshire 
 Legatees," and " Kingan Gilhaize." Inde- 
 pendent of his numerous novels, he pub- 
 lished tragedies, minor poems, voyages, and 
 travels, and several biographies. He was for 
 some time editor ©f the Courier newspaper, 
 and it is asserted that he gave up that ap- 
 pointment rather than allow the insertion, 
 though at the request of a minister, of an 
 article whicli he considered objectionable. 
 For several years previous to his death he 
 suffered very severely from paralysis of the 
 limbs. Died, 1839. 
 
 GALUPPI, Baldessaeo, a distinguished 
 composer, was born near Venice, in 1703. 
 His operas, about 50 in number, are almost 
 all of the comic kind, and had, at one time, 
 the chief run throughout Italy. He died 
 in 1785. 
 
 GALVAM, Antiioxy, a Portuguese, who 
 in 1527 was appointed governor of the Mo- 
 luccas. With 500 men he defeated a native 
 army of 20,000. He governed well, and 
 used his efforts to convert the natives ; but 
 on his return to Portugal, in 1540, he was 
 treated with such ingratitude, that he sunk 
 into abject poverty, and died in the hospital 
 of I'isbon, in 1557. 
 
 GALVANI, Louis, an Italian physiologist, 
 celebrated as the discoverer of galvanism, 
 was born at Bologna, in 1737. lie studied 
 medicine under Galcazzi, whose daugliter 
 he married. In 1702 he became lecturer in 
 anatomy at Bologna," and obtained a con- 
 siderable reputation. By experiments on 
 frogs, he discovered, that all animals are 
 endued with a peculiar kind of electricity ; 
 and he followed up this discovery with so 
 much perseverance and success, as to give 
 his name to a system of pliysiology, wliich 
 has excited universal attention. His first 
 publication on this subject was in 1791, and 
 entitled " Aloysii Galvanii de Viribus Elec- 
 tricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius." 
 Upon this system tlie famous Volta made 
 vast improvements. Galvani, on the death 
 of his wife, in 1790, fell into a state of me- 
 I lancholy ; and died in 1798. Besides the 
 above work, lie wrote several memoirs upon 
 professional subjects. 
 
 GAM, David, a native of Wales, and an 
 officer in the army of Henry V. Having 
 I returned from reconnoitring the enemy on 
 " the evening preceding the battle of Agin- 
 court, he reported, that there were enough 
 of the enemy to be killed, enough to be 
 taken prisoners, and enough to run away. 
 He was killed defending his sovereign, who 
 was exposed to imminent danger, and was 
 knighted by him on the field. 
 
 GAMA, Vasco or Vasquez de, an illus- 
 trious navigator, was born at Sines, in Por- 
 tugal, of a noble family ; and to him belongs 
 the merit of having discovered the route to 
 the East Indies by sea. Having under his 
 command 4 vessels, manned with 160 ma- 
 rines and sailors, Gama set sail, July 9th, 
 1497 ; in the beginning of the next year 
 reached the eastern coast of Africa, and, 
 holding Ills course straiglit towards the 
 coast of Malabar, arrived in May, at Cali- 
 cut, a city inhabited by Hindoos, where the 
 ruler over the country, called tlie zamorin, 
 or king, had his residence. He returned to 
 
 830 
 
 Lisbon in two years and two months from 
 the time of his setting out ; and the result 
 of this expedition promised such great ad- 
 vantages, that, in 1502, he went out with 20 
 ships, but he was attacked by an opposing 
 fleet on the part of the zamorin, which he 
 defeated, and returned the following year 
 with 13 rich vessels which lie had captured 
 in the Indian Seas. Jolm III. of Portugal 
 appointed him viceroy of India ; on which 
 he went there a third time, and established 
 his government at Cochin, where he died in 
 1525. Tlie Lusiad of Camoens, who accom- 
 panied Gama, is founded on the adventures 
 of his last voyage. 
 
 GAMBARA, Vbrokica, an Italian poet- 
 ess, born of a noble famjly in 1485. On tlie 
 death of her husband, Giberto, lord of Cor- 
 reggio, whom she survived many years, she 
 devoted much of her time to the cultivation 
 of literature ; and her poems possess origin- 
 ality and spirit. Died, 1550. 
 
 GAMBIER, the Right Hon. James, Lord, 
 a British admiral, was born, in 1756, at tlie 
 Bahama Islands, his father being at that 
 time the lieutenant-governor. He entered 
 the naval service at an early age, was ac- 
 tively engaged on various occasions, and 
 was rewarded by difterent gradations of 
 rank, till he reached that of post-captain, 
 with the command of the Raleigh, of 32 
 gims, in 1788. In this frigate he was en- 
 gaged in repelling the French in their at- 
 tempt upon Jersey, in 1781 ; he afterwards 
 served on the American coast, was present 
 at the reduction of Charlestown, and cap- 
 tured the Mifflin, an American sliipofwar, 
 mounting 20 guns. When hostilities com- 
 menced with France in 1793, Captain Gain- 
 bier was appointed to the Defence, of 74 
 guns, and had the merit of sharing in Earl 
 Howe's celebrated victory. On the first 
 anniversary of that battle (June 1. 1795), he 
 was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral. 
 Passing over minor events, we find him, in 
 1807, entrusted with the command of the 
 fleet sent to Copenhagen to co-operate with 
 Lord Cathcart in demanding possession of 
 the Danish navy ; which, though at first re- 
 sisted, ended in the surrender of 19 sail of 
 the line, 23 frigates, sloops, &c. For his 
 share in this important service, his lordship 
 was created a baron of the united kingdom, 
 and offered a pension of 2000?., which he 
 declined. He was next appointed t® the 
 command of the Channel fleet ,- and in 1809, 
 in conjunction with Lord Cochrane, who 
 commanded the fire-ships, an attack was 
 made on a French squadron in the Aix 
 Roads, which, though successful to a consi- 
 derable extent, was considered by Lord 
 Cochrane, as inefficiently performed, and 
 caused a serious misunderstanding between 
 them. A court-martial on Lord Gambler, 
 and his honourable acquittal, were the re- 
 sults of this disagreement. His lordship 
 occupied a scat at the admiralty for many 
 years, and on the accession of William IV. 
 he was advanced to the rank of admiral of 
 the fleet. He was pious and benevolent ; 
 and is memorable for his zeal in inculcating 
 moral and religious principles among the 
 seamen. Died, April, 1833. 
 
 GANDOLPHY, Pjetei:, a Catliolic priest, 
 
gan] 
 
 ^ ^tfji Uni^tx^nl 23iograpI)n. 
 
 [gar 
 
 greatly distinguished as a preacher, was 
 bom about 1760. He was a controversialist, 
 and published "A Defence of the Ancient 
 Faith," in 1811 ; and " A full Exposition of 
 the Christian Religion," in 1813 ; but a ser- 
 mon "On the Relations between Spiritual 
 and Temporal Authority " exposed him to 
 the censure of his diocesan, in 1810. He 
 appealed to Rome, and made an able de- 
 fence of his opinions ; but the alfair caused 
 him to quit his situation as missioucr at tlie 
 Catholic chapel in Lincoln's Inn 1' ielda. He 
 died at East Sheen, Surrey, in 18:il. 
 
 GANDOX, Jamks, an eminent English 
 arcliitect, and the first who received the ar- 
 chitectural gold medal of the Royal Aca- 
 demy. His reputation was much enhanced 
 by his editorial labours iu producing the 
 "Vitruvius Britanuicus ; " alter which he 
 went to Ireland, and remained there till he 
 died, in 1824, aged 84. He designed the 
 custom house, the four courts, and many 
 other elegant structures in Dublin. 
 
 GARAMOND, Clalue, a celebrated 
 French engraver and letter-founder, was 
 born at Paris towards the close of the 15th 
 century. He brought the art of letter- 
 founding to such perfection, that all parts 
 of Europe were supplied with his types. 
 Among Ids works are some beautiful spe- 
 cimens of Greek, and it was lie wlio brought 
 the Roman character to perfection. Died, 
 1561. 
 
 GARASSE, Francis, a French Jesuit, 
 bom at Angouleme, in 1.585. He became a 
 very popular preacher, but is chiefly re- 
 membered for the wit and asperity of his 
 controversial writings. His principal work 
 was entitled " A Tlieological Summary of 
 the Truths of theCliristian Religion," which 
 was condemned by the Sorbonue. He died 
 of the plague which he caught at Poictiers, 
 while attending a person afflicted with that 
 disorder, in 1031. 
 
 GARAT, D. J., a French metaphysician 
 and philosopher. He was one of the best- 
 intentioned men of the revolution, and yet, 
 such was the force of circumstances, ap- 
 pearing to sanction its worst crimes, and 
 acting with men whom his heart abhorred. 
 He succeeded Dan ton as minister of justice. 
 He was ennobled by Buonaparte, on be- 
 coming emperor ; but his liberal steadiness 
 gave ottence, and he did not re-appear on 
 the political stage till the hundred days. 
 He was in consequence dismissed from the 
 academy by the Bourbons. He is the au- 
 thor of " Mumoires sur M. Suard." Born, 
 1700 ; died, 1.S21. 
 
 GARAY, Joiix DE, a brave Spanish offi- 
 cer, born at Badajoz, in 1541. He went to 
 America, as secretary to the governor of 
 Paraguay ; where he displayed so mucli en- 
 terprise and talent, tliat he was raised to 
 the rank of lieutenant-general and governor 
 of Assumption. He founded Santa Fe, re 
 built and fortified Buenos Ayres, and eu- 
 duavoured by kindness to civilise the In- 
 dians. He was killed on the banks of the 
 Parana, about 1592. 
 
 GARAY, Don Martin de, a Spanish 
 statesman, who acted a conspicuous part iu 
 the management of public attairs from 1808 
 till tlie restoration of Ferdinand VII. He 
 
 831 
 
 was made minister of finance in 1816, dis- 
 missed in 1818, and died in 1822. 
 
 GARCIA, Manukl, a distinguished mu- 
 sical performer and composer, was born at 
 Seville, in Spain, in 1782. He showed great 
 proficiency at an early age, and appeared as 
 a public singer at the opera-houses of 
 Madrid, Paris, Rome, Naples, Turin, and 
 London. He was engaged as principal male 
 singer at the king's theatre, I^ondon, iu 
 1824 ; and his abilities attracted much atten- 
 tion, botli as a vocalist and as an actor. His 
 drumatic compositions are too numerous for 
 insertion here, and many of them possess 
 great merit. Madame Mali bran de Beriot 
 was his daughter. Garcia died in 1832. 
 
 GARCIA DE MASCARENHAS, Blaise, 
 a Portuguese, who figured both as a soldier 
 and poet, was born in 15%, at Avo. In 
 1014 he entered into the military service, 
 and went to Brazil, where he remained 
 twenty-six years, and on his return to Lis- 
 bon wai appointed governor of Alfayates. 
 Having been falsely charged with treason 
 and imprisoned, and being denied the use 
 of pens and ink, he composed a letter in 
 verse to the king, in the following ingenious 
 manner : — he procured a printed book, cut 
 out the words he wanted, and pasted them 
 on a blank leaf; this he threw from his 
 window to a friend, who delivered it, and 
 it procured his liberation. Died, 10.56. 
 
 GARCIAS LASSO, or GARCILASO DE 
 LA VEGA, called the prince of Spanish 
 poets, was born at Toledo, in 1503. He was 
 early distinguished for lus wit and fancy, 
 wrote several pathetic pastorals and sonnets, 
 and did much towards reforming that taste 
 for bombast, wliich, at the period in which he 
 flourished, disfigured the productions of his 
 countrymen. Garcilaso followed the pro- 
 fession of arms, and attended Charles V. in 
 many of his expeditious, and fell in battle, 
 in 1536. 
 
 GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, suraamed 
 the Inca, because, by his mother's side, he 
 was descended from the royal family of 
 Peru, was born at Cusco, in that country, in 
 1530. Philip II. dreading the influence of 
 Garcilaso among the natives, summoned 
 him to Spain, where he died. He wrote an 
 interesting and faithful History of Peru, and 
 also a History of Florida. 
 
 GARDEN, Alexander, an eminent bo- 
 tanist and zoologist, was born in Scotland, 
 in 1730, and educated at the university of 
 Edinburgh. He went to America, and 
 settled as a physician at Charlestown, South 
 Carolina, where he engaged in botanical 
 researches, and was very successful in the 
 discovery and verification of new species 
 among the animal and vegetable tribes of 
 North America. He opened a correspond- 
 ence with Linnaeus, which was attended 
 with many reciprocal advantages. After a 
 residence of 20 years in America, he returned 
 to England, where he died in 1791. 
 
 GARDINER, James, a Scotch military 
 officer in the reign of George II., distin- 
 guished for his bravery and his piety. He 
 was born, in 1088, at Carriden, Linlithgow- 
 shire ; entered the army when only 14, and 
 obtained a cotnmission in the Dutch service. 
 He afterwards distinguislied himself at the 
 
gar] 
 
 ^ ^cJu ^nibtx^nX I3i0srapf)i?. 
 
 [gar 
 
 battle of Ramillies; and at the breaking 
 out of tlie rebellion, he commanded a regi- 
 ment of dragoons, and fell at the battle of 
 Preston Pans, being cut down by a blow 
 from a Liochabar axe, in sight of his own 
 house, Sept. 21. 1745. Dr. Doddridge, his 
 biographer, says, that in his youth he was 
 very gay and licentious, but the accidental 
 perusal of a book, entitled " Heaven taken 
 by Storm," made him serious, and ft-om that 
 time he became as distinguished for his piety 
 as he had before been for the absence of all 
 religion and a course of vice. It is also said 
 that he received a supernatural iutimation 
 4 of his own approaching death. 
 
 GARDINER, SxEniEX, a celebrated pre- 
 late and statesman, was born at Bury St. 
 Edmund's in Suffolk, in 1483. lie was the 
 illegitimate son of Dr. Woodville, bishop of 
 Salisbury, and brother of Elizabeth, queen 
 of Henry IV. He was educated at Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge ; from whence he went 
 into the family of the Duke of Norfolk, and 
 afterwards into that of Cardinal Wolsey, 
 who made him his secretary. In this situ- 
 ation he acquired the confidence of Henry 
 VIII., to whom he was serviceable in pro- 
 curing his divorce from Queen Catharine : 
 he also defended tlie king's supremacy, and 
 for these services he was promoted to the 
 see of Winchester. Gardiner drew up ar- 
 ticles accusing Henry's last queen, Catha- 
 rine Parr, of heresy ; but the queen avoided 
 the storm, and he fell into disgrace. At 
 the accession of Edward VI. he opposed the 
 Reformation, and was committed first to the 
 Fleet, and afterwards to the Tower, where 
 he was a prisoner during the remainder of 
 the reign. He was also deprived of his 
 bishopric ; but on the accession of Mary 
 he was restored to his see, and appointed 
 chancellor of England. His conduct to- 
 wards the Protestants was cruel and sanguin- 
 ary. He died in 1555. He was a learned 
 man, but artful, dissembling, ambitious, and 
 proud. 
 
 GARDINER, William, an Irish engraver, 
 of talents rarely excelled, born in 1760 ; who, 
 after a life of great vicissitude and distress, 
 during which he had been alternately jockey, 
 bookseller, painter, priest, and actor, wrote a 
 paper on the miseries of life, and destroyed 
 himself in 1814. 
 
 GARDNER, Alax* Lord, an English na- 
 val officer. At the age of 13 he became a 
 midshipman, and, passing 'through various 
 promotions, was made post-captain in the 
 Preston, of 50 guns, in 1766. In the action 
 with the French fleet on the 12th of April, 
 1782, he commanded the Duke, of 98 gims, 
 in which ship he first broke the French line. 
 In 1793 he was raised to the rank of rear- 
 admiral, and appointed commander-in-chief 
 on the Leeward Island station ; and in the 
 action of the 1st of June, 1794, he so ably 
 supported Lord Howe, that he was rewarded 
 with a baronetcy and further promotion. 
 During the mutiny of the fleet at Ports- 
 mouth, it was with difficulty that he escajied 
 with his life, in consequence of his en- 
 deavours to quell it by severe measures. In 
 1800 he was created an Irish peer, and in 
 1807 succeeded Earl St. Vincent in the com- 
 mand of the Channel fleet. He sat in three 
 
 successive parliaments, was finally raised 
 to the English peerage, and died in 1809, 
 
 GARNERIN, James Andrew, a cele- 
 brated French aeronaut, to whom belongs 
 the merit (.if it can be called such) of first 
 making the daring experiment of descending 
 in a parachute. His first attempt was made 
 at St. Petersburgh, in 1800 ; and he success- 
 fullj' repeated it in England on the 21st of 
 September, 1802. Died, at Paris, 1823. 
 
 GARNET, Henky, an English Jesuit, 
 memorable for being concerned in the Gun- 
 powder Plot. He was executed in 1606. 
 
 GARNET, Thomas, an English physi- 
 cian, was born in 1766, at Casterton, in 
 Westmoreland ; received his education at 
 Sedburgh, in Yorkshire ; and went to Edin- 
 burgh, where he took his degree of M. D. 
 He commenced professional practice at 
 Bradford, removed to Knaresborough, and 
 afterwards to Harrowgate ; but his practice 
 being small, he went to Liverpool, with a 
 view of emigrating to America. From this 
 scheme he was diverted at the request of 
 some of his friends, who persuaded him to 
 commence a course of lectures on chemistry 
 and natural philosophy. He repeated this 
 course at JManchester ; after which he was 
 chosen Anderson's lecturer in the univer- 
 sity of Glasgow. On the foundation of the 
 Royal Institution in 1800, he was chosen 
 professor of chemistry, but was obliged to 
 resign the situation on account of ill health, 
 and he died, in 1802, aged 36. Dr. Garnet 
 was the author of " An Analysis of the Mi- 
 neral Waters at Harrowgate," a " Tour 
 tlirough Scotland," 2 vols. 4to. ; " Outlines 
 of Chemistry," several papers and essays 
 on medical and physical subjects ; and 
 " Zoonomia," wliich was published after his 
 death. 
 
 GARNIER DE LANDE, bom in 1770. 
 As deputy to the National Convention, he 
 voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; joined 
 the Girondists ; vainly tried to save Danton ; 
 and, in the sitting of the 9th Thermidor, 
 1795, when Robespierre, being impeached, 
 could not speak through fear and rage, he 
 addressed that falling tyrant with the words, 
 " It is Danton's blood which suffocates you! " 
 He retired into private life when Buonaparte 
 abolished the republic. 
 
 GARNIER, Count Geemaix, a French 
 statesman, was born, in 1721, at Auxcrre. 
 He became prefect of the department of 
 Seine and Oise, and president of the senate ; 
 and was known as the translator of Adam 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations, and other Eng- 
 lish works on political economy. Died, 
 1821. 
 
 GARNIER, Jean- Jacques, historiogra- 
 pher of France, was born in 1729, at Goron- 
 sur-Maine, and at the breaking out of the 
 revolution was professor of Hebrew in the 
 university of Paris. He was the author of 
 " The Man of Letters," 2 vols. ; a treatise 
 on "The Origin of the Government of 
 France," a " Continuation of Velley 's History 
 of France," a treatise on "Civil Education," 
 &c. During the reign of terror he fled from 
 the French capital to Boujival, where he 
 died in 1795. 
 
 GAROFALO, Bexvexuto, an artist of 
 Ferrara, born in 1481. During his stay in 
 
gab] 
 
 ^ ^cttt ?an(t»er!SaT iSioffrapibJ?* 
 
 [gas 
 
 Rome he formed an intimacy with Raphael, 
 and frequently assisted him. His works 
 unite the grace and clearness of Raphael 
 with the rich colouring of the Lombard 
 Bchool, and his Madonnas and angels are 
 full of beauty and expression. Died, 1559. 
 
 GARRICK, David, the most celebrated 
 actor that ever appeared on the English 
 stage, was descended from a French family, 
 who, being Protestants, fled to England on 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His 
 father, Peter Garrick, was a captain in the 
 army, and generally resided at Lichfield ; 
 but being on a recruiting party at Hereford, 
 David was born there in 171(5. He received 
 his education partly at the grammar school 
 at Lichfield, and partly under Dr. Johnson, 
 with whom he first came to London, in 
 IT.'W, and prepared himself for the study of 
 the law. The death of his father, however, 
 disturbed this arrangement ; and having 
 been left lOOOZ. by his uncle, he went into 
 partnership with his brother in the wine 
 trade. A love for the stage had long been 
 deeply rooted in his mind, and, abandoning 
 the wine trade, he resolved on being an 
 actor. His first attempt was at Ipswich in 
 1741, under the assumed name of Lyddal j 
 and the applause he met with induced him 
 to make his appearance at the theatre, Good- 
 man's Fields, in the character of Richard III. 
 The effect of this was immediate and deci- 
 sive. The other theatres were quickly 
 deserted, and Goodman's Fields became the 
 resort of people of fashion, till that theatre 
 was shut up. Garrick then formed an en- 
 gagement with Fleetwood, the patentee of 
 Drury Lane, where his reception was equally 
 flattering. In the summer of 1743 he visited 
 Dublin ; and in 1747 he became joint- 
 patentee of Drury Lane Theatre. In 1749 
 he married Mademoiselle Violctte, a sketch 
 of whose life forms the subject of our next 
 article. The remainder of his career was a 
 long and uninterrupted series of success and 
 prosperity until its close, which took place 
 in 177«, when he determined upon a retreat, 
 and sold his moiety of the concern for 37,000?. 
 The last part which he performed was Don 
 Felix, in " The Wonder," for the benefit of 
 the theatrical fund. At the conclusion of 
 the play, he addressed a brief farewell to the 
 audience. The general feeling with which 
 this was delivered and received, rendered it 
 truly impressive ; and few persons ever 
 quitted the stage with plaudits so loud and 
 unanimous. In 1709 he projected and car- 
 ried into effect the famous Stratford Jubilee, 
 a striking proof of his enthusiasm for Shak- 
 speare. It occupied three days there, and 
 its representation at the theatre lasted for 
 92 nights. He died, Jan. 20th, 1779, his 
 remains being interred, with great pomp, 
 in Westminster Abbey. As an actor, Garrick 
 seems never to have been equalled for truth, 
 nature, variety, and facility of expression, 
 though perhaps surpassed by some of his 
 contemporaries in the enunciation of calm, 
 sentimental eloquence. He wrote or adapted 
 for the stage nearly 40 pieces, besides pro- 
 ducing a great number of prologues and 
 epilogues. The style of acting introduced 
 by Garrick was the very opposite of that 
 formal declamation practised before his 
 
 time i it was natural, vigorous, and im- 
 passioned ; the plays of Shakspeare grew 
 into greater repute ; and a reform both 
 in the conduct and licence of the drama, 
 honourable to his taste and genius, was 
 eftected by his example. 
 
 GARRICK, Eva Maria, wife of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Vienna, in 1725. Her 
 maiden name was Viegel, which she changed 
 to that of Violette, by command of the em- 
 press-queen, Maria Tlieresa, whose notice she 
 had attracted as an opera dancer. In 1744 
 she arrived in England, bringing with her 
 a recommendation from the Countess of 
 Stahreml)erg to the Countess of Burlington, 
 who received her, on her obtaining an en- 
 gagement at the oiiera-house, as an inmate 
 of Burlington House, and ever after treated 
 her with maternal affection. A mutual 
 attachment having been formed between htr 
 and Garrick, their nuptials were celebrated 
 June 22. 1749, and the Earl of Burlington 
 gave the bride a marriage portion of COOOi. 
 From this circumstance a notion prevailed 
 that she was the earl's natural daughter ; 
 such, however, was not the fact. Died, 
 1822, aged 97. 
 
 GARTH, Sir Samuel, an eminent phy- 
 sician, and a poet of no mean rank, was a 
 native of Yorkshire, and educated at Peter- 
 house, Cambridge, where, in 1(591, he took 
 his degree. He was admitted a fellow of 
 the colleire of physicians in the following 
 year, and" soon attained the first rank in his 
 profession. His taste for general literature, 
 his companionable talents, and his attach- 
 ment to the principles of the house of Han- 
 over, acquired him patrons of rank and 
 influence ; and on the accession of George I. 
 he received the honour of knighthood, and 
 was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the 
 king, and physician-general to the army. 
 His principal poem is '' The Disiiensary," 
 which contains much lively and polished 
 satire. Died, 171«. 
 
 GARTH, Thomas, an English general, 
 and colonel of the Ist regiment of dragoons. 
 From the year 17C2 to that of 1814, when he 
 attained the rank of general, this officer was 
 employed in active service. It had long 
 been whispered that he was the husband 
 of one of the royal princesses of England, 
 though the circumstance was never made 
 public during his life ; but certain unfortu- 
 nate events which occurred in 1830 caused 
 the subject to be much alluded to. Died, 
 1829, aged 85. 
 
 GARZI, Louis, a painter, was bom at 
 Rome in 1640. He was a disciple of Andrea 
 Sacchi, and considered by many as equal, if 
 not superior, to Carlo Maratti. Died, 1721. 
 
 GARZONI, Thomas, an Italian writer, 
 boni in 1549, at Bagnacavallo, near Ferrara, 
 and died in 1589. He was the author of se- 
 veral works ; the chief of which is entitled 
 " La Piazza universale di tutti le Professioni 
 del Monde ;" a work of great labour, and 
 one of infinite utility at the time it was 
 written. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, George, a poet of the 
 Elizabethan age, was the son of Sir John 
 Gascoigne, of Walthamstow, Essex, and is 
 said to have been disinherited by his father. 
 He studied at Cambridge, from whence he 
 
 333 
 
gas] 
 
 ^ i^e^ Wittibtx^al 28i0flrap5y. 
 
 [gat 
 
 removed to Gray's Inn, which he soon left 
 for a military life in Holland, where the 
 Prince of Orange gave him a captain's com- 
 mission ; but having a quarrel with his 
 colonel, he resigned it soon afterwards. On 
 his return to England lie became an attend- 
 ant at court, and accompanied the queen in 
 some of her progresses, during whicli he 
 wrote masques for her entertainment. Be- 
 sides his original and translated dramas, he 
 wrote " The Steel Glass," a satire, and other 
 poems. Till of late, when it became the 
 fashion to search after the relics of old Eng- 
 lish literature, the works of Gascoigne were 
 quite neglected, but his poems will repay 
 I)erusal. Died, 1577. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, Sir William, an eminent 
 judge in the reigns of Henry IV. and V. 
 He was born at Gawthorp, in" Yorksliire, in 
 1350 ; became serjeant-at-law in 1398 ; and 
 on the accession of Henry IV. was appointed 
 one of the justices of the common pleas, and 
 afterwards made chief justice of the king's 
 bench. In tliis high ollice he distinguished 
 himself on many occasions, particularly for 
 refusing to pass sentence upon Archbishop 
 Scroop as a traitor, by the king's command- 
 ment, as being contrary to law ; and still 
 more remarkable by committing the Prince 
 of Wales, afterwards Henry V., to prison, 
 for striking him wlien on the bench. Like 
 maiiy other prominent events in English 
 history, tliis has furnislied Shakspeare with 
 materials for a most etfective scene. Sir 
 Williiim died in 1413. 
 
 GASCOIGNE, William, an ingenious 
 natural philosopher of the 17th century, was 
 born in 1621, and is considered as the inventor 
 of the micrometer, though the merit of that 
 invention was claimed long after his time 
 by»M. Azout. Gascoigne was killed wliile 
 fighting in the royalist army at Marston 
 Moor, Julv 2. 1644. 
 
 GASPARINI, Fraxcesco, one of the 
 ablest musical composers of the last century, 
 was a native of Lucca, and born in 1G50. His 
 works are not numerous, but possess much 
 merit. Died, 1724. 
 
 GASSENDI, Plter, a celebrated French 
 philosopher and mathematician, was born, 
 in 1592, atChantersier, in Provence. Before 
 he was 20 years of age he became professor of 
 philosophy at Aix ; but he soon resigned the 
 chair, and gave himself up wholly to his 
 scientific pursuits. In 1645 he was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the college-royal 
 of Paris, and his lectures were exceedingly 
 popular. In fact, he was distinguished as 
 an astronomer, naturalist, theologian, and 
 mathematician. Gassendi combated the me- 
 taphysics of Descartes, and divided with that 
 great man the philosophers of his time, almost 
 all of whom were Cartesians or Gassen- 
 dians. Gibbon calls )iim the most philo- 
 sophic among the learned, and the most 
 learned among the philosophic of his age. 
 He died in 1655, leaving nine volumes of his 
 philosophical works. 
 
 GASSICOURT, Charles Louis Cadet 
 DE, a modern French philosopher and advo- 
 cate, was the son of an apothecary at Paris, 
 and first attracted notice by a pamphlet, 
 published in 1797, on the Theory of Elec- 
 tions i which he followed up by a variety of 
 
 essays on political subjects, viz. " On the 
 Private Life of Mirabeau," " On tlie Influence 
 of the Masonic Societies in the Process of 
 the Revolution," " Tlie Four Ages of the 
 National Guard," &c. On the death of his 
 father, who was himself a man of scientific 
 pursuits, and the personal friend of Buffon, 
 Lalande, and Condorcet, he turned his at- 
 tention somewhat from politics to chemistry 
 and physics ; and in 1803 appeared his new 
 "Dictionary of Chemistry," afterwards in- 
 troduced into the Polytechnic School. He 
 followed the French army into Austria in 
 1809, and wrote a history of the campaign. 
 The modern plan for the organisation of the 
 French board of health owes its origin to 
 him, and he had not only the satisfaction of 
 seeing it eagerly adojjted, but that of obtain- 
 ing tlie appointment of reporting secretary, 
 which situation he held till his death, in 
 1823. Besides many other productions not 
 here enumerated, he was the author of a 
 series of epistles on London and the English 
 nation ; and a treatise " On the Applica- 
 tion of the Physical Science to Military 
 Purposes." 
 
 GASTRELL, Francis, an English bishop, 
 was born in 15G2, at Slapton, in Northamp- 
 tonshire. He was educated at Westminster 
 School, and at Christchurch, Oxford. In 
 1797, he preached the Boyle's lectures, which 
 he published as one discourse ; to which he 
 afterwards added another, on the " Necessity 
 of the Christian Revelation." In 1702 he was 
 presented to a canonry of Christchurch, at 
 which time he published "Considerations 
 concerning the Trinity." In 1707 he printed 
 his excellent scriptural manual, entitled 
 " Oiristian Institutes ; " and in 1714 he was 
 promoted to the bishopric of Chester. He 
 was a sound scholar and an able polemic. 
 Died, 1725. 
 
 GATAKER, Thomas, an English divine, 
 was born, in 1574, in London, and educated 
 at St. John's College, Cambridge. He be- 
 came preacher to the society of Lincoln's 
 Inn, and in 1011 obtained the rectory of 
 Rotherhithe. In 1619 he published a curious 
 treatise on the "Nature and Use of Lots," 
 which occasioned considerable controversy. 
 He was also the author of " Opera Critica," 
 and other eminent works, chiefly of biblical 
 criticism. In 1620 he made a tour through 
 the Low Countries ; and, in 1624, published 
 in London a work, entitled " Transub- 
 stantiation, declared by the confession of 
 the popish writers to have no necessary 
 foundation in God's word." He wrote also 
 a defence of this discourse. In 1642 he was 
 chosen one of the famous assembly of divines 
 at Westminster ; but he disapproved of the 
 introduction of the covenant, and declared 
 in favour of episcopacy. He zealously op- 
 posed the trial of Charles I. Died, 1654. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, an American officer 
 who greatly distinguished himself in the war 
 of independence, was born in England, in 
 1728. After serving in the army, and obtain- 
 ing considerable promotion, he purchased an 
 estate in Virginia, and resided on it until 
 the commencement of the revolutionary 
 war in 1775, when congress appointed him 
 adjutant-general ; and during the struggle 
 which followed, he rendered many brilliant 
 
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 ^ IJclx) i2In(t»a:^aT 38iosrajpl)o. 
 
 [OAT 
 
 services to his adopted country. On the 8th 
 of October, 1777, he totally deleated General 
 Burgoyne, who, on the ICth, wa3 compelled 
 to surrender his whole army, which was 
 considered the most important acliievemcnt 
 of the whole war, and had the fp-eatest ettect 
 in obtaining the result that followed, lie 
 was, however, unfortunate after he had ob- 
 tained the chief command of the southern 
 districts, being signally defeated at Camden, 
 by Lord Cornwallis. Died, 1800, aged 77. 
 
 GATTERER, John Cuhistopher, a 
 learned German historian; author of a " His- 
 tory of the World to the time of Cyrus," 
 "An Essay towards a General Universal 
 History," &c. His treatises display a spirit 
 of deep research and sound criticism. Died, 
 1799. 
 
 GATTEY, F. C, bom in 1756 ; a French 
 royalist iKJokseller, sentenced to death b^ 
 the revolutionary tribunal, in 1795. His 
 only sister, on hearing his sentence, repeat- 
 edly exclaimed " Vive le Jioi," and was 
 guillotined with him. 
 
 GAUBIL, ANTHomr, a learned French 
 missionary in China, was born at Caillac, in 
 1708, and died at Pekin in 1759, where lie was 
 interpreter to the court. He wrote the history 
 of Genghis Khan, and an " Historical and 
 Critical Treatise on Chinese Astronomy." 
 
 GAUBIUS, Jekome David, a celebrated 
 physician, was born at Heidelberg in 1705. 
 After studying medicine under his uncle, a 
 physician at Amsterdam, he went to Han- 
 derwyck, and from thence to Leyden, where 
 he contracted an intimate friendship witli 
 Boerhaave, whom he succeeded as lecturer 
 in botany and chemistry ; and in 1734 he 
 obtained the medical professorship. His 
 treatise on the " Method of Prescribing, or 
 of Writing Receipts," contains the best rules 
 on that important subject. But liis greatest 
 work is his " Principles of Nosology." Died, 
 1780. 
 
 GAUDEN, Jonrr, an English divine, bom 
 at Mayland, in Essex, in 1G05 : though he 
 professed reforming principles, and was even 
 nominated one of the assembly of divines at 
 Westminster, and presented with a living, 
 yet as soon as he saw the king was in per- 
 sonal danger, he changed sides, and strongly 
 protested against his trial. He had also 
 committed to his care tlie collating and pub- 
 lishing the king's meditations, to which he 
 fave the name of "Icon Basilike, or tlie 
 'ortraiturc of his Sacred Majesty in his 
 Solitude and Sufferings." In 1659, he became 
 pi-eacher at the Temple i and when Charles 
 11. was restored lie was preferred to tlie see 
 of Exeter, and in 1622 to that of Worcester, 
 where he died soon after. 
 
 GAUDENTIO, an historical painter of 
 Milan, was born about 1480. He painted in 
 fresco and oil a number of pictures for the 
 churches in his native city. 
 
 GAUDENTIUS. St., bishop of Brescia, in 
 the 5tli century. He was sent to Constanti- 
 nople to hold a general council in that city, 
 in 405 ; and died about the year 427. 
 
 GAUI/riER, Louis, a Frei>3h abbd, whose 
 life was laudably spent in rendering educa- 
 tion a scientific amusement rather than a 
 task, was bom about the year 1745. He had 
 observed that the ordinary course of scho- 
 
 lastic discipline deprived children of that 
 portion of happiness so necessary to the 
 development of their moral and physical 
 faculties, and he endeavoured to smooth tlie 
 rugged path of education by inventing va- 
 rious games which should combine amuse- 
 ment witli instruction. The horrors of the 
 revolution drove him from France ; and he 
 retired to the Hague, where he became tutor 
 to the children of the British ambassador, 
 whom he accompanied to England. After 
 the peace of Amiens he returned to France, 
 and continued to teach according to his 
 system until his death, which took place 
 in 1818, the abbe being then in his 75th 
 year. Ilis works are well known, and very 
 popular. 
 
 GAUTIIEY, Em LI AN Marie, an eminent 
 civil engineer, was bom at Chalons-sur- 
 Saone, in France, in 1732. He tilled several 
 important posts ; and under his direction 
 many public works of magnitude were un- 
 dertaken and completed. He conceived the 
 idea of forming a canal from Chalons to 
 Dijon, wliich is termed tlie " canal du cen- 
 tre," and is 23 leagues in extent. This was 
 completed in 1791. He also executed the 
 junction canals of tlie Saone, Yonne, and 
 Duubs J and built several bridges and quays. 
 He wrote several professional treatises, the 
 principal one of which is entitled " Traitu 
 complet sur la Construction des Ponts et 
 des Canaux navigables." Died, 1806. 
 
 GAVARD, HyACiNTHE, one of the most 
 able anatomists of the 18th century, was 
 born at Montmelian, in K.W, and was a 
 pupil of Desault. He published treatises on 
 osteology, myology, and splanchnology, the 
 latter of which especially has been highly 
 praised. Died, 1802. 
 
 GAY, Jons, an eminent English poet, 
 was bora at Barnstaple, Devon, in 1688, and 
 was apprenticed to a silk-mercer in London ; 
 but, showing a marked aversion to trade, liis 
 indentures were cancelled by mutual agree- 
 ment, and he devoted himself to literature. 
 In 1711 he published his "Rural Sports," 
 wliicli he dedicated to Pope, then a young 
 poet like himself ; a compliment that intro- 
 duced them to each other, and proved the 
 foundation of a friendship which lasted for 
 life. The year following he was appointed 
 secretary to the Duchess of Monmouth. 
 About this time came out his burlesque 
 poem, entitled " Trivia, or the Art of Walk- 
 ing the Streets of London ; " which was suc- 
 ceeded, in 1714, by the " Shepherd's Week, a 
 series of Pastorals," in ridicule of Phillips. 
 The same year he went to Hanover with the 
 Earl of Clarendon, as secretary to the em- 
 bassy ; but tliough he had great expectations 
 from the court, they were never realised. In 
 1720 he published his poems, in 2 vols. 4to., 
 by subscription ; which produced him a con- 
 siderable sum, but he lost it all in the South 
 Sea scheme. After producing many inge- 
 nious and agreeable works, some instances 
 of court favour encouraged him to employ 
 himself in his well known "Fables," written 
 professedly for the instruction of the Duke 
 of Cumberland, and published with a dedi- 
 cation to that prince in 1726 ; but though 
 they were popular, they failed to serve him 
 at court. He tliereupon wrote " The Beg- 
 
gar's Opera," which was first acted in 172", 
 and ran for 63 successive niglits ; but it so 
 offended the persons in power, that the lord 
 chamberlain refused to license for perform- 
 ance a second part of it, entitled " Polly." 
 This resentment induced his friends to come 
 forward on its publication with so handsome 
 a subscription, that his profits amounted to 
 1200Z. The cause of Gay was taken up by 
 the Duke and Duchess of Queensberry, who 
 gave him a residence in their house, where 
 he died, Dec. 11. 1732. He was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey, and a monument was 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 GAY-LUSSAC, Nicola sFraxoots, whose 
 important discoveries in numerous brandies 
 of physics and chemistry have placed him 
 in the foremost ranks of science, was born 
 at St. Leonard, in France, 1788. At an 
 early age he distinguished himself by his 
 aerial voyages for the observation of atmo- 
 spheric phenomena at great heights ; and the 
 numerous experiments he made in conjunc- 
 tion with Humboldt, Renard, and Berthol- 
 let, on an infinite variety of subjects con- 
 nected with the general laws that regulate 
 the composition of bodies, have proved of 
 eminent practical utility. He closed a long 
 life of almost unparalleled scientific indus- 
 try, May 9. 1850. 
 
 GAY VERNON, J., a French military 
 officer and mathematician, was born at 
 St. Leonard, in the Limousin, in 1700. lie 
 entered the army, and, having obtained a 
 captaincy, greatly distinguished himself, in 
 1793, on the Rhine and in Flanders. He 
 was one of the founders of the Polytechnic 
 School, and acted as second director of it for 
 17 years. In 1813 he defended the fortress of 
 Torgau with great gallantry, but was made 
 prisoner, and died in 1822. 
 
 GAYOT DE PITAVAL, Fkakcis, a 
 French writer, was born at Lyons, in 1673. 
 He was at first an ecclesiastic ; next he 
 entered into the army j and, at the age of 
 .50, he became an advocate. He compiled 
 the "Causes Celebres," in 20 vols. 12mo. 
 Died, 1743. 
 
 GAYTON, Edmuxd, was bom in London, 
 in 1609, and educated at Merchant-Tailors' 
 School, and at St. John's College, Oxford, 
 where he obtained a fellowship. He became 
 superior beadle of the university, but was 
 ejected, in 1647, by the parliamentary visi- 
 tors. However, he recovered his place at 
 the Restoration, and died in 1606. He wrote 
 several books, the chief of which is entitled 
 " Pleasant Notes upon Don Quixote." 
 
 GAZA, Theodore, one of the chief re- 
 vivers of Greek literature in the 15th cen- 
 tury, was born at Thessalonica, in 1398. On 
 the invasion of his country by the Turks, in 
 1430, he went to Italy, where he obtained 
 the patronage of Cardinal Bessarion, to 
 whom he presented a manuscript of the 
 Iliad. He was afterwards employed at 
 Rome in translating Greek authors into 
 Latin ; but, on presenting one of his finest 
 performances to Sixtus IV., who gave him 
 a trifling sum for it, he threw the money 
 into the Tiber, exclaiming, "It is time to 
 return home, since these asses have no relish 
 for anything but thistles." He then went 
 to Ferrara, whence he removed to Calabri^a ; 
 
 but it appears that he again went to Rome, 
 and died there in 1478. 
 
 GEBER, an Arabian philosopher of the 
 8th century, whose skill in astronomy and 
 alchemical researches obtained for him in 
 that dark age the character of a magician. 
 He is said to have been a Greek by birth, 
 and to have apostatised from Christianity 
 to Mahometanism. His works, under the 
 title of "Lapis Philosophorum," prove that 
 his knowledge of chemistry was by no means 
 so limited as that of many who wrote subse- 
 quently to his time. 
 
 GEBHARDI, Louis Albert, a volumi- 
 nous historical writer ; author of the histo- 
 ries of Denmark and Norway, the Wendes 
 and Sclavonians, Courland, "Hungary, the 
 Sovereign Houses of Germany, and various 
 portions of the Universal History published 
 at Halle. He was librarian at Hanover, 
 where he died in 1802. 
 
 GED, William, the inventor of the art 
 of stereotyping, which he practised in 1723, 
 was a goldsmith of Edinburgh. In 1729 he 
 entered into partnership with Fenner, a 
 stationer of London, but no advantage to 
 him resulted from the connection, and he 
 returned to Scotland. Died, 1749. 
 
 GEDDES, Dr. Alexajtoer, a Roman 
 Catholic priest, born in Ruthven, Banflf- 
 shire, in 1737. He had the charge of a 
 congregation at Auchinhalrig, where he 
 remained 10 years ; and in 1779 the univer- 
 sity of Aberdeen granted him the degree of 
 LL. D., being the first Catholic since the 
 Reformation to whom it had been given. 
 About this time he removed to London, and 
 began to devote himself to a translation of 
 the Bible into English. In 1786 he pub- 
 lished his prospectus of that work ; and in 
 its progress he was liberally supported by 
 Lord Petre. The first volume of it appeared 
 in 1792, comprising the Pentateuch and the 
 Book of Joshua ; and in 1797 appeared the 
 second volume ; after which he published 
 " Critical Remarks," iii vindication of his 
 work, and an " Apology for the Roman 
 Catholics of Great Britain." He died in 1802. 
 Dr. Geddes was a man of learning ; but he 
 assumed so many new views in respect to 
 scriptural authority and doctrine, that he 
 was regarded with suspicion by orthodox 
 Christians of all denominations. 
 
 GEDDES, James, an ingenious writer, 
 was born in Tweeddale, Scotland, in 1710 ; 
 educated at Edinburgh ; entered on the 
 study of the law, and was admitted an ad- 
 vocate. He was the author of " An Essay 
 on the Composition and Manner of Writing 
 of the Ancients, particularly Plato." Died, 
 1749. 
 
 GEDDES, Dr. Michael, an eminent 
 English divine of the 17th century. He was 
 chaplain to the factory at Lisbon, wliere he 
 was apprehended by the Inquisition in 1080, 
 and interdicted from officiating in his mi- 
 nisterial capacity ; on which he returned to 
 England, and was made chancellor of Salis- 
 bury. He wrote the " History of the Churcli 
 of Malabar," the " Church History of Ethi- 
 opia." Died, 1741. 
 
 GEDOYN, Nicholas, the translator of 
 Quiutilian and Pausanias into French, was 
 born at Orleans in 1667, and died in 1744. 
 
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 ^ ipctD ?Suil)eriSaI SStosraplbl'. 
 
 [gen 
 
 He was abbot of Beaugency, and a member 
 of the academy. 
 
 GEER, Chakles de, a celebrated Swedish 
 naturalist, was born in 1720. He studied at 
 Utrecht and Upsal, and at the latter place 
 had Linnajus for his master. He possessed 
 a share in the iron-works at Dannemora, 
 wliicli mines he improved by the application 
 of new macliinery. He also invented an 
 apparatus for drying corn by the lieat of the 
 smelting houses. By these means he gained 
 great wealth, whicli lie applied to the noblest 
 purposes, in feeding the poor, repairing 
 churches, and establishing scliooU. He was 
 appointed marshal of the court, kniglit of 
 the polar star, and created a baron. He 
 wrote "Memoires pour servir h rUistoire 
 des Insectes," &c. 7 vols. Died, 1778. 
 
 GEHLEN, Adolphls Ferdinand, a Ger- 
 man chemist, and a member of the academy 
 at Munich. He was one of the conductors 
 of tlie Journal of Chemistry, published 
 at Berlin, and the author of some original 
 treatises on the science. Died, 181.5. 
 
 GEIH^ER, John Samuel, an eminent na- 
 tural philosopher and a senator of Lcipsic ; 
 author of a " Dictionary of Natural Pliilo- 
 sophy," vols. Died, 1795. 
 
 GELASIUS, bishop of Caesarea in the 4th 
 century, was the author of a history of the 
 church, of which some portions arc still 
 extant. Died, 394. 
 
 GELASIUS I., was elevated to the papal 
 chair on the death of Felix III. in 492. He 
 had a contest with the patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, and by his arrogance prevented a 
 union between the two churches. He con- 
 demned the practice of communicating only 
 in one kind, though that practice became 
 afterwards a standing rule in the Roman 
 church as far as relates to the laity. Several 
 of his works are extant. He died in 49(5. 
 
 GELASIUS II., a native of Campania, 
 was elected pope in 1118. Cencio, marquis 
 di Frangipan, who was in the interest of the 
 emiieror Henry V., drove him from Rome ; 
 and he retired to the abbey of Clugny, where 
 he died in 1119. 
 
 GELL, Sir Wilmam, a celebrated anti- 
 quarian and classical scholar, was bom in 
 1777, and graduated at Emanuel College, 
 Cambridge, where he had been a fellow. 
 He devoted his time to literary pursuits, 
 and published " The Topography of Troy," 
 " The Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca," 
 " The Itinerary of Greece," " The Itinerary 
 of the Morea," "The Topography of Rome," 
 and, lastly, his interesting and beautiful 
 work, entitled " Pompeiana, or Observations 
 upon the Topography, Edifices, and Orna- 
 ments of Pompeii ; by Sir W. Gell and 
 J. P. Gandy, esq." For many years Sir 
 William had resided in Italy ; first at Rome, 
 and afterwards at Naples. He was knighted 
 on liis return from a mission to the Ionian 
 Islands in 18<)3 ; and in 1820 the late Queen 
 Caroline appointed him one of her chamber- 
 lains. Died, 18;50. 
 
 GELLERT, Chkistian Furchteoott, a 
 German poet and writer on morals, was 
 l)orn at Ilaynichen, in Saxony, in 1715. He 
 received his education at l,eipsic, and ac- 
 quired great celebrity by his tales, fables, 
 1 1 and essays. He was appointed extraordi- 
 I ■ 
 
 317 
 
 nary professor of philosophy at Leipsic, 
 where he read lectures on poetry and elo- 
 quence, which were received with great ap- 
 plause. His complete works were published 
 in 10 vols. Died, 17C9. 
 
 GELLERT, Christueb Eiiregott, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, was a celebrated 
 metallurgist. He introduced very important 
 improvements into the method of separating 
 metallic substances by amalgamation, and 
 wrote on the arts. Born, 1713 ; died, 1795. 
 
 GELLI,GiAMBATisTA,an Italian poet and 
 dramatic writer, born at Florence, in 1498. 
 He was bred to some low trade, but became 
 a member of the academy of Florence, and 
 had a high reputation in his day. Besides 
 his original works, consisting of comedies, 
 poems, and remarks on the Italian language, 
 he translated the " History of Euripides, 
 into Italian. Died, l.^OS. 
 
 GELLIBRAND, Henry, a mathemati- 
 cian, born in London, in 1597, and educated 
 at Trinity College, Oxford. In 1027, he was 
 elected professor of astronomy at Gresliam 
 College ; but, in 1G31, he was brought into 
 the high commission court for publishing an 
 almanac, in which the names of the saints 
 were changed for the Protestant martyrs. 
 As, liowever, similar almanacs had Iwen 
 printed, the information was dismissed. He 
 wrote several useful works on the longitude, 
 the variation of the magnetic needle, on 
 trigonometry, and on navigation. Died, 
 1C30. 
 
 GELLIUS, AiJi-rs, a Roman lawyer, bom 
 in 130. He studied at Athens, and is the 
 author of "Noctes Atticae," a work full of 
 interesting observations, critical aud philo- 
 logical. 
 
 GEMINIANI, Francesco, an eminent 
 musical composer, was bom at Lucca, in 
 lOiKj, and completed his studies under Co- 
 rcUi. In 1714, he came to London, and was 
 patronised by George I. He published va- 
 rious compositions, all of which are re- 
 markable for the excellence of their style, 
 and for the skill necessary for their proper 
 execution. His chief work is entitled," Guida 
 Harmonica, or a sure Guide to Harmony 
 and Jfodulation." Died, 1702. 
 
 GEMISTUS PLETHO, George, a philo- 
 sopher, bom at Constantinople, in 1390, but 
 who resided chiefly in the Peloponnesus, 
 where he acquired great fame for his wis- 
 dom and virtue. He was a zealous defender 
 of the Platonists against the Aristotelians, 
 and of the Greek Church against that of 
 Rome. On going to the council of Florence, 
 1433, his zeal and eloquence gained him 
 the admiration of all parties. He contri- 
 buted to the revival of Platonism, in Italy ; j 
 and was the means of laying the foundation 
 of the academy in that city. He died in his 
 native country, at the age of 101. His works 
 are chiefly controversial and theological. 
 
 GENDEBIEN, a distinguished Belgian, 
 born in 1753 ; took part, in 1789, in shaking 
 off the yoke of Austria ; in 1790, sat as a 
 deputy for the Belgian republic, when united 
 with France in the council of five hundred. 
 In 1815 he was nominated one of the com- 
 mission for drawing up the constitutional 
 act, uniting Belgium and Holland as the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands. Aa a member 
 
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 ^ ^t^ mnttJcr^al 2St0frraj)l)j?, 
 
 [gen 
 
 of the second chamber, he steadily opposed 
 the arbitrary acts of the royal autliority, 
 especially those which emanated from Van 
 Maanen, the minister of justice ; and took 
 a decided part in the Belgic revolution of 
 1831, by which Belgium again separated 
 itself from Holland, and declared its in- 
 dependence. 
 
 GENGHIS-KUAN, or JINGHIS-KHAN, 
 the son of a petty Mongolian prince, ii'as 
 born in Tartarj', in 1103. After a species 
 of intestine warfare with various Tartar 
 tribes, this renowned conqueror invaded 
 China, the capital of which was taken by 
 storm, in 1205, and plundered. The murder 
 of the ambassadors whom Genghis-Khan 
 had sent to Turkestan, occasioned the in- 
 vasion of that empire, in 1218, with an army 
 of 700,000 men ; and the two great cities of 
 Bokhara and Samarcand were stormed, pil- 
 laged, burnt, and more than 200,000 indi- 
 viduals destroyed with them. He continued 
 his career of devastation for several years ; 
 and in 122.5, though more than 00 years old, 
 he marched in person, at the head of his 
 whole army, against the king of Tangut, 
 who had given shelter to two of his enemies, 
 and refused to surrender them. A great 
 battle was fought on plains of ice, formed by 
 a frozen lake, in which the king of Tangut 
 was totally defeated, with the loss of S00,l»00 
 men. This ambitious warrior, whose ravages 
 had cost the human race upwards of 5,000,000 
 human beings, by dint of successive vic- 
 tories, became monarch of a territory ex- 
 tending 1,500 leagues, including Northern 
 China, Eastern Persia, and the whole of 
 Tartary. He died in 1227, in the GOth year 
 of his age, and in the 52nd of his reign : 
 having, before his death, divided his im- 
 mense territories between the four princes 
 whom he had by the first of his four wives. 
 
 GENI-IS, Stkpuaxik ITELiciTfi, Countess 
 de, celebrated for her literary talents, and 
 by many for the independent principles 
 which prevail through all her writings, was 
 born near Autun, in 1740. Her maiden 
 name was Ducrest de St. Aubin, and the 
 connection of her family with that of St. 
 Aubin procured her admission, at four years 
 of age, to enter as a canoness into the noble 
 chapter at Aix ; from which time she was 
 called La Comptesse de Lancy. At 17, a letter 
 of her writing having fallen into the hands 
 of the Count de Genlis, he was so fascinated 
 with its style as to make her the oifer of his 
 hand and fortune, which she accepted. By 
 this marriage she became niece to Madame 
 de Montesson, who was privately married to 
 the Duke of Orleans ; and his son, the Duke 
 de Chartres, chose her, in 1782, to superintend 
 the education of his children. It was, soon 
 after, rumoured that an improper attach- 
 ment existed between her and the duke ; 
 and Pamela, afterwards the wife of the un- 
 fortunate Lord Edward Fitzgerald [which 
 see], was supposed to be the issue of that 
 connection. At that period, Madame de 
 Genlis wrote several excellent works, pro- 
 ducing, in rapid succession, " Adela and 
 Theodore," " The Evenings of the Castle," 
 " The Theatre of Education," and " Annals 
 of Virtue," all of which were highly po- 
 pular. In 1791 she came to England with 
 
 her pupil, Mademoiselle d'Orleans ; and on 
 their return to France, the following year, 
 both were ordered to quit the territories 
 without delay. After some time, they went 
 to Switzerland, but were not permitted to 
 reside there ; and General Montesquieu ob- 
 tained them an asylum in the convent of 
 St. Clair. In 1800, she returned to France ; 
 and in 1805, Napoleon gave her apartments 
 in the arsenal at Paris, and allowed her a 
 pension of 5000 francs. On the return of 
 the Bourbons, she seemed to forget her old 
 patron, and her love of republicanism gave 
 way to admiration for the restored dynasty. 
 When her old pupil, Louis Philippe, as- 
 cended the throne, both he and his family 
 paid the kindest attention to the comforts 
 of JIadame de Genlis ; and her pen was 
 actively employed to the last day of her 
 existence. So numerous are her works, 
 amounting altogether to about 90 volumes, 
 that the mere enume-ation of their titles 
 would occupy too much of our space. They 
 embrace nearly all subjects, and are cha- 
 racterised bv fertility of imagination and a 
 pleasing style. Died, 1830. 
 
 GENNARI, Cesar and Benedict, two 
 painters, who were the nephews and dis- 
 ciples of Guercino. After working together 
 some years, Ca;sar established himself at 
 Bologna, and Benedict went to England, 
 where he became painter to James IL, on 
 whose expulsion he returned to Italy. He 
 died in 1715, aged 82. 
 
 GENNAllO. Joseph Aurelius, a civilian, 
 was born at Naples, in 1701. He became 
 chief magistrate in his native city ; and his 
 works, which are all on legal subjects, are 
 remarkable for purity of style and dei^th of 
 erudition. ]5ied, 1702. 
 
 GENOVESI, Anthoxt, an Italian philo- 
 sopher and metaphysician, was born at Cas- 
 tiglione in 1712. lie read lectures in philo- 
 sophy at Naples with great reputation for 
 some time ; but at length he was attacked 
 by numerous enemies for publishing his me- 
 taphysics, in which he recommended the 
 works of Galileo, Grotius, and Newton. 
 The king of Naples, however, protected him, 
 and made him professor of political eco- 
 nomy and moral philosophy in the Nea- 
 politan university. He was the author of 
 " Philosophical Meditations on Religion and 
 Morality," a "System of Logic," " Hunio 
 rous Letters," and " Italian Morality," which 
 last is accounted his principal performance. 
 Died, 1709. 
 
 GENSONNE', Armand, fatally distin- 
 guished in the French revolution, was born 
 in 1758. He was one of the best and most 
 eloquent of the Girondist party, who strug 
 gled first to save Louis XVI., and next to 
 arrest the sanguinary violence of Robes- 
 pierre and the Jacobins of the " Mountain," 
 by which they were finally overwhelmed. 
 The 10th of August, 1792, which established 
 the republic on Louis XVIth's destruction, 
 was fatal to Gensonnd ; for Robespierre 
 then became paramount, and never forgave 
 his bitter witticisms on liim. Gensonn? re- 
 fused to fly, and he and his 28 Girondist 
 colleagues were guillotined, on the Slst 
 October, 1793. A tranquil heroism cha- 
 racterised his death. "Respect the laws," 
 
 338 
 
oen] 
 
 a ^m muiljcrisfal 23t0Jirai)t)B. 
 
 [GEO 
 
 he said, " ray countrymen, while you reject 
 tyrants." 
 
 GENT, Thomas, a native of York, and by 
 trade a printer iu that city, lie was author 
 of " An Ancient and Modern History of 
 York," "Tlje History of Kingston-upon- 
 IIuU," and other similar publications. Born, 
 IG'Jl ; died, 1778. 
 
 GENTILIS, or GENTILI, Alberico. nn 
 Italian civilian, bom at Ancona, in IS.')*). 
 His father, who was a physician, embraced 
 the refonned religion, and came to P^ngland, 
 where Alberico became professor of law at 
 Oxford ; and died in 1608. He wrote " De 
 Jure Belli," and other works on jurispru- 
 dence. — His brother Scirio, who was pro- 
 fessor of civil law at Altdorf, and died in 
 lfil(>, was the author of " De Jure Publico 
 Populi llomani," &c. 
 
 GENTLE.MAN, Francis, a dramatic 
 writer and actor ; born in Ireland, in 1728. 
 Besides some theatrical pieces, he was the 
 author of " Tlie Dramatic Censor," in 2 
 vols., and a volume of " Royal 1-ables, in 
 imitation of Gay." Died, 1784. 
 
 GENTZ, FitKDEnic von, a distinguished 
 publicist and an uncompromising antagon- 
 ist of revolutionary France, was bom at lires- 
 lau, 1704; studied at KUnigsberg ; and after a 
 short sojourn in England, where he gained 
 the good will of Pitt, he repaired to Vienna 
 in 1803, where he entered into the Austrian 
 civil service, under the most favourable 
 auspices and hopes. Here his skilful and 
 facile pen was soon turned to account. His 
 able manifestoes and pamphlets proved 
 almost as formidable obstacles to the in- 
 vasions of Napoleon as the combined forces 
 that opposed him ; and Austria and Prussia 
 hastened to do honour to the man who could 
 so vigorously support their views and defend 
 their cause. He was appointed one of the 
 secretaries at the Congress of Vienna in 
 1814, and at Paris in 181 ">, and he took an 
 active part in the various congresses that 
 sprung out of the restoration. A selection 
 from his various works, comprising political 
 questions, a " lAfe of Mary Queen of Scots," 
 and numerous articles written for the 
 Journal Historique, was published in 1838. 
 Died, 1832. 
 
 GEOFFREY OF Monmouth, a British his- 
 torian who flourished in the 12tli century. 
 He was a native of Monmouth, became its 
 archdeacon, and was raised to the see of 
 St. Asaph ; but, in consequence of the dis- 
 turbed state of the north of Wales, he left 
 his bishopric, retiring at lirst to the monas- 
 tery of Abingdon, and then taking up his 
 abode at the court of Henry II. His chief 
 work is entitled "Chronicon sive Historia 
 Britonum," and is full of legendary tales re- 
 specting the early British monarchs. 
 
 GEOFFKOI, Stki'Uen Fkancis, a French 
 physician, and professor of chemistry at 
 Paris, where he was bom in 1072. He was 
 tlie author of a Pharmacopoeia, called " l^e 
 Code Mi'dicamentaire de la Faculte de Paris," 
 and was a niember of the Royal Society of 
 I^ondon. Died, 1731. 
 
 GEOFFRoY, Jui-iAX Louis, a French 
 critic, remarkable for the severity of his 
 dramatic censures. He conducted tlie Lite- 
 rary Annala after the death of Frcron, and 
 
 339 
 
 published a "Course of Dramatic Litera- 
 ture," in 5 vols. ; a " Commentary on 
 Racine," &c. Bom, 1743 ; died, 1814. 
 
 GEOFFROY, SxKiniKX Louis, an eminent 
 French pliysician and naturalist ; author of 
 a «' Manual of Practical Medicine for Sur- 
 geons," a " Dissertation on the Organ of 
 Hearing," a " History of Insects," S:c. Born, 
 172.5 ; died, 1810. 
 
 GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE, Eti- 
 ENNE, a distinguished zoologist and compara- 
 tive anatomist, sprung from a family well- 
 known in science, was born at Etampes, 1772. 
 He was originally destined for the church, but 
 he preferred dedicating himself to the science 
 of nature, a taste for which he had imbibed 
 from the instructions of Brisson, at the college 
 of Navarre, and in the companjy^ of IlaUy his 
 colleague at the college of Cardinal Lemoine. 
 During the massacres of September, 1792, he 
 saved, at the risk of his life, several priests, 
 and among others HaUy, who had been im- 
 prisoned for recusancy. This act of devotion 
 so endeared him to his teachers, especially 
 Daubenton, that he was through their in- 
 strumentality, in 1793, appointed to an office 
 in the Jardin des Plantes, where he founded 
 the vast zoological collections, which are one 
 of the glories of Paris. In 1798 he formed 
 one of the great scientific expedition to Egypt, 
 explored all the conquered countries, and 
 was one of the founders and most active 
 members of the Institute, of which he after- 
 wards became professor. In 1808 he went on 
 a great scientific mission to Portugal; in 1815 
 he was a member of the chamber during the 
 hundred days ; but, on the return of the 
 Bourbons, he retired from political life, and 
 thenceforward devoted himself solely to 
 study. The great merit of Geoflfroy Saint 
 Hilaire as a naturalist consists in his dis- 
 covery of the law of unity that pervades the 
 organic composition of all animal bodies — 
 a theory glanced at by Buffon and Goethe; 
 and in his having founded the theory of 
 " Analogues," or the method by which the 
 identity of organic materials is determined 
 in the midst of all their transformations. 
 With him too originated the doctrine of 
 " development," which has found so able a 
 supporter among ourselves in the author of 
 the " Vestiges of Creation." His chief works 
 are " Histoire Naturelle des Mammif&rcs," 
 "Philosophic Anatomlque," "Principes de 
 la Philosophic Zoologique," "Etudes Pro- 
 gressives," &c. Died, 1844. His " Life, 
 Works, and Theories " has since been pub- 
 lished by his son, who bids fair to emulate 
 his father's scientific zeal and ability. 
 
 GEORGE, Lewis, I., king of Great Bri- 
 tain, was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector 
 of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Frederic, 
 elector-palatine, and grand-daughter of 
 James I. He was born in 1000 ; was trained 
 to arms under his father ; married his cousin, 
 Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the Duke of 
 Zell, in 1682 ; served in three campaigns 
 with the emperor's army, against the Turks 
 in Hungary ; and succeeded to the electorate 
 in 1700. In 170<) he was created Duke of 
 Cambridge, and succeeded to the throne of 
 England on the death of Queen Anne, in 
 1714. The next j-ear a rebellion broke out 
 in Scotland, in favour of tlie Pretender, but 
 
GEO] 
 
 ^ i^cfco mnibtr^^l 33iOffra}Ji^i). 
 
 [GEO 
 
 this was Boon entirely quelled, and several 
 of the leaders lost their lives on the scaffold. 
 The new family, however, was by no means 
 popular ; and the Whigs, with a view to 
 support it, introduced septennial parlia- 
 ments ; while the king, who probably con- 
 sidered tlie British crown precarious, endea- 
 voured to increase his continental power by 
 the purchase of Bremen and Vcrden. This 
 involved him in a quarrel with Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, who, in conjunction with the czar 
 Peter, meditated an invasion of Scotland in 
 favour of the Pretender ; but the death of 
 Charles XII., in 1717, put an end to this 
 alarm. The same project was afterwards 
 attempted by Spain, whose minister. Cardinal 
 Alberoni, had formed the celebrated quad- 
 ruple alliance to carry it into effect. This 
 was met on the part of England by the sail- 
 ing of a naval expedition under Sir George 
 Byng, who nearly destroyed the whole of 
 the Spanish fleet, and recovered Sicily and 
 Sardinia, which the Spaniards had seized. 
 In 1720 the famous " South-sea Bubble " was 
 the source of great calamity to thousands of 
 families, and produced such disturbances, 
 that the king, who had gone to visit his 
 German possessions, was suddenly recalled. 
 In 1722 a new conspiracy against the govern- 
 ment was discovered, but no serious result 
 occurred from it. In 1725 a treaty between 
 Spain and the emperor excited the jealousy 
 of the king, who deemed it necessary to 
 coimteract it by another between Great Bri- 
 tain and most of the other European powers. 
 Tlie Spaniards then commenced the siege of 
 Gibraltar ; but all disputes being arranged 
 by negotiation, the British monarcli set out 
 on a journey to the Continent, where he was 
 seized with a paralytic attack, and died at 
 Osnaburg, June 11. 1727, in the G8th year 
 of his age, and the 13th of his reign. George 
 I. was plain and simple in his taste and 
 appearance ; though grave and sedate in 
 public, he was gay and familiar witli his in- 
 timates ; combining a good share of sense 
 vith natural prudence, and showing much 
 skill in the management of his hereditary 
 dominions. His marriage was an unhai)py 
 one, and he had repudiated his wife many 
 years before his death. 
 
 GEORGE, Augustus II., son of George 
 I., was born in 1G83 ; married, in 170,5, the 
 Princess Caroline, of Brandenburg- Anspach, 
 who died in 1737 ; came to England with his 
 fatlier at the accession of the latter ; was 
 created Prince of Wales ; and in 1727 suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. The country was at 
 this time in the most flourishing condition 
 both at home and abroad, and liad a powerful 
 influence in all the courts of Europe, Spain 
 excepted; but peace being restored in 1729, 
 great attention was given to the private 
 safety and welfare of the subjects. At length, 
 owing to an infraction of the late treaty by 
 the Spaniards, and their repeated encroach- 
 ments on our foreign trade and settlements, 
 war was declared against Spain in October, 
 1739 ; and Admiral Vernon was sent with a 
 squadron to the West Indies, where he de- 
 molished Porto Bello, but failed in his at- 
 tempt on Carthagena. In 1743 the king 
 headed his army on the Continent, and gained 
 the battle of Dcttingen. In 1745 the Pre- 
 
 tender's eldest son, Charles Stuart, called the 
 young Pretender, landed in the Higlilands, 
 and was joined by several clans. After ob- 
 taining various successes, the rebels were 
 finally defeated by the Duke of Cumberland, 
 at CuUoden, in 174(5. During these events 
 the king received numerous demonstrations 
 of attachment to his person and family ; and 
 it was obvious that the majority of the nation 
 were satisfied that, by supporting the House 
 of Hanover, they, in fact, maintained the in- 
 terests of civil liberty. In 1748, the war, 
 which had produced no good to England, was 
 concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 In 1751 died, universally lamented, Frederic, 
 prince of Wales, between whom and his 
 father there never was any cordiality. In 
 1755 war broke out between England and 
 France, which was at first very unpromising; 
 but soon after Mr. Pitt (first Earl of Chatham) 
 took the helm of state, public affairs wore a 
 different aspect. In 1758 a treaty was en- 
 tered into between England and Prussia. 
 Tlie French power was nearly destroyed in 
 the East Indies. In America, Louisburg 
 was taken ; and the capture of Quebec was 
 followed by the conquest of Canada. The 
 island of Gaudaloupe and the settlement of 
 Senegal were taken by the English. Ad- 
 miral Hawkc defeated the French fleet under 
 Conflans, and the British flag waved trium- 
 phant in every part of the world. Amid 
 these triumphant successes, George II. died 
 suddenly, Oct. 25. 1760, in the 77th year of 
 his age, and the 33d of his reign, lie was 
 a plain, blunt man ; of an ingenuous dispo- 
 sition, but hasty, obstinate, and parsimo- 
 nious ; and wholly regardless of science or 
 literature. Still he was not unpopular ; for 
 dying in the midst of a successful war, the 
 blaze of national glory would have been 
 strong enough to eclipse his personal defects, 
 had they even been much more glaring. 
 
 GEORGE III., king of Great Britain, el- 
 dest son of Frederic, prince of Wales, and 
 grandson of George II., was bom June 4. 
 1738, being the first sovereign of the Hano- 
 verian line that could boast of England as 
 the place of his nativity. On the death of 
 his father, in 1751, his education was en- 
 trusted to the Earl of Harcourt and the 
 Bishop of Norwich ; though he was greatly 
 indebted to the princess-dowager, his mo- 
 ther, for the formation of his mind and cha- 
 racter. He ascended the throne on the death 
 of his grandfather, in 1760, being then in 
 his 23rd year ; his reputation was unspotted; 
 and the first speeches he delivered to his 
 council and parliament were hailed as omi- 
 nous of a patriotic regard for the liberties of 
 the people, over whom he was destined to 
 rule. A highly prosperous war had made 
 the existing administration exceedingly po- 
 pular, and no immediate change was thought 
 necessary ; but the Earl of Bute had always 
 possessed great influence with the king, 
 while Prince of Wales ; and when Mr. Pitt 
 (who had been outvoted in the cabinet on 
 the subject of a war with Spain) resigned, 
 and was raised to the peerage as earl of 
 Chatham, Lord Bute was made prime mi- 
 nister. On the 8th of Sept. 17(51, he-married 
 the Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg 
 Strelitz. The new administration, formally 
 
GEO] 
 
 a ^c&j ^nihtv^nX JStagrajpl^i). 
 
 [GEO 
 
 headed by Tjord Bute, having entered into 
 negotiations with France and Spain, pre- 
 liminaries of peace were signed Nov. 3. 17G2, 
 at Fontaiiiebleau. In 1763, the country was 
 kept in continual agitation by political pam- 
 phlets and libels of various kinds ; foremost 
 among which was the memorable " No. XLV. 
 of the North Briton," by Wilkes ; tlie result 
 of which is said to have been favourable to 
 the interests of civil liberty. Be that as it 
 may, there was at the time a sort of infatu- 
 ation in favour of licentious and abusive 
 writings, ill calculated to beuciit public 
 morals, or to afford satisfaction to a well-in- 
 tentioned king. In 17«!4, Lord Bute retired, 
 and Mr. George Grenvillc, the new premier, 
 began those measures iu relation to the 
 American colonies, the consequences of 
 which proved so momentous, and the Ame- 
 rican stamp act was passed the following 
 year. The most alarming irritation pre- 
 vailed among the colonists. In the lower 
 house of representatives at Virginia, Patrick 
 Henry, a popular orator, exclaimed, " Cssar 
 had his Brutus, Charles the First his Crom- 
 well, and George the Third" — cries of 
 "Treason I " here interrupted the speaker ; 
 but, after a moment's pause, he continued, 
 " and George the Third may profit by their 
 example. If this be treason, make the most 
 of it." Early in this year, the king was at- 
 tacked by an illness of six weeks' duration, 
 which is supposed to have been similar in 
 its nature to, though less in its degree than, 
 the malady which obscured his latter days. 
 Soon alter his recovery, he went down to Uie 
 House of Peers, and, in a speech from the 
 throne, proposed a legislative enactment, by 
 which he might be enabled, under his sign 
 manual, from time to time, to appoint the 
 queen, or some other member of the royal 
 family, guardian to the heir apparent, and 
 regent of the kingdom. The bill was soon 
 afterwards brought into parliament, and 
 eventually passed ; although it met with so 
 much opposition in its progress, even from 
 some of the ministry, who wished the term 
 " royal family " to include only the descend- 
 ants of the late king, to the exclusion of the 
 princess dowager, that another change in the 
 administration ensued, and the Marquis of 
 Rockingham was placed at the head of the 
 treasury. The Rockingham party repealed 
 the obnoxious stamp act ; yet, notwithstand- 
 ing this and some other popular measures of 
 the new cabinet, it was dissolved in July, 
 1766. The Duke of Grafton succeeded the 
 Marquis of Rockingham as first lord of the 
 treasury, and the Earl of Chatham once 
 more took office ; but in 1768, being disgusted 
 wtth the conduct of his colleagues, he re- 
 signed the privy seal, and was succeeded by 
 Lord Bristol. The same year was distin- 
 guished by the return of Mr. Wilkes for 
 Middlesex, and the popular tumults attend- 
 ing upon his imprisonment and outlawry. 
 The aspect of affairs in America grew more 
 serious every day, and public discontent was 
 at its height ; when, at the close of the year 
 1769, Junius published his famous letter to 
 the king. At the beginning of 1770, Lord 
 North succeeded the Duke of Grafton, and 
 increased rather than alleviated the national 
 calamities. Popular clamour kept pace with 
 
 ministerial folly ; blood had been already 
 spilled in America ; and the city of London 
 delivered a bold and spirited address and 
 remonstrance to the king, which the king 
 replied to in terms expressive of his dis- 
 pleasure. In 1772, at the express recom- 
 meudation of his majesty, who felt highly 
 indignant at the recent union of his brother, 
 the Duke of Cumberland, with Mrs. llorton, 
 the royal marriage act was passed, whereby 
 all members of the royal family are prevented 
 from marrying before the age of 25, without 
 the king's approbation; as also, subsequently, 
 if disapproved of by both houses of parlia- 
 ment. The public events which followed, 
 important as they undoubtedly are, hardly 
 fall within the province of the biographer ; 
 we shall accordingly mention them only in- 
 cidentally, where they are necessary to con- 
 nect and render the narrative more complete; 
 suffice it to say, therefore, that after a long 
 war, during which France, Spain, and Hol- 
 land hostilely interfered in behalf of Ame- 
 rica, the independence of the United States 
 was formally acknowledged. In 1782, Lord 
 North resigned, and the Rockingham party 
 went into office ; but the new administration 
 soon afterwards broke up, on account of the 
 sudden death of the premier, and Lord Shel- 
 burne was placed at the head of the state, 
 with Mr. Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, 
 as chancellor of the exchequer. In 1783, 
 the memorable coalition ministry between 
 the parties respectively headed by Mr. Fox 
 and Lord North was formed, and they soon 
 succeeded in forcing themselves into office. 
 To this the king was decidedly hoctile ; and 
 as soon as Mr. Fox's famous India bill had 
 been rejected by the lords, he sent a message 
 to him and Lord North, commanding them 
 immediately to return him their seals of 
 office, bjf a messenger, as a personal inter- 
 view with them would be disagreeable to 
 him. On the following day Mr. Pitt became 
 prime minister ; and the firmness which the 
 king had displayed in the affair, and the 
 intrepidity with which he opposed the coali- 
 tion faction, gained him considerable popu- 
 larity. On the 2nd of August, 1786, a woman, 
 named Margaret Nicholson, attempted to 
 assassinate his majesty, at the garden en- 
 trance of St. James's Palace. While he was 
 in the act of receiving a paper from her, she 
 struck at him with a knife, which pierced 
 his waistcoat ; but, fortunately, did him no 
 injury. She was about to repeat the thrust, 
 when a yeoman of the guard caught her arm, 
 and at the same moment a footman wrenched 
 the knife from her grasp. The king, with 
 extraordinary coolness, said, "Don t hurt 
 the woman : poor creature, she is mad 1 " 
 which proved to be the case, and she was 
 at once consigned to Bedlam. In 1789, the 
 king was afflicted with mental aberration, 
 which lasted from the beginning of Novem- 
 ber till the following February ; when on 
 the 22na, to the surprise and joy of his 
 minister, he received a note, stating that 
 " the king renewed, with great satisfaction, 
 his communication with Mr. Pitt, after the 
 long suspension of their intercourse ; " and 
 when Mr. Pitt waited on him at the ap- 
 pointed time, he found him quite rational. 
 On the 23rd of April, the king, accompanied 
 
 o a 3 
 
GEO] 
 
 ^ f.ebi Winiittr^Kl l3t0rjrapTu'« 
 
 [GEO 
 
 by his family, proceeded to St. Paul's, in 
 the midst of a vast concourse of spectators, 
 to return solemn thanks for his recovery ; 
 and so extravagant was the loyalty of the 
 public at this period, that the congregation 
 were with difficulty restrained from bursting 
 out into plaudits. A war with revolution- 
 ised France now appeared inevitable ; and 
 it was evident that the views of ministers 
 met witli the king's full concurrence in re- 
 gard to its vigorous prosecution. But it was 
 an awful time for the sovereign ; for though 
 he could depend on the loyalty of the great 
 body of his subjects, there were not a few 
 who were infected witli the regicidal mania 
 of France, and who thought tliat a republic 
 would be cheaply purchased by the blood of 
 a king. On the 2yth of Oct. 1795, an attempt 
 was made to assassinate him while he was 
 proceeding to the House of Lords, to open 
 parliament in person. In 1798, public dis- 
 tress appeared to liave readied its climax ; 
 but we must pass over tliese scenes, as well 
 as the Irish rebellion, which broke out during 
 this year, and the events of the war, as 
 matters which pertain to the history of our 
 country, rather tlian to that of the king ; and 
 proceed to the narration of anotlier attempt 
 on his life. On the loth of May, while liis 
 majesty was present at a review in Hyde 
 Park, a gentleman standing near him was 
 wounded l)y a musket-ball, and carried off 
 the ground. Whether this was the effect of 
 accident or not, no one could tell ; but it pro- 
 duced a great sensation in the minds of the 
 king's attendants, and they endeavoured to 
 persuade him to forego his intention of visit- 
 ing Drury Lane Theatre that evening. 
 However, the royal visit had been publicly 
 announced, and his majesty was determined 
 not to disappoint those who expected him. 
 The king and queen, with some of the prin- 
 cesses, accordingly went. A moment after 
 tlie king had entered his box, and while he 
 was in the act of bowing to the audience, a 
 man who sat in the middle of the pit, near 
 the orchestra, fired off a horse-pistol at him ; 
 but the assassin's arm having fortunately 
 been a little elevated by a person near him, 
 who had observed his intent, the charge 
 lodged in the roof of the royal box. The 
 culprit was immediately seized, and the 
 pistol, wliich he had dropi^ed, was found 
 beneath the seat. Terror and indignation 
 were depicted on every countenance, except 
 that of the king, who stepped back, with the 
 greatest composure, to the box door, saying 
 to the queen and princesses, who were at that 
 moment entering, " Keep back, keep back ; 
 they are firing squibs for diversion, and per- 
 haps there may be more." The loyalty of 
 the spectators was raised to the highest 
 pitch of enthusiasm by his majesty's firmness. 
 The audience rose, and, amid repeated cheers, 
 " God save the king 1 " was three times sung 
 by the whole house, witli the following 
 stanza, supplied impromptu by Sheridan -.-^ 
 " From every latent foe, 
 
 From the assassin's blow, 
 God save the king 1 
 
 O'er him thine arm extend, 
 
 For Britain's sake defend 
 
 Our father, prince, and friend : 
 God save the king 1 " 
 
 On interrogating the man who had com- 
 mitted this outrage, it was found that his 
 name was Hatfield, and that he had for- 
 merly belonged to the loth light dragoons ; 
 but, having received eight sabre wounds in 
 the head, he had been discharged on account 
 of insanity, and admitted an out-pensioner of 
 Chelsea Hospital. He was, notwithstanding, 
 subsequently indicted for high treason ; but 
 the jury being satisfied that he was of un- 
 sound mind, he was transferred to the cus- 
 tody of the keepers of Bethlem Hospital. 
 Some time after, when Sheridan was com- 
 plimenting his majesty on the extraordinary 
 resolution he had displayed, and observing 
 what an awful confusion would have taken 
 place had he abruptly quitted the theatre, 
 the king replied, "I should have despised 
 myself for ever had I stirred a single inch : 
 a man, on such an occasion, should need 
 no prompting, but immediately feel what is 
 his duty, and do it." This year (1800) the 
 act of union between Great Britain and Ire- 
 land was passed ; and in order to bring 
 those over who opposed the measure, the 
 ministers allowed a tacit understanding to 
 prevail, that it would be followed by cer- 
 tain political concessions. George III., how- 
 ever, could never be persuaded that he could 
 admit the Catholics to political power, with- 
 out violating the spirit of his coronation 
 oath ; the consequence of which was, the 
 retirement from office of Mr. Pitt and his 
 colleagues in 1801, and the formation of a 
 new ministry, headed by Mr. Addington. 
 Negotiations were now speedily entered into, 
 and preliminaries of peace signed, wh: ch led 
 to the treaty of Amiens. The king, however, 
 considered that peace at that time was impo- 
 litic, unsafe, and unwise ; and he consented 
 to it with great reluctance. It was, in fact, 
 very unpopular ; and when the resumption 
 of hostilities took place in 1803, there was 
 an evident demonstration of public satisfac- 
 tion throughout all ranks. The Addington 
 administration proved incompetent to the 
 task they had undertaken ; and Mr. Pitt, 
 with his friends and adherents, in 1804, again 
 took the helm of state ; but this highly 
 gifted statesman died in 180G, and the Greii- 
 ville party, which Fox had joined, went into 
 office. In 1807, Lord Grenville and his col- 
 leagues attempted to change the king's 
 opinions with regard to Catholic emancipa- 
 tion ; but his majesty was inflexible, and 
 declared, "that although he had firmness 
 sufficient to quit his throne and retire to a 
 cottage, or place his neck on a block, if his 
 people required it, yet he had not resolu- 
 tion to break the oath which he had taken, 
 in the most solemn manner at his corona- 
 tion ! " This led to the ejection of the Fox 
 and the Grenville party, and the Perceval 
 administration succeeded them. On the 2jth 
 of October, 1809, the venerable monarch 
 commenced the oOth year of his reign ; and 
 a jubilee took place on the occasion, which, 
 from its universality, its splendour, and the 
 large sums which were raised by subscrip- 
 tion for the benefit of the poor, reflected the 
 highest credit on the national character for 
 loyalty and true benevolence. The rapid 
 decay of the king's sight at this period was 
 very apparent, and considerably aflccted his 
 
Geo] 
 
 ^ iSitbi Unibn^nl MiaQva^\)\j, 
 
 [GEO 
 
 spirits ; and the death of liis youngest and ! 
 darling child, the Princess Amelia, which 
 happened towards the close of 1810, gave 
 him a shock from which he never recovered. 
 His former malady returned, and, early in 
 December, it had assumed so violent a cha- 
 racter, that but slight hopes were entertained 
 of his recovery. A regency bill Avas there- 
 fore passed, similar to that proposed by Mr. 
 Pitt in 1788. The remaining years of the 
 king's life are little more than a blank in 
 biography ; for his lucid intervals were " few 
 and far between ; " but, it is said, that in 
 1814, when the allied sovereigns visited Eng- 
 land, he evinced indications of returning 
 reason ; and on being made acquainted with 
 the astonishing events which had recently 
 occurred, he appeared greatly delighted, and 
 even expressed a wish to see the royal visitors 
 — a wish which it was not deemed proper to 
 indulge. At length deafness was added to 
 his other calamities ; and his manner and 
 appearance are described as pitiable in the 
 extreme. On the 17th of November, 1818, 
 the queen died ; but the king never became 
 acquainted with her death, or the subsequent 
 appointment of the Duke of York to the 
 office of custos of his person. At the latter 
 end of 1819, his appetite began to fail ; his 
 weakness rapidly increased ; and on the 29th 
 of January, 1820, he breathed his last, in the 
 82nd year of his age, and the 51)th of his 
 reign. The political character of George III. 
 may be deduced from the course of policy 
 pursued during his long and eventful reign, 
 for no limited monarch ever had a more 
 decided influence on public affairs. He lived 
 in i)erilou8 times, when thrones and states 
 tottered around him ; but he was firm and 
 consistent ; and, rather than give up any 
 opinion he had conscientiously formed, or 
 deviate from what appeared to him to be the 
 strict line of duty, he would have descended 
 from the throne, though it were to mount 
 the scaffold. If his obstinacy were censur- 
 able on some occasions, his unflinching firm- 
 ness, even in the face of danger, was ad- 
 mirable on others ; and he certainly merits 
 the credit of having formed his principles 
 upon just grounds, and of steadily adhering 
 to them. His deportment as a father and a 
 husband accorded with the strictest notions 
 of propriety ; and the morality and decorum 
 of his court afforded a happy contrast to the 
 lewdness and profligacy of many others, and 
 had a decided tendency to discountenance 
 the shameless practices which were else- 
 where notoriously prevalent. He was re- 
 ligious, temperate, and sincere ; and, in all 
 his tastes and amusements, so plain and 
 practical, that he may be said to have ap- 
 proached almost to patriarchal simplicity. 
 Without being a patron of literature and 
 the arts, in the most extensive sense of the 
 word, George III. was favourable to their 
 advancement. He was particularly fond of 
 music, and afforded considerable encourage- 
 ment to its professors. He granted a charter 
 to the society of artists ; knighted its first 
 president, Reynolds ; and patronised his 
 successor. West ; who, in the course of thirty 
 years, painted sixty-four pictures for the 
 king, and received for them 34,187i!. He 
 also aided the cause of science by the en- 
 
 313 
 
 couragement he afforded to Cook, Byron, 
 and Wallis, the navigators ; Hersciiel, and 
 other men eminent for their professional 
 attainments. But it is for the qualities we 
 have before enumerated, and not for bril- 
 liant attainments, or his patronage of the 
 learned and scientific, that the name of 
 George III. will be transmitted to posterity. 
 GEORGE IV., Augustus Fukokhic, king 
 of Great Britain, &c., the eldest son of George 
 III. by Queen Charlotte, was born, Aug. 1*2. 
 17C2. His education, together with that of 
 his brother Frederic, was entrusted to Dr. 
 Markham, subsequently archbishop of York, 
 with the assistance of Dr. Cyril Jackson, as 
 sub-preceptor ; and after, 177(5, to Dr. Hurd, 
 bishop of Worcester, and Mr. Arnold of St. 
 John's College, Cambridge. Tlie prince was 
 by no means deficient in natural abilities ; 
 and under his tutors he acquired a competent 
 knowledge of literature and science. Nor 
 was the ornamental part of education ne- 
 glected ; and, as he possessed a handsome 
 person, buoyant spirits, and agreeable man- 
 ners, he soon Injcamc tlie idol of the world 
 of fashion, and attained considerable popu- 
 larity among all classes. It was, however, 
 apparent that, great as his talents might be, 
 his love of dissipation, whicli preys on the 
 intellect while it debases the heart, was still 
 greater, and, apparently, unconquerable. 
 Up to his eighteeutli year, the prince had 
 been restricted as much as possible to the 
 society of his relatives and tutors ; but he 
 now associated with the Whig nobility, and 
 formed political connections with Lord 
 Moira, Fox, Sheridan, &c., while he figured 
 in the annals of intrigue and gallantry as the 
 protector of the beautiful and accomplished 
 Mrs. Robinson. This lady, although only 
 three years older than the prince, had for 
 some time been married ; and, as an actress, 
 had first attracted his notice when perform- 
 ing Perdita, in the Winter's Tale. The 
 public prints for a time teemed with minute 
 details of this " romantic attachment ; " 
 novels " founded on fact " were written, and 
 " authentic histories" invented ; when, on 
 a sudden, some new beauty presented herself, 
 and " the lovely Perdita " was doomed to 
 weep over the faithlessness of princely love. 
 At length these evanescent amours gave way 
 to a more permanent connection with Mrs. 
 Fitzherbert, a widow lady of good family, and 
 a professed Catholic ; who, although seven 
 years older than himself, still retained a 
 good share of personal beauty, and, to use 
 the prince's own expressive term, was " fat, 
 fair, and forty." It was understood at the 
 time, and it has never been disproved, though 
 denied, that a private marriage actually took 
 place. This circumstance not only seriously 
 displeased the king, but also became the 
 subject of public animadversion ; such a 
 contract being a violation of the act of settle- 
 ment, which seated tlie House of Hanover on 
 the throne, and a direct opposition to the 
 more recent royal marriage act. His dissi- 
 pated mode of life, and the building of 
 Carlton House, had loaded him with a debt 
 of more than 250,000/. sterling, his annual 
 income being at this time .50,000/. He adopted 
 a variety of expedients to raise sufficient 
 funds for the satisfaction of his creditors ; 
 
GBO] 
 
 ^ i^cbi Winibtv^aX IStosrajjI^w. 
 
 [GEO 
 
 all of which having apparently proved fruit- 
 less, he, at length, applied to his majesty. 
 The king, however, was so irritated by his 
 extravagance, tliat he refused to afford liim 
 any aid whatever. He tlierefore adopted a 
 system of retrenchment, which lie persevered 
 in for nearly a year. He sold off his stud of 
 racing horses, discharged many of his ser- 
 vants, and intimated his resolution of living 
 in a state of retirement, so that he might be 
 enabled to save such a portion of his income, 
 as would, in time, liquidate his debts. At 
 length, in 1787, his case was brought before 
 parliament ; and the king having announced 
 his intention of adding 10,000^ per annum 
 to his son's income out of the civil list, the 
 house voted IGl.OW/. to satisfy the prince's 
 creditors, and 20,000?. for the completion of 
 Carlton House. This for a time patched up 
 
 I his credit ; but his habits of expense frus- 
 trated all hopes of his living within his in- 
 come. A sumptuous residence had been 
 prepared for Mrs. Fitzherbert at Brighton, 
 which place he had previously raised from 
 obscurity into fashionable importance, by 
 
 I making it his usual place of abode during 
 the summer months : her furniture and 
 equipages were magnificent ; and in dia- 
 monds she is said to have been almost as 
 rich as the queen. But though attached to 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert, he was not wholly hers. 
 Many demireps of fashion fluttered round 
 him, and shared his attentions, the most no- 
 torious of whom was the Countess of Jersey. 
 Yet in the midst of his dissipation, foppery, 
 and extravagance, many traits of noble- 
 mindedness were seen ; and hopes were en- 
 tertained that the blandishments of beauty 
 would ere long cease to lead him from com- 
 panions and pursuits so degrading to tlie 
 princely character, and so inimical to the 
 welfare of those over whom he might soon 
 be called to govern. The king and his 
 ministers were anxious that the heir-ap- 
 parent should marry ; but he had repeatedly 
 expressed his aversion to a royal union, and 
 even said, that he would willingly forfeit Ids 
 right to the throne, rather than agree to it. 
 At length, being encumbered with debts, he 
 was induced by the conditional promise of 
 their liquidation, together with an increase 
 of his income, to consent to a match with his 
 cousin, the Princess Caroline Amelia Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick. 
 She arrived in this country, April 5. 179,) ; 
 their marriage was celebrated on the 8th, 
 and on the following day they proceeded to 
 Windsor, whither they were accompanied 
 by Lady Jersey, for whose establishment in 
 his household the prince had peremptorily 
 provided. The princess soon discovered his 
 close intimacy with her ladyship, and also 
 found that Mrs. Fitzherbert had procured 
 from him a superb mansion in Park Lane, a 
 magnificent outfit, a pension of 10,000?. per 
 annum, and an assurance that, notwith- 
 standing his marriage, the attention he had 
 pre\aously shown her should still be con- 
 tinued. By degrees the whole of the mor- 
 tifying circumstances were disclosed to her 
 — iiis debts and dissipation, his reluctant 
 consent to the marriage, and the true object 
 of it, — and, lastly, the neglect with which he 
 treated her, while he lavished liis caresses 
 
 on others — all tending to wound her pride 
 and rouse her just resentment. But it is 
 needless to particularise the scenes of domes- 
 tic discord. The Princess of Wales gave birth 
 to a daughter (the Princess Charlotte) in 
 January, 1796 ; and the prince, shortly after, 
 sent her proposals for a separation, to which 
 she promptly acceeded. Little else occurred 
 to disclose to the public their mutual aver- 
 sion till the year 1804, when the right to the 
 guardianship and charge of their daughter 
 was maintained on both sides with mucli 
 acrimony. The result was that George the 
 Third undertook the care of the young prin- 
 cess, and her mother retired to a private 
 residence at Blackheath, where she re- 
 mained, subject to many indignities and 
 mortifying suspicions, till she quitted the 
 country in 1814. 
 
 When Napoleon threatened England with 
 an invasion, the prince, then only colonel of 
 a regiment of dragoons, while his brothers 
 were generals, and the Duke of York was 
 commander-in-chief, desired to be placed in 
 a more ostensible situation ; but the ministry 
 coolly declined his request. He accordingly 
 appealed to the king, imploring permission 
 " to display the best energies of his charac- 
 ter," and, if necessary, " to shed the last drop 
 of his blood in support of his majesty's per- 
 son, crown, and dignity ; " to which his father 
 briefly answered that if the enemy should 
 land, his royal highness would have an op- 
 portunity of showing his zeal at the head of 
 his regiment. In consequence of George the 
 Third's incapacity, through mental derange- 
 ment, to exercise the regal functions, the 
 prince was appointed regent, with certain re- 
 strictions, in February, 1811 ; but in the fol- 
 lowing year the restrictions were taken off, 
 and he entered into all the substantial attri- 
 butes of royalty. The state of public affairs 
 had long been truly critical ; but our re- 
 peated victories in the Peninsula had ren- 
 dered the prospect more cheering ; and, at 
 length, its final abandonment by the French, 
 and the failure of Napoleon's invasion of 
 Russia, made way for the restoration of 
 Louis XVIII., who declared himself indebted 
 for his crown, under God, to the prince re- 
 gent of England. Soon after (in 1814), the 
 prince received a visit from the emperor of 
 Russia, the king of Prussia, and other foreign, 
 princes, heroes, and statesmen, whom he en- 
 tertained with dignified hospitality. The 
 battle of Waterloo gave a successful issue to 
 the long and desperate struggle between the 
 allied powers and the ambition of Napoleon ; 
 who, hurled from the pinnacle of greatness, 
 supplicated the prince regent for an asylum 
 in this country, in the following words : 
 "Like Themistocles, I throw myself upon 
 the protection of the most persevering, but 
 the most generous, of my enemies." What- 
 ever inclination the regent might have had 
 to comply with this request, certain it is that 
 he had not the power individually to grant 
 it ; and the French emperor was accordingly 
 sent to his solitary and distant exile. In 
 May, 1816, his daughter, the Princess Char- 
 lotte, was united to Prince Leopold of Saxe 
 Coburg (now king of Belgium) ; and when, 
 in the following year, she died, it threw her 
 father into such a paroxysm of grief, as to 
 
or 
 
 OEO] 
 
 ^ llefiD ^nibcriJat 33i0flra|)]^g. 
 
 [gek 
 
 bring on a serious illness. Notwithstanding 
 the war had been splendidly terminated, 
 peace did not bring with it its usual atten- 
 dant, plenty ; a spirit of discontent, for 
 several years, pervaded a large mass of the 
 people ; and an unsuccessful attempt was 
 made on tlie life of the prince regent, as he 
 was going to Westminster, .January 28. 1817, 
 to open the session of parliament. In 1819 
 and 1820, very serious riots occurred in the 
 large manufacturing towns ; and in tlic me- 
 tropolis, a few desperate men, known after- 
 wards as the Cato Street conspirators, were 
 tried and executed for plotting to assassinate 
 the prince and tlie leading members of the 
 administration. On the 29th of January, 
 
 1820, George IV. succeeded to the tlirone on 
 the death of his father ; and was crowned in 
 Westminster Abbey, with great pomp, July 
 19. 1821. Previous to this, a process was in- 
 stituted in the llouse of Lords, against the 
 queen, for the purpose of depriving her of 
 the rights and privileges of the queen of 
 England. [See Caroline.] In the August of 
 
 1821, the king visited Ireland ; in September 
 he went to Hanover ; and in 1822, he paid a 
 similar visit to Scotland. On his return, he 
 sent the Duke of Wellington to the congress 
 of Verona ; and, at the earnest solicitation 
 of Lord Liverpool, he appointed Mr. Canning 
 to succeed Lord Londonderry as secretary of 
 foreign affairs, although his opposition to the 
 proceedings against the queen had greatly 
 offended liim. Lord Liverpool still con- 
 tinued premier, but the new secretary made 
 a considerable alteration in the system pur- 
 sued by gavernment, by the introduction of 
 more liberal measures, and the secession of 
 England from the Holy Alliance. In 1825, 
 our army in India gained great advantages 
 over the Burmese, by whicli our empire in 
 the East was materially augmented. In 
 April, 1827, the Earl of Liverpool became 
 totally incapacitated for office, owing to a 
 paralytic affection, and Mr. Canning was 
 appointed premier ; but in less than four 
 months this enlightened and popular minis- 
 ter expired. Lord Goderich succeeded him ; 
 but he retained office only till the following 
 January, when most of the leading Tories, 
 with the Duke of Wellington at their head, 
 returned to power. The most remarkable 
 event in the latter part of the reign of George 
 IV. was the bill for abolishing the political 
 disabilities of the Roman Catholics, passed 
 in April, 1829. During the latter period of 
 the king's life he had suffered much from 
 the gout and other infirmities of age ; on 
 which account, in some measure, but prin- 
 cipally, it is said, owing to his excessive dis- 
 like of being exposed to public gaze, he was 
 seldom seen out of his own circles ; till at 
 length he lield his courts entirely at Wind- 
 sor, and passed nearly the wliole of his time 
 in comparative seclusion at the royal cot- 
 tage. He lingered for a long time, and suf- 
 fered greatly ; at length, on the 2(5th of June, 
 1830, a blood-vessel burst in his stomach, 
 and he almost instantly expired, faintly ex- 
 claiming " This is death." As regent and 
 sovereign, George IV. held the sceptre of 
 Great Britain twenty years ; and the mighty 
 events which took place during the early 
 part of that period were such as cannot fail 
 
 345 
 
 to give lilm a prominent situation in the 
 annals of his country. In the spirit of im- 
 partial biography we liave been compelled 
 to notice a long course of dissipation and ex- 
 travagance, which, whatever be the age or 
 station of him who indulges in it, inevitably 
 tends to degrade the manly character, and 
 to debase the noblest faculties. But let us 
 not, in closing this article, omit to state, 
 that he had many redeeming points of cha- 
 racter, and possessed some splendid qualities; 
 that he was naturally kind and generous ; 
 that his whole life was sprinkled with acts 
 of private l)enevolence ; that he encouraged 
 the literature of his country ; that he was 
 the munificent patron of our public institu- 
 tions, whether for charitable objects, or for 
 the advancement of science ; and that, in 
 short, had he quaffed less from the intoxi- 
 cating cup of pleasure, he might have been 
 every way worthy of tlie age in which he 
 lived, and the people over whom he ruled. 
 
 GEORGEL, John Fkancis, originally a 
 Jesuit, but on the suppression of the order 
 he became secretary to the French ambas- 
 sador at Vienna. In tlie early part of the 
 revolution he was compelled to emigrate, 
 but returned in 1800, and refused a hJsliop- 
 ric. He wrote a work, entitled "Memoirs 
 towards a History of Events from 1760 to 
 180()." (5 vols. Born, 1721 ; died, 1813. 
 
 GEORGES, Chevalier de St., a violinist 
 and musical composer. He was a native of 
 Guadaloupe, and usually resided in Paris, 
 where, as well as in England, he was equally 
 celebrated for his skill as a sword-player 
 as for his performances on the violin. Died, 
 1801. 
 
 GEORGIADES, Anastasif.s, a modern 
 Greek author, bom in 1770, at Philippolis. 
 He published at Lcipsic a work in mo<lern 
 Greek, called " Anthropology," and another 
 on the pronunciation of Ancient Greek. He 
 was a physician at Bucharest. 
 
 GERAMB, Baron Fekdixaxd, bom in 
 1770 ; an adventurer (descended from a Hun- 
 garian noble family), who headed a corps 
 of partisans against France, when she in- 
 vaded Austria in 1805 and 1806. On the re- 
 volution breaking out in Spain, he offered 
 his services to the Cortes ; and was em- 
 ployed till the unfavourable results of the 
 campaign urged liim to visit England, in 
 1811, to obtain supplies and assistance. In 
 this he failed ; but being pursued by his 
 creditors, and hunted by bailiffs, he distin- 
 guished himself by a defence of liis villa 
 against the latter, who besieged him for 
 15 days. The alien act was now, however, 
 brought to bear on him, and he was deported, 
 as a mauvaM svjet, to Denmark. There he 
 was claimed by Napoleon, who shut him up 
 in Vincennes, in 181 2. The first abdication set 
 him free, 1814 ; and he finished his career by 
 becoming a monk of La Trappe. His letters 
 to Earl Moira, on the affairs of Spain, and 
 to Sophia, in 1810, made some noise ; and lie 
 was for some time the " lion " of the fashion- 
 able circles. 
 
 GERANDO, Baron de, a distinguished 
 writer on philosophical subjects, was bom 
 at Lyons, 1772 ; educated by the Oratorians, 
 took part in 1793 in the defence of his native 
 city against the troops of the Convention, 
 
gek] 
 
 ^ ^ci3) iJntljfr^al MitfcpcapM' 
 
 [ger 
 
 was forced to flee in consequence, returned 
 in 1796, and was present ret tlie battle of 
 Zuricli, 1799. But in the heart of the camp 
 he had found time to cultivate literature ; 
 for his " Comparative History of the Systems 
 of Philosophy " (first published as a small 
 tract, and gradually augmented till, in 1847, 
 it extended to eight volumes) attracted the 
 notice of Lucien Buonaparte, who made him 
 secretary-general to the minister of the in- 
 terior in 1804 ; and in 180") he accompanied 
 Napoleon to Italy, where he remained for 
 some years endeavouring to introduce the 
 French system of administration. The rest 
 of his life was spent chiefly in promoting 
 Bclicmcs upon the moral and physical im- 
 provement of the people. In 1837 he was 
 raised to the peerage. Died, 1842. 
 
 GERARD, Alexander, a Scotch divine 
 and writer, was born at Garioch, Aberdeen- 
 shire, in 1728. He was educated at Aberdeen 
 and Edinburgh, and in 17.")2 he became pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy in Marischal Col- 
 lege. In 1759 he was appointed professor of 
 divinity, took his doctor's degree, and in 
 1771 he obtained the theological professorship 
 in King's College, Aberdeen. He was the 
 author of " An Essay on Taste," " Disserta- 
 tions on the Genius and Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity," " An Essay on Genius," two vo- 
 lumes of sermons, and a " Discourse on the 
 Pastoral Care." 
 
 GERARD, Fran?ots, a French liistorical 
 painter, of the highest merit. lie became, 
 at the early age of 14, a pupil of the cele- 
 brated David, and is thought by many good 
 judges to have equalled, if not in some cases 
 to liave surpassed, his master. His battle- 
 pieces are extremely grand ; but probably liis 
 portraits of the Buonaparte family and of tlie 
 allied sovereigns are his finest achievements. 
 Born. 1770 ; died, 1837. 
 
 GERARD, Louis, an eminent French phy- 
 sician and botanist, born in 1733. He was 
 distinguished for his researches in various 
 branches of natural science ; and he first 
 noticed the natural affinities of plants, in 
 liis " Gerardi Flora Gallo-Proviucialis." 
 Died, 1819. 
 
 GERARD DE RAYNEVAL, JosErn 
 Matthias, a French diplomatist, who for a 
 long series of years was employed as secretary 
 in political missions, and subsequently be- 
 came chief of the division in the office of 
 foreign aflFairs. He greatly distinguished him- 
 self both by his diplomatic talents and his 
 published opinions. Born, 1736 ; died, 1812. 
 
 GERARD THOM. or TENQUE, founder 
 of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, was 
 born at Amalfl, about the year 1040. He 
 first visited Jerusalem for commercial ob- 
 jects ; but in 1100 he took the religious habit, 
 and associated with others, who^ made the 
 vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience : 
 the object of their institution being to defend 
 Christian pilgrims in their journey to and 
 from the Holy Land. Thus arose the power- 
 ful order of knights hospitalers of St. Jolm, 
 who afterwards became the knights of Malta, 
 and acquired such distinguished fame» Died, 
 1120. 
 
 GERARDE, John, an English botanist 
 and surgeon, bom at Nantwicli in Cheshire, 
 in 1545, and died in 1607. He was the author 
 
 of " Catalogus Arborum, Fruticum, et Plan- 
 tarum," and the " Herbal, or General His- 
 tory of Plants," a work which contributed to 
 diffuse a taste for botany. 
 
 GERARDEN, Sebastian, an eminent 
 French naturalist; author of" Tableau Ele- 
 mentaire de Botanique," &c. Born, 1751 ; 
 died, 1810. 
 
 GERARDS, Mark, a painter of Bruges, 
 was bom in 1561. About 1580 he came to 
 England, and was appointed painter to queen 
 Elizabeth. He was eminent in history, por- 
 traits, and landscapes ; and died in 1635. 
 
 GERBAIS, Jean, a French civilian, doctor 
 of the Sorbonne, professor of rhetoric at the 
 roj'al college of Paris, and principal of the 
 college of Rheims, died in that city in 1609. 
 He wrote " De Causis Majoribus," "A Letter 
 on the Ornaments and Luxury of Female 
 Dress," &c. 
 
 GERBj:LrUS, Nicholas, professor of ju- 
 risprudence at the university of Strasburg ; 
 autJior of the " Life of Cuspinian," a treatise 
 on the " Rise and Progress of the Anabap- 
 tists," &c. Died, 1500. 
 
 GERBERT, Maktin, a dignified eccle- 
 siastic, born in the Austrian states in 1790. 
 He was prince-abbot of the Benedictine mo- 
 nastery at St. Blair, in the Black Forest ; 
 and was eminent for his knowledge of, and 
 taste for, the fine arts, particularly music. 
 He travelled throughout the Continent for 
 the materials of a work on the history of 
 church music, and in 1774 it appeared under 
 the title of" De Cantu et Musica Sacra a prima 
 Ecclesiae ^tate usque ad presens Tempus." 
 A still more valuable one, now very scarce, 
 appeared in 1784, entitled " Scriptores Eccle- 
 siastioi de MusicA Sacra potissimum." Died, 
 1703. 
 
 GERBIER, Sir Balthasae, a painter, 
 was born at Antwerp in 1592. He came to 
 England with Reubens, and was knighted by 
 Cliarles I., who made him his agent at Brus- 
 sels, and employed him in different nego- 
 tiations. At the Restoration he prepared 
 the triumphal arches for the reception of the 
 king. Died, 1607. 
 
 GERBILLON, John Francis, a Jesuit 
 missionary in China, horn in 1654. He wrote 
 "Observations on Great Tartary," and an 
 account of his travels is inserted in Du 
 Halde's History of China. He was in great 
 favour with the emperor, for whom he com- 
 posed the Elements of Geometry,, and was 
 his instructor in mathematics and philoso- 
 phy. He was also allowed to preach the 
 Christian religion in Cliina, and finally 
 became superior-general of all the Jesuit 
 missionaries sent from France. He died at 
 Pekin in 1707. 
 
 GERDIL, HrACiNTn Sigissiond, an Ita- 
 lian cai'dinal, was born at Samoeus, in Pied- 
 mont, in 1718. He entered the Barnabite 
 order, and in 1742 was chosen professor of 
 philosophy at Macerata ; from which place 
 he went to Turin, where he was appointed 
 tutor to the prince royal of Sardinia. In 
 1777 he was made a cardinal, and removed 
 to Rome, where for many years he lived in 
 comparative retirement ; but he strenuously 
 opposed the negotiations with the consular 
 government of France in 1801, and treated 
 the concordat proi>osed by Buonaparte as a 
 
ger] 
 
 ^ l^cto mixibtv^Kl 2Stogtai)]by» 
 
 [get 
 
 liypocritical farce. He wrote several works 
 on religious subjects, aud died at Rome in 
 1802. 
 
 GERLACH, Stephen, a German Protest- 
 ant divine, was born in Suabia in 1540. He 
 was educated at Tubingen, and t)ecame 
 chaplain to the imperial embassy at Con- 
 stantinople, where he resided five years. On 
 his return he was appointed professor of 
 divinity and dean of Tubingen, and died in 
 1(512. His works are, " An Epitome of Ec- 
 clesiastical History," "Journal of the Em- 
 bassy to the Porte," " Dissertations," &c. 
 j GERLE, A. C, a Frencli revolutionary 
 I ecclesiastic, born in 17(J9, who in the states- 
 general, in 1789, pronounced against his 
 order. He subsequently connected himself 
 with a prophetess, named Suzannel, who 
 proclaimed the political millenium ; and in 
 1793, he was head of the sect of the pro- 
 phetess, Catherine Theor, who called herself 
 the Mother of God, and was believed in and 
 protected bv Robespierre. 
 
 GERMANICUS, C^ar, the son of Clau- 
 dius Drusus Nero, and the younger Antonia, 
 a niece of Augustus, was adopted by Tiberius, 
 bis paternal uncle. He was at the head of 
 the Roman armies in Germany when Au- 
 gustus died ; and after gaining many great 
 victories there, Tiberius, jealous of liis ne- 
 phew's glory, called him home under pre- 
 tence of granting him a triumph. In order, 
 however, to get rid of a man whose popu- 
 larity appeared dangerous, he sent him, in- 
 vested with almost absolute power, into the 
 east, where he died, under strong suspicions 
 of being poisoned, a.d. 19, aged 34. His death 
 was regarded at Rome as a public loss, and 
 all tlie houses were closed on the day of his 
 funeral. 
 
 GERM ANUS, patriarch of Constantinople 
 in the 8th century, was a zealous defender 
 of image-worship, for which he was de- 
 graded, in a council held at Constantinople, 
 in 7.'iO. 
 
 GERSON, Jony Charliee de, an emi- 
 nent French divine, born at Gerson, in 
 Cliampagne, in 13(]3. He was chancellor of 
 the university of Paris, and canon of Notre 
 Dame ; and he distinguished himself by his 
 piety, his writings, and his defence of the 
 council of Constance against the authority 
 of the pope. Died, 1421. 
 
 GERSON, JouN, abbot of Vercei, in the 
 12th century, by whom the book entitled 
 "De Imitatione Christi," which bears the 
 name of Thomas &-Kempis, was, as it now 
 appears, really written. 
 
 GERSTEIN, CuKiSTiAN Louis, a mathe- 
 matician, was bom at Giessen, in 1701 ; ap- 
 pointed to the professorship of mathematics 
 there in 1733 ; but was afterwards deprived 
 of it for not submitting to the decision of a 
 court of justice in a lawsuit. He died in 
 17(32. He wrote some Latin works on ba- 
 rometrical observations j a " New Method of 
 calculating Eclipses," &c. 
 
 GERVAISE, Armand Franxjis, a French 
 ecclesiastic of the order of the Carmelites. 
 He abridged the works of St. Cyprian, and 
 wrote his life. He was also the author of 
 the lives of Abelard, and Hcloise, and other 
 biographical and theological works. Died, 
 1744. 
 
 GERVAISE, Nicholas, brother of the 
 preceding. He went to Siam, where he 
 remained 4 years as a missionary ; and on 
 his return published the natural and civil 
 history of that kingdom ; also a descrip- 
 tion of Macassar. After a time he was con- 
 secrated bishop of Horren, in Guiana, and 
 went thither ; but was murdered, with all 
 his clergy, by the natives, in 1729. 
 
 GESENIUS, Frederic Henry Wiixiam, 
 one of the most distinguished orientalists of 
 modem times, was born at Nordhausen, 178C. 
 He was professor of theology at Halle ; and 
 during the 30 years that he lectured in that 
 university, he published numerous works, 
 which have made a new era in oriental lite- 
 rature. His " Hebrew Grammar " aud many 
 analogous productions enjoy a universal 
 reputation, and some of them are translated 
 into most European languages. Died, 1842. 
 
 GESNER, Conrad, an eminent physician 
 and naturalist, was born at Zurich in Swit- 
 zerland in 151(5, and was professor of philo- 
 sophy there for 24 years. His fame as a 
 botanist was spread over Europe, and he 
 maintained a correspondence with learned 
 men of all countries. He wrote numerous 
 able works on different branches of natural 
 history; of which his "Historia Animalium" 
 is reckoned his greatest performance, and 
 procured him the appellation of the Pliny of 
 German!/. His " Bibliotheca Universalis," 
 a full catalogue of all writers extant in 
 three languages, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, 
 is a monument of immense learning and 
 industry. He otherwise rendered much ser- 
 vice to science, and, for his various and great 
 meritihe was ennobled. Died, l.Wl. 
 
 GEiNER, SoLOMOX, a poet and painter, 
 was bbm at Zurich in 1730. He was placed 
 under a bookseller at Berlin, but soon 
 eloped from his master, and employed his 
 time in painting and poetry. On his return 
 to Zurich he published "Daphnis," which 
 was followed by " Inkle and Yarico ; " but 
 his fame was established by his Idylls and 
 Pastorals. He next added to his celebrity 
 by the very popular piece of " The Death 
 of Abel," which appeared in 1758, and made 
 his name known throughout Europe. He 
 then published his "First Navigator," 
 " Moral Tales," "Dramas," &c.; and after- 
 wards turned his attention more particularly 
 to painting and engraving, and produced 
 several landscapes ; at the same time in- 
 structing with his pen, while he pleased 
 the eye, and contributed to the progress of 
 art. Died, 1788. As a pastoral poet, Gesner, 
 if he has been equalled, has never been 
 excelled. 
 
 GESaNER, John Matthias, a profound 
 scholai»and critic, was born at Roth, in 
 Anspach, in 1(591. His most esteemed works 
 are, editions of some of the classics, aud an 
 excellent Latin Thesaurus, 4 vols, folio. 
 
 GETA, Sei'Timuis Antonius, second son 
 of the emperor Sevems, and brother of the 
 infamous Caracalla, whom he joined in the 
 government on the death of his father. 
 Caracalla, wlio envied his virtues and was 
 jealous of his popularity, after having en- 
 deavoured to effect his death by poison, 
 murdered him, and wounded their mother, 
 who was attempting to save him from the 
 
GEZ] 
 
 ^ 0tbi WinibevSaX SSujgrapIjy. 
 
 [gib 
 
 1 worthless fratricide. lie was born, a.d. 189; 
 I and liad not readied his 23rd year when 
 1 the Romans had to lament his untimely 
 death. 
 
 GEZELIUS, John, bishop of Abo, the 
 capital of Finland, was the author of a 
 " Pentaglot Dictionary," an abridged "En- 
 cyclopedia of the Sciences," &c. Born, 161.5 ; 
 died, IGDO. His son John, who succeeded 
 liim in the bishopric, was also a learned 
 scholar, and translated the Bible into the 
 Findlandish tongue. Died, 1718, 
 
 GEZEIilUS, GEoncE, a Swedish divine, 
 and almoner to the king. He was the author 
 of a " Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious 
 Swedes." Born, 173(5 ; died, 1769. 
 
 GHENT, Henry of, archdeacon of Tour- 
 nay in the 13th century, was a German by 
 birth, and is said to have excelled all his 
 cotemporaries in knowledge of the Scrip- 
 tures, and to have l)cen intimately ac- 
 quainted with the Aristotelian plulosophy. 
 Died, 1293. 
 
 GHERARDESCA, ITooLmA della, im- 
 mortalised in the " Inferno " of Dante, under 
 the appellation of Count Ugolino, was a 
 Neapolitan, who in the 13th century endea- 
 voured to usurp the government of Pisa, and 
 found a new principality, after the example 
 of Delia Scala at Verona. After a time he 
 succeeded, but governed his countrymen 
 with great despotism; and Roger d'Ubaldini, 
 the archbishop of Pisa, who was as cruel and 
 ambitious as himself, formed a conspiracy 
 against him; the result of which was, that 
 Count Ugolino was attacked in his palace, 
 and, after a brave resistance, taken prisoner, 
 with three of his sons and one of his grand- 
 sons ; all of whom were imprisoned, and left 
 to die of starvation. 
 
 GHEZZI, Sebastian, Joseph, and Peter 
 Lko, father, son, and grandson ; three Italian 
 artists, of the 17th and ISth centuries, each 
 of whom was more or less eminent in orna- 
 menting churches and palaces. 
 
 GIIIBERTI, LouENZo, a celebrated 
 sculptor, bom in 1378, at Florence, who 
 early learned the arts of drawing, model- 
 ling, and casting metals. At Florence he 
 executed two bronze doors, which still adorn 
 the baptistery of St. John, and, according to 
 the hyi>erbolical praise of Michael Angelo, 
 were worthy of decorating the entrance to 
 paradise. It contains 24 panels, represent- 
 ing various sulyects from the New Testa- 
 ment. Died, 14j5. 
 
 GIIIRLAND/VIO, Domenico, one of the 
 elder Florentine painters, was distinguished 
 for fertility of invention, and has therefore 
 been imitated by later artists. He was born 
 in 1449, and had the honour of being teacher 
 to Michael Angelo. — His son Ridolfo was 
 also an excellent artist, and highly esteemed 
 by Raphael. He died in 15C0. 
 
 GIAMBERTI, Francesco, a Florentine 
 architect of the 15th century, who made the 
 designs for many buildings in Florence and 
 Rome, composed a work containing tlie 
 drawings of ancient monuments remaining 
 in the Roman territory and Greece — His 
 son, GiuLiANO, was architect, sculptor, and 
 engineer to the house of Medici ; built a 
 magnificent palace for the Grand-duke Lo- 
 renzo, besides many other palaces, churches, 
 
 and fortresses ; in short, he was one of the 
 first architects of the age. Born, 1443 ; died, 
 1517. 
 
 GIANNI, Francis, an Italian poet, was 
 born at Rome about 17C0 ; and for a time 
 exhibited as an improvisatore in the cities of 
 Italy. He was nominated the imperial poet 
 by Napoleon, whose victories he sung in the 
 true laureate style. Died, 1823. 
 
 GIANNONE, Peter, a fearless historian, 
 was born at Ischitella, in Apulia, in 107(5, 
 and became an advocate at Naples. He 
 wrote a valuable " History of Naples," in 
 4 vols. 4to., -which, for its dauntless exposure 
 of papal usurpation, gave great offence to 
 the court of Rome, and exposed him to its 
 fury. His book was prohibited, himself ex- 
 communicated, and, after having been driven 
 into exile, he died at Turin, in 1748. 
 
 GIARDINI, Felix, a Piedmontese musi- 
 cian, who in 1750 came to England, where 
 he met with great encouragement, and re- 
 mained about 30 years. He afterwards went 
 to Russia, where he died in 1793. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, the celebrated histo- 
 rian, was born at Putney, in 1737 ; sent to 
 Westmiuster School, but soon transferred to 
 a private tutor ; then to Magdalen College, 
 Oxford, for a short time, and finally to 
 Lausanne, where he renounced the Roman 
 Catliolic faith, without embracing any other, 
 and became a confirmed sceptic. On return- 
 ing to England, he entered upon the duties 
 of active life, but read much, and prepared 
 lumself for authorship. In 17(53 he went 
 on his travels ; and while sitting amidst the 
 ruins of the capitol at Rome, he formed the 
 idea of writing the history of the decline 
 and fall of that city. In the mean time, 
 he joined M. Dey\'urdun in a journal called 
 "Mc'moires Litteraires de la Grand Bre- 
 tagne," which met with no success. In 1770 
 he began his celebrated history of the " De- 
 cline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; " the 
 1st vol. of which, in 4to., appeared in 1776 ; 
 the 2ud and 3rd in 1781 ; and the concluding 
 3 vols, in 1788. Previous to this undertak- 
 ing, Mr. Gibbon was chosen into parliament 
 for Liskeard ; and when hostilities com- 
 menced between this country and France, 
 in 1778, lie was employed to draw up the 
 manifesto on that occasion ; for which he 
 was made commissioner of the board of 
 trade, but lost the place on the change of 
 administration in 1783. He then went to 
 reside at Lausanne, where he continued till 
 the French Revolution obliged him to return 
 to England ; and died in 1794. Mr. Gibbon's 
 celebrated history abounds with proofs of 
 unexampled learning, of a mind penetrating 
 and sagacious, and of almost unrivalled 
 talents "for ridicule. Upon Christianity, 
 however, he has inflicted a serious injury, 
 by unsettling the faith, or offending the feel- 
 ings of many who, influenced by the philo- 
 sophical spirit of the writer, or captivated 
 by his style, gave a too ready acquiescence 
 to his specious infidelity. 
 
 GIBBONS, Gkinling, an eminent sculp- 
 tor and statuary, was born in London about 
 the middle of the 17th century. His flowers 
 and foliage carved in wood have almost the 
 lightness of nature ; and he executed se- 
 veral fine pieces also in marble and bronze. 
 
oib] 
 
 ^ i^elu Hiii&cr^al 3SiO0rapTjp. 
 
 [GIF 
 
 Among his works are St. Paul's and Windsor 
 clioirs, the wooden throne at Canterbury, 
 the monument of Viscount Camden, at Ex- 
 ton, in Rutlandshire, the font in St. James's 
 Church, the statue of Charles II. at Charing 
 Cross, and that of James II. in Privy Gar- 
 dens, lie died in 1721. 
 
 GIBBONS, Oklaxdo, an eminent musi- 
 cian, was born at Cambridge, in 1583. He 
 became organist of the chapel royal at the 
 age of 21, and in lCt>2 was created doctor of 
 music. He was the best church composer of 
 his time ; and he also published madrigals. 
 His two brothers and son were likewise good 
 musicians ; the latter. Dr. Christopher Gib- 
 bons, was organist to Westminster Abbey. 
 
 GIBBS, Jame.^, an architect, was born at 
 Aberdeen, in 16«.J. He designed tlu; churclies 
 of St. Martin's and St. Mary-le-Strand, Lon- 
 don ; the senate- house, and the new build- 
 ings of King's College, Cambridge ; the 
 Radcliffe Library, Oxford, &c. Died, 1754. 
 
 GIBBS, Sir Vicauy, chief justice of tlie 
 common pleas, was bom in 1752, at Exeter, 
 in which city his father was a surgeon. He 
 was educated at Eton, and King's College, 
 Cambridge ; entered at Lincoln's Inn ; and, 
 through the friendship of Mr. Dunning, 
 afterwards Lord Ashburton, he obtained 
 briefs in abundance. On the death of Mr. 
 Richard Burke, he was appointed recorder 
 of Bristol, and was soon distinguished as 
 an eloquent pleader and an able advocate. 
 The trials of Home Tooke, Hardy, and 
 others, for high treason, brought the talents 
 of Mr. Gibbs still more conspicuously before 
 the public ; and soon after he became king's 
 counsel. He was also elected into parlia- 
 ment for the university of Cambridge ; made 
 chief justice of Chester ; next solicitor, and 
 afterwards attorney-general, with the honour 
 of kniglithood. In 1813, he was appointed 
 a puisne judge of the common pleas ; and, 
 the year following, lord chief justice. After 
 discharging the duties of this office about 
 four years, he resigned it, at the end of 1818, 
 ou account of infirmities, and died in 1820. 
 
 GIBSON, Edmuxd, a learned prelate and 
 antiquary, who was born at Knipe, West- 
 moreland, in 1C69. After receiving a gram- 
 matical education at a free-school in his 
 native county, he was sent to Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he applied particularly 
 to the study of the northern languages. In 
 1091 lie published a new edition of Drum- 
 mond's Polemo Middiana, and James V. of 
 Scotland's Cantilena Rustica ; translated the 
 Saxon Chronicle and Camden's Britannia ; 
 and produced several original works, the 
 principal of which was liis "Codex Juris 
 Ecclesiastici Anglicani," in 2 fol. vols. In 
 1715, he was made bishop of Lincoln ; was 
 transferred to London in 1720, and died in 
 1748. 
 
 GIBSON, RioHARD, known by the name 
 of the dwarf, an English painter in the time 
 of Sir Peter Lely, whose manner he studied. 
 In his youtli he was servant to a lady at 
 Mortlake, who, perceiving his taste for paint- 
 ing, put liim under De Cleyn, for instruction. 
 He was page to Charles I., and when he 
 married Mrs. Anne Shepherd, who was also 
 a dwarf, the king honoured tlie wedding 
 with his presence, and gave away the bride. 
 
 They were of equal stature, each measur- 
 ing 3 ft. 10 in. They had 9 children, 5 of 
 whom arrived at years of maturity, and 
 were of the usual stature. Gibson died in 
 his 75th year, and his wife in 1709, at the 
 age of 89. 
 
 GIFFORD, Andrew, a Baptist minister, 
 and a learned antiquary, was born in 1700. 
 He was assistant librarian of the British 
 Museum manj^ years, and died in 1784. He 
 Ijcqucathed his library to the Baptint aca- 
 demy at Bristol. 
 
 GIFFORD, Jon.v, a political and histo- 
 rical writer, whose real name was Joun 
 RiciiAKD GuEEX, was bom in 1758 ; edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Oxford ; and 
 was intended for the law ; but having dis- 
 sipated liis property, he went to the Conti- 
 nent, and assumed the name of Giifurd, 
 which he ever after retained. He returned 
 in 1788, and, on the breaking out of t)>e 
 French Revolution, devoted his pen to the 
 defence of government in cliurch and state. 
 He contributed to the establishment of the 
 British Critic, and afterwards of the Anti- 
 Jacobin Review, wliich last arose out of a 
 newspaper of the same name. He also wrote 
 (besides many pamphlets), " The History of 
 France," 5 vols. 4to. ; the " History of the 
 French Revolution," 4to. ; and " The Life 
 of the Right Hon. William Pitt," 3 vols. 4to. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 GIFFORD, WiLUAM, a celebrated critic 
 and satirist, was born at Ashburton, Devon. 
 His father, who was a plumljer and glazier, 
 at South Molton, died when he was 12 years 
 old. The widow soon followed her husband 
 to tlie grave ; and the orphan was at first 
 sent to sea in a coasting vessel, but shortly 
 after apprenticed to a shoemaker in his 
 native town. There he remained till he was 
 in his 20th year ; but being disgusted with 
 his employment, and evincing talents of a 
 superior order, Mr. Cookesley, a surgeon of 
 the town, proposed to some of the inhabit- 
 ants to raise a subscription, with a view of 
 purchasing his freedom, and giving him an 
 education. This being effected, he was sent 
 to Oxford, to pursue studies more congenial 
 to his mind. While at the university he 
 was fortunately introduced to the late l^ord 
 Grosvenor, who engaged him to accompany 
 his son. Lord Belgrave, on his travels over 
 the Continent. On his return to England, 
 he settled in London, devoting his time to 
 literature ; and thenceforward fortune 
 smiled on his career. In 1791, he published 
 "The Baviad," a poetical satire, in which 
 he severely lashed the poets and poetasters 
 of the day ; and, in 1794, appeared " The 
 Maeviad," a satire on the degraded state of 
 the drama. In 1797, Mr. Gifford became 
 editor of the Anti-Jacobin, a weekly paper, 
 established by the late Mr. Canning, and 
 others of brilliant talents and high connec- 
 tions ; and in which a corner was reserved 
 for the insertion of a critical notice of the 
 misrepresentations displayed by contem- 
 porary editors — which it was Gilford's pecu- 
 liar province to detect and expose. This 
 publication, which continued only one year, 
 involved him in a quarrel with Dr. Wolcot, 
 against whom he published a poetical squib, 
 entitled " An Epistle to Peter Pindar." In 
 
 349 
 
oil] 
 
 ^ ^cttj ^Hitibrr^al Masr^'i)V!* 
 
 ["GIL 
 
 1802, appeared his translation of Juvenal ; 
 in 1805, an edition of Massirger's plays ; 
 and, subsequently, the works of Ben Jonson, 
 Ford, and Shirley ; but it was in his capa- 
 city of editor of the Quarterly Review, 
 (which he conducted from its commence- 
 ment in 1809 till 1824), that he was most 
 generally known. He died in 1826 ; and 
 his remains were interred in Westminster 
 Abbey. Mr. Gilford held the office of pay- 
 master of the baud of gentlemen pensioners, 
 with a salary of 300/. a year ; and for a time 
 he was comptroller of tlie lottery, with COO?. 
 a year. He also enjoyed an annuity from 
 Lord Grosvenor. His poetical satires are 
 caustic and powerful ; his prose writings, 
 vigorous and correct ; and his criticisms are 
 generally distinguished by sound judgment 
 and good taste. 
 
 GIL, Father, a Spaniard, born in 1748, 
 who took an active part in the insurrection 
 of 1808 ; greatly contributed to the surrender 
 of Baylen ; and is generally supposed to 
 have originated, or greatly etfectuated, the 
 guerilla warfare carried on by order of the 
 juntas of Seville and Cadiz, of which he was 
 a member. 
 
 GILBERT, Davies, an eminent man of 
 science, vice-president of the Royal Society, 
 and member of numerous other learned aiid 
 scientific societies, was born at St. Erth, in 
 Cornwall, 17(57. His family name was Giddy, 
 but having in 1808 married the daughter of a 
 wealthy Sussex gentleman named Gilbert, 
 he assumed his name and arms in 1817. En- 
 dowed with large wealth, Mr. Davies Gilbert 
 did not content himself with aiding the ad- 
 vance of science by his own most inde- 
 fatigable exertions, but took every oppor- 
 tunity of bringing forth talent from obscurity, 
 and of aifording its possessor those advan- 
 tages which his own poverty might otherwise 
 have denied him, to the utter destruction of 
 his hopes and prevention of his usefulness. 
 He it was to whom the great Sir Humplvry 
 Davy mainly owed it, that his great talents 
 were not lost to himself and society in the 
 obscurity of a Cornish apothecary's shop ; 
 and several less distinguished, but able and 
 useful, men were equally indebted to him. 
 He contributed several papers to the Trans- 
 actions of scientific societies, and published 
 "A Plain Statement of the Bullion Question;" 
 but he seems to have been far less ambitious 
 of bringing his own abilities before the pub- 
 lic, than of indirectly exerting them for the 
 public good. It may be said, indeed, that he 
 communicated largely to the wants of others 
 from his own great stores of knowledge, and 
 shone more by those reflected lights, than by 
 the direct ditfusion of his rays. He repre- 
 sented the borough of Bodmin in parliament 
 from 1806 to 1832. Died, 1840. 
 
 GILBERT, Francis Hilary, a French 
 writer on veterinary medicine and rural 
 economy, was born at Chatelherault, in 
 1757. He devoted much of his time to the 
 improvement of tbe system of cultivation, 
 and to the management of sheep ; and the 
 French directory, in 1797, employed him to 
 go to Spain for the purchase of a flock of 
 Merinos ; but they neglected to supply him 
 with sufficient means, and the disappoint- 
 ment he experienced on that account caused 
 
 him to destroy himself, while residing in 
 Castile, in 1800. 
 
 GILBERT, Sir ITuMPHKEr, an enter- 
 prising English navigator in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, was born at Dartmouth, in 1,')39. 
 He lost his father at an early age, and his 
 mother married Mr. Raleigh, by whom she 
 had the celebrated Sir Walter. Humphrey 
 received his education at Eton and Oxford ; 
 after which he went, in a military character, 
 to Ireland, where, for liis services, he was 
 knighted in 1570. He returned soon after to 
 England, and married a rich heiress, but 
 lost great part of his property in a speculat- 
 ing concern with Sir Thomas Smith, for 
 converting iron into copper. He published, 
 in 1570, a discourse to prove the practica- . 
 bility of a north-west passage to China : and ' 
 in 1578 he himself sailed on a voyage of j 
 discovery to the coast of America. In a i 
 second voyage, in 15Ji.3, he took possession j 
 of Newfoundland ; but his ship foundered | 
 on her return to England, and all on board 
 perished. 
 
 GILBERT, Nicholas Peter, an eminent 
 French physician. After serving as a naval 
 surgeon, and practising at Rennes as a 
 physician, he was appointed chief physician 
 to the army of the Sombre and Meuse, and 
 subsequently held a professorship at the 
 hospital of instruction formed at Paris, in 
 1796. He was chief physician to the army 
 of St. Domingo, in 1802, and held a similar 
 post in the grand army from 1806 to 1812. 
 He was the author of several medical works. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 GILBERT, WiLLiAJf, a physician, and 
 exi)erimental philosopher, who discovered 
 several of the properties of the loadstone, 
 was born at Colchester, in 1540 ; educated at 
 Cambridge ; elected a fellow of the college of 
 physicians, and became physician to queen j 
 Elizabeth. He was a strenuous advocate | 
 for the inductive mode of philosophical 
 matters, and was the first who asserted tlie 
 theory of a great central magnet in the earth, 
 afterwards applied by Dr. Halley to tlie 
 explanation of the variation and dipping of 
 the needle in the mariner's compass. Died, 
 1003. 
 
 GILCHRIST, John BoRTinviCK, a dis- 
 tinguished orientalibt, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, 1759. He was for many years pro- 
 fessor of Hindostauee aud Persian at the 
 college of Calcutta, wlience he returned to 
 England with a large fortune, and he subse- 
 queutly taught these languages in Edinburgh 
 and London. His works gave a great im- 
 petus to the study of Eastern languages. 
 Died at Paris, where he had long resided, 
 1841. 
 
 GILCHRIST, OcTAVius, a distinguished 
 literary character, was bom at Twicken- 
 ham, in 1779 ; and received his education 
 at Magdalen College, Oxford. His writings 
 consist of essays, &c. relating to the rise and 
 progress of the British stage, and of the 
 respective merits of the elder dramatists. 
 Died, 1823. 
 
 GILDAS, surnamed the Wise, a British 
 ecclesiastic and historian of the 0th century, 
 was the son of Caw, a British prince, who 
 emigrated to North Wales, in order to 
 avoid submission to the Anglo-Saxons. He 
 
oil] 
 
 ^ ^c&) Bnibtr^aX 38ioriT«P^». 
 
 [gin 
 
 appears to have been a monk ; and, after 
 residing in one of the small ides called the 
 Holmes, in the Bristol Channel, retired to 
 the abbey of Glastonburj', where he died. 
 A book, ascribed to Gildas, lias been re- 
 peatedly published, entitled "Epistola de 
 Excidio Britannicaj, et Castigatio Ordinia 
 Ecclesiastici;" but it exhibits so frightful a 
 picture of the depravity of manners, wliich 
 pervaded all classes of Britons, that its 
 authenticity has been questioned by some 
 critics, who presume it must have been the 
 work of a foe rather than of a friend to their 
 race. Died, 570. 
 
 GILL, Ai.KXAXDEU, a famous school- 
 master, was born in Lincolnshire, in 15H4. 
 He received his education at Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford, where he took his degrees 
 in arts, and entered into orders. In l(i08 
 he became master of St. Paul's School, where 
 he brought up many eminent persons, and 
 among the rest John Milton. Dr. Gill wrote 
 a "Treatise concerning the Trinity in Unity," 
 "Logonomia Anglica," " Sacred Pliilosophy 
 of Holy Scripture," &c. Died, 1(53.';. — His 
 son Alexandeu, who succeeded him in the 
 head-mastership of St. Paul's Scliool, had 
 also the honour of having Milton for liis 
 scholar while he was at Trinity College, 
 Oxford J and it appears that the pupil had 
 a great esteem ior his preceptor in after life. 
 Died, 1G42. 
 
 GILI/, Jonx, a divine of the Baptist per- 
 suasion, was born at Kettering, in Nor- 
 thamptonshire, in 1«;97. His education was 
 limited, owing to the contracted circum- 
 stances of his parents ; but, by application, 
 he became a good classical and oriental 
 scholar. He commenced as a preacher at 
 Higham Ferrers, from whence he removed 
 to a congregation at Horsleydown, South- 
 wark. He wrote an " Exposition of the 
 Song of Solomon," and " The Cause of Go<l 
 and Truth," 4 vols. 8vo. But his great 
 work was an "Exposition of the Bible," 
 10 vols. 4to. 
 
 GILLIES, Joii:^, LL.D., F.R.S., and his- 
 toriographer to his majesty for Scotland, 
 was born at Brechin, Forfarshire, Jan 18. 
 1747, and received his education at the uni- 
 versity of Glasgow. When quite a young 
 man he came to London, with the view of 
 making literature his sole pursuit, and was 
 engaged as travelling tutor by the Earl of 
 Hopetown. Dr. Gillies was appointed his- 
 toriographer for Scotland on the death of 
 Dr. Kobertson ; and he continued his literary 
 labours to a late period of his life. His chief 
 works are, " A History of Ancient Greece," 
 4 vols. 8vo. ; " The Reign of Frederic II.," 
 " History of the World, from Alexander to 
 Augustus ; " translations from Aristotle, Iso- 
 crates, &c. Died, Feb. 15. 1830, aged 90. 
 
 GILPIN, Bekxard, one of the English 
 Protestant reformers, was bom at Kentmire 
 in Westmoreland, in 1517, and educated at 
 Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became 
 fellow. But he afterwards removed to Christ- 
 church, where, by reading the works of 
 Erasmus, he secretly embraced the principles 
 of the Reformation. In 1550 he was presented 
 by his imcle to the archdeaconry of Durham, 
 and the rectory of Easington, where he la- 
 boured with truly apostolical zeal ; and, in 
 
 351 
 
 his capacity of archdeacon, made strict visita- 
 tions, being a great enemy to non-residence 
 and pluralities. He was next presented to 
 the rectory of Houghton-le-Spring, where 
 his labours in promoting the Protestant faith 
 were so remarkable, that the sanguinary 
 Bishop Bonner threatened to bring him to 
 the stake in a fortnight, and sent a messenger 
 into the north for that purpose. On the 
 road, however, Mr. Gilpin broke his leg, and, 
 while he lay in the hands of the surgeon, the 
 queen died ; so that, instead of being carried 
 to London, he returned to his parishioners. 
 In the reign of Elizabeth he was offered the 
 bishopric of Carlisle, and the provostship of 
 Queen's College ; but refused both, content- 
 ing himself with Houghton, where he died, 
 deeply lamented by his parishioners, in 1583. 
 His piety, unwearied exertions, and bene- 
 volence, earned him the glorious titles of the 
 Apostle of the North, and the Father of the 
 Poor. 
 
 GILPIN, William, a divine of the Church 
 of England, and an elegant writer, was born 
 in 1724, at Carlisle, and received his educa 
 tion at Queen's College, Oxford. For many 
 years he kept a school at Cheam, in Surrey, 
 and afterwards became vicar of Boldre, in 
 the New Forest, and prebendary of Salisbury. 
 He died In 18(H, aged 80. Mr. Gilpin pub- 
 lished the "Life of Bernard Gilpin," his 
 ancestor, above-mentioned ; the " Lives of 
 Latimer, Wickliff, Huss, and Archbishop 
 Cranmer," an "Exposition of the New Tes- 
 tament," 2 vols. ; " Observations relative to 
 Picturesque Beauty," 8vo. ; a " Tour to the 
 Lakes," 2 vols. ; " Remarks on Forest Sce- 
 nery," " Sermons to a Country Congrega- 
 tion," 2 vols. ; "Moral Contrasts," &c. And 
 it is especially worthjr of note, that he left 
 the profits of his publications for the eudow- 
 ment of a school at Boldre. 
 
 GILPIN, Sawrey, brother of the preced- 
 ing, was bom at Carlisle in 1733. He was 
 placed with a ship-painter, and his first 
 works which attracted notice were some 
 market groups, which he sketched from his 
 window. But it was principally as an ani- 
 mal iiainter that he acquired his reputation, 
 though his historical subjects were above 
 mediocrity. Died, 1807. 
 
 GIL POLO, Gaspak, a Spanish poet and 
 advocate, was born at Valencia, in 1510, and 
 died there in 1572. He is the author of " Di- 
 ana Enamorada," so highly extolled by Cer- 
 vantes, OS combining elegance, sweetness, and 
 purity. 
 
 GILRAY, James, a celebrated caricatu- 
 rist, unrivalled in his art for the rich broad 
 humour and keen satire of his ready pencil. 
 Died, 1815. 
 
 GIL VICENTE, a Portuguese dramatist 
 of the leth century, who wrote nearly fifty 
 plays, and excelled all the dramatic writers 
 of that period in elegance of style and fer- 
 tility of invention. He was born at Barccl- 
 los, in 1485, and died at Evora, in 1557. 
 
 GINGUE'NE', Peter Louis, a French 
 writer, bom in 1748, at Rennes, in Britany, 
 was descended from an ancient but impo- 
 verished family, and obtained a small go- 
 vernment office. At the revolution, in which 
 he took an active part, he associated himself 
 witli the more moderate writers upon the 
 
GIO] 
 
 ^ |1c£d Winibtr^aX 23io5riipTjy. 
 
 [gik 
 
 affairs of the times, and narrowly escaped 
 the scaffold during the reign of the Jacobins. 
 The Directory appointed liim ambassador at 
 Turin, and Buonaparte gave him a seat in 
 the senate. Upon being removed from this 
 he applied himself wholly to literature. The 
 work to which he is chiefly indebted for Ids 
 fame is his " Histoire latt^raire d'ltalie," in 
 9 vols. He died iu 1810. 
 
 GIOCONDO, or Jocundus, Jony, an 
 Italian architect and antiquarian, born at 
 Verona about the middle of the 15th century. 
 He built the bridge of Notre Dame, at Paris, 
 and various other ediliccs both there and in 
 Italy ; fortittcd the city of Treviso ; and 
 was summoned to Kome by Leo X. after the 
 death of Bramante, to assist in the building 
 of St. Peter's. He belonged to the Dominican 
 order ; and as an antiquary and a literary 
 character, lie also greatly distinguished 
 liimself. 
 
 GIOJA, Fl.vvio, an Italian mathematician 
 of the 14tli century. He was a native of 
 Pasitano, near Amalfi, and is considered as 
 the inventor of the mariner's compass, in 
 consequence of his having properly applied 
 it ; but that valuable instrument seems to 
 have been known in Europe before his time. 
 
 GIORDANI, Vital, a mathematician, 
 was originally a soldier in the papal galleys, 
 where he studied arithmetic, and on going 
 to Rome, was made keeper of the castle of 
 St. Angelo. Louis XIV. ajjpointed him 
 teacher in the academy which he founded at 
 Rome ; and he was also made engineer to 
 the castle of St. Angelo, and mathematical 
 professor in the college La Sapicuza. Born, 
 1633 ; died, 1711. 
 
 GIORDANO, LucA, a Neapolitan painter, 
 the pupil of Spagnoletto and Peter of Cor- 
 tona, who imitated the style of Titian so 
 closely that his pictures are not easily dis- 
 tinguished from the works of that great 
 inaster. In fact, he imitated the best ar- 
 tists so successfully, that even connoisseurs 
 were often deceived ; while his celerity of 
 execution was wonderful. Born, 1C32 ; died, 
 1704. 
 
 GIORGI, Augustine AxTnoxr, a learned 
 Italian ecclesiastic, was born, in 1711, at St. 
 Maur, in the diocese of Rimini ; entered the 
 Augustine order ; and liecame an eminent 
 orientalist. In 1740, he was invited to Rome 
 by pope Benedict XIV. to fill the theological 
 chair of La Sapienza ; he also made him 
 librarian del Angelica. The emperor Fran- 
 cis I. gave him repeated invitations, and the 
 most liberal offers, to settle at Vienna, all of 
 which Giorgi declined. He wrote an able 
 work, entitled " Alphabetum Thibetanum," 
 relating to the geography, mythology, and 
 antiquities of Thibet ; besides several others 
 on antiquities, subjects of oriental criticism, 
 and polemics. Died, 1797. 
 
 GIORGIONE, or George BARBARELLI, 
 was an eminent painter of the Venetian 
 school, born in 1477, at Castelfranco. He 
 received his first instructions from John Bel- 
 lino ; but studying afterwards the works of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, he soon surpassed them 
 both, and became the first colourist of his 
 time. He died of the plague, in 1.511. Gipr- 
 gione excelled in fresco painting, and was 
 the first of the Lombard School who found 
 
 out the effects of properly contrasting strong 
 lights with strong shadows. 
 
 GIOTTO, or ANGIOLOTTO, an ingenious 
 painter, sculptor, and architect of Florence, 
 was born in 127(3. He was. the son of a pea- 
 sant, and his real name was Ambrogiotto 
 Burdone ; but being observed by Cimabue 
 drawing figures on the ground while feeding 
 his sheep, he took liim, and instructed him 
 iu the art of painting. He soon surpassed 
 his master, and acquired such a reputation, 
 that Benedict IX. sent a person to Tuscany 
 to make a report of his talents, and to bring 
 a design from each of the Florentine artists. 
 When the messenger came to Giotto, and in- 
 formed him of his business, the painter took 
 a sheet of paper, and, with one stroke of his 
 pencil, drew a circle as perfect as if it had 
 been performed by a pair of compasses. On 
 presenting this, the man said, "I want a 
 design ; " to which Giotto replied, " Go about 
 your business ; his Holiness asks nothing else 
 of me." The pope on being made acquainted 
 with this, sent for him to Rome, where, 
 besides painting many pictures, he made a 
 ship of mosaic, which is over the portico at 
 the entrance of St. Peter's church, and still 
 known by the name of Giotto's vessel. In 
 1334 he undertook the famous tower of Santa 
 Maria del Fiore, at Florence, for which lie 
 was made a citizen, and rewarded with a 
 pension. Among the men of genius with 
 whom he was intimate, he could number 
 Dante and Petrarch as his particular friends. 
 Died, 1336. 
 
 GIRALDI, LiLio Greoorio, better known 
 by his Latin name of Gvkaldus, a learned 
 Italian writer and Latin poet, was born at 
 Ferrara, in 1479 ; and has been considered 
 by Casaubon and other authorities as one of 
 the most learned men whom modem Italy 
 has produced. At the sacking of Rome by 
 the troops of Charles V. he lost all his pro- 
 perty, and was reduced to indigence ; but 
 he wrote numerous works, the principal of 
 which is a " History of the Heathen Deities," 
 and eventually triumphed over his adverse 
 fortune, having accumulated 10,000 crowns 
 before his death, which took place in 1552. 
 
 GIRALDI-CINTIO, John Baptist, a re- 
 lative of the preceding, was an Italian poet 
 and ph3'sician, born at Ferrara, in 1504. He 
 was secretary to the Duke of Ferrara, and 
 professor of philosophy and medicine in the 
 university of his native city, and afterwards 
 professor of rhetoric at Pavia. He wrote 
 nine tragedies in Italian, but his principal 
 work is entitled " Hecatommiti," which con- 
 sists of 100 tales, in the manner of Boccaccio. 
 Died, 1573. 
 
 GIRARD, Gabriel, an ingenious French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Clermont, in Auvergne, 
 in 1678. He was the author of a celebrated 
 work, entitled " Synonymes Francois ;" was 
 almoner to the Duchess de Berri, and the 
 king's interpreter for the Russian and Scla- 
 vonian languages. He also wrote a work, 
 entitled " Principes de la Langue Frangoise." 
 Died, 1748, aged 70. 
 
 GIRARDON, Francis, a sculptor and 
 architect, was born at Troyes, in 162S. His 
 chief works are the mausoleum of Richelieu, 
 in the church of the Sorbonne; the equestrian 
 statue of Louis XIV., and the Rape of Pro- 
 
gik] 
 
 ^ ^etu BmhtrSal 2Stosra))I)!t. 
 
 [glb 
 
 scrpine, iu the gardens of Yersaillcs. Died, 
 1715. 
 
 GIRODET, Trioson Nicholas, the most 
 original, versatile, and ecientific of the mo- 
 dern school of French painters, was born at 
 Montargis, in 17G7 ; was first a pupil of Reg- 
 nault, and afterwards studied under David. 
 His subjects are distinguished for fulness 
 and beauty, and his colouring is rich, trans- 
 parent, and harmonious. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are Eudymion sleeping, Iliiipo- 
 crates refusing the Tresents of Aitaxerxes, 
 the Deluge, the Burial of Attala, &c. lie 
 also painted Napoleon receiving the keys of 
 Vienna; full-length portraits of tiiu Veudean 
 leaders, Bonchainp and Cathclineau ; and 
 St. Louis iu Egypt, wliich was his last great 
 work. Died, 1824. 
 
 GIRTIN, Thomas, an artist, was l)om in 
 London, in 1773. He was a pupil of Dayes ; 
 after which he studied the works of Canaletti, 
 and the colouring of Rubens. He first intro- 
 duced the custom of drawing upon cartridge 
 paper, and he also painted excellently in 
 oil colours. He took many beautiful views 
 in Scotland, Wales, and various parts of 
 England and France. He also painted a 
 panorama of Loudon, which was cxlubited 
 in Spring Gardens. Died. 1802. 
 
 GISBORNE, Rev. Thomas, prebendary 
 of Durham, an eminent philosophical, tlieo- 
 logical, and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 at Derby, 1758. He was educated at Harrow 
 and Cambridge, where he greatly distin- 
 guished lumself, and on soon after entering 
 holy orders, in 1792, he obtained the living 
 of Barton in Stafford, and the same year 
 removed to Yoxall Lodge, near Barton, 
 where he ever after resided. It would oc- 
 cupy too much of our space to enumerate 
 the long series of works which Jlr. Gis- 
 borne gave in succession to the world. Many 
 of them have attained great and lasting 
 popularity ; among which maybe mentioned 
 the " Principles of Moral Philosophy in- 
 vestigated," &c., " An Enquiry into the 
 Duties of the Female Sex," '^ Familiar 
 Survey of the Christian Religion and His- 
 tory," &c., besides sermons, and two volumes 
 of poetry, which, under the title of " Walks 
 in a Forest," and " Poems, Sacred and 
 Aloral," gave him no inconsiderable poetic 
 fame. Died, 184*5. 
 
 GIULIO ROMANO, the most distin- 
 guished of Raphael's scliolars and assistants, 
 was born at Rome, in 1409. He resided 
 principally at Mantua, and there found a 
 I wide field for the exercise of his powerful 
 ! genius, both in architecture and in painting. 
 He was unequalled for the boldness of his 
 I style, the grandeur of his designs, and tlie 
 loftiness of his poetical conceptions. Died, 
 1546. 
 I GIUSTINIANI, P-3MPEY, by birth a 
 j Corsican, was an eminent general in the 
 ' Spanish service, and obtained the name of 
 Iron-arm, by having one of iron made to 
 replace the arm he lost at the siege of Ostend. 
 He was governor of Caudia, where he was 
 killed, in 1616 ; and the Venetian senate 
 ' erected an equestrian statue to his memory. 
 GLANVIL, Sir J(j!I>', an eminent lawyer 
 I and statesman in the reign of Charles I. 
 He graduated at Oxford ; entered at Lin- 
 
 .■553 
 
 ! coin's Inn ; obtained a Serjeant's coif in 1639; 
 and, being a member of parliament, was 
 chosen speaker of the House of Commons in 
 the year following. His attachment to the 
 royal cause rendered him obnoxious to the 
 republicans, who imprisoned him, and he 
 was not restored to liberty till 1()48. He re- 
 covered his rank on the return of Charles H., 
 but died soon after, in 1061. 
 
 GLANVIL, Joseph, an English divine 
 and philosopher, was born at Plymouth, in 
 1036. He was first of Exeter College, Ox- 
 ford, and afterwards of Lincoln College. At 
 the Restoration he became one of the most 
 active members of the Royal Society. In 
 lOtW he was presented to the rectory of the 
 abbey church at Bath, where he died in 
 1680. He was a strenuous opponent of the 
 Aristotelian philosophy, but a believer in 
 witchcraft. 
 
 GLANVIL, or GLANVILLE, Ranulph 
 DE, an English baron of the 12th century, 
 celebrated as a lawyer and a warrior. Du- 
 ring the reign of Henry II., he was chief 
 justiciary of the kingdom, and signalised his 
 valour by repelling the invasion of William, 
 king of Scotland, who was taken prisoner 
 while besieging Alnwick Castle. Richard I. 
 is said to have extorted from him the sum of 
 lfi,0(K)/. towards the expenses of a crusade to 
 the Holy Land. The aged magistrate ac- 
 companied his master on the expedition to 
 which he had so largely contributed, and was 
 killed at the siege of Acre, in 1190. A cu- 
 rious treatise on the laws and customs of 
 England is attributed to his pen. 
 
 GLASS, John, founder of the religious 
 sect of Glassitcs in Scotland ; born iu Fife- 
 shire, 1095 ; died, 1773. 
 
 GLAUBER, John Rodolph, a chemist, 
 alchemist, and physician, of Amsterdam, 
 who died in 1688. Chemistry is indebted to 
 liim for facilitating many useful processes, 
 as well as for the discovery of the purgative 
 salt which bears liis name. Like others of i 
 his day, he was incessantly occupied in j 
 attempts to find out the philosopher's stone; j 
 and his experiments, however futile fOr his 
 professed object, threw light on the composi- 
 tion and analysis of various metals, inflam- 
 mable substances, &c. 
 
 GLEIM, Frederic "William Louis, a 
 celebrated poet, sometimes called the Ger- 
 man Anacreon, was born in 1719, at Erms- 
 leben ; filled the office of secretary to the 
 chapter of Halberstadt ; and died in 1803, 
 aged 84. He owes his chief fame to his war 
 songs, composed for the Prussian army ; and 
 they will long be remembered by his country- 
 men for their spirit-stirring power. 
 
 GLENDOWER, Owex, a celebrated 
 Welshman lineally descended from Llew- 
 ellyn, the last prince of Wales, and who op- 
 posed Henry IV. fourteen years, declaring 
 him a usurper of the English throne. Bom, 
 1350 ; died, 1410. 
 
 GLENIE, James, an eminent mathema- 
 tician, was born in Ireland, and educated at 
 St. Andrew's. During the American war he 
 distinguished himself as an officer of artillery ; 
 but having written a pamphlet, ridiculing 
 the Duke of Richmond's plan of fortification, 
 he was compelled to leave the service, and he 
 afterwards experienced much of the vieissi- 
 
GLl] 
 
 ^ i^fln SSnUjcrs'al ^tograpl)!). 
 
 [gme 
 
 tudes of life. He was a member of the Royal 
 Society ; and the author of a " History of 
 Germany," aud several mathematical works. 
 Died, 1817. 
 
 GLICAS, or GLYCA8, Michael, a Greek 
 historian of the 13th century. His "Annals 
 from the Creation," and the " History of the 
 Byzantine Emperors," are extant, and were 
 published by Labbe at Paris, 1660. 
 
 GLIS80N, Fkancis, an anatomist and 
 physician, was bom at Rampisham, in Dor- 
 setshire, in 1.596 ; educated at Caius College, 
 Cambridge ; and appointed regius professor 
 of physic, which office he held 40 years. On 
 the breaking out of the civil wars, he settled 
 at Colchester, but removed to London, and 
 became president of the college of physicians. 
 Among his works, which have been warmly 
 praised by Boerhaave and Haller, are " Trea- 
 tises on the Rickets, and the Anatomy of tlie 
 Liver," and; a metaphysical work of great 
 profimdity, entitled " De Natura Substantias 
 Energetica, seu de Vita Naturse," 4to. Died, 
 1677. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, Robert of, the oldest of 
 our English poets, lived in the time of 
 Henry II. Camden quotes many of liis old 
 English rliymes, and speaks highly of him. 
 He died, at an advanced age, about the be- 
 ginning of the reign of king John. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, William Fkederic, 
 Duke of, the son of prince William Henry, 
 duke of Gloucester (brother to George III.), 
 by his wife the Countess-dowager of Walde- 
 grave, was born at Rome, in January, 1776 ; 
 and his education was completed at the uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. He entered the armj', 
 served a campaign under the Duke of York, 
 in Holland, and subsequently attained the 
 exalted rank of fleld-marshal. In 1805 he 
 married his cousin, the princess Mary, fourth 
 daughter of George III., but had no issue by 
 her. The duke usually acted with the Whig 
 opposition, and was generally distinguished 
 by the support of popular philanthropic 
 measures, especially of the Anti-slavery So- 
 ciety. But he opposed the reform bill, in- 
 troduced by his quondam political friends, 
 and voted and spoke against it. He was of 
 an open disposition and affable manners, and 
 utterly devoid of ostentation. He was chan- 
 cellor of the university of Cambridge ; in 
 which office he was succeeded by the Marquis 
 of Camden. He died in 1834, bequeathing 
 to his illustrious widow the greater portion 
 of his property, which was very large, owing 
 to the inexpensive, though not illiberal, 
 style with which lie supported his high rank. 
 
 GLOVER, Richard, a poet and drama- 
 tist, was the son of a London merchant, and 
 born in 1712. He was educated at Cheam 
 School, where, at 16, he wrote some verses to 
 the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which ob- 
 tained considerable attention. On leaving 
 school, he entered on the mercantile line 
 under his father, who was engaged in the 
 Hamburgh trade. In 1737, he married a lady 
 of fortune ; soon after which he published 
 his " Leonidas," an epic poem. His poem of 
 " London, or the Progress of Commerce," 
 appeared in 1739. The same year he pub- 
 lished his popular ballad, entitled "Hosier's 
 Ghost," intended to rouse the national spirit 
 against the Spaniards. About this time he 
 
 354 
 
 distinguished himself as a city politician ; 
 and his oratorical talents and knowledge of 
 public alfairs were so great, that he was ap- 
 pointed to manage an application to parlia- 
 ment in behalf of the London merchants ; on 
 which occasion his speech at the bar of the 
 House of Commons was printed, and much 
 applauded. In 1753 his tragedy of "Boa- 
 dicea" was brouglit out at Drury Lane, but, 
 though supported by Garriek, Mossop, Mrs. 
 Cibber, &c., it was performed only 9 nights : 
 his " Medea," some years after, met with 
 greater attention. At the accession of 
 George III. he was chosen M.P. for Wey- 
 mouth, and was esteemed by tlie mercantile 
 interest as an active and able supporter. 
 He died in 1785, aged 73 ; leaving the world 
 with a most estimable character as a man, a 
 citizen, and an author. 
 
 GLOVER, Mrs., a distinguished actress, 
 was born at Newry, in Ireland, in 1781. Un- 
 der the auspices of her father, Mr. Betterton, 
 she commenced her theatrical career at the 
 age of six ; and after a highly successful ap- 
 pearance in the provinces, she was engaged 
 by Mr. Harris, ©f Covent Garden, where she 
 made her debut, as Elvina, in Hannah More's 
 " Percy," in 1797. She soon afterwards ex- 
 changed the "buskin" for the "sock," and 
 it will be long before her impersonations of 
 " Dame Heidelberg " and " Mrs. Malaprop " 
 will be forgotten. For the last few years Mrs. 
 Glover appeared chiefly at the Haymarket. 
 Latterly she had no equal in her theatrical 
 walk; her Shakspearian readings also ranked 
 very high. Died, July 16. 1850, a few days 
 after she had appeared at Drury Lane, m 
 support of a fund which her friends had 
 instituted on her behalf. 
 
 GLUCK, Christopher, one of the most 
 eminent musical composers of modern times, 
 was born in Bavaria, in 1714, devoted him- 
 self to the study of music, and became a 
 skilful performer on several instruments. 
 He came to London in 1745, and composed 
 for the Italian opera. He then went to the 
 Continent ; *nd Vienna, Naples, Rome, 
 Milan, and Venice, were in turn the the- 
 atres of his glory. His " Alceste," and " Or- 
 pheus," produced at Vienna, between the 
 years 1702 and 1769, had an overwhelming 
 effect by their boldness and originality, and 
 served, together with some later ones, to 
 establish the fame of their author. In 1774, 
 Gluck went to Paris ; and the celebrated Pic- 
 cini arriving there shortly after, the French 
 capital was divided upon the merits of the 
 two composers. Such a scene, indeed, of 
 musical rivalry had never before been known. 
 He now brought out his long promised opera 
 of "Iphigenia in Aulis." It was received 
 with enthusiastic applause, and represented 
 170 times in the course of two seasons. In 
 1787 he returned to Germany, with a large 
 fortune, and died at Vienna in the same year. 
 
 GMELIN, JoHX George, a botanist and 
 phj'sician, was born at Tubingen, in 1700. 
 He went to Petersburgh, where he became 
 member of the academy, and professor of 
 chemistry and natural history. In 1773, he 
 was sent with a company employed to ex- 
 plore the boundaries of Siberia. He pub- 
 lished "Flora Siberica" and "Travels 
 through Siberia." Died, 1755. 
 
ome] 
 
 ^ i^eU) WinibsvM 3B{03raj)!)g. 
 
 [god 
 
 GMELIN, Samuel Tiieophilus, nephew 
 of the preceding, was boru at Tubingen, in 
 1743 ; went to Tetersburgh, and obtained a 
 professorship. He spent some years in tra- 
 velling through Tartary, where he died in 
 prison, into which he had been thrown by 
 one of the chiefs, in 1774. He wrote his 
 " Travels tltrough Russia," and a " Journey 
 from Astracan to Czaricyn." 
 
 GMELIN, John Fkkderic, a pli^sieian 
 and chemist, was born at Tubingen, m 174». 
 He became professor of chemistry and na- 
 tural history at Uottingeu ; and published 
 several works on chemistry, mineralogy, and 
 natural history. One of the most celebrated 
 is his edition of the " Systenia Naturaj " of 
 Linnaeus. He was also the author of " A 
 History of Chemistry ; " and the world is in- 
 debted to him for the discovery of several 
 excellent dyes, extracted from mineral and 
 vegetable substances. Died, 1805. 
 
 GNEISENAU, NEiDiiAitn, Count, an able 
 and highly distinguished Prussian general, 
 was born in 17C0. He was educated with 
 a view to the military profession ; and, at 
 the age of 20, he entered into the service of 
 the Margrave of Anspach. His fust employ- 
 ment was in America, whither he was sent 
 with the auxiliary troops of the margrave in 
 British pay. In 1792, ke became attached to 
 the Prussian army as a subaltern ; and, in 
 1807, he had attained the rank of a lieu- 
 tenant-colonel, and defended tlie fortress of 
 Calberg against the forces of Buonaparte. 
 For his skill and bravery on that occasion he 
 was promoted ; and he was afterwards em- 
 ployed in a secret mission to England. In 
 181.% he commanded in the memorable retreat 
 of the combined forces of Russia and 
 Prussia, after their defeat at Lutzen and 
 Breslau ; and subsefiuently, under Blucher, 
 he greatly contributed to the victories over 
 the French on the Katzbach, at Brienne. In 
 reward of his numerous services, the king of 
 Prussia raised him to the dignity of a count, 
 made him a field-marshal and governor of 
 Berlin, and granted him an estate in Silesia, 
 producing an income of more than 10,000 
 dollars a year. Died, 1829. 
 
 GOAD, John, an eminent schoolmaster, 
 was bom in London, in 1015 ; educated at 
 Merchant' Tailors' School, and St. John's 
 College, Oxford, where he obtained a fel- 
 lowship. He also became vicar of St. Giles's, 
 Oxford ; and afterwards of Yarnton, wlieu 
 ho took his degree of bachelor of divinity. 
 In 1061, lie was made master of Merchant 
 Tailors' School j but lost the mastership in 
 consequence of his inclining to popery. He 
 then kept a private seminary, and died In 
 1689. His works are, " Genealogicon Lati- 
 num," " Astro- Meteorological Aphorisms 
 and Discourses of the Bodies Celestial, their 
 Natures, Influences," &c. The subject of this 
 is a kind of astrology founded on reason and 
 experiment, and gained him great reputation. 
 GOBBO, Pexeu Paul Coktonese, a 
 celebrated painter of fruit and landscapes, 
 born at Cortona, in 1.580. He copied nature 
 with the greatest accuracy ; and, by his skill 
 in the chiaroscuro, he gave an exact and 
 expressive roundness to his fruits, &c., but 
 he cliiefly excelled in colouring. Died, 1640. 
 GOBELIN, GiiES, a French dyer of the 
 
 Z5S 
 
 17th century, who resided at Paris, and is 
 said to have invented or greatly improved 
 the process of dyeing scarlet. In ICiCA), a 
 royal establishment for tlie manul'actory 
 of fine tapestry was founded on the spot 
 where his premises stood, whence the work 
 produced there was termed the Gobelin 
 tapestry. 
 
 GODDARD, JoNATUAN, an able chemist 
 and physician, born at Greenwich, about 
 the year 1617. He was educated at Oxford, 
 graduated at Cambridge, and on the break- 
 ing out of the civil war was attached to tlie 
 parliament. He attended Cromwell in his 
 expeditious to Scotland and Ireland, as 
 physician to the forces ; was appointed 
 warden of Mertou College ; and, in the par- 
 liament of lO-W, sat as sole representative 
 for OxfonL Died, 1674. 
 
 GODDARD, Rev. William Stanley, 
 D. D., a prebendary of St. Paul's and 
 Salisbury cathedrals, and formerly head- 
 master of Winchester Scliool, was born in 
 1757. To his qualificutions as an able 
 scholar and diligent instructor, he added the 
 firmness, vigour, and impartiality, so neces- 
 sary in conducting a large public establish- 
 ment ; and when, in 1809, he resigned the 
 mastership, the school was overflowing in 
 numbers, ond high in reputation. Some 
 years since he invested in tbe Ixands of trus- 
 tees a sum of 25,00<)/., to provide annual 
 stipends for the masters of Winchester Col- 
 lege, on condition that they should cease 
 to receive gratuities from the parents of 
 scholars on the foundation ; and his whole 
 life was spent in deeds of charity and bene- 
 volence. Died at Andover, where he had 
 resided for many years, 1845, aged 88. 
 
 GODEAU, Antoine, an eminent French 
 prelate, and one of tlie earliest memlxirs 
 of the French Academy, was bom in IWo, 
 at Dreux. He translated tlie book of Psalms, 
 wrote an ecclesiastical history, and manjr 
 devotional treatises. By tlie exercise of his 
 talents, seconded by the patronage of Car- 
 dinal Richelieu, he was raised to the bishop- 
 ric of Vence. Died, 1671. 
 
 GODFREY OF BuuiLLoy, chief of the 
 first crusade, and king of Jerusalem, was 
 the son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne 
 and Lens. He served with great gallantry 
 in the armies of tlic emperor Henry IV., 
 who conferred upon him the title of duke 
 of Lorrain ; and when the first crusade was 
 set on foot, the fame of his exploits caused 
 his election as one of the principal com- 
 manders. In 1096, accompanied by liis 
 brothers, Eustace and Baldwin, he com- 
 menced his march, and on arriving at Phi- 
 loppolis, in Thrace, he compelled the em- 
 peror Alexis Comnenus to allow him a free 
 passage to the East. Several difhculties oc- 
 curred ; but at length the Turks were van- 
 quished, and the great object of his ambi- 
 tion was effected. Jerusalem was carried 
 by storm, after a siege of five weeks (July 15. 
 1099) ; and, in eight days after, Godfrey was 
 proclaimed king, by the unanimous voice 
 of the crusading army; but tlie piety and 
 humility of the conqueror would not suffer 
 him to wear a crown in the lioly city, and 
 he declined the regal title, contenting him- 
 self with that of Defender and Guardian of 
 
god] 
 
 ^ ^ftD Uiiibtv^al l3i00rajpl^|). 
 
 [god 
 
 the Holy Sepulchre. Tha sultan of Egypt, 
 at the head of 400,000 men, now attempted 
 to dispossess Jiim of his newly acquired 
 territory, but Godfrey gave him battle in 
 the plain of Ascalon, and 100,000 men were 
 left dead on the field. He died after one 
 year's reign, in 1100. 
 
 GODFREY OF YiTERBO, an historian 
 who lived in the 12th century, was chaplain 
 and secretary to Conrad III. and the em- 
 perors Frederic and Henry VI. He laboured 
 40 years in compiling a chronicle from the 
 creation of the world to the year 1186. It 
 is written in a mixture of prose and verse ; 
 and was first printed at Basle in 1.559. 
 
 GODOLPHIN, Joiix, a learned civilian 
 of the 17th centurj', was a native of one of 
 the Scilly islands. During the protectorate 
 of Cromwell, he was appointed a judge of 
 the admiralty court ; but at the Restoration 
 he became a warm asserter of royal supre- 
 macy, and was one of the king's advocates. 
 Died, 1678. 
 
 GODOLPHIN, SinxEY, Earl of, lord high 
 I treasurer of England, was a native of Corn- 
 wall, and educated at Oxford, ire was em- 
 ployed in the reigns of Charles II. and 
 James II., though he had voted for the ex- 
 clusion of the latter, in 1680. In tlie con- 
 vention parliament, lie voted for a regency ; 
 notwithstanding which he was made first 
 commissioner of the treasury ; and on the 
 accession of queen Anne was placed at the 
 head of that office ; which situation he dis- 
 charged to the public satisfaction. In 1704 
 he was honoured with the order of the gar- 
 ter ; and, two years after, was raised to an 
 earldom. Died, 1712. 
 
 GODOLPHIN, SiDXET, a poet, was born 
 in Cornwall, in 1(510 ; educated at Exeter 
 College, Oxford ; and having joined the 
 king's army, he fell in an engagement at 
 Chagford, Devon, in 1643. Besides several 
 poems, he translated that part of Virgil 
 which recites the loves of Dido and ^iieas. 
 
 GODWIN, earl of Kent, a powerful 
 Anglo-Saxon lord. In 1017 he accompanied 
 Canute in an expedition against Sweden, 
 where he behaved with such valour as to 
 receive the daughter of that monarch in 
 marriage, and large grants of land. On 
 the death of Canute, the envl sided with 
 Hardicanute against Harold, but afterwards 
 he espoused the cause of the latter. He was 
 charged with murdering Alfred, one of the 
 sons of Ethclred II., from which he vindi- 
 cated himself by oath. On the death of 
 Hardicanute he joined Edward, who mar- 
 ried his daughter, but afterwards he rebelled 
 against Edward, and, being unsuccessful, 
 fled to Flanders. Having gathered fresh 
 forces, he sailed up the Thames, and ap- 
 peared before London, which threw the 
 country into such confusion, that the king 
 M'as obliged to negotiate peace with God- 
 win, who was restored to his estates. He 
 died suddenly, while dining with the king at 
 Winchester, in 1053. 
 
 GODWIN, Feaxcis, was bom at Having- 
 ton, in Northamptonshire, in 1,561. He re- 
 ceived Ilia education at Christchurch College, 
 Oxford ; and greatly assisted Camden in Jiis 
 topographical inquiries. In 1601 lie was 
 promoted to the see of Llandatf. and was 
 
 856 
 
 translated to that of Hereford in 1617. He 
 died in 1633. He was the author of " Rerum 
 Anglicarum Hen. VIII." &c. ; and a curious 
 book entitled " The Man in the Moon, or a 
 Discourse of a Voyage thither, by Domingo 
 Gonzales." 
 
 GODWIN, Thomas, a distinguished scho- 
 lar, who in the 17th century was the master 
 of the foundation school at Abingdon, Berks. 
 He was the author of a useful work, entitled 
 "Romanae Historiae Anthologia," a "Sy- 
 nopsis of Hebrew Antiquities," and a trea- 
 tise on Jewish rites and ceremonies. Died, 
 1643. 
 
 GOD^VIN, William, the well-known 
 author of " Political Justice," " Caleb Wil- 
 liams," &c., was the son of a dissenting 
 minister, and born at Wisbeach, in 1756. 
 He was designed for the same calling as 
 his father : but, while studying at the Dis- 
 senters' College, Hoxton, his religious opi- 
 nions had undergone repeated changes ; and 
 though he commenced as a preacher, he 
 ultimately abandoned the pulpit in 1783, 
 and came to London as a literary adven- 
 turer. His first publication was a scries of 
 six sermons, called "Sketches of History ; " 
 and he soon after had the good fortune to 
 obtain employment as a principal conductor 
 of the Annual Register, from which he de- 
 rived a small but certain income. Asso- 
 ciating with the violent democrats of the 
 day, and expressing opinions in unison with 
 theirs, he soon became notorious, and enlisted 
 under their banners. But it was the stormy 
 elements of the French revolution which 
 called forth his extraordinary powers of 
 mind, and gave birth to that bold and as- 
 tounding masterpiece of republicanism, his 
 "Political Justice." Lauded and flattered 
 as he was by those of kindred feelings, he 
 yet had the discretion to retract, in a second 
 edition, many of the most wild and destruc- 
 tive tenets which appeared in the first ; but 
 the poison was disseminated, and the author's 
 character fully understood. In 1794 he pub- 
 lished his celebrated novel of " Caleb Wil- 
 liams," a work which produced nearly as 
 great a sensation as the former, its object 
 being to decry the existing constitution of 
 society, while it pourtrayed, with appalling 
 force, the effects of crime. He was now an 
 avowed freethinker, a despiser of revealed 
 religion, and the advocate of every leveller. 
 After the trial of his friends. Hardy, Thel- 
 wall, and Home Tooke, he published a 
 pamphlet, containing strictures on Judge 
 Eyre's charge to the jury, the circulation of 
 which government tried in vain to prevent. 
 Mr. Godwin did not appear again as an au- 
 thor till 1797, when he published a series of 
 essays, under the title of " Tlie Enquirer." 
 In the following year he produced the " Me- 
 moirs of Jlery Wolstoncroft," authoress of a 
 " Vindication of the Rights _ of Woman," 
 whose congenial mind in politics and morals, 
 and whose masculine spirit of defiance to 
 the authority of man, lie ardently admired. 
 He had lived with her some time before 
 their marriage; and in her "Memoirs" he 
 says, " the principal motive for complying 
 Avith the ceremony, was the circumstance of 
 Mary's being in a state of pregnancy." She, 
 however, died a few months after, in giving 
 
god] 
 
 ^ ^etu Winibexial 23i00rapT^n. 
 
 [goe 
 
 birth to a daughter. In 1791) lie produced 
 another work, entitled "St. Leon," a ro- 
 mance ; and it was evident his opinions had 
 undergone some modification. In IHOl he 
 again married, and shortly after opened a 
 bookseller's shop in Skinner Street, where 
 ushered forth a variety of juvenile publi- 
 cations, many of which were his own com- 
 position. Though engaged in trade, he con- 
 tinued to wield the pen of an experienced 
 author. He wrote the novels of " Fleetwood " 
 and " Mandeville ; " a " History of the Life 
 and Age of Geoft'ry Chaucer," a "History 
 of the Commonwealth of England," two 
 unsuccessful tragedies, an " Exposition of 
 Mr. Malthus'a Theory of Population," 
 " Cloudesley," a novel ; " Thoughts on 
 Man ; his Nature, Productions, and Disco- 
 veries ; " " The Lives of the Necromancers," 
 &c. As a novelist, Godwin is decidedly 
 original, combining a depth of thouglit, 
 singular independence, and energy of style ; 
 but the dark and repulsive picture whicli he 
 draws of mankind, and the scenes of vice 
 which he depicts, will often, it is to be 
 feared, contaminate the innocent, and disgust 
 those whom they are intended to reform. 
 During the administration of Earl Grey, he 
 was appointed to the sinecure office of yeo- 
 man-usher of the exchequer, by which his 
 latter days were rendered comfortable. Died, 
 April, 18;36. 
 
 GODWIN, Mrs., wife of the preceding, 
 though better known as Maky Wolston- 
 CROKT, was born in 17.59. The poverty of her 
 parents could only afford her the commonest 
 mode of education. Reading and reflection, 
 with extraordinary talents, her biographer 
 tells us, supplied all deficiencies ; so that, at 
 the death of her mother, she opened a school 
 with her sisters at Islington, from whence 
 they removed to Newington Green. Shortly 
 after, Mary quitted her sisters to attend 
 upon a sick lady who had been her benefac- 
 tress, and who died at Lisbon. Upon her 
 return she engaged herself as governess to 
 Lord Kingsborough's children. In 17»G, she 
 fixed her residence in London, and began 
 her literary pursuits with " Thoughts on the 
 Education of Daughters." In 1797, she was 
 married to William Godwin, and died a few 
 months afterwards. 
 
 GODWIN, William, son of the author 
 of " Caleb Williams," and the brother of 
 Mrs. Shelley, was a contributor to some of 
 the best periodicals of the day, and a parlia- 
 mentary reporter. His essays showed that 
 
 ! he was an attentive observer of men and 
 manners, and were written witli consider- 
 able tact and vivacity. He was attacked 
 with cholera in 18^2, and died, sincerely 
 lamented by a large circle of friends. 
 
 GOECKINGK, Lioi-old Fkedekic Gun- 
 TUKK VON, a German poet, born at Grun- 
 ingen, 1748 ; studied the law ; wrote songs, 
 epigrams, and fables ; and filled several 
 important situations in the Prussian govern- 
 ment. Died, 1828. 
 
 I GOERTZ, Okokoe Hen ry, Baron, was an 
 active and intelligent statesman, born of a 
 noble family in Ilolstein. He joined Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, at Stralsund, on his return 
 from Turkey ; and, by his activity and in- 
 telligence, was soon placed at the head of 
 
 affairs. But scarcely had Charles fallen be- 
 fore Frederickshall (Dec. 11th, 1718), when 
 the foreign minister fell a sacrifice to the 
 hatred of the nobility and of the successor 
 to the throne. He was arrested, and charged 
 with having induced the Swedish monarch 
 to engage in ruinous enterprises, and of 
 having mismanaged the sums entrusted to 
 him ; no time for repelling the accusations 
 was allowed ; and on the 28th of February, 
 1719, he was condemned and beheaded, with- 
 out a hearing. 
 
 GOETHE, John Wolfgang von, the 
 greatest modem poet of Germany, and the 
 patriarch of German literature, was born at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine, August 28. 1749. 
 His father was doctor of law and imperial 
 counsellor ; and being in good circumstances, 
 possessing a taste for the fine arts, and having 
 made a tolerable collection of pictures and 
 other objects of virtd, young Goethe had an 
 early opportunity of indulging his fancy 
 and improving his mind. Drawing, music, 
 natural science, the elements of jurispru- 
 dence, and the languages, occui)ied his early 
 years ; and when he was 15, he was sent to 
 the university of Leipsic, but did not follow 
 any regular course of studies. In 1708 he 
 quitted Leipsic, and subsequently went to 
 the university of Strasburg, to qualify him- 
 self for the law ; but he paid more attention 
 to chemistry and anatomy than to his no- 
 minal pursuit. In 1771 he took the degree 
 of doctor of jurisprudence, and then went to 
 Wetzlar, where he found, in his own love 
 for a betrothed lady, and in the suicide of 
 a young man named Jerusalem, the subjects 
 for his " Werlher ; " which appeared in 1774, 
 and at once excited the attention of his 
 countrymen, while it produced an instanta- 
 neous effect on his country's literature. 
 Having, in 1782, entered the service of the 
 Duke of Saxe- Weimar, whom he had met 
 in travelling, he was made president of the 
 council chamber, ennobled, and loaded with 
 honours. A splendid galaxy of talent as- 
 sembled at Weimar, and united itself to 
 Goetlie. The direction of the theatre was 
 confided to him, and ho there brought out 
 some of the noble dramatic clieJ's-cVoeuvre 
 of Schiller, with an effect worthy of them. 
 There, too, his own dramatic works first 
 appeared, viz. " Goetz von Berlichingen," 
 " Faust," " Iphigenia in Tauris," " Tasso," 
 " Clavigo," " Stella," and " Count Egmont." 
 In 1786 he made a journey to Italy, where 
 he remained two years, visited Sicily, and 
 remained a long time in Rome. In 1792 he 
 followed his prince during the campaign in 
 Champagne. He was afterwards created 
 minister ; received, in 1807, the order of 
 Alexander-Newsky from Alexander of Rus- 
 sia, and the grand cross of the legion of 
 honour from Napoleon. He died at Weimar, 
 March 22. mi2, aged 80. Goethe was an 
 intellectual giant ; and his profound know- 
 ledge of life and of individual character 
 places his works among the first ever pro- 
 duced. His greatest production is his " Faust," 
 emphatically a philosophical poem, which 
 has been repeatedly translated into English. 
 His beautiful songs and shorter poems, ele- 
 gies, distichs, &c. have the same peculiar 
 character j for, though many or most of them 
 
goe] 
 
 ^ ^fto ^nibtv^iil ^StnjprapIjM. 
 
 [gol 
 
 cannot be called pre-eminently philosophi- 
 cal, yet they are all tinged with' the prolound 
 reflections of his philosopliical mind, and 
 continually remind us of the deep springs, 
 whence flow our griefs and joj^s, our fears 
 and hopes, and all the emotions of the soul. 
 Goethe's writings are by far too voluminous 
 to be here enumerated ; but we must men- 
 tion " William Aleister's Apprenticeship," 
 an ethic fiction ; " Herman and Dorothea," 
 the " Elective Aflinities," &c. 
 
 GOETZE, Jonx Augustus EPHnAiM, 
 a German naturalist, was born at Ascher- 
 leben, in 1731 ; and died in 179o. lie made 
 many microscopic discoveries, and wrote 
 several books on natural liistory ; among 
 which are "Entomological Memoirs," 4 
 vols. ; " A History of Intestine Vermes," 
 and an " European Fauna," 9 vols. He 
 was pastor of the church at Quedlinburgh, 
 and died in 1793. 
 
 GOGUET, AxTiifixY Yves, a Parisian 
 advocate, and a writer on jurisprudence. 
 His principal work, exhibiting much indus- 
 try and learning, appeared in 1758 (the 
 year in wliich he died), and is entitled 
 " Origine des Loix, des Sciences, et des 
 Arts, et de leurs Progrts chez les Anciens 
 Peuples." 
 
 GOICOECHEA, Joseph Antiioxt de 
 LiEUDOV, professor of philosophy and theo- 
 logy at Guatimahi, in South America, and 
 founder of the Economical Society there, 
 was a Franciscan friar, but at the same time 
 a public spirited member of the state. He 
 published a number of memoirs on botany, 
 agriculture, &c., and imported into his own 
 country many valuable inventions and dis- 
 coveries. Died, 1814. 
 
 GOLDING, Arthur, an English writer, 
 of the Elizabethan era, patronised by Cecil, 
 Sir Philip Sidney, and other cotemporary 
 literati, was the translator of Ovid's Meta- 
 morphoses into English verse, and of Csesar's 
 Commentaries into prose. He was likewise 
 the author of an account of the earthquake 
 of ].')80, and of several devotional and other 
 treatises. 
 
 GOLDONI, CiiARi-ES, a celebrated Italian 
 dramatist, was born at Venice, in 1707 ; and 
 so early did his taste for the drama appear, 
 that before he was 8 years old he had 
 sketched the plan of a comedy. His father, 
 who was a physician, having settled at 
 Perugia, intended tliat liis son should follow 
 the medical profession ; but Goldoni, dissa- 
 tisfied with this pursuit, obtained permission 
 to study law in Venice. After committing 
 many youthful follies, he brought a few 
 pieces upon the stage, which procured but 
 little profit, and not much praise ; and he 
 continued to live in a continual scene of 
 dissipation and intrigue, until he married 
 the daughter of a notary in Genoa, and re- 
 moved to Venice. Here he first began to 
 cultivate that department of dramatic poetry 
 in which he was to excel ; namely, descrip- 
 tion of character and manners, in wliich he 
 took Moliere, whom he began to study about 
 this time, for his model. Having taken the 
 direction of the theatre at Rimini, he set 
 about the reformation of the Italian stage, 
 and in 1761 to undertake a similar office at 
 Paris. On the conclusion of his engagement, 
 
 358 
 
 he was appointed Italian master to the prin- 
 cesses, with apartments in Versailles, and a 
 pension. For 30 years he resided in the 
 French capital ; but the Revolution having 
 deprived him of his chief resources, he sank 
 into a profound melancholy, and died in 
 1792, aged 8.5. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, a celebrated poet, 
 historian, and essayist, was born in 1731, at 
 Pallas, in tlie county of Longford, Ireland. 
 He was the son of a clergyman, and was 
 educated at the universities of Dublin, Edin- 
 burgh, and Leyden, witli a view to the 
 medical profession. But his eccentricities 
 and careless conduct were the prolific source 
 of difficulty to himself and friends ; and 
 when he abruptly quitted Eeyden he had 
 but one shirt, and no money, though he in- 
 tended to make the tour of Europe on foot, 
 and actually travelled through Flanders, 
 part of France, Germany, Switzerland, and 
 Italy, often subsisting on the bounty of 
 the peasants, and returning the obligation 
 of a niglit's lodging, or a meal, by his 
 skill on the German flute, which he for- 
 tunately carried with him as his stock in 
 trade. In 1758 he arrived in England ; and, 
 by the assistance and recommendation of 
 Dr. Sleigh, his countryman and fellow-col- 
 legian, obtained a situation as usher in a 
 school at Peckham ; where, however, he did 
 not remain long, but settled in London, and 
 subsisted by writing for periodical publica- 
 tions. One of his first performances was an 
 " Enquiry into the State of Polite Learning 
 in Europe ; " but lie emerged from obscurity, 
 in 17fi5, by the publication of his poem, en- 
 titled " The Traveller, or a Prospect of So- 
 ciety," of which Dr. Johnson said, " tliat 
 there had not been so fine a poem since 
 Pope's time." The year following appeared 
 his well-known novel of the " Vicar of 
 Wakefield." His circumstances were now 
 respectable, and he took chambers in the 
 Temple ; but the liberality of his temper, 
 and a propensity to gaming, involved him 
 in frequent difficulties. In 1768 he brought 
 out his comedy of the " Good-Natured Man " 
 at Covent Garden, but its reception was not 
 equal to its merits. In 1770 he published 
 " The Deserted Village," a poem, which, in 
 point of description and pathos, is above all 
 praise ; yet such was his modest opinion of j 
 its merits, that he could hardly be induced 
 to take the proffered recompense of lOOZ. 
 from his bookseller. In 1772 he produced 
 his comedy of " She Stoops to Conquer," 
 which was highly successful and iirofitablc. 
 Besides these performances, he produced a 
 number of others ; as a " History of Eng- 
 land, in a Series of Letters from a Nobleman 
 to his Son," 2 vols. ; " A History of Eng- 
 land," 4 vols. ; " A Roman and a Grecian 
 History," each 2 vols. ; " A History of the 
 Earth and Animated Nature," 8 vols. ; 
 " Chinese Letters," &c. Goldsmith was the 
 friend of Johnson, Reynolds, and Burke, 
 and a member of tlie Literary Club es- 
 tablished by the former. He died at his 
 chambers, in the Temple, April 4. 1774 ; 
 and was buried in the chamber-yard of 
 the Temple ; but a monument was after- 
 wards erected to his memory in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
GOLDSMITH, Lewis, by birth an Eng- 
 lishman, but by a creed a Jew, was born 
 in 17(53. He exercised the business of a no- 
 tary in London, till the French revolution ; 
 when he attracted persecution by writing 
 liis " Crimes of Cabinets." To escape the 
 pecuniary consequences of a sentence for 
 libel and sedition, lie went to France, and 
 tliere edited the " Argus," with funds sup- 
 plied by the minister of foreign affairs. In 
 this paper he attacked every thing English 
 with the same ferocity as he subsequently 
 attacked every thing Frencli in the " Anti- 
 gatlican," and the " Cabinet of Buonaparte." 
 Being informed of a base plot of the police, 
 to deliver him up to tiie British government 
 in exchange, lie made overtures for a recon- 
 ciliation with the latter ; returned to this 
 country ; and, after being subjected to the 
 form of a trial for high treason, which ended 
 in his discharge on giving recognisances, he 
 l>egan a weekly attack on Buonaparte in 
 the " Antigallican Monitor;" continued it 
 till the time of his abdication ; renewed it 
 during the hundred days ; and is said to 
 have subsequently (in 1817) obtained a large 
 sum and a pension from Louis XVIII. 
 
 GOLIUS, Jamks, an eminent oriental 
 scholar, was born at the Hague, in liOti ; 
 educated at I^eyden ; and in 1(522 went as 
 interpreter to the Dutch embassy in Morocco. 
 On his return he was appointed professor 
 of Arabic at Leyden, and afterwards also 
 nominated professor of mathematics, and 
 interpreter of the oriental languages to the 
 United States. His principal works are, an 
 " Arabic Lexicon," a " Persian Dictionary," 
 "The History of the Saracens, translated 
 from Elmacin," and "The Life of Tamer- 
 lane." He died in 1(5G7 His brother Pkter, 
 
 who was also an excellent orientalist, be- 
 came a Catholic, and founded a Carmelite 
 convent on Mount Libanus. He died, in 
 107;}, at Surat, in the East Indies, whither 
 he had proceeded as a missionary. 
 
 GOLTZIUS, HuBEKT, an eminent anti- 
 quary, born at Venloo, in 152G. He was 
 patronised by the emperor Ferdinand, and 
 made several tours through the Low Coun- 
 tries, Germany, France, and Italy, in pur- 
 suit of his favourite study ; in illustration 
 of which he published some valuable works. 
 Died, 1583. 
 
 GOMAR, or GOMARUS, FnANCis, a 
 Protestant divine, born at Bruges, in 1563 ; 
 educated at Oxford and Cambridge ; and 
 became theological professor at Leyden, in 
 1573 J and afterwards professor of Hebrew 
 and divinity at Groningen, where he died 
 in 1641. He was the great opponent of his 
 fellow-professor Arminius, and is chiefly 
 remarkable for the intolerant bigotry he 
 displayed while defending the points of elec- 
 tion and predestination. His partisans in 
 Holland were called Gomarites. 
 
 GONGORA, LoL'is, a celebrated Spanish 
 poet, was born at Cordova, in 15<S2, and is 
 called by his countrymen the prince of lyric 
 poets. His style, however, is often difficult 
 to comprehend, even to the Spaniards them- 
 selves, among whom he has had almost as 
 many censurers as admirers. Died, 1627. 
 j GOX8ALVO OK Cordova, Hekjtandez 
 Y AouiLAB, a celebrated Spanish warrior, 
 
 was born at Montilla, near Cordova, in 1443. 
 He entered the army when only 15 ; distin- 
 guished himself against the Moors, Turks, 
 and Portuguese ; was appointed viceroy of 
 Naples, after having conquered that king- 
 dom ; and universally obtained the appella- 
 tion of the Great Captain. Died, 1515. 
 
 GOOD, John Masox, a physician, poet, 
 and philologist, was the son of a dissenting 
 minister, and born, 1764, at Epping, in Essex. 
 Having been apprenticed to a surgeon, he 
 first practised at Coggeshall ; but in 175)3 he 
 settled in London, as a surgeon and apothe- 
 cary ; and having obtained a diploma from 
 the university of Aberdeen, he commenced 
 practice as a physician in 1820. Dr. Good 
 exercised the most indefatigable persever- 
 ance in the attainment of knowledge, with- 
 out allowing his literary studies to interfere 
 with the duties of his profession. It is stated 
 of him, that so incessant and multifarious 
 were his labours in 1803, that he was finish- 
 ing a translation of "Solomon's Song," 
 carrying on his " Life of Dr. Gcddes," walk- 
 ing from 12 to 14 miles a day to see his 
 patients (.his business as a surgeon then 
 producing ui)wards of 1400/. per annum), 
 editing the Critical Review, and supply- 
 ing a column of matter, weekly, for the 
 Sunday Review ; added to which he had, 
 for a short period, the management of the 
 British Press Newspaper. In the winter of 
 1810, Mr. Good commenced his lectures at the 
 Surrey Institution, which were published in 
 182(5, in 3 vols., entitled "The Book of 
 Nature." He produced many other valu- 
 able works, among which arc " The Study 
 of Medicine," 4 vols. Died, 1827. 
 
 GOODAL, Walter, a Scotcli antiquary, 
 was born in Banftshire, in 170ti ; studied at 
 King's College, Aberdeen ; and afterwards 
 became keeper of the Advocates' Library, 
 at Edinburgh. His principal literary per- 
 formance is " An Examination of the Letters 
 said to be written by Mary, queen of Scots, 
 to James, earl of Bothwell," 2 vols. 8vo. ; 
 in which he proves (to the satisfaction of 
 many who have investigated the subject), 
 that the whole are forgeries. 
 
 GOODRICH, Thomas, an English pre- 
 late, was born in Lincolnshire, and educated 
 at Bennet College, Cambridge. He was 
 chosen Bishop of Ely, in 1534, and proved 
 a zealous promoter of the Reformation. 
 He was made lord-chancellor in 1551 ; and, 
 though the seals were taken from him by 
 queen Mary, he was suffered to retain his 
 bishopric. Died, 1554. 
 
 GOODWIN, Francis, an eminent archi- 
 tect, the chief of whose public works are to 
 be seen in the churches erected of late years 
 in various provincial towns. He was also 
 the architect of many municipal buildings, 
 of which the Manchester town hall may 
 be termed his clwfd'ceuvre. When public 
 buildings were offered to competition, Mr. 
 Goodwin frequently furnished plans, and 
 in several instances he obtained premiums ; 
 and it was owing to his intense application, 
 while engaged in producing plans for the 
 erection of the new houses of parliament, 
 that he fell a victim to an attack of apo- 
 plexy, Aug. 30. 1835. 
 
 GORDIAN, Makccs Antonius, the elder, 
 
 359 
 
gor] 
 
 ^ ^fto mnihtv^nl 23i0srap!)2). 
 
 [gor 
 
 a Roman emperor, surnamed Afncanus,-\vas 
 descended from the Gracclii, and the family 
 of Trajan. He was born A. d. 157, and the 
 early part of his life was spent in literary 
 pursuits. After being edile, twice consul, 
 and proconsul of Africa, he was, at the age 
 of 80, raised to the throne, in conjunction 
 with his son ; who being slain in battle 
 eix weeks after their accession, the father, in 
 an agony of grief, put a period to his own 
 existence. 
 
 GORDIAN, Marcus Axtonius, grandson 
 of the preceding, was called to the tlirone 
 when he was only 13 years of age. He be- 
 came a renowned warrior, and was styled 
 the Guardian of the Commonwealth. He 
 died, near Circesium, in 244 ; and it is said 
 he was treacherously assassinated by Philip- 
 pus, the Arabian, who was one of his gene- 
 rals, and his successor in the empire. 
 
 GORDON, Alexandeu, a Scotch anti- 
 quary, who lived many years in Italy, and 
 other parts of the Continent, and, in 17.3(5, 
 was appointed secretary to the society for the 
 encouragement of learning. In 1741, he went 
 to Carolina, where he held several oflfices, 
 and had some grants of land. He died in 
 1750. Among his works are the "Lives of 
 Pope Alexander VI. and his son Caesar 
 Borgia," "A Complete History of Ancient 
 Amphitheatres," &c. 
 
 GORDON, Lord Geokge, son of Cosmo 
 George, duke of Gordon, was born in 1750. 
 He entered when young into the navy, but 
 left it during the American war, in con- 
 sequence of a dispute with Lord Sandwich, 
 relative to promotion. He sat in parliament 
 for Luggershall, and became conspicuous by 
 his opposition to ministers ; but, though 
 eccentric, he displayed no deficiency of wit 
 or argument. He soon, however, became an 
 object of great notoriety ; for a bill having 
 been introduced into the liouse, in 1780, for 
 the relief of Roman Catholics from certain 
 I penalties and disabilities, he collected a mob, 
 at tlie head of whom he marched to present 
 a petition against the proposed measure. 
 The dreadful riots which ensued, led to his 
 lordship's arrest and trial for high treason ; 
 but, no evidence being adduced of such a 
 design, he was acquitted. In tlie beginning 
 of 1778, having been twice convicted of libel- 
 ling the French ambassador, the queen of 
 France, and the criminal justice of his coun- 
 try, he retired to Holland ; but he was 
 arrested, sent home, and committed to New- 
 gate, where he died, in 1793. 
 
 GORDON, Thomas, a political writer, 
 was born at Kirkcudbright, in Scotland, and 
 settled in London as a classical teacher, but 
 Boon turned his attention to politics, and 
 was employed by Harley, earl of Oxford. 
 Mr. Trenchard next took him to live with 
 him, and they wrote in conjunction " Cato's 
 Letters " and the " Independent Whig." 
 On the death of Trenchard, Gordon married 
 his widow, and thus gained possession of a 
 fine estate. They were both zealous Whigs, 
 and inveterate enemies of religion. Sir 
 Robert Walpole employed Gordon to defend 
 his administration, and made him a com- 
 missioner of wine-licences. He translated 
 Tacitus and Sallust ; and after his death, 
 which happened in 1750, appeared " A Cor- 
 
 dial for Low Spirits," and the "Pillars of 
 Priestcraft and Ortliodoxy shaken." 
 
 GORDON, William, M.D., whose phi- 
 lanthropic virtues and Christian graces have 
 gained for him a wider celebrity than falls 
 to the lot of most private persons, was born 
 at Fountain's Hall, near the abbey of the 
 same name in Yorkshire, in 1801. He ac- 
 quired the rudiments of learning at the 
 grammar school of Ripon, where his great 
 abilities and his amiable disposition won for 
 him the esteem botli of his teachers and his 
 schoolfellows. After leaving school he was 
 articled to a general practitioner at Otley, 
 where he gained "golden opinions" from the 
 warm interest he took in the welfare of the 
 poor. Soon afterwards his father having 
 suffered from a reverse of fortune before he 
 had completed his studies, he borrowed 
 money and repaired first to London and then 
 to Edinburgh, where it was his intention to 
 graduate as a physician. But his design was 
 thwarted for the present ; and after three 
 years of intense study and application, he re- 
 tired to Welton, where he commenced his 
 professional career as a general practitioner. 
 In 1826 he married the daughter of James 
 Lowtrop, esq., of Welton Hall ; and after 12 
 years successful practice in that neighbour- 
 hood, varied by the cultivation of many 
 branches of literature and science, he re- 
 paired once more to Edinburgh, where he 
 remained two years, and took his degree of 
 M.D. in 1841. He then settled in Hull, 
 devoting himself with ardour to liis profes- 
 sional duties, and at the same time taking 
 a prominent part in every movement, which 
 he thought likely to promote the welfare of 
 the people. Freedom in trade, education, 
 religion, parliamentary and financial reform, 
 extension of the suffrage, peace, temperance, 
 and other kindred subjects, found in him an 
 earnest advocate ; and the Chiistian graces 
 of his temper, displayed in harmonious 
 concert with his high intelligence, benevo- 
 lence of disposition, and disinterestedness 
 of character, emphatically earned for him 
 the lofty title, — engraved upon a tomb, which 
 the gratitude of many has erected to his 
 memory,— of the "People's Friend." Died, 
 1849. 
 
 GORE, Christopher, a governor of the 
 state of Massachussetts, was born at Boston, 
 in 1758, his father being an opulent mechanic 
 there. In 1789, Washington appointed him 
 the first United States' attorney for the dis- 
 trict of Massachussets ; and in 179C he was 
 selected by the president as the colleague of 
 the celebrated William Pinkney, to settle 
 the American claims upon England for 
 spoliations. In this situation he evinced 
 his wonted energy and talent, and recovered 
 property to a very great amount for his 
 fellow-citizens. In 1803, he was left in Lon 
 don as charge d'affaires, when Rufus King, 
 the American minister, returned to America. 
 In 1809, he was chosen governor of Massa- 
 chussets, but retained his dignity only for 
 one year. In 1814, he was called to the 
 senate of the Union, and served in this ca- 
 pacity for three years ; when he retired from 
 public affairs, and died in 1827, aged 68. He 
 was a good scholar, and had an excellent 
 knowledge of the world ; which qualities 
 
oor] 
 
 ^ j5ciij 2Snitjerslal ^itftpcapffv. 
 
 [gou 
 
 were set off to the best advantage by his fine 
 person and graceful manners. 
 
 GORGIAS, Leontinus, a celebrated ora- 
 tor, of tlie school of Empedocles, was a native 
 of Leontium in Sicily, and flourished in the 
 fifth century, B.C. A statue of gold was 
 erected to hia honour at Delphi ; and Plato 
 has given his name to one of his dialogues. 
 lie lived to the age of 105. 
 
 GOSSEC, Fkancis Joseph, an eminent 
 French musical composer, was born at Ver- 
 guiers, in 1703 ; and died at Passy, in 1S29. 
 His compositions are numerous, and the 
 character of his music is light, pleasing, and 
 spirited. In 1770, he founded the Concert of 
 Amateurs, at which the Chevalier dc St. 
 George played the first violin. He composed 
 the apotheoses of Voltaire and J. J. Kousseau, 
 and the funeral hymn for Mirabeau. 
 
 GOSSELIN, Pascal Fkakcis Joseph, an 
 eminent French geographer, born at Lille, 
 in the Netherlands, in 1751. He was engaged 
 in a tour through Europe, for several years, 
 and made many valuable researches con- 
 cerning ancient geograjihy. In 1789, he was 
 admitted a member of the National Assem- 
 bly, and, in 1791, nominated a member of 
 the central administration of commerce. He 
 was subsequently employed in tlje war de- 
 partment, became a member of the legion of 
 honour ; and was ultimately made keeper of 
 the king's library and cabinet of medals, 
 &e. at Paris. His works relate to ancient 
 geography, and possess much merit. Died, 
 1830. 
 
 GOSSELINI, Julian, an Italian writer, 
 was born at Rome, in 15.55. He became se- 
 cretary to Ferdinand Gonzaga, viceroy of 
 Sicily (whose '• lafe " he wrote), and after- 
 wards was in the service of Spain, where 
 he was imprisoned on a charge of conspiracy, 
 but soon obtained his liberty ; on which he 
 went to Milan, and there died in 1587. 
 
 GOSSON, Stephen, a divine and poet ; 
 bom in Kent, in 1554 ; educated at Christ- 
 church. Oxford ; held the living of St. Bo- 
 tolph, Bishopsgate ; and died in lt)23. He 
 wrote three dramatic pieces ; notwithstand- 
 ing which, he published " Play confuted in 
 Five several Actions," and " The School of 
 Abuse," against poets and actors. 
 
 GOTHOFRED, Denls, an eminent French 
 lawyer, born of an illustrious family at 
 Paris, in 1.549. France being involved in 
 confusion by the leaguers, he accepted of a 
 professor's chair at Geneva, until he was 
 employed by Henry IV. ; but being after- 
 wards deprived of his office, as a Huguenot, 
 he retired to Heidelberg, and died in 1622. 
 He wrote many books, the chief of which is 
 the " Corpus Juris Civilis." 
 
 GOTHOFRED, Theodore, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Geneva, in 1580. 
 As soon as he had finished his studies, he 
 went to Paris ; where he conformed to the 
 Komish religion, and applied with ind«- 
 fatigable industry to the study of history. 
 In 1032, Louis XIII. made him one of his 
 historiographers, with astipend of SOOOlivres; 
 and, in 1636, he was sent to Cologne, and 
 subsequently to Monster, to assist at the 
 treaty of peace negotiating there. He died 
 in 1649. His principal work is an " Account 
 of the Ceremonial of the Kings of France." 
 
 GOTHOFRED, Denis, son of Theodore, 
 was born at Paris, in 1615. He studied his- 
 tory, after his father's example ; became as 
 eminent in that department of knowledge, 
 and obtained the reversion of his father's 
 place of historiographer royal, from Louis 
 XIIL, when he was but 25 years of age. He 
 finished the " Memoirs of Philip de Com- 
 mines," began by his father ; and was pre- 
 paring a history of Charles VIII., when he 
 died, in 1681. 
 
 GOTTSCHED, John Christopher, a 
 German writer, was born at Konigsberg, in 
 1700 ; and is considereQ to have contributed 
 much towards the reformation of German 
 literature. He was successively professor of 
 the belles-lettres, philosophy, metaphysics, 
 and poetry, in the university of Lcipsic"; and 
 died in 1766. He was assisted in his dramatic 
 writings by his wife, who was a woman of 
 splendid talents. 
 
 GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Auouste 
 Laurent, count de Choiseul, was born in 
 1752. At the age of 22 he travelled through 
 Greece and the neighbouring islands ; and 
 on his return to France he published a splen- 
 did work, entitled " Voyage Pittoresrjue de 
 la Grfece," beautifully illustrated. In 1784, 
 he was appointed ambassador to Constanti- 
 nople i but the events of the French revolu- 
 tion having disarranged his plans for the 
 continuation of his great work, he went to 
 Russia, where he was made a privy council- 
 lor, director of the academy of arts, and su- 
 perintendant of the imperial libraries. lu 
 1802, his name being erased from the list of 
 emigrants, he returned to France ; and the 
 year following was chosen a member of the 
 National Institute. He now published a 
 continuation of his work upon Greece ; but 
 became involved in disputes with Le Che- 
 valier and Cassas, who had, as he conceived, 
 injured him, by sending to the press their 
 works on the same subject, after having been 
 employed under his auspices. On the return 
 of Louis XVIII., he was made a peer of 
 France ; and died in 1817. 
 
 GOUGE, William, an English divine, was 
 born at Bow, in Middlesex, in 1575. He be- 
 came fellow of King's College, Cambridge, 
 and, in 1608, obtained the living of Black- 
 friars, London. He was a member of the as- 
 sembly of divines at Westminster, officiated 
 there as moderator, and was also one of the 
 annotators on the Bible appointed by that 
 body. He died in 1653. 
 
 GOUGH, Richard, an eminent antiquary 
 and topographer, the son of a London mer- 
 chant, was bom in 1735. He received a pri- 
 vate education, and at the age of 11 years 
 translated from the French, a " History of the 
 Bible," of which 25 copies were printed at the 
 expense of his mother, who, with a pardon- 
 able fondness for his precocious talents, made 
 presents of them to her friends. This was 
 followed by a translation of Fleury's treatise 
 on " The Customs of the Israelites," when 
 he was only 15. In 1752, Mr. Gough became 
 a student of Bennet College, Cambridge; but 
 antiquities were his favourite study, and he 
 left the university without taking a degree, 
 and devoted the rest of his life to antiquarian 
 researches. Besides many papers in the 
 Archaeologia, the Bibliotheca Topographica, 
 
GOtj] 
 
 ^ 0tbi ^niiitriaX ^Bifffirapi^e. 
 
 [gr^ 
 
 and the Gentleman's Magazine, he published 
 "Anecdotes of British Topography," 2 vols. 
 4to. ; " Tlie Sepulchral Monuments of Great 
 Britain," 2 vols, folio ; an enlarged edition of 
 Camden's Britannia, &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 GOUJON, Jeax, a French sculptor and 
 arcliitect in the IGtIi century, wlio, being a 
 Protestant, fell in the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew, 1572. He designed the fine 
 facade of the old lyouvre, and other works, 
 which procured him the title of the French 
 Phidias. 
 
 GOULSTON, Theodore, an English phy- 
 sician, was born in Northamptonshire, and 
 studied at Merton College, Oxford. He died 
 in 1632, bequeatliing 200/. for a pathological 
 lecture to be read yearly in the college of 
 physicians. 
 
 GOUVION ST. CYR, General Laurent, 
 Marquis de, an eminent French commander, 
 commenced his military career during the 
 revolution. In the campaign on the Rhine, 
 in 1795, he repeatedly distinguished himself ; 
 and in tlie following year he attracted the 
 particular attention of Moreau, who hesitated 
 not to attribute to his skill and bravery, 
 much of the success wliich attended the 
 French arms. He was afterwards entrusted 
 witli some diplomatic missions ; and when 
 these were performed, he returned to the 
 camp, and in 180f) commanded the centre of 
 the army of the Rhine. In 1804 he was made 
 colonel-general of the cuirassiers, and grand 
 officer of the legion of honour. He continued 
 to pursue a successful career during the 
 following campaigns in Italy and Germany ; 
 and when the French first invaded Spain he 
 was employed in Catalonia, where he also 
 displayed considerable ability. In the dis- 
 asterous campaign of Buonaparte in Russia, 
 he succeeded Marshal Oudinot in the com- 
 mand of the central army ; and for his ser- 
 vices on tliat occasion he was promoted to 
 the rank of marshal. He behaved with great 
 judgment and bravery at the battle of Dres- 
 den, and was left there with a garrison of 
 16,000 men ; but succeeding events rendered 
 it impossible for him to maintain the place. 
 On the restoration of the Bourbons he was 
 created a peer, and made a commander of 
 the order of St. Louis. In 1817 lie was ap- 
 pointed minister for naval affairs, and he 
 subsequently filled the highest office in the 
 war department. Died, 1830. 
 
 GOWER, John, an English poet of the 
 14th century, supposed to have been bom in 
 Yorkshire, about 1320. He was a member of 
 the society of the Inner Temple ; and some 
 writers assert that he became chief justice of 
 the common pleas ; though the more gene- 
 ral opinion is, that the judge was another 
 person of the same name. He died in 1402, 
 and was buried in the conventual church of 
 St. Mary Overy, Southwark, to which he was 
 a benefactor, and where his tomb is still to 
 be seen. He was author of a tripartite work, 
 entitled " Speculum Meditantis," " "Vox Cla- 
 mantis," and " Confessio Amantis." 
 
 GOYEN, John van, a painter of land- 
 scapes, cattle, and sea-pieces, was born at 
 Leyden, in 1596 ; and was the pupil of Van- 
 dervelde. He possessed great facility and 
 freedom ; his works are consequently more 
 general throughout Europe than those of 
 
 362 
 
 any other master, but such as are finished 
 and remain undamaged are highly valued. 
 
 GOZON, Deodati, grand-master of the 
 order of St. John of Jerusalem, was cele- 
 brated for his courage and other virtues. 
 A fabulous story is told of his killing a dra- 
 gon of a monstrous kind, that infested the 
 island of Rhodes. Died, 1353. 
 
 GOZZI, Gaspar, Count, an Italian ; au- 
 thor of" Dramatic Pieces," " Poems," " Fa- 
 miliar Letters," and a work on the plan of 
 the Spectator, called the " Venetian Obser- 
 ver." Born at Venice, 1713 ; died, 1786. 
 
 GOZZI, Charles, Count, brother of the 
 preceding, a dramatic writer, known as the 
 persevering enemy and rival of Goldoni. 
 
 GRABE, John Ernest, a learned divine 
 and critic, was bom in 1666, at Konigs- 
 berg, Prussia. Being dissatisfied with Lu- 
 theranism, he was prevailed upon to go to 
 England ; here he received considerable 
 patronage, king William III. allowing him 
 an annual pension of 100?., and the univer- 
 sity of Oxford conferring on him the degree 
 of D. D. He also entered into orders, and 
 published several valuable works, the prin- 
 cipal of which is, an edition of the Septua- 
 gint, from the Alexandrian MS. in the royal 
 library. He died in 1712. 
 
 GRACCHUS, Tiberius Sempronius, was 
 a celebrated Roman, of eminent talents and 
 patriotism, who distinguished himself at the 
 taking of Carthage, and was elected tribime 
 of the people. Having, in their name, de- 
 manded of the senate the execution of the 
 agrarian law, by which all persons possessing 
 above 500 acres of land were to l>e deprived 
 of the surplus, for the benefit of the poor 
 citizens, among whom an equal distribution 
 of it was to be made, it met with violent op- 
 position, and Tiberius fell a victim to his 
 zeal and the fury of the offended patricians, 
 B. c. 133. 
 
 GRACCHUS, Caius, a younger brother of 
 the preceding, who possessed similar talents 
 and principles, and pursued similar mea- 
 sures. He was twice tribune, and obtained 
 the passing of various laws obnoxious to the 
 patricians ; but, at length, he was slain in 
 battle, when contending with the consul 
 Opimius, B. c. 121. 
 
 GRACIAN,BALTHASAR,a Spanish Jesuit, 
 and one of the most popular preacliers and 
 writers of his time, was born in 1584, and 
 became rector of the college of Tarragona. 
 He wrote several works ; tlie chief of which 
 are, " The Courtier," '• The Hero," and " The 
 Art of Prudence." Died, 1658. 
 
 GR^FE, or GR^VIUS, John George, 
 a learned classical scholar, born at Naum- 
 burg. Saxony, in 1632. His avidity for study 
 in his early years was astonishing. He suc- 
 ceeded Gronovius in the professorship of 
 history at Deventer, and removed from 
 thence to Utreclit, where he died in 1703. 
 He published editions of several of the clas- 
 sics ; but his greatest works are his " The- 
 saurus Antiquitatum Romanorum," 12 vols, 
 folio, and " Thesaurus Antiquitatum et His- 
 toiiarum Italise," 6 vols, folio. 
 
 GRiEME, John, a Scotch poet, was bom 
 at Carnwarth, in Lanarkshire, in 1749. He 
 was the son of a poor farmer, but discover- 
 ing a superior genius, obtained a liberal 
 
ora] 
 
 ^ ^e&j ^nibtriaX aStOffiajp^ji. 
 
 [gra 
 
 education, first at Edinburgh, and next at 
 St. Andrew's. He was preparing for the 
 ministry, wlien he died in 1772, leaving be- 
 hind liiin a volume of elegiac and miscella- 
 neous poetry, which was afterwards pub- 
 lished. 
 
 GRAFFIGNY, Frances d'Issembocko 
 d'Happoncoukt de, was bom at Nancy in 
 1694. She was the wife of Graffigny, cham- 
 berlain to the Duke of Lorraine, from whom 
 she was legally separated on account of his 
 brutal conduct. Her best literary produc- 
 tions are a sentimental work, entitled " Let- 
 tres d'une Peruvieiuie," and the drama of 
 " Cenie." Died at Paris, in 1758. 
 
 GRAFTON, AtGUSTi's Henjcy Fitzroy, 
 Duke of, was born in 1736 ; succeeded his 
 grandfather in the family honours in 1757 ; 
 and in 1765 was appointed secretary of state; 
 but the year Ibllowing he relinquished that 
 station, and soon after became first lord of 
 the treasury, which he held till 1770. During 
 his administration, he was virulently at- 
 tacked by Junius, who seems to have been 
 actuated quite as much by personal enmity, 
 as by political hostility. In 1771 the duke 
 was nominated lord privy seal, which office 
 he resigned in 1775, and acted in opposition 
 to the court till 1782, when he was again in 
 place for a short time. After this, he was 
 uniformly an opponent of ministers, till his 
 death. He was the author of a volume of 
 theological essays, &c Died, 1811. 
 
 GRAFTON, Richard, an English histo- 
 rian, who carried on an extensive business 
 in London as a printer, in the 16th century. 
 He greatly assisted in the compilation of 
 *♦ HiUl's Chronicle," and also produced 
 Another, entitled " A Chronicle at large of 
 the Affayres of England from the Creation 
 of the Worlde unto Queene Elizabeth." 
 Grafton's Chronicle was republished, in 
 2 vols. 4to., in 1809. 
 
 GRAGGINI, Antuont Francis, an Ita- 
 lian poet of the 16th century. He was the 
 originator of the Delia Crusca Academy ; 
 and the autlior of jioems and tales, the lat- 
 ter rivalling, in purity of style, those of 
 Boccaccio. Bom, at Florence, 1503 ; died, 
 1583. 
 
 GRAHAM, George, an ingenious watch- 
 maker, and a most accurate mechanician, 
 was born at Kirklington, Cumberland, in 
 1675. He came to London, and lived with 
 Tompion the watchmaker, whom he suc- 
 oceded in business, but far excelled in scien- 
 tific attainments. He invented various as- 
 tronomical instruments, by which the pro- 
 fress of science was considerably furthered, 
 "he great mural arch in tlie observatory of 
 Greenwich was made for Dr. Hal ley, un- 
 der his insjiection, and divided by his own 
 hand. He invented the sector with which 
 Dr. Bra<lley discovered two new motions in 
 the fixed stars. He furnished the members 
 of the French Academy, who were sent to 
 the north to measure a degree of the meri- 
 dian, with the instruments for that purpose ; 
 and he composed tlie whole planetary sys- 
 tem, within the compass of a small cabinet, 
 from wliich model all succeeding orreries 
 have been formed. Mr. Graham was a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Society, to which he com- 
 municated several useful discoveries. He 
 
 363 
 
 died in 1751, and was interred in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. 
 
 GR.\H.1M, Sir John, the faithful compa- 
 nion and fellow-patriot of Sir William Wal- 
 lace. He fell, at the battle of Falkirk, July 
 22. 1298. 
 
 GRAHAM, John, of Clavcrhouse, Vis- 
 count Dundee, " a soldier of distinguished 
 courage and professional skill, but rapacious 
 and profane, of violent temjjcr, and of obiu- 
 rate heart," whose name, " wherever the 
 Scottish race is settled on the face of the 
 globe, is mentioned with a peculiar energy 
 of hatred," was born in IdrrO. His career m 
 arms commenced as a soldier of fortune in 
 France ; lie subsequently entered the Dutch 
 service ; and on his return to Scotland in 
 1677, he was nominated to the command of 
 a regiment of horse that ha<l been raised 
 against the Covenanters. His subsequent 
 career we will not dwell upon. Among 
 many cruel instruments of a tyrannous so- 
 vereign, he made himself conspicuous by liis 
 barbarity, and has obtained an unenviable 
 notoriety in history, romance, and local tra- 
 dition. The services which he rendered to 
 his sovereign were rewarded from time to 
 time by various liigh offices ; and he was 
 finally raised to the i)eerage by the title of 
 viscount Dundee. Killed at Killicraukic, in 
 the hour of victory, in 1689. 
 
 GRAHAM, Sir Richard, lord viscount 
 Preston, was bom in 1648. He was sent 
 ambassador by Charles II. to Louis XIV., 
 and was master of the wardrobe and secre- 
 tary of state under James II. When the 
 Revolution took place, he was tried and 
 condemned, on an accusation of attempting 
 the restoration of that prince, but, through 
 the queen's intercession, he was pardoned. 
 He spent the remainder of his days in re- 
 tirement, and published an elegant transla- 
 tion of Boethius on the Consolations of Phi- 
 losophy. Died, 1695. 
 
 GRAHAME, James, a Scottish poet, was 
 bom, in 1765, at Glassgow, and educated at 
 tlic university of tliat city. He was bred to 
 the law, but relinquished forensic pursuits 
 for clerical ; and died iu 1811, curate of 
 Sedgefield, near Durliam. His poetry is 
 mostly of a religious character, solemn, yet 
 animated, flowing, and descriptive. His 
 principal pieces are, " The Sabbath," " The 
 Bards of Scotland," and " British Georgics." 
 
 GRAINGER, James, a poet and i)hysi- 
 cian, was born at Dunse, in Scotland, iu 
 1723. After serving his time to a surgeon 
 at Edinburgh, he became a regimenial sur- 
 geon in the English army iu Germany ; but 
 on the restoration of i>eace in 1748, he took 
 his doctor's degree, and settled as a physi- 
 cian in London ; where, however, he prin- 
 cipally supported himself by writing for the 
 press. An " Ode to Solitude," published in 
 Dodsley's collection, first procured him re- 
 putation ; and, among others, the acquaint- 
 ance of Shenstone and Dr. Percy. In 1759 
 he publislicd his Elegies of TibuUus, which, 
 owing to some severity of criticism, involved 
 him in a paper war with Smollett. He then 
 went to the West Indies as tutor to a young 
 gentleman, and, during the voyage, formed 
 an attachment to a lady, whom he married 
 on his arrival at the island of St. Christo- 
 
 ti2 
 
gka] 
 
 ^ ^tbi mnlbtv^Kl 3St0firajpl)g. 
 
 [gra 
 
 pher's, of which her father was governor. 
 Here he successfully established himself as a 
 medical practitioner, but did not lay aside 
 bis pen. He wrote a West Indian Georgic, or 
 didactic poem, entitled " The Sugar Cane," 
 and the ballad of " Brian and Pereene." He 
 died at Basseterre, St. Christopher's, in 1767. 
 
 GRAMAYE, Joay Baptist, a Flemish 
 traveller, poet, and historian ; born at Ant- 
 werp ; was made historiographer of the 
 Netherlands, and became provost of Arn- 
 heim. He travelled through Germany and 
 Italy ; but as he was proceeding by sea to 
 Spain, he was taken by an Algerine corsair, 
 and carried to Barbary. On his liberty 
 being obtained, he travelled into Moravia 
 and Silesia ; was made president of the col- 
 lege of Louvain ; and died near Lubeck, in 
 1635. His works chiefly relate to the liis- 
 tory and antiquities of liis native country ; 
 but he also published " Africse lUustrata;," 
 " Dlarium Algeriense," some Latin poems, 
 &c. 
 
 GRAMMONT, Piiilibekt, Count of, a 
 celebrated wit of Cliarles the Second's court, 
 was the son of AnDiony, duke of Gram- 
 mont. After serving in the army under 
 Condi? and Turenne, lie came to England iu 
 the early part of the reign of Charles II., 
 with whom, as well as his mistresses, he 
 became a great favourite. He married the 
 daughter of Sir George Hamilton, fourth 
 son of the Earl of Abei-corn, and died iu 
 1707. He is described as possessing, with a 
 great turn for gallantry, much wit, polite- 
 ness, and good-nature; but he was a great 
 gamester, and seems to have been indebted 
 for his support chiefly to his superior skill 
 and success at play. His memoirs were 
 written by his brother-in-law, Anthony, 
 usually called Count Hamilton, who fol- 
 lowed the fortunes of James II., and ended 
 his days in the service of France. 
 
 GRAMMONT, the Duke of, father of the 
 DukeofGuiche and the Countesses of Tank- 
 erville and Sebastiani, died at Paris, aged 81, 
 Aug. 1836. Some years ago he instituted a 
 suit in the Frencli courts to establish his 
 claim to the citadel of Blaye and its depend- 
 encies ; and the cour royale of Bourdeaux 
 decreed that, at the expiration of three years, 
 the state should pay the duke an annuity 
 of 100,t)00 francs, or reinstate him in the pos- 
 session of the citadel. The present Duchess 
 de Grammont is sister to Count Alfred 
 d'Orsay. 
 
 GRANBY, John Manners, Marquis of, 
 a famous English general, was the eldest 
 son of the Duke of Rutland, and commanded 
 with honour during the seven years war in 
 Germany. After the peace of 1763, he retired 
 to private life, greatly beloved by all ranks 
 for his many virtues. He died in 1770, 
 aged 50. 
 
 GRANDIER, Uhbaix, curate and canon 
 of lioudon, whose tragical end disgraced 
 France in the 17th century, was born at 
 Bouvere, near Sable. On obtaining the 
 living of Loudon, lie became so very popular 
 as a preacher, that the envy of the monks 
 was excited against him. He was first ac- 
 cused of incontinency ; but being acquitted, 
 his enemies instigated some nuns to play the 
 part of persons possessed, and in their con- 
 
 vulsions to charge Grandier with being the 
 cause of their visitation. This horrible 
 though absurd charge was countenanced by 
 Cardinal Richelieu, who had been persuaded 
 that Grandier had satirised hira ; and he 
 was tried, declared guilty, ari burnt alive, 
 April 18. 16;M. 
 
 GRANDIUS, or GRANDI,Guido, anlta- 
 lian mathematician, was born in 1671, at 
 Cremona. He became professor of philosophy 
 at Florence, and zealously advocated the 
 Cartesian doctrines ; subsequently removed 
 to Pisa ; was appointed professor of mathe- 
 matics in that university ; and died in 1742. 
 He corresponded with Newton, Leibnitz, and 
 Bemouilli, and published several works, the 
 chief of wliich is a Latin treatise, " De Infi- 
 nitis Infinitorum." 
 
 GRANDMAISON, Michael, bom in 1771; 
 a French terrorist, of infamous notoriety ; 
 member of the revolutionary committee of 
 Nantes, and chief agent in Carrier's horrible 
 Noyades and Fusillades. On the reaction of 
 1794, against his patrons, he was himself con- 
 demned to the guillotine. It was proved on 
 his trial, that he armed himself with a 
 sabre, and chopped off the hands and fingers 
 of those who tried to save themselves from 
 the Noyades by grasping the edges of the 
 boats. 
 
 GRANET, Francis, deacon of the church 
 of Aix, and an able critic, was born in 1692, 
 at BrignoUes in Provence. He continued 
 Desfontaines's "Nouvelliste du Parnasse," 
 till the work was suppressed ; after which 
 he published " Reflexions sur les Ouvrages 
 de Littt^rature," in 12 vols. He also trans- 
 lated Newton's Chronology, and edited Lau- 
 noy's works. Died, 1741. 
 
 GRANGE, Joseph dk Chancel de la, 
 a poet, was bom in 1676, in Perigord. He 
 wrote a comedy at 9 years old, and a tragedy 
 at 16 ; but the work which made him known 
 was a satire, entitled "Philippics," contain- 
 ing many infamous accusations against 
 Philip, duke of Orleans. For this he was 
 seized, and ordered to be imprisoned in the 
 Isle of St. Margaret ; but he contrived to 
 effect his escape, and on the regent's death 
 returned to France, where he was allowed to 
 live unmolested. His works, consisting of 
 operas, tragedies, and miscellaneous poems, 
 form 5 volumes. Died, 1758. 
 
 GRANGER, James, an English divine, 
 who published a valuable and highly inter- 
 esting work, entitled " The Biographical 
 History of England," in 4 vols. 8vo. He was 
 a native of Berkshire ; received his education 
 at Christchurch, Oxford ; became vicar of 
 Shiplake, in Oxfordshire ; and his death was 
 occasioned by a fit of apoplexy while admi- 
 nistering the sacrament, in 1776. 
 
 GRANT, Anne, usually designated Mrs. 
 Grant of Laggan, a popular and instructive 
 miscellaneous writer, whose maiden name 
 was M'Vicar, was born in Glasgow, 1755. 
 Her early years were passed in America, 
 wliither her father, who held a commission 
 in the British army, had removed with the 
 intention of permanently settling there ; but 
 circumstances interfered with his design, 
 and on his return to Scotland he was ap- 
 pointed barrack-master of Fort Augustus. 
 Here his daughter became acquainted with 
 
 33i 
 
ora] 
 
 ^ ^c&) Bnibevial 3BCflflrap]^j?. 
 
 [gra 
 
 the Rev. James Grant, chaplain to the fort ; 
 and a mutual attachment having sprung up 
 between them, on his appointment to tlic 
 living of Laggan, Invemesshire, tliey were 
 married in 1779. In 1801 left a widow with 
 a large family, and but acanty means, slie 
 was induced, by the persuasion of her friends, 
 to publish a volume of poems, which proved 
 successful beyond her most ardent wishes ; 
 and the literary ice once broken, she now 
 adopted literature as a profession, and at 
 various periods produced her " Inciters from 
 £he Mountains" (which have been often re- 
 printed), "Memoirs of an American Lady," 
 ♦' Essays on the Superstitions of the High- 
 landers of Scotland," " Popular Models and 
 impressive Warnings from the Sons and 
 Daughters of Industry," &c. Nearly the 
 last 'M years of her life were spent in Edin- 
 burgh, where she formed the centre of a 
 highly accomplished circle, numbering 
 among her friends Sir Walter Scott, Lord 
 JeflFrey, Uenry Mackenzie, and all the Scotch 
 "notables" of the day ; and where tliOiChris- 
 tian resignation which she displayed amid 
 many calamitous events, and her amiable 
 character, no less than.her literary celebrity, 
 procured her general esteem and regard. 
 Died, 1838. Her " Memoirs and Correspond- 
 ence " have since been published. 
 
 GRANT, Charles, an eminent and be- 
 nevolent East India proprietor and director, 
 was born in Scotland, in 1746. By the death 
 of his father, who fell at the battle of Cul- 
 loden, the care of his education devolved on 
 his uncle, who sent him out to India. Here 
 he soon found patronage in the civil service, 
 and in 1770 returned to Scotland and married. 
 In 1772 he went out to Bengal as a writer ; 
 and was shortly after appointed secretary to 
 the board of trade. In this situation he 
 became the patron of several Christian mis- 
 sions ; and in 1790, on his return to England, 
 he obtained a seat in the East India direction. 
 He was also a member of the House of Com- 
 mons, where his opinion on Indian affairs 
 obtained great attention. He wrote " Obser- 
 vations on the State of Society among the 
 Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain." Died, 
 1822. 
 
 GRANT, FnAycis, lord Cullen, an emi- 
 nent Scotch judge, was born about 1660. He 
 studied at Leyden under Voet, and on hia 
 return home was admitted an advocate. He 
 distinguished himself by his publications in 
 favour of the Revolution, for which he was 
 rewarded, first by a baronetcy, and soon 
 after by being appointed one of the judges, 
 or senators in the college of justice, when he 
 took the title of lord Cullen. He continued 
 to discharge the duties of his office for twenty 
 years, with the highest reputation ; and died 
 in 1726. 
 
 GRANT, James, a Scotch barrister, and 
 at the time of his death the father of the 
 Scottish bar. He was early distinguished 
 for his liberal political principles, and could 
 number among his friends Henry Erskine, 
 Sir James Mackintosh, and many others, 
 eminent for their attainments and the lead 
 they took in the politics of the day. He was 
 the author of " Essays on the Origin of So- 
 ciety," " Thoughts on the Origin and Descent 
 of the Gael," &c. Died, 1835, aged 92. 
 
 865 
 
 GRANT, Sir William, late master of the 
 rolls ; an excellent equity judge, the promp- 
 titude and wisdom of whose decisions were 
 appreciated no less by the public than b^ the 
 profession, of which he was a distinguished 
 member. Born at Elchles, in Scotland, 1754; 
 died, 1832, 
 
 GRANVILLE, or GREENVILLE, Sir 
 RiCHAKD, was a native of Cornwall, born in 
 1540, and entered early into the military 
 service, as a volunteer against the Turks. 
 He afterwards joined Sir Walter Raleigh in 
 his expedition to America ; and, in l.'iOl, be- 
 came vice-admiral under Sir Thomas Hovr- 
 ard, who was sent out to the Aeores to inter- 
 cept the Plate fleet. The Spaniards, however, 
 being apprised of the design, dispatched a 
 powerful squadron, which succeeded in cut- 
 ting off Greenville's ship from the rest ; and 
 in a desperate contest with them he was 
 mortally wounded. 
 
 GRANVILLE, or GREENVILLE, Sir 
 Bkvil, grandson of the preceding, was born 
 in 1596, At the commencement of the civil 
 war, he raised a troop of horse at his own 
 expense, and was killed at the battle of 
 Lansdowne, in 1643. 
 
 GRANVILLE, George, lord Lansdowne, 
 a nobleman of very considerable talents, was 
 grandson to Sir Bevil Granville (or Green- 
 ville), who fell in the royal cause at Lans- 
 downe, in 1643, and descended from the 
 family of Rollo, the first duke of Normandy. 
 He was born in 1667 ; sent to Trinity College. 
 Cambridge, when only 11 years of age ; ad- 
 mitted M.A. at 13 ; having, before he was 12, 
 spoken a poetical address of his own com- 
 position to the Duchess of York, when she 
 visited the university. He had a strong 
 inclination for a military life ; but this was 
 checked by his friends, and he employed 
 himself, during the various political changes 
 that occurred, in cultivating hia taste for 
 literature. In 1690, his comedy, called 
 " The Gallants," was performed at the 
 theatre royal in Lincoln's Inn Fields, as 
 was his tragedy of " Heroic Love " in 1698. 
 On the accession of queen Anne, he made 
 his first appearance at court ; took his seat 
 in the House of Commons as member for 
 Fowey ; became successively secretary of 
 war, comptroller of the household, trea- 
 surer, and one of the privy council. On the 
 queen's death he not only lost his post, 
 but being suspected of disaffection to the I 
 Hanoverian succession, was arrested and i 
 sent to the Tower, where he remained 
 upwards of a twelvemonth. He then re- 
 tired to the Continent for ten years ; and 
 on his return passed his life as a country 
 gentleman, amusing himself with the repub- 
 lication of his poems, and in writing a 
 vindication of his uncle. Sir Richard, against 
 the charges of Clarendon and Burnet. Died, 
 17a5. 
 
 GRANVILLE, Lord. See Cakteret. 
 
 GRATIAN, a Roman emperor, was the 
 son of Valentinian I. by his wife Severa, 
 and bom in 359. His father took him as his i 
 associate in the empire when he was only j 
 8 years old. In his 17th year he succeeded j 
 to the tlirone, on the death of his father, i 
 Oratian defeated the Goths, and exerted ; 
 himself with energy and success in defend- i 
 
gra] 
 
 ^ i^tin WiiiihtriKl JSiOffrapfjjf. 
 
 [ghb 
 
 ing the empire, but was put to death in a 
 revolt, in Gaul, A. D. S83. 
 
 GRATI AN, a Benedictine in the 12th cen- 
 tury, was a native of Chiusi, in Tuscany. 
 He employed 24 years in compiling an 
 abridgment of the canon law, commonly 
 called Gratian's Decretal. 
 
 GRATIUS, Faliscus, a Latin poet, sup- 
 posed to be contemporary with Ovid. He 
 wrote a poem, entitled " Cynogeticon," or 
 the " Art of Hunting with Dogs." 
 
 GRATTAN, Henuy, an eminent Irish 
 orator and statesman, was born about the 
 year 17o0, at Dublin, of which city his 
 father was recorder. He finished his edu- 
 cation at Trinity College, whence he re- 
 moved to England, and became a student 
 in the Middle Temple. He was called to 
 the Irish bar in 1772, and brought into the 
 parliament of Ireland in 1775, where he 
 immediately became distinguished for his 
 patriotic speeches, and that vigorous op- 
 position to the statute of 6th Geo. I., which 
 roused the whole island, and produced its 
 repeal, in 1782. For his share in this trans- 
 action, Mr. Grattan received addresses from 
 all parts of tlie country, and was rewarded 
 with the sum of 50,0(X)/. voted to him by the 
 parliament of Ireland. In 1790, he was 
 returned for the city of Dublin, principally 
 for the purpose of opposing the union ; but 
 when that measure was carried, he did not 
 refuse a seat in the united House of Com- 
 mons. The latter years of his parliamentary 
 attendance were chiefly devoted to a warm 
 and energetic support of Catholic emanci- 
 pation ; and it may be truly said, that he 
 died in the service of this cause. Mr. Grattan 
 was the zealous and unequivocal friend to 
 Ireland, and to what he deemed her best 
 interests, from first to last. There was no- 
 thing temporising or uncertain about him ; 
 he was a warm friend, or a bitter enemy. 
 As a public speaker, he had to contend with 
 a defective voice ; but his eloquence was at 
 all times animated, combining strength with 
 beauty, and energy with elegance. Died, 
 1820. aged 70. 
 
 GRAUN, Karl Henrich, an eminent 
 German musician, chapel-master to Fre- 
 deric the Great, was born in 1701, and died 
 in 1769. He enjoyed a reputation in Ger- 
 many scarcely inferior to that which Han- 
 del enjoyed in England ; and was tlie author 
 of an immense number of masses, oratorios, 
 and other musical compositions. 
 
 GRAUNT, Edwakd, a scholar of the 
 IGth century. He was appointed master 
 of Westminster School in 1572 ; resigned 
 tlie mastership jn 1591 ; and died, rector 
 of Toppersfleldj in Essex, 1601. He was 
 the author of "GraeciB Lingute Spicile- 
 gium," &c. 
 
 GRAVES, Richard, a clergyman of the 
 Church of England, but better known as a 
 novelist and poet tliau as a divine, was 
 bom at Mickleton, in Gloucestershire, in 
 1715. He was a student at Pembroke Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and afterwards obtained a 
 fellowship of All Souls. In 1750, he was 
 presented to the rectory of Claverton, near 
 Bath ; and in that pleasant sequestered vil- 
 lage he resided till the time of his death, in 
 1804. Among his various works are, " The 
 
 Festoon, or a Collection of Epigrams," 
 " Lucubrations in Prose and Rhyme," " The 
 Spiritual Quixote," a novel ridiculing the 
 extravagancies of Methodism, as they ap- 
 peared among the immediate followers of 
 Whitfield and Wesley, and combining much 
 shrewdness, wit, and humour. 
 
 GRAVES.\JSrDE, William James, an 
 eminent Dutch geometrician and philo- 
 sopher, was born at Bois-le-Duc, in 1688. 
 He was bred a civilian, and practised some 
 time at the bar with reputation ; but, about 
 1715, he became professor of mathematics 
 and natural philosophy at Leyden. where lie 
 taught the Newtonian system. He died in 
 1742. 
 
 GRAVINA, John Vixcent, a celebrated 
 jurist and literary character, was born in 
 Calabria, in 1664 ; became professor of civil 
 and canon law at Rome ; was one of the 
 founders of the Arcadian Academy, and the 
 early protector of Metastasio ; and died in 
 1718. His works are numerous ; and the 
 principal one, " Origines Juris Civilis," is 
 said to be replete with learning. 
 
 GRAY, Stephen, a gentleman belonging 
 to the Charter House, who, early in the 18th 
 century, distinguished himself as an experi- 
 mental philosopher. He discovered the me- 
 thod of communicating electricity to bodies 
 not naturally possessing it, by contact or 
 contiguity with electrics ; and he projected 
 a kind of luminous orrery, or electrical 
 planetarium ; thus leading the way to future 
 discoveries and improvements. 
 
 GRAY, Thomas, a celebrated English 
 poet, was born in London, in 1716 ; edu- 
 cated at Eton, and Peter House, Cambridge ; 
 and entered himself at the Inner Temple, 
 with a view of studying for the bar. Be- 
 coming intimate, however, with Horace 
 Walpole, he was easily induced to accom- 
 pany him in his tour of Europe ; but they 
 parted at Reggio, and Gray returned to 
 England in 1741. Here he occupied himself 
 several years in laying literary schemes and 
 plans of magnitude, which he admirably 
 commenced, but wanted energy to mature. 
 So slow was he to publish, that it was not 
 until 1747, that his " Ode on h. distant Pro- 
 spect of Eton College " made its appearance ; 
 and it was only in consequence of the 
 printing of a surreptitious copy, that, in 
 1761, he published his " Elegy written in a 
 Country Church-yard." He declined the 
 office of laureate on Cibber's death, in 1557 ; 
 and the same year published his two prin- 
 cipal odes, " On the Progress of Poesy " and 
 " The Bard." In 1768, the Duke of Grafton 
 presented him with the professorship of mo- 
 dern history at Cambridge. But though 
 Gray published little besides his poems, he 
 was a man of extensive acquirements in 
 natural history, the study of ancient archi- 
 tecture, &c. ; his correspondence places him 
 among our best epistolary writers ; and some 
 of his posthumous pieces afford proof of his 
 profound and varied erudition. As a poet, 
 he is energetic and harmonious ; and his 
 lyrics, though few, have been rarely, if ever, 
 surpassed. Died, 1771. 
 
 GREATOREX, Thomas, an eminent mu- 
 sician, was born at North Winfield, Derby- 
 shire, in 1758. He was a pupil of Dr. Cook ; 
 
and he afterwards went to Italy, where he 
 studied vocal music under Santarelli, at 
 Rome ; and having made himself acquainted 
 with all the knowledge he could gather by a 
 professional tour to \he principal cities of 
 Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and the Ne- 
 therlands, he returned to England in 1788, 
 and established himself in London as a 
 teacher of music, in which he was emi- 
 nently successful. He harmonised various 
 airs, adapted many of Handel's productions, 
 and arranged parts for the grand orchestra 
 with great ability. But he did not devote 
 his attention wholly to music, mathematics, 
 astronomy, botany, and chemistry, each oc- 
 cupied his mind by turns ; and he was a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. Died, 1831. 
 
 GREAVES, RicHAKD, an orientalist and 
 mathematician, was born at Colmore, Hants, 
 in 1602; educated at Baliol College, Ox- 
 ford ; and chosen professor of geometry at 
 Gresham College, in 1630. He next went to 
 Leyden, where he studied the Arabic lan- 
 guage under Golius ; after whicli he tra- 
 velled into the Levant, to purcliase manu- 
 scripts for Archbishop Laud. He also visited 
 Egypt, and made a survey of the pyramids ; 
 and, in 1640, returned to England, when 
 he was deprived of his Gresham professor- 
 ship ; but the king gave him tliat of astro- 
 nomy, at Oxford, which he also lost on the 
 ruin of the royal cause. While in Egypt, 
 he had made an accurate measurement, &c. 
 of the principal pyramids, which he gave to 
 the world under the title of "Pyramido- 
 graphia ; " he also published an ingenious 
 work, entitled "Epochae Celebriores ;" and 
 a "Dissertation on the Roman Foot and 
 Denarius." Died, 1652. — His brothers, Tho- 
 mas and Edwaud, were also men of learn- 
 ing ; the former, a good orientalist ; the 
 latter, eminent as a physician, and createcT 
 a baronet by Charles II. 
 
 GRECOURT, Jean Baptiste Joseph 
 ViLLART DE, a French ecclesiastic, famous 
 as a wit and a poet, was born at Tours, in 
 1C84. He was a general favourite in the 
 fashionable circles of Paris, among which 
 he threw oflF tlie restraints of his profession 
 to reside. lie excelled in epigrams, tales. 
 Bonnets, and fables, a collection of which 
 was published in 4 vols. Died, 1743. 
 
 GREEN, John, bisliop of Lincoln, was 
 born at Hull, in 1706 ; became a fellow of 
 St. John's College, Cambridge ; was elected 
 master of Corpus Christi, in 1750 ; vice- 
 chnncellor in 1756, and obtained the see of 
 Lincoln, in 1764. He wrote a treatise " On 
 Religious Enthusiasm," &c. ; and contri- 
 buted to the "Athenian Letters." Died,1779. 
 
 GREEN, Valentixe, a celebrated en- 
 graver in mezzotinto, was a native of War- 
 wickshire, and intended for the legal pro- 
 fession ; but he left it for the art in which 
 he afterwards excelled. He settled in Lon- 
 don in 1765 ; was keeper of the Royal In- 
 stitution, and associate of the Royal Aca- 
 demy ; and produced many fine engravings 
 ft-om Reynolds, West, the Dusseldorf Gal- 
 lery, &c. He was also known as the author 
 of a " History of Worcester," and some other 
 works. Died, 1813. 
 
 GREENE, Robert, a humorous poet in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, was bom at Nor- 
 
 wich, about 1560. He was educated at St. 
 John's College, Cambridge ; and after mak- 
 ing " the grand tour," took orders. But he 
 disgraced his profession by a life of liber- 
 tinism, and died of a surfeit, in 1592. He 
 wrote five plays, and various tracts in prose ; 
 among which is one, lately reprinted, with 
 the quaint title of " A Groat's W^orth of Wit 
 bought with a Million of Repentance." 
 
 GREENE, Matthew, author of "The 
 Spleen," a clever poem, was a native of 
 London. He held a situation in the custom 
 house, and is described as a man of great 
 probity and suavity of manners. Died, 1737. 
 
 GREENE, Dr. Maurice, a musical com- 
 poser, was a native of London, and brought 
 up in the choir of St. Paul's, of which he 
 became organist in 1718. He was after- 
 wards appointed to the same situation in 
 the chapel royal ; and, in 1730, was chosen 
 professor of music in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, from whicli he had previously ob- 
 tained his musical degree. Besides his an- 
 thems, which are mucli esteemed, he pro- 
 duced several excellent catches, duets, &c. 
 Died. 1755. 
 
 GREENFIELD, William, celebrated as 
 an oriental scholar and linguist, was editor 
 of the "Compreliensive Bible," and made 
 many valuable translations of the Bible into 
 Eastern dialects. His literary acquirements 
 were made under great difficulties, and while 
 pursuing his dail^ occupation of a book- 
 binder. He died m 1832, in consequence, it 
 is said, of neological sentiments being attri- 
 buted to him during the Trinitarian con- 
 troversy. 
 
 GREENVILLE. See Granville. 
 
 GREGORY I., sumamed the Great, was 
 born of a noble family at Rome, about the 
 year 544. He discovered such abilities as a 
 senator, that the emperor Justin appointed 
 him prefect of Rome ; after which he em- 
 braced the monastic life, in a society founded 
 by himself. Pope Pelagius II. sent him as 
 nuncio to Constantinople, and on his return 
 made him apostolical secretary. He was 
 elected successor to that pontiif in 590 ; and, 
 among other instances of his zeal, we may 
 mention that of his being the means of con- 
 verting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, by 
 sending over some monks, under the direction 
 of St. Augustin. Pope Gregory was pious and 
 charitable, had lofty notions of tlie papal 
 authority, was a reformer of the clerical 
 discipline, and after his death was canon- 
 ised. He is, however, accused of destroying 
 the noble monuments of Roman magnifi- 
 cence, and of burning a multitude of the 
 works of ancient authors, lest the attention 
 to heathen literature should supersede the 
 monkish and ecclesiastical studies of the age. 
 His works are comprised in 4 vols. Died, 604. 
 
 GREGORY VII., pope, who is said to 
 have been the son of a carpenter, and his 
 real name Hildebrand, is chiefly memo- 
 rable for his extension of the usurped au- 
 thority of the popes. This he carried so far 
 as to depose Henry IV., emperor of Germany; 
 and to send legates into all the kingdoms of 
 Europe, to support his pretended rights. He 
 died in 108.5, and for ambition aiKl want of 
 principle he has never been exceeded. 
 
 GREGORY XIII. was a native of Bo- 
 
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 ^ ^tbi ^nihtx^Kl 38t00ra3pTj». 
 
 [grb 
 
 logna, and succeeded pope Pius V. in 1572. 
 He was the most deeply versed in the canon 
 and civil law of any in his time. He or- 
 namented Rome with many fine buildings 
 and fountains ; but his pontificate is chiefly 
 memorable for the reformation of the ca- 
 lendar, which took place under liis auspices, 
 and bore his name. Died, 1585. 
 
 GREGORY XV. was. a native of Bologna, 
 and descended of an ancient family ; but 
 his real name was Alexander Ludovisio. 
 He was elected to the papal dignity in 1621 ; 
 and was the author of several works, one of 
 which, entitled ' Epistola ad Regem Per- 
 garuni, Schah Abbas," particularly deserves 
 mention. 
 
 GREGORY XVI., Macro Cafellari, was 
 born at Belluno in 1765, and succeeded Pius 
 VIII. in the papal chair, 1831. His reign 
 embraced a period of no ordinary interest 
 and difficulty in the history of the church, 
 and in the relations of the Vatican with the 
 temporal powers of Christendom. Simple 
 in his habits, though narrow in his ideas 
 and timid in his manners, he nevertheless 
 displayed great energy in conducting the 
 affairs of the church ; but incajmble of civil 
 government, he displayed a bigoted resistance 
 to the practical improvements of the age ; 
 and the volcano, on which his temporal 
 throne rested, has since broken out with an 
 eruption, the subsidence of which no man 
 can foretell. Died, 184G. 
 
 GREGORY, Nazianzen, St., eminent for 
 his piety and extensive learning, was born 
 in 324, at Nazianzum, in Cappadocia, of 
 which place his father was bishop. He re- 
 ceived an excellent education, which he 
 improved at Athens, where he formed an 
 acquaintance with St. Basil. On his return 
 home he was ordained ; and having dis- 
 played great theological and classical ta- 
 lents, he was chosen bishop of Constanti- 
 nople, which appointment was confirmed by 
 Theodosius in 380. After filling the archi- 
 episcopal throne for several years, he re- 
 signed it, and returned to his native place, 
 where he died in 889. He far excelled all 
 his contemporaries ; and, indeed, his style 
 has been compared to that of the most ce- 
 lebrated orators of ancient Greece. 
 
 GREGORY, king of Scotland, contem- 
 porary with Alfred, succeeded to the throne 
 in 883. He delivered his country from the 
 Danes, acquired the counties of Cumber- 
 land and Westmoreland, performed many 
 brilliant exploits in Ireland, and built the 
 city of Aberdeen. Died, 894. 
 
 GREGORY, bishop of Neocassarea, in the 
 Srd century, was surnamed Thaumaturgus, 
 or the Wonder-worker, on account of the 
 miracles which he is said to have performed. 
 The church flourished under his care until 
 the Dacian persecution, in 250, when he 
 thought it prudent to retire for a time. lie 
 was a pupil of the celebrated Origen, and 
 appears to have been a man of learning. 
 Died, 265. 
 
 GREGORY OF Nyssa, St. was ordained 
 bishop of Nyssa, in 372. The zeal he dis- 
 played against the Arians excited the re- 
 sentment of the emperor Valens, who be- 
 longed to that sect, and he was banished ; 
 but, on the accession of Gratian, he was 
 
 restored to his see. He drew up the Kicene 
 creed at the council of Constantinople, and 
 died in 396. 
 
 GREGORY, George, D.D., a divine and 
 miscellaneous writer, was a native of Ireland, 
 and born in 1754. With an intention of fol- 
 lowing mercantile pursuits, he was placed in 
 a counting-house at Liverpool ; and it was 
 not till 1778 that he took orders. In 1782 
 he settled in London, where he obtained the 
 curacy of Cripplegate, and was chosen even- 
 ing preacher at the Foundling. Having 
 written in defence of tlie Addington ad- 
 ministration, Lord Sidmouth, in 1804, pro- 
 cured for him the living of West Ham, in 
 Essex, which he held till his decease. Among 
 Dr. Gregory's works are, " Essays, Historical 
 and Moral;" a " Church History," 2 vols. ; 
 » The Life of Chatterton," " The Economy 
 of Nature," 3 vols. ; " Sermons," " Letters on 
 Pliilosophy," 2 vols. ; and a Translation of 
 "Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry," 2 
 vols. Died, 1808. 
 
 GREGORY, George Florence, com- 
 monly called Gregory of Tours, a Romish 
 saint, was bom in 544, in Auvergne. He 
 died in 595. He was the author of a " His- 
 tory of the Franks," in 10 books ; and other 
 works. 
 
 GREGORY, James, an eminent mathema- 
 tician and philosopher, was born at Aberdeen, 
 in 1{'>88. He received his education in the Ma- 
 rischal College of his native place, where he 
 published, in 1663, his " Treatise on Optics," 
 in which he imparted his invention of the 
 reflecting telescope. About 1665, he went 
 to Padua, where he printed a work on the 
 " Quadrature of the Circle and Hyperbola." 
 On his return from his travels, he was chosen 
 a fellow of the Royal Society of London ; 
 and merit procured him the mathematical 
 chair at St. Andrew's. In 1674, he removed 
 to Edinburgh, on being appointed to the 
 mathematical professorship ; but he held the 
 situation only for a short time, for while 
 showing the satellites of Jupiter to some 
 pupils, in October 1675, he was suddenly 
 struck blind, and died a few days after. 
 
 GREGORY, David, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, and the inheritor of his abilites and 
 his fame, was born at Aberdeen, in 1661, 
 studied at Edinburgh, and became professor 
 of mathematics in that university. He was 
 afterwards elected Savilian professor of as- 
 tronomy at Oxford, carrying his election 
 against Halley, who was also a candidate for 
 that situation. In 1695, he published his 
 " Catoptricse et Dioptrics Sphericae Elemen- 
 ta." His demonstration of the cui"A'e, called 
 the catenarian, appeared, in 1697, in the 
 Philosophical Transactions ; but his greatest 
 work was published in 1702, and entitled 
 " Astronomiae Physicae et Geometricae Ele- 
 menta." It was afterwards translated into 
 English, in 2 vols. 8vo. Dr. Gregory died 
 while engaged in superintending an edition 
 of Apollonius's Conies, in 1710. 
 
 GREGORY, James, M.D. andF.R.S., was 
 born at Aberdeen in 1753, and was long one 
 of the brightest ornaments of the university 
 of Edinburgh. He was the author of " Phi- 
 losophical and Literary Essays," 2 vols ; 
 "CuUen's First Lines of the Practice of 
 Physic, with Notes," 2 vols. ; and " Con- 
 
gke] 
 
 ^ ^ettj SluibcriSaT aStograpT)!?. 
 
 [gke 
 
 spectus Mediciuae Theoreticse," 2 vols. Died, 
 1821. 
 
 GREGORY, John, M.D. a physician and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born in 1724, at 
 Aberdeen ; studied at Edinburgh and Leyden ; 
 became professor of pliilosopliy at Aberdeen, 
 and afterwards professor of physic at Edin- 
 burgh ; and was appointed first pliysician to 
 the king for Scotland. His works are, " A 
 Comparative View of the State and Faculties 
 of Man with those of the Animal World," 
 " Observations on the Duties and OfBces of a 
 Physician," " Elements of the Practice of 
 Physic," and " A Father's Legacy to his 
 Daughters." Died, 1773. 
 
 GREGORY, Olinthus, IX. D., was born 
 at Yaxley, in Huntingdonshire, in 1774. 
 He commenced his literary career at the age 
 of 19 ; but the works whicli chiefly brought 
 him into notice were his "Treatise on 
 Astronomy " and the " Pantalogia," a com- 
 prehensive dictionary of the arts and sciences, 
 of which he undertook the general editor- 
 ship. Through the interest of his friend 
 Dr. Ilutton, he was appointed, in 1802, 
 mathematical master at the royal military 
 academy, Woolwich ; in which establish- 
 ment he eventually obtained the professor's 
 chair, filling it with reputation until he was 
 obliged through ill-health, brought on by 
 intense study, to resign it in IHSS. Besides 
 the works above mentioned, and many 
 others. Dr. Gregory was the author of 
 "Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigono- 
 metry," "Mathematics for Practical Men," 
 " Letters to a Friend, on the Evidences, 
 Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Re- 
 ligion," 2 vols., and "Memoirs of the Life, 
 Writings, &c. of the late John Mason Good, 
 M. P." His original papers and editorial 
 labours, also, on difterent branches of art 
 and science, were numerous ; and from the 
 year 1817 he had the whole of the general 
 superintendence of the almanacks published 
 by the stationers' company. Died, 1841. 
 
 GHEGORIE, IIexky, Count, bishop of 
 Blois, a French prelate, distinguished by his 
 love of democracy, no less than by his in- 
 flexible integrity and active philanthropy, 
 was born in 1750, at Vatro, near Luneville. 
 In 1789, he was nominated by the clergy of 
 his province a member of the states-general; 
 and in the constituent assembly he distin- 
 guished himself by the boldness of his opi- 
 nions relative to civil and religious liberty. 
 He was among the first of the clergy who 
 Bwore fidelity to the constitution ; but during 
 the reign of terror, when the Bishop of Paris 
 abdicated his office, and several of the clergy 
 abjured Christianity, the Bishop of Blois 
 stood forward as the supporter of the reli- 
 gion of his country, undaunted by the exe- 
 crations of infidel regicides, and the horrors 
 of the blood-stained guillotine. He also op- 
 posed the accession of the first consul to the 
 throne of France ; and he, alone, objected to 
 the obsequious address of the senate to the 
 new sovereign. On the restoration of the 
 Bourbons, he was excluded from the Insti- 
 tute, and deprived of his bishopric. He spent 
 the remainder of his life in retirement, and 
 died at Paris, in 1831. As a literary cha- 
 racter, the constitutional Bishop of Blois was 
 also distinguished. Among liia writings are, 
 
 "Essai sur I'Am^lioration Politique, Phy- 
 sique, et Morale des Juifs ;" " Memoires en 
 favcur des Gens de Couleur, ou Sang-mSltSs 
 de St. Domingue;" "Essai Historique sur 
 les Liberties de I'Eglise Gallicane'," "Les 
 Ruines de Port Royal," &c. 
 
 GREIG, Samuel Carlowitz, an eminent 
 naval officer in the Russian service, was a 
 native of Scotland, and first served in the 
 navy of Great Britain : distinguishing him- 
 self at the defeat of Conttans, by Admiral 
 Hawke, the taking of the Ilavannah, and 
 several other engagements. After the peace 
 of 1703, he entered into the Russian service ; 
 and, at the battle of Chio, contributed greatly, 
 by his advice and exertions, to the destruc- 
 tion of the whole of the Turkish fleet. 
 Sensible of his great professional merit, the 
 empress promoted him to the chief command 
 of the Russian navy, gave him an estate in 
 Livonia, and honoured him with many other 
 marks of her favour. Died, 1788. 
 
 GRENFEL, Pascok, an eminent mer- 
 chant, and for many years an active mem- 
 ber of the British parliament, where his 
 efforts in favour of the abolition of slavery, 
 and the opposition generally manifested by 
 him to the i)roceedings of the Bank of Eng- 
 land, rendered him a prominent character. 
 He was also governor of the Royal Exchange 
 Assurance Company. Born, 17(52; died, 1838. 
 
 GRENVILLE,Geokoe, an English states- 
 man in the reigns of George II. and III., 
 was younger brother of Richard Grenville, 
 Earl Temple, and the father of Lord Gren- 
 ville. He entered parliament as member for 
 Buckinghamshire, and was distinguished for 
 his eloquence. He successively filled the 
 situations of treasurer of the navy, first lord of 
 the admiralty, and first lord of the treasury. 
 In 1763, he became chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, but, in 176.5, he resigned his post to 
 the Marquis of Rockingham. His adminis- 
 tration having been violently attacked by 
 the press, he published "Considerations on 
 tlie Commerce and Finances of England, 
 and on the Measures taken by the Minis- 
 ters," &c. in its defence. He died in 1770. 
 
 GRENVILLE, Rt. Hon. William Wysd- 
 iiAM, Lord, third son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1759. On completing his studies at 
 Oxford, he entered one of the inns of court, 
 with an intention of studying for the bar ; 
 but forming an early acquaintance with Mr. 
 Pitt, it caused him to abandon all thoughts 
 of the law, and seek distinction in the senate. 
 In 1782 he accompanied Earl Temple to Ire- 
 land as his secretary, and after a stay of only 
 one year, he succeeded Mr. Burke in the 
 office of paymaster-general of the army. 
 He began his parliamentary career as the 
 representative for Buckinghamshire, filled 
 tlie speaker's chair 6 months, and then suc- 
 ceeded Lord Sidney as secretary for the 
 home department. In 1790 he was raised to 
 the peerage, and in the following year made 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs. The 
 revolutionary principles of that period were 
 making rapid progress, and it appeared to 
 Lord Grenville that a war with France was 
 inevitable. Acting on this opinion, he re- 
 fused to admit the visits of the ambassadors 
 from the French Directory, which being 
 contrary to the opinion of Mr. Pitt, his lord- 
 
ore] 
 
 ^ ^eftj ^niber^al JStograjpf)!?. 
 
 [gee 
 
 ship resigned, and was succeeded in his office 
 by Lord Dundas. He signalised himself as 
 a powerful orator on the debate following 
 the bill for " providing for the better secu- 
 rity of his majesty's person;" which had 
 been introduced in consequence of the king 
 haWng been grossly treated by the mob on 
 his way to the parliament house. Lord 
 Grenville took an active part in promoting 
 the union with Ireland, and joined with Mr. 
 Pitt in favourable intimations to the Catho- 
 lics ; and when, afterwards, ministers found 
 that there were strong reasons why those in- 
 timations could not be fulfilled, they resigned. 
 Lord Grenville then took part with the op- 
 position, and adhered to that party till the 
 death of Mr. Pitt, in 1806. In the cabinet 
 which followed that event, he was made 
 first lord of the treasury, which office he 
 held but for a short period ; and he lost his 
 popularity by filling, at the same time, the 
 office of auditor. On the dissolution of the 
 ministry, his lordship principally confined 
 his senatorial exertions to the cause of Ca- 
 tholic emancipation, for which he was always 
 a steady and consistent advocate. He was 
 distinguished for his general literary attain- 
 ments, as well as for his political knowledge; 
 and he held the office of cliancellor of the 
 university of Oxford ; to which, on his death, 
 in 1834. the Duke of Wellington was elected. 
 
 GREPPI, Charles, an Italian dramatist, 
 was born at Bologna, in 1751. He quitted 
 the profession of an advocate to write for the 
 stage, became a zealous liberal, and held 
 considerable offices under the Cisalpine re- 
 public. He wrote several comedies and tra- 
 gedies, besides poems. Died, 1811. 
 
 GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, a patriotic 
 merchant and citizen of London, the son of 
 Sir Richard Gresham, a merchant and lord 
 mayor of London, was bom in 1519, and 
 educated at Cambridge. On leaving the 
 university he was placed under his uncle. 
 Sir John Gresham ; and being designed for 
 a mercantile life, was enrolled a member of 
 the mercers' company. His father had been 
 the king's agent at Antwerp ; and the person 
 who succeeded him having mismanaged the 
 royal affairs there, Sir Thomas was sent over, 
 in 1552, to retrieve them. This he did so 
 effectually, that in 2 years he paid off a 
 heavy loan, and raised the king's credit con- 
 siderably. Elizabeth, on her accession, re- 
 moved him from his office, but soon restored 
 it, and knighted him. He now planned and 
 erected a burse or exchange for the merchants 
 of London, in imitation of that of Antwerp ; 
 and in 1570 it was opened by the queen in 
 person, who dined with the founder, and 
 named it the Royal Exchange. Sir Thomas 
 was also anxious to promote the interests of 
 science ; for which purpose he determined on 
 founding a college. Having built a mansion 
 in Bishopsgate Street for his town residence, 
 he directed by his will that it should be con- 
 verted into habitations and lecture-rooms 
 for seven professors or lecturers on the seven 
 liberal sciences, who were to receive a salary 
 out of the revenues of the Royal Exchange; 
 but Gresham College has since been converted 
 into the general excise office, and the lectures 
 are now given in a room over the exchange. 
 This munificent patron of commerce and 
 
 370 
 
 science also founded various almshouses, 
 and made many charitable bequests ; and his 
 liberality, together with the situation he held, 
 universally procured for him the name of 
 " the royal merchant." He died in 1579. 
 
 GRESSET, Jean Baptiste Louis, a 
 French poet and dramatist, bom in 1709 ; 
 entered the society of Jesuits, but withdrew 
 from them at the age of 2(5. For a long time 
 he excited the admiration of Parisian circles, 
 wrote some elegant poems, became a member 
 of the academy, and was the companion of 
 the wits and literati of the French capital ; 
 but at length he renounced his favourite 
 pursuits, and retired from the gay world, to 
 enjoy the tranquillity of retirement. Died, 
 1777. His literary fame rests principally on 
 his " Ver Vert," his " Chartreuse," and " Le 
 M^chant." 
 
 GRETREY, ANDnfi Erneste Modeste, 
 an eminent musical composer, was born, in 
 1744, at Liege ; and such was the precocity 
 of his talents and the sweetness of his voice, 
 that his future fame was very early pre- 
 dicted. He first studied under Moreau, then 
 went to Rome, and finally settled at Paris 
 in 1768. He produced upwards of 40 operas, 
 of which about 20 retain possession of the 
 stage, and 2 of them, " Zemire et Azor " and 
 " Richard Coeur de liion," have been trans- 
 lated, and played in London with success. 
 Died, 1813. 
 
 GREVILLE, Fplke, lord Brooke, a 
 patron of letters and an ingenious writer, 
 was born in 1554, and descended from the 
 noble families of Neville, Beauchamp, and 
 Willoughby de Brooke. He was in great 
 favour with Elizabeth, and was created lord 
 Brooke by James I., who gave him Warwick 
 Castle. In 1614 he was made under- trea- 
 surer, chancellor of the exchequer, and one 
 of the privy council. He founded a history 
 lecture at Cambridge. This accomplished 
 nobleman was stabbed by a servant, named 
 Haywood, whom he had reprimanded for 
 an insolent expression ; after which the 
 assassin committed suicide with the same 
 weapon. This was in 1628. After his death 
 appeared several of his poetical works, and 
 the life of his friend Sir Philip Sidney, 
 written by him. 
 
 GREW, Nehemiah, a leamed physician 
 and botanist, born at Coventry, in 1628. He 
 was one of the first who illustrated the doc- 
 trine of the sexes of plants. Died, 1711. 
 
 GREY, Charles, Earl, a British states- 
 man, distinguished for his senatorial abilities 
 generally, but more especially for his long 
 and inflexible advocacy of parliamentary 
 reform, was bom at Falloden, near Alnwick, 
 March 15. 1764. He received his education 
 at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, en- 
 tered parliament at the age of 21, as member 
 for Northumberland ; and espousing Whig 
 politics with all the vehemence of youth, he 
 soon ranked among the most prominent of 
 that party. To detail the chief events of his 
 public life from its commencement, would 
 be like writing the parliamentary history of 
 England for that period. We can therefore 
 only say, in brief, that he was almost con- 
 stantly occupied in the discussion of the 
 most important questions that engaged the 
 attention of parliament. At the onset of his 
 
qre] 
 
 ^ ^eti) ^utbrri^al Ui0srap]bfi» 
 
 [gri 
 
 career, his oratorical powers were displayed 
 as one of the managers of the impeachment 
 of Warren Hastings ; and from that time he 
 always held a conspicuous station among 
 the Wliigs. At that period also he was fore- 
 most among the leaders of the great political 
 confederation styled " The Friends of the 
 People," from which even Charles Fox 
 thought it prudent to stand aloof. The war 
 of the French revolution had now com- 
 menced ; and at a time when most men of 
 property, rank, or influence in this country 
 considered it their duty to quench the revo- 
 lutionary furor that was widely spreading, 
 Mr. Grey, by constantly opposing tlie vigor- 
 ous measures brought forward by the mi- 
 nister, Mr. Pitt, appeared to uphold prin- 
 ciples which seemed to threaten our existence 
 as an independent nation. But when in 
 January, 180(3, Mr. Pitt was removed from 
 the helm of state by deatli, Mr. Grey took 
 office, under Mr. Fox, as first lord of the 
 admiralty ; and when, in the following 
 October, the great Whig leader died, Lord 
 Howick (for he had tlien so become) was 
 appointed secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs. The Whig ministry was soon after 
 dismissed ; parliament was dissolved ; and, 
 on the death of Lord Grey's fatlier, in 1807, 
 he removed to the Upper House. On several 
 occasions, subsequently, negotiations were 
 entered into to promote such a union among 
 the leading men of both parties as should 
 give public contidence and satisfaction, but 
 insuperable ditticulties presented themselves. 
 The Perceval administration was succeeded, 
 in 1812, by that of Lord Liverpool ; and, on 
 his retirement in 1827, Lord Grey declined 
 to support Mr. Canning, Lord Liverpool's 
 successor. But on the sudden termination 
 of tlie W^ellington administration, in 1830, a 
 fairer field seemed to lie before liim ; and, 
 in obedience to his sovereign's wisli, he as- 
 sumed the reins of government, and had the 
 satisfaction, during his four years of office, 
 to see two of the great measures for which 
 he long contended, triumphantly carried, 
 namely, parliamentary reform and tlie 
 abolition of slavery. After his retirement 
 from office, he took no part in politics. Died, 
 July 17. 1845, aged 81. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, an illustrious female, 
 whose accomplisliments and misfortunes 
 have rendered her an especial object of in- 
 terest, was the daughter of Henry Grey, 
 marquis of Dorset (afterwards duke of 
 Suffolk), by the Lady Frances, daugliter of 
 Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and 
 Mary, younger sister of Henry VIII. Slie 
 was born in 1537, at Bradgate, her father's 
 seat in Leicestershire ; and early in life 
 
 tave proofs of talents of a superior order, 
 he wrote an incomparable hand ; played 
 well on diflferent instruments ; and acquired 
 a knowledge of the Greek, Hebrew, and 
 Latin, as well as of the French and Italian 
 languages. Roger Ascham has given a 
 beautiful and affecting narrative of his 
 interview with her at Bradgate, where he 
 found her reading Plato's Phaedo in Greek, 
 while the family were amusing themselves 
 in the park. In 1551 lier fatlier was created 
 Duke of Suffolk ; and at this time Lady 
 Jane Grey was much at court, w^here the 
 
 ambitious Duke of Northumberland pro- 
 jected a marriage between her and his son. 
 Lord Guildford Dudlev, which tot)k place 
 at the end of May, 1553. Soon after this 
 Edward "VI. died, having been prevailed 
 upon, in his last illness, to settle the crown 
 upon the Lady Jane, who reluctantly ac- 
 cepted the crown, and was proclaimed with 
 great pomp. This gleam of royalty, how- 
 ever, was of short duration ; for the pageant 
 reign lasted but nine days. The kingdom 
 was dissatisfied, and the nobility indignant 
 at the presumption of Northumberland ; so 
 that Mary soon overcame her enemies, and 
 was not backward in taking ample revenge. 
 The Duke of Northumberland was beheaded; 
 and Lady Jane and her husband were ar- 
 raigned, convicted of treason, and sent to 
 the Tower. After being confined some time, 
 the council resolved to put these innocent 
 victims of a parent's unprincipled ambition 
 to death. Lord Guildford suflfered first ; 
 and as he passed her window, his lady gave 
 him her last adieu. Immediately afterwards 
 she was executed on the same scaffold i 
 suffering with calm resignation, and a firm 
 attachment to the Protestant religion, Feb. 
 12. 15,>4. 
 
 GREY, Dr. Richard, a learned English 
 divine, was bom in 1093. He was educated 
 at Lincoln College, Oxford. He obtained 
 successively the livings of Kilncote, Lei- 
 cester, and Uinton in Northamptonshire ; 
 and a prebend in St. Paul's Cathedral. His 
 principal works are, " Memoria Technica, 
 or a new Method of Artificial Memory ; " 
 " A System of English Ecclesiastical Law," 
 " A new and easy Method of learning He- 
 brew, without Points," &c. Died, 1771. 
 
 GREY, Dr. Zachauv, an English divine, 
 well known for his edition of Iludibras. 
 He also published " Notts on Shakspeare," 
 2 vols. ; and an " Answer to Neale's History 
 of the Puritans," in 3 vols. Died, 1766, 
 aged 79. 
 
 GRIESBACH. Jony James, an eminent 
 German theologian, born in 1745, at Butz- 
 hach, in the duchy of Hesse Darmstadt. 
 He studied successively at Frankfort, Tu- 
 bingen, Halle, and Leipsic ; became rector 
 of the university of Jena, and ecclesiastical 
 privy councillor to the Duke of Saxe- Wei- 
 mar ; and died in 1812. His works, which 
 are too numerous to particularise here, pos- 
 sess great erudition ; but the most valuable 
 is an edition of the Greek Testament, with 
 various readings. 
 
 GRIFFIER, John, known by the appel- 
 lation of Old Griffier, an eminent painter, 
 was born at Amsterdam in 16.">8, and died 
 at London in 1718. He succeeded chiefly in 
 landscapes, and painted several views on 
 the Thames. He also etched prints of birds 
 and beasts. His son Robert, called the 
 Younger Griffler, was born in England, 
 and was a good landscape painter, though 
 not equal to his father. 
 
 GRIFFITH, Elizabeth, a native of 
 Wales, who jointly with her husband wrote 
 two novels, entitled "Delicate Distress," 
 "The Gordian Knot," and "The Letters 
 of Henry and Frances." She also produced 
 several works of her sole composition, 
 among wliich are, " Lady Juliana Harley," 
 
 371 
 
GRi] 
 
 ^ ^cia Winibtt^aX 28t0ffrapljji. 
 
 [gki 
 
 " The Morality of Shakspeare's Drama illus- 
 trated," and some plays. Died, 1793. 
 
 GRIMALDI. The Grimaldi family have 
 ever been of great importance in Genoa, 
 and many of its members are conspicuous 
 in the history of that republic. — 1. Ranieei 
 Grimaldi was the first Genoese who con- 
 ducted the naval forces of the republic be- 
 yond the Straits of Gibraltar. In the service 
 of Philip the Fair of France, Grimaldi sailed 
 to Zealand, in 1304, with 16 Genoese galleys 
 and 20 French ships under his command ; 
 and defeated and made prisoner the Count 
 Guy of Flanders, wlio commanded the 
 enemy's fleet of 80 sail. — 2. Antonio Gri- 
 maldi was also a distinguished naval com- 
 mander. His victories over the Catalonians 
 and Arragonese, who had committed aggres- 
 sions on the Genoese, for a long time gave 
 the latter a decided maritime ascendancy ; 
 but at length, in 1353, the Catalonians, 
 assisted by the Venetians, under the com- 
 mand of Nicholas Pisani, gave him battle, 
 and nearly destroyed his whole fleet — 
 3. Giovanni Grimaldi is celebrated for the 
 victory he gained over the Venetian admiral 
 Trevesaui, on the Po. in 1431 ; when, in sight 
 of Carmagnola's army, he succeeded in 
 taking 28 galleys, and a great number of 
 transports, with immense spoils — 4. Dome- 
 Nico Grimaldi, cardinal, archbishop, and 
 vice-legate of Avignon, was eminent both 
 as a naval commander and as a zealous ex- 
 tirpator of heresy from the Romish Church. 
 At the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, though a 
 bishop at the time, he is said to have distin- 
 
 fuished himself by his skill and courage — 
 . Geronimo Grimaldi, born in 1597, was 
 sent by Urban VIII. as nuncio to Germany 
 and France ; and the services he rendered 
 the Roman court were rewarded, in 1G43, 
 by a cardinal's hat. His whole career was 
 highly honourable. He was bishop of Aix, 
 and endeavoured to reform the manners of 
 the clergy in his diocese, by establishing 
 an ecclesiastical seminary ; he also founded 
 an hospital for the poor, and annually dis- 
 tributed 100,000 livres of his vast property in 
 alms. He died at Aix, in 1(585, aged 89. 
 
 GRIMALDI, Francesco Maria, a learned 
 Jesuit and an eminent mathematician, was 
 born at Bologna, in 1G13. He assisted 
 Riccioli in his scientific labours ; and was 
 the author of " Physico-mathesis de Lumine 
 Coloribus et Iride, aliisque aiinexis," &c. 
 Died, 1663. 
 
 GRIMALDI, Giovanni, an eminent 
 painter, also called Bolognese, was born at 
 Bologna, in 1606. He studied under Annibal 
 Caracci, to whom he was related ; and be- 
 came distinguished chiefly as a landscape 
 painter, though he was also employed on 
 historical subjects, particularly in the Va- 
 tican. Nor was he merely a painter ; as an 
 architect he was greatly distinguished, and 
 as an engraver also liis merit was conspi- 
 cuous. Cardinal Mazarin invited him to 
 Paris, where he enjoyed a pension, and was 
 much noticed by Louis XIII. He died at 
 Rome in 1680. 
 
 GRIMALDI, Joseph, an unrivalled pan- 
 tomimic clown, born in 1779, was the son 
 of Signior Grimaldi, an artiste, noted for 
 his humour and eccentricities, who by day 
 
 followed the profession of a dentist, and by 
 night that of ballet-master at Drury Lane. 
 For a period of 40 years, "Grimaldi the 
 clown" delighted the laughter-loving au- 
 diences of Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and 
 Sadler's Wells, with a rich and (paradoxical 
 as the term may seem) intellectual species of 
 buffoonery, peculiarly his own — pourtraying 
 to the life all that is grotesque in manners, 
 or droll in human action. Died, 1837. 
 
 GRIMALDI, William (Marquis Gri- 
 maldi, of Genoa), was born, in 1785, in 
 Westminster, and in early life entered into 
 the service of the East India Company, but 
 afterwards held a situation in the war- 
 office at the Horse Guards. In 1828 he 
 travelled in search of his hereditary rights, 
 and discovered that he was sole heir of the 
 late Marquis of Grimaldi ; but he never 
 enjoyed any advantage from it, being at- 
 tacked by a flt of apoplexy while at his 
 prayers. 
 
 GRIMANI, Dominic, a cardinal, was 
 born, in 1460, at Venice, of which city his 
 father was doge. The son was, in conse- 
 quence, employed in many negotiations ; 
 and in 1493 was raised to the cardinal dig- 
 nity, by Alexander VI., as a reward for his 
 filial piety in oflTering to become a prisoner 
 instead of his father, who had fallen under 
 popular displeasure, by having been defeated 
 in an action with the Turks. Died, 1523. 
 
 GRIMBALD, St., a learned ecclesiastic 
 of the 9th century, who was invited over 
 from Flanders by Alfred the Great. He 
 brought with him several learned associates, 
 and settled at Oxford ; but disputes arising 
 between the strangers and the students 
 before placed there, he retired to a monas- 
 tery, founded by Alfred, at Winchester. It 
 is supposed that he was skilful as an archi- 
 tect, and that the crypt of St. Peter's Church, 
 Oxford, is his work. 
 
 GRIMM, Frederic Melciiior, Baron de, 
 counsellor of state of the Russian empire, 
 and a man of letters, was born, in 1723, at 
 Ratisbon. Going to Paris, he became prin- 
 cipal secretary to the Duke of Orleans, and 
 acquainted with Rousseau and other Parisian 
 philosophers ; an account of whose writings, 
 friendships, disputes, &c., has been preserved 
 in liis " Correspondence," which extraordi- 
 nary medley, after a lapse of 30 years, was 
 published in 16 vols. In 1776, being ap- 
 pointed envoy from the Duke of Saxe-Gotha 
 to the French court, he was honoured with 
 the title of baron, and invested with several 
 orders. On the revolution breaking out, he 
 retired to the court of Gotha, where he found 
 a safe asylum. In 1795, the empress of 
 Russia made him her minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to the states of Lower Saxony ; and 
 he was confirmed in that post by Paul I., 
 and retained it till ill health obliged him to 
 relinquish it. He then returned to Gotha, 
 ■v^^here he died, in 1807. 
 
 GRIMOARD, Count Philip de, a French 
 diplomatist, general, and author, descended 
 from an ancient family, one of whose mem- 
 bers was pope Urban V. Louis XVI. en- 
 trusted him with a negotiation in Holland ; 
 and on his return he formed the plans, 
 offensive and defensive, for the campaign 
 of 1792. The fall of the king interrupted 
 
 372 
 
GRi] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Winibtvial 23tosr«JP5J?« 
 
 [gro 
 
 his career, and he retired to private life, 
 devoting himself to literature. He wrote 
 "Essai Th^orique et Pratique sur les Bat- 
 tailes," " Recherches sur la Force de I'Armt'e 
 Francaise," &c.; and "Tableau Historique 
 de la Guerre de la Revolution de France," 
 1808, in conjunction with General Servan ; 
 of which work only 3 vols, were published, 
 when it was suppressed by order of Buona- 
 parte. Died, 181.5. 
 
 GRIMSTON, SirllARBOTTLE, an eminent 
 English lawyer in the time of Cromwell, 
 was bom in Essex, about l.'>94. He studied 
 in Lincoln's Inn, and in 1638 became re- 
 corder of Colchester, for which place he was 
 also returned to parliament in 1640. He 
 acted for some time in opposition to the 
 king, but disapproved of the violent mea- 
 sures to which his party had recourse, and 
 after the king's death he went abroad. In 
 1660 he was chosen speaker of what was 
 called "the healing parliament," and he 
 was one of the commissioners who waited 
 on Charles II. at Breda ; on whose restora- 
 tion he was made master of the rolls. He 
 published the " Reports of Sir George Croke," 
 and died in 1683. 
 
 GRINDAL, Edmund, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was bom at Hensingham, in Cum- 
 berland, in 1519. In 1.5.59, he was chosen 
 master of Pembroke Hall, and the same 
 year preferred to the see of London ; in 
 1570 he was translated to York ; and in 
 1575 to Canterbury. Two years afterwards 
 he was suspended from his archicpiscopal 
 functions, for refusing to obey queen Eliza- 
 beth's order to suppress prophesyings, or 
 associations of the clergy to expound the 
 scriptures. At length his sequestration was 
 taken off, though he never completely re- 
 covered the royal favour. He contributed to 
 " Fox's Acts and Monuments," and founded 
 the celebrated school of St. Bee's, in Cum- 
 berland. He was a man of great learning, 
 piety, and moderation ; and an ornament to 
 the church of which he was a prelate. Died, 
 1583. 
 
 GRISAI7NT, William, an English phy- 
 sician, astronomer, and mathematician, in 
 the 14th century. He was suspected of ma- 
 gic, and retired to France, where he dedi- 
 cated himself to the study of medicine. His 
 son became pope Urban "V. 
 
 GROCYN, William, a distinguished 
 classical scholar, bom at Bristol, in 1442, 
 and educated at Winchester School, and 
 New College, Oxford. He was the friend 
 of Dean Colet, tlie tutor of Erasmus, and 
 god-father to Lilly the grammarian. A 
 Latin epistle of his to Aldus Manutius is 
 prefixed to Linacre's translation of Proclus 
 de Sphaera. 
 
 GROHMANN, John Godfrey, a native 
 of Upper Lusatia, and a lecturer on philo- 
 sophy at the university of Leipsic. As a 
 compiler and translator, particularly of 
 works relating to the fine arts, he was both 
 able and industrious. Among his labours 
 are — " A New Historico-Biographical Dic- 
 tionary," 7 vols. ; " An abridged Dictionary 
 of the Fine Arts," 2 vols. ; " Vestiges of 
 Egyptian Architecture ; " "A Dictionary of 
 Civil Architecture," &c. Died, 1805. 
 
 GROLI^IER, John, a patrou of learned 
 
 373 
 
 men, was bom at Lyons, in 1479. He was 
 grand treasurer to Francis I., who sent him 
 on an embassy to Rome, where he employed 
 the Aldnses to print some classics for him. 
 He also made a large collection of valuable 
 books, and settled pensions on many emi- 
 nent scholars. Died, 1,565. 
 
 GRONOV, or GRONOVIUS, John Fre- 
 deric, an emdite writer, born at Hamburgh, 
 in 1611. He studied at Leipsic and Jena ; 
 travelled through France, Holland, and 
 England ; and became professor of belles 
 lettres at Leyden, where he died in 1671. 
 With extensive knowledge he combined 
 indefatigable industry, a modest opinion of 
 his own merit, and amiable manners. He 
 published a number of classics, with valu.ible 
 notes and improved readings ; of which 
 " Commentarius de Sesterciis," and his edi- 
 tion of Hugo Grotius's work, " De Jure Belli 
 et Pacis," will serve as instances. 
 
 GRONOVIUS, James, son of the preced- 
 ing, was born at Deventer, in 1645. He was 
 educated entirely under his father, whom he 
 surpassed in learning, though he fell short 
 of him in modesty and liberality. After 
 studying the civil law, he visited England, 
 where he resided some months in both uni- 
 versities ; and, on his return to Leyden, 
 published an edition of Macrobius, and an- 
 other of Poly bins. In 1672 he went to 
 France, an<l from thence to Italy, where 
 the Grand-duke of Tuscany gave him a pen- 
 sion, and obtained for him a professorship 
 at Pisa. This he held two years, and then 
 returned to Leyden ; and was .appointed to 
 the professorship of belles letters and geo- 
 graphy in that university. His acquire- 
 ments in criticism and philology were very 
 extensive ; he compiled the valuable " The- 
 saurus Antiquitatum Graecarum," 13 vols, 
 folio ; and edited a variety of classics. 
 Died, 1716. 
 
 GROS, Antoine Jean, Baron, a distin- 
 guished French painter, professor of painting 
 at the Ecole Royale des Beaux Arts, was 
 bom at Paris, 1771. His pencil was chiefly 
 devoted to the illustration of subjects from 
 the history of France during the career of 
 Napoleon ; and his pictures, though coarse, 
 are conspicuous for vigour and facility of 
 execution. Died, 1835. 
 
 GROSE, Francis, an eminent English 
 antiquary, was born in 1731, at Richmond, 
 in Surrey. His father was a jeweller, and 
 left him a good fortune, which he soon spent, 
 and became adjutant and pay-master in the 
 Surrey militia. He was remarkable for his 
 wit and humour, and of a generous disposi- 
 tion, but his imprudences involved him in 
 great difficulties ; to clear himself from 
 which, he published his " Views of Antiqui- 
 ties in England and Wales," 8 vols. 4to. 
 The success of this elegant work induced 
 him to make a tour of Scotland with the 
 same object ; and before he had completed 
 this publication, he went to Ireland, with 
 the design of surveying and sketching the 
 antiquities of that kingdom, but while thus 
 employed he died, at Dublin, in 1791. Be- 
 i sides his " Antiquities," he published a 
 I " Treatise on Ancient Armour and Wea- 
 pons," "Military Autiquities," and other 
 works. 
 
GUO] 
 
 ^ 0t^ Uniber^Kl MoQVKpfi}). 
 
 [gru 
 
 GROSLEY, PiEKKE Jkan, a French 
 writer, born at Troyes, in 1718. lie was 
 educated for the legal profession, but de- 
 clined it for the belles lettres. lie was the 
 author of many works ; among which are, 
 " Essais Historiques sur la Champagne " 
 and " Observations sur I'Angleterre," 2 vols. 
 Died, 1785. 
 
 GROSSETESTE, or GROSTHEAD, Ro- 
 bert, an English prelate, was born at 
 Stradbrook, in Suffolk, about 1175, and died 
 in 1253. His " Opuscula Varia " were pub- 
 lished at Venice in 1514, and his " Comjien- 
 dium Sphasrae Mundi " in 1508. Some of his 
 discourses and letters are extant. 
 
 GROSSMANN, Gustavus Fuederic 
 William, a celebrated actor and dramatist, 
 born at Berlin, in 174(;. He was originally 
 employed in some subordinate diplomatic 
 situations at Warsaw and Berlin ; but having 
 become acquainted with Lessing at the 
 latter place, an accidental hint from that 
 celebrated writer induced him to try his 
 fortune as a dramatist ; and he wrote seve- 
 ral successful plays. He afterwards became 
 an actor and manager ; manifesting consi- 
 derable talents, and effecting many reform- 
 ations in the German stage ; but his bad 
 success as a manager led to habits of in- 
 temperance, and involved him in great dis- 
 tress. Died, 1796. 
 
 GROTIUS, or DE GROOT, Hugo, an 
 eminent scholar and statesman, was born 
 at Delft, in Holland, in 1583. He was de- 
 scended from a noble family, received an 
 excellent education, and gave early mani- 
 festations of surprising talents. In 1599 he 
 commenced his career as a legal advocate, 
 and also as an author ; and he was succes- 
 sively appointed historiographer, advocate- 
 general of Holland and Zealand, a member 
 of the states-general, and envoy to Eng- 
 land. Hitherto his life had been marked by 
 splendour, but now it began to be clouded 
 by the part which he took in the Arminian 
 controversy. In 1613 he became syndic, or 
 pensioner, of Rotterdam ; and, declaring 
 himself on the side of Bameveldt, he sup- 
 ported him, and the cause of the Arminians, 
 by his pen and influence. But he narrowly 
 escaped the fate of Bameveldt, who suf- 
 fered on the scaffold, and received sentence 
 of imprisonment for life in the fortress of 
 Louvestein. From tliis, however, at the 
 expiration of 18 months, which he had em- 
 ployed in writing his celebrated "Treatise 
 on the Truth of the Christian Religion," 
 he succeeded in escaping. This was effected 
 by the management of his wife, who con- 
 trived to have him carried out of the castle 
 in a chest that had been used for the con- 
 veyance of books and linen. Grotius at first 
 sought an asylum in France ; and it was 
 during his residence there that he composed 
 his great work, "De Jure Belli et Pacia." 
 After an absence of 12 years, he returned 
 to his native country, relying on the favour 
 of Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, who 
 had written him a sympathising letter. 
 But, by the influence of his enemies, he was 
 condemned to perpetual banishment. He 
 passed the remnant of his life in the di- 
 plomatic service of Sweden, and died, at 
 Rostock, in 1645. With the talents of the 
 
 most able statesman, Hugo Grotius united 
 deep and extensive learning. He was a pro- 
 found theologian, a distinguished scholar, an 
 acute philosopher, a profound jurist, and 
 an erudite historian. Among his works not 
 mentioned above, may be noticed, " De 
 Antiquitate Reipublicae Biitavisc," "Insti- 
 tutions of the Laws of Holland," a " History 
 of the Goths," &c. 
 
 GROTO, Lewis, an Italian poet, sur- 
 named II Cieco, was bom at Adria, in 1541. 
 He was blind from his infancy ; notwith- 
 standing which he displayed an uncommon 
 facility for learning, and at the age of 14 
 delivered public orations at "Venice. He 
 died in 1585, having a short time before 
 performed the part of OEdipus in a play at 
 Vicenza, with great reputation. 
 
 GROUCHY, Emanuel, Marquis of, a dis- 
 tinguished marshal of France, and a scion 
 of a noble Norman family, was born at Paris, 
 1766. In 1789 he was a sub-lieutenant of 
 the royal gardes du corps ; but embracing 
 the new ideas, he took part in the wars of 
 the revolution, and gained great distinction, 
 especially in the Alps and La Vendee, where 
 he was named general of division in 1793. 
 The decree which deprived all the nobles of 
 France of military rank fell heavily upon 
 him ; but nothing daunted he joined the army 
 as a private, and his distinguished gallantry 
 soon led to his restoration. Despatched in 
 1798 to the army of Italy, under the command 
 of Joubert, he planned the abdication of the 
 king of Sardinia, and thus united Piedmont 
 to France. He took a glorious part in the 
 battle of Novi, where he received 14 wounds, 
 and fell into the enemy's hands. His bravery 
 was no less conspicuous on the fields of 
 Hohenlinden, Eylau, Friedland, Wagram, 
 Moscow, &c. J and he obtained the marshal's 
 baton from the hands of the emperor shortly 
 before his abdication. During the hundred 
 days he was opposed to the Duke d'Angou- 
 Ifeme in the south, and made him prisoner. 
 He was then summoned into Belgium, where 
 he played an important part. He had al- 
 ready carried the villages of Fleurus (June 
 16.) and Ligny (June 17.), and was marching 
 according to his instructions in pursuit of 
 Blucher with a body of 30,000 men, when 
 the battle of Waterloo was fought. Not 
 getting instructions in time, he could not 
 take part in the battle, and his absence may 
 in some measure be said to have decided the 
 fortune of the day. At the restoration, his 
 title of marshal was not acknowledged, and 
 remained so till 1830, a year which righted 
 a good many wrongs. In 1832 he was created 
 a peer. Died, 1847. 
 
 GROVE, Henry, a dissenting minister, 
 . born at Taunton, Somersetshire, in 1683. 
 He was the author of several religious works; 
 ' among which are "An Essay towards a 
 I Demonstration of the Soul's Immortality," 
 " The Evidence of our Saviour's Resurrec- 
 tion," " Wisdom the First Spring of Action 
 in the Deity," &c. Died, 1738. 
 
 GRUBENM ANN, John Ulric and John, 
 two Swiss mechanics, who having been 
 brought up as carpenters, devoted their en- 
 tire attention to the construction of wooden 
 bridges without the support of piers. The 
 most extraordinary of these were at Reich- 
 
gry] 
 
 ^ iitbi Huibcrtfal ISurgtiqjTjjj, 
 
 [gub 
 
 enau, Wettingen, and Schaft'hausen ; the 
 latter, over the Rhine, being nearly 400 feet 
 long. During the campaign of 1799 they 
 were all destroyed by the French. The 
 ingenious builders died about tlie end of the 
 18th century. 
 
 GRYPUIUS, Andrew, a celebrated Ger- 
 man dramatist, was born at Glogau, in 1616. 
 He was called tlic Corneille of Germany, 
 and his tragedies acquired great popularity. 
 He also wrote a keen satire on tlie old come- 
 dies of his countrymen, and produced some 
 smart epigrams. Died, 1664. 
 
 GRYPHIUS, Sebastian, a printer in the 
 16th century, who settled at Lyons, and was 
 distinguished for the beauty of his Greek 
 and Hebrew types. Died, 1556. 
 
 GUA, JouN Paul DE, a French ecclesiastic, 
 was born in Languedoc, in 1712. He laid 
 the plan of the Encyclopt'die, and wrote a 
 numlier of mathematical papers in the Me- 
 moirs of the Academy ; besides which he 
 translated some Euglisli works into French. 
 Died, 1785. 
 
 GUALDO PRIORATO, Gai.easso, an 
 Italian historian, born at Vicenza, in 160(! ; 
 author of a " History of the Troubles in 
 France," an " Account of the Administra- 
 tion of Cardinal Mazarin," and hii "Life," 
 a " History of the Wars of the Emperors 
 Ferdinand II. and III.," &c. Died, 1678. 
 
 GUARINI, Battista, a celebrated Ita- 
 lian poet, born at Ferrara, in 1537. He was 
 secretary to Alphonso, duke of Ferrara; 
 next, to Ferdinand de Medici, grand-duke 
 of Tuscany ; and, subsequently, to the Duke 
 of Urbino. He was well acquainted with 
 polite literature ; wrote several admired 
 poems ; but his chief composition is his 
 pastoral drama, entitled "II Pastor Fido." 
 Died, 1612. 
 
 GUARINI, GUARINO, a native of Verona, 
 descended of an illustrious family, and cele- 
 brated as having been tlie first who taught 
 Greek after the restoration of letters in 
 Europe. Died, 1460. 
 
 GUAY-TROUIN, Rf-N^ du, a French 
 naval officer, was born at St. Maloes, in 
 1673. He commanded a slilp at the age of 
 18, and had great success on the coast of 
 Ireland, but at last fell in the hands of some 
 English cruisers, and was carried into Ply- 
 mouth ; from whence he made his escape, 
 and in a short time renewed his depredations 
 in the British Channel, and also on the 
 coast of Spain. In 1709 he was ennobled, 
 and two years afterwards he made himself 
 master of Rio Janeiro. Died, 1706. 
 
 GUDIN DE LA BRENELLERIE, Paul 
 Philip, a French dramatist and miscel- 
 laneous writer, bom in 1738. Among his 
 works are " Observations on Good Manners," 
 "On the Progress of the Arts under Louis 
 XV.," "The Conquest of Naples," 3 vols. ; 
 several tragedies, poems, &<;. Died, 1812. 
 
 GUELF, or GUELPH (from the Italian 
 Guelji and the German fVel/en), the name 
 of a celebrated family, which, in the 11th 
 century, was transplanted from Italy to 
 Germany, where it became the ruling race 
 of several countries. The family still con- 
 tinues in the two lines of Brunswick — the 
 royal in England, and the ducal in Ger- 
 many. The memory of this ancient name 
 
 was revived by the foundation of the Hano- 
 verian Guelphic order. 
 
 GUERCINO (properly Gianfrance.sco 
 BAiiBiEUi, but surnnmed Gucrcino da Cento 
 from his squinting), was a celebrated painter, 
 bom at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590. He 
 studied under Cremonini and Gennori ; but 
 adopted two or three styles in succession, 
 and afterwards perfected himself in the 
 school of I<odovico Caracci. He executed 
 106 altar-pieces for churches, and 144 histo- 
 rical pieces, besides numerous performances 
 in fresco ; in short, such was the uncommon 
 rapidity of his pencil, that, having been re- 
 quested by some monks, on the eve of a 
 festival, to paint Jehovah for the grand 
 altar, he finished the picture in one niglit by 
 torch light. The Duke of Mantua conferred 
 on him the honour of knighthood ; and 
 several sovereigns endeavoured, in vain, to 
 draw him into their service. He died in 
 16<i6, very rich, notwithstanding he had 
 expended large sums in building chapels, 
 founding hospitals, and other acts of charity 
 and devotion. 
 
 GUERICKE, Otto von, a distinguished 
 exi)erimental philosopher, was bom, 1602 ; 
 studied at Leipsic, Jena, and Leyden ; tra- 
 velled in France and England ; and settled 
 at Magdeburgh, where he eventually became 
 burgomaster. He invented the air-pump, 
 and in 1654 made the first public experi- 
 ments with his machine at the diet at Ra- 
 tisbon, before the emperor Ferdinand III., 
 several electors, and other estates of the 
 empire. The pressure of the atmosphere 
 he exhibited by means of two large hollow 
 hemispheres of copjier and brass, an ell in 
 diameter. These being fitted closely toge- 
 ther, the air contained in the hollow sphere 
 thus formed was exhausted by means of an 
 air-pump. Guericke then harnessed horses 
 to strong rings, attached to the hemispheres, 
 and they attempted in vain to separate them. 
 The number of the horses was increased to 
 30 without success : but an additional num- 
 ber at length made them separate with a 
 loud report. His electrical and astronomical 
 knowledge also was considerable. Died, 
 1686. 
 
 GUERRERO, Vicente, elected president 
 of the United Mexican States, in 1829, was 
 by birth a Creole. At the very commence- 
 ment of the revolution in Mexico he took 
 arms against the royalists, and never ceased 
 to occupy a prominent position in the affairs 
 of that country. On repeated occasions, 
 from 1819 to 1828, General Guerrero became 
 the rallying point of the liberal or popular 
 party, the Yorkinos, and was repeatedly 
 called into active service in his military 
 capacity. Having been successful in various 
 contests with the aristocratical party, he at 
 length, in 1829, was elected to the presidency. 
 The expedition of Barradas soon gave em- 
 ployment to the new government ; and the 
 better to enable the president to meet the 
 exigency, he was invested with extraordinary 
 powers ; but after the victory over the 
 Spanish troops, and when the invading ex- 
 pedition was destroyed, Guerrero evinced an 
 unwillingness to relinquish the dictatorship, 
 which became the pretext of another revo- 
 lution ; and Bustamente, the vice-president, 
 
 375 
 
que] 
 
 ^ sJ^cU) ^nibti'^^l 2Si0srapTjD. 
 
 [gtti 
 
 assumed the reins of government. Guerrero, 
 however, was not long idle : in September, 
 1830, he collected a large force at Valladolid, 
 and established a form of government in 
 I opposition to that of Bustamente, and the 
 whole country was agitated by troops in 
 arms. But his career was almost run. In 
 February, 1831, he was taken, and shot. 
 
 GUEVARA, Louis Velkz de las Duenas 
 T, a Spanish dramatist and romance writer, 
 was born, in 1574, at Ecija, in Andalusia. 
 He was an advocate, and by his flashes of 
 wit often drew forth peals of laughter from 
 the court. He was a great favourite of 
 Philip IV., who, knowing his peculiar talent, 
 encouraged him to write for the stage. Se- 
 veral of his comedies are excellent ; but the 
 work which especially established the fame 
 of Guevara was his "Diablo Cojuelo," an 
 admirable romance, which afforded the idea 
 of I^ Sage's famous " Diable Boitcux." 
 Many of his witty sayings have become fami- 
 liar to the people, and to this day are often 
 heard as proverbs in Spain. Died, 164G. 
 
 GUIBERT, Jacques Antoine Hvpolite, 
 Count de, a celebrated French tactician, 
 was born at Montauban, in 1743. He studied 
 the military art under his father, with whom 
 he served in the German war ; and, in the 
 expedition to Corsica, he was made a colonel, 
 with the cross of St. Louis. On his return 
 to France, he published his " Essai Gt5nerale 
 de Taclique," which work being diametri- 
 cally opposed to Folard's, excited a vehement 
 controversj'. He was also the author of 
 some tragedies ; historical eulogies on Mar- 
 shal Catinat. the chancellor de I'llopital, 
 and Frederic the Great ; " Travels in Ger- 
 many," and " Travels in Switzerland." 
 Died, 1790. 
 
 GUICCIARDINI, Francis, an Italian 
 historian, was born at Florence, in 1482. 
 He was bred to the law, and appointed pro- 
 fessor of jurisprudence in his native city. 
 Politics, however, occupied the rest of his 
 life. In 1512, he was sent ambassador, on 
 the part of the republic, to the Spanish court 
 at Bruges ; for his services in which mission 
 he was received with great honour by his 
 countrymen ; and Leo X. constituted him 
 advocate of the consistory. In 1518, he was 
 made governor of Modena and Reggio, and 
 next of Parma, where he drove out the 
 French, and confirmed the inhabitants in 
 their obedience. He was afterwards re- 
 appointed to the government of Modena, 
 and the presidency of the Romagna ; and, 
 in 1531, he was made governor of Bologna, 
 where he assisted at the coronation of 
 Charles V. After a life of great activity, 
 he returned to his native city, and there 
 began his great work on the " History of 
 Italy during his own Time," which he 'had 
 nearly completed at the time of his death, 
 in 1540. He was a man of great gravity of 
 temper and demeanour, and displayed much 
 political sagacity and love of justice. When 
 the courtiers of Charles V. once complained 
 of the preference he gave to Guicciardini 
 and other Florentines, he replied, " I can 
 make a 100 Spanish grandees in a minute, 
 but I cannot make one Guicciardini in a 100 
 years." 
 
 GUEROULT, Petek Claude Bernard, 
 
 a learned Frenchman, born at Rouen, in 
 1745. He was the author of "La Journ^e 
 de Marathon," " Histoire Naturelle des Ani- 
 maux de Pline," &c. He was director of 
 the normal scliool at Paris, from which he 
 retired in 1815, and died in 1821. 
 
 GUIDI, Alessandro, an Italian lyric 
 poet, was born at Pavia, about 1650 ; and 
 died in 1712. He was patronised by Chris- 
 tina, the abdicated queen of Sweden, who 
 allowed him apartments in her palace. 
 
 GUIDO RENI, one of the most eminent 
 among the Italian painters, was born at 
 Bologna, in 1575. Combining the beauties 
 of Albert Durer and Caravaggio with the 
 school of Caracci, he soon gave his teachers 
 occasion to admire his talents, and is even 
 said to have excited the jealousy of Annibal 
 Caracci. He was honoured, caressed, and 
 employed by the great, and might have ac- 
 cumulated great wealth ; but, to satisfy an 
 unfortunate passion for gambling, he often 
 sold his paintings at any price, and became 
 involved in pecuniary embarrassments, so 
 that, in 1642, he died in a state of poverty 
 and dejection. Guido imitated the beautiful 
 in nature, and was pre-eminently the painter 
 of youth and female loveliness. 
 
 GUIDO, Cagnacci, an historical painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1600, and a disciple of 
 Guido Reni. He died in 1680. 
 
 GUIGNES, Joseph de, born at Pontoise, 
 in 1721, was distinguished for his knowledge 
 of the oriental languages, and obtained the 
 appointment of royal interpreter in 1745. 
 He was the author of "Histoire Gt^nerale 
 des Huns, des Tures, des Moguls, et des 
 autres Tartares Occidentaux," 5 vols. 4to., 
 and many other able works, but was reduced 
 to poverty by the revolution, and died at 
 Paris, in 1800. 
 
 GUILLEMINOT, a native of Belgium, an 
 able military ofl[icer, who fought in the in- 
 surgent army against the Austrians, in 1790 ; 
 but, at the defection of Dumouriez, having 
 been made prisoner, he found an asylum in 
 the ranks of the French army, and became 
 a valuable officer under Buonaparte. In 
 1814, the king made him a knight of St. 
 Louis, and an officer of the legion of honour. 
 
 GUILLIM, JoHX, the reputed author of 
 the celebrated work, entitled " The Display 
 of Heraldry," which was in reality written 
 by Dr. Barkham, was bom about 1565, and 
 died in 1621. He was rouge croix pursuivant 
 at arms. 
 
 GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French 
 physician, who, during the revolution, pro- 
 posed the use of the guillotine, an instru- 
 ment made after the fashion of the maiden, 
 which was used on tl»e Scottish borders in 
 the 16th century. Mons. Guillotin prac- 
 tised medicine in Paris many years, and was 
 much respected for his general conduct. He 
 was a member of the National Assembly, 
 where his political principles were marked 
 by moderation ; and his introduction of this 
 instrument of death was from a humane 
 motive — that of rendering capital punish- 
 ment less painful, by ddSapitation. He was 
 not, as has been reported, the victim of his 
 own contrivance, though greatly annoyed 
 by its being called by his name. He died, 
 in peaceful retirement, in 1814. 
 
GUl] 
 
 ^ ^ttD mnibertfal 38iOflra|i^i). 
 
 [gun 
 
 OUTRAN, Galliakd, counsellor of state 
 to the Prince of Orange in the 17th century ; 
 autlior of an " Historical and Chronological 
 Register of the Seneschals of Nisnies and 
 Beaucaire." Died, IGtX). 
 
 GUISCIIARD,CuAKLEsGoTLiEB, an able 
 writer on military tactics, was a native of 
 Magdeburg. He entered into the service of 
 Holland, from which he removed into that 
 of Prussia, where Frederic the Great ho- 
 noured him with the appellation of Quintus 
 Icilius, the commander of Caesar's 10th 
 legion, in compliment to his military know- 
 ledge. His works arc, " Mt-moires Mili- 
 taires sur leg Grecs et les Romaius" and 
 " Memoires Critiques et Historiques sur 
 plusieurs Points d'Antiquit^s Militaircs." 
 Died, 1775. 
 
 GUISE, Francis of Lorkaixe, Duke of, 
 an illustrious warrior of France, but as am- 
 bitious and bigoted as he was brave. He 
 was bom in 1019 ; distinguished himself by 
 his bravery at the siege of Boulogne, the 
 defence of Metz, the conquest of Calais, &c. ; 
 and lost his life by assassination, in 1.563. 
 
 GUISE, CuAitLES OF, usually called the 
 Cardinal ok Lorraine, was the minister 
 of Francis II. and Charles IX. He is no- 
 torious for his violent and intolerant spirit, 
 and his meinorj' will ever be held in exe- 
 cration for the furious persecution he pro- 
 moted against the Protestants of France. 
 Bom, 162r, ; died, 1574. 
 
 GUISE, Henry of Lorraine, eldest son 
 of Francis, duke of Guise, was born in \r>oO. 
 He is memorable in the history of France 
 ft)r his bravery ; but he was of a turbulent, 
 ambitious, and cruel disposition. After 
 having distinguished himself in Hungary 
 by his valour against the Turks, he placed 
 himself at the head of an armed band, which 
 he called the League, under the pretext of 
 defending the Roman Catholic religion, 
 Henry III. the king, and the state, against 
 the designs of the Huguenots, or French 
 Protestants. This plan was formed by his 
 brother the cardinal, and the Huguenots 
 were massacred by thousands. But their 
 violence did not stop here. Guise now be- 
 came an open rebel ; he entered Paris 
 against the king's express order, and put 
 to the sword all who opposed him ; and the 
 streets being barricaded to prevent his pro- 
 gress, this fatal day is called in French his- 
 tory, "the day of the barricades." The 
 king escaped to Blois, and convened an 
 assembly of the states ; and the Duke of 
 Guise had the boldness to appear there to 
 a summons sent liim for that purpose. A 
 forced reconciliation then took place between 
 Oiem, by the advice of this assembly j but it 
 being afterwards discovered that Guise had 
 formed a plan to dethrone the king, the 
 latter, wanting the resolution to bring him 
 to fv trial, procured his assassination as he 
 was entering t^e ooujicil chamber, Deo. 23, 
 1658, 
 
 GUISP, HpNRY JI.iDlTKE OF T^ORRAJ.VE, a 
 
 grandson of the preceding, wos born in IG14. 
 He is described as prodigal and brave, ad» 
 dieted equally to love and war. After having 
 joined m the rebellion of the Count de 
 Soissons, and received a pardon, he was in- 
 duced to join the i-evolted Neapolitans ; and, 
 
 ^77 
 
 at their head, displayed great 
 
 but he at length fell into the hands of t^e 
 
 Spaniards. Died, 1664. 
 
 GUISE, William, an English divine, was i 
 born near Gloucester, in 16")3, and educated ] 
 at Oriel and All Soul's Colleges, Oxford, j 
 Died, 1684. His son was the celebrated | 
 General Guise, who left his collection of 
 paintings to Cliristchiu-ch, Oxford. He 
 died in 1765. 
 
 GUITON, John-, a citizen of Rochelle, 
 who was chosen mayor of the town when It 
 was besieged by Cardinal Richelieu, in 1637. 
 He refused the post, unless permitted to have 
 a poniard to stab the first who should offer 
 to surrender. Being told that famine had 
 carried off many of the inhabitants, he an- 
 swered, " It matters not, provided there is 
 one left to shut the gates." 
 
 GUIZOT, Elizabeth Charlotte Pau- 
 line, a French lady, whose works written 
 for the instruction of youth have given her 
 a deserved celebrity, was born at Paris, in 
 1773. Her father died when she was a child, 
 and her family having been brought to dis- 
 tress by the revolutionary changes, she was 
 induced to attempt authorship, in order to 
 provide for their exigencies. She accord- 
 ingly produced the novels, entitled "Les 
 Contradictions" and "La Chapelle d' 
 Ayton ; " she also wrote in the public jour- 
 nals ; and her articles on manners, the 
 drama, &c. attracted considerable attention. 
 At length she became acquainted with M. 
 Guizot, a gentleman of superior talent, and 
 since distinguished also as a statesman ; in 
 1812 they were married ; and she subse- 
 quently acquired no small share of literary 
 distinction for her " L'Ecolier ou Raoul et 
 Victor," 4 vols.; " Nouveaux Contes," and 
 " Lettres de Famille sur I'Education Do- 
 mestique." Died, 1827. 
 
 GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, a 
 native of Riga, who became professor of 
 natural history at St. Petersburgh. He spent 
 3 years in travelling through Tartary, on a 
 scientific tour, and on his return published 
 the result of his researches. Died, 1781. 
 
 GUNDLING, Nicholas Jerome, a Ger- 
 man philosopher, bom in 1G71. He became 
 successively professor of philosophy, of rhe- 
 toric, and of the law of nature and nations, 
 at Halle : he was also privy councillor to 
 the king of Prussia. Among his numerous 
 works are, " The Road to Truth," 3 vols. ; 
 " A History of Moral Philosophy," " Otia," 
 a miscellaneous collection of essays, &c. 
 Died, 1729. 
 
 GUNDUIiF, bishop of Rochester, was one 
 of the Norman ecclesiastics brought over by 
 William the Conqueror. He was a cele- 
 brated architect ; and built that part of the 
 Tower of London called the WJiite Tower, 
 He also erected Rochester Castle, and re- 
 built the cuthedral. Died, 1108. 
 
 GUNNER, John Ernest, bishop of Dron- 
 theim, was born at Christiana, in Norway, 
 in 1718. He founded the Royal Norwegian 
 Society, in the Transactions of which he 
 published several valuable papers on natural 
 history. On account of his zeal for botany, 
 Linnaeus gave his name to a plant in his 
 system. He published " Flora Norvcgica," 
 and died in 1773. 
 
GDIJ] 
 
 ^ 0tio Bxiibtv^aX 33iosrajpT)|). 
 
 [gus 
 
 GUNNING, Peter, a learned and munifi- 
 cent English prelate, was born at Hoo, in 
 Kent, in 1G13. He was a principal manager 
 on the side of episcopacy in the Savoy con- 
 ference ; and, in 1670, was made bishop of 
 Chichester ; from which see he was trans- 
 lated, in 1674, to Ely, where he died in 1684. 
 
 GUNTER, Edmund, a mathematician, 
 was born in Herefordsliire, in 1581. He was 
 educated at Westminster School ; from 
 •whence he went to Christchurch, Oxford. 
 He was promoted to the professorship of 
 astronomy in Gresham College, where he 
 died in 1626. He invented a portable 
 quadrant for astronomical purposes, and 
 the famous " rule of proportion," which, in 
 its mechanical form, is styled " Gunter's 
 scale." He also discovered the variation of 
 the magnetic needle. His works were col- 
 lected into one volume, and have been re- 
 peatedly published. Died, 1626. 
 
 GURVVOOD, Colonel John, the celebrated 
 editor of the "Duke of Wellington's Des- 
 patches," entered the army as an ensign in 
 the 52nd foot, in 1808, and served in the 
 Peninsula with that regiment from that 
 year to 1812. At the assault of Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, he led the forlorn hope at the 
 lesser breach, and received a wound in his 
 skull from a musket ball, which affected 
 him for the remainder of his life ; and on 
 this occasion he took the governor. General 
 Banier, prisoner, whose sword was presented 
 to him by Lord Wellington. After serving 
 with great credit during the closing cam- 
 paigns of the war, we find him among the 
 heroes of Waterloo, where he was again 
 severely wounded. He obtained his rank 
 as full colonel in 1841 ; but he had been 
 placed on the unattached list in 1830. 
 Having filled the highly honourable post of 
 private secretary to Field-marshal the Duke 
 of Wellington, he imdertook the grateful 
 office of editing the Wellington Despatches, 
 in connection with which his name will be 
 handed down to posterity. In order to 
 testify the high opinion the duke had of 
 his services, he appointed him deputy-lieu- 
 tenant of the Tower of London. The Wel- 
 lington Despatches, which had been in the 
 course of publication during many years, 
 was a work of labour, requiring great care 
 and scrupulous fidelity, while it continually 
 called into exercise great vigour of thought 
 and judgment ; and it had not long been 
 concluded when the health of the gallant 
 soldier and faithful secretary gave way, and 
 he put an end to his valuable life in a fit of 
 temporary insanity, at Brighton, Dec. 25. 
 1845. 
 
 GCJSTAVUS I., king of Sweden, knoT(Ti 
 by the name of Gustavus Vasa, was born 
 in 1490. Having delivered Sweden from the 
 Danish yoke, he was, in 1523, elected king 
 of that country ; reigned gloriously for 37 
 years ; and died in 1560. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPIIUS, king of Swe- 
 den, the grandson of Gustavus Vasa, was 
 born at Stockholm, in 1595, and ascended 
 the throne in 1611. He brought the war in 
 which his country was tlien involved with 
 Denmark, Russia, and Poland, to a success- 
 ful issue ; and afterwards led an army of 
 eixty thousand men into Germany, for the 
 
 noble purpose of rescuing the Protestants 
 from the tyranny of the house of Austria. 
 He penetrated from the Vistula to the 
 Danube, and twice defeated the celebrated 
 Tilly. This great prince fell in the battle 
 fought on the plains of Lutzen, in 1632. He 
 was humane, pious, and charitable ; unosten- 
 tatious in his manners, moderate in his con- 
 duct, and possessed a vigorous understanding. 
 
 GUSTAVUS III., king of Sweden, was 
 the son of Adolphus Frederic and Louisa 
 Ulrica, sister of Frederic II., king of Prussia. 
 He was born in 1746, and succeeded his fa- 
 ther in 1771. He abolished the practice of 
 torture, and introduced other good regula- 
 tions in the administration of justice. He 
 also formed a college of commerce, and re- 
 formed his army and navy. In 1788 he was 
 involved in a war with Russia, which power 
 was assisted by Denmark. Gustavus headed 
 his army himself, and stormed the defences 
 of Frederickshall, where he took and de- 
 stroyed a great number of vessels. On the 
 breaking out of the French revolution, a 
 coalition was formed between the northern 
 powers and Spain, by which it was agreed 
 that Gustavus should march against France 
 at the head of a considerable army ; but 
 while preparations were making, he was shot 
 at a masquerade by Ankarstroem, a dis- 
 banded officer of the army, March 15. 1792, 
 and died on the 29th. 
 
 GUSTAVUS IV., ex-king of Sweden, -was 
 bom in 1778, and ascended the throne when 
 his father fell by the hand of an assassin, 
 March 29. 1792. When the Duke of Enghein 
 was so unjustifiably seized, and after a mock 
 trial shot, by the orders of Napoleon, Gus- 
 tavus resolved upon an eternal hostility to 
 the French emperor. He ordered his am- 
 bassador to leave Paris, and dismissed the 
 French ambassador from Sweden, while at 
 the same time he returned to the king of 
 Prussia the order of the black eagle, with 
 which Napoleon had been invested, nobly 
 saying, " that he never could, according to 
 the laws of knighthood, consent to be brother 
 companion of an assassin." After this he 
 continued to join every party opposed to, 
 and to wage war with every party in alli- 
 ance with, the emperor. His hostile pro- 
 ceedings, however, became at last so preg- 
 nant with danger to his country, that a 
 council of state entreated him to make peace. 
 This he refused to do ; a revolution in Swe- 
 den was the consequence ; Gustavus was 
 imprisoned, and he afterwards signed his 
 abdication. His uncle, the Duke of Suder- 
 mania, was then raised to the throne by the 
 title of Charles XIII., and Christian Au- 
 gustus, of Ilolstein Augustenburg, was in- 
 vested with the title of prince royal of 
 Sweden, or heir apparent. This prince dying 
 soon after, the succession was transferred 
 to Marshal Bernadotte, who in 1818 as- 
 cended the Swedish throne, as Charles John 
 XIV. After his abdication, Gustavus was 
 for years known as a mere wanderer upon 
 the face of Europe, sometimes bearing the 
 designation of Count Gottorp, sometimes 
 that of the Duke of Holstein, and again the 
 more humble one of Gustavson. He was in 
 England, at Hartwell, with Louis XVIII. 
 His latter years were spent in poverty, his 
 
gut] 
 
 ^ IJeto Wniljcrtfal 3Btflgraji]^|). 
 
 [guy 
 
 ■mall annuity being less than 1001. From 
 his relations and friends he would receive 
 nothing ; and his son, Prince Gustavus Vasa, 
 a general in the Austrian service, naturally 
 anxious to render his father's condition less 
 miserable, was compelled to adopt various 
 devices to assist him. Died, 1837. 
 
 GUTCH, JoHX, an antiquarian writer, 
 who was registrar of the university of Ox- 
 ford, rector of St. Clement's, and chaplain 
 of All Soul's College, lie publislied " Col- 
 lectanea Curiosa," from the MSS. of Arch- 
 bishop Bancroft, 2 vols. ; " The History and 
 Antiquities of the Colleges, &c., from MSS. 
 In the Bodleian library, written by Anthony 
 Wood;" "The Antiquities and Annals of 
 the University," &c. Died, 1831, aged 8G. 
 
 GUTHRIE, William, an indefatigable 
 writer, was born at Brechin, Scotland, in 
 1708 ; and after receiving his educatioi^ at 
 King's College, Aberdeen, settled in London 
 as an author. Among the various works 
 which bear tliis author's name are, a " His- 
 tory of England," 3 vols, folio ; a " History 
 of Scotland," 10 vols. ; an " Universal His- 
 tory," 13 vols.; the "Geographical Gram- 
 mar;" " The Friends," a novel ; "Kemarks 
 on English Tragedy ; " also a translation of 
 Quintilian, 2 vols., and Cicero's Offices. 
 Died, 1770. 
 
 GUTTEMBERO or GUTTENBERG, 
 John, usually called the inventor of print- 
 ing, was bom at Mentz, in 1400. In 1427 he 
 resided at Strasburg, as a merchant ; but re- 
 turned to Mentz in 1430. About 1438, Gut- 
 tenberg made use of moveable types of wood; 
 and, in 1450, formed a co-partnership with 
 John Faust, or Fust, a ricli goldsmith, wlio 
 furnished money to establish a press, in 
 which the Latin Bible was first printed. 
 Guttenberg, whose printing-office remained 
 in Mentz, till 1465, died in 1468. 
 
 GUY, Thomas, the founder of Guy's Hos- 
 pital, was the son of a lighterman of Hors- 
 ! leydown, and bom in 1644. He was brought 
 { up to the business of a bookseller, and had a 
 I lucrative trade by dealing largely in the im- 
 portation of Bibles from Holland, and after- 
 wards contracting with Oxford for those 
 ' printed at that university ; but his principal 
 j gains arose from the disreputable purchase 
 j of seamen's prize tickets, and jobbing in 
 South Sea stock. By these means, joined to 
 most penurious habits, he amassed a fortune 
 of nearly half a million sterling, of which he 
 spent about 200,00<J^ in building and endow- 
 ing the hospital in Southwark, which bears 
 his name. He also erected almsliouses at 
 Tamworth, and made bequests to Christ's 
 Hospital and various other charities ; besides 
 leaving 80,000i. to be divided among those 
 who could prove any degree of relationship 
 to him. He died in 1724, aged 80. 
 
 GUYON, jEAiV Makie Bouviere de la 
 MoTUE, a French lady, celebrated as a re- 
 ligious enthusiast, was born at Montargis 
 in 1648, and become a widow with three 
 children, at the age of twenty-eight. Having 
 a strong predilection for a kind of mystical 
 devotion, she relinquished the care of her 
 children to others, and gave up a part of her 
 fortune for their maintenance, while she 
 professed to be wholly guided by "divine 
 impulses," thereby implying a complete re- 
 
 nunciation of self, the silence of the soul, 
 and the annihilation of all earthly cares and 
 emotions, wliicli has since obtained tlie 
 name of quietism. Misled by tlie ardour of 
 her zeal and a heated imagination, slie 
 imagined that heaven destined lier for an 
 extraordinary mission. Thus for several 
 years she wandered from place to place, 
 preaching her doctrines, and making con- 
 verts ; till her fame reaching Paris, and 
 calumny having been busy with her charac- 
 ter, she was by the king's order eliut up 
 in a convent. Through the intercession of 
 Madame de Maintenon, however, she soon 
 obtained her liberty ; and such were the at- 
 tractions of her eloquence, and the tender- 
 ness and apparent fervour of her piety, that 
 she not only made proselytes of many ladies 
 of the court, but enlisted the illustrious 
 Fenelon in her cause. Her doctrines and 
 conduct at length excited the resentment of 
 Bossuet and other rigid ecclesiastics, and she 
 was compelled to sign a recantation. But 
 again pursuing the same career in Paris, she 
 was confined in the Bastile. On being libe- 
 rated, in 1702, she retired to Blois, and there 
 passed the remainder of her life in the pri- 
 vate exercise of "quietism." Her works, 
 wliich are very voluminous, are now scarcely 
 remembered, except the one entitled " The 
 Song of Songs interpreted according to its 
 Mystical Sense." Died, 1719. 
 
 GUYON, Makie Claui>e, a priest of the 
 Oratory at Paris ; author of a " History of 
 the Amazons ; " a " History of Empires and 
 Republics," 12 vols.; a "History of tlie 
 Indies," 3 vols., &c. Born, 1701 ; died, 1771. 
 
 GUYS, Peteu AuousTiNK, a French mer- 
 cliant, born at Marseilles, in 1720 ; whose 
 love of letters induced him, when trading to 
 the Levant, to make frequent excursions into 
 Greece, with Humcr in his hand, for the 
 purpose of making his comments on the spot, 
 and tracing the vestiges of its ancient glories. 
 The fruit of his researches appeared in a 
 work, entitled " Voyage Litturaire de la 
 Grfece." He also wrote " Relation Abrf^gte 
 de les "Voyages en Italic et dans le Nord." 
 
 GUYTON DE MORVEAU, Louis Bek- 
 NAED, an eminent French chemist, was the 
 son of a lawyer at Dijon, where he was born 
 in 1737. He was bred to the bar, and became 
 advocate-general to the parliament of his 
 native city ; but he applied chiefly to natural 
 philosophy and chemistry, in which latter 
 science he made many discoveries. In 1777 
 he was appointed to examine the coal-mines 
 of Burgundy, on which he made a miuera- 
 logical tour of that province ; and, in the 
 course of these inquirie?, he discovered a ricli 
 lead mine. Soon after this he was engaged 
 in writing the articles on chemistry in the 
 Encyclopedic Methodique ; in 1782 he pub- 
 lished his new chemical nomenclature, 
 paid great attention for a time to the science 
 of aerostation, and by various discoveries 
 materially promoted the advance of science. 
 He figured among the earliest and most vio- 
 lent of the revolutionists ; bore a decided 
 enmity to the kingly authority and the 
 priesthood ; became successively a member 
 of the legislative assembly, tlie convention, 
 the committee of public safety, and the 
 council of five hundred ; was made a 
 
GWl] 
 
 ^ i^m Bnihtr^Kl 33iO(prajpi^ji. 
 
 [hac 
 
 member of the legion of honour, and a baron 
 of the empire by Buonaparte ; and was di- 
 rector of tlie Polytechnic School and ad- 
 ministrator of the mint. Besides his share 
 in the Encyclopedic M^thodique, he was 
 one of the principal editors of the Annals 
 of Chemistry, and wrote some other che- 
 mical works. Died, 181C. 
 
 GWILYM, David ap, a British bard, 
 known by the name of David of Glamorgan, 
 and styled the Welsh Ovid, was born in 
 1340, in the county of Cardigan. He was one 
 of the itinerant bards, and became steward 
 and tutor in the family of Ivor Hael, where 
 he died, in 1400. His poems were published 
 in 1792, and are said, by those who profess to 
 be judges, to be unsurpassed by any of his 
 bardic successors. 
 
 GWINNE, Matthew, was a physician of 
 Welsh descent, but born in London. After 
 taking his degrees at Oxford, he commenced 
 practice there ; but, on the settlement of 
 Gresham College, he was chosen professor of 
 physic, and in 1G05 appointed physician to 
 the Tower. Dr. Gwinne seems to have 
 known and practised tlie courtier's art pretty 
 well ; for, knowing the mortal antipathy 
 James I. had to tobacco, he took occasion, 
 when that sapient monarch visited Oxford, 
 to make an oration against that " filthy 
 weed." He also wrote a comedy called 
 " Vertumnua," which was performed before 
 tlie king at St. Jolin's College. His other 
 works consist of " Orations," " Letters on 
 Cliemical and Magical Secrets," &c. Died, 
 1627. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAAK, Theodore, a German writer, bom 
 at Newhausen, in 1605. He studied at Ox- 
 ford ; translated the Dutch " Annotations of 
 the Bible," 2 vols. ; was one of the founders 
 of the Royal Society ; and died in 1690. 
 
 HAAS, William, a letter- founder at Basle, 
 who improved the art of printing by the in- 
 vention of a balance-press, &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 HABERLLN, Francis Dominic, a Ger- 
 man historian and antiquary ; author of the 
 " History of the German Empire," 20 vols., 
 but which, owing to his death, in 1787, was 
 left incomplete. He was a native of Suabia, 
 and professor of history at Helmstadt. 
 
 HABERLIN, Charles Frederic, son of 
 the preceding, was professor of jurisprudence 
 in the university of Helmstadt, and the 
 author of various legal works. Died, 1808. 
 
 HABERT, Germain, a French poet, was 
 abbot of Notre Dame de Cerisi, and one of 
 the first members of the academy. He died 
 in 1655. His principal poem is entitled " Me- 
 tamorphose des Yeux d'Iris changds en As- 
 tres." He also wrote the "The Life of 
 Cardinal de Berulle." 
 
 HABERT, Isaac, bishop of Vabres, in 
 France ; distinguished himself as a contro- 
 versialist against Jansenius, and left a trans- 
 lation of the pontifical of the Greek Church, 
 some Latin poems, and other works. Died, 
 1668. 
 
 HABINGTOX, Thomas, a gentleman of 
 landed property, at Henlip, in Worcester- 
 shire, who was implicated in various trea- 
 sonable practices, but who had the good for- 
 tune, though detected, to escape from the 
 full i)enalty of them. He was found guilty 
 of engaging in a conspiracy to release Mary, 
 queen of Scots, for which he was imprisoned 
 six years ; and he was afterwards convicted 
 of concealing some of the agents in the gun- 
 powder-plot, and received sentence of death ; 
 but obtained a pardon, owing, as some assert, 
 to his having been the godson of queen 
 Elizabeth ; though, more probably, to the 
 circumstance of his daughter being the wife 
 
 of Lord Monteagle, and the supposed \iTiter 
 of the mysterious letter that led to its dis- 
 covery. He was, however, restrained from 
 ever leaving Worcestersliire : in consequence 
 of this, he employed the rest of his life in 
 collecting a mass of topographical materials, 
 which subsequently formed the foundation 
 of Dr. Nash's history of that county. Born, 
 1560 ; died, 1647. 
 
 HABINGTON, William, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Henlip, Worcestershire, 
 in 1605 ; and was both a poet and an his- 
 torian. He was educated at St. Omer's and 
 Paris ; married the daughter of the first Lord 
 Powis ; and published a volume of poems, 
 under the title of " Castara ; " which, accord- 
 ing to the judgment of modern critics, possess 
 much fancy, elegance, and moral feeling. 
 His other works are, " The Queen of Arra- 
 gon," a tragi-comedy ; " Observations upon 
 History," and " A Ilistory of Edward IV." 
 Died, 1645. 
 
 IIACKET, Dr. John, bishop of Lichfield, 
 was born in 1592 ; received his education at 
 Westminster, and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge ; and became chaplain to James I. 
 This appointment soon led to other church 
 preferment. In 1623 he was presented ta a 
 stall in Lincoln cathedral, and, shortly after, 
 to the rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn, with 
 that of Cheam, in Surrey. In 1631 he was 
 made archdeacon of Bedford ; and in 1641 he 
 exchanged his prebend at Lincoln for a 
 residentiaryship at St. Paul's. At the Re- 
 storation he was made bishop of Lichfield 
 and Coventry ; and in that situation he ex- 
 hibited a degree of munificence worthy of 
 his station, by expending 20,000?. in repairing 
 his cathedral, and by being a liberal bene- 
 factor to the college of which he had been <^ 
 member. He was the author of " A Ceptury 
 of Sermons," " Loyola," a Latin play, twicie 
 performed at the university before James J. i 
 and the " Life of Bishop Williams." Died. 
 1670. 
 
 HACQUET, BAt,THASAB, an eminent n^,-. 
 
had] 
 
 ^ ^clB WLnibex^iil JSiograjilbl'* 
 
 [hah 
 
 taralist, born at Conquet, in Britany, in 1740. 
 After making a scientific tour, he settled at 
 Laybach, in Camiola ; became professor of 
 surgery at the Lyceum there ; and in 1788 
 professor at Lemberg, and a member of the 
 council of mines at Vienna. lie produced 
 several works illustrative of the natural his- 
 tory and state of the countries he explored ; 
 and died in 1815. 
 
 H ADDICK, Andrew, Count de, a German 
 field-marshal, who distinguished himself in 
 the seven years' war, and who, in 1780, had 
 the chief command of the Austrian forces 
 against the Turks, lie was alike renowned 
 for his bravery and skill, and, as a commander 
 of cavalry, he ha« rarely been equalled. 
 Died, 1790, aged 80. 
 
 HADDON, Walteh, an eminent English 
 lawyer, who, on the deprivation of Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, from the masterslup 
 of Trinity Hall, was selected to fill the va- 
 cant situation. He was afterwards president 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford ; but during 
 the reign of Mary he was compelled to seek 
 obscurity. Under Elizabeth he became judge 
 of the prerogative court ; and he was one of 
 the three commissioners who met at Bruges 
 in 15C6, to arrange a treaty of commerce be- 
 tween England and the Netherlands. lie 
 was otherwise much employed for the govern- 
 ment ; particularly in drawing up the cele- 
 brated code, " Reformatio Legum Ecclesias- 
 ticarum ; " and he wrote various poems and 
 treatises in Latin, the purity and elegance of 
 which are highly commended. Died, 1.072. 
 
 UADLEY, John, an English philosopher, 
 who lived in the early part of the 18th cen- 
 tury. He invented the quadrant which bears 
 his name, and also a reflecting telescope ; 
 was vice-president of the Royal Society ; and 
 contributed several papers to the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions. 
 
 HAEN, Anthony de, or VAN HAEN, a 
 celebrated physician, was born at Leyden, 
 where he studied under Boerhaave. He first 
 settled as a physician at the Hague ; but, after 
 20 years' residence, he removed to Vienna, 
 where he obtained a prolessorship, and died 
 in 1776. 
 
 HAFIZ, or HAFEZ, Mohammed Schem- 
 SEDDiN, the most popular of the Persian 
 poets, was born at Shiraz, and flourished in 
 the 14th century. lake Anacreon, his muse 
 is dedicated to love and wine, and, it is said, 
 he practised what he preached. If we may 
 judge of their general merit from the odea 
 which have been translated by Sir W. Jones 
 and others, we must admit that the fame of 
 Uafiz has never been overrated. He died 
 in 1389 ; and his countrymen erected a monu- 
 ment to his memory, which w^as destroyed 
 by an earthquake in 182.5. 
 
 HAGEDORN, Fkedekic, a celebrated 
 German poet, was born at Hamburgh, in 
 1708. He was educated in the college of his 
 native city ; came to London in the suite of 
 the Danish ambassador ; and, in 1733, was 
 appointed secretary to the English factory at 
 Hamburgh. He was the author of Fables, 
 Songs, Tales, and Moral Poems ; in all of 
 which there is considerable originality, and 
 many of them are extremely graceful. Died, 
 1754. 
 
 HAGEDORN, Cueistian Lewis, brother 
 
 of the preceding, held the rank of counsellor 
 of legation, and was eminent as a connois- 
 seur of the fine arts. He wrote " Remarks 
 on Painting," 2 vols. Sec. Born, 1717 ; died, 
 1780. 
 
 IIAGER, Joseph von, professor of the 
 oriental languages in the university of Pavia, 
 was born at Milan, in 1750 ; studied at Vi- 
 enna ; and devoted himself to the acquisition 
 of a critical knowledge of the Chinese tongue. 
 He resided some time in London, where he 
 published several works explanatory of the 
 Chinese language ; but meeting with little 
 success, he went to Paris, and there published 
 many more. Among his works are, " The 
 Chinese Pantheon," "An Explanation of 
 the Elementary Characters of the Chinese 
 Language," " A Dissertation on the newly 
 discovered Babylonian Inscriptions," &c. 
 Died at Milan, 1820. 
 
 HAGUE, Dr. Charles, an eminent mu- 
 sician, born at Tadcaster, Yorkshire, in 1769. 
 Manifesting a talent for music at a very 
 early age, he was sent to Cambridge, where 
 he received lessons from Manini and the 
 elder Hellendaal. He was indebted for his 
 subsequent instnictions to Salomon and Dr. 
 Cook ; and in 1799 he succeeded Dr. Randall 
 in the professorship of music at Cambridge. 
 He composed a variety of excellent glees and 
 other pieces, all remarkable for purity and 
 good taste. Died, 1821. 
 
 HAHN, Philip Matthew, a celebrated 
 mechanical genius, born in 1739, at Scharn- 
 liauseJt. While at the university of Tubin- 
 gen, he spent his leisure hours in making 
 sundials and siieaking-trumpcts, grinding 
 glasses, &c. He contiuued his labours with 
 unremitting assiduity, and eventually pro- 
 duced works of great ingenuity ; as, a clock 
 showing the course of the earth and other j 
 planets, as well as that of the moon and 
 other satellites, and their eccentricities ; a 
 calculating machine ; and many other in- 
 genious inventions. Died, 1790. 
 
 HAHNEMANN, Samuel, founder of the 
 system of medicine called Homoeopathy, was 
 born at Meissen, in Saxony, in 1755. Edu- 
 cated at the high school of his native town, 
 he studied successively at Leipsic, Vienna, 
 and Erlangen, where his zeal in the pursuit 
 of knowledge procured him the regard of all 
 his teachers ; and having taken his degree of 
 M.D., he was appointed, in 1781, district phy- 
 sician at Gomern, near Magdeburg, where he 
 relieved his professional labours by an ar- 
 dent study of chemistry and mineralogy. In 
 1784 he removed to Dresden, where he gained 
 a high reputation as a practitioner ; but 
 struck with the absence of a guiding principle 
 in therapeutics, and the great uncertainty of I 
 the healing art, he retired from practice, 
 and devoted himself exclusively to chemistry 
 and literary occupations. While thus em- 
 ployed, the great law of " similia similibus 
 curantur " dawned upon him, and, in 1796, 
 he announced his new discovery to the medi- 
 cal world, and his whole time was now spent 
 in testing his principles by practice, and in 
 making known the results in various public- 
 ations. In 1813 he removed to Leipsic as 
 Magister Legens ; but the persecutions of the j 
 apothecaries drove him thence to Cothen, 
 where the Duke of Anhalt-Cothen offered ; 
 
HAl] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Bnihtx^Kl 3St00rapf)ii. 
 
 [hal 
 
 him an asylum in 1820. Here he remained 
 for 15 years, extending his fame and practice; 
 but in 1835, having married a French lady 
 when in his 80th year, he removed with her 
 to Paris, where he remained in the active 
 exercise of his profession, and surrounded by 
 numerous disciples from all parts of the 
 world, till his decease, which took place in 
 1843. His chief works are the " Organon of 
 the Healing Art," published in 1810 ; and 
 " Chronic Diseases, their peculiar Nature and 
 Homoeopathic Cure," published in 1828. 
 
 IIAIIiLAN, Bernard de Gikard, Sieur 
 d', a Frencli liistorian, was born at Bour- 
 deaux, in 153.5. He was originally a Pro- 
 testant, but changed his religion for inte- 
 rest at court, where he was appointed histo- 
 riographer of France. Besides some poems 
 and translations, he published a curious 
 work, entitled " Of the State and Success 
 of the Affairsof France," which went through 
 several editions. He also wrote a " History 
 of France, from Pharamond to Charles 
 VII.," and some other works. Died, 1610. 
 
 HAKEM-BAMRILLAH, caliph of Egypt, 
 a sovereign remarkable for the impious ex- 
 travagance of his conduct, succeeded his 
 father Azis, in 996, at the age of 11. At 
 first he was a zealous Maliometan, founding 
 mosques, colleges, &c. ; but after a time he 
 took a fancy to establish a religion of his 
 own. He styled himself the visible image of 
 God upon earth, and claimed the honours 
 of adoration. He persecuted the Jews and 
 Christians, and having gained many fol- 
 lowers, he attempted to reform Mahomet- 
 anism, by suppressing the pilgrimages to 
 Mecca, &c. ; but this proved his destruction, 
 and he perished in a conspiracy of his sub- 
 jects, in 1020. 
 
 HAKEWILL, George, an English divine, 
 was born at Exeter, in 1579. lie studied at 
 Alban Hall, Oxford, after-which he became 
 fellow of Exeter College. Having taken his 
 degree of D. D. he was made chaplain to 
 Prince Charles, and archdeacon of Surrey ; 
 but never rose higher in the church, owing 
 to his writing a tract against the proposed 
 marriage of his patron with tlie infanta of 
 Spain. For this he not only lost his chap- 
 laincy, but was sent to prison, though he 
 soon obtained his release. Some time after, 
 he waa elected rector of Exeter College, 
 which he held with the living of Heauton, 
 in Devonshire, where he died in 1649. His 
 greatest work is entitled " An Apology or 
 Declaration of the Power and Providence of 
 God in the Government of the AVorld." 
 
 HAKLUYT, RtCHARD, a naval historian, 
 was born at Eyton, in Herefordshire, in 
 1553. He received his education at West- 
 minster School, and atChristchurch, Oxford, 
 where lie made cosmography liis favourite 
 study, and read lectures on it. About 1584 
 he went to Paris as chaplain to the English 
 ambassador, and, during his absence, was 
 made prebendary of Bristol. On his return 
 to England he published several works, par- 
 ticularly, a translation from the Spanish of 
 " Leo's Geographical History of Africa," 
 and Peter Martyr's " History of the West 
 Indies," In 1605, he was promoted to a 
 prebend of Westminster, and the rectory of 
 Whetheringset, in Suffolk. His principal 
 
 work Is a valuable collection of the " Voyages 
 and Discoveries of the English Nation," in 
 3 vols, folio. 
 
 HAJiE, Sir Matthew, an eminent Eng- 
 lish judge, was born at Aldersley, in Glou- 
 cestershire, in IGOO ; educated at Magdalen 
 Hall, Oxford ; and removed to Lincoln's 
 Inn, where he studied the law with great 
 application. He acted as counsel for Straf- 
 ford, Laud, Hamilton, and even for Charles 
 himself; yet, by dint of importunity, Crom- 
 well prevailed upon him to become one of 
 the justices of the bench ; but, refusing to 
 warp the laws, lie offended the protector, 
 and refused to try any more criminal causes. 
 In the parliament which recalled the king, 
 he sat for his native county ; and, soon after 
 the Restoration, was made chief baron of the 
 exchequer ; from which he was advanced 
 to the chief-justiceship of the king's bench. 
 He resigned his office in 1675, and died the 
 following year. He was a learned man, an 
 upright judge, and an exemplary Christian, 
 His writings are numerous on theological, 
 philosophical, and legal subjects. The 
 principal are, " The Primitive Origination 
 of Mankind considered and explained ac- 
 cording to the Light of Nature," "The 
 History of the Pleas of the Crown," and 
 "Contemplations, Moral and Divine," 3 
 vols. 8vo. He also wrote various mathe- 
 matical and philosophical works ; and left 
 a very valuable collection of manuscripts 
 relating to history and jurisprudence, which 
 are preserved in the library of Lincoln's 
 Inn. 
 
 HALES, JoHX, commonly called " the 
 ever-memorable," was born at Bath, in 
 1.584. He suffered great hardships in the 
 rebellion, and died in 1656. He was a man 
 of learning and skill in argument, as ap- 
 pears from his works, which were collected 
 after his death, and published under tlie 
 title of " Golden Remains of the ever-me- 
 morable Mr. John Hales, of Eton College," 
 3 vols. 
 
 HALES, Stephen, a divine and philoso- 
 pher, was born in Kent, in 1677, and edu- 
 cated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 
 of which he became fellow in 1703. He in- 
 vented a machine for demonstrating the 
 motions of the planets, nearly similar to 
 the orrery, and in 1741 published his inven- 
 tion of ventilators. He contented himself 
 with the rectory of Teddington, near Hamp- 
 ton Court, refusing higher dignities ; and 
 died in 1761. He was indefatigable in his 
 scientific researches, particularly in those 
 which relate to vegetable physiology ; and 
 his communications to the Philosophical 
 Transactions were very numerous ; besides 
 which he published four volumes of " Statical 
 Essavs," &c. 
 
 HALFORD, Sir Hexrt, bart., M. D., 
 G. C. H., one of the most eminent and suc- 
 cessful of modem English physicians, was 
 the son of Dr. John Vaughan, of Leicester, 
 and was educated at Rugby and Oxford. 
 His extraordinary success, Sir Henry owed 
 not only to great tact and gentleness, aided 
 by a most gentlemanly appearance and man- 
 ners, but also to consummate skill, which 
 inspired such confidence, that he attended 
 George m. and queen Charlotte, George IV., 
 
hal] 
 
 ^ ^clM ?ffntljfrjSaI 3Bi0srai)!)5. 
 
 [hal 
 
 and queen Victoria, besides other members 
 of the royal family, and a perfect host of the 
 nobility and gentry. In 18()9, he was already 
 so eminent and so much esteemed by his 
 illustrious patients, that he was created a 
 baronet ; and he exchanged his paternal 
 name of Vaughan for that of llalford in 1815, 
 by act of parliament, on his inheriting a pro- 
 perty. He published a vast variety of essays, 
 Latin poems, and some very valuable works 
 on professional subjects ; and it may be very 
 truly said of him, that if few of his profession 
 have ever been more successful, very few, if 
 any, have better deserved success. Died, 
 March 9. 1844 ; aged 78. 
 
 HALUED, Nathaniel Bkassey, an 
 eminent orientalist, was educated at Har- 
 row School, and afterwards became a civil 
 officer in tlie East India Company's service. 
 lie published " A Code of Gentoo Laws on 
 Ordinations of the Pundits, from a Persian 
 Translation ;" " A Grammar of the Bengal 
 Language ; " and " A Narrative of the Events 
 whicli have happened in Bombay and Ben- 
 gal, relative to the Mahratta Empire since 
 July, 1777." After this he returned to 
 England, and obtained a seat in parliament 
 as a member for Lymington ; but it appears 
 that he laboured under a species of mental 
 delusion, or he never could have patronised 
 and defended the lunatic prophet Brothers, 
 whose confinement in Bedlam he denounced 
 in parliament as an instance of tyranny and 
 oppression. Born, 1751 ; died, 18.'W. 
 
 HALIFAX, Geokge Saville, Marquis of, 
 an eminent statesman, was bom in 1630 ; 
 contributed to the restoration of Charles II., 
 who made him a privy councillor, and re- 
 warded him with a coronet. On the acces- 
 sion of James, he was appointed president 
 of the council, from which he was dismissed 
 for refusing his consent to a repeal of the 
 tests. In the convention parliament he was 
 chosen speaker of the House of Lords, and 
 at the accession of William and Mary was 
 made lord privy seal. He died in 1095. His 
 lordship wrote an excellent piece, entitled 
 " Advice to a Daughter," and various po- 
 litical tracts. 
 
 HALIFAX, Samuel, bishop of St. Asaph, 
 was born at Mansfield, Derbyshire, in 1733 ; 
 received his education at Cambridge ; gra- 
 duated as LL. D.,aud obtained the profes- 
 sorship of Arabic, which he resigned soon 
 after for that of civil law. In 1775 he was 
 presented to the rectory of Worksop, Not- 
 tinghamshire, and made king's chaplain. 
 In 1781 he was raised to the see of Glou- 
 cester ; from wliich he was translated to the 
 more valuable diocese of St. Asaph, in 1789. 
 He was a prelate of deep erudition, and much 
 beloved for lus benevolent disposition and 
 amiable manners. His writings are select 
 rather than numerous, and consist of ser- 
 mons, a volume on the Prophecies, and an 
 " Analysis of Butler's Analogy." Died, 1790. 
 
 HALKET, Lady Axne, the wife of Sir 
 James Halket. She was the daughter of Mr. 
 Robert Murray, of the Tullibardin family, 
 and born in 1G22. Her father was preceptor 
 to Charles I., and afterwards provost of Eton 
 College i and her mother was sub-governess 
 to the Duke of Gloucester and the Princess 
 Elizabeth. Anne received a liberal educa- 
 
 tion ; but theology and physic were her fa- 
 vourite studies, iler skill in the latter was 
 so great, that persons came from Holland, 
 and other countries, to benefit by her advice 
 and treatment. Died, 1099. 
 
 HALL, Edward, an old English chro- 
 nicler, whose works rank with those of 
 Holingshed and Stowe. He was a native of 
 London, and being a lawyer by profession, 
 attained the rank of a judge in the sheriff's 
 court. His death took place in 1547 As 
 affording delineations of the manners, dress, 
 and customs of the age, his " Chronicle," 
 which Grafton completed, is verv curious. 
 
 HALL, Sir Jame.s bart., F.Ii.S. and S.A., 
 Edinburgh, was the eldest son of Sir John 
 Hall, the third baronet of Dunglass, and 
 born in 1700. He was the author of " An 
 Essay on the Origin, Principles, and His- 
 tory of Gothic Architecture," and of many 
 papers in the Transactions of the Royal So- 
 ciety of Edinburgh. He devoted much of 
 his time to scientific pursuits, and made some 
 ingenious researches and discoveries in 
 mineralogy aud geology, particularly by his 
 experiments in the fusionof stony substances 
 — tending to establish the truth of the Ilut- 
 tonian theory of a central fire against the 
 Wcmerian or aqueous system. Died, at 
 Edinburgh. 1832. 
 
 HALL, Basil, Captain, R. N., a distin- 
 guished writer of voyages and travels, &c. ; 
 the son of Sir James Hall, who has also found 
 a niche in our Biographical Treasury ; was 
 born at Edinburgli in 1788. Entering the navy 
 in 1802, he gradually rose througli the minor 
 ranks till he became post-captain in 1817. 
 But though, like most other British officers, 
 he discharged his official duties with great 
 distinction and success, it is on the field of 
 literature that he reaped his most honoured 
 laurels ; for to whatever quarter of the world 
 he was summoned at the call of duty, he 
 viewed men and manners with a searching 
 eye, and various interesting and popular 
 works were the result of his eager and indefa- 
 tigable pursuit of knowledge. Besides con- 
 tributing numerous papers on scientific sub- 
 jects to various journals and encyclopsedias, 
 Capt. Hall wrote " A Voyage of Discovery 
 to the Western Coast of Corea and the great 
 Loo-Choo Island in the Japan Sea ;" a most 
 interesting work, which went through many 
 editions ; " Extracts from a Journal written 
 on the Coasts of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, in 
 the Years 1820, 1821, 1822," " Travels in North 
 America," " Fragments of Voyages and 
 Travels," " Schloss Hcinfeld, or a Winter in 
 Lower Styria," &c. His last work was pub- 
 lished in 1841, under the title of " Patch- 
 work," consisting, as its name implies, of 
 detached papers, embracing recollections of 
 foreign travels ; incidents worked up into 
 short talcs, and a few essays. Having been 
 unfortunately seized with insanity, Capt. 
 Hall was placed in the Royal Hospital, Has- 
 lar, Portsmouth, where he died 1844. 
 
 HALL, Joseph, an eminent and learned 
 English prelate. He was born, in 1574, at 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch ; was educated at Ema- 
 nuel College, Cambridge ; and became dean 
 of Worcester. In 1024 he refused the bi- 
 shopric of Gloucester ; but, three years af- 
 terwards, he accepted that of Exeter ; from 
 
hal] 
 
 ^ 0eb3 mnibtv^al MiaQVKi^^yi, 
 
 [lIAL 
 
 which see he was removed, in 1641, to that 
 of Norwich. In a few weeks after his 
 translation, he was sent to the Tower, with 
 twelve other prelates, for protesting against 
 any laws passed in parliament during tlieir 
 1 forced absence from the house. In June, 
 1642, he obtained his release ; but the next 
 year he suffered much persecution from the 
 Jpuritans, who plundered his house, and de- 
 I spoiled tlie cathedral. His estate also was 
 j sequestered ; and tlius, in liis old age, he 
 was reduced to poverty, which he endured 
 with fortitude, and continued still to preach 
 I occasionally. His " Meditations " are well 
 i known ; and his poetical talents, chiefly ex- 
 ercised in satire, were very respectable. 
 He is universally allowed to have been a 
 man of great wit and learning, and of as 
 great meekness, modesty, and piety. His 
 works have gained him the appellation of 
 the " Christian Seneca." Died, 1656. 
 
 HALL, RiciiAHD, an English divine of 
 the Romish church, who, in tlie reign of 
 Elizabeth, went to Flanders, and became 
 professor of divinity at Douay, and canon 
 of St. Omer. He published, among other 
 works, a " History of the Troubles of his 
 Time ; " and is very severe on the Protest- 
 ants. Died, 1604. 
 
 HALL, Robert, a celebrated Baptist 
 preacher, and a distinguished theological 
 writer, was bom at Arnsby, in Leicester- 
 shire, in 1764. His father, who was also a 
 Baptist minister, earlj' remarked his preco- 
 city of talent, and in 1773 placed him under 
 the instruction of the learned and pious 
 John Ryland, of Northampton. At 15 he 
 became a student in the Baptist college at 
 Bristol ; and at 18 he entered King's College, 
 Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.A. 
 He then was chosen as colleague with 
 Dr. Caleb Evans, in the ministry at Bristol, 
 and adjunct professor in the institution. 
 Here he attained great popularity ; but he 
 was obliged to retire from this situation, in 
 consequence of approacliing symptoms of 
 mental derangement. By judicious treat- 
 ment, during a long seclusion from the world, 
 his powerful mind regained its former vi- 
 gour ; and, in 1791, he removed to Cam- 
 bridge, being chosen successor to the cele- 
 brated Robert Robinson. He now appeared 
 as the author of a pamphlet, entitled 
 "Christianity not inconsistent with the 
 Love of Freedom." This was shortly after 
 followed by his " Vindication of the Freedom 
 of the Press," which passed through several 
 editions, and is still regarded as a standard 
 work. But it was his " Sermon on Modern 
 Infidelity " that established his fame as a 
 divine. In 1802, Mr. Hall's mind again 
 received a shock, which obliged him to sus- 
 pend his pulpit labours ; and on his recovery 
 he removed to Leicester, where he remained 
 as pastor of the Baptist congregation upwards 
 of 20 years. On the death of Dr. Ryland, 
 in 182(;, he succeeded to the presidency of 
 the Bristol Academy, and the pastorsliip of 
 Broadmead chapel ; and there he continued 
 till his death, which took place in 1831. 
 Mr. Hall was gifted with a powerful and 
 persuasive eloquence ; and to great talents 
 and learning he united a benevolent dispo- 
 sition and a truly liberal mind. Dr. Parr, 
 
 who was his intimate friend, says of him, 
 in his last will and testament, "Mr. Hall 
 has, like Jeremy Taylor, the eloquence of 
 an orator, the fancy of a poet, the subtility 
 of a schoolman, the profoundness of a philo- 
 sopher, and the piety of a saint." His works 
 have been collected and published since his 
 death, in 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 HALLER, Albekt von, an eminent Swiss 
 physician, was born at Berne, in 1708. The 
 early display of his abilities was most ex- 
 traordinary ; and when in his 13th year, 
 he was not only distinguished for his know- 
 ledge in Greek and Latin, but also for his 
 poetical genius. In his 16th year he began 
 to study medicine at Tubingen, but the 
 fame of Boerhaave induced him to remove 
 to Leyden, where, animated by the example 
 of the great geniuses around him, he spent 
 his days and nights with the least possible 
 intermission, in the most intense study. In 
 1727 he visited England, and formed an 
 acquaintance with Sir Hans Sloane, Che- 
 selden, and other eminent men. He received 
 the title of physician and counsellor to 
 king George II., at whose request Francis I. 
 gave him a patent of nobility, as a baron. 
 After 17 years absence at Gottingen, the 
 fame of whose medical school he had greatly 
 extended, he returned, in 1753, to Berne, 
 where his countrymen received him with 
 the respect due to his great fame and talents. 
 Having been elected a member of the sove- 
 reign council of the state, he soon obtained 
 one of its magistracies ; and his various 
 duties as a statesman, a physician, and a 
 medical teacher, occupied his attention till 
 his death. His " Elementa Physiologias " 
 and " Bibliotheca Medicina; " afford ample 
 proofs of his penetrating genius and solid 
 judgment ; and his philosophical and de- 
 scriptive poems display great depth of 
 thought and richness of imagination. He 
 was, in short, a profound philosopher, an 
 admirable poet, and a first-rate physician 
 and botanist ; yet not more eminent for his 
 various scientific knowledge, than for his 
 piety and active benevolence. He died in 
 1777. 
 
 HALLEY, Edmund, an eminent English 
 astronomer and mathematician, was born, 
 in 1656, at Haggerston, near London. He 
 received his education at St. Paul's School, 
 and Queen's College, Oxford, where he made 
 so great a proficiency in his mathematical 
 studies, that in 1676 he published observa- 
 tions on a spot in the sun, by which the 
 motion of that body on its axis was deter- 
 mined. The same year he went to St. 
 Helena, where he determined the position 
 of 350 stars, which procured him the name 
 of tlie Southern Tycho. On his return to 
 England he was created master of arts, 
 and chosen a fellow of the Royal Society ; 
 which learned body deputed him to go to 
 Dantzic, to adjust a dispute between Hooke 
 and Hevelius, respecting their proper glasses 
 for astronomical purposes. In 1680 he made 
 the tour of Europe with Mr. Nelson ; and 
 on the passage to Calais was the first to 
 observe the great comet — the same erratic 
 body which visited our hemisphere again in 
 1835, and was visible in England, to the 
 naked eye, about the middle of October, as 
 
hal] 
 
 ^ ^cfio Winibtxial aStoffraplbfi* 
 
 [ham 
 
 a tolerably bright star, just above the con- 
 stellation of the Great Bear. After his re- 
 turn, he turned his attention to the theory 
 of the planetary motions, which brought 
 him acquainted with Isaac Newton, who en- 
 trusted to him the publication of his Prin- 
 cipia. To ascertain exactly the cause of 
 the variation of the compass, he was made 
 commander of a ship in 1698, and sent to 
 the Western Ocean ; but his crew being 
 mutinous, he was obliged to return. The 
 year following he sailed again, and pro- 
 ceeded as far south as the ice would permit ; 
 the result of which observations he published 
 in a general chart. Soon after this he was 
 employed to observe the course of the tides 
 in the Cliannel, and to make a correct chart 
 of the same. Having accomplislied this 
 object, he went to make a survey of the 
 coast of Dalmatia, for the emperor. In 1703 
 he was appointed Savilian professor of 
 geometry at Oxford ; in 1705 he made public 
 his valuable researches on the orbits of 
 comets ; in 1713 he became secretary to the 
 Royal Society ; and in 1719 he succeeded 
 Flamstecd as astronomer royal. Tlie re- 
 mainder of his life was chiefly spent in the 
 sedulous performance of his duties in that 
 situation, especially incompleting the theory 
 of the motion of the moon. He died at 
 Greenwich, Jan. 14. 1741-2. Fontenelle thus 
 speaks of Halley : " To his great extent of 
 knowledge was added constant presence of 
 mind, and a freedom of expression, at once 
 pertinent, judicious, and sincere. He was 
 naturally of an ardent temper and a gen- 
 erous disposition, open and punctual in his 
 transactions, candid in his judgment, simple 
 and blameless in his manners, affable, com- 
 municative, and disinterested." His prin- 
 cipal works are " Catalogus Stellarum Aus- 
 tralium,'* "Tabulae Astronomica:," "An 
 Abridgment of the History of Comets," &c. 
 
 HALLIDAY, Sir Andrew, an eminent 
 physician, K. H. ; was originally educated 
 for the church, but being of an ardent and 
 active disposition, he prevailed on his friends 
 to allow him to embrace a more active pur- 
 suit. After the usual routine of education, 
 Mr. Ilalliday travelled throughout Russia, 
 Hungary, and Poland ; and on his return to 
 England commenced practice at Birming- 
 ham, where he met with very considerable 
 success. His active nature, however, soon 
 induced him to obtain a medical appoint- 
 ment on the staff of the army, and he served 
 witli great credit to himself, and no less 
 advantage to the troops, in Spain and Por- 
 tugal. He was present at the memorable 
 assault upon Bergen-op-Zoom, and at the 
 still more memorable battle of Waterloo. 
 His great professional talents, his stock of 
 general knowledge, and his amiable and pre- 
 possessing manners, gained him an enviable 
 distinction, both abroad and at home, to 
 which circumstance he doubtless partly owed 
 the honour of being selected to fill the post 
 of travelling medical attendant to William 
 IV., when that sovereign, then Duke of Cla- 
 rence, was obliged to travel for the restora- 
 tion of liis health. The principal of his 
 works are a " Memoir on the West Indies," 
 " Observations on Ephysema, or the Disease 
 which arises from the Diffusion of Air into 
 
 385 
 
 the Cavity of the Throat," " Remarks on the 
 Lunatic Asylums in Ireland," " Observations 
 on the State of the Portuguese Army, 1811," 
 a translation of Professor Franck's " Expo- 
 sition of the Causes of Diseases," " Memoir 
 of the Campaign of 1815," a " History of the 
 House of Brunswick and Lunenburg," and 
 " Annals of the House of Hanover." Died, 
 1840. 
 
 HALS, Francis, an eminent portrait 
 painter, bom at Mechlin, in 1584, who was 
 considered as ranking next to Vandyke. 
 Died, 1CG(). — His brother, Dirk Hals, was 
 famous for painting merry-makings and 
 subjects of drollery. Died, 1656. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, adistinguished 
 American officer and legislator in the war 
 of independence, was born in 1757. While 
 a student of Columbia College, at the age of 
 17, he published several essays concerning 
 the rights of the colonies, which were marked 
 by vigour and maturity of style, as well as 
 by soundness of argument. Before he was 
 19 he entered the American army, with the 
 rank of captain of artillery ; and by the 
 time he was 20, the commander-in-chief had 
 made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel. From this time he 
 continued the inseparable companion ^of 
 Washington during the war, and was always 
 consulted by him on the most important 
 occasions. After the war. Colonel Hamilton, 
 then about 24, commenced the study of the 
 law, and was soon admitted at the bar. In 
 1782 he was chosen a member of congress 
 from the state of New York, where he quickly 
 acquired the greatest influence and distinc- 
 tion. He contributed greatly to the favour- 
 able reception of the constitution, by the 
 essays he wrote, in conjunction with Madi- 
 son and Jay, in the " Federalist." On the 
 organisation of the federal government in 
 1789, he was appointed secretary of the trea- 
 sury ; and during his continuance in that 
 ofllce, about five years, he raised the public 
 credit from the lowest state of depression 
 to a height altogether unprecedented in the 
 history of the country. In 1798, when an 
 invasion was apprehended from the French, 
 and a provisional army had been called into 
 the field, his public services were again 
 required ; and on the death of Washington, 
 in 1799, he succeeded to the chief command. 
 U'hen the army was disbanded, Hamilton 
 again returned to the bar, and continued to 
 practise, with increased reputation and suc- 
 cess, until 1804. A quarrel having taken 
 place between him and Colonel Burr, the 
 latter challenged liim, and they met at Ho- 
 boken on the 11th of July, At the first fire 
 Hamilton fell, mortally wounded, on the 
 same spot where, a short time previously, 
 his eldest son had been killed in a duel. 
 The sensation which this occurrence pro- 
 duced throughout the United States, was 
 very great ; for, of all the American states- 
 men, he displayed the most comprehen- 
 sive understanding and the most varied 
 ability. | 
 
 HAMILTON, Anthony, Count, a poet, 
 courtier, and man of letters in the 17th cen- 
 tury. He was descended from an ancient 
 Scotcli family, but born, in 1646, in Ireland ; 
 from whence he was taken to France, when 
 
a child, by his parents, who were attached 
 to Charles II. When James II. was obliged 
 to contend for his crown in Ireland, he gave 
 Count Hamilton a regiment of infantry, and 
 made him governor of Limerick ; but on the 
 ruin of the royal cause, he accompanied 
 James to France, where he passed the rest 
 of his life. His wit and talents secured him 
 admission into the first circles ; and he died 
 at St. Germain, in 1720. Count Hamilton is 
 chiefly known as an author by his " Memoirs 
 of Count Grammont," a lively and spirited 
 production, exhibiting a free and faithful 
 delineation of the voluptuous court of 
 Charles II. His other works are, " Poems 
 and Fairy Tales," wliich, as well as the 
 Memoirs, are in French, and display ele- 
 gance of style with fertility of invention. 
 
 HAMILTON, Elizabeth, a lady of great 
 literary attainments, was born at Belfast, in 
 Ireland, in 17.58. She wrote the " Letters of 
 a Hindoo Rajah," 2 vols. ; '• The Life of 
 Agrippina," 3 vols. ; " Memoirs of Modem 
 Philosophers," " Popular Essays," 2 vols. ; 
 •' On the Elementary Principles of Educa- 
 tion," " Letters on the Formation of the 
 Religious and Moral Principle," and other 
 works, replete with sound sense and inform- 
 ation. Died, 1816. 
 
 Hamilton, Gavin, an historical painter, 
 and connoisseur of ancient art, was born at 
 Lanark, in Scotland. Having discovered 
 an early genius for painting, he was sent to 
 Italy, and placed under Augustine Massunhi, 
 by whose instructions he profited consider- 
 ably ; after which he applied with great 
 diligence to the study of the antique, which 
 has given his paintings of ancient subjects 
 that propriety with regard to costume, which 
 distinguished them at the time from the 
 generality of modern compositions. One 
 of his greatest works was his Homer, con- 
 sisting of a series of pictures, representing 
 scenes taken from the Iliad. The latter 
 part of his life was employed in making 
 excavations, at Tivoli, among the ruins of 
 Adrian's villa, and in various other places 
 in Italy ; by which he was enabled to bring 
 to light many of the long buried treasures 
 of antiquity ; so that the success which 
 crowned his researches made ample amends 
 for the loss which painting may have suf- 
 fered by the intermission of his practice. 
 He died at Rome, in 1796. 
 
 HAMILTON, James, Duke of, was born 
 in Scotland, in 1G06 ; became a favourite at 
 court ; and, when the troubles broke out in 
 Scotland, had the command of the fleet. In 
 164.3 he was created a duke ; but soon after- 
 wards his loyalty became suspected, and he 
 was sent prisoner to Pendennis Castle, and 
 next to that of St. Michael's Mount, in 
 Cornwall. There he remained till 1646, 
 when he regained his liberty and went to 
 Scotland, where he was accused of having 
 betrayed the king, and received a share of 
 the money. To wipe off this disgrace he 
 raised some forces, and entered England ; 
 but was defeated at Preston, in Lancashire, 
 August 17. 1648, and sent to Windsor Castle. 
 After a summary trial before Bradshaw, he 
 was sentenced to be beheaded, which was 
 
 put in execution March 9. 1648-9 His 
 
 brother William, who succeeded him in 
 
 the title, was mortally wounded at the battle 
 of Worcester, Sept. 3. 1651. 
 
 HAMILTON, James, inventor of the 
 Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, 
 died at Dublin, where he had gone for the 
 purpose of giving lectures, Sept. 16. 1829. 
 
 HAMILTON, Patrick, the first Scotch 
 reformer, was nephew to James, earl of 
 Arran, and born in 1503. He was educated 
 at St. Andrew's ; after which he went 
 abroad, where he imbibed the opinions of 
 Luther. On his return home he was made 
 abbot of Feme, in the shire of Ross, where 
 he promulgated the new doctrines with so 
 much zeal as to excite the wrath of the 
 clergy, who caused him to be apprehended 
 and sent to Beaton, archbishop of St. An- 
 drew's. After a long examination he was 
 declared contumacious, and burnt at a stake 
 opposite St. Salvador's College, March 1. 
 1527. 
 
 HAMILTON, Captain Thomas, is chieflv 
 known as the author of " Cyril Thornton," 
 a stirring novel of military adventure, com- 
 bining the elegant style of an excellent clas- 
 sical scholar with the graphic description and 
 vivid feeling of one who had participated in 
 the scenes and circumstances that he de- 
 scribed. After serving through the Penin- 
 sular and American campaigns, Capt. Hamil- 
 ton devoted his time chiefly to literature, and 
 he was a voluminous contributor to Black- 
 wood's Magazine, in which Cyril Thornton 
 originally appeared. His chief separate 
 works after Cyril Thornton are, " Annals of 
 the Peninsular Campaign" and "Men and 
 Manners in America." Died, Dec. 7. 1842, 
 aged 53. 
 
 HA3IILT0N, William, an historical 
 painter, was bom in 1750. He went to Italy 
 when very young, and was there placed 
 under the instruction of Zucchi, the painter 
 of arabesque ornaments, at Rome. On his 
 return to England he acquired considerable 
 employment ; and, in 1789, was admitted a 
 roval academician. Died, 1801. 
 
 HAMILTON, William, a Scotch poet, 
 was born at Bangour, in Ayrshire, in 1704. 
 He joined the Pretender in 1745, and nar- 
 rowly escaped being taken after the battle 
 of CuUoden. Died, 1754. Among his songs 
 and ballads is the well known "Braes of 
 Yarrow." 
 
 HAMILTON, William Gerakd, a states- 
 man who obtained the appellation of 
 " Single Speech Hamilton," from the extra- 
 ordinary impression produced by the first 
 and almost only speech he ever made in the 
 British parliament, was the son of a barris- 
 ter of Lincoln's Inn, where he was born in 
 1729. He was educated at Winchester School 
 and Oriel College, Oxford. In 1754 he was 
 elected into parliament for Petersfleld, and 
 the year following delivered the speech 
 alluded to. In 1761 he went to Ireland as 
 secretary to I/Ord Halifax, and in the par- 
 liament of that kingdom he confirmed the 
 reputation which he had gained in England 
 by his oratory. He was above twenty years 
 chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland, but 
 retired from public life in 1784. His works, 
 consisting of " Parliamentary Logic," 
 " Speeches," &c. were printed in 1808, witli 
 the life of the author prefixed. Among the 
 
ham] 
 
 ^ ^cbj Winihtri^l Jiiastn^'i)^, 
 
 [ham 
 
 many to whom the Letters of Junius were 
 once ascribed, Mr. Hamilton was one ; but 
 there was scarcely the shadow of an argu- 
 ment to support the conjecture. Died, 1796. 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir Williasi, bart., was a 
 native of Scotland ; born in 1730. His mother 
 having been the nurse of George III., young 
 Hamilton very naturally obtained that 
 prince's patronage. Sir William was gene- 
 rally distinguished for his taste in the polite 
 arts, employed a large portion of his life in 
 the study of natural history, and supplied 
 the Philosophical Transactions and the 
 Archasologia with many learned articles. 
 During his residence as ambassador from 
 England to the court of Naples, he published 
 his " Campi Phlegraei," from his observations 
 of Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna, and other 
 volcanoes. He presented many books, 
 manuscripts, and geological curiosities to 
 the British Museum ; and, after his death, 
 his superb collection of antique vases was 
 purchased by parliament for that institution. 
 Died, 1K0.3. 
 
 HAMILTON, Emma, Lady, wife of the 
 above-mentioned Sir William, was the 
 daughter of a female servant. At the age 
 of 13, she obtained a situation for her 
 daughter, called Emma Harte, in the house 
 of Mr. Thomas, of Howardcn, Flintshire, 
 to wait on his children. Emma, it seems, 
 thought the situation dull, and left it. At 
 16, she went to London, got a place in the 
 house of a shopkeeper in St. James's Market, 
 and soon after was hired to wait uiion a 
 lady of rank, where, having only the duty 
 of dressing her mistress, she passed her lei- 
 sure time in reading novels and plays. She 
 soon acquired a taste for the drama ; and 
 employed herself in imitating the attitudes 
 and manners of persons on the stage, from a 
 desire to become an actress. She thus laid 
 the foundation of her extraordinary skill 
 in pantomimic representations. But she 
 neglected her business, was dismissed, and 
 went to serve in a low tavern, frequented 
 by actors, painters, musicians, &c. In this 
 service, she formed an acquaintance with a 
 W^elsh youth, who, being pressed upon the 
 river, she hastened to the captain and ob- 
 tained the boy his liberty. The captain 
 loaded her with presents, and with him she 
 remained for some time. At J^ength she 
 quitted him for a gentleman of large fortune, 
 who kept her in great affluence for a short 
 period ; but disgusted by her extravagance, 
 and induced by domestic considerations, he 
 dismissed her. Reduced to the greatest 
 poverty, she became one of the most com- 
 mon of degraded females. From this state 
 she was relieved by the infamous Dr. Gra- 
 ham, who, perceiving the beautiful sym- 
 metry of her person, took her to his house, 
 and there exhibited her, covered only with 
 a transparent veil, under the name of the 
 goddess Uygeia. Painters, sculptors, and 
 others, paid their tribute of admiration at- 
 the shrine of this new goddess. The artful 
 quack had her bust modelled ; numbers 
 purchased it, and a greater number came 
 to admire the original. She was an adept 
 in deceit ; with a violent and impassioned 
 temper, she assumed the appearance of can- 
 dour, innocence, and simplicity. Charles 
 
 Greville (of the Warwick family) became 
 enamoured with, and would have married 
 her, but for the interference of his uncle. 
 Sir W. Hamilton, who, according to some 
 accounts, made an agreement with Greville 
 to pay his debts, on condition that he should 
 give up his mistress ; or, as others state the 
 Circumstance, in his endeavours to save his 
 nephew, fell into the snare himself, and 
 became the victim of her arts. He made 
 her his wife in 1791 ; introduced her at the 
 court of Naples, where the queen became so 
 inl'atuated with the new ambassadress, as 
 frequently to keep her a visitor at the pa- 
 lace. It was there that she imbibed a violent 
 passion for England's naval hero, then com- 
 manding the "Agamemnon ; " and, from that 
 period, she became the companion of Nel- 
 son, to whom she was sometimes useful as a 
 political agent. After the victory of Aboukir, 
 when the conqueror was received in Naples 
 with extravagant rejoicings. Lady Hamilton 
 was the heroine of the crowd, and accom- 
 panied the slave of her charms wherever he 
 went. To her advice is attributed the igno- 
 minious death of Prince Caracciolo, the 
 oldest and the best officer in the Neapolitan 
 navy. She died in 1816, in the neighbour- 
 liood of Calais. 
 
 HAMMOND, Axxnomr, an ingenious 
 writer, wos bom at the family scat of So- 
 mersham Place, Huntingdonshire, in 1668. 
 He woa educated at St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, and became a member of parliament, 
 where his eloquence procured him the name 
 of " Silver Tongue." He was also a com- 
 missioner of the navy ; but died a prisoner 
 in the Fleet, in 17-J8. He was the author of 
 a " Miscellany of Original Poems." 
 
 HAMMOND, Jajiks, an elegiac poet, was 
 bom in 1710 ; received his education at 
 Westminster School ; was appointed equerry 
 to Frederic, prince of Wales ; and sat in 
 parliament for Truro. He died in 1741, his 
 health, if not his intellect, having been 
 disordered by an unfortunate attachment to 
 a young lady who rejected his addresses. 
 After his death, a. small volume of his " Love 
 Elegies " was published, which, though 
 chiefly imitations of Tibullus, are obviously 
 the fruits of a cultivated taste, and possess 
 much warmth and tenderness. 
 
 HAMPDEN, John, a political character 
 of great celebrity in tlie reign of Charles I., 
 was descended of an ancient family in Buck- 
 inghamshire, and bom in London, in 1594. 
 In 1636 he distinguished himself by his 
 spirited opposition to the payment of ship- 
 money, by which he acquired great popu- 
 larity. He became a leading man in the 
 House of Commons ; and at the commence- 
 ment of the civil war he took up arms against 
 the king, and accepted the command of a 
 regiment in the parliamentary army, under 
 the Earl of Essex. Prince Rupert having 
 beaten up the quarters of the parliamentary 
 troops near Thame, in Oxfordshire, IlainiKlen 
 eagerly joined a few cavalry that were rallied 
 in haste, and, in the skirmish that ensued, 
 received a wound, which in a few days 
 proved fatal. His character and conduct 
 throughout his contest with the crown 
 showed great firmness and moderation ; and 
 his name has become a sort of watchword to 
 
 387 
 
 L L 2 
 
ham] 
 
 ^ ^cia BnibtviaX 33t03Taji]^i). 
 
 [han 
 
 many who, lacking his stem republican 
 virtues, exult in displaying their patriotism 
 by resisting not merely taxation by prero- 
 gative, but the law of the land. Died, 1643. 
 
 HAMPER, William, an antiquarian and 
 miscellaneous writer, was a native of Bir- 
 mingham. His principal publication is 
 " The Life, Diary, and Correspondence of 
 Sir William Dugdale." He was a contri- 
 butor to several archaeological works, and 
 furnished the Gentleman's Magazine with 
 numerous sketches and descriptions. Died, 
 1831. 
 
 HANDEL, George FnEDKRic, an illus- 
 trious musician, was born at Halle, in 
 Saxony, in 1684. His father, who intended 
 him for the law, perceiving his propensity 
 to music, discouraged it as much as possible, 
 and especially forbade liim to touch an in- 
 strument. The boy, however, contrired to 
 have a small clavichord concealed in the 
 garret, where he used to amuse himself wlien 
 the family were asleep. At the age of 7 he 
 went with his father to the court of the Duke 
 of Saxe-Weissenfels, to whom Handel's 
 brother-in-law was valet. While there, it 
 was impossible to keep the child from the 
 harpsichords, and he sometimes went into 
 the organ loft at church, and played after 
 service was over. On one of these occasions, 
 the duke going into the church, was surprised 
 at hearing some person playing on the organ; 
 and more so at finding that it was a child 
 of 7 years old, the brother of his own valet. 
 Upon this he reasoned in strong terms with 
 the father, who agreed to place his son under 
 Zuckau, the organist of the cathedral at 
 Halle, a man equally capable and disposed 
 to do justice to so promising a pupil. At 
 the age of 9, Handel composed the church 
 service, for voices and instruments ; and 
 when he was 14 he far excelled his master, 
 and was sent to Berlin, where the sovereign 
 made him liberal presents. On the death of 
 his father, in 1703, he proceeded to Ham- 
 burgh, then celebrated for the excellence of 
 its musical performances, and procured an 
 engagement there, in the orchestra at the 
 opera. In 1704 lie brought out his first 
 opera, " Almira." Soon after this he visited 
 Italy, and at Florence produced the opera of 
 " Rodrigo." He subsequently went to 
 Venice, Naples, and Rome ; and having 
 altogether remained in Italy about 6 years, 
 he accepted the pressing invitations he had 
 received from many of the British nobility 
 to visit London, and set out for England, 
 where he arrived in the latter end of 1710. 
 The flattering reception he experienced in- 
 duced him to prolong his stay, and he rose, 
 during the 50 years which followed, to the 
 height of professional honour. In 1741 he 
 brought out his chef-d'oeuvre, the oratorio of 
 the " Messiah ; " and although this sublime 
 composition was not at first duly appreciated, 
 yet its vast merits were soon made known, 
 and it increased constantly in reputation. 
 Some time previous to his decease, he was af- 
 flicted by total blindness ; but this misfor- 
 tune had little effect on his spirits, and he 
 continued not only to perform in public, 
 but even to compose, till within a week of 
 his death, which took place in London, in 
 1759. Handel's manners were rough, and 
 
 his temper even violent ; but his heart was 
 humane, and his disposition liberal. His 
 musical powers can hardly be estimated too 
 highly. In boldness and strength of style, 
 and in the combination of vigour, spirit, in- 
 vention, grandeur, and sublimity, he has 
 never been surpassed. " Conceive," said 
 Arbuthnot to Pope, " the highest you can 
 of his abilities, and they are much beyond 
 any thing you can conceive." This great 
 composer was buried in Westminster Ab- 
 bey, where a monument is erected to his 
 memory. 
 
 HANMER, Sir Thomas, an English 
 statesman and writer, was born in 1676, and 
 succeeded his uncle in his title and the family 
 estate of Hanmer. He was elected M. P. for 
 Suffolk, and, in 1713, chosen speaker of the 
 House of Commons, an office which he dis- 
 charged with great impartiality. Towards 
 the close of his life he withdrew altogether 
 from public business, and occupied himself 
 in elegant literature ; the fruits of which ap- 
 peared in a corrected and illustrated edition 
 of Shakspeare's dramatic works, in 6 vols. 
 4to. Died, 1746. 
 
 HANNEMAN, Adrian, an eminent his- 
 torical and portrait painter, was born at the 
 Hague, in 1611. He imitated Vandyke so 
 closely, that his portraits are not often to be 
 distinguished from those of that great master. 
 He came to England in the reign of Charles 
 I., and continued here several years. Died, 
 1680. 
 
 HANNIBAL, general of the Carthagi- 
 nians, was the sou of Amilcar, who caused 
 him, at the age of 8 years, to swear be- 
 fore the altar eternal enmity to the Romans. 
 In the year of Rome 534, and b. c. 220, he 
 took the command of the army, on the death 
 of his brother Asdrubal. After achieving 
 several conquests in Spain, he turned his 
 arms against the Romans, and crossed the 
 Alps by a new road. Having defeated Scipio 
 and other commanders, in separate actions, 
 he marched towards Rome, and gained the 
 victory of Cannae, b. c. 216. Instead of fol- 
 lowing up this advantage, Hannibal rested 
 at Capua, which enabled the Romans to re- 
 cover from their fright, so that when the 
 Carthaginians encamped before the city, 
 their appearance created no alarm. Hanni- 
 bal, finding it hopeless to make any attempt 
 upon the»eapital, retreated. Two years 
 afterwards he defeated Marcellus ; but not- 
 withstanding this, finding his aflFairs growing 
 desperate in Italy, where he had now been 
 16 years, he made overtures of peace, which 
 terminated without effect. The battle of 
 Zama, in which he lost 20,000 men, com- 
 pletely ruined Hannibal, and he retired to 
 Asia, where he took refuge with Prusias, king 
 of Bithynia ; but being apprehensive that he 
 should be delivered up to the Romans, he 
 took poison, at the age of 64, B.C. 183. 
 
 HANNO. There were several Carthagi- 
 nian generals of this name. — One of them 
 made a voyage on the western coast of 
 Africa, of wliich he has left a description, 
 called the " Periplus of Hanno." The pur- 
 pose of this voyage was to make discoveries 
 for the benefit of commerce, and to settle 
 colonies, of which he established several — 
 Two Carthaginian generals, of the name of 
 
i 
 
 han] 
 
 ^ ^cU) Hni&trsal 3Bi0flrapIjy. 
 
 [hab 
 
 Hanno, commanded in Sicily, successively, 
 during the first Punic war. — Another Hanno 
 was one of the commanders under Hanni- 
 bal in Italy, and was successful on several 
 occasions. 
 
 U ANKIOT, or HENRIOT, Fransois, one 
 of the most infamous Wfctches that ever 
 soiled the annals of any people, was born at 
 Nauterre, in 17(J1. Having robbed his master, 
 an attorney in Paris, he was driven on the 
 town without resource, and became a spy of 
 the police. He first appeared in his revolu- 
 tionary character the day after the taking of 
 the Tuileries, in 1792. A few months after, 
 he was one of the most sanguinary of the 
 Septembriscrs ; and presided at the massacre 
 of the prisoners of Orleans. The execrable 
 commune of Paris then made him chief of 
 the sans-culottes section ; their object being 
 to organise a system of terror and sanguin- 
 ary predominance over the national repre- 
 sentatives. With these banditti, armed with 
 bayonets and cannon, he marched to the 
 Convention, and demanded the proscription 
 of the Girondists. Under terror, the assembly 
 consented to give up 29 of their most talented 
 and trustworthy members to the guillotine. 
 He afterwards became tlie willing and blood- 
 thirsty satellite of Robespierre. When that 
 wretch was outlawed, and condemned to 
 death by the Convention, Henriot and Cof- 
 finhal, the vice-presidents of the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal, made an efibrt to raise the 
 Jacobin factions in his favour ; and might 
 have succeeded, but his courage failed just 
 as the brigands were pointing their cannons 
 against the Convention, and the moment 
 was lost : some of the sections, and a body of 
 gens-d'armes, rallied in favour of the latter, 
 and Henriot was outlawed, and arrested in 
 a state of powerless intoxication, produced 
 by drinking large draughts of brandy in 
 order to sustain his courage. His colleague, 
 Coffiuhal, was so maddened by the loss of the 
 day, that, rushing upon him in the upper 
 room of the Hotel de Ville, where both were 
 confined, he threw him out of the window. 
 He lell into a drain, and tried to hide him- 
 self, but his groans discovered his hiding- 
 place ; he was dragged out, and sent next 
 day to the scaffold, with Robespierre and his 
 colleagues. Tliis monster was only 33 when 
 he suffered. It was he that made a motion 
 for burning all the public libraries and books 
 in France. 
 
 HANS SACHS, a German poet of the 16th 
 century. Prolific as German writers in 
 general are, honest Hans must ever be re- 
 garded as an extraordinary instance of 
 poetical fertility, if what his countrymen as- 
 sert be true, namely, that he wrote no less 
 than 10,840 compositions in verse, among 
 which are 218 comedies and tragedies 1 To 
 this we are bound to add, as an additional 
 proof of his industry, that he was a shoe ■ 
 maker, and worked all his life at the trade. 
 
 HANSARD, Luke, an industrious and 
 successful printer, was born at Norwich, in 
 17.52. He served his apprenticeship in his 
 native city ; and, at its expiration, he started 
 for I^ondon, with a good character, and one 
 solitary guinea in his pocket. His first 
 situation in London was that of a compositor 
 In the printing office of Mr, Hughs, printer 
 
 8ti9 
 
 to the House of Commons ; in which he ac- 
 quired the full confidence of his employer, 
 and, by his indefatigable attention, extended 
 the business. In 1774, Mr. Hansard became 
 a partner in the concern ; and when the whole 
 of the business devolved upon him, by the 
 death of Mr. Hughs, he spared no cost nor 
 personal labour in performing the important 
 duties entrusted to him. He amassed a very 
 considerable property, and finished his useful 
 and laborious life in 1828, aged 7(j. 
 
 HANWAY, Jonas, an eminent philan- 
 thropist, was born at Portsmouth, in 1712, 
 and being bred a merchant, formed a con- 
 nection with a commercial house at St. 
 Petersbur^h, in consequence of which he 
 travelled mto Persia, of which country he 
 published an account, in 2 vols. 4to. He 
 was the chief founder of the Marine Society 
 and the Magdalen Hospital ; and contributed 
 to the establishment of Sunday schools. He 
 wrote several religious books ; the best of 
 which is entitled " Domestic Happiness pro- 
 moted." But it is by his numerous acts of 
 benevolence, more than by his writings, that 
 Mr. Hanway will be remembered. He died 
 in 178(!, and a monument was erected to his 
 memory in Westminster Abl>ey. 
 
 H AliCOURT, William, Earl of, was bom 
 in 1743, and entered as ensign in the 1st foot 
 guards, in 1759. He accompanied his father 
 m 17(il, when the earl was sent to conduct 
 the destined consort of fJeorge III. from the 
 court of Strelitz ; and at his return received 
 an appointment in the queen's household. 
 While on duty in America he performed a 
 singular service, by going in one day 70 
 miles, on the same horse, through an enemy's 
 country, with only a patrol of 30 men, and 
 bringing back General Lee, who had deserted 
 from the British army j and whom he took 
 out of his quarters when surrounded by 2000 
 of the American troops. On his return he 
 was made aide-de-camp to the king, and 
 had the command of the queen's regiment of 
 light dragoons, which he held from 1779 till 
 his death. Died. 1830. 
 
 HARDENBERG, Chakles Adoustus, 
 (Baron, afterwards Prince of) ; a famous 
 Prussian statesman, born in 1750 ; became j 
 cabinet minister in 1793 ; and his signature 
 will be found to most of the treaties of coa- | 
 lition against Napoleon, with Russia and I 
 Austria, till the battle of Austerlitz, in 
 1805 ; after which he retired (having been 
 accused by the French party of wishing to 
 preserve Hanover to England) for some time 
 from public affairs ; but returned to his post 
 soon after, and in 1810 was made chancellor 
 of state. He was one of the Russian pleni- 
 potentiaries signing the treaty of Paris in 
 1814 ; was created prince ; accompanied the 
 allied sovereigns to London ; was one of the 
 most prominent actors at the congress of 
 Vienna ; and afterwards made president of 
 the council of state. He was present, in 
 
 1818, at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ; in 
 
 1819, at Carlsbad; in 1820, at Vienna, at 
 Troppau, and Verona. He died at Genoa, 
 in 1822. 
 
 HARDENBERG, Frederick von (better 
 known by his literary cognomen Novalis), 
 was bom at Mansfeld, near Eisleben, 1772 j 
 studied at Jena, Leipsig, and Wittenberg ; 
 
har] 
 
 ^ 0t\3i ^niljfr^aX MiaQxapff^. 
 
 [har 
 
 and finally became superintendant of the 
 mines in Saxony, having acquired a com- 
 petent knowledge of the science of miner- 
 alogy under the celebrated Werner. His 
 lyric poems have gained him great celebrity; 
 and his romance, " Heinrich von Ofler- 
 dingen," though unfinished, has called forth 
 the a'dmiration even of such fastidious critics 
 as Tieck and Frederick Schlegel. Died, 1801. 
 
 HARDER, John James, a physician of 
 Basle, born in 1656, and died in 1711. He 
 was professor of medicine, anatomy, and 
 botany, at his native place, and for his 
 merit was created a count of the empire. 
 He wrote " Prodromus Physiologicus," and 
 several other medical works. 
 
 HARDI, Ai.EXA.vDEK, a French drama- 
 tist, who died at Paris in 1630. He wrote 
 above 600 plays, of which 34 were published, 
 in 6 vols. 8vo., 1628. He has been reckoned 
 the father of the stage, and, previous to Cor- 
 neille's appearance, he ranked as their first 
 tragic writer. 
 
 HARDICANUTE, king of England and 
 Denmark, was the son of Canute, and suc- 
 ceeded his father on the Danish throne in 
 1038 ; and at the same time laid claim to 
 that of England, which had devolved to his 
 half-brother, Harold. A compromise was 
 effected, by which he governed the southern 
 part of the kingdom during Harold's life, 
 and succeeded to the whole on his death. 
 His conduct was violent and tyrannical : he 
 revived the odious tax called dancgelt ; and 
 his subjects rejoiced at his early death, 
 which happened in 1041. 
 
 HARDING, Thomas, an English divine, 
 born at Combe-Martin, Devonshire, in 1512. 
 He was educated in the Romish faith at 
 Winchester, and New College, Oxford, where 
 he obtained a fellowship. In 1542 he was 
 chosen Hebrew professor, and conformed to 
 the established religion during that reign 
 and the next. He was also tutor to Lady 
 Jane Grey, whom he instructed in the Pro- 
 testant faith. But on the accession of Mary 
 he apostatised ; for which his excellent pupil 
 remonstrated with him, as appears by an 
 admirable letter of hers preserved by Fox. 
 In 1554 he took his dwtor's degree, and was 
 made prebendary of ^^'inchester and trea- 
 surer of Salisbury. When Elizabeth came 
 to the crown, Harding went to Louvain, 
 where he carried on a long polemical con- 
 troversy with Bishop Jewell. Died, 1572. 
 
 HARDION, James, a French writer, was 
 born at Tours, in 1686. He became a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Inscriptions, and 
 was appointed keeper of the library and 
 antiquities in the royal cabinet. He had 
 also the honour to instruct the princesses in 
 history and geography, and for their use 
 wrote his "Histoire Poetique," 3 vols. 12mo ; 
 and his Universal History, 18 vols. 12mo. 
 Died, 1766. 
 
 HARDOUIN, JoHX, a learned French 
 Jesuit, the author of several works, but re- 
 markable as the autlior of one in particular 
 (which excited equal interest and animad- 
 version at the time), the object of which was 
 to show that almost all the writings under 
 the names of the Greek and Roman poets 
 and historians are the spurious productions 
 of the 13th century. Bom, 1647 ; died, 1729. 
 
 HARDOUIN, John Stephen, a French 
 writer ; the translator of Young's Night 
 Thoughts, and Fenelon's Telemachus, into 
 rhyme. Born, 1735 ; died, 1817. 
 
 HARDT, Herman von der, a German 
 writer of great merit, bom in 1660, at Melle, 
 in Westphalia. He was librarian to the 
 Duke of Brunswick, and professor of the 
 oriental languages in the university of 
 Hclmstadt. He was afterwards rector of 
 the gymnasium of Marienburg. Among his 
 works are "Magnum Consilium Constan- 
 tiense de universali Ecclesi» Reformatione, 
 Unione, et Fide," and " Historia litteraria 
 Reformationis." Died, 1746. 
 
 HARDWICKE, Philip Yorke, Earl, an 
 eminent English lawyer, was born at Dover 
 in Kent, in 1690. After serving the otflces 
 of solicitor and attorney general, he was in 
 1733 appointed chief justice of the king's 
 bench, and created a peer. In 1736 he was 
 made lord chancellor, which situation he 
 held 20 years. In 1754 lie was created earl 
 of Hardwicke. Died, 1764. 
 
 HARDWICKE, Philip Yorke, Earl of, 
 eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1720. 
 In 1738 he was appointed one of the tellers 
 of the exchequer ; and in 1764 succeeded his 
 father in the earldom. He died in 1790. 
 Lord Hardwicke wrote a poem on the death 
 of queen Caroline ; and with Ms brother, 
 the Honourable Charles Yorke, projected 
 the "Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary 
 Correspondence of an Agent of the King of 
 Persia, residing at Athens during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War." A few copies only of this 
 work were at first printed for private circu- 
 lation ; but in 1798 an elegant edition, in 2 
 vols. 4to., was published. Lord Hardwicke 
 also printed "The Correspondence of Sir 
 Dudley Carleton, in the Reign of James I. ; " 
 and " Miscellaneous State Papers from 1501 
 to 1726." 
 
 HARDWICKE, Philip Yorke, the third 
 Earl of, was the eldest son of the Right Hon. 
 Charles Yorke, lord chancellor of England, 
 and was born in 1757. From 1801 to 1805 he 
 filled the office of lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and his viceroyalty was distinguished by 
 wisdom and moderation, combined with 
 firmness, courtesy, and hospitality. His 
 lordship was through life, in fact, considered 
 as a model of an English gentleman, muni- 
 ficent, accomplished, and public-spirited. 
 He was high steward of the university of 
 Cambridge, registrar of the court of admi- 
 raltv, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. Died, 1834. 
 
 HARDY, Sir Charles, an English ad- 
 miral, and the grandson of an eminent naval 
 commander of the same name, in the reign 
 of queen Anne. He had the command of 
 the Channel fleet in 1779, but died the same 
 year at Spithead. 
 
 HARDY, Vice-admiral Sir Thomas, 
 G.C.B., a gallant oflScer, of whom, for his 
 own fame's sake, it might suffice to say that 
 he was the friend and brother in arms of the 
 gallant Nelson, whose last breath he received 
 on board the Victory. At the early age of 12, 
 he entered the royal navy as a midshipman 
 on board the Helena, of 14 guns, and in No- 
 vember, 1793, was made lieutenant in the 
 Meleager, of- the squadron of Nelson, under 
 whose notice he was thus brought. He was 
 
har] 
 
 ^ iSitb) mxihtv^al JStagraijlbS' 
 
 [har 
 
 thenceforth constantly employed under the 
 hero, who, in 1797, promoted him to the 
 command of the brig La Mutine, of the cap- 
 ture of which he was the main cause, liis 
 constant gallantry, and especially his con- 
 ! duct ot the battle of the Nile, iu which his 
 ' vessel, La Mutine, was the only single decker 
 I that was present, caused Nelson to promote 
 1 him to the command of the Vanguard. In 
 I July, 1803. he became flag-captain to Nelson, 
 ! on board the Victory, and he it was who, 
 on the fatal though glorious 21st of October, 
 j 1805, received the last orders of the greatest 
 naval chief the world has ever seen. For his 
 services at Trafalgar he was created a ba- 
 ronet. After 3(5 years of arduous and efficient 
 service in every quarter of the globe, he was, 
 in 1834, appointed to the honourable post of 
 governor of Greenwich Hospital, where he 
 constantly resided till the close of his valu- 
 able Ufe. Born, 17G9 ; died, 1839. 
 
 HARE, Dr. Fkancis, bishop of Chiches- 
 ter, and author of some celebrated polemic 
 tracts, particularly those relating to the 
 Bangorian controversy, in which lie was an 
 ; opponent of Hoadley. Died, 1740. 
 ! HARGRAVE, Fkancis, an eminent legal 
 writer and barrister, born in 1741. He was 
 less distinguished at the bar than as a cham- 
 ber counsel, and the author of numerous 
 professional works. Among his publications 
 are " State Trials," 11 vols, folio ; and "Ju- 
 ridical Arguments and Collections," 2 vols. 
 4to. Died, 1821. 
 
 HARIOT, Thomas, an English mathema- 
 tician, was born at Oxford, in 1560, and 
 educated at St. Mary Hall. He accompa- 
 nied Sir Walter Raleigh to America, and 
 published an account of the discovery of 
 Virginia. He lived some time in Sion Col- 
 lege, and died in 1621. His " Artis Analy- 
 ticae Praxis" was printed after his death, 
 and tliere is great reason to believe that 
 Descartes drew from it all his pretended 
 discoveries in algebra. 
 
 HARLEY, Robert, ;earl of Oxford and 
 Mortimer, a distinguished English states- 
 man, was born in lC(jl. At the revolution 
 he was returned to the House of Commons 
 for Tregony, in Cornwall ; and in 1702 he 
 was chosen speaker, which office he held 
 while secretary of state, but resigned the 
 latter place in 1708. In 1710 he again came 
 into office, as a commissioner of the treasury, 
 and chancellor of the exchequer. Shortly 
 after he was stabbed by the Marquis of 
 Guiscard, a Frenchman, when under ex- 
 amination at the council-board ; but he re- 
 covered from his wound, and the assassin 
 died in prison. He was then advanced to 
 the peerage, and mode lord high treasurer ; 
 which office he resigned a few days before 
 the death of queen Anne, in 1714. On the 
 accession of George I. he was impeached 
 by the House of Commons, and committed 
 to the Tower, where he was kept two years, 
 and then, after a public trial, he was ac- 
 quitted. After this, he retired wholly from 
 public business, and died iu 1724. Lord 
 Oxford was a liberal eneourager of litera- 
 ture, a decided patron of Pope and Swift, 
 the author of some few pamphlets himself, 
 and a great collector of books. 
 HARLOW, Geouoe Henry, on English 
 
 391 
 
 painter, was bom in 1787 ; studied under 
 Drummond and Sir Thomas Lawrence i and 
 died in 1819. He produced several good 
 pictures ; among which is the well-known 
 scene from Shakspearc's Henry the Eighth, 
 containing portraits of the Kemble family 
 and other distinguished actors. 
 
 HARMER, Thomas, a dissenting minister 
 at Wattesfield, in Suffolk, was born in 1715, 
 and became eminent as an Oriental scholar. 
 His chief work is entitled " Observations on 
 divers Passages of Scripture, illustrated by 
 Accounts of Travellers in the East." Died, 
 1788. 
 
 HAROLD I., sumamed Harefoot, king of 
 England, succeeded his father, Canute, in 
 10.35. He reigned four years, and died in 
 1039. 
 
 HAROLD II., king of England, was the 
 second son of Godwin, earl of Kent. Upon 
 the death of Edward the Confessor, in lOCfj, 
 he took possession of the throne, without 
 attending to the more legal claim of Edgar 
 Atheling, or the asserted be<iue8t of Edward 
 in favour of William, duke of Normandy. 
 The latter accordingly invaded England 
 with a large army, and Harold fell at the 
 memorable battle of Hastings, Oct. 14. lOGG ; 
 by which the conquest of the kingdom was 
 effected, and the Norman rule began. 
 
 HAROUN, or AARON AL RASCIIID, a 
 celebrated caliph of tlie Saracens, ascended 
 the throne in 78<>, and was the most potent 
 prince of his race, ruling over territories 
 extending from Egypt to Khorassan. He 
 gained many splendid victories over the 
 Greek emperors, and obtained immense 
 renown for his bravery, magnificence, and 
 love of letters ; but he was cruel and tyran- 
 nical. Died, 808. 
 
 HARPALUS, an ancient Greek astrono- 
 mer, who flourished about 480 B.C. 
 
 HARRINGTON, James, a celebrated 
 political writer, was born, in 1611, in North- 
 amptonshire. His chief work is entitled 
 " Oceana," a political romance, in which 
 he defended republicanism. In 1661, he was, 
 on a charge of treason, sent to the Tower, 
 from whence he was removed to St. Nicho- 
 las's Island, near Plymouth, but was after- 
 wards released on bail. He died, deranged 
 in his intellects, in 1677. 
 
 HARRINGTON, John, Lord, was the 
 eldest son of Lord and Lady Harrington, to 
 whose care James I. committed his daughter 
 Elizabeth, afterwards the wife of Frederic, 
 elector palatine and king of Bohemia. He 
 died at the age of 22, in 1613. His lordship 
 was the intimate companion and corre- 
 spondent of Henry, prince of Wales, and the 
 letters which passed between them, in Latin, 
 are extant. 
 
 HARRIS, General Lord George, colonel 
 of the 73rd foot, and governor of Dumbarton 
 Castle, entered the army as a cadet in the 
 royal artillery, before he was 13 years of 
 age, in 1769. He served during the cam- 
 paign in America, and received a wound 
 in the head at the battle of Bunker's Hill, 
 which obliged him to be trepanned and to 
 be sent home ; but he returned in time to 
 take the field previously to the army land- 
 ing on Long Island. He subsequently dis- 
 tinguished himself in India, and continued 
 
har] 
 
 ^ i^m mnibex^Kl SJtograpi^e. 
 
 [har 
 
 in active seryice until the capture of Sering- 
 apatam ; when his services were rewarded 
 with the honours of the Bath, and a British 
 peerage. Died, 1829. 
 
 HARRIS, James, a philological writer, 
 was born at Salisbury, in 1709. In 1774 he 
 was made secretary and comptroller to the 
 queen ; and died in 1780. He wrote " Three 
 Treatises ; the first concerning Art ; the 
 second concerning Music, Painting, and 
 Poetry ; and the third concerning Happi- 
 ness; " " Hermes, or a Philosophical Enquiry 
 concerning Universal Grammar ; " " Philo- 
 logical Enquiries," &c. His " Hermes " 
 displays much ingenuity, and an extensive 
 acquaintance with the writings of the Greek 
 poets and philosophers. 
 
 HARRIS, John, an English divine and 
 mathematician, who was secretary to the 
 Royal Society, and died in 1719. He pub- 
 lislied a translation of Pardie's Elements of 
 Geometry, a " History of tlie County of 
 Kent," &c. ; but he is best known by having 
 been the first projector of a Cyclopedia, or 
 Dictionary of Sciences. This work was en- 
 titled " Lexicon Technicum," in 3 vols, folio. 
 
 HARRIS, Walter, a physician, was born 
 in 1(!47, and educated at Winchester School, 
 and New College, Oxford, where he obtained 
 a fellowship. He embraced the Roman Ca- 
 tholic religion, and went to France ; but 
 afterwards returned to London, renounced 
 popery, and at the Revolution was appointed 
 pliysician to the king. 
 
 HARRIS, William, a Baptist minister 
 at Honiton, in Devonshire. He wrote the 
 Lives of James I., Charles I. and II., Oliver 
 Cromwell, and Hugh Peters, in the manner 
 of Bayle, in 5 vols, folio. Died, 1770. 
 
 HARRISON, John, celebrated as the 
 inventor of the time-keeper for ascertaining 
 the longitude at sea, was born at Foulby, 
 near Pontefract, Yorkshire, in 1693. His 
 father, a carpenter or builder, brouglit him 
 up to the same occupation ; but by dint of 
 his own ingenuity and perseverance, he 
 learned to make clocks and watches ; and 
 having turned his attention to the improve- 
 ment of pocket watches, he was induced to 
 make a time-keeper, in that form, which 
 he finished in 1759. This chronometer, in 
 two voyages, having been found to correct 
 the longitude within the limits required by 
 the act of parliament, Harrison applied for 
 the proposed reward of 20,000i., which he 
 received. Died, 1776. 
 
 HARRISON, JoHX, one of the regicide 
 judges who sat upon the trial of Charles I., 
 was the son of a butcher, and became a 
 general in the parliamentary army. He 
 was one of the ten who were executed for 
 that act, after the Restoration. 
 
 HARRISON, William Hexry, president 
 of tlie United States of America, was born 
 in "Virginia, in 1773 ; his father being one 
 of the most conspicuous among the patriots 
 of the revolution. After receiving the cus- 
 tomary education at Hampden Sydney Col- 
 lege, he studied for the medical profession ; 
 but participating in the general excitement 
 whicli prevailed throughout the country 
 against the barbarous mode of warfare at 
 that time practised by the Indians on the 
 north-western frontiers, he suddenly aban- 
 
 doned the precepts of Galen, and joined his 
 brethren in arms, as an ensign in the U. S. 
 artillery, in 1791. Both as an officer of the 
 government, and subsequently as an able 
 representative in congress, he displayed the 
 principles of a disinterested patriot. During 
 the years 1811, 1812, and 1813, General 
 Harrison assemljled a body of militia and 
 volunteers, and marched against the Indians, 
 who, under Tecumesh, had created serious 
 disturbances on the frontier. The most 
 signal success crowned his efforts, and he 
 was appointed by Mr. Madison to negotiate 
 with those enemies against whom his military 
 skill had been so ably directed. In 1828, he 
 was sent as United States' minister to Co- 
 lumbia : and, in 1840, he received the highest 
 honour that can be bestowed upon a citizen 
 of a free country, in being elected to preside 
 over it as its chief magistrate. But just as 
 his measures were coming into operation, 
 and when at tlie height of his popularity, he 
 was seized with an illness, and died April 4. 
 1844. 
 
 HARTE, Walter, an English poet and 
 historian, was born and educated at Marl- 
 borough in Wiltshire. He published a poet- 
 ical collection, called the "Amaranth," a 
 " History of GustavusAdolphus," 2vol8.4to.; 
 and "Essays on Husbandry." Died, 1773. 
 
 HARTLEY, David, an English physician, 
 was born at Armley, in Yorkshire, in 1705, 
 and died at Bath, in 1757. He wrote an 
 excellent work, entitled " Observations on 
 Man," 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 HARTLEY, David, son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1730 ; educated at Merton Col- 
 lege, Oxford ; became M. P. for Hull ; was 
 distiiiguislied by his strenuous opposition to 
 the American war ; and was appointed one 
 of the negotiators to treat with Dr. Franklin. 
 He had the merit of several ingenious in- 
 ventions, one of which is a mode of securing 
 buildings from fire. Died, 1813. 
 
 HARTSOEKER, Nicholas, a Dutch me- 
 taphysician and natural philosopher, was 
 born at Gouda, in 1656. He became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Heidelberg, and ma- 
 thematician to the elector palatine. He 
 died in 1725. He wrote a " Course of Na- 
 tural Philosophy," " Physical Conjectures," 
 and other scientific works. He was very 
 successful in the construction of telescopes ; 
 and to his discovery of the spermatic ani- 
 malcules, physiologists are indebted for a 
 new theory of generation. 
 
 HARTZHEIM, Joseph, a learned Jesuit, 
 was born at Cologne, in 1694. He became 
 professor of Greek and Hebrew at Milan, 
 but afterwards returned to Cologne, where 
 he held the chair of philosophy and divinity. 
 Among his works are " Suinma HistorijE 
 omnis ab Exordio Rerura ad Ann. h Cliristo 
 nato," "Bibliotheca Scriptorum Colonien- 
 sium," " Dissertationes Historico-critica in 
 Sacram Scripturam," &c. He also edited 
 and published the Councils of Germany, 
 4 vols, folio. Died, 1763. 
 
 HARVARD, JoHx, a Nonconformist 
 divine, who died in 1688, at Charlestown, in 
 New England. He is deserving of comme- 
 moration by being the founder of a college 
 bearing his name, at Cambridge, in North 
 America. 
 
har] 
 
 a ^etD ?Sntbertfal 38t0tn:apl)ij. 
 
 [has I 
 
 HARVEY, William, a celebrated phy- 
 sician, was bom at Folkstoue, in Kent, in 
 1 1578. lie discovered the circulation of the 
 ' blood, of which he publislied an account in 
 1G28, entitled " Exercitatio Anatomica de 
 Motu Cordis et Sanguinis." In 1632 he was 
 made physician to Charles I., and adhered 
 faithfully to the king ; for which, in 1G45, 
 he was chosen warden of Merton College, 
 Oxford ; but when the parliamentary visi- 
 tor* came there, he left it for I/ondon. In 
 1651 appeajted his " Exercitatioiies de Genc- 
 ratione Animalium." The following year 
 he presented to tlie college a convocation 
 room and museum filled with books and 
 instruments. After this he gave up his pa- 
 ternal estate to their use, on condition that a 
 yearly oration (now called " the Harveian") 
 should be delivered in the college, and pro- 
 vision made for the keeper of the library 
 and museum. Died, 1658. 
 
 HAKWOOD, Sir BusiCK, an English 
 physician and anatomist, was a native of 
 Newmarket. After attending the London 
 hospitals, he went out to India as an army- 
 surgeon ; and tliere, having tlie good luck 
 to cure one of the native princes of a dan- 
 gerous wound, it speedily raised liim to 
 fortujie luid reputation. In 1790 he was 
 appointed professor of medicine at Downing 
 College, was knighted iu 1806, and died in 
 1814. 
 
 UASE, TiiEODOKE DE, a German divine, 
 was born at Bremen, in 1682. On com- 
 pleting his studies, he became professor of 
 belles lettres at Uanau ; was next appointed 
 professor of Hebrew and minister ut Bre- 
 men ; and in 1723 he obtained tlie theolo- 
 gical chair. He was the author of "Dis- 
 sertations," which are much esteemed ; and 
 he assisted I^ainpe in his " Bibliotheca His- 
 torico-Philologico-Theologica." Died, 1731. 
 HASSAN PACHA, grand vizier of the 
 Ottoman empire, was an African by birth, 
 and, when young, served in the Algerine 
 navy. Being taken prisoner by the Sim- 
 niaj-ds, and sent to Naples, he found means 
 of obtaining his liberty, went to Constanti- 
 nople, and entered into the Turkish service. 
 Here he soon distinguished himself by his 
 superior skill and bravery, and was appointed 
 capitan pacha, or high admiral. He van- 
 quished the Egyptian insurgents ; took 
 Gaza, Jaffa, and Acre ; and beheaded the 
 famous Daher, sheik of the latter city, who 
 had for years defied the power of the Porte. 
 He twice reduced t)ie beys of Egypt to sub- 
 jection, and carried with him vast treasures 
 to Constantinople. In the war between 
 Turkey and Russia, in 1788, although Has- 
 san was then 85 years old, lie was appointed 
 to the supreme command of all the forces, 
 and made grand vizier ; but though there 
 was no want of energy on his part, age had 
 impaired his abilities, and the Ottoman 
 forces were subjected to repeated discomfi- 
 ture- The vizier was accordingly dismissed 
 from his high command, and he died in 
 1790. 
 
 HASSE, Jonsr Adolphus, chapel-master 
 of Augustus, king of Poland, and elector of 
 Saxony, was born at Bergedorf, near Ham- 
 burgh, in 1699. After making several tours 
 tlirough the Continent, and gaining great 
 
 success, by composing operas for the chief 
 theatres of Italy, he came to London, in 
 1733, where he was received with great dis- 
 tinction. He soon, however, went to Dres- 
 den, and finally removed to Venice, where 
 he died, in 1783. Hasse is deservedly cele- 
 brated as the most natural, elegant, and 
 
 judicious composer of his time His wife 
 
 Faustina, who died in the same year, aged 
 90, was eminent as the inventor of a new 
 method of singing, by running divisions with 
 astonishing neatness and precision. 
 
 HASSELQUIST, FnEDEuic, a Swedish 
 naturalist, and one of the most celebrated 
 of all the pupils of Linnaeus, was born in 
 1722. Having formed tlie scheme of making 
 researches, on the spot, into the natural his- 
 tory of Palestine, he embarked for Smyrna 
 in August, 1749, went to Egypt, remained 
 some time at Jerusalem, and afterwards 
 visited other parts of the country Return- 
 ing to Smyrna, he brought with him an ad- 
 mirable collection of plants, minerals, fishes, 
 reptiles, insects, and other natural curiosi- 
 ties. His " Iter Palsestinum, or a Journey 
 to the Holy Land," was derived from his 
 journal, and was drawn up by LinnKUS. 
 
 HASTED, EuwAKi), a topographer and 
 antiquarv, was born at Hawlcy, the seat of 
 his family, in Kent, in 1732. He devoted 
 the greatest part of his life to the labour of 
 compiling a history of his native county, 
 which was published in 4 vols, folio, 17'.i9. 
 He was master of the hospital at Corshain, 
 in Wiltshire, where he died in 1812. 
 
 HASTINGS, Lady Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Theophilus, earl of Huntingdon, was born 
 in 1682. She remained single through life, 
 and distinguished herself by works of piety 
 and benevolence. She erected schools, built 
 churches, supported many indigent families, 
 and founded five scholarships in Queen's 
 College, Oxford. Died, 1739. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warken, was bom in 1733, 
 at Churchill, Oxfordshire, where his father 
 was the clergyman. He was educated at 
 Westminster, and, at the age of 17, went out 
 to India as a writer in the company's ser- 
 vice. On his arrival he applied with dili- 
 gence to the duties of his station, and at his 
 leisure studied the oriental languages. After 
 14 years' residence in Bengal he returned 
 to England ; but in 1769 he went out as 
 second in council at Madras, where he re- 
 mained about two years, and then removed 
 to the presidency of Calcutta. This was a 
 critical period, and tlie state of Hindostan 
 soon became perilous from the revolt of the 
 native subjects, the defection of allies, and 
 the increasing power of Hyder Ally, tlie 
 sovereign of Mysore, aided by the land and 
 sea forces of France. In this exigency the 
 governor-general had to depend solely upon 
 his own exertions -, and he succeeded, beyond 
 all expectations, in saving British India 
 from a combination of enemies, and in in- 
 creasing and strengthening the power of 
 the company at the expense of the native 
 princes. Notwithstanding this, party spirit 
 at home turned the merit of Mr. Hastings 
 into a crime, and charges were brought 
 against him in parliament. In 1786 he re- 
 turned to England, when he was accused 
 of having governed arbitrarily and tyran- 
 
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 ^ ^etD Hniber^al ^iast^f)v* 
 
 [hau 
 
 nically ; of having extorted immense sums 
 of money ; and of having exercised every 
 species of oppression. An impeachment 
 followed, which, in contempt of all the 
 principles of justice, lasted 9 years. He was 
 at length acquitted, and sentenced to pay 
 only the costs of prosecution (71,080?. ster>- 
 ling) for which the East India Company 
 indemnified him by a pension of 4,000/. for 
 life. He lived, however, to see his plans 
 for the security of India publicly applauded; 
 and died in 1818. Mr. Hastings was a man 
 of mild and unassuming manners, and an 
 elegant scholar. He wrote " A Narrative of 
 the Insurrection at Benares," " Memoirs 
 relative to the State of India," some fugitive 
 poetry, &c. 
 
 HASTINGS, Francis Rawdon, Marquis 
 of, son of the Earl of Moira, was born in 1754, 
 and entered the army in 1771. He greatly 
 distinguished himself in the American war ; 
 was appointed, in 1778, adjutant-general of 
 the British forces there, and rose to the rank 
 of a brigadier-general ; but a severe illness 
 compelled him to return home before the 
 conclusion of hostilities, when he was made 
 aide-de-camp to the king, and created an 
 English peer. Advanced to the rank of a 
 major-general in the summer of 1794, he 
 was sent, with a reinforcement of 10,000 men, 
 to join the Duke of York, opposed to the 
 French in Holland ; and materially con- 
 tributed to mitigate the disasters of tliat 
 memorable campaign. When the Whigs, 
 with wliom he had acted, came into power, 
 in 1806, he was appointed master-general of 
 the ordnance, which post he resigned on the 
 fall of his party. In 1812 he obtained the 
 appointment of governor-general of British 
 India, whicli he held till 1822 ; and during 
 the 10 years of his sway he ov«rcame the 
 Nepaulese, the Pindarees, and other native 
 powers, and rendered the British authority 
 supreme in India. While absent he was 
 created Marquis of Hastings. Ill health 
 compelled him to return ; and in 1824 he 
 was appointed governor of Malta ; but his 
 health growing worse, his lordship proceeded 
 to Naples, and died on board the Revenge, 
 iu Baia Bay, Nov. 29th, 1825. He was an 
 excellent officer, an acute statesman, and a 
 man of a noble-minded and generous dispo- 
 sition. Tlie marquis left a letter, in which, 
 among other requests, he desired that his 
 right hand might be cut off, and preserved 
 until the death of the marchioness, and be 
 put into the coffin to be buried with her. 
 His request was complied with. 
 
 HATSELTv, John, chief clerk to the 
 House of Commons, was born about 1733 ; 
 was educated at Cambridge ; studied at the 
 Middle Temple ; became chief clerk in 1768; 
 retired from office in 1797 ; and died in 1820. 
 He was the author of a " Collection of Cases 
 of Privilege of Parliament," " Precedents 
 of Proceedings in the House of Commons," 
 5 vols. 4to. ; and " Rules and Standing Orders 
 of the House," &c. 
 
 HATFIELD, Thomas, bishop of Durham, 
 was the especial favourite of Edward III., 
 at whose desire he was elected to the bishopric 
 in 1345. He distinguished himself soon after 
 his consecration, by repelling the Scots, who 
 had invaded the principality, and were de- 
 
 feated by Lord Percy and the bishop in per- 
 son, at the head of their respective forces. 
 On this occasion the king of Scotland fell 
 into the liands of the victors, and was after- 
 wards ransomed. He was the founder of 
 Trinity College, Oxford, which was at first 
 called Durham College. He also built a 
 palace for himself and his successors in the 
 Strand, called Durham House ; and he 
 founded a Carmelite friary at Northaller- 
 ton, in Yorkshire. He died in 1381, and was 
 buried in his cathedral, where his effigies 
 are still to be seen. 
 
 HATTO, or HATTO VERCELLENSIS, 
 was bishop of Vercelli, in Italy, in the 10th 
 century. His work on the grievances of 
 the church (which is curiously illustrative 
 of the spirit and complexion of the times), 
 together with his canons and epistles, were 
 published in 1768. 
 
 HATTON, Sir Christopher, an eminent 
 statesman, and lord chancellor of England, 
 was born at Holdenby, in Northampton- 
 shire ; educated at St. Mary Hall, Oxford ; 
 and studied at the Inner Temple. Instead, 
 however, of following the law, he became a 
 courtier, and attracted the queen's notice by 
 his graceful dancing in a masque. From 
 this time he rose to several degrees of favour, 
 and, in 1587, was made both chancellor and 
 knight of the garter. His inexperience 
 created much prejudice against him at first, 
 but his natural capacity and sound judg- 
 ment were seldom found defective. He died 
 in 1591 of a broken heart, as some historians 
 affirm, occasioned by the queen's demanding 
 a debt, which he was unable to pay. He 
 wrote the fourth act in the tragedy of 
 " Tancred and Sigismunda ; " and to him is 
 ascribed " A Treatise concerning Statutes or 
 Acts of Parliament." 
 
 HATZFELD, Francis Louis, Prince of, 
 was born at Vienna, in 1756, and was go- 
 vernor at Berlin, when the French entered 
 that city in 1806. The French having dis- 
 covered that Prince Hatzfehl continued to 
 give the Prussian government information, 
 &c.. Napoleon ordered him to be tried as a 
 spy. The wife of the prince being informed 
 of the danger, hastened to Napoleon, and 
 threw herself at his feet, assuring him that 
 her husband was incapable of doing a dis- 
 honourable action ; but when the emperor 
 showed her the letter, and she recognised 
 the handwriting of the prince, she fainted 
 away. On her recovering, Napoleon told 
 her that she held in her hand the only do- 
 cument there was against her husband, and 
 asked her why she did not burn it. The hint 
 was of course sufficient, and Napoleon par- 
 doned him. The Memorial of Las Cases 
 contains the affecting letter which Napoleon 
 wrote on this occasion to the empress. Uatz- 
 feld was afterwards employed on various 
 diplomatic missions, and died, at Vienna, 
 in 1827. 
 
 HAUBOLD, Christian Gottlieb, a 
 celebrated German jurist, was born at Dres- 
 den, in 1766. He was made doctor of law 
 in 1788 i and eventually became ordinary 
 professor of law in the university of Leipsic. 
 He was profoundly versed in the science of 
 jurisprudence ; and in the study of Roman 
 law, more especially, to which he directed 
 
HAU] 
 
 ^ iSetw Winihn^aX 3BiOfirffj)Ijy. 
 
 [haw 
 
 all the powers of his mind, there scarcely 
 ever was his equal. As an academical in- 
 structor he was pre-eminent, and crowds of 
 students from all parts of Germany flocked 
 to his lecture-room. His library, consisting 
 of nearly 10,000 volumes, on Greek and 
 Roman law, was purchased by the emjieror 
 Alexander for the university of Abo. 
 
 IIAUTF, WiLHELM, one of the most 
 
 graceful prose writers of Germany in modern 
 
 times, was born at Stuttgart, 1H02. After 
 
 the usual preliminary education, in which 
 
 he distinguislied himself more for his love 
 
 of romances than his classical attainments, 
 
 I he went to the university of Tubingen from 
 
 1820 to 1824, where he studied philosophy 
 
 and theology, with a view to the church. 
 
 While discharging the duties of tutor in a 
 
 I noble family at Stuttgart, he commenced 
 
 ' his literary career with the " Milrchen Al- 
 
 manach auf das Jahr, 1820;" the success 
 
 of which was such that he was induced to 
 
 I embrace literature as a profession, and the 
 
 [ following year witnessed a profusion of ori- 
 
 I ginal works emanate from his pen, perhaps 
 
 unrivalled in quantity and quality. The 
 
 . chief of these are, " Memoireu des Satans," 
 
 " Mann im Monde," " Lichtenstein," " Die 
 
 I Bettlerin von Pont des Arts," " Phantasien 
 
 j im Bremen Rathskeller," &c. He had just 
 
 undertaken the editorship of the celebrated 
 journal, called the " Morgenblatt," when he 
 was seized with typhus fever, and died Nov. 
 1827, to the great grief of all who were in- 
 
 I terested in the belles lettres. 
 
 1 HAUOWITZ. CiiKiSTiAJT Henry Cuas., 
 Count of, an eminent Prussian statesman, 
 was born in Silesia, in 17">8. When the 
 Prussian minister, Ilertzberg, retired from 
 public affairs, Frederic William entrusted 
 Iliiugwitz with the portfolio of foreign af- 
 fairs and the presidency of the cabinet. In 
 this situation he gave the king great satis- 
 faction, and was rewarded wiih the order of 
 the black eagle, and the grant of estates in 
 South Prussia. When Frederic William III. 
 ascended the throne, Haugwitz retained his 
 station ; and the tendency of his policy was 
 to bring France and Prussia into a closer 
 connection. But, when the French troops 
 occupied Hanover in 1803, this step appeared 
 dangerous to tlie neutrality of northern Ger- 
 many, which Prussia had sought to main- 
 tain, and the views of the king were changed. 
 Haugwitz now retired to his estates ; and 
 Hardenberg, who succeeded him, adopted a 
 different system, so that Prussia remained 
 neutral. In 1805, Haugwitz left his retreat, 
 to negotiate with Napoleon at Vienna ; and 
 concluded, after the battle of Austerlitz, the 
 convention by which Hanover was ceded to 
 Prussia, and the neutrality of northern Grer- 
 many was acknowledged. But this treaty 
 involved his country with England, while 
 her position with France became more em- 
 barrassing than ever. Haugwitz then went 
 to Paris to reconcile contending interests, 
 but returned without effecting his object, 
 and once more retired to his estates in Silesia. 
 He died at Vienna, in 1832. 
 
 HAUKSBEE,FKAKCi.s,an English philo- 
 sopher of the 18th century, who made many 
 experimental discoveries in electricity, and 
 published them. 
 
 HAUTEFEUILLE, John, a mechanic, 
 was born at Orleans, in 1647. He made se- 
 veral discoveries and improvements in clock- 
 making, and invented the spiral spring 
 which moderates the vibration of balance- 
 wheels in watches, which Huygens after- 
 wards perfected. He also wrote several short 
 treatises on mechanical subjects ; also, " The 
 Art of Breathing under Water," " The Per- 
 petual Pendulum," " A new System of the 
 Flux and Reflux of the Sea,'' &c. Died, 
 1724. 
 
 HAUY, RenI: Just, AbK', a celebrated 
 mineralogist, born at St. Just, in Picardy, in 
 1742. He first studied theology, and was 
 twenty-one years professor of languages. 
 But mineralogy was his favourite pursuit ; 
 and to him science is indebted for an admi- 
 rable theory of crystallisation, founded on 
 geometrical laws. In 1783 he was admitted 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences ; and 
 wholly devoting himself to his studies, he 
 long remained a stranger to the revolution 
 and all its horrors. But at length, having 
 refused to take the oath of obedience to the 
 constitution required of the priests, he was 
 deprived of his place, and was arrested, in 
 the midst of his calculations, as a recusant 
 priest. He was, however, released ; and was 
 subsequently api>ointed, by Buonaparte, pro- 
 fessor of mineralogy at the botanic garden, 
 and to the faculty of sciences, at Paris. In 
 180;3, at the command of Napoleon, he wrote 
 his " Traite de Physique ; " and when the 
 emperor, after his return from Elba, visited 
 the museum, he said to Hauy, " I read your 
 physics again in Elba, with the greatest in- 
 terest ; " and then decorated him with the 
 badges of the legion of honour. The esteem 
 which the emperor had for this distinguished 
 man was the more honourable, both to him 
 and to Hauy, as the latter had opposed Buo- 
 naparte's elevation to the imperial dignity, by 
 signing nay when the question was proposed 
 for the ratification of the nation. He died 
 in 1822, aged 80. His treatises on mineralogy, 
 crystallography, and natural history are 
 all highly esteevned ; and his beautiful col- 
 lection of minerals, for which he had refused 
 an offer of 600,000 francs, was bought by the 
 Duke of Buckingham. 
 
 HAUY, Valentine, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 174G, was the founder of the 
 institution for the blind at Paris. The in- 
 stitution did not, however, succeed to the 
 extent anticipated, and was tlierefore aban- 
 doned ; but a pension of 2000 francs was 
 granted to him, and he accepted an invita- 
 tion to go to St. Petersburgh, to undertake 
 one there. He returned to Paris in 1806, 
 and died a few months before his brother, in 
 1822. 
 
 HAVERCAMP, Sigebekt, a celebrated 
 philologist, was born at Utrecht, in 1683 ; 
 and became professor of Greek, history, and 
 eloquence, at Leyden. From travelling in 
 Italy, he derived a taste for the study of 
 medals and coins, and published some ex- 
 cellent treatises on numismatics. But his 
 chief fame lay in his critical editions of 
 classic authors j of which hisTertulIian, Lu- 
 cretius, Josephus, Orosius, Sallust, and Cen- 
 sorinus, afford ample evidence. Died, 1742. 
 HA WES, Stepubn, a poet of the 15th cen- 
 
haw] 
 
 ^ ^t^ Winiiitv^aX 23t0srajp!)n. 
 
 [hat 
 
 tury, was a native of Suffolk, and educated 
 at Oxford. He afterwards lield a situation 
 in tlie household of Henry VII., who took 
 great pleasure in his conversation. His 
 works are, " Pastime of Pleasure," " The 
 Temple of Glass," &c. 
 
 HAWES, William, an English physician, 
 and founder of the Humane Society, was 
 born at Islington, in 1753 ; studied medicine, 
 and followed the profession of an apothecary, 
 which he practised in the Strand, until 1780, 
 when he took his degree as a physician. 
 Before this, however, he had become de- 
 servedl}' popular by his zealous exertions in 
 the establishment of the Humane Society, to 
 the benefits of which institution he may truly 
 be said to have devoted the best part of liis 
 life. He wrote several useful tracts, and 
 among others, " An Examination of the Rev. 
 John Wesley's Primitive Physic," being at 
 once an ironical and serious exposure of the 
 absurdities of that production. This bene- 
 volent physician died in 1808. 
 
 HAWKE, Edward, Lord, a brave British 
 admiral, was the son of an eminent barrister, 
 and entered into the navy at an early age. 
 In 1734 he obtained the command of a man- 
 of-war, and distinguished himself by his 
 bravery in the famous engagement in 1744, 
 wherein the British fleet was commanded by 
 Matthews, Lastock, and Rowley. In 1747 
 he was made rear-admiral of the white, when 
 he defeated a large French fleet, and captured 
 five ships of the line ; on which he was 
 created a knight of the bath. In 17.'>9 he 
 defeated Admiral Conflans, off Belleisle, and 
 was rewarded with a pension of 2000/. a year. 
 In 1765 he was appointed vice-admiral of 
 Great Britain, and first lord of the admiralty. 
 In 1776 he was created a British peer, and 
 died in 1781. 
 
 HAWKER, Dr. Robert, an evangelical 
 clergyman of some note, who, for half a cen- 
 tury, was vicar of the parish of Charles the 
 Martyr, at Plymouth. He was the author 
 of a commentary on the Bible, sermons, and 
 other religious works. Died, 1827. 
 
 HAWKES WORTH, John, LL.D., the son 
 of a watchmaker at Bromley, Kent, was 
 born in 1715, and apprenticed to his father's 
 trade ; but he soon left it for literary pur- 
 suits, and eventually became an author of 
 eminence. He is chiefly remembered by his 
 " Adventurer," a series of periodical essays ; 
 a sentence, taken from the last number 
 of which work, is inscribed on a marble 
 monument erected to his memory in Bromley 
 church. Died, 1773. 
 
 HAWKINS, Sir Johx, a brave English 
 admiral under queen Elizabeth, was a native 
 of Devonshire. He was rear-admiral of the 
 fleet, which she sent against the Spanish Ar- 
 mada, and had a great share in that glorious 
 victory. He was afterwards made treasurer 
 of the navy. But his memory is disgraced 
 by his being the first European who carried 
 off slaves from the coast of xVfrica, and in- 
 troduced that inhuman traffic into the West 
 Indies. Queen Elizabeth herself, while she 
 honoured his bravery by knighthood, 
 threatened him with the divine vengeance 
 for this practice. He died in the West Indies 
 in 1595, aged 74. 
 
 HAWKINS, Sir John, a lawyer and mis- 
 
 396 
 
 cellaneous writer of the IStli century, was 
 born in London, in 1719. He practised as a 
 solicitor, with reputation, for some years ; 
 and having made general literature the study 
 of his leisure hours, he also wrote for the 
 periodical press. A taste for music led him 
 to become a member of the Academy of 
 Ancient Music ; and in 1742 he was chosen a 
 member of the literary club, established by 
 Dr. .Johnson, with whom he formed an ac- 
 quaintance, which lasted during their joint 
 lives. Having, in 1753, married a lady of 
 great fortune, and becoming possessed of a 
 much greater one in 1759, on the death of 
 her brother, he gave up his profession, and 
 became a magistrate for Middlesex. His 
 principal work is, " A General History of the 
 Science and Practice of Music," in 5 vol8. 
 4to. ; and his edition, with notes, of " Isaac 
 Walton's Complete Angler," acquired de- 
 served popularitv. Died, 1789. 
 
 HAWK WOOD, Sir JouN, a general of the 
 14th century, who distinguished himself in 
 the wars of Edward III., and received the 
 honpur of knighthood from that monarch. 
 After the peace of 1360 he associated with 
 other soldiers of fortune, who harassed and 
 plundered their old enemies, the French, 
 notwithstanding the cessation of national 
 hostilities. From France they passed into 
 Italy, where Sir John found employment in 
 the service of Pisa, and next in that of Flo- 
 rence, which state he defended so successfully, 
 that his death, in 1393, was considered as a 
 public loss. 
 
 HAWLEY, Joseph, a distinguished Ame- 
 rican patriot, was bom, in 1724, at Nor- 
 thampton, Massachussetts, and being bred a 
 lawyer, soon acquired great eminence in his 
 profession. But he was mostly distinguished 
 for his knowledge of political history and 
 the principles of free government — a cir- 
 cumstance that rendered him one of the 
 ablest advocates of American liberty in the 
 legislature, previous to and during the con- 
 test between the colonies and the parent 
 state. Died, 1788. 
 
 HAY, James, earl of Carlisle, who came 
 to England with James I., was the first 
 Scotchman created an English peer. His 
 first title was baron Hay, he was afterwards 
 made viscount Doneaster, and, lastly, earl of 
 Carlisle. Died, 1636. 
 
 HAY, William, an English writer, was 
 born at Gledbourne, in Sussex, about 1700, 
 and died in 1755. He was member for the 
 borough of Seaford ; and he wrote " Religio 
 Philosophi," an " Essay on Deformity," and 
 other pieces. 
 
 HAYDN, Joseph, an eminent German 
 musician, was born, 1732, in the village of 
 Rohrou, on the borders of Hungary and 
 Austria. He was the son of a poor wheel- 
 wright, who, having a taste for music, played 
 the harp on Sundays, his mother accompany- 
 ing with her voice ; a circumstance which 
 accounts for the strong predilection which 
 their son showed for the science even in his 
 infancy. When but 8 years old, he became 
 a chorister in St. Stephen's, and at 10 years 
 of age composed pieces for several voices. 
 With his fine soprano, he lost his place, and 
 his situation was very discouraging ; but he 
 had the good fortune to become acquainted 
 
hay] 
 
 a ^ciD ?ffnititr^aT 38t0jirap]bL»» 
 
 [hay 
 
 with Prince Esterhazy, who placed him at 
 the head of his private chapel. For this 
 prince he composed some beautiful sym- 
 phouies, — a department in which lie excelled 
 all otlier composers, — and the greatest part 
 of his fine quartetts. Wlien, after a period of 
 about 20 years, the prince reduced liis court, 
 and Haydn received his discharge, he went to 
 London, to which capital he had often been 
 invited. In 171M, having made a second 
 journey thither, he found a most splendid 
 reception, and the university of Oxford con- 
 ferred upon him the degree of doctor of 
 music. On his return from England, he 
 purchased a small house and garden in one 
 of the suburbs of Vienna, where he died. 
 To the English public he is universally 
 known by his noble oratorio of the " Crea- 
 tion," which is considered a chef-cTceuvre. 
 Among his numerous works are, " The Sea- 
 sons," an oratorio ; also a Te Deum, a Stabat, 
 with many concerts, marches, masses, &c. 
 He was inexhaustible in invention and 
 execution— always new and original — always 
 surprising and satisfying his enraptured 
 hearers. Died, 1H09. 
 
 HAYDON, Bexjamin Robeht, an his- 
 torical painter of distinguished merit, was 
 born at Plymouth, where his father was a 
 bookseller, in 178<;. He commenced his 
 studies at the Royal Academy in 1804. His 
 first picture was exhibited in 1807 ; the sub- 
 ject of it, "Joseph and Mary resting with our 
 Saviour after a day's journey on the road 
 to Egypt." His second great work, " Den- 
 tatus," was exhibited in 1809, and in the 
 following year it obtained the great prize at 
 the Royal Institution. His "Judgment of 
 Solomon " appeared next ; but during its 
 progress his resources failed, and the di- 
 rectors of the British Institution voted him a 
 present of 100 guineas. Previous to this the 
 artist had for some time devoted 10 or 12 
 hours a day to the study of the Elgin marbles, 
 and that he had studied them with intense 
 delight and veneration may be learned from 
 the manner in which he speaks of these 
 matchless examples of art in his " Lectures 
 on Painting and Design." He went, accom- 
 panied by Wilkie, to Paris in 1814, to study 
 at the Louvre, and on his return commenced 
 his largest work, " Christ entering into Jeru- 
 salem." This picture was exhibited in 1820, 
 both in London and Edinburgh, and was 
 considered a triumph of modem art. But, 
 with all his acknowledged powers, he mistook 
 or disdained to follow the more certain path 
 to fame and fortune. While his more suc- 
 cessful brethren were engaged on cabinet 
 pictures or portraits, his works were on too 
 large a scale to be hung in private rooms ; 
 hence the orders he obtained were compara- 
 tively few ; and hence, ere long, he became 
 embarrassed. In 1827, just previous to a 
 public meeting of his friends held for the 
 purpose of promoting a subscription for him, 
 he gave the following melancholy account 
 of the fate of his great pictures : — " My 
 ' Judgment of Solomon ' is rolled up in a 
 worehouse in the Borough I my ' Entry into 
 Jerusalem,' once graced by the enthusiasm 
 of the rank and beauty of the three kingdoms, 
 is doubled up in a back room in Holbom I 
 my ♦ Lazarus ' is in an upholsterer's shop in 
 
 397 
 
 Mount Street ! and my ' Crucifixion ' is in a 
 liay-loft in Lisson Grove ! " Some of these 
 pictures, and others which he afterwards 
 painted, fetched considerable prices ; but 
 many others proved unsuccessful ; and 
 though he occasionally emerged from the 
 obscurity and distress into which he was 
 plunged, and displayed indomitable courage 
 and determination, — now defending himself 
 from the attacks of hostile critics, and now 
 contending with jealous rivals who assailed 
 his most favourite productions, — lie was 
 never once free from the pangs of blighted 
 ambition. An ardent admiration of ancient 
 art, and an equally ardent ambition to attain 
 its highest excellence, ever distinguished 
 him ; his mind was thoroughly imbued with 
 a love for the sublime and beautiful ; and he 
 laboured unceasingly to implant in the 
 breasts of others, those feelings and principles 
 by which his own were governed. The 
 slighting of his cartoons by the royal com- 
 mission was the death-blow to his hopes. He 
 had fought through overwhelming diffi- 
 culties before ; and would have borne up 
 against them now, had he but entertained 
 the hope of painting a fresco for the new 
 houses of parliament, or been clieered under 
 his disappointment by popular support. 
 But, alas I undoubted genius, noble enter- 
 prise, and even persevering industry, were 
 not sufficient to turn aside the shafts of an 
 adverse fate. He fell by his own hand, June 
 22. 184(5, aged 60 ; and was discovered lying 
 on the floor of his studio, immediately in 
 front of a colossal picture (Alfred the Great 
 and the First British Jury), on which he had 
 just before been engaged, his white hairs 
 saturated with blood I The last sum of 
 money Mr. Haydon ever received was a 
 present of .'50/. from Sir R. Peel ; whose 
 generous interference in behalf of his widow 
 obtained from her majesty a pension of 50i. 
 a year from the civil list ; Lady Peel also 
 assigned her a pension of 2.'>l.; and a public 
 subscription, which was afterwards entered 
 into for the benefit of Mrs. Haydon and 
 family, amounted to 2000/. 
 
 HAYES, Ciiaiu.es, a mathematician, bom 
 in 1(578. He published a " Treatise on Flux- 
 ions," and some other mathematical pieces, 
 besides several works of a theological nature. 
 Died, 1760. 
 
 HAYES, William, a musical composer, 
 was originally organist of St. Mary's, 
 Shrewsbury ; from whence he removed to 
 Christchurch, Oxford, where he took his 
 degrees in music, and was elected professor 
 in that faculty. He published a collection 
 of English ballads, but is best known by his 
 church compositions and catches. He de- 
 fended Handel against Avison, with some 
 asperity. Born, 1708 ; died, 1777. 
 
 HAYLEY, William, an English poet, 
 was born at Chichester, in 1745. After quit- 
 ting Trinity College, Cambridge, he settled 
 at Eartham, in Sussex, and devoted his time 
 principally to literature. He was the author 
 of an "Essay on History, in Three poetical 
 Epistles to Edward Gibbon," " Triumphs of 
 Temper," " Essays on Painting and Sculp- 
 ture," a prose "Essay on Old Maids," Svols.-, 
 and, lastly, " The Life and Correspondence 
 of the Poet Cowper." Died, 1820. 
 
hay] 
 
 ^ 0t^ mixiher^Kl SSioffrap^i?. 
 
 [hea 
 
 HAYM, Nicholas Francis, a musical 
 professor of Rome, who came to England at 
 the beginning of the 18th century, and at- 
 tempted to establish an Italian opera, but 
 with indiiferent success. He also tried 
 other schemes, among which was the public- 
 ation of " II Tesoro Britannico," 2 vols. 4to., 
 or a description of coins, gems, &c. in 
 English cabinets, besides an able work on 
 Italian bibliography, and 2 tragedies. Died, 
 1730. 
 
 HAYMAN, Francis, an English painter, 
 and one of the first members of the Royal 
 Academy, was born in 1708, at Exeter. 
 Coming to T^ondon when young, he was 
 employed as a scene painter at Drury Lane 
 Theatre. The principal productions of his 
 pencil are historical paintings, with wliich 
 he decorated some of the apartments at 
 Vauxliall. He also furnished designs for 
 the illustration of the works of Sliakspeare, 
 Milton, Pope, Cervantes, &c. Died, 1776. 
 
 HAYNE, Isaac, a colonel in the Ameri- 
 can army, and a martyr (according to the 
 opinion of many of his countrymen) to the 
 cause of independence, was descended from 
 a highly respectable family in South Caro- 
 lina. After the capitulation of Charlestown, 
 he consented to subscribe a declaration of 
 his allegiance to the kingof Great Britain, 
 provided he might not be compelled to bear 
 arms against his countrymen. He was sum- 
 moned, however, after the successes of 
 Greene had changed the face of affairs, to 
 repair immediately to the British standard. 
 This he refused, as a violation of the com- 
 pact he had entered into, and hastened to 
 the American camp. Being shortly after 
 taken prisoner by the English, he was tried, 
 and condemned to be hanged, " for having 
 been found under arms, and employed in 
 raising a regiment to oppose the British 
 government, though he had become a sub- 
 ject, and accepted the protection of that go- 
 vernment." This cruel sentence, notwith- 
 standing the mitigating circumstances of the 
 case, was accordingly put into execution, 
 Aug. 4. 1781. 
 
 HAYNE, Thomas, a learned school-master 
 and divine, born at Thrussington, in Leices- 
 tershire, in 1581. He took his degrees in 
 Lincoln College, Oxford ; after which he be- 
 came one of the ushers at Christ's Hospital, 
 where he died in 1645. He endowed a school 
 at Thrussington, and founded 2 scholarships 
 in Lincoln College. His works are '• Gram- 
 matices LatiniE Compendium," "Lingua- 
 rum Cognatio," " The Life and Death of 
 Luther," &c. 
 
 HAYWARD, Sir JoHJf, an English histo- 
 rian, who flourished in the reigns of Eliza- 
 beth and James I. Some passages in his 
 "Life of Henry IV.," concerning hereditary 
 right in matters of succession, gave great 
 offence to the queen, and lie was thrown 
 into prison ; but upon the accession of James 
 he was released, resumed his literary la- 
 bours, obtained the honour of knighthood, 
 and continued to receive proofs of court fa- 
 vour during the remainder of his life. Died, 
 1627. 
 
 HAYWOOD, Elizabeth, an ingenious 
 writer, was born in London in 1693, and died 
 in 1756. She published the " Female Spec- 
 
 tator," 4 vols. ; " Epistles for the I-adies," 2 
 vols.; "Fortunate Foundling," "Adventures 
 of Nature," &c. 
 
 HAZLITT, William, a distinguished 
 modern writer, both as a critic and essayist, 
 was the son of a dissenting minister, and edu- 
 cated at the Unitarian College at Hackney. 
 He began life as an artist ; but though he 
 always preserved an intense love for the 
 arts, he soon relinquished the pencil for the 
 pen ; and when he was not borne away by 
 violent prejudices, he appeared as one of the 
 most able, powerful, and judicious critics of 
 the day. Besides being a constant contri- 
 butor for many years to the Morning Chro- 
 nicle and Examiner newspapers, he occa- 
 sionally wrote in others ; and was so alert 
 and indefatigable, that he was continually 
 producing some new work of sterling merit. 
 Among the most popular of his writings are 
 several volumes collected from periodical 
 works, under the titles of " Table Talk," 
 " The Spirit of the Age," and "The Plain 
 Speaker." The largest and most elaborate, 
 though not the most successful of his works, 
 is the "Life of Napoleon," 4 vols. His 
 " Characters of Shakspeare's Plays " at- 
 tracted much notice ; as did also his " "View 
 of the English Stage," " Political Essays and 
 Sketches of Public Characters," " The Lite- 
 rature of the Elizabethan Age," " The Mo- 
 dern Pygmalion," &c. His last work was a 
 very interesting volume, entitled " Conversa- 
 tions of James Northcote, Esq., R. A." A 
 cotemporary writer, in an eulogistic analysis 
 of his character and abilities, makes the fol- 
 lowing remarks : " Connected with the phi- 
 losophical examinations of painting and 
 sculpture, the drama and the theatre came 
 naturally within his inquiries. Into these 
 subjects he poured the tide of his luminous 
 mind, and soon acquired the reputation of 
 being one of the highest critical authorities 
 on the drama and the fine arts. He pene- 
 trated boldly, and wrote graphically ; and 
 whether his opinions were always profound 
 or just, you felt that they were dexterously 
 said, and hardly cared to question farther." 
 Died, 18.30. 
 
 HE APY, Thomas, a celebrated painter in 
 water colours, and the first president of the 
 Society of British Artists. Died, Oct. 1835, 
 at the age of 60. His pictures are well known 
 and appreciated. 
 
 HEARNE, Samuel, a traveller who, from 
 1769 to 1772, was employed by the Hudson 
 Bay Company to explore the north-west 
 coast of America, and who was the first 
 European that succeeded in reaching the 
 Arctic ocean. Born, 1742 ; died, 1792. 
 
 HEARNE, Thomas, an eminent antiquary 
 and classical editor, was born in 1678, at 
 White Waltham, in Berkshire, of which 
 parish his father was clerk and schoolmaster. 
 He published several ancient MSS. and edi- 
 tions of old books ; as the Life of Alfred by 
 Spelman ; Leland's Itinerary, 9 vols. 8vo. ; a 
 collection of curious Discourses written by 
 eminent antiquaries, &c. Died, 1766. 
 
 HEARNE, Thomas, an artist of consider- 
 able talents, was born in 1744, at Marshfleld, 
 in Gloucestershine. He was eminent as a 
 topographical designer ; but his great merit 
 lay in landscape-painting in water colours — 
 
hea] 
 
 ^ ^cix) WiwibtxiKl MioQtK^})^, 
 
 [hed 
 
 a branch of the art which has since arrived ' 
 at great perfection in this country, and of 
 
 1 which he may be said to have been the first I 
 wlio successfully practised it. Died, 1817. | 
 
 I HEATH, Benjamix, s distinguished 
 lawyer and scholar of the last century, who 
 was recorder of Exeter, and acquired great | 
 popularity in his native county by writing 
 against the cider tax. His ablest work is 
 entitled " An Essay towards a Demonstra- 
 
 1 tive Proof of the Divine Existence, Unity, 
 
 1 and Attributes," &c. Died, 1762. 
 
 HEATH, CiiAui.ES, an eminent line en- 
 graver, wa« bom, 1784. His taste for art was 
 
 I fostered and matured by Jiis father, James 
 Heath, a name well-known to the i>rint 
 collector ; and his serial artistic publications, 
 the " Book of Beauty " and the " Keepsake," 
 &c., for many years kept his name before the 
 world as one of the first English engravers, 
 besides exercising a marked influence over 
 that department of the arts. Died, lb48. 
 
 HEATH, James, an historical writer dur- 
 ing the reigns of Charles I. and II. lie 
 wrote " A Chronicle of the late War," " The 
 Glories and Triumphs of the Restoration of 
 Charles II.," " Flagellum, or the Life and 
 Death of Oliver Cromwell," &c. Died, 1(J04. 
 UEATIICOTE, Ralph, a clergyman of 
 the Churcli of England, to whom the merit 
 is due of being the projector of the General 
 Biograpliical Dictionary. He was also the 
 author of " The Irenarch, or Justice of the 
 Peace's Manual," " Sylva, or the Wood," 
 " A Sketch of Lord Bolingbroke's Philoso- 
 phy," and other polemical works ; whicli 
 caused his introduction to Dr. Warburton, 
 who nominated him his assistant preacher 
 at Lincoln's Inn. He subsequently obtained 
 higher church preferments, and died in 
 1705. 
 HEATHFIELD. See Elliot. 
 HEBER, Reginald, D.D., bishop of Cal- 
 cutta, was born at Malpas, Clieshire, in 1783, 
 and received the first rudiments of his educa- 
 tion at Whitchurch, about 5 miles distant 
 from his native village. He entered a stu- 
 dent at Brazenose College, Oxford, in 1800, 
 and, 3 years after, carried the English prize 
 for his beautiful poem, " Palestine." In 
 1805, he took his B.A. degree, and was elected 
 a fellow of All Soul's. He soon after quitted 
 the university, and made a tour through 
 Germany, Russia, and the Crimea. The in- 
 formation he gained in that excursion assisted 
 his classical mind with the perspective of a 
 plan by which to collect and arrange all of 
 ancient and modern literature which could 
 disclose any part, or throw light on, the pre- 
 sent state of Scythia, a work which he gave 
 up on entering the service of the church, as 
 likely to interrupt his more important duties. 
 From 1803 to 1822, he spent his time in dis- 
 charging the duties of a parish priest : during 
 which he published some elegant poems, and 
 the life of Jeremy Taylor. He was then 
 elected preacher at Lincoln's Inn. On the 
 death of Dr. Middleton, the bishopric of 
 Calcutta was offered to Mr. Heber, who, after 
 some hesitation, accepted it ; and on the IGth 
 of June, the bishop, with his wife and infant 
 daughter, embarked for India. On the 11th 
 of CK:tober he reached his destination, and 
 ibund constant occupation in the important 
 
 exercise of his oflScial duties. On the 15th 
 of June, 1824, he left Calcutta, to make a 
 visitation of the upiier provinces, on which 
 occasion he traversed the breadth of his 
 diocese, taking in their course the eastern, 
 northern, and western extremities of British 
 India, every where sowing the seeds of 
 Christian instruction among the Hindoos, 
 and informing himself of the wants of the 
 new congregations. In 1826, he took an- 
 other journey in the discharge of his episcopal 
 duty, to Trichinopoly, where he arrived on 
 the 1st of April, 1826. The next day he was 
 seized with an apoplectic fit, whilst bathing, 
 which terminated his valuable life. Since 
 his death, a " Narrative of a Journey through 
 the Upper Provinces of India " has api>eared, 
 and his widow has abo published his bio- 
 graphv. 
 
 HEBERDEN, William, F.R.S., a distin- 
 guished medical practitioner, was born in 
 London in 1710, and educated at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge, in which town he prac- 
 tised as a physician for several years before 
 he settled in the metropolis. He was the 
 projector and a principal contributor to the 
 "Medical Transactions," and author of 
 '• Medical Commentaries on the History and 
 Cure of Diseases." Died, 1801. 
 
 HEBERT, James RjEne, commonly called 
 Ph-e Duchene (from the title of a Jacobin 
 paper of which he was the editor), was Iwn 
 at Alencon, in 1765. He was one of the 
 most violent advocates for the French revo- 
 lution, and one of the most unprincipled. 
 Having nothing to lose, he entered with 
 eagerness in the execution of any plot by 
 which the nobility could be plundered ; and, 
 taking an active part in those scenes where 
 his infamous employers were not willing to 
 appear, he obtained a guilty notoriety. He 
 was made a member of the commune, for 
 his assistance in the massacres which took 
 place in September, and the cruel murder 
 of the Princess de l>amballe. It was Hcbert 
 who so grossly insulted the unhappy queen, 
 Marie Antoinette, by the vilest of all accu- 
 sations ; and put questions to the children 
 of Louis XVI., which, when reported to Ro- 
 bespierre, called forth reproaches even from 
 his flinty breast. Having from a weak pre- 
 sumption dared to oppose his colleagues and 
 masters, they hurled him from his slippery 
 seat, and accomplished his destruction with 
 a promptitude that astonished him. At the 
 place of his execution, contempt and insult 
 were added to the severity of his sufferings, 
 and he died amid the hisses of the populace, 
 on the 24th March, 1794. 
 
 HEDELIN, Fkancis, a French advocate, 
 celebrated for his learning, who was ap- 
 pointed tutor to the two nephews of Cardinal 
 Richelieu, and by that minister rewarded 
 with the valuable abbeys of Aubignac and 
 Meimach. Born, 1C04 ; died, 1«)70. 
 
 HEDERIC, or UEDERICHS, Benjamix, 
 a German lexicographer; authorof the well- 
 known Greek lexicon which bears his name, 
 and several other works of a similar nature. 
 Born, 1675 ; and died, rector of the school 
 of Grossenhayn, in 1748. 
 
 HEDLINGER, Johx Chakles, the most 
 celebrated die-cutter of his age, was bom 
 at Schweitz, in 1691. Many crowned heads, 
 
 009 
 
hed] 
 
 ^ 0m Winibet^al SSursrajil)^. 
 
 [hei 
 
 among whom were Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 Peter the Great, and Pope Benedict XIII., 
 honoured him with their patronage. He 
 frequently visited Sweden ; and on his last 
 voyage from that country, in 1745, he lost 
 the greater part of his property by ship- 
 wreck. His works are distinguished by great 
 simplicity, softness, and correctness of de- 
 sign. Died, 1771. 
 
 HEDVVIG, John, a German botanist and 
 physician, was born in 1730, at Cronstadt, 
 in Transylvania. After studying at Pres- 
 burg and Zittau, he went to Leipsic, where 
 he assisted Professor Bose as demonstrator 
 of plants in his botanical lectures. He took 
 his doctor's degree in 17.59 ; practised as a 
 physician, first at Chemnitz, and afterwards 
 at Eeipsie ; and was appointed professor of 
 physic and botany there, and made super- 
 intendant of the public garden. His most 
 important work is entitled " Cryptogamia," 
 4 vols, folio. Died, 1799. 
 
 HEEMSKERK, Martin van (whose 
 real name was Van Veen, but who derived 
 the name of Heemskerk from his native 
 village), was born in 1498. After studying 
 under some of his most eminent countrjr- 
 men, he went to Italy, and there formed his 
 taste under Michael Angelo, who was at 
 that time enriching the capital of the 
 Christian world with the productions of his 
 pencil. Heemskerk was a diligent and pro- 
 lific artist, though his works are now very 
 rare. Died, 1574. 
 
 HEEREN, Arnold Hermann Ludwig, 
 a distinguished German historian, was born 
 near Bremen, in 1760 ; studied at Gottingen ; 
 and after spending some years in foreign 
 travel, returned to Gottingen in 1787, when 
 he was appointed professor, and thencefor- 
 ward devoted himself to the composition of 
 those numerous works which have placed 
 him among the first historians of his age. 
 His chief works are, " Ideen iiber die Politik, 
 den Verkehr, &c. der vornehmsten Volker 
 der alten Welt," " Handbuch der Geschichte 
 der Staaten des AUerthums," "Handbuch 
 der Europitischen Staatensystem," &c. Died, 
 full of years and honours, in 1842. 
 
 HEGEL, George William Frederick, 
 the founder of a new school of philosophy, 
 was born at Stuttgart, 1770. He was pro- 
 fessor successively at Jena, Heidelberg, and 
 Berlin. He was at first the disciple of Schel- 
 ling, with whom he was associated in the 
 conduct of a philosophical journal in 1802-3. 
 But his opinions gradually took a different 
 turn. He rejected Schelling's intellectual 
 intuition as an unwarrantable assumption, 
 although he continued to maintain its lead- 
 ing idea, — the unity of the subjective or 
 ideal, and the objective or real ; and in this 
 idea endeavoured to establish that absolute 
 cognition and absolute truth, which alone, 
 according to this scliool, can satisfy the 
 demands of the philosophical spirit. Hegel 
 seems not to have perfected his system ; and 
 as he had no power of exposition, or of lucid 
 expression of his thoughts, it is impossible 
 to give a clear view of his philosophy. In- 
 deed, it would appear that he himself had 
 the same notion ; for he is said to have re- 
 marked, that, " of all his numerous disciples, 
 only one had ever understood liim, and even 
 
 he had understood him falsely." Be this as 
 it may, his system is at present the centre of 
 nearly all pliilosophical interest in Ger- 
 many, chiefly from the widely discrepant 
 deductions, political and religious, which 
 his friends and enemies draw from it ; some 
 maintaining it to be favourable to the pre- 
 sent order of things in church and state, 
 others founding upon it conclusions at vari- 
 ance with all ordinary notions of religion or 
 morality. Died of cholera, at Berlin, 1831. 
 
 HEIDEGGER, John James, a very ex- 
 traordinary character, by birth a Swiss, who 
 took up his residence in London, in 16G0, 
 and, obtaining a commission in the guards, 
 was known in fashionable society, by the 
 appellation of the Swiss count. He under- 
 took the management of the opera house, 
 and in his conduct of that establishment 
 was very fortunate ; added to which, by 
 giving concerts, masquerades, &c., under the 
 patronage of the court, he gained a handi- 
 some income, which he expended in keeping 
 an hospitable table, and relieving the un- 
 fortunate. In his person he was extremely 
 ugly, but he was the first to joke upon his 
 own homely features. Being in company 
 where a debate took place as to which nation 
 in Europe was the most ingenious, Heidegger 
 claimed it for the Swiss, and, when asked 
 for the proof, said, " I was bom a Swiss, and 
 came to England without a farthing, where 
 I found the means of gaining 5000/. a year, 
 and to spend it. Now I defy any English- 
 man to do the same in Switzerland." He 
 died in 1749, aged 90. 
 
 HEINE, Heineich, a German poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Dussel- 
 dorf, 1797, and studied at Bonn, Gottingen, 
 and Berlin, with the view of embracing a 
 legal career ; but his temper and turn of 
 mind rendered a residence in Germany dis- 
 tasteful, and he repaired to Paris about 1820, 
 where he continued thenceforward princi- 
 pally to reside. His works comprise two 
 plays, political pamphlets and satires, views 
 of French society, &c. ; but his fame chiefly 
 depends on his poems and " Reisebilder," 
 which, though often deformed by a spirit of 
 raillery and satire that knows no bounds, 
 are full of grace, tenderness, and artless ease. 
 Died, 1847. 
 
 HEINECCIUS, John Gotlieb, a cele- 
 brated civilian of the 18th century, born at 
 Ersenburg, in Altenburg, in 1681. After 
 ha^^ng studied at Goslar and Leipsic, he 
 became professor of philosophy at Halle, 
 1710 J and in 1711 he was made professor of 
 civil law, with the title of counsellor of the 
 court. His great reputation induced the 
 states of Friesland to invite him to Frane- 
 ker, in 1724 ; but in 1727, the king of Prussia 
 prevailed on him to accept of a professorship 
 of law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he 
 distinguished himself till 1753. Becoming 
 again professor at Halle, he remained there 
 till his death in 1741, though invited to 
 Marburg, Denmark, and HoUaHd. He 
 wrote many works, all of them mueh es- 
 teemed. 
 
 HEINECKEN, Christian Henry, an 
 extraordinary child, born at Lubeck, in 1721. 
 So astounding is the account which is re- 
 lated of this mental phenomenon, that not- 
 
HEl] 
 
 ^ ^tio WinibtriKl 3Bi'offrap!)jj. 
 
 [UEL 
 
 withstanding it is supported by the most 
 powerful evidence, it still exceeds credibility. 
 He spoke fluently at ten months old : at 
 twelve he could recite the principal facts in 
 the Pentateuch ; in two months more he was 
 master of the entire history of the Old and 
 New Testaments ; at two years and a half, 
 he answered the principal questions in geo- 
 graphy, and in ancient and modern history ; 
 and he spoke Latin and French with great 
 facility before he had reached his fourth 
 year. His constitution was so delicate, that 
 he was not weaned till a few months beforo 
 his death. M. Martini, of Lubcck, published 
 a pamphlet in 1730, in which he endeavoured 
 to give natural reasons for the extraordinary 
 capacity of this child. lie died in his fifth 
 year, and on his death- bed displayed the 
 utmost firmness and resignation. 
 
 HEINSIUS, Anthony, a distingmshed 
 Dutch statesman, who for 40 years filled the 
 high station of grand pensionary ; and whose 
 prudence, skill, and probity gained him 
 the confidence and regard of William III., 
 Marlborough, and Prince Eugene. Bom, 
 1641 ; died, 1720. 
 
 HEINSIUS, Daxikl, professor of politics 
 and history at Leyden, and librarian to the 
 university, was born at Ghent, in 1580. He 
 became a pupil of Joseph Scaliger at Ley- 
 den, and was greatly indebted lo him for the 
 eminence to which he attained in literature. 
 He distinguished himself as a critic by his 
 labours on many classical authors ; and was 
 highly honoured at home and abroad. Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus gave him a place among his 
 counsellors of state; the republic of Venice 
 made him a kniglit of the order of St. Mark ; 
 and Pope Urban VIII. invited him to come, 
 as he expressed it, to rescue Rome from 
 barbarism 1 He died in 1(506, leaving several 
 works both in poetry and prose. 
 
 HEINSIUS, Nicholas, the son of Daniel, 
 was born at Leyden, and became as great 
 a Latin poet as his father, and a still greater 
 critic. Died, 1681. 
 
 HEISTER, Laurence, a physician, sur- 
 geon, and naturalist, was born at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Maine, in 1683. He was a pupil both 
 of Ruysch and Boerhaave; became physician- 
 general to the Dutch military hospital ; and, 
 in 1710, was professor of anatomy and sur- 
 gery at Altorf. From thence he removed to 
 Helmstadt, where he died in 1758. He wrote 
 several works on anatomy and surgery, and 
 also distinguished himself in botany as a 
 strenuous opponent of the Linnwan system. 
 HELENA, St., the mother of Constan- 
 tine, was of obscure birth in Bithynia. Con- 
 fltantius Chlorus fell in love with her, and 
 married her, while in that country ; but, 
 when he became associated in the empire, 
 he divorced Helena, and married Theodora, 
 daughter of Maximilian Hercules. Constan- 
 tine, at his accession, paid due honours to 
 his mother, and conferred on her the title 
 of Augusta, which she merited by her con- 
 duct. At the age of 80 she went to Palestine, 
 where, it is said, she assisted at the discovery 
 of the holy cross ; soon after which slie died. 
 Her body was conveyed to Rome, and de- 
 posited in the tomb of the emperors, wliile 
 her native village was raised to the rank of 
 a city by the name of Helenopolis. 
 
 HELIODORUS, a native of Emesa, in 
 Phoenicia, and who lived near the end of the 
 4th century, was bishop of Tricea, in Thcs- 
 saly, but deposed towards the close of his 
 life. His youthful work, " ^thiopica, or, 
 the Loves of Theagenes and (Jhariclea," in 
 poetical prose, is distinguislied, by its strict 
 morality, from the other Greek romances. 
 It is said, that the alternative of burning his 
 romance, or resigning his bishopric, being 
 given him, he preferred the latter ; but 
 the story is too improbable to deserve our 
 credence. 
 
 HELIOGABALUS, M. Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, a Roman emperor, was the son of 
 Varius Marcellus, and derived his nanrie 
 from having been a priest of the sun in 
 Phoenicia. He was raised to the throne by 
 the soldiery in 218, when he was under 
 15 years of age ; and though he began his 
 reign with professions of moderation and 
 virtue, he soon abandoned himself to every 
 species of vice, and Rome displayed a scene 
 of unparalleled folly, cruelty, and debauch- 
 ery. He raised his horse to the honours of the 
 consulship, and obliged his subjects to pay 
 adoration to a large black stone, which he 
 called Heliogabalus, raising temples to its 
 honour, &c. At length his licentiousness 
 and rapacity drew upon him the vengeance 
 of the people ; and before he had reigned 
 4 years, he was put to death by the Prasto- 
 rian guards, his body thrown into the Tiber, 
 and his memory declared infamous. To 
 show the kind of luxury in wliich this 
 youthful monster indulged, it is enough 
 to state, that his halls were covered with 
 carpets of gold and silver tissue, and his 
 mats made of the down of hares, and the 
 sott feathers found under the wings of par- 
 tridgesl He was succeeded by Alexander 
 Severus. 
 
 HELL, Maximilian, a learned astrono- 
 mer, born at Chemnitz, in Hungary, in 1720. 
 He was astronomer and director of the ob- 
 servatory at Vienna ; published annually 
 the Ephemerides ; and rendered other essen- 
 tial services to the science of astronomy. 
 Died, 1792. 
 
 HELMONT, John Baptist van, a cele- 
 brated chemist, was born at Brussels, in 
 1577 ; studied at Louvain, aud made such 
 rapid progress in natural history and medi- 
 cal science, that he delivered public lectures 
 at seventeen years of age. He then travelled 
 through various countries for ten years, and 
 acquired a great knowledge of chemistry, to 
 which science he afterwards constantly de- 
 voted himself, and in which he made some 
 valuable discoveries. His first literary pro- 
 duction was a treatise on the Spa waters, 
 wliich is remarkable on account of the author 
 having used the German word gheist, answer- 
 ing to the English ghost, or spirit, to denote 
 the air on which the properties of the Spa 
 water depend, and from which is derived the 
 modem word gas, now so extensively used. 
 In 1609, he settled at Vilvorden, where he 
 practised medicine gratuitously, and is said 
 to have performed some very wonderful 
 cures. He professed to disregard all book- 
 learning on the healing art; and had he 
 lived at the present day, would have been 
 styled an impudent quack ; but though his 
 
 H u 3 
 
iiel} 
 
 ^ ^m mixibtv^al IStOflrapl^g. 
 
 [hem 
 
 works abound with crude and visionary 
 dogmas, they contain also many observa- 
 tions on the Galenical system, which are 
 shrewd and pertinent. Died, 1644. 
 
 HELMONT, Fkan-cis Mercury vatx, 
 Baron, son of the preceding, was born at Vil- 
 vorden, in 1618, and there practised as a 
 physician and experi.nental chemist. If the 
 father be cluirged with eccentricity or quack- 
 ery, the son had a tenfold right to both 
 qualities ; yet that he was a man of talent 
 none have denied. His acts speak for them- 
 selves : he travelled over a part of Europe 
 with a caravan of Bohemians (a gang of 
 gipsies), to learn their language and opin- 
 ions ; pretended to have discovered the ori- 
 ginal language of man j and had the impu- 
 dence to affirm that a child born deaf and 
 dumb, would be able to articulate the cha- 
 racters at first sight. He professed to believe 
 in the doctrine of transmigration, in the ex- 
 istence of tlie philosopher's stone, and other 
 theories no less wild and visionary. Died, 
 1699. 
 
 HELOISE.or ELOISE, celebrated for her 
 beauty and wit. but still more on account of 
 her love for Abelard, was born at Paris, in 
 1101, and died in 1164. Cruelly separated 
 from her illustrious lover, she first became 
 prioress of the convent of Argcnteuil, and 
 afterwards entered the oratory of Paraclete, 
 where she founded a new convent, and lived 
 in exemplary piety — For a further account, 
 see Abelakd. 
 
 HELST, Bartholomew van ber, an 
 admirable Dutch painter, excelling in por- 
 traits, but also great in landscapes and his- 
 torical subjects. Born at Haerlem, 1613 ; 
 died, 1670. 
 
 HELVETIUS, Adrian, a Dutch physi- 
 cian, who being at Paris while the dysentery 
 was raging in that city, successfully arrested 
 its progress by administering a" remedy. 
 Being ordered by Louis XIV. to make it 
 public, he declared it to be ipecacuanha, and 
 was rewarded with 1000 louis d'ors, and 
 made inspector of the military hospitals. 
 Bom. 1650 ; died, 1721. 
 
 HELVETIUS, John Claude, son of the 
 preceding, was also a physician, and a man 
 of great skill in his profession. He cured 
 Louis XV. of a dangerous disorder in his in- 
 fancy, and became first physician to the 
 queen, and counsellor of state. He was the 
 author of several able works, and was a mem- 
 ber of the academy of sciences, F.R.S. Lond. 
 &c. Died, 1755. 
 
 HELVETIUS, Claude Adrien, son of 
 the last mentioned, was born at Paris, in 
 1715, and, at the age of twenty- three, ob- 
 tained the honourable and lucrative post of 
 a farmer-general, but resigned it, and af- 
 terwards purchased the place of maitre 
 d'hotel to the queen. In 1758, he published 
 " De I'Esprit," the materialism of which 
 drew upon him many attacks ; and it was 
 condemned by the parliament of Paris, as 
 derogatory to the nature of man, by con- 
 fining his faculties to animal sensibility, and 
 destroying the distinctions between vice and 
 virtue. The book, however, obtained a rapid 
 celebrity, though its author found it neces- 
 sary to ensure his personal safety by with- 
 drawing for a time, first to England, and 
 
 402 
 
 afterwards to Prussia. He at length returned 
 to France, and led a retired and domestic 
 life on his estate at Vore, till his death, 
 which happened in 1771. A posthumous 
 work, entitled " De rHomme," is a continu- 
 ation of the former treatise, and contains a 
 fuller development of the doctrines laid 
 down in it ; but, at the same time, many new- 
 ones, particularly such as relate to the 
 science of education. 
 
 HELWIG, Amelia von, a distinguished 
 female poet of Germany, born at Weimar, 
 in 1776. Her father travelled in France, 
 England, and Holland ; and, at a very early 
 age, she discovered a remarkable aptitude in 
 learning, not only the modem languages 
 but Greek, while her poetical talents were 
 at the same time successfully cultivated. 
 Among a host of literary characters, whose 
 friendship she obtained, and from whom she 
 derived much valuable instruction, were 
 Schiller and Goethe. Died, 1832. 
 
 HELWIG, George Andrew, a Prussian 
 botanist and mineralogist; author of "Li- 
 thographia Angerburgica," a work on fossils, 
 besides other productions on lithology and 
 botany. Born, 1666 ; died, 1748. 
 
 HELWIG, John Otto, first physician 
 and counsellor to the elector palatine. He 
 travelled through many countries, employ- 
 ing himself in making collections of natural 
 curiosities ; and while in England he was 
 created a baronet by Charles II. Died, 
 1698. 
 
 HEMANS, Felicia Dorothea, an ami- 
 able and highly accomplished poetess, was 
 born at Liverpool, of respectable parents of 
 the name of Browne, who subsequently took 
 up their residence near St. Asaph, Wales. 
 She manied young ; but her marriage was 
 infelicitous ; and, after the birth of five chil- 
 dren, her husband estranged himself from 
 her society, and a permanent separation 
 ensued. From childhood she had an ardent 
 thirst for knowledge, and her reading was 
 extensive and varied. She was well ac- 
 quainted with classical literature, and in 
 her works she has bequeathed to posterity 
 ample proofs of innate genius devoted to the 
 noblest object — the improvement of the 
 heart. It has been truly said that, of all the 
 sex, " few have written so much and so well 
 as Felicia Hemans ; " although her writings 
 possess an energy equal to their liigh-toned 
 beauty, yet are they so pure and so refined, 
 that not a line of them could feeling spare, 
 or delicacy blot from her pages. Her imagin- 
 ation was rich, chaste, and glowing ; and 
 though some of her earlier poems may be 
 deemed rather monotonous, her " Records of 
 Woman " and " Forest Sanctuary " stand 
 unrivalled. In her social Intercourse she 
 was no less amiable than vivacious, as is 
 proved by her epistolary correspondence ; 
 yet her most serious thoughts were ever 
 placed in the certainty of "another and a 
 better world." After her establishment at 
 St. Asaph was broken up, she retired to 
 Vavertree, near Liverpool, but remained 
 about three years only, when she settled in 
 Dublin, where she died on the 16th of May, 
 1835, in the forty-first year of her age, leav- 
 ing five sons to bewail her loss. Besides the 
 two works before-mentioned, Mrs. Hemans 
 
 1 
 
hem] 
 
 91 i^m HutljfrjSal Ut00ra|i^j?, 
 
 [UEN 
 
 wrote " Wallace," " Dartmoor," " Dramatic 
 Scenes," " Welsh Melodies," " The Siege of 
 Valencia," " Songs of the Affections," "Na- 
 tional Lyrics and Songs for Music," " Scenes 
 and Hymns of Life," " The Vespers of Pa- 
 lermo, a tragedy, and a variety of scottered 
 lyrics in the Mew Monthly and Blackwood's 
 Magazines. 
 
 HEMMINGFORD, Walter db, an Eng- 
 lish chronicler of the 14th century, aud 
 canon of Gisborough Abbey, in Yorkshire, 
 who flourished in the reign of Edward III. 
 He compiled a history of England, from the 
 Conquest to 1308. 
 
 HEMMLING or HEMMLINK, Hans, an 
 eminent Flemish painter, of the 1,5th century. 
 
 HEMSTERHUYS, or HEMSTERIIU- 
 SlUS, TiBEKius, a celebrated Dutch philo- 
 logist, was the son of a physician, and bom 
 at Groningen, in 1685. At the age of four- 
 teen, he was entered a student of the uni- 
 versity of his native place, from whence he 
 removed to Leyden, where he was held in 
 great esteem. In 1705 he became professor 
 of mathematics and philosophy at Amster- 
 dam, where he applied himself so zealously 
 to the Greek authors, that he may justly be 
 said to have been the most profound Hel- 
 lenist of the age. Unlike many of his coun- 
 trymen who have attained to great classical 
 learning, Hemsterhuys had no taint of pride 
 or dogmatism, but was remarkable for his 
 modesty and mildness of character. Died, 
 1756 His sou Eka^cis iulieritcd his clas- 
 sical acquirements, and was, moreover, an 
 acute philosopher, and a critical judge of the 
 fine arts. Born, 1720 ; died, 17tK). 
 
 HENAULT, CuAKLEs Joux Francis, an 
 eminent French writer, was president of the 
 parliament of Paris, where he was born in 
 1685. lie became president of the first cham- 
 ber of inquests in 1710, which led him to 
 make the Roman law his study, though he 
 still amused himself with poetry ; and, in 
 1713, produced his tragedy of " Cornelia," 
 which, however, had no success on tlie stage. 
 Near sixty years afterwards he gave the 
 manuscript to Mr. Horace Walpole, who 
 printed it at the Strawberry-hill press. In 
 1723 he obtained a place in the French aca- 
 demy ; after which he set himself to digest 
 into a clironological order the history of 
 France. This work appeared in 1744, and 
 has been translated into most European 
 languages. He also wrote three comedies, 
 and after his death appeared a work of his, 
 entitled " Histoire Critique de I'Etablisse- 
 ment des Fran<;ois dans les Gaules," 2 vols. 
 8vo. He was intimately connected with 
 Madame du Deffaud, and from his rank, as 
 well as his talents, he held a distinguished 
 station among the literati of Paris. Died, 
 1770. 
 
 HENAULT, John d', a French poet, was 
 born at Paris. After travelling into several 
 countries, he returned to France, and was 
 patronised by Fouquet. His works were 
 printed at Paris, in a small volume, in 1670 ; 
 besides which he translated part of Lucre- 
 tius, but was persuaded by his confessor, 
 when at the point of death, to throw it into 
 the fire. 
 
 HENDERSON, Jous, a first-rate actor, 
 wos bom in London, in 1747. He acquired 
 
 great celebrity at Drury Lane Theatre in 
 Shakspeare's characters, where he perfbrmed 
 Falstaff, Richard III., &c. with unbounded 
 applause. Died, 1785. 
 
 UENGIST, the first Saxon king of Kent, 
 who, with his brother Horsa, landed an army 
 at the mouth of the Thames, and eventually 
 subjugated the Britons. The kingdom of 
 Kent, founded by Hengist, embraced that 
 tract which is now known as the counties of 
 Kent, Middlesex, Essex, and part of Surrey. 
 He established his residence at Canterbury, 
 and died about the year 488, leaving his 
 kingdom to his posterity. 
 
 UENKE, Henky Philip Conrai>, vice- 
 president of the consistory of Wolfenbuttel, 
 and first professor of theology at Ilelmstadt, 
 was born in 1752. His " Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory " contains a vast fund of historical 
 learning ; and his work on dogmatism is 
 written in classical Latin, displaying at the 
 same time his intimate acquaintance with 
 theological lore. Died, 1809. 
 
 HENKEL, or llENCKEL, JoiiN Fke- 
 DEKic, a Saxon chemist and mineralogist of 
 considerable celebrity, was born at Friburg, 
 in 1670. Augustus II. of Poland made him 
 counsellor of mines ; an oflice which he dis- 
 charged with much advantage to his country. 
 It was under his direction also that the por- 
 celain manufactory was established at Meis- 
 sen. He wrote " Pyritologia," and other 
 scientific works. Died, 1744. 
 
 HENLEY, Antuuky, on ingenious writer, 
 contemporary with Steel and Addison, and 
 who contributed to the Tattler and other 
 works. He was born at the Grange, in 
 Hampshire, the seat of his father. Sir Robert 
 Henley ; became M.P. for Andover ; and died 
 in 1711. 
 
 HENLEY, Robert, lord chancellor North- 
 ington, 3rd son of the preceding, was born in 
 1708 ; educated at Westminster Scliool, and 
 Christchurch and St. John's College, Oxford ; 
 became lord keeper in 1757 ; raised to the 
 peerage in 1760, when he presided at the trials 
 of Earl Ferrers and Lord Byron ; resigned the 
 great seal in 1766 ; and died in 1772. 
 
 HENLEY, John, familiarly known by the 
 appellation of Orator Uenley, was born at 
 Melton Mowbray, Ijcicestershire, in 1602. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and entered 
 into holy orders ; but being dissatisfied with 
 liis prospects of church preferment, he com- 
 menced public orator. Having opened a 
 chapel in London, he gave lectures on theo- 
 logical subjects on Sundays, and on other 
 subjects every Wednesday. Novelty pro- 
 cured him a multitude of hearers ; but he 
 was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
 advantage by it ; he became the butt of wits 
 and caricaturists, and he gradually sunk into 
 obscurity. Died, 1756. 
 
 HENLEY, Samuel, a divine of the church 
 of England, and professor of moral philo- 
 sophy m the college of Williamsburgh, in 
 Virgmia, before the separation of the United 
 States from Great Britain. He afterwards 
 came to England ; obtained a curacy, and 
 was a teacher in Harrow School ; and in 
 1805 he was placed at the head of tlic East 
 India College, at Hertford, when he pro- 
 cured the diploma of D. D. He died in 1813, 
 at Rendlesham, Suffolk, of which place he 
 
hen] 
 
 ^ ^c&) ^aniber^al 23t00rap1^i). 
 
 was rector. He was the author of some 
 treatises, both theological and archaeolo- 
 gical. 
 
 HENRIETTA, ANNA,of England, duchess 
 of Orleans, the daughter of king Charles I., 
 was bom at Exeter, in 1644, amid the turbu- 
 lent scenes of the civil war. Her unhappy 
 mother fled with her to France when the 
 infant was scarcely three weeks old ; and 
 after the death of the king she repaired to 
 the convent of Chaillot, and there devoted 
 herself to the education of her daughter. 
 She united with great sweetness of charac- 
 ter the charm of beauty, and was married 
 to Philip, duke of Orleans. Their marriage 
 was, however, rendered an unhappy one by 
 the jealousy of the duke, who feared that 
 liis brother, Louis XIV., had supplanted him 
 in his wife's affections ; and when the lat- 
 ter afterwards employed her mediation in 
 some difficult diplomatic affairs with her 
 brother Charles II., the duke no longer 
 doubted tliat whicli he had before suspected. 
 Louis wished to detach the king of England 
 from the triple alliance with Holland and 
 Sweden. She went, therefore, in 1670, with 
 the court to Flanders, and, under pretence 
 of visiting her brother, passed over to Dover, 
 where Charles was awaiting her arrival. 
 Mademoiselle de Keroual, a native of Brit- 
 tany (afterwards mistress of Charles II., 
 under the title of duchess of Portsmouth), 
 accompained her. Nor was their mission 
 in vain ; for in ten days the persuasions of 
 the sister, aided by the fascinations of her 
 companion, gained over to the French in- 
 terest the profligate and unprincipled mon- 
 arch. Soon after her return to France, 
 the Duchess of Orleans was suddenly seized 
 with violent pains, which teiminated her 
 life ; and tliough a post mortem examina- 
 tion took place, which was declared to be 
 satisfactory, there is little doubt that she 
 fell, in the prime of life and beauty, the vic- 
 tim of a base revenge. The sweetness of lier 
 manners made tliis unfortunate princess an 
 object of general regret, and caused her to 
 be compared with her still more unfortunate 
 ancestor, Mary, (jueen of Scots. She died at 
 St. Cloud, in 1660. 
 
 HENRY I. of Germany, sumamed The 
 Fowler, was the son of Otho the Illustrious, 
 duke of Saxony and Thuringia, and born in 
 876. When he was elected sovereign of Ger- 
 many, in 919, he had to contend with anar- 
 chy at home and enemies abroad, but his 
 activity and prudence overcame them all. 
 He improved the art of war among the Ger- 
 mans ; surrounded the cities which, before 
 his time, were, for the most part, nothing 
 but a collection of log and mud huts, with 
 walls and moats ; and, as he compelled part 
 of the nobility and freemen to reside in these 
 cities, and insisted on all meetings for the 
 discussion of public affairs to be held in 
 them, their progressive civilisation and the 
 encouragement given to commerce and ma- 
 nufactures were the almost immediate con- 
 sequences. After a fortunate and glorious 
 reign of 16 years, he died at Quedlinburgh, 
 in 936. 
 
 HENRY III. of Germany, son of the em- 
 peror Conrad II., succeeded his father in the 
 imperial dignity, 1039. Nature had given 
 
 him the talents, and education the charac- 
 ter, suitable for an able ruler. In every 
 thing he undertook, he displayed a steady 
 and persevering spirit : the clergy were 
 compelled to acknowledge their dependence 
 on him, and the temporal lords he held in 
 actual subjection. He deposed three popes, 
 and placed Clement II. on the vacant chair; 
 and such was liis despotic character, that 
 the whole empire was at length changed 
 into a monarchy entirely dependent upon 
 his sovereign will. Born, J017 ; died, 1056. 
 
 HENRY IV., son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1050, and at the death of his father 
 was only five years old. His disputes with 
 pope Gregory VII., who had been elevated 
 to the papal chair without the consent of 
 the imperial court, embroiled him in a series 
 of wars, and caused him to be excommuni- 
 cated. His eldest son, Conrad, rebelled 
 against him, but was overcome, and died at 
 Florence in 1101, deserted by his partisans. 
 He then caused his second son, Henry, to 
 be elected liis successor, and crowned : but 
 the latter also rebelled, and making himself 
 master of his father's person in 1105, by 
 stratagem, compelled him to abdicate the 
 throne. Henry IV. ended his life and sor- 
 rows in neglect, at Liege, in 1106 : and, as 
 he died under sentence of excommunication, 
 was not buried till five years after, when the 
 sentence was taken off, and his remains were 
 interred at Spire. 
 
 HENRY v., emperor of Germany, the son 
 and successor of the preceding, and who 
 had made himself disgracefully notorious 
 by his conspiracy against his father, was 
 bom in 1081. In 1111 he married Matilda, 
 the daughter of Henry I., king of England ; 
 and the rich dowry he received with this 
 princess, gave him the means of undertaking 
 an expedition over the Alps, in order to 
 demand the imperial crown from the pope 
 in Rome. Finding that Pascal refused to 
 do so, Henrj' determined to put an end to 
 the dispute by an act of violence. He 
 caused the pope to be conveyed away from 
 the altar, while at mass ; and cut down, in 
 the streets of Rome, all who opposed him. 
 At length the pope yielded, and Henry was 
 crowned without making any new conces- 
 sions ; receiving from the proud prelate per- 
 mission to inter, in consecrated ground, the 
 remains of his unhappy father. During his 
 reign, the vassals and feudal tenants of the 
 crown made themselves independent princes, 
 and the political and national division of 
 Germany was, at it were, sanctioned for pos- 
 terity. Died, 1125. 
 
 HENRY VII. was the first German em- 
 peror who was chosen solely by the electors, 
 without the interference of the other states 
 of the empire. He undertook an expedition 
 to Italy, and compelled the Milanese to 
 crown him king of Lombardy. He then 
 suppressed by force a revolt which had 
 broken out in Upper Italy ; took several 
 cities by storm ; and, having captured Rome, 
 he was crowned Roman emperor by two 
 cardinals, while in the streets the work of 
 murder and pillage was still going on. Died, 
 1313. 
 
 HENRY THE Lion, the most remarkable 
 prince of Germany in the 12th century, was 
 
^ ^etu UinbtxM 2St00rap]bfi» 
 
 [hen 
 
 born in 1129, and aesumed the government 
 of Suxony iu 114<j. lie demanded restitution 
 of Bavaria, which hod been taken from lus 
 father. This being refused by the emperor, 
 a war ensued, which in the sequel gave him 
 Bavaria, his possessions extending from 
 tlie Baltic and the North Sea to the Adriatic. 
 In 11U8 he went on an expedition to the 
 Holy Laud, and, during his absence, his 
 enemies, and even the emperor, made en- 
 croachments on his dominions. Tliis was 
 the fruitful source of quarrels ; and tlie 
 proud and liigh-minded Henry having been 
 driven to the humiliation of asking pardon 
 of the emperor on liis knees, was allowed 
 to retain possession of his hereditary do- 
 minions, and he died in peace at Brunswick, 
 in 1195. He was pious, bore up manfully 
 against misfortune, and protected the in- 
 terests of commerce, science, and the arts. 
 
 HENRY r>E Blois, bishop of Winchester, 
 nephew of William Rufus, and brother of 
 king Stephen, was an active prelate and a 
 bold, ambitious, and enterprising statesman. 
 Wlien England was invaded by the partisans 
 of the empress Matilda, he at first joined 
 her standard, but subsequently deserted it, 
 and became her most determined enemy. 
 The empress queen and her followers having 
 taken refuge in the castle of Winchester, 
 he laid siege to it, set the city on fire, and 
 consumed 20 churches, a number of religious 
 houses, and many other buildings, so little 
 respect did he pay for the capital of his 
 diocese when he had an ulterior object in 
 view. Yet after this he formed a project 
 for erecting it into an archbishopric ; tind 
 had actually arranged the business with 
 pope Lucius II., but the sudden death of the 
 pontiff prevented its completion. He is now 
 remembered chiefly as the founder of tlie 
 hospital of St. Cross, near Winchester, the 
 church of which is regarded by many anti- 
 quaries as furnishing the model of the dis- 
 tinguishing features of the Gotliic or pointed 
 style of architecture. Died, 1171. 
 
 HENRY THE Navigator, the fourth son 
 of John I., king of Portugal, was born in 
 1394. He gave early proofs of brilliant 
 courage ? but his love of arms was surpassed 
 by his love of the sciences, particularly 
 mathematics, astronomy, and navigation. 
 While vigorously prosecuting a war against 
 the Moors in Africa, he neglected no op- 
 portunity to obtain from them a knowledge 
 of the regions bordering on Egypt and 
 Arabia, and to inquire into the probability 
 of a passage to the treasures of India by a 
 voyage round the western coast of Africa. 
 He conversed with men of learning ; and, 
 finding their testimony agreeable to the 
 reports he had collected, he resolved to 
 execute his designs. He was the first who 
 applied the compass to navigation ; and to 
 him also a principal part is ascribed in the 
 invention of the astrolabe. Various expe- 
 ditions were undertaken, and discoveries 
 made, under his patronage and at his ex- 
 pense ; but, at length, companies were 
 formed of enterprising men, who were 
 tempted with the prospect of obtaining gold 
 dust, and the whole people became animated 
 with the love of discovery. In 1440, Nunno 
 Tristan doubled Cape Verde j and, two years 
 
 with the 
 Tristan < 
 
 later, Gonzalo Vallo discovered three of 
 the Azores islands, about 1000 miles from 
 the Continent. Henry continued these efforts 
 till his death, in 1403, and thus secured for 
 himself an undying name aa the patron and 
 friend of navigation. 
 
 HENRY IV., called the Great, king of 
 France and Navarre, was bom in 1553, at 
 Pau, in Berne. His father, Anthony of 
 Bourbon, was descended from a son of 
 Louis IX. ; his mother was Jeanne d' Albert, 
 daughter of Henry, king of Navarre. He 
 was brought up in the simple and hardy 
 manner of the peasantry of Beam, and tlus 
 laid the foundation of a vigorous constitution 
 and temperate habits. He was placed under 
 the tuition ofFlorent Chretein, a learned 
 man and zealous Protestant. In 1599 he ac- 
 companied his mother to Rochelle, and 
 learned the art of war under Admiral Coligni. 
 When the perfidious design of destroying 
 the Huguenot chiefs, by a massacre, was 
 formed by Charles and his mother, Catharine, 
 one of their means to lull their suspicions 
 was, to propose to queen Jeanne a marriage 
 between Henry and Margaret of Valois, the 
 king's youngest sister. Wliile preparations 
 were making for the marriage festival, 
 Henry's mother died at Paris, not without 
 strong suspicions of poison. Having assumed 
 the title of King of iVararre, his marriage 
 took place, Aug. 18th, 1572. Then followed 
 the horrible scenes of St. Bartholomew, 
 Aug. 24th. Henry was obliged to make 
 profession of the Catholic faith to save his 
 life ; but Catharine of Medici endeavoured 
 to dissolve the marriage just celebrated. 
 As she was unsuccessful in this, she adopted 
 the plan of corrupting the noble youth by 
 the pleasures of a licentious court ; and he 
 did not escape the snare. In 157C, however, 
 he took advantage of an hunting excursion 
 to quit the court, and professed himself 
 again of the Protestant Church. Catharine, 
 who, after the decease of Charles IX., ad- 
 ministered the government in the name of 
 his successor, Henry III., now thought it 
 advisable to conclude a treaty of peace with 
 the Huguenots (1576), securing to thera 
 religious freedom. Exasperated by this 
 event, the jealous Catholics, in 1585, formed 
 the celebrated league, which the king was 
 obliged to confirm ; and when called, by 
 right of birth, to the French throne, he 
 found innumerable difliculties in establish- 
 ing his claims. His Protestant religion was 
 brought forward to prejudice the Catholics 
 against him. After a protracted and obsti- 
 nate struggle, convinced that he should 
 never enjoy quiet possession of the French 
 throne without professing the Catholic faith, 
 Henry at length yielded to the wishes of his 
 friends, was instructed in the doctrines of 
 the Roman Church, and professed the Ca- 
 tholic faith, Joily 25th, 1593, in the church 
 of St. Denys. He happily escaped an at- 
 tempt to assassinate him ; was solemnly 
 anointed king at Chartres, in 1594 ; and 
 entered the capital amid the acclamations 
 of the people. He made use of the tran- 
 quility which followed, to restore the in- 
 ternal prosperity of his kingdom, and par- 
 ticularly the wasted finances ; and in this 
 design he was highly successful, with the 
 
hen] 
 
 ^ i^ebi Winittt^aX MiastHi^f^^* 
 
 [hen 
 
 aid of his prime minister Sully. To his 
 former brothers in faith and in arms, the 
 Protestants, he granted entire religious 
 freedom and political security, by the edict 
 of Nantes, in 1598. In 1610, while riding 
 through the streets of Paris, liis coach was 
 obstructed in the street de la Feronnerie, by 
 two waggons. A fanatic, named Ravaillac, 
 took advantage of this moment to perpetrate 
 a long-meditated deed ; and he received a 
 fatal stab from the hand of this assassin, in 
 the fl2nd year of liis age, and 22nd of his 
 reign. His character is thus summed up by 
 Henault : — "He united to extreme frank- 
 ness the most dexterous policy ; to the most 
 elevated sentiments a charming simplicity 
 of manners ; to a soldier's courage an inex- 
 haustible fund of humanity." 
 
 HENRY I., king of England, called, on 
 account of his learning, Beauclerc, was the 
 youngest son of William the Conqueror ; 
 born in 1068, and succeeded his brotlier 
 Rufus in 1100. He restored the university 
 of Cambridge, forgave all debts owing to 
 the crown prior to his accession, reformed 
 the court, and conquered Wales. He died 
 in Normandy, in 1135. He abolished the 
 curfew-bell, established a standard for 
 weights and measures, and signed the char- 
 ter, which proved the origin of the English 
 liberties. 
 
 HENRY II., king of England, the son of 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet and Maud, empress of 
 Germany, was born in Normandy, in 1182, 
 and succeeded Stephen in 1154. He added 
 the provinces of Anjou, Touraine, Maine, 
 Poitou, Saintonge, Guienne, and Gascony, to 
 the English crown. His reign was troubled 
 by disputes between liim and Becket, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, who being murdered 
 in 1171, the pope obliged the king to undergo 
 penance for it at Becket's tomb at Canter- 
 bury. In 1170 he caused his eldest son 
 Henry to be crowned king of England. In 
 1172 he conquered Ireland ; and, the year 
 following, his sons rebelled against him. 
 Henry checked the prevailing licentiousness 
 by severe laws, partitioned England into 
 four judiciary districts, and appointed iti- 
 nerant justices to make regular excursions 
 tlirough them. He revived trial by jury, 
 discouraged that by combat, and demolished 
 all the newly erected castles, as shelters of 
 violence and anarchy. He was manly in 
 person, gifted with ready elocution, pos- 
 sessed warm affections, and was a real lover 
 of justice. He died in 1189. 
 
 HENRY III., king of England, sumamed 
 of Winchester, on account of his having 
 been born in that city, succeeded his father, 
 John, in 1216. He was obliged to relinquish 
 Normandy, Anjou, Poitou, Touraine, and 
 Maine to the king of France ; after which 
 a civil war broke out in England, and the 
 king was taken prisoner by the barons, at 
 the head of whom was Simon de Montfort, 
 earl of Leicester. The tide of affairs turn- 
 ing in Ills favour, he deprived several of 
 these lords of their estates, and gave them 
 to his friends. Born, 1207 ; died, 1272. 
 
 HENRY IV., king of England, surnamed 
 Bolijigbroke, was born in 1367. He was the 
 son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 
 the third son of Edward III. In the reign 
 
 of Richard II. he was made earl of Derby 
 and duke of Hereford. Having accused the 
 Ihike of Norfolk of treason, the latter chal- 
 lenged him to single combat ; but on the 
 appearance of the two champions, at the 
 appointed time and place, Richard would 
 not suffer them to proceed. Both were 
 banished the kingdom, Norfolk for life, and 
 Hereford for a term of years. On the death 
 of his father he succeeded to the dukedom 
 of Lancaster; and, returning before the 
 stated time, for the avowed object of claim- 
 ing his duchy, and having been joined by 
 the Earls of Northumberland and West- 
 moreland, soon found himself at the head 
 of 60,000 men. Richard was defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and deposed ; and the duke was 
 unanimously declared king, under the title 
 of Henry IV. Tliis usurpation gave rise to 
 the civil war between the houses of York 
 and Lancaster. Henry died in 1413, and 
 was succeeded by his son. 
 
 HENRY v., king of England, called, after 
 his birthplace, of Monmouth, was bom in 
 1388. His dissipated habits while a prince 
 gave his father great uneasiness ; but he 
 frequently displayed noble traits of cha- 
 racter, and on ascending the throne he cast 
 off liis former companions, and justified the 
 best expectations. France being at the time 
 torn asunder by the opposing factions of the 
 Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, Henry 
 took the favourable opportunity of reviving 
 the claims of his predecessors upon that 
 country, and he landed an army at Harfleur, 
 Aug. 14. 1415. With 15,000 men he gained 
 the battle of Agincourt, though the French 
 amounted to 52,000. He then returned to 
 England ; but three years afterwards he 
 went again to France, espoused the princess 
 Catharine, on condition that the French 
 crown should go to Henry and his heirs on 
 tlie death of the king of France , and be in- 
 separably united to the crown of England. 
 While all his great projects appeared to be 
 rapidly advancing towards a successful issue, 
 a painful disease arrested his progress, and 
 he died in 1422, aged 34, and in the 10th 
 year of his reign. The career of Henry V. 
 was more showy than useful ; for while his 
 successes entailed great misery on France, 
 they did more harm than good to the true 
 interests of England. 
 
 HENRY VI., king of England, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Windsor, in 1421, 
 and was but 10 months old at the death of 
 his father. His grandfatlier Charles, king 
 of France, died soon after ; and the Duke of 
 Orleans, encouraged by the minority of 
 Henry, assumed the title of king by the 
 name of Charles VII. When only 9 years 
 old, Henry was crowned at Paris, and the 
 great Duke of Bedford, his uncle and guar- 
 dian, obtained several important victories. 
 But the raising of the siege of Orleans by 
 Joan of Are gave a new turn to affairs, and 
 the English interest declined. The death 
 of the Duke of Bedford was a fatal blow to 
 the cause of Henry ; and at length the Eng- 
 lish were deprived of all their x'ossessions in 
 France, except the town of Calais. The 
 insurrection of Cade followed. To add to 
 his misfortunes, the York party in England 
 prevailed, and Henry was sent to the Tower, 
 
hen] 
 
 ^ ^ebi ^am'bcr^al SStojarajpl)"* 
 
 [hep 
 
 where, according to the prevailing opinion, 
 he was slain by Richard, duke of Gloucester, 
 in 1471. He was gentle, pious, and well- 
 intentioned, but too weak to act for himself. 
 EtonCoUege, and King's College, Cambridge, 
 owe their origin to him. 
 
 HENRY VII., king of England, first so- 
 vereign of the race of Tudor, was born in 
 14.">7. He was the sou of Edmund, earl of 
 Richmond, and of Margaret of the house of 
 Lancaster. By the assistance of the Duke 
 of Brittany he landed in Wales, and laid 
 claim to the crown in 1485. The people, 
 disgusted at the cruelties of Richard III., 
 joined him in such numbers that he was 
 enabled to give the usurper battle at Bos- 
 worth Field, where Richard was slain, and 
 Henry crowned on tlie spot. He reigned 24 
 years, and died in 1509. During tliis reign 
 the feudal aristocracy was considerably de- 
 pressed, while the middle ranks were pro- 
 portionably raised ; and many highly salu- 
 tary laws were enacted. 
 
 HENRY VIII.,king of England, was bom 
 in 1491, and succeeded his father, the pre- 
 ceding monarch, at the age of 18. Tlxe em- 
 peror Maximilian and the pope Julius 11. 
 having leagued against France, persuaded 
 Henry to join them, and he in consequence 
 invaded that kingdom, where he made some 
 conquests. About the same time James IV., 
 king of Scotland, invaded England, but was 
 defeated and slain at Flodden Field. When 
 Luther commenced the Reformation in Ger- 
 many, Henry wrote a book against him, for 
 wliich he was complimented by the pope 
 with the title of defender of the faith. Hav- 
 ing conceived an aftection for Anne Boleyn, 
 he determined to divorce his wife Catharine 
 of Arragon, to whom he had been married 
 18 years. But on the divorce being refused 
 by the pope, Henry assumed the title of 
 supreme head of the English Church, put 
 down tlie monasteries, and alienated tlieir 
 possessions to secular purposes. His marriage 
 with Anne Boleyn followed ; but afterwards 
 he brought her to the scaffold, and married 
 Lady Jane Seymour, who died in childbed. 
 He next married Anne of Cleves ; but she 
 not proving agreeable to his expectations, 
 he put her away, and caused Cromwell, 
 earl of Essex, the projector of the match, to 
 be beheaded. His next wife was Catharine 
 Howard, who was beheaded for adultery ; 
 after which he espoused Catharine Parr, 
 who survived him. Henry died in 1546. 
 His love of power was indomitable, and led 
 to frequent acts of tyrannic ferocity, while 
 his excessive pride, impatience, and into- 
 lerance extinguished every sentiment of 
 humanity within his breast ; so that it has 
 been truly said of him, "that he never 
 spared man in his anger, nor woman in his 
 lust." 
 
 HENRY, of Huntingdon, an English his- 
 torian, who wrote a " History of England to 
 the year 1154," published in 1576, by Savile. 
 Died, 1168. ' 
 
 HENRY, Charles, M.D., a gentleman 
 distinguished for his chemical knowledge 
 and scientific pursuits, was the son of an 
 eminent manufacturing chemist at Man- 
 chester, and born in 1775. He finished his 
 education in the university of Edinburgh, 
 
 407 
 
 where he attended the lectures of Dr. Black, 
 and was tlie associate and friend of Broug- 
 ham, Jeffrey, and Mackintosh. Though in- 
 tended for the medical profession, he relin- 
 quished it for the sake of co-operating in his 
 father's lucrative i)ur8uits, which he after- 
 wards carried on. He began his public 
 career by delivering, in Manchester, several 
 courses of lectures on chemistry, which, with 
 notes, &c., have passed through several edi- 
 tions, and are remarkable for the precision 
 of their information and the elegance of 
 their style. The same observation may be 
 applied to his characters of Priestley, Davy, 
 and Wollaston ; and, in short, to his various 
 contributions in the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of London, the memoirs of the 
 Literary Philosophical Society of Manches- 
 ter, and other periodical works. There were 
 few subjects connected with popular science, 
 which he could not illustrate or embellish : 
 his conversation was peculiarly attractive, 
 and he was capable of imparting his varied 
 stores of knowledge in tlie most alluring 
 manner, speaking for the edification and 
 amusement of others, and not for personal 
 display. Blest with a handsome competence, 
 he was never backward in patronising those 
 aspirants who appeared to deserve it, nor 
 slow in promoting the cause of general sci- 
 ence. He had just returned from the meet- 
 ing of the British Scientitic Association at 
 Bristol, where he was appointed one of the 
 secretaries for the next year's meeting at 
 Liverpool ; but he had been for some time 
 observed to labour under great nervous irri- 
 tability, and to have suffered an almost total 
 privation of sleep, which at length over- 
 powered his faculties, and he put a period 
 to his existence with a pistol, Aug. 30. 1836. 
 
 HENRY, Matthew, a Nonconformist 
 divine, was born in 16C2. He was educated 
 by his father, Philip Henry, an eminent 
 Presbyterian divine ; studied the law in 
 Gray's Inn, but renounced it for the mi- 
 nistry, and settled at Hackney. His chief 
 work is an "Exposition of the Bible," in 
 5 vols, folio ; besides which he wrote a 
 "Method of Prayer," a "Discourse on the 
 Lord's Supper," and other esteemed books 
 of practical divinity. Died, 1714. 
 
 HENRY, Dr. Robekt, minister of one of 
 the churches in Edinburgh, and author of 
 " The History of Great Britain," in 6 vols. 
 4to., was born at St. Ninian's, near Stirling, 
 in 1718, and died in 1790. 
 
 HENRYSON, Robeet, a Scotch poet in | 
 the 16th century, was schoolmaster at Dum- | 
 fermline, and a monk of the Benedictine ! 
 order. His " Fabils " were printed at Ediii- j 
 burgh in 1621 ; and his " Testament of Fairc 
 Creseide " in 1593. He wrote a number of 
 other pieces, which are to be found in the 
 collections of Hailes, Pinkerton, &c. 
 
 HEPBURN, James Bonaventdra, one 
 of the most eminent philologists, was born 
 at Hamstocks, in Huntingdonshire, in 1573. 
 He was bred in the Protestant religion by 
 his father, who was a presbyterian minister ; 
 but, after studying at St. Andrew's, he em- 
 braced the Romish faith, and went to Italy. 
 He next travelled through Turkey, Persia, 
 Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Ethiopia, and most 
 of the countries of tlie east ; and it is asserted, 
 
hep] 
 
 ^ iSeto Wiiiibtv^td SStOffrajpIji). 
 
 [her 
 
 that he became master of so many languages 
 that there was scarcely a region of the globe 
 with whose inhabitants he could not have 
 conversed in their own tongue. On his re- 
 turn he entered into the order of Minims ; but 
 the fame of his acquisitions having reached 
 the ears of pope Paul V., he invited him to 
 quit his retirement, and gave him the ward- 
 ship and inspection of all the oriental books 
 and manuscripts in the Vatican library. He 
 is supposed to have died at Venice, about 
 1()20. He published a " Hebrew and Chaldaic 
 Dictionary and an Arabic Grammar," in 
 one vol. 4to. 
 
 HEPBURN, Robert, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in Scotland, in 1690. At 
 the age of 21 he published, in 30 numbers, a 
 series of essays, entitled " The Tattler, by 
 Hector Macstaff, of the North." He studied 
 the civil law in Holland, and became a mem- 
 ber of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh, 
 where he died in 1712. Some of his manu- 
 scripts are in the advocates' library. 
 
 HERACLITUS, the founder of a philo- 
 sophical sect, was born at Ephesus, and 
 flourished in the 69th Olympiad? about 500 
 B. c. He incorporated the mysteries of the 
 Pythagorean system into his own, which was 
 exceedingly severe and obscure. Being of a 
 misanthropic turn, whence he is said to have 
 wept at the follies of mankind, he retired to 
 a mountainous region, where he lived upon 
 roots and herbs ; but being attacked by a 
 fatal disease, was obliged to return to the 
 city, and soon afterwards died, in the 60th 
 year of his age. From the little of his philo- 
 sophy that has come down to us, it appears 
 that he considered fire as the element of all 
 things. 
 
 HERALiDUS, Desiderius, or, properly, 
 DiDiER Herault, was a counsellor of the 
 parliament of Paris, and died in 1649. He 
 wrote " Adversaria," Notes on Tertullian, 
 Martial, &c. His son became a clergyman 
 of the Church of England, and had a prebend 
 in the cathedral of Canterbury. He wrote 
 a piece against the regicides, and some other 
 works. 
 
 HERAULT DE SECHELLES, Marie 
 Jean, advocate-general in the parliament of 
 Paris under the old regime, and afterwards 
 a member of the National Convention, was 
 born at Paris, in 1700. Thougli he conducted 
 himself before the revolution as an able and 
 upright magistrate, he subsequently advo- 
 cated vindictive measures against the royal- 
 ists, and even charged Louis XVI. with an 
 uninterrupted series of treasons, without 
 mentioning what they were, and recom- 
 mended his condemnation. But he chiefly 
 distinguished himself in the contest between 
 the Mountain and Gironde parties, and he 
 powerfully co-operated in the destruction of 
 the latter ; but all his services to the terrorists 
 did not save him from the scaffold : he was 
 executed, with Danton, in 1795. 
 
 HERBELOT, Bartholomew d', a learn- 
 ed orientalist, was bom at Paris, in 1025. 
 After travelling twice into Italy, in search 
 of eastern manuscripts, and to converse 
 with oriental travellers, with a view to the 
 elucidation of the Hebrew Scriptures, he was 
 appointed regius professor of Syriac in the 
 French capital, and granted a pension. He 
 
 was the author of " The Oriental Library," 
 and other able works. He died in 1695, not 
 less regretted for his virtues, than admired 
 for his learning. 
 
 HERBERT, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, 
 was born in 1581, at Montgomery Castle ; 
 was sent, when only 12 years old, to Uni- 
 versity College, Oxford ; was made a knight 
 of the Bath, soon after tlie accession of James 
 I. ; and shortly after travelled on the Con- 
 tinent, where liis elegant manners and chi- 
 valric accomplishments attracted the greatest 
 notice. He served in the Netherlands in 
 1610 and 1614, distinguishing himself by his 
 romantic bravery ; was twice ambassador to 
 France ; and on his return, in 1625, was 
 created an Irish peer, and afterwards an 
 English baron. He espoused tlie parlia- 
 mentary cause during the civil wars, but 
 quitted it, and died in 1648. His principal 
 work is entitled " De Veritate," the object of 
 which was to assert the sufficiency and per- 
 fection of natural religion, with a view to 
 prove the uselessness of revelation. He also 
 wrote " De Religione Laici," his own " Me- 
 moirs," a " Life of Henry VIII.," &c. 
 
 HERBERT, George, a brother of the 
 preceding, was distinguished as a poet and 
 a divine. He was bom in 1593 ; educated at 
 Westminster School, and at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge ; and became rector of Bemerton, 
 Wilts ; where he died in 1632. He was a 
 man of exemplary piety and benevolence, 
 and a poet of no mean rank. 
 
 HERBERT, William, earl of Pembroke, 
 a poet and the patron of learned men, was 
 bom in 1580, at Wilton House, the family 
 seat. He was educated at New College, 
 Oxford ; and in 1626 was elected chancellor 
 of that university, to which he was a liberal 
 benefactor through life, and bequeathed to 
 it at his death a valuable collection of manu- 
 scripts. Died, 1630. 
 
 HERBERT, Sir Thomas, a descendant of 
 one of the branches of the Pembroke family, 
 was the son of an alderman at York. After 
 receiving his education at Oxford, he tra- 
 velled for 4 years in Asia and Africa, of 
 which he published an account. On the 
 breaking out of the civil wars he sided with 
 the parliament ; but ha\-ing been appointed 
 to attend upon Charles in his captivity, he 
 became warmly attached to him, and proved 
 himself a zealous and incorruptible servant 
 to him up to the hour of his execution. He 
 survived his royal master 20 years, devoting 
 his life principally to literary pursuits. He 
 assisted Dugdale in his " Monasticon Angli- 
 canum," and published an account of the 
 last 2 years of the life of king Charles, under 
 the title of " Threnodia Carolina." He was 
 created a baronet at the Restoration, and 
 died in 1682. 
 
 HEREIN, Augustus Frakcis Julian, 
 a Frenchman, distinguished as an oriental 
 scholar, was bom in 1783. He composed an 
 Arabic grammar ; also a treatise on ancient 
 music ; and an account of Hafiz, the Persian 
 poet, with specimens of his works. Died, 
 1806. 
 
 HERDER, John Godfrey von, a clas- 
 sical German writer, and a moral pliiloso- 
 pher of the new school, was bom in 1744, of 
 poor parents, at Mohrungen, in Prussia ; was 
 
her] 
 
 ^ iJ^eio Bnibtrial 3St05rajp!)i). 
 
 [her 
 
 educated for the church, and became court 
 preacher, ecclesiastical counsellor, and vice- 
 president of the consistory to the Duke of 
 Saxe Weimar; and died in 1803. At the 
 moment when he expired he was writing a 
 hymn to the Deity, and the pen was found 
 on the unfinished line. He was greatly es- 
 teemed by all who knew him, and looked 
 upon as the Fenelon of Germany. His un- 
 relaxing zeal and diligence penetrated the 
 most various branches of science, theory, 
 philosophy, philology, natural and civil 
 history, and politics. His works form 28 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 HERISSANT, Louis Anthoxy Prosper, 
 a French physician and naturalist of the 18th 
 century, wag a native of Paris, where he 
 died in 1769, at the early age of 24. He wrote 
 "L'Eloge de Gouthier d^Andemach ; " for 
 which he received a prize from the faculty 
 of medicine. He was also the author of 
 an eulogy upon Du Cange, a poem on 
 printing, " Bibliothfeque Physique de la 
 France," Sec. 
 
 HERITIER DE BRUTELLE, Charles 
 Louis l', a French botanist, was born at 
 Paris, in 1745. In 178fi, Dombey having 
 brought from Peru and Chili an inestima- 
 ble collection of plants, L'lleritier published 
 a description of them in London, under the 
 title of the Flora of Peru. On his return 
 to Paris he published a work with the sin- 
 gular title of "Flore de la Place Vendome." 
 This ingenious man was assassinated in 
 1801. 
 
 HERITIER DE VTLLANDON, Nicho- 
 las l', a French poet of the 17th century, 
 was originally in the guards ; but being dis- 
 abled for service by a wound, he became 
 historiographer of France, and died in 1080. 
 He wrote 2 tragedies, " Hercule Furieux " 
 and " Clovis ; " together with a few poems. 
 His daughter, Marie Jeanne I'Heritier, was 
 born at Paris in 1064, and died in 1734. She 
 published a translation of Ovid's Epistles, 
 and some novels. 
 
 HERMANN, John, a physician and natu- 
 ralist, was born at Barr, near Strasburg, in 
 1738. He acquired a taste for the sciences 
 from his fatlier, who was a Protestant clergy- 
 man ; and after going through his studies at 
 Strasburg, he took his doctor's degree. He 
 greatly extended the boundaries of science, 
 both by his lectures and the great number 
 of treatises which he published, and devoted 
 all his property to the formation of a cabinet 
 of natural history. Died, 1800. 
 
 HERMANN, Paul, a botanist, was born 
 at Halle, in Saxony. He resided some time 
 in the East Indies, particularly at Ceylon, 
 where he acted as physician to the Dutch 
 settlement. On his return he published 
 various botanical works, and died in 1695. 
 
 HERMAS, an ancient father of the Chris- 
 tian church, surnamed Pastor, or the Shep- 
 herd, who is said to be the same mentioned 
 by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Romans. 
 He is supposed to have died at Rome about 
 the year 81. A piece of his, entitled " The 
 Shepherd," is still extant, and was trans- 
 lated into English by Archbishop Wake. 
 
 HERMELIN, Samuel Gustavus, Baron, 
 a Swedish mineralogist, was born in 1744, 
 at Stockholm. After having travelled ex- 
 
 409 
 
 tensively, and paid particular attention to 
 the statistics and geology of the countries 
 which he visited, he settled in his native 
 land, and for more than 50 years held the 
 most eminent situations in the management 
 of the Swedish mines. Hermelin wrote 
 various works relative to the mineralogy, 
 metallurgy, and resources of Sweden ; and 
 spent 15 years in perfecting the Swedish 
 Atlas, a geographical undertaking of vast 
 magnitude. Indeed, few men have possessed 
 so great a degree of patient perseverance, 
 united with talents adequate for the accom- 
 plishment of so many useful designs. He 
 died in 1820. 
 
 HERMES, Trismegistus, an Egyptian 
 priest and philosopher, who, according to 
 Diodorus, was the friend and counsellor of 
 the great Osiris, and is said to have been the 
 first lawgiver, and the founder of religious 
 ceremonies among the Egyptians. He in- 
 structed his countrymen in the cultivation 
 of the olive, the measurement of lands, and 
 the knowledge of hieroglyphics, and to him 
 are attributed all the mystic sciences of the 
 Alexandrian School. But every thing re- 
 lating to him is so uncertain and obscure, 
 that even the time when, and the place 
 where, he lived cannot be assigned with any 
 certainty. 
 
 IIERMILLY.Vaquette u", a French his- 
 torian, was bom at Amiens in 1707, and died 
 at Paris in 1778. He wrote the history of 
 Majorca and Minorca, and translated Fer- 
 rara's History of Spain and the Critical 
 Theatre of Father Feijoo. 
 
 UERMOGENES, a rhetorician, bom at 
 Tarsus, in Cilicia, lived about the middle of 
 the 2nd century, and is celebrated for the 
 precocity and rapid extinction of his talents. 
 At the age of 15, he was famous for his powers 
 of oratory ; at 17, he published his rhetoric ; 
 and, soon after, various treatises on oratory, 
 which ranked him high among writers upon 
 that subject ; but, in his 25th year, he wholly 
 lost his memory, and sank into a state of 
 mental imbecility. The precise date of his 
 death is not known. 
 
 HERO, a philosopher and mathematician 
 of Alexandria, who distinguished himself by 
 his skill in the construction of warlike ma- 
 chines, and who wrote some able works on 
 the art. The time of his death is not re- 
 corded. 
 
 HERODIAN, a Greek historian, flourished 
 in the 3rd century, and held several public 
 offices at Rome. His history is written in 
 Greek, and comprises the period from the 
 death of Marcus Aurelius to the year 238. 
 
 HERODOTUS, called by Cicero the "Fa- 
 ther of History," was born at Halicarnassus, 
 in Caria, b.c. 484, and is tlie most ancient 
 of the Greek historians whose works are ex- 
 tant. Egypt, so celebrated for the wisdom 
 of its institutions, seems to have been one of 
 the most constant subjects of his attention ; 
 and his description of it is so consonant with 
 the accounts of the most intelligent travellers, 
 that we cannot for a moment believe it 
 founded on the relations of others. We are 
 also indebted to him alone for the history of 
 the origin and growth of the Persian mon- 
 archy, and of those of the earlier Medes and 
 Assyrians ; for the origin of the kingdom of 
 
ber] 
 
 ^ ^t&) WinibttM MasvH^f^^* 
 
 [her 
 
 Lydia ; its destruction by Cyrus, and the 
 different expeditions of that celebrated con- 
 queror ; the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, 
 and the most minute and exact description 
 of that country and its inhabitants ; the 
 constant wars of the successors of Cyrus ; 
 and, particularly, the expedition of Darius 
 against the Scythians. The value of his 
 history has been tlie subject of much dis- 
 cussion and controversy ; and it is generally 
 believed that his narration of events, which 
 happened during his own life, is extremely 
 faithful, while in the traditional accounts 
 which he gives of remote times and countries, 
 sufficient care has not been shown to distin- 
 guish fact from fable. He went into volun- 
 tary exile when his country was oppressed by 
 l,ygdamis, but afterwards returned and ex- 
 I)elled the tyrant. 
 
 HERRERA TORDESILLAS, Axtoxio 
 DE, a Spanish historian, who wrote a " Ge- 
 neral History of India," in 4 vols, folio, 
 which is a curious work. He also wrote a 
 " General History of Spain," in 3 vols, folio. 
 Born, 15(15 ; died, 1625. 
 
 HERRICK, RoBEUT, an English poet of 
 the 17th century. He received his education, 
 first at St. John's College, and next at Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge ; after which he entered 
 into orders, and obtained, in 1629, the vicar- 
 age of Dean Prior, in Devonshire. He was 
 deprived of this living during Cromwell's 
 usurpation, but recovered it at the Restor- 
 ation, and died not long afterwards. A 
 complete edition of his poetical works, in 
 2 vols. 8vo., was published at Edinburgh, in 
 1823. 
 
 HERRING, Thomas, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, a distinguished English prelate, was 
 the son of a clergyman in Norfolk, and bom 
 in 1693. In the rebellion of 1745, he exerted 
 himself with great zeal in defence of the 
 government, for which he was, in 1747, ad- 
 vanced to the see of Canterbury. He died in 
 1757, and was buried at Croydon. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir William, one of the 
 most distinguished astronomers of modem 
 times, was born at Hanover, in 1738. His 
 father, who was a musician, brought him up 
 to his own profession, and, at the age of 14, 
 he was placed in the band of the Hanoverian 
 foot-guards. Towards the close of the seven 
 years' war, when the French armies entered 
 Hanover, young Herschel resolved to visit 
 England, but not being able to obtain em- 
 ployment in London, he accepted a situation 
 in the band of the Durham militia. When the 
 regiment came to Doncaster, Mr. Herschel 
 formed an acquaintance with Dr. Miller, an 
 eminent composer and organist of that town. 
 It happened about this time that an organist 
 was also wanted at Halifax, and, by the 
 advice of the doctor, his young friend offered 
 himself as a candidate for the place, and was 
 successful. In 17G6, he removed from York- 
 shire to Bath, where he was chosen organist 
 at the Octagon Chapel, and leader of the 
 orchestra at the public rooms. Although 
 enthusiastically fond of music, he had for 
 some time devoted his leisure hours to the 
 study of mathematics and astronomy ; and, 
 in 1779, having constructed a telescope, and 
 begun a regular survey of the heavens, star 
 by star, he discovered, March 13th, 1781, a 
 
 410 
 
 new primary planet, which he named the 
 Georgium Sidus, iu honour of George the 
 Third. The same year he was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society, and had the 
 gold medal awarded him for his discovery. 
 His majesty now called Mr. Herschel from 
 Bath, and gave him a house at Slough, with 
 a pension to enable him to prosecute his 
 favourite pursuits. After a long series of 
 arduous and valuable labours, in 1802, he 
 laid before the Royal Society a catalogue of 
 5000 new nebulas, nebulous stars, planetary 
 nebulEB, and clusters of stars, which he had 
 discovered ; and, iu consequence of the im- 
 portant additions made by him to the stock 
 of astronomical knowledge, received from 
 the university of Oxford the honorary degree 
 of doctor of laws — an honour which was 
 followed up, in 1816, by the Guelphic order of 
 knighthood from the king. He continued 
 his astronomical observations till within a 
 few years of his death, which took place in 
 1822. His highly gifted son, the present Sir 
 John Herschel, pursues his father's scientific 
 course with ardour and success. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Caroline Lucretia, sister 
 of the above, and, like him, distinguished 
 for her zeal in astronomical pursuits, was 
 born at Hanover, 1750. Having joined her 
 brother at Bath, in 1771, she voluntarily un- 
 dertook the arduous duties of his astro- 
 nomical assistant, not only acting as his 
 amanuensis, but executing the laborious nu- 
 merical calculations necessary to render liis 
 discoveries available to science, and labour- 
 ing in the cause of astronomy with an ardour 
 and activity which neither the fatigue of 
 the body, nor the inclemencies of the season, 
 could exhaust. Her own observations were 
 so numerous and important, that the Royal 
 Society published them in one volume ; and 
 her " Zone Catalogue " was honoured, in 
 1828, with the gold medal of the London 
 Astronomical Society, of which she was also 
 elected an honorary member. She had re- 
 sided in Hanover since her brother's death 
 in 1822 ; and her latest years were spent in 
 repose, broken now and then by the visits of 
 the learned, and cheered by the regard and 
 esteem of all who knew her, whether inmates 
 of a palace or a cottage. Died, 1848. 
 
 HERSCHELL, Dr. Solomon, for many 
 years chief rabbi of the Polish and German 
 Jews resident in England, was remarkable 
 alike for his learning, his attachment to 
 his faith, and his great and diffusive bene- 
 volence, which was extended alike to Jew 
 and Christian. Tall, and of very majestic 
 figure and gait, and wearing a long and 
 snow-white beard, he reminded those who 
 chanced to meet him of some patriarch of 
 the old days of Israel. Died, October, 1842, 
 aged 82, having been just half of his long 
 life the chief rabbi. 
 
 HERTZBERG, Ewald Frederic von, 
 Count, a Prussian minister of state, whose 
 name is intimately connected with the his- 
 tory of Frederic the Great, was born in 1725. 
 He manifested his talents at an early age by 
 the publication of a " Dissertation on His- 
 tory," was patronised by the king, and 
 gradually rose to the highest offices in the 
 state. Died, 1795. 
 
 HERVEY, James, an English divine of 
 
her] 
 
 ^ jJeto Bnihtrial miOQxnp^V!' 
 
 [hey 
 
 exemplary virtue and piety, was born, in 
 1714, at Uardingstone, near Northampton ; 
 received his education at Lincoln College, 
 Oxford ; and eventually succeeded his father, 
 as rector of Weston Favell and CoHingtree. 
 His chief writings are, " Meditations and 
 Contemplations," " Remarks on Lord Boling- 
 broke's Letters on the Study and Use of 
 History," and " Theron and Aspasia ; or, a 
 Series of Dialogues and Letters on the most 
 important Subjects." Died, 1758. 
 
 HERVEY, JoHX, Lord, second son of 
 John, first earl of Bristol, was bom, 1694. 
 Educated at Westminster, and Clare Hall, 
 Cambridge, he took his degree of M. A. in 
 1715 i and after a short tour on the Conti- 
 nent, he returned to England, where he 
 spent much of his time in the literary and 
 fashionable circles of the metropolis. In 
 1720 he married Miss Lepell, so well known 
 in Pope's letters and verses ; in 1723 he 
 succeeded to the title of Lord Hervey by 
 the death of his elder brother ; and in 172,5 
 became member for Bury, when he attached 
 himself to Sir Robert Walpole's party in 
 opposition to Pulteney's, and was made 
 vice-chamberlain in 1730, which he retained 
 by court influence till 1740, when he became 
 lord privy seal. From an early age. Lord 
 Hervey took an active part in the literary and 
 political contests of the day. His pamphlets 
 in answer to the "Craftsman" involved 
 him in a duel with Pulteney ; his quarrel 
 with Pope, which extended over many years, 
 gave rise to some of the bitterest satirical 
 sketches ever penned (we allude especially 
 to the latter's celebrated prose letter, the 
 epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot, and the character 
 of Sporus) ; and he carried on an active cor- 
 respondence with Dr. Middleton regarding 
 the mode of electing the Roman senate, 
 besides writing some able pamphlets on 
 foreign affairs, which may still be read with 
 interest. His "Memoirs of the Reign of 
 George II., from his Accession to the Death 
 of Queen Caroline," after slumbering for a 
 century in the chests of Ickworth, were pub- 
 lished in 1848, with an interesting account 
 of the author by the Right Hon. Jolin Wil- 
 son Croker. Died, 1743. 
 
 HESIOD, a very ancient Greek poet, but 
 whether contemporary with, or older or 
 younger than. Homer is not agreed among 
 the learned. The " Theogony " and " Works 
 and Days " are the only undoubted pieces of 
 this poet now extant. 
 
 HESYCHIUS, a grammarian of Alexan- 
 dria, who has left a valuable lexicon of 
 Greek words, first published by Aldus Ma- 
 nutius in 1513. 
 
 HEVELIUS, JoHx, an astronomer, was 
 born at Dantzic, in 1611. He built an ob- 
 servatory in that city, made some excellent 
 telescopes, and published the result of his 
 observations in a work, entitled " Seleno- 
 graphia, sive Lunae Descriptio." His " Co- 
 metographia " caused a dispute between him 
 and Dr. Hooke, respecting the preference of 
 plain and telescopic siglits ; Hevelius de • 
 fending the former, and Hooke the latter. 
 To adjust the difference, Halley went to 
 Dantzic, and, on his return, gave a report 
 very favourable to Hevelius. Several other 
 aatronomical works were produced by him ; 
 
 particularly " Machina Coelestis," " Annus 
 Climacterus," &c. Died, 1687. 
 
 HEWSON, William, a celebrated ana- 
 tomist and physiologist, was the son of a 
 surgeon at Hexham, in Nortliumberland, 
 where he was born in 1739. After studying 
 his profession under his father, he resided 
 for some time at Newcastle, London, Edin- 
 burgh, and Paris ; and he subsequently be- 
 came a pupil of Dr. Hunter, whom he also 
 assisted in his lectures. In 1771 he obtained 
 the Copleyan medal from the Royal Society, 
 for his discoveries of the lymphatic system 
 in birds and fishes, and was elected a fellow 
 of that learned body. He also published 
 " Experimental Inquiries into the Properties 
 of the Blood." Died, 1774. 
 
 HEYLIN, Pkteu, D.D., an English di- 
 vine, was born at Burford, in Oxfordshire, 
 in 1600. He became a student of Hart Hall, 
 Oxford, but afterwards obtained a fellow- 
 ship in Magdalen College, which he resigned 
 in 1629, on being appointed chaplain to 
 Charles I. In 1031 he published his " His- 
 tory of St. George," for which the king gave 
 him the rectory of Hemmingford, in Hun- 
 tingdonshire, and a prebend of Westminster, 
 to which was added the living of Houghton, 
 in tlie bishopric of Durham. Other church 
 preferment followed ; but, becoming ob- 
 noxious to the parliamentarians, he was 
 soon ejected from it, and his private pro- 
 perty was also sequestrated. After this he 
 went to Oxford, and published a weekly 
 paper, called " Mercurius Aulicus." His 
 other productions are " Cosmography," " A 
 Help to English History," the "Life of 
 Charles I.," a " History of the Reforma- 
 tion," &c. He died in 1662 ; having shortly 
 before been reinstated in all his former 
 appointments by Charles II. 
 
 HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, a distin- 
 guished scholar, was a native of Chemnitz, 
 in Saxony, wliither his father, a poor linen 
 weaver, had fled from Gravenschutz, in 
 Silesia, on account of religious persecution. 
 Though destitute and obscure, he acquired 
 a remarkable acquaintance with the ancient 
 languages, and succeeded Gesner as professor 
 of eloquence at Gottingen, where he was 
 soon after appointed first librarian and coun- 
 sellor. By his editions and commentaries 
 on classic authors, Heyne has deserved the 
 reputation of being one of the most distin- 
 guished luminaries of the literary world. 
 His particular merit consists in having raised 
 the knowledge of antiquity and classical 
 literature from the dust of the schools, and 
 introduced it into the circle of the polished 
 world. It is not, however, merely the fame 
 of his great learning, but the propriety and 
 delicacy of his conduct, that procured him 
 the acquaintance and regard of the most 
 accomplished and eminent men of his time, 
 and rendered his memory dear to them. He 
 died in 1812, aged 82. 
 
 HEYWOOD, JoiiiV, one of the earliest 
 of the English dramatic poets, was born at 
 North Mims, in Hertfordshire, and educated 
 at Oxford ; after which he became, tliroiigh 
 Sir Thomas More, a great favourite with 
 Henry VIII. He also continued in the 
 court of Edward VI., and was much in the 
 confidence of Queen Mary ; on whose death, 
 
 411 
 
hbt] 
 
 ^ igefio Unibtv^Kl 28t0srajjljg. 
 
 [hio 
 
 being a Roman Catholic, he went abroad, 
 and died at Mechlin, in Brabant, in 1565. 
 He wrote " The Parable of the Spider and 
 Fly," a voluminous poem, in 4to. His other 
 works are a "Dialogue of Proverbs," and 
 several plays. — He left two sons, Ellis and 
 Jasper, both of whom possessed talents 
 very similar to those of their father ; but 
 being Catholics, they quitted England, and 
 spent the remainder of their lives in Italy. 
 
 HEYWOOD, Thomas, a dramatic writer 
 and actor in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., 
 and Charles I. He is said to have been a 
 most voluminous author, having written no 
 less than 220 plays, of wliich only 24 are 
 extant. He also wrote " The Actor's Vin- 
 dication," " The Hierarchy of the Angels," 
 a " Life of Merlin," " Life of Queen Eliza- 
 beth," "Lives of the Nine Worthies," &c. 
 Neither the date of his birth nor that of his 
 death are on record. 
 
 HIBBERT, George, an eminent mer- 
 chant and citizen of London, alike distin- 
 guished for his talents and public spirit, was 
 bom in Manchester, in 1757. Being destined 
 from his youth to a commercial life, he was 
 introduced into a leading mercantile house 
 in the city, engaged in the West India trade; 
 in which, first as a junior partner, and event- 
 ually as head of the firm, he continued nearly 
 half a century. Possessing strong common 
 sense, a retentive memory, and a mind 
 richly stored with various information, to- 
 gether with the faculty of expressing him- 
 self in a public assembly with clearness and 
 fluency, he became a valuable adviser and 
 coadjutor on all commercial questions ; he 
 was accordingly selected to move the resolu- 
 tions of the merchants, bankers, and traders, 
 which led to the imposition of the property- 
 tax in 1798, when the exigencies of the na- 
 tion required the sacrifice ; and again to 
 move those resolutions which forced its re- 
 peal in 1836. In 1806 he was elected M. P. 
 for Seaford, and sat for that borough till 
 1812. He was greatly instrumental in ori- 
 ginating and maturing that noble under- 
 taking, the West India Pocks ; " in grateful 
 testimony " of which, in 1804, he was pre- 
 sented by the company with some splendid 
 ornamental plate. Mr. Hibbert was elected 
 F.R. S. in 1810 ; he was also F. S. A., and a 
 member of the Roxburgh Club. Botany 
 likewise engaged his attention ; it served as 
 an employment for him in his retirement 
 from the active duties of commercial life ; 
 and he was the means of introducing into 
 this country many new and beautiful species 
 of plants. Died, Oct. 8. 1837. 
 
 HICETAS, a philosopher of Syracuse, 
 who maintained that the heavens, sun, and 
 stars were all immovable, while the earth 
 revolved on its axis. This is the account of 
 Cicero, from which Copernicus took the idea 
 of his system. 
 
 HICKERINGILL, Edmund, a clergyman 
 of eccentric character, was born in Essex, 
 in 1630. He received his education at Cam- 
 bridge ; after which he became a lieutenant 
 in the army, and went to Jamaica, of which 
 island he published a description. On en- 
 tering into orders, he obtained the vicarage 
 of Boxted, in Essex, and afterwards the 
 rectory of All Saints, in Colchester, where, 
 
 after leading an irregular and turbulent life, 
 he died, in 1708. 
 
 HICKES, George, an eminent divine 
 and learned antiquary of the 17th century, 
 was born at Newsham, in Yorkshire, in 1642, 
 and educated at Oxford. In 1681 he was 
 appointed one of the king's chaplains, and 
 soon after made dean of Worcester. At the 
 Revolution he refused to take the oaths to 
 William III., and was deprived of all his 
 benefices. In 1693 he was sent by the non- 
 juring clergy to St. Germains, to concert 
 measures with the exiled king, for the ap- 
 pointment of bishops, in the English church, 
 from their party. He returned from this 
 dangerous mission in the following year, 
 and was himself shortly after consecrated 
 bishop of Thetford. Dr. Hickes was a pro- 
 found scholar, particularly in Saxon lore ; 
 but in theological matters the violence of his 
 prejudices sometimes obscured his judgment. 
 His greatest work is entitled "Thesaurus 
 Grammatico-Criticus et Archseologicus Lin- 
 guarum veterum Septentrionalium." Died, 
 1715. 
 
 HICKES, John, brother of the preceding, 
 was a Nonconformist minister, and as re- 
 markable for his zeal in advocating those 
 principles, as Dr. James Hickes was in de- 
 fending the high church party. Hearing it 
 was the intention of government to appre- 
 hend him as a state criminal, he procured 
 an introduction to Charles II., and not only 
 obtained indemnity for himself, but also the 
 promise of protection for the Devonshire 
 Nonconformists. In the ensuing reign, 
 Hickes joined the Duke of Monmouth, was 
 taken prisoner, and executed as a traitor, in 
 1685. 
 
 HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, Don Miguel. 
 a Spanish priest, who distinguished himself 
 in promoting the war of independence in 
 Mexico, which commenced in 1809. He was 
 at that time curate of Dolores, and possessed 
 great influence over the Indians and Creoles. 
 After raising the standard of independence, 
 he was joined by AUende and a consider- 
 able body of insurgents ; upon which he 
 threw off his clerical robes, and assumed 
 the uniform and rank of generalissimo. At 
 first he obtained great success ; but he ulti- 
 mately fell into the hands of the royalists, 
 and was executed in July, 1811. 
 
 HIGGONS, Bevil, a dramatic poet and 
 historian. His principal works are, a tra- 
 gedy called "The Generous Conqueror" 
 and a " Short View of the English History." 
 He accompanied James II. to France, where 
 he died in 1735. 
 
 HIGHMORE, Joseph, a portrait and his- 
 torical painter, bom in London, 1692. He 
 was intended for the legal profession ; but, 
 on the expiration of his clerkship, he aban- 
 doned the law, resolved to trust in future 
 to his talents as an artist alone for fame 
 and fortune. He possessed the extraordi- 
 nary faculty of taking a likeness by memory 
 as well as by sitting. Among his best paint- 
 ings are, Hagar and Ishmael, in the Found- 
 ling Hospital. He distinguished himself also 
 as an author. Died, 1780. 
 
 HIGHMORE, Nathaniel, an English 
 anatomist, was born at Fordingbridge, in 
 Hampshire. He wrote " Corporis humani 
 
hil] 
 
 ^ ^cto ?Snii)rrjSaX Utasraiil^M. 
 
 [hil 
 
 Disquisitio Anatomicae," and other medical 
 works. The cavity called the A ntrum Hiyh- 
 moriamnn, in the 8Ui)erior maxilla, takes its 
 name from him. Born, 1G13 ; died, 16b4. 
 
 HILL, Sir John, a voluminous writer, 
 was bom in 171G, at Peterborough. He was 
 brought up as an apothecary, and practised 
 as a physician ; wrote numerous books with 
 great rapidity ; and was tlie inventor of 
 several lucrative quack medicines. Under 
 the auspices of the Earl of Bute he published 
 a " System of Botany," in 17 vols, folio ; and 
 on presenting a copy of it to the king of 
 Sweden, was invested with an order of 
 knighthood. He also published a Supple- 
 ment to Chambers's Cyclopaedia, "Essays 
 on Natural History and Philosophy ; " con- 
 ducted a periodical called " The Inspector ;" 
 and wrote several novels, farces, &c. He 
 was a constant attendant on every place of 
 public amusement ; and, being a satirical 
 "busybody," was often involved in quarrels 
 with the wits of the day. On one of these 
 occasions he was characteristically hit off 
 by Garrick in the following epigrammatic 
 couplet : — 
 
 "For physic and farces his rival there 
 scarce is ; 
 His farces are physic, his physic a farce 
 is." 
 
 HILL, Sir Richard, bart., born in 1733, 
 was the son of Sir Rowland Hill, of Hawk- 
 stone, Shropshire. He was educated at 
 Westminster School ; graduated at Oxford ; 
 and, on his return from the tour of Europe, 
 he distinguished himself by his attachment 
 to the Calvinistic Methodists — first, by de- 
 fending the conduct of six young men who 
 were expelled from the imiversity in 1768, 
 for alleged fanatical conduct, and next by 
 engaging in a polemical controversy with 
 John Wesley and other leaders of the Ar- 
 minian Methodists. He succeeded his father 
 as M.P. for the county of Salop ; and be- 
 came so noted in the house for his frequent 
 quaint application of facts and language 
 from the Bible, that he was called the scrip- 
 tural Killigrew. He died in 1808, when his 
 title passed to Sir John Hill, the father of 
 Lord Hill. 
 
 HILL, Rowland, the venerable minister 
 of Surrey Chapel, was a younger brother 
 of the preceding, and born at Hawkstone, 
 near Shrewsbury, in 1744. In the grammar 
 school of that town he commenced his edu- 
 cation, then went to Eton for a few years, 
 and finished his studies at St. John's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. At the time he quitted 
 the university the celebrated George Whit- 
 field was in the zenith of his popularity ; and 
 so congenial to his nature was that extraor- 
 dinary preacher's manner and doctrine, that 
 he quickly adopted both, and became his 
 zealous disciple ; prosecuting his favourite 
 plan of itinerancy, preaching in the streets 
 of Bristol, on the quays, or among the col- 
 liers at Kingswood ; wherever, in fact, he 
 could gain an audience ; but resuming, at 
 stated periods, the services of the London 
 and Bristol tabernacles. In 17*3 the building 
 of Surrey Chapel was completed ; and from 
 that time to the period of his death, an in- 
 terval of SO years, he continued to pass his 
 
 winters in town for the purpose of ofiSciating 
 there, his place being supplied during the 
 summer months by a succession of poiiular 
 ministers from the country. The numerous 
 tales that are told of his eccentricities should 
 be received with caution ; though it is cer- 
 tain he occasionally illustrated the most 
 solemn truths by observations which sa- 
 voured more of the ludicrous than the pa- 
 thetic — more of the grotesque than the 
 serious ; yet his intentions were pure and 
 sincere, and he was no less indefatigable in 
 his calling as a preacher than he was bene- 
 volent as a man. His writings are very 
 numerous, the principal of which is entitled 
 "Village Dialogues ;" but he was not 
 sparing of wit, humour, or sarcasm, when- 
 ever he could make either subservient to 
 his purpose, as was strikingly seen in a 
 satirical pamphlet against the ministers of 
 the established church, which he published 
 anonymously, under the title of " Spiritual 
 Characteristics, by an Old Observer." He 
 died, in 1833, aged 88. 
 
 HILL, Viscount, General Rowland Hill, 
 the second son of Sir John Hill, bart., 
 was bom on the 11th of Aug. 1772 j entered 
 the army at the early age of 16 ; served at 
 Toulon under Lord Mulgrave, General 
 O'Hara, and Sir David Duiidas ; through 
 the whole of the Egyptian campaign, where 
 he was wounded in the head ; in Ireland, 
 throughout the Peninsular War, and at 
 Waterloo, where he most ably seconded the 
 Duke of Wellington. In 1828 he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief, and never 
 can that post be filled to greater public satis- 
 faction, or more beneficially to the anny. 
 In the field — in every rank, from that of 
 ensign to that of general — lie was remark- 
 able for a rare union of daring, zeal, and 
 prudence ; and, as commander-in-chief at 
 home, he was equally remarkable for his 
 anxious and intelligent exertions for the 
 promotion of the comforts of the army, and 
 for the advancement of the service. In the 
 distribution of his patronage he was pro- 
 verbially impartial ; private or political 
 feeling never prevented him from doing 
 justice to professional merit. Died, Dec. 10. 
 1842, aged 70. 
 
 HILL, Robert, a self-taught genius of 
 extraordinary merit, was bora in Hertford- 
 shire, in 1699, and bred a tailor and stay- 
 maker. By indefatigable application he 
 acquired a suflScient knowledge of the Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew languages, to be able to 
 teach them. He died at Buckingham, in 
 1777. He wrote " Remarks on the Essay on 
 Spirit," " The Character of a Jew," and 
 " Criticisms on Job." 
 
 HILLEL the Elder, sumamed Hassa 
 KEN, was a celebrated Jewish doctor or 
 rabbi, who lived in the century preceding 
 the Christian era, and was a native of Ba- 
 bylon. At the age of forty he removed to 
 Jerusalem, where he studied the law with 
 such diligence as to become master of the 
 chief school of that city. He formed a new 
 digest of the traditionary law, from which 
 the "Mischna," or earliest part of the 
 Talmud, is derived. Shammai, one of his 
 disciples, dissented from his master, and set 
 up a new college, which produced violent 
 
hil] 
 
 ^ |2t&j UiiibtvStd 33tOja[rap]^p. 
 
 [hip 
 
 contests among the Jews ; but the party of 
 Hillel proved victorious. He lived to the 
 great age of 120 years ; and while president 
 of the Sanhedrim, he discharged the duties 
 of his office with unexampled wisdom and 
 justice. 
 
 HILLEL the Younger, who obtained the 
 title of Nasi, or Prince of the Captivity, pre- 
 sided over the Jewisli church in the third 
 and fourth centuries, and distinguished him- 
 self by his great astronomical learning, re- 
 forming the Jewish calendar, regulating the 
 period of the equinoxes, &c. He was also 
 one of the doctors to whom is ascribed that 
 portion of the Talmud called " Gemara." 
 
 HILLIARD, Nicholas, a portrait painter, 
 was born in 1547, at Exeter. He imitated 
 the style of Hans Holbein, and became gold- 
 smith, carver, and painter, to queen Eliza- 
 beth. Among his best works are the por- 
 traits of Elizabeth and Mary, queen of 
 Scots. Died, 1019. 
 
 HILTON, Walter, a Carthusian monk 
 of the monastery of Sheen, in the 15th cen- 
 tury ; author of " The Scale or Ladder of 
 Perfection;" and to whom also has been 
 erroneously attributed tlie celebrated book 
 "De Imitatione Christi," written by Tho- 
 mas k Kempis, or by Gerson. 
 
 HILTON, William, R. A.,-an eminent 
 English artist. His forte was the picturesque 
 ideal, and it is difficult to say whether he 
 was most excellent as a designer, or as a 
 colourist. His pictures are very numerous, 
 and if they have not been made what is 
 called "popular," by means of engravings 
 from them, it is because their chastity of 
 design and their exquisite finish make them 
 essentially and exclusively appeal only to 
 the genuine cognoscenti. His "Rape of 
 Ganymede," " Hebe," and " Rape of Pro- 
 serpine," are exquisite. On the death of 
 the great though eccentric Fuseli, Mr. Hil- 
 ton succeeded him as keeper of the Royal 
 Academy, and in that important office he 
 so ably and indefatigably directed and aided 
 the students, that, just before his death, they 
 presented him with a valuable piece of plate. 
 Born, 1787 ; died, 1840. 
 
 HILTZ, John, a German architect of the 
 15th century. He succeeded Steinbach, 
 builder of the catliedral of Strasburg, the 
 tower of which celebrated edifice, 570 feet 
 high, was erected by Hiltz, and is considered 
 a masterpiece of architecture. 
 
 HINCHCLIFFE, John, bishop of Peter- 
 borough, was born in 1731, in Swallow Street, 
 St. James's, where his father kept a livery- 
 stable. He was educated at Westminster 
 School, of which he subsequently became 
 head-master, and, through tlie patronage of 
 the Grafton family, he obtained successive 
 church preferment till he reached the mitre. 
 Died, 1794. 
 
 HIPPARCHUS, the most eminent among 
 the ancient astronomers, was a native of 
 Nicaja, in Bithynia, and flourished about a 
 century and a half before the Christian era. 
 He resided some time in the island of 
 Rhodes, whence he has derived the appel- 
 lation of Ehodius ; but he afterwards went 
 to Alexandria, at that time the great school 
 of science. He has been styled the patriarch 
 of astronomy, and was certainly the first 
 
 414 
 
 who treated the sublime science in a philoso- 
 phic manner. He discovered the precession 
 of the equinoxes ; calculated the eclipses ? 
 determined the revolutions and mean mo- 
 tions of the planets ; invented the stereogra- 
 phical method of projection ; numbered and 
 catalogued the fixed stars ; and in short, by 
 his labours, were laid the solid foundations 
 of geographical and trigonometrical science. 
 
 HIPPIAS, prince of Athens, was the son 
 of Pisistratus, at whose death he assumed 
 the government, in conjunction witli his 
 brother Hipparchus ; but the latter being 
 assassinated by a band of conspirators, while 
 conducting a solemn procession to the tem- 
 ple of Minerva, Hippias immediately seized 
 the reins of government, and revenged the 
 death of his brother, by putting to death all 
 of whom he entertained the least suspicion. 
 His tyranny at last became so obnoxious to 
 the citizens, that they bribed the priests of 
 the Delphic oracle to command the Spartans 
 to break oS their alliance with him ; and 
 being obliged to yield to the united attack 
 of his foreign and domestic enemies, he was 
 expelled from the city b. c. 510. He after- j 
 wards found means to induce Darius to apply 
 to the Athenians in his favour ; and their 
 decisive refusal kindled the first war of the 
 Persians against the European Greeks. The 
 fate of Hippias was at length decided on the 
 field of Marathon, where, with the Persian 
 army, he fell on that memorable day, fight- 
 ing against his countrymen, b. c. 490. 
 
 HIPPISLEY, Sir John Coxe, bart., was 
 bom at Yatton, Somersetshire, in 1765. Af- 
 ter having graduated at Hertford College, 
 Oxford, he became a bencher of the Middle 
 Temple, and was appointed in 1780, through 
 the interest of Lord North, to an office of 
 trust and importance in India, which he 
 held during the wars with Hyder Ally and 
 Tippoo Saib. In 1790, he was elected M.P. 
 for Sudbury, of which borough he became 
 recorder, and represented it in five parlia- 
 ments. Sir John was an active magistrate, 
 and a warm supporter of many agricultural 
 and other useful institutions. He was re- 
 warded with a baronetcy in 1796, for his 
 services in the negotiations for the marriage 
 of the Princess Royal of England with the 
 Duke of Wirtemberg. Died, 1825. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, the most eminent of the 
 Greek physicians, and deservedly styled the 
 father of medical science, was bom in the 
 isle of Cos, B. c. 460, and died b. c. 361. His 
 memory is still venerated in his native 
 island, and the inhabitants show with pride 
 a house in which they say he resided. He j 
 died, in the 99th year of his age, at Larissa, 
 in Thessaly, and the highest honours were 
 paid to his memory. Several of his works 
 are extant ; and an edition of them was 
 printed at Leipsic so latelv as 1825. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, of Chios, a celebrated 
 geometrician, who lived about 500 years 
 B.C., and discovered the quadrature of the 
 lunula, which bears his name. 
 
 HIPPOLYTUS, St., a Christian bishop, 
 who suffered in the persecution of Alexan- 
 der Severus, a. d. 230. His works in Greek 
 and Latin were printed by Fabricius, in 2 
 vols, folio, 1716. 
 
 HIPPONAX, a satiric poet, of Ephesus, 
 
hoa] 
 
 ^ ^ein BnihtxiaX SBtograplbB* 
 
 [hoc 
 
 who lived about 540 years, b. c, and was co- 
 temporary with Anacreon. 
 
 HOADLY, Benjamix, a celebrated pre- 
 late, was born at Westerham, in Kent, in 
 l(i7(j. He soon distinguished himself as a 
 cliampion of freedom, in liis controversy 
 with Calamy and Atterbury ; and was re- 
 commended by the House of Commons to 
 queen Anne, who promised him preferment, 
 but which he did not obtain from her. On 
 the accession of George I. he was made 
 bisliop of Bangor ; and soon afterwards 
 translated to Hereford. lu 1723 lie obtained 
 the bishopric of Salisbury, and in 1734 he 
 became bishop of Winchester. Throughout 
 life he was an active and able controversial- 
 ist, and his opponents, who were of the high 
 church party, never ceased to charge him 
 with attempting to undermine that establish- 
 ment of which he was a prelate. Died 17C1. 
 HOADLY, Benjamix, eldest son of the 
 preceding, was physician to George II. and 
 Frederic, prince of Wales. He published 
 some medical and philosophical pieces ; but 
 he is best known as the author of "The Sus- 
 picious Husband," a comedy. Born, 1706 ; 
 died, 1757. 
 
 HOADLY, JoHsr, LL.D., the younger son 
 of Bishop Iloadly, was born in London, in 
 1711 ; received his education at Corpus 
 Christi College, Cambridge, and studied the 
 law ; after which he entered into orders, and 
 obtained some valuable preferments in the 
 church and diocese of Winchester, among 
 
 I which were the mastership of St. Cross Hos- 
 pital, and the chancellorship of the diocese. 
 
 ! He wrote poems, two or three comedies, and 
 
 I an oratorio. Died, 1770. 
 
 I HOARE, Pkixce, F. S. A., a dramatic 
 author, and secretary to the Royal Aca- 
 
 I demy, was a native of Bath. He wrote se- 
 veral farces, wliich were successful, and 
 
 I published some works on art. He died in 
 
 ' 1834, aged 80. 
 
 HOARE, Sir Richard Colt, bart., F.R.S. 
 and F.S.A., an eminent local historian and 
 topographer, was the eldest son of Sir Richard 
 Hoare, the first baronet, and bom in 1758. 
 In 1818 he printed for private circulation 
 among his friends, his "Recollections" of 
 a "Classical Tour," in 4 vols. Various 
 treatises on antiquarian and other kindred 
 subjects occasionally came from his pen ; 
 
 I but liis great work, on which he bestowed 
 
 ; the utmost care and attention, and which 
 entitles him to a distinguished place in 
 the first rank of topographical historians, 
 is the "Ancient and Modem History of 
 Wiltshire," which at the time of his death 
 was not quite complete. Died, aged 79, 
 May 19. 1838. 
 
 HOARE, WiLUAM, an English artist, 
 was born about 1707, at Eye, in Suffolk. He 
 studied under Grisoni, an Italian painter in 
 London ; after which he went to Rome, 
 where he became a pupil of Francisco Im- 
 periale. He remained in Italy many years, 
 and on his return painted some good altar- 
 pieces and portraits, which last were chiefly 
 in crayons. Died, 1792. 
 
 HOBBES, Thomas, a celebrated philoso- 
 pher and political writer, was born, in 1588, 
 at Malmesbury, Wilts ; was educated at 
 Magdalen Hall, Oxford ; and in 1608 be- 
 
 came tutor to a son of the Earl of Devon- 
 shire. On the death of his patron and pupil 
 he became travelling tutor to a young gen- 
 tleman; but the Countess-dowager of Devon- 
 sliire recalled him into her family, to take 
 upon him the education of the young earl. 
 In 1028 he attended the earl on his travels, 
 and at Pisa contracted an intimacy with 
 Galileo. In 1042 he printed his book, " De 
 Cive," which procured him many enemies 
 by its dangerous principles. Soon after this 
 he was appointed mathematical tutor to the 
 Prince of Wales. In 1050 appeared, in Eng- 
 lish, his work on " Human Nature ; " and 
 one, "De Corpore Politico," or the "Ele- 
 ments of Law." The next year he published 
 his still more famous and obnoxious book, 
 entitled " Leviathan." At the Restoration 
 he received a pension ; but in 1005 the par- 
 liament passed a censure on his writings, 
 which greatly alarmed him. Besides the 
 works which we have enumerated above, 
 he published " De Mirabilibus Pecci, or the 
 Wonders of the Peak," a poem ; a transla- 
 tion of Homer ; " Elements of Philosophy," 
 a " Letter on Liberty and Necessity," " Six 
 Lessons to the Professors of the Mathema- 
 tics," &c. The latter years of his life were 
 spent at Chatsworth, the seat of the Earl of 
 Devonshire, where he died in 1679. Hobbea 
 has been branded with the epithets of infidel 
 and atheist, by those who thought that his 
 speculations might weaken the confidence of 
 mankind in the general principles of morals 
 and theology ; and though there is evidence 
 of his having practised the duties of religion 
 as a member of the Church of England, yet a 
 candid review of his written opinions induces 
 us to pronounce them as highly pernicious. 
 
 HOBBIMA, MiNDERHOUT, an eminent 
 Dutch landscape painter, bom at Antwerp, 
 in 1011. His pieces are remarkable for the 
 grace and beauty of their execution, and, 
 being rare, are now very valuable. 
 
 HOBLER, Fis.iNCis, for many years chief 
 clerk to the lord mayor of London, was the 
 son of a Swiss watchmaker, and was bom 
 in Soho, London. Having served his articles 
 to an eminent lawyer, he was at a very early 
 age appointed clerk to the magistrates at 
 Guildhall, and thence removed to the chief 
 clerkship at the Mansion House, where his 
 strict attention, his sound knowledge of the 
 law, and a certain odd facetiousness of 
 repartee and remark in the more frivolous 
 cases, made him the "observed of all ob- 
 servers." He was a terror to evil-doers, for 
 it was impossible for them to elude his cir- 
 cumstantial recollections of them ; but no 
 man was ever more prompt in relieving the 
 aflSicted, and lifting up those who had fallen 
 into want. Died, 1844, aged 78. 
 
 HOCHE, Lazarus, an eminent French 
 general, was born, in 1768, at Montreuil, 
 near Versailles, where his father was an 
 ostler. In 1785 he entered the army ; was 
 made a corporal of grenadiers, and having 
 passed with applause through the interme- 
 diate gradations of rank, frequently distin- 
 guishing himself by acts of bravery, he wqb 
 raised, in 1793, to the command of the army 
 of the Moselle, where he had to contend with 
 the Duke of Brunswick, and was several 
 times beaten. He, however, succeeded better 
 
hod] 
 
 ^ i^m Unihtr^Kl 3St0flrapi^i?. 
 
 [hof 
 
 when engaged with the Austrians, whom he 
 drove out of Alsace. In 1795 he was placed 
 at the head of the republican army in La 
 Vendee. In this important and difficult 
 station he acquitted himself well, and suc- 
 ceeded in defeating the emigrants at Quibe- 
 ron, and in inducing the royalists to yield 
 obedience to the government. After having 
 been sent, in the winter of 1796, as com- 
 mander of the troops in the expedition to 
 Ireland, and from which he returned in dis- 
 grace, he was appointed to the command of 
 the army of the Sambre and Meuse, and had 
 already gained considerable advantages, 
 when his career was stopped by the armistice 
 between Prince Charles and Buonaparte. 
 He died at Wetzlar, in 1797. 
 
 HODGSON, Dr. Robekt, dean of Carlisle, 
 and rector of St. George's, Hanover Square, 
 was a nephew of Bishop Porteus, and edu- 
 cated at St. Peter's College, Cambridge. In 
 1803, he was appointed one of the chaplains 
 in ordinary to the king ; became dean of 
 Carlisle in 1820 ; and was for some years 
 chaplain-general of the army, but resigned 
 that appointment during tlie administration 
 of the Duke of Wellington. His principal 
 literary undertakings were the "Life of 
 Beilby Porteus, Bishop of London," and the 
 editorship of the bishop's works in 6 vols. 
 8vo. Died, Oct. 1844. 
 
 HODY, Humphrey, a learned divine, was 
 born at Odcombe in Somersetshire, in 1659. 
 When young he published a " Dissertation 
 against Aristeas's History of the Seventy- 
 two Interpreters," which was received by the 
 learned with great applause. It was, how- 
 ever, attacked by Isaac Vossius, and defended 
 by the author in an unanswerable manner. 
 In 1698 he was appointed Greek professor at 
 Oxford, and in 1701 he published his " His- 
 tory of English Councils and Convocations." 
 He died in 1706, and by his will foimded ten 
 scholarships in Wadham College. 
 
 HOFER, Andrew, a patriotic leader of 
 the Tyrolese, was born, in 1765, at Passayer ; 
 and when he grew up, he kept an inn there, 
 and dealt in corn, wine, and cattle. By the 
 treaty of Presburg, the Tyrol was transferred 
 to the king of Bavaria ; but the war being 
 rekindled in 1809, the inhabitants rose in a 
 mass to drive out the Bavarians, and again 
 place themselves under the dominion of 
 Austria. The riches and influence of Hofer, 
 his athletic form and decided character, all 
 combined to induce the insurgents to elect 
 him their chief. Every thing prospered un- 
 der his direction. Almost the whole country 
 was conquered, and 8000 of the best troops of 
 Bavaria were made prisoners by the peasants. 
 Hofer now appeared upon the Brenner, and 
 became the idol of the Tyrolese. He was 
 preparmg to restore to the closely blockaded 
 and suffermg Tyrol a communication with 
 the interior of the imperial states, when the 
 battle of Wagram was succeeded by the 
 armistice of Znaim, the terms of which re- 
 quired that the Austrians should abandon 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg to the vengeance of 
 the enemy. The gallant Hofer concealed 
 himself in a cave, but soon issued from his 
 retreat, and drove the French invaders out 
 of the country. At length, however, the tide 
 of victory turned ; and although they main- 
 
 418 
 
 tained a glorious struggle, and gained many 
 splendid victories, the Tyrolese were sub- 
 jugated, and Hofer being discovered, he was 
 tried by a courtmartial at Mantua, and shot, 
 Feb. 20. 1810. After liis death he was revered 
 by his countrymen as a martyr, his family 
 were indemnified for the loss of their pro- 
 perty by the emperor of Austria, and his son 
 was ennobled by him. 
 
 HOFFMAN, or HOFFMANN. There were 
 several Germans of this name distinguished 
 
 for their medical knowledge Maurice, 
 
 an anatomist, botanist, and pliysician ; bom 
 in 1621, at Furstenwalde, in Brandenburg ; 
 settled at Altorf, where he held the profes- 
 sorships of anatomy, botany, and physic ; 
 was the discoverer of the pancreatic duct ; 
 and died in 1698. He, as well as his son, 
 John Maurice, wrote several works on va- 
 rious medical subjects. Frederic Hoff- 
 mann, the most celebrated of the name, was 
 born in 1663, at Halle, in Saxony, where his 
 father was also an eminent physician. He 
 studied and lectured at Jena, and afterwards 
 practised at Minden. In 1684 he visited 
 England, and formed an acquaintance with 
 Boyle and other men of science. On the 
 establishment of the university of Halle, he 
 was appointed primary professor of medicine 
 and natural philosophy ; and thrice held the 
 situation of rector. His reputation being 
 now fully established, and his fame widely 
 spread, he was elected a member of various 
 scientific associations in London, Berlin, and 
 Petersburgh ( and appointed physician to the 
 king of Prussia, who gave him the title of 
 archiater and aulic councillor, with a liberal 
 salary. His works are very numerous ; the 
 most important being his "Systema Medi- 
 cinsB Rationalis " and " Medicina Consul- 
 tatoria." It has been remarked of him, that 
 as a theorist his suggestions were of great 
 value, and contributed to introduce that 
 revolution in the science of pathology, which 
 subsequent observation has extended and 
 confirmed. Died, 1742 Caspar Hoff- 
 mann, another German physician, was a 
 native of Gotha ; wrote several medical 
 works ; became professor of the theory of 
 medicine at Altorf; and died there in 1648. 
 
 Christopher Lewis Hoffmann, also a 
 
 physician, was born, in 1721, at Rheda, in 
 Westphalia. He distinguished himself as a 
 professional writer, and formed a new system 
 of medicine, by combining the humoral and 
 nervous pathology ; assuming, as the basis of 
 his system, the sensibility and irritability of 
 the solids, and the corruption of the humours 
 as the principle of irritation. He was suo^ 
 cessively physician to the Bishop of Munster 
 and the Electors of Cologne ftnd Mentz. 
 Died, 1807, 
 
 HOFFMAN, Henry, a French dramatic 
 writer, poet, and critic, was born at Nancy, 
 in 1760, He began his literary labours in 
 Paris, by publishing, in 1785, a volume of 
 poems, and subsequently wrote many dra^ 
 mas and operatic pieces ; but during the 
 latter portion of his life he was known prin- 
 cipally as an acute and impartial critic of 
 the writings of others. Died, 1828. 
 
 HOFFMAN, John James, professor of 
 Greek at Basic, where he was born in 1635, 
 and died in 1706. He is principally known 
 
hof] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ?am'l)tr^al 3Biflsra}jf)2?. 
 
 [hog 
 
 by a work of great labour and value, entitled 
 " Lexicon Universale." 
 
 HOFFMANN, Ernest Tueodoke Wil- 
 liam, a German of varied talents, was bom 
 at Konigsberg, in 1776. lie studied the law, 
 and held various judicial appointments in 
 Prussia ; till his legal career was interrupted 
 by the invasion of Warsaw by the French, 
 in 180(5, in the government of which city he 
 had been appointed counsellor. Having 
 devoted his leisure hours to the study of 
 music, and being at the same time a romance 
 writer and an artist, he applied himself to 
 these pursuits in order to obtain a livelihood. 
 He possessed much imagination and talent ; 
 but he was an intemperate liver, and suffered 
 much from hypochondriasm. Among his 
 works are, " The Devil's Elixir," " Tlie En- 
 tail," " Tlie Adversary," &c. ; all displaying 
 a singularly wild and romantic imagination. 
 In 181G he was reinstated as counsellor in 
 the court of judicature in Berlin, and died iu 
 1822. 
 
 HOFLAND, Baebaka (widow of Mr. 
 T. C. HoFLAND, landscape painter, who died 
 in 1843), well known by her numerous works, 
 written principally for the amusement and 
 instruction of youth, was the daughter of 
 a manufacturer at Sheffield, named Wreaks, 
 where she was born in the year 1770.. At 
 the age of 26 she married Mr. T. Bradshaw 
 Hoole, of that town, whose death happened 
 about two years after, leaving her with an 
 infant son, subsequently known as the Kev. 
 Mr. Hoole, curate of St. Andrew's, Hol- 
 bom— a zealous minister and an affectionate 
 son — whose death occurred in 1833. Mrs. 
 Holland commenced her literary career in 
 1805, by the publication of a volume of 
 poems, by subscription ; from the proceeds 
 of which she established herself in a school 
 at Harrowgate, at the same time appearing 
 occasionally as a writer of moral and amus- 
 ing tales. Ten years had now elapsed since 
 the death of her husband, when she attracted 
 the attention and became the wife of Mr. 
 Hofland. They soon after settled in Lon- 
 don ; and from that period till her decease 
 she may be said to have never discontinued 
 writing ; for, although the majority of her 
 books were neither laborious nor bulky, they 
 were very numerous, and required consider- 
 able powers of invention. Among the more 
 important we should mention "Emily," a 
 novel in 4 vols. ; " Beatrice," " The Unloved 
 One," " The Son of a Genius," " Tales of the 
 Priory," " Self-denial," " The Merchant's 
 Widow," " Decision," &c. Died, 1844. 
 
 HOGARTH, William, a truly great and 
 
 original painter of life and manners, was 
 
 born in London, in 1698, and bound appren- 
 
 I tice to an engraver of arms on silver plate. 
 
 About 1720 he set up for himself, and his 
 
 first employment was to engrave coats of 
 
 I arms and shop bills. He next undertook to 
 
 [ execute plates for booksellers, the chief of 
 
 i which are the prints to Hudibras. His first 
 
 performance as a painter was a represeuta- 
 
 I tion of Wanstead Assembly, the portraits 
 
 ; being taken from life. In 1730 he married 
 
 i a daughter of Sir James Thornhill ; shortly 
 
 after which he embellished the gardens of 
 
 Vauxhall with some excellent paintings, for 
 
 which tlie proprietor complimented him 
 
 417 
 
 with a perpetual ticket of admission. In 
 1733 appeared his " Harlot's Progress," prints 
 whicli stamped his reputation, and were fol- 
 lowed by other moral histories and satirical 
 representations of vice and folly, such as 
 "The Rake's Progress," " Marriage-Ji la- 
 Mode," "Industry and Idleness," &c., all 
 admirably executed. Soon after the treaty 
 of Aix-la-Cliapelle he went to France, and 
 while at Calais began to sketch a drawing of 
 the gate of the town, for which he was taken 
 up, but was soon released. On his return he 
 commemorated the aftair in his excellent 
 print, " O the Roast Beef of Old England." 
 In 1753 he published his " Analysis of 
 Beauty," in which he was assisted by Dr. 
 Hoadly. In 1757 he became serjcant-painter 
 to the king ; but though he had arrived at 
 wealth and eminence, yet, from being des- 
 titute of the advantages of a liberal educa- 
 tion, he was inordinately vain of his talents, 
 and attccted to despise every kind of know- 
 ledge which he did not possess. He was 
 also remarkably absent, of wluch the follow- 
 ing is an instance: — On setting up his 
 carriage lie i)aid a visit to the lord mayor, 
 and having protracted his stay till a heavy 
 shower came on, he was let out by a difterent 
 door from that by which he entered, and 
 unmindful of his carriage, he set off on foot, 
 got home wet to the skin, and when asked 
 where he had left the carriage, said that he 
 had forgotten it. He died in 1762, and was 
 interred in the churchyard of Chiswick. 
 The works of Hogarth have been frequently 
 published, and even at the moment of our 
 writing this notice of the painter's life, there 
 are different editions of them in the course of 
 publication. 
 
 HOGG, James (the Ettrick Shepherd"), a 
 native of Scotland, was bom Jan. 25. 1782, 
 the anniversary of the natal day of Burns. 
 His humble occupation, like that of his 
 ancestors " time out of mind," was that of a 
 shepherd ; nor had he, as he avers, even been 
 more than half a year at school. At the age 
 of 18, however, he began to amuse himself in 
 stringing rustic rhymes together ; and he 
 continued to tend his sheep, and to write 
 verses, until it was his good fortune to be 
 noticed by Sir Walter Scott (who had seen 
 some of his poetical efforts), which induced 
 him to attempt something of a more decided 
 character. He produced an " Essay on 
 Sheep," which won for him the premium 
 given by the Highland Society ; and which, 
 added to the success of a volume of ballads 
 he had shortly before published, under the 
 title of " The Mountain Bard," led him to 
 hope for future fame and profit. He soon 
 afterwards produced his " Forest Minstrel," 
 which gained him but little in either sense ; 
 and it was owing to the kindness of Scott and 
 Grieve, that his pecuniary difficulties were 
 relieved. It was not until the publication 
 of the " Queen's Wake " that his fame was 
 established ; but from that time he was con- 
 sidered as a somewhat popular author. His 
 publications are numerous ; and he con 
 tributed to some of the Edinburgh periodicals 
 of the highest literary character. In fact, it 
 was from the repeated mention of " the Shep- 
 herd " in the " Noctes " of Blackwood, that 
 his name attained its chief celebrity. He 
 
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 ^ iJScln Unihtv^nl SSioflrajpl^i?. 
 
 [hol 
 
 continued the friend and companion of Sir 
 Walter Scott until the decease of the lat- 
 ter. James Hogg died in November, 183.5, 
 at Altrive Lake, on the Yarrow, leaving 
 his widow and five children wholly unpro- 
 vided for. 
 
 HOHENLOHE, Alexander Leopold, 
 Prince of, bishop of Sardica, celebrated for 
 the numerous miraculous cures which cre- 
 dulity has attributed to him, was born at 
 Kupftrzell, 1794. Destined from his infancy 
 for the church, he passed through his edu- 
 cational course at Vienna, Berne, and EU- 
 wangen ; in 1816 he entered into holy orders 
 at OlmUtz ; and after a journey to Rome, 
 where he lived chiefly with the Jesuits, he 
 discharged ecclesiastical duties at Bamberg 
 and Munich, to the satisfaction of all the 
 members of his cliurch. In 1820, having 
 been struck with the cures which the prayers 
 of a Badenese peasant, Martin Michel by 
 name, were said to have eflfected on many dis- 
 tinguished invalids, Prince Hohenlohe was 
 induced to have recourse to similar means ; 
 and having healed some nervous patients, he 
 was soon surrounded by a liost of invalids, 
 eager to test the spiritual powers of one 
 whose fame had been noised abroad as having 
 effected cures which had bafiled all ordinary 
 medical skill. As iu most similar cases, 
 rumour was far in advance of the truth ; 
 but the prince was the dupe of his own cre- 
 dulity ; and it was not until a thorough ex- 
 posure of the whole proceedings was given to 
 the world by the burgomaster of Bamberg, 
 that he abandoned his supernatural pre- 
 tensions. He wrote several tracts and ser- 
 mons, and died at Grosswaradin, in Hungary, 
 1849. 
 
 HOHENLOHE INGELFINGEN, Fre- 
 DEKic Louis, Prince of, was born in 1746 ; 
 and after having fought with distinction in 
 various battles at the commencement of the 
 French revolution, was, in 1804, made go- 
 vernor of the principality of Franconia, and 
 commandant of Breslau. After the battle 
 of Jena, Oct. 14. 1806, he directed the retreat, 
 and led the remnants of the great Prussian 
 army ; but being destitute of cavalry, and 
 his infantry exhausted by fatigue, he sur- 
 rendered, with 17,000 men, at Prenzlau, Oct. 
 28. He died in 1818. 
 
 HOHENLOHE KIRCHBERG, Prince of, 
 a general of artillery in the Austrian ser- 
 vice, who greatly distinguished himself in 
 the early campaigns against revolutionary 
 France. He died in 1796, when in command 
 of the army of the Rhine. 
 
 HOLBACH, Paul Thierry, Baron von, 
 a distinguished natural philosopher, was 
 born at Heidelsheim, in the Palatinate, 1723. 
 His house was long the centre of attraction 
 to all the savans of Paris ; he contributed to 
 the Encyclopedic numerous articles on na- 
 tural history, politics, and philosophy ; and 
 few men have left behind them more endur- 
 ing memorials of taste, skill, and ability, 
 though disfigured by the grossest material- 
 ism. Died, 1789. 
 
 HOLBEIN, Hans, or John, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Basle, in 1498, and 
 learned the elements of his art from his 
 father, whom he soon excelled. His talents 
 procured him the friendship of Erasmus, 
 
 418 
 
 for whose " Praise of Folly " he drew several 
 whimsical designs. At the recommendation 
 of Erasmus he came to England, and was 
 employed first by Sir Thomas More, who 
 introduced him to Henry VIII. He now 
 rose to the zenith of fortune in that mon- 
 arch's court, and painted a vast number of 
 portraits, which are still considered master- 
 pieces of art. Some of his earlier produc- 
 tions, especially his " Dance of Death," are 
 also very celebrated ; and he was no mean 
 proficient in the art of wood-engraving, 
 many of his historical paintings having been 
 executed by him in a highly graj)hic style. 
 He died of the plague in 1554. 
 
 HOLBERG, Louis, Baron of, a popular 
 Danish writer, was born at Bergen, in Nor- 
 way, in 1684. His father had raised him- 
 self, by a bold achievement, from the ranks 
 to the office of colonel, but took little care 
 in forming the mind and character of his 
 son, who struggled with great difficulties 
 in acquiring learning. By reading the ac- 
 counts of travellers, he became desirous of 
 visiting other countries ; and though strait- 
 ened in circumstances, he travelled in Eng- 
 land, Holland, France, and Italy ; and, on 
 his return to his native country, raised 
 himself to fame, fortune, and rank, by his 
 literary talents. He laid the foundation of 
 his fame by a comic-heroic poem, or national 
 satire, called " Peder Paars." He also wrote 
 numerous dramas, romances, fables, and 
 epigrams, all of which abound with wit, 
 humour, and originality. His other works 
 consist of " The Subterraneous Travels of 
 Nicholas Klimm," an " Universal History," 
 " Parallel Lives of Illustrious Men and 
 Women," a "History of Denmark," &c. 
 Died, 1754. 
 
 HOLCROFT, Thomas, a dramatist, no- 
 velist, and miscellaneous writer, was the son 
 of a London tradesman, and bom iu 1774. 
 He at first followed his father's trade (that 
 of a shoemaker), then became an actor, and 
 finally directed his talents to literary pur- 
 suits. It was as a dramatist that he first 
 essayed his powers ; and, between 1778 and 
 1806, he produced more than thirty pieces, 
 several of which were successful, and some 
 still retain possession of the stage, among 
 which is the "Road to Ruin." On the break- 
 ing out of the French revolution, Holcrofit 
 rendered himself obnoxious as a strenuous 
 supporter of liberal principles, and was 
 accused of high treason in 1794 ; on which 
 he surrendered himself; but, owing to his 
 companions. Hardy, Home Tooke, and 
 Thelwall, being acquitted, he was not 
 brought to trial. Among his productions 
 are, " A Tour in Germany and France," 
 several novels, and numerous translations 
 from the German and French. Died, 1809. 
 
 HOLDER, William, a clergyman of the 
 Church of England, noted as the inventor or 
 improver of a mode of instructing the deaf 
 and dumb. He was a canon of St. Paul's, 
 and subdean of the chapel royal. Died, 1696. 
 
 HOLDSWORTH, Edward, an elegant 
 writer, was born in 1688, at North Stoneham, 
 in Hampshire, of which parish his father 
 was rector. He was the author of " Mus- 
 cipula," a Latin poem, written with clas- 
 sical purity ; also of a dissertation, entitled 
 
\ hol] 
 
 ^ iiefjy Winihtr^al SSiflgrajil^M. 
 
 [hol 
 
 " Pharsalia and Philippi, or the Two Phi- 
 lippi in Virgil's Georgics explained." Died, 
 174«. 
 
 HOLDSWORTH, or OLDISWORTH, 
 Richard, a divine, was born in 1590 at 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where his father was 
 a celebrated preacher. About 1C25 he be- 
 came rector of St. Peter-le-Poor, London ; 
 and in 1629 was elected Gresham professor 
 of divinity. After this he was made pre- 
 bendary of Lincoln, and archdeacon of 
 Huntingdon. In 1C37 he was cliosen master 
 of Emanuel College, and created doctor in 
 divinity ; but when the civil wars com- 
 menced, he lost his church preferments, and 
 was thrown into prison. In IC47 he at- 
 tended the king at Hampton Court, and 
 died in 1649. 
 
 HOLE, Richard, a poet and miscella- 
 neous writer, was born at Exeter, and re- 
 ceived his education at Exeter College, 
 Oxford. He was the author of a poetical 
 romance, called "Arthur, or the Northern 
 Enchantment ; " translated into heroic verse 
 Ossian's " Fiugal," and published several 
 original works. He died in 1802, rector of 
 Farringdon. 
 
 HOLINSHED, or HGLINGSHED, Ra- 
 phael, an English chronicler, of the Eliza- 
 bethan age. He is said to have been de- 
 scended n-om a respectable family in Che- 
 shire ; and from his own will it appears, 
 that in the latter part of his life he was a 
 steward to Thomas Burdet, esq., of Brom- 
 cote, Warwickshire. The " Chronicles of 
 Holinshed *' were first published in 1577 ; 
 and prefixed to them is one of the most 
 curious and interesting memorials existing 
 of the manners and domestic history of the 
 English in the 16th century. Died, 1582. 
 
 HOLKAR, Jeswtjnt Rao, a Mahratta 
 chief, who for a long time was a formidable 
 enemy to the English in India, and was 
 able to bring into the field an army of 
 100,000 men, half of whom were cavalry. 
 Being, however, engaged in frequent con- 
 tests with other native princes, as well as 
 with the English, his power was very much 
 reduced, and his territories diminished. In 
 1805 he surrendered all his maritime pro- 
 vinces ; but the insurrection of the Pindar- 
 rees, in 1807, induced him again to make war 
 on the English ; when the defection of his 
 ally, the Peishwa, deranged his operations, 
 and he was ultimately deprived of two- 
 thirds of his dominions. Died, 1825. 
 
 HOLLAND, first Lord. See Fox, Henkt. 
 
 HOLLAND, Hexrv Richard Vassal, 
 Lord, was the only son of Stephen, second 
 lord Holland, elder brother of the Right 
 Hon. Charles James Fox. His father and 
 mother dying while he was in his infancy, 
 the care of him devolved on his uncle, the 
 Earl of Upper Ossory, who placed him at 
 Eton, where he remained about 8 years, and 
 then entered as a nobleman at Christchurch, 
 Oxford. On quitting the university, he 
 visited Denmark, France, and Switzerland ; 
 and was present when Louis XVI. accepted 
 the constitution, after his attempt to leave 
 the country, and seizure at Varennes. He 
 subsequently travelled through Spain and 
 Italy, and while in the latter country he 
 formed an intimacy with the wife of Sir 
 
 Godfrey Webster, bart. ; in consequence of 
 which the latter brought an action against 
 him, and obtained GOOOl. damages. Lady 
 Webster being subsequently divorced, Lord 
 Holland married her in 1797, and on that 
 occasion took, by royal sign manual, the 
 surname of Vassall. During his parliament- 
 ary career he was the uncompromising 
 advocate of the Catholic claims ; a zealous 
 promoter of every endeavour to soften the 
 asperities of the law ; and an assertor of 
 popular rights in the most extensive sense 
 of the term. When the Whig party came 
 into power in 1830, he became a cabinet 
 minister, and chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster. Though many may condemn the 
 ultra-liberal policy by which he was guided, 
 none can withhold from him the praise of 
 being an urbane gentleman, an accomplished 
 scholar, and a friend of merit wherever it 
 could be found. He died, Oct. 22. 1840. 
 During his lifetime, Holland House, presided 
 over by Lady Holland, who died, 1845, was 
 the most renowned temple of wit and hos- 
 pitality of which England could boast. Lord 
 Holland left behind him some interesting 
 " Foreign Reminiscences," which were pub- 
 lished in 18.V). 
 
 HOLLAND, Sir Nathaniel, an English 
 painter, more known for his wealth and 
 eccentricity, than for his professional skill. 
 He was the son of Mr. George Dance, archi- 
 tect and surveyor to the city of London ; 
 but having married a wealthy heiress, he 
 changed his name, obtained a baronetcy, 
 was chosen member of pailiament, and 
 being desirous of obliterating all traces of 
 his professional career, he endeavoured to 
 buy up all liis pictures, in order to destroy 
 them. Died, 1811. 
 
 HOLLAR, Wenceslaus, an eminent 
 Bohemian engraver, was bom, in 1617, at 
 Prague. He was brought to England, in 
 1636, by the Earl of Arundel, on liis return 
 from tlie embassy to Vienna ; and, in 1640, 
 he was appointed drawing-master to the 
 Prince of Wales and the Duke of York. The 
 prospects of Hollar, however, were utterly 
 destroyed by the civil war, and he was im- 
 prisoned ; but he contrived to escape to 
 Antwerp, and again attached himself to his 
 noble friend, the Earl of Arundel, then liv- 
 ing there in exile. In 1652 he returned to 
 England, and applied assiduously to his art; 
 but though he was so much employed, that 
 he is said to have executed 2400 plates, he 
 died so poor that an execution for debt was 
 in his house at the moment of his death, 
 which happened in 1677. His "Omatus 
 Muliebris Anglicanus " is held in high es- 
 timation, as pourtraying with great correct- 
 ness the appearance of the fair sex, of all 
 classes, in the 17th century. 
 
 HOLLES, Denzil, Lord, one of the five 
 members of the long parliament who were 
 demanded by King Charles I. when he went 
 to the House of Commons. At the Restora- 
 tion he was advanced to the peerage ; in 
 1663 he was sent ambassador to France, and 
 in 1667 was one of the English plenipoten- 
 tiaries at Breda. Notwithstanding these 
 employments, he remained a zealous friend 
 to liberty ; and when the politics of the reign 
 tended to make the king absolute, Lord 
 
hol] 
 
 ^ ^elxj Winibtv^al 23t0ffrapr)i?. 
 
 [hol 
 
 Holies was a conspicuous leader of the op- 
 position. He died, witli a high character 
 for honour, integrity, and patriotism, in 
 1680, aged 82. 
 
 HOLLIS, Thomas, was born in London, 
 in 1720. After a private education among 
 the dissenters, he went to Amsterdam to 
 learn the Frencli and Dutch languages ; 
 and on his return completed his studies 
 under Dr. Ward, the Gresham professor. 
 He then went on his travels ; and having a 
 handsome fortune, employed it in collect- 
 ing curiosities and books. He contributed 
 largely to Harvard College, in America ; 
 the public library at Berne ; and other 
 foreign institutions ; was a fellow of the 
 royal, antiquarian, and other learned socie- 
 ties ; and made many valuable presents to 
 the British Museum. He was a great friend 
 to democratic government ; was gentle and 
 polite in his manners ; and seems to have 
 united much of the ancient stoic to the 
 modern partisan of freedom and general 
 philanthropist. Died, 1774. 
 
 HOLMAN, Joseph George, a dramatist 
 and actor, was a native of London, and in- 
 tended for the church ; but in 1784 he made 
 his debut at Covent Garden Theatre. He 
 afterwards went to America, and became 
 manager of Charlestown Theatre. Among 
 his dramatic productions are the "Votary of 
 Wealth," a comedy ; " Red Cross Knights," 
 " Abroad and at Home," &c. His death 
 was remarkable and melancholy, taking 
 place together with his second wife, two 
 days after their marriage, by the yellow 
 fever, in 1817. 
 
 HOLMES, Robert, a divine and poet, 
 born in 1749 ; he was educated at Winches- 
 ter School, and New College, Oxford ; ap- 
 pointed professor of poetry on the death of 
 Mr. Warton, in 1790 ; and in 1804 was made 
 dean of Winchester, having previously been 
 made canon of Salisbury and Christchurch. 
 He published various short poems, sermons, 
 &c. ; but he is best known by his collated 
 edition of the Septuagint. Died, 1805. 
 
 HOLROYD, Jony Baker, Lord Shef- 
 field, a political writer, soldier, and states- 
 man, was descended from an ancient family 
 in Yorkshire, aiid born in 1741. He first 
 served in the army under the Marquis of 
 Granby ; and in the American war he raised, 
 at his own expense, a regiment of dragoons, 
 of which he had the command, and was 
 usually called Colonel Holroyd till his ele- 
 vation to the peerage. He wrote several 
 political tracts ; but he is best known as 
 the friend of Gibbon the historian, whose 
 posthumous works and correspondence he 
 edited. Died, 1821. 
 
 HOLT, Francis Ludlow, queen's coun- 
 sel, and for 22 years vice-chancellor of the 
 county palatine of Lancaster, was called to 
 the bar in 1809, and in 1831 rose to the rank 
 ot a king's counsel. He was the author of 
 several legal works on the law of libel, 
 shipping and navigation laws, the bankrupt 
 laws, reports of cases at nisi prius, &c. He 
 also wrote one or two dramatic pieces ; and 
 was for many years the principal editor of 
 Bell's Weekly Messenger. Died, Sept. 1844. 
 
 HOLT, Sir John, an eminent English 
 judge, celebrated for firmness, integrity, and 
 
 great legal knowledge, was born at Thame, 
 Oxfordshire, in 1642, studied at Oriel Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and became a member of 
 Gray's Inn. He filled the office of recorder 
 of London for about a year and a half, when 
 his uncompromising opposition to the abo- 
 lition of the Test Act caused him to lose his 
 situation. Becoming a member of the lower 
 house, he distinguished himself so much by 
 his exertions and talents in what is called 
 the " convention parliament," that on king 
 William's accession he was made lord chief 
 justice of the king's bench. On the removal 
 of Lord Somers, in 1700, he was oflFered the 
 chancellorship ; but he refused it, and con- 
 tinued to discharge the important duties of 
 his high judicial authority with a resolute 
 uprightness that gained him popularity 
 while living, and rendered his memory dear 
 to posterity. Died, 1709. 
 
 HOLTY, Louis Henry Christopher, a 
 German poet, excelling particularly in ly- 
 rical and elegiac compositions, was bom at 
 Mariensee, Hanover, in 1748. He was of a 
 mild and pensive disposition, pursued his 
 studies beyond his natural strength, and 
 prematurely died, at Gottingen, in 1776. 
 
 HOLAVELL, John Zepiianiah, an inge- 
 nious English gentleman, who was governor 
 of Bengal, and one of the persons confined 
 in the Black Hole at Calcutta in 1756, of 
 which he published a narrative. He wrote 
 several pieces on Indian affairs, and died in 
 1798. 
 
 HOLYDAY, Barten, a learned divine, 
 was bom at Oxford in 1.593, and died in 
 1661. He wrote several sermons, and trans- 
 lated the satires of Juvenal into English. 
 
 HOLYOAKE, Francis, a learned lexico- 
 grapher, was bom in Warwickshire about 
 1567, and died in 1653. His " Etymological 
 Dictionary of Latin Words " was first printed 
 in 1006. — His son Thomas was doctor in di- 
 vinity, and died in 1675. During the civil 
 wars he commanded a troop of horse in the 
 king's service, although in holy orders, and 
 on the failure of the royal cause he practised 
 medicine for a subsistence ; but at the Re- 
 storation he resumed his ecclesiastical func- 
 tions and obtained church preferment. He 
 enlarged his father's dictionary, which was 
 published in 1677. 
 
 HOLYOKE, Edward Augustus, an 
 American physician, bom in Essex county, 
 Massachussetts, in 1728. He graduated at 
 Harvard College, and in 1749 began to prac- 
 tise at Salem ; was upwards of 100 years 
 old when he died, yet it is said he was never 
 in his life so far as 50 miles from the spot 
 where he was bom. He was temperate, 
 cheerful, and active: always took "a due 
 proportion of sleep ; " and, in the practice of 
 his profession, did not indulge in riding till 
 he was 80 years of age. Even after he had 
 attained his 100th year he took interest in 
 the investigation of medical subjects, and 
 wrote letters which show that his under- 
 standing was still clear and strong. Dr. 
 Holyoke was a good anatomist ; was versed 
 in natural philosophy and astronomy ; and 
 regularly recorded his meteorological obser- 
 vations daily for 80 years. Died, 1829. 
 
 HOLYWOOD, John, or, according to his 
 Latinised appellation, De Sacrobosco, was 
 
hom] 
 
 ^ ^m Bnibtx^al iSiosrapTjin 
 
 [lIOM 
 
 au English mathRnatician and divine, bom 
 at Halifax in Yorkshire. After receiving 
 his education at Oxford, he went to Paris, 
 where lie taught the mathematics, and died 
 in 1256. He wrote " De Sphsera Mundi," 
 "De Anni Ratione," and "L)e Algorismo." 
 
 HOME, Daviu, a Scotch divine, who was 
 employed by James I. to bring the Protest- 
 ants of Europe into one confession. He 
 wrote " Apologia Basilica, seu Machiavelli 
 Ingenium Exominatum," " Li'Assassinat du 
 Koi," &c. 
 
 HOME, Sir Eveuarh, bart., an eminent 
 surgeon, was the sou of Robert Home, esq., 
 of Greenlaw Castle, in the county of Ber- 
 wick ; and was brought up to tlie iirofession 
 under his brother-in-law, the celebrated 
 John Hunter. For a period of moi-e than 
 40 years he practised with great success in 
 London ; and during that time he produced 
 numerous medical works, whicit are held in 
 high repute. He was sergeant- surgeon to 
 the king, surgeon to Chelsea Hospital, vice- 
 president of the Royal Society, president of 
 the Royal College of Surgeons ; was created 
 a baronet in 1813, and died in 1832. Among 
 his works are, " Lectures on Comparative 
 Anatomy," 2 vols. 4to., and " Practical Ob- 
 servations" on a variety of diseases, consist- 
 ing of several volumes ; besides numerous 
 valuable contributions to the Philosophical 
 Transactions, &c. Bom, 1750 ; died 1832. 
 
 HOME, He.vky, Lord Kames, a Scottish 
 judge and eminent writer, born in the year 
 ItiiHi. He was instructed in the ancient and 
 modern languages by a private tutor, and 
 afterwards studied the civil and Scots' law 
 in the university of Edinburgh. Mr. Home's 
 success at the bar was not great, till Jiis 
 abilities were known b^ the publication of 
 his "Remarkable Decisions of the Court 
 of Session, from 1716 to 1718," which hap- 
 pened in 1728. From that period he prac- 
 tised, with much respectability and success, 
 till tiie year 1752, when he was called to the 
 bench. Eleven years afterwards he was &i>- 
 pointed one of the lords of justiciary. In- 
 dependent of various judicial works, he 
 wrote " Essays concerning British Antiqui- 
 ties," " Essays on the Principles of Morality 
 and Natural Religion," " An Introduction 
 to the Art of Thinking," and " Elements of 
 Criticism ; " in which, discarding all arbi- 
 trary rules of literary composition, he en- 
 deavours to establish a new theory on the 
 principles of human nature. Nothing far- 
 ther came from his pen till 1772, when " The 
 Gentleman Farmer " made its appearance ; 
 and, the following year, "Sketches of the 
 History of Man," in 2 volumes, 4to. The 
 last work he published was " Loose Hints 
 upon Education, chiefly concerning the Cul- 
 ture of the Heart." It was published in the 
 year 1781, when the venerable author was in 
 the S.'ith year of his age. Lord Kames was 
 remarkable for public spirit, to which he 
 conjoined activity and great exertion. Died, 
 1782. 
 
 HOME, John, the author of the popular 
 tragedy of " Douglas," was born near An- 
 crum, Roxburghshire, in 1724, and educated 
 for the church ; but in the rebellion of 1745, 
 he entered into the royal army, and was 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Falkirk. He 
 
 3 421 
 
 contrived, however, to make his escape, and 
 in 1750 was ordained as minister of Athel- 
 staneford, in East l^othiau. His tragedy of 
 "Douglas" was performed at Edinburgh iu 
 1750, and gave such oifence to the presbytery, 
 that the author, to avoid ecclesiastical cen- 
 sure, resigned his living, and ever after ap- 
 peared and acted as a layman. He obtained 
 some trifling government appointments, and 
 wrote four other plays, which, however, 
 failed to attract. His " History of the Re- 
 bellion of 1745-G " also disappointed the 
 public expectation. Died, aged 85, in 1808. 
 
 HOMER, the father of poetry. Of the 
 birth of this immortal bard, and of the cir- 
 cumstances of his death — of his parentage 
 and descent, nay, even of his actual exist- 
 ence — all is involved in doubt and fable. 
 Seven cities disputed for the honour of being 
 his birthplace : Smyrna, Colophon, Chios, 
 Argos, Athens, Rhodes, and Salamis : the 
 protiahility is, that he was an Asiatic Greek, 
 and flourished in the 9th century before 
 Christ. According to the account ascribed 
 to Herodotus (which, though traditionary, 
 we are bound to receive, in the absence ot 
 cotemporaneous information^, a native of 
 Magnesia, called Menalippus, went to live 
 at Cumic, where he married the daughter 
 of Homyres, and had by her a child, called 
 Critheis, who was left an orphan in the 
 care of Cleonax. This man betrayed his 
 trust, and seduced liis ward, who, going to 
 ft festival on the banks of the river Meles, 
 near Smyrna, was delivered of a male infant, 
 to whom she gave the name of Melesigenes. 
 Being without any means of support, Critheis 
 went to spin wool for a schoolmaster named 
 Phemius, who married her, and adopted her 
 son. On the death of Phemius, this youth 
 conducted the school ; but he afterwards 
 accompanied Mcntes, a master of a sliip, in 
 several voyages, and by him was left at 
 Ithaca, where he gathered many particulars 
 respecting Ulysses, which laid the foundation 
 of the Odyssey. At length Mentes returned, 
 and took him on board again, but at Colo- 
 phon he had the misfortune to lose his sight. 
 He then became a strolling bard, and ob- 
 tained the name of Homer, which signifies a 
 blind man. It is further added, that being 
 at Phocaea, a schoolmaster, named Thesto- 
 rides, oflfered to maintain him, provided he 
 would sufl'er him to transcribe his verses, 
 which he agreed to from necessity. The 
 schoolmaster then went to Chios, where he 
 acquired great wealth by Homer's poems, 
 while the poet himself could scarcely get 
 bread by reciting them. Homer on this" pro- 
 ceeded to Chios ; and Thestorides, hearing 
 of his arrival, fled before him. Here the 
 poet opened a school of poetry, married, 
 and had two daughters. Pausanias also 
 declares that Homer was blind, and such is 
 the commonly received opiniim ; but to re- 
 present him as a blind beggar, obliged to 
 sing his songs before the doors of the rich 
 for bread, is inconsistent with all we know 
 of the ancient Greek bards, and their man- 
 ner of life. Though neither rich nor power- 
 ful, they were highly esteemed ; and were 
 equally welcome in the assemblies of citi- 
 zens, in the palaces of princes, and at public 
 sacrifices. Herder, the German critic, speak- 
 
hom] 
 
 ^ l^^&J Winibtv^Kl I3t0ffrajp55. 
 
 [hoo 
 
 ing of the writings of Homer, says, " The 
 truth and wisdom with which he unites all 
 the subjects of this world in a living picture, 
 the firmness of every stroke in all the per- 
 sonages of tliis immortal picture, the divine 
 freedom with whicli he contemplates the 
 characters, and paints their virtues and 
 vices, their successes and disasters — this is 
 what renders Homer unique, and worthy of 
 immortality." 
 
 HOMER, Henry, a classical scholar ; 
 the son of a clergyman, rector of Birding- 
 bury, in Warwickshire ; editor, in conjunc- 
 tion with Dr. Coombe, of a variorum edition 
 of Horace ; also editor of the works of 
 Caesar, Livy, Tacitus, &c. Born, 1752 ; died, 
 1791. 
 
 HOMII/IUS, GoDFRET Augustus, music 
 director in the three principal churches at 
 Dresden, and one of the greatest organists 
 and composers of church music of his time. 
 Born, 1714 ; died, 1785. 
 
 HONDEKOETER, Giles ; Gysbrecht, 
 his son ; and Melchior, his grandson ; 
 three Flemish artists of the 16th and 17th 
 centuries. The 1st excelled in landscape 
 painting ; the 2nd, in delineating birds ; 
 and the last, who was by far the most cele- 
 brated of the three, combined the powers of 
 the former two, and painted with great ele- 
 gance and accuracy. 
 
 HONDIUS, Abraham, a Dutch artist, of 
 considerable ability, particularly in his 
 hunting pieces ; he also painted " The De- 
 struction of Troy," in a manner which has 
 obtained for lum the highest praise. He 
 came to England, and died in 1691. 
 
 HONE, Nathaniel, a celebrated painter 
 in enamel, was a native of Dublin, but came 
 to London early in life, and was one of the 
 first members of the Royal Academy. Died, 
 1784. 
 
 HONE, William, the son of a dissenter at 
 Bath, became conspicuous as the publisher 
 of a series of parodies, in whicli such irreve- 
 rent use was made of the liturgy, that the go- 
 vernment felt bound to prosecute him. He 
 was tried on three charges, and defended him- 
 self for three days with considerable ability 
 and with equal courage and temper ; and, as 
 the government of that day was in ill odour 
 with that large and violent party in whom 
 the reforming spirit, at that time yclept 
 " radical," was rife, a verdict was returned 
 in his I'avour. He subsequently had a large 
 sum subscribed for him, by persons who, 
 we presume, must have entertained senti- 
 ments similar to those of the "persecuted 
 but triumphant champion of the press," 
 and entered business as a bookseller. His 
 publications now were of a far more re- 
 spectable and useful character ; such as the 
 " Every- Day Book," &c. He was, however, so 
 unfortunate in business, that he was arrested 
 for debt, and remained in prison for some 
 time. Through the kindness of Mr. Tegg and 
 other friends he was released, and enabled to 
 open the Grasshopper colfee-house, where 
 he edited the " Year-Book." This business, 
 however, did not succeed, and Mr. Hone 
 again became much involved. Being led to 
 attend the ministry of Mr. Binney at the 
 Weigh House, his character became changed ; 
 and the new religious connection resulted in 
 
 his becoming subeditor ofthe Patriot ; this 
 lie continued till his death, wliich took place 
 in November, 1842. 
 
 HONORIUS, Flavius, emperor of the 
 West, the son of Theodosius, was born at 
 Constantinople, in 384 ; succeeded to the 
 throne, in conjunction with his brother 
 Arcadius, in 395 ; and died at Ravenna, 
 after an inglorious reign, in tlie 39th year of 
 his age, a. i>. 423. 
 
 HONORIUS III. was raised to the papal 
 chair on the death of Innocent III. in 1216. 
 Immediately on his election, he wrote to 
 the king of Jerusalem to assure him of his 
 support ; to the bishops of France, to en- 
 courage pilgrims ; and to the emperor of 
 Constantinople, to promise him assistance 
 against the schismatics. He also obliged 
 Louis of France to renounce his pretensions 
 to the English throne, and reconciled the 
 barons with Henry III. Died, 1227 ; and 
 was succeeded by Gregory IX. 
 
 HONTHEIM, John Nicholas de, suf- 
 fragan to the Archbishop of Treves, where 
 he was bom in 1701, and died in 1790. He 
 wrote a "History of Treves" in Latin, 
 which procured him much reputation ; and 
 another work " On the Condition of the 
 Church and the lawful Power of the Pope," 
 in which, though he was an ardent Catholic, 
 he attacked the usurpations of the Romish 
 see with so much boldness, that he was per- 
 secuted, and the work condemned. Died, 
 1790. 
 
 HOOD, Robin, a celebrated English out- 
 law in the 12th century — whose personal 
 courage, skill in archery, boldness of en- 
 terprise, and generous disposition, have 
 rendered his name famous in the legendary 
 history of our country — lived in Sherwood 
 Forest, in Nottinghamshire. The heads of 
 liis story, as collected by Stowe, are briefly 
 these : — " In this time (about the year 1190, 
 in the reign of Richard I.) were many rob- 
 bers and outlaws, among whom Robin Hood 
 and Little John, renowned thieves, conti- 
 nued in the woods, despoiling and robbing 
 the goods of the rich. They killed none 
 but such as would invade them, or by re- 
 sistance for their own defence. The said 
 Robin entertained 100 tall men and good 
 archers, with such spoils and thefts as he 
 got, upon whom 400 (were they ever so 
 strong) durst not give the onset. He suf- 
 fered no woman to be oppressed, violated, 
 or otherwise molested ; poor men's goods he 
 spared, abundantly relieving them with that 
 which by theft he got from abbeys and 
 the houses of rich old carles." He died in 
 1247. 
 
 HOOD, Samuel, Lord Viscount, the son 
 of a clergyman at Thorncombe, in Devon- 
 shire, was born there in 1724, and entered 
 the royal navy at the age of 16. By his 
 bravery in the capture of a 50-gun ship, in 
 1759, he acquired the rank of post-captain ; 
 and he was present, as rear-admiral, at the 
 famous defeat of De Grasse, by Rodney, 
 April 12th, 1782, when his services on that 
 occasion were rewarded with an Irish peer- 
 age. In 1784 he was elected into parliament 
 for Westminster ; but in 1788 he vacated 
 his seat on being named one of the lords of 
 the admiralty. In 1793 he signalised him- 
 
HOO] 
 
 ^ |2clB Hui&crsal aBtosrapl^g. 
 
 [hoo 
 
 self by the taking of Toulon, and afterwards 
 Corsica ; in reward of which achievements 
 he was made a viscount, and governor of 
 Greenwich Hospital. Died, 1816. 
 
 HOOD, Thomas, a poet, humourist, and 
 miscellaneous writer, the son of Mr. Hood, 
 bookseller, was early placed "upon lofty 
 stool, at lofty desk," in a merchant's count- 
 ing-house, but his health failing, he was 
 sent for a time to his father's relations at 
 Dundee ; and, upon his return, was ap- 
 prenticed to an uncle as an engraver. A 
 desire to appear in the world of literature 
 bad, however, long been uppermost in his 
 mind ; and at length we find him contri- 
 buting to, and in part editing, the London 
 Magazine. But his connection with the 
 press became more publicly known by the 
 occasional appearance of his name to various 
 clever and whimsical bagatelles, which en- 
 livened the pages of some of the most popular 
 among the weekly and monthly periodicals. 
 After this came his " Whims and Oddi- 
 ties," "National Tales," " Comic Annuals," 
 "Whimsicalities," "The Plea of the Mid- 
 summer Fairies," " Tylney Hall," " Up the 
 Khine," &c. Much, however, as we have 
 admired his abilities as a punster and a 
 satirist, and heartily as we have laughed at 
 his original sketches, droll allusions, and 
 grotesque similes ; much as we esteem the 
 man of wit who can " shoot folly as it flies," 
 without indulging in personalities, or in- 
 flicting pain on any but the worthless, we 
 can still both admire and esteem liim more, 
 when, with true pathos, he fixes the atten- 
 tion of the reader, and commands the best 
 sympatliies of man's nature, by composi- 
 tions so simple, eloquent, and forceful as 
 " The Song of the Shirt." In speaking of 
 the long and wasting illness which termi- 
 nated in Mr. Hood's death, the Literary 
 Gazette has the following just and expres- 
 sive sentences : — " His sportive humour, like 
 the rays from a crackling fire in a dilapidated 
 building, had long played among the frac- 
 tures of a ruined constitution, and flashed 
 upon the world through the flaws and rents 
 of a shattered wreck. Yet, infirm as was 
 the fabric, the equal mind was never dis- 
 turbed to the last. He contemplated the 
 approach of death with a composed philo- 
 sophy and a resigned soul. His bodily suf- 
 ferings had made no change in his mental 
 character." Born, 1798 ; died. May 3. 1845. 
 
 HOOGSTRATEN, David vax, a Dutch 
 poet and critic, bom at Rotterdam, in 1658 ; 
 became professor of the belles lettres at 
 Amsterdam ; wrote several good poems, in 
 the Latin language ; and otherwise displayed 
 considerable classical attainments. Died, 
 1724. 
 
 H00GVI.T1:t, Arnold, a Dutch poet, 
 born in 1G87. His chief fame rests on a 
 poem in 12 books, entitled " Abraham the 
 Patriarch," which is admired for the beauty 
 of its style and imagery. Died, 17G3. 
 
 HOOK, James, a musical composer, of 
 great industry and talent, was born at Nor- 
 wich, in 174(5. His operatic and melodra- 
 matic productions amount to more than 140 
 complete works, many of which were highly 
 successful ; he also set to music upwards of 
 2000 songs I Died, 1827. Ue was the father 
 
 423 
 
 of the Rev. Dr. Hook, dean of Worcester, 
 and of Theodore Hook, the celebrated no- 
 velist, &c. 
 
 HOOK, Dr. James, dean of Worcester, 
 son of the preceding, was an accomplished 
 scholar, and an able dignitary of the church. 
 He was educated at Westminster School 
 and St. Mary Hall, Oxford ; in 1802 he 
 was made chaplain to George IV. ; held the 
 livings of Hertingfordbury and St. Andrew's, 
 in Hertfordshire, which he afterwards ex- 
 changed for that of Whippingham, in the 
 Isle of Wight J obtained a prebendal stall 
 in Winchester cathedral, in 1807 ; succeeded 
 Dr. Middleton, as archdeacon of Huntingdon, 
 in 1814 ; and accepted the deanery of Wor- 
 cester, in 1825. Besides some dramas, which 
 he wrote early in life, he published, in 1802, 
 " Anguis in Herba ; a Sketch of the true 
 Character of the Church of England and her 
 Clergy," which he inscribed "To the sober 
 sense of his country." Few writers, indeed, 
 surpassed Dr. Hook as a polemical or a 
 political pamphleteer. At all times and on 
 all occasions ho was the unflinching casti- 
 gator of those who upheld doctrines of a 
 revolutionary tendency ; and some of the 
 most efliective pamphlets that appeared 
 during the war, in support of sound monar- 
 chical principles, owed their origin to him. 
 Died, 1H28. 
 
 HOOK, Theodore Edward, F. S.A., a 
 celebrated novelist and dramatic writer, but 
 more celebrated for his surpassing wit and 
 extemporaneous powers, was the youngest 
 son of James Hook, the popular composer, 
 and brother of the Rev. James Hook, dean 
 of Worcester. He was born in London, in 
 1788, and received his education at Harrow. 
 Seldom are the indications of genius in 
 youth so apparent and so mature as they 
 were in the case of Theodore Hook. At 17 
 he produced liis first drama, " The Soldier's 
 Return," which was speedily followed by 
 " Catch him who can," " Tekheli," "Killing 
 no Murder," and 9 other dramatic pieces, 
 nearly all of which were decidedly success- 
 ful. These, with a host of piquant articles 
 in the Satirist magazine, and other peri- 
 odicals, were hit off before he reached his 
 25th year. His reputation as a man of rare 
 accomplishments, elegant manners, and pre- 
 eminent convivial talents, being fully ap- 
 preciated, he was a welcome guest wherever 
 gaiety, wit, and good-humour were in re- 
 quest ; and his intimacy with many distin- 
 guished characters was the result of it. In 
 October, 1813, he was appointed to the offices 
 of accountant-general and treasurer of the 
 Mauritius, which he held till February, 1818, 
 when it was discovered that there was a 
 deficiency in the military chest of about 
 12,000/., abstracted, as it afterwards appeared, 
 by his deputy, who, on the accounts being 
 about to be investigated, destroyed himself; 
 but Mr. Hook, as a matter of course, was 
 made answerable for the acts of his subor- 
 dinate. He was accordingly sent home, his 
 effects were seized and sold, and he became 
 for a considerable time an inmate of the 
 king's bench. His literary labours were 
 both his solace and support, his industry 
 kept pace with his increasing popularity, 
 and to his fame as a dramatist was now to 
 
 2 
 
HOO] 
 
 % ^t\x\ ?SnifacriJal 33iOffrap^t'» 
 
 [hop 
 
 be added his success as a novelist. The first 
 series of " Sayings and Doings" appeared in 
 1824. Other novels, as " Jack Brag," " Births> 
 Deaths, and Marriages," " Gilbert Gurney," 
 &c. followed at short intervals. He also 
 wrote " Memoirs of Sir David Baird " and of 
 " Michael Kelly," the composer. But not a 
 little of his notoriety arose from his con- 
 nection with the John Bull, of which he 
 was editor as well as a joint proprietor ; 
 and from his pen proceeded most of those 
 bold political articles, racy sketches of men 
 and manners, smart poems, and epigram- 
 matic je«.-r cTesprit, which for so long a time 
 distinguished that ultra- Tory paper. For 
 the last few years he was tlie editor of the 
 New Monthly Magazine. Died, Aug. 24. 
 1841. 
 
 HOOKE, Nathaniel. Of this gentle- 
 man, whose chief celebrity arose from his 
 writing a " History of Rome, from the 
 earliest Period to the Accession of Octa- 
 vius," very little is known. It appears that 
 he was a zealous Catholic, and has been 
 censured for taking a priest to confess Pope, 
 the poet, on his death-bed. Besides his 
 Roman History, which is unquestionably a 
 work of great critical acumen and accu- 
 racy, he wrote " Observations on the Ro- 
 man Senate," translated Ramsay's "Tra- 
 vels of Cyrus," and received 5000?. from 
 Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, for assijting 
 her in the Memoirs of her Life. Died, I'CS. 
 _ HOOKE, Robert, an English mathema- 
 tician and natural philosopher, was born at 
 Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, in 16.35. 
 He was educated at Westminster and Ox- 
 ford; and early displayed a mechanical 
 genius and an extraordinary talent for 
 drawing. In 1G64 he became professor of 
 mechanics to the Royal Society, and Gresham 
 professor of geometry. In 1665 appeared 
 his " Micographia ; " and in 1666 he pro- 
 duced a plan for rebuilding London, which, 
 though approved, was not adopted. Hooke, 
 however, was appointed one of the city 
 surveyors, by which he realised a hand- 
 some fortune. His scientiiic and mecha- 
 nical inventions and discoveries were nu- 
 merous and valuable ; but he was a man of 
 an unamiable disposition, and continually 
 engaged in acrimonious controversies with 
 his fellow-philosophers. He had a violent 
 dispute with Hevelius, upon the preference 
 of the telescopic to plain sight ; he had 
 afterwards a contention with Oldenburgh, 
 on the invention of pendulum watches ; and 
 he endeavoured also to set up a claim to 
 Newton's theory of gravitation. Died, 1703. 
 
 HOOKER, John, a learned antiquary, 
 was born at Exeter, in 1524. He wrote a 
 " Description of Exeter," and some part of 
 «' Holingshed's Chronicle," besides other 
 pieces. Died, KiOl. 
 
 HOOKER, Richard, an eminent Eng- 
 lish divine, author of an excellent work, 
 entitled " The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity," 
 in 8 books, was born at Heavitree, near 
 Exeter, in 1553 ; and died at Bishop's Bourne, 
 Kent, of which place he was rector, in IGOO. 
 It is recorded that, in speaking of Hooker 
 and his great work, pope Clement VIII. 
 said, " This man, indeed, deserves the name 
 of an author. His books will get reve- 
 
 rence by age ; for there is in them such seeds 
 of eternitj', that they shall continue till the 
 last fire shall devour all learning." He is 
 generally honoured by the epithet "judi- 
 cious." 
 
 HOOLE, John, a dramatic poet and 
 translator, was born in 1727. He wag a 
 clerk in the India House, but devoted his 
 leisure hours to literary pursuits, particu- 
 larly the study of the Italian language, of 
 which he acquired a great knowledge, as 
 appears by his excellent translations of 
 "Ariosto's Orlando Furioso"and " Tasso's 
 Jerusalem" into English. He also pub- 
 lished two volumes of the dramas of Metas- 
 tasio ; and was the author of three tra- 
 gedies, viz. " Cyrus," " Timanthes," and 
 " Cleonice." Died, 1803. 
 
 HOOPER, George, an eminent English 
 prelate, was bom at Grimsley, in Worces- 
 tershire, about 1640. In 1691 he was ap- 
 pointed dean of Canterbury ; and, on the 
 accession of queen Anne, bishop of St. 
 Asaph, from whence he was translated to 
 Bath and Wells, which diocese he presided 
 over 24 years, and died in 1727. 
 
 HOOPER, John, a pious English prelate 
 and martyr, was born in Somersetshire, in 
 1403, and educated at Merton College, Ox- 
 ford. At the accession of Edward VI. he 
 was made bishop of Gloucester, to which 
 was added that of Worcester in corntnendam. 
 Here he laboured with great zeal till the 
 restoration of popery under Mary, when, 
 continuing firm in the faith he had chosen, 
 he was condemned to the flames as an ob- 
 stinate and irreclaimable heretic, and suf- 
 fered the perils of martyrdom with un- 
 daunted constancy, at Gloucester, in 1555. 
 He was the author of some sermons and 
 controversial treatises. 
 
 HOPE, John, a physician and naturalist, 
 born at Edinburgh, in 1725 ; was professor 
 of botany and the materia medica in his 
 native city ; and in 1761 was appointed bo- 
 tanist to the king, and superintendant of the 
 botanic garden. Died, 1786. 
 
 HOPE, Sir Thomas, a Scotch lawyer, 
 who in 1627 became king's advocate, and, 
 though secretly attached to the covenanters, 
 was created a baronet by Charles. Died, 
 1646. 
 
 HOPE, Thomas, an English gentleman of 
 large fortune, distinguished by his talents 
 and patronage of the fine arts, was the 
 nephew of a rich merchant of Amsterdam. 
 In 1805 he first appeared as an author, by 
 publishing a work, entitled " Household 
 Furniture and Internal Decorations;" this 
 was followed by two elegant publicatioils, 
 " The Costumes of the Ancients " and 
 " Designs of Modern Costume ; " but his 
 great performance was " Anastasius, or Me- 
 moirs of a Modern Greek," which appeared 
 anonymously in 1819, and was for some 
 time very generally ascribed to Lord Byron. 
 In this romance, which holds a distinguished 
 rank among modern English works of fic- 
 tion, he has presented a most accurate and 
 interesting picture of the customs, manners, 
 and countries of the Turks and Greeks, i 
 which evinces at once the general knowledge 
 and genius of its author. Anotlier work, of 
 a metaphysical nature, has been published 
 
hop] 
 
 ^ fitfsi Winibtr^Kl Ufograj)!)!?. 
 
 [hop 
 
 since his death, entitled " On the Origin and 
 Prospects of Man." He died in 1831. 
 
 HOPITAI., Michael de l', was an emi- 
 nent chancellor of France, to which high 
 station he rose through the zeal, ability, 
 and integrity he displayed in the various 
 offices he before filled. He was bom in 
 1505 ; studied jurisprudence in the most 
 celebrated universities of France and Italy ; 
 rose rapidly in his profession, and was sent 
 by Henry II. as ambassador to the council 
 of Trent. In 1554 he was made superin- 
 tendant of the royal finances, when by his 
 good management, and his inflexible dis- 
 regard of those rapacious favourites of the 
 court who battened on the public purse, 
 he restored the exhausted treasury. He 
 was a sincere friend to religious toleration, 
 and the principal author of the edict of IK'2, 
 which allowed freedom of worship to Pro- 
 testants. Ihis brought on him the hatred 
 of the court of Rome ; his seals of office were 
 taken from him ; and he retired to his 
 country-house, in the full conviction that a 
 life of lettered ease and the conversation of 
 a few friends were of far greater value to 
 his personal happiness than the retention of 
 place or power at the sacrifice of principle. 
 When the atrocious massacre of the Pro- 
 testants on Bartholomew's Day, 1572, was at 
 its height, and his friends thought he would 
 be made one of its victims, he not only re- 
 f\iged to take measures for his own safety, 
 but when a party of horsemen advanced 
 towards his house, lie refused to close his 
 gates. They were, in fact, dispatched by 
 the queen with express orders to save hiin. 
 On tliis occasion, he was told that the per- 
 sons who made the list of proscription par- 
 doned him ; upon which he coolly observed, 
 " I did not know that I had done anything 
 to deserve either death or pardon.'' The 
 whole course of this great man's life was 
 productive of benefit to his country, and did 
 honour to his nature. He survived this ex- 
 ecrable event a few months only, dying in 
 1573. 
 
 HOPITAL, WitLTAM Francis Anthony 
 DE l', marquis de St. Mesme, a celebrated 
 French mathematician, was the son of a 
 general in the army, and born in 1661. Such 
 was his reputation for mathematical science, 
 that the profound Huygens did not disdain 
 to apply to him for information. He wrote 
 several works on conic sections, equations, 
 ic. Died, 1704. 
 
 HOPKINS, EzEKiEL, bishop of London- 
 derry, was a native of Devonsliire, and born 
 in 1633. Having married a daughter of the 
 Earl of Truro, and that nobleman being ap- 
 pointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he ob- 
 tained the bishopric of Raphoe, and was sub- 
 sequently translated to that of Londonderry. 
 His works consist of "Expositions of the 
 Decalogue and the I/ord's Prayer," with 
 " Sermons." Died, 1690. 
 
 HOPKINS, Charles, son of the preceding, 
 was born at Exeter in 1664. During the 
 Revolution he distinguished himself much 
 in favour of the Orange party ; was the friend 
 and associate of Dryden, Lord Dorset, Con- 
 greve, and other literary men ; wrote the 
 tragedies of " Pyrrhus," "The Female 
 Warrior," and " Boadicea ; " and translated 
 
 Ovid's Tristia and the Art of Love. His 
 death, which was hastened by intemperance, 
 took place in 16J)9.— His brother John, bom 
 in 1675, also possessed poetical talents, and 
 published " Amasia," and other poems, in 
 3 vols. 
 
 HOPKINS, Lemuel, an American phy- 
 sician and author, bom at Waterbury, Con- 
 necticut, in 1750. He introduced the anti- 
 phlogistic regimen and practice in febrile 
 diseases, and was not less assiduous than he 
 was skilful as a practitioner ; while as a 
 literary man he successfully distinguished 
 himself by various political tracts and sa- 
 tires, written with a view to give a tone to 
 the public feeling in favour of the adminis- 
 tration of Washington. Died, 1801. 
 
 HOPKINS, Samuel, D.D., founder of 
 the sect called Hojihinsians, was born at 
 Waterbury, in the United States, in 1721. 
 He was a pious and Eealous man, with con- 
 siderable talents, and almost incredible 
 powers of application ; but his theological 
 opinions have given rise to much contro- 
 versy. He published numerous sermons, a 
 "Treatise on the Millennium," &c. ; and 
 earnestly advocated the abolition of slavery 
 in the American states. From the year 
 1769 he presided over a congregation at 
 Newport, Rhode Island, where he died in 
 1803. 
 
 HOPKINS, Stephen, an American 
 statesman, and one of those who signed the 
 declaration of independence, was bom in 
 1707, in that part of Providence which now 
 forms the town of Scituate. In 1732 he 
 was elected a representative to the general 
 assembly from Scituate, and was chosen 
 speaker of that body in 1741. In 1751 he 
 was appointed chief justice of the superior 
 court of Rhode Island ; and, in 1756, was 
 elected its governor. After this he was se- 
 veral times chosen a member of congress, 
 and died in 1785. He was a clear and con- 
 vincing speaker, and a good mathematician ; 
 and though he had received but a very li- 
 mited education, his knowledge of literature, 
 science, and political economy was varied 
 and extensive. 
 
 HOPKINS, William, D.D., an English 
 divine, born at Evesham, Worcestershire, 
 in 1647, was a celebrated antiquary. He 
 assisted Bishop Gibson in his edition of the 
 Saxon Chronicle, and was the translator of 
 the article " Worcestershire," in Camden's 
 Britannia. In 1675 he was promoted to a 
 prebend in Worcester cathedral ; held the 
 mastership of St. Oswald's Hospital ; and 
 died in 1700 — Another William Hopkins 
 was the author of " An Appeal to Common 
 Sense ; " and, though openly professing 
 Arian principles, held the rectory of Bolney, 
 in Sussex, till his death, in 1786. 
 
 HOPKINSON, Francis, an eminent 
 American author, and one of the signers of 
 the American independence, was born at 
 Philadelphia, in 1738. His father was the 
 intimate friend and scientific coadjutor of 
 Franklin. After graduating at the college 
 of Philadelphia, and making the law his 
 study, Francis visited England, the country 
 of his parents' birth ; and, in a few years 
 after his return, entered congress as a de- 
 legate from New Jersey. He produced many 
 
 o 3 
 
hop] 
 
 ^ ipcij) mniiJtr^al 38ifl£!Tapl)S. 
 
 [hob 
 
 satires and ironical pieces, such as the " Pro- 
 phecy," the "Political Catechism," &c., 
 tending to ridicule the old country ; while, 
 at the same time, he directed his efforts 
 agaiiftt the ribaldry of the newspapers, and 
 the exaggerations and prejudices with which 
 the federal constitution was at first assailed. 
 After his retirement from congress, he was 
 appointed judge of the admiralty for Penn- 
 sj'lvania, and died in 1791. Among his 
 works, the greater part of which are of a 
 political character, there are many sound 
 essays and scientific papers, acute and 
 learned judicial decisions, and a variety of 
 songs possessing much sweetness and deli- 
 cacy, which were rendered still more po- 
 pular by the airs he composed for them. 
 
 HOPPNER, John, an ingenious portrait 
 and landscape painter, chiefly excelling in 
 females and children, was born in 1759, and 
 died in 1810. As the author of a metrical 
 translation of " Oriental Tales," and in other 
 Literary performaucesj he also distinguished 
 himself. 
 
 HOPTON, Arthur, a mathematician, son 
 of Sir Arthur Hopton, was born in Somerset- 
 shire, and educated at Lincoln College, Ox- 
 ford ; after which he became a student of the 
 Temple, where he lived on terms of intimacy 
 with Selden, but died in 1614, aged 26. He 
 wrote " A Treatise on the Geodetical Staff," 
 " The Topographical Glass," " A Concord- 
 ance of Years," &c. 
 
 HORAPOLLO, or HORUS APOLLO, a 
 grammarian of Panoplus, in Egypt, in the 
 4th century, who taught first at Alexandria, 
 and next at Constantinople. There are ex- 
 tant, under his name, 2 books concerning 
 the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, printed 
 in Greek by Aldus, in 1505, but their au- 
 thenticity is questionable. 
 
 HORATIUS FLACCUS, Quintus, or 
 HORACE, one of tlie most eminent, and 
 certainly the most popular and elegant of 
 the Roman poets, was born at Venusium, a 
 city lying on the borders of Lucania and 
 Apulia, B.C. 65. His father, although fol- 
 lowing the calling of a tax-gatherer, was a 
 man of elevated and liberal sentiments, and 
 took the greatest pains in providing for his 
 education. At the age of 20 years he went 
 to Athens to complete his studies ; and while 
 there, Marcus Brutus passing through the 
 city on his way to Macedonia, Horace, ac- 
 companied by other Roman youths, joined 
 the army ; became a legionary tribune ; 
 fought in the last battle for the freedom of 
 Rome at Philippi, and saved himself by 
 flight. Though he saved his life, he forfeited 
 his estate, and was reduced to great want, 
 till Virgil introduced him to Maecenas, by 
 whose interest he recovered his patrimony. 
 Augustus now became his friend, and olfered 
 to make him his secretary, which Horace 
 declined. When Macenas was sent to Brun- 
 dusium to conclude a treaty between Au- 
 gustus and Anthony, he took with him 
 Horace, Virgil, and other literary friends ; 
 and, not long after, his munificent patron 
 presented him with the Sabine villa ; to 
 which, having witnessed such striking ex- 
 amples of the instability of fortune, lie with- 
 drew from tlie tumult at Rome, preferring 
 retirement to a more brilliant life. His Odes 
 
 are models of that kind of composition, and 
 his Epistles and Satires abound with acute 
 and vivacious observations on life and 
 manners ; while his " Ars Poetica," so often 
 quoted, evinces great taste, and is remarkable 
 for a species of graceful negligence. This is 
 not the place, even if our brief limits per- 
 mitted it, to dwell on the peculiar merits of 
 a classical poet ; but we may safely say, with 
 a more competent authority, that " the easy, 
 agreeable manner in which he philosophises 
 without appearing to do it, the salt with 
 which he seasons his thouglits, and the de- 
 licacy and ease with which he expresses him- 
 self, afford the most agreeable entertainment. 
 His descriptions are still applicable and in- 
 teresting, and the poet will therefore ever 
 remain the favourite of those whose morality 
 does not exclude the refinements of life." 
 Horace died suddenly, in the year of Rome 
 756, and 9 B.C., aged 56. 
 
 HORN, Charles Edward, the best Eng- 
 lish melodist of modern times, the son of 
 C. F. Horn, a German musician, and teacher 
 of the daughters of George HI., was born in 
 London, 1786. At the precocious age of six, 
 he showed evident si^ns of a taste for com- 
 position, his skill at improvisation arresting 
 the attention of his father's visitors, among 
 whom the great Haydn could be numbered. 
 On the opening of the English Opera House 
 he was engaged as second tenor, and he sub- 
 sequently shared the public favours with the 
 first singers of the day. He composed the 
 whole or the greater portion of the music for 
 innumerable operas ; and in proof of liis 
 success as a ballad composer, it need only be 
 said that he was the author of the three most 
 popular ballads of his tirne, " Cherry Ripe," 
 " I've been Roaming," " The deep deep Sea," 
 &c. Died at New York, 1849. 
 
 HORNE, George, a learned and pious 
 English prelate of the 18th century, was 
 born in 1730, at Otham, Kent ; and was edu- 
 cated at Maidstone Grammar School-, and at 
 University College, Oxford. He took orders 
 in 1753, and his graceful elocution and 
 excellent style rendered him a popular 
 preacher. He was successively chaplain to 
 the king, vice-diancellor of the university, 
 and dean of Canterbury ; and in 1790 he was 
 raised to the see of Norwich. He was distin- 
 guished for his biblical knowledge, and in 
 early life was a strenuous Hutchinsonian. 
 In 1751 he opposed the Newtonian philosophy 
 as inconsistent with the Bible ; in 1754 he 
 wrote against Dr. Shuckford's account of the 
 creation and fall of man ; and in 1756 he be- 
 came involved in a controversy with Dr. 
 Keunicott, the supposed author of "A Word 
 to the Hutchinsonians." But among his I 
 numerous works, which are too numerous 
 for specifying here, the principal is, "A , 
 Commentary on the Book of Psalms," an I 
 elaborate performance, on the composition | 
 of which he bestowed nearly 20 years. Died, 
 1792. 
 
 HOBNECK, Anthoxy, an eminent divine 
 and learned orientalist, was born at Bacca- 
 rach, in Germany, in 1641; came to England, 
 and completed his education at Queen's 
 College, Oxford ; and obtained a prebend in 
 Westminster Abbey, and a chaplainship to | 
 the king. He wrote many admirable works i 
 
hor] 
 
 ^ llfii) ^am'tjrv^al 28iog;rap^i)» 
 
 [hot 
 
 on theology and church history, and was 
 an excellent Ilehrew scholar. Died, lfi9(). 
 
 HORNECK, Ott(x;ak of, one of the oldest 
 historians in the German language, was a 
 native of Stjria, and lived in tlie h'Uh and 
 14th centuries. About the year 1280, he 
 composed a M-ork on the great empires of the 
 earth, which concluded with tlie death of the 
 emperor Frederic II., and is still extant in 
 manuscript at Vienna. He also wrote a 
 chronicle of the events of his own time, con- 
 sisting of more than 83,000 verses, and which 
 is said to be rich in pourtraying the cha- 
 racters of eminent men, and in the description 
 of festivals, tournaments, and battles, at part 
 of which he was himself present. 
 
 HORNEMANN, Fkedkkic Comrap, a 
 celebrated German traveller, born at Ilil- 
 desheim, in 1772. At the instance of Blu- 
 menbach, the famous naturalist, he was, in 
 1797, employed by the African Association, 
 in London, to explore the interior of Africa. 
 After having visited Cyprus, Alexandria, 
 and Cairo, he crossed the Libyan desert, 
 reached Moureouk, the capital of Fezzau, 
 and soon afterwards proceeded on an ex- 
 cursion to Tripoli. From this place he set 
 out with the intention of penetrating into 
 Central Africa, and is believed to have died 
 on his return to Fezzan, of a fever caused 
 by drinking cold water, after t)cing exiKJsed 
 to great fatigue. His Journal, which was 
 sent by him from Tripoli, was published in 
 1802 by the African Society. 
 
 HORNER, Fkancis, barristcr-at-law, was 
 born at Edinburgh, in 1778 ; and educated 
 at the High School and university of his na- 
 tive city. He entered parliament in 180(5, 
 and distinguished himself as chairman of the 
 bullion committee; but his severe application 
 to that intricate subject injured his health, 
 which was naturally delicate ; and he died, 
 in 1817, at Pisa, whither he had gone for its 
 restoration. Mr. Horner's UteltLry talents 
 were of a high order, and he was one of the 
 earliest and most able writers in the Edin- 
 burgh Review. 
 
 HORNTHORST, Gerard, a celebrated 
 painter, called also Gerardo dalle Notti, 
 from his subjects, was born at Utrecht in 
 1592, and was a pupil of Abraham Bloe- 
 mart, but finished his studies at Rome, 
 where he was employed by Prince Justi- 
 niani, and other persons of high rank. He 
 painted night-scenes, and pieces illuminated 
 by torch or candle light. On his return 
 from Italy he visited England, and obtained 
 the favour of Charles I. by many able per- 
 formances ; and on his return to Holland, 
 he was much employed by the Prince of 
 Orange. Among his numerous pictures, 
 that of Jesus Christ before the tribunal of 
 Pilate is the most celebrated. Died, 1660. 
 
 HORROX, Jeremiah, an English astro- 
 nomer, was born at Toxteth, in Lancashire, 
 about 1619. He was the first who observed 
 the transit of "Venus over the sun's disk, his 
 account of which was published by Hevelius 
 at Dantzic, in lG61,under the title of "Venus 
 in Sole visu, anno 1639, Nov. 21. ; " and he 
 formed a theory of lunar motion, which 
 Newton did not disdain to adopt. His pre- 
 mature death, which was a real loss to 
 science, took place soon after he had attained 
 
 the age of 21 years. Dr. Wallis published 
 his posthumous works in 1073. 
 
 HORSLEY, John, a learned antiquary, 
 who died in 1731. His work, entitled " Bri- 
 tannia Romana," folio, gives a copious and 
 exact account of the remains of the Romans 
 in Britain. 
 
 HORSLEY, Samxjel, a celebrated English 
 prelate and mathematician, was born in 
 London in 1733; was educated at Westminster 
 School, and Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
 and held several livings, in succession, till 
 lie arrived at the episcopal dignity. But 
 while he was rapidly rising in the church, 
 and opposing Dr. Priestley, the great cham- 
 pion of Unitarianism, by liis theological 
 arguments, he was not neglectful of science. 
 In 1775 he published an edition of Newton's 
 works, in 5 vols. 4to. ; and from 1773 till the 
 election of Sir Joseph Banks, he was secre- 
 tary of the Royal Society ; when, deeming 
 the dignity of the society lessened by the 
 choice of a man who was ignorant of the 
 higher sciences, he resigned his office. He 
 was the uncompromising and strenuous ad- 
 vocate of the cause he espoused, an oi)en and 
 sincere enemy to all innovation in church 
 and state, profoundly learned, and an elo- 
 quent preacher. His writings were numerous 
 and important, in theology, in science, and 
 in classical literature. Died, 1806. 
 
 HORTENSIUS, Qcintus, a celebrated 
 Roman orator, who, till his great rival Cicero 
 bore away the palm, eclipsed all others by 
 the grace and splendour of his eloquence. 
 He was elegant in his style, acute in the 
 conception and distribution of his matter, 
 and succeeded by sudden effect. He held 
 many civil and military ofSces ; was made 
 consul 70 n. c. ; was Cicero's colleague as 
 augur ; and died immensely rich, B. c. 49. 
 His works are unfortunately lost to jiosterity. 
 — His daughter Hortensia inherited his elo- 
 quence, and when the Roman women were 
 required to render on oath an account of 
 their property, she pleaded the cause of her 
 sex with such force, that the decree was 
 annulled. 
 
 HOSTE, JoHX, a learned French mathe- 
 matician of the ]6th century. He was ap- 
 pointed superintendant of fortifications and 
 counsellor of war ; fortified the town of 
 Nancy ; and wrote several works on astro- 
 nomy, geometry, &c. Died, 1631. 
 
 HOSTE, Paul, a celebrated French ma- 
 thematician ; born, 1652 ; died, 1700. He 
 accompanied the Mareschals d'Estrees and 
 de Tourville during 12 years in all their 
 expeditions ; and produced, besides other 
 works, " L'Art des Arm(;es Navales," a trea- 
 tise which is equally historical and authentic, 
 and for which Louis XIV. liberally rewarded 
 him. 
 
 HOTTINGER, John He.vry, a learned 
 oriental scholar, born at Zurich, in 1620. He 
 displayed such a propensity for, and made 
 such progress in, the ancient languages, that 
 he was sent to foreign universities at the 
 public expense. He went to Geneva, Got- 
 tingen,' and Leyden ; visited England ; and 
 returned to his native country, enriched with 
 vast stores of knowledge. In 1642 he was 
 appointed professor of ecclesiastical history 
 in his native city ; and by his teaching and 
 
hot] 
 
 ^ ^eby mnibtv^Kl SStaflrap^w. 
 
 [how 
 
 writings contributed greatly to promote the 
 study of oriental literature. lie endeavoured, 
 especially, to obtain accurate information 
 concerning the state of the eastern churches ; 
 and by his knowledge of oriental history 
 and archaeology, he was enabled to throw 
 considerable light on the history of the Jews, 
 Mohammedans, &c. In 1658 he accompanied 
 his patron, the Elector of Heidelberg, to the 
 diet at Frankfort, where he formed an ac- 
 quaintance with the famous orientalist. Job 
 Ludolph ; and in 1661 he finally returned to 
 Zurich, laden with honours. In 1667, while 
 preparing for a visit to the university of 
 Leyden, in compliance with repeated invi- 
 tations, he was accidentally drowned, with 
 three of his children, by the upsetting of a 
 boat, in the neighbourhood of Zurich. His 
 works are all of the most erudite character. 
 
 HOTTINGER, John James, son of the 
 preceding, was bom at Zurich, in 1652 ; at 
 which place he became professor of theology ; 
 and died in 1735. His principal work is an 
 "Ecclesiastical History of Switzerland." — 
 Another professor at Zurich, of the same 
 name, known by his editions of the classics, 
 was born in 1750, and died in 1819. He was 
 an acute critic and elegant scholar : among 
 his best works is an " Essay towards a Com- 
 parison of the German with the Greek and 
 Roman Poets." 
 
 HOTZE, General, an officer in the Aus- 
 trian service, was by birth a Swiss. In 1792 
 he served in the army as a colonel of cuiras- 
 siers ; was promoted to the rank of a major- 
 general in the following year ; and continued 
 to serve in the army of the Rhine for several 
 succeeding years. In 1795 he was made a 
 lieutenant-field-marshal ; in August, 1796, 
 he assisted in gaining the battle of Neu- 
 marck ; and a few days afterwards displayed 
 great talents and activity in the field of 
 Wurtzburg. In 1799 he had the command 
 of the left wing of the Archduke Charles's 
 army ; and by efiecting the passage of the 
 Riiine above the lake of Constance, and by 
 his obstinate contests with the French, he 
 greatly contributed to the future success of 
 the archduke. He was killed near Kalten- 
 brunn, Sept. 25. 1799. 
 
 HOUARD, David, a French advocate and 
 juridical writer, was born at Dieppe, in 1725. 
 He laboured with great diligence in clearing 
 the ancient laws of France from their ob- 
 scurity, and he thereby threw much light 
 upon the history of that country. He was 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions 
 and an associate of the National Institute. 
 Died, 1803. 
 
 HOUBIGANT, Charles Francis, a 
 learned French ecclesiastic, who produced a 
 Latin translation of the Old Testament, in 
 8 vols. ; and an excellent edition of the He- 
 brew Bible, with a Latin version and notes, 
 in 4 vols, folio, &c. He died at the advanced 
 age of 98, in 1803. 
 
 HOUCHARD, Jean Nicolas, a French 
 republican general, who from being at first 
 a private in a regiment of cavalry, rapidly 
 arrived at the rank of a general, and dis- 
 played great boldness and activity in re- 
 peated engagements when opposed to the 
 Prussians on the Rhine, and afterwards 
 against the English and their allies before 
 
 423 
 
 Dunkirk, &c. Neither his bravery nor his 
 successes, however, could save him from the 
 guillotine ; for having been denounced by 
 his colleague. General Hoche, as a conspirator 
 against the republic, he was arrested, and 
 shortly after executed, 1793. 
 
 HOUEL, J. P. L. L., a French painter and 
 engraver, born at Rouen, in 1735. He is the 
 author as well as artist of " Le Voyage Pit- 
 toresque de Sieile," &c. in 4 folio volumes, 
 with 264 plates. Died, 1813. 
 
 HOUGH, John, an English prelate, me- 
 morable for the noble stand he made against 
 the arbitrary conduct of James II., was a 
 native of Middlesex, and born in 1651. He 
 was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford } 
 became chaplain to the Duke of Ormond ; 
 and in 1085 was made a prebendary of Wor- 
 cester. In 1687 the presidentship of Magdalen 
 College becoming vacant, the king sent man- 
 datory letters to the fellows, requiring them 
 to elect one Anthony Farmer, who did not 
 belong to that society, and was a man of bad 
 character. The fellows upon this seeing 
 their privileges attacked, applied by petition 
 for leave to proceed to a free election, ac- 
 cording to their statutes. No answer being 
 returned, they chose Mr. Hough, wiio was 
 confirmed by the visitor, the Bishop of Win- 
 chester ; and the new president having taken 
 his doctor's degree, was installed. The in- 
 fatuated monarch, instead of letting the 
 matter rest, now thought proper to send 
 another mandate, ordering the society to 
 elect Dr. Parker, bishop of Oxford, for their 
 president ; which they refused, and were all 
 expelled, except two. Thus the business 
 stood till September, 1688, when the king, 
 finding that his affairs grew desperate, began 
 to be alarmed, and commissioned the Bishop 
 of Winchester to settle the society of Mag- 
 dalen College regularly and statutably. Dr. 
 Hough and the fellows were accordingly 
 restored ; dk in 1690 he was made bishop of 
 Oxford, from whence he removed to Lichfield, 
 and next to Worcester, where, in 1743, he 
 died, honoured for his patriotism, piety, and 
 munificence. 
 
 HOUSTON, William, an English physi- 
 cian and botanist. He went to the West 
 Indies as surgeon, and on his return took his 
 degrees at Leyden under Boerhaave ; while 
 there he instituted a set of experiments on 
 brutes, in concert with Van Swieten. He 
 was elected fellow of the Royal Society on 
 his return from Holland, and went soon 
 after to the West Indies, where he died in 
 1733. He left a manuscript catalogue of 
 plants, which was published by Sir Joseph 
 Banks. 
 
 HOUTEVILLE, Claude Francis, a 
 French ecclesiastic, was born at Paris in 
 1688, and died in 1742, aged 54. His princi- 
 pal work is entitled " The Truth of the 
 Christian Religion proved by Facts," 3 vols. 
 
 HOVEDEN, Roger de, an English his- 
 torian, who flourished in the reign of Henry 
 II. He wrote Annals in Latin, commencing 
 at 731, the period at which Bede finished, 
 and bringing down affairs to the 3rd year of 
 John, 1201. His style is defective, but he is 
 higlily esteemed for diligence and fidelity. 
 
 HOWARD, Charles, earl of Nottingham, 
 an intrepid English admiral ; commander- 
 
now] 
 
 ^ i^cJu BnihtviKl ISiojjrajjlbi?. 
 
 [how 
 
 in-chief at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. 
 Born, ir);?6 ; died, 1624. 
 
 HOWARD, Lieut. Edward, R.N., the 
 descendant of an ancient and opulent family, 
 was one of the earliest and best of the naval 
 school of novelists. With all the graphic 
 power and stirring eloquence of his otlier 
 writers of that class, he was, to his honour 
 be it said, wholly free from their too frequent 
 coarseness. " Katlin the Reefer," " Outward 
 Bound," " The Old Commodore," and " Jack 
 Ashore," attest his powers as a novelist ; 
 while his "Life of Sir Henry Morgan, the 
 Buccaneer," gave promise of even higher 
 excellence. Died, 1842. 
 
 HOWARD, John, the celebrated pliilan- 
 thropist, was born at Hackney, in 172(i. He 
 was apprenticed to a grocer, but his con- 
 stitution being delicate, and having au 
 aversion to trade, he purchased his inden- 
 tures and went abroad. On his return he 
 lodged with a widow lady, whom lie after- 
 wards married. After the decease of Mrs. 
 Howard, who lived only about three years, 
 he, in 17'»6, embarked for Lisbon, in order 
 to view the effects of the recent earthquake, 
 but on the passage the ship was taken and 
 carried to France. The hardsiiips he suf- 
 fered and witnessed during his imprison- 
 ment, first roused his attention to the sub- 
 ject of Ids future labours. On being released, 
 Mr. Howard retired to a villa in the New 
 Forest; and in 1758 he married a second 
 wife, who died in childbed in 17(5."), leaving 
 him one son. He at this time resided at 
 Cardington, near Bedford, where he in- 
 dulged the benevolence of his disposition by 
 continually assisting and ameliorating the 
 condition of the poor. In 1773 he served 
 the office of sheriff, which, as he declared, 
 " brought the distress of the prisoners more 
 immediately under his notice," and led liim 
 to form tlie design of visiting the gaols 
 through England, in order to devise means 
 for alleviating the miseries of the prisoners. 
 Having done so, he laid the result of his 
 inquiries before the House of Commons, for 
 which he received a vote of thanks. He 
 next made a tour through the principal 
 lutrts of Europe, and published his " State 
 of the Prisons," with a view to render them 
 both more humane and more efficacious. A 
 new subject now engaged his attention, 
 namely, the management of lazarettos, and 
 the means of preventing the communication 
 of the plague and other contagious diseases. 
 In this he encountered every danger that 
 can be conceived ; and having become per 
 sonally acquainted with the subject, in 1789 
 he published " An Account of the principal 
 Lazarettos in Europe, with Papers relative 
 to the Plague," &c. Actively pursuing this 
 salutary and benevolent object, Mr. Howard 
 took up his residence at the town of Cherson, 
 a Russian settlement on the Black Sea. A 
 malignant fever prevailed tliere, and having 
 been prompted by humanity to visit one of 
 the sufferers, he caught the infection, and 
 died. Jan. 20. 1790. His body was there in- 
 terred, and every respect was shown to his 
 memory bv the Russian authorities Ed- 
 mund Burke, adverting to the merits of this 
 great philanthropist in a speech previous to 
 the election at Bristol, in 1780, thus eulogises 
 
 439 > 
 
 him : — " He has visited all Europe, not to ! 
 survey the sumptuousness of palaces, or the [ 
 Btateliness of temples ; not to make accurate 
 measurements of the remains of ancient 
 grandeur, nor to form a scale of the curiosity 
 of modern art ; not to collect medals or to 
 collate manuscripts ; but to dive into the 
 depths of dungeons ; to plunge into the in- 
 fection of hospitals ; to survey the mansions 
 of sorrow and pain ; to take the gauge and 
 dimensions of misery, depression, and con- 
 tempt ; to remember the forgotten, to attend 
 to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and 
 to compare and collate the distresses of all 
 men in all countries. His plan is original ; 
 and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity. 
 It was a voyage of discovery ; a circum- 
 navigation of charity." His statue, in a Bo- 
 man garh, is erected to his memory in St. 
 Paul's cathedral. 
 
 HOWARD, Sir Robert, an English poet 
 and historian, was the sou of Thomas, earl 
 of Berkshire He was a zealous friend of 
 the revolution of 1G88. He wrote several 
 plays, the " History of the Reigns of Ed- 
 ward and Richard II.," the "History of 
 Religion," &c. Died, 1098. 
 
 HOWARD, Thomas, earl of Surrey and 
 duke of Norfolk, an eminent statesman and 
 warrior in the reign of Henry VIII. He 
 served with his brother. Sir Edward, against 
 Sir Andrew Barton, a Scotch pirate, who 
 infested the English coast in 1.511, but was 
 killed and his ships taken. He next accom- 
 panied the Marquis of Dorset in his expedi- 
 tion to Guienne, which ended in the conquest 
 of Navarre by Ferdinand. The victory of 
 Flodden Field, in which the king of Scotland 
 was slain, was chiefly owing to his bravery. 
 On the breaking out of the disturbances in 
 Ireland, he was appointed lieutenant of that 
 kingdom, where he suppressed the rebellion. 
 Notwithstanding his great services, Henry, 
 at the close of Jife, caused tlie duke to be 
 sent to the Tower, on a charge of treason, 
 and his son to be beheaded in his presence. 
 The death of the tyrant only saved the 
 duke's life. He died in 1554, aged 66. 
 
 HOWARD, Edward, younger brother of 
 the above, entered early on the maritime 
 service, and about 1494 was knighted. In 
 1512 he was sent as lord high admiral of 
 England with a large fleet against France, 
 the coasts of which he ravaged. He also 
 defeated the enemy's fleet off Brest ; but the 
 year following he was slain in boarding the 
 French admiral's ship, and his body thrown 
 into the sea. 
 
 HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey, an 
 accomplished nobleman, a brave soldier, and 
 the best English poet of his age, was bom in 
 1520. He served under his father, the Duke 
 of Norfolk, as lieutenant-general of the army 
 sent against Scotland, and performed various 
 other military exploits, of eminence and 
 value. He had quartered on his escutcheon 
 the royal arms of Edward the Confessor, to 
 which he had an hereditary right ; and he is 
 said to have aspired to the hand of the prin- 
 cess Mary. On these and other less sub- 
 stantial charges he suffered decapitation on 
 Tower Hill, Jan. 19. l.'>46, by the jealous and 
 arbitrary mandate of Henry VIII. His 
 works consist of " Songs and Sonnets," &c., 
 
how] 
 
 ^ ^efa Unihcv^aX 28i0ffrap!j5. 
 
 [how 
 
 which deserve a high degree of commend- 
 ation, for the period at which tliey were 
 composed. Dr. Heylin, in his Church His- 
 tory, thus speaks of his great popularity : 
 " He was beheld in general by the English 
 as the chief ornament of the nation, highly 
 esteemed for his chivalry, his affability, his 
 learning, and whatsoever other graces might 
 either make him amiable in the eyes of the 
 people, or formidable in the sight of a jealous, 
 impotent, and wayward prince." 
 
 HOWARD, Thomas, earl of Arundel, a 
 nobleman distinguished by his patronage of 
 the line arts, was earl marshal in the early 
 part of the reign of Charles I., and was em- 
 ployed in several foreign embassies by that 
 prince and his father. He sent agents into 
 Greece and Italy, to collect for him, at a 
 vast expense, whatever was curious and 
 valuable of the works of ancient artists, 
 which had escaped destruction. His un- 
 rivalled museum of antiquities was divided 
 at his death ; and Henry, the sixth duke of 
 Norfolk, about the year 1G68, presented to 
 the university of Oxford a considerable part 
 of his moiety, including the celebrated Pa- 
 rian Chronicle, which with the other ancient 
 inscribed stones accompanying it are now 
 termed the Arundelian marbles. His lord- 
 ship died at Padua, in 164<5. 
 
 HOWE, John, an eminent Nonconformist 
 clergyman of the 17th century, born in 1C30, 
 at Loughborough ; was ejected from his 
 living at Torrington, Devon, and for many 
 years officiated as the minister of a Presby- 
 terian congregation in London ; afterwards 
 retired to the Netherlands ; came again to 
 England upon James's proclamation of li- 
 berty of conscience, and died in 1705. 
 
 HOWE, John, a statesman in the reigns 
 of William III. and Anne. He was a member 
 of the convention parliament, and exerted 
 himself greatly in favour of the revolution ; 
 but afterwards joined the opposition, and 
 gave great offence to the king by the bold- 
 ness of his conduct. In the succeeding reign 
 he was made a privy councillor and pay- 
 master of the forces ; but retired on the ac- 
 cession of George I., and was succeeded in 
 his office by Walpole. Died, 1720. 
 
 HOWE, JosiAH, an English divine in the 
 reign of Charles I., whose cause he espoused 
 with ardour, and was consequently ejected 
 from his fellowship at Trinity College, Ox- 
 ford ; but surviving the restoration of mon- 
 archy, once more became possessed of his 
 preferment. He was the author of some 
 poems, &c. Died, 1701. 
 
 HOWE, Richard, Earl, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish admiral, was the third son of Emanuel, 
 viscount Howe, and was born in 1725. After 
 having received the rudiments of a liberal 
 education at Eton, he was placed, at the age 
 of 14, as a midshipman on board the Severn, 
 in which ship he sailed with Anson for the 
 Pacific, and continued going through the 
 usual gradations of the service under that 
 admiral till 1745, when, though only 20 
 years of age, he obtained the command of 
 the Baltimore sloop of war, and was made 
 post-captain for gallantly defeating two 
 French ships bearing succours to the Pre- 
 tender. Having greatly distinguished him- 
 self on many occasions, he sailed, as com- 
 
 mander-in-chief, to the Mediterranean in 
 1770, with the rank of rear-admiral, and in 
 a few years rose to be vice-admiral of the 
 blue. On the breaking out of the war with 
 France, Lord Howe sailed for the coast of 
 America, with a squadron destined to act 
 against D'Estaign ; and, on his return in 1782, 
 he was created an English viscount. In the 
 course of the same year he sailed to the 
 relief of Gibraltar, which he effected in spite 
 of the combined fleets of the enemy. In 
 1783 he accepted the post of first lord of the 
 admiralty ; and in 1788 he was created an 
 earl of Great Britain. In 1793, on the 
 breaking out of the war with France, he 
 took the command of the British fleet, and 
 bringing tlie enemy to an action on the 1st 
 of June, 1794, obtained over them a decisive 
 and most important victory. The rank of 
 general of marines and the vacant garter 
 were both conferred on this successful com- 
 mander in the course of the next year, 
 which, with a visit from the king on board 
 his "ship, who presented him with a valu- 
 able sword, were the consummation of his 
 honours. In 1797, Lord Howe exerted him- 
 self with great success to quell the mutiny 
 among the seamen at Portsmouth, and died 
 in 1799. 
 
 HOWE, Sir William, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, succeeded General Gage in the chief 
 command of the British forces in America, 
 having landed at Boston with Generals 
 Clinton and Burgoyne, in May, 1775. Ge- 
 neral Howe commanded at the attack on 
 Bunker's Hill, was besieged in Boston during 
 the next winter, evacuated that town in the 
 ensuing spring, and retired to Halifax. In 
 June, 1776, he arrived at Staten Island, 
 where he was joined by his brother Lord 
 Howe. Here the brothers informed congress 
 that they had received full power to grant 
 pardon to all the rebels who should return 
 to their obedience ; but the commissioners 
 appointed by that body considered both the 
 form and substance of the propositions too 
 objectionable to deserve attention. In Au- 
 gust he defeated the Americans on Long 
 Island, and took possession of New York in 
 September. After the campaign of the 
 Jerseys, he set sail from New York and 
 entered Chesapeake Bay. Having previously 
 secured the command of the Schuylkill, 
 he crossed it with his army, and repelled 
 the attack of the Americans at German- 
 town. In May, 1778, he was succeeded in 
 the command by General Clinton. Died, 
 1814. 
 
 HOWELL, THE Good, or HYWEL DDA, 
 a Cambrian prince and legislator, of the 
 10th century, who went to Rome to obtain 
 information preparatory to a compilation of 
 a code of laws for the Welsh ; which code, 
 founded on the laws of Dunwallo Molmu- 
 tius, an ancient British sovereign, was con- 
 stitutionally established throughout Wales, 
 and are still extant. 
 
 HOWELL, James, a miscellaneous writer, 
 was born in 1595, at Abemant, in Caermar- 
 thenshire ; and, after receiving his education 
 at Oxford, travelled on the Continent as 
 agent to procure workmen, &c., for a glass 
 manufactory then for the first time estab- 
 lished in England. He was subsequently a 
 
how] 
 
 ^ iJeiD Hitibersfal 3Bt0sra|jf)i), 
 
 [hud 
 
 member of parliament, secretary to the 
 British ambassador in Denmark, and clerk 
 of the council. For some offence to tlie 
 parliamentarians he was imprisoned in the 
 Fleet, but obtained his liberty by applying 
 to Cromwell ; became historiographer to 
 Charles II., and died in 16m. He wrote 
 many books ; but the one by which he will 
 be longest rememl)ered is, " Epistolae Ilowel- 
 lianae, or Familiar Letters, domestic and 
 foreign." 
 
 HOWELL, William, an English liisto- 
 rical writer of the 17th century ; author of 
 a " History of the World, from the earliest 
 Times to the Ruin of the Roman Empire," 
 3 vols, folio ; and " Medulla Uistorise Aiigli- 
 canae." Died, 1683. 
 
 HOWLEY, William, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was bom at Ropley, in Hampshire, 
 of wliich parish his father was vicar, in 1765. 
 He was educated at Winchester School, 
 where he had for his teacher Dr. Warton, 
 and for a class-fellow William Lisle Bowles, 
 the poet ; and after distinguishing himself 
 by the elegance of his academic exercises, 
 he proceeded, in 1783, to New College, Ox- 
 ford, passing through the various grades of 
 the university with honour and success, till, 
 ill 18(X<, he was appointed regius professor of 
 divinity. This closed his academic career. 
 In 1813 he was nominated bishop of London ; 
 and in 1828 translated to the primacy, the 
 onerous duties of which he discharged with 
 zeal and fidelity for 20 years. He seldom 
 took part in the secular discussions in 
 the House of Lords. When bishop of Lon- 
 don he supported the bill of pains and 
 penalties against queen Caroline, laying it 
 down with much emphasis that the king 
 could do no wrong either morally or poli- 
 tically ; and, as archbishop of Canterbury, 
 he vehemently opposed the catholic eman- 
 cipation bill, in 1829, as dangerous to the 
 church ; and the reform bill, in 1831, as 
 no less dangerous to the constitution. Dr. 
 Howley enjoyed with those who knew him 
 best, a high reputation for scholarship ; and 
 the sermons, charges, &c., which he gave to 
 the world, showed him to be possessed of 
 good sense, good feeling, and sincere piety. 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 HUARTE, John, a Spanish philosopher 
 and author in the 17th century, who gained 
 celebrity by a work, entitled "Examen de 
 Ingenios para las Scienzias," &c., or an Ex- 
 amination of such Geniuses as are fit for ac- 
 quiring the Sciences. This book, which is 
 full of practical wisdom, has been translated 
 into English, under the title of " The Trial 
 of Wits," and into German by Lessing, as 
 "PrUfung der Kijple." Though he wrote 
 in Spanish, and is supposed to have been 
 bom of Spanish parents, Iluarte was a native 
 of Navarre. 
 
 HUBER, JoHx James, a celebrated ana- 
 tomist, was born at Basle, in 1707. He 
 studied under Haller at Berne, and next 
 at Strasburg ; after which he took his doc- 
 tor's degree at his native place. He assisted 
 Haller in his great work on the Plants of 
 Switzerland. He obtained the rank of court 
 physician and counsellor of state ; published 
 a work on the spinal marrow and other 
 parts of the nervous system, entitled " Com- 
 
 431 
 
 mentatio de Medulla Spinali ;" and died in 
 1778. There were also several other writers 
 
 and artists of this name Ulkic Hubkr, 
 
 a native of Friesland, author of " De Jure 
 Civitatis," Died, 1694 — Maky Hubkr, a 
 deistical writer ; author of " Lettres sur la 
 Religion de I'Homme," and many other 
 works. Bom, at Geneva, 1694 ; died, 1759. 
 — John Jamks Hubek, a painter, called by 
 Fuseli the Swiss Tintoretto. Born, 1668 ; 
 died, 1748 — John Hubek, a Genevese artist, 
 born in 1722. He was a good painter, but 
 devoted much of his attention to the art 
 of cutting profiles, in which he acquired an 
 extraordinary degree of dexterity. He is 
 described as being an eccentric character ; 
 and, among other fanciful schemes, formed 
 a project for guiding the course of air bal- 
 loons by the flight of large birds ; on which 
 he published a tract, illustrated with plates. 
 Died, 1790. — Michael Hubek, a native of 
 Bavaria, professor of French in Leipsic, and 
 the translator of several German works into 
 French. Born, 1727; died, 1804.— Louis 
 Fkkdinand Hubek, son of the preceding ; 
 editor of several journals. Born at Paris, 
 
 1764; died, 1804 Theresa Hubek, daughter 
 
 of the celebrated philologist Heyne, and 
 wife of the preceding ; a jwpular German 
 novelist, many of whose works appeared 
 under her husband a name. — Francis Hu- 
 bek, a naturalist, bom in 1750, at Geneva ; 
 author of "Nouvelles Observations sur les 
 Abeilles," in which he explains the manner 
 of the queen-bee's impregnation, &c. Hav- 
 ing lost his way in a winter night, the effect 
 of the cold produced total blindness ; but 
 the lady to whom be had been betrothed 
 afterwards married him, and became his 
 constant amanuensis. 
 
 HUDDLESTON, Robert, an eminent 
 antiquarian writer, was born at Closeburn, 
 in Dumfries-shire, about the year 1776. He 
 received the rudiments of his education at 
 the school of Wallace Hall, in that neigh- 
 bourhood. He was subsequently settled as 
 the schoolmaster of the parish of Lunan, in 
 the county of Forfar. In 1814, he published 
 a new edition of " Toland's History of the 
 Druids," in 1 vol. 8vo. Mr. H. rendered an 
 essential service to antiquarian literati by 
 this publication, enriched as it is by his 
 valuable notes, which display great anti- 
 quarian knowledge, critical acumen, and un- 
 wearied research. Died, 1826. 
 
 HUDSON, Henry, a distinguished navi- 
 gator, whose early history is unknown. 
 After making three voyages to find a north- 
 east or north-west passage to China, in the 
 second of which he discovered the river 
 Hudson, he set sail a fourth time, April 17th, 
 1610, in a bark named the Discovery, and 
 proceeding westward, reached, in latitude 
 eo*^, the strait bearing his name. Through 
 this he advanced along the coast of Labra- 
 dor, until it issued into the vast bay, which 
 is also called after him. Here, with his son, 
 and seven infirm sailors, he was turned 
 adrift by a mutinous crew, and is supposed 
 to have perished. 
 
 HUDSON, Dr. John, a learned divine 
 and philological writer, was born in 1662, 
 near Cockermouth, Cumberland ; obtained 
 a fellowsliip in University College, Oxlbrd, 
 
hue] 
 
 ^ ^e&) ^Kniber^al SStosrajpl^l'* 
 
 [hum 
 
 in 1686 ; and was made principal of St. 
 Mary's Hall in 1712. He enjoyed a high 
 reputation as a scholar, and published ele- 
 gant editions of the classic authors. After 
 his death appeared his beautiful edition of 
 Josephus, 2 vols, folio. 
 
 HUE, Francis, first valet-de-chambre to 
 the Dauphin of France, and who afterwards 
 filled the same situation under LouisXVIII., 
 distinguished himself by his inviolable fide- 
 lity to the royal family under the most tid- 
 ing circumstances. He was the author of a 
 work, entitled "Demi&rcs Annees du Rfcgne 
 et de la Vie de I>ouis XVI." 
 
 HUERTA, Vincent Garcia de la, a 
 Spanish poet and critic ; born in 1729, at 
 Zafra, in Estremadura. He acquired con- 
 siderable fame among his countrymen, and 
 zealously defended Spanish literature from 
 the censures of Voltaire and other French 
 writers. He published various poems and 
 dramas, and edited " Teatro Espanol," in 
 17 vols. 
 
 HUET, Peter Daniel, a celebrated 
 French critic and classical scholar, born at 
 Caen, iii Normandy, in 1630. He was edu- 
 cated in the Jesuits' College, accompanied 
 Bochart to Sweden, and was in vain per- 
 suaded to settle there by queen Christina. 
 In 1670 he was appointed preceptor to the 
 dauphin ; and while he filled that situation, 
 he wrote an erudite work in defence of 
 Christianity, entitled " Demonstratio Evan- 
 gelica ; " he also published the Latin clas- 
 sics, in 62 vols., with those ample illustra- 
 tions which have made what are called the 
 Delphin editions so generally known and 
 esteemed. In 1689 he was made bishop of 
 Avrantes, but resigned that see in 1699, and 
 spent the remainder of his days in literary 
 retirement, producing many works of great 
 merit. He died, at Paris, in 1721. 
 
 HUFNAGEL, George, a Flemish painter, 
 was born at Antwerp, in 1545, and died in 
 1600. He was also a tolerable poet in Latin 
 and German. 
 
 HUGH CAPET, the first of the third race 
 of French monarchs, was count of Paris 
 and Orleans. He was proclaimed king of 
 France at Noyon, in 987, and died in 996, 
 aged 57. 
 
 HUGH DE CLUNY, a Romish saint, was 
 born in Burgundy, in 1023. When young 
 he embraced the monastic life at Cluny, 
 where he became prior, and at last abbot, of 
 his order, which he greatly reformed and 
 extended. Died, 1108. 
 
 HUGH DE FLEURY, a monk of the 
 abbey of Fleury, in the 11th century. His 
 works are held in great esteem : they consist 
 of " De la Puissance Royale, et de la Diguit^ 
 Sacerdotale," and " A Chronicle, or History, 
 from the Creation to 840." 
 
 HUGH DE ST. CHER, or HUGO DE 
 SANCTO CARO, a French cardinal of the 
 13th century, distinguished as a Scripture 
 commentator, and who was also employed 
 on various important missions by the papal 
 court. 
 
 HUGHES, John, an English poet, dra- 
 matic author, and essayist ; born, 1677 ; 
 died, 1727. His last work was, the " Siege 
 of Damascus," a tragedy, which still con- 
 tinues on tlie stage. Several papers in the 
 
 Tattler, Spectator, and Guardian were 
 written by liim. 
 
 HUGO, Herman, a learned Jesuit and 
 Latin poet, was born at Brussels in 1588, and 
 died of the plague at Rhinberg, in 1629. 
 
 HUGTENBURGH, John van, a Dutch 
 painter, wlio painted the victories of the 
 Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 
 Died, 1733. 
 
 HULL, Thomas, a dramatic writer and 
 actor, born in 1728. He was contemporary 
 with Garrick, and lived to be father of the 
 British stage, but never rose to any great 
 eminence in his profession. He was the 
 author of a deservedly popular poem, en- 
 titled " Richard Plantagenet," besides some 
 novels, tales, and dramas. 
 
 HULSE, the Right Hon. Sir Samuel, 
 G. C.H., a British field-marshal, and the 
 governor of Chelsea Hospital. This gallant 
 veteran was JK) years of age, and had been 
 upwards of three quarters of a century in 
 the military service of his country, having 
 entered the Ist foot guards as an ensign in 
 1761. In 1782 he attained the brevet of 
 colonel, and commanded the 1st battalion of 
 his regiment in Holland and at the siege of 
 Valenciennes. In 1798 he received the rank 
 of lieutenant-general, and was in Ireland 
 for a time during the period of the rebellion. 
 He was next engaged in the expedition to 
 the Helder, and in 1803 he obtained the 
 rank of general. In 1806 he was appointed 
 lieutenant-governor of Chelsea Hospital, 
 in 1820 he became governor, and in 1830 he 
 was promoted to the rank of field-marshal. 
 He also held various offices in the royal 
 household, and was a member of the privy 
 council. Died, Jan. 1. 1837. 
 
 HUMANN,M., French minister of finance, 
 was a native of Alsace, which, at the time of 
 his birth, was accounted a province of the 
 empire. He commenced his active life as the 
 master of a mercantile depot in Paris ; where, 
 by a variety of circumstances, he brought 
 himself into notice as an able financier, and 
 finally gained a seat in the cabinet in this 
 capacity, in 1832. He was out of office, how- 
 ever, from 1836 to 1840, when he came in 
 with the new administration ; and he was 
 minister of finance in 7 cabinets out of 19, 
 which were formed and dissolved between 
 1830 and the time of his death, which oc- 
 curred in AprL, 1842. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, William von, a distin- 
 guished statesman and philologist, the elder 
 brother of the great philosopher and travel- 
 ler, was born at Potsdam, 1767. He received 
 his early education at Berlin, and studied 
 at Gottingen and Jena, where he formed 
 a friendship with Schiller, which lasted 
 through life. In 1800 he was appointed 
 Prussian minister at the papal court, where 
 his love of antiquarian and classical pursuits 
 necessarily received a fresh impulse ; and on 
 his return in 1808 he was created a councillor 
 of state, and nominated minister of educa- 
 tion. In 1810 he went as plenipotentiary to 
 Vienna ; and he shared in all the great 
 diplomatic transactions of the next few 
 years ; — at Prague, — at the conferences of 
 Chatillon, where he signed the capitulation 
 of Paris along with Hardenberg, — and at 
 the congress of Vienna, &c. He next went 
 
hum] 
 
 ^ jirtD 2Im't)cr^al 33tOflriipf)iK 
 
 [hcm 
 
 as ambassador extraordinary to London ; 
 assisted at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 in 1818 ; and the following year lie became a 
 member of the Prussian cabinet, but he soon 
 returned in consequence of the retrograde 
 policy pursued by his colleagues, and thence- 
 forward lived chiefly at his seat, Tegel, near 
 Berlin, iu the cultivation of literature and 
 science. It would be impossible within our 
 limits to give a list of his numerous produc- 
 tions. His works were collected by l»is bro- 
 ther Alexander, and printed in 1K41, in 
 4 vols. They are of a most miscellaneous 
 character, and show the extraordinary ver- 
 satility of his powers ; but his chief fame 
 rests on his erudite researches into philology, 
 and more esiwcially the Basque, Sanscrit, 
 North American, and Malay languages : nor 
 should we forget to mention, as most illus- 
 trative of his amiability and excellence of 
 heart, his " Letters to a Female Friend," of 
 which several translations, more or less 
 complete, have appeared in England. Died, 
 183.5. 
 
 HUME, David, a celebrated historian, 
 philosopher, and miscellaneous writer, was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1711. lie was designed 
 for the law, but having no inclination to 
 that profession, he ajiplicd to mercantile 
 pursuits, and liecame, in 1734, clerk in an 
 eminent house at Bristol. He did not, 
 however, continue long iu that line ; for, 
 having a strong propensity to literature, 
 he went to France, where he wrote his 
 " Treatise of Human Nature," which he 
 published at liOndon in 1738. This meta- 
 physical work, however, met with an in- 
 different reception ; nor were his " Moral 
 Essays," which appeared in 1742, more suc- 
 cessful. In 1745 he was invited to reside 
 with the young Marquis of Annandale, whose 
 state of mind rendered a guardian necessary. 
 Here he spent a year in great discomfort, as 
 might easily be imagined from the nature of 
 his office s and the chair of moral philo- 
 sophy in the university of Edinburgh having 
 become vacant, he became a candidate, but 
 failed iu his application in consequence of 
 his known infidelity. In 1746 he became 
 secretary to General St. Clair, whom he ac- 
 companied in his military embassy to the 
 courts of Vienna and Turin. While at the 
 latter city, he republiahed his first work, 
 under a new title of " An Inquiry concerning 
 Human Understanding ;" and, in 17.52, ap- 
 peared at Edinburgh, his " Political Dis- 
 courses," which were followed the same year 
 by his " Inquiry concerning the Princii'les 
 of Morals," which of all his writings he 
 considered incomparably the best. In 17.54 
 he published the first volume of his " His- 
 tory of England," which he did not complete 
 till 17IU. While this work was in progress 
 he printed a piece, with the title of " The 
 Natural History of Religion," which was 
 attacked by Warburton in an anonymous 
 tract, ascribed at the time to Dr. Hurd. 
 His great work, the " History of England," 
 had now acquired considerable celebrity, 
 and the writer gained largely by its popu- 
 larity, for besides the profits it brought him, 
 he obtained a iK-nsion through Lord Bute. 
 In 17<J3 he accompanied the Earl of Hertford 
 on his embassy to Paris, from whose fasliion- 
 
 able and literary circles he received an en 
 thusiastic welcome ; and where, in 1765, he I 
 remained as diurgi d'ajfaires. The year 
 following he returned home, accompanied 
 by Jean Jacques Rousseau, to whom he be- 
 haved with great delicacy and generosity, 
 but which were ill-requited by the morbid 
 sensitiveness and suspiciousness which the 
 " philosopher of Geneva " allowed himself to 
 indulge against his friend and benefactor. 
 He then Iwcame under-sccretary of state to 
 General Conway. In 1709 he retired to his 
 native country on an independent income of 
 H\O0l. per annum ; and died stoically in 1776. 
 Hume doubtless takes the lead among mo- 
 dern philosophical sceptics ; and. whatever 
 we may see to condemn, we are bound to ac- 
 knowledge that lie upheld his doctrines with 
 distinguished ability. 
 
 HUME, Jamks Dkacon, whose financial 
 reports have earned for him a high reputa- 
 tion, was born in Surrey, 1774. Having 
 obtained a clerkship in the custom house, 
 he soon became conspicuous for energy and 
 ability ; and at length his value was so 
 highly appreciated by government, that he 
 was appointed to reduce into one simple 
 code, the iimumerable and conflicting sta- 
 tutes relating to our custom house legisla- 
 tion. His services on this head were re- 
 warded with a present of .'>0(iO/. ; and soon 
 afterwards (in 1829) he was appointed joint 
 assistant secretary to the Itoard of trade, 
 which thus secured to itself the benefit of 
 his profound acr^uaintance with the mer- 
 cantile system of this country. In 1840 he 
 retired from public life ; and the evidence 
 he gave that year before the import duties 
 committee, has been almost universally 
 quoted as an authority without appeal. 
 Died, 1842. 
 
 HUMMEL, JoHX Nepomuk, an eminent 
 musician, was born at Prcsburg, in 1778. His 
 friends discovering in him an extraordinary 
 capacity for music, he was placed with Mo- 
 zart when only seven yeais of age ; and after 
 remaining under his roof about two years, 
 he and his father travelled through various 
 parts of Europe, visiting England in 1791, 
 where his performances on the pianoforte 
 were highly applauded. He soon acquired 
 great celebrity as a composer as well as a 
 lierformer. In 1820 he became chapel-master 
 to the Grand-duke of Weimar, where he 
 continued afterwards to reside, making, from 
 time to time, brilliant and profitable tours in 
 Germany, Russia, and England. Hummel 
 composed some operas, the most celebrated j 
 of which is " Mathilde von Guise ; " his 
 church music was also admirable ; but his 
 fame will chiefly rest upon his brilliant com- 
 positions for the pianoforte. He died in 
 October, 1837. 
 
 HUMPHREY, Laure.vce, a learned di- 
 vine, was born at Newport Pagnel, in 
 Buckinghamshire, about the year 1527. He 
 was successively dean of Gloucester and 
 Winchester, and might have been a bishop 
 but for his puritanical principles. He died 
 in 1.590 ; leaving behind him many able clas- 
 sical works, a " Life of Bishop Jewel," &e. 
 
 HUMPHREYS, Jamks, an eminent law- 
 yer and juridical writer; author of "Ob- 
 servations on the English Law of Real 
 
hum] 
 
 ^ 0tio mnib^rs'al SStosrapTjg. 
 
 [nuN 
 
 Property," &c. He was a native of Mont- 
 gomervshire, Wales ; aTid died in 1830. 
 
 HUMPHRY, OziAS, on eminent minia- 
 ture painter, born at Honiton, Devon, in 
 1743. He first settled at Bath ; then came 
 to London, by the advice of his friend, Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, and was made a royal 
 academician. In 1780 he went to India, 
 wliere he was held in high esteem by Sir 
 W. Jones and Warren Hastings, and was 
 chosen one of the first members of the Asia- 
 tic Society. Died, in London, in 1810. 
 
 HUNNIADES, John Corvixus, vaivode 
 of Transylvania, and general of the armies 
 of Ladislaus, king of Hungary, was born 
 in the beginning of the 15th century. He 
 fought against the Turks heroically, and 
 for many years rendered himself so formid- 
 able to them, that they surnamed him the 
 Devil. The sultans Araurath and ^laliom- 
 med II. were each compelled to retire from 
 I the siege of Belgrade, owing to his energetic 
 defence of it. He died in 14.'»6, the acknow- 
 ledged hero of the Christian cause. 
 
 HUNNIS, William, chapel-master to 
 queen Elizabeth, and a voluminous writer 
 of moral and religious poetry. He is said, 
 by a cotemporary poet, to have " depaincted 
 sonets sweete." His sonnets, however, have 
 been engulphed in the oblivion of time ; 
 but, certainly, the autlior who could entitle 
 a metrical version of the book of Genesis, 
 " A Hive full of Honey," or describe a vo- 
 Imne of psalms and hymns as " A Handful 
 of Honeysuckles," ought to have the power 
 of rendering his "sonnets" deliciously nec- 
 tarous. 
 
 HUNNIUS, a Lutheran divine, who filled 
 the professor's chair at Wittemberg, and 
 wrote against Calvin with great asperity. 
 Died, ir>03. 
 
 HUNT, Henry, M.P., was bom at Up- 
 haven, Wilts, about the year 1773, where 
 he was well known as an opulent farmer, 
 and one who was a regular attendant at the 
 Devizes market. When Mr. Hunt was a 
 young man, he was a decided loyalist ; and 
 in 1801, when the whole country was ap- 
 prehensive of an invasion, he voluntarily 
 tendered his entire stock, worth 20,0007., to 
 the government, for its use, if it were needed ; 
 besides which he engaged to enter, with 
 three of his servants all well mounted and 
 equipped, and at his own cost, as volunteers 
 into any regiment of horse that might make 
 the first charge upon the enemy : and for 
 this proffered service he received the thanks 
 of the lord-lieutenant of the county. Mr. 
 Hunt joined the Marlborough troop of ca- 
 valry ; but, owing to some misunderstand- 
 ing between Lord Bruce, its commander, 
 and himself, he challenged his lordship ; 
 for which he was indicted in the court of 
 king's bench, found guilty, fined 100/., and 
 imprisoned six weeks. Owing to this, or 
 some other cause, Mr. Hunt became a " ra- 
 dical reformer," associated with the most 
 disaffected, and was looked up to by many 
 of them as the fearless champion of their 
 party. He long tried for a seat in parlia- 
 ment, but was unsuccessful at Bristol, West- 
 minster, and for the county of Somerset. He 
 was, however, twice elected for Preston, in 
 1830-1 ; but, the year after his second return, 
 
 his constituents declined his future services. 
 As " lord of the manor of Glastonbury " he 
 acted fairly at his court-leet ; and, as a mob 
 orator, he obtained notoriety ; but a radical 
 meeting at Manchester, where he presided 
 and declaimed, having ended with loss of 
 life and limb to many of the assembled mul- 
 titude, he was indicted as the ringleader of 
 an unlawful assembly of the people ; tried, 
 found guilty, and sentenced to 3 years' im- 
 prisonment in Ilchester gaol. But, though 
 in confinement, he was not idle ; he dis- 
 covered and made known to the public some 
 flagrant malpractices going on at the gaol, 
 which, through his means, were afterwards 
 corrected. lie was seized with paralysis 
 while alighting from his phaeton at Aires- 
 ford, Hants, where he died, Feb. 12. 1835. 
 
 HUNT, Thomas, a learned Hebraist and 
 oriental scholar, born in 1096 ; was elected 
 to the Arabic professorship in Oxford uni- 
 versity, in 1738, and afterwards obtained the 
 regius professorsliip of Hebrew, with a 
 canonry of Christchurch annexed. He was 
 tlie author of valuable "Observations on 
 the Book of Proverbs," " Sermons," &c. 
 Died, 1774. 
 
 HUNTER, Christopher, a physician, 
 who distinguished himself by his writings 
 relative to the history and antiquities of 
 the county of Durham, of which he was a 
 native. 
 
 HUNTER, Henry, a Scotch Presbyterian 
 divine, was born at Culross, in Pertlishire, 
 in 1741 ; was educated at the university of 
 Edinburgh, and became tutor to the sons of 
 Lord Dundonald. He was subsequently 
 pastor of the Scottish Church, London Wall, 
 and was elected secretary to the correspond- 
 ing board of the Society for Promoting 
 Cliristian Knowledge in the Highlands. He 
 was the author of " Sacred Biography," 
 7 vols. 8vo. ; a translation of Lavater's 
 Physiognomy, with splendid plates, 4to. ; 
 2 volumes of "Sermons," " Lectures on the 
 Evidences of Christianity," &c. He also 
 translated Sonnini's Travels, St. Pierre's 
 Studies of Nature, and other French works. 
 Died. 1802. 
 
 HUNTER, RoBEitT, an English gentle- 
 man, who wrote the famous letter on En- 
 thusiasm, whicli has been ascribed both to 
 Swift and Sliaftesburj'. He was governor 
 of New York and the' Jerseys several years, 
 and afterwards of Jamaica, where he' died 
 in 17S4. 
 
 HUNTER. WiLi.iAif, a celebrated anato- 
 mist and physician, was born at Kilbride, 
 in Lanarkshire, in 1718. His father was a 
 farmer, and designed him for the church ; 
 but an acquaintance with Dr. Cullen inclin- 
 ing him to the study of physic, he resided 
 with the doctor 3 years. In 1740 he removed 
 to Edinburgh, where he followed his studies 
 with intense application, and the year fol- 
 lowing visited London, soon after which he 
 was taken by Dr. James Douglas into ^|s 
 house as a dissector, and also tutor to nis 
 »on. In 1740 he succeeded Mr. Samuel 
 Sharpe as lecturer to a society of surgeons 
 in Covent Garden, and commenced a series 
 of lectures on anatomy and surgery. He 
 soon rose into extensive practice in surgery 
 I and midwifery, but confined himself to the 
 
hdn] 
 
 ?[ jlelu ?a[utl)fri^al 23tfl5ra|j]^n. 
 
 [hup 
 
 latter, and in 1764 was appointed physician 
 extraordinary to the queen. He was elected 
 F. R. S. i became physician to the British 
 I/ying-in Hospital; and on the foundation of 
 the Royal Academy, tlie king appointed him 
 professor of anatomy. lu 1770, Dr. Hunter 
 completed his house in Great Windmill 
 Street, to which were attached a tlieatre, 
 apartments for lectures and dissections, and 
 a magnificent room as a museum. His 
 valuable museum is now in the university 
 of Glasgow. He wrote several able works 
 on medical subjects, the most elaborate of 
 which is " The Anatomy of the Gravid Ute- 
 rus." Died, 178;3. 
 
 HUNTER, John, younger brother of the 
 preceding, was bom in 1728, and appren- 
 ticed to a cabinet-maker; but, hearing of 
 William's success in London, he offered his 
 services to him as an anatomical assistant. 
 In a few mouths he had attained such a 
 knowledge of anatomy as to be capable of 
 demonstrating to the pupils iu tlie dissect- 
 ing-room. In U-OS lie entered as a gentle- 
 man commoner of St. Mary's Hall, Oxford ; 
 but he could not liave pursued his academi- 
 cal studies with much advantage, as in the 
 following year he became a surgeon's pupil 
 at St. George's Hospital. He made astonish- 
 ing progress, but his health being impaired 
 by intense study, he went abroad in KOO, as 
 Btaff-surgeon, and served at Bellcisle and in 
 Portugal. On his return to London, he pur- 
 sued his inquiries into comparative ana- 
 tomy, and erected a menagerie for that pur- 
 pose at Brompton. In 17G7 he was chosen 
 a fellow of tlie Royal Society, and, the next 
 year, he was elected one of the surgeons of 
 St. George's Hospital. In 177U he was ap- 
 pointed surgeon-extraordinary to the king ; 
 and, subsequently, inspector-general of hos- 
 pitals and surgeon-general. He died sud- 
 denly, having been seized with a spasmodic 
 affection of the heart, in St. George's Hos- 
 pital, Oct. 16. 1793. He wrote several pro- 
 fessional treatises, besides recording the 
 results of many of his valuable discoveries in 
 the Philosophical Transactions. His perfect 
 acquaintance with anatomy rendered him 
 a bold and skilful operator ; but his great 
 fame rests on his researches concerniug 
 comparative anatomy, and the structure of 
 the various classes of organised beings. His 
 anatomical museum was purchased by go- 
 vernment for 15,(XM., and transferred to the 
 Royal College of Surgeons, for the use of 
 the public. 
 
 HUNTER. Ax:ne, wife of the preceding, 
 and sister of Sir Everard Home, was the au- 
 thor of many lyrical poems possessing much 
 sweetness and beauty. Some of these were 
 set to music by Haydn. Born, 1742 ; died, 
 1821. 
 
 HUNTER, JoHjr, LL.D., an eminent clas- 
 sical scholar, was born at Closeburn, Dum- 
 fries-sliire, in 1747. He was principal of the 
 united college of St. Salvador and St. Leo- 
 nard ; and for more than half a century pre- 
 vious to his obtaining that appointment, he 
 was professor of humanity in the university 
 of St. Andrew's. He was one of the most 
 learned men of his time, and is well known 
 by his editions of Virgil, Livy, Horace, and 
 other Latin authors. Died, 1837. 
 
 435 
 
 HUNTINGDON, Henry of, an ancient 
 English historian, who flourished in the 
 11th and 12th centuries. He composed a 
 general history of England from the earliest 
 accounts to the death of king Stephen, in 
 1154, in 8 books ; and, towards the conclu- 
 sion, the author honestly acknowledges that 
 it is only an abridgment, observing that 
 to compose a complete history of England, 
 many books were necessary which he could 
 not procure. 
 
 HUNTINGDON, Selina, Countess of, the 
 second daughter of Washington, earl Fer- 
 rers, was born in 1707, and married in 1728 
 to Theophilus, earl of Huntingdon. After 
 she became a widow, she espoused the prin- 
 ciples of the Calvinistic Afethodistii, and 
 patronised the famous George Wliitfleld, 
 whom she constituted her cliaplain ; by the 
 influence of her rank and fortune, appeared 
 at the head of a sect ; and, after the death 
 of Whitlield, his followers were designated 
 as the people of Lady Huntingdon. She 
 founded schools and colleges for preachers, 
 and expended annually large sums not only 
 in their support, but in private charity. 
 Died, 1701. 
 
 HUNTINGDON, William, a religious 
 enthusiast, who attained more notoriety 
 than credit, was born in 1744. He was the 
 son of a farmer's labourer in Kent, and 
 the early part of his life was passed in me- 
 nial service and other humble occupations. 
 After indulging in vice and dissipation for 
 several years, according to his own accoimt, 
 he was converted, and became a preacher 
 among the Calvinistic Methodists. He soon 
 engaged in religious controversies, published 
 a vast number of tracts, and was regarded 
 as the head of a peculiar sect. His publica- 
 tions are very numerous, and some of them 
 contain curious details relative to his per- 
 sonal history and religions experience. After 
 the death of his first wife, he married the 
 wealthy relict of Sir James Sanderson, a 
 London alderman, and passed the latter part 
 of Ills life in aflluence. After his conversion, 
 he generally appended to his name the mys- 
 tical letters S. S., or Sinner Saved. 
 
 HUNTINGFORD, Geouue Isaac, a dis- 
 tinguished classical scholar, and an amiable 
 dignitary of the church, was born at Win- 
 chester, in 1748 ; received his education 
 there, and at New College, Oxford ; and 
 subsequently became an assistant under 
 Dr. Joseph Warton, in the seminary in which 
 he had been educated, and over wliich he 
 afterwards presided as warden for a jieriod 
 of 40 years. Through the patronage of Lord 
 Sidmouth, who had been his pupil at Win- j 
 Chester, he obtained the see of Gloucester in | 
 1802, and that of Hereford in 181.5. This I 
 venerable prelate was the author of "Greek 
 Monostrophics," " A Call for Union with 
 the Established Church," "Thoughts on the 1 
 Trinity," &c. With a profound knowledge 
 of Grecian literature and a truly poetical 
 taste, he possessed the more desirable quali- 
 ties of Christian piety and humility, united 
 with an independent mind, actuated by the 
 spirit of pure benevolence. Died, l!:>;!2. 
 
 HUPAZOLI, Feancis, one of tlie few 
 individuals who have lived in 3 centuries. 
 He was bom iu 1587, at Casal, in Sardinia, 
 
hur] 
 
 ^ ^cti) ^Uutlicr^al 3St05rajpl)i). 
 
 [hut 
 
 and died in 1702. At first he was a clergy- ' 
 man, and afterwards became a merchant at 
 Scio : and, in liis 23rd jear, lie was appointed 
 Venetian consul at Smyrna. By his .5th 
 wife, whom he married at the age of 98 
 years, he had 4 children. His drink was 
 water ; he never smoked, and ate little j 
 (principally game and fruit). He drank a 
 good deal of the juice of the sco7-zo7iera root, I 
 ate but very little at night, went to bed and 
 rose early, then heard mass, and walked and , 
 laboured the whole day to the last. He | 
 wrote down every thing remarkable which 
 he had witnessed, in 22 volumes. He never 
 had a fever, was never bled, and never took | 
 any medicine. At the age of 100, his grey | 
 hair again became black. When 109 years 
 old, he lost his teeth and lived on soup ; and, 
 4 years later, he had two large new teeth, and 
 began again to eat meat. 
 
 KURD, RiCHAiiD, an eminent English 
 prelate and philologist, was born in 1720, at 
 Congreve, in Staffordshire ; was educated at 
 Emanuel College, Cambridge, and obtained 
 a fellowship there in 1742. In 1749 lie pub- 
 lished " Horatii Ars Poetica," with an Eng- 
 lish commentary. In 1750 he published a 
 commentary on the Epistle of Horace to 
 Augustus ; and also a satirical attack on 
 Doctor Jortin, in defence of Warburton, »n 
 an essay on the " Delicacy of Friendship," 
 which he afterwards endeavoured to sujv 
 press. His " Dialogues, Moral and Political,'*' 
 witli " Letters on Chivalry and Romance," 
 appeared, at different times, from 1758 to 
 1764, and were republished collectively, 
 in 1765, 3 vols. 8vo. None of his works 
 attracted so much notice as the Dialogues, 
 which were translated into German. In 
 1767 he was made archdeacon of Glouces- 
 ter, and, in 1768, commenced a series of ser- 
 mons on the prophecies, preached at the lec- 
 ture founded by his friend Warburton at 
 Lincoln's Inn. In 1775 he was raised to 
 the bishopric of Lichfield and Coventry ; 
 and, not long after, was made preceptor to 
 the late king, and his brother the Duke of 
 York. He was translated to the see of Wor- 
 cester in 1781 ; and the king was desirous to 
 elevate him to the primacy, but tiie prelate 
 modestly declined the intended honour. 
 Dr. Kurd's latest literary performances were 
 a biographical sketch of his friend Dr. War- 
 burton, his correspondence, and an edition 
 of his works. Died, 1808. 
 
 HURE, CiiAKLES, a French divine of 
 the Jansenist persuasion, was born in l(i."9, 
 and died in 1717. His works are, a " Dic- 
 tionary of the Bible," 2 vols, folio ; a 
 "Translation of the New Testament into 
 French, with notes ; " a " Sacred Gram- 
 mar," &c. 
 
 HUSKISSON, the Right Hon. William, 
 an English statesman, was born in 1770. 
 His father becoming a widower, and marry- 
 ing again, the son was placed under the care 
 of Dr. Gem, who took his nephew with him 
 to France, for the purpose of studying 
 medical science at the Parisian schools of 
 anatomy. The revolution broke out directly 
 after, and young Huskisson became one of 
 its wannest disciples : it is said, indeed, that 
 he was present at the taking of the Bastile. 
 In 1790 he obtained an introduction to Lord 
 
 Gower, the English ambassador at Paris, 
 who made him his private secretary ; and on 
 his return to England he was introduced to 
 Mr. Pitt, and made himself agreeable to that 
 minister by his ability and eloquence. He 
 was soon after placed at the head of the 
 alien office ; and in 1795 became under- 
 secretary in the war and colonial depart- 
 ment. He was brought into parliament for 
 Morpeth, by government interest, in 1797 : 
 from which time he connected liimself on 
 terms of friendship with Mr. Canning, and 
 supported all the measures of the Pitt ad- 
 ministration. He retired with his patron, 
 as did Mr. Canning, during the Addington 
 ministry, and claimed a jiension of 1200?. per 
 annum. He subsequently lost his seat for 
 Morpeth ; offered for Dover ; failed, and was 
 returned for Liskeard on Pitt's restoration 
 to power, and the renewal of the conti- 
 nental war. During the Whig administra- 
 tion of 1806, Mr. Huskisson was an active 
 member of the opposition ; but on its disso- 
 lution he returned to ofiBce, and remained 
 till the premiership of the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, with the short exception of an in- 
 terval in 1809, when the quarrel took place 
 between Mr. Canning and Lord Castlereagh, 
 and he sided witli the former in withdrawing 
 from the government. When Mr. Canning 
 was appointed to the government of India, 
 Mr. Huskisson succeeded him as member of 
 parliament for Liverpool ; was successively 
 treasurer of the navy, joint secretary of the 
 treasury, vice-president and president of the 
 board of trade, and was colonial secretary 
 during the Liverpool and Canning adminis- 
 trations. It was during this latter period 
 that he brought forward his celebrated free- 
 trade measures, which caused such diver- 
 sities of opinion throughout the country at 
 the time, and concerning which the most 
 opposite opinions are still entertained. Mr. 
 Huskisson died at Manchester, Sept. 15. 
 1830, in consequence of one of his legs being 
 crushed, and other severe injuries sustained, 
 by the wheels of a locomotive steam-engine 
 coming in contact with him, while present at 
 the celebration of the opening of the Liver- 
 pool and Manchester railway. 
 
 IIUSS, John, a celebrated Bohemian 
 reformer and martyr, born at Hussienitz, 
 about 1376. He was the first opposer of 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the 
 defender of Wickliffe ; for which he was 
 burnt alive by order of the council of Con- 
 stance, in 1415. 
 
 IIUSSEY, Giles, an English painter, 
 born at Mamhull, in Dorsetshire, in 1710. 
 He studied in France and Italy, possessed 
 considerable talents, and painted some good 
 pictures ; but he was somewhat eccentric, 
 and met with little encouragement in pro- 
 portion to his merits. Died, 1788. 
 
 HUTCHESON, Francis, LL.D., a me- 
 taphysical writer, was the son of a dissent- 
 ing minister in Ireland. He was born in 
 1694 ; studied at Glasgow ; and, on his re- 
 turn to Ireland, oflSciated to a dissenting 
 congregation, for some time, in the north- 
 ern part of that kingdom; but, in 1729, he 
 was elected professor of moral philosophy 
 at Glasgow. He was the author of "An 
 Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Vir- 
 
 i 
 
hut] 
 
 ^ ^cto eittibevj^al 23i0grapT)t|. 
 
 [hut 
 
 tuc," and a "Treatise on the Passions." 
 In 1755, his son, Dr. Fkancis Hltchkson', 
 a physician of Glasgow, printed from his 
 father's papers, "A System of Moral Phi- 
 losophy," 2 vols. 4to. ; to which is prelixed 
 an account of the author. Died, 1747. 
 
 HUTCHIXS, Joiix, an English divine 
 
 I and topographer, was born in Dorsetshire, 
 
 in KiJH), and died in 1773. He was the 
 
 author of the " History and Antiquities of 
 
 the County of Dorset," 2 vols. 
 
 UUTCIIINS, Thomas, geographer-general 
 to the United States of America, was born 
 in New Jersey, about 1730. He had served 
 in the army against the Indians in Florida ; 
 was imprisoned in England, in 1779, on the 
 charge of having corresponded with Dr. 
 Franklin, then American agent in France ; 
 afterwards joined the army of General 
 Greene ; and died at Pittsburgh, in 1789. 
 He published several topographical and 
 historical works of considerable interest, 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Ann, a religious enthu- 
 Biost in America, who instituted meetings 
 for women, in which, pretending to enjoy 
 immediate revelations, she taught Antino- 
 niian and other sentiments. By these means, 
 great dissensions were caused in the churches 
 of New England, and in 1(537 nn ecclesiasti- 
 cal synod assembled and condemned lier 
 errors. Not long after, slie was banished 
 from the colony, where, in 1(3J3, she and 
 her family, consisting of 15 persons, were 
 captured by the Indians, and all except a 
 daughter killed. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, JouN, an English philo- 
 sophical and critical author, celebrated as 
 the opponent of Dr. AVoodward in natural 
 history, and of Sir Isaac Ncwtou in philoso- 
 phy. Born, lt>74 ; died, 1737. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, John Hely, an Irish 
 statesman and lawyer, was born in 1715. 
 He became secretary of state, and accumu- 
 lated a number of lucrative employments. 
 So great indeed was his avidity for oflBce 
 and emolument, that Lord Norili said, " If 
 England and Ireland were given to this 
 man, he would solicit the Isle of Man for a 
 potato garden." He possessed great talents 
 and eloquence, and died in 1794. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, John Helt, earl of 
 Donoughmore, born in 1757, was the se- 
 cond son of the preceding. He entered the 
 army in 1774 as a cornet in the 18th dra- 
 goons, and rose regularly till he obtained 
 a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 77th, in 1783. 
 At the commencement of the French revo- 
 lution he found means for gaining access to 
 the French camp at a very interesting pe- 
 riod, and saw Lafayette compelled to leave 
 those troops of which he had been the fa- 
 vourite, and seek safety in flight. When 
 war was declared against France in 1793. he 
 raised a regiment, and obtained the rank of 
 colonel. He served in Flanders as aide-de- 
 camp to Sir Ralph Abercromby, and sub- 
 sequently in Ireland during the rebellion. 
 In 179»j he was made a major-general, and In 
 1799 he was wounded at the Ilelder, while 
 leading on his brigade in a gallant si vie. In 
 the expedition to Egypt, in 1801, he was 
 second in command to Sir Ralph Aber- 
 cromby ; and when that gallant oificer fell 
 at the battle of Alexandria, the chief com- 
 
 mand devolved on Major-general Hutchin- 
 son; who, receiving reinforcements, advaiiccd 
 upon the enemy, and having pursued them 
 to Cairo, a capitulation took place, and the 
 expedition terminated in an agreement for 
 the French to evacuate Egypt. For his able 
 services in this campaign he was rniseil to 
 the iHierage as baron Hutchinson of Alex- 
 andria, and of Knocklofty, in the county of 
 Tipperary, with a pension of 20(KJ/. per 
 annum. In ]80() he was sent on an extra- 
 ordinary mission to the Prussian and Rus- 
 sian armies ; afterwards to the court of St. 
 Petersburgh ; and, at a later period, to meet 
 Queen Caroline at St. Omer's, as the per- 
 sonal friend of the king. In 1813 he be- 
 came a full general, and in 1825 he suc- 
 ceeded his brother as earl of Donoughmore, 
 &c. Died, 18.32. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Thomas, lord chief jus- 
 tice, and afterwards lieutenant-governor of 
 the colony of Massachussetts, was born at 
 Boston, in 1711. He had been greatly re- 
 spected in his province for his able and irre- 
 proachable conduct on the judicial bench ; 
 b»it having covertly taken part with Great 
 Britain against the American colonies, and 
 given the English ministers advice relative 
 to the enforcement of the duty on tea, it 
 was found necessary to remove him and 
 place General Gage in his situation. He 
 accordingly came to England, lived in a 
 retired manner at Bromiiton, and died there 
 in 1780. Governor Hutchinson was the 
 author of a " History of the Colony of Mas- 
 sachussetts Bay," &c, 
 
 HUTTEN, Jacob, a native of Silesia, 
 who, in the 16th century, founded a sict 
 called the Bohemian or Moravian brethren. 
 These were the descendants of the Hussites, 
 and appear to have given rise to the ana- 
 baptists. Hutten is sujjposed to have been 
 burnt as a heretic at Inspruck, 
 
 HUTTEN, Ulric von, a German soldier, 
 poet, and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 at Steckelberg, in Franconia, in 1488. He 
 was the most violent of all the early Re- 
 formers ; and his writings agiiinst the Church 
 of Rome were so severe, that the pope sent 
 orders to the inquisitor to seize him ; but 
 he fled into Switzerland, and died near 
 Zurich, in 1.523. His letters and poems are 
 very classical. Hutten was one of the bold- 
 est and most free-spirited men of his time ; 
 injustice, falsehood, hypocrisy, and tyranny 
 filled him witli indignation, and he un- 
 masked them with a spirit that knew no 
 fear. 
 
 HUTTER.Elias and Leonard, two co- 
 temjiorary Protestant divines, born at Ulm, 
 about the middle of the 16th century. The 
 former is remarkable for having j)ublished 
 a Hebrew Bible, containing no less than 
 £0 versions of the 117th psalm in various 
 languages. He also published a Polyglot 
 Bible in four languages, Hebrew, Greek, 
 Latin, and German ; and he afterwards 
 added to it the Italian, French, Sclavonic, 
 
 and Saxon. Died, 1603 Leonard, who 
 
 distinguished himself as a staunch supporter 
 of the reformed church, published a variety 
 of polemical treatises, obtained the divinity 
 professor's clmir at the imiversity of VVit- 
 temberg, and died in 1016. 
 
 PF 3 
 
HUTj 
 
 ^ iScb) Hniljcr^nl 28iflsvaj»]^a. 
 
 [hyd 
 
 HUTTON, Charles, LL.D., an eminent 
 mathematician, was born at Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne, in 1737. Having made great progress 
 in his mathematical studies, and distin- 
 guished himself by the production of a small 
 work on the principles of bridges, he was 
 appointed professor at the royal military 
 college, Woolwich, elected F.R.S., and re- 
 ceived the degree of I^L.D, from the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. He produced, in 1706, 
 his " Mathematical and Philosophical Dic- 
 tionary," 2 vols. 4to. ; and in 179H he gave to 
 the world the first edition of his " Course of 
 Mathematics." lie was afterwards engaged 
 with Dr. Pearson and Dr. Shaw in an abridg- 
 ment of the Philosophical Transactions, pub- 
 lished in 18 vols. ; for his labour in wliich 
 work, it is said, he received 60001. He retired 
 from his appointment at Woolwich in 1807, 
 witli a pension of .OOOZ. ; and died in 182.'i. 
 
 HUTTON, James, a celebrated geologist 
 and natural philosopher, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 172(5. After finishing his educa- 
 tion at the university, he was apprenticed 
 to a writer to the signet, but quitted the 
 legal profession for that of medicine, as 
 being the nearest allied to chemistry, which 
 was his favourite study. He in consequence 
 went to the universities of Paris and Leyden, 
 at the latter of which he took his degree in 
 1740 ; but on his return, being desirous of 
 making himself conversant with agriculture, 
 he settled upon a farm of his own in Ber- 
 wickshire. In 17(j8 he went to Edinburgh, 
 and from that time he devoted himself en- 
 tirely to scientific pursuits, publishing nu- 
 merous works, and investigating various 
 subjects of natural philosophy. Dr. Ilutton 
 is chiefly distinguished as the author of a 
 system or theory of geology, termed the 
 Plutonian, by whicli the structure of the 
 solid parts of the earth are accounted for 
 by the action of subterraneous fire. Tliis 
 tlieory excited a warm controversy among 
 men of science, and met with many fierce 
 opponents : but the late Professor Playfair 
 advocated it in his "Illustrations of tlie 
 Huttonian Theory of the Earth," and it has 
 since been gradually rising into repute. 
 Among the chief works of Hutton are, " The 
 Progress of Reason from Sense to Science 
 and Philosophy," 3 vols. 4to.; and a" Theory 
 of the Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations," 
 2 vols. 8vo. Died,1797. 
 
 HUTTON. Mattheav, an English pre- 
 late, was born of poor parents in I^auca- 
 shire in 1.529, and sent to Cambridge in 
 1546. He became fellow of Trinity College, 
 obtained a prebend in tlie cathedral of St. 
 Paul, and was elected master of Pembroke 
 Hall. In 1567 lie was preferred to the 
 deanery of York, from whence he was re- 
 rhoved, in 1589, to the bishopric of Durham, 
 and in 1594 translated to the archbishopric 
 of York. Died, 1605. 
 
 HUTTON, William, an ingenions and 
 self-educated writer, born at Derby, in 1723. 
 He was apprenticed to a stocking- weaver -. 
 and at the expiration of his time he employed 
 his leisure hours in book-binding. In 1750 
 he opened a shop for the sale of old books, 
 to which he added a circulating library, at 
 Birmingham ; where he succeeded so vviU as 
 to embark in the paper business ; and by 
 
 frugality and industry he arrived at opu- 
 lence. In 1791 his house at Birmingham, 
 and villa near that town, were destroyed by 
 the rioters ; for which he obtained an in- 
 adequate compensation from the county. 
 He wrote several ingenious works, among 
 which were Histories of " Birmingham," 
 " Derby," " Blackport," and the " Battle of 
 Bosworth Field," " Tour to Scarborough," 
 " Remarks on North Wales," " Poems," &c. 
 He died in 1815, aged 92. 
 
 HUXUAM, JoHX, a physician of con- 
 siderable celebrity in the west of England, 
 was born at Halberton, in Devonshire. He 
 took his doctor's degree at Leyden, under 
 Boerliaave, and, on his return to England, 
 settled at Plymouth, where he continued 
 for 30 years to practise with success. He 
 was a great humourist, and particularly at- 
 tached to the bottle, port wine being with 
 him an universal remedy, either with bark 
 or without. He was a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, in whose Transactions are many of 
 Jus papers. He also published various me- 
 dical works ; and his well-known " tincture 
 of baik" still holds its place in the phar- 
 macopoeia. Died, 1768. 
 
 HUYGENS, Chuisxian, an eminent ma- 
 thematician and astronomer, was born at 
 the Hague, in 1029. He was the son of Con- 
 stantiue Huygens, lord of Zuylichen, a 
 nobleman of great scientific abilities, who 
 initiated his son in the principles of general 
 science and classical learning, and sent hira 
 to the university of Leyden. He soon dis- 
 tinguished himself by the publication of 
 several learned works, both astronomical 
 and mathematical : he also invented tlie 
 pendulum, improved the air-pump, ascer- 
 tained the laws of collision of elastic bodies, 
 and discovered the ring and one of the 
 satellites of Saturn, of which he gave an ac- 
 count in his " Systema Saturiiinum." He 
 visited both France and England for scientific 
 purposes ; was made a fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1661 ; and shortly after, at the 
 invitation of Colbert, he settled in France, 
 where he received a handsome pension, and 
 remained till 1681, when he returned to his 
 native country, and died in 1695. 
 
 HUYSUM, John van, a celebrated painter, 
 was born in 1682, at Amsterdam, where his 
 father, Justus van Iluysum, was a respect- 
 able artist. John was the most distinguished 
 flower and fruit painter of modern times, and 
 his pictures fetched enormous prices : his 
 landscapes were also highly esteemed. He 
 died in 1749 — He had two brothers, Justus 
 and Jacob ; the former painted battles, and 
 died in his 22ud year ; the latter copied the 
 works of John with great exactness, aud died 
 in London, in 1740. 
 
 HYDE, Thomas, D.D., a learned divine 
 and orientalist, was born in 1636, at Billings- 
 ley, in Shropshire, and studied at King's 
 College, Cambridge. While there, before he 
 was 18, he assisted Walton in his great Poly- 
 glot Bible. In 1658 he went to Oxford, aud be- 
 came successively Hebrew reader and keeper 
 of the Bodleian Library. He was next pro- 
 moted to a prebend in Salisbury cathedral, 
 and afterwards appointed regius professor of 
 Hebrew, and canon of Cliristchurch, Oxford. 
 Died, 1703. Hia "Veterum Persarum et 
 
 433 
 
I hyd] 
 
 ^ i^clB ^aiiibcr^al 3tJt0grapIji». 
 
 [iBD 
 
 Medorum Historia " ia regarded as^ highly 
 valuable worki 
 
 II YDER ALI, or IIYDER ALLY KHAN, 
 a celebrated ludian prince, who, during the 
 hitter part of the ]8tli century, was a for- 
 midable enemy to tlie English in Ilindostan, 
 was the son of a petty chief in the Mysore, 
 lie introduced the European discipline 
 among Ids troops, became general-in-chief of 
 the forces of Cinoas, who then reigned at 
 Seringupatam as a vassal of the Great Mogul; 
 and liaving quarrelled witli the grand vizier, 
 got liim into his power, and eventually as- 
 sumed the sovereignty himself, lie made 
 important conquests from the Mahrattas, 
 twice invaded tlie East India Company's 
 territories, and at one time caused the greatest 
 apprehension for the safety of the British 
 power in the east. A treaty was concluded 
 in 1769, which was broken in 17S0, and the 
 war renewed with vigour ; but the skill of 
 Sir Eyre Coote proved superior to llyder, 
 who M\ the military operations to his son 
 Tippoo Saib. He died in 17b2. 
 
 HYGINUS, Cars Julius, a Roman writer, 
 R freedman of Augustus, and keeper of the 
 Palatine library. Though there is only one 
 book of his extant, whieli is entitled " Po- 
 eticon Astronomicon," he also wrote the lives 
 of illustrious men, referred to by Aulus 
 Gellius, and a copious treatise on the cities 
 of Italy. 
 
 HYPATIA, a female philosopher, of the 
 eclectic sect, was the daughter of Theon, a 
 celebrated mathematician, who governed 
 the Platonic scliool in Alexandria, in the 
 4tli century. She early exhibited proofs of 
 extraordinary genius and judgment; and 
 being educated by iier father in all l>e knew, 
 she became a preceptress in the school in 
 which Hieroeles and oilier celebrated philo- 
 Bophera had presided. Her ready elocution, 
 
 her beauty, and graceful address, united with 
 deep erudition and sound judgment, procured 
 her the admiration of all her hearers ; and 
 her house became the resort of all the learned 
 and eminent persons in Alexandria, among 
 whom was Orestes the governor. This roused 
 the jealousy of Cyril, a haughty and in- 
 tolerant prelate, at that time the patriarch 
 of Alexandria ; and such was the blind 
 bigotry and resentment of his monkish par- 
 tisans, that they conspired against llypatia's 
 life, and a furious band of assassins seizing 
 her as she was returning home from the 
 schools, they dragged her through the streets, 
 murdered her in the most barbarous manner, 
 and threw her mangled limbs iuto the flames, 
 A. D. 41-.. 
 
 IIYPERIDES, an Athenian orator, was 
 a disciple of Plato and Isocrates, and the 
 contemporary of Demosthenes, against whom 
 he brouglit that accusation of bribery which 
 procured his banishment. They were after- 
 wards reconciled, and met their tragic fate 
 about the same time, Hyperides being seized 
 in the temple of Ceres, aud delivered up to 
 Antipater, who caused him to be put to death, 
 B.C. 322. 
 
 IIYPERIUS, Gerahd Andrew, a Lu- 
 theran divine, born at Ypres, in Flanders, 
 in 1511. After studying at Paris and I^ou- 
 vain, he visited England, and became travel- 
 ling tutor to the son of Lord Motmtjoy, who 
 settled a pension on him. He then went to 
 reside at Marburg, where he filled the di- 
 vinity chair till his death in lo<i4. His works, 
 on theological aud mathematical subjects, 
 form 7 vols. 
 
 HYPSICLES, a mathematician of Alex- 
 andria, known as the author of a treatise, 
 entitled " Anaphoricus," which is still ex- 
 tant. He lived in the 2nd century, iu the 
 reigns of Marcus Aurelius aud Yerus. 
 
 I. 
 
 IBARRA, Joachim, a celebrated Spanish 
 printer, was born at Saragossa, in 1720 ; exer- 
 cised his art in Madrid, where he was king's 
 printer; and died there in 1785. He raised 
 the art of typography to an excellence before 
 unequalled in Spain, and from his press 
 were issued magnificent editions of the Bible, 
 the Mozarabic Missal, &c. 
 
 IBAS, a bishop of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, 
 in the 5th century, who is noted iu ecclesi- 
 astical history, on account of the opposite 
 decisions of diflerent councils, relative to the 
 orthodoxy or heterodoxy of his opinions. 
 He was deposed and re-instated, condemned 
 and acquitted, several times, on the charge 
 of favouring the heresy of Ncstorius. 
 
 IBBETSON, Agxes, a lady distinguished 
 for her researches in natural history and 
 other sciences, was the daughter of A. 
 Thompson, esq., of London, and was married 
 to Mr. Ibbetson, a barrister, by whom she 
 was left a widow. She devoted her attention 
 to the study of astronomy, geology, and 
 
 botany, and more especially to that depart- 
 ment of the latter which treats of the physi- 
 ology of plants. Many of her microscopical 
 experiments on the structure of vegetables 
 were highly interesting, and were published 
 in the Annals of Philosophy and other sci- 
 entific journals. Died at Exmouth, Devon, 
 in 1823. 
 
 IBBETSON, Julius C^sak, an ingenious 
 landscape painter, was a native of Scar- 
 borough, in Yorkshire ; who so successfully 
 imitated the style of Berghem, that he was 
 termed by West, the Berghem of England. 
 Died, 1817. 
 
 IBBOT, Bexjamin, an English divine, 
 was born at Beachamwell, in Norfolk, in 
 ICSO, and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge. 
 Archbishop Tennison appointed him trea- 
 surer of the cathedral of Wells, and gave 
 him the united livings of St. Vedast, Foster 
 Lane, and St. Michael le Queme. George I. 
 made him one of his chaplains ; and when 
 that monarch visited Cambridge, Mr. Ibbot 
 
ibk] 
 
 ^ 0m mnibtxs^Kl 23t03raj)I;j). 
 
 [iGN 
 
 was created D. D. by the royal command. 
 He was the Boylcan lecturer in 1713 and 
 1714, was installed prebendary of West- 
 minster in 1724, and died the year following. 
 
 IBRAHIM EFFENDI, a Turk, belong- 
 ing to the body of Ulema, or lawyers, who, 
 from a careful perusal of the Scriptures, was 
 converted to Christianity in the 17tii cen- 
 tury, and baptized at Pera. He afterwards 
 assumed the habit of St. Dominic, and 
 tlie name of Paul Anthony Effendi. Died, 
 1697. 
 
 IBRAHIM EFFENDI, a native of Poland, 
 who was raised to the first dignities in tlie 
 Ottoman empire. He established tlie first 
 printing press in Turkey in 1728, the Count 
 de Bonneval furnishing him with tlie cha- 
 racters. The first work which he produced 
 was on the military art : he afterwards pub- 
 lished tlie" Account of an Expedition against 
 the Afghans," a " Turkish Grammar," and 
 a " History of Turkey." 
 
 IBRAHIM MANSOUR EFFENDI, an 
 adventurer whose real name was Cerfbere, 
 was the son of a Jew at Strasburg. He had 
 served in the republican hussars, but became 
 BO violent a royalist, that he was imprisoned. 
 In 1802 he went to Constantinople, embraced 
 the Mahometan faith, and instructed the 
 Turkisli troops in the European discipline. 
 He afterwards travelled through the north 
 of Europe, and, under the assumed name of 
 Medelshim, held a govenmient office in 
 Westphalia ; afterwards was engineer to 
 All Paclia ; and, on quitting that employ, 
 travelled to various parts of Asia, Africa, 
 and America. At length, being in a state of 
 absolute destitution, he shot himself at Paris, 
 in 1826. He was tlie author of a " Memoir 
 of Greece and Albania during the Govern- 
 ment of AH Pacha." 
 
 IBRAHIM PACHA, viceroy of Egypt, 
 stepson and successor of Mehemet Ali, was 
 born at the village of Cavella, in Albania, 
 1789. Inured from infancy to the toils and 
 turmoils of a camp, he at an early age dis- 
 played the adventurous spirit, high courage, 
 and undaunted resolution, which distin- 
 guished his subsequent career. In 1810 he 
 became generalissimo of tlie Egyptian army ; 
 and charged with the task of remodelling and 
 disciplining it after the French fashion, he 
 proceeded vigorously to work ; and in the 
 course of a few campaigns completely de- 
 feated the Wahabees in Arabia, who from lsl8 
 to 1824 had resisted all the efforts of the Egyp- 
 tian forces to subdue tliem. During the long 
 struggle for Greek independence, Ibrahim 
 was conspicuous as leader of the Turks. 
 His army overran the whole of the Morea, 
 and committed unheard-of devastations and 
 cruelties; but the battle of Navarino, Oct. 20. 
 1827, when the combined British, Russian, 
 and French navies, under the command of 
 Admiral Codrington, destroyed the Turko- 
 Egyptian fleet, sent liim back to Egypt, 
 shorn of his conquests, and paved the way 
 for the independence of Greece. In 1831 he 
 marched to the conquest of Syria ; and 
 having completely routed the sultan's troops 
 at Koiiieh in 1832, he was only restrained 
 from marching to Constantinople by the 
 intervention of Russia ; but his subjugation 
 of Syria was complete, and a few abortive 
 
 440 fl^ 
 
 attempts made by the population to throw 
 off the Egyptian yoke only ended in rivet- 
 ting their chains more firmly than before. 
 In 1839, the sultan having made another 
 effort lor the recovery of Syria, was com- 
 pletely overthrown by Ibrahim at Nizil. 
 But the European powers now interfered. 
 An English fleet, under the command of 
 Admirals Stopfoid and Napier, bore down 
 upon Syria, and having reduced Acre, forced 
 Ibrahim to conclude a treaty, by which 
 Syria was once more given vip to the sultan. 
 In 1846, Ibrahim visited England and 
 France. On September 1st, 1848, he was 
 nominated viceroy of Egypt, in the room of 
 Mehemet Ali, whom increasing years un- 
 fitted for the cares of government ; but a 
 severe attack of bronchitis, acting on a 
 constitution already debilitated by youthful 
 excesses, and unbounded indulgence in his 
 riper years, i'ut him off after a short reign of 
 two months and ten days. Died, 1848. 
 
 IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, was a native 
 of Rhegium, and flourished about .540 b. c. 
 He was murdered by robbers, and in the 
 moment of dying he observed a flight of 
 cranes passing, whom he implored to be his 
 avengers. Some time after, as these mur- 
 derers were walking in Rhegium, one of 
 them, seeing some cranes in the air, said to 
 his companions, "Here are the avengers of 
 Ibj'cus," which exciting the suspicion of a 
 person who overheard them, the wretches 
 were apprehended and, being tortured, con- 
 fessed their crime. 
 
 ICTINUS, an Athenian architect, who 
 lived in the 4th century b. c, and Mas era- 
 ployed by Pericles in the erection of the 
 Parthenon. He also built the temple of 
 Ceres and Proserpine at Eleusis, and the 
 temple of Apollo Epicurus in Arcadia. 
 
 IDACIUS, a Spanish bishop of the 5th 
 century, who wrote a chronicle, commencing 
 with the first year of the reign of Theodo- 
 sius, and ending with the eleventh of that of 
 Leo. The consular fasts are also attributed 
 to him. 
 
 lETZELER, Christopher, a Swiss ar- 
 chitect, born at Schaffhausen, in 1734. He 
 studied under the celebrated Euler at Ber- 
 lin, and travelled in several parts of Europe. 
 He filled the mathematical chair at his 
 native place with great distinction, and died 
 in 1791. 
 
 IFFLAND, Auousirs, a celebrated Ger- 
 man actor and dramatic writer, was born 
 at Hanover, in 1759. In 1796 he was in- 
 vited to Berlin, to take the direction of the 
 theatre there, and, in 1811, was appointed 
 general director of all the royal plays. He 
 died in 1814. His works comprise 47 plays, 
 memoirs, and reflections upon the theory of 
 his art. So greatly was he admired by many, 
 that he has been termed the Moliere of 
 Germany ; and Madame de Stael said of 
 him, that there was not an accent or a 
 gesture for which Iff land could not account 
 as a philosopher and an artist. 
 
 IGNARRA, Nicholas, a learned Neapo- 
 litan antiquary, bom in 1728. He became 
 principal professor of sacred literature in 
 the college of Urbano, at Naples ; was di- 
 rector of the royal printing otHce ; tutor to 
 tlie hereditary prince Francis of Bourbon > 
 
ign] 
 
 ^ ^cU) ^m'bpr^al JJiosrapl^ii. 
 
 [iwc 
 
 and published a learned work, entitled "De 
 Talasstra Neapolitaua Commeutarium." 
 ' Died, 1808. 
 
 IGNATIUS, St., sumamed Theophorus, 
 an eminent father of the church and a 
 martyr, was a native of Syria, and a disciple 
 of St. John the Evangelist, by whom he was 
 made bishop of Ant ioch, a. i). CH. He con- 
 tinued there till 107, when Trajan entered 
 tlie city in triumph, after having conquered 
 the Scythians and Dacians. A persecution 
 of the Christians followed, and Ignatius, 
 after a long conference with the emperor, 
 was sent to Rome, where he was doomed to 
 suffer the dreadful death of being exposed 
 to the fury of wild beasts in tlie amphi- 
 theatre. Seven of his genuine epistles re- 
 main, and were published by Usher, at Ox- 
 ford, in l(i4.'>. 
 
 IGNATIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 was the son of the emperor Michael Curo- 
 paluta, and of Procopia, daughter of the 
 emperor Nicephorus. He died in 878. 
 
 IlIUE, JoHX, a learned Swede, was born 
 at Upsul, in 1707. His grandfather was 
 arclibishop of Upsal, where the subject of 
 tills article had his education ; after which 
 he travelled into various parts of Europe, 
 and on his return became a member of the 
 academy of sciences. In 1748 he was made 
 professor of rhetoric and politics, an olHc« 
 the duties of which he discharged with great 
 ability for 40 years ; and died in 1780. His 
 chief works are " L.exicou Dialectorum," 
 " Glossarium Sueco-Gothicum," 2 vols, folio; 
 and " De Kuuorum Autiquitate, Fatria, 
 Origine, et Occasu." 
 
 ILIVE, Jacob, an English printer and 
 letter founder, who published some strange 
 pieces, as a pretended translation of tJie 
 book of Jasher, an oration proving that this 
 world is hell, that men are fallen spirits, 
 and that the lire to destroy them at the day 
 of judgment will be immaterial, &c. He 
 died in 1708. 
 
 IMBERT, Bartholomew, a French poet, 
 was born at Nismes in 1747. His poem on 
 the " J udgment of Paris " has been much ad- 
 mired. He also published a volume of fa- 
 bles ; was the author of an agreeable novel, 
 entitled " Les Egaremens de I'Amour," and 
 some other pieces. Died, 17'J0. 
 
 lAIBERT, JosEPU Gabkiel, a painter of 
 considerable merit, who studied under Le 
 Brun aud Vander Meulen, was bora at 
 Marseilles, in 1054. At the age of 34 he 
 entered into the Carthusian order, but was 
 permitted by his brethren to exercise his 
 pencil on religious subjects. Died, 174'J, 
 aged 95. 
 
 IMHOFF, John William, a lawyer and 
 senator of Nuremberg, who devoted him- 
 self to the study of history and the descents 
 and alliances of all the great families of 
 Europe ; hence he became an eminent ge- 
 nealogist, and produced many able works 
 illustrative of liis science. Born, 1051 ; 
 died, 1728. 
 
 IMPERIALI, Joseph Rexatus, a cele- 
 brated cardinal, born of an illustrious Ge- 
 noese family, in 1051. He was employed 
 by different popes in the most important 
 aifairs, and iu the conclave of 17130 was 
 within one vole of being elected pope him- 
 
 self. For probity, liberality, and a love of 
 literature, few excelled him. Died, 1737. 
 
 INA, king of the West Saxons, a valiant 
 prince and an able legislator, succeeded 
 Ceadwalla, in 089. llaving obtained advan- 
 tages over the people of Kent in 094, he 
 wrested Somersetshire and other parts of 
 the west of England i"rom the Britons. He 
 afterwards made war upon the Mercians ; 
 but the latter part of his reign was spent in 
 works of peace, and he ended his days in a 
 monastery, having resigned his crown in 
 728. The laws of Ina served as the found- 
 ation of the code formed by Alfred, and 
 some of them are still extant. 
 
 INCHBALD, Elizabeth, a novelist and 
 dramatic writer of great talent, was born 
 at Stanningfield, near Bury, Suffolk, in 1750. 
 Having lost her father at the age of 10, she 
 went to Loudon with the view of obtaining 
 an engagement for the stage, where, after 
 escaping many dangers in her rash adven- 
 ture, slie married Mr. Inchbald, an actor 
 of some celebrity, and accompaiiied him on 
 several provincial tours. He died in 1779, 
 and Mrs. Inclibald obtained an engagement 
 at Covent Garden in 1780, where she con- 
 tinued 8 years, and was deservedly popular. 
 After her retirement from tlie stage in 1789, 
 slie depended upon her literary labours. 
 She wrote 19 dramas, several of which were 
 decidedly successful, and among them may 
 be noticed " Such Things Are," " Every One 
 has his Fault," " Lover's Vows," &c., besides 
 two novels, "The Simple Story," and " Na- 
 ture and Art." Mrs. Inchbald also edited 
 " The British Theatre," iu 25 vols.; a similar 
 collection of popular farces, in 7 vols. ; and 
 "The Modern Theatre," in 10 vols. She 
 died in 1821, having passed a life attended 
 with many difficulties and temptations with 
 unsullied reputation, and disjdaying the 
 noble and self-denying character of her 
 nature, as may be seen from her " Life and 
 Correspondence," published by Buaden, iu 
 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 INC1IOFER,Melchior, a German Jesuit, 
 was born at Vienna in 1584. He wrote a 
 book, entitled " Tlie Virgin Mary's Letter 
 to tlie People of Messina proved to be Ge- 
 nuine," which gave great offence to his 
 bretiiren, whom he found great difficulty 
 in appeasing. lie also wrote a satire against 
 them, which was printed after his death, 
 under the title of" Monarchia Solipsorum," 
 and the " Ecclesiastical History of lluugary," 
 &c. Died at Milan, in 1048. 
 
 INCLEDON, BexVjamin Charles, a ce- 
 lebrated English singer, was born at St. 
 Keveran, in Cornwall, in 1704, where his 
 father practised as a surgeon. When only 8 
 years old, the astonishingly fine tones of his 
 voice induced his parents to article him to 
 Jackson of Exeter, under whose tuition he 
 remained as a chorister in Exeter Cathedral, 
 until he was 15. Not liking the restraints to 
 which he was necessarily subject, he abruptly 
 quitted his situation in 1779, and entered as 
 a common sailor on board the Formidable, 
 of 98 guns, and remained in the royal navy 
 five years, during which time ho went to 
 the West Indies, and saw some service. 
 His vocal abilities having, however, attracted 
 the notice of his officers, he was advised to 
 
ing] 
 
 ^ ^m mnibtvSal 2Si0grajjf)n. 
 
 [inn 
 
 try his fortune on tne stage. He accordingly 
 joined CoUins's company at Soutliampton, 
 in 1783, and next year accepted an engage- 
 ment at Bath, where tlie manager intro- 
 duced him to the acquaintance of llauzinni, 
 who did much towards perfecting him in 
 the vocal art. In 1790 he made liis debat 
 at Covent Garden Tlieatre, with great suc- 
 cess, as Dermot, in " Tlie Poor Soldier," 
 and rose at once into a degree of popular- 
 ity, which attended him till the infirmities 
 consequent upon advancing years, and an 
 irregular mode of life, compelled him to 
 quit the stage. His voice combined uncom 
 mon power, sweetness, and flexibility, both 
 in tlie natural tones and in the/a/se(<o, and 
 his intonation was singularly correct ; in- 
 deed, those who have heard him in "The 
 Storm," " Black-eyed Susan," or any of the 
 better sort of the old English ballads and 
 hunting songs, will not easily forget a style 
 of singing which, we believe, has seldom, if 
 ever, had its equal. Died, 1826. 
 
 INGENHOUSZ, Joiix, an eminent phy- 
 sician and cliemist, was born at Breda, 
 in 1730. He came early to England, and 
 having learnt the Suttonian method of in- 
 oculation, went to ^'ienna, in order to in- 
 oculate the daughter of the emperor ; for 
 which he was made iriperial physician, 
 and obtained a pension. He was the author 
 of several treatises on subjects of natural 
 history, was elected a fellow of tlie Koyal 
 Society, and died in 1799. 
 
 INGLiIS, Henry David, a writer of some 
 distinction, whose earliest worlds were pub- 
 lished in the name of Derwent Conway, was 
 a native of Scotland, and born in 1795. An 
 ardent desire to visit foreign countries, and 
 a not less ardent love of literature, led him 
 to indulge both propensities by visiting the 
 Continent and recording his observations. 
 His first work was entitled " Tlie Tales of 
 Ardennes," which was followed by " Solitary 
 Walks through many Lands ;" after which 
 appeared his " Travels in Norway and Swe- 
 den," " Spain in 1830," " The New Gil Bias," 
 &c. After his return from Spain, he made 
 a tour through Ireland, the result of which 
 was an admirable work, entitled " Ireland 
 in 1834." His constitution at length sunk 
 under his literary exertions ; he was seized 
 with a disease of the brain, and died in 
 183.5. 
 
 INGLIS, Sir James, was descended from 
 an ancient family in Fifeshire, where he 
 was born in the reign of James IV. He 
 joined the French faction against the Eng- 
 lish, and in some skirmishes preceding 
 the battle of Pinkey so distinguished him- 
 self, that he was knighted on the field. In 
 1548 he published at St. Andrew's his noted 
 " Complaint of Scotland." He died at 
 Culross, in 1554. 
 
 INGLIS, Joiix, D. D., an eminent Scottish 
 divine, was born in Perthshire, 17G3. In 
 1796 he succeeded Principal Robertson as 
 joint minister of the Grey Friars Church, 
 Edinburgh. For nearly 30 years he was the 
 leader of the moderate party in the Pres- 
 bytery of Edinburgh ; and, besides some 
 minor publications, he was the author of 
 two works of great merit, one on the " Evi- 
 dences of Christianity," and the other in 
 
 442 
 
 " Defence of Church Establishments." Died, 
 18:34. j 
 
 INGPtAM, RoEEUT, an English clergy- I 
 man, born at Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1727 ; ' 
 author of several learned and ingenious ! 
 treatises on scriptural subjects, among ' 
 which is " An Account of the Ten Tribes of 1 
 Israel being in America, originally written 
 byManasseh Ben Israel, with Observations." 
 Died, 1804. 
 
 INGRASSIAS, John Piiu.ip, an eminent 
 Sicilian physician, bom in 1510. He filled 
 the chair of medicine and anatomy at Naples 
 with great credit ; and when the plague 
 raged at Palermo, he adopted such salutary 
 regulations as put a stop to the calamity. 
 He wrote several medical and anatomical 
 works, in one of which he ably defended the 
 rules and practice of Galen. Ingrassias ranks 
 among the improvers of anatomy, by his 
 discovery of the bone called stapes, in the 
 ear, and by that of the seminal vesicles. 
 Died, 1580. 
 
 INGULPIIUS, abbot of Croyland, and 
 autlior of a history of that abbey, was born 
 in London, about 1030. William, duke of 
 Normandy, while a visitor at the court of 
 Edward the Confessor, made Ingulphus, 
 tlien of the age of twenty-one, his secretary. 
 He afterwards went on a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land, and, upon his return, entered 
 into the order of the Benedictines, at the 
 abbey of Fontenelle, in Normandy, of which 
 he became prior. On the acquirement of 
 the crown of England by William, Ingul- 
 phus was created abbot of the rich monas- 
 tery of Croyland, which he was enabled to 
 rebuild ; and, by the favour of the king and 
 Archbishop Lanfranc, he obtained for it 
 many privileges. The history of this monas- 
 tery commences with the year 664, is brought 
 down to 1091, and is interspersed with many 
 particulars of the English kings. Died, 1109. 
 
 INNOCENT. There have been thirteen 
 popes of this name, of whom the following 
 deserve a niche in our work : — 
 
 INNOCENT I., St., was a native of Al- 
 bano, and succeeded Anastasius I. as bishop 
 of Rome, in 402. He supported St. Chry- 
 sostom, and renounced communion with the 
 Eastern churches on account of their treat- 
 ment of that eminent man. In 409, he en- 
 deavoured to obtain terms of peace with 
 Alaric, but was unsuccessful, and during the 
 following year Rome was taken and pillaged. 
 Died, 417. 
 
 INNOCENT II., a Roman of noble birth, 
 elected, in 1130, by a part of the cardinals, 
 whilst others chose Peter of Leon, who took 
 the name of Anacletus. This contest for the 
 papal chair continued until the death of the 
 latter in 1138, although the monarchs of Eng- 
 land, France, and Germany espoused the 
 cause of Innocent. The whole period of his 
 pontificate was one continued struggle for 
 pre-eminence, either with rival popes or un- 
 bending kings. Died, 1143. 
 
 INNOCENT III., one of the most eminent 
 of the popes, was descended from the Counts 
 of Scgni, and born at Anagni, in 1161. He 
 was raised to the papacy in 1198 ; and being 
 endowed by nature with all the talents of 
 a ruler, possessed of great erudition, and 
 favoured by circumstances, he was better 
 
inn] 
 
 ^ ^tb) Bnibcx^al 33t0srai)!)B. 
 
 [ire 
 
 qualified than, any of liis predecessors to 
 elevate the papal power. His first care was 
 to unite the Christian princes in a crusade 
 for the recovery of Palestine, and in order to 
 succeed, he began by a cruel persecution of 
 tlie Albigenses. He put France under an 
 interdict, because Tliilip Augustus divorced 
 his queen ; and he was still more arbitrary 
 in his treatment of John, king of England, 
 for refusing to confirm the election of Ste- 
 phen Langton, as archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Innocent laid the kingdom under an inter- 
 diet, and, in 1212, formally deposed him, and 
 instigated the king of France to attack Eng- 
 land. John was finally obliged to submit ; 
 resigned his territories to Rome ; and re- 
 ceived them, as a papal fief, from Innocent, 
 from whom he was unable to obtain absolu- 
 tion until he liad paid large sums of money. 
 Almost all Christendom was now subject to 
 the poi)e ; two crusades were undertaken at 
 his order, and his influence extended even to 
 Constantinople. Under his rule, in fact, the 
 temporal power of the papal see was built 
 upon a solid foundation, lie reigned from 
 sea to sea, and the Roman republic, in her 
 first four centuries, did not possess a more 
 extended territory. Yet it must be admitted, 
 that he acted in accordance with the prin- 
 ciples laid down in his writings ; he enforced 
 purity of morals in the clergy, and was 
 himself irreproachable in private life ; but 
 the cruel persecution of the Albigenses in 
 the south of France, which he encouraged, 
 
 I and the inquisitorial tribunals established 
 by him in 1198, from which the inquisition 
 itself originated, are stains on his pontifi- 
 cate, but partially effaced by a consideration 
 of the spirit of the times, and the disordered 
 state of tlie Christian world. In 1215 he 
 convoked the fourth general council of the 
 Latcran, consisting of more than 1300 arch- 
 bishops, bishops, prelates, and ambassadors 
 of European princes, by which transubstan- 
 tiation in the Lord's Supper and auricular 
 confession were established as dogmas ; and 
 it was at this famous council that the cele- 
 brated orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis 
 were confirmed. Died, 1216. 
 
 INNOCENT XI. (Be.vedict Odescal- 
 ciii), born in 1611, was the son of a banker 
 at Como, in the Milanese. In his youth he 
 served as a soldier in Germany and Poland ; 
 quitted the camp to take orders ; and rose, 
 through the intermediate dignities, to the 
 pontificate in 1076, on the death of Clement 
 
 1 X. He was eminent for his probity and 
 austerity, restraining luxury and excess, 
 and even prohibiting women from learning 
 music. Nor was he less distinguished for 
 the enmity he bore to France, or rather its 
 sovereign, Louis XIV. ; his dispute with 
 whom was highly favourable to the English 
 revolution, as it induced the pipe, in 1689, 
 to unite with the allies against James II.. in 
 order to lower the influence of Louis. His 
 conduct in this respect has led many Ca- 
 tholics to assert, that he sacrificed their 
 religion to his personal resentment ; but 
 Bayle judiciously observes, that the extreme 
 preponderance of any great Catholic sove- 
 reign is injurious to the interests of the 
 papacy, and mentions the similar conduct 
 of Scxtus v., in relation to Philip II. of 
 
 413 
 
 Spain and queen Elizabeth of England. 
 He died in 1()«9, aged 78. 
 
 IPHICRATES, a. famous Athenian mili- 
 tary commander, during the 4th century 
 B.C., who raised himself to eminence, by 
 courage and talents, early in life. In the 
 war of Corinth, 395 B.C., he successfully 
 opposed Agesilaus, the warlike king of 
 Sparta. He afterwards commanded a body 
 of auxiliary troops in the service of Arta- 
 xerxes, king of Persia, in an expedition to 
 Egypt ; and, in 368 B.C., he relieved Sparta, 
 when invaded by the Theban general Epa- 
 minondas. In the social war, he was one of 
 the commanders of the fleet fitted out by 
 the Athenians, for the recovery of Byzan- 
 tium ; when, l)eing accused of treachery by 
 one of his colleagues, he defended himself 
 with such spirit, that he was acquitted ; but 
 though he lived to a great age, he did not 
 again engage in the military operations of 
 Athens. 
 
 IPHITTJS, king of Elis, in Greece, me- 
 morable as the insti tutor of the famous 
 Olympic games, in the 8th century B.C. 
 These games, at first consisting only of 
 athletic exercises, but afterwards including 
 horse and chariot racing, and even the trials 
 of skill among rival candidates in music, 
 poetry, eloquence, &c., were celebrated every 
 4th year, in the mouth of July, near Olym- 
 pia, a city of Elis. 
 
 IRELAND, JoH.y, an ingenious writer 
 on works of art, was born near Wem, in 
 Shropshire, and brought up to the watch- 
 making business. He afterwards became a 
 dealer in paintings and prints ; and died, 
 near Birmingham, in 1789. He is the author 
 of "Hogarth Illustrated," 3 vols. ; and the 
 " I^ife and Letters of John Heuderson," the 
 actor. 
 
 IRELAND, Joiiy, the very rev. dean of 
 Westminster, celebrated for his learning and 
 for his intimate connection with some of the 
 most eminent men of his time, was born at 
 Ashburton, in Devonshire, 1762, and received 
 contemporaneously with Gilford, the learned 
 editor of the Quarterly Review, the first rudi- 
 ments of education at the free grammar school 
 of Ashburton. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and after holding a small curacy in the 
 neighbourhood of his native place, he tra- 
 velled with the son of Sir James Wright, by 
 whose interest he was in 1793 collated to the 
 vicarage of Croydon in Surrey. In 1802 he 
 was made a prebend of Westminster, which 
 promotion was followed by his succeeding 
 to the deanery of Westminster on the death 
 of Dr. Vincent in 1816. He was a somewhat 
 voluminous author ; besides writing some of 
 the most important papers in the earlier 
 numbers of the Quarterly Review, he pub- 
 lished "Five Discourses containing certain 
 Arguments for and Agaiui-t the Reception 
 of Christianity by the ancient Jews and 
 Greeks," " Vindicia Regiaj, a Defence of the 
 Kingly Office," " Paganism and Christianity 
 compared," " Nuptiaj Sacrae, an Inquiry into 
 the Scriptural Doctrine of Marriage and 
 Divorce," and other works, exclusively theo- 
 logical. As his life had been distinguished 
 by his patronage of literature, so his will 
 evidenced that he was desirous tliat his 
 ample fortune — an immense one if we con- 
 
ire] 
 
 ^ ^t\si Wimbcx^nl SSuijjrajpt)"* 
 
 [iRV 
 
 aider his origin and early prospects — should 
 benefit botli religion and literature after his 
 death. Besides many charitable bequests 
 for the benefit of the various places with 
 which he had been connected, he left 200()/. 
 to his college, Oriel, Oxford, for an exhibi- 
 tion ; 5000?. for a chapel in Westminster ; and 
 the princely sum of 10,000? to the university 
 of Oxford, for a " Professor of the Exigesis 
 of the Holy Scripture." Died, September 1. 
 1842, aged 80. 
 
 IRELAND, Samuel, was originally a silk 
 manufacturer in Spitalflelds ; but having 
 a taste for the arts, he became a speculator 
 in scarce books, prints, &c., and published 
 many embellished tours. In 1796 his cha- 
 racter sustained a deep injury in consequence 
 of the part he took in the publication of an 
 impudent forgery, fabricated by his son, 
 which made a great noise at the time, and 
 was entitled " Miscellaneous Papers and 
 Legal Instruments, under the hand and seal 
 of William Shakspeare," &c. His son, how- 
 ever, acquitted him of wilful participation 
 in this gross literary fraud, in what he 
 termed an " Authentic Account of the Shak- 
 speare Manuscripts." Besides a variety of 
 " Picturesque Tours " above alluded to, 
 Samuel Ireland published a work in one vo- 
 lume, entitled "Graphic Illustrations of 
 Hogartli." 
 
 IREN^US, St., a Christian martyr in 
 the 2nd century, was bishop of Lyons. lie 
 was a man of considerable learning, and 
 animated with an ardent zeal for Christian- 
 ity ; in which cause he suffered during the 
 fifth persecution under Septimus Severus, in 
 202, and is honoured as a saint. 
 
 IRENE, an empress of Constantinople, 
 alike famous for her talents, her beauty, 
 and her crimes, was by birth an Athenian, 
 and married liCO IV"., after whose death, in 
 769, she raised herself and her son Constan- 
 tine "VI., who was then but 9 years old, to 
 the imperial throne. Charlemagne at that 
 time menaced the Eastern empire. Irene 
 at first delayed him by promises ; and at 
 length went so far as to oppose him, arms 
 in hand ; but he totally defeated her army 
 in the year 788. When Constantine had ar- 
 rived at manhood, he refused to permit her 
 to participate longer in the government, and 
 actually reigned alone 7 years ; but the in- 
 human and unnatural empress caused him 
 to be deprived of his sight, and assumed the 
 sovereignty. Her entrance into Constanti- 
 nople on a triumphal car of gold and pre- 
 cious stones, her liberality to the people, the 
 freedom which she bestowed on all prisoners, 
 and other artifices employed by her, were 
 not sufiicient to secure her from the conse- 
 quences of her criminal accession. Nicepho- 
 rus, who was placed on the imperial throne, 
 exiled her to the isle of Lesbos, where she 
 died, in 80.3. 
 
 IRETON, IIexry, a soldier, statesman, 
 and regicide, was born at Atteuton, in Not- 
 tinghamshire, in 1010 ; studied at Trinitv 
 College, Oxford, and the Middle Temple"; 
 and, on the breaking out of the rebellion, 
 joined the parliamentarians, the left wing 
 of whose army he commanded at the battle 
 of Naseby. Having married a daughter of 
 Oliver Cromwell, he soon rose to prefer- 
 
 ments i sat in judgment upon the king, 
 whom he had previously betrayed ; and 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in Ire- 
 land, where he died in 1651. His body 
 was brought to England, and buried in 
 Westminster Abbey till the Restoration, 
 when it was taken up, suspended at the gal- 
 lows, and then thrown into a pit with those 
 of Cromwell and Bradshaw. 
 
 IRVING, the Rev. Edward, M. A., a 
 native of Annan, Scotland, was born in 
 1792. He received the first rudiments of 
 classical education of the village school- 
 master, which he completed at the imiver- 
 sity of Edinburgh. When a mere child he 
 is said to have been singular in his way of 
 thinking, habits, and amusements ; and, 
 before he had reached the 17th year of his 
 age, he was recommended as a teacher of 
 the mathematics, bj' Professor Leslie, to an 
 academy at Haddington. That situation he 
 left, in order to fill a similar one at Kirk- 
 kaldy, where he remained 7 years, and 
 during which time he became enamoured 
 of Miss Isabella Martin, whom he afterwards 
 married. In 1819 he went to Edinburgh, 
 with a determination of becoming a preacher 
 of the gospel ; and on Dr. Chalmers hear- 
 ing him in the pulpit, he appointed him 
 his assistant at St. John's Church, Glasgow. 
 In 182.'J he was appointed to preach at the 
 Caledonian Asylum, in Cross Street, Hat- 
 ton Garden, and introduced to the public as 
 the late assistant of Dr. Chalmers. The 
 force, eloquence, and, it may be added, the 
 novelty of style and manner of Mr. Irving, 
 drew such large congregations to the Cale- 
 donian Asylum, that those only were ad- 
 mitted who could procure tickets — even for 
 " standing room ; " while these were chiefly 
 distributed among the noble, wealthy, and 
 liberal of both sexes ; in short, it became 
 "quite the fashion" to attend Mr. Irving, 
 whose grotesque appearance, violent gesticu- 
 lation, peculiar phraseology, and general 
 attack upon all professors whose opinions 
 were opposed to his own, had created so 
 ardent a curiosity to hear him, that, from 
 about 50 seats being previously occupied in 
 the chapel, applications were made to the 
 amount of 1500. He occasionally preached 
 at different chapels for charities, bible socie- 
 ties, &c. He published many of his sermons 
 and opinions ; and on becoming acquainted 
 with Mr. Drummond, joined " the prophets," 
 as they were called, of Albury Park, the seat 
 of the latter. These " prophets " were 20 
 or 30 persons assembled together at the 
 above-named seat, for the express object of 
 studying, or elucidating, "the sublime science 
 of sacred prophecy," a<;counts of which were 
 published in 1827. In the course of this and 
 the following year the change in Mr. Irving's 
 doctrines became evident to his former ad- 
 mirers ; and in 1830 he was charged with 
 " heresy " by the Scotch church in London. 
 Proceedings of the presbytery were carried 
 on against him ; and the judgment of that 
 body being approved by the trustees of the 
 National Scotch Church, which had been 
 erected for him in Regent Square, he was 
 dismissed therefrom, and afterwards deposed 
 by the presbytery of Annan. With fanatics, 
 generally, the greater the absurdity, the 
 
IRW] 
 
 % ^clM aintbrr^itl 38i'05rajpljg. 
 
 [isi 
 
 stronger ia the attacliment to it ; and some 
 of Mr. Irving's warmest friends resolved on 
 providing him with a chapel, wherein he 
 might preach uncontrolled. The picture- 
 gallery of the late Mr. West, in Newman 
 Street, waa fitted up for that purpose, and 
 there the novelty of what he termed " ma- 
 nifestations of the spirit," as evinced by the 
 screams and ravings in " unknown tongues " 
 of the deluded or the artful, ensured him 
 full audiences. About this time he felt it 
 necessary" to return to Scotland in the hope 
 of recruiting his health ; but, on arriving at 
 Glasgow, he rai)idly became wor.se, and he 
 died on the 6th of December. 183J, with all 
 the external symptoms of old age, though 
 only in his 42nd year. 
 
 ikWIN, Evi-Ks, was bom at Calcutta, of 
 Irish parents, in 1748, and received his edu- 
 cation in England. In 17(57 he returned to 
 the east in a civil capacity ; but was sus- 
 pended, in 1777, for his attachment to Lord 
 Pigot ; on which he came to Europe over 
 land to seek redress, obtained it, and was 
 restored to his former station at Madras, 
 whither he again repaired. In 178.') he 
 returned again to England ; but in 1792 he 
 went to China to superintend the Company's 
 utfiiirs ; after which he revisited England, 
 where he died in 1817. His works are 
 " Adventures during a Voyage up the Red 
 Sea, and a Journey across the Desert," 
 "Eastern Eclogues," an "Epistle to Mr. 
 Ilayley," " Ode on the Death of Hyder 
 Ally," "An Inquiry into the Feasibility of 
 Buonaparte's Expedition into the East," 
 "Napoleon, or the Vanity of Human 
 Wishes," &c. 
 
 ISAAC, Karo, a rabbi, who was forced 
 to quit Spain in consequence of the edict 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1499, which 
 compelled the Jews to leave that country 
 within 4 months, or become Christians. He 
 first went to Portugal, and from tlience to 
 Jerusalem, but was so unfortunate as to 
 lose all his children on their journey, as 
 I well as his library. He then passed the 
 remainder of his life in solitude, occupying 
 himself in writing a Commentary on the 
 I Pentateuch. 
 
 ! ISAACSON, He.vry, the author of a va- 
 j luable system of chronology, was the son of 
 Richard Isaacson, sheriff of London. Born, 
 1581 ; died, 1654. 
 
 ISABELLA OF Castile, the celebrated 
 queen of Spain, daughter of John II., was 
 born in 1451, and married, in 14<J9, Ferdi- 
 nand v., king of Arragon. After the death 
 of her brother Henry IV., in 1474, she as- 
 cended the throne of Castile, to the exclu- 
 sion of her eldest sister Joanna, who had 
 the rightful claim to the crown. After the 
 kingdoms of Arragon and Castile were 
 united, Ferdinand and Isabella together as- 
 sumed the royal title of Spain. She was 
 haughty and ambitious ; but with the graces 
 and charms of her sex, Isabella united the 
 courage of a hero, and the sagacity of a 
 I statesman and legislator : she was always 
 present at the transaction of state affairs, 
 I and her name was placed beside that of her 
 I husband in public ordinances. Private 
 I warfare, which had formerly prevailed to 
 I the destruction of public tranquillity, she 
 
 1^ 
 
 checked, and introduced a vigorous admi- 
 uistraticm of justice. Died, I'AH. 
 
 IS^US, an Athenian orator, the pupil of 
 Lysias and Isocrutes. He lived in the first 
 half of the 4th century b. c, was wholly 
 unconnected with public affairs, and de- 
 voted himself to the task of instructing 
 others. Eleven of his orations are still 
 extant. 
 
 ISCANUS, JosEPHUs, or Joseph op Exe- 
 ter, was a distinguished writer of Latin 
 poetry, who accomi)anied Richard Coeur de , 
 l>ion to Palestine. He wag the author of 
 an epic poem, entitled " Antioeheis," or 
 the deeds of Richard which the poet had 
 himself witnessed. This is unfortunately 
 lost ; but another, on the Trojan war, is 
 still extant. Warton styles Iscanus " the 
 miracle of his age in classical composition." 
 Died, 1224. 
 
 ISELIN, Isaac, a German philosopher, 
 and an ingenious writer, burn at Basle, in 
 1728, of the grand council of which city he 
 became secretary in 17;j6. His principal 
 work is entitled "The History of Mankind," 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; but many others came from 
 his pen, and he carried on an extensive 
 correspondence with the literati of his own 
 and other countries. Dicl, 1782. 
 
 ISEMBERT OK Xaintes, a French archi- 
 tect of the twelfth century, whose skill in 
 building the bridges of Xaintes and Rochelle 
 induced John, king of England, to recom- 
 mend him to the citizens of London, in 1201, 
 OS an engineer, or architect, who might be 
 useful to them in completing the bridge over 
 the Thames then building. This structure 
 (old London Bridge) has of late years been 
 removed, and its place supplied by a noble 
 erection, which, for architectural beauty and 
 solid masonry, has never been equalled. The 
 old bridge was commenced under the direc- 
 tion of a priest called Peter of Colechurch 
 in 1176, and it was finished in 1209, pro- 
 bably by Isembert ; but the style in which 
 it was executed says but little for the state 
 of architectural science in England during 
 the 12th century. 
 
 ISIDORE OF Miletus, a Greek architect 
 of the 6th century, who, together with 
 Anthemius, was employed by the emperor 
 Justinian to erect the church of St. Sophia, 
 at Constantinople. It is now used as a 
 mosque. 
 
 ISIDORE OF Pelusium, a saint in the 
 Romish calendar, and so called from his 
 retiring to a solitude near the town which 
 bears that name, was a celebrated disciple 
 of St. Chrysostom, and flourished in the 
 5th century. He Mrote 3000 epistles on 
 theological questions and ecclesiastical dis- 
 ciidine. 
 
 ISIDORE OF Seville, another Romish 
 saint, was born at Carthagena, of which 
 city his father was governor. Isidore suc- 
 ceeded his brother in the bishopric of Seville 
 in 601, and died in 636. His works are 
 numerous, and among them is a chronicle, 
 ending at the year 626. The editions of his 
 Missal and Breviary are "very scarce. 
 
 ISLA, JosKi'ii Francis de, a Spanish 
 Jesuit, was born at Segovia, in 1714 : and 
 after the expulsion of his order from Spain, 
 retired to Italy, and died at Bologna, in 
 
ISO] 
 
 ^ ^cfcD ?aiutici*^al 23i0graji!)i). 
 
 [iTn 
 
 1783. His principal work, " The Life of 
 Friar Gerund," is a bitter satire upon tlie 
 absurdity, fanaticism, and ignorance of tlie 
 monks, and upon tlie prevailing faults of 
 pulpit eloquence. He possessed much of 
 that kind of humour for which his country- 
 man Cervantes is so justly famed, and was 
 •well calculated to effect a reform in the 
 manners of those whom he satirised, if, in- 
 deed, the shafts of satire could possibly reach 
 such a race of drones and bigots. 
 
 ISOCRATES, one of the greatest orators 
 of Greece, was born at Athens, b. c. 436, and 
 was the son of a musical instrument-maker. 
 His principal teachers were Gorgias, Pro- 
 dicus, and Theramenes. On account of his 
 weak voice and natural timidity, he took 
 but little share himself in public speaking, 
 but he applied himself with the greatest 
 ardour to instruction in the art of eloquence, 
 and preparing orations for others. He was 
 particularly distinguished for a polished 
 style and a harmonious construction of his 
 sentences ; his subjects were the most im- 
 portant points of morals and politics ; and 
 it is recorded to his honour that he never, 
 by writing or accusation, injured a single 
 individual. He was warmly attached to the 
 liberties of his country ; and such was his 
 grief on hearing of the fatal battle of Che- 
 ronaea, that he took no food for four days, 
 and literally died of starvation, in the 98th 
 year of his age. 
 
 ITTIGIUS, Thomas, a Lutheran di\'ine 
 and theological writer, born at Leipsic, in 
 1644. He became professor of philosophy 
 at his native place, and afterwards licentiate 
 and professor in divinity. Died, 1710. 
 
 ITURBIDE, AnouSTiN, emperor of Mex- 
 ico, was born at Valladolid. in New Spain, 
 in 1784, and entered the military service at 
 the age of 17. In 1810 he was a lieutenant 
 in the provincial regiment of his native city, 
 but his military skill and valour were con- 
 spicuous, and led to his further promotion ; 
 so that in 1816 he had risen to the command 
 of the northern army, which occupied the 
 provinces of Guanaxuato and Valladolid. 
 About this time he was suspected and ac- 
 cused of want of fidelity to tlie royal cause ; 
 but though acquitted of the imputation, 
 the disgust wliich he felt in consequence of 
 this charge led liim to retire for a while 
 from active service. Subsequent events 
 opened a new career for his ambition. He 
 was invited to take the command of an 
 army destined to the South, and he marched 
 to Acapulco, in the latter part of 1819. 
 There he matured a plan, the professed 
 object of which was the emancipation of 
 Mexico from t'le yoke of Spain, the inde- 
 pendence of the country, tlie protection of 
 religion, and the union of the Spaniards and 
 Mexicans. On the strength of this plan 
 Iturbide continued his march to Qiieretaro, 
 and was soon joined by Victoria, the most 
 devoted of the friends of liberty. Tlie road 
 to power was now entirely open before Itur- 
 bide. He took possession of the capital in 
 the name of the nation, and established a 
 regency, consisting of members nominated 
 by himself, and wholly under his control. 
 Finding that the republicans saw through 
 his intentions, and were opposed to his do- 
 
 mination, he resolved to preserve his autho- 
 rity by boldly usurping the crown ; and 
 accordingly, through the subserviency of his 
 troops, and the concurrence of a portion of 
 the deputies, he was proclaimed emperor, 
 May 18. 1822. It was decreed that the crown 
 should be hereditary in the family of Itur- 
 bide, and that a million and a half of dollars 
 should be his yearly allowance ; at the same 
 time conferring the title of princes on his 
 sons, and establishing an order of knight- 
 hood and other accessories of a monarchy. 
 The friends of liberal institutions, overawed 
 and held at bay by the power of the usurper, 
 fled to their wonted retreats, or temporised 
 until a fitting season should arrive for acting 
 with union and efiiciency. But they could 
 not acquiesce in a state of things so adverse 
 to their feelings. Iturbide was driven by 
 his necessities to exasperate the minds of 
 the people, already disgusted with successive 
 usurpations. Defection now became general 
 among the officers of the aimy, and in all 
 the provinces, so that Iturbide saw plainly 
 that his cause was liopeless, and hastily 
 assembled at Mexico the dispersed members 
 of Congress, and tendered to them his abdi- 
 cation of the crown, March 20. 1823. Con- 
 gress agreed to grant Iturbide a large yearly 
 pension, on condition of his leaving the 
 Mexican territory for ever, and residing 
 somewhere in Italy, making suitable provi- | 
 sion for his family in case of his deatli. He 
 proceeded to the coast, imder escort of Gene- 
 ral Bravo, and embarked. May 11. 1823, for 
 Leghorn. He might have continued to live 
 happily in one of the charming villas of 
 Tuscany, had he not been impelled by an 
 insane ambition to attempt the recovery of 
 his lost empire. With this object he left 
 Italy for England, and embarked for Mex- 
 ico, May 11. 1824, precisely a year after his 
 departure from it, and arrived in sight of 
 the port of Soto la Marina, July 14. During 
 the year that had elapsed, the Mexicans had 
 adopted a republican constitution, and Itur- 
 bide had no party nor friends in the nation. 
 The government had been apprised of his 
 leaving Italy, and suspected his design. A 
 decree was passed, bearing date April 28. 
 1824, declaring him to be proscribed as a 
 traitor, and requiring that, in case he landed 
 in the country, the mere fact should render 
 him a public enemy. Wholly deceived in 
 regard to the fate which awaited him, Itur- 
 bide landed at Soto la Marina, accompanied 
 only by Beneski, his secretary, and was 
 almost immediately arrested by order of La 
 Garza, commander of the province of New 
 Santander, to whom he had applied for pass- 
 ports, pretending that they were for persons 
 who had visited Mexico on a mining specu- 
 lation. La Garza lost no time in conducting 
 his prisoner to Padilla, the capital of the 
 province, demanding instructions how to 
 act, of the provincial legislature. His fate 
 was but for a short time delayed ; sentence 
 of immediate death was pronounced ; and 
 while preparations for executing the sen- 
 tence were making, Iturbide addressed the 
 assembled people, protesting his innocence 
 of any treasonable purpose, and exhorting 
 them to observe the duties of patriotism, 
 religion, and civil subordination. He is 
 
iva3' 
 
 ^ ^elu ^nihtxSnX 33i00rapi^i?. 
 
 [JAC 
 
 allowed to have possessed great military 
 talents, and considerable strength of cha- 
 racter ; and had he been led to use his I 
 influence in the establishment of a free | 
 government, he might tiave realised the | 
 expectations of those who gave him credit \ 
 tor intending to follow the example of 
 Washington, He was shot, July 19. 1824. 
 
 rVANOF, Feodor Feodokovitscu, a 
 Russian dramatist, was born in 1777. He 
 first served in the army, from which he was 
 removed to the commissariat department ; 
 was the author of several comedies, and a 
 tragedy called •' Martha, or the Conquest of 
 Novogorod." Died, 181G. 
 
 IVKS, John, an English antiquary, was 
 born at Yarmouth, in ITvil. lie became 
 Suffolk herald extraordinary, and pub- 
 lished three numbers of select papers on 
 subjects of English antiquities ; also " Re- 
 marks on the Garianouum of the Romans," 
 " Remarks on English Coins," &c. Died, 
 1776. 
 
 IVETAUX, Nicholas "Vauqelix, Seig- 
 neur d', a French poet and man of letters, 
 born in 1551). lie succeeded his father as 
 
 lieutenant-governor of Caen, in Normandy ; 
 but being of a gay disposition he quitted it 
 for the metropolis, and was selected by the 
 "Fair Gabrielle" to till the situation of 
 tutor to her son, the young duke of Ven- 
 dome. He afterwards became tutor to the 
 dauphin, but his licentious course of life 
 occasioned his dismissal. He, however, re- 
 ceived a pension, and lived till he was 90 
 years of age. He wrote a clever poem, en- 
 titled " Institution d'un Prince," and a 
 variety of other pieces. Died, 1C49. 
 
 IZAACKE, Richard, author of "The 
 Antiquities, or Memorials of the City of 
 Exeter," was born there, tilled the offices of 
 town clerk and chamberlain, and died in 
 17()0. 
 
 IZIOCAI.T II., the fourth king of Mexico, 
 ascended the throne in 1433, and died in 
 1445. During his reign all the warlike na- 
 tions on the borders of the lake of Mexico 
 were reduced to subjection. He also con- 
 quered the Tepencans, fortified and embel- 
 lished his capital, formed a body of laws for 
 his subjects, and may be regarded as the real 
 founder of the Mexican empire. 
 
 JABLONOWSKY, Joseph Alexander 
 VON, a Polish prince, born in 1712. Pre- 
 ferring a life of literary ease, he resigned 
 his dignity when tlie troubles broke out in 
 his country, and Ment to live at Leipsic, 
 where he distinguished himself as the patron 
 of science, founded a society, called by his 
 name, which still exists. He wrote "The 
 Lives of Twelve Generals," a " Treatise on 
 Sclavonic Poetry," and other works. Died, 
 1777. 
 
 JABLONSKI, Daniel Ernest, a native 
 of Dantzic, born in ICCO, who, after study- 
 ing at several universities, among which was 
 Oxford, eventually became an ecclesiastical 
 counsellor at Berlin and president of the 
 academy. He was an able divine, and la- 
 boured earnestly, though without success, in 
 endeavouring to promote a union between 
 the Lutherans and Caivinists. He wrote 
 several theological works, and translated 
 Bentley's " Boy lean Lectures" into Latin. 
 Died, 1741. 
 
 JABLONSKI, Theodore, brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Dantzic in 1(5.54, and 
 became counsellor to the king of Prussia. 
 He cultivated a taste for pliilosophy and 
 general literature with great success, and 
 was the author of a " Course of Ethics," 
 and several other works of merit. Died, 
 1731. 
 
 JABLONSKI, Paul Ernest, nephew to 
 the preceding, and son of Daniel Ernest, 
 was the author of a very erudite treatise 
 on the mythology of ancient Egypt, in 3 
 vols., and other able works, theological and 
 antiquarian. Died, 17.57. 
 
 JACKSON, General Andrew, president of 
 the United States from 1829 to 1837, was 
 
 bom in South Carolina, 17C7. His father 
 was an Irish emigrant. At the oge of IC he 
 took part in the war of independence ; at 
 the close of which he became a law student, 
 and was thus enabled to discharge efl^ciently 
 some high legal offices in Tennessee, to which 
 he was subsequently appointed. On the 
 breaking out of the war with England in 1812, 
 he took vigorous measures for the defence of 
 the menaced territory ; in 1814 he was ap- 
 pointed major-general; and, among other ex- 
 ploits, which raised him to the highest point 
 of popularity, he gained the decisive victory 
 over the English, Jan. 8. 1815, at New Orleans, 
 which put an end to the war. The same 
 success attended his arms against the Creek 
 tribes, whom lie repeatedly subdued. In 
 1821, lie was appointed governor of Florida; 
 and his gallant deeds being still fresh in his 
 countryman's recollection, he was brought 
 forward by the democratic party as a candi- 
 date for the presidency, elected in 1829, and 
 re-elected in 18;i3. His period of otKce is 
 chiefly remarkable for the extension of 
 democratic tendencies which took place 
 during it. He obtained from France the 
 payment of an indemnity of 2.5 millions of 
 francs for injuries done to the commerce of 
 the United States during the empire. His 
 refusal to renew the hank charter, in 183.3, 
 led to one of the most violent financial crises 
 on record. General Juckson was endowed 
 with inflexible will and an ardent patriotism; 
 but he brought with him to power the pas- 
 sions of a partisan, and he did not always 
 respect legality, as his treatment of Ar- 
 buthnot and Ambrister, during the war with 
 Florida, will show. Died, 1845. 
 JACKSON, Dr. Cvkil, an eminent divine, 
 
 Q Q 2 
 
JAC] 
 
 ^ ^e1\) SlntiJcr^aX 3SicsrapT)i?. 
 
 [jAC 
 
 was born in 174G. at Stamford, where his 
 father was a medical practitioner. He be- 
 came sub-preceptor to George IV. wiien 
 prince of Wales, for which he was made 
 canon of Christcliurch, and on the elevation 
 of Dr. Bagot to a bishopric, Jie succeeded 
 him in the deanery, which he resigned in 
 1809. Dr. Jackson was an excellent gover- 
 nor of his college and an elegant scholar, 
 but he as studiously avoided the press as he 
 did the mitre, though the primacy of Ireland 
 was offered him, as well as an English 
 bishopric. Died, 1819. 
 
 JACKSON, Dr. William, bishop of Ox- 
 ford, was a brother of the preceding, and 
 born at Stamford, in 1750. He became a 
 prebendary of York, rcgius professor of 
 Greek at Oxford, preacher to the society of 
 Lincoln's Inn, canon of Christcliurch, and, 
 in 1811, bishop of Oxford. He translated a 
 tract on the Sieve of Eratosthenes into Latin, 
 published some sermons, and was a sound 
 mathematician. Died, 1815. 
 
 JACKSON, Joiix, a learned Hebraist and 
 controversial writer, was born at Lensy, in 
 Yorkshire, in 168(5. The corporation of 
 Doncaster gave him the living of Rossing- 
 ton, but the pertinacity with which he sup- 
 ported his Arian principles prevented his 
 farther rise in the church. He was the au- 
 thor of " Chronological Antiquities ; " and 
 left behind him the character of a learned 
 and sincere writer, though strongly tinc- 
 tured with the faults of a violent polemic. 
 Died, 1763. 
 
 JACKSON, Joiijr, an eminent English 
 portrait painter, was born at Lastingliam, 
 in Yorkshire, in 1778, and apprenticed to 
 his father, who was a tailor; but discover- 
 ing a decided talent for the art in wliich he 
 afterwards excelled, his abilities procured 
 him the protection of Sir George Beaumont, 
 through whose means he removed to Lon- 
 don, and studied at the Royal Academy. 
 At the time he entered the great theatre of 
 art, Lawrence, Opie, Beechey, and other 
 eminent masters, pre-occupied tlie particu- 
 lar branch he had chosen, and for a time 
 he contented himself with painting portraits 
 in water-colours, in which he was very suc- 
 cessful. He was, however, determined to 
 take a high stand, if possible, as a portrait 
 painter in oil ; and the tact with which he 
 copied the works of the old masters sur- 
 prised his contemporaries. He was elected 
 royal academician in 1817 ; and when, in 
 1819, he travelled through Italy, and visited 
 Borne with Mr. Chantrey, he was chosen a 
 member of the Academy of St. Luke. Jack- 
 son " had an uncommon readiness and skill 
 of hand, a rapid felicity of finish, which 
 enabled him to dash off, at a few sittings, 
 whatever he undertook ; his colouring was 
 deep, clear, and splendid ; and in this he 
 more resembled Reynolds than any artist 
 since his day." Died, 1831. 
 
 JACKSON, RoBEKT, M. D., was an in- 
 spector of military hospitals, and many years 
 chief of the medical department of the army 
 in the West Indies. He served as a regi- 
 1 mental surgeon in North America in 1778, 
 j and on returning to England he settled as a 
 physician at Stockton. On liostilities with 
 j France taking place in 1793, he again engaged 
 
 44» 
 
 in the army service, and was employed for 
 many years on tlie Continent and in the 
 West Indies. Among his works are a treatise 
 "On the Fevers of Jamaica, with Observ- 
 ations on tlic Intermittents of America," 
 " Remarks on the Constitution of the Me- 
 dical Department of the British Army," 
 &c. He died at Thursby, near Carlisle, in 
 1827. 
 
 JACKSON, Thomas, dean of Peterbo- 
 rough, a learned divine of the 17th century, 
 was a native of the county of Durham ; 
 born in 1579, and died in 1640. He wrote 
 many excellent devotional tracts, but his 
 principal work consists of a " Commentary 
 on the Apostles' Creed," a performance com- 
 bining great learning and research. 
 
 JACKSON, William, a musical com- 
 poser and author, was born in 1730, at 
 Exeter, and received the rudiments of a 
 classical education, with a view to his fol- 
 lowing one of the liberal professions. His 
 taste for music displayed itself, however, 
 so decidedly while he was j-et a youth, that 
 his friends were induced to place him under 
 Travers, the organist of the cathedral be- 
 longing to his native city. Having passed 
 two years in the metropolis, he returned to 
 Exeter in 1750, and, succeeding eventually 
 to the situation of organist, there passed 
 the remainder of his life. He published 
 several books of songs, canzonets, hymns, 
 and sonatas of his composition, which are 
 still held in esteem for their chasteness 
 of conception and truth of expression : he 
 was also the author of a treatise " On the 
 present State of Music," " The Four 
 Ages," &c. Mr. Jackson was likewise a 
 landscape painter of no mean powers. Died, 
 1804. 
 
 JACKSON, William, a Protestant cler- 
 gyman, by birth an Irishman, who earned 
 a disgraceful notoriety by carrying on a 
 treasonable correspondence with the French 
 in 1704, and recommended the invasion of 
 Ireland. Being convicted of this offence, 
 and while his counsel were about to move 
 for an arrest of judgment, he expired in 
 court, and on examination it appeared he 
 had taken poison. 
 
 JACOB, Ben Hajim, a rabbi of the IGth 
 century, who published the Masora at 
 Venice, in 1.525, in 4 vols, folio, with the text 
 of the Bible, the Chaldee Paraphrase, and the 
 Rabbinical Commentaries. This work is 
 greatly esteemed by the Jews. 
 
 JACOB, Ben Naphthali, a learned Jew, 
 of the 5th century. The invention of the 
 Masoretic points and accents is inscribed to 
 him and Ben Aser. 
 
 JACOB, Giles, an industrious English 
 lawyer, who published, among a great variety 
 of works, a " Law Dictionary " and the 
 "Lives and Characters of English Poets." 
 He died in 1744, aged 54. 
 
 JACOB, Henry, pastor of the first con- 
 gregation of Independents in England, was 
 a native of Kent. After graduating at Ox- 
 ford, he was preferred to the benefice of 
 Cheriton, near Hythe ; but having published 
 a polemical tract, in which he avowed lus 
 sepai ation from the church on conscientious 
 grounds, he found it necessary to withdraw 
 from England for a time. He at length. 
 
JAC] 
 
 ^ ^eta Winibcvinl 2>t0(irap|)p. 
 
 [JAH 
 
 however, returned, and established a separate 
 congregation on independent principles ; but 
 in l(i24 he went to America, and there died. 
 — His aon, of the same name, studied under 
 Erpcnlus at Leyden, and was distinguished 
 for his knowledge in oriental literature. He 
 afterwards obtained a fellowship at Merton 
 College, Oxford, and graduated both in arts 
 and plj:j'sic ; but he was ejected from his 
 fellowship by the parliamentary commis- 
 siouers, and died at Canterbury, in 1652. 
 He wrote many learned works. 
 
 JACOB, John (noticed here as an instance 
 of longevity), was a native of Franche Comti?, 
 Who, having attained the age of 120, waa 
 I sold hj" his grand-daughter to a mountebank 
 i for 100 crowns. Dragged from town to town, 
 and exhibited as a public show, the old man 
 sunk under the fatigue, and sliortly after 
 died, 17!K). 
 
 JACOUI, Jonrt GsonoE, a German poet, 
 was born in 1740, at Dusseldorf t studied at 
 Gottingen ; Was professor of philosophy and 
 eloqtience at Halle \ atnl, Bubsequently, of 
 the belles lettres at Frlburg, Mliich he re- 
 tained during hi* life. The style of Jacobi 
 was formed on that of the ligliter French 
 poetfl, and possesses much case and gaiety. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 JACOBS, FitEDEnic, a celebrated philolo- 
 gical writer, was born at Gothar, in Saxony, 
 in l'G4. In 178o lie became a tcaclier in the 
 gymnasium of his native city, where he 
 published a number of excellent works, of 
 which, independent of those of a critical or 
 philological character, may be noticed liis 
 " School for Women," 7 vols., and " Tales," 
 5 vols. Died, 1847. 
 
 JACOBS, Jt-KiEjr, was a native of Swit- 
 zerland, born in 1610. He studied under 
 Snydets, and is celebrated for the fidelity 
 and «pirit with whicli he painted the animals 
 in his hunting pieces. 
 
 JACOBS, liUCAS, commonly called Lucas 
 VAX Leydex, was born at Leyden, in 1494. 
 He studied under his father, Hugh Jacobs, 
 and next under Cornelius Engelbrecht. 
 Many of his pictures in oil and distemper 
 are to be found on tlie Continent ; but he is 
 now best known by his engravings. Died, 
 1533. 
 
 JACOPONE, Da Todi, so called on ac- 
 count of his birthplace, was an Italian poet, 
 whose real name was Jacopo de Benedetti. 
 On being left a widower he distributed his 
 property among the poor, and entered into 
 the orcler of Minorites as a servitor. He 
 composed Sacred Canticles, Latin poems, 
 and the famous " Stabat Mater," since so 
 celebrated by the compositions of Ilaydn, 
 Pergoiesi, &c. Died, 130(5. 
 
 JACOTOT, Jean Joseph, originally a 
 captain of artillery in Napoleon's army, and 
 subsequently sub -director of the Polytechnic 
 School, was deprived of his office at the re- 
 storation for having been a member of the 
 chamber during the "hundred days." Re- 
 tiring to Belgium, he there conceived and 
 put into partial practice a new system of 
 education, on the principle that all intelli- 
 gences are equal, the only difference between 
 man and man being the result of circum- 
 stances more than of nature. He has left 
 several works upon the subject, interesting 
 
 449 
 
 for ingenuitj', if not for correctness. Born, 
 1770 ; died, 1840. 
 
 J ACQUARD, Joseph MARiK,the inventor 
 of the beautiful apparatus for figured weav- 
 ing which bears his name, was born at 
 Lyons, 1752. At an earlv age he displayed 
 a taste for mechanics, whicli distinguished 
 him through life ; and whether in book- 
 binding, type founding, or cutlery— all of 
 which lie tried in his youth — he showed a 
 strong aptitude for improvement. On his 
 father's death, he attempted to carry on the 
 weaving business, which he inherited from 
 him, but with little success ; and soon after- 
 wards, during the troubles of the French 
 revolution, he lost his little all, having been 
 comijelled to flee from Lyons after its re- 
 duction b}' the army of the Convention. 
 He then joined the army of the Rhine ; but 
 having seen his son fall in battle by his side, he 
 once more returned to Lyons, where he was 
 obliged to earn a precarious sustenance in 
 the humble occupation of plaiting straw. 
 But a new era was now in store for him. 
 In 1801 he submitted to the "National Ex- 
 position " his celebrated machine, which 
 forms a memorable epoch in the textile art ; 
 and its merits being at once acknowledged 
 and rcMarded, he was soon afterwards em- 
 jdoyed by Napoleon in the " Conservatoire 
 des Arts et dcs Metiers," at Paris, where he 
 introduced some ingenious improvements in 
 tlie models and machinery there in use. On 
 his return to Lyons, he had to struggle 
 against much opposition and prejudice on 
 the part of the weavers ; but he outlived it 
 all, and long before his death he had the 
 satisfaction of seeing his machinery intro- 
 duced into every European and xVmerican 
 manufactory ; and so far from diminishing 
 employment, as some feared on its first in- 
 troduction, it has increased the number of 
 workmen in the operations to which it is 
 applied tenfold. Died, 1834. 
 
 JACQUELOT, Isaac, a learned French 
 Protestant, was the son of a minister at 
 Vassy. lie wrote " Dissertations on the 
 Existence of God," and " On the Messiah," 
 a " Treatise on the Inspiration of the Scrip- 
 tures," &c. Born, 1647 ; died, 1708. 
 
 JACQUIN, Nicholas Joseph, a cele- 
 brated botanist, was born, in 1727, at Ley- 
 den, and studied medicine at Antwerp and 
 Louvain. Being induced by his country- 
 man, Van Swieten, to visit Vienna, the 
 emperor Francis I. sent him to the West 
 Indies to collect plants for the botanical 
 gardens of Vienna and Schoenbrunn ; and 
 after an absence of six years, he returned 
 with a superb collection. Two years after 
 appeared his catalogue of plants growing 
 in the neighbourhood of Vienna ; and in 
 1773 a magnificent work, entitled " Florae 
 Austriacoe," with .OOO coloured engravings. 
 He was appointed to various offices, created 
 a baron in 1806, and died in 1817. 
 
 J AGO, Richard, one of the minor Eng- 
 lish poets in the last century, was born at 
 Beaudesert, in Warwickshire, in 1715, and 
 in 1771 presented to tlie rectory of Kimcote, 
 in liCiccstershii-e. His principal poem is 
 entitled " E<lge Hill." Died, 1781. 
 
 JAirf^, JoHX, a learned orientalist, who 
 after having been professor of biblical ar- 
 
 Q Q 3 
 
Jaij 
 
 ^ l^ciD Hui&risfal 3Siosra)jl^2). 
 
 [jam 
 
 chjBology and theology in the university 
 of Vienna, obtained the chair of oriental 
 literature, which, in 1806, he was obliged 
 to relinquish on account of his heterodoxy. 
 He published a " Hebrew Bible," 4 vols. ; 
 "Biblical Archaeology," 3 vols.; "Enchi- 
 ridion Hermeneuticaj generalis Tabularum 
 veteris et novi Foederis," &c. ; and his works 
 on the pliilology of the sacred writings are 
 said to be the most valuable extaut. Died, 
 1817. 
 
 JAILLOT, Alexis Hubert, geographer 
 to the king of France, was at first a sculp- 
 tor, but on marrying the daughter of a 
 map-colourer, he turned his attention to 
 geography. He engraved many of the maps 
 of the Sansons, and died ill 1780. His 
 work, entitled " Recherches critiques, his- 
 toriques, et topographiques siir la Ville de 
 Paris," 5 vols. 8vo., is a curious book. 
 
 JAMBLICHUS, a philosopher who flou- 
 rished at the beginning of the 4th century, 
 and was a native of Chaluis in Coclo- 
 syria. He was the disciple of Anatolius 
 and Porphyry, from whom he learnt the 
 mysteries of the Plotinian system of philo- 
 sophy, which he taught with great reputa- 
 tion. Among the philosopliical works of 
 Jamblichus now extant are, "The I^ifc of 
 Pythagoras," " An Exhortation to the Study 
 of Pliilosophy," and a " Treatise on the 
 Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and 
 Assyrians." 
 
 JAMES I., king of Scotland, of the house 
 of Stuart, born in 1394, was the sou of Ko- 
 bert III. In 1405 he was taken by the Eng- 
 lish on his passage to France, and kept in 
 confinement 18 years. In 1424 he obtained 
 his liberty, and severely punished those who 
 had governed his country in his absence ; for 
 which, and some strong measures which he 
 took to curb a lawless nobility, he fell a 
 victim to assassins, who gained admission 
 to his apartment, and murdered Iiim in his 
 bed, in 14:37- 
 
 JAMES v., of Scotland, succeeded, in 1513, 
 at the death of his father, James IV., though 
 only 18 months old. At the age of 17 he 
 assumed the government, and assisted Fran- 
 cis I. of France against Charles V.,for which 
 that prince gave him his daughter Margaret 
 in marriage. On her decease he mairied 
 Mary of Lorraine, daugliter of Claude, duke 
 of Guise. James died in 1545, leaving his 
 crown to Mary Stuart, his infant daughter, 
 then only 8 days old. 
 
 JAMES I. of England, and VI. of Scot- 
 land, was the son of Mary, queen of Scot- 
 land, by Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, and 
 was born in 1566. In the following year, 
 queen Mary being forced to resign the 
 crown, he was solemnly crowned at Stir- 
 ling, and all public acts ran in liis name. 
 When it became apparent tliat the life of 
 his mother was in danger from queen Eliz- 
 abeth, he wrote a menacing letter to her, 
 appealed to other courts for assistance, and 
 assembled his nobles, who promised to pre- 
 vent or revenge that queen's injustice. Tlie 
 dreaded catastrophe, however, took place ; 
 and though he prepared for hostilities, the 
 inadequacy of his resources prevented him 
 from engaging in actual war. In 1603, on 
 the death of Elizabeth, James succeeded to 
 
 the crown of England, and proceeded to 
 London. Although James had behaved 
 with great lenity to the Roman Catholics in 
 Scotland, those in England were so disap- 
 pointed in their expectations of favour, that, 
 in the year after his accession, it was devised 
 by some of their most desperate adherents, 
 to destroy the king, the prince, and parlia- 
 ment, by means of the celebrated gunpowder 
 plot. In 1606 he established episcopacy in 
 Scotland, and made peace with Spain. In 
 1612 his son. Prince Henry, by Anne of 
 Denmark, died, and the same year his 
 daugliter was married to Frederic, the elec- 
 tor palatine. One of the greatest blots of 
 his reign was the execution of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. The close of the life of James was 
 marked by violent contests with his parlia- 
 ment, which prepared dreadful consequences 
 for his successor ; and his reign, although 
 not unprosperous to his subjects, was in- 
 glorious in cliaracter. He received during 
 his lifetime a deal of adulation for his 
 literary abilities ; but though he was the 
 author of some few books, they display more 
 pedantry than learning. lie died in 1625, 
 aged 58. 
 
 JAMES II., king of England, second son 
 of Charles I. and of Henrietta of France, 
 was born in 1633, and immediately declared 
 Duke of York. After the capture of Oxford 
 by the parliamentary army, he escaped, and 
 was conducted to his sister, the Princess of 
 Orange. At that time he was 15 years of 
 age. He soon after joined his mother at 
 Paris, and, when he had readied his 20th 
 year, served in the French army under 
 Turenne, and subsequently entered the 
 Spanish array in Flanders, under Don John 
 of Austria and the Prince of Cond^. At the 
 Restoration he returned to England, and 
 married secretly Anne Hyde, daughter of 
 the Earl of Clarendon, by whom he had two 
 daughters, who afterwards became queens 
 of England, viz. Mary and Anne. In the 
 Dutch war, he signalised himself as com- 
 mander of the English fleet, and showed 
 great skill and bravery. On the death of 
 Charles II., in 1685, the duke succeeded, 
 under the title of James II., and, from the 
 time of his ascending the throne, seems to 
 have acted with a steady determination to 
 render himself absolute, and to restore the 
 Roman Catholic religion. After disgusting 
 the great majority of his subjects, by attend- 
 ing mass with all the ensigns of his dignity, 
 he proceeded to levy the customs and excise 
 without the authority of parliament. He 
 even sent an agent to Rome, to pave the 
 way for a solemn re-admission of England 
 into the bosom of that church, and received 
 advice on the score of moderation from the 
 pope himself. By virtue of his assumed dis- 
 pensing power, he rendered tests of no avail, 
 and filled his army and council with Roman 
 Catholics ; while by a declaration in favour 
 of liberty of conscience, he also sought to 
 gain the favour of the dissenters, who were, 
 however, too conscious of his ultimate object 
 to be deluded by this show of liberality. 
 Thus he proceeded by every direct and in- 
 direct attack to overthrow the established 
 church ; but these innovations, in regard 
 both to the religion and government, gra- 
 
jam] 
 
 ^ ^eto ^am'tjcr^al 28t0QrapIji). 
 
 [jAN 
 
 dually united opposing interests, and a large 
 body of the nobility and gentry concurred 
 in an application to the Prince of Orange, 
 who had been secretly preparing a fleet and 
 an army for the invasion of tlie country. 
 James, who was long kept in ignorance of 
 these transactions, when informed of them 
 by his minister at the Hague, was struck 
 with terror equal to his former infatuation ; 
 and immediately repealing all his obnoxious 
 acts, he practised every method to gain po- 
 pularity. All contidence was, however, de- 
 stroyed between the king and the people. 
 William arrived with his fleet in Torbaj*, 
 Nov. 4th, lt>88 ; and being speedily joined 
 by several men of rank, his ranks swelled, 
 while the army of James began to desert by 
 entire regiments. Incapable of any vigorous 
 resolution, and finding" his overtures of ac- 
 commodation disregarded, James resolved to 
 quit the country. He repaired to St. Ger- 
 mains, where he was received with great 
 kindness and hospitality by Louis XIV. 
 In the mean time, the throne of Great 
 Britain was declared to be abdicated : and 
 William and his consort Mary (the daughter 
 of James) were unanimously called to fill 
 It conjointly. Assisted by Ijouis XIV., 
 James was enabled, in March, UUi'J, to make 
 an attempt for the recovery of Ireland. The 
 battle of Boyne, fought June, IdKO, com- 
 pelled him to return to France. All suc- 
 ceeding projects for his restoration proved 
 equally abortive, and he spent the last years 
 of his life in acts of ascetic devotion, dying 
 at St. Germains, Sept. 10. 1701, aged 08. To 
 sum up the character of James in a few 
 words, we may truly say, that his prejudices 
 were strong, his understanding narrow, and 
 his temper cold and ungenerous. 
 
 JAMES DE VITUI, a cardinal in the 
 13th century, was born at Vitry, near Paris. 
 lie attended the crusades, and was made 
 bishop of Ptolemais ; after which Gregory 
 IX. raised him to the purple, and employed 
 him as legate. He wrote an " Eastern and 
 Western History," and died in 1244. 
 
 JAMES, John Thomas, D.D., bishop of 
 Calcutta, born in 1786 ; was educated at 
 Rugby School, and the Charterhouse ; and, in 
 1804, entered at Christchurch College, Oxford, 
 where he took his degrees, and for a time 
 acted as a college tutor. In 1813 he left the 
 university to make the tour of the north of 
 Europe wit'h Sir James Riddell, and on his 
 return published an account of his travels, 
 with illustrative sketches of scenerj', en- 
 graved and coloured by himself. In 1816 he 
 visited Italy, to study the works of art in 
 that country ; and the result of his observa- 
 tions appeared in an account of the Italian 
 school of paiuting, whicli was followed by 
 another on the 1 rencli, Dutch, and German 
 schools. Soon after his return from Italy 
 he entered into holy orders ; and in 182<i he 
 published a tract, entitled " The Semi- 
 Sceptic, or the Common Sense of Religion 
 considered." At this time he only held the 
 small vicarage of Flitton, in Bedfordshire ; 
 but on the death of Bishop Heber he was 
 raised to the see of Calcutta, received the 
 degree of D.D., and embarked for India in 
 1827. The insalubrity of the climate, and 
 the fatigues of lus episcopal duties, however, 
 
 proved too much for his constitution, and he 
 died in 1821). 
 
 JAMES, Robert, an English physician, 
 was born at Kinverstone, in Stallord^hire, 
 in 1703. In 1743 he published his " Medical 
 Dictionary," in 3 vols, folio, in which he 
 was assisted by Dr. Johnson, who was his 
 early friend. He also wrote the "Practice 
 of Physic," 2 vols. ; an excellent " Com- 
 mentary on the Pentateuch," &c. ; but he 
 is best known by a valuable antimouial pre- 
 paration, universally celebrated under the 
 name of James's powder. Died, 1776. 
 
 JAMES, Thomas, a learned divine, was 
 born at St. Neot's in Huntingdonshire, and 
 educated at Eton. In 1770 he became master 
 of Rugby School, but resigned in 1793. For 
 his great s-ervices he was preferred to a pre- 
 bend in Worcester cathedral, and the living 
 of Harrington in the same county. Died, 
 1804. 
 
 JAMES, Thomas, an English navigator, 
 in the 17th century, who, in 1031 and 1632, 
 attempted to discover a north-west passage. 
 He wintered on Charleton Island, in Hud- 
 son's Bay, and next summer proceeded on 
 his voyage, but was unable to penetrate 
 farther titan 05 degrees and a half north. 
 He made some discoveries on the coast of 
 Hudson's Bay ; to the country on the western 
 side of which he gave the name of New South 
 Wales. On his return to England he pub- 
 lished an account of his expedition, entitled 
 '• The strange and dangerous Voya^'c of 
 Cai>tain Thomas James, for the Discovery of 
 a North-west Passage to the South Sea." 
 
 JAMES, William, tlie author of a valu- 
 able national work, entitled "The Naval 
 History of Great Britain, from the Declara- 
 tion of War by France, in 1793, to the Acces- 
 sion of George IV.," &c. Every accessible 
 source of authentic information was made 
 use of by Mr. James in writing this history ; 
 and Ixis industry and research deserve the 
 liighest praise. Died, 1827. 
 
 JAMES, William, a land agent and sur- 
 veyor, was a native of Henley-in-Arden, 
 Warwickshire. He was the original pro- 
 jector of the Manchester and Liverpool rail- 
 way ; and may in some respects be regarded 
 as the father of the railway system, having 
 surveyed numerous lines at his own expense, 
 and been an active promoter of these under- 
 takings, at a time when they were considered 
 to be mere sjjeculative innovalions. Died, 
 aged 60, at Bodmin, Cornwall, March 11. 
 1837. 
 
 JAMESON, Geoi'.oe, an eminent painter, 
 justly termed the Vandyke of Scotland, was 
 born at Aberdeen in 1586, and died in 1044. 
 
 JAMIESON, Rev. John, D. D., a theo- 
 logical writer and philologist, was tJie mi- 
 nister to a congregration of seceders from 
 the Scotch Church at Edinburgh. His chief 
 works are, an " Etymological Dictionary of 
 the Scottish Language," 2 vols. 4to. ; " A 
 Vindication of the Doctrine of Scripture," 
 2 vols. 8vo. J " The Use of Sacred History," 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; " An Historical Account of the 
 Ancient Culdees of lona," two poems ; " The 
 Sorrows of Slavery," and "Eternity;" be- 
 sides various sermons, &c. lie died, aged 
 80, July, 1838. 
 
 JANE WAY, James, a Nonconformist di- 
 
 451 
 
jan] 
 
 ^ 0£io Wini^tr^:il ^StasrajiTji?. 
 
 [jATJ 
 
 vine, was born in Hertfordshire, and edu- 
 cated at CJiristehurch College, Oxford. 
 j Being deprived after the Kestoration, he 
 I opened a meeting-liouse at Kotherhithe, 
 i when the net of indulgence was passed, and 
 i'died there in 1G74. Among his works arc, 
 I " Heaven upon Earth," " A Token for 
 1 Children," which has gone through nunie- 
 I rous editions ; " The Saint's Encouragement 
 j to Diligence," and " A Legacy to my 
 ' Friends." 
 
 j JANICON, Fran-CIS Michakl, a French 
 j Protestant writer, was born at Paris, in 1(574, 
 I and died at the Hague in 1730. His articles 
 j in the Dutch gazettes discovered him to 
 j possess great political knowledge. He was 
 i also the author of " The present State of the 
 j Republic of tlie United Provinces and their 
 ! Dependencies," 2 vols. 
 
 JANSEN, or JANSENIUS, ConxELiUs, 
 
 D. D., bishop of Ypres, and professor of 
 
 divinity in the universities of Louvain and 
 
 Douay, was one of the most learned divines 
 
 of the 17th century, and founder of the sect 
 
 of Jansenists. He was born in 1585, at Akay, 
 
 near Leerdam, in Holland; and studied at 
 
 Louvain. Being sent into Spain to transact 
 
 some business of consequence relating to the 
 
 university, the Catholic king, viewing with 
 
 J a jealous eye the intriguing policy of France, 
 
 engaged with him to write a book against 
 
 the French, for having formed an alliance 
 
 I with Protestant states ; and rewarded him 
 
 ; for it with the see of Ypres, in lo35. He had, 
 
 I among other writings before this, maintained 
 
 j a controversy against the Protestants upon 
 
 ; the subject of grace and predestination ; but 
 
 i his " Augustinus," respecting which a furious 
 
 ' and almost interminable contest arose, was 
 
 I the principal labour of his life. Died, 1C38. 
 
 I JANSENIUS, CoENELius, bishop of 
 
 i Ghent, was born at Hiilst, in Flanders, in 
 
 I 1510. He distinguished himself at the 
 
 council of Trent by his learning and mo- 
 
 I desty. He wrote a " Harmony of the Gos- 
 
 ' pels," and other works ; and died at Ghent, 
 
 in 157fi. 
 I JANSSENS, Adraiiam, an historical 
 j painter, was born at Antwerp, in 1569. He 
 i was contemporary with Rubens, and, in 
 ; many of the finest parts of the art, was ac- 
 I counted not inferior to him. 
 I JANSSENS, CoKSELius, called also John- 
 ' SON, an eminent portrait painter, M-as born 
 at Amsterdam. He resided in England se- 
 1 veral years, and was engaged in the service 
 I of king James I. His paintings are easily 
 I distinguished by their smooth, clear, and 
 ' delicate tints, and by a strong character of 
 j truth and nature. His fame began to be 
 j obscured on the arrival of Vandyke in Eng- 
 I land ; and the civil war breaking out some 
 1 time after, he returned to his own countrv, 
 i where his paintings were in the highest es- 
 i teem. Died, 1C85. 
 
 JANSSENS, Victor Hostorius, a cele- 
 
 I brated historical painter, was born at Brus- 
 
 i eels, in 1064. He associated with Tempesta, 
 
 the celebrated landscape painter, for several 
 
 j years, and painted the figures in the works 
 
 of that great master as long as they resided 
 
 I together. For small historical pictures, he 
 
 j was preferable to all the painters of his time. 
 
 JARCHI, Sox-OMON Ben Isaac, a learned 
 
 rabbi, born at Troyes, in 1104 1 travelled 
 over a considerable portion of Europe and 
 Asia ; and, on his return to France, wrote 
 Annotations on various parts of the Bible, 
 and also on the Talmud, which were thought 
 so highly of, that he was universally called 
 " tlie prince of commentators." Died, 1180. 
 
 JARDINE, Geouoe, professor of logic 
 in the university of Glasgow, was born in 
 1743. Having pursued his studies with great 
 successj lie was, in 1774, appointed to the 
 professorial chair ; and such were the im- 
 provements he introduced into the mode of 
 public teaching, that his class was rendered 
 a model of academical instruction. Died, 
 1827. 
 
 JARDINS, Mary Catiikrine des, an 
 ingenious but profligate Frenchwoman, born 
 at AleuQon, in Normandy, in 1C40. Being 
 obliged to quit her native place, in conse- 
 quence of an intrigue, she went to Paris, 
 where for a while she trusted to her lite^ 
 rary talents for support, and wrote many 
 novels and dramas j her private character, 
 at the same time, coutiuuiug most excep- 
 tionable. Died, 1683. 
 
 JARDYN, Karel tiu, a celebrated pain- 
 ter of landscapes and animals, was born at 
 Amsterdam, in 1C40. He studied in Italy, 
 where he acquired great reputation, and 
 died at Venice in 1G78. 
 
 JARNOWICK, or GIORNOVICHI, Oio- 
 vanna Maxe, a celebrated violinist, waa 
 born at Palermo in 1745, and was the most 
 accomplished pupil of Lulli. For several 
 years he resided in Paris, and was considered 
 at the head of his profession ; he afterwards- 
 came to England, where he was very popu- 
 lar ; but on being invited to settle at Peters- 
 burg, he went thither, where he died in 1804, 
 He was as eccentric and irritable as he was 
 clever, and numerous singular anecdotes are 
 recorded of him. 
 
 JARS, Francis de Rociiechouart, Che- 
 valier de, a French officer, whose boldness 
 and fortitude deserve to be recorded, was a 
 knight of Malta, and commander of Lagny 
 le Sec. He was arrested and confined in 
 the Bastile, at the time of the prosecution 
 of Chateauneuf, keeper of the seals, in 1633, 
 for the object of procuring evidence from 
 him relative to the designs of Chateauneuf 
 and others ; and after eleven months' close 
 confinement, during which he was examined 
 24 times, without inculpating his friends, he 
 was sent to Troyes, and there tried and con- 
 demned. He mounted the scafibld, but a 
 reprieve was announced while his head lay 
 on the block ; upon which he was conveyed 
 back to prison, where he continued for some 
 time in a state of insensibility. 
 
 JAIiVIS, John, an artist, distinguished 
 by his paintings on glass, was born in 
 Dublin, in 1749 ; and after practising his 
 art in that city, removed to London, where 
 he obtained great reputation. His most 
 celebrated performance is the west window 
 tf New College, Oxford, from the design of 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Died, 1804. 
 
 JAUCOURT, the Chevalier Louis tie, 
 member of tlie Royal Society of Londim, and 
 of tiie academies of Berlin and Stockholm, 
 was born in 1704. He devoted himself en- 
 tirely to literary pursuits, and died at 
 
 i 
 
jay] 
 
 ^ ^t&j ?ffuitjcr^al 3Siosr«P?)l'. 
 
 [JEF 
 
 Compeigne in 1780. He furnished the En- 
 cyclopedie Fraii^oise witli many valuable 
 articles, and conducted the "liibliotlu'que 
 Raisonni'e." He also assisted in publishing 
 the " Musaeum Sebaeanum," 4 vols, folio, 
 and composed a " Lexicon Medicum Uni- 
 versale," the MS. of which, in 6 vols, fol., 
 was lost on board of a ship which fo«ndered 
 on her passage to Amsterdam. 
 
 JAY, John, an eminent American jurist 
 and statesman, was born at Mew York in 
 1745. After studying at Columbia (then 
 King's) College, he was admitted to the bar, 
 and in 1774 waa chosen a delegate to the first 
 American congress, at Philadelphia. In 
 177(5 he was chosen president of the congress; 
 in 1777 lie was a member of the convention 
 which framed the constitution of New York ; 
 and in the following year he was appointed 
 chief-justice of that state. He was next sent 
 as minister plenipotentiary to Spain ; and 
 in 17H'2 he was appointed one ot the com- 
 missioners to negotiate a peace with Great 
 Britain. The detluitive treaty having been 
 signed in September, ITtKJ, he returned to 
 the United States ; and in 1784 he was sent 
 as envoy extraordinary to Great Britain, 
 and concluded the treaty which has been 
 called after his name. In 1795 he was 
 elected governor of his native state : this 
 post he continued to occupy till 1801, when 
 he declined a re-election, as well as a re- 
 appointment to the office of chief-justice of 
 the United States, and passed the remainder 
 of his days in retirement. Died, 181^9. 
 
 JAUKEGUI Y AGUILAli, JoHK, a 
 Spanish poet of considerable genius, and 
 who also excelled in painting. He was born 
 at Toledo, in 156(5, and died in ICK). 
 
 JEAURAT, Sebastian, a French mathe- 
 matician, was born at Paris in 1704, and 
 died in 1803. He founded the observatory 
 at the military school, and wrote a " Trea- 
 tise on Perspective," "New Tables of Ju- 
 piter," &c. 
 
 JEBB, John, a divine and physician, was 
 the son of Dr. John Jebb, dean of Casliel, 
 and born in London in 173(5. He studied 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, and Peter House, 
 Cambridge ; obtained church preferment, 
 which, however, he resigned, and then com- 
 menced practice as a physician, in which he 
 was very successful. He was a violent par- 
 tisan in whatever he engaged ; and, though 
 conscientious in his religious opinions, their 
 peculiar complexion, and the freedom with 
 which he indulged in the political squabbles 
 of the day, obstructed his professional pro- 
 gress. He was a fellow of the Koyal So- 
 ciety, and a contributor to the Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions ; and his works, theologi- 
 cal, political, and medical, form 3 vols. Died, 
 178(5. 
 
 JEBB, Dr. Samuei,, an eminent physician 
 and classical scholar, was a native of Not- 
 tingham. He studied at Cambridge ; and, 
 adopting the principles of the nonjurors, 
 became librarian to the famous Jeremy 
 Colliei. While at the university he pub- 
 lished the " Dialogue of Justin Martyr with 
 Trypho the Jew," in Greek and Latin. He 
 afterwards married the daughter of an 
 apothecary, procured the degree of M. D., 
 practised as a physician at Stratford in 
 
 453 
 
 Essex, and retired to Derbyshire, where he 
 died in 1772. Dr. S. Jebb was the conduc- 
 tor of a classical jourual, entitled "Biblio- 
 theca Literaria," and tlie editor of Roger i 
 Bacon's " Opus Majus." 
 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, third president \ 
 of the United States, was born iu 1743, at j 
 Shadwell, iu Virginia, and was brought up 
 to the bar. In 17(59 he was elected a mem- 
 ber of the provincial legislature, and in 1775 | 
 he entered congress, and took a conspicuous 
 and very decided part in opposition to the | 
 measures which England hud adopted to- 
 wards her American colonies ; and it was ' 
 he who drew up the famous declaration of 
 independence. In 177(5 he retired from his 
 seat in congress, and was next chosen gover- i 
 nor of Virginia, which post he held two 
 years. On the return of Dr. Franklin to 
 America, in 1785, Mr. Jett'erson was named 
 his successor at Paris, from which he pro- 
 ceeded, as envoy, to London, in 1780. At 
 the usual presentation, however, to the 
 king and queen, both Mr. Adams and him- : 
 self were received in the most ungrainnus 
 manner, and, after a few vague and ineffec- 
 tual conferences, he returned to Paris. Here 
 he remained, with the exception of a visit 
 to Holland, to Piedmont, and the south of 
 France, uulil the autumn of 178!), zealously | 
 pursuing whatever was benetlciul to his i 
 country. He subsequently filled the office 
 of secretary of state under Washington, 
 until 1793, when he resigned, and lived in 
 retirement for four years. He was then 
 elected vice-president, and in 1801 chosen 
 president. At the expiration of eight years 
 he again retired to private life ; and on the 
 4th of July, 182(5 (the 50th anniversary of 
 American independence), he died. He was 
 the acknowledged head of the republican 
 party, and an acute politician ; eloquent 
 and persuasive in conversation, and possess- 
 ing tlie faculty of acquii ing an ascendancy 
 in his political connections. 
 
 JEFFREY, Francis, Lord, equally emi- 
 nent on the bench, at the bar, and in tlie 
 world of letters, was born at Edinburgh, in 
 1773. Having passed through the usual 
 curriculum of the High School, Edinburgh, 
 he repaired in 1787 to Glasgow University, 
 then famous for its professors ; and after a 
 session passed at Oxford he returned to 
 Edinburgh in 1792, where he completed 
 his legal studies. In 1794 he was called 
 to the bar in Scotland, and though for some 
 years he made little progress in his profes- 
 sion, yet he had well grounded himself in 
 the principles of both the civil and the 
 Scottish law, and had diligently applied 
 himself to the cultivation of eloquence, as 
 well in speech as in written composition. 
 In ihe celebrated scliool of debate, whence 
 many orators have proceeded — the Specu- 
 lative Society of Edinburgh — he bore a 
 most distinguished part ; and there are those 
 still living who can never forget his singular 
 readiness in debate, the subtlety of his 
 reasoning, and the extraordinary liveli- 
 ness of his fancy. He had now obtained 
 a fair share of practice, when he joined I 
 a few lof his more intimate friends in esta- I 
 blishing the " Edinburgh Review," of which I 
 he was sole editor for the long period of 1 
 
jef] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Winihtx^Kl 3t3iaflrnjplj». 
 
 [JEK 
 
 27 years. The first number appeared O.'t. 
 25. 1802, and there were three editions ex- 
 hausted in as many weeks. The great and 
 increasing success of this journal, while it 
 mightily raised him in the public estimation, 
 in no way interfered with his progress towards 
 extensive practice at the bar; for the moderate 
 amount of business in Scotland, and the relief 
 from attendance on circuit, render it far easier 
 for a Scotch advocate than an English barris- 
 ter to cultivate literary pursuits. Having 
 for many years been indisputably at the head 
 of his profession, he was in 1829 chosen dean 
 of the Faculty, upon Lord Moncrieff being 
 raised to the bench. It was deemed advisable 
 that he should, on this auspicious occasion, 
 give up the editorship of the Review, and we 
 believe that he only upon one or two sub- 
 sequent occasions contributed any papers to 
 this famous journal. On the formation of 
 the Whig ministry late in 1830, he was made 
 lord advocate ; and after sitting a short 
 time for the Perth district of burghs and 
 for Malton, he was in conjunction with 
 Atr. Abercrombie, now Lord Dunfermline, 
 the first member chosen to represent Edin- 
 burgh in parliament, immediately after the 
 passing of the Reform Bill. His success in 
 the House of Commons disappointed his 
 admirers, chiefly because he entered so late 
 in life on a new field, and partly because 
 he spoke generally above his audience. But 
 he never addressed the house without dis- 
 playing that subtlety, readiness, and fancy 
 for which he was distinguished. In 1834 lie 
 was promoted to the bench ; and in this ca- 
 pacity he displayed such eminent qualities, 
 that he is by common consent allowed to 
 rank among the very ablest judges that ever 
 sat on the Scottish bench. In society his' 
 powers were great, his social intercourse truly 
 fascinating ; and his occasional jeux (T esprit 
 cannot be easily forgotten by any who may 
 have heard them. His integrity, both pro- 
 fessional and political, was imimpeachable ; 
 his spirit was high and undaunted, his sense 
 of honour quick and del icate, his temper most 
 kindly and sweet, and his affections warm 
 and steady. In short, it would be difficult to 
 name any great man, whetlier in tlie world 
 of law or of letters, whose personal good 
 qualities were so entirely without an ex- 
 ception ; and hence his removal from this 
 earthly scene was mourned widely and 
 deeply with no common sorrow. Some years 
 before his death he published a selection from 
 his contributions to the Edinburgh Review, 
 accompanied by a graceful preface and ex- 
 planatory notes. Died, 1850. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, Baron Wem, Lord, 
 commonly known by the name of Judge 
 Jeffreys, was born at Acton, in Denbigh- 
 shire, towards the beginning of the 17th 
 century, and educated at Shrewsburj' School. 
 He studied at Westminster and the Inner 
 Temple, and rose through the gradations 
 of recorder of London, a Welsh judge, and 
 chief justice of Chester, till at length, in 
 1683, he attained the dignity of chief justice 
 of the king's bench. On the accession of 
 James II., he was one of the advisers and 
 promoters of all the oppressive and arbitrary 
 measures of his reign ; and, for his sanguin- 
 ary and inhuman proceedings against the 
 
 454 
 
 adherents of Monmouth, was rewarded with 
 the post of lord high chancellor in 1685. 
 His conduct on the bench was, in the highest 
 degree, discreditable at all times, and he 
 indulged in scurrility and abuse of the most 
 degrading description. On the arrival of 
 the Prince of Orange, he disguised himself 
 as a seaman, in order to get on board a ship 
 unknown, but was detected in a low public 
 house at Wapping, by an attorney whom 
 he had insulted in open court. The latter 
 making him known, he was seized by the 
 populace, carried befoie tlie coimcil, and 
 committed to the Tower, where he died, 
 April 18. 1689. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, an English poet, 
 was born at Weldon, Northamptonshire, in 
 1078. He was a nephew of the eighth Lord 
 Chandos, and bred to the bar. He wrote 
 " Miscellanies, in Prose and Verse," and 
 two tragedies, " Edwiu " and " Merope." 
 Died, 1755. 
 
 JEFFRIES, Jonx, M.D., an American 
 physician, was born at Boston in 1774. 
 Having studied medicine at the imiversity 
 of Cambridge, he went to London, and on 
 his return to Boston practised with great 
 success, until the evacuation of that city 
 by the British garrison. He then accom- 
 panied General Howe to Halifax, and was 
 made surgeon-general to the forces in 1776. 
 He subsequently resigned his army appoint- 
 ments, declining even the offer of the lucra- 
 tive post of surgeon-general to the forces 
 in India, and in 1780 settled in London. 
 He there occupied himself much in scien- 
 tific research ; and in order to ascertain the 
 correctness of certain preconceived hypo- 
 theses relative to atmospheric temperature, 
 he undertook two aerial voyages ; the second 
 of which was made Jan. 7. 1785, from the 
 cliffs at Dover, across tlie British Channel, 
 into the forest of Guinnes in France, and 
 was the only successful attempt that had 
 then been made to cross the sea in a balloon. 
 In 1789 he again returned to Boston, and 
 continued to practise there, with success, 
 till his death in 1819. 
 
 JEHAN GHIR, or JEHAN GUIRE, Abul 
 
 MUZAFFER NOUIiEDDIN MolIAMMED, Cm- 
 
 peror of Hindostan, and son of the famous 
 Akbar. whom he succeeded on the throne of 
 Delhi in 1605. Unlike most eastern despots, 
 he was generous, affable, and easy of access 
 to his subjects, and a patron of literature 
 and arts. He wrote memoirs of the first 17 
 years of his reign, and added to the historical 
 commentaries of Sultan Baber. Nourjehan, 
 his wife, celebrated equally for her beauty 
 and wit, has been the fertile theme of ori- 
 ental poems and romances. 
 
 JEKYLIj, Sir Joseph, a lawyer and 
 statesman in the reigns of Anne and George 
 I., was the son of a clergyman in Notting- 
 hamshire. He was a member of parlia- 
 ment, and one of the managers of the trial of 
 Sacheverel ; was knighted by George I., who 
 raised him to the office of master of the rolls ; 
 and died, aged 74, in 1738. 
 
 JEKYLL, Joseph, an eminent barrister, 
 was the son of a captain in the navy, and a 
 descendant of the preceding. He was called 
 to tlie bar in 1778 ; was returned as M. P. 
 for Calne in 1787, and retained his seat for 
 
Bcveral successive parliaments ; was ap- 
 pointed solicitor-general to the prince of 
 Wales ia 1805 ; and, at the time of his 
 death, was senior king's counsel, senior 
 bencher of the Inner Temple, F.R.S., and 
 F.S. A. lie enjoyed a fair jiortion of forensic 
 fame ; but his reputation was chiefly formed 
 by his ready talent in epigram and repartee, 
 his bon-mots often -convulsing the bar with 
 laughter, and his ever-sparkling wit de- 
 lighting all who came within his convivial 
 sphere. He died, aged S,% March 8. 1837. 
 
 JEMSHID, a Persian sovereign, who 
 reigned about 800 b. c, ond is said to have 
 founded the famous city of Istakhar, culled 
 by the Greeks Persepolis. He is also cele- 
 brated for instructing his subjects in astro- 
 nomy, and the mysteries of Sabcism, or the 
 worship of the heavenly bodies. Being un- 
 fortunate in war, he was dethroned by Zo- 
 hak, an Arabian king, and spent the latter 
 part of his life in obscurity. 
 
 JENKINS, David, a loyal and intrepid 
 judge, was bom at Hensol, in Glamorgan- 
 shire, in 1.58^!. In 1045, when "civil war 
 ran high," he wos taken prisoner at Here- 
 ford, and sent to the Tower ; from whence 
 he was removed to Newgate, impeached of 
 treason, and brought to the bar of the House 
 of Commons, where he refused to kneel, and 
 called the place "a den of thieves." The 
 assembly, in a fit of rage, were about to sen- 
 tence him to be hanged ; upon which he said 
 that he would suffer " with Magna Charta 
 under one arm, and the Bible under the 
 other." A facetious speech from Henry 
 Marten allayed this tempest as regarded his 
 life ; but he was fined lOiMl. for contempt, 
 and recommitted to Newgate, where he re- 
 mained till 16.56. Died, 1667. 
 
 JENKINS, Sir Leoline, a civilian and 
 statesman, born at Llantrissant, in Glamor- 
 ganshire, in 1623. He was educated at Jesus' 
 College, Oxford ; and, on the breaking out of 
 the civil war, took up arms on the side of 
 royalty. He afterwards became tutor to 
 several young gentlemen, and, during the 
 protectorate, quitted the kingdom with them; 
 but at the Restoration he returned to college, 
 was created LL.D., and elected principal. 
 He then removed to Doctor's Commons, was 
 admitted an advocate, and, in 1665, appointed 
 judge of the court of admiralty. In 1672 he 
 was sent as ambassador to Holland to nego- 
 tiate a treaty of peace, though without suc- 
 cess ; but afterwards, in conjunction with 
 Sir William Temple, whom he succeeded as 
 ambassador at the Hague, he effected the 
 treaty of Nimeguen. On his return to Eng- 
 land he was sworn a privy councillor, and 
 made secretary of state ; which office he re- 
 signed in 1084, and died in 1685. His letters 
 and papers were published in 2 vols. fol. 1724. 
 JENNENS, CiiAULES, a literary gentle- 
 man of fortune at Gopsal, in Leicestershire, 
 who, on account of the splendour of his house 
 and equipage, was jocosely styled " Solyman 
 the Magnificent." He selected the words 
 for Handel's oratorios, and particularly those 
 of the Messiah ; he also commenced an 
 edition of Shakspeare's plays, on a new plan, 
 
 y^"t it proved a total failure. Died, 1773. 
 (ENNER, Edward, an English physician, 
 ebrated for having nearly eradicated a 
 
 pestilent disorder from the human race by 
 introducing vaccine inoculation, was bom at 
 Berkeley, Gloucestershire, in 1740, and sub- 
 sequently settled there as a medical practi- 
 tioner. About the year 1776, his attention 
 was turned to the cow-pox, by the circum- 
 stance of his ascertaining that those persons 
 who had been affccted with this disease, 
 were thereby rendered free from variolous 
 infection. From that time till 17tK) he 
 steadily pursued his investigation of this 
 discovery ; and having at length established 
 its general efficacy, amidst all the opposition 
 naturally to be expected in such a cose, the 
 practice of vaccination was introduced into 
 the London hospitals, the army and navy, 
 &c., and, finally, extended to every part of 
 the globe. Honours and rewards were now 
 conferred on Dr. Jenner as a public bene- 
 factor ; a parliamentary grant of 20,000/. was 
 voted him ; learned societies at home and 
 abroad enrolled him as a member ; and when 
 the allied potsntates visited England in 1814, 
 the emperor of Russia sought an interview 
 with him, and offered to bestow on him a 
 Russian order of nobility. Dr. Jenner's 
 writings consist merely of " Observations on 
 the VariolcB Vaccinae," and a pai)er in the 
 Philosophical Transactions " On the Natural 
 History of the Cuckoo." Died, 1823. 
 
 JENNINGS, David, a learned dissenting 
 minister, was born at Kibworth, Leicester- 
 shire, in 1691. He was the author of " An 
 Appeal to Reason and Common Sense for the 
 Truth of the Holy Scriptures," "An Intro- 
 ducticm to the Use of the Globes and Orrery," 
 " Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals," 
 " Jewish Antiquities," 2 vols. 8vo. Died, 1762. 
 JENNINGS, Henry Constantine, an 
 antiquary and virtuoso of most eccentric 
 habits and chequered fortune, was born in 
 1731, and was the only son of a gentleman 
 of considerable property at Shiplake, in Ox- 
 fordshire. He was educated at Westminster 
 School, and at seventeen became an ensign 
 in the foot-guards ; but resigned his com- 
 mission, and travelled on the Continent, 
 where he collected, while in Italy, a number 
 of statues and other antiques, with which he 
 decorated his seat at Shiplake. He now led 
 the life of a man of fashion and fortune, in- 
 dulging in the most expensive follies ; the 
 consequence of which was that he soon be- 
 came an inmate of the King's Bench. He 
 was at length freed from his pecuniary em- 
 barrassments, and settled on an estate he had 
 in Essex, where he gave himself up with en- 
 thusiasm to the collection of scarce books, 
 pictures, and curiosities. But the current of 
 good fortune did not long run smooth. Hav- 
 ing borrowed a sum of money from a person 
 who was indebted to the crown, his museum 
 was hastily sold for a small sum, to satisfy 
 the claim of government under an extent in 
 aid. For many years he was a prisoner in 
 Chelmsford gaol ; but on regaining his 
 freedom, he resumed his former habits, and 
 settled at Chelsea ; where, to use the words 
 of a gentleman who visited him in 1803, and 
 who graphically described his singular ap- 
 pearance, he sat, "enthroned in all the 
 majesty of virtue amidst his books, his pic- 
 tures, and his shells." In consequence of re- 
 newed embarrassments, these precious relics 
 
 453 
 
jen] 
 
 ^ i^ciu ^nttier^al SStogopl^n. 
 
 [jEIi 
 
 were all sold in ISlfl, and he was once more 
 a prisoner in the rules of the Bcneli, wliere 
 he died in 1819. 
 
 JENYNS, SoAME, a sprightly and enter- 
 taining writer, was the only son of Sir Roger 
 Jenyns, born in London, in 1704. Having 
 entered into public life as representative of 
 the county of Cambridge, he began his career 
 by supporting Sir Robert Walpole, and ever 
 after remained a faitliful adlierent to tlje 
 minister for the time being. Tliis attach- 
 ment to ministers was rewarded by his being 
 made a commissioner of tlie board of trade, 
 an office he held for flve-and-twenty years. 
 As a country gentleman and magistrate. Mr. 
 Jenyns appeared to much greater advantage 
 than as a politician ; but it is as an author, a 
 wit, and a shrewd observer of manners, tliat 
 he is principallj' to be regarded. His chief 
 works are " Poems," 2 vols., " Free Enquiry 
 into the Origin of Evil," " A View of the 
 Internal Evidence of the Christian Re- 
 ligion," "Political Tracts," and some others; 
 all collected into four vols, 12mo., with his 
 life prefixed. Died, 1787. 
 
 JEPHSON, RiciiAUD, a dramatic writer, 
 was a native of Ireland, and born in 173(5. 
 He was a captain in the army, and master 
 of the horse to the lord-lieutenant, during 
 twelve administrations. As a dramatist his 
 claims are chiefly founded on his tragedies 
 of "Braganza" and the '"Count of Nar- 
 bonne." He also wrote the " Law of I^om- 
 bardy," "Julia," and "The Conspiracy," 
 tragedies ; and the farce of " Two Strings to 
 your Bow," " Love and War," &c. He was 
 also author of " The Confessions of James 
 Baptiste Conteau, Citizen of France," 2 vols., 
 a severe satire on the " French Revolution," 
 " Roman Portraits," a poem in heroic verse, 
 with historical remarks and illustrations. 
 Died, 1803. 
 
 JEREMIAH, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 in 1572. He introduced the reformed ca- 
 lendar of Gregory XIII., for which, and hiS" 
 correspondence witli the pope, he was ba- 
 nished, but recovered his seat after being 
 two vears in exile. 
 
 JERNINGHAM, Edward, a poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, was descended from an 
 ancient Roman Catholic family, and born in 
 Norfolk, in 1727. He was educated at Douay 
 and Paris ; but on his return to England, he 
 joined in communion with the established 
 cliurch. He was the author of the tragedies 
 of " Margaret of Anjou " and " Tlie Siege of 
 Berwick," with other poems and plays, con- 
 sisting of 4 vols. ; lie also wrote " An Essay 
 on the mild Tenour of Christianity," " The 
 Dignity of Human Nature, an Essay," " The 
 Alexandrian School," &c. Died, 1812. 
 
 JEROME, or HIERONYMUS, St., one of 
 the fathers of the church, was born in 332, at 
 Stridon, on the frontiers of Dacia, and 
 studied at Rome, under Donatus the gram- 
 marian. He was ordained a presbyter at 
 Antioch, in 378 ; and soon after went to 
 Constantinople, where he livejd with Gregory 
 Nazianzen. In 382 he visited Rome, and 
 was made secretary to pope Damasus ; but 
 three years afterwards he returned into the 
 east, accompanied by several monks and 
 female devotees, who wished to lead an 
 ascetic life in the Holy Laud ; and died in 
 
 456 
 
 422, superintendant of a monastery at Beth- 
 lehem. His biblical labours are highly va- 
 luable, and for the age in which he lived, St. 
 Jerome must be accounted a learned man ; 
 but as a theological disputant he was violent 
 and acrimonious in a high degree. 
 
 JEROME OF Prague, so called from being 
 a native of the capital of Bohemia, studied 
 in the universities of Oxford, Paris, Prague, 
 &c. ; was a disciple of Wickliffe, and boldly 
 followed the great reformer, Huss, in pro- 
 pagating his doctrines. He attacked the 
 worship of images and relics with ardour, 
 trampled them under foot, and caused the 
 monks, who opposed him, to be arrested. He 
 publicly burned, in 1411, the bull of the cru- 
 sade against Ladislaus of Naples, and the 
 papal indulgences. When Huss was im- 
 prisoned at Constance, he hastened to his 
 defence ; but on his attempting to return to 
 Prague, the Duke of Sulzbach caused him to 
 be seized, and carried in chains to Constance. 
 He here received, in prison, information of 
 the terrible fate of his friend, and was terrified 
 into a momentary recantation of his prin- 
 ciples ; but he resumed his courage, and, re- 
 tracting his recantation, avowed tliat none of 
 his sins tormented him more than his apos- 
 tasy, while he vindicated the principles of 
 Huss and Wickliffe with a boldness, energy, 
 and eloquence, that extorted the admiration 
 of his adversaries. He was, however, con- 
 demned to be burnt ; which sentence he 
 endured with heroic fortitude. May 30. 1416. 
 
 JERUSALEM, JoHy Fredekic William, 
 a Lutheran divine, was born at Osnaburg, in 
 1709 ; studied at Leipsic and Leyden ; visited 
 England in the pursuit of farther knowledge; 
 and was appointed tutor by the Duke of 
 Brunswick Wolfenbuttel to his son, who 
 was afterwards killed at the battle of Jena. 
 His reputation as a preacher was very great, 
 and his educational improvements gave rise 
 to the famous Collegium CaroUnum, at Bruns- 
 wick. His principal work is entitled " Con- 
 siderations on the most important Truths of 
 Religion ; " but he wrote several others, and 
 was esteemed throughout Germany, not only 
 as a theologian, but for the purity and bene- 
 ficence of his character. Died, 1789. 
 
 JERVAS, Charles, a portrait painter, 
 was born in Ireland, and studied under Sir 
 Godfrey Kneller. By the generosity of a 
 friend he was enabled to visit France and 
 Italy, and at his return became a fashionable 
 artist, was eulogised by Pope, to whom he 
 gave instructions in the art. He also pub- 
 lished a translation of Don Quixote ; to 
 which Dr. Warburton added an appendix on 
 the Origin of Romances and of Chivalry. 
 Died, 1739 
 
 JERVIS, JoH.v, Earl of St. Vincent, a 
 gallant English admiral, son of Swynfen 
 Jervis, esq., auditor of Greenwich Hospital, 
 was born in 1734, and, at the early age of 
 10, entered the navy under Admiral Hawke. 
 In 1755 he served as lieutenant under 
 Sir C. Saunders, in the expedition against 
 Quebec. In 1709 he was sent to the Medi- 
 terranean in the Alarm frigate, and on his 
 return in 1774 was promoted to the Fou- 
 droyant. of 84 guns. In this ship he fought 
 under Admiral Keppel, in the memorable 
 engagement of the 27th of July, 1778, and 
 
JES] 
 
 ^ ^tbi muibcrigaT 2Si0Q;raplbP« 
 
 [JOA 
 
 was the next to the Victory. In 1782 he was 
 with Admiral Harrington's squadron, and in 
 a close engwgement took the Pegasus of 74 
 guns, for which he was higlily praised in tlic 
 public despatches, and rewarded with tlie 
 order of the Bath. At the end of tlie same 
 year, he was with Lord Howe at the relief 
 of Gibraltar. In 17!)4, having accepted the 
 command of a squadron equipped for tlie 
 West Indies, he took tlie islands of Gua- 
 daloupe, Martinique, and St. Lucia. lie 
 was next employed on the Mediterranean 
 station ; and on the 14th of February, 1797, 
 he, with 15 sail of the line, defeated a Spanish 
 force off Cape St. Vincent, consisting of 27 
 ships, the smallest of which carried 74, and 
 seven others from 112 to 1:50 guns each. For 
 tliis service he was elevated to the English 
 peerage, by the titles of baron Jcrvis and 
 earl St. Vincent, from the scene of his glory. 
 To this was added a pension of 3(H)0Z. a-year, 
 and the usual vote of thanks. In 1779 he 
 was created admiral ; in 1801 he succeeded 
 Earl Spencer as first lord of the admiraltj', 
 which post he resigned in 1804 ; in 1814 he 
 was appointed general of marines, and, in 
 1821, admiral of the fleet. Lord St. Vincent 
 possessed a vigorous mind, and was as much 
 distinguished for his stern and unrelaxing 
 attention to naval discipline, as he was emi- 
 nent for naval skill and gallantry. The 
 whole of his long life was passed in the active 
 duties of the profession ; and he died in 182:5, 
 aged 88. A statue to his memory was erected 
 in St. Paul's cathedral, by a vote in the Uouse 
 of Commons. 
 
 JESSEY, IIk.vry, a learned Nonconformist 
 divine, distinguished for his oriental and 
 biblical knowledge, was born at West Row- 
 ton, in Yorkshire. He studied at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge ; held the living of St. 
 George's, Southwark, during Cromwell's pro- 
 tectorate, which he lost at the Restoration ; 
 and after having been imprisoned on account 
 of liis nonconformity, died in 16()3. He wrote 
 several theological works, and had made 
 considerable progress in a new translation of 
 the Bible. 
 
 JEUFFROY, R. V., an eminent gem and 
 medal engraver, was born at Rouen, in 1749. 
 His taste and genius for the art were such, 
 that wliile he was at Rome, as an assistant 
 to Pickler, his employer was in the habit of 
 selling the productions of the young artist as 
 antiques. On his return to Paris, he was 
 made director of the school of gem engraving, 
 at the institution of the deaf and dumb. 
 Died, 182<5. 
 
 JEWELL, John, a learned prelate of tlie 
 Church of England, who was bishop of Salis- 
 bury in the reign of queen Elizabetli, and a 
 great polemical writer against popery. He 
 was born in la22 at the village of Buden, near 
 Ilfracombe, Devonshire ; studied at Oxford ; 
 and in 154t> openly professed the tenets of 
 the reformers. Having obtained the living 
 of Sunningwell, Berks, he distinguished him- 
 self by his zeal and assiduity as a parish 
 priest ; but at the accession of queen Mary, 
 finding they were about to prosecute him as 
 a heretic, he made his escape to the Continent, 
 and became vice-master of a college at Stras- 
 burg. On the death of Mary he returned to 
 England, was received with great favour 
 
 4o7 
 
 by her successor, and in 1.560 he was raised 
 to tlie bishopric of Salisbury. His principal 
 work is entitled " An Apology for the Church 
 of England," originally written in elegant 
 Latin, but translated into every Euroi)ean 
 language ; and which, it is said, had more 
 effect in promoting the Reformation, than 
 any other book ever published. He died in 
 1571. 
 
 JEZZAR,surnamed tJie Butcher.'but whose 
 real name was Ahmed, was the famous pacha 
 of Scide and Acre, who defended the latter 
 place against Buonaparte. In his youth he 
 was purchased by the celebrated Ali Bey, at 
 that time master of Egypt ; and from being 
 a common mamelukc, Ahmed, in a few years, 
 became governor of Grand Cairo. Through 
 a variety of conflicting events, not necessary 
 to detail here, Jczzar was appointed pacha of 
 Acre and Syria, on the death of Dhaher ; 
 and for his zeal in opposing the redoubtable 
 sheik, who had so long defied the power 
 of the grand scignor, he was made a pacha 
 of three tails, with the title of vizier. This 
 advancement gave him an opportunity of 
 extending the boundaries of his government, 
 and in spite of the efforts of the Turkish 
 court to displace him, he retained his au- 
 thority to the last. After Buonaparte had 
 vanquished tlie mamelukes he made friendly 
 overtures to Jezzar. but they were indig- 
 nantly rejected by him, and with the aid of 
 the English 8(|uadron, under Sir Sidney 
 Smith, he valiantly defended the city of St. 
 Jean d'Acrc against the incessant attempts 
 of the French to take possession of it ; so 
 that, after a siege of 01 days, the "conqueror 
 of Egypt " was obliged to withdraw his forces, 
 and leave Acre in undisputed possession of 
 its brave defenders. He died, at an advanced 
 age, in 1804, possessed of immense treasures ; 
 and, it is said, he delighted in the sanguinary 
 title which he had acquired by his numerous 
 acts of ferocity. 
 
 JOACHIM, an Italian monk of the 12th 
 century, was abbot of the Cistercians at 
 Corazzo, and afterwards of Flora in Cala- 
 bria, lie became remarkable for his pre- 
 tended prophecies in 1130, and his errors in 
 regard to the Trinity, contained in a work 
 entitled " The Everlasting Gospel." Died, 
 1202. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, called also the Maid of 
 Orleans, was one of the most celebrated 
 heroines in history. Slie was born of poor 
 parents, at Domremi, a village on the 
 borders of Lorraine, in 1402 ; and became a 
 servant at an inn, where she attended the 
 horses, drove the cattle to pasture, and was 
 employed in other services similar to what 
 a man servant would perform in England. 
 At this time the affairs of France were in a 
 deplorable state, and the city of Orleans was 
 so closely besieged by the Duke of Bedford, 
 that its fall appeared inevitable. In this 
 exigency Joan pretended to have received a 
 divine commission to exjiel the invaders. On 
 being introduced to the king, Charles VII., 
 she offered to raise the siege of Orleans, and 
 conduct his majesty to llheims to be crowned 
 and anointed ; ut the same time demanding 
 for herself a particular sword, which was in 
 the church of St. Catharine. After a little 
 hesitation lier request was complied with ; 
 
 SB 
 
jod] 
 
 ^ ^elu ^ttihtr^iil Utosrajpl&M. 
 
 [JOH 
 
 and while the French soldiers were elated 
 by having an inspired leader, the English 
 were as much dismayed. From this period, 
 Bhe appears the finest character in the his- 
 tory of the middle ages of France. In a 
 male dress, armed cap d. pie, she bore the 
 sword and the sacred banner, as the signal 
 of victory, at the head of the army. Still 
 no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her con- 
 duct. She was wounded several times her- 
 self, but never killed any one, or shed any 
 blood with her own hand. The general be- 
 lief of her elevated mission, of which she 
 herself was piously persuaded, produced the 
 most extraordinary effects. Resolute, chi- 
 valrous, pious, and brave, looking to one 
 single aim, she was skilfully emploj-ed by 
 the generals to animate the army, while they 
 did not implicitly follow her counsels. The 
 first enterprise was successful. With 10,()00 
 men, under the command of St. Severre, Du- 
 nois, and La Hire, she marched from Blois, 
 and, on April the 29th, 1429, entered Orleans 
 with supplies. By bold sallies to which she 
 animated the besieged, the English were 
 forced from tlieir intrenchments, and Suffolk 
 abandoned the siege. Joan entered Orleans 
 in triumph, and the coronation at Kheims 
 followed; after which Charles caused a medal 
 to be struck in honour of the heroine, and 
 ennobled her family. The town of Dom- 
 remi also, where she was born, was exempted 
 from all imposts for ever. After the coro- 
 nation, Joan declared that her mission was 
 at an end, and that she should now retire to 
 private life ; but tlie French commandant 
 Dunois, who thought she might still prove 
 serviceable, induced her to throw herself 
 into Compeigne, then besieged by the Duke 
 of Burgundy, and the Earls of Arundel and 
 Suffolk. Here, after performing prodigies of 
 valour, she was taken prisoner in a sally ; 
 and, after four months' imprisonment, was 
 cruelly condemned by the Englisli to be 
 burnt alive, on the charge of sorcery. She 
 resolutely defended herself from the absurd 
 accusation, and was carried to tlie stake, 
 where with dauntless courage she met her 
 disastrous fate, in the 29th year of her age, 
 May 30. 14.31. 
 
 JODELLE, Etiexxe, an early French 
 poet and dramatist, born at Paris, in 1532. 
 He was the author of tlie first regular tra- 
 gedy acted on tlie French stage ; and he is 
 described as liaving possessed an extraor- 
 dinary facility and fluency of composition. 
 Though enjoying the favour of Charles IX. 
 and of Henry II., yet he died in great 
 poverty and distress, in 1573. 
 
 JOFFRID, abbot of Croyland, in the 12th 
 century. In the continuation of Ingulph's 
 account of Croyland, by Peter de Blois, he 
 says, that abbot Joffrid sent a deputation of 
 three learned French or Norman monks, 
 named Odo, Terrick, and William, to his 
 manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, to 
 teach the people in that neighbourhood, 
 grammar, logic, and rhetoric ; and that these 
 three monks went every day from Cotten- 
 ham to Cambridge, where they hired a barn, 
 in which they taught those sciences to a 
 great number of scholars, who resorted to 
 tiiem from all tlie country round. If De 
 Blois can be relied on, Joffrid may therefore 
 
 be considered as the original founder of the 
 university of Cambridge. 
 
 JOHX, king of England, was the youngest 
 son of Henry II. by Eleanor of Guienne, 
 and born in 1160. Ireland being intended 
 for him, he was sent over in 1185, to complete 
 its conquest, but such was his imprudence 
 that it was found necessary to recall him ; 
 and on the death of his father he was left 
 without any provision, which procured for 
 him the name of Satis Terre, or Lackland. 
 His brother Richard, on coming to the 
 throne, conferred on him the earldom of 
 Mortaigne, in Normandy, and various large 
 possessions in England, and married him to 
 the rich heiress of the Duke of Gloucester. 
 Notwithstanding this kindness, he had the 
 ingratitude to form intrigues against him, in 
 conjunction with the king of France, during 
 his absence in Palestine ; but Richard mag- 
 nanimously pardoned him, and at his death 
 left him his kingdom, in preference to Arthur 
 of Brittany, the son of his elder brother, 
 GeofFry. Some of the French provinces, 
 however, revolted in favour of Arthur; 
 but John ultimately recovered them, and 
 his nephew was captured, and confined 
 in the castle of Falaise, whence he was sub- 
 sequently removed to Rouen, and never 
 heard of more. Being suspected of the mur- 
 der of Arthur, the states of Brittany sum- 
 moned him to answer the charge before his 
 liege lord, king Philip ; and upon his refusal 
 to appear, tlie latter assumed the execution 
 of the sentence of forfeiture against him ; and 
 thus, after its alienation from the French 
 crown for three centuries, the whole of Nor- 
 mandy was recovered. A quarrel with the 
 haughty and able pope Innocent III., who 
 had nominated Stephen Langton to the see 
 of Canterbury, added grievously to the king's 
 discomfort, whom the pope excommunicated, 
 and whose subjects he formally absolved 
 from their allegiance. At length John was 
 induced not only to receive Langton as 
 archbishop of Canterbury, but abjectly to 
 resign his kingdom of England and Ireland 
 to the holy see, in order to receive them 
 again as its vassal. John had by this time 
 rendered himself the object of such universal 
 contempt and hatred, tliat his nobles deter- 
 mined, if possible, to control his power, and 
 establish their privileges ; and though the 
 pope declared his disapprobation of their 
 conduct, tlie barons assembled in arms at 
 Oxford, where the court then was, and im- 
 mediately proceeded to warlike operations. 
 They were received without opposition in 
 London, which so intimidated the king, that 
 he consented to wliatever terms they chose 
 to dictate. Thus was obtained that basis of 
 English constitutional freedom, known as 
 Magna Charta, which not only protected 
 the nobles against the crown, but secured 
 important privileges to every class of free- 
 men. But while the monarch apjieared to 
 be all-complying and passive, he was secretly 
 meditating to disannul the charter. The 
 pope pronounced a sentence of excommuni- 
 cation on all who should attempt to enforce 
 it ; and John, having collected an army of 
 mercenaries, carried war and devastation 
 throughout the kingdom. The barons, taken 
 by surprise, now sent a deputation to Philip 
 
 I 
 
I joh] 
 
 ^ i5tiM Sliubcr^al 3Bin0rapi)g. 
 
 [JOII 
 
 I of France, offering the crown of England to 
 
 I the dauphin Louis ; who speedily, with tlOO 
 
 vessels, landed at Sandwich, and proceeded 
 
 I to London, where he was received as lawful 
 
 I sovereign. John was immediately deserted 
 
 I by all liis foreign troops, and most of his 
 
 English adherents ; but the report of a 
 
 sclieme of Louis for tlie extermination of the 
 
 English nobility arrested his progress, and 
 
 induced many to return to their allegiance. 
 
 i While the king's affairs were beginning to 
 
 ! assume a better aspect, he was taken ill, and 
 
 died at Newark, in October, 1210, in the 49th 
 
 year of his age, and the 17th of his reign. 
 
 JOHN OF GAUNT, duke of Lancaster, a 
 renowned general, was born in 134{». lie 
 served with great distinction in France with 
 his brother the Black Prince, and on his 
 death had the management of affairs during 
 the life of liis father. He died in 1399. John 
 of Gaunt was a man of great valour, pru- 
 dence, and generosity. His son afterwards 
 became king, by the title of Henry IV. 
 j JOHN OF Salisbuiey, bishop of Char- 
 tres in France, was born at Salisbury, in 
 Wiltshire, in the beginning of the 12th cen- 
 tury. He studied under the most eminent 
 I professors on the Continent, and acquired 
 considerable fame for his proficiency in rhe- 
 toric and general literature. After his return 
 to England, he became the intimate friend 
 and companion of Thomas & Becket, whom 
 he had attended in his exile, and he is said 
 to have been present when he was murdered 
 in Canterbury cathedral. He was one of 
 the first restorers of the Greek and Latin 
 languages in Europe, and an elegant Latin 
 poet. 
 
 JOHNES, Thom.\s, a gentleman who dis- 
 tinguished himself by his attachment to lite- 
 rary pursuits, was born in 1748, at Ludlow, 
 in Shropshire ; studied at Eton, and Jesus 
 College, Oxford ; and sat in parliament for 
 Cardigan, and subsequently for Radnorshire. 
 He possessed an estate at Hafod, in Cardi- 
 ganshire, where he built an elegant mansion, 
 and -furnished it with a noble library, and 
 a complete typographical establishment, 
 whence proceeded the works on which his 
 literary reputation is founded. He trans- 
 lated the " Chronicles of Froissart and Mons- 
 trelet," " Joinville's Memoirs of Louis," 
 " Bertrand de la Brocquiere's Travels in 
 Palestine," and "St. Palayes Life of Frois- 
 sart." Died, 1816. 
 
 JOHNSON, Charles, a dramatic writer, 
 was originally a member of the law, which 
 profession he quitted for theatrical composi- 
 tion, in which he experienced considerable 
 success. Died, 1748. 
 
 JOHNSON, JoHX, a learned divine, was 
 bom, in lG(i2, at Findsbury, Kent : was edu- 
 cated at King's School, Canterbury, and at 
 Cambridge ; and successively obtained the 
 livings of Boughton, St. John's, Margate, 
 Appledore, and Cranbrook. He wrote seve- 
 ral religious works ; among which are 
 "Holy David," "The Clergyman's "Vade 
 Mecum," "The Unbloody Sacritice," " Mis- 
 cellaneous Discourses and Sermons," &c. 
 Died, 1725. 
 
 JOHNSON, Maurice, an able antiquary, 
 was born at Spalding, in Lincolnshire, and 
 bred to the law in the Inner Temple ; after 
 
 459 
 
 whicli he settled at his native place, where 
 he formed, in 1717, a literary society, whose 
 object was to cultivate the knowledge of 
 Englisli antiquities. He died in 1755. 
 
 ■JOHNSON, Richard, a grammarian, who 
 was head-master of the new school at Not- 
 tingham, from 1707 to 1720. He published 
 " Noctes Nottinghamicas," " Grammatical 
 Commentaries," " Aristarchus Anti-Ben- 
 tlcianus," &c. He had been in a desponding 
 state for some time, and was found drowned 
 in a rivulet, near Nottingham, in 1720. 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, a divine, eminent 
 for his zeal, and for his numerous writings, 
 in the cause of civil liberty, was bom iu 
 1(!49, in the county of Stafford ; received his 
 education at St. Paul's School and at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ; and became minister 
 of Corringham, in Essex. In the reign of 
 Charles II., while Lord Russell and his coad- 
 jutors were promoting the bill for excluding 
 the Duke of York, he published a tract, 
 entitled " Julian the Apostate," for which 
 he was fined and imprisoned. In 1C18, when 
 the army was encamped on Ilounslow Heath, 
 he drew up a paper, entitled " An humble 
 and hearty Address to all the English Pro- 
 testants in the present Army," for which he 
 was tried, and condenmcd to stand in the 
 pillory in three places, to pay a fine of 500 
 marks, to be degraded from the priesthood, 
 and to be publicly whipped from Newgate 
 to Tyburn. He bore all these disgraceful 
 punishments with unshrinking fortitude, 
 and continued to employ his pen in the same 
 cause until the revolution, when the king 
 offered him the rich deanery of Durham ; 
 but this he refused, as inadequate to his 
 sufferings and services, which he thought 
 merited a bishopric. He finally received a 
 present of 1000/., and a pension of 300/. per 
 annum for the life of himself and his sou. 
 Died, 1703. 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, the celebrated lexi- 
 cographer, and one of the most distinguished 
 writers of the 18th century, was born in 1709, 
 at Lichfield, where his father was a book- 
 seller. He completed his education at Pem- 
 broke College, Oxford ; and in 1732 he 
 became under-master of a free-school at 
 Market Bosworth, in Leicestershire, which 
 situation he was soon induced to quit, on 
 account of the haughty treatment he re- 
 ceived from the principal ; and he next 
 endeavoured to earn a scanty maintenance 
 by literary employment. In 1735 he mar- 
 ried Airs. Porter, the widow of a mercer 
 at Birmingham, with a fortune of about 
 800/., by which he was enabled to open a 
 boarding-school ; but the plan did not suc- 
 ceed, and, after a year's trial, he resolved 
 to seek his fortune in London, in company 
 with one of his few pupils, the celebrated 
 David Garrick. In March, 1737, the two 
 adventurers accordingly arrived in the 
 metropolis, Johnson with his unfinished 
 tragedy of " Irene " in his pocket, and with 
 little to depend upon but his slender engage- 
 ment with Cave, the proprietor of the Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine. At this time he became 
 acquainted with the reckless and unfortunate 
 Savage, and in some respects his personal 
 conduct was unfavourably affected by the 
 intimacy ; but from irregularity of this 
 
 s B 3 
 
joh] 
 
 ^ ^elD Sliiibcr^al ISiosvapljy* 
 
 [joh 
 
 nature lie was soon recovered by his deeply 
 grounded religious and moral principles. 
 Uis first literary production, which attracted 
 notice in the metropolis, was his "London," 
 a poem in imitation of the third satire Of 
 Juvenal. He was soon after led to a new 
 exercise of his literary powers in the compo- 
 sition of parliamentary dehates, which, being 
 then deemed a breach of privilege, were pub- 
 lished under the fiction of " Debates in the 
 Senate of Lilliput." The extraordinary 
 eloquence displayed in these productions 
 was almost exclusively the product of his 
 own invention ; but it is probable that he 
 adhered more faithfully to the tenor of the 
 arguments of the real speakers than to their 
 language. In 1747 he printed proposals for 
 an edition of " Shakspeare," and the plan 
 of his " English Dictionary," addressed to 
 Lord Chesterfield. The price agreed upon 
 between him and the booksellers for the last 
 work was 1575/. In 1749, Garrick brought 
 his friend's tragedy on the stage of Drury 
 Lane, but it was unsuccessful. In 1750 he 
 commenced his " Rambler," which was con- 
 tinued till 1752. In this work only five 
 papers were the productions of other writers. 
 Soon after the close of this paper he lost his 
 wife, a circumstance which greatly attected 
 him, as appears from his Meditations, and 
 the sermon which he wrote on her death. 
 In 1755 appeared his Dictionary, and the 
 same year the university of Oxford conferred 
 on him the degree of M. A. Lord Chester- 
 field endeavoured also to assist it by writing 
 two papers in its favour in " The World ; " 
 but as he had hitherto neglected the author, 
 Johnson treated him with coutemi)t. The 
 publication of this great work did not relieve 
 him from his embarrassments, for the price 
 of his labour had been consumed in the pro- 
 gress of its compilation. In 1758 he began 
 the " Idler," a periodical paper, which was 
 published in a weekly newspaper. On the 
 death of his mother in 1759, he wrote the 
 romance of "Rasselas" to defray the ex- 
 penses of her funeral. In 17C2 tlie king 
 granted him a pension of 300Z. per annum, 
 without any stipulation with respect to his 
 literary exertions. Johnson had the honour 
 of a conversation with the king in the royal 
 library, in 1765, when his majesty asked if 
 he intended to publish any more works ? To 
 this he answered, that he thought he had 
 written enough ; on which the king said, 
 ♦' so should I too, if you had not written 
 so well." About this time he instituted the 
 Literary Club, consisting of some of the 
 most celebrated men of the age. It was at 
 tills period, too, that his intercourse with 
 the Thrale family began, which, for years, 
 produced him so much social enjoyment. 
 In 1773 he went on a tour with Air. Boswell 
 to the western islands of Scotland, of which 
 journey he shortly after published a highly 
 interesting account ; but which gave oftence 
 to many, by the violent attack therein made 
 on the authenticity of the poems attributed 
 to Ossian. In 1775 the university of Oxford 
 sent him the degree of LL.D. by diploma. 
 In 1779 he began his "Lives of the English 
 Poets," a work which, on the whole, may be 
 regarded as a treasure of sound criticism, 
 and a model of literary biograpliy. After a 
 
 long illness, during part of which he enter- 
 tained the most gloomy apprehensions, his 
 mind grew serene, and he died full of that 
 faith which he had so vigorously defended 
 and inculcated by his writings, Dec. 19. 1784. 
 The character of this great man is thus 
 summed up by Bishop Gleig : — "Without 
 claiming for him the highest place among 
 his contemporaries, in any single depart- 
 ment of literature, we may use one of liis 
 own expressions, 'that he brought more 
 mind to every subject, and had a greater 
 variety of knowledge ready for all occasions, 
 than almost any other mail I ' Though 
 religious to superstition, he was in every 
 other respect so remarkably incredulous, 
 that Hogarth said, while Johnson firmly 
 believed the Bible, he seemed determined 
 to believe nothing else. The same energy 
 which was displayed in his literary produc- 
 tions was exhibited also in his conversation, 
 which was various, striking, and instruc- 
 tive : like the sage in ' Kasselas,' he spoke, 
 and attention watched his lips ; he reasoned, 
 and conviction closed his periods ; when he 
 pleased, he could be the greatest sophist that 
 ever contended in the lists of declamation ; 
 and perliaps no man ever equalled him in 
 nervous and pointed repartees. But he had 
 a roughness in his manner which subdued 
 the saucy, and terrified the meek ; it was 
 only, however, in his manner ; for no man 
 was more loved than Johnson was by those 
 who knew him ; and his works will be read 
 with veneration for their author, as long as 
 the language in which they are written shall 
 be understood." 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, a dramatic writer 
 and performer of eccentric celebrity ; author 
 of " Hurlothrumbo, or the Supernatural," 
 and various other laughable extravaganzas. 
 Died, 1773. 
 
 JOHNSON, Samuel, first president of 
 King's College, New York, was born at 
 Guildford, Connecticut ; educated at the 
 college of Saybrook ; first preached at West 
 Haven, then became an episcopalian, and 
 went to England to obtain ordination. On 
 his return he settled at Stratford, where he 
 preached to an episcopalian congregation ; 
 received the degree of D. D. from Oxford, 
 in 1743 ; and was chosen president of the 
 college at New York on its establishment 
 in 1754. He held this situation with much 
 credit, until 1763, when he resigned and 
 returned to his pastoral charge at Stratford, 
 where he continued till his death, in 1772. 
 
 JOHNSON, Thomas, an English botanist, 
 was born at Selby, in Yorkshire. He was 
 bred an apothecary in London, and became, 
 says Wood, the best herbalist of his age. 
 He wrote " Iter in Agrum Canturarium " 
 and " Ericetum Ilamstedianum," which 
 were the first local catalogues of plants 
 published in England. But his great work 
 was an improved edition of " Gerard's 
 Herbal." In the civil wars he entered into 
 the royal army ; at the siege of Basing- 
 house he received a wound, of which he died 
 in 1044. 
 
 JOHNSTON, Arthur, a physician and 
 poet, was born in 1587, near Aberdeen, and 
 educated at that university ; on leaving 
 whicli he went to Padua, where he took his 
 
joh] 
 
 ^ ^etu ^ni^tx^aX 3iJiO0rap]^n, 
 
 [joh 
 
 doctor's degree, and then settled in Paris. 
 After an absence of nearly 40 years, cliiefly 
 spent in foreign travel, he returned to Aber- 
 deen, of which university he became prin- 
 cipal, till Archbishop Laud invited him to 
 London, and obtained for him the appoint- 
 ment of physician in ordinary to Chark-s I. 
 He was the author of a collection of Latin 
 epigrams, an elegant paraphrase of the 
 Psalms in Latin verse, the " Muste Aulica;," 
 and a selection of the works of Scottish 
 writers, entitled " Poetarum Scoticorum De- 
 licite." Died, 1(541. 
 
 JOHNSTON, or JOHNSON, Ciiaules, a 
 native of Ireland, who was bred to the bar, 
 and came over to England to practise ; but 
 being afflicted with deafness, he was com- 
 pelled to quit that profession. His first 
 literary attempt was the celebrated " Chry- 
 Bal, or the Adventures of a Guinea;" a 
 political romance, in which the leading cha- 
 racters were drawn from real life, and from 
 their being generally known, produced a 
 great sensation. This work having so well 
 succeeded, he produced others of a similar 
 class, viz. "The Reverie, or a Flight to the 
 Paradise of Fools," 2 vols. ; " The History 
 of Arbaces, Prince of Betlis," 2 vols. ; "The 
 Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life," 2 vols. ; and 
 the " History of John Juniper, Esq., alias 
 Juniper Jack," 3 vols. In 1782 he went to 
 India, where he engaged in literary and 
 otlier speculations, aud obtained considerable 
 wealth. Died, 18<K». 
 
 JOHNSTONE, Chevalier de, an adhe- 
 rent of the Pretender, was the son of a 
 merchant of Edinburgh, and born in 1720. 
 At an early age he evinced an inclination 
 for a militarj' life ; and bein^ brought up 
 in Jacobite principles, he lett Edinburgh 
 privately ou the breaking out of the rebel- 
 lion in 1745, and joined the insurgents. He 
 was appointed aide-de-camp to the unfortu- 
 nate prince Charles Edward ; fought at the 
 battle of Preston Pans ; and raised an inde- 
 pendent company, with which he served 
 throughout the campaign. After the battle of 
 Culloden, he sought for safety in flight ; and, 
 disguised as a pedlar, he passed through 
 England, and at length escaped to the Con- 
 tinent. He subsequently entered into the 
 service of France, and acted in the capacity 
 of aide-de-camp in Canada ; on the conquest 
 of which by the British he returned to 
 France, and died there at an advanced age. 
 His " Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 
 and 1746," which occupied his latter years, 
 is a very interesting work. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, Dr. BiaxE, an eminent 
 Scotch divine, born in 1747, was a son of 
 John Johnstone, esq., a highly respectable 
 magistrate of Annan, in Drumfriesshire. 
 He entered the university of Edinburgh in 
 1762 ; in 1771 he was appointed minister of 
 Holy wood ; and in 1786 the degree of D. D. 
 was unanimously conferred on him. He was 
 the author of a " Commentary on the Re- 
 velation of St. John the Divine," 2 vols. 
 8vo. ; an " Essay on tlie Inriuence of Re- 
 ligiou on Civil Society and Civil Govern- 
 ment ; " and some valuable sermons. He 
 also assisted Sir John Sinclair's patriotic 
 views in drawing up the statistical account 
 of Scotland ; and contributed greatly towards 
 
 the improvement of the agricultural and 
 social condition of liis native country. Died, 
 1805. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, James, a physician and 
 physiological writer, was born at Annan, 
 in Dumfriessliire, in 1730 ; studied at Edin- 
 burgh, where he took the degree of M. D. 
 in 17.50 ; and settled at Kidderminster, 
 where he acquired notoriety by his success- 
 ful treatment of a malignant fever then 
 raging there, as well as by claiming the 
 merit of having discovered the good effects 
 arising from the use of mineral acids, in 
 counteracting contagion. Dr. Johnstone 
 subsequently removed to Worcester, and 
 died in that city, in 1802. He was the au- 
 thor of " Medical Essays and Observations," 
 " Disquisitions relating to the Nervous Sys- 
 tem," and also several medical papers in the 
 Philosophical Transactions. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, JouN He.vry, a celebrated 
 comic actor and vocalist, was born in 1750 
 at Tipperary, where his father was a small 
 farmer. At the age of 18 he enlisted in a 
 regiment of Irish dragoons, and soon at- 
 tracted the notice of his comrades by his 
 fine voice and good-humoured liveliness. 
 The colonel of the regiment having had 
 proofs of Johnstone's vocal powers, and 
 hearing that he had an inclination for the 
 stage, he generously granted his discharge, 
 and gave him a recommendatory letter to 
 Mr. Ryder, then manager of the Dublin 
 theatre, who engaged him for three years, 
 at two guineas per week, which was soon 
 raised to four. His fame as a vocalist in- 
 creased rai)idly ; and having married a 
 Miss Poitier, who had acquired a profound 
 knowledge of the science of music, he pro- 
 fited by her instructions, and soon became 
 a finished singer. Mackliu, the celebrated 
 actor, advised him to try the London boards, 
 and wrote a letter to Mr. Harris, of Covent 
 Garden, so strongly in his favour, that he 
 engaged Johnstone and his wife, for three 
 years, at a weekly salary of 14^., 16/., and 
 18/. He accordingly made his first appear- 
 ance at Covent Garden Theatre, in October, 
 1783, in his favourite character of Lionel. 
 There were, however, other aspirants for 
 vocal fame at that time on the stage ; and 
 though he continued to sing for several 
 seasons with imdiminished success, he saw 
 that a wider field was open for him in the 
 personation of Irish characters. His best 
 efforts were therefore directed to that end ; 
 and it was soon found that his native hu- 
 mour, rich brogue, and fine voice carried 
 him to a height of excellence in the path 
 he had chosen, wliich left every competitor 
 far behind. In 1803 he quitted Covent 
 Garden for Drury Lane, and in the summer 
 of that year he visited his friends in Dublin, 
 where martial law being then in force, the 
 company performed in the daytime. On 
 his return from Ireland his wife died ; and 
 lie married Miss Boulton, by whom he had 
 a daughter, Mrs. Wallack. Few public 
 performers have passed a long career with 
 such uninterrupted success and felicity as 
 the veteran Johnstone. As an actor, in his 
 line he stood alone, personating his buoyant 
 and blundering countrymen, both patrician 
 and plebeian, with a degree of fidelity alto- 
 
joh] 
 
 ^ ;j^fl» ^niftcv^al IStasrapl^j). 
 
 [jON 
 
 gether unrivalled ; -while his habits of pru- 
 dence, which enabled him to accumulate a 
 good fortune, were not so strict as to inter- 
 fere with his social enjoyments ; for, to say 
 I the truth, "Jack Johnstone" loved the 
 juice of the grape, and often took "one 
 l bottle more " than would have qualified 
 I him for any temperance society in Chris- 
 tendom. He died, Dec. 26. 1828, iu the 78th 
 ! year of his age. 
 
 JOHNSTONE, Jon.v, M. D., an eminent 
 i physician of Birmingliam, who for upwards 
 j of 40 years held a distinguished station 
 I among his professional brethren, was the 
 son of Dr. James Johnstone, of Worcester, 
 and was educated at Merton College, Ox- 
 ford. Dr. John Johnstone was considered 
 peculiarly successful iu his treatment of 
 fevers, and somewhat remarkable for the 
 sparing use he made of medicinal prepara- 
 tions ; but it is not only of his skill and ta- 
 lents as a physician, but as a man of letters 
 that we have to speak of him. He was tlie 
 intimate friend of Dr. Tarr, and his " Life " 
 of that great scholar affords ample evidence 
 of his own literary acquirements and com- 
 prehensive mind. Besides these Memoirs 
 of Dr. Parr, which is a fearless and noble 
 specimen of biography, he was the author of 
 several treatises on medical subjects, he was 
 also a fellow of the College of Pliysicians 
 and the Royal Society ; and was held in 
 high estimation for liis acquirements and 
 general character by a large circle of friends, 
 eminent for rank and talents. Died, aged 
 (38, Dec. 28. 1830. 
 
 JOINVILLE, Joii.v, Sieur de, seneschal 
 of Champagne, an eminent French states- 
 man and historian of the 13th century. He 
 accompanied Louis IX. in his first crusade 
 or expedition to Egypt, in 1249, sharing liis 
 master's captivity, and rendering him many 
 important services. In the king's second 
 crusade, however, he declined taking a part; 
 and subsequently employed himself iu writ- 
 ing the " Life of St. Louis," one of the most 
 interesting documents existing relative to 
 the history of the middle ages. He died in 
 1318, aged 90. 
 
 JOLIVET, Jean Baptiste ^[ovse. Count 
 de, was, previous to the French revolution, 
 an advocate. While a deputy to the legis- 
 lative assembly in 1792, he had the courage 
 to denounce the Jacobin club before the 
 National Convention, and the good fortune 
 to escape from the perils of that stormy 
 period. After the accession of Napoleon he 
 was introduced into the council of state, and 
 charged with the organisation of the four 
 new departments on tlie left bank of the 
 Khine. On his return he was made a com- 
 mandant of the legion of honour, and retained 
 the office of counsellor of state till 1814. He 
 wrote several financial and statistical works ; 
 and died, aged 64, in 1818. 
 
 JOL Y, Claude, a French ecclesiastic, who 
 wrote " A Collection of Maxims for the Edu- 
 cation of a Prince," which gave great offence, 
 and was burnt by the hangman. The author, 
 however, republished it with an addition, 
 called " Codicil d'Or, or the Golden Codicil." 
 He was born at Paris in 1607, and died there 
 iu 1700. 
 JOLY, Guv, the confidential secretary of 
 
 Cardinal de Retz, who wrote " Memoirs of 
 his Times," containing an interesting ac- 
 count of transactions from 1648 to 1665, in 
 which is included the private history of his 
 patron. 
 
 JOLY, Marv Elizabeth, a celebrated 
 French actress, was born at Versailles in 
 1761. She commenced her theatrical career 
 in 1781, and soon ro.se to eminence in her 
 profession, excelling principally as a repre- 
 sentative of the soubrettes of tlie French 
 drama. In 1793 she was imprisoned among 
 other political victims, but recovered her 
 liberty on condition of performing at the 
 theatre of the Republic. Died, 1798. 
 
 JOMELLI, NicoLO, a musical composer, 
 was born iu 1714, at Aversa, in the kingdom 
 of Naples. He composed a number of operas 
 in his own country, and became a popular 
 favourite. He afterwards visited Bologna, 
 Rome, Venice, and other principal cities of 
 Italy, everywhere carrying away the palm 
 from rival musicians. He was the author 
 of 30 operas, and many devotional pieces, 
 among which are his celebrated " Requiem " 
 and "Miserere." Died, 1774. 
 
 JONAS, AnxGRiM, a native of Iceland, 
 distinguished as an antiquary and historian. 
 His works relate chiefly to the history of 
 his own countrj' ; but he was also an able 
 astronomer, and had studied the science 
 under Tycho Brahe. He died, aged 95, in 
 1640. 
 
 JONES, Edward, a Welsh musician, who 
 was bard to the Prince of Wales. He pub- 
 lished "Musical and Poetical Relics of the 
 Welsh Bards, " " Minstrels' Serenades, " 
 "Lyric Airs," and "Terpsichore's Ban- 
 quet." Died, 1821. 
 
 JONES, Henry, a poet and dramatist, 
 was born at Drogheda. He wrote the tra- 
 gedy of" The Earl of Essex," and a volume 
 of poems, for which, under the patronage 
 of Lord Chesterfield, he procured a large 
 subscription. Want of prudence, however, 
 prevented him from profiting by his con- 
 nections, and he died in indigence, 1770. 
 
 JONES, Imgo, a celebrated arcliiteet, 
 and the reviver of classical architecture in 
 England, was born in London, about 1572. 
 He was at first an apprentice to a joiner ; 
 but his talents for drawing having attracted 
 the notice of the Earls of Arundel and 
 Pembroke, the latter supplied him with the 
 means of visiting Italy, for the purpose of 
 studying landscape painting. He went to 
 Venice, where the works of Palladio inspired 
 him with a taste for architecture ; and he 
 afterwards devoted all his energies in pursuit 
 of that noble branch of art. He soon ac- 
 quired fame, and obtained the situation of 
 first architect to Christian IV., king of Den- 
 mark, who, visiting his brother-in-law, 
 James I., in 1606, brought Jones with him 
 to England. Being induced to remain, the 
 queen chose him as her architect ; and the 
 place of surveyor-general of the board of 
 works was granted to him in reversion. Iu 
 1020 he was appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners for repairing St. Paul's cathedj-al ; 
 but this was not commenced till 1623. In 
 the following reign he was much employed 
 in preparing masques for the entertainment 
 of the court, and in building the Banqueting 
 
jon] 
 
 ^ ^e&j ^inbtr^td 38tOfirapl)y. 
 
 [jon 
 
 \ 
 
 House at Whiteliall ; but while thus en- 
 gaged he fell under the displeasure of Ben 
 Junsun, wlio ridiculed him ou the stage, and 
 made him the subject of his epigrammatic 
 muse. Jones realised a handsome fortune ; 
 but being a Roman Catholic, and a partisan 
 of royalty, he suffered severely in the civil 
 war. At length, worn down by sorrow and 
 suffering, he died, July 21. hio'2. As an 
 author he is known by a work relative to 
 that curious monument of former ages, 
 Stonehence, which he pronounwd to be a 
 Roman temple, dedicated to Ca;lns — an 
 opinion which most antiquaries have decried 
 as erroneous 'and absurd. Many of Inigo 
 Jones's architectural designs have been pub- 
 lished bv Kent, Ware, and I>coni. 
 
 JONES, JoH.v, LL.D., a Unitarian minis- 
 ter, and a philological writer. Was a native 
 of Carmarthenshire, and received his edu- 
 cation at tlie Dissenting College, Hackney. 
 He was pastor to a Unitarian congregation, 
 first at Plymouth Dock, and next at Halifax, 
 in Yorkshire ; but he eventually settled in 
 London, and employed himself in literary 
 pursuits and private tuition. He was the 
 author of numerous publications ; among 
 wliich are, " A Development of remarkable 
 Events calculated to restore the Chiistian 
 Religion to its Original Purity," 2 vols. ; 
 "Illustrations of tlie Four Gospels," &c. ; 
 a " Greek and English Lexicon," and many 
 others, both educational and devotional. 
 Died, 1827. 
 
 JONES, JoHX Gale, by professsion an 
 apothecary, but far better known as a po- 
 litical orator, was born in 1771. At the 
 breaking out of the French revolution he 
 became a leading meml)er of the celebrated 
 London Corresponding Society ; and, until 
 a few years before his death, he was known 
 as a popular declaimer at the various poli- 
 tical meetings held in the metropolis. Hav- 
 ing rendered himself obnoxious to the go- 
 vernment by his violence, and impugned the 
 proceedings of the House of Connnons, he 
 was committed to Newgate in February, 
 1810, and there remained till his liberation 
 was eftected by the prorogation of parlia- 
 ment, June 21. The part he took in advo- 
 cating republican doctrines had formerly 
 subjected him to a trial at the Warwick 
 assizes, when he obtained a verdict of ac- 
 quittal, which was mainly attributable to 
 the skilful advocacy of his counsel. Sir 
 Samuel Romilly. As a public speaker he 
 was fluent, energetic, and impressive ; in 
 private life he is said to have been unassum- 
 ing and an instructive companion. Died, 
 April, 18;!8. 
 
 JONES, Colonel Leslie Grove, was, in 
 early life, a midshipman ; but having hu- 
 manely, though very insubordinately, inter- 
 fered respecting the punishment of one of 
 the seamen, he was so severely censured, 
 tliat he quitted the navy in disgust. Shortly 
 afterwards he was presented with an ensign's 
 commission in the 1st foot guards, served 
 throughout tlie Peninsular war, and was a 
 favourite aide-de-camp of the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, whose high opinion of his zeal, dis- 
 cretion, and gallantry, may be formed from 
 the fact that, previous to the battle of Water- 
 loo, the honourable and responsible ofiBce of 
 
 commandant of Brussels was intrusted to 
 him. Being put on half-pay at the peace, 
 he engaged in literary composition, and oc- 
 casionally produced some essays, &c. But 
 it was not till the great struggle for the 
 reform bill that he appeared before the 
 world as a political writer. It unfortunately 
 happens to mean well and to judge well are 
 not always the same thing ; and Colonel 
 Jones's political letters, which appeared in 
 the " Times," had all the violence of those 
 of Junius, without their redeeming vigour, 
 sarcasm, and eloquence. Bom, 1779 ; died, 
 iKi9. 
 
 JONES, Owen, a Welsh antiquary, and 
 a member of the Gwyneddigion, or Cam- 
 brian Society, for encouraging the bards, 
 language, and music of Wales, was born in 
 1740, and died in 1814. He collected and 
 published " The Archeology of Wales," the 
 " Poems of Dafydd ap Gwillym," and other 
 productions. 
 
 JONES, Paul (whose real name, it is said, 
 was John Paul), a naval adventurer, was a 
 native of Selkirk, in Scotland, and born in 
 1730. His first voyage was to America, 
 where he settled early in life ; and at the 
 commencement of the struggle between the 
 colonies and the mother country, he offered 
 his services to the former, and was appointed 
 first of the first lieutenants. In 177.5 he ob- 
 tained the command of a ship under Com- 
 modore Hopkins, and distinguished himself 
 in several engagements, for which he re- 
 ceived his commission as captain of the 
 marine. He then sailed to France, and 
 being well acquainted with the Irish coast, 
 and the northern part of England, he con- 
 ceived the design of effecting a descent. For 
 a long time he kept the northern coast in a 
 constant state of alarm ; at length he effected 
 a landing at Whitehaven, and having dis- 
 mantled a fort, set fire to some shipping in 
 the harbour. From thence he sailed for 
 Scotland, where he landed on the estate of 
 the Earl of Selkirk, and j)lundcred his lord- 
 ship's house of all the plate. lie next took 
 the Drake sloop of war, with which he 
 returned to Brest. He afterwards sailed 
 round Ireland to the North Sea, with three 
 ships, the Richard, Pallas, and Vengeance. 
 Having committed great mischief on that 
 coast, he fell in with the Baltic fleet, con- 
 voyed by the Serapis frigate, and the 
 Countess of Scarborough armed ship, both 
 which, after a severe action, he captured off 
 Flamborough Head. For these services the 
 king of France conferred on him the order 
 of merit, and gave him a gold-hilted sword. 
 He afterwards was invited into the Russian 
 service, with the rank of rear-admiral, where 
 he was disappointed in not receiving the 
 command of the fleet acting against the 
 Turks in the Black Sea. He found fault 
 with the conduct of the Prince of Nassau, 
 the admiral ; Iwcame restless and impatient, 
 was intrigued against at court, and calum- 
 niated by his enemies ; and had permission, 
 from the empress Catharine, to retire from 
 the service with a pension, which was never 
 paid. He returned to Paris, sunk into po- 
 verty, and died in 1792. Jones was a man 
 of decided courage, conducting all his 
 operations with equal boldness and saga- 
 
jon] 
 
 ^ |!eiu Hm'ber^al SSufsrajpf)!?. 
 
 [jon 
 
 city ; to which may be added, that, notwith- 
 standing the absence of instruction in liia 
 youtli, lie wrote with fluency, strengtli, and 
 clearness, and was able to sustain iiis part 
 respectably in tlie polished circles of Paris, 
 where he was a great pretender to to7i, and 
 passed for " a poet as well as a hero." 
 
 JONES, William, a mathematician, was 
 born in UiSO, in the island of Anglesea. He 
 became, early in life, a schoolmaster in a 
 ship of war ; after which he settled in Lon- 
 don, where he publislied " A Treatise on 
 Navigation," and aiiotlier entitled " Synopsis 
 Palmariorum Mathescos, or a new Intro- 
 duction to the Mathematics." These works 
 procured him the friendship of several men 
 of science, particularly Newton and Ualley, 
 and he a:lso obtained a pension from govern- 
 ment. Died, 1740. 
 
 JONES, William, an English divine, 
 eminent for his abilities and public spirit, 
 and a strenuous champion of the liutchiu- 
 sonian doctrines, was born in 172(5, at 
 Lowick, in Northamptonshire. He was edu- 
 cated at the Charter House, and University 
 College, Oxford, wliere he formed an inti- 
 mate acquaintance with Mr. Home, after- 
 wards bishop of Norwich. Ou leaving the 
 university he became curate of Finedon, 
 Northamptonshire, and next of Wadeuhoe, 
 where he wrote his "Catholic Doctrine of 
 the Trinity," which passed through nume- 
 rous editions. In 1762 he published "An 
 Essay on the first Principles of Natural Phi- 
 losophy." In 1764 the Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury gave him tlie vicarage of Bethers- 
 den, in Kent, to which was afterwards added 
 the rectory of Pluckley ; and at the time of 
 his death he was perpetual curate of Nay- 
 land, and rector of Paston andllolingbourne. 
 When the French revolution gave birth to 
 seditious movements in this country, Mr. 
 Jones printed " A Letter from Thomas Bull 
 to his brother John," wliich was widely 
 circulated by the friends of government. 
 He was also concerned in establisliiug the 
 British Critic ; and he published a collection 
 of excellent tracts, under the title of " The 
 Scholar armed against the Errors of the 
 Times." On the death of his friend. Bishop 
 Home, to whom he had been chaplain, he 
 paid an affectionate tribute to his memory 
 in an account of his "Life and Writings." 
 His theological and philosophical works 
 form 12 vols. Svo. Died, 1800. 
 
 JONES, Sir William, an eminent law- 
 yer, poet, and general scholar, was the son 
 of an able mathematician ; and was only 
 3 years of age when his father died, in 1746. 
 He was educated at Harrow School, from 
 whence, at the age of 18, he went to Uni- 
 versity College, Oxford, where he had been 
 but a few months before he was invited to 
 be private tutor to Lord Althorpe, after- 
 wards Earl Spencer, with whom he made a 
 tour on the Continent. In 1766 he obtained 
 a fellowship, and began his " Commentaries ' 
 on Asiatic Poetry." Soon after this he was \ 
 engaged to translate the life of Nadir Shah, | 
 from an eastern manuscript brought to 
 England by the king of Denmark. Another 
 tour to the Continent, with his pupil and 
 family, followed, which occupied his time 
 until 1770, when, his tutorship ceasing, he 
 
 464 
 
 entered himself as a law student in the 
 Temple. He did not, however, wholly sacri- 
 fice literature to his professional pursuits } 
 but, on the appearance of the life and works 
 of Zoroaster, by Anquetil du Perron, he vin- 
 dicated the university of Oxford, which had 
 been attacked by tliat writer, in an able 
 pamphlet in the French language, which he 
 wrote with great elegance. In 1776 he was 
 made a connnissioner of bankrupts ; about 
 which time his correspondence with his 
 pupil evinced the manly spirit of constitu- 
 tional freedom by which he was actuated ; 
 and to his feelings on the American con- 
 test he gave vent in a spirited Latin ode to 
 Liberty. In 1778 appeared his translation 
 of the " Orations of Isaeus," with a prefatory 
 discourse, notes, and commentary, which, 
 for elegance of style, and iirofound criti- 
 cal and historical research, excited much 
 admiration. In the mean time he rapidly 
 advanced in professional reputation, and 
 contiuued at the same time to give almost 
 daily evidence of the progress he was mak- 
 ing in polite literature ; at one time trans- 
 lating Arabian poetry, at another writing 
 odes on liberty, and then discussing, with 
 the genius of a statesman, and the fervour of 
 a patriot, some intricate question of foreign 
 or domestic policy. At length, on the ac- 
 cession of the Selburnc administration, he 
 obtained what liad long been the object of 
 his ambition, the appointment of judge in 
 the supreme court of judicature in Bengal. 
 The honour of knighthood wao on this occa- 
 sion conferred ou him, and he soon after 
 married Miss Shipley, daughter of the bishop 
 of St. Asaph, with whom he embarked for 
 India in April, 1783. One of his earliest 
 acts in India was the establishment at Cal- 
 cutta of an institution on the ,plan of the 
 Royal Society, of which he was chosen the 
 first president. Another was, to take vigor- 
 ous measures for procuring a digest of the 
 Hindoo and Mahometan laws. He theu 
 applied himself with ardour to the study of 
 the Sanscrit, and his health soon suflering 
 from the climate, he took a journey through 
 tlie district of Benares, during which cessa- 
 tion of public duties he composed a " Trea- 
 tise on th« Gods of Greece, Italy, and India." 
 His translation of the celebrated "Ordi- 
 nances of Menu," the famous Indian legis- 
 lator, published early in 1794, had scarcely 
 appeared, when he was seized with an in- 
 flammation of the liver, which terminated 
 his truly valuable life on the 27th of April, 
 in tlie 48th year of his age. As a judge he 
 was indefatigable and impartial, his legal 
 knowledge was profound, and he was an 
 enlightened and liberal champion of con- 
 stitutional monarchy. As a poet, essayist, 
 and translator, there were few who excelled 
 liim ; while as a linguist he stood unrivalled. 
 To this let us add, that in private life his 
 character was unimpeachable. A beautiful 
 monument was erected to his memory in 
 St. Paul's cathedral, and a statue at Bengal, 
 at the expense of the East India Company ; 
 but the most honourable and imperishable 
 monument of his fame exists in his works, 
 which were published by his widow, in 
 6 vols. 4to. 
 JONSON, Benjamix, a celebrated dra- 
 
Jou] 
 
 ^ ^efcD ©[uiberj^al 23t05r<qpT)S. 
 
 [JOR 
 
 matlst, and tlie contemporary and friend of 
 Sliakspeare, was the posthumous son of a 
 clergyman. He was born in Westminster, 
 in 1.574 ; at the grammar-school of which 
 city he was placed, under Camden, at an 
 early age ; till his mother marrying again to 
 a person who lield the humble occupation of 
 a bricklayer, young Ben, as he was familiarly 
 called, was taken home abruptly by his 
 father-in-law, and employed by him as an 
 assistant in his trade. Tlie ardent spirit of 
 the future poet revolted against his condi- 
 tion; he fled from home and entered the 
 army as a private soldier, in which capacity 
 he served in the English army in Tlanders. 
 On his return he resumed his studies, and 
 went to Cambridge ; but, from the poverty 
 of his circumstances, he was obliged to leave 
 the university and take to the stage. At 
 first he was not very successful, either as an 
 actor or an author ; and having tlie misfor- 
 tune to kill another actor in a duel, he was 
 taken up and imprisoned, and narrowly es- 
 caped with life. On being released from 
 confinement he married, and recommenced 
 writing for the stage, to which he was en- 
 couraged by Shakspeare, who performed in 
 one of his pieces. In 1.5i>8 he i)roduced his 
 comedy of " Every Man in his Humour ; " 
 which was followed by a new play every year, 
 till the reign of James the First, when he 
 was employed in the masques and entertain- 
 ments at court. But, regardless of prudence, 
 Ben joined Chapman and Marston in writing 
 the comedy of " Eastward IJoe," which so 
 grossly libelled the Scotch nation, that the 
 authors were committed to prison, and had 
 they not made a timely and humble sub- 
 mission for the offence, they would have 
 lost their noses and ears in the pillory, ac- 
 cording to^their sentence. By his address, 
 however, he soon contrived to reinstate him- 
 self in the favour of a monarch to whose 
 pleasures the effusions of his muse hud be- 
 come necessary ; and for the remainder of 
 that reign he continued in high favour as a 
 kind of superintendant of the court revels. 
 In 1017 he was appointed poet laureate, with 
 a salary of 1(K)/., and a butt of canary wine 
 yearly from the king's cellars. Want of 
 economy, however, kept him constantly 
 poor ; although, in addition to the royal 
 bounty, he had a pension from the city. He 
 died Aug. 16. lt)37, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a handsome tablet 
 has been erected to his memory in Poet's 
 Corner, inscribed, " O rare Ben Jonson." 
 Dryden, speaking of the great rival drama- 
 tists, says, " Shakspeare was the Homer, or 
 father, of our dramatic poets ; Jonson was 
 the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing ; 
 I admire him, but I love Shakspeare." 
 
 JORDAENS, Jacob, an eminent histori- 
 cal and portrait painter, was a native of 
 Antwerp. He was the son-in-law of "Van 
 Oort, under whom he studied ; he also re- 
 ceived some instruction from Rubens ; and 
 his pictures are executed with correctness 
 and brilliancy. Born, 1594 ; died, 1(>78. 
 
 JORDAN," Camili.e, a statesman of re- 
 volutionary France, was born at Eyons, in 
 1771. He opposed the tyranny of tiie Ja- 
 cobins ; and, as a member of the Convention, 
 he had the courage to defend his city when 
 
 4G5 
 
 it was denounced as the receptacle of assassins 
 and banditti. For his laudable zeal he was 
 twice compelled to seek safety in exile ; and 
 though he returned to France when Buona- 
 parte had subverted the power of the direc- 
 tory, he lived there as a private citizen. 
 After the restoration of the Bourbons, he be- 
 came a member of the chamber of deputies, 
 was decorated with the legion of honour, and 
 ennobled. Died, 1821. 
 
 JORDAN, CiiARLKs Stephkn, a Prussian 
 writer, originally of a French family, was 
 born at Berlin in 1700, and died in 174(5. He 
 wrote " Travels in France, England, and 
 Holland, with Satirical Anecdotes," "A 
 Miscellany of Literature, Philosophy, and 
 History," and the " Life of dc la Croze." 
 
 JORDAN, DoKOTHEA, or Douothy 
 Bland t Jordan being only an assumed 
 name), was born at Waterford, about the 
 year 17(J2 She made her theatrical debut on 
 the Dublin stage, in 1777, in the part of 
 r/utbe, in " As You Like It." In the follow- 
 ing season she appeared at Cork, where she 
 was much admired for her archness and 
 sportive simplicity. In 1782 she came to 
 England, was engaged by Tate Wilkinson, 
 and first appeared at the Leeds Theatre as 
 Culista, in " The Fair Penitent." From 
 Leeds she proceeded to York, where she first 
 played under the name of Mrs. Jordan, by 
 which, thougli never married, she was sub- 
 sequently known. In 1785 she made her 
 first a]>pearance before a London audience 
 at Drury Lane, as I'tavVi '•» " T''C Country 
 Girl ; " arid immediately became such a de- 
 cided favourite, that her salary was doubled, 
 and she was allowed two benefits. At the 
 close of the season, she made a provincial 
 tour, and visited nearly all the large towns 
 in England, everywhere receiving the most 
 enthusiastic welcome from admiring au- 
 diences. When the Duke of Clarence first 
 made overtures to her, she was the mistress 
 of a Mr. Ford ; who refused to make her his 
 wife, through fear of offending his father. 
 Mrs.Jordan then entered into that connection 
 with the duke, which continued in an almost 
 uninterrupted stale of domestic harmony, 
 until it was suddenly broken off in 1811. 
 She was the mother of 10 children by his 
 royal highness ; and it may well be sup- 
 posed that, when his intention of sei^arating 
 from her was disclosed in a letter which she 
 received from him while performing at 
 Cheltenham, the shock was almost too great 
 for her endurance. It has been alleged that 
 state reasons had great weight in. inducing 
 the duke to insist on this separation ; but 
 what was the true cause is still a n>atter of 
 doubt. A yearly allowance of 4400/. was 
 settled on her for the maintenance of herself 
 and daughters ; with a provision that if Mrs. 
 Jordan should resume her profession, the 
 care of the duke's four daughters, together 
 with 1,500Z. per annum allowed for them, 
 should revert to his royal highness. In a 
 few months afterwards she expressed a wish 
 to return to the stage ; and the four children, 
 with the specified allowance for their main- 
 tenance, were surrendered to their royal 
 father. Shortly after tliis she retired to 
 France, under circumstances of great em- 
 barrassment. She gradually sank under the 
 
jor] 
 
 ^ iSeiu Bnibtv^nl 23t05rapl)g, 
 
 [job 
 
 weight of her afflictions ; and, in a state of 
 extreme mental misery, died at St. Cloud, 
 July 3. 1816. Hazlitt, speaking of her at- 
 tractions on the stage, says, " Her face, her 
 tones, her manner, were irresistible. Her 
 smile had the effect of sunshine, and her 
 laugh did one good to hear it. Her voice was 
 eloquence itself ; it seemed as if her heart 
 was always at her moulh. She was all 
 gaiety, openness, and good-nature. She 
 rioted in her line animal spirits, and gave 
 more pleasure than any other actress, be- 
 cause she had the greatest spirit of enjoy- 
 ment in herself." 
 
 JORDAN, Sir JosErii, a gallant English 
 admiral, who by his presence of mind and 
 valour, gained the battle of Solebay, in 1C72. 
 
 JORDAN, Thomas, a dramatic writer in 
 the reign of Charles I. He wrote two 
 comedies and a masque ; and is mentioned 
 by Langbaine with respect. 
 
 JORDANO, LucA, a famous painter, was 
 born at Naples, iu 1632 ; and died there, in 
 1703. 
 
 JORTIN, John. D.D., an eminent scholar 
 and divine, was born in London, in 1698, 
 and educated at Cambridge. Here he ac- 
 quired so high a character for learning and 
 acuteness, that he was employed by Pope to 
 extract the notes from Eustathius, to print 
 with Ills translation of the Iliad. He took 
 orders in 1724; and held successively the 
 livings of Swavesey, St. Dunstan's in the 
 East, and Kensington ; he was also a pre- 
 bendary of St. Paul's and archdeacon of 
 London. His cliief works are, " Discourses 
 concerning the Truth of the Christian Reli- 
 gion," " Miscellaneous Observations upon 
 Authors, ancient and modern," " Remarks 
 upon Ecclesiastical History," " Life of Eras- 
 mus," and 7 volumes of " Sermons and 
 Charges," which were printed after his death. 
 He was simple in manners, liberal in senti- 
 ments, independent in spirit ; and as much 
 beloved for his private virtues, as he was ad- 
 mired for his piety and learning. Died, 1770. 
 
 JOSE, Anto>mo, a Portuguese dramatist, 
 by birth a Jew, who was burnt alive at the 
 last auto-da-f^ in 1745, for having intro- 
 duced in one of his farces a scene, in which 
 a criminal is conversing at the gallows with 
 his confessor, in a style, as may be supposed, 
 not the most edifying. 
 
 JOSEPH I., emperor of Germany, the 
 son of Leopold I., was born at Vienna in 
 1678 ; received the crown of Hungary in 
 1689 ; and was soon after elected king of tlie 
 Romans. He began his reign in 1705, wliich, 
 though short, was troubled by wars in the 
 Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, and 
 Hungary. He revived the imperial chamber; 
 and the Protestants enjoyed toleration and 
 some privileges under his reign. Died, 1711. 
 
 JOSEPH II., emperor of Germajiy, was 
 the son of the emperor Leopold and" Maria 
 Theresa, queen of Hungary. He was crown- 
 ed king of the Romans in 1764 ; the year fol- 
 lowing he succeeded his fatJier ; and in 1780, 
 by the death of the empress-queen, he suc- 
 ceeded to the crown of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia. In 1788, a declaration of war was 
 published against the Turks, and the same 
 year the emperor in person reduced Scha- 
 batz ; but this was followed by a defeat of 
 
 Prince Lichtenstein, who fell in the action. 
 Soon after this a bloody battle was fought 
 between the Imperialists and Turks, on the 
 heights of Rohadin, in which neither could 
 claim the victory. Joseph next made an 
 attempt to possess himself of Belgrade, but 
 without success. But Marshal Laudohn 
 taking upon him the command of the army, 
 took Durbieza andNovi, and in 1789 reduced 
 Belgrade ; soon after whicli, a peace was 
 concluded, chiefly occasioned by the discon- 
 tented spirit in Germany at such a waste of 
 men and treasure. In February following 
 the emperor died of a lingering illness ; and 
 was succeeded by his brother, Peter Leopold, 
 grand-duke of Tuscany. Joseph II. was of 
 a lively disposition, fickle and fond of action : 
 his favourite object was to be sovereign in 
 a peculiar sense, and to manage the great 
 machine of the state entirely himself. Fre- 
 deric the Great, in a letter to Voltaire, thus 
 spoke of him : — "Joseph is an emperor such 
 as Germany has not had for a long time. 
 Educated in splendour, his habits are simple; 
 grown up amidst flattery, he is still modest ; 
 inflamed with a love of glory, he yet sacri- 
 fices his ambition to his duty." 
 
 JOSEPHINE, empress of France and 
 queen of Italy, was born at Martinique in 
 1763, and bore the name from her parents, 
 of Rose Tascher ve la Pagekie. While 
 very young, she was taken by her father to 
 France, to be the bride of the Viscount de 
 Bewiharnois — a marriage having been ar- 
 ranged by the two families when the Mar- 
 quis Beauharnois was governor-general of 
 the Antilles. They were accordingly mar- 
 ried ; and, in the enjoyment of each other's 
 society, they lived beloved and respected, 
 while Josephine became the mother of two 
 children, Eugene and Hortense. Prompted 
 by filial attachment, she went, in 1787, to 
 Martinique, to attend upon her mother in 
 sickness ; and having taken her daughter 
 with her, she remained in the island three 
 years. The sudden rising of the colony, 
 however, obliged her to quit it for France, 
 with such haste, as not to allow of her taking 
 leave of her parent. After effecting her es- 
 cape, and surmounting numerous obstacles, 
 Madame Beauharnois began to experience 
 the horrors of the French revolution ; and 
 soon saw lier husband, who had used every 
 exertion at the head of the French army on 
 the Rhine, dragged to a prison, and thence 
 to the scaffold. She was also included in 
 the list of proscription ; but the death of her 
 husband reduced her to such a state that she 
 could not be removed, and to this circum- 
 stance she owed her deliverance. Robes- 
 pierre at length perished, and the viscountess 
 was delivered from prison by Tallien ; who 
 was never forgotten by her, nor by Eugene, 
 from whom he received a considerable 
 pension till his death. Josephine was in- 
 debted to Barras for the restoration of s 
 part of the property of her hnsband ; and at 
 his house, after the 13th Vendemiaire, she 
 met General Buonaparte, who was desirous 
 of seeing her, in consequence of her son 
 Eugene, then 15 years old, presenting him- 
 self before the general, to solicit that the 
 sword which had belonged to his father 
 might be given to him. Buonaparte from 
 
JOS] 
 
 ^ ^m mnibev^iil Bioaraplbi). 
 
 [jou 
 
 the first was favourably impressed towards 
 the widow ; and his attacliinent strengthen- 
 ing at every succeeding interview, he married 
 her, in 1796. From tliat day it became her 
 practice to encourage him through dangers, 
 and moderate liis feelings in the hour of 
 victory. When her husband was raised to 
 the consulate, her beneficent disi)osition dis- 
 played itself in a thousand ways : to her, 
 many emigrants owed their restoration ; she 
 encouraged the arts, and rewarded industry; 
 her life, in short, was one continued act of 
 benevolence towards her fellow-creatures ; 
 80 that Buonaparte frequently observed to 
 her, " I can win battles, but you win hearts." 
 Her great mind looked to the glory of France, 
 and the fame of her husband, as the two 
 most desirable objects. After Napoleon be- 
 came emperor, a divorce was a subject to 
 which his friends advised him, but which he 
 at first declined. Josephine ha<l been crowned 
 empress of Paris, and queen of Italy at 
 Milan. When Napoleon became desirous of 
 marrying a princess, and she was made ac- 
 quainted with the wishes of the nation re- 
 garding a successor, she nobly resolved to 
 sacrifice her private feelings on the altar of 
 France ; and giving the archduchess, Maria 
 Louisa, credit for all the estimable qualities 
 which she knew were requisite to the hap|)i- 
 ness of Napoleon, she consented to the mar- 
 riage. She, however, would not follow the 
 wishes of her children, who were anxious 
 that she should quit France ; but retired to 
 her beautiful seat of Malmaison, with the 
 title of empress-queen-dowager. After 
 visiting her daughter-in-law, the vice-queen 
 of Italy, she returned to the former scat of 
 her happiness, and pursued her taste for 
 botany. But she was doomed to see the 
 destruction of that throne on which she had 
 once sat ; Napoleon's exile to Elba drew 
 from her expressions of the most poignant 
 regret ; and it was evident to every one 
 that her health was rapidly declining. The 
 allied sovereigns treated her with tlie most 
 respectful distinction. The emperor Alex- 
 ander sent his physician, and visited her 
 often in person ; but a sudden inflammation 
 of the throat terminated her life on the 2i)th 
 of Mav, 1814. 
 
 JOSEPHUS, Flavius, the celebrated his- 
 torian of the Jews, was born at Jerusalem, 
 A. D. 37. His father, Mattathias, was de- 
 scended from the ancient high-priests of the 
 Jews, and his mother was of the Maccabean 
 race. He was early instructed in Hebrew 
 learning, and became an ornament of the 
 sect of the Pharisees, to which he belonged. 
 When 26 years old he visited Rome, for the 
 purpose of obtaining the release of some 
 prisoners whom Felix had sent to the capital ; 
 on which occasion he was introduced to 
 Poppaea, afterwards the wife of Nero ; and, 
 on his return, was made governor of Galilee. 
 He afterwards obtained the command of the 
 Jewish army, and supported with courage, 
 wisdom, and resolution, a siege of 7 weeks, 
 in the fortified town of Jotapata, where he 
 was attacked by Vespasian and Titus. The 
 town was betrayed to the enemy ; 40,000 of 
 the inhabitants were cut to pieces, and 12<J0 
 were made prisoners. Josephus was dis- 
 covered in a cave, where he had concealed 
 
 himself, and given up to the Roman gene- 
 ral, who was about to send him to Nero ; 
 but his life was spared at the intercession 
 of Titus, who became his patron, and whom 
 he accompanied to the siege of Jerusalem. 
 On arriving before the city he was sent to 
 his countrymen with offers of peace, and 
 he advised them to submit to the Romaa 
 power ; but they treated him with con- 
 tumely, and rejected his counsel. At the 
 capture of the city, however, he was enabled 
 to deliver his brother and several of his 
 friends without ransom. He accompanied 
 Titus back to Rome, where he was rewarded 
 with the freedom of the city, and received a 
 pension and other favours from Vespasian 
 and his son ; and, as a mark of gratitude, he 
 then assumed their family name of Flavius. 
 His " History of the Jewish War, and the 
 Destruction of Jerusalem," in 7 books, was 
 composed at the command of Vespasian, 
 and is singularly interesting and atfecting, 
 as the historian was an eye-witness of all he 
 relates. St. Jerome calls him the Livy of 
 the Greeks. His " Jewish Antiquities," in 20 
 books, written in Greek, is a very noble 
 work ; and bis discourse "Upon the Martyr- 
 dom of the Maccabees " is a masterpiece of 
 eloquence. He is supposed to have died 
 about the year 95, but the exact date ia 
 uncertain. 
 
 JOUBERT, Bartholomew Cathekixe, 
 a distinguished French general, was born at 
 Pont de Vaux, in 1709. He was destined by 
 his father for the bar ; but at the age of 15 
 he forsook his studies, and entered the army. 
 His discharge being obtained, he was sent to 
 Lyons to continue his education, and at the 
 beginning of the revolution he was a student 
 at the university of Dijon. In 1791 he en- 
 listed as a volunteer ; and displayed great 
 courage and activity in various situations, 
 he rose rapidly, till by his admirable con- 
 duct under Kellerman, at the battle of Lo- 
 ano, in 1795, he was made general of brigade 
 on the field. In the two following years his 
 bravery and talents were conspicuous on 
 many occasions, particularly in the Tyrol, 
 and he rose to the rank of general of division. 
 He was placed at the head of the French 
 army in Italy in 1799, and fell at the battle 
 of Novi, in that year. He was noted for the 
 boldness, promptitude, and impetuosity of 
 his manoeuvres; and his personal character is 
 said to have been untainted by that rapacity 
 and recklessness which characterised 80 
 many of his comrades. 
 
 JOUBERT, Laukkxt, a learned French 
 physician, was born at Valence, in 1529. He 
 became professor of medicine at Montpelier, 
 and chancellor of the university. His Latin 
 works were printed at Lyons in 1582, folio ; 
 besides which he wrote some medical treatises 
 in French, particularly one on " Laughter ; " 
 and another, entitled " Erreurs Populaires 
 touchant la Medecine," which, owing to its 
 broad humour and a degree of levity that 
 pervaded it, ran through ten editions in six 
 months. Died, 1.583. 
 
 JOUFFROY, Marquis de, who disputes 
 with Fulton the honour of having been the 
 first to apply steam to the purposes of navi- 
 gation, was born in Franche Comte, 1751. 
 He made his first attempt on the Doubs in 
 
JOU] 
 
 ^ ^cii) ^EntljcriSaT I3i05rapl)jj, 
 
 [JOV 
 
 1776, and renewed it with more success on 
 the Saone in 1783 ; but he failed to carry 
 it out through want of means and support. 
 He was no less unsuccessful at Paris in 1816 ; 
 but the academy of sciences acknowledged 
 his claim to the discovery in 1840 ; a distinc- 
 tion with which, wliether merited or other- 
 wise, he could not fail to be gratified. Died, 
 1832. 
 
 JOUFFROY, TiiKonoRE, a distinguished 
 writer on philosophical subjects, and pro- 
 fessor of pliilosophy at Paris ; was bom at 
 Pontets, 179(5. Besides numerous original 
 works, which are in great repute for clear- 
 ness and deptii, he translated into French 
 the writings of Reid and Dugald Stewart ; 
 and his " Cours du Droit Naturel " will be 
 found worthy the most attentive perusal. 
 Died, 1842. 
 
 ' JOURDAIN, Amable Louis Michel 
 Bkechillet, born in 1788, was the son of a 
 celebrated surgeon-dentist at Paris. lie was 
 designed for the law ; but being struck at 
 hearing the splendid eulogies bestowed on 
 Anquetil du Perron, the orientalist, he de- 
 termined on cultivating the same branches 
 of learning for which that great scholar had 
 been distinguished. This he pursued with 
 such success, that the office of adjunct-secre- 
 tary of the school of oriental languages was 
 created in his favour, and he held it till his 
 death. He was a contributor to the Bio- 
 graphic Universelle, and other extensive 
 publications; and author of " La Perse, ou 
 Tableau de I'Uistoire, du Gouvernement, 
 de la Religion, de la Litt^rature, &c. de 
 cet Empire ; " besides some others. Died, 
 1818. 
 
 JOURDAN, Jean Baptiste, Count, mar- 
 shal and peer of France, was born in 1762, 
 at Limoges, wliere his father practised as a 
 surgeon. He entered the military service in 
 1778, and fought in America ; but during the 
 peace he attended to commercial aflairs. In 
 1791 he commanded a battalion of volunteers 
 in the army of the North ; and in 1793 rose 
 to be a general of division. Jourdan received 
 the command of the army of the Moselle, in 
 the place of Iloche, and gained, June, 1794, 
 the victory of Fleurus, by which he became 
 master of Belgium, and drove the allies be- 
 yond the Rhine. In 1803, Napoleon made 
 him general-in-chief of the army in Italy ; 
 and, in 1804, marshal of France, and grand 
 cross of the legion of honour. After losing 
 the decisive battle of Vittoria, June 21st, 
 1813, Jourdan lived in retirement at Rouen : 
 but, in 1814, he was appointed commander of 
 the 15th division. In this station he declared 
 in favour of Louis XVIII., and ever after 
 continued faithful to the Bourbons. Died, 
 1833. 
 
 JOUSSE, Dantel, an eminent French 
 lawyer and mathematician, of the 17th cen- 
 tury. He was a native of Orleans, and in 
 1734 he was installed in the office of coun- 
 sellor of that presidency, which he filled till 
 his death, in 1781. His works are very nu- 
 merous, including " Nouveau Traite de la 
 Sphere," besides many treatises on the mu- 
 nicipal law of France. 
 
 JOUVENCY, Joseph de, a learned Jesuit, 
 born at Paris, in 1643. His principal work 
 is a continuation of the " History of the 
 
 Jesuits." He also wrote a tract, entitled 
 " De Ratione Disceiidi et Docendi ; " and 
 Notes on the principal Latin classics. 
 
 JOUVENET, John, an historical painter, 
 born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1()44, and 
 who studied under Poussin. He was em- 
 ployed to adorn the apartments of Versailles 
 and the Trianon ; he also painted colossal 
 figures of the twelve apostles in the Hospital 
 of the Invalids at Paris. Died, 1717. 
 
 JOUY, Joseph Ede.vxe de, a facile and 
 graceful writer, was bom in 1764, served in 
 America and India, and took part in the 
 first campaign of the revolution. But he 
 soon abandoned the sword for the pen ; and 
 rose to great popularity with his vaudevilles 
 and the librettos which he wrote for Spon- 
 tini, Cherubini, and Rossini. He was also 
 distinguished as a political writer : but he is 
 best known in England for his amusing and 
 satirical work called the " Hermit of the 
 ChaussL-e d'Antin," which was translated 
 into English many years ago. In 1830, Louis 
 Philippe appointed him librarian at the 
 Lou^Te. Died, 1846. 
 
 JOVELLANOS, Dov Gaspar Melchior 
 DE, one of the most distinguished Spaniards 
 of modern times, was born at Gijon, in Astu- 
 rias, in 1744, of an ancient and noble family. 
 He was endowed with splendid talents ; and 
 not only acquired, while at college, an ex- 
 tensive knowledge of jurisprudence, his more 
 especial object, but also made great progress 
 in archaeology, languages, and the belles 
 lettres. He soon became a member of the 
 criminal branch of the audie.ncia in Seville ; 
 and advancing rapidly in his professional 
 career, he was finally appointed to the dig- 
 nified station of member of the council of the 
 military orders at Madrid. About the same 
 time he was entrusted with some important 
 affairs, and nominated counsellor of state, 
 by Charles III. When, in 1794, Spain found 
 herself loaded with debt, Jovellanos pro- 
 posed, for the relief of the national difficul- 
 ties, a tax on the propertv of the higher 
 order of the clergy ; for which he was exiled to 
 the mountains of Asturias, though his pro- 
 ject was afterwards carried into execution. 
 In 1799 he was recalled, and made minister 
 of justice for the interior ; but before twelve 
 months were past, he was dismissed, and 
 banished to the island of Majorca, where he 
 was confined in the convent of the Carthu- 
 sians. After the fall of Godoy, the prince 
 of peace, in 1808, he recovered his liberty, 
 and subsequently became a member of the 
 supreme junta. He was, however, suspected 
 of favouring the French ; and at length, 
 being denounced as a traitor for endeavour- 
 ing to promote their plans for the subjuga- 
 tion of Siiain, he was put to death, in 1812, 
 during a popular insurrection. He wrote 
 " Lyric Poems," " Pelayo," a tragedy ; " The 
 Honourable Delinquent," a comedy ; several 
 works on subjects connected with political 
 economy ; and translated Milton's Paradise 
 Lost. 
 
 JOVIANITS, FLAvirs Claudius, a Roman 
 emperor, was born in Pannonia, of a noble 
 family, in 331. He was elected emperor by 
 the Roman soldiers after the death of Julian, 
 but refused the dignity unless they would 
 become Chiistians, to which they consented. 
 
JOV] 
 
 ^ ilth} Bnibtv^Kl ^iaQvn^\)\j, 
 
 [JUD 
 
 He died, after reigning seven montlis, owing 
 to the suffocating vai)Our of burning cliar- 
 coal in his room, in 808. 
 
 JOVINIAN, an Italian monk of the 4th 
 century, who was i>erseeuted for teaching 
 the rational doctrine, that all those who 
 adhered to the vows made at their baptism, 
 and led a life of piety and temperance, were 
 equally entitled to the rewards of futurity, 
 as those who passed their days in monkish 
 celibacy and self-inflicted mortiflcatiou. Ue 
 was banished, and died about 415. 
 
 JOVIUS, Fait., or P.volo Giovio, a ce- 
 lebrated Italian historian, was born at 
 Como, in 1483 ; studied medicine at Pavia 
 and Milan ; relinquished that profession for 
 the composition of history ; but finally took 
 orders, and was bishop of Nocera at the time 
 of his death, in 15.52. Living at the court of 
 the pope, then the capital of Christendom, 
 he became personally acquainted with many 
 individuals of the first importance in his- 
 tory, or other eye-witnesses, from whom he 
 gathered information ; still when it is recol- 
 lected tliat he used to boast of possessing 
 pens of iron aud gold, which he used as oc- 
 casion required, his writings should be read 
 with great caution, His best work is " His- 
 toria sui Temporis." 
 
 JOY, Right Hon. Hexkv, an able Irish 
 judge, was called to the bar in 1788, and 
 after enjoying high reputation as a counsel, 
 filled the office of attorney-general, and in 
 18.'il succeeded Lord Ouillamore as chief 
 baron. Among the " sayings " of Lord Nor- 
 bury, the following is related : — Being once 
 requested by Mr. Hope, the attorney, to wait 
 a few minutes for Mr. Joy, his leading 
 counsel in a nisi prius ctisc just then culled 
 on, his lordship did so until his small stock 
 of patience was exhausted ; then exclaim- 
 ing, "Hope told a flattering tale, that Joy 
 would soon return," ordered the next case 
 in rotation to be proceeded with. Born, 
 1767 ; died, 1838. 
 
 JOYCE, Jeuemiah, an ingenious and in- 
 dustrious writer, whose profession was that 
 of a dissenting minister, was born in 17ri4 ; 
 and first attracted public jiotice as one of the 
 persons included in the state prosecution 
 with Hardy, Ilorue Tooke, Thclwall, and 
 others for treason. He was the coadjutor of 
 Dr. Gregory in the compilation of his 
 " CyclopsEdia," and subsequently produced 
 another on a similar plan, which goes by the 
 mame of Nicholson. He was also the author 
 of " Scientific Dialogues," " Dialogues on 
 Chemistry," " Letters on Natural Philoso- 
 phy," &c. Died, 1816. 
 
 JUAN, or Don Johx of Austuia, a na- 
 tural son of the emperor Charles V., and the 
 great military hero of his age, was born at 
 Ratisbon, in 1546. His mother is said to 
 have been a lady named Barbara Blomberg ; 
 but this is doubtful, and a singular veil of 
 mystery hangs over his maternal parentage. 
 He was first employed, in 1570, against the 
 Moors of Grenada, and acquired great fame 
 by their subjugation. He also signalised 
 himself by a memorable victory over the 
 Turks, in 1571, in the gulf of Lepanto ; as 
 well as by the conquest of Tunis and other 
 places on the Africim coast. In 1576 he went 
 to i'laudcrs, took Namur by stratagem, and 
 
 succeeded in reducing the insurgents to obe • ; 
 dience. Died, l.W". j 
 
 JUAN II,, Don, a natural son of Philip 
 IV. of Spain, and of Maria Calderona, an 
 actress, was born in 1629 ; made grand prior 
 of Castile ; commanded the Si)anish army in 
 Italy, 1647, and took the city of Naples ; sub- , 
 jugaled Barcelona in 16.'.2, but being af- 
 terwards unsuccessful, was exiled. Under ^ 
 Charles II. he was recalled to Madrid, 
 made prime minister, and died in 1679. I 
 
 JUAN Y SANTICILIA, Don Geoiioe, a ; 
 learned Spanish mathemotician and naval 
 oflBcer, was born at Orihuela, in 1712. His 
 progress in mathematics was so great that, 
 while a student in Carthagena, he obtained j 
 the appellation of Euclid ; and, entering the j 
 nuval service early, his reputation as a scien- J 
 tific man occasioned his appointment, with ; 
 Antonio de UUoa, to accompany Bouguer j 
 and La Condamine to Peru, in 1735, to ; 
 measure a degree of tlie meridian at the j 
 equator. He afterwards directed much of 
 his attention to marine architecture, and 
 his exertions to improve the Spanish nav^ 
 were highly successful. He published his 
 "Observations on Astronomy and Physics, 
 made in Peru," and treatises on navigation 
 and ship-building. Died, 1774. 
 
 JUBA, a king of Numidia and Maurita- 
 nia, M'ho was an ally of Pompey against 
 Julius Cajsar. After the battle of Pharsa- 
 lia, he joined his forces to those of Scii)io ; 
 but being totally defeated at Thapsus, he 
 put an end to his own life, and his kingdom 
 became a Roman province. 
 
 JUBA II., king of Numidia, son of the 
 preceding, was, when a lx)y, led as a captive 
 to Rome to adorn the triumph of Caesar ; but 
 the Roman conqueror bestowed on him an 
 excellent education, and he became one of 
 the most learned men of his time. He gained 
 the hearts of the Romans by the courteous- 
 ness of his manners, and was in great favour 
 with Augustus, who gave him the daughter 
 of Antony in marriage, and made him king 
 of Ga:tulia ; of which dignity he proved him- 
 self worthy, by governing his dominions with 
 justice and lenity. He was also an able and 
 prolific author, as appears by Pliny, Strabo, 
 Plutarch, and other writers, who allude to 
 his histories of the Arabians, Assyrians, and 
 Romans ; his treatises on the fine arts ; and 
 his natural history ; of all M'hich a few 
 fragments only have been preserved. He 
 died, A. D. 24. The Athenians erected a 
 statue to liis memory, and the Ethiopians 
 paid him divine honours. 
 
 JUDAU CIIING, a learned Jewish rabbi, 
 was born at Fez, studied among the Ara- 
 bians, and practised as a physician in 1040. 
 He was the author of several works in the 
 Hebrew language, and was considered by 
 the Jews as the restorer of their language, 
 and styled the " prince of grammarians." 
 
 JUDAH, Hakkadosh, or "Jehudah the 
 Holy," a famous rabbi, who lived in the 
 reign of Marcus Antoninus, to whom he was 
 preceptor, and by whose command he com- 
 piled the Mischna, or first Talmud, being a 
 digest of the oral law of the Jews. 
 
 JUDAH,LKo,alearned Protestant divine, 
 was born in Alsace, in 1482. Being sent to 
 Basle to complete his academical studies, he 
 
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 ^ ^cio Winiijtv^al MwQtKpX)^. 
 
 [JUN 
 
 became awiuainted with Zuin lius, from 
 whom he imbibed those principles whieli led 
 to liis embracing the reformed faith. He 
 became pastor of the churcli of St. Peter at 
 Zurich, wJiere he undertook a translation of 
 the Old Testament, from the Hebrew into 
 Latin, but did not live to complete it. Died, 
 1542. 
 
 JUDAS LEVITA, or HALLE VI, a Jew- 
 ish rabbi, was born in Spain, in 1090. He 
 was remarkable for his great learning, and 
 distinguislied himself as a poet, grammarian, 
 and philosopher. It is related of him, that 
 when on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, as he 
 approached tlie holy city, he rent his gar- 
 ments, and recited aloud lamentations for the 
 miseries of his people, which so enraged a 
 Mahometan horseman, that he rode over him 
 and trampled him to death. 
 
 JUEL, Nicholas, a Danish admiral, who 
 learned liis profession under Van Tromp 
 and De Ruyter, in the Dutch navy ; after 
 which he returned to his native country, 
 and greatly distinguished himself, in 1659, 
 during the siege of Copenhagen. In 1676 
 and 1(577 he took Gothland, and defeated the 
 Swedes in several engagements. He died in 
 1097, not less respected for his modCsty and 
 piety, than honoured for his bravery. 
 
 JUGURTUA, king of Numidia, was the 
 son of Manastabal. He was endowed by 
 nature with superior talents, and was re- 
 markable for manly strength and personal 
 beauty. Formed for a soldier, his valour 
 and conduct won the esteem of the Roman 
 army, and the friendship of Scipio ; but 
 involving himself in intrigues and crimes 
 to obtain the Numidian crown, the Roman 
 senate sent the celebrated Metellus against 
 him, who conquered him in a great battle, 
 and rejected all his bribes. AVheu on tlie 
 point of signing a shameful peace, and sur- 
 rendering to the Romans, Jugurtha, through 
 fear that they might inflict vengeance on 
 him for his former crimes, suddenly clianged 
 his resolution, and determined once more 
 to abide tlie worst. The king of Mauritania, 
 his allj', having concluded a peace with 
 the Romans, Sylla persuaded him to draw 
 Jugurtha into his power, and deliver him up 
 to the Romans. He was accordingly seized, 
 and sent in chains, to Marius, at Cirta. Thus 
 the war was ended, and Numidia became a 
 Roman province, jugurtha, having suftered 
 many insults from the people, was thrown 
 into a dark prison, and starved to death after 
 six days, b. c. 10(5. 
 
 JULIAN, Flavius Claudius, sumamed 
 the Apostate, a Roman emperor, was the 
 youngest son of Constantius, brotlier of 
 Constantine the Great. He was born in 
 331, educated in the tenets of Christianity, 
 but apostatised to paganism. In 335 he was 
 declared Cmsar, and sent to Gaul, where he 
 obtained several victories over the Germans; 
 and, in 3(51, the troops in Gaul revolted 
 from Constantius, and declared for Julian. 
 During the lifetime of his cousin, Constan- 
 tius, lie made a profession of the ortliodox 
 faitli ; but, on succeeding to the throne, he 
 threw off all disguise, re-opened the heathen 
 temples, and sought to restore the heathen 
 worship in all its splendour ; while he 
 laboured, both by his pen and authority, to 
 
 destroy Christianity. He took from the j 
 Christian churches their riches, which were I 
 often very great, and divided them among | 
 his soldiers. He sought likewise to induce | 
 the Christians, by flattery or by favour, to ' 
 embrace paganism ; but failing in the at- j 
 tempt, he shut up their schools, prohibited 
 the followers of that religion from teaehlvg, ! 
 and ordered by an edict that the name of j 
 Christian should be abolished. His malice i 
 was farther evinced, by an extraordinary j 
 indulgence to the Jews, and an attemxjt to j 
 rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, that the 
 prophecy of Christ miglit be falsified ; but 
 it is said that flames of fire rose from be- 
 neath, and consumed some of the workmen, 
 by which miraculous interposition the design 
 was frustrated. He did not long survive 
 this disappointment, being killed in 363, in 
 liis expedition against the Persians. The 
 cliaracter of Julian is full of contradictions. 
 He displayed learning, magnanimity, jus- 
 tice, and mercy ; yet we find him insincere, 
 superstitious, vain, and ambitious. No 
 wonder, then, that historians have passed 
 such opposite judgments on him. 
 
 JULIEN, PiEURE, an eminent French 
 sculptor, many of wliose productions adorn 
 the metropolis of France, and whose chef- 
 d'auvre is " The Dying Gladiator." Born, 
 1731 ; died, 1804. 
 
 JULIEN, SiMOX, a Swiss painter, who 
 by his brother artists was called tlie Apos- 
 tate, in allusion to the Roman emperor of 
 the same name, as well as to his abandon- 
 ment of the French school of painting for 
 the Italian. Born, 173(5 ; died, 1799. 
 
 JULIUS I., Pope, succeeded to the papal 
 see on tlie death of Mark, in t37. Celebrated 
 for the part he took in the Athanasian con- 
 troversy. Died, 352. 
 
 JULIUS II., Pope, nephew of SixtusIV., 
 was born in 1443. He is said to have, at one 
 period of his life, followed the occujjation of 
 a waterman. He was remarkable for his 
 wars, and his patronage of the arts. During 
 his pontificate, the rebuilding of St. Peter's 
 was commenced. Died, 1613. 
 
 JUI/IUS III., Pope, previously known as 
 Cardinal Monte, was chamberlain to Julius 
 II., whose name he consequently assumed. 
 He took little part in public business, but led 
 a life of indolence at the villa still known by 
 his name. Died, 1555. 
 
 JUNGE, or JUNGIUS, Joachim, an emi- 
 nent philosopher of the 17th century, was 
 born at Lubeck, in 1687, and distinguished 
 himself as an able antagonist of the Aris- 
 totelian philosophy. Like his great con- 
 temporary. Lord Bacon, he substituted ex- 
 periment in the place of idle and antiquated 
 theories ; and is ranked by Leibnitz as equal 
 to Copernicus and Galileo, and but little 
 inferior to Descartes. Among his works 
 are " Geometria Empirica," " Doxoscopiae 
 Physicffi Minores," and " Isagoge Pliyto- 
 scope," from which latter work Ray and 
 Linnaaus appear to have taken some valu- 
 able hints. Died, 1657. 
 
 JUNIUS, Adbian, an eminent physician 
 and a classical writer, was born at Hoom, 
 in Holland, in 1512. He studied medicine 
 at Paris and Bologna ; after which he 
 visited England, and became physician to j 
 
jun] 
 
 ^ l^etD Winibtv^^l Miastnp\)\}, 
 
 [jus 
 
 the Duke of Norfolk. While here he pub- 
 lished a Greek aud Latiu lexicon, which 
 the court of Rome condemned, because it 
 was dedicated to Edward TI. On leaving 
 England he went to Copenhagen, as phy- 
 sician to the king of Denmark ; but soon 
 quitted that place and settled at Haarlem, 
 wliere he was made principal of the college. 
 His translations from, and criticisms on, 
 ancient authors are very numerous ; and 
 he was considered inferior only to Erasmus 
 as a scholar. DiAl, 1575. 
 
 JUNIUS, Fkancis, a learned French 
 Protestant divine, was born at Bourges in 
 1.545. He became minister of the Walloon 
 church at Antwerp, after which he officiated 
 as chaplain in the army of the Prince of 
 Orange ; and, on leaving that service, ob- 
 tained a professorship at Heidelberg, from 
 wlience he removed to Leyden, where he 
 died of the plague, in liJOii. He wrote Com- 
 mentaries on the Scriptures ; but is best 
 known by his Latin version of the Bible, 
 jointly with Tremellius. 
 
 JUNIUS, Fkancis, son of the preceding, 
 and eminent as a philologist, was born at 
 Heidelberg, in 158t». After studying at 
 Leyden, he came to England in 1G20, and 
 found a patron in the Earl of Arundel, with 
 whom he resided 30 years as librarian, and 
 died in 1677. His principal works are, " Olos- 
 sarium Oothicum in tiuatuor Evangelia 
 Gothica," " De Pictura Veterum, " and 
 " Etymologicum Anglicanum." 
 
 JUNOT, Anuociie, duke of Abrantes, a 
 distinguished French general, was born in 
 1771, and entered the army, as a volunteer, 
 in 1791. He first attracted the notice of 
 Buonaparte by his coolness and courage 
 when serving as a lieutenant at the siege of 
 Toulon ; and in 180(5 he made him colonel- 
 general of hussars, aud appointed him to 
 the command of Paris. In the following 
 year he was placed at the head of the army 
 in Portugal, where he remained two years, 
 and was honoured with his ducal title ; but 
 being defeated at the battle of Vimiera by 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley (the Duke of U'elliiig- 
 ton), he was compelled to capitulate. He 
 subsequently served in Spain, and was 
 made governor of the lUyrian provinces. 
 Died, 1813. 
 
 JUNOT, Madame, Duchess of Abrantes, 
 wife of the celebrated French general, was 
 from her infancy intimate with Napoleon. 
 Her estates being confiscated in 1814, the 
 emperor Alexander offered their restoration, 
 on condition of her becoming a naturalised 
 Russian. She refused, and remained in 
 Paris, living quite literally by the labours 
 of her pen. The best known of her writings 
 are the celebrated " Memoirs," which had a 
 prodigious run. But she experienced the 
 only too common fate of authors ; harassed 
 by creditors, she retired to a maison de 
 sante; where she died, iu 1838. 
 
 JURIEU, Petek, a French Protestant 
 divine and theologian, was born in 1G37. 
 He studied jn England, under his maternal 
 uncle, Peter du Moulin ; and, while here, 
 was episcopally ordained ; but the French 
 Protestants disapproving of episcopal ordi- 
 nation, he was re-ordained according to 
 the form of Geneva, lie filled the chair of 
 
 divinity at Sedan with reputation ; but, 
 when that university was taken from the 
 Protestants, he retired to Holland, and 
 settled at Rotterdam, where he became a 
 violent polemic, and engaged in some fierce 
 contentions with Bayle and others. Finding 
 that his work on the " Accomplishment 
 of the Prophecies " produced many severe 
 replies, and bein^ also greatly chagrined by 
 the decisions of the synods against some of 
 his doctrines, he grew hypochondriacal, 
 and died in 1713. His principal works are 
 a " Preservative against Popery," " I^a Poli- 
 tique du ClergtS" "L'Accomplissement des 
 Prophfetes," "Histoire de Calvinisme et du 
 Papisme," 3 vols., and " Histoire des Dog- 
 mes et des Cultes," 2 vols. His learning was 
 unquestionably great, but it was obscured 
 by an intolerant and litigious temper. 
 
 JURIN, James, an English phj'sician and 
 mathematician, was born in 1(584 ; studied 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
 obtained a fellowship ; was afterwards phy- 
 sician to Guy's Hospital ; was several years 
 secretary to the Royal Society ; and died, 
 in 1750, president of the College of Physi- 
 cians. He published " Physico-Mathemati- 
 cal Dissertations," an " Essay upon Distinct 
 and Indistinct Vision," and a translation of 
 Varenius's Geography. He also contributed 
 many papers on philosophical and mathe- 
 matical subjects to the Philosoi)hical Trans- 
 actions ; and was a warm defender of the 
 practice of inoculation, and a zealous advo- 
 cate for the Newtonian system. 
 
 JUSSIEU, De ; AxTHoNY, Bernard, and 
 Joseph ; three eminent French botanists 
 and ])hysicians. The first was bom at Lyons 
 in 1(58(5, and died in 1758. He enriched the 
 memoirs of the academy of sciences at Paris 
 with several valuable papers, the result of 
 observations made in his travels, on botany 
 and mineralogy. He also wrote the appendix 
 to Toucnefort, and abridged Barrelier's work 
 upon the plants of France, Spain, and Italy ; 
 he was likewise the author of a " Discourse 
 
 on the Progress of Botany." Berxard, 
 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Lyons 
 in 1699, and died in 177(5. He published an 
 edition of Tournefort's History of Plants 
 about Paris, and was the author of a book, 
 entitled " The Friend of Humanity, or the 
 advice of a good Citizen to the Nation." 
 He was botanical demonstrator at the king's 
 garden, and was much esteemed by Louis , 
 XV. Cuvier calls him " the most modest, ' 
 and, perhaps, the most profound, botanist of 
 the 18th century, who, although he scarcely 
 published any thing, is nevertheless the in- 
 spiring genius of modern botanists." The 
 
 third brother, Joseph, who was also a mem- 
 ber of the academy of sciences at Paris, and 
 accompanied Condamine to Peru, in 1735. 
 He was not only a good naturalist and phy- 
 sician, but an excellent engineer. He pub- 
 lished a journal of his voyages, and died 
 in 1779. 
 
 JUSTEL, Christopher, a French states- 
 man and juridical writer of the 17th century, 
 was born in 1.580, and died in 1G49. He was 
 well acquainted with ecclesiastical antiqui- 
 ties and the canon law, respecting which he 
 published several learned works, and left 
 valuable MS. collections. — His son IIenkit 
 
jus] 
 
 ^ |5ciu ^uiber^al 3Siocjrajpi)i). 
 
 [JUV 
 
 sent his father's MSS. to the university of 
 Oxford, for which he was complimented 
 with the degree of LL.D. On tlie revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes, he came to I^on- 
 doii, and was appointed keeper to the king's 
 library. lie published, chiefly from his 
 father's collection, "Bibliotheca Canonici 
 veteris," 2 vols, folio, and also some able 
 works of his own. Born, 1020 ; died, 1093. 
 
 JUSTI, Joiix IIknry Gottlob de, an 
 eminent German mineralogist, who, after 
 gaining some literary reputation at the uni- 
 versity of Jena in 1720, enlisted as a common 
 soldier in the Prussian service. He rose to 
 the rank of lieutenant ; was cashiered and 
 imprisoned for instibordination, but made 
 his escape to Leipsic, and maintained him- 
 self by writing for the press. In 1755 he 
 became professor of political economy and 
 natural history at Gottingen ; but having 
 written two freely on the Prussian govern- 
 ment, was arrested, and ended his days a 
 prisoner in the fortress of Gastrin, in 1771. 
 He was the author of a " Treatise on Money," 
 a " Treatise on Mineralogy, " " Miscellanies 
 on Chemistry and Mineralogy, " and " A 
 Complete Treatise on Manufactures." 
 
 JUSTIN, a Liitin historian, who probably 
 lived at Rome in the 2nd or 3rd century. 
 He made an epitome of the history of Trogus 
 Pompeius, a native of Gaul, who lived in the 
 time of Augustus, and whose works, in 44 
 books, contain a history of the world, from 
 the earliest ages to hisowntime. Justin has 
 been illustrated by the most able commen- 
 tators, and particularlv by Gravius. 
 
 JUSTIN, St., a Christian philosopher and 
 martyr in the 2nd century, was a native of 
 Sichem, in Samaria. A persecution break- 
 ing out against the Christians, under Antoni- 
 nus, Justin presented to tliat emperor, an 
 admirable apology in their behalf, which 
 had the desired effect. He afterwards ad- 
 dressed another apology to Marcus Aurelius, 
 in which he defended those of his religion 
 against the calumnies of Crescens, a Cynic 
 philosopher. For this, and his neglect of 
 Pagan worship, he was condemned to be 
 scourged and then beheaded, which sentence 
 was put in execution, a.d. 104, iu the 75th 
 year of his age. 
 
 JUSTINIAN I., surnamed the Great, ne- 
 phew of Justin I., emperor of the East, and 
 celebrated as a lawgiver, was born in 483, of 
 an obscure family. He shared the fortunes 
 of his uncle, who, from a common Tliracian 
 peasant, was raised to the imperial throne ; 
 and at whose death, in 527, he obtained the 
 exclusive sovereignty. He was then in his 
 45th year, and distinguished for his devo- 
 tional austerity ; but immediately upon his 
 elevation he solemnly espoused Theodora, 
 an actress and courtezan, whose influence 
 over him was unbounded. During the reign 
 of Justinian many conquests were made by 
 his brave general Belisarius. In 523 and 
 529 he obtained three glorious victories over 
 the Persians ; in 534 hedestroj'ed the empire 
 of the Vandals in Afri(;a ; Spain and Sicily 
 were reconquered ; and the Ostrogoths, who 
 possessed Italy, were vanquished. The prin- 
 cipal event, however, which has rendered 
 the reign of Justinian interesting to pos- 
 terity, was tlie celebrated reformation of the 
 
 Roman jurisprudence. He commissioned 
 Tribonian, aided by other learned civilians, 
 to form a new code from his own laws and 
 those of his predecessors. To this code Jus- 
 tinian added the "Pandects," the "Insti- 
 tute," and the " Novelise," since called, col- 
 lectively, the body of civil law {corpus juris 
 civib's). He likewise embellished the capital 
 with numerous magnificent churches, among 
 which is the celebrated Sancta Sophia, now 
 subsisting as the principal mosque in Con- 
 stantinople. Bridges, aqueducts, hospitals, 
 fortresses, and other public works, were also 
 undertaken throughout the various pro- 
 vinces of the empire. But towards the end 
 of his life he became avaricious, oppressed 
 the people with taxes, and lent a willing ear 
 to every accusation ; and at length, full of 
 cares and disquietudes, he died in 505, after a 
 reign of 38 years, and iu the 83rd of his age. 
 
 JUSTINIAN II. was the elder son of 
 Constantine Pogonatus, whom he succeeded 
 in 085. He recovered several provinces from 
 the Saracens, and made an advantageous 
 peace with them ; but his exactions, cruel- 
 ties, and debaucheries tarnished the glory 
 of his arms. He was slain, with his son 
 Tiberius, in 711, by Philippicus Bardanes, 
 his successor, 
 
 JUSTINIANI, AuGusTiN, bishop of Neho, 
 in Corsica, was a prelate of distinguished 
 literary abilities. He was the author of " An- 
 nates de Republica Geuoensi ; " a " Psalter 
 in Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Chaldee, 
 with Latin notes," &c., being the first of the 
 kind that ever appeared in print. He 
 perished in a voyage from Corsica to Genoa, 
 in 1530. 
 
 JUSTINIANI, St. Lawrence, the first 
 patriarch of Venice, was born there in 1381 ; 
 died in 1485 ; and was canonised by pope 
 Alexander VIII. in 1090. He was the author 
 of several devotional works, which were 
 printed in 2 vols, folio, with a life by his 
 nephew. 
 
 JUSTINIANI, Berxakd, nephew of the 
 preceding, was born at Venice, in 1408 ; was 
 employed in several important missions by 
 Calixtus III. ; wrote a history of Venice, 
 which has been considered the first regular j 
 attempt of the kind, and the life of his uncle, 
 Lawrence the patriarch ; and died in 1489. 
 
 JUVENAL, Decius Junius, a Latin poet, 
 remarkable for the caustic severity of his 
 satires, was born at Aquinum in Campania, | 
 about the beginning of the reign of Claudius. | 
 He studied rhetoric under the most cele- j 
 brated masters, and became an eminent ] 
 pleader at the bar, but satire was his forte, i 
 His first essay as a poetical satirist was di- 
 rected against the player Paris, wlio was the I 
 minion of Domitian ; for which he was sent I 
 into an honourable kind of exile, by being j 
 made commander of a cohort at Pentapolis, 
 on the borders of Egypt. On Domitian's I 
 death he returned to Rome, where he died j 
 in his SOtli year, a. i>. 128. He may be said | 
 to have been the last of the Roman poets, i 
 and as the bold and unflinching castigator j 
 of vice he stands without a rival. Good as j 
 are his intentions, however, and forcible as ; 
 are his denunciations, the moral indelicacy ' 
 of the age in which he lived renders the 
 satires of Juvenal too gross in their details I 
 
JDV] 
 
 ^ J2eU) ?0[nitjcr^al J)i0ijrajjTjy' 
 
 [kal 
 
 for readers of the present day. Able trans- 
 lations have been made by Dryden, Gif- 
 ford, &c. 
 
 JUVENCUS, Caius Vectius Aquilinus, 
 one of the first Cliristian poets, was a native 
 of Spain, and lived in the reign of Constan- 
 tine. His performance is a life of Christ 
 in Latin verue, entitled." Uistorias Evan- 
 gelicw." 
 
 JUXON, William, an English prelate, of 
 distinguished learning and piety, was born 
 at Chichester in l.Wi. He was educated at 
 Merchant Tailors' School, and St. John's 
 College, Oxford ; was patronised by Laud ; 
 and, through his influence, obtained tlie 
 bishopric of Hereford in Ui3S, and of London 
 in the same year. In 1G35 he was made lord 
 high treasurer of England, an office which 
 no churchman had held since the reign of 
 Henry VIII. This gave great offence to the 
 puiitaos ; but, ou his resignation of the office. 
 
 atler having held it something less than six 
 years, the integrity and ability with which 
 he had discliarged its various duties were 
 admitted on all hands. During the whole 
 of the civil wars he maintained an unshaken 
 fidelity to the king, whom he attended 
 during his imprisonment in the Isle of Wight, 
 and on the scaffold ; on which occasion he 
 received from the hand of Charles, the mo- 
 ment previous to his execution, his diamond 
 George, with directions to forward it to liis 
 son. After the king's death, the parliament 
 threw him into confinement for contumacy 
 in refusing to disclose the particulars of his 
 conversation with the king ; but he was soon 
 released, and continued to live in privacy 
 until the Restoration. He was then raised 
 to the see of Canterbury, but did not long 
 enjoy the honours and emoluments of the 
 primacy, his death occurring about two 
 years after his elevation, in 1G63. 
 
 K. 
 
 KAAB, a celebrated Arabian poet, con- 
 temporary with Mahomet, whom he at first 
 strenuously opposed, but afterwards eulo- 
 gised. As a reward for writing a poem in 
 his favour, tlic prophet gave him his green 
 mantle, wliich one of the descendants of 
 Kaab sold for 10,000 pieces of silver. Died, 
 6G2. 
 
 KAAS, Nicholas, an eminent Danish 
 statesman, was born in 15S5, and studied in 
 the universities of Germany. In l.j73he was 
 made chancellor of Denmark ; and, on the 
 deatli of king Frederic II. in ]o88, he was 
 nominated to fill tlie situation of first regent 
 during the minority of Christian I. Being 
 attacked with a mortal disease previous to 
 the coronation of that prince, he sent for 
 him as he lay ou his death-bed, and telling 
 him that he had promised his royal father 
 in his last moments, to do all he could to 
 see the crown placed on the head of his son, 
 he gave him the key of the place where the 
 crown and other regalia were kept, saying, 
 " Take it in the name of God, and wear the 
 crown with glory, sway the sceptre with 
 wisdom and clemency, bear the sword with 
 justice, and keep the globe with judgment." 
 Died, 159-1. 
 
 KABllIS, Joseph, a French sailor, who, 
 being taken prisoner by the English in the 
 last war, obtained permission to enter on 
 board a South Sea whaler, and being wrecked 
 on the coast of the island of Noukahiwa, in 
 the Pacific Ocean, fell into the hands of the 
 cannibal inhabitants. While preparations 
 were making for his intended fate, and his 
 doom appeared inevitable, he was saved by 
 the intercession of the king's daughter, who 
 shortly after became his wife. Being now 
 allied to royalty, he was made chief judge 
 of the island, which office he exercised with 
 reputation and comparative ease, owing to 
 the simplicity of their legal institutions. 
 Nine years thus passed away, and Kabria 
 
 lived in the enjoyment of domestic happiness, 
 when he was carried off, as he stated, while , 
 asleep, by the Kussian navigator, Captain ' 
 Krusenstcrn. On returning to France in 
 1817, he exhibited himself to the public at 
 Paris and elsewhere, his face being tattooed i 
 in the New Zealand style. His object was ! 
 to raise money, to enable him to return to i 
 his wife and family at Noukahiwa ; but, 
 while travelling for this purpose, he died , 
 suddenly at Versailles, in 1822. | 
 
 K^EMPFEll, ExcJELBUECiiT, a celebrated | 
 physician, naturalist, and traveller, was ' 
 born at Lemgo, in Westphalia, in 1651 ; 1 
 studied at Dantzic, Thorn, and Cracow; per- ' 
 formed a journey, in 108.3, as secretary to a j 
 Swedish embassy, by land through Russia 
 and Persia ; after which he visited Arabia, | 
 nindostan, Java, Sumatra, Siam, and Japan, I 
 in which last country he resided two years. I 
 In 1692 he returned to his native country, ' 
 took his degree of M. D. at Leydcn, and 
 entered upon medical practice. He was the ! 
 author of a " History of Japan," 2 vols, folio; 
 »' Amo-'nitates Exoticas," &c. Died, 1716. 
 
 KAESTNER, Abhaham Gotthelk, a 
 mathematician, astronomer, and poet, was 
 boru in 1719, at Leipsic ; and filled the situ- 
 ation of professor of mathematics at Got- 
 tingen, with the highest reputation for more 
 than 40 years. His scientific works are ex- 
 tremely numerous, of which the principal 
 is a " History of Mathematics." Died, 1799. 
 
 KALB, Baron de, a major-general in the 
 American army, was born in Germany, 
 about the year 1717. He entered into the 
 French service when young, and continued 
 in it 42 years. In 1757, during the war be- 
 tween Great Britain and France, he was sent 
 by the French government to the American 
 colonies, in order to see with what effect the 
 seeds of discontent against the mother coun- 
 try might be sown among them. While in 
 the performance of this commission he was i 
 
kal] 
 
 ^ ^cto Winibtv^Kl 2SiDgrapT)i). 
 
 KAT 
 
 seized as a suspected person, hut escaped 
 detection, lie then went to Canada, where 
 he remained until its conquest by the British, 
 after which he returned to France. During 
 the war of the revolution he otfered his ser- 
 vices to tlie congress, which were accepted, 
 and he was soon after made a major-general. 
 On the 15th of August, 1778, when Lord 
 Rawdon defeated General Gates, near Cam- 
 den, the baron commanded the right wing 
 of the American army, and fell covered with 
 wounds. 
 
 KALCKREUTII, Fkedekic Adolfhus, 
 Count of, a Prussian field-marshal, was born 
 at Eisleben in 1737 ; entered the army in 
 1751 ; served with distinction in the seven 
 years' war ; arrived, step by step, at the 
 rank of general, and was made a count in 
 1788. His courage and ability were often 
 conspicuously shown in the war with France; 
 he took Mayence in 179.S ; had the chief 
 command of the troops in Pomerania, in 
 1705 ; was appointed governor of Thorn 
 and Dantzic, and made inspector-general of 
 cavalry in 1800 : concluded with Berthier, 
 at Tilsit, the truce between Prussia and 
 France, in 1807 j after which, in conjunction 
 with Golz, he concluded a peace with Tal- 
 leyrand. He was then made field-marshal, 
 was appointed governor of Berlin in 1810, 
 and died in 1818. 
 
 KALDI, Geouge, a learned Jesuit, was 
 born in Hungary about 1572. He was ba- 
 nished from Transylvania with the rest of 
 his order ; on which he became professor of 
 theology at Olmutz, and next at Presburg, 
 where he died in 16.34. He translated the 
 Bible from the Vulgate into the Hungarian 
 tongue. 
 
 KALE, or KALF, Williasi, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Amsterdam in 1630. 
 He had the power of Rembrandt in distri- 
 buting his light and shade, while ia cor- 
 rectness and delicacy he equalled Teniers. 
 Died, 1693. 
 
 KALKBRENNER, Christian, an emi- 
 nent musical composer, was born in 1756, at 
 Munden, in Prussia ; was a pupil of Emanuel 
 Bach; and having made considerable progress 
 both in the theoretical and practical branches 
 of the profession, entered the service of Prince 
 Henry of Prussia, and finally settled in 
 Paris, where liis reputation obtained him the 
 appointment of singing-master to the aca- 
 demy of music, which he held till his death, 
 in 1806. He was the author of several operas, 
 two musical treatises, &c. 
 
 KALKBRENNER, Christian Fred., a 
 distinguished pianist, sou of the above, was 
 born at Cassel, 1784. Having acquired, at an 
 early age, a high reputation as a brilliant per- 
 former on the pianoforte, he removed in 1806 
 to Paris, whence he made frequent profes- 
 sional tours throughout Europe, his fame 
 daily increasing, both from his own perform- 
 ances and the brilliant compositions wliich 
 he gave to tlie world. In 1814 he removed 
 to London, where he remained 9 years. He 
 once returned to the French capital in 1823, 
 when he joined M. Pleydel as a manufacturer 
 of keyed instruments, and continued to oc- 
 cupy a prominent position in the musical 
 world till his decease. Died of cholera, in 
 Paris, 1849. 
 
 KALM, Peter, a Swedish traveller and 
 natural philosopher, was born in 1715, in 
 Ostro Bothnia ; travelled in North America 
 and Russia, for the purpose of exploring 
 those countries ; became professor of botany 
 in the univesity of Abo ; and died in 1779. 
 His works consist of " Travels in America," 
 which liave been translated into English ; " 
 besides numerous dissertations, illustrative 
 of the state of commerce, agriculture, and 
 manufactures in Sweden. 
 
 KANT, Emsiaxuel, a celebrated German 
 metaphysician, and the founder of a new 
 philosophical sect, was born at Konigsberg, 
 in Prussia Proper, in 1724, and was the son 
 of a saddler. Through the kindness of a 
 rich uncle he was educated at the Frede- 
 rician College, on leaving which he accepted 
 the situation of tutor in a clergyman's family. 
 He commenced his literary career in his 
 23rd year ; but it. was not till he was ap- 
 pointed a professor in the university of Ko- 
 nigsberg, in 1770, that any traces of his new 
 metaphysical system, which afterwards at- 
 tracted so much notice, appeared in his 
 works. In 1781 he published his " Critical 
 Inquiry into the Nature of Pure Reason," 
 which contains the system commonly known 
 under the title of the " Critical Philosophy." 
 A second part of it, published in 1783, bore 
 the title of " Prolegomena for future Meta- 
 physics." The principles contained in them 
 he had, however, long been promulgating 
 from his professorial chair. In 1786 he was 
 chosen rector of the university ; and, though 
 far advanced in life, he continued to produce 
 works in farther development of his philo- 
 sophical principles until 1798, when he re- 
 tired from his otficial situations, and died in 
 1804. Kaut was a man of high intellectual 
 endowments ; and his critical philosophy for 
 a time superseded every other in the Pro- 
 testant universities of Germany. From the 
 first, however, it had many opponents ; and 
 now that the novelty of this svstem of me- 
 taphysics (more remarkable for the obscurity 
 of its phraseology and the subtlety of its 
 reasoning, than for any practical good in 
 morals) is worn oif, its advocates are com- 
 paratively few. Yet it must be confessed, 
 that Ids philosophical conceptions flowed 
 from the inexhaustible source of his own 
 reason ; that he not only discovered the in- 
 congruities of other men's sentiments, and 
 traced, with wonderful precision, their errors 
 to their true origin, but that he had an as- 
 tonishing faculty of unfolding the most abs- 
 truse principles, and digesting single and in- 
 dividual sentiments into a systematic order. 
 His works are far too numerous for insertion 
 here ; but they are all, more or less, of a 
 metaphysical character. 
 
 KARAMSIN, Nicholas Mich.\elo- 
 viTSCH, imperial Russian historiographer, 
 was born in 1705; educated at Moscow; 
 served for a while in the imperial guards ; 
 and travelled for two years, through Middle 
 Europe ; after which he devoted himself to 
 literature. His " History of the Russian 
 Empire," the " Letters of a Russian Travel- 
 ler," and " Aglia," a collection of tales ; are 
 all works of merit, and iu much esteem. 
 Died, 1826. 
 KATER, Captain Hexry, F.R.S., was 
 
KAUJ 
 
 ^ ^clu Winibn-^iil 33tfl0r<q)fju. 
 
 KEA 
 
 born at Bristol, in 1777. lie was intended 
 for the legal profession, and served two years 
 in a pleader's office, thougli from his earliest 
 years he had shown a decided predilection 
 for mathematical studies. On the death of 
 his father, in 17»4, he quilted the law, and 
 obtained a commission in the 12th regt. of 
 foot, tlien stationed in India. Soon after he 
 arrived, he was engaged in the trigonome- 
 trical survey of India, a stupendous under- 
 taking ; but his unremitting study during 
 seven years in a hot climate greatly injured 
 Ills health, and rendered it necessary for him 
 to return. He subsequently devoted his 
 whole time to science ; and, among other 
 useful inventions, his meritorious labours 
 for constructing standards of weights and 
 measures are universally known and appre- 
 ciated. Many learned societies enrolled him 
 among their members, and the emperor of 
 Russia not only employed him to construct 
 standards for the weights and measures of 
 his empire, but presented him witli the order 
 of St. Anne, and a diamond snuff-box. Died, 
 
 KAUFMANN, Mauia Axna Axgelica, 
 a distinguished artist, born at Coire, in the 
 Orisons, 1741. She acquired the first prin- 
 ciples of drawing and painting from her 
 father, whom she soon excelled. At Milan, 
 Florence, Rome, and Naples, she greatly 
 increased her skill ; and when, in 1706, she 
 came to England, and was patronised by 
 royalty, her reputation and success quickly 
 improved her circumstances. She remained 
 here seventeen years ; married Zucchi, a 
 Venetian painter ; and died at Rome, in 
 1807. She excelled most in the represent- 
 ation of female characters ; and many of 
 her most admired paintings were engraved 
 by Bartolozzi, whose labours much contri- 
 buted to the growth and perpetuity of her 
 fame. 
 
 KAUNITZ, Wenckslaus Anthonv, 
 prince, a German statesman, was born at 
 Vienna, in 1711 ; and though at first des- 
 tined for the church, he finally engaged in 
 political life. Ilia talents, aided by a fa- 
 vourable exterior, opened a brilliant career 
 to him. In 1744 he was made minister of 
 state for the kingdoms of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia ; in 1748 he assisted at the congress of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle ; was honoured with the 
 order of the golden fleece by Maria Theresa, 
 and employed as ambassador to Paris ; re- 
 turned to Vienna in 17.53, and took the office 
 of chancellor of state ; concluded the treaty 
 of alliance between Austria and France, in 
 1756 ; was made a prince of the German em- 
 pire, in 17C4 ; and died, aged 83, in 1794. 
 
 KAYE, or CAIUS, Dr. Joim, the founder 
 of Caius College, Cambridge, was born at 
 Noi-wich, in 1510 ; was educated for the 
 medical profession, first at Glonville Hall, 
 Cambridge, and subsequently at Bologna, 
 where he graduated as M.D. On his return 
 to England he became physician to tlie court, 
 and held that office during three successive 
 reigns. He was for several years president 
 of the college of physicians ; and, in 1557, he 
 obtained a royal licence to advance Glon- 
 ville Hall into a college ; which he endowed 
 with several considerable estates, and added 
 to it the quadrangle. Dr. Kaye was himself 
 
 the first master of this increased establish- 
 ment, now known as Caius College ; which 
 he retained till near his death in 1573. He 
 was the author of various works ou medi- 
 cine, a " History of Cambridge," &e. 
 
 KAYE, Dr. Thomas, master of University 
 College, Oxford, was contemporary with the 
 preceding, with whom he carried on a warm 
 controversy respecting the comparative an- 
 tiquity of these two celebrated seats of learn- 
 ing, in a work entitled " Assertio Autiquita- 
 tis Oxoniensis AcadeniiiE." 
 
 KAZWINI, Zaciiakiau ben Mohammed, 
 a learned Arabian geographer and natural- 
 ist of the loth century ; of whose labours 
 Bochart, Hyde, Sir W. Ousely, and other 
 Orientalists have availed themselves. He is 
 supposed to have died in 1283. 
 
 KEACH, Benjamin, a Baptist minister, 
 born in 1640. In 1064 he was tried, and sen- 
 tenced to stand in the pillory for the publi- 
 cation of a book, called " The Child's In- 
 structor." After this he was chosen pastor 
 of a congregation in Horsleydown, South- 
 wark, where he died in 1704. His " Travels 
 of True Godliness," and " Travels of Un- 
 godliness," written in the manner of Bun- 
 yan. were once very popular ; but he is now 
 best known by his " Tropologia, or Key to 
 open Scripture Metaphors," and by his "Ex- 
 position of Parables." 
 
 KEAN, Edmund, an eminent English tra- 
 gedian, was the son of a scene-carpenter, of 
 the name of Kcan (whose brother, Moses 
 Kean, obtained some notoriety as a mimic 
 and ventriloquist), and the daughter of the 
 well-known George Saville Carey, a dra- 
 matic writer and performer. He was born 
 in Castle Street, Leicester Square, London, 
 in 1787, according to some accounts, and ac- 
 cording to others two or tliree years later. 
 He trod the sto^e almost as soon as he could 
 walk alone, being employed in processions, 
 &c., thus imperceptibly acquiring the rudi- 
 ments of his theatrical education under tJie 
 eye of that great actor, John Kemble, whose 
 rival he was afterwards destined to become. 
 Miss Tidswell, an actress long known on the 
 metropolitan stage, and said to have been a 
 relation, assisted Kean in his juvenile efforts; 
 and, at the age of 13, recommended him to a 
 company of players in Yorkshire. He per- 
 formed there under the name of Carey, and is 
 said to have obtained much applause in the 
 parts of Hamlet, Lord Hastings, and Cato. 
 He also distinguished himself by his talents 
 for recitation ; and his delivery of Satan's 
 Address to the Sun, from Milton's Paradise 
 Lost, and the first soliloquy in Shakspeare's 
 Richard III. having been highly applauded, 
 he repeated his recitations at Windsor, be- 
 fore some of the royal family. He had also 
 the good fortune to attract the notice of Dr. 
 Drury, who sent him to Eton, where he re- 
 mained three years, and is said to have made 
 great progress in classical studies, devoting 
 much of his attention to the precepts and 
 examples of Cicero. On quitting Eton he 
 procured an engagement at Birmingham, 
 where he was seen by the manager of the 
 Edinburgh theatre, who engaged him for 
 twenty nights, on twelve of which he per- 
 formed Hamlet to crowded houses. He was 
 at this time only sixteen ; and wc find that 
 
 475 
 
his provincial engagements led him, in the 
 com-se of a few years, to nearly all the prin- 
 cipal towns in the south and west of Eng- 
 land, playing in tragedy, comedy, opera, and 
 pantomime. In the mean time, Dr. Drury, 
 his old patron, had recommended him to the 
 directing committee of Drury Lane, as fitted 
 to revive that declining theatre. He was, in 
 consequence, engaged there for three years, 
 at a rising salary of eight, ten, and twelve 
 guineas a week for each successive year. Ills 
 first appearance was on the 2(Jth of January, 
 1814, in the character of Sliylock. The house 
 was comparatively empty ; but in order to 
 show the effect he produced on that occasion 
 we will quote the words of a critic, who saw, 
 and thus decribes it : — " There came on a 
 small man, with an Italian face and fatal 
 eye, which struck all. Attention soon ripened 
 into enthusiasm ; and never, perhaps, did 
 Kean play with such startling effect as on 
 this night to the surprised few I His voice 
 was harsh, his style new, his action abrupt 
 and angular ; but there was the decision, the 
 inspiration of genius, in the look, the tone, 
 the bearing ; " — " that night was the start- 
 ing-post on the great course on which he was 
 destined to run his splendid race." In 
 Othello also, and Sir Giles Overreach, he has 
 been ujiequalled by any contemporary. 
 When he performed Massinger's Jew the 
 first time, the actors, and others of his ad- 
 mirers, presented him with a gold cup, as a 
 token of their esteem. In 1820, he visited 
 the United States, and performed in New 
 York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, 
 on the whole with great success. After his 
 return to England, the extravagance and 
 dissoluteness which had always disgraced his 
 character, involved him in great embarrass- 
 ments ; and a second visit to America, in 
 1825, was attended with little credit or ad- 
 vantage. He returned again to England, 
 and became manager of the theatre ut Rich- 
 mond, Surrey, where he died, after a pro- 
 tracted illness. May 15. 1833. 
 
 KEANE, General John, Lord, the second 
 son of the late Sir John Keane, of Belmont, 
 Waterford, entered the army in 1793 ; ob- 
 tained a company in the 44tli foot in 1790 ; 
 and served in the Egyptian campaign as 
 aide-de-camp to Major-general Lord Cavan. 
 By regular gradation he became lieutenant- 
 colonel in tlie GOth foot, in 1812 ; and such 
 was his reputation, that on his arrival in the 
 Peninsula he was intrusted with the com- 
 mand of a brigade in the third division. 
 He was present at the battles of Vittoria,the 
 Pyrenees, Nivelle, Orthes, and Toulouse ; 
 attained the rank of major-general in 1814, 
 and was appointed to the command of the 
 military force destined to co-operate with 
 Admiral Sir A. Cochrane, for tlie attack on 
 New Orleans and Louisiana. When Sir E. 
 Pakenham arrived as the gencral-iu-chief. 
 Sir John was appointed to the command of 
 the third brigade; and in an assault on the 
 enemy's lines in January, 1815, he received 
 two severe wounds. From 1823 to 1830, Sir 
 John Keane was commander-in-chief of the 
 forces in Jamaica. In 1833 he was appointed 
 to the chief command of the Bombay army ; 
 and, after nearly 6 years' service in that pre- 
 sidency, he had the difficult task intrusted to 
 
 him of conducting the operations in Aff- 
 ghanistan, of which the capture of Ghuznee 
 was his crowning achievement. For the 
 manner in which he performed this duty he 
 received the thanks of the court of directors 
 of the East India Company in Dec. 1839, and 
 was raised to the peerage, with a pension of 
 2000^ a year for his own life, and that of his 
 two immediate successors in the peerage. 
 Died, Aug. 1844, in his 64th year. 
 
 KEATE, Geokge, F.R.S., a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Trowbridge, in Wilt- 
 shire, in 1729, and educated at Kingston 
 school ; after which he went to Geneva, 
 where he contracted an intimacy with Vol- 
 taire ; to whom he afterwards dedicated his 
 " Account of the Republic of Geneva." His 
 first literary performance was " Ancient and 
 Modern Rome," a poem, 1G50. His publica- 
 tions after this were very numerous: the 
 principal is an " Account of the Pellew Is- 
 lands," which he compiled from the papers 
 of Captain Wilson and his officers, who were 
 shipwrecked there in 1783. Died, 1797. 
 
 KEATS, JouN, a young English poet, of 
 humble origin, was born in 1796, at a livery- 
 stable, kept by his grandfather in Moor- 
 fields. He was apprenticed to a surgeon, but 
 gave way to the ambition of becoming a 
 poet. He published " Endymion," a poeti- 
 cal romance, in 1818 ; and, in 1820, his last 
 and best work, " Lamia," and other poems. 
 Being in feeble health, from a severe pul- 
 monary disease, he was advised to try the 
 fine climate of Italy, where he arrived in 
 November, 1820, accompanied by his friend 
 Jlr. Severn the artist, and died in Rome, on 
 the 27th of December following. He was 
 interred in the English burying-ground, 
 near the monument of Caius Cestius, and not 
 far from the place where, soon after, were 
 deposited the remains of the poet Shelley. 
 Mr. Leigh Hunt, who was his earliest and 
 warmest patron, describes him as having " a 
 very manly as well as a delicate spirit," and 
 being gifted with " the two highest qualities 
 of a poet in the highest degree — sensibility 
 and imagination." 
 
 KEBLE, Joseph, an English lawyer, 
 whose industry was so remarkable during 
 his whole life, that some account of it is ab- 
 solutely due to his memory. He was born 
 about 1632, studied at Oxford, and was 
 called to the bar in 1658. Three years after- 
 wards he began to signalise himself by the 
 constant regularity of his appearance in the 
 court of king's bench, where from that time 
 to the day of his decease, a period of nearly 
 half a century, he occupied himself inces- 
 santly as a reporter of tlie cases which came 
 before the court. Nor was he less persevering 
 while attending the chapel, copies of up- 
 wards of 4000 sermons, delivered by various 
 preachers in that place of worship, being 
 found among his papers when he died, in 
 1710. His publications are numerous, the 
 principal being " A Table to the Statutes," 
 " Assistance to Justices of the Peace," " Re- 
 ports," 3 vols.; and " Essays on Human Na- 
 ture and Human Actions." 
 
 KEILL, John", a learned mathematician, 
 was born at Edinburgh in 1671. In 1698 
 he published an Examination of Burnet's 
 Theory of the Earth, to wliich he subjoined 
 
KEl] 
 
 ^ i^clu Wimbcr^Kl 38iogra|>l)y. 
 
 [kel 
 
 " Remarks on Whiston's Tlieory." The year 
 following he waa appointed deputy pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy, ; and in 1701 he 
 published his " Introductio ad Veram Pliy- 
 sieam," as a preparation for tlie study of 
 Newton's Principia. In 1708 he defended 
 Newton's claim to the invention of Fluxions, 
 which brought him into a dispute with 
 Leibnitz. In 1700 he was appointed treasurer 
 to the German exiles from the Palatinate, 
 and attended them in tliat capacity to New 
 England. He next defended Newton's doc- 
 trine against the Cartesians, and received 
 his degree of M. D. In 1714 he was chosen 
 Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, 
 and the year following appointed decii)lierer 
 to the queen. Among his works are, " An 
 Introduction to True Pliilosonhy " and " An 
 Introduction to True Astronomy." Died, 
 1721. 
 
 KEILL, James, yoimger brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Scotland in 1673, 
 and died in 17 H). He wrote on " The Ana- 
 tomy of the Human Body," and published 
 several physiological tracts and papers in 
 the Pliilosopliical Transactions. 
 
 KEISER, Keixuaki), an eminent German 
 musician and composer, was born at Leipsic 
 in 1(573. He was the author of 1 18 operas, of 
 uliich his " Circe," brought out at Hamburgh 
 ill 1734, was the last and most beautiful, 
 lie possessed a most fertile imagination, and 
 i.< consi<lered as the father of German melody. 
 Died, 17a-.. 
 
 KEITH, George, a native of Aberdeen, 
 was a fellow student there with Bishop 
 Burnet, an<l took his degree of M. A. ; but 
 quitted the Presbyterian church to become 
 a Quaker, and went to Pennsylvania. At 
 length becoming dissatisfied with the sect, 
 he formed a new one of his own ; and sub- 
 sequently entered into the Churcli of Eng- 
 land, took orders, and obtained some pre- 
 ferment. He wrote several books both for 
 and against the Quakers ; was a believer in 
 the transmigration of souls, the millennium, 
 &e. ; is described as an eloquent speaker, 
 and an acute disputant. Died about 1715. 
 
 KEITH, James Fkaxcis Edavakd, a fleld- 
 marshal in the Prussian service, and a brave 
 and experienced warrior, was the youngest 
 son of William Keith, earl-marshal of Scot- 
 land, and was born in 1G96. At the breaking 
 out of the rebellion in 1715, he joined the 
 Pretender, and was wounded at the battle of 
 Sherilfmuir ; but made his escape to France, 
 where he applied himself to military studies, 
 and became a member of the academy of 
 sciences. From Paris he went to Madrid, 
 and obtained a commission in Ormond's 
 Irish brigade ; but on accompanying the 
 Spanish embassy to Russia, he entered into 
 the service of that state, was promoted to 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, and invested 
 with the order of the black eagle. In the 
 Russian service he continued several years, 
 distinguishing himself as well in the field as 
 in the cabinet, during the wars between that 
 country and Turkey and Sweden. He at 
 length left Russia and went to Berlin, wliere 
 the king of Pnissia, to whom his abilities 
 were well known, received him with open 
 arms, and made him field-marshal of his 
 forces and governor of his capital. In the 
 
 subsequent wars of this monarch, Keith dis- 
 played the greatest talents and bravery, till 
 his career was finally closed on the field of 
 battle, at the aflfair of Hocjikirchen, Oct. 4. 
 1758. 
 
 KEITH, TnoMAs, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician, and author of several excellent 
 works, was born in 1759, at Brandsburton, 
 near Beverley, in Yorkshire. His parents 
 dying when he was only 14, he engaged 
 himself as tutor in a private family. In 
 1781 he settled in London, and soon acquired 
 distinction as a mathematician. In 1804 his 
 reputation as an accountant led to his being 
 appointed professor of geography and the 
 sciences to tlie princess Charlotte of Wales j 
 and in 1814 the situation of accountant to 
 the British Museum becoming vacant, the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury conferred it on 
 Mr. Keith, who held it till his death, in 
 1824. His principal works are, "The Com- 
 plete Practical Arithmetician," "An Intro- 
 duction to Geography," " Plane and Spheri- 
 cal Trigonometry," a "Treatise on the Use 
 of the Globes," and "Elements of Geometry." 
 
 KEITH. See Ei.rni.vsxoNE. 
 
 KELLER, John BALXiiASAK.an excellent 
 founder in brass, was a native of Zurich. 
 He cast the equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 
 which was set up at Purls in place of Louis 
 the Great. Keller was made inspector of 
 the foundry at the arsenal, and died in 1702. 
 
 KELLERMANN,FuANcis Christophek, 
 duke of Valmy, peer and marshal of France, 
 &c., was born at Strasburg in 1735 ; entered 
 th&^Bpnfians legion as a hussar when 17 
 years of age, and rose to the rank of quarter- 
 master-general in 1788. At the breaking 
 out of the revolution he distinguished him- 
 self by his patriotism and judgment. At 
 the commencement of the war he received 
 the command of the army of the Moselle ; 
 formed a junction with the main army 
 under Dumouriez ; and sustained, Sept. 20th, 
 1792, the celebrated attack of the Duke of 
 Brunswick at Valmy, which contributed 
 much to the success of the campaign. He 
 was repeatedly denounced to the National 
 Convention by Custine and others ) but his 
 trial not taking place till after the reign of 
 terror, he was acquitted. In 1795 he took 
 the command of the army of the Alps and 
 Italy, but he was soon superseded by Buona- 
 parte. In 1798 he was nominated a meinl)er 
 of the military board ; in 1801 he was i)resi- 
 dent of the conservative senate, and the 
 following year a marshal of the empire. He 
 served under Napoleon in Germany and 
 Prussia ; and having, in 1814, voted for the 
 restoration of royalty, was employed under 
 the Bourbons till his death in 1820. 
 
 KELLEY, or TALBOT, Edward, a 
 celebrated necromancer and alchemist, was 
 born at Worcester in 1555, and educated at 
 Gloucester Hall, Oxford ; but was obliged 
 to leave the university for some crime, and 
 after rambling about the kingdom, was 
 sentenced to lose his ears at Lancaster. He 
 next became an associate witli the credulous 
 Dr. Dee, and accompanied him to Prague, 
 where Kellcy contrived to live handsomely 
 by his impostures, and was knighted by the 
 emperor Rodolphus ; but his tricks being 
 discovered, he was thrown into prison, and 
 
kel] 
 
 ^ 0t^ WinihtviKl 28ta5rap|)g. 
 
 [kem 
 
 in attempting to escape, he fell, and bruised 
 himself to such a degree, tliat he died soon 
 after, in 1595. lie wrote a poem on che- 
 mistry, and another on the philosopher's 
 stone ; besides several Latin and English 
 discourses printed in Dr. Meric Casaubon's 
 " True and faithful Relation of what passed 
 for many years between Dr. John Dee and 
 some Spirits." 
 
 KELLISON, ISIattoew, an English Ca- 
 tholic divine, who, as a controversial writer, 
 was opposed to Sutcliife, Montague, and 
 otlier Protestants, was born in Northamp- 
 tonshire, about 15(50. He was educated at 
 the English colleges at Douay and Rheims j 
 resided seven years at Rome ; became chan- 
 cellor of the university of Rheims ; and, 
 after remaining there 12 years, removed to 
 Douay, and was declared president of that 
 college by a patent from Rome. Died, 1041. 
 
 KELLY, Hugh, a dramatic and miscel- 
 laneous writer, was bom in 1730, near the 
 lake of Killamey. He wns apprenticed to 
 a staymaker, which trade he quitted when 
 in London, and became clerk to an attorney. 
 Afterwards he turned his attention to au- 
 thorship with considerable success, writing 
 political pamphlets, plays, &c. Hia works 
 are, " False Delicacy," " A Word to the 
 Wise," " The School for Wives," the " Ro- 
 mance of an Hour," comedies ; " Clemen- 
 tina," a tragedy ; " Thespis," a poem in the 
 manner of Churchill's Rosciad ; " Louisa 
 Mildmay," a novel ; and " The Babbler," a 
 collection of essays. Died, 1777. 
 
 KELLY, John, a learned English ^ttgy- 
 man, was a native of Douglas, in the Isle of 
 Man, and born in 1750. Having paid a par- 
 ticular attention to the vernacular dialect of 
 the Celtic tongue, which was spoken in that 
 island, he was introduced to Bishop Hil- 
 desley, who employed him in translating 
 the Bible into the Manks language, and 
 ordained him a minister of the episcopal 
 congregation of Ayr, in Scotland. Through 
 the patronage of the Duke of Gordon, to 
 whose son, the Marquis of Huntly, he was 
 tutor, he obtained the rectory of Copford, 
 in Essex ; and having entered at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge, he was there honoured 
 with the degree of LL.D. In 180.3 he pub- 
 lished " A Practical Grammar of the An- 
 cient Gaelic, or Language of the Isle of 
 Man;" and in 1805 issued proposals for 
 publishing " A Triglot Dictionary of the 
 Celtic Tongue," which was nearly com- 
 pleted when the sheets were destroyed by 
 a lire on the premises of Mr. Nichols, the 
 printer. Dr. Kelly died in 1809. 
 
 KELLY, Michael, a composer and singer, 
 was the son of a wine merchant in Dublin, 
 who, for many years, acted as master of the 
 ceremonies at the viceregal castle. He was 
 born in 1762, and at an early age gave proofs 
 of genius for music, which induced his father 
 to place him under Rauzzini, at that time 
 in Dublin, who prevailed on his friends to 
 send him to Naples, where he arrived when 
 in his 16th year. He there found a patron 
 in Sir William Hamilton, the British mi- 
 nister ; studied under Fineroli and Aprili ; 
 and subsequently performed at most of tlie 
 Italian theatres, and in Germany. He con- 
 tracted a close intimacy with Mozart during 
 
 his stay at Vienna ; was for some time in 
 the service of the emperor Joseph ; and at 
 length returned to liOndon, where he made 
 his first appearance, in 1787, at Drury Lane 
 Theatre, in " Lionel and Clarissa," and re- 
 tained his situation as first singer at that 
 theatre, the musical performances of which 
 he directed till his retirement from the stage. 
 He set to music upwards of 60 pieces, most 
 of which were successful, and amongst these 
 are the once highly popular compositions in 
 Colman's musical romance of "Bluebeard." 
 A few months previous to his death appeared 
 his "Reminiscences," a very amusing work, 
 replete with anecdotes of his contemporaries 
 and familiar associates. Died, 1826. 
 
 KEMBLE, JoH-v Philip, the most dig- 
 nified and accomplished actor on the British 
 stage since the days of Garrick, was the 
 eldest son of Roger Kemble, manager of a 
 company of comedians at Prescot, in Lan- 
 cashire, where he was born in 1757. Being 
 of Catholic parents, he was sent to the 
 English college at Douay, where he early 
 distinguished himself by his proficiency in 
 elocution, and had Talma for a fellow- 
 student. Finding that his father designed 
 him for the priesthood, he quitted the col- 
 lege clandestinely, returned to England, 
 and, engaging in an itinerant company, per- 
 formed with great eclat at Liverpool, Edin- 
 burgh, York, &c. In 1793 he made his first 
 appearance on the boards of Drury Lane, in 
 the character of Hamlet. His success was 
 complete ; and from that time lie main- 
 tained the character of being the first tra- 
 gedian of the age. On the secession of Mr. 
 King, he became manager of Drury Lane 
 Theatre. In 1802 he took advantage of the 
 peace to visit the Continent, in order to 
 study the French and Spanish histrionic es- 
 tablishments, with a view to the improve- 
 ment of the English. On his return, he 
 became manager of Covent Garden Theatre, 
 where he continued till 1809, when that build- 
 ing was destroyed by fire. On the restoration 
 of the edifice, Mr. Kemble was, during the 
 O. P. riots, as they were called, the object of 
 popular resentment, in consequence of hav- 
 ing raised the prices, and made certain ob- 
 noxious arrangements in regard to tlie pri- 
 vate boxes. In 1817 he retired from the 
 stage, after a long and honourable career ; 
 and, in consequence of ill health, went first 
 to Montpelier, and thence to Lausanne, 
 where he died, Feb. 2C. 1823, after a para- 
 lytic attack. The learning, elegant man- 
 ners, and accomplishments of Mr. Kemble, 
 introduced him into the best company, by 
 whom he was at once courted and esteemed. 
 As a tragedian, when personating charac- 
 ters more immediately adapted to his style 
 of excellence, such as Cato, Coriolanus, 
 Hamlet, Penruddock, &c., he was unrival- 
 led. And his managerial duties were marked 
 by the exhibition of much refined and accu- 
 rate taste, in the rectification of scenic de- 
 coration, and the adoption of appropriate 
 costume, adding thereby both to the splen- 
 dour and illusion of the drama. He was 
 the author of " Belisarius," a tragedy; 
 " Lodoiska," an opera ; and " Tlie Female 
 Oflficer," a farce ; besides which he altered 
 and modernised many of the old dramas. 
 
 478 
 
kem] 
 
 ^ ^t^ mnihtx^nl 23i0jjiapf)ii. 
 
 [ken 
 
 KEMBLE. George Stephe.v, brofner of 
 the foregoing, and also an able actor, was 
 bom at Kingstown, in Herefordshire ; his 
 mother having performed the part of Anne 
 Bullen, in the play of Henry VIII., on the 
 evening of his birth. This gentleman was 
 intended for the medical profession, and 
 was apprenticed to a surgeon in Coventry ; 
 but soon quitted it for the stage. He first 
 appeared at Covent Garden Tlieatre in 1783. 
 He was afterwards manager of the theatres 
 of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, and 
 Newcastle ; and was remarkable for play- 
 ing the part of Falstaff without stuffing. 
 Died, 1822. 
 
 KEMBLE, Priscilla, widow of John 
 Philip Kemble, the eminent tragedian, died 
 at Leamington, aged 00, on the 13th of May, 
 1845. This lady, like the widow of Mr. 
 Garrick, long survived her celebrated hus- 
 band, and, it is said, was (like her) the oldest 
 member of the theatrical profession at tlie 
 time of her decease. She had entered on 
 that public career in very early youth, and 
 was first married to Mr. Brereton, an actor 
 of considerable celebrity. Not many years 
 after his death she was united to Mr. Kemble, 
 and on liis death in 1823 she took uj) her 
 residence at Leamington, where she lived 
 highly respected ; her lively conversation 
 and knowledge of the world rendering her 
 society no less desirable, than her liberal 
 and charitable disposition had made it useful. 
 
 KEMP, Josiirii, an eminent musical com- 
 iwser, was born at Exeter, in 1778 ; and was 
 a chorister in the cathedral of his native 
 city, where he studied under the celebrated 
 William Jackson. In 1802, having been ap- 
 pointed organist of Bristol cathedral, he 
 removed thither, and in the same year com- 
 posed one of liis best anthems, " I am Alpha 
 and Omega." In 1807 he left Bristol for 
 London, and the j'car following took the 
 degree of M.B. at Cambridge. In 1809 he 
 proceeded to that of doctor, when his exer- 
 cise entitled " The Cruciflxit)n" was per- 
 formed. He now became a lecturer in music 
 at several institutions, and invented a new 
 mode of teaching the science. His principal 
 works are, " A new System of Musical Edu- 
 cation, being a Self-Instructor," "Twenty 
 Psalmodical Melodies, " " The Siege of 
 Ischa," an opera ; with a variety of songs, 
 glees, duets, &c. 
 
 KEMPELEN, Wolfgaxo, Baron, a cele- 
 brated mechanician, was born in 1734, at 
 Presburg, iii Hungary. Among his inven- 
 tions was the famous automaton chess- 
 player, which he first exhibited at Paris in 
 1783, and afterwards in London ; but the 
 secret of it was never discovered. He also 
 invented a speaking figure, which he him- 
 self described in a work called "The M»- 
 chauism of Speech." He was also an author, 
 and wrote "Perseus and Andromeda," a 
 drama; "The Unknown Benefactor," a 
 comedy ; and some poems. Died, 1804. 
 
 KEMPIS, Thomas^a. a famous writer of 
 the 14th century, was born at a village of 
 that name, in the diocese of Cologne, in 
 i:i80 ; and died in 1471. His treatise, " De 
 Imitatione Christi," or, " Of the Imitation of 
 Christ," some have attributed to Gerson. 
 
 KEN, TuuMAS, a learned and pious dig- 
 
 nitarv of the Church of England, was born 
 at Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, in 1G37. 
 His conscientious propriety of conduct and 
 unyielding morality found favour even M'ith 
 the licentious Charles II., who made him 
 his chaplain, and afterwards preferred him 
 to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. He 
 opposed the endeavours of James to intro- 
 duce popery, and was one of the seven 
 bishops sent to the Tower for resisting that 
 monarch's dispensing power. Dr. Ken was 
 the author of sermons, poems, &c. ; which 
 were published, with his life, by his nephew, 
 in 4 vols. Died, 1711. 
 
 KENDAL, Geouge, a Nonconformist di- 
 vine, was bom at Dawlish, in Devonshire ; 
 and in 1647 became rector of Blissland, in 
 Cornwall, from whence he removed to Lon- 
 don. He died in 1CC3. Dr. Kendal wrote 
 a " Vindication of the Doctrine generally 
 received in the Churches concerning God's 
 Intentions of Special Grace and Favour to 
 his Elect in the Death of Christ," folio ; 
 the " Doctrine of the Perseverance of the 
 Saints, against John Goodwin," folio, &c. 
 
 KENNEDY, James, bishop of St. An- 
 drew's, Scotland, born in 1405, was the 
 founder of the college and church of St. 
 Salvador, and also of the abbey of the Ob- 
 servantines. He filled the office of lord 
 cliancellor for a time ; and, in the minority 
 of James III., was one of the lords of the 
 regcncv. Died, 140(). 
 
 KENNEDY, Joh.v, rector of Bradley, in 
 Derbyshire ; a good mathematician, and 
 the author of "Scripture Clironology, " 
 " The Doctrine of Commeusurability," &c. 
 Died, 1770. 
 
 KENNEDY, William, " the annalist of 
 Aberdeen," was bom there in 1759. He re- 
 ceived the rudiments of his education at the 
 grammar school, and his academical studies 
 were subsequently completed at the Maris- 
 chal College there ; and he was admitted a 
 member of the Aberdeen bar in 178.3. He 
 early showed a predilection for antiquarian 
 pursuits; and about the year 1813, at the 
 request of the magistrates, he spent a con- 
 siderable portion of time in drawing up an 
 index to the voluminous city records, which 
 had been accumulating for centuries, and 
 which extend to a more remote antiquity, 
 and are more complete than those of any 
 Scottish burgh. But his cliief title to fame 
 rests on his justly celebrated work in 2 vols. 
 4to., " The Annals of Aberdeen." Died, 
 183(5. 
 
 KENNET, White, a learned prelate, 
 notorious for his party zeal, was bom at Do- 
 ver, in IfjfiO ; and educated at Westminster 
 School, and at Edmund Hall, Oxford. He 
 had originally been a Tory ; but he now at- 
 tached himself to the Whigs, and entered 
 into a controversy with Dr. Atterbury re- 
 specting the riglits of convocations ; and 
 also opposed Sacheverel. He made himself 
 conspicuous by a funeral sermon preached 
 for the first Duke of Devonshire in 1707, 
 whi(*i gave great oifence as an apology for 
 the sins of the great. The same year he 
 obtained the deanery of Peterborough ; but 
 so obnoxious had he now become by the 
 violence of his partisanship, that Welton, 
 the rector of Whitechapel, caused his portrait 
 
 479 
 
ken] 
 
 ^ iScIi) Saiuber^al ^lOjjrjqjIjM. 
 
 [ken 
 
 to be exhibited in the cliaracter of Judas, iu 
 the altar-pieee of that church. This gross 
 act of indecency vas properly resented, and 
 the painting removed. In 1718 he was made 
 bishop of Teterborough, and died in 1728. 
 He was an able antiquary, and published 
 various works on theology, antiquities, and 
 ecclesiastical history ; besides which he edi- 
 ted the " Collection of English Historians," 
 which bears his name. 
 
 KENXET, Basil, brother of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1074, and educated at 
 Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 170{j he 
 went as chaplain to tlie Englisli factory at 
 Leghorn, but ran a narrow risk of being 
 sacrificed to the fury of the Inquisition. 
 He returned in 1714, and was admitted to 
 his degree of D.D., but died a few months 
 afterwards. His principal works, besides 
 translations of ancient and modern authors, 
 are " Romas Antiqua Isotitia, " " Lives of 
 the Grecian Poets, " " Exposition of the 
 Apostle's Creed, " and " Sermons." 
 
 KENNEY, James, a distinguished drama- 
 tist, many of whose pieces still keep possession 
 of the stage, was born in Ireland, about 1G70. 
 His lively farce of "Raising the Wind," 
 with its inimitable character of Jeremy 
 Diddler, was his first dramatic production. 
 This was soon followed by " Love, Law, and 
 Physic," "Matrimony," "The World," 
 " The Illustrious Stranger," &c. His health 
 had been for a long time infirm ; and he 
 died on the morning fixed for his benefit at 
 Drury Lane Tlieatre, Aug. 1. 1849. 
 
 KENNICOTT, Bexjamix, an able divine 
 and biblical critic, was a native of Totness, 
 Devonshire, of which place his father was 
 parish clerk. He was educated at Wadham 
 College, Oxford ; became vicar of Culham, 
 preacher of Whitehall, librarian of the Rad- 
 cllffe, a prebend of Westminster, and canon 
 of Christchurch. Dr. Kennicott's literary 
 fame mainly rests on his Hebrew Bible, 2 
 vols, folio ; in collating the numerous manu- 
 scripts for the text of which he was inces- 
 santly occupied during more than ten years. 
 Though some object to this great work, that 
 the author was insufficiently acquainted 
 with the eastern languages, yet every scholar 
 admits that he rendered great service to tlie 
 cause of science and religion by opening the 
 way in this department of biblical criticism. 
 He died in 1783. 
 
 KENRICK, William, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Watford, in Hertford- 
 shire. He was brought up as a rule-maker, 
 but quitted his trade, obtained a doctor's 
 degree at Leyden. and became an indus- 
 trious author and critic. He established the 
 London Review, iu which many critiques 
 of merit appeared, too often, however, con- 
 taminated by vituperative language and 
 unwarrantable personalities. He compiled 
 a "Dictionary of the English Language," 
 and wrote various works, among which are 
 the comedies of " Falstaff' s Wedding," 
 " The Widowed Wife," and " The Duel- 
 list," " Epistles, Philosophical and Moral," 
 and various poems. Died, 1779. 
 
 KENT, His Royal Highness Edward, 
 Duke of, the fourth son of George III., was 
 born Nov. 2. 17G7. He received the rudi- 
 ments of bis education in England, but 
 
 completed it at Gottingen and Hanover. 
 Entering the army at an early age, he be- 
 came an enthusiastic admirer of military 
 discipline ; and having attained the rank of 
 colonel, he served during the years 1790 and 
 1791, under General O'Hara, at Gibraltar, 
 where he rendered himself so unpopular by 
 his strictness, that his regiment repeatedly 
 mutinied. On quitting Gibraltar, he was 
 sent out as commander cf the forces in 
 Canada ; after which he received orders to 
 join the expedition under Sir Charles Grey, 
 against the French West India islands. 
 During the campaign that ensued, his im- 
 petuous bravery was so conspicuous at the 
 head of the flank division, particularly when 
 storming the strong and important posts in 
 Martinique and Guadaloupe, that " the flank 
 corps " became a standing toast at the ad- 
 miral's table, as well as at that of the com- 
 mander-in-chief. In 1802 his royal highness 
 was appointed governor of Gibraltar ; but 
 his desire to repress irregularities, and en- 
 force subordination, led to very disagreeable 
 consequences. Having refused a request of 
 the soldiers to celebrate Christmas Eve as a 
 holiday, and put the deputation who brought 
 it under arrest, the men in the garrison 
 became mutinous, and proposed placing 
 General Barnet in the command. Christmas 
 Day passed in confusion ; and on the follow- 
 ing night the prince headed his regiment, 
 and marched against the rebellious party. 
 It was sometime before they gave up the 
 contest ; at length, after blood had been 
 shed, peace was restored, and the ringleaders 
 were tried by a courtmartial ; but it was 
 thought prudent to recall the duke, and he 
 accordingly soon after returned to England. 
 On the 20th of May, 1818, the Duke of Kent 
 married Victoria Maria Louise, widow of the 
 Prince of Leiningen, and sister of Leopold, 
 now king of the Belgians. The royal pair 
 soon after arrived in this country, and on 
 the 24th of May, 1819, the duchess gave birth 
 to a daughter, "^ctoria, our present gracious 
 QuEEx. Having accompanied the duchess 
 to Sidmouth, in Devonshire, where she re- 
 sided during the latter part of the year, with 
 a view to the re-establishment of her liealth, 
 he caught a violent cold, which being fol- 
 lowed by fever and inflammation, the symp- 
 toms increased so rapidly as to resist every 
 effort of medicine ; and after an illness of 
 one week, his royal highness died, Jan. 23. 
 1820. Ilis condescending manners and 
 liberal principles had rendered him a great 
 favourite witli the nation, and liis death was 
 generally regretted. 
 
 KENT, William, an ingenious artist, 
 was born in Yorkshire, in 1G85. He was 
 originally a coach-painter, but left that 
 branch to study the principles of design ; 
 for which purpose he went to Rome, where 
 he studied under Luti, and found a patron 
 in Lord Burlington, who brought him to 
 England, and lodged him in his own house, 
 in 1719. As a painter, however, he never 
 attained celebrity ; his talent lay more in 
 ornamental architecture. But it is as the 
 inventor of the modern style of landscape 
 gardening that his fame rests ; he broke up 
 the old uniformity of straight lines and cor- 
 responding parts, and threw wood, water. 
 
ken] 
 
 ^ jjSclxj MiTilJcr^al Bioflraplbw. 
 
 [kkt 
 
 and ground, into the beautiful shapes pre- 
 eented by nature ; rendering that graceful, 
 pleasing, and attractive, which before was 
 stiff and formal. Died, 174S. 
 
 KENYON, Lloyd, Lord, a celebrated 
 judge, was bom atGredington,in I'liiitsliire, 
 in 1733, and received his education at Kuthiu 
 School, in Denbighshire. After being arti- 
 cled to Mr. Tomlinson, an attorney at Nant- 
 wich, in Cheshire, he became a member of 
 the society of Lincoln's Inn, and was called 
 to tlie bar in 17G1 ; but he does not appear 
 to have made a conspicuous Hgure till 1780, 
 when he led the defence, with Mr. Erskine, 
 for Lord George Gordon. In 1782 he was 
 made attorney-general and chief justice of 
 Chester. lie was also returned to parlia- 
 ment for Ilindon, in Wiltshire. In 1784 he 
 was appointed master of the rolls ; and, on 
 the resignation of the Earl of Mansfield, in 
 1788, he was raised to the oflice of chief jus- 
 tice of the king's bench, and created Baron 
 Kenyon. Died, 1802. 
 
 KEPLER, Joiix, a distinguished astro- 
 nomer and mathematician, to whom astro- 
 nomy is indebted for much of its present 
 perfection, was born in 1571, at Wiel, in the 
 duchy of Wirtemberg. He was educated 
 at Tubingen, under Moastlinus, and, in 15'Jl, 
 was appointed professor of astionomy at 
 Gratz J soon after which he published his 
 " Mystcrium Cosmographicum." In 1598 he 
 was banished the university for professing 
 the reformed religion, but was afterwards 
 recalled, and restored to his office. In ItKK), 
 he was invited by Tycho Brahe to join him 
 in Bohemia ; and wlien Tycho died, he 
 became mathematician to the emperor 
 Rudolph, who employed him in completing 
 the Rodolphine tul)lcs. To Kcpkr we are 
 indebted for the discovery of the laws wliich 
 regulate the movements of tlie planetary 
 bodies, their elUpticity, Sec. ; and he accord- 
 ingly ranks among the first class of astro- 
 nomers. Among his scientific productions 
 are *' The Rodolphine Tables," " Optical 
 Astronomy, " " Harmony of the World," 
 " Copernican Astronomy," &c. Died, 1G30. 
 
 KEPPEL, AuuusTCS, Viscount, a cele- 
 brated English admiral, was the second son 
 of William, earl of Albemarle. He accom- 
 panied Commodore Anson in his voyage 
 round the world, and afterwards passed 
 through all the gradations of the service, till 
 he attained the rank of admiral. In 1778 
 he commanded the Channel fleet, which, on 
 tlie 12th of July, in that year, fell in with the 
 French, under Count d't)rvilliers, off Ushant. 
 A partial action ensued, which the English 
 admiral thought to Jiave renewed in the 
 morning, but the enemy had retired. This 
 affair gave great dissatisfaction to the nation, 
 which was aggravated by Sir Hugh Palliser, 
 second in command, preferring a charge 
 against Admiral Keppel ; but he was ho- 
 nourably acquitted by a courtmartial at 
 Portsmouth. Sir Hugh was then tried and 
 censured. In 1782, Admiral Keppel was 
 raised to the peerage ; he was also at two 
 separate periods first lord of the admiralty. 
 Died, 17H«;. 
 
 KEKGUELEX TREMAREC, Yves Jo- 
 SKPU DE, a French navigator, was born at 
 Brest, in 1745. After having been employed 
 
 481 
 
 on the coast of Iceland, to protect the whale 
 fishery, he was sent, in 1771, on an explora- 
 tory voyage to the South Sea ; and having 
 returned with a flattering account of a sup- 
 posed continent towards tlie south pole, was 
 again sent on a similar expedition in 1773. 
 On his return he was charged with having 
 abandoned a boat's crew on a desert shore, 
 for which he was cashiered and imprisoned ; 
 but he was at length liberated. He published 
 accounts of his voyages to the North and 
 South Seas, and died in 1797. 
 
 KERR, Ror.ERT, a surgeon at Edinburgh, 
 who devoted himself principally to the phy- 
 sical sciences, and distinguished himself as 
 an industrious author and translator. Among 
 his works are, "A History of Scotland during 
 the reign of Robert Bruce," " Cuvier's The- 
 ory of the Earth," a " General Collection 
 of Voyages and Travels," in 18 vols. &c. 
 Died. 1814. 
 
 KERRICK, Thomas, principal librarian 
 of the university of Cambridge ; author of 
 " Observations on the Gothic Buildings 
 abroad, particularly those in Italy, and on 
 Gothic Architecture in general." Died, 
 1828. 
 
 KERSAINT, AniiAXD Guy Siiiox, Count 
 de, was a native of Paris, and originally 
 served as an officer in the navy. At the 
 commencement of the French revolution, 
 he iiublished a pamphlet, entitled " Le Bon 
 Sens," in which he attacked the privileged 
 orders ; but though he was an active mem- 
 ber of the National Convention, he espoused 
 the cause of the more moderate party, en- 
 deavoured to stem the rage of the terrorists, 
 and, on the trial of the king, proposed an 
 appeal to the people. Finding his efforts I 
 unavailing, he sent in his resignation ; and i 
 on being called on to account for his con- I 
 duct, he defended himself with firmness, ! 
 and refused to resume his place. For this : 
 offence he was put to death in December, i 
 1793. I 
 
 KESSEL, JoHx VAK, an artist, was bom ' 
 at Antwerp, in lf>2(}, and died about 1090. 
 He painted portraits in the manner of Van- 
 dyke ; but excelled in the representation of 
 flowers, fruits, and insects. 
 
 KETEL, Cornelius, a Dutch artist. He 
 came to England in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 whose portrait he painted, as well as the 
 portraits of many of the nobility. <.)n his 
 return to Holland he laid aside the use of 
 pencils, and painted with the tops of his 
 fingers, and even with his toes. Died, 1602. 
 
 KETT, Hejjry, a divine and an accom- 
 plished scholar, was born in 1761, at Nor- 
 wich ; was educated at Trinity College, 
 Oxford ; was appointed Bampton lecturer in 
 1790, and rector of Chariton, &c. He was 
 the author of " History, the Interpreter of 
 Prophecy," "Elements of General Know- 
 ledge," 2 vols. ; " A Tour to the Lakes," 
 " Emily, " a moral tale, 3 vols. &c. 
 Drowned while bathing, in 1825. 
 
 KETT, William, a tanner of Norfolk, 
 who in the reign of Edward VI. excited a 
 revolt against the govcnmient. After de- 
 feating the Marquis of Northampton, he was 
 routed by the Earl of Warwick, and Kett 
 with several others was hanged, in 1549. 
 
 KETTLEWELL, JouN, a learned and 
 
KEU] 
 
 ^ 0ti3} Unibtx^Kl 2St0flraj>T;g. 
 
 [kin 
 
 { pious English divine, born, 165.3 ; died, 1695. 
 j His most celebrated work, entitled "Mea- 
 I sures of Christian Obedience," has gained 
 i him a lasting reputation. 
 
 KEULEN, LuDOLPii van, a Dutch geo- 
 ! metrician, who acquired great celebrity by 
 I his calculation of the approximate corre- 
 ! spondence between the diameter of a circle 
 and its circumference. He taught mathema- 
 tics at Breda and Amsterdam. Died, 1610. 
 I KEULEN, Jaxssen vax, a portrait pain- 
 ter, was born in London, of Dutch parents ; 
 ; and before Vandyke came to England, was 
 I in great favour with Charles I. Died, 1665. 
 j KIDDER, RiCHAKD, a learned English 
 I prelate, was a native of Sussex, or, as some 
 say, of Suffolk, and was educated at Ema- 
 nuel College, Cambridge, where he was 
 I elected to a fellowship. In 1681 he was 
 I made prebend of Norwich ; and, in 1689, 
 I dean of Peterborough, on which occasion he 
 i took liis doctor's degree. On the deprivation 
 of Dr. Ken, he was consecrated bishop of 
 Bath and Wells, and preached the Boyle's 
 lecture in 1693. lie and his wife were killed 
 in their bed at Wells, during the night of 
 the great storm, Nov. 26. 1703. Besides 
 several sermons and religious tracts, he 
 publislied a valuable work, entitled "The 
 Demonstration of the Messiah," 3 vols. 8vo. ; 
 a " Commentary on the Pentateuch," 2 vols. 
 Svo. &c. 
 
 KIEN-LONG, emperor of China, distin- 
 guished for his love of literature, was born 
 in 1710, and died at the end of the 18th cen- 
 tury, aged 90, having reigned above 60 years, 
 and greatly extended his territories. lie 
 wrote some poetical pieces, and when Lord 
 Macartney went tliither, he gave liim some 
 of his verses to present to tlie king. • 
 
 KIERINGS, Alexander, a landscape 
 painter of Utrecht, was born in 1590, and 
 died in 1646. 
 
 KIESEWETTER, CHRTSTornER Gott- 
 fried, a celebrated musician and performer 
 on tlie violin, was born at Anspach, and 
 played in the royal chapel there. He came 
 to England in 1821, established his reputa- 
 tion as a solo and concerto player, and was 
 the first who introduced the compositions of 
 Mayseder into this country. Died, 1827. 
 
 KILBYE, RiciiAKi), an English divine, 
 studied at Lincoln College, Oxford, of which 
 he became rector in 1590. He was one of the 
 translators of the present version of the Bible, 
 and died in 1620. 
 
 KILLIGREW, William. Thomas, and 
 Henry, three brothers, distinguished for 
 their talents, wit, and loyalty, in tlie reigns 
 of Charles I. and II., were the sons of Sir 
 Robert Killigrew, of Ilanwortli in Middle- 
 sex William, the eldest, was born in 
 
 1605 ; and after going through the usual 
 course of a university education at St. John's 
 College, Oxford, made the tour of Europe. 
 On his return to England, he obtained a place 
 at court, as one of the gentlemen ushers of 
 the privy chamber to Charles I. During the 
 civil wars, he suffered materially, both in 
 purse and person, in consctiuenceof his ad- 
 herence to the royal cause ; in recompense 
 for which he received, after the Restoration, 
 the honour of knighthood, and obtained the 
 post of vice-chamberlain. He composed four 
 
 plays, which were popular in their day ; also 
 two essays, written in the decline of life, on 
 the instability of human happiness; and died 
 
 in 1093 Thomas, the second son, born in 
 
 1011, was a page to Charles I., and accom- 
 panied the Prince of Wales into exile. 
 During his absence from England, he vi- 
 sited France, Italy, and Spain, and, after 
 the Restoration, was appointed by the new 
 king (with whom he was a great favourite), 
 one of his grooms of the bed-chamber. A 
 vein of lively pleasantry, combined with a 
 certain oddity, both of person and manner, 
 placed him high in the good graces of 
 Charles, who would frequently allow him 
 free access to his person, when characters of 
 the first dignity in the state were refused it ; 
 till Killigrew at length became almost the 
 inseparable companion of his monarch's fa- 
 miliar hours. This was the Killigrew that 
 obtained the appellation of " King Charles's 
 jester ; " but though he was undoubtedly a 
 mirth-creating spirit, his eleven dramatic 
 pieces discover few traces of that facetiousness 
 and whim which one imagines he must have 
 
 actually possessed. Died 1682 Henry, 
 
 the youngest of the three, was bred to the 
 church, and obtained a stall in Westminster 
 Abbey. From this he was ejected by the par- 
 liamentarians, but at the re-establishment of 
 monarchy, it was restored to him, with other 
 
 preferment. Died, 1090 His daughter, 
 
 Anne Killigrew, born in 1660, had a decided 
 genius for painting and poetry, and was dis- 
 tinguished for her exemplary piety and un- 
 blemished virtue, amidst the seductions of 
 a licentious court. She was one of the maids 
 of honour of the Duchess of York, of whom, 
 as well as of her husband, she executed por- 
 traits. She died, a victim to the small-pox, 
 in 1685 ; and has been characterised by one 
 of her contemporaries as " a grace for beauty, 
 and a muse for wit." Several of her historical 
 paintings are still in existence. 
 
 KIMBER, Isaac, a dissenting minister, 
 born at Wantage, Berks, in 1692 ; author of 
 a " History of England," in 4 vols. ; a " Life 
 of Oliver Cromwell ; " some essays, dis- 
 courses, &c. Died, 1758 — His son, Edward 
 KiMBER, followed the same pursuits. His 
 publications were the " Peerages of Scotland 
 and Ireland," the Baronetage of "Eng- 
 land," a" History of England," lOvols, 8vo., 
 and " Tlie Adventures of Joe Thompson," a 
 novel, 2 vols." 
 
 KING, Edward, an ingenious and pro- 
 mising young man, who was drowned about 
 16.3.3, on liis passage from Chester to Ireland, 
 which melancholy event occasioned Milton's ! 
 beautiful poem of Lycidas. Some of King's I 
 poems are in Nichols' collection of poets. | 
 
 KING, Edward, an antiquary, was a | 
 native of Norwich; studied at Lincoln's Inn; \ 
 was called to the bar, and became recorder of 
 Lynn. He was F.R.S. and A.S. ; and pro- 
 duced an excellent work, entitled "Muni- 
 menta Antiqua," 3 vols, folio. Born, 1735 ; 
 died, 1807. 
 
 KING, Peter, Lord chancellor, an able 
 and upright judge, nephew of John Locke 
 the philosopher, was born in 1669. AVhile 
 serving his apprenticeship to his father, 
 a grocer at Exeter, he secretly acquired 
 the learned languages by self tuition, and 
 
kin] 
 
 ^ ilch) 2llm'bcr^al 38t0sra}jl3t». 
 
 [kin 
 
 80 great was tlie proficiency lie attained, 
 that it induced his uncle to send him to 
 I>eyden University, where he diligently cvil- 
 ti vatcd various branches of knowledge, while 
 his character was at the same time formed 
 by the instructions and example of his great 
 kinsman. After leaving Leyden he entered 
 the Middle Temple, and attained high fo- 
 rensic eminence. In 1705 he became a mem- 
 ber of parliament, was made lord chief justice 
 of the common pleas in ITl.*), and raised to 
 the chancellorship in 1725. Lord King oft'ers 
 a remarkable instance of the attainment 
 of the highest judicial rank, simply by his 
 own legal knowledge and high moral cha- 
 racter, without any adventitious aid. But he 
 was no less remarkable for his legal attain- 
 ments than for his ecclesiastical learning ; 
 for, besides a variety of controversial works 
 of great ability, lie wrote a " History of the 
 Apostles' Creed," and " An Inquiry into the 
 Constitution, &c. of the Primitive Church," 
 which excited great interest at the time of 
 their publication, and may still be consulted 
 with advantage. Died 1734, leaving four 
 sons, who all inherited the title in succession, 
 and one of whose descendants, the seventh 
 lord, has gained great celebrity by his writ- 
 ings and speeches on subjects connected with 
 political economy, and more especially by 
 his " Thoughts on Bank llestrictions." Lord 
 Brougham, in liis " Statesmen of the Reign 
 of George III.," has given an interesting 
 account of this nobleman, who appears to 
 have been as amiable in private life as he 
 was able and liberal in his public career. 
 Died, 183a, in the 58th year of his age. 
 
 KING, RicuAKU, a clergyman, wnose po- 
 lemical writings attracted some notice, was a 
 native of Bristol, and was educated at New 
 College, Oxford. Ue held the livings of 
 Steeple Morden, in Cambridgeshire, and 
 Worthing in Shropshire; and was the author 
 of " liCtters from Abraham Plymley to his 
 brother Peter, on the Catholic Question," &c. 
 Died, 1810. 
 
 KING, RuFUS, an American statesman 
 and diplomatist, was born in 1755, at Scar- 
 borough, in the district of Maine ; entered at 
 Harvard College in 1773 ; studied the law, 
 and was admitted to the bar in 1778 ; and 
 was elected a member of congress in 1784. 
 In 1790 he was appointed by President 
 Washington, minister plenipotentiary to the 
 court of St. James's, the functions of wliich 
 office he continued to discharge till 1803, 
 when he returned home. In 1813 he was a 
 third time sent to the senate by the legislature 
 of New York ; and his speech on the burning 
 of Washington by the English was a most 
 eloquent display of senatorial oratory. In 
 1816 he lost his election ; but in 1820 he was 
 once more re-elected, and continued until the 
 expiration of the term in 1825. He then ac- 
 cepted the appointment of minister plenipo- 
 tentiary at the court of London ; but was 
 taken ill, returned home, and soon after died, 
 aged 72, in 1827. 
 
 KING, Thomas, a celebrated actor and 
 dramatic writer, was born in London, in 
 17.'iO. Having obtained great celebrity as a 
 eomic actor in provincial companies, he was 
 engaged at Drury Lane Theatre in 1759, 
 where he soon became a great favourite with 
 
 the public, and in 176(5 arrived at the height 
 of his professional reputation by the perform- 
 ance of Loril Oyh'bij. He subsequently be- 
 came manager and part proprietor of the 
 Bath and Bristol theatres, and also of Sadler's 
 Wells ; but these he relinquished, and con- 
 tinued to i)erform principally at Drury Lane, 
 till he retired from the stage in IHOl. His 
 dramatic pieces are, " Love at First Sight," 
 " Neck or Nothing," a farce; "A Peep behind 
 the Curtain, or the New Rehearsal," a 
 comedy ; " Wit's Last Stake," a comedy ; 
 and " Lovers' Quarrela." Died, 1805. 
 
 KING, WiT-LiAM, a poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in London, in 10(53 ; was 
 educated at Christchurch, Oxford ; admitted 
 an advocate in Doctors' Commons ; and ob- 
 tained various preferments in Ireland. His 
 poetical and political works are numerous, 
 and some of them are replete with pleasantry 
 and wit : but his most useful Iwok is, " An 
 Historical Account of the Heathen Gods and 
 Heroes." Died, 1712. 
 
 KING, William, principal of St. Mary 
 Hall, Oxford, and an ingenious theological 
 and political writer. He was the author of 
 various Latin tracts ; but the work by which 
 he will be remembered is, "Political and 
 Literary Anecdotes of his own Times." 
 Born, at Stepney, 1685 ; died, 17(>3. 
 
 KING, Dr. William, archbishop of Dub- 
 lin, was born in 1(;50, and educated at Trinity 
 College. He was the author of a celebrateil 
 treatise, " De Origine Mali," or the Origin of 
 Evil ; wherein he undertook to show how 
 all the several kinds of evil with which 
 the world abounds are consistent with the 
 goodness of God, and may be accounted for 
 without the supposition of an evil principle. 
 Died. 1729. 
 
 KINGSBOROUOH, Edward, Viscount, 
 eldest son of the third Earl of Kingston, was 
 greatly distinguished for his literary ac- 
 quirements and his attachment to literary 
 pursuits. Ue was a fellow of the Antiquarian 
 Society, and author of a splendid work on 
 " The Antiquities of Mexico." Born, 1795 ; 
 died, 18,37. 
 
 KINGSTON, Elizabeth, Duchess of, 
 whose singular adventures have been vari 
 ously recorded, was the daughter of Colonel 
 Chudleigh, governor of Chelsea College, and 
 born in 1720. At the recommendation of Mr. 
 Pulteney, she was appointed one of the maids 
 of honour to the Princess of Wales, mother 
 to George III. Possessed of talents, wit, and 
 beauty. Miss Chudleigh had numerous ad- 
 mirers, and became the rallying point of the 
 opposition party. Having privately married 
 Captain Harvey, afterwards earl of Bristol, 
 she soon conceived a violent dislike towards 
 him, wliich led to a separation, and induced 
 her to go abroad ; but, previous to her de- 
 parture, she advertised for a gentleman com- 
 panion, which was answered by a major in 
 the army, and they proceeded together on 
 their tour as far as Berlin, when, finding no 
 sympathy in their tastes and opinions, they 
 separated. After the most flattering recep- 
 tion at the courts of Dresden and Berlin, she 
 returned to England, and resumed her situa- 
 tion as maid of honour to the princess. De- 
 sirous of disuniting the nujitial tie with 
 Captain Harvey, she went to Launceston, 
 
kin] 
 
 ^ ^clu ^Sniljcr^al SSiosrajjIjiK 
 
 [kir 
 
 where it had taken place, and having asked 
 for a sight of the marriage register, she 
 adopted the infamous expedient of tearing 
 tlie leaf out on which Iier union witli Harvey 
 was recorded. A short time after, her hus- 
 band came into possession of the earldom ; 
 but he was dangerously ill, and the lady, 
 thinking there was a chance of her becoming 
 a rich widow, found means to have the pur- 
 loined leaf replaced. Not long after this, 
 the countess inspired the Duke of Kingston 
 with a violent passion, and he offered her his 
 hand ; but lier husband, who had recovered 
 from his illness, at first refused his consent to 
 their divorce, though he afterwards agreed 
 to it ; and, in 17ti9, she married the Duke of 
 Kingston. He died in 1773, leaving her an 
 ample fortune, upon the condition that she 
 should not marry again. But she did not 
 enjoy her riches undisturbed. The heirs of 
 the duke instituted a suit at law against her 
 for bigamy, as having been divorced by an 
 incompetent tribunal. As soon as she was 
 apprised of this proceeding, she came to 
 England, and attended the sittings in West- 
 minster Hall, dressed in a suit of black, ac- 
 companied by two waiting women, lier medi- 
 cal attendant, her secretary, and six lawyers. 
 At this extraordinary trial, she was found 
 guilty by tlie peers, and adjudged to be burnt 
 with an iron on the riglit hand ; but this 
 punishment was remitted on her pleading 
 the privilege of peerage, and she was dis- 
 charged on paying the fees of office. The 
 duchess spent her latter years in France, 
 and died at her seat near Fontainebleau, in 
 1788. 
 
 KINNAIRD, the Tlon. Douglas, was bom 
 in 178G, and received his early education at 
 Eton. He afterwartls passed some time at 
 Gottingen, where he made himself master of 
 the French and German languages. On 
 leaving Gottingen he went to Cambridge, 
 and there became the associate of the first 
 characters of tlie day. In 1813 he accom- 
 panied Mr. llobhouse through Sweden, and 
 to Vienna, and was present at the battle of 
 Culm. He became an active partner in the 
 banking-house of Ransom and Morland ; 
 and after the old partnership was dissolved, 
 took the principal management of the 
 business. He possessed great energy of mind 
 was a lover of literature, a liberal patron of 
 the arts, and an intimate friend of Lord 
 Byron. Died, 1830. 
 
 KIPPIS, Andrew, a dissenting divine, 
 biographer, and miscellaneous writer, was 
 born at Nottingham, in 1725. He was the 
 pastor of congregations, successively at Bos- 
 ton, Dorking, and Westminster ; received a 
 doctor's degree from the university of Edin- 
 burgh ; and was latterly one of the tutors at 
 the new academy or dissenters' college. 
 Hackney. Dr. Kippis laid the foundation of 
 the "New Annual Register," and devoted 
 his principal attention during the latter years 
 of his life to an improved edition of the 
 " Biographia Britannica," of which five vol- 
 umes were printed ; but it was conducted on 
 a plan so elaborate as to afford no prospect 
 of its termination. He also published the 
 Lives of Captain Cook, Pringle, Doddridge, 
 and Lardner, "A Vindication of the Dis- 
 senters," a volume of sermons, and " Obser- 
 
 vations on the late Contests in the Royal 
 Society." Died, 1795. 
 
 KIRBY, John Joshua, an artist, was 
 born at Parham, in Suffolk, in 171(3. Though 
 originally a house-painter, he had a good 
 knowledge of the art ; and on settling in 
 London he was introduced by Lord Bute to 
 George IIL, by which he became clerk of 
 the works at Kew, and had the honour of 
 teaching the queen the principles of per- 
 spective. He published, at the expense of 
 the king, " The Perspective of Architec- 
 ture," 2 vols, folio ; was F.R.S. and A. S. ; 
 and died in 1774. The celebrated Mrs. 
 Trimmer was his daughter. 
 
 KIRBY, Rev. AVilliam, honorary pre- 
 sident of the Entomological Society of Lon- 
 don, and fellow of the Royal, Linnsan, 
 Zoological, and Geological Societies, &c.; 
 has left behind him an imperishable name 
 as one of the first entomologists of this or 
 any age. This title he would have assured 
 to himself had he written no other work than 
 his " Monograplii.a Ai)um Angliae," pub- 
 lished in 1801, which excited the warmest 
 admiration of British and foreign entomo- 
 logists. But when to this great work we 
 add his other entomological labours, — his 
 numerous and valuable pai)er3 in the Trans- 
 actions of the Linnaan Society ; the " In- 
 troduction to Entomology," M'ritten in con- 
 junction with Mr. Spence ; the entomological 
 portion of his Bridgewater treatise, " On the 
 History, Habits, and Instincts-of Animals ; " 
 and his description (occupying a quarto vo- 
 lume) of the insects of the "Fauna Boreali- 
 Americana " of Sir John Richardson ; it will 
 be evident how largely and successfully he 
 contributed to the extension of his favourite 
 science. Nor did he permit his love for 
 science to encroach on his professional or 
 social duties ; for, while ranking so high as 
 an entomologist, he was during his long 
 life a most exemplary and active clergy- 
 man, beloved by his parishioners of all 
 ranks, and one of the most simple-minded, 
 warm-hearted, and pious of men. Died at 
 Barham, Suffolk, of which place he had been 
 rector for G8 years, July 4. 1850, in the 91st 
 year of his age. 
 
 KIRCHER, Athaxasius, a Jesuit, was 
 born in ICOl, at Geysen, near Fulda, in Ger- 
 many, and studied at Wurtzburg and Avig- 
 non ; after which he was a teacher of mathe- 
 matics in the college belonging to his order 
 at Rome, where he was professor of Hebrew. 
 His works evince great depth of learning ; 
 the principal are, "(Edipus Egyptiacus," 
 4 vols, folio; " Ars Magnesia," "Lingua 
 iEgyptiaca restituta," " Mundus Suhterra- 
 neus," " OrganonJIalhemaiicum," "Musur- 
 gia Universalis," &c. Died, 1680. 
 
 KIRCHMAN, N., professor of philosophy 
 at Petersburg!!, celebrated by the manner of 
 his death. Being engaged in attracting by 
 his apparatus the electric fluid from the 
 clouds, a ball of fire struck him on the head, 
 and killed him on the spot, August 6. 1753. 
 
 KIRK, Colonel, an English officer who, 
 in 1685, committed the most inhuman bar- 
 barities in the west of England. James II. 
 had the meanness to solicit this butcher to 
 turn Catholic, but Kirk roughly replied, 
 " that when he was at Tangiers he had pro- 
 
kir] 
 
 ^ i^tU) Winihtr^Kl 38iograji15p. 
 
 [kle 
 
 iniiicd the dey, tlxat if he ever changed his re- 
 i ligion, lie would turn Mahometan." lie uf- 
 I terwards served the army of king William, 
 
 and died at the close of the 17th century. 
 ! KIRKALDY, William, a distinguished 
 military character in the reign of Mary, 
 queen of Scots, lie early joined the party 
 known by the name of tJic Lords of the 
 Congregation, but afterwards attached him- 
 self to Maitland, who was at the liead of 
 tlic partisans of Mary, lie was executed at 
 Edinburgji in loTS. 
 ' KIRKLAND, Thomas, an eminent phy- 
 j siciau, who settled at Ashby de la Zoucli, in 
 ; Leicestershire, where he died in 17U8, aged 77. 
 j lie was the author of an " Enquiry into the 
 I Slate of Medical Surgery," 2 vols. 8vo. ; " Ob- 
 i Bcrvations on Pott's Remarks on Fractures," 
 I a "Treatise on Childbed Fevers," " Thoughts 
 I on Amputation," and a " Commentary on 
 
 Apoplectic and Paralytic Affections." 
 I KIKSTENIUS, Pktku, an eminent phy- 
 sician, and professor of medicine at Ups^al, 
 in Sweden, was born at Breslaw, in Silesia, 
 I in 1577. He was well skilled iu Arabic, and 
 I understood 25 other languages. His works, 
 I which are chiefly on the oriental languages, 
 are numerous and erudite. Died, 1040. 
 
 KIRKPATRICK, James, a skilful orien- 
 talist, was a major-general in the British 
 service, and passed a great part of his life in 
 India. He published a " Description of the 
 Kingdom of Nepaul," a " Biogrupliy of Per- 
 sian Poets," and the "I^etters of Tippoo 
 Saib." Died, 1812, 
 
 KIRWAN, Walter Blake, an Irish di- 
 vine, eminent for his popularity as a preach- 
 er. He was born at Oalway, in 1754 ; was 
 educated at St. Omer's and Louvain ; took 
 orders as a Catholic priest ; and, iu 1778, was 
 appointed chaplain to the Neapolitan em- 
 bassy in London. In 1787 he conformed to 
 the established church, and obtained succes- 
 sively the prebendary of Howth, the living 
 of St. Nicholas, in Dublin, and the deanery 
 of Killala. As a pulpit orator he excelled 
 all his contemporaries ; so great, indeed, 
 were his attractions, that we are told it was 
 often necessaiy to keep off the crowds, by 
 guards and pallisades, from tlie cliurches in 
 which he was preaching. No wonder, tliere- 
 fore, that his exertions in favour of ehai'i- 
 table institutions were in urgent request, or 
 that he succeeded in an astonishing manner 
 to assist their funds. He died, exhausted 
 by his labours, in 1805 ; and a volume of his 
 sermons were published after his decease. 
 
 KIRWAN, RiCHAKD, LL.D., a distin- 
 guished writer on chemistry, geology, &c., 
 was a native of Galway county, in Ireland. 
 He was educated at the university of Dub- 
 lin ; devoted himself with great ardour to 
 chemical and mineralogical researches ; and 
 became a member of tlie Royal Irish Aca- 
 demy, and also a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1784 appeared his "Elcmeutsof Miner- 
 alogy," 2 vols. 8vo. He also published 
 " Geological Essays," a treatise on the " Ana- 
 lysis of Mineral Waters," an " Essay on 
 Plilogiston and the Constitution of Acids," 
 &c. Died, 1812. 
 
 KITCHENER, William, a physician and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born about 1775, 
 and was the son of a respectable coal-mer- 
 
 chant in London, who Icfl him a large for- 
 tune. He was educated at Eton, and settled 
 in London as a physician ; but he distin- 
 guished himself far more by his precepts on 
 the art of gastronomy, than by the practice 
 of medicine. He was a kind-hearted, social 
 being, with more foibles than faults ; one, in 
 fact, tliat delighted in little eccentricities, 
 and who, rather than not acquire any kind 
 of notoriety, was happy to obtain it by tlie 
 singularity of his conduct. He accordingly 
 wrote a book, under the title of" The Cook s 
 Oracle," in which the laws of the culinary 
 art, professedly founded on his own practice, 
 were promulgated ; and, by appointing a 
 "committee of taste" among his friends, 
 who had regular invitations to his dinner- 
 table, the fame of this epicure spread far 
 and wide, while his evening conversaziones 
 were the resort of privileged wits, and lite- 
 rary bo7i vivants. He was a great stickler 
 for punctuality ; and, for the regulation of 
 these meeetings, a placard was fixed over the 
 chimney-piece, with this inscription, "At 
 seven come, at eleven go," to which the 
 facetious George Colman once added the 
 word " it," making the last sentence, " at 
 eleven go it 1 " Optics and music were also 
 particular objects of his study ; and on these 
 and other subjects he displayed a very com- 
 mendable degree of solicitude. Besides " The 
 Cook's Oracle," which was his most popular 
 work, he published " The Art of Invigorating 
 and Prolonging Life," " TJie Economy of 
 the Eyes," "The Traveller's Oracle," "Ob- 
 servations on Vocal Music," and " The Lo^al 
 and National Songs of Englaud." Died, 
 1827. 
 
 KLAPROTII, Martin Henry, an emi- 
 nent chemist and mineralogist, was born at 
 Berlin, in 174.'J ; became chemical professor 
 there ; and died in 1817. He was the dis- 
 coverer of uranium, the zirconia, and mel- 
 litic acid ; he also made interesting experi- 
 ments on copal, and completed the discovery 
 of tellurium and titanium. Among his 
 works are, " A Mineralogical System," 
 "Chemical Essays;" and, in conjunction 
 with Wolf, a " Dictionary of Chemistry." 
 
 KLAPROTII, IlKNiii Jules, son of the 
 celebrated chemist of Berlin, was intended 
 by his father to pursue the study of the phy- 
 sical sciences, but abandoned them in favour 
 of the oriental languages, in which he be- 
 came one of the ablest modern scholars. In 
 1805 he was selected to accompany the Rus- 
 sian ambassador into China, and m 1807 the 
 Academy of St. Petersburgh commissioned 
 him to visit the Caucasian provinces. Sub- 
 sequently he settled at Paris, where he 
 founded and organised the Asiatic Society. 
 He has left several valuable works : " Asia 
 Polyglotta," "Tableau du Caucase," &c. 
 Born, 1783 ; died, 1835. 
 
 KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a celebrated 
 French general, was born at Strasburg, in 
 1754. He was originally an architect, but 
 preferred the military profession, and entered 
 into the Austrian service, where he remained 
 from 1776 to 1783. When the French revo- 
 lutionary war broke out, he entered as a 
 grenadier into a volunteer regiment of his 
 native department, and rose rapidly into 
 conmiand. He displayed great skill and 
 
 XT 3 
 
kle] 
 
 ^ ^m Wini^tt^id 23t05raj3Tjg. 
 
 [klo 
 
 bravery at the battle of Mayence, after wliich 
 he was employed in La Vendee, but the 
 sanguinary scenes there so disgusted him 
 that he obtained his recall, and was engaged 
 in the north, where he defeated the Aus- 
 trians, took Mons, and drove the enemy from 
 Louvain. He also captured Maestricht, and 
 contributed to the splendid successes which 
 distinguislied the campaigns of 179.5 and 1790 
 on the Rhine. The directory gave him the 
 command of the army of the Sambrc and 
 Meuse, which he resigned to Hoche, and for 
 a time retired from the service. Buonaparte, 
 however, who well knew the value of his 
 talents, prevailed upon liim to join the ex- 
 pedition to Egypt, lie was wounded at the 
 battle of Alexandria, but he marched into 
 Syria, where he commanded the corps of 
 observation during the siege of Acre, and 
 defeated the Turks in several actions. When 
 Buonaparte left Egypt, he appointed Kleber 
 commander-in-chief of the army ; and 
 though, under the then existing circum- 
 stances, no situation could be more difficult 
 or disheartening, yet lie maintained liimself 
 successfully against the enemy, captured the 
 city of Cairo, and made an alliance with 
 Murad Bey ; but in the midst of new pre- 
 parations wliich he was making for securing 
 possession of the country, he was assassinated 
 by an Arab, June 14. 1800. Of all the mili- 
 tary characters that figured during the era 
 of the French revolution, few of tliem sur- 
 passed Kleber for coolness, courage, and 
 activity ; while scarcely one was equally 
 distinguished for humanity and integrity. 
 
 KI/EIST, CiiKisTiAx EwALD vox, a Ger- 
 man poet, was born at Zeblin, in Pomerania, 
 in 171.5. After studying the mathematics, 
 plulosophy, and law, at Konigsberg, he en- 
 tered into the Danish service, and next into 
 that of Prussia, where he rose to the rank 
 of major ; and was killed, after displaying 
 almost romantic bravery at the battle of 
 Kunnersdorff, in 1759. His principal poem, 
 entitled " Spring," is beautifully descriptive, 
 and has been compared to the " Seasons " of 
 Thomson. Kleist also wrote idylls, moral 
 treatises, aud a military romance, called 
 " Cissides." 
 
 KLEIST VON NOLLEXDORF, Emiltus 
 Fkederic, Count, a distinguished Prussian 
 general, was born at Berlin, in 17G2. Having 
 risen by his talents and courage to the rank 
 of general, he commanded a corps of Prus- 
 sians, in 1812, auxiliary to Napoleon's grand 
 army; signalised himself in the battle of 
 Bautzen, May 20. 1813 ; and was one of the 
 plenipotentiaries who concluded the armis- 
 tice. After the retreat of the allied troops 
 from Dresden into Bohemia, Kleist gave 
 battle to the army under Vandamme, and 
 by his victory at the village of Nollendorf 
 saved Bohemia, against which Napoleon 
 had directed his best energies. He was 
 afterwards known by the affix of JVoUendorf. 
 Died. 1821. 
 
 KLINGEMANN, Augcstits, a dramatic 
 writer, and director of the national theatre 
 at Brunswick, was born in that city, in 1777. 
 In 1813 he received the direction of the 
 theatre of his native place, and under his 
 superintendence it became one of the first in 
 (lermany. His dramatic works form 12 
 
 vols., and among them are, " Heinrich der 
 Lowe," " Luther," " Moses," " Faust," &c. 
 
 KUNGER, Frederic Maximilian vox, 
 an ofiicer in the Russian service, and a lite- 
 rary character, was born at Frankfort on the 
 Maine, in 1753. He commenced as a dramatic 
 writer ; but, in the war of the Bavarian suc- 
 cession, he entered the military service, and 
 was made a lieutenant in the Austrian army. 
 In 1780 he went to St. Petersburgh, and was 
 appointed an officer and reader to the grand- 
 prince Paul, with whom he afterwards 
 travelled through Poland, Austria, Italy, 
 France, &c., and, in the reign of Catharine, 
 he rose to the rank of colonel. By the em- 
 peror Paul he was made miijor-general, and 
 director of the corps of cadets ; and, when 
 Alexander ascended the throne, he received 
 other offices and further promotion. After 
 having served forty years he retired ; and 
 died in 18.31. His works, which are of a 
 peculiar character, and written in an exag- 
 gerated stvle, form 12 volumes. 
 
 KLOPSTOCK, Frederic TuEoniiLUS, 
 one of the most celebrated of the German 
 poets, was bom at Quedlinburg, in 1724. 
 After receiving a liberal education at his 
 native place, he was sent to study theology 
 at Jena, where he wrote a great part of his 
 "Messiah," which he published in 1747, at 
 Leipsic. Though this poem underwent the 
 ordeal of severe criticism by some, it was 
 admired by more ; and Bodmer, with the 
 Swiss in general, were loud in its praises. 
 Klopstock was invited into that coimtry, 
 and while there, the people regarded him 
 with a kind of veneration. From thence 
 he was called to Copenhagen by the most 
 flattering promises, which were amply ful- 
 filled. In 1771 he went to reside at Ham- 
 burgh, as Danish legate, and counsellor 
 from the court of Baden. He died in 1803, 
 and was buried with great pomp and solem- 
 nity. As a lyrical writer, Klopstock is, per- 
 haps, amongst the most successful of any 
 age, and may well be called the Pindar of 
 modern poetry. His patriotism is strong 
 and ardent ; and his later odes, called forth 
 by the French revolution, in which at first 
 he took the warmest interest, are distin- 
 guished by bold and original turns of ex- 
 pression. His tragedies, though not cal- 
 culated for the stage, contain beautiful 
 language, and are replete with the loftiest 
 sentiments ; but his greatest work, " The Mes- 
 siah," though possessing much sublimity 
 and feeling, did not fulfil the high expecta- 
 tions of his countrymen, who predicted that 
 it would eclipse the Paradise Lost of Milton. 
 He was twice married. Margaret, his first 
 wife, whom he married in 1754, and who 
 died in 1758, was a woman of kindred genius 
 and literary accomplishments. Among her 
 productions are, " The Death of Abel," a tra- 
 gedy ; and " Letters from the Dead to the 
 Living." 
 
 KLOSE, F. J., an ingenious composer and 
 professor of music, who both by his printed 
 works and his skill as an instructor on the 
 pianoforte attained considerable celebrity 
 in London, of which city he was a native, 
 and where he died, in 1830. 
 
 KLOTZ, Christiax AnoLrHus, an emi- 
 nent German scholar and critic, was born in 
 
KLU] 
 
 ^ jlfiD ©fnibcr^al 38iotjrnpIji|. 
 
 [kni 
 
 1738, at Bischofswerden, in Lusatia ; stiidied 
 at lieipsic and Jena ; and, in 17(12, was ap- 
 pointed professor of philosophy at Gottingcn. 
 He afterwards, by the invitation of Fi-ederic 
 the Great, held a similar situation at llalle, 
 where he died in 1771. Klotz distinguished 
 himself chiefly by liis Latin poems, his nu- 
 mismatic treatises, )iis works on tlie study 
 of antiquity and the value and mode of 
 using ancient gems. 
 
 KLUIT, Adrian, a Dutch historian, was 
 born at Dort in 1735; studied at Utrecht; 
 and became professor of archaeology and 
 diplomatics at I.cyden. His political opi- 
 nions occasioned liis removal from the chair 
 in 1795 ; but in l8(Xi, uuder the regal go- 
 vernment, he was professor of statistics. 
 His deatli, which took place in 1807, was 
 owing to the destruction of his house from 
 the explosion of a boat laden with gun- 
 powder, which was moored to the quay near 
 which lie resided. His chief work is a his- 
 tory of the political affairs of Holland to 
 1795, in 5 vols. 
 
 KNELLER, Sir Godfuey, an eminent 
 portrait painter, bcrn at Lubeuk about 1(548, 
 was designed for a military life, and sent to 
 Lej'den to study mathematics and fortifica- 
 cation, but sliowing a decided bent for 
 painting, was placed under Bol and Kem- 
 brandt at Amsterdam. Having visited Italy, 
 where he studied with Carlo Maratti and 
 Bernini, he came to England, in 1(574 ; and 
 was much patronised by Charles II., James 
 II., and William III., for the latter of whom 
 he painted the beauties at Hampton Court, 
 and several of the portraits in the gallery of 
 admirals. His colouring is lively, true, and 
 harmonious ; his drawing correct, and his 
 disposition judicious : he displays, how- 
 ever, a singular want of imagination in his 
 pictures, the attitudes, action, and drapery 
 being tasteless, unvarying, and ungraceful. 
 He has been accused of caring more for 
 money than for lasting fame, and the con- 
 sequence is, that many of his productions 
 are below mediocrity. He was in habits of 
 intimacy with Pope and most of his emi- 
 nent contemporaries ; and, as he possessed a 
 fund of humour, and was of a gay and con- 
 vivial turn, his acquaintance was eagerly 
 sought after. He continued to practise his 
 art till after he was seventy years of age, 
 amassed a large fortune, and died in 1723. 
 
 KNIBB, Rev. Willi am, a celebrated Bap- 
 tist missionary, was born at Kettering, in 
 Northamptonshire, at the beginning of the 
 present century. Originally apprenticed to 
 a printer at Bristol, he offered, on the death 
 of his brother, to supply his place as a teacher 
 of a Baptist school in Jamaica ; and having 
 repaired thither in 1824, he was in 1829 ap- 
 pointed pastor of tlie mission . cliurch at 
 Falmouth, where his efforts to ameliorate 
 the condition of the negroes were amply 
 rewarded by their gratitude towards him. 
 But these very efforts excited such hostility 
 among the planters, overseers, and others in 
 the slave holding interest, that when in 1832 
 a formidable slave insurrection was tlireat- 
 ened, Mr. Knibb was not only compelled, 
 despite his sacred calling, to serve in the 
 militia, but was treated witli marked indig- 
 nity, and shortly afterwards arrested for 
 
 being implicated in the thre.^tened rebellion. 
 In the absence of all evidence to support a 
 criminal prosecution he was released ; but 
 his chapel and mission premises having 
 been burnt down during the disturbances, he 
 resolved to proceed to England to explain 
 all the circumstances connected with his 
 mission. Feeling that the time for neutrality 
 was passed, he now boldly advocated the 
 entire and immediate abolition of slavery ; 
 and it is not going to far to say, that his 
 stirring harangues throughout the country 
 had no unimportant share in bringing about 
 the emanciijation act of 1833. In 1834 he 
 once more returned to Jamaica, where he 
 vigilantly watched the operation of the new 
 act, exposed the evils of the apprenticeship 
 system, raised subscriptions for building new 
 cliurches, founded schools, and after ten 
 years spent in these and similar under- 
 takings (to obtain sympathy and pecuniary 
 aid for wliich, he had once more revisited 
 England in 1844), he was suddenly seized 
 with yellow fever, and died after a four 
 days' illness at the village of Kettering iu 
 Jamaica. Nov. l.lth, 1845. 
 
 KNIGHT, Ei)\VAKi>, a celebrated come- 
 dian, born at Birmingham in 1774, who was 
 particularly distinguished in comic charac- 
 ters. His Tim in " Wild Oats" was admired 
 as a chaste and natural exhibition. Afr. 
 Knight performed at Drury Lane and at the 
 Lyceum, till illness compelled him to quit 
 the stage. Died, 182(J. 
 
 KNIGHT, GowiN, an English philoso- 
 pher, was educated at Magdalen College, 
 Oxford, where he took his degree of bache- 
 lor of physic in 1742. He practised in Lou- 
 don, and was chosen a fellow of the Royal 
 Society ; but falling into great distress, he 
 made his case known to Dr. Fotliergill, who 
 went into his closet, and then returned with 
 a check upon his banker for a thousand 
 guineas, whicli he put into his friend's hand, 
 and told him to go home, and set his heart 
 at rest. Dr. Knight published " An Attempt 
 to demonstrate that all the Phenomena in 
 Nature may be exiilaiucd by Attraction and 
 Repulsion." 
 
 KNIGHT, ITenky Gally, M.P., a distin- 
 guished traveller and accomplished virtuoso 
 and antiquary, was born in 1780. Soon after 
 succeeding to his father's estates in Notting- 
 hamsliire, in 1808, Mr. Knight set out on a 
 course of extensive travel iu Spain, Sicily, 
 Greece, the Holy Land, &c. ; and on his 
 return he published his tour. In 1814 he 
 published a poem, entitled " Europa Redi- 
 viva s " and this was followed at different 
 intervals by "Phrosyne, a Grecian Tale," 
 " Alashtor, an Arabian Tale," and " Hanni- 
 bal in Bitliynia." But Mr. Knight's chief 
 title to fame consists in the zeal with which 
 he devoted himself to the investigation of 
 architectural history both at home and 
 abroad ; and the fruits of which he gave to 
 the world in an " Architectural Tour in Nor- 
 mandy," "The Normans in Sicily," and his 
 last and greatest work, the "Ecclesiastical 
 Architecture of Italy," &c. Mr. Knight was 
 a member of the commission for the advance- 
 ment of the fine arts, and his purse was ever 
 ready to promote the cultivation of literature 
 and art. In 1824 he was for a short period 
 
KNl] 
 
 ^ ^£to ^utberM 28togm|}i)r|. 
 
 [kno 
 
 M. P. for Aldborough ; in 1830 he sat for 
 Malton ; and from 183.5 down to his demise 
 he was one of the members for North Notts. 
 Died, 184(5. 
 
 KNIGHT, KicHAHD Payne, a man of 
 fortune, and a patron of learning and the 
 fine arts, was born in 1748. He devoted a 
 great portion of his tima to the cultivation 
 of classical literature, and the elucidation 
 of the domestic manners of the ancients ; 
 while his splendid collection of ancient 
 bronzes, medals, pictures, and drawings, in 
 his museum at his house in Soho Square, 
 gave sufficient proofs of his taste for every 
 thing connected with virtd. The whole of 
 this valuable collection, worth 50,000/., he 
 bequeathed to the British Museum. As an 
 author he was distinguished for the variety 
 of his knowledge, and the depth and force of 
 his critical acumen. Among his works are, 
 " An Account of the Remains of the Worship 
 of Priapus," an " Analytical Inquiry into 
 the Principles of Taste," " Prolegomena in 
 Homerum," "The Landscape," a didactic 
 poem ; and " The Progress of Civil Society." 
 Died, 1824. 
 
 KNIGHT, Samuel, a learned English 
 divine, who wrote the lives of Dr. Colet and 
 Erasmus. Died, 1740. 
 
 KNIGHT, Thomas, an actor and dramatic 
 writer, was a native of Dorsetshire. He was 
 intended for the profession of the law, but 
 having received lessons in oratory from 
 Macklin, he imbibed a taste for the stage, 
 became an actor, and was a favourite with 
 the ijublic, particularly in rustic characters 
 and flippant coxcombs. He wrote " The 
 Honest Tliieves," " The Turnpike Gate," 
 and several other dramatic pieces. Died, 
 1820. 
 
 KNIGHTON, Hexey, an English his- 
 torian, was a canon regular of Leicester 
 Abbey, in the reign of Kichard II., of whose 
 deposition he wrote an account ; also a 
 chronicle from the Conquest to 1395. 
 
 KNIGHTON, Sir William, bart., a phy- 
 sician and private secretary to George IV., 
 originally entered the medical profession as 
 an apothecary at Tavistock, but soon re- 
 moved to Loudon, where he first practised as 
 an accoucheur only, but afterwards, having 
 obtained his diploma, as an accoucheur and 
 physician. In 1809 he accompanied the 
 Marquis of Wellesley to Spain, and on this 
 nobleman retiring from office, he asked the 
 prince regent to appoint Knighton one of his 
 physicians. Being on terms of intimacy with 
 Sir John Mc Mahon, the latter named him 
 a^ his executor ; and, at his death, some 
 papers relating to certain private affairs of 
 the prince came into his possession, wliich, 
 without comment or condition, he imme- 
 diately placed in the hands of the rightful 
 owner. The regent, pleased with the deli- 
 cate manner in which this was done, ap- 
 pointed him to an important office in the 
 duchy of Cornwall, and in 1813 raised him 
 to a baronetage. Known as a decided fa- 
 vourite at court, his reputation was now at 
 its zenith, and his business became very ex- 
 tensive ; but on beiug appointed successor to 
 Sir Benjamin Bloomfleld, who held the 
 situation of private secretary to the prince 
 regent after the death of Sir John Mc Mahon, 
 
 he wholly abandoned practice, and became 
 an inmate of the palace. Sir W. Knighton 
 died in October, 18.36. He was a man of un- 
 questionable talents, and, in every sense of 
 the word, an accomplished courtier. 
 
 KNOLLES, RiciiAiiD, an English his- 
 torian, who wrote the "History of the 
 Turks," " The Lives and Conquests of the 
 Ottoman Kings," "A Discourse on the 
 Greatness of the Turkish Empire ; " and a 
 " Compendium of Latin, Greek, and He- 
 brew Grammar." He was the master of the 
 free school at Sandwich, and died in 1010. 
 
 KNOLLES, Sir Piobekt, an English com- 
 mander in the reign of Edward III., was 
 of low origin in Cheshire, but, being of an 
 enterprising mind, obtained the rank of 
 general, and the order of knighthood. At 
 the close of life he retired to his estate in 
 Kent, and built Rochester Bridge. Died, 
 1407, aged 00. 
 
 KNOLLIS, or KNOWLES, Sir Francis, 
 an English statesman, who, on the accession 
 of Elizabeth, was emploj'ed in several im- 
 portant matters of state. He was one of the 
 commissioners wlio sat in judgment on Mary 
 queen of Scots ; was appointed treasurer of 
 the royal household, and was a knight of 
 the garter. He died in 150G. Sir i'rancis 
 wrote a " Treatise agaiust the Usurpation of 
 Papal Bishops." 
 
 KNORR, George Wolfoakg, a German 
 engraver, who also devoted his attention to 
 the study of natural history, and was the 
 author of " Thesaurus Rei Herbariae Horten- 
 sisque Universalis," "Deliciaa Naturae Se- 
 lectae," &c. Born, 1705 ; died, 17.58. 
 
 KNOTT, Edward, a learned English 
 Jesuit, whose real name was Matthias Wil- 
 son. He was the author of several contro- 
 versial works of great acuteness, among 
 which was one, entitled " Infidelity Un- 
 masked," in reply to Chillingworth's " Reli- 
 gion of the Protestants. He was born at 
 Pegsworth, in Northumberland, in 1580 ; be- 
 came provincial of his order in England ; 
 and died in London, in 1656. 
 
 KNOWLES, Thomas, an able English 
 divine and classical scholar, born at Ely, in 
 1723 ; in the cathedral of which place he 
 obtained a stall, with other church prefer- 
 ment. His principal works are, " The Scrip- 
 ture Doctrine of the Existence and Attri- 
 butes of God, in 12 Sermons," " Answer to 
 Bishop Clayton's Essay on the Spirit," &c. 
 
 KNOX, JoHs, styled the great champion 
 of the Scottish reformation, was born in 
 1505, at Gifford, in East Lothian, and was 
 educated at St. Andrew's. Having been con- 
 verted from the Romish faith, he became a 
 zealous preacher of the new doctrines. Not- 
 withstanding the opposition he met with 
 from the clergy, he every day grew bolder in 
 the cause, until the castle of St. Andrew's 
 surrendered to the French in July, 1547, 
 when he was carried with the garrison into 
 France, and remained a prisoner on board 
 the galleys, until the latter end of 1549. 
 Being then set at liberty, he passed over to 
 England, and, arriving in Loudon, was li- 
 censed either by Cranmer, or tlie protector 
 Somerset, and appointed preacher, first at 
 Berwick, and afterwards at Newcastle. In 
 1552 he was appointed chaplain to Edward 
 
ICNO] 
 
 91 llciD Bnibtx^aX iSiograijfjt). 
 
 [koe 
 
 VI., and preached before the king at ^\'cst- 
 minster, wlio recommended Cranmer to give 
 him the living of All-hallows, in London, 
 which Knox declined, not choosing to con- 
 form to the English liturgy. On the acces- 
 sion of Queen Mary, he went to Geneva, and 
 next to Frankfort, where he took imrt with 
 the English exiles, who opposed the use of 
 the liturgy ; but the other side prevailing, 
 Knox returned to Geneva, and soon after 
 went to Scotland. While engnged in the 
 ministry, he received an invitation to return 
 to Geneva, wilJi which he complied ; and in 
 his absence the bishops passed sentence of 
 death upon him for heresy, against which 
 he drew ui> an energetic appeal. In lliHH he 
 published his treatise, entitled the "First 
 Blast of the Trumpet against the monstrous 
 Kegimen of Women," chiefly aimed at the 
 cruel government of queen Mary of Eng- 
 land, and at the attempt of the queen regent 
 of Scotland to rule without a parliament. In 
 April, IHM, he would have visited England, 
 but was prevented by the resentment lelt by 
 Elizabeth at his late treatise. He therefore 
 proceeded directly to Scotland, where he 
 found a persecution of the Protestants just 
 ready to commence at Stirling. He hurried 
 to the scene of action to share the danger, 
 and, mounting a pulpit, inflamed the people 
 by a vehement harangue against idolatry. 
 The violence of his denunciations, aided by 
 the indiscretion of a priest, who immediately 
 on the conclusion of this discourse was pre- 
 paring to celebrate mass, precipitated his 
 hearers into a general attack on the churches 
 of the city, in which the altars were over- 
 turned, the paintings and finest works of 
 architecture destroyed, the images broken, 
 and the monasteries almost levelled to the 
 ground. From that time forward, he never 
 ceased to promote, by all the means in his 
 power, the cause he had espoused. But it is 
 useless to pursue the subject farther, or to 
 comment on his character. I>ike Luther, 
 he was one of those extraordinary persons 
 of whom few, if any, are observed to speak 
 with sufficient temper ; all is cither extra- 
 vagant encomium, or senseless invective. 
 After his death appeared his " Historj' of 
 the Reformation of Religion within the 
 Realm of Scotland," &c., to the 4th edition of 
 which are appended all liis other works. He 
 died, Nov. 24. 1572, and was buried at Edin- 
 burgh, several lords attending ; and when he 
 was laid in his grave, the Earl of Morton, 
 that day chosen regent, exclaimed, " There 
 lies he who never feared the face of man." 
 
 KNOX, ViCEsiMus, D. D., an eminent 
 author and an eloquent preacher, was born 
 in 17.")2 ; and received his education at Mer- 
 chant Tailors' School, and St. John's Col- 
 lege, Oxford. On the death of his father, he 
 was chosen his successor in the head-master- 
 ship of Tunbridge Grammar School, over 
 which he presided with great reputation, 
 thirty-three years ; and when, in 1812, he 
 retired, he was himself succeeded bj' his 
 son, Ur. Thomas Knox. Few men have 
 better claims on our regard than the sub- 
 I ject of this notice. In theological and 
 classical learning he excelled most of his 
 i contemporaries ; in an acquaintance with 
 j polite literature he was surpassed by none ; 
 
 while all who remember his pulpit oratory, 
 are able to bear testimony to the power- 
 ful and earnest eloquem:e with which he 
 expoimded the precepts and doctrines of 
 Christianity. He lield the living of Rams- 
 den, in Essex, and the chapelry of Ship- 
 bourne in Kent, at which latter place and 
 at Tunbridge he for many years officiated. 
 Nor was he unknown to the religious world 
 of London, being frequently solicited to 
 plead the cause of various public charitable 
 institutions in the metropolis. His works 
 consist of " Essays, floral and Literary," 3 
 vols. ; "Liberal Education," 2 vols. ; " Win- 
 ter Evenings," 3 vols. ; " Personal Nobility, 
 or Letters to a young Nobleman on his 
 Studies," " Sermons on Faith, Hope, and 
 Charity," " Christian Philosophy," 2 vols. ; 
 " Considerations on the Nature and Efficacy 
 of the Lord's Supper," and a pamphlet " On 
 the National Importance of a Classical Edu- 
 cation." Besides these, he published a series 
 of selections from the works of the best 
 English authors, under the titles of " Elegant 
 Extracts " and " Elegant Epistles." He is 
 also regarded as the author of a political 
 work, entitled "The Spirit of Despotism," 
 published anonymously in 17'.>4, and of vari- 
 ous anti-belligerent tracts, which appeared at 
 the commencement of the French revolution. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 KNOX, liev. Thomas, D. D., was the son 
 of Dr. Vicesimus Knox, whom he succeeded 
 in the mastership of the Tunbridge Gram- 
 mar School, and also in the rectories of Run- 
 well and Ramsden Crays, in Essex. He was, 
 like his more celebrated father, an energetic 
 and powerful preacher, and a " liberal ' as 
 to politics ; but, unlike him, he did not court 
 literary celebrity. His death was as awful 
 as it was sudden. He had scarcely entered 
 the vestry-room of Tunbridge church when 
 he fell back and expired, the disease being 
 enlargement of the heart. Died July 23. 
 1843, aijed .59. 
 
 KNUTZEN, Mattuias, a professed atheist 
 of Ilolstein, who first broached his impious 
 tenets at Konigsberg, in 1673. His followers 
 were called Conscientarians, because they 
 would allow of no other divinity than what 
 existed in a man's own mind. They denied 
 the existence of good and evil principles, and 
 of a future state, and maintained that civil 
 government was useless. 
 
 KOCH, CnitiSTopiiEU William, an his- 
 torian and professor of public jurisprudence 
 at Strasburg, was a native of Alsace, and 
 born in 1737. History, genealogy, and the 
 canon law were the pursuits which chiefly 
 engaged his attention ; but the progress of 
 the French revolution for a time interrupted 
 his studies ; for, having been chosen a mem- 
 ber of the legislative assembly, his patriotic 
 opposition to the Jacobins occasioned his im- 
 prisonment ; but on the fall of Robespierre 
 he was liberated. He was the author of " A 
 View of the Revolutions of Europe," &c. 
 Died, 1813. 
 
 KOEHLER, .Tonw David, a most indus- 
 trious German author, v/as born in 1G84, near 
 Lcipsic. He distinguished himself at the 
 universities of Altorf and Gottiiigen, and 
 published a number of valuable works on 
 history, areliaeology, &c. Died, 1755. 
 
koe] 
 
 ^ ^tbi mm'bcr^al 3Sifl0rapIjin 
 
 [kos 
 
 KOENIG. Several persons of this name 
 have iu some way or other distinguished 
 
 themselves George Matthias, born at 
 
 Altorf, in lOKi, was the author of a Latin 
 Biograpliical Dictionary, of considerable 
 
 merit. Died 1(599 Joiiann Geuaud, a 
 
 physician of Courland, in Litliuania, born 
 1728, was a celebrated botanist, and travelled 
 to tlie East Indies and otlier countries in 
 pursuit of his favourite science, keeping up a 
 correspondence at the time with Linnaeus, 
 
 his old preceptor. Died, 1785 Tliere were 
 
 also two brotliers, natives of Switzerland, 
 named Daniel and Samuel Koenig. The 
 former was killed, in his 22d year, at 
 Franeker, by the mob, who in a popular 
 commotion fell upon Mm under the suppo- 
 sition that he was a French spy, as he had 
 been heard to converse in that language. 
 He translated into Latin " Arbuthnot on 
 Ancient Coins." Samuel was a good ma- 
 thematical scholar, and filled the professor's 
 chair at Franeker, in philosophy and ethics ; 
 but afterwards settled at the Hague, having 
 been invited thither by the Prince of Orange, 
 who made him his librarian. Died, 1757. 
 
 KORNER, Theodore, an eminent poet, 
 often called the German TyrtiEus, was born 
 at Dresden, in 1791 ; and, after studying at 
 Leipsic, became a dramatist and secretary to 
 the management of the court theatre of Vi- 
 enna. Being an enthusiast for the liberty of 
 Germany, he entered as a volunteer into the 
 Prussian army, in 1812; signalised himself 
 equally by his bravery and his martial songs; 
 was promoted for his conduct at the battle 
 of Lutzen ; was afterwards twice wounded ; 
 made a lieutenant ; and fell in a skirmish 
 with the French, in Mecklenburg, August 
 26. 1813. His lyrical poems were published 
 after his death, under the title of "The 
 Lyre and Sword ;" but innumerable editions 
 of his works, consisting of his dramas, poems 
 and other literary remains, have since been 
 published in Germany ; and many of his 
 writings liave been repeatedly translated 
 into English. 
 
 KOIALOWICZ, Adalbert, a native of 
 Poland, bom in 1G09 ; author of a " History 
 of Lithuania," written in Latin, and con- 
 sidered by Schloezer, wlio translated it into 
 German, as an admirable performance. 
 
 KOLBE, or KOLBEN, Peter, a traveller, 
 was born in 1G74, at Dorflas, in the prin- 
 cipality of Bayreuth. He studied at Halle, 
 in 1700 ; soon after which he was sent to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, by the king of Prussia, 
 to make astronomical observations. He re- 
 mained there ten years, and was afflicted with 
 blindness, but recovered his sight on his 
 return to Europe, and was rector of the 
 Gymnasium of Newstadt. He wrote a " De- 
 scription of the Cape of Good Hope," and 
 was the first who gave a full and circum- 
 stantial account of that colony. Died, 172(5. 
 
 KOLLMAN, Augustus Fred. Charles, 
 a native of Angelbostel, near Hanover, who 
 came to England in 1782, to fill the place of 
 organist and schoolmaster in the Royal Ger- 
 man Chapel, London, which lie held 40 years. 
 He was the author of several musical com- 
 positions, and died in 1829. 
 
 KONIGSMARK, Maria Aurora, Coun- 
 tess of, one of the mistresses of Augustus II.,, 
 
 king of Poland, was bom about 1G78. She 
 was equally celebrated on account of her 
 personal cliarins and extraordinary talents, 
 and of the part which she performed in 
 politics. While a girl, she wiote and spoke 
 Swedish, German, French, Italian, and Eng- 
 lish ; read the classics in the original ; had 
 an extensive knowledge of liistory and geo- 
 graphy; and even comjjosed poems In French 
 and Italian. She played on several instru- 
 ments, composed music, sang and painted 
 with great skill ; all which accomplishments 
 were aided by a refined wit and superior 
 conversational powers. Thus gifted and 
 accomplished, she arrived, in 1(594, in Dres- 
 den, with her two sisters. The elector fell in 
 love with her at first sight ; she yielded, ap- 
 peared at court as his mistress, and bore him 
 a son, the famous Marshal Saxe, to whose 
 improvement she consecrated the remainder 
 of her life. Though the passion of the fickle 
 king cooled, and another favourite sup- 
 planted the countess, he always remained on 
 terms of friendship with her ; and by his in- 
 fluence slie was appointed, by the court of 
 Vienna, superintendant of Quedlinburg, 
 where she chiefly resided until her death, 
 which took place in 1768. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, a celebrated 
 Polish general and patriot, was descended 
 from an ancient and noble, though not 
 wealthy, family in Lithuania, and was born 
 in 175(5. He was educated at the military 
 school of Warsaw, and completed his studies 
 in France. On his return to Poland he had 
 a commission given him ; but being refused 
 promotion, he went to America, where war 
 was then carrying on between Great Britain 
 and her colonies. He was made a colonel of 
 engineers and aide-de-camp to Washington. 
 At the conclusion of the war he returned to 
 his native country, and lived in retirement ; 
 but when the Polish army was formed, in 
 1789, the diet appointed him a major-general. 
 He declared himself for the constitution of 
 May 3rd, 1791, and served under prince 
 Joseph Poniatowski. In the campaign of 
 1792, he distinguished himself against the 
 Russians at Zielencck and Dubienka. At 
 the latter place, under cover of some works 
 which he had thrown up in the course of 24 
 hours, he repulsed, with 4000 men, three 
 successive attacks of 18,000 Russians, who 
 prevailed only after the loss of 4000 men. 
 When king Stanislaus submitted to Catha- 
 rine, he, with 16 other officers, left the army, 
 and was, therefore, obliged to retire from 
 Poland. He went to Leipsic ; and the legis- 
 lative assembly of France, at this time, gave 
 him the rights of a French citizen. The 
 Poles becoming impatient under the oppres- 
 sion of Russia, all eyes were turned towards 
 Kosciusko, whom they chose for their leader, 
 and invested with the full powers of gene- 
 ralissimo. Kosciusko then advanced to 
 meet the Russian forces. Without artillery, 
 at the head of only 4000 men, part of whom 
 were armed only witli scythes and pikes, 
 he defeated 12,000 Russians at Raslavice, 
 April 4. 1794. His army soon increased to 
 9000 men, the insurrection extended to War- 
 saw, and in a few days the Russians were 
 driven from that palatinate. But the enemy 
 poured in on all sides, and at length, after 
 
i — r 
 
 KOS] 
 
 ^ ^elu Bni^tr^nl SSiograpibj?' 
 
 [kra 
 
 having for six months delaj'ed tiie fall of 
 Poland, he was wounded and taken prisoner, 
 Oct. 4., at the battle of Maceiowiue. He was 
 sent to Russia, and confined in a fortress 
 near St. Tctersburgh, till the accession of the 
 emperor Paul, who set him at liberty. In 
 ]7'J7 he took his departure for the United 
 States of America, but returned to Europe 
 the following year, and settled in France, 
 liuonaparte often endeavoured to engage 
 liim in his ambitious schemes for the sub- 
 jection of Poland ; but the disinterested pa- 
 triot saw through his designs, and rejected 
 his overtures, lie died at Soleure, in Swit- 
 zerland, in 1817. 
 
 KOSEGARTEN, Locis Tiieobcl, 'a Ger- 
 man poet and divine, was born in 1758, in 
 the state of Mecklenburg, and became rec- 
 tor of the university of Griefswald, where 
 he died in 1818. Besides writing numerous 
 legends, idyls, patriotic songs, and romances, 
 he translated Richardson's Olaiissa and other 
 novels. 
 
 KOSTROW, Eemimus Ivattovitsch, the 
 son of a Russian peasant, who obtained ce- 
 lebrity in his native country by an excellent 
 translation of Ossian's poems, and by a less 
 perfect one of Homer's Iliad. He was also 
 the author of some original poetry. Died, 
 1796. 
 
 KOTZEBUE, AforsTus FREDt-nic Fer- 
 niNAND vox, a prolific German writer, was 
 bom, in 17G1, at Weimar. At the age of 16 
 years, lie entered the university of Jena, 
 where his inclination for the drama was 
 confirmed by his connection with a private 
 theatre. In 1781 he went to St. Petersburgh, 
 at the suggestion of the Prussian minister at 
 that court, and became secretary to the 
 governor-general. Von Bawr, who recom- 
 mended him to the empress, who became 
 his patroness, and he was finally appointed 
 president of the government of Esthonia. 
 In 17'J5 he retired to a country place about 
 3.") miles from Narva ; but soon after went 
 to ^^'eimar, and from thence to Petersburgh. 
 He had, however, scarcely arrived on the 
 frontiers, before he was arrested, and sent to 
 Siberia, without any reason being assigned 
 for the act. A small drama of his, an in- 
 direct eulogy of Paul I., was translated into 
 Russian, and laid, in manuscript, before the 
 emperor, who was so delighted with it, that 
 he recalled Kotzebue, and took him into 
 favour. After tlie death of Paul, he again 
 went to Germany, but, in 180C, revisited 
 Russia, to avoid the French, and never 
 ceased to write against Napoleon. Some 
 subsequent years were spent in travelling, 
 and the remainder of his life in pouruig 
 forth his innumerable literary productions. 
 He is said to have written many of the 
 Russian state papers and proclamations. 
 In 1817 he received a salary of 15,000 roubles, 
 witli directions to reside in Germany, and 
 to report upon literature and public opinion. 
 This invidious office Kotzebue is said to 
 have filled in a manner hostile to the freedom 
 of his native land, and he was regarded with 
 aversion by the liberals of Germany. His 
 strictures on the conduct of the students of 
 the German universities higlily exasperated 
 them ; and the feeling was so strong in the 
 case of a young enthusiast named Sand, 
 
 491 
 
 that he went to Kotzebue's house at Man- 
 heim, and there deliberately murdered him, 
 March 23. 1819, and then immediately gave 
 himself up to justice. He was the author of 
 98 dramas, and his name appears to about 
 200 more, which are either translations, or 
 were written by other persons and retouched 
 by him. Among his other numerous pro- 
 ductions are, " A History of the German 
 Empire," " A History of Ancient Prussia," 
 and various ".Recollections," such as of Paris, 
 Rome, Naples, &c. 
 
 KRAFT, George Wolfgang, a German 
 philosopher, was educated at Tubingen, 
 where he subsequently filled the chair of ma- 
 thematics. He wrote many valuable and in- 
 teresting papers in the Transactions of the 
 Academy of St. Petersburg]!. Died, 1754. 
 
 KRANACH, LrCAS (whose proper name 
 was Sunder), a distinguished painter, was 
 bom at Kranach in Bamberg, 1472. He was 
 greatly patronised by Frederic, elector of 
 Coburg, whom he accompanied on a journey 
 through Palestine in 1493, and soon after- 
 wards commenced his career as an historical 
 painter, which, whether we consider the 
 number or the excellence of his works, has 
 not been surpassed by any of his countrymen. 
 He was intimately associated witli tlie great 
 reformers, Luther and Melanchthon, whose 
 portraits, as taken by him, are amongst the 
 most interesting memorials of their age. 
 Died, 15.53. His son Lucas, with whom he 
 is sometimes confounded, gained great dis- 
 tinction in the same career, and died in 1.">8C. 
 
 KRANTZ, Albeut, a German historian 
 and philosopher of the 15th century ; author 
 of a Latin " Chronicle of the Kingdoms of 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway," a " His- 
 tory of the Ancient Vandals," &c. His re- 
 putation as an able and upright diplomatist 
 also was so well estalilished, that in a dis- 
 pute of a tenitorial nature, which occurred 
 between the courts of Holstein and Denmark, 
 the contending potentates agreed to abide 
 by his arbitration. 
 
 KRASICKl, Igxatius, Count of Sietzen, 
 prince-bishop of Warmia, &c., one of the 
 most illustrious of the Polish literati of the 
 18th century, was born at Dubiecko, in 1735. 
 When the first partition of Poland, in 1772, 
 deprived him of his senatorial dignities, he 
 turned his attention to literature, and pro- 
 duced numerous poems, epic, mock-heroic, 
 and satirical. He was much esteemed by 
 Frederic the Great, who took great pleasure 
 in his lively and agreeable conversation ; 
 and the following morceau is related of 
 them. The monarch having said, " I hope, 
 Mr. Archbishop, you will carry me under 
 your episcopal cloak to Paradise," — the 
 prelate rei)lied, " No, sire, your majesty has 
 cut it so short, that it will not serve the 
 purpose of concealing contraband goods," 
 Among his writings are, "The War of 
 Choczim," in 12 cantos ; " La Monomaehie, 
 or the War of the Monks," " La Souriade," 
 fables, odes, &c. He died at Berlin, in 1801, 
 
 KRAUSS, JoiiN Baptist, a learned Ger- 
 man ecclesiastic, and a most indefatigable 
 writer. He was born at Ratisbon, in 1700 ; 
 took the monastic habit at an early age ; 
 became prince-abbot of the Benedictine 
 monastery of St. Erameran in 1742 ; and pre- 
 
kra] 
 
 ^ 0cby Bnibtv^Kl JSiacjrapl^t). 
 
 [kut 
 
 sided there till his death, in 1762. Ilis works 
 on theology, history, and criticism are very 
 numerous. 
 
 KRAY, Baron de, an Austrian general, 
 embraced the military profession early in 
 life. He first distinguished himself in the 
 war with the Turks ; and in the campaigns 
 in the Netherlands, and on the Rhine, from 
 179.3 to 1797, he was one of the most active 
 of the imperial commanders. The brilliant 
 manner in which he opened the campaign 
 of 1799, made way for the future triumphs 
 of Melas and Suwarrow, and in 1800 he re- 
 placed the Archduke Charles in the command 
 of the army of the Rhine. Died, 1801 . 
 
 KREUTZER, Rodoli'ii, a celebrated vio- 
 linist and musical composer, was born at 
 Versailles, in 1767. He travelled in Ger- 
 many, Holland, and Italy ; and having es- 
 tablished himself as one of the first perform- 
 ers in Europe, he was placed at the head of 
 the orchestra at the grand opera of Paris. 
 He composed the music for the operas of 
 "Lodoiska," "Joan of Arc," "Paul and 
 Virginia," " Charlotte and Werter," and 
 some others. Died, 1831, 
 
 KRUDENER, Juliana, Baroness Va- 
 LEiuK DE, a religious enthusiast, was the 
 daughter of the Russian baron Vietinghoff, 
 governor of Riga, where she was born, in 
 176C. At the age of 14 she married Baron 
 Krudener, appointed ambassador by Catha- 
 rine II. to Berlin, and subsequently to 
 Venice. Here the secretary of legation fell 
 in love with her, and committed suicide ; on 
 which event she wrote a romance, entitled 
 " Valerie." For years she resided in France, 
 and was the gayest of the gay in the Parisian 
 circles. At length she became a fanatical 
 devotee, and wandered from state to state, 
 preaching and prophesying. In 1814 she 
 became acquainted with Alexander, emperor 
 of Russia, wlio had already for some time 
 shown a disposition to religious contempla- 
 tions, and on whom her conversations had a 
 great influence. In Paris, she had prayer- 
 meetings, attended by distinguished per- 
 sonages, where she was seen in the back- 
 ground of a suite of rooms, in the dress of a 
 j priestess, kneeling in prayer. Her predic- 
 tions excited much attention ; and when the 
 I allied sovereigns quitted Paris, she retreated 
 into Switzerland, where she preached the ap- 
 proach of the millennium, and drew around 
 her multitudes of the credulous moun- 
 taineers, who listened to, and believed in, 
 her mission. At length tlie states interfered, 
 and she removed to Germany ; but wherever 
 she arrived, she was under the surveillance 
 of the police, who ultimately transported 
 her to the Russian frontier. She was, how- 
 ever, ordered not to go to Petersliurgh or 
 Moscow ; she accordingly visited the Crimea, 
 where she died in 1824. 
 
 KRUMMACHER, Frederick Adolphus, 
 a German religious writer, whose " Parables" 
 and many other works are well known in 
 England, was born at Tecklenburg in 1768 ; 
 and became successively minister of Orefeld, 
 Kellwick, and Beruherg, and ended a long 
 and useful career as an efficient preacher 
 and writer at Bremen, 1845, wlxere he had 
 laboured for 21 years. 
 
 KRUNITZ, Jou>r George, a German 
 
 physician and natural philosopher, was born 
 at Berlin, in 1728 ; studied at Gottingen, 
 Halle, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder ; devoted 
 his whole life to literary pursuits on his 
 return to his native city, and died in 1796. 
 He produced an extraordinary number of 
 works, the most considerable of which is an 
 " Economico-technological Encyclopaedia," 
 which he commenced in 1773. lie had com- 
 pleted 73 volumes, and had just reached the 
 article "Leiche," a corpse, when liis progress 
 was arrested bv death. 
 
 KRUSEMARK, Baron de, a Prussian 
 general and diplomatist. In 1806 he was 
 sent to attempt a negotiation of peace with 
 Buonaparte ; and, not succeeding, he was 
 dispatched to St. Petersburg!!, where he 
 formed a coalition which led to the treaty 
 of Tilsit. He was afterwards appointed am- 
 bassador to France ; and at the conclusion 
 of the peace of Paris, in 1814, he was sent 
 envoy extraordinary from the court of Ber- 
 lin to Vienna, where he died in 1821. 
 
 KUH, EriJRAiM Moses, a German poet, 
 born of Jewish parents, at Breslau, in 1731. 
 His father intended him for the synagogue, 
 but he had no relish for the subtleties of the 
 Talmud, and a commercial life was then 
 designed for him. At his father's death he 
 went to Berlin, and took a financial situa- 
 tion in the counting-liouse of his uncle, 
 where he soon had an opportunity of forming 
 an acquaintance with Mendelsslion, Ramler, 
 Lessing, and otlier men of letters. Though 
 possessed of independent property, and hav- 
 ing a good salary, his love of literature led 
 him to neglect liis commercial interests, and 
 in a few years his means were exhausted ; 
 he travelled through Holland, France, Italy, 
 and Switzerland ; but on his return to Ger- 
 many, he was attacked with hypochondria, 
 which degenerated into insanity ; and it was 
 at this time, in his lucid intervals, that he 
 produced his best poetical pieces. Died in 
 1790. 
 
 KUITLMAN, QuiRixtrs, a fanatic, and 
 probably a madman, of the 17th century, 
 born at Breslau, in 16/)1. He pretended to 
 have acquired the faculty of fore-know- 
 ledge, and of holding communion with in- 
 visible spirits ; but wliile travelling through 
 Russia, where some of his prophecies were 
 distasteful to the government, he was 
 brought to the stake, and suffered with all 
 the fortitude of a martyr, in 1689. 
 
 KUNCKELL, John, an eminent chemist, 
 born at Huysum, in Sleswick, in 1630, dis- 
 tinguished himself by several important dis- 
 coveries, especially by the extraction of 
 phosphorus from urine. He was enriobled 
 by the king of Sweden, and made counsellor 
 of mines. Died, 1703. 
 
 KUSTER, Ludolph, a learned German 
 writer, and one of the first Greek and Latin 
 scholars of the age, born at Blomberg, in 
 1670. He visited the principal libraries in 
 Europe, chiefly with the view of collating 
 the manuscripts of Suidas, and was success- 
 ful in restoring many portions before un- 
 published. Died, 1716. 
 
 KUTTNER, Charles Gotlob, a Ger- 
 man traveller, born in Saxony, in 175.5 ; 
 studied at Leipsic and Basle ; and travelled, 
 as tutor to young Englishmen, througb most 
 
kut] 
 
 ^ iSclD ^aiTiber^nl SSiflgrapfji). 
 
 [lab 
 
 of the countries of Europe. Ilis works com- 
 I prise "Letters on Ireland," "Letters of a 
 I Saxon in Switzerland," " Travels in Ger- 
 many, Denmark," &c., and " Observations 
 ! on England." Died, 180.5. 
 I KUTUSOFF SMOLENSKOr, or KUTU- 
 SOW, Michael, Prince of, a celebrated Rus- 
 sian lield-marshal, was born in 174'>, and 
 ! educated at Strasburg. lie entered the 
 j army iii 17.5!) ; served in Poland from 17G4 
 I till iVc'J ; and afterwards against the Turks, 
 under Romauzoff. Ue behaved with great 
 gallantry at the siege of Oczacoflf, where he 
 was dangerously wounded ; aini on his re- 
 covery he joined Suwarrow at the storming 
 and capture of Ismailoll', when he was ad- 
 vanced to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 In the subsequent Polish war, he was par- 
 ticularly conspicuous during the memorable 
 day of Praga. In 1805, the emperor Alex- 
 ander gave nim the chief command of the 
 ] first Russian corps against the French, and 
 ! lie headed the allied army ut Austerlitz, 
 i where he was wounded. In 1810 and 1811 
 he obtained several advantages over the 
 Turks ; and, in 1812, when 70 years of age, 
 the chief command of the Russian army, 
 destined to oppose Napoleon, was bestowed 
 upon him. To commemorate his victories, 
 he received the surname of Smolenskoi. lie 
 died in 1813. 
 
 KUYP, or CUYP, Alkekt, a celebrated 
 painter, whose father was an able land- 
 scape painter, was born etDort in l(i(Mi. He 
 particularly excelled in the purity aud bril- 
 
 liancy of light ; and was not surpassed, even 
 by Claude, in an accurate representation 
 of tJie atmosphere, and of the various ef- 
 fects of sunshine or shade upon the objects 
 delineated. Ills paintings are all highly 
 finished, and many of them grace the prin- 
 cipal collections in Great Britain. Died, 
 1(3<]7. 
 
 KYAU, Fredekic William, Baron of, a 
 native of Brandenburg, whose witty sayings 
 and blunt honesty attracted the notice and 
 gained the favour of Augustus IL, king of 
 Poland, who made him liis aide-de-camp, 
 and promoted him to the rank of adjutant 
 general and commandant of Konigstein. 
 Born, 1<!,54 ; died, 1733. 
 
 KYNASTON, Sir Francis, an English 
 poet, bom at Otley, in Shropshire, in 1.587. 
 He was knighted by Charles I. ; became 
 regent of a literary institution, called the 
 "Musajum Minervae ;" was the translator 
 of Cliaucer's " Troilus and Cressida" into 
 Latin, and author of "Leoline and Syda- 
 nis," &c. Died, Hii2. 
 
 KYRLE, Joux, celebrated by Pope as the 
 man of lioss, was born at Whitehouse, in 
 Gloucestershire, and possessed an estate of 
 500/. a year at Ross in Herefordshire, where 
 he died iu 1754, aged 90. The good deeds of 
 this estimable man, so highly eulogised by 
 Pope in his "Moral Essays," do not appear 
 to be overrated. Warton says, Kyrle was 
 the Howard of his age, and tliat he deser%'ed 
 to be celebrated beyond any of the heroes of 
 riudar. 
 
 LABADIE, JoHX, a French enthusiast, 
 was bom in 1010, at Bourg, in Guienne. 
 He was originally a Jesuit ; but, from his 
 licentiousness and scandalous practices, he 
 was compelled to quit that society, and seek 
 an asylum among the Protestants. From 
 these he was also driven out, and forced to 
 retire to Middleburg, where he propounded 
 a new doctrine of belief, and by his imposing 
 eloquence obtained many followers. Tiie 
 looseness of his private life, however, lost 
 him many of his sect, and lie was at length 
 obliged to retire to Altona, in Holstein, 
 where he died in 1074, He wrote many 
 works, but they, as well as his doctrines, 
 have fallen into deserved oblivion. 
 
 LABAT, Jkax Baptiste, a Dominican 
 missionary, was born in Paris, in 1G()3. He 
 possessed great mathematical knowledge ; 
 and while in America, wliere he remained 
 twelve years, he acted as an engineer in 
 defence of Guadaloupe when attacked by the 
 English in 1703. On his return to Europe in 
 1708, he accurately surveyed the environs and 
 coast of Andalusia ; soon after travelled into 
 Italy and other parts ; and finally returned to 
 Paris, wliere he died in 1738. He wrote many 
 works, the chief of which are his "Voyage 
 aux Ilesde TAmcriquc, "" Travels in Spain 
 
 and Italy," a "Description of the Coun- 
 tries of Western Africa," &c. 
 
 LABBE, Philip, a learned French Jesuit, 
 was born at Bourges, in 1(507. He taught 
 philosophy, divinity, and languages, with 
 great eclat, and was a most laborious writer, 
 as well as a sound critic. He died at Paris, 
 in 1C67. His chief work was a " Collection 
 of Councils," 17 vols, folio. 
 
 LABE, Louisa, called "La belle Cor- 
 diere," was bom at Lyons, about 152(5. Her 
 early education having been directed to 
 riding and military exercises, as well as to 
 languages and music, she acquired a taste 
 for military glory, and entered the army in 
 1543. She soon displayed her strength and 
 courage at the siege of Perpignan, but the 
 French being obliged to abandon it, she 
 renounced the military service, and devoted 
 herself to literature and poetry. A rich 
 rope-maker, named Ennemond Perrin, be- 
 came enamoured of her, and married her, 
 and from that time her house was the resort 
 of the literati, and men of rank and fashion. 
 She was much admired for her talents, ac- 
 complishments, and beauty. 
 
 LA BEDOYERE, Charles Angeliqde 
 Francois Huchet, Count de, a noted ge- 
 neral, born at Paris in 1786. He served as 
 
lab] 
 
 ^ ^etD ^ntba-j^al 33t00rffpf)y. 
 
 [lae 
 
 an officer in the imperial guards at the 
 battle of Eylau, and in 1808 and 1809 was 
 aide-de-camp to Eugene Beauharnois. lie 
 was in the retreat from Moscow, and in 
 1813 distinguished himself at the hattles of 
 Lutzen and Bautzen. On the abdication of 
 Napoleon, he was, in 1815, appointed to a 
 regiment stationed at Grenoble ; but imme- 
 diately on the return of the French em- 
 peror from Elba, La Bedoyere was the first 
 to bring him a regiment. He was rapidly 
 promoted, and eventually raised to the 
 peerage ; but being found in Paris after 
 its occupation by the allied army, he was 
 tried by a courtniartial, and suffered death, 
 August, 1815. 
 
 LABERIUS, Decimus Jumrs, a Roman 
 knight, who wrote " Mimes, or Short Pieces 
 for the Stage ; " one of which Julius Caesar 
 compelled him to perform, much against 
 his inclination, and for which reason he 
 delivered at the same time a prologue, full 
 of satire, against that great man. This 
 piece is extant in Aulus Gellius. The author 
 died B. c. 4(!. 
 
 LABOUREUE, Joiix le, a French his- 
 torical writer, was bom in 1023, at Mont- 
 morency. On entering into orders he was 
 made almoner to the king, and appointed 
 commander of the order of St. Michael. He 
 died in 1675. His chief works are, " The 
 History of Charles VI. " and " Genealogies 
 of Noble Families." 
 
 LABROUSE SusANNE, bom in 1743 ; one 
 of the extraordinary characters produced 
 by the French revolution. She proclaimed 
 herself a prophetess at that period, fancied 
 herself inspired, and persuaded many of the 
 Jacobin party to credit her ravings, after 
 the enthusiast, Don Serle, had declared her 
 prophecies true in the Constituent Assembly. 
 She published them in 1799. 
 
 LACARRY, Giles, a learned French 
 Jesuit, was born in 1605. He was well 
 skilled in history, and taught pliilosophy 
 and theology. He died in 1684. Among 
 his numerous works are, " Historia Gal- 
 liarum sub Praifectis Prajtorii Galliarum," 
 4to., "Historia Romana," "De Regibus 
 FrancijE et Lege Sallca," &c. 
 
 LA CLOS, Peteu Ambrose Francis 
 Choderlos de, was born at Amiens, in 
 1741. Prior to the French revolution he 
 was an officer of artillery, and secretary to 
 the Duke of Orleans, whom he followed to 
 England. On his return in 1791, La Clos 
 was one of the chief conductors of the noted 
 Jacobin Journal des Amis de la Constitu- 
 tion. He was the autlior of that licentious 
 novel, "Les Liaisons Dangereuses." Died, 
 1803. 
 
 LACOMBE, James, a French miscella- 
 neous writer, was born at Paris, in 1724. 
 He published several useful abridgments 
 of histories. His best work, however, is 
 "Histoire de Cliristine Reine ie Suede." 
 
 LACOMBE, DE Pkezel Honore, brother 
 of the above, was born at Paris, in 1725. 
 He published a. " Dictiounaire dc Citoyen," 
 " Dictiounaire de Jurisprudence," and other 
 works. 
 
 LACRETELLE, Pierre Louis, a French 
 writer, was born at Metz, in 1751. He was 
 a counsellor of parliament, one of the editors 
 
 of the Grand Repertory of Jurisprudence 
 and of the Mercure de France ; and in 
 •1787 he was appointed member of a com- 
 mittee charged with the reformation of the 
 penal code. When the revolution took 
 place, Lacretelle embraced its principles 
 with moderation, and sat in the legislative 
 assembly ; but during the reign of Robes- 
 pierre 'he found it necessary to retire from 
 public duty. He afterwards appeared for 
 a short time, but held no official situation, 
 and during the imperial and regal govern- 
 ments he devoted himself wholly to literary 
 pursuits. Among his writings are, "Elo- 
 quence Judiciaire et Philosophic Lt'gisla- 
 tive," " Roman Th^atral," " Portraits et 
 Tableaux," &c. Died, 1824. 
 
 LACRUZ Y CANO, Don Ramonde, a 
 famous Spanish dramatic poet, born in 1728, 
 and died in 1795. Among his best pieces are, 
 "El Sueno," "El dia de Noche Buena," 
 " El Temo," &c. 
 
 LACTANTIUS, Lrcius Ccelius, or C(e- 
 ciLiANUS FiRMiANUS, an eminent father of 
 the church, was by some esteemed an Afri- 
 can, and by others a native of Fermo, in 
 Aucona. He studied rhetoric under Arno- 
 bius, and by his production, entitled " Sym- 
 posium," or the " Bouquet," he obtained sucli 
 renown, that Diocletian appointed him pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric in Nicomedia. Subse- 
 quently he was appointed tutor to Crispus, 
 the son of Constantine, who dying not long 
 after, Lactantius was neglected. He wrote 
 many works in vindication of Christianity, 
 from the beautiful style of which he has 
 been honoured with the name of the Chris- 
 tian Cicero. His principal works are, " In- 
 stitutiones Divina;," in 7 books ; and a trea- 
 tise, " De Persecutione." 
 
 LACY, Joiix, , a dramatic writer, was 
 born at Doncaster, and bred a dancing- 
 master ; this employment he quitted for the 
 army, but subsequently took to the stage ; 
 in which line he acquired such celebrity as 
 a comedian, that Charles II. had his por- 
 trait painted in three different charac- 
 ters. He wrote the comedies of " The 
 Dumb Lady," " Sir Hercules Buffoon," 
 " Old Troop," and " SawnCy the Scot." Died, 
 1681. 
 
 LACYDES, or LACYDAS, a Greek phi- 
 losopher of Cyrene, was the discii)le of 
 Arcesilaus. His system was that of uni- 
 versal scepticism, and he died of excessive 
 drinking, e. c. 212. 
 
 LADVOCAT, Jean Baptiste, a learned 
 French Jesuit, was born at Champagne, in 
 1709. He was professor of Hebrew and 
 theology in the university of Paris, and after- 
 wards became librarian to the Sorbonne. 
 His works are, "Dictiounaire Historique 
 Portatif," 2 vols. 8vo. ; " A Hebrew Gram- 
 mar," " Dissertation on the Councils," and 
 some other scriptural writings. He died in 
 1765. 
 
 LvELIUS, Caius, surnamed Sapiexs, was 
 a Roman consul and orator, who distin- 
 guished himself in Spain in the war against 
 Viriathus. He acquired great reputation, 
 especially with Cicero, and he is said to have 
 assisted Terence in his comedies. He died 
 about 126, B. c. 
 LAENNEC, R. T. H., an eminent French 
 
lae] 
 
 ^ Hit^ UnibtvinX JStajprapfji?. 
 
 [laf 
 
 physician, was born in 1781, at Qulmper ; 
 studied at Nantes and Paris ; and acquired 
 great reputation as an anatomist. He is 
 principally known as the author of a " Trea- 
 tise on Auscultation," whicli develops the 
 method of obtaining a knowledge of the 
 viscera by means ot a stethoscope, an in- 
 strument invented by him, and which has 
 since obtained great notoriety among medi- 
 cal practitioners. Died, 182(;. 
 
 LAER, PisTKK UE, a celebrated painter, 
 usually called Bamboccio. He was born in 
 1613, at Laareu, in Holland. After studj;- 
 ing the art at Rome, and increasing his 
 knowledge of it by an acquaintance with 
 Poussin and Claude, he returned to Hol- 
 land, in l(>3t>, where he enjoyed unrivalled 
 cclcl)rity, till he was compelled to share it 
 with Wouvermans. In energy of touch, in 
 the management of the chiaroscuro, and 
 in fertility of invention, he excelled his 
 rival, but not in neatness and delicacy of 
 pencil ; yet the competition so much atiected 
 his prosperity, that in a fit of despondency 
 he drowned himself in a well, in 17Co, when 
 (JO years of age. 
 
 LAET, Joux DE, a writer of the 17th 
 century, was a native of Antwerp, and well 
 skilled in liistory and geography. I^ittle ia 
 known of his life, except that lie was a 
 director of the Dutch East India Comi)any, 
 and wrote many works, among which are, 
 " Novus Orbis," folio; "Historia Naturalis 
 Brasilia," folio ; " Respublica Belgarum," 
 and other works. He died in 1(>49. 
 
 L^EVIUS, a Latin poet, prior to the time 
 of Cicero, wrote a poem entitle! " Eroto- 
 paguia," or "Love Games," and " Petraram," 
 or "The Centaurs ;" besides these, nothing 
 farther is known either of his life or his 
 writings. 
 
 LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mottiek, Mar- 
 quis de, one of the most conspicuous cha- 
 racters in France, previous to, during, and 
 since the revolution, was born in 1757, at 
 Chavagnac, near Brioude, in Auvergne. At 
 the age of 17 he married the grand-daughter 
 I of the Duke of Noailles ; and, although he 
 , inherited a large fortune, was of high rank, 
 and had powerful connections at court, 
 he went, in 1777, to join the war of inde- 
 pendence in America. He there raised and 
 equip^d a body of men at his own expense; 
 fought as a volunteer at the battle of Bran- 
 dywine, in 1778 ; at that of Monmouth in 
 1778 ; and received the thanks of congress. 
 He then proceeded to France, in order to 
 obtain reinforcements ; returned with the 
 armaments under General Rochambcau ; 
 and commanded Washington's vanguard 
 at the time of the surrender of Lord Corn- 
 wallis, in 1782. The capitulation of York 
 Town followed, and, on the peace with the 
 mother country, the general returned to 
 France. He was elected a member of the 
 notables in 1787, and, on the breaking out 
 of the revolution, he took part with the 
 friends of liberty, though with wise mode- 
 ration. In October, 178D, he was made com- 
 mauder-in-cliief of the national guard, and 
 ordered and assisted in the demolition of 
 th.e Bastile. On the 0th, he marched to Ver- 
 sailles, saved the royal family from the out- 
 rages of the mob, and placed them under 
 
 the protection of the National Assembly. 
 In 1790, he proclaimed the " sacredness of 
 the right of insurrection," and established, 
 in conjunction with Bailly, the club of 
 Feuillans. On the attenipted escape of 
 Louis XVI., Lafayette lost some of his 
 popularity, through being accused of con- 
 niving at it ; but, dissipating these calum- 
 nies, he fought against the emigrants and 
 allies in Flanders ; and mutual accusations 
 of counter-revolution passed between him 
 and Dumouriez and Collot d'Herbois. He 
 returned to Paris to denounce them, and to 
 protest against the violence offered to the 
 king. But the Mountain was too strong for 
 him ; he was burnt in effigy on the oOth of 
 June, 1702; and, being obliged to escape from 
 France, fell into the hands of the Austrians, 
 who imprisoned him at Olmutz. There he 
 remained five years, till after Bonaparte's 
 first triumphant campaign of Italy, when, 
 on the special demand of the latter, he was 
 set at liberty. Lafayette, however, was con- 
 sistent : when Napoleon became an apostate 
 from liberty, he voted against the consulate 
 for life, and withdrew from public affairs. 
 But, attcr the battle of Waterloo, he re- 
 appeared, to protest against a dictatorship ; 
 and, having subsequently protested against 
 the dissolution of the legislative body by 
 Prussian bayonets, again withdrew to )us 
 estates, till he was returned, in 1818, deputy 
 for the department De la Sarthe. On all 
 occasions, in the chamber of deputies, and 
 elsewhere, he proved himself the friend of a 
 real but discreet liberty. In 1821 he made 
 a visit to America, and was received with 
 distinction and popular enthusiasm, as joint 
 founder of American liberty with Washing- 
 ton and Franklin. No event of moment, 
 still further to commemorate the splendid 
 epochs of his lite, occurred, till the un- 
 constitutional violence and ordinances of 
 Charles X., in June, 1830, caused liis own 
 expulsion, and brought Lafayette on the 
 stage again, in the character with which he 
 commenced his career — that of commander- 
 in-chief of the national guard and the 
 advocate and supporter of a citizen king. 
 He soon after resigned the command ; and 
 having seen I^ouis Philippe recognised as 
 king of the French, he once more retired to 
 the tranquil scenes of domestic life. Died, 
 1834. 
 
 LA FERTE IMBAULT, Maria Theresa 
 GEOFFla^f, Marchioness de, daughter of the 
 celebrated Madame Geoftriu, was bom at 
 Paris, in 1715. She distinguished herself by 
 her opposition to the French pliilosophers I 
 of the last century, with whom her mother I 
 had been connected, and by her literary 
 talents generally. In 1771 she was appointed 
 grand-mistress of the burlesque order of tlie 
 Lauturelus, while its founder, her friend, 
 the Marquis de Croisinare, was grand-master. 
 This whimsical institution obtained so much 
 eclat, that it was esteemed an honour by 
 several sovereign princes to become Lautu- 
 relus. She died in 1791, and left many post- 
 humous writuigs. 
 
 LAFFON DE LADEBAT, Andrew 
 Daniel, a French statesman and financier, 
 born at Bourdeaux, in nu>. Being the in- 
 heritor of a good property, he was able to 
 
 u u 2 
 
lap] 
 
 ^ ^t^ ^nibcrM SSinsrapTjn. 
 
 [lag 
 
 derote his leisure to the study of political 
 economy and the fine arts. lie was one of 
 the founders of the academy of painting 
 at Bourdeaux, and became a member of 
 the academy of arts and sciences in that 
 city, and also of the agricultural society of 
 Paris. On the 10th of August, 1792, when 
 Louis XVI. and his family took refuge in 
 the hall of the legislative assembly, M. Laf- 
 fon was president of that body ; and in the 
 horrid massacre in September following, he 
 saved the life of the Abb« Sicard. He was 
 subsequently himself exposed to great dan- 
 ger ; but having survived the proscriptions 
 of the reign of terror, he was chosen, in Sep- 
 tember, 1795, a member of the council of 
 ancients for the department of the Seine. 
 In 1797 he was among those who were con- 
 demned to deportation, and sent to Cayenne; 
 but returned from exile on the estal)lish- 
 ment of the consulate. In 1815 he visited 
 England, and collected much information 
 concerning its finances, commerce, and pub- 
 lic institutions ; and on his return he pre- 
 sented to Louis XVIII. an interesting work 
 on the finances of France. 
 
 LAFITAU, JosKi'n Francis, a French 
 Jesuit, was born at Bourdeaux, and sent as 
 a missionary among the North American 
 Indians. On his return to Europe he wrote 
 a work, entitled "Mojurs des Sauvages 
 Am^ricains compari'es aux Mocurs des pre- 
 miers Temps," 4 vols. ; and another on the 
 possessions and discoveries of the Portu- 
 guese in the New World, 2 vols. 4to. He 
 
 died in 1740 Peteu Francis, brother 
 
 of the above, and a Jesuit, was also bom at 
 Bourdeaux. He was sent on a mission to 
 Home to arrange the disputes of France, 
 respecting the bull Unigenitus, and while 
 there he obtained favour with the pope, 
 Clement IX., wlio made him bishop of Sis- 
 teron, in Provence. He left the society of 
 Jesus to preside over his diocese, and died 
 in 1764. He wrote many religious works, 
 among which were the " History of the 
 Constitution Unigenitus," and the "Life of 
 Pope Clement IX." In the latter he speaks 
 much against Jansenism. 
 
 LAFITTE, Jacques, a celebrated French 
 banker and financier, was born in 17C8. 
 Having obtained employment in a banking 
 house, he rose from a clerk to be cashier, 
 partner, and, at length, head of the most 
 eminent bank in France. Possessed of this 
 conspicuous position, and of great wealth, 
 he speedily became a member of the chamber 
 of deputies. His advocacy of extremely 
 liberal principles (as the word liberal is 
 understood in France) rendered him so 
 popular, that when Charles X. was driven 
 from the throne, and the great majority of 
 the public men of the day were for estab- 
 lishing a republic, M. Lafttte, by his single 
 voice, could re-create the monarchy, and 
 establish a monarch. " Behold the best of 
 republics'. " said Lafitte, and Louis Philippe 
 became the citizen king of the most fickle 
 population in Europe. But the commercial 
 calamities which followed tlie revolution 
 fell so heavily upon great houses which were 
 indebted to Lafitte, that his house, too, be- 
 came insolvent. Nearly a million and a 
 half of francs were raised for him by a public 
 
 49G 
 
 subscription ; but wnen his affairs were 
 finally settled, he was found to have nearly 
 seven millions after paying all demands. 
 Died, 1844 ; aged 76. 
 
 LA FONTAINE. See Fontaine. 
 
 LAI'ONTAINE, Augustus Henry Ju- 
 lius, a celebrated German romance writer, 
 was born at Brunswick, in 1756. Among 
 his numerous works of fiction are, " Blanche 
 and Minna, or the Manners of the Burghers," 
 " Moral Systems," " The Country Clergy- 
 man, or new Family Pictures," and "Clara 
 du Plessis and Clairaut, or the History of 
 two Lovers." Died, 1831. 
 
 LAGARAYE, Claude Toussaint Marot 
 DE, a noted French philanthropist, was bom 
 at Rennes, in 1675. He devoted his entire 
 life and fortune in alleviating the wants and 
 miseries of his fellow-creatures, founding 
 schools for the young, and hospitals for the 
 sick and aged. Died, 1765. 
 
 LAGERBRING, Suen, a Swedish histo- 
 rian, was bom in 1707. He was professor 
 of history in the university of Lund, in Sca- 
 nia. His chief works are a history of Swe- 
 den, in 1467, and an abridgment down to 
 modern times. Died, 1788. 
 
 LAGERLOEF, Peter, historiographer of 
 Sweden, in the 17th century, and professor of 
 rhetoric at Upsal, was an eminent classic 
 scholar. He wrote an historical description 
 to accompany a collection of national monu- 
 ments, called " Suecia Antiquaet llodernia," 
 at the desire of Charles XL, and published 
 numerous historical dissertations, among 
 which was " Historla Linguae Graecae," " De 
 Magno Sinarum Imperio," &c. Died, 1699. 
 
 LAGERSTROEM, Magnus von, a philo- 
 sopher of Sweden, and director of the Swedish 
 East India Company, was bom at Stock- 
 holm, in 1096. His youth was spent in Ger- 
 many and Denmark, and on his return home 
 he applied himself to trade, which, however, 
 he soon relinquished. He wrote a disserta- 
 tion on political economy, and translated 
 many French, German, and Danish works. 
 Appointed director to the East India Com- 
 pany of Gottenburg, he considerably pro- 
 moted scientific researches, especially in 
 natural history, many novel specimens of 
 which, at his instance, were procured from 
 abroad. Died, 1759. 
 
 LAGNY, Thomas Fautet de, anenfinent 
 French mathematician, was born at Lyons, 
 in 1060. He was educated for the bar ; but a 
 preference for mathematical studies weaned 
 him from the pursuit of the law, and in that 
 science he became particularly eminent. He 
 wrote many works on mathematics, and 
 made many important improvements and 
 discoveries. He died in 1734. Among his 
 works may be mentioned " New and Concise 
 Methods for the Extraction and Approxi- 
 mation of Roots," " The Cubature of the 
 Sphere," "A general Analysis, or Method of 
 Resolving Problems," &c. 
 
 LAGOMARSINI, Jerome, a learned Je- 
 suit and philologist, was born at Genoa, in 
 1698. He was professor of rhetoric at Flo- 
 rence 20 years, and in 1750 he was appointed 
 professor'of Greek in the college at Rome, 
 where he died in 1773. He published many 
 classical works, and left in MS. a collection 
 in 30 vols., having for its object the justifi- 
 
lag] 
 
 ^ |lc&) ^Uniljcr^al SBiOffrapl)!?. 
 
 [lai 
 
 cation of liis order from all the odious im- 
 putations tliat liad been east upon it. 
 
 LAGKAMGE, Joskpu Louis, a celebrated 
 mathematician, was born at Turin, in 173G. 
 At the age of lU he became a professor in tlie 
 royal school of artillery, where he formed 
 an association, which afterwards rose to the 
 rank of an academy of sciences. Here lie 
 made many important discoveries, particu- 
 larly in calculating the motion of fluids and 
 in vibrations, introducing also the theory of 
 recurring consequences and the doctrine of 
 chances to the ditterential calculus, &c. lie 
 communicated to the society a number of 
 papers, and some to the academy of Paris, of 
 which he was chosen a foreign member. 
 VVliile on a visit at Paris he wrote his cele- 
 brated work, " M«chanique Analy tique." la 
 17(J6 he removed to Berlin, where he was 
 appointed director of the academy ; and in 
 ITsr he settled at Paris, and became succes- 
 sively professor of the Normal School and 
 Polytechnic School. He there announced 
 his "Ponclions Analytique," and pursued 
 other literary labours till his health giving 
 way under this fatigue, he died in 1813. 
 
 LAGUEIlllE, Louis, a painter, was born 
 in J'rance, in IGOU. Louis XIV., who was 
 his godfulher, caused him to be brought up 
 under Le Brun, and in the Royal Academy 
 of Paris. In 10»3 lie came to England, and 
 was much employed in painting ceilings, 
 halls, &c. He was first engaged by Verrio 
 on the large work at St. Bartholomew's 
 Hospital ; subsequently he had lodgings as- 
 signed him in Hampton Court Palace, where 
 lie painted " The Labours of Hercules." 
 Died, 1721. 
 
 L AHARPE, Jkax Fkancois de, a French 
 dramatic poet, was bom in 1703. His father 
 was an olHcer in the army, and dying in 
 indigence, the son was taken into the college 
 of Harcourt by tlie president, M. Asselin ; 
 but lost the favour of his patron by a satire, 
 of wluch he was suspected to be the author. 
 After a confinement for some time he was 
 set at liberty ; but it disgusted him with liis 
 situation, and he resolved to trust to his 
 talents as an author for support. In 17(53 
 he wrote his tragedy of " Warwick," which 
 met with great succass. This was followed 
 by " Timoleou," " Pharamond," and some 
 Others not equally successful. But when 
 iiis series of E logics appeared, they gained 
 him great credit, particularly one on Henri 
 Quatre. During the fury of the revolution, 
 though he embraced the principles of repub- 
 licanism, tlie moderation of his views ren- 
 dered him an. object of suspicion, and he was 
 thrown into prison in 17i)3. Though sen- 
 tenced to deportation, he regained his liberty, 
 and lived in retirement till the time of his 
 death, in 1»03. Ills principal work is " Ly- 
 ceum, or a Complete Couise of Literature," 
 12 vols. 8vo. 
 
 LAIXEZ, Alkxandee, a native of France, 
 remarkable for his poetical jcitx cC esprit, was 
 born at Chimay, in 1()50. After receiving 
 his education at Rheims, he visited Paris, 
 and then journeyed through Europe and 
 Asia. On his return, he took up his abode 
 in the French capital, till his death in 1710. 
 
 LAINEZ, James, a Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 and associate of the famous Ignatius Loyola, 
 
 was born in 1512. At the death of Loyola 
 he became general of the Jesuits, and induced 
 the pope to grant him many privileges. He 
 obtained the papal decree for rendering the 
 generalship perpetual in the person chosen 
 to fill it, and giving him the power of making 
 any and every compact without consulting 
 the brethren ; also, for giving authenticity 
 to all his comments and explanations of 
 their constitutions, which also he might 
 change or alter at his will ; and, likewise, 
 for having prisons independent of the secular 
 authority, where he might punish the refrac- 
 tory brethren. From these tenets of the 
 order arose that great influence possessed by 
 the Jesuits, both in church and state, which 
 has produced most important events in every 
 part of the world. Lainez died, 1,505. 
 
 LAING, Alexaniiek, an antiquarian and 
 miscellaneous writer, was bom in Aberdeen, 
 in 1778. Of his early lustory but little is 
 known. He latterly followed the calling of 
 an itinerant vendor of old books; and being a 
 man of much humour and eccentricity, ne 
 gained admission, in the course of his pere- 
 grinations, to the archives of several houses, 
 which have since been found shut against 
 more pretending investigators. The inform- 
 ation thus acquired, he turned to good ac- 
 count, in the " Donean Tourist," 1 vol. 8vo., 
 in verse, with copious notes, giving an account 
 of the battles, castles, families, gentlemen's 
 seats, &c., on the banks of the river Don; and 
 " The Caledonian Itinerary," or a Tour on 
 the Banks of the Dee, a poem, with historical 
 notes, 2 vols. 12mo., Aberdeen, 1819. He was 
 also the compiler of the " Eccentric Maga- 
 zine," which contains many curious and 
 whimsical epitaphs gleaned from various 
 churchyards in Aberdeenshire, 1 vol. 12mo., 
 1822. Died, 18;J8. 
 
 I-AING, Alexander Gordo pf, a traveller, 
 was born in Edinburgh, in 1794. He served 
 in the army many years, both in the West 
 Indies and on the western coast of Africa ; 
 while at the latter place he made many fruit- 
 less journeys into the interior to establish 
 a commercial intercourse with the natives, 
 and to learn the geography of the country. 
 He was compelled, however, to leave Tim- 
 buctoo, and the guard he hired to protect 
 him on liis route by Sego to the coast, trea- 
 cherously murdered him, 182(5. 
 
 LAING, Malcolm, a Scottish historian, 
 was born at Stryorey, in Orkney, in 1762. 
 He finished his education at the Edinburgh 
 University, and was subsequently called to 
 the bar. On the death of Dr. Henry he 
 completed the unfinished volume of that 
 author's History of England. His chief 
 work, however, was a " History of Scotland," 
 4 vols. 8vo. He also edited a new edition of 
 the poems of Ossian, and died in 1819. 
 
 LAIRE, Francis Xaviek, a French bib- 
 liographer, was bom in Franche Comptc, in 
 1739. He became a Minim friar at an early 
 age, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. 
 He was librarian to Cardinal Lomenie, and 
 wrote numerous works ; among which were 
 a " Catalogue of printed Books from the 
 Invention of the Art to the Commencement 
 of the Sixteenth Century," &c. Died, 1801. 
 
 LAIRESSE, Gerard, an eminent histo- 
 rical painter, was born at Liege, in 11140. 
 
 u u 3 
 
LAl] 
 
 ^ ^clu miiibn^Kl 38iosrnpTji.n 
 
 [lal 
 
 He surpassed his father under whom he 
 studied, and obtained such renown, as to be 
 considered the Rai)hael of the Dutch school. 
 He also well understood music and engrav- 
 ing. He lost his sight some time before his 
 death, and died at Amsterdam in 1711. His 
 chef-d'muvre is a large picture of the child 
 Moses trampling on tiie Egyptian diadem. 
 
 Ernest, John, and James, the three 
 
 brothers of tlie above, also obtained some 
 eminence in the art ; the two former excelled 
 in animal painting, and the latter in flowers. 
 
 Two sons of Gerard also practised the 
 
 art, but with very inferior pretensions to 
 eminence. 
 
 LAIS, a celebrated courtezan, was born 
 at Hyccara, in Sicily. She possessed great 
 personal charms, and at Corinth sold her 
 favours at a most extravagant price. She 
 was assassinated, B.C. 350. 
 
 LAKE, Artuuk, a pious bishop, was bom 
 at Southampton, and passed his youtli at 
 Winchester School, and New College, Oxford. 
 In 1603 he was master of St. Cross Hospital ; 
 then dean of Worcester and finally, in 161G, 
 bishop of Bath and Wells. He died in 162(5, 
 leaving many works, which were afterwards 
 published. 
 
 LAKE, Gerard, Viscount, a distinguished 
 English general, was born in 1744. He early 
 obtained an ensigncy in tlie foot-guards, and 
 served in Germany during the seven years' 
 war. Under Cornwallis, in America, in 1781, 
 he greatly signalised himself, and on his 
 return home was made aide-de-camp to the 
 king. In 1793 and 1794 he was prominent 
 in many engagements iu Holland, and in 
 1800 he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the British forces in India. He overthrew 
 the Mahratta army and the French general 
 Perron in 1803, and captured Delhi ; he 
 next triumphed over Scindiah and Holkar ; 
 and on his return to England, in 1807, he 
 was created lord Lake, baron of Delhi and 
 Laswarri. From this he rose to be a vis- 
 count, and was appointed governor of Ply- 
 mouth. Died, 1808. 
 
 LALANDE, James de, an eminent French 
 lawyer, was born at Orleans, in 1022. He 
 rose to be doctor and professor of jurispru- 
 dence in the university of that city, and 
 filled other important municipal offices. He 
 published several works on law and juridical 
 antiquities, and died in 1703. 
 
 LALANDE, Joseph Jekome le Francais 
 DE, a very celebrated astronomer, was born 
 at Bourg, in France, in 1 732. He showed an 
 early preference for mathematical studies, 
 but he was educated for the law. His inti- 
 macy, however, with astronomers and other 
 men of science led him to pursue the early 
 bias of his disposition, and it was not long 
 before the academy of sciences deputed him 
 to go to Berlin, to make observations for 
 determining the parallax of the moon, and 
 its distance from the earth. On his return 
 home, he was nominated astronomer, ex- 
 tended his researches in the science of the 
 heavenly bodies, and turned his attention to 
 gnomonics. In 1760, on the resignation of 
 Maraldi, Lalande undertook the editorship 
 and publication of tlie " Connaissance des 
 Temps." Shortly after, he succeeded Delisle 
 as professor of astronomy at the College de 
 
 France ; when successive treatises, talented 
 and voluminous, proceeded from his pen, 
 much to the advancement of astronomical 
 science. Among these mention must be 
 made of the very valuable " Traite de I'As- 
 tronomie." Died, 1807. 
 
 LALAKDE, Michael Etchard de, a 
 celebrated Frencli musician, born at Paris, 
 in ir.57. He attained to great perfection on 
 various instruments, particularly on the 
 violin, and was appointed master of music 
 in tlie chapel royal, by I/Ouis XIV. He died 
 in 1726, leaving numerous compositions, 
 sacred and profane. 
 
 LALLI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian 
 lawyer and poet, was born at Norcia, in 
 1572. He was governor of many places 
 belonging to Rome and Parma ; and died, 
 much esteemed, iu 1637. He was placed 
 among tlie best poets of his time, though his 
 talent was chiefly employed in the burlesque. 
 
 LALLY, Thomas Arthur, Count, an 
 Irisli officer, attached to the house of Stuart, 
 and in the service of France. His bravery 
 at the battle of Fontenoy was rewarded by 
 the appointment of brigadier-general ; and 
 in 1756 he was made governor of Pondiclierry. 
 Tliis town was soon after besieged by the 
 British ; and unable to withstand their 
 assaults, he surrendered, and with the garri- 
 son was made prisoner. He was conveyed 
 to England, but was soon liberated and per- 
 mitted to return to France. On arriving in 
 that country, public clamour ran so high 
 against him, that he was beheaded, by a 
 most unjust sentence, in 1706. In 1783, his 
 son, Lally Tollendal, obtained possession of 
 his father's estates, and a reversal of the 
 proceedings. 
 
 LALLY TOLLENDAL, Marquis de, 
 son of tlie preceding, was born at Paris in 
 1751, and was educated at the college of 
 Harcourt. The expenses of his education 
 were defrayed by his cousin the Countess 
 Dillon and by Louis XV., who thus endea- 
 voured to make some atonement for the 
 misfortune wliich he incurred through the 
 fate of his father. Prompted by filial feel- 
 ing, he wrote, when only 15, a Latin poem 
 on the story of John Calas, who had been 
 sacrificed to the fury of a mob ; and when he 
 had attained a more mature age, he warmly 
 exerted himself to retrieve from obloquy 
 the memory of his father ; and in 1783 he 
 regained possession of his paternal estates. 
 Previously to the revolution, he was captain 
 in the regiment of cuirassiers ; and in 1789 
 he was nominated deputy from the nobility 
 of Paris to the states-general. He soon be- 
 came one of the most popular members of 
 the constituent assembly, gave his support 
 to the declaration of the Rights of Man pro- 
 posed by Lafayette, and subsequently sug- 
 gested as an amendment, that all citizens 
 should be eligible to public employments, 
 which was adopted by acclamation. But 
 though a democrat, he was not an anarchist; 
 he proposed the British constitution as a 
 model of government ; and perceiving that 
 principles prevailed repugnant to his sense 
 of justice, he resigned his seat in the assem- 
 bly, and retired into Switzerland. He pub- 
 lished a work, entitled " Quintus Capitoli- 
 nus," in which he retraced the operations of 
 
lal] 
 
 ^ ^cfit) Bnibtritil ISiourajpT)!?. 
 
 [lam 
 
 the National Assemblj-, pointed out tlie 
 faults of the constitution, and condemned 
 the suppression of tlie higlier orders of the 
 state. Having returned to France in 17U2he 
 was arrested, and sent to the Abbaye, but 
 liaving fortunately escaped amidst the mas- 
 sacres which took place iu the prisons in 
 September, he ettectcd his retreat to Eng- 
 land, where he obtained a pension from the 
 government. On the trial of Louis XVI. 
 he wrote to the Convention to offer himself 
 as the official a<lvocate of iliat prince, and 
 he afterwards published the speech which he 
 had composed in his defence. When Buona- 
 parte became consul, lie returned to France, 
 where he resided till the restoration of the 
 Bourbons in 1814. He accompanied Louis 
 XVIII. to Ghent, as one of the members of 
 his privy council, and he is supposed to have 
 written the manifesto of tlie king of tiie 
 French nation. He wrote an excellent 
 work, entitled " The Defence of the Emi- 
 grants," published in 17'M ; also an " Essay 
 on the Life of the Earl of Strafford, the 
 Minister of Charles I. ;" and a tragedy on 
 the fall of that nobleman. Died, 1630. 
 
 L ALUZERNE, C.ksak William »e. Car- 
 dinal, was born at Paris, in 1738. Having 
 obtained orders in 17G2, he was soon after 
 elected agent-general of the French clergy. 
 In 1770, Louis XV. nominated him to the see 
 of Langres ; and, in 1773, he pronounced his 
 majesty's funeral sermon. On the breaking 
 out of the revolution he advocated many 
 patriotic measures for the relief of his coun- 
 try, but was soon compelled to quit it. Un- 
 der the government of Napoleon, he returned 
 home ; and, in 1814, he was invited by tlie 
 king to re-assume his rank of duke and 
 peer. Shortly after he was made a cardinal, 
 and in 1822 lie died. His works, theological 
 and political, are numerous and able. 
 
 LAMANON, IloriEUT uk Paul, a French 
 naturalist, was born at Salon, in Provence, 
 in 1752. The death of his father and brother 
 bringing him considerable property, he 
 quilted the church to study the physical 
 sciences ; in which pursuit he ascended the 
 Alps and Pyrenees, and explored Switzer- 
 land. He embarked with La Perouse on a 
 voyage of discovery round the world, pro- 
 jected by the government, in 1785, but on 
 visiting Maouna, one of tlie islands of the 
 southern Archipelago, in order to examine 
 the country, he was murdered. Many of his 
 papers are in the memoirs of the academy of 
 sciences ; besides which lie wrote " A Tlieory 
 of the Earth." 
 
 LAJMARQITE, , a distinguished 
 
 French military officer and statesman, was 
 born at St. Sever, in 1772. He entered the 
 army as a private, and soon became captain 
 of grenadiers in a famous corps commanded 
 by Latour d'Auvergne, first grenadier of 
 France. He served in the wars of the re- 
 public, and in the campaigns of Austerlitz, 
 the Tyrol, Naples, and Wagram ; rendered 
 himself eminently conspicuous in Italy, par- 
 ticularly by the capture of Caprea ; and was 
 afterwards sent to Spain, where he was en- 
 gaged in the most arduous services, and 
 added greatly to his military reputation. 
 On the return of Buonaparte from Elba, he 
 gave Lamarque the command of Paris, and 
 
 afterwards nominated him general-in-chief 
 of the army of I^a Vendt'e. He was placed 
 among the list of proscribed in 1815 ; but re- 
 turned to France in 1818, and furnished nu- 
 merous articles for the opposition journals, 
 chiefly relating lo foreign politics. In 1826 
 he was elected to the chamber of deputies, 
 and after the accession of Louis Philippe, 
 he became one of the most prominent 
 members of the movement party. Died, 
 1832. 
 
 LAMB, Lady Carolixe, daughter of the 
 Earl of Besborough, an<l wife of the Hon. 
 William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne, 
 was distinguished for her literary talents 
 and the decided part she took in political 
 affairs, particularly at the time her brotlier- 
 iii-law, the Hon. Geo. Lamb, was a candidate 
 for Westminster, when she personally can- 
 vassed the electors, and made herself the 
 subject of great notoriety. She possessed a 
 masculine mind, and was on terms of friend- 
 ship with several literary characters, but 
 more especially with Lord Byron, for whom 
 she entertained an attachment fatal to her | 
 domestic felicity. Several of her poetical 
 pieces appeared in the newspapers and 
 periodical journals ; and she wrote the 
 novels of "Gkiiarvon," "Gialiam Hamil- 
 ton," and " Ada Reis." Died, aged 42, in 
 1828. 
 
 LAMB, Charles, an essayist, poet, and 
 miscellaneous writer, was bom in London, 
 in 177.5, and educated at Christ's Hosi)ital. 
 In 1792 he obtained a situation in the ac- 
 countant's office of the East India Company, 
 where he remained 35 years, till his salary 
 had graduallj' risen to 700/. ; when he was 
 allowed a retiring pension of 450/., which he 
 continued to enjoy till his death. Being 
 thus in easy circumstances, and living unos- 
 tentatiously as a bachelor, — with a mind 
 formed for wit and good-fellowship, and pos- 
 sessing a keen relish for literature, — he was 
 able not only to gratify his intellectual crav- 
 ings, but to luxuriate in the company of men 
 of genius, who might be truly said to enjoy 
 " the feast of reason " by his social fireside. 
 It was thus that, throughout life, he could 
 boast of the friendship of Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, Southey, Rogers, Hazlitt, and a host 
 of others, whose minds were stored with 
 knowledge, and whose tastes were in the 
 main congenial with his own. He was de- 
 votedly attached to the old sterling English 
 authors of the Elizabethan age, and no one 
 ever more successfully imitated their epi- 
 grammatic wit and quaint morality, while 
 lie blended with them touches of pathos and 
 fancy peculiarly his own. He began his 
 literary career in 1797 as a poet, in conjunc- 
 tion with his friends Coleridge and liloyd, 
 their three names appearing to one volume ; 
 and subsequently the attention of the pub- 
 lic was for several years called to Jiis occa- 
 sional Essays, signed " Elia," which were 
 published in various periodicals, and after- 
 wards collected and printed. In 1808 he 
 published " Specimens of English Dramatic 
 Poets who lived about the time of Shak- 
 speare ; with Notes," &c. Besides these, he 
 wrote "Rosamund Gray," a tale; "John 
 Woodvill," a tragedy; "Album Verses," 
 "Tales from Shakspeaie," " The Adventures 
 
LiVM] 
 
 ^ iSftD Winihtv^al 23tograj3^g. 
 
 [lam 
 
 of tJlj-sses," &c., in some of which he was as- 
 sisted by Mnry Lamb, his sister, with whom 
 he lived. His writiugs were select ratlicr 
 than numerous ; and his manner of treating 
 the subjects which his fancy suggested was 
 at once piquant, terse, and playful. He died, 
 Dec. 27. ISot. " Final Memorials " of Charles 
 Lamb have been published by Mr. Justice 
 Talfourd. 
 
 LAMB, Sir James BlaxdBueges,D.C.L., 
 bart., son of George Burges, esq., comp- 
 troller-general of the customs in Scotland, 
 was born at Gibraltar, in 1752. On finishing 
 his education at Oxford University, he tra- 
 velled through many of the countries of 
 Europe, and, on his return, studied for the 
 bar, to wliich he was called in 1777. Ten 
 years afterwards he entered the arena of 
 politics, and took his eeat in the House of 
 Commons, as member for Helston, in Corn- 
 wall. In 1789 he was appointed under- 
 secretary of state in the foreign department, 
 and shortly afterwards a joint commissioner 
 of the privy seal. About this period he es- 
 tablished, imder the sanction of the premier, 
 " The Sun," evening newspaper, and took a 
 prominent part in conducting it, giving to 
 his contributions the signature " Alfred," 
 which in 1792 were collected into a volume. 
 In 1795 he was created a baronet, and ap- 
 pointed for life knight marshal of tlie king's 
 household. Tlie remainder of his life Sir 
 James devoted to literary leisure, and in 
 1821 obtained permission to assume the name 
 of Lamb only, by which he continued to be 
 known till his death in 1825. He left nume- 
 rous works connected with politics, poetry, 
 and the drama. 
 
 LAMBALLE, Marie Ther^se Louise de 
 Savoie Carign an. Princess de, was bom at 
 Turin, in 1749, and was married to the Duke 
 of Bourbon Penthie^^:e, whom she soon lost 
 by death. She was superintendant of the 
 household of Marie Antoinette, queen of 
 France, to whom she was remarkably at- 
 tached. After the flight of the royal family 
 to Varennes she departed for England •, but 
 hearing of the imprisonment of her royal 
 mistress, she hastily returned, and shared 
 with the queen her confinement and mis- 
 fortunes. She was, however, summoned 
 before an iniquitous tribunal, and cruelly 
 murdered in 1792. 
 
 LAMBARDE, William, a lawyer, was 
 born in London, in 1536. In 1597 he was 
 made keeper of the rolls, and, in 1600, keeper 
 of the records in the Tower. He died in 
 1601 ; and from having considerable pro- 
 perty at Greenwich, in Kent, he founded 
 several almshouses in that parish. He wrote 
 several professional works, the cliief of which 
 are a treatise on the ancient law of England, 
 entitled " Archaionomia ; " and another on 
 the office and duties of a justice of the peace, 
 called " Eirenarcha." 
 
 LAMBERT, Anne Therese, Marquise 
 de, a literary lady of Paris, was born in 1047. 
 Upon the death of her husband, Henri Lam- 
 bert, marquis de St. Bris, in 1086, she em- 
 ployed her large fortune in patronising 
 literature, and learned men. At her decease, 
 in 1733, her own writings were collected, and 
 published in 2 vols. 
 
 LAMBEIIT, Aylmeu Boueke, a gentle- 
 
 man distinguished for his attainments in 
 botanical science, was born in 1761. On the 
 foundation of the Linnjean Society, in 1788, 
 Mr. Lambert became one of the original 
 members, and for many years filled the 
 office of vice-president ; while he contri- 
 buted many excellent articles to the Lin- 
 naean Transactions. His own Herbarium 
 was considered one of the finest in Ein-ope ; 
 and the high estimation in which he was 
 held by Ms fellow-labourers was amply 
 attested by the numerous discoveries in the 
 science which they marked with "Lam- 
 berti," " Lambertianai," &c. Died, Jan. 10. 
 1842, aged 80. 
 
 LAMBERT, George, an English painter 
 of the last century, imitating the style of 
 Poussin, in which he furnished some pictures 
 of acknowledged merit. He decorated the 
 East India House, in Leadenhall Street, with 
 several pictures of the settlements in India. 
 He died in 1765, and is supposed to have 
 founded the celebrated Beef Steak Club. 
 
 LAMBERT, John, a distinguished general 
 in the time of Charles I., was a student-at- 
 law on the breaking out of the civil wars. 
 He, however, espoused the cause of the par- 
 liament, and distinguished himself as colonel 
 at the battle of Marston Moor ; and also 
 acted a conspicuous part in many other en- 
 gagements. He vigorously opposed the ad- 
 vancement of Cromwell to the title of king, 
 upon wliich he lost his commission ; yet a 
 pension was granted him of 2000/. a year. 
 Upon the death of Oliver Cromwell, Lam- 
 bert compelled his son Richard to relinqixish 
 his authority, and restored the members of 
 the long parliament to their seats. Subse- 
 quently, however, acting in opposition to 
 the parliament. General Monk marched from 
 Scotland to meet him. His troops deserting, 
 he was compelled to submit, and was con- 
 fined a prisoner in the Tower. Escaping 
 thence, he again quickly appeared in arms, 
 but was defeated, and retaken. At the Re- 
 storation, he was brought to trial ; but his 
 submissive demeanour gained him a reprieve, 
 and he was banislied for life to the isle of 
 Guernsey. He here lived upwards of thirty 
 years, amusing his leisure with horticulture 
 and flower-painting, and is said to have 
 died a Roman Catholic. 
 
 LAMBERT, John Hexry, an eminent 
 mathematician and astronomer, was born at 
 Mulhausen, in 1728. Compelled to follow 
 his father's employment as tailor, for his 
 support, night was the only time his poverty 
 aftbrded him for study, till 1748, when he 
 became tutor to the children of Baron Sails, 
 president of the Swiss convention. He now 
 enlarged the sphere of liis acquirements in 
 an extraordinary degree, which he made 
 manifest by various scientific compositions 
 and inventions. In 1756 he visited Gottin- 
 gen, where he published his first work ; and 
 next went to Paris. Soon after he published 
 his celebrated work " On Perspective," and 
 in the following year appeared his " Photo- 
 metry." Other important and valuable scien- 
 tific works succeeded, and in 1764 he visited 
 Berlin, where he was introduced to Frederic 
 the Great, who admitted him a member of 
 the academy of that capital. Died, 1777. 
 
 LAMBERT, of Schaffinaburg, was a cele- 
 
lam] 
 
 ^ j^cfio ^m'bcrjSal 3Bi0(riajpI)i), 
 
 brated Benedictine ; he visited Jerusalem in 
 1508, and at his return lie composed a chron- 
 icle of affairs from Adam to 107" ; the last 
 twenty years of which is a history of Ger- 
 many. A continuation down to tlie year 
 1472 was written by a monk of Erfurt. 
 
 LAMBERTI, Louis, a learned Greek 
 scholar, was bom at Keggio, in Lombardy, 
 in 1758. He studied jurisprudence at Mo- 
 dena, and became secretary to the papal 
 nuncio at Bologna. Soon after the break- 
 ing out of the French revolution, he re- 
 turned to Reggio aud Milan ; and in 1796 
 aided Buonaparte in establishing a national 
 republic. He had now become a member 
 of the Italian Institute, professor of the 
 belles lettres at Brera, and keeper of the 
 public library. His chief work was an edi- 
 tion of Homer, a copy of which, printed on 
 vellum, he journeyed to Paris to present to 
 Buonaparte, who made him a donation of 
 12,000 francs. Died in 1813. 
 
 I.AMBIN, DioNYSius or Dents, a French 
 Protestant critic and grammarian, was born 
 at Montreuil, in 1516. He was one of the 
 first scholars of his time, and rose to be pro- 
 fessor royal of philology and the belles lettres 
 in the University of Paris. He wrote seve- 
 ral valuable works on the study of the Greek 
 tongue, and some translations of the classic 
 authors, with excellent annotations. Died 
 in 1572. 
 
 L AMBINET, Peteb, a French Jesuit and 
 bibliographer, was bom in Ardennes, in 
 1742. He studied in the Jesuit college of 
 Charleville, and at the suppression of the 
 order he joined the Premonstratcnsian 
 monks. He afterwards became a secular. 
 Among his numerous works, the chief is 
 " Recherches Historiques, &c. dans la Bel- 
 gique." Died, 1813. 
 
 LAMBTON, William, an English officer, 
 was for twenty years a lieutenant-colonel 
 in India, where he distinguished himself by 
 conducting a grand trigonometrical survey 
 of that continent. He died in 1823, at Ring, 
 in Ghaut, having much enriched the Trans- 
 actions of the Royat and Asiatic Societies 
 with important papers. 
 
 LAMET, Adkiajt Augustine de Bussr 
 DE, a learned doctor of the Sorbonne, who, 
 from his relationship to Cardinal de Retz, 
 adliered to that statesman in his disgrace, and 
 accompanied him in his exile. He returned 
 to the Sorbonne, and died in 1691. After 
 his death was published, " Resolutions de 
 plusieurs Cas de Conscience." 
 
 LAMEX, AxDUEW, a learned historian 
 and diplomatist, was born at Munster, in 
 Germany. He was the j)upil of Sclioeflin, 
 and afterwards his coadjutor, lie became 
 keeper of the Palatine library at Manheim. 
 He published some historical works, and 
 numerous dissertations. Died, 1802. 
 
 LAMI, BicRNAKD, an ecclesiastic, was 
 born at Mans, in 1640. He died in 1713, at 
 Rouen ; and left numerous writings, of 
 which his "Apparatus Biblicus" is very 
 
 valuable Fkancis, a Benedictine, was 
 
 bom in 1636, at Montereau, in the diocese of 
 Chartres. After serving in the army, he 
 embraced the religious life, and became a 
 Benedictine monk, and one of the ablest 
 theologians of his time. He distinguished 
 
 himself by his writings against Spinosa, and 
 died in 1711. His works are numerous, and 
 written with much purity, and elegance of 
 style. Giovanni Battista, an ecclesi- 
 astic, was born at Santa Croce, near Florence, 
 in 1697. He studied at Pisa, of which uni- 
 versity he became vice-rector. He after- 
 wards went to Florence, where he was ap- 
 pointed chaplain to the Grand-duke of Tus- 
 cany, professor of ecclesiastical history in 
 the university, and public librarian. He 
 died in 1770. He published a valuable 
 edition of the works of Meursius, in 12 folio 
 volumes. His own writings are numerous. 
 
 LAMIA, a celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
 noted for the charms of her person, the 
 brilliancy of her wit, and her prolicicncy on 
 the flute. She visited Egypt, where she be- 
 came the mistress of Ptolemy Soter. On the 
 defeat of that prince by Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, her chai-ms gained a complete ascend- 
 ancy over the conqueror, from whom she 
 procured great concessions in favour of her 
 countrymen, the Athenians. The time. of 
 her death is imcertain. 
 
 LA MOTHE LE VAYER, Francis de, 
 a French pliilosopher and ingenious writer, 
 was born at Paris, in 1588 ; relinquished tlve 
 law for literary pursuits, and in 1639 was 
 admitted a member of the French academy. 
 In lt)47 he was appointed preceptor to the 
 Duke of Anjou, and he also obtained the 
 titles of historiographer of France and 
 counsellor of state. He died in 1672. His 
 works, in which there is much ocutcness and 
 learning, though mingled with scepticism, 
 form 14 volumes. 
 
 LA MOTTE, A.vxnoxY HoroAnx de, a 
 French poet, was born at Paris, in 1672. 
 He was bred to the law, but deserted it for 
 dramatic composition. In 1710 he obtained 
 admission into the academy, at which time 
 he was nearly blind ; and many years before 
 his death he lost his sight entirely. He pro- 
 duced several tragedies and comedies, some 
 of which were very successful, particularly 
 that entitled "Inez de Castro." In 1714 he 
 published a translation of the Iliad, although 
 entirely ignorant of the original language. 
 He also published a volume of "Fables," 
 besides some pastoral eclogues, hymns, &c. ; 
 but his prose was much superior to his verse. 
 Died, 1731. 
 
 LA MOTTE FOUQUE', FKEDEniCK, 
 Baron de, celebrated as a poet, historian, 
 and novelist, was born at Brandenburg, 1777. 
 Entering the army, he served in the cam- 
 paign of the Rhine, and had a share in the 
 numerous engagements that were fought for 
 tlie liberty of Germany in the beginning of 
 tills century. His first works appeared under 
 the name of " Pellegrin j " and the numerous 
 productions of his pen contributed, not a 
 little, to fan the flame of patriotic ardour 
 which led his coimtrymen to final victory. 
 On quitting the army, he retired to Nenn- 
 hausen, the property of his second wife, 
 Caroline (see below) ; ond on her death, in 
 1831, he removed to Halle, where he 'deli- 
 vered lectures upon poetry and history. His 
 beautiful fair3' tale " Undine " has gained 
 him a European reputation. Died, at Ber- 
 lin, 1842. 
 
 LAMOTTE FOUQUE', Cauolinb, Ba- 
 
lam] 
 
 :^ ^aeU) ^nihtvM 23iriffrapT)j). 
 
 [lam 
 
 roness de, a popular German novelist, was 
 the wife of the author of "Undine," &e. 
 Among this lady's works are, "Lodoiska," 
 2 vols. ; " Frauenliebe," "Feodora," 3 vols. 
 &c. DiedinlSai. 
 
 LAMOTTE, Valois, Comtesse de, who 
 became generally known in consequence of 
 her intrigues at the French court, which led 
 to a disgraceful trial, was the offspring of 
 poor parents, and born in 17o7. Her occu- 
 pation of carrying faggots (her father being 
 a woodman") attracted the notice of the lady 
 of the manor, who took the girl to live with 
 her. Hearing lier speak of valuable papers 
 wliich were in her fatlier's possession, the 
 lady, on further inquiry, found they related 
 to the royal family of Valois ; and, on in- 
 vestigation, it was proved that she was a 
 descendant of that noble family. The girl 
 married a private in the guards ; and, ob- 
 taining an introduction to Cardinal de 
 Rohan, great almoner of France, he advised 
 her to make herself known by letter to 
 Marie Antoinette, the reigning queen ; at 
 till same time expressing his bitter regret 
 that an offence he had been (though inno- 
 cently) guilty of towards that illustrious 
 lady, prevented him from requesting an 
 interview. The queen granted her prayer, 
 and employed her about her person ; but 
 Lamotte rewarded her royal benefactress 
 by the grossest treachery. By means of a 
 person named Villette, the countess kept up 
 a fraudulent correspoi\dence between the 
 queen and the cardinal. Villette forged the 
 queen's handwriting, while the cardinal 
 fancied himself restored to the royal favour, 
 and even honoured by the queen's confi- 
 dence ; for, through Villette's villany, he 
 was led to suppose he had furnished the 
 queen with 120,<K)0 francs, but whicli were 
 kept by the countess. Not being detected 
 in this, she carried on the fraud to an excess 
 that merited her subsequent disgrace. Bceh- 
 mer and Bassange, the queen's jewellers, 
 had collected, at an enormous expense, dia- 
 monds, which, set as a necklace, they in- 
 tended to sell for 1,800,000 francs. Lamotte 
 persuaded the cardinal that the queen pas- 
 sionately desired to possess this necklace, 
 and confided to him the commission to pur- 
 chase it ; and that she would give a note in 
 her own writing for the sum, which she 
 would repay from her private purse liy 
 instalments, luiknown to the king. The 
 cardinal fell into the snare : he bought the 
 desired necklace, wlxich lie committed to 
 tlie care of tlie countess, who, the better to 
 prevent suspicion, told the cardinal the 
 queen would meet him in the garden, as she 
 wished to tliank him. A courtezan of the 
 Palais Royal, Mademoiselle Olivia, person- 
 ated the queen ; in a short speech she 
 thanked the cardinal, and promised him 
 her future protection. Ambition silenced 
 every other idea, and he left the garden 
 elated to excess. Meantime the countess 
 sent lier husband to London with the neck- 
 lace ; but the period of the first payment 
 being allowed to pass without any notice 
 being taken of it, Bochmcr made his com- 
 plaint to the queen, and tlie whole plot was 
 discovered. The queen, incensed at the 
 affair, required public satisfaction to be 
 
 made. The minister, Bretcuil, was a sworn 
 enemy to the cardinal, and, by his advice, 
 the king ordered the cardinal to be arrested; 
 he was taken in his sacerdotal habit to the 
 Bastile, and proceedings were entered into 
 against Mademoiselle Olivia, who proved to 
 be a degraded female ; Cagliostro, a mounte- 
 bank, the forger Villette ; and the contriver 
 of all, the countess. She alone was punished; 
 the cardinal was acquitted, because he was 
 a duped agent in the business ; and the 
 others effected their escape from prison ; but 
 Madame la Comtesse was whipped and burnt 
 on each shoulder with the letter V, and 
 then taken to the hospital, where it was 
 intended she should remain for life ; but 
 she made her escape at the end of ten 
 months, and proceeded to England, where 
 she published her justification, which was 
 read with curiosity, but excited little in- 
 terest in her favour. She died, in London, 
 1791. 
 
 LAMOURETTE, Adrian, a French ec- 
 clesiastic, was a conspicuous character in 
 the revolution. He became a Lazarist, and 
 in 1789 was grand- vicar of ^Vrras. He much 
 assisted Mirabeau, and in 1791 he was ad- 
 mitted to the legislative assembly, where he 
 distinguished himself by his moderation. 
 After the massacres in 179:i, he retired to 
 Lyons, but on the taking of the city by the 
 republicans, he was captured, and sent to 
 Paris, where he was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 LAMOUROUX, J. V. F., professor of 
 natural history in the university of Caen, 
 was born at Agen. He published several 
 valuable and important works on natural 
 history, particularly on marine botany. His 
 treatises on the classification of submersed 
 algae and his work on the corallines are 
 greatly valued. He died in 1825. 
 
 LAMPE, Fkederic Adolimius, a Pro- 
 testant divine, was born at Detmold, in 
 Westphalia, in 1683. He became minister 
 of the church of Bremen, and, in 1720, theo- 
 logical professor at Utrecht, to which was 
 added, in 1726, the cliair of ecclesiastical 
 history. These distinctions he resigned, on 
 being appointed rector of the university of 
 Bremen, to which city he removed. Died, 
 1729. His principal works are, " JDe Cj'm- 
 balis Veterum," and a " Commentary on the 
 Gospel of St. John," 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 LAMPILLAS, Don Francis Xavier, a 
 Spanish Jesuit, was born at Jaen, in 1739. 
 He was professor of the belles lettres in the 
 college of Seville, when his order was sup- 
 pressed, in 1767. He thence retired to Genoa, 
 and devoted himself to Italian literature. 
 His chief work was a vindication of the 
 literary character of his countrymen against 
 the criticisms of Bettinelli and Tiraboschi, 
 in 6 vols. 8vo. Died, 1798. 
 
 LAMPRIDIUS, JElius, a Latin historian 
 of the 4th century, in the reigns of Diocle- 
 tian and Constantine the Great. He wrote 
 the Lives of Antoninus, Commodus, Diadu- 
 menus, and Heliogabalus, which were first 
 printed at Milan. He is supposed also to 
 have written the life of Alexander Severus, 
 attributed to Spartian. 
 
 LAMPRIDIUS, BEifEnicTus, a Latin 
 poet and scholar of the Iflth century, was 
 born at Cremona. lie taught the classical 
 
 I 
 
LAN] 
 
 ^ fit^ Bnihtv^aX ^iasrKp\)^* 
 
 [LAN 
 
 languages at Rome with great reputation, 
 and in 1521 removed to Padua. At the 
 invitation of Frederic Gonzaga, duke of 
 Mantua, he settled in the latter city, and 
 superintended the education of the duke's 
 son. He died in 1540. 
 
 LANA, Fkakcis de, an Italian mathema- 
 tician, was born at Brescia in 1037. lie was 
 a Jesuit, and a celebrated teacher of phi- 
 losophy and mathematics, lie first gave 
 the hint of the principles of aerostatic ma- 
 chines, to be conducted by gas, in his work 
 entitled " Magisteriura Naturre et Artis," 
 printed at Brescia, in 3 vols, folio, 1684, 
 which was a collection of inventions. lie 
 died about 1700. 
 
 LANCASTER, James, an English navi- 
 gator, sailed to the coast of America in 
 l.Wl, and afterwards doubled the Cape of 
 Good Hope on a voyage to the East Indies. 
 He subse(iuently, in ICOO, efttcted a com- 
 mercial treaty with the king of Achen, and 
 a friendly intercourse with the state of Ban- 
 tam ; and gave such information relative to 
 a N.W. passage to the East Indies as led to 
 the attempt of Baffin and others to discover 
 it. Died, 1(!20. 
 
 LANCASTER, Joseph, a member of the 
 Society of Friends, the author and successful 
 pronmlgator of the system of mutual in- 
 struction, known under the title of " the 
 Lancasterian," to which so large a majority 
 of the poorer classes in this country owe the 
 blessings of education. He was for many 
 years actively engaged in delivering lectures 
 and forming schools in various parts of Eng- 
 land ; and rank, wealth, and beauty flocked 
 to hear the earnest though simple eloquence 
 of the enthusiastic and benevolent Quaker. 
 But enthusiastic as were the applauses 
 bestowed upon him, patronage and support 
 were not bestowed in like proportion ; he 
 became so much embarrassed in consequence 
 of his benevolent exertions, that he was ob- 
 liged to seek an asylum in America. There 
 also he suftered many embarrassments, and a 
 subscription was just proposed for his relief, 
 when he was run over in New York, and so 
 severely injured, that he died on the day 
 following the accident. He was the author 
 of several letters and lectures on the subject 
 of his favourite system, and also of some 
 elementary books of instruction. Born, 1771; 
 died, 18.')9. 
 
 LANCELOT, Anthonv, was born in 1675. 
 He was educated for the church, but took to 
 the law in preference. On finishing his 
 studies, he M-as made sub-librarian at the 
 Mazarin College, where he made extracts 
 from the most curious MSS. He assisted 
 Valbonnais in his history of Daupliiny, con- 
 tinuing in the province 5 years, and making 
 inventories of its principal archives. He 
 became secretary to the king, and, in 1732, 
 he was made inspector of the royal college. 
 He died in 1740. 
 
 LANCELOT, Claude, a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, was bom, in 1619, at Paris. 
 His reputation for learning procured him 
 the tutorship of the Prince of Conti. He 
 afterwards lectured on belles lettres at the 
 monastery of Port Royal, and subseciuently 
 became a Benedictine monk. Upon the 
 suppression of Ids order, he was banished 
 
 to Quimperlay, in Brittany, where he died 
 in 1695. He was the author of the Port 
 Royal grammars, so well known in Eng- 
 land ; and of many other useful i)hilological 
 works. 
 
 LANCISI, GiAMAKiA, an eminent phy- 
 sician, was born at Rome, in 1654. He 
 studied philosophy and divinity, but pre- 
 ferred the science of medicine ; and he 
 early became professor of anatomy in the 
 college della Sapienza. To three successive 
 popes he was appointed physician, enjoying 
 at the same time other honours. He died 
 in 1720, leaving a library of upwards of 
 20,000 volumes to the hospital of the Holy 
 Ghost, for the use of the public. His own 
 writings are esteemed, and have been col- 
 lected into 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 LANCRE, Peter ve, a native of Bonr- 
 deaux, was a counsellor of parliament, and 
 presided over the trials of sorccreis and 
 witches in the provinces of Labourd and 
 Gascony. Greatly infected with the error 
 of his time, multitudes were condemned to 
 death, who now would be looked upon as 
 lunatics or impostors. His services in this 
 capacity were rewarded by the oppointment 
 of counsellor of state. He wrote two curious 
 works on demonogrnphy. Died, 1030. 
 
 LANCRINCK, Puom-eu He.\i:v, an able 
 painter, was born at Antwerp, in 1628. He 
 imitated Titian and Salvator, and was much 
 encouraged in England, where lie met with 
 employment under Sir Peter Leiy, painting 
 the grounds, landscape, &c. of his princii)al 
 pictures. His own works are much admired 
 for their originality, colouring, and har- 
 mony. Died, 1692. 
 
 LANDAI8 or LANDOIS, Petek, was 
 born at Vitre, in Champagne. His father 
 was tailor to Francis II., duke of Brittany 
 in 1475, and the insinuating address and 
 cunning tact of young Landais procured 
 him the situation of grand treasurer to that 
 prince. He iKJcame a very adroit politician, 
 but was vindictive and cruel to such as of- 
 fended him. Tlie virtuous chancellor Cha- 
 noin felt the effect of his malice, and died 
 in prison. This, however, brought down 
 general indignation against the unworthy 
 favourite, who was hastily tried, condemned, 
 and executed in 1485. The execution of 
 his sentence was not allowed to wait for 
 the sanction of the duke, lest he should be 
 reprieved. 
 
 LANDEN, JoHJf, an eminent mathema- 
 tician, was bom at Peakirk, Northampton- 
 shire, in 1719. In 1755 he published a volume 
 of "Mathematical Lucubrations." Soon 
 after, he became agent to Earl Fitzwilliam, 
 and in 1764 he published his " Residual 
 Analysis," subsequently a *' New Theory of 
 the Rotatory Motion of Bodies alfected 
 by Forces disturbing each Motion," and 
 afterwards his volume of " Memoirs." Died, 
 1790. 
 
 LANDER, Richard and John, two bro- 
 thers, whose names are indissolubly asso- 
 ciated with African discovery, were natives 
 of Cornwall, and born, the former in 1804, 
 the latter in 1806. They were both appren- 
 ticed to a printer ; but the elder abandoned 
 his occupation to accompany Clapperton in 
 his expedition to the Niger in 1825 ; and 
 
 fi03 
 
LAN] 
 
 ^ |}plu Bnihtx^^l I3tff5raj|3lj». 
 
 [LAN 
 
 after his death, in 1827, he returned to 
 England, wliere he Bubinitted to govern- 
 ment a plan for exploring the termination 
 of the Niger, which was adopted. Accom- 
 panied by his younger brother, he set out 
 for Badaguay in 1830, where, after encoun- 
 tering many dangers, they reached Kirree, 
 but were taken prisoners at Eboe, and only, 
 after the promise of a high ransom, suc- 
 ceeded in getting arrangements made for 
 conveying them to the sea. Tliis they 
 reached by the channel called by the Por- 
 tuguese, Nun, and by the English, Brass 
 River ; and thus was solved by their agency 
 one of the grandest prol)lems in African 
 geography. This important discovery, 
 opening a water communication into the 
 very heart of the African continent, made a 
 great impression on the mercantile world ; 
 and soon after the brothers' arrival in Eng- 
 land, an association, of which Mr. Macgregor 
 Laird was the head, was entered into for 
 forming a settlement on the Upper Niger; but 
 the expedition that was fitted out for this 
 purpose at Liverpool, in 1832, unfortunately 
 proved a failure ; and the Landers, together 
 with nearly all that joined it, fell victims 
 either to the unhealthiness of the climate, 
 or in contests with the natives, in 1833. 
 
 LANFRANC, a learned prelate of the 
 11th century, was born at Paira, in 1005. 
 He became prior of the abbey of Bee in 1044, 
 and strongly opposed transuhstantiation, 
 and the great encroachments of the see of 
 Rome. In a short time he removed from 
 Bee to the abbey of St. Stephen, at Caen, in 
 Normandy, and came over to England with 
 William the Conqueror. Tlirough the in- 
 terest of that prince, he obtained the arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury, vacant by the de- 
 position of Stigand. Becoming involved in 
 a controversy with the Archbishop of York 
 respecting primacy, and also with the pope 
 himself, he so far showed his independence, 
 by refusing to appear to the citation of the 
 pope. He was an able politician, as well as 
 a munificent prelate, founding two hospitals 
 near Canterbury, wliich he liberally en- 
 dowed. Died, 1089. 
 
 LANFRANC or LANFRANCO, Gio- 
 VANXi. There were two of this name ; one 
 was an artist, born at Parma in 1681. He 
 was originally a domestic in the service of 
 Count lioratio Schotte, who, finding him to 
 have a taste for design, placed him under 
 Caracci. Under this great master he im- 
 proved so rapidly that his talent was soon 
 in requisition, and the Famese palace and 
 churches of St. James and St. Peter at Rome, 
 bear ample testimony of his capability. The 
 great excellence of this artist consisted in 
 his composition and foreshortening, and in 
 
 fresco painting. He died in 1647 The 
 
 other Lanfranc was a physician of Milan, 
 where he practised with much success, but at- 
 tempting some innovations in his profession, 
 he was compelled to take refuge in France. 
 He died in 1300, and left a valuable treatise 
 on surgery, entitled "Chirurgia Magna et 
 Parva." 
 
 LANG, Charles Nicholas, a Swiss na- 
 turalist, was born at Lucerne in 1670. After 
 obtaining the degree of M.D. at Rome, he 
 went to Paris, and became a corresponding 
 
 504 
 
 member of the academ}^ of sciences. He 
 settled at his native place as pliysician, and 
 died in 1741. He left many writings, some 
 of which are still unpublished. 
 
 LANGALLERIE, Philip de Gentils, 
 Marquis de, was born at Saintonge, and 
 early distinguished himself as a soldier. 
 His capriciousness and eccentricity, how- 
 ever, lost him many friends, and he at last 
 became religious, renounced Roman Catho- 
 licism, and wrote a book on the occasion. 
 He subsequently visited the Hague, where, 
 linking himself with a French adventurer, 
 in negotiating with the Turkish ambassador 
 for raising Christian troops for the Porte, he 
 was arrested in 1716, sent to Vienna, and died 
 the next year. 
 
 LANGBAINE, Gerard, an English di- 
 vine, was born at Bartonkirke, in Westmor- 
 land, about 1608. He was educated at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, where he obtained the de- 
 gree of D. D. in 1646. He was also keeper 
 of the archives, and provost of his college. 
 He was well acquainted with the laws and 
 antiquities of his country, and corresponded 
 with Selden, Usher, and other learned men. 
 He endowed a free-school at his native 
 place, and published an edition of Longinus, 
 and several works on history, theology, and 
 criticisms. Died, 1658. 
 
 LANGDALE, Sir Marmadt:ke, was a 
 royalist officer in the civil wars of Charles 
 I. He gained many successes over the 
 Scots and General Fairfax, but, on the ruin 
 of the king's cause, he fled to Flanders. 
 Charles II., in 1658, created him a baron in 
 reward of his services, and he died in 1661. 
 
 LANGE, Lawrence, a traveller, was 
 born at Stockholm. He served under Peter 
 the Great in Russia, and in 1715 super- 
 intended the erection of the palace of Pe- 
 terhof. At the desire of Peter, he visited 
 China to procure some curiosities, and re- 
 turned in 1717. He subsequently repaired 
 to China two or three times as ambassador ; 
 and he was eventually made governor of 
 Iskutsk in Siberia, in 1737. Prior to his 
 death he published accounts of his several 
 journeys. 
 
 LANGEBECK, Jaiies, a learned Danish 
 writer, was born in 1710. He studied theo- 
 logy, and the modern languages, with much 
 success. Frederic "V. employed him to travel 
 in Sweden, to collect every thing he could 
 relative to Danish history. He was also 
 made keeper to the archives of the realm, 
 counsellor of justice, and, lastly, counsellor 
 of state. He died in 1774. His most im- 
 portant work is the historical collection, en- 
 titled " Scriptores Rerum Danicarum," &c. 
 
 LANGHAM, Simon de, abbot of St. 
 Peter's, Westminster, was born at Lang- 
 ham, in Rutlandshire, in the earlj-^ part of 
 the 14th century. In 1360 he was made lord 
 high treasurer ; in the following year he 
 accepted the bishopric of Ely ; in 1364 he 
 became chancellor, and was promoted to the 
 see of Canterbury in 1366. He there distin- 
 guished himself by the violence of his oppo- 
 sition to Wickliffe, and was made a cardinal ; 
 but this so offended Edward III. that he 
 seized the temporalities of his see. He ac- 
 cordingly repaired to the papal court, and 
 was amply recompensed for its loss. He 
 
 I 
 
LAN] 
 
 ^ ^tia Bnibex&Kl IStoijrapTjg. 
 
 [LAN] 
 
 died in 1376, and. his body was brought to 
 England, and buried in Westminster Abbey, 
 to wliicli he had been a liberal benefactor. 
 
 LANGIIANS, CifAULKS Gothakd, an 
 eminent architect, was born at Landshut, 
 in Silesia, in 173.'}. He became a member of 
 the tine arts, at Berlin, wliere he was also 
 principal decorator of public buildings. Hia 
 new structures were the Brandenburg Gate 
 and tlie Salle de Spectacle. Ue was also a 
 member of the arts and sciences at Bologna, 
 ttud died in 1«(J8. 
 
 LANGHOKNE, Dakiel, an English his- 
 torian aud antiquary, was born in London. 
 He procured the degree of M. A. and B. D. 
 at Cambridge University, ond in 1070 he 
 was presented to the living of Layston, in 
 Hertfordshire, where he died in 1081. His 
 works are on the ancient liistory of England. 
 
 LANGHORNE, John, an English divine, 
 poet, and historian, was born at Kirkby 
 Stephen, in Westmoreland, in 1735. His 
 father dying when he was a child, his mo- 
 ther placed him in Appleby School, and, 
 shortly after, he became a tutor in a private 
 family. He next was usher in a school at 
 Waketield, and wliile there was admitted 
 into orders. In 1759 he resided witli Mr. 
 Cracroft, of Hackthom, in Lincolnshire, as 
 tutor to his sons ; and, the year following, 
 he entered at Clare Hall, Cambridge, lie 
 published several popular pieces, particularly 
 a poem, entitled "Genius aud Valour," and 
 having therein defended Scotland from the 
 scurrility thrown out by Churchill in Ids 
 "Prophecy of Famine," he was complimen- 
 ted with the degree of D. D. by the univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh. In 1770, Dr. Langhorne, 
 in conjunction with hia brother, published a 
 translation of Plutarch, wliich is still a very 
 popular work ; in 1777 he was presented to 
 a prebendal stall in the cathedral of Wells, 
 and died in 1779. Dr. Langhorne printed 
 two volumes of sermons, and, in 1804, hia 
 son published hia several poems Wil- 
 liam, the doctor's brother, born in 1721, was 
 presented to the rectory of Hakinge, aud 
 the perpetual curacy of Folkestone, where he 
 died in 1772. He wrote one or two poems, 
 and had a share in the translation of 
 Plutarch. 
 
 LANGIUS, John, a learned physician, 
 was born at Loewenberg, in Silesia, in 1485. 
 After studying at Bologna and VUa, he be- 
 came an M. D., and settled at Heidelberg. 
 He was physician to four electors palatine. 
 Died, 1565. 
 
 LANGLANDE, Robert, a secular priest 
 of the 14th century, and fellow of Oriel 
 College, Oxford, known as the author of 
 some satirical poems against the vices of the 
 Romish clergy. 
 
 LANGLES, Louis Matthew, a celebrated 
 oriental scholar, was born at Peronne, in 
 France, in 1763. He published a "Diction- 
 naire Mautchon-Fran(;ais," and various 
 works translated from the oriental tongues, 
 particularly a work on Hindoo literature. 
 In 17i>2 he was appointed keeper of the ori- 
 ental MSS. in the royal library, and, in the 
 next year, he was attached to the committee 
 of public instruction. He died in 1824, 
 leaving an admirable collection of books, 
 MSB., &c. 
 
 ao5 
 
 LANGLEY, Batty, an English builder, | 
 known by his attempt to re-model the Gothic j 
 style of arcliitecture, by inventing different i 
 orders of tlie Gothic, from an intermixture ' 
 of the various Grecian orders. Died, 1751. j 
 
 LANGTOFT, Pktee, an historian and j 
 Augustin friar, was bom in Yorkshire, in 
 the 13th century, and is known as the trans- ' 
 lator of " Boscam's Life of St. Thomas of I 
 Canterbury." 1 
 
 LANGTON, Stephen, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in the time of king John, was born 
 in Lincolnshire, but educated in France, j 
 He rose through the various honours of the ' 
 university of Paris till he became its chau- 
 cellor ; and then, on visiting Rome, Inno- 
 cent III. so admired his learning and abi- 
 lities, as to promote him to the see of Can- 
 terbury, a power of disposal then disputed 
 by the king of England. John, however, 
 refused to confirm the nomination, aud the 
 kingdom waa accordingly under excommu- 
 nication. The pusillanimous monarch at 
 length yielded, and Langton entered into 
 quiet possession of Ids diocese in 1213. This 
 prelate was not so subservient to the Romish 
 church as was expected, but became a stre- 
 nuous supporter of the English church, and 
 died in 1228, leaving many works, which 
 have since l>een printed. 
 
 LANGUET, two French ecclesiastics, 
 brothers. Jean Baptiste Joseph, the elder, 
 was born at Dijon, in 1675, and early became 
 a doctor in the Sorbonne. For 10 years he 
 acte<l as curate at St. Sulpice, in Paris, and 
 then succeeded to the benefice. From this 
 moment the whole life of this pious and 
 good churchman was devoted to acts of 
 charity and benevolence. He founded a 
 hospital, the "Maison de I'Eufant Jesus," 
 for the support of many hundred men, wo- 
 men, and children ; and applied all his zeal, 
 as well as income, in aiding his more indi- 
 
 fent brethren. He died in 1753 Jean 
 osEPH possessed great benevolence, became 
 bishop of Soissous, and afterwards archbishop 
 of Sens, where he died in 1753. 
 
 LANGUET, Hubekt, a scholar and di- 
 plomatist, was born at Viteaux, in Burgundy, 
 in 1518. He studied the law, and took the 
 degree of D.D. in that faculty at Padua; 
 after which he visited Wittemberg, where, 
 at the instance of his friend Melanchthon, he 
 embraced the Protestant religion. Shortly 
 after, he became minister of state to the 
 Elector of Saxony, and was at Paris at the 
 time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 from which he very narrowly escaped. Sub- 
 sequently being suspected of Zuinglianism, 
 he retired to Antwerp, where he entered 
 into the service of the Prince of Orange. 
 He died at Antwerp in l.'iSl, and left many 
 writings to bear witness to his learning. 
 
 LANIER, or LANIEUE, Nicholas, an 
 Italian artist, was bom about 1568. He was 
 employed by Charles I. of England, but the 
 time of his death is uncertain. 
 
 LANJUINAIS, Jean Denis, Count de, 
 was born at Rennes, in 17.53. He was a 
 member of the third estate at the breaking 
 out of the revolution ; and, when the re- 
 public was proclaimed, he waa as zealous in 
 defence of the rights of his prince as of the 
 rights of the nation. He opposed the usurp- 
 
LAN] 
 
 ^ ^^U) Winibtv^nX 33t0grap]^«. 
 
 [lak 
 
 ations of Buonaparte, and after the second 
 restoration, he strenuously resisted the ex- 
 travagant pretensions of the French clergy, 
 defended the liberty of the press and indi- 
 vidual freedom, the law of election, and the 
 charter. He died in 1827. 
 
 LANJUIN ATS, Joseph r>E,an ecclesiastic, 
 was born in Brittany. After entering the 
 order of St. Benedict, and becoming pro- 
 fessor of theology, his connection with 
 D'Alembert and Diderot compelled him to 
 retire to Lausanne, where he embraced the 
 reformed religion, and became principal of 
 the college of Moudon. He published many 
 works, which excited some attention, and 
 died in 1808. 
 
 LANNES, JoHX, duke of Montebello and 
 a marshal of France, was born in 1769, at 
 Lestoure. He was appi-enticed to a dyer, 
 but entering the army, his zeal and energy 
 gained him promotion, and, in 1795, he was 
 made a chief of brigade. After various suc- 
 cesses in Italy, and under Buonajmrte, in 
 Egypt and other places, particularly at 
 Marengo, he was made a marshal of the 
 empire, and afterwards duke of Montebello. 
 He contributed much to the victory of Aus- 
 terlitz, and was very prominent in the 
 battles of Jena, Eylau, Friedland, Tudela, 
 and Saragossa. At the battle of Essling he 
 received a mortal wound, of which he died 
 in 1809. His son was created duke of Monte- 
 bello in 1815. 
 
 LANSBERGHE, or LANSBERGIUS, 
 PuiLiP, a mathematician and divine, was 
 born at Ghent, in Flanders. He was long a 
 Protestant minister at Antwerp, and after- 
 wards at Ter-Goes, in Zealand ; thence he 
 removed to Middleburg, wliere he died in 
 1632. He wrote several astronomical works, 
 and one on sacred clironology. 
 
 L.ANTIER, E. F. de, a poet, dramatist, 
 and miscellaneous writer ; born at Mar- 
 seilles in 1736, and died there in 1826. 
 From his great age he had obtained the ap- 
 pellation of the Nestor of literary France. 
 His principal works are, "The Travels of 
 Antenor in Greece" (which has not inaptly 
 been called the Anacharsis of the boudoirs), 
 " Geotfrey Rudel, or the Troubadour," 
 " A Joui-ney in Spain," besides various 
 other poems and tales. 
 
 IvANZI, I-ouis, an Italian antiquary, 
 was born at Monte del Celmo, in 1732, and 
 became a Jesuit. He taught rhetoric with 
 great success, and, on the suppression of 
 his order, he was sub-director of the Flo- 
 rence gallery. He wrote several works, 
 particularly one on "The Tuscan Lan- 
 guage," and " A History of Painting," &c. 
 He died in 1810. 
 
 LAO-TSEE, a celebrated Chinese philo- 
 sopher, was born about COO years B.C., in 
 the service of Hou-Konang. lie was con- 
 temporary with Pythagoras, and taught 
 the doctrine of metempsychosis. He fol- 
 lowed the sect of Tao-Tsee, and must have 
 lived to a great age, having been visited by 
 Confucius in 517 b. c. Little, however, is 
 known of his personal history. 
 
 LAPLACE, or PLATE ANUS, Peter de, 
 a French magistrate and writer, was born 
 at AngoulSme, in 1526. He became a pleader 
 in the parliament of Paris, till he was ap- 
 
 pointed, by the Prince of Conde, superin- 
 tendant of his household. Unfortunately he 
 returned to Paris, and while discharging his 
 duty as president at the court of aids, was 
 murdered in the massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew in 1572. His works are, " Comment- 
 aries on the State of Religion and the Com- 
 monwealth," " A Treatise on the Use of 
 Moral Philosophy," and "A Treatise on 
 the Excellence of the Christian Religion." 
 
 LAPLACE, Pierre Simos, Marquis de, 
 a celebrated mathematician and astrono- 
 mer, was born at Beaumont-en-Auge, in 
 1749 i where he became professor of ma- 
 thematics in the military school. From 
 this place he soon removed to Paris, where 
 he distinguished himself by his knowledge 
 of analysis and the highest branches of geo- 
 metry, and was chosen a member of the 
 academy of sciences, one of the forty of 
 the French academy, and member of the 
 Bureau des Longitudes. In 1796 appeared 
 his famous work, " Exposition du Systfeme 
 du Monde." After the revolution, on the 
 18th of Brumaire, in 1799, he was made 
 minister of the interior by the first consul. 
 But from this he was removed, to make 
 room for Lucien Buonaparte, and was then 
 admitted into the senate, of which, in 1803, 
 he became president. Having, in 1814, 
 voted for tlie deposition of Napoleon, on 
 the re-organisation of peers, he was made 
 a marquis. He died in 1827, leaving nu- 
 merous scientific works, evidences of his 
 talent. 
 
 LAPO, James, or Jacopo, an Italian ar- 
 chitect living at Florence, who built the 
 church of the Virgin Marj' at Assisi, founded 
 by Ilelias, which obtained him great repu- 
 tation. Died, 1262 Arnoi-pho, his son, 
 
 became a most celebrated architect and 
 sculptor, displaying great genius and skill in 
 his profession. Died, 1300. 
 
 LARCH ER, Peter IIexrt, an eminent 
 French scholar, was born at Dijon, in 1726. 
 His first translation was the Electra of 
 Euripides ; after which he translated Mar- 
 tinus Scriblerus, from Pope's Miscellanies, 
 and furnished notes to the French version of 
 Hudibras. In 1767, a difference took place 
 between him and Voltaire, on whose Phi- 
 losophy of History he published remarks, 
 under the title of a " Supplement ;" to which 
 the latter replied in his well known Defense 
 de mon Oncle. Larcher rejoined in a " R^- 
 ponse," with which the controversy ceased 
 on his part ; but not so the merciless wit of 
 his opponent. He afterwards published his 
 " Me'moire sur Venus," and translated Hero- 
 dotus and Xenophon. Died, 1812. 
 
 LARDNER, Dr. Nathaniel, a learned 
 dissenting divine, was born at Hawkhurst, 
 Kent, in 1684 ; and received his education 
 at Utrecht and Leyden. He was the author 
 of several important theological works, viz. 
 " The Credibility of the Gospel History," 
 " The Testimonies of the Ancient Jews and 
 Pagans in favour of Christianity," " The 
 History of Heretics," sermons, &c. Died, 
 1768. 
 
 LARGILLIERE, Nicholas de, a portrait 
 painter, was born at Paris, in 1656. He 
 lived several years in England, and was 
 much employed by Charles II. and James 
 
 506 
 
lar] 
 
 ^ fitia ^auibcri^al ^Btograjpfjj?. 
 
 [las 
 
 II. On his return to France he became 
 liistorical painter, and afterwards director 
 of the academy. Died, 174C. 
 
 LARIVEjM., a celebrated French trage- 
 dian, was born at Rochelle, in 1749 ; ap- 
 peared at the Tht'atrc Frangais, Paris, in 
 1771 ; where, by his fine person, and his 
 powers of declamation, he rose to eminence. 
 He quitted the stage rather earlier in life 
 than most actors, and died at Montignon, 
 in 1827, aged 78. He wrote a drama, en- 
 titled " Pjrrnmus and Thisbe," " Reflections 
 on the Histrionic Art," and other works. 
 
 LARIVEY, Petkk de, an old French 
 dramatic writer, and one of the first who 
 considered comedy as the representation of 
 real life, was a native of Troyes, and is 
 supposed to have died about 1612. 
 
 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, or ROCHE- 
 FOUCAULT, Francis, Duke de, prince of 
 Marsilluc, a distinguished courtier and man 
 of letters in the reign of Louis XIV., was 
 born in 1C13, and died in 1680. He acted a 
 conspicuous part in the civil war of the 
 Fronde; but he is chiefly remembered as 
 the writer of " Rrflexions et Maximes," a 
 work which has been extolled and criti- 
 cised in no ordinary degree. He also wrote 
 " Memoires de la R^gne d' Anne d' Autriche ;" 
 and, during the latter part of his life, his 
 house was the resort of the first-rate wits 
 and literati of France. 
 
 LA ROCHEFOUCAUT.D-LIANCOUT, 
 Francois Alexander Fiikuekic, Duke de, 
 bom in 1747, was grand-master of the ward- 
 robe to Louis XV. and XVI. He became 
 a member of the constituent assembly in 
 1789, after the dissolution of which he took 
 the military command at Rouen, in his 
 capacity of lieutenant-general, during 1792. 
 On the downfall of the monarchy he left 
 France, and resided for eighteen months in 
 England : he then travelled through the 
 United States, wlience he returned in 1798, 
 and was allowed to revisit his native land, 
 where he devoted himself to the promotion 
 of the useful arts and to acts of benevo- 
 lence. It was through his influence that 
 vaccination was introduced into France. 
 After the restoration he was created a peer, 
 but, on account of the liberality of his sen- 
 timents, he was, in 1823 and 1824, excluded 
 from the council of state, and removed 
 from the several boards of which he was 
 a member. His principal work is, " Travels 
 in the United Sutes." Died, 1827. 
 
 LAROCHEJAQUELEIN, Henri DK,one 
 of the most distinguished of the Vendean 
 royalists, was born at Chatillon, in Poitou, 
 in 1772, and was a son of the Marquis de 
 la Rochejaquelein. The peasants of the 
 neighbourliood having risen in the royal 
 cause in 1792, he placed himself at their 
 head, and addressed tliem in the following 
 pithy harangue : " I am young and inex- 
 perienced, but I have an ardent desire to 
 render myself worthy of heading you. Let 
 us march to meet the enemy ; if I give way, 
 kill me ; if I advance, follow me ; if I fall, 
 avenge me." He was subsequently chosen 
 commander-in-chief of the Vendeans, and 
 displayed great talent and the most daring 
 valour. After gaining sixteen victories in 
 ten montlis, he fell, at the age of twenty- 
 
 two years, March 4. 1794, in a single com- 
 bat with one of the republican soldiers, 
 while defending the village of Nouaille. 
 
 LARREY, Isaac de, an historian, was 
 born in 1638, at Montvilliers. He went to 
 Holland, where he was made historiographer 
 to the states-general. His works are, " The 
 History of Augustus," "The History of 
 Eleanor, Wife of Henry II.," " History of 
 England," 4 vols, folio ; " History of the 
 Seven Sages of Greece," 2 vols. 8vo., and 
 " The History of France under Louis XIV.," 
 3 vols. 4to. Died, 1719. 
 
 LARRIVEE, Henry, a distinguished 
 French actor and opera singer, was origin- 
 ally a hairdresser, but having acquired the 
 art of giving to recitative all the energy 
 and expression of tragic declamation, he 
 speedily arrived at the highest eminence 
 in his peculiar department of the art. Died, 
 1802, 
 
 LARROQTJE, Matthew i>e, a Protestant 
 divine, was born near Agen, in 1(!19. He 
 was minister of tlie church of Vitry, in 
 Brittany, where he officiated twenty-seven 
 years, and then removed to Rouen. He 
 was the author of a " History of the Eu- 
 charist, " the " Conformity of the Reforme<l 
 Churches of France with the Ancients," 
 
 tc Died, 1684 His son Daniel, on the 
 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, quitted 
 France ; but afterwards returned, and ab- 
 jured the Protestant religion. In 1693 ho 
 was sent to prison for writing a satire on 
 the king. After a confinement of five years 
 he obtained his release, and was appointed 
 secretary to the council. He published 
 several works, the principal of which was 
 a satire, entitled " Lea vt^ritables Motifs de 
 la Conversion de M. I'Abbe de la Trappe." 
 
 LA SALLE, Count de, a brave soldier, 
 was born at Metz, in 177.5, and entered the 
 army, with tlie rank of an officer, at 11 
 years of age, under prince Maximilian, af- 
 terwards king of Bavaria. The privilege 
 of birth opened to him a line of promotion ; 
 but he resolved that merit alone should dis- 
 tinguish him. He accordingly resigned his 
 commission, became a private soldier, and 
 at length rose, through long and dangerous 
 services, which occupied eight years, to the 
 post which lie had before resigned. By his 
 decisive conduct at the battle of Rivoli he 
 possessed himself of the colours ; upon which 
 the commander-in-chief addressed him in 
 these words : " Rest yourself upon these 
 flags, you have deserved them." He was 
 equally victorious in Egypt ; conquered the 
 Prussians on the walls of Konigsberg ; and 
 finished an honourable career, in the arms of 
 victory, on the field of Wagram. 
 
 LASCARIS, CoNSTANTiNK and John, two 
 noble Greeks of the 15th century, who, on 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Turks 
 
 in 14,53, took refuge in Italy.. Constan- 
 
 TiNE went to Milan, where he instructed 
 the daughter of the grand-duke in the 
 Greek language. From thence he removed 
 to Rome, and next to Naples, in which 
 city he opened a school for Greek and rhe- 
 toric. Lastly, he settled at Messina, where 
 he died about 1.500. His Greek grammar 
 was printed at Milan in 1476 ; and again 
 by Aldus in 1495. John, surnamed 
 
las] 
 
 ^ ^ei» ?SniberSal iSiosrapl^g. 
 
 [lat 
 
 Rhyndacenus, took up his residence at 
 Padua, and was patronised by Lorenzo de 
 Medici, who sent him to Greece to pur- 
 chase certain valuable manuscripts, a mis- 
 sion which he accomplislied mucli to the 
 satisfaction of his employer. In 149-1: he 
 entered the service of Louis XII. of France, 
 who made him liis envoy to the Venetian 
 senate ; in 1513 he went to Rome, and per- 
 suaded Leo X. to found the Greek College, 
 of which Lascaris became the principal, 
 and also the superintendant of the Greek 
 press ; and in 1518 he returned to France, 
 and was employed by Francis I. in forming 
 the royal library. His taste for literature in- 
 duced his contemporaries to expect that he 
 would greatly benefit the world by his own 
 productions ; his natural indolence, how- 
 ever, prevented him from writing much 
 that was original, though he published 
 translations of several classical works, with 
 annotations, &c. Died, 1535. 
 
 LAS CASES, Count de, celebrated for his 
 fidelity to Buonaparte, was born in the cha- 
 teau of Las Cases, in the department of the 
 Haute-Garonne, 1706. At the outbreak of the 
 French revolution, 1789, he was a lieutenant 
 in the navy. He then emigrated, joined the 
 army of Conde, and took part in the Quiberou 
 expedition, but returned to France afler the 
 18th Brumaire. Having been long devoted 
 to literary pursuits, he liow published, under 
 the name of Le Sage, an " Atlas Historique, 
 Chronologique, et Geographique," which 
 went through several editions. In 1809 he 
 enrolled himself as a volunteer to ward off 
 the English attack upon Flushing ; and 
 from this time attracted the attention of 
 Buonaparte, who soon afterwards made him 
 his chamberlain, admitted him to the council 
 of state, and intrusted him with various con- 
 fidential missions. In 1814 he refused to 
 vote with the council of state for the de- 
 thronement of the emperor, took up arms 
 for him after his return from Elba in 1815, 
 and was one of the four attendants that ac- 
 companied him to St. Helena. There he 
 remained 18 months with the illustrious 
 prisoner, enjoying his intimacy, and noting 
 down all that he said in a journal, whidi he 
 subsequently published, under the title of 
 " Memorial de Sainte Hulfene." But having 
 become an object of suspicion to Sir Hudson 
 Lowe, the governor, he was seized, and 
 conveyed first to the Cape, and thence to 
 England as a prisoner, and was not allowed 
 to return to France till after the emperor's 
 decease. In 1830 he was elected to the 
 chamber of deputies, and took his seat with 
 the opposition. Died, 1842. 
 
 LASCY, Peter, Count de, a military 
 officer, born in Ireland, in 1678. After the 
 conquest of that country by William III. he 
 entered the French service, and was subse- 
 quently an officer in the Austrian, Polish, 
 and Russian armies. He rose to the rank of 
 a Russian field-marshal, was appointed 
 governor of Lithuania, and died in 1751. 
 
 LASCY, Joseph Francis Maurice, Count 
 de, son of the preceding, was bom at St. 
 Petersburgh, in 1725 ; entered the Austrian 
 service, and obtained the rank of general, 
 after having displayed his military talents 
 at the battles of Lowositz, Breslau, aud 
 
 Hochkirchen. In 1760 he penetrated to 
 Berlin, at the head of 15,000 men ; for 
 which bold exploit he was made a com- 
 mander of the order of Maria Theresa, 
 and in 1762 received the baton of marshal. 
 He was employed against the Turks in 
 1788, and remained in active employment 
 under the emperor Joseph II., during great 
 part of the remainder of his life. Died 1801. 
 
 LASERNA-SANTANDER, Charles 
 Anthoxy, distinguished as a bibliographer 
 in the last century, was a native of Biscay. 
 He went to reside at Brussels, and there 
 collected a noble library, which he opened 
 to the public ; but having been obliged to 
 dispose of it, he was appointed keeper of 
 the public library. He published a "Dic- 
 tionnaire Bibliographique," &e. ; and died 
 in 1813. 
 
 LASSALA, Mantel, a Spanish Jesuit } 
 author of an " Account of the Poets of Cas- 
 tile," an " Essay on General History," &c. 
 Bom, 172&; died, 1798. 
 
 LASSO, Orlawik) ni, an eminent musi- 
 cian, was born at Mens, in Hainault, in 
 1530. De Thou relates that he was for- 
 cibly taken from his parents in his childhood 
 by Ferdinand Gonzaga, on acconnt of his 
 fine voice, and carried by him to Milan, 
 Naples, and Sicily. He subsequently taught 
 music at Rome, Antwerp, &c., and finally 
 settled at Munich, as chapel-master to Al- 
 bert, dnke of Bavaria. His productions 
 are numerous, but now rarely to be met 
 
 with. Died, 1593 His two sons, Rudolph 
 
 and Ferdinand, were also good musicians ; 
 and besides producing many compositions of 
 their own, published their father's works, 
 under the title of "Magnus Opus Musicum 
 Orlandi de Lasso." 
 
 LASSUS, a dithyrambic poet, bom at 
 Hermione, in Peloponnesus, about 500 years 
 B. c. He is particularly known by the an- 
 swer he gave to a man who asked him — 
 " What could best render life pleasant and 
 comfortable?" "Experience." 
 
 LATHAM, John, M.D., F.R.S., &e., an 
 eminent ornithologist and antiquary, was 
 born at Eltham, in Kent, in 1740, where his 
 father practised as a surgeon and apothe- 
 cary. Dr. Latham for many years followed 
 similar professional pursuits at Dartford, 
 but he subsequently removed to Romsey, 
 and during the latter period of his life he re- 
 sided at Winchester. Though chiefly known 
 as a naturalist, he was also much attached 
 to the study of antiquities ; while at the 
 same time, as a medical practitioner, he en- 
 joyed a deservedly high reputation. He was 
 the author of several professional works, be- 
 sides treatises on subjects relating to medi- 
 cine, antiquities, and natural history, which 
 appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 &e. Among his productions are, "A General 
 Synopsis of Birds," 6 vols. 4to. ; " Index Or- 
 nithologicus," 3 vols. 4to. ; " HeaWs Phar- 
 macopceia Improved," and others ; but his 
 great work, which he commenced in his 82nd 
 year, was " A General History of Birds," in 
 10 vols. 4to. So indefatigable was he, and 
 withal so capable of this undertaking, at 
 such an advanced period of life, that, with 
 singular fidelity to nature, he designed, 
 etched, and coloured the whole of the plates 
 
lat] 
 
 a ^efco fflfm'tieriSal 38ioflra)J^l^ 
 
 [lat 
 
 himself. This venerable man, who was in 
 his 97th year, was active and cheerful, and 
 in the possession of all his faculties up to tlie 
 time of his death, in Feb. 1837. 
 
 LATUAM, John, M.D., F.R.S., and 
 F. L. S., was the eldest son of the Kev. John 
 Latham, and was bom at Gawsworth, in 
 the county of Cliester. After going through 
 his academical course with great credit at 
 Oxford, he commenced practice as a phy- 
 rieian in Manchester, where he met with 
 great success, as lie did also subsequently at 
 Oxford, and in his native county, lie then 
 removed to London, where for many years 
 he was at the very head of liis important 
 profession ; and in 1814, after 30 years of 
 most industrious and successful practice, 
 he was elected president of the College of 
 Physicians. His only separate publication, 
 we believe, is his volume entitled "Facts 
 and Opinions concerning Diabetes ; " but 
 he also contributed several able papers to the 
 Medical Transactions. Died, 1W3, aged 82. 
 LATIMER, Hugh, bishop of Worcester, 
 one of the first reformers of the Church of 
 England, was bom at Thurcaston, in Leices- 
 tershire, in 1470. It is a remarkable cir- 
 cumstance, thougli not altogether without 
 garallel, that from being a zealous papist, 
 e became a zealous Protestant, active in 
 supporting the reformed doctrine, and as- 
 siduous to make converts. He first Itecame 
 obnoxious to the enemies of innovation by 
 a series of discourses, in which lie dwelt upon 
 the uncertainty of tradition, the vanity of 
 works of supererogation, and the pride and 
 usurpation of the Roman hierarchy. Latimer 
 had the courage to write a letter of remon- 
 strance to Henry VIII., on the evil of pro- 
 hibiting the use of the Bible in English. 
 Although this epistle produced no effect, 
 Henry presented the writer to the living of 
 West Kinton, in Wiltshire. The ascendancy 
 of Anne Boleyn and rise of Thomas Crom ■ 
 well proved favourable to Latimer, and he 
 was, in 1535, appointed bishop of Worcester. 
 But the fall of his patrons prepared the 
 way for reverses, and the six articles being 
 carried in parliament, Latimer resigned his 
 bishopric rather than hold any office in a 
 church which enforced such terms of com- 
 munion, and retired into the country. Du- 
 ring tlie short reign of Edward VI. he again 
 preached, and was highly popular at court, 
 but could not be induced to resume his epis- 
 copal functions. Soon after Mary ascended 
 the throne, Latimer was cited to appear 
 before the council, in doing which an oppor- 
 tunity was afforded him to quit the king- 
 dom. He, however, prepared with alacrity 
 to obey the citation, and as he passed 
 through Smithfleld exclaimed, " This place 
 has long groaned for me." In 1555, new and 
 more sanguinary laws having been enacted, 
 in support of the Romish religion, a com- 
 mission was issued by Cardinal Pole, the 
 pope's legate, to try Latimer and Ridley for 
 heresy, who were, in consequence, delivered 
 over to the secular arm, and condemned to 
 the flames. This sentence was put in exe- 
 cution at Oxford, Oct. 16. 1555. At the place 
 of execution, having thrown off the old gown 
 which was wrapped about him, Latimer ap- 
 peared in a sliroud prepared for the purpose. 
 
 and, with his fellow-suflferer, was fastened 
 to the stake with an iron chain. A faggot, 
 ready kindled, was then placed at Ridley's 
 feet, to whom Latimer exclaimed, " Be of 
 good comfort, master Ridley, and play the 
 man. We shall this day light such a candle, 
 by God's grace, in England, as, I trust, shall 
 never be put out." He then recommended 
 his soul to God, and, with firm composure, 
 expired amid the flames. 
 
 LATIMER, William, a celebrated scho- 
 lar of the 16th century, who taught Erasmus 
 Greek, and was tutor to Reginald, afterwards 
 Cardinal Pole. He was a prebendary at 
 Salisbury, and held two livings in Glouces- 
 tershire. Died, 1.545. 
 
 LATINI, Bkunetto, an eminent gram- 
 marian of Florence, in the 13th century, who 
 had the honour of being Dante's tutor. Died, 
 1294. 
 
 LATINUS, Latinius, a learned critic of 
 the 16th century, bom at Viterbo, in 1513j 
 author of " Bibliotheca Sacra et Profana,'* 
 &c. Died, 15lt3. 
 
 LATOUR, General Count Theodore, an 
 eminent Austrian oflScer, was born at Vi- 
 enna, 1780. Educated at the Imperial En- 
 gineers' School, he soon obtained distinction 
 in the field by his zeal, merit, and courage ; 
 and during the long peace that succeeded 
 the campaigns of 1813 — 181.5, his great ad- 
 ministrative abilities were repeatedly called 
 into action by his native government. For 
 many years he was president of the military 
 board of the German confederation. Soon 
 after the revolutionary outbreaks in 1848, 
 he was nominated minister of war, the 
 duties of which oflice he discharged with 
 equal firmness and moderation ; but a ru- 
 mour having l)een spread that he was in- 
 triguing for the re-establishment of the 
 absolute form of government which had 
 been overthrown in the spring of 1848, the 
 populace, during the insurrection that burst 
 forth in Vienna in October of the same year, 
 broke into the war oflice, and having seized 
 the minister of M'ar, ruthlessly murdered 
 him, and suspended his corpse upon a gibbet, 
 where it was exposed to the most igno- 
 minious and barbarous insults. 
 
 LATOUR D'AUVERGNE CORRET, 
 Theopiiilus Malo de, a distinguished sol- 
 dier, citizen, and scholar of the French re- 
 public, was bom in 1743, at Carhaix, in Lower 
 Brittany. He first served in the army during 
 the American war ; and when the French 
 revolution broke out, he was living in retire- 
 ment, on his halfpay. This called him again 
 into active life, and he was intrusted with 
 the command of 8000 grenadiers, and distin- 
 guished himself in various successful enter- 
 prises on the Spanish frontier. In 1795 he 
 returned to his studies ; but, in 1799, he once 
 more took the field, generally serving in lieu 
 of a friend's only son, who had been drawn 
 as a conscript. Buonaparte rewarded his 
 bravery by bestowing on him the honour- 
 able title of First Grenadier of France ; but 
 he did not long retain it, being killed at 
 the battle of Neuburg, in ]8(K). He was 
 well versed in history, and an eminent lin- 
 guist ; author of a Franco-Celtic Diction- 
 ary, and various other philological works of 
 merit. 
 
lat] 
 
 ^ i^tfa ^xxihttial Mia^xK^l)^. 
 
 [lau 
 
 LiATTAIGNANT, Gabriel Charles, 
 Abb6 de, a poet, whose songs were once po- 
 pular in France. He was canon at Rheims, 
 and counsellor of the parliament of Paris ; 
 and, after having lived a life of gaiety and 
 pleasure, retired to a monastery, and died 
 in 1779 
 
 LATUDE, Henry Mazebs de, who was 
 a prisoner in the Bastile for 35 years, was 
 born in 1724, at Montagnac, in Languedoc. 
 In order to gain the favour of Madame de 
 Pompadour, he persuaded her that an at- 
 tempt was to be made on her life, by a box 
 containing the most subtle poison ; and when 
 the box arrived, it was discovered that it 
 had been sent by Latude himself, and con- 
 tained nothing but ashes. This offence, 
 aggravated by repeated endeavours to escape, 
 was the cause of his long and rigorous in- 
 carceration ; but when his sufferings became 
 known, by the publication of his memoirs, 
 which he wrote soon after his liberation, 
 they became a formidable weapon in tlie 
 hands of the revolutionists, and the National 
 Assembly decreed him a pension. He died 
 in 1804, aged 80. 
 
 LAUD, WiLLiAsi, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in the reign of Charles I., was born in 
 1573, at Reading, in Berkshire ; was educated 
 at the free school of his native place, and at 
 St. John's College, Oxford ; was ordained in 
 1601 ; became president of his college in 1611 ; 
 accompanied James I. to Scotland, as one 
 of liis chaplains, in 1617 ; was installed a 
 prebend of Westminster in 1620 ; and ob- 
 tained the see of St. David's in the following 
 year. On the accession of Charles I. his 
 influence became very great ; and he was 
 translated to the see of Bath and Wells, and, 
 in 1628, to that of London. In 1630 he was 
 elected chancellor of the university of Ox- 
 ford i to which he was a great benefactor, 
 and which he enriched with an invaluable 
 collection of manuscripts, in a great number 
 of languages, ancient, modern, and oriental. 
 In 1633 he attended Charles into Scotland, 
 who went there to be crowned : on his return, 
 he was promoted to the see of Canterbury, 
 and during the same year he was chosen 
 chancellor of the university of Dublin. The 
 zeal which he displayed for conformity to 
 the church, and his endeavours to introduce 
 the liturgy into Scotland, created him nu- 
 merous enemies. At the commencement of 
 the long parliament, therefore, he was im- 
 peached by the Commons and sent to the 
 Tower. After lying there three years, he 
 was brought to his trial before the Lords, by 
 whom he was acquitted, which so provoked 
 the faction in the lower house, that they 
 passed a bill of attainder, declaring him 
 guilty of treason, which they compelled the 
 peers to pass ; and the archbishop was ac- 
 cordingly beheaded on Tower Hill, Jan. 10. 
 1644-5. He was in the 72iid yiear of his age, 
 and met his fate with great fortitude. Among 
 his works are, " Annotations on the Life and 
 Death of King James," his "Diary," edited 
 by Wharton, and published with his " Re- 
 mains," " Officium Quotidianum," &c. 
 
 LAUDER, Sir Thomas Dick, bart., whose 
 versatile pen has acquired for him a high 
 place in Scottish literature, was born near 
 Edinburgh, 1784. He was one of the first 
 
 contributors to Blackwood's Magazine. His 
 two novels, " Lochindher " and " The Wolf 
 of Badenoch," published in early life, are 
 remarkable for freedom and felicity of style ; 
 and these were followed at intervals by 
 various other works, among which arc 
 " The Floods of Moray in 1829," " Highland 
 Rambles," " Tour round the Coasts of Scot- 
 land," " The Queen's Visit to Scotland in 
 1842," &c Sir Tlioraas took a great interest 
 in politics ; his zeal in behalf of the reform 
 bill was conspicuous even at that period of 
 general excitement ; and few who heard 
 him will forget his amusing and humorous 
 harangues. His last contribution to lite- 
 rature was a series of papers on the rivers of 
 Scotland, which appeared in Tait's Maga- 
 zine. Died, 1848. 
 
 LAUDER, William, a literary impostor, 
 who acquired an unenviable notoriety by en- 
 deavouring to hold up Milton as a plagiarist, 
 was a native of Scotland. In 1747 he began 
 an attack upon Milton in the Gentleman's 
 Magazine, which he followed up by a pam- 
 phlet, entitled " An Essay on Milton's Use 
 and Imitation of the Moderns in his Paradise 
 Lost." His alleged quotations from Grotius, 
 Massenius, and others, passed as genuine for 
 a time, until they were exposed by Dr. 
 Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, which drew 
 from the fabricator an acknowledgment of 
 his guilt. Yet after this he returned to the 
 charge in a tract, with this title, " The 
 Grand Impostor detected, or Milton con- 
 victed of Forgery against Charles I." Lau- 
 der died at Barbadoes, in 1771. 
 
 LAUDERDALE, James Maitlasd, Earl 
 of, a very active and energetic statesman, 
 whose opinions were at one time deemed to 
 be of great weight, both by his own party 
 and by his opponents, was born in 1759. In 
 1780 he was returned to parliament for New- 
 port in Cornwall, and subsequently for 
 Malmesbury. As a member of the lower 
 house he joined the party of his friend Mr. 
 Fox, and took an active part in opposing the 
 North administration, supported Mr. Fox's 
 India Bill, and was one of the managers of 
 the impeachment of Warren Hastings. In 
 1789 he succeeded to the title, and was in 
 the following year sent to the House of 
 Lords as one of the 16 Scottish representative 
 peers. In 1792 the state of his health caused 
 him to reside for some time in France, and 
 he witnessed the attack on the Tuilleries, 
 and the imprisonment of the royal family. 
 In 1806, on the dissolution of the Pitt ad- 
 ministration, he was created a peer of the 
 United Kingdom, sworn a privy councillor, 
 and received the great seal of Scotland. In 
 August of the same year he was sent as 
 minister plenipotentiary to France, with 
 full powers to conclude a peace. Of the 
 termination of that negotiation this is not 
 the place to speak, the mere fact of his 
 being intrusted With the task of negotiating 
 with such men as Buonaparte and Talley- 
 rand is sufl^cient to show the high estimation 
 in which his judgment was then held. The 
 short-lived " all the talents " administration 
 being broken tip in 1807, the Earl of Lau- 
 derdale had to resign the great seal of Scot- 
 land to its former keeper, the Duke of 
 Gordon. He subsequently held no office. 
 
LAU] 
 
 ^ ijleto BttiiitviaX HiaQX^^U' 
 
 [lav 
 
 but he wa8, to a very late period of his life, 
 punctual and active in his parliamentary 
 duties. Bom, 1759 ; died, 1840. 
 
 LAUDOHN, Gideon Ernest, a celebra- 
 ted Austrian general, was bom at Totzen, in 
 Livonia, in 1716. He displayed great talents 
 in the seven years' war, for which he was 
 made a major-general, and invested with 
 the order of Maria Theresa. The victories 
 at Ilochkirchen, Kunnersdorff, Landshut, 
 and Glatz were such proofs of his skill and 
 valour, that Frederic the Great used to own 
 there was nobody lie feared so much as Lau- 
 dohn. On the conclusion of peace he was 
 created n baron of the empire ; in 17C6, no- 
 minated an aulic councillor ; and, in 1778, 
 made field-marshal. He next commanded 
 against the Turks ; and, in 1789, took Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 LAUNEY, Bernard KfiNf Jourdan de, 
 the last governor of the Bastile in Paris, 
 which was erected in 138.S, and destroyed 
 July 14. 1789. He was a son of the former 
 governor, and his residence in that abode had 
 given to his character a bluntness of manner, 
 and inflexibility of temper, which proved 
 the cause of liis own destruction. Fifteen 
 days before the prison was attacked, three 
 individuals, disguised, but whose manners 
 and address showed they had popular in- 
 terest, came to the prison, and asked the 
 governor how he purposed to act in case of 
 an attack. " My conduct is regulated by 
 my duty ; I sliall defend it," was his reply. 
 In fact, he resolved to do so, and rather to 
 set fire to the magazine, and perish in the 
 ruins, than yield to the desire of the people. 
 He executed his intention as long as he 
 could, but was at length brought out by the 
 populace, and murdered in a most cruel and 
 inliuman manner. 
 
 LAUNOI, John dk, a French divine, bom 
 in IWW, who defended the liberties of the 
 Gallican church, and reformed the calendar 
 by purging it of fictitious saints and legend- 
 ary tales. Died, 1678. 
 
 LAUKENCE, Dr. Richard, archbishop of 
 Cashel, was the son of a tradesman at Bath, 
 and was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford. As a theological writer and ge- 
 neral scholar he had few equals in his day. 
 His industry was prodigious, and no less 
 conspicuous was his zeal for upholding not 
 merely tlie rights and authority of the 
 church, but its purity and its duties also. 
 His "Doctrine of the Church of England 
 upon the Efficacy of Baptism," and his 
 sermon " On Singularity and Excess in 
 Theological Literature, are extremely 
 valuable to theological students. Born, 
 1761 ; died, 1839. 
 
 LAURENT, Peter Joseph, a mechanic, 
 was bom in Flanders, in 1715. He is said to 
 have constructed some hydraulic machines, 
 when he was not more than ten years of age ; 
 and at twenty-one he was made superintend- 
 ant of several public works ; among which 
 was the direction of the canals in the Ne- 
 therlands. He also projected the junction 
 of the Somme and the Scheldt ; for which he 
 was honoured with the order of St. Michael. 
 Died, 1773. 
 
 LAURENS, Henry, a distinguished Ame- 
 rican statesman, bom at Cliarlestown, South 
 
 Carolina, in 1724. He was chosen president 
 of the council of safety in 1774 ; elected a 
 delegate to congress, and soon after taking 
 his seat, was made president of that body. 
 Having resigned In 1779, he received the 
 appointment of minister plenipotentiary to 
 Holland, and on his way thither, being 
 captured by the British, was carried to 
 London, and committed to the Tower. His 
 confinement lasted for more than fourteen 
 months, during which, various eflforts were 
 made to shake his constancy, but without 
 effect. Soon after his release, he received a 
 commission from congress to be one of their 
 ministers for negotiating a peace with Great 
 Britain, and, having repaired to Paris, he 
 signed the preliminaries of the treaty. Died, 
 1792. 
 
 LAURI, FiLiPPO, a painter, was the son 
 of a Flemish artist, but born at Rome, In 1623. 
 His altar-pieces and other scriptural paint- 
 ings are held in much esteem. Died, 1694. 
 
 LAURISTON, James Alexander Ber- 
 nard Law, Count de, grandson of the cele- 
 brated projector Law, was bom in 1768. 
 He embraced the military profession at an 
 early age, and served in the artillery, in 
 which he obtained a rapid promotion, owing 
 to his own activity and to the friendship of 
 Buonaparte, whose aide-de-camp he was, 
 and who employed him on several Import- 
 ant missions. He brought to England the 
 ratification of the preliminaries of the peace 
 of Amiens ; and was received with enthu- 
 siasm by the populace of London, who took 
 the horses from his carriage, and conducted 
 him In triumph to Downing Street. He was 
 in every campaign of note in Spain, Ger- 
 many, and Russia, and decided the victory 
 in favour of the French at Wagram, by 
 bringing up to the charge, at full trot, 100 
 pieces of artillery. After the conclusion of 
 the general peace, Louis XVIII. created 
 him a grand cordon of the legion of honour, 
 and he subsequently rose to the rank of 
 marshal. Died. 1828. 
 
 LAV ALETTE, Marie Chamans, Count 
 de, was born at Paris In 1769. He was at 
 first destined for the clerical profession ; 
 but while pursuing his studies, the revolu- 
 tion broke out, and he became an oflScer of 
 the national guards. Though he concur- 
 red with the revolutionary feeling, he dis- 
 played moderation, voting, by petition, 
 against the camp under the walls of Paris, 
 and was prosecuted for leading his detach- 
 ment of the national guards to the defence 
 of the Tuillerles. He sought refuge In the 
 army of the Alps as a volunteer, and ob- 
 tained military promotion in several fields 
 of battle, in Italy and on the Rhine. In 
 179G, after the battle of Areola, Buonaparte 
 appointed him his aide-de-camp, and he was 
 frequently charged by him with difficult 
 missions. In 1797 he sent him to Paris, to 
 judge of the state of the public feeling pre- 
 vious to the memorable crisis of September. 
 After the revolution, which he correctly 
 appreciated, he returned to Napoleon, with 
 whom he arrived at the capital towards the 
 close of the same year, and whose friend- 
 ship procured him a marrlage-unlon with 
 Emille de Beauhamais, Josephine's niece. 
 Lavalette next accompanied Buonaparte to 
 
lav] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Winihtr^Kl 28iOfirapIjM. 
 
 [law 
 
 Egypt, and there improved his title to public He became pastor of the principal church 
 
 estimation. On his return to France, he ' "*' °* ^"* * '-- — '■' — -' — — ' 
 
 was first appointed a commissary, and, 
 finally, director-general of tlie post-otfice 
 and counsellor of state. After Napoleon 
 became emperor, in 1803, he was appointed 
 a count of the empire. In 1814 he was re- 
 moved from the post-ofRce ; but on the 20th 
 of March, 1815, by virtue of orders from Na- 
 poleon, who entered Paris in the evening, he 
 resumed his former duties, and gave notice 
 to stop the departure of the journals, des- 
 patches, and travelling post-horses without 
 signed orders. At the same time, he des- 
 patched a courier to Napoleon, to describe 
 the actual condition of the capital. On the 
 2nd of June he was nominated a peer. On 
 the second restoration, in July 1815, he was 
 deprived of his functions, arrested by the 
 sub-prefect of police, Decazes, and con- 
 demned to death as an accomplice in Buo- 
 naparte's treason against the royal autho- 
 rity. An appeal having been rejected, and 
 Madame Lavalette's application for par- 
 don being declined, his execution was fixed 
 for the 21st December. On the evening 
 of the 20th, his wife, her daughter, twelve 
 years old, and her governess, presented 
 themselves at the prison door, and were ad- 
 mitted by the gaolers as usual. A short 
 time after the daughter and governess re- 
 appeared, supporting Madame Lavalette, 
 apparently in great affliction. They were 
 scarcely gone when the turnkey appeared 
 in his cell, and Lavalette was not to be 
 found — his wife, Madame Lavalette, had 
 taken his place. The alarm was given, 
 the carriage which brought the visitors was 
 overtaken, but only the daughter found in 
 it. Orders were given to close the barriers, 
 and descriptions of the person of the fugitive 
 were despatched in all directions. Mean- 
 while Lavalette was occupied with the care 
 of quitting Paris, and passing the frontiers. 
 The means of doing so were supplied by Sir 
 R. Wilson and Messrs. Bruce and Hutchin- 
 son. Dressed as an English officer, lie went 
 to their quarters, and started at seven in the 
 morning with Sir R. Wilson in a cabriolet. 
 He passed the barriers without being recog- 
 nised, and arrived at Mons, where he ob- 
 tained permission to settle at Munich. Five 
 years after, a royal ordinance revoked tlie 
 sentence of death, and permitted him to re- 
 join his family in France. On the escape of 
 Lavalette being known, his wife was arrested, 
 and tried, with her governess, Sir Robert 
 Wilson, and Messrs. Hutchinson and Bruce, 
 by the Cour RoyaU. The latter were con- 
 demned to a short imprisonment, and she 
 and the governess acquitted ; but she never 
 recovered the shock caused to her nerves and 
 constitution by the risks to which her noble 
 fidelity had exposed her. A fixed mental 
 alienation succeeded. 
 
 LAVALLEE, Johx, Marquis de. a French 
 dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was 
 born near Dieppe, in 1747. He became a 
 member of several literary societies, wrote 
 many dramatic pieces, and assisted in edit- 
 ing various periodical works. He died in 
 1815. 
 
 LAVATER, Jonx Caspar, the celebrated 
 physiognomist, was born at Zurich, in 1741. 
 
 512 
 
 of St. Peter at his native place, and was 
 distinguished by his unwearied zeal in be- 
 half of practical Christianity. He died in 
 1801, in consequence of a wound which he 
 received in 1709, when the French troops 
 under Massena took Zurich by storm. He 
 was the author of a "Treatise on Physi- 
 ognomy," the "Journal of a Self-Observer," 
 " Jesus the Messiah," in 4 vols. ; " Spiritual 
 Hymns," "Swiss Lays," &c. ; but the work 
 by which he is universally known, and which 
 once was highly popular, is that on physi- 
 ognomy. Lavater was pious, but credulous ; 
 enthusiastic, but sincere. 
 
 LAVICOMTERIE de St. SAMPSON, 
 Louis, a violent partisan of the French re- 
 volution, who rendered himself notorious by 
 the publication of the following works : 
 " Crimes des Rois de France," " Les Crimes 
 des Empereurs," & "Les Crimes des Papes." 
 He became a member of the Convention in 
 1792 ; voted for the death of the king ; and, 
 in 1794, was ordered by the Jacobin club 
 to draw up the " Act of Accusation against 
 Kings." The fall of the terrorists put an 
 end to liis influence, and he died in 1809. 
 
 LAVINGTON, Geokoe, bishop of Exeter, 
 a prelate of great piety and learning, was 
 born in 1C83, and died in 1762. He was the 
 author of a well-known treatise, entitled 
 "The Enthusiasm of the Methodists and 
 Papists compared," another on the Mora- 
 vians, and also some single sermons. 
 
 LAVOISIER, AifTuoxY Laurence, a 
 celebrated French chemist, was born at 
 Paris, in 1743 ; was educated at Mazarin 
 College ; and, on quitting it, devoted him- 
 self wholly to the sciences, but more parti- 
 cularly to chemistry. The discoveries of 
 Black, Cavendish, and Priestley, relative to 
 the nature of elastic fluids or gases, having 
 attracted his notice, he entered on the same 
 field of inquiry, with all his characteristic 
 ardour, in the cause of science ; and, possess- 
 ing the advantage of a considerable fortune, 
 he conducted his experiments on a large 
 scale, and obtained highly interesting re- 
 sults. His new tlieory of chemistry was re- 
 ceived with applause in Germany and 
 France, though strenuouslj' opposed by Dr. 
 Priestley, whose phlogistic hypothesis it 
 tended to overthrow. In 1789 he published 
 his "Elements of Chemistry," a work of 
 merit and importance. He succeeded BuflTon 
 and Tilet as treasurer of the academy, and 
 became also farmer-general ; but notwith- 
 standing his talents and virtues, he was 
 condemned to death by the revolutionary 
 tribunal of Paris, on the frivolous charge of 
 having adulterated the tobacco with ingre- 
 dients obnoxious to the health of the citi- 
 zens, and was guillotined in 1794. Besides 
 his Elements, he wrote " Chemical and Phi- 
 losophical Miscellanies," 2 vols. ; " Report 
 of the Commissioners charged to examine 
 Animal Magnetism," " Instructions for 
 making Nitre," &c. 
 
 LAW, Edmitkd, a learned prelate, was 
 bom at Cartmel in Lancasliire, in 1703 ; re- 
 ceived his education at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge ; and, after obtaining various 
 church preferments, was raised to the see of 
 Carlisle in 1769. He was the author of many 
 
law] 
 
 ^ ^tfa Winihtv^td SStogrHp^^. 
 
 [law 
 
 able theological works ; among which arc, 
 " Considerations on the Theory of Religion," 
 " Reflections on the Life and Character of 
 Christ," an " Enquiry into the Ideas of Space, 
 Time," &c. Died, 1787. 
 
 LAW, John, a celebrated financial pro- 
 jector, was born, in 1681, at Edinburgh, 
 where his father, a goldsmith, resided. He 
 was bred to no profession, but studied the 
 mathematics, and particularly excelled as 
 an accountant. For the purpose of remedy- 
 ing the deficiency of a circulating medium, 
 he projected tlie establishment of a bank, 
 with paper issues, to the amount of the 
 Talue of all the lands in the kingdom ; but 
 this scheme was rejected. Having seduced 
 a young lady in England, he killed her 
 brother in a duel, and was obliged to leave 
 the country. He went first to Holland, and 
 afterwards to Venice and Genoa, from 
 which cities he was banished as a design- 
 ing adventurer ; but, at length, he secured 
 the patronage of the regent Dnke of Orleans, 
 and established his bank at Taris, 1716, by 
 royal authority. To this was joined the 
 company of the Mississippi, a pretended 
 ■cheme for paying oflF the national debt, and 
 for enriching subscribers. The project be- 
 came extravagantly popular, and every one 
 converted his gold and silver into paper. 
 In 1720, Law whs made comptroller of the 
 finances. The bubble, liowever, burst ; and 
 the people, enraged, besieged the palace of 
 the regent, crying out, as they held up their 
 hands full of bills, " See tlie fruits of your 
 system." Law was exiled to Pontoise, from 
 whence he escaped to Italy, and died at 
 Venice in 1729. 
 
 LAW, William, a pious English divine, 
 was born at King's ClifFe, Northampton- 
 shire, in 1686 ; was educated at Emanuel 
 College, Cambridge ; and lived for the most 
 part a retired life at the house of Mrs. 
 Hester Gibbon, aunt of the celebrated his- 
 torian, to whom he had been tutor. He wrote 
 against Bishop Hoadly, and was also the 
 author of some valuable practical books, as, 
 " A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life," 
 " A Treatise on Christian Perfection," &c. 
 In liis latter days he fell into the mystic 
 reveries of Jacob Behmen, whose works he 
 published. Died, 1761. 
 
 LAWES, Henry, a musician, was bom at 
 Salisbury, in 1600, and is said to have been 
 the first who introduced the Italian style of 
 music into England. In 16")3 he published 
 his " Airs, Dialogues," &c. He set to music 
 the Comus of Milton, with whom he was 
 intimate. He also set most of Waller's 
 
 songs, and died in 1662 His brother 
 
 William, who was an excellent performer, 
 took up arms in the royal cause, and was 
 killed at the siege of Chester, in 1645. 
 
 LAWLESS, John, the once celebrated 
 Irish agitator, was a native of Dublin, and 
 originally designed for the legal profession. 
 For many years he was distinguished as a 
 leading political character with the Liberals 
 of Ireland ; and from his straightforward 
 and fearless conduct, he acquired from all 
 parties the title of " honest Jack Lawless." 
 When the English government first proposed 
 to grant emancipation to the Irish Catholics, 
 provided their clergy were paid by the state, 
 
 513 
 
 and the forty-shilling freeholders were dis- 
 franchised, " honest Jack " vehemently op- 
 posed the measure in the Catholic Associa- 
 tion, and thereby acquired a degree of popu- 
 larity, which aroused the jealousy of his great 
 rival co-agitator. His eloquence was ener- 
 getic, forcible, and convincing ; and it is ge- 
 nerally understood, that whatever might 
 have been the faults of the head, his heart 
 was sound at the core. He died in Loudon, 
 aged 65, in August, 1837. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Dr. Fkench, a native of 
 Bristol, was educated at Winchester, and 
 at Corpus Christi College, Oxford ; became 
 eminent as a civilian and a man of letters ; 
 and died in 1809. Among his writings are, 
 " Remarks on the Apocalypse," and several 
 beautiful poems. He edited and partly com- 
 posed "The Rolliad" and "Probationary 
 Odes ; " and publislied an edition of the 
 works of Edmund Burke, of whom he was 
 tlic bosom friend and executor. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Strinoek, an eminent 
 general, in the service of the East India 
 Company. He was bom in 1697 ; was em- 
 ployed during a period of 20 years on the 
 coast of Coromandel, where he added greatly 
 to the British possessions ; and died in 1775. 
 The company erected a fine monument to 
 his memory m Westminster Abbey. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Thomas, was an eminent 
 physician, born in Westminster, in 1711 ; was 
 chosen anatomical reader at the university 
 of Oxford, in 1740 ; was elected fellow of the 
 college of physicians in 1744 ; and became 
 president in 1767, and was re-elected during 
 the ensuing seven years. He was the author 
 of "De Hydrope," and other medical pro- 
 ductions, in Latin ; and was the intimate 
 friend of Dr. Johnson. Died, 1783. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, the most cele- 
 brated portrait painter of the age, was born 
 in 1769, at Bristol, where his father kept an 
 inn. He early exhibited proofs of his ta- 
 lent for the art, having, it is said, sketched 
 portraits in his fifth year. At the age of 
 six he was sent to school, where he remained 
 two years ; and this, with the exception of 
 a few lessons subsequently in Latin and 
 French, constituted his whole education. 
 Young Lawrence, however, had access to 
 the galleries of some of the neighbouring 
 gentry, in which he employed himself in 
 copying historical and other pieces. In 
 1782 his father, who had been unsuccessful 
 in business, removed to Bath, where his son 
 was much employed in taking portraits in 
 crayon ; and having made a copy of the 
 Transfiguration by Raphael, the society for 
 the encouragement of arts bestowed on him 
 their prize of five guineas and a silver palette. 
 In 1787 the family removed to London, and 
 Lawrence was admitted a student at the 
 Royal Academy. His subsequent career was 
 successful and brilliant. He was elected 
 royal associate in 1791, and on the death of 
 Sir J. Reynolds, the next year, was made 
 painter to the king. He was honoured with 
 the personal friendship of George IV., who 
 sat to him for several portraits, and bestowed 
 on him the order of knighthood. After the 
 peace of 1814 he painted the portraits of the 
 allied sovereigns, and the generals Blucher, 
 Platoff, and Wellington ; also Louis XVIII. 
 
lax] 
 
 ^ ^tio BiiiSitxStH 23tograp]bl'. 
 
 [lec 
 
 and Charles X. of France ; besides numerous 
 others, consisting of the principal nobility of 
 England, the Pope, Cardinal Gonsalvi, and 
 many other distinguished personages on the 
 Continent. On the death of Mr. West, in 
 1820, Sir T. Lawrence was elected president 
 of the Royal Academy. No artist ever pos- 
 sessed in a higher degree the merit of pre- 
 serving exquisite likenesses, while at the 
 same time he heightened the beauty and 
 characteristic expression of his originals ; 
 and had he cultivated the higher branches 
 of the art, it is probable that few would have 
 excelled him. In early life he was remark- 
 ably handsome, and he retained much of 
 personal beauty to the last. He obtained 
 high prices for his productions, and his in- 
 come has been estimated at from lO.OOOZ. to 
 15,000Z. a year, yet so profusely liberal was 
 he, particularly in the purchase of scarce 
 and valuable works of art, that he died in 
 embarrassed circumstances ; though the col- 
 lection which he left of drawings, etchings, 
 &c. was valued at 50,0(X)i. He died, and was 
 buried in St. Paul's cathedral, 1830. 
 
 LAX, Rev. William, F.R.S., an eminent 
 matliematician and astronomer, Lowndes' 
 professor of astronomy and geometry in the 
 university of Cambridge, and the author of 
 several elaborate tables connected with the 
 Nautical Almanack. Died, 1836. 
 
 LEAKE, Sir John, the son of Mr. Richard 
 Leake, who was master-gunner of England, 
 and one of the bravest men that ever served 
 in the British navy, was a gallant and suc- 
 cessful English admiral, born in 1656. He 
 was distinguished by many great actions ; 
 but chiefly by his relief and preservation of 
 Gibraltar from the French and Spaniards in 
 1705. He also took Carthagena and Mi- 
 norca ; and afterwards, as commander-in- 
 chief of the fleet, greatly signalised himself 
 in the Mediterranean. Died, 1720. 
 
 LEAKE, JoHjf, an eminent English phy- 
 sician, was the founder of the Westminster 
 lying-in-hospital, and died in 1792. He pub- 
 lished several valuable books on midwifery 
 and female diseases. 
 
 LEAKE, SxEriiEN Martix, a nephew of 
 the preceding, was an ingenious writer on 
 coins and heraldry. Died, 1773. 
 
 LE BLANC, Marcel, one of the fourteen 
 Jesuits sent by Louis XVI. to Siam. He la- 
 boured for the conversion of the Talapoins, 
 and embarked for China, but the vessel was 
 taken by the English, and he continued a 
 prisoner till 1690. He died at Mozambique 
 in 1693, aged 40. He wrote a "History of 
 the Revolution of Siam." 
 
 LE BLANC, John Bernard, born at 
 Dijon, in 1707 ; author of *' Letters on the 
 English Nation," 3 vols. Died, 1781. 
 
 LEBBUN, Charles, a celebrated painter, 
 was born at Paris, in 1618. He studied.under 
 Vouet and Poussin ; and, after his return 
 from Rome, was made president of the new 
 royal academy of painting and sculpture. 
 From 1661 he was principally employed in 
 embellishing the residences of Louis XIV. 
 and his nobles with works of art, and in 
 superintending the brilliant spectacles of the 
 court. He died in 1090. Lebrun possessed a 
 comprehensive genius, which was cultivated 
 by the incessant study of history and national 
 
 614 
 
 customs. He wrote a treatise on the passions, 
 and another on physiognomy. 
 
 LEBRUN, Charles Francis, Duke of 
 Placentia, was born in 1739, at Coutances, in 
 Normandy ; came at an early age to Paris ; 
 and being nominated deputy to the states- 
 general in 1789, he occupied himself, during 
 the session, with affairs of police, finance, 
 and domestic administration. In 1795 he 
 was elected to the council of elders, and be- 
 came president in 1796. He was appointed 
 third consul in December, 1799 ; nominated 
 arch-treasurer of the empire in 1804 ; and, in 
 1805, governor-general of Liguria and Duke 
 of Placentia. Having signed the constitution 
 that recalled the house of Bourbon to the 
 tlirone, he was created a peer of France by 
 the king, and, in the beginning of July, was 
 appointed president of the first bureau of the 
 chamber of peers. After the return of Na- 
 poleon, he accepted the peerage from him, 
 and likewise the place of grand-master of 
 the university, a proceeding which rendered 
 him incapable of sitting in the new chamber 
 of peers, formed in August, 1815. In the 
 early part of his life he translated the Iliad 
 and Odj'ssey, and Tasso's Jerusalem. Died, 
 1824. 
 
 LEBRUN, Pierre, a French divine ; 
 author of a " Critical History of the Super- 
 stitious Practices which have seduced the 
 Vulgar and embarrassed the Learned," &c. 
 Born, 1661 ; died, 1729. 
 
 LEBRUN, PiGAULT, an eminent French 
 novelist, who for humour, truth to nature, 
 and graphic powers of description, particu- 
 larly in scenes of low life, may be regarded 
 as the Fielding of France, was born in 1742, 
 and died at Paris, in 1835. 
 
 LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, a 
 French poet, who for a time obtained the 
 appellation of the French Pindar, was born 
 in 1729 ; became secretary to the Prince of 
 Conti, and early distinguished himself as a 
 writer of elegant lyrics. At the commence- 
 ment of the revolution, he celebrated the 
 birth of freedom in odes, epigrams, and 
 songs ; but, like many others, he saw, ere 
 long, suflScient reason to deplore the fate of 
 his unhappy country, crushed beneath the 
 foot of anarchy. When the academical 
 establishments were re-organised, Lebrun 
 became a member of the Institute ; and 
 he received from Buonaparte, when first 
 consul, a pension of 6000 francs. Died, 
 1807. 
 
 LECCHI, Giovanni Antonio, an Italian 
 Jesuit, born in 1702, was an excellent ma- 
 thematician, and published several clever 
 treatises on hydrostatics, navigable canals, 
 geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, &c. 
 He went to Vienna, and was employed by the 
 emperor in the arduous task of measuring the 
 bed of the Rhine, in which he displayed great 
 talent. Died, 1776. 
 
 LECLERC, Daniel, an eminent medical 
 writer, was a native of Geneva, where his 
 father was professor of Greek. His chief 
 writings are, " Bibliotheca Anatomica," 
 "Histoire de la Mt'decin," and "Historia 
 latorum Lumbricorum." Died, 1728. 
 
 LECLERC, John, an eminent critic, born 
 at Geneva, in 1657. He was the author of 
 numerous works ; among which are, " Are 
 
LEC] 
 
 ^ ^eto ?am'berj^al 23tosrajp]bS* 
 
 [lee 
 
 Critica," " Harmonia Evangelica," and three 
 voluminous " BibliotWques." He was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, the belles lettres, and 
 Hebrew, at Amsterdam, where he died in 
 1736. So prone was he to dogmatise, and so 
 impatient of contradiction, that he has been 
 styled the self-constituted inquisitor of the 
 republic of literature. 
 
 LECLERC, Nicholas Gabriet., a physi- 
 cian, was bom in Tranche Compt(5, in 172(5. 
 In 1757 he was appointed first physician to 
 the forces of the emjieror of Germany, after- 
 wards served with the Duke of Orleans, and, 
 in 17()9, went to Russia, with the title of first 
 physician to the grand-duke, and director of 
 the schools of the imperial corps of cadets. 
 In 1777 he returned to France, and puljlished 
 his " Ilistoire Thysique, Morale, Civile, et 
 Politique de la Russie," 6 vols. 4to. ; for 
 which the French government rewarded him 
 with a patent of nobility and a pension of 
 60()0 livres ; he also published many other 
 works, medical and historical. He was de- 
 prived of his pension by the Revolution, and 
 died in 1798. 
 
 LECLERC, Sebastian, an eminent 
 French designer and engraver. The patron- 
 age of Colber procured him a pension, and 
 the professorship of perspective and geometry 
 in the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. 
 Besides his numerous engravings, of which 
 there are said to be no fewer than 3000, he 
 left a treatise " On Architecture," and some 
 other works of the like nature. Died, 1714. 
 
 LECLERC, Victor Eman'uei,, a French 
 general, was born at Pontoise, in 1772 ; 
 entered the army as a volunteer in 1791 1 
 and, having distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Toulon, was promoted to be chief 
 of a battalion. He was attached to the army 
 of Italy, under the command of Buonaparte, 
 in 179C ; was made a general of briftade in 
 1797 ; married one of the sisters of Buona- 
 parte ; and, in 1799, was placed at the head 
 of the army of the Rhine. In December, 
 1801, he sailed from Brest, on an expedition 
 intended for the conquest of St. Domingo ; 
 and, in a few months after his arrival, he 
 was seized with the yellow fever, and died 
 in 1802. 
 
 LECOMTE, Felix, a celebrated French 
 sculptor. Having obtained a prize for a 
 bas-relief of the massacre of the Innocents, 
 while he was a pupil of Vasse, he was sent 
 to Rome as a pensionary of the French 
 school of arts. His statue of Phorbus pre- 
 serving CEdipus procured him admission 
 into the academy ; but the statue of Fene- 
 lon, which ornaments the hall of the Na- 
 tional Institute, is considered his chef- 
 cToetivre. During the revolution he lived 
 in retirement ; but, at the restoration of the 
 Bourbons, he was nominated professor in 
 the academy of sculpture. Died, aged 80, 
 in 1817. 
 
 LE CONTEUR, John-, lieutenant-gene- 
 ral, was born in Jersey, in 1761 ; entered the 
 army when a boy of 1.5 years of age, and 
 bore a conspicuous part in the defence of his 
 native island in 1781 ; for which he was 
 promoted to a lieutenancy. In the follow- 
 ing year he joined the 100th foot in India, 
 and was among those who, under General 
 Mathews, so bravely defended the town and 
 
 515 
 
 fort of Nagur against Tippoo's army of 
 2,000 French and 100,000 Sepoys, the British 
 force consisting of only .50<J Europeans and 
 1,000 natives. After losing 500 men in killed 
 and wounded, they surrendered ; and, with 
 the other subaltern officers, he was marched, 
 naked and (pttered, 150 miles up the coun- 
 try. The general and all his captains were 
 poisoned ; the lieutenants, &c. were threat- 
 ened with a similar doom, and sustained the 
 greatest privations and hardships in prison 
 for 11 months ; when, on account of peace 
 having been made with Tippoo, the pri- 
 soners were released. He was during a long 
 life engaged in active service in different 
 parts of the world, and was promoted to 
 the rank of major-general in 1811. Died, 
 183.5. 
 
 LEDWICH, Edward, a learned antiquary 
 and topographer, was bom in Ireland, in 
 1739 ; received his education at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin, where he obtained a fellow- 
 sliip, and the degree of LL.D. ; and was 
 presented to the living of Aghadoe. His 
 principal work is the " Antiquities of Ire- 
 land," 3 vols. 4to. ; in which he disproved j 
 many of the legendary tales and saintly 
 miracles currently believed, and thereby 
 brought upon himself the enmity of the 
 credulous and bigoted. Died, 1S23. 
 
 LEDYARD, Joiiy, an adventurous Ame- 
 rican traveller, of the last century, was bom 
 at Groton, in Connecticut, in 17.51. For a 
 short time he resided among the Six Nations, 
 with whose language and manners he Iwcame 
 acquainted. He then came to England, 
 enlisted as a marine, and sailed with Cap- 
 tain Cook on his second voyage, of which he 
 published an account. He next determined 
 to make the tour of the globe from London 
 east, on foot, and proceeded to St. Peters- 
 burgh in the prosecution of this design, 
 through the most unfrequented parts of Fin- 
 land. After waiting there nearly 3 months, 
 he obtained his passport for the prosecution 
 of his journey to Siberia. On his arrival at 
 Yakutsk, he was prevented by the Russian 
 commandant of the place from proceeding 
 any farther ; and was conducted to the 
 frontiers of Poland, with a threat of being 
 consigned to the hands of the executioner, 
 should he again be found in the Russian 
 territories. He was next employed by the 
 African Association to explore the interior 
 of Africa ; but he had proceeded no farther 
 than Grand Cairo, when he was attacked 
 with a fatal disease, and died in 1788. 
 
 LEE, Charles, a military officer, dis- 
 tinguished during the American war, was a 
 native of North Wales. He entered into 
 the army at a very early age, and served 
 in America, and under Burgoyne in Portu- 
 gal. In the contest between the colonies 
 and England, he wrote on the side of the 
 former, and engaged in their service. In 
 1775 he received a commission from con- 
 gress, and, as a major-general, accompanied 
 Washington to the camp before Boston. He 
 was afterwards invested with the chief com- 
 mand in the southern department, where 
 his conduct on the memorable attack of the 
 British upon Sullivan Island raised his mi- 
 litary reputation. While marching through 
 the Jerseys to join Washington, Lee was | 
 
lee] 
 
 ^ ^etu ^nibtv^Kl 38t0grtijp]^«. 
 
 [lep 
 
 made prisoner by the English, as he lay care- 
 lessly guarded, at a considerable distance 
 from the main body, and carried to New 
 York. Howe affected to consider him as a 
 deserter from the British army, and he was 
 treated in a manner unworthy of a generous 
 enemy, until the surrender of Burgoyne ; 
 after which event he was exchanged. He 
 was brave in action, and possessed military 
 talents of a high order ; but lie was jealous 
 of the power of Washington ; and at the 
 battle of Monmouth, in 1778, he disobeyed 
 that general's orders. For this he was tried 
 by a courtmartial, and suspended for a year. 
 He then retired from the service, and died 
 in 1782. 
 
 LEE, Henry, an American general, was 
 bom in the state of Virginia, in 1756. He 
 commenced his military career as captain of 
 one of the six companies of cavalry raised 
 by Virginia, after she had thrown off the 
 authority of the mother country ; and hav- 
 ing shown much skill and energy on several 
 'occasions, was raised to the rank of major, 
 and intrusted with the command of a sepa- 
 rate corps. In the famous retreat of Greene, 
 before Comwallis, into Virginia, Lee's legion 
 formed the rear-guard of the American 
 army, and repelled every attempt of the 
 enemy to impede its march. From that 
 time to the termination of the war, General 
 Lee was constantly engaged, and performed 
 many valuable services to the republic. 
 When the independence of the United States 
 was ratified, he was appointed a member of 
 the house of delegates, was made governor 
 of Virginia in 1792, chosen a member of 
 congress in 1799, and retained his seat till 
 the accession of Mr. Jefferson to the presi- 
 dent's chair, when he retired into private 
 life. Died, 1818. 
 
 LEE, Nathaniel, an English dramatic 
 writer, was bom at Hatfield, in Hertford- 
 shire ; and was educated at Westminster 
 School, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 Being disappointed of a fellowship, he made 
 an attempt as an actor, but without success ; 
 on which he turned his attention to dra- 
 matic composition, and in 1675 produced 
 the tragedy of " Nero." He afterwards be- 
 came insane, and was confined in Bedlam 
 for 2 years, and died in 1692, in conse- 
 quence of some injury received in a drunken 
 frolic. He wrote 11 tragedies, of which 
 " The Rival Queens " and " Theodosius " 
 are the best ; and he assisted Dryden in 
 writing " GEdipus " and " The Duke of 
 Guise." Lee's dramas are not deficient in 
 poetic genius, but a degree of turgid elo- 
 quence too often destroys the effect of his 
 most pathetic scenes. 
 
 LEE, Rachel Fannt Axtonina, an 
 eccentric woman, of ample fortune and of 
 masculine mind. She married, in 1794, 
 Matthew Allen Lee, from whom she sepa- 
 rated the following year, with a settlement 
 of lOOOZ. annually. In 1804 she became the 
 subject of public conversation by an alleged 
 abduction from her house in Bolton Row, by 
 two brothers, the Rev. Lockhart and Mr. 
 Loudoun Gordon, cousins to the Earl of 
 Aboyne ; for which they were tried at the 
 Oxford assizes, and, though acquitted, re- 
 ceived a severe reprimand. Mrs. Lee pub- 
 
 lished a vindication of her conduct, an 
 " Essay on Government," and other pam- 
 phlets. Died, 1829. 
 
 LEE, Sophia, the daughter of an able 
 actor, was born in London, in 1750, and had 
 the advantage of an excellent education. 
 In 1780 she produced the comedy of " The 
 Cliapter of Accidents," which was so suc- 
 cessful that the profits of it enabled her to 
 establish a ladies' school at Bath, which was 
 conducted by herself and sisters for several 
 years with reputation. Her next literary 
 performance was " The Recess," a romance, 
 which became very popular, and established 
 her fame. She also wrote " Almeyda," a 
 tragedy ; " The Assignation," a comedy ; 
 "A Hermit's Tale," a poem ; " The Life of 
 a Lover," and three of the stories in her 
 sister's Canterbury Tales. Died at Clifton, 
 near Bristol, in 1824. 
 
 LEECHMAN, William, a learned Scotch 
 divine, particularly celebrated as a lecturer 
 on theology, was bom at Dolphinston, in 
 Lanarkshire, in 1706, and educated at the 
 university of Edinburgh. Elected professor 
 of theology at Glasgow, he signalised him- 
 self by ably combating the reasonings of 
 Voltaire, Bolingbroke, and Hume ; and in 
 1761 he was raised to the oflice of principal 
 of the university. Died, 1783. 
 
 LEEVES, the Rev. William, rector of 
 W^rington, in Somersetsliire ; author of the 
 plaintive air of " Auld Robin Grey," which 
 he composed in 1770, but was not known to 
 be the author until 1812. He also composed 
 much sacred music, in whi«h were united 
 considerable taste and feeling. He died, 
 aged 79, in 1828. 
 
 LEFEBVRE, Francis Joseph, Duke of 
 Dantzic, a French marshal, was born at 
 Rufack, in the department of the Upper 
 Rhine, in 1755. He entered, when young, 
 into the French guards ; was a sergeant at 
 the beginning of the revolution, reached 
 the rank of adjutant-general in 1793, and 
 in 1794 was a general of division. In June 
 that year he distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Fleurus ; and, after the death of 
 Hoclie, was raised to the command of the 
 Meuse and Sambre. Being wounded at 
 the battle of Stockhet, in 1799, he retired 
 to Paris, where he assisted Buonaparte in 
 seizing the supreme power, and was re- 
 warded by him with the dignities of senator, 
 marshal of the empire, and grand cross of 
 the legion of honour. At the battle of 
 Jena he commanded the imperial guard ; 
 but his greatest exploit was the taking of 
 Dantzic, May 24. 1807 ; after which he was 
 raised to the dignity of a duke. He subse- 
 quently commanded in Spain and Germany, 
 and he contributed greatly to the success 
 of the French at Eckmuhl and Wagram. 
 After the restoration of royalty he was made 
 a peer, and died at Paris, in 1820. 
 
 LEFEVRE, Robert, an eminent French 
 artist, distinguished chiefly as a portrait 
 painter. He also produced several historical 
 pieces of great merit. Died, 1831. 
 
 LEFORT, Francis James, noted as the 
 favourite of Peter the Great, was the son 
 of a merchant at Geneva, where he was 
 born in 1656. Having an inclination for a 
 military life, he entered the French army 
 
 \ 
 
 516 
 
leg] 
 
 ^ ^tU) ©m'ljerj^al 2St0graji]^». 
 
 [lei 
 
 when a mere boy, and afterwards went into 
 that of Holland ; which he left to go to 
 Moscow, by the way of Archangel, in 1675. 
 Here he became secretary to the Danish 
 ambassador ; and a fortunate accident gave 
 him an opportunity to gain the favour of 
 the young czar, which he retained till his 
 death. Peter felt that he needed an instructor 
 and assistant, and Lefort possessed talents 
 fitted for both offices. The first great ser- 
 vice which he rendered the czar was in a 
 rebellion of the Strelitz (1(588). Lefort 
 quelled the insurrection, and saved the 
 prince from the danger which threatened 
 his life. This exploit gained for him the 
 unbounded confidence of the czar, who was 
 now become the absolute master of Russia. 
 Lefort's influence increased daily. He es- 
 tablished the military system of Kussia, and 
 laid the foundation of her navy, which 
 Peter afterwards carried to such a degree 
 of perfection. Lefort had a comprehensive 
 and cultivated mind, a penetrating judg- 
 ment, much courage, and an uncommon 
 knowledge of the resources of the Russian 
 empire. He died in 1699. 
 
 LEGALLOIS, Julian Jony Cesar, a 
 French physician, waa bom, about 1775, at 
 Cherneix, in Brittany. He was an eminent 
 physiological writer, and became physician 
 to the Bicttre. Died, 1814. 
 
 LEGENDRE, Adrie.v Makie, one of the 
 first mathematicians of the age, filled the 
 professor's chair at the military school at 
 Paris, was a member of the French academy 
 of sciences, and a knight of the legion of 
 honour. In 1787 he was employed by the 
 French government to assist Cassini and 
 others, in obtaining accurate estimates of 
 the relative meridional situations of Paris 
 and Greenwich. He also distinguished him- 
 self by very profound researches concerning 
 the attraction of elliptic spheroids, and was 
 the first who demonstrated that the ellipse 
 is the only figure in wliich the equilibrium 
 of a homogeneous fluid mass can be preserved 
 under the influence of rotatory motion, and 
 that all its component molecules would be 
 mutually attracted in the inverse ratio of 
 the squares of their distances. On the form- 
 ation of the Institute he became a member 
 of that body ; and under the imperial go- 
 vernment he was nominated a counsellor for 
 life of tiie university of Paris. In 1815 he 
 was made an honorary member of the coun- 
 cil of public instruction ; and in 1816, con- 
 jointly with M. Poisson, examiner of can- 
 didates for tlie Polytechnic School. Among 
 his works are, " Elemens de Geometric," 
 " MtJmoires sur les Transcendantes EUip- 
 tiques," " Nouvelle Th^orie des Parallfeles," 
 &c. Died, 18^52. 
 
 LEGENDRE, Louis, a French historian, 
 born at Rouen, in 1659 ; he was canon of 
 Notre Dame, and abbot of Claire Fontaine, 
 in the diocese of Chartres. His principal 
 work (for he was the autlior of several) is 
 a " History of France," 3 vols, folio ; re- 
 printed in 8 vols. 12mo. Died, 1733. 
 
 LEGENDRE, Louis, one of the leading 
 French revolutionists, who after having 
 made himself notorious by heading street 
 processions, was employed by Marat, Dan- 
 ton, and other leaders of tlie popular party, 
 
 617 
 
 to forward their schemes ; and became one 
 of the chiefs of the Jacobin club. In 1792, 
 he was chosen a deputy from Paris to the 
 National Convention, and voted for the death 
 of the king. For a long time he figured 
 as one of the most violent terrorists under 
 Robespierre ; but he afterwards joined Tal- 
 lieu and his party, in tlie destruction of his 
 former master ; and signalised himself by 
 driving away the members of the Jacobin 
 club, locking up their hall, and delivering 
 their keys to the Convention. From this 
 time he pretended to be the friend of mo- 
 derate measures, continually declaiming 
 against the sanguinary measures in which 
 he had before participated ; and when the 
 Jacobins revolted against the Convention, 
 he put himself at the head of the troops 
 who defended the legislative body, and 
 contributed much to the defeat of his old 
 associates. He ultimately became a mem- 
 ber of the council of ancients, and died in 
 1797. 
 
 LEGER, Francis Bakrv Boyle, St., 
 barrister-at-law ; author of" Gilbert Earle," 
 the " Blount Manuscripts," and " Tales of 
 Passion." He was also editor of the " Al- 
 bum," and a contributor to several period- 
 ical publications. He showed early indi- 
 cations of ability ; and died, aged thirty, 
 in 1829. 
 
 LEGGE, George, was the son of Colonel 
 W. Legge, groom of the bed-chamlH!r to 
 Charles I. He distinguished himself as a 
 naval commander, and, in 1682, was elevated 
 to the peerage ; soon after which he was sent 
 out to Tangiers, in order to demolish the 
 fortifications, and bring away the garrison. 
 In this he did not succeed ; and though he 
 served his country with honour, lie was 
 committed to the Tower, and died there in 
 1691. 
 
 LEGOUVE, Gajjriel Marie Jean Bap- 
 TiSTE, a French dramatist and poet, was 
 born, in 1764, at Paris ; and was admitted 
 as a member of the Institute in 1798. He 
 wrote six tragedies and several poems. Died, 
 1813. 
 
 LEGRAND D'AUSSAY, Pierre Jean 
 Baptiste, a French Jesuit, was born in 
 1737, at Amiens ; became professor of rhe- 
 toric at Caen ; and died at Paris, in 1800. 
 He was the autlior of " Fables and Tales 
 of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries" 
 and a " Life of Apollonius Tyaneus." 
 
 LEGUANO, Stephano Maria, a painter, 
 was born at Bologna, in 1660. He was the 
 pupil of Carlo Maratti, and his works are 
 held in much estimation. Died, 1715. 
 
 LEIBNITZ, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron, 
 a man of splendid abilities, was born in 
 1646, at Leipsic, in which city his father was 
 a professor of jurisprudence and moral phi- 
 losophy. After studying at Jena and Nu- 
 remberg, he removed to the court of Mentz, 
 and was appointed a counsellor. In 1672 he 
 went to Paris, where he applied himself to 
 mathematics, and enjoyed the acquaintance 
 of the celebrated Huygens, whose expecta- 
 tions he answered by the invention of an 
 aritlimetical machine. Tlie Elector of Bran- 
 denburg (afterwards Frederic I. king of 
 Prussia) requested his advice in the estab- 
 lishment of the royal academy of sciences at 
 
lei] 
 
 ^ iSctD ^nibtr^nl 2i3t0jjraj)Ijjj. 
 
 [lel 
 
 Berlin, and, when completed, made him 
 president of the institution. In 1711 he was 
 made Aulic councillor to the emperor of 
 Germany ; and the emperor of Russia ap- 
 pointed liim privy councillor of justice, with 
 a pension. He was, after this, engaged in a 
 controversy with Dr. Clarke, on the suhject 
 of free will, aa he had been before with 
 Newton on the invention of fluxions. His 
 philosophical writings are very numerous, 
 and he crowned his literary fame by an 
 "Essai sur I'Entendement Humain." j^c- 
 cording to the Leibnitzian system of opti- 
 mism, an infinite number of worlds are pos- 
 sible in the divine understanding ; but, of 
 all possible ones, God has chosen and formed 
 the best. Each being is intended to attain 
 the highest degree of happiness of which it 
 is capable, and is to contribute, as a part, to 
 the perfection of the whole. Died, 1716. 
 
 LEICESTER. See Dldley. 
 
 LEICESTER, Thomas William, Earl 
 of, and Viscount COKE, was distinguished 
 throughout a long and active life as one of 
 the most princely and efficient of all the 
 improvers of English agriculture. When 
 he succeeded to his extensive estates in Nor- 
 folk they were but little better than a mere 
 sheepwalk and rabbit warren ; all the com 
 used in the neighbourhood was purchased 
 from more favoured districts ; and in his 
 early leases he let land as low as one shilling 
 and sixpence per acre. That same land, 
 once so sterile, is now some of the finest 
 wheat land in the country, and forests are 
 waving where formerly scarcely a blade of 
 grass was to be seen ; nay, it is recorded, that 
 a few years before his death this excellent 
 landlord and sensible man actually stood, 
 with his wife and sons, on board of a vessel, 
 then first launched, which was built of oak 
 from acorns which he himself had planted ! 
 While thus transforming the whole face of 
 his estates, and benefiting his tenants, and, 
 by their example, the country at large, Mr. 
 Coke wonderfully increased his own pro- 
 perty ; his rental being only 2200Z. when he 
 succeeded to the estate, and upwards of 
 20,000Z. in later years ; during which, indeed, 
 timber has been felled to more than the 
 annual amount of the former whole rent. 
 When upwards of 85 years of age he was 
 raised to the peerage. He was twice mar- 
 ried. By his first marriage he had three 
 daughters ; and by the second, contracted 
 when he was 70 years of age and the bride 
 not 19, five sons and one daughter. He sat 
 in parliament for many years previous to 
 his elevation to the peerage, and always 
 spoke and voted on the Whig side. Died, 
 June 1842, aged 90. 
 
 LEIGH, Charles, a physician and natu- 
 ralist, who published the " Natural History 
 of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Derby," a 
 "History of Virginia," and " Exercitationes 
 de Aquis Mineralibus." He died at the 
 beginning of the 18th century. 
 
 LEIGH, Sir Edward, a learned biblical 
 critic and historian, born at Shawell, in 
 Leicestersliire, in 1602. He was educated at 
 Oxford, studied in the Middle Temple, and 
 afterwards devoted several years to profes- 
 sional and literary researches. He was M.P. 
 for Staflbrd, and a colonel in the parliament- 
 
 618 
 
 arian army ; was expelled from the house 
 in 1648, along with other presbyterian mem- 
 bers ; and occupied himself, after the Resto- 
 ration, in literary pursuits. His most im- 
 portant work is entitled " Critica Sacra." 
 Died, 1671. 
 
 LEIGHTON, Alexaxder, a Scotch di- 
 vine and physician, was born at Edinburgh, 
 in 1.568. He became professor of moral phi- 
 losophy in that university, but afterwards 
 went to Leyden, and took his doctor's de- 
 gree. He tlien visited London, where he 
 had a lectureship, till he was prosecuted in 
 the star chamber for publishing two libels, 
 one entitled " Zion's Plea," and the other 
 " The Looking-glass of the Holy War." 
 He was sentenced to stand in tlie pillory, to 
 have his ears cut off, his nose slit, branded 
 on the cheek, publicly whipped, and impri- 
 soned in the Fleet, where he remained 11 
 years, and died insane, in 1644. 
 
 LEIGHTON, RoBEUT, son of the preced- 
 ing, was bom in London, in 1613 ; he re- 
 ceived his education at Edinburgh ; and in 
 1643 settled as minister of Newbottle, near 
 that city. He then quitted the presbyterian 
 church for the episcopal ; was successively 
 principal of Edinburgh University, bishop 
 of Dumblane, and archbishop of Glasgow ; 
 and died in 1684. He was a good theologian, 
 an eloquent preacher, and a pious and dis- 
 interested man. 
 
 LE JAY, Got Michel, an advocate in the 
 parliament of Paris, eminent as a biblical 
 critic, and who rendered himself remark- 
 able by printing, at his own expense, a 
 Polyglot Bible. He refused to suffer it to 
 appear under the name of Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, though he had neglected his profession, 
 and impoverished himself by the undertak- 
 ing. He afterwards became an ecclesiastic, 
 and obtained the deanery of Vezelai, and the 
 rank of a counsellor of state. Died, 167.5. 
 
 LEKAIN, Henry Louis, a celebrated 
 French actor, was born at Paris, in 1728, 
 and brought up to the trade of a goldsmith, 
 but renounced it at 16 years old for the 
 stage, and became one of the most popular 
 and accomplished tragedians that ever ap- 
 peared in France. Died, 1778. 
 
 LELAND, Jonx, an English antiquary, 
 was born in London, about the end of Henry 
 the Seventh's reign ; was educated at St. 
 Paul's School, Christ's College, Cambridge, 
 and All Soul's, Oxford ; and was made chap- 
 lain and librarian to Henry VIII., who also 
 appointed him his antiquary, with a commis- 
 sion to examine all the libraries of the cathe- 
 drals, abbeys, and colleges in the kingdom. 
 He spent six years in travelling to collect 
 materials for the history and antiquities of 
 England and Wales ; and retired to his house 
 in London, to arrange and methodise the 
 stores of intelligence which he had collected ; 
 but, after about two years, he died insane in 
 15,52, without having completed his under- 
 taking. The great bulk of his collections, 
 after passing through various hands, was 
 placed in the Bodleian Library, in an un- 
 finished state. Hearne published his " Itin- 
 erary " and " Collectanea," and Hall edited 
 his "Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britan- 
 nicis," 2 vols. 
 
 LELAND, JonN, a dissenting minister ; 
 
lel] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Winihtx^Kl JSiograjp^y. 
 
 [lem 
 
 author of " A View of the Principal Deist- 
 ical Writers in England," 3 vols. ; " The 
 Advantage and Necessity of the Christian 
 Revelation," 2 vols. ; and " Sermons," 4 
 vols. Ue also wrote against Tindal, Dod- 
 well, and Bolingbroke. Born, 1C91 ; died, 
 1766. 
 
 LELAND, Thomas, a divine and miscel- 
 laneous writer, was bom in 1722, at Dublin, 
 and was educated at Trinity College. In 
 1768 the lord lieutenant appointed iiim his 
 chaplain, and subsequently gave him the 
 vicarage of Bray, and a prebend in St. 
 Patrick's cathedral. He was the author of 
 a " History of Ireland," 3 vols. ; " The Life 
 of Philip of Macedon," " A Dissertation on 
 the Principles of Human Eloquence," &c. 
 This last was replied to anonymously by 
 Dr. Hurd. Died, 17»5. 
 
 LELI.I, HEKCUi,Ks,an Italian painter and 
 modeller; cliiefly noticeable for the anatomi- 
 cal figures which he made for the institute 
 of Bologna. Born, 1700 ; died, 1766. 
 
 LEL.Y, Sir Peter, a celebrated painter, 
 whose family name was Vander Vaes, was 
 bom at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1617, and 
 was a pupil of Grebber, of Haerlem. In 
 1641 he came to England, and from that 
 period he gradually rose in reputation. He 
 finished portraits both of Charles I. and 
 Cromwell, but it was not till the Restoration 
 that he reached the height of fame and pro- 
 sperity. Ue fell in with the voluptuous taste 
 of the new court, in his representation of 
 the beauties who adorned it; and, by the 
 delicacy and grace of his pencil, became 
 the favourite painter, and was knighted by 
 Charles II., who highly esteemed him. Died, 
 1680. 
 
 LEMAIRE, James, a Dutch navigator of 
 the 17th century, was the son of a merchant 
 of Egmont, in North Holland. He em- 
 barked on an expedition with Cornelius 
 Schouten, and in 1616 discovered the straits 
 wliich now bear his name. He also visited 
 some liitherto unexplored islands in the 
 South Sea, and died, soon after his retiurn, 
 Dec. 31. 1616. 
 
 LiEMAN, Thomas, F.S.A., a clergyman of 
 the Church of England, and a distinguished 
 antiquary, who devoted his talents to the 
 investigation of British and Roman anti- 
 quities remaining in this country. He was 
 a most valuable contributor to several works 
 by other autliors, but he does not appear to 
 have published any distinct treatises himself. 
 He died in 1827, aged 76. 
 
 LEMERY, Nicholas, a French chemist, 
 was born in 1C45, at Rouen, in Normandy ; 
 studied chemistry at Paris and Montpelier ; 
 and gave experimental lectures at Paris, 
 which procured him the patronage of the 
 Prince of Conde. In 1675 he published his 
 " Cours de Chymie," which was exceedingly 
 popular ; he was also the author of a " Uni- 
 versal Pharmacopoeia," and a " Treatise on 
 Drugs." On the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes he abjured the Protestant religion to 
 avoid banishment, and died in 1715. 
 
 LEMIERRE, Antuont Marin, a French 
 dramatist, bom in 1733, at Paris. He was 
 assistant sacristan to the church of St. Paul, 
 and at his leisure composed sermons, which 
 he sold in manuscript. He afterwards be- 
 
 519 
 
 came rhetorical teacher at Harcourt College 
 and secretary to Dupin, one of the farmers- 
 general, who settled a pension on him, in 
 order that he might give liimself up to 
 literature. He produced several poems 
 and nine tragedies ; among the latter are 
 " William Tell," " IIyi»ermnestra," and the 
 " Widow of Malabar." Died in 1792. 
 
 LEMOINE, Francis, an historical pain- 
 ter, born at Paris, in 1688. His principal 
 work is the ceiling in the Hall of Hercules, 
 at Versailles, the largest painting in Europe, 
 containing 142 ligures, and being 64 feet long 
 and 64 broad, without being divided by any 
 architectural interruptions. He destroyed 
 himself in a fit of insanity, in 1737. 
 
 LEMOINE, Peter, a French poet, bom 
 in 1602 ; of whom Boileau remarked, " that 
 he was too wrong-headed to be much com- 
 mended, and too much of a poet to be 
 strongly condemned." His principal work 
 was an epic poem in 18 books, entitled 
 " Saint Louis, on la Sainte Couronne rccon- 
 quise sur les Infldelles." Died, 1672. 
 
 LEMOINE, Stephen, a Protestant divine, 
 was born at Caen, in Normandy, in 1624 ; 
 was professor of theology at Leyden, and 
 died in 1689. His works, collected in two 
 volumes, are entitled " Varia Sacra." 
 
 LEMON, Robert, F. S. A., deputy-keeper 
 of his majesty's state jiajjers ; born, 1774 ; 
 died, 1835. In the duties of his olHce, Mr. 
 Lemon evinced the most praiseworthy zeai ; 
 and it may be truly said, that "nearly every 
 recently published historical work bears a 
 testimony to his exertions." 
 
 LEMONNIER, Peter Charles, an emi- 
 nent French astronomer, was born at Paris 
 in 1715, and accompanied Maupertuis in his 
 tour towards the north pole for measuring 
 a degree of the meridian. He wrote several 
 works on the science, and had the honour of 
 numbering among his pupils the celebrated 
 Lalande. Died, 1796. 
 
 LEMONNIER, Louis William, brother 
 of the preceding, was first physician to the 
 king, and professor of botany at the Jar- 
 din du Roi. After narrowly escaping de- 
 struction during the French revolution, 
 he retired to Montreuil, where he died in 
 1779. He was the author of " Observations 
 d'Histoire Naturelle," &c., and a contribu- 
 tor to the Encyclopedic and other scientific 
 works. 
 
 LEMONTEY, Peter Edward, a FrencJi 
 poet and jurist, was bora at Lyons, in 1762. 
 In the deliberations on the fate of Louis 
 XVI., and in the other wild and despotic 
 measures of the revolutionists, he advocated 
 the cause of humanity and justice ; but he 
 was obliged to save himself from the fury 
 of the terrorists by precipitately quitting 
 France for Switzerland, where he resided 
 till after the overthrow of the Mountain 
 party. Deeply affected with the calamity 
 which had involved Lyons, his native citv, 
 in ruin, he published his beautiful ode, 
 "Les Ruines de Lyons." He afterwards 
 travelled through Italy, and wrote various 
 operas, romances, and poems ; in 1804 he 
 was appointed one of the censors of the 
 drama ; and at the restoration he was in- 
 vested with the order of the legion of ho- 
 nour, and appointed director-general of the 
 
lem] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Wiixiiitv^al 2Sifl0rapI)e. 
 
 [len 
 
 book trade. Among his works, the most 
 successful are, the opera of " Palma, ou le 
 "Voyage en Grfece ; " his " Essai sur I'Eta- 
 blissement Monarchique de I^ouis XIV.;" 
 and a romance, entitled " La Famille de 
 Jura, ou Irons-nous h Paris ? " Died, 1826. 
 
 LEMOT, Francis Fiiederic, a French 
 statuary, was born at Lyons, in 1773. At 
 the age of seventeen he obtained a prize 
 for a bas-relief, representing " The Judg- 
 ment of Solomon ;" was afterwards taken 
 as a conscript, and served in the artillery 
 under General Pichegru. In 1795 he was 
 ordered to Paris, to assist in the execution of 
 a statue of Henry IV., to be placed on the 
 Pont Neuf. Many of his productions adorn 
 the principal buildings of the French capital. 
 Died 1827. 
 
 LEMOYNE, Jeatt Baptiste, a French 
 musician, born at Eymet, in 1751. He stu- 
 died at Berlin under Graun and Kirnber- 
 ger, and had the honour of giving lessons 
 occasionally to Frederic the Great. He 
 afterwards returned to Paris, produced 
 eleven successful operas, and was the first 
 composer ever summoned on to the stage 
 by a French audience, to receive their 
 plaudits at the conclusion of the piece. 
 Died, 1796. 
 
 LEMPRIERE, JoH.v, D.D., an eminent 
 classical scholar, was a native of Jersey ; 
 received his education at Reading, Winches- 
 ter, and Pembroke, College, Oxford j gra- 
 duated at that university ; was head-master 
 of Abingdon grammar-school, and after- 
 wards of the school at Exeter ; and, on re- 
 signing the latter, was presented to the 
 livings of Meeth and Newton Petrock, in 
 Devonshire, which he held till his decease, 
 in 1824. His principal works are, the " Bib- 
 liotheca Classica, or Classical Dictionary," 
 and a " Universal Biography." 
 
 L'ENCLOS, Anne, or Ninon de, a cele- 
 brated female, distinguished alike by her 
 beauty, wit, and accomplishments, was born 
 at Paris, in 1616. She was left at an early 
 age the mistress of a good fortune ; and, 
 being possessed of the highest personal as 
 well as intellectual charms, and giving free 
 scope to the indulgence of her passions, it is 
 no wonder that she drew around her a circle 
 of lovers and suitors, distinguished either for 
 their rank or gallantry ; but her love of in- 
 dependence, or a more unworthy cause, pre- 
 vented her from forming a serious connection. 
 Without making a traffic of her charms, she 
 attached herself to those who pleased her ; 
 and having extended her favours, in suc- 
 cession, to the most celebrated men of her 
 time, she proved to all that, while she held 
 chastity in utter contempt, she was quite as 
 regardless of constancy in her attachments. 
 Strange as it may appear to those who have 
 been bred up in the paths of virtue, this 
 modern Lais was countenanced, compli- 
 mented, and consulted by some of the most 
 eminent writers of the day. Scarron, we 
 are told, consulted her on his romances, St. 
 Evremont on his poems, Moliere on his co- 
 medies, Fontenelle on his dialogues, and 
 Bochefoucault on his maxims ! Nay, it is 
 also seriously asserted, that her friendship 
 was sought by some of the most respectable 
 of her own sex ! But mark the sequel. " The 
 
 power of her natural beauty," says one of 
 her biographers, " was indeed tragically 
 illustrated by the often told adventure of 
 one of her own sons, who being brought up 
 in ignorance of his birth, fell desperately in 
 love with his mother, and when she dis- 
 covered to him the fatal secret, he, in a fit of 
 despair and desperation, stabbed himself in 
 her presence ! " This terrible event has 
 been introduced by Le Sage into his Gil 
 Bias. She died in 1705, in the 90th year of 
 her age. 
 
 LENFANT, James, a French Protestant 
 divine, was bom in 1691, and died in 1728. 
 He published histories of the councils of 
 Constance, Basle, and Pisa, very faithfully 
 written. He likewise translated the New 
 Testament into French, with notes, in con- 
 junction with Beausobre. His other works 
 are, a " History of Pope Joan," " Sermons," 
 a "Preservative against Uniting with the 
 Church of Rome," &c. 
 
 LENGLET DU FRESNOY, Nicholas, a 
 French writer, was born at Beauvais, in 
 1674. He was an ecclesiastic, but so much 
 given to satire and political intrigues, that 
 he was frequently sent to the Bastile. His 
 death was occasioned by falling into the 
 fire, in 1755. Among his voluminous works, 
 the best are, his " Method for Studying His- 
 tory " and "Chronological Tablets of Uni- 
 versal History," wliich have been translated 
 into English. 
 
 LENNOX, Charlotte, a female of con- 
 siderable literary abilities, was born in 1720. 
 Her father. Colonel Ramsay, was lieutenant- 
 governor of New York ; by whom she was 
 sent to England, where she married early, 
 and was left a widow with one child. In 
 1747 she published a volume of poems ; and 
 in 1751 her novel of "Harriet Stuart ;" which 
 was followed, the next year, by "The Fe- 
 male Quixote " and " Shakspeare Illus- 
 trated." After this appeared, in quick suc- 
 cession, several works translated from the 
 French, and the novels of" Henrietta " and 
 " Euphemia." She was also the author of 
 some dramatic pieces. Her character was 
 unimpeachable, and she was highly respected 
 by Dr. Johnson and Samuel Richardson ; 
 but in her declining years she was doomed 
 to penury and sickness ; and had it not been 
 for the relief afforded her by the Literary 
 Fund Society, her latter days must have 
 been truly miserable. Died, 1804. 
 
 LENOTRE, Andrew, a French architect 
 and ornamental gardener, was bom in 1613, 
 and studied painting under Voi;et. He was 
 a great favourite of Louis XIV., and his 
 plans for the decoration of the park of Ver- 
 sailles contributed principally to establish 
 his reputation. Delille has celebrated the 
 talents of Lenotre, whose style of ornamental 
 planting was fashionable, not only in 
 Fiance but in England, till it was super- 
 seded by the more natural style introduced 
 by Kent, Brown, &c. Died, 1700. 
 
 LENTHALL, William, an English states- 
 man of the 17th century, was born at Hen- 
 ley, in Oxfordshire, in 1591. In 1639 he was 
 elected into parliament for Woodstock, and 
 in 1640 he was chosen speaker, but was 
 turned out by Cromwell in 1653. The year 
 following he became speaker of the parlia- 
 
LEO] 
 
 ^ ^cbi Bnibtr^aX 3Bi05rajif)M. 
 
 [les 
 
 ment called by the usurper, as he did also 
 of the Rump. Died, 1682. 
 
 LEO I., Burnamed the Great, and canon- 
 ised as a eaint, was a native of Tuscany, and 
 succeeded Scxtus III. in the papal chair in 
 440. He took a very decided part against 
 the Manichaean heresy and other scliisma- 
 tics, persuaded Atlila to withdraw his forces 
 from the very gates of Kome, and after- 
 wards saved the city from being burned by 
 Genseric. Died, 401. 
 
 L,EO X., Giovanni de Medici, pope, son 
 of the celebrated Lorenzo de Medici, was 
 born at Florence In 1475. At the age of 11 
 he was made an arclibishop by Louis XL, 
 king of France ; at 14 Julius IL invested 
 him with the dignity of legate, and he 
 served as such in the army which was de- 
 feated by the French, near Ravenna, in 
 1512. He was taken prisoner after that bat- 
 tle ; but the soldiers showed the most super- 
 stitious veneration for his person, as the 
 representative of the pope. He was elected 
 to the papacy in 1513, and his coronation 
 was celebrated with unusual pomp. He ter- 
 minated the disputes wliich had subsisted 
 between his predecessor and Louis XII. of 
 France ; concluded the council of Lateran ; 
 and formed a splendid library, which he 
 enriched with inestimable manuscripts. 
 This pontiff formed two great projects, the 
 one to effect a general association of the 
 Christian powers against the Turks, and the 
 other to complete the church of St. Peter. 
 To aid these schemes he issued plenary in- 
 dulgences, by which the purchasers procured 
 the pardon of their sins ; but these indul- 
 gences being carried into Germany, aroused 
 the zeal of Luther, and ultimately produced 
 the Reformation. He died in 1521. Leo X. 
 was a munificent patron of learning and the 
 arts, and his short pontificate forms one of 
 the most interesting ijeriods in papal history. 
 
 LEO XIL, Annibale della Genoa, was 
 born at Genoa, in 1760, and succeeded Pius 
 VII. in the papal chair, in 1S23. By the 
 remission of many taxes, as well as by his 
 benevolence and personal attention to tlie 
 hospitals, prisons, and public institutions for 
 the poor, he obtained the love of the people ; 
 he olso endeavoured to free the states of the 
 church from robbers and banditti, as well as 
 to suppress the remains of Carbonarism. 
 Leo died in Feb. 1829, and was succeeded by 
 Cardinal Castiglione, who took the name of 
 Pius VIII. Pius died Dec. 1830, and was 
 succeeded by Cardinal Capellari (Gregory 
 XVI.). 
 
 LEO VI., emperor of the East, called the 
 Philosopher, succeeded his father Basil, tlie 
 Macedonian, in 88C. He expelled the patri- 
 arch Photius, and defeated the Hungarians ; 
 but just before his death, which happened in 
 911, his fleet sustained a total defeat by the 
 Saracens. 
 
 LEO, John, sumamed African us, a tra- 
 veller and geographer of the 16th century, 
 was bom of Moorish parents, at Grenada, in 
 Spain. On that city being taken by the 
 Spaniards, in 1492, he retired to Africa, 
 through various parts of which he after- 
 wards travelled. Having been captured by 
 pirates, he was taken to Italy, and presented 
 to pope Leo X., who persuaided him to em- 
 
 621 
 
 brace Christianity, and gave him his own 
 name on being baptized. At Rome, he ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the Italian language, 
 into which he translated his " Description of 
 Africa," originally written in Arabic. This 
 is a very curious and interesting work, com- 
 prising accounts of several countries rarely 
 visited by Europeans. Died about 1520. 
 
 LEO, Leonakdo, an eminent musician, 
 was born in 1694, at Naples, and is regarded 
 as one of the greatest of the Italian masters. 
 He composed nineteen operas, two oratorios, 
 and numerous sacred pieces. Brilliancy and 
 flexibility are the chaxacteristics of his style. 
 Died, 174.5. 
 
 LEO, of Modena, a learned rabbi of Ve- 
 nice, in the 15th century, who wrote a "His- 
 tory of the Jewish Rites and Ceremonies i" 
 also a dictionary, Hebrew and Italian. 
 Died, 1654. 
 
 LEON, Fray Luis de, a Spanish poet and 
 ecclesiastic, was born in 1527, and died in 
 1591. His ode, entitled "La Profecia del 
 Tago," has been translated into English by 
 Mr. Wifien, and published at the end of his 
 translation of the poems of Garcilaso de la 
 Vega. 
 
 LEONIDAS, the Spartan king and hero, 
 was the son of king Auaxandrides, and 
 succeeded his half brother Cleomenes, b. c. 
 491. \Vhen Xerxes, king of Persia, in- 
 vaded Greece, with on immense army, 
 Leonidas marched to Thermopylae, and, on 
 arriving there, posted his army, which, in- 
 cluding the whole of the allies, amounted 
 only to 7000 men, so skilfully, that the ene- 
 my, on coming to the narrow pass, became 
 aware of the difficulty of carrying it by force. 
 Xerxes, therefore, attempted to bribe Leoni- 
 das, offering him the dominion of all Greece. 
 This proposal being rejected with scorn, the 
 despot sent a herald to order the Greeks to 
 surrender their arms : — " I^t him come and 
 take them," was the hero's reply. Thrice 
 did the Persians advance in great force, and 
 thrice were they repelled, with enormous 
 loss. Meanwhile, a traitorous Greek, named 
 Ephialtes, led 10,000 of the enemy, by a 
 secret path, over the mountain, who thus 
 gained the rear of Leonidas. He now saw 
 that all was lost, but resolved to show, by a 
 memorable example, what the Greeks could 
 perform in the cause of their country. 
 After a long contest, the hero fell, sur- 
 rounded by countless assailants. The gra- 
 titude of Greece raised a splendid monu- 
 ment to the memory of Leonidas and his 
 brave associates, and annually celebrated 
 the great event by warlike games and 
 orations. 
 
 LEPAUTRE, or LEPOTRE, Anthony, 
 first architect to the king of France, erected 
 the palace of St. Cloud. His chief talent 
 lay in the decoration of edifices, but his 
 fondness for excessive ornament in a mea- 
 sure destroyed the simple beauty of his 
 
 designs. Died, 1691 His son, Pkter 
 
 Lepautue, was an eminent sculptor, and 
 became royal statuary and director of tlie 
 academy of St. Luke. Died, 1744. 
 
 LE SAGE, AI.AIN Rfi.v^, a distinguislied 
 French novelist and dramatist, was born in 
 1C(!8, at Sarzeau, in Brittany ; and studied 
 at tlie Jesuits' College, at Vannes. In 1092 
 
 Y y 3 
 
LES] 
 
 ^ IScb) Winibtv^nX IStocrrajilbM. 
 
 [les 
 
 he went to Paris, where his talents and 
 manners procured him admission into the 
 best society, and lie soon adopted the profes- 
 sion of an author. He studied the Spanish 
 language, and produced a multitude of 
 translations, or imitations, of Castilian dra- 
 mas and romances. His comedy of " Crispin 
 the Rival of his Master" first attracted the 
 public notice ; but his success as a novelist 
 has most contributed to make him known to 
 foreigners. "Le Diable Boiteux," known 
 in England by the title of " The Devil upon 
 Two Sticks," became extremely popular ; 
 the comedy of " Turcaret " added to his 
 fame ; and that fame was soon rendered 
 imperishable by his admirable " Gil Bias." 
 Le Sage was endowed with great literary 
 fertility ; he composed 24 dramatic pieces, 
 and had a share in the composition of 70 
 others. Among his novels are, " The 
 Adventures of Guzman d'Alfaroche," " The 
 Bachelor of Salamanca," " The History of 
 Estovanille Gonzales," &c. Died, 1747. 
 
 liE SAGE, GEonoE Louis, a philosophi- 
 cal writer, was born at Geneva, in 1724, 
 and died in 1803. He wrote "Fragments 
 on Final Causes," and a treatise on "Me- 
 chanical Physics." 
 
 LESCURE, Louis Marie, Marquis de, a 
 French royalist general, who distinguished 
 himself, in 1793, as the commander of one 
 of the Vendean divisions, and displayed 
 the utmost intrepidity in various sangui- 
 nary battles with the troops of the re- 
 public. Born, 1766 j died, of the wounds he 
 received at the action of La Tremblaye, in 
 1793. 
 
 LESLEY, John-, bishop of Ross, in Scot- 
 land, was born in 1527. He accompanied 
 queen Mary from France to Scotland, and 
 soon after became bishop of Ross and a privy 
 councillor. He zealously defended the 
 Romish religion ; and when queen Elizabeth 
 appointed commissioners to meet at York, 
 to consider the complaints made against 
 Mary, Lesley appeared in behalf of his 
 mistress, whose cause he pleaded with great 
 ability. He also tried many experiments 
 to procure her liberty, for which he was 
 committed to the Tower ; but in 1573 he 
 recovered his liberty, and after residing 
 some years in France, was made bishop of 
 Constance. Died, 1596. 
 
 LESLIE, CiiAKLEs, son of the bishop of 
 Clogher (who died at the age of 100 years, 
 50 of which he had been a bishop^, was bom 
 in Ireland ; studied at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, and the Temple ; quitted the law 
 for divinity, and obtained preferment in 
 Ireland. He was a zealous Protestant, but 
 refused to transfer his allegiance to the new 
 government, by taking the oaths to King 
 William. Both by his personal exertions 
 and his writings, he endeavoured to promote 
 the interents of the exiled family ; and, on 
 the termination of the rebellion in 1715, he 
 accompanied the Pretender into Italy. He 
 wrote many political tracts, against the doe- 
 trine of resistance and in defence of here- 
 ditary right, the most important of which 
 were in a weekly paper, called tlie 
 Rehearsal. He also wrote some treatises 
 against deists and Sociniaus, among which 
 are, " The Snake in the Grass " and " A 
 
 Short and Easy Method with the Deists." 
 Died. 1732. 
 
 LESLIE, Sir John, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician and natural philosopher, was born 
 at Largo, in Fifeshire, in 1766. His father, 
 who was a joiner and cabinet-maker, in- 
 tended to bring him up to some useful trade; 
 but his fondness for calculation and geo- 
 metrical exercises brought him at an early 
 period under the notice of professors Robin- 
 son, Playfair, and Dugald Stewart ; and, 
 when he was 13, his parents were induced to 
 let him enter as a student at the university 
 of St. Andrew's. After remaining there 
 some time, he removed to that of Edinburgh, 
 where he was engaged by Dr. Adam Smith to 
 assist the studies of his nephew, afterwards 
 Lord Reston. In 1790 he proceeded to Lon- 
 don, with an intention of delivering lectures 
 on natural philosophy ; but being disap- 
 pointed in his views, he found it expedient 
 to commence writing for the press as the 
 readiest means of obtaining a subsistence. 
 His first undertaking of any importance was 
 a translation of Buffbn's " Xatural History 
 of Birds," which appeared in 1793, in 9 vols. 
 8vo. ; and the sum he received for this laid 
 the foundation of that pecuniary independ- 
 ence, which his prudent habits fortunately 
 enabled him to attain. In 1794, Mr. Leslie 
 spent a short time in Holland ; and in 1796 
 he made a tour of Germany and Switzerland 
 with Mr. Thomas Wedgwood. In 1800 he 
 invented that admirable and delicate instru- 
 ment the differential thermometer ; and in 
 1804 appeared his celebrated "Essay on the 
 Nature and Propagation of Heat." For this 
 performance he was honoured by the coun- 
 cil of the Royal Society with the Romford 
 medals ; and in 1805 he was elected to the 
 mathematical chair in the university of 
 Edinburgh, which, in 1819, he exchanged 
 for that of philosophy on the death of Pro- 
 fessor Playfair. By the invention of his 
 hygrometer he succeeded in making the dis- 
 covery of that singularly beautiful process 
 of artificial freezing, or consolidation of 
 fluids, which enabled him to congeal mer- 
 cury, and convert water into ice by eva- 
 poration. Early in the year 1832 he was 
 invested with a knighthood of the Guelphic 
 order, an honour he was not destined long 
 to enjoy, for he died the same year. The 
 chief works of Sir John Leslie are, " An 
 Account of Experiments and Instruments 
 depending on the Relation of Air to Heat 
 and Moisture," the " Philosophy of Arith- 
 metic," "Elements of Geometry," "Ele- 
 ments of Natural Philosophy," besides many 
 admirable treatises in Nicholson's Philo- 
 sophical Journal, the Encyclopedia Bri- 
 taunica, &c. Died, Nov. 3. 1832. 
 
 LESSING, GoTTHOLD Ephraim, an emi- 
 nent German author, remarkable for the 
 versatility of his genius, was bom in 1729, 
 at Kamentz, in Pomerania ; and was edu- 
 cated at Meissen and Leipsic. In the early 
 part of his career he connected himself with 
 theatricals, and led an erratic life, but he 
 afterwards compensated for it by the closest 
 mental application. At Berlin, where he 
 sometimes resided, he became acquainted 
 with Voltaire, the Jewish philosopher Men- 
 delssohn, Nicolai, Ramlcr, Sulzer, and other 
 
t 
 
 LES] 
 
 ^ fim mixibtt^al 2Si05rapi)jJ. 
 
 [let 
 
 literary characters. In 1770 the hereditary 
 Prince of Brunswick appointed him librarian 
 at Wolfenbuttel, and one of the fruits of 
 this appointment was a periodical publica- 
 tion, entitled " Contributions to Literary 
 History." Among liis dramatic works are, 
 " Nathan the Wise," " Emilia Galotti," 
 "Minna von Bamhelm," "Tlie Misogyn- 
 ist," and "The Freethinker." His other 
 principal works are, "Laocoon," "Fables," 
 " Fragments of an Unknown," •' The Ham- 
 burgh Dramaturgy," and a " Dissertation on 
 the Education of Uic Human Kace." Died, 
 1781. 
 
 LESSIUS, LEOJfARn, a learned Jesuit, 
 was bora near Antwerp, in 1554, and died 
 in 1623. His principal works are, "De 
 Justitia et Jure," " De Protestate Summi 
 Pontificis," &c. His books on the " Exist- 
 ence of a Deity " and the " Immortality 
 of the Soul " have been translated into 
 English. 
 
 I/ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a political 
 partisan and controversial writer, was born 
 in 1C16. His father. Sir Ilamond I'Estrange, 
 of Hunstanton Hall, Norfolk, was a zealous 
 royalist ; and the son, following his example, 
 was concerned in raising forces, and in 
 some unsuccessful enterprises in favour of 
 Charles I. during the civil wars, for which 
 he was obliged to leave the kingdom. Upon 
 the Restoration he returned, and established 
 an English newspaper, under the title of 
 " The Public Intelligencer," in 16(53 ; which 
 he discontinued upon tlie publication of the 
 first London Gazette. He was author of 
 many violent political tracts ; translated 
 Josephus, Cicero's Offices, Seneca's Morals, 
 the Colloquies of Erasmus, and ^sop's 
 Fables. He died in 1704. 
 
 LESUEUR, EusTACHE, a distinguished 
 French painter, was born at Paris, in 1017, 
 and obtained from his countrymen the name 
 of " The French Raphael." His conceptions 
 are noble and elevated ; his composition is 
 simple, careful, and well arranged ; the 
 drawing is correct, in good taste, and proves 
 his diligent study of the antique and of the 
 great Italian masters ; but his colouring 
 is deficient in truth and vigour, which often 
 renders his pictures too uniform. Altogether 
 he may be considered a fair representative 
 of the French school of painting. He died 
 in his 38th year. 
 
 LESUEUR, Jeax Baftiste, a musical 
 composer, born in 1703. After completing 
 his studies at Amiens, he obtained various 
 appointments, as director of music in cathe- 
 drals ; but having an inclination for theatri- 
 cal compositions, he resigned his place at 
 Notre Dame in 1788, and produced several 
 operas. " Telemachus " was his first. He 
 afterwards composed "La Caverne," which 
 met with the most brilliant applause ; and 
 in 1793 he produced "Paul et Virginie," the 
 " Death of Adam," and " The Bards." 
 
 LESUEUR, TuOiMAS, a mathematician 
 and ecclesiastic, was bom at Rethel, in 
 Champagne, in the year 1703. He entered 
 into the order of Minims, and liecame a 
 celebrated professor of mathematics, philo- 
 sopliy, and theology, in the college of Sa- 
 pienza, at Rome ; where he died in 1770. 
 He joiued with father Jacquier in a Com- 
 
 mentary upon Newton's Principia, and 
 also in a profound work on the " Integral 
 Calculus." Lesueur also published " The 
 Principles of Natural Philosophy," 4 vols. ; 
 and " Institutiones Philosophica;," 5 vols. 
 
 LETUIEULLER, Smakt, an English 
 antiquary and \irtuo80, was bom in Essex, 
 and educated at Trinity College, Oxford. 
 He made a most valuable collection of an- 
 tiquities, fossils, and other curiosities, and 
 died in 1700. 
 
 LETI, Gregory, an Italian historian, 
 was bom in 1630, at Milan ; and, after stu- 
 dying at Rome, went to Geneva, where he 
 abjured the Catholic religion, and after- 
 wards resided in England. While there he 
 was known to be collecting materials for a 
 Jiistory of the court of Charles II., and 
 Charles seeing him one day at his levee, 
 told him to take care that his history did 
 not give ofience. To which Leti replied, 
 " I will do what I can ; but if a man were 
 as wise as Solomon, he would hardly be 
 able to avoid giving some ofl'ence." " Why 
 then," retorted Charles, " be as wise as 
 Solomon ; write proverbs, and let history 
 alone." Leti, however, did not take this 
 advice. The history appeared, under the 
 title of " Teatro Britannico ; " and the au- 
 thor was ordered to quit the kingdom. He 
 then went to Amsterdam, where he died in 
 1701. Among his works are. Lives of 
 " Sixtus V." 3 vols. ; " Charles V." 4 vols. ; 
 " Queen Elizabeth," 2 vols. ; " Oliver Crom- 
 well," 2 vols.; the "History of Geneva," 
 6 vols. J and a " History of the Cardinals." 
 But the whole are so interspersed with error 
 and fiction, that they may be regarded rather 
 as romances than authentic histories. 
 
 I>ETTICE, John, a clergyman, poet, and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Rushden, 
 in Northamptonshire, in 1737, and educated 
 at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, of 
 whicli he was afterwards a fellow and public 
 tutor. In 1708 he quitted the retirement of 
 college life, and was secretary to the British 
 embassy at Copenhagen. He subsequently 
 engaged as private tutor in some families of 
 distinction ; was presented to the living of 
 Peasemarsh, in Sussex, in 1785 ; and he was 
 also a prebendary in Chichester cathedral. 
 His works consist of " Fables for the Fire- 
 side," 2 vols. ; " Strictures on Elocution," 
 " A Tour through various Parts of Scotland," 
 and "Miscellaneous Pieces on Sacred Sub- 
 jects," besides sermons, tracts* and poems ; 
 a translation of Holberg's " Parallel Lives of 
 famous Ladies," and, in conjunction with 
 Professor Martyr, " The Antiquities of Her- 
 culaneum." Died, 1832. 
 
 LETTSOM, John Coakley, an eminent 
 physician, was born in 1744, in the island of 
 Little Vandyke, near Tortola, in the West 
 Indies. He was educated in England, served 
 his time to an apothecary, and became a 
 pupil at St. Thomas's Hospital ; after which 
 he practised for a short time at Tortola ; 
 then returned to Europe, took his degree at 
 Leyden, and settled in London, where he 
 attained considerable celebrity, not merely 
 as a medical practitioner, but as an active 
 philanthropist. He was a member of many 
 literary and scientific institutions, and the 
 author of "Hints on Beneficence, Tempe- 
 
 523 
 
leu] 
 
 ^ ^c&j Unihtv^Kl 28t0jjraji]5j?» 
 
 [lew 
 
 ranee, and Medical Science," and other 
 useful works. Died, 1815. 
 
 LEUCIPPUS, a philosopher of Elea, who 
 lived in the 5th century before the Christian 
 era. He was the disciple of Zeno, and the 
 master of Democritus. The atomic system 
 originated with liim ; and thus, by ascribing 
 a sensible power to tlie particles of matter, 
 and setting them in motion, Leucippus and 
 his follower accounted at once for the origin 
 of the universe, without the interposition of 
 divine agency. From him Descartes bor- 
 rowed his hypothesis of the " Vortices," and 
 Kepler was also much indebted to tlie theory 
 of Leucippus. 
 
 LEUSDEN, John, a celebrated biblical 
 critic and theologian, was a native of Utrecht, 
 where he distinguished liimself as one of the 
 most erudite scholars and able divines of the 
 age. His theological works are numerous 
 and valuable. He was bom in 1624, and 
 died about the close of tlie 17th century. 
 
 LEUWENHOEK, Anthony, a celebrated 
 natural philosopher, was bom at Delft, in 
 1GS2, and was celebrated for his microsco- 
 pical improvements and discoveries, chiefly 
 anatomical, the particulars of which were 
 published in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 and the memoirs of the academy of sciences. 
 A selection from his works was published in 
 English. Died, 1723. 
 
 LEVAILLANT, Fe.^ncis, a traveller and 
 naturalist, was born at Paramaribo, in 
 Guiana, and from childhood showed a strong 
 predilection for the study of natural histor}', 
 particularly of ornithology. In furtherance 
 of this desire, he undertook to penetrate the 
 interior of Africa, which he twice accom- 
 plished, though under circumstances of great 
 difficulty. He published two narratives of 
 his " Travels into the Interior of Southern 
 Africa," and a " Natural History of African 
 Birds," of " Parrots," and of the rare " Birds 
 of the Indies." Insurmountable obstacles 
 prevented him from pursuing his researches 
 so far as he wished ; but his travels are very 
 amusing, and also afford much information 
 of a philosophical nature. He died at Paris, 
 in 1824, aged 70. 
 
 LEVER, Sir AsHxox, an English gentle- 
 man, memorable as the collector of a valu- 
 able museum of natural history ; the expense 
 of which having impaired his fortune, he 
 was authorised, in 1785, by act of parlia- 
 ment, to dispose of it by lottery. The 
 winner, Mr. Parkinson, removed the mu- 
 seum from Leicester Fields to the building 
 now called the Rotunda, in Blackfriars 
 Road ; and after exhibiting it some years, 
 sold the whole by auction. Sir Ashton died 
 in 1788. 
 
 LEVESQUE DE POUILLT, Louis, a 
 member of tlie French academy of inscrip- 
 tions. He died, governor of Rheims, in 
 1746. He established schools for mathe- 
 matics, and wrote an ingenious book, 
 entitled "The Theory pf Agreeable Sen- 
 sations," which has been translated into 
 English. 
 
 LEVESQUE, Peter Charles, a French 
 writer on history and general literature, was 
 bom in 1736, at Paris, and was apprenticed 
 to an engraver, but removed and sent to 
 Mazarin College. In 1773 he visited St. 
 
 Petersburgh, and was appointed professor of 
 belles lettres at the school of cadets. After 
 seven years' absence he returned to France, 
 and became professor at the royal college. 
 He was subsequently made a member of 
 the Institute, and died in 1812. Among 
 his writings are, "A History of Russia," 
 Histories of France, of Greece, and of the 
 Roman Republic ; a translation of Thucy- 
 dides, &c. 
 
 LEVI, David, a London Jew, of con- 
 siderable acquirements, though of humble 
 birtli and occupations. He was first a shoe- 
 maker, and afterwards a hatter, but the 
 works he published evinced much study and 
 ability. In 1787 he entered into a polemical 
 controversy with Dr. Priestley, whose " Let- 
 ters to the Jews " he answered in two series 
 of epistolary essays. He was also the author 
 of a volume on the rites and ceremonies of 
 the Jews ; " Lingua Sacra, or a Hebrew and 
 English Dictionary," 3 vols. ; "The Penta- 
 teuch in Hebrew and English," a translation 
 of the Hebrew Liturgy, in 6 vols. ; " Disser- 
 tations on the Prophecies," and some other 
 works. Bora, 1740 ; died, 1799. 
 
 LEVINGSTON, James, earl of Callendar, 
 a famous soldier of Scotland, was gentleman 
 of the bed-chamber to Charles I., who created 
 him lord Levingston of Almont, in 1633, and 
 afterwards earl of Callendar. He took Car- 
 lisle, and endeavoured to rescue Charles 
 from his confinement in the Isle of Wight. 
 Died, 1672. 
 
 LEVIS, Duke de, a French nobleman of 
 distinguished talents, who at the beginning 
 of the revolution was chosen as a deputy to 
 the states-general by the nobility of Dijon ; 
 but, though friendly to a reform of abuses in 
 government, lie opposed the destruction of 
 the monarchy, and in 1792 became an emi- 
 grant, and joined the royalist army. Being 
 wounded in the engagement at Quiberon 
 Bay, he came to England, where he resided 
 till the establishment of the consular govern- 
 ment, when he returned to France, but 
 passed his time in retirement and literary 
 pursuits. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. 
 he was raised to the peerage, and admitted a 
 member of the academy. His works consist 
 of " Maxims and Reflections," " The Travels 
 of Kanghi, or new Chinese Letters," 2 vols. ; 
 "Recollections and Portraits," and "Eng- 
 land at the Beginning of the Nineteenth 
 Century." Died, 1830. 
 
 LEVIZAC, John Pons Victor Lacontz 
 DE, a French grammarian, was born at Alby, 
 in Languedoc, emigrated to Holland at the 
 beginning of the Revolution, and settled in 
 England as a French teacher. He com- 
 menced his literary career aa a poet ; but he 
 is best known by his grammars, dictionaries, 
 and other practical works on the French 
 language. Died, 1813. 
 
 LEWIS, John, a learned divine and anti- 
 quary, was born at Bristol in 1675, and died 
 at Margate in 1746. He published "The 
 Life of Wickliife," " Wickliffe's Translation 
 of the New Testament," " The History and 
 Antiquities of the Isle of Thanet," "The 
 History of the Abbey and Church of Fever- 
 sham," "The Life of William Caxton," &c. 
 
 LEWIS, Matthew Gregory (familiarly 
 styled "Monk" Lewis), a popular romance 
 
 I 
 
lew] 
 
 ^ 0tbi ^nihtr^al 3Bi0graj3]bi). 
 
 [lic 
 
 writer and dramatist, was bom in London, 
 in 1773, and was the son of the under-secre- 
 tary at war. He was educated at West- 
 minster School ; after which he travelled 
 on the Continent, and imbibed while in 
 Germany that taste for the marvellous and 
 romantic which characterises most of liis 
 writings. Ilia first production was "Tlie 
 Monk,"' a romance, admired for its talent, 
 but justly censured for its licentiousness ; 
 he also wrote "Feudal Tyrants," 4 vols. ; 
 " Romantic Tales," 4 vols. ; " Tales of 
 Terror ; " " The Castle Spectre," a drama, 
 and many others. He was a member of 
 parliament, but undistinguished by any ora- 
 torical powers, and he died in 1818. 
 
 LEWIS, Mekiwetuek, an American 
 officer, born in 1774, and employed by the 
 government of the United States, with 
 Clarke, to make discoveries in the northern 
 parts of the American continent, with a 
 view to the extension of commerce to the 
 Pacific Ocean. In 1805 they undertook a 
 journey for the purpose of discovering the 
 sources of the Missouri ; and they passed 
 the winter in an icy region, 500 leagues 
 beyond its confluence. Lewis was soon after 
 made governor of Louisiana, and Clark a 
 general of its militia, and agent of the United 
 States for Indian aflfairs. Lewis died in 
 1809. 
 
 LEY, Sir Jakes, a learned English judge, 
 was a native of Wiltshire, and for his ex- 
 traordinary merit was made lord chief jus- 
 tice, first in Ireland and afterwards in Eng- 
 land. He was also created baron Ley, lord 
 high treasurer, and earl of Marlborough. 
 Born, 1552 ; died, 1C28. 
 
 LEYBOURN, William, a mathematical 
 writer, was originally a printer in Loudon. 
 He became a schoolmaster, and published a 
 number of practical works, which were once 
 popular and of great utility, particularly 
 "A Treatise on Surveying," "A Course of 
 Mathematics," and the " Traders' Sure 
 Guide." He died about 1G96. 
 
 LEYDECKER, Melchior, professor of 
 divinity at Utrecht, was born at Middle- 
 burgh, in 1652, and died in 1731. He was a 
 sound theologian, and wrote a " Treatise on 
 the Republic of the Hebrews," 2 vols, folio ; 
 "A History of the African Church," and 
 other works. 
 
 LEYDEN, John, a physician, but more 
 distinguished as a poet and oriental scholar, 
 was born in 1775, at Denholm, Roxburgh- 
 shire, and was the son of a small farmer. 
 Displaying in early youth an eager desire 
 for acquiring knowledge, his parents con- 
 trived to send him to a college at Edinburgh, 
 where he first studied theology, but relin- 
 quished it for medicine, and, in addition to 
 the learned languages, he acquired French, 
 Spanish, Italian, German, Arabic, and Per- 
 sian. In 1801 he assisted Sir Walter Scott 
 in procuring materials and illustrations for 
 his "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," 
 and republished " The Complaynt of Scot- 
 land," with a learned preliminary disserta- 
 tion, notes, and a glossary. Having obtained 
 a doctor's degree, lie was appointed assistant 
 surgeon on tlie Madras establishment ; after 
 wliich he was made professor of the native 
 dialects in the Bengal College ; from which 
 
 525 
 
 situation, however, he was removed, to be 
 judge of the 24 i?ergunnahs of Calcutta. 
 His power of acquiring languages was truly 
 wonderful, and during his residence in India 
 he devoted himself to the study of oriental 
 literature ; but he did not long survive the 
 influence of the climate. His " Poetical Re- 
 mains " were published in 1821. 
 
 LEZAY-MARNEZIA, Claude Francis 
 Adrian, Marquis de, was bom at Metz, in 
 1735. In his youth he entered into the 
 French army, but soon quitted it, and retired 
 to his estate of St. Julian, near Lons-le- 
 Saunier, where he employed himself in 
 literature. At the commencement of the 
 French revolution he was chosen a deputy 
 from the states-general, and sat in the con- 
 stituent assembly ; but alarmed at the pro- 
 gress of Jocobinism, he emigrated to North 
 America in 1790, taking with him artists, 
 labourers, &c. to form a colony on a large 
 tract of land he had purchased of the Scioto 
 company, but the scheme failed, and he re- 
 turned to France in 1792. During the reign 
 of terror he was arrested and imprisoned, 
 but regained his liberty on the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, and died in 1800. 
 
 LEZAY-MARNESIA, Adrian, Count de, 
 son of the preceding, was engaged on several 
 diplomatic missions under the consulate. 
 In 180G he was made prefect of the depart- 
 ment of the Rhine and Moselle, and in 1810 
 of that of the Lower Rhine, in which office 
 he was continued after the restoration. He 
 wrote several political tracts, which at the 
 time excited considerable attention ; and 
 died in 1814. 
 
 LHUYD, Edward, an eminent antiquary 
 and naturalist, bom about 1G70, was a native 
 of Wales ; studied at Jesus College, Oxford, 
 in which university he succeeded Dr. Plot 
 as keeper of the Ashmolean Museum ; and 
 was the author of a learned and valuable 
 work, entitled " Archajologia Britannica." 
 He also published " Lithophylacii Britan- 
 nici Iconographia ; " and left in manuscript 
 an " Irish-English Dictionary," and other 
 curious papers on antiquarian subjects. 
 Died, 1709. 
 
 LHUYD, or LHWYD, Humphrey, an 
 antiquary, born at Denbigh, Wales ; author 
 of " Commentarioli Britannicse Descriptionis 
 Fragmentum," " De Mona ruidum Insula," 
 " De Armamentario Mano," and " The His- 
 tory of Cambria." Died, 1570. 
 
 LIBANIUS, a celebrated Greek rhetori- 
 cian, born at Antioch in 314. He studied at 
 Athens, and afterwards became famous as a 
 teacher of eloquence at Constantinople, till 
 the jealousy of the other professors being 
 excited by his success, he was accused of 
 magical practices, and banished. He after- 
 wards became preceptor to Basil and John 
 Chrysostom, so celebrated in the Christian 
 church ; and on the accession of Julian, he 
 was honoured with his friendship, and is 
 supposed to have assisted the emperor in 
 some of his compositions. Many of his ora- 
 tions and declamations are extant, but they 
 are verbose and pedantic. 
 
 LICHTENBERG, George Christopher, 
 an eminent natural philosopher, was born 
 near Darmstadt, in 1742 ; studied at Gottin- 
 gen, where he lyas appointed professor ex- 
 
Lie] 
 
 ^ dlieto Bni^tx^ul 3St0g:rajp!ji). 
 
 [lil 
 
 traordinary of the physical sciences ; and 
 succeeded Erleben, in 1777, as professor of 
 experimental philosophy. His astronomical 
 observations were original and important. 
 He also indulged much in satire ; and among 
 others, possessing much wit and humour, 
 was an effusion, entitled " The Physiognomy 
 of Tails," in whicli Lavater and his system 
 were held up to ridicule. Died, 1799. 
 
 LICHTENSTEIN, Joseph Wenceslaus, 
 -Prince of, an Austrian general and diplo- 
 matist, was born at Vienna, 1696. He had 
 the cliief command of the Austrian army 
 in Italy, with tlie title of field-marshal, in 
 1746, wlien he gained the victory of Placen- 
 tia. From that time he was chiefly employed 
 in diplomatic affairs, and the duties of his 
 office, as director-general of the artillery. 
 He was a patron of the arts and artists, and 
 founder of the Lichtenstein Gallery at 
 Vienna. Died, 1772. 
 
 LIDDEL, Duncan, a mathematician and 
 physician, was bom in 1561 at Aberdeen, 
 where he received his education. He after- 
 wards went to Frankfort, and tlien removed 
 to Kostock, and, in 1591, was elected pro- 
 fessor of matliematics at Helmstadt, where 
 he took his doctor's degree in physic. In 
 1607 he returned to Scotland, and founded a 
 mathematical professorship and six scholar- 
 ships at Aberdeen. He wrote several works 
 on medical subjects, and died in 1613. 
 
 LIEUT AUD, Joseph, a physician, was 
 born at Aix, in Provence, and became first 
 physician to the king of France, and, in 1752, 
 member of the academy of sciences. He 
 wrote " Anatomical Essays," "Elements of 
 Physiology," a " Synopsis of the Practice of 
 Medicine," and "Historic Anatomico Me- 
 dico." Died, 1780. 
 
 LIGHTFOOT, John, a learned English 
 divine, was born at Stoke-upon-Trent, in 
 Staffordshire, in 1602, and educated at 
 Christ's College, Cambridge. He made ex- 
 traordinary advances in tlie Greek and Latin 
 languages, and applied himself to Hebrew 
 with singular assiduity and success. In 1629 
 he printed his first work, entitled " Erubhim 
 or Miscellanies, Cliristian and Judaical." 
 He distinguished himself as a zealous pro- 
 moter of the Polyglot Bible, and, at the 
 Restoration, was appointed one of the as- 
 sistants at the Savoy conference. He became 
 vice-chancellor of Cambridge, and died in 
 1675. The works of Lightfoot, who, for 
 biblical learning, has had few equals, were 
 printed in 1614, 2 vols, folio, and his " Re- 
 mains " were published by Strype, in 1700. 
 
 LIGHTFOOT, John, a botanist, born at 
 Newent, in Gloucestershire, in 1735, was 
 educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, and 
 became, successively, rector of Shelden, in 
 Hampshire, and of Gotham and Sutton, in 
 Nottinghamshire. He was patronised by 
 the Duchess of Portland, and drew up the 
 catalogue of her museum. He was a fellow 
 of the Royal and Liunsean Societies, and 
 published the " Flora Scotica," 2 vols. He 
 died in 1788, and his Herbarium was pur- 
 chased by George III. 
 
 LIGNE, Charles Joseph, Prince de, was 
 born at Brussels, in 1735 ; entered the Aus- 
 trian army at the age of 17 ; distinguished 
 himself in the seven j'ears' war ; was invited 
 
 52G 
 
 to the French court by the Count d'Artois, 
 and admitted into the privacy of the royal 
 family ; was sent on a mission to Russia, 
 where his talents and personal accomplish- 
 ments rendered him a great favourite with 
 Catharine, who made him a field-marshal, 
 and gave him an estate in the Crimea ; and, 
 after enjoying great popularity, he died in 
 1814. His knowledge, experience, activity, 
 and acute observation appear by the nume- 
 rous writings which he published at different 
 periods ; and the information he gives of 
 the leading persons and events of his time, 
 is detailed in an amusing and instructive 
 manner. 
 
 LIGONIER, John, Earl of, field-marshal 
 of the English army. He served in all the 
 wars of queen Anne, under the Duke of 
 Marlborough, with distinguished glory, and 
 was employed in every succeeding war. He 
 died in 1770, aged 92. 
 
 LIGORIO, Peter, a painter and architect 
 of Naples, who died in 1580. His " Designs 
 after the Antique " make 30 vols, in folio. 
 
 LILBURNE, John, a violent and enthu- 
 siastic republican in the reign of Charles I., 
 was bom in 1618, in the county of Durham. 
 Having gone to Holland to superintend the 
 printing of some libels on the government, 
 he was sentenced by the star chamber coun- 
 cil to receive 500 lashes and to stand in the 
 pillory, for which the long parliament voted 
 him reparation. He fought at the battle of 
 Edge Hill as a captain of foot ; but at Brent- 
 ford he was made prisoner, and carried to 
 Oxford, where he would have been hanged, 
 had not the parliament threatened retali- 
 ation. He then obtained his liberty, and 
 was made first a major, and afterwards a 
 colonel of dragoons, in which capacity he 
 served at the battle of Marston Moor, where 
 he behaved witli great gallantry. Being 
 committed to Newgate for contempt, when 
 brought before the House of Lords for a 
 libel on the Earl of Manchester, he contrived, 
 while thus immured, to publish pamphlets 
 in rapid succession, in which he virulently 
 assailed his enemies, and even charged Crom- 
 well and Ireton with high treason. For this 
 piece of daring he was again tried, but he 
 defended himself with so much boldness and 
 ability, that he was acquitted. He possessed 
 an unconquerable spirit, and was of so 
 quarrelsome a disposition, that it lias been 
 appositely said of him, " that if there were 
 none living but him, John would be against 
 Lilburne, and Lilburne against John." He 
 died in 1657. 
 
 LILLO, George, a tragic writer of the 
 last century, was born in London, in 1693. 
 He carried on the business of a jeweller 
 many years in a style of great respectability, 
 and contrived to devote no small portion of 
 his time to dramatic productions. He well 
 knew how to touch the heart, and liis pieces, 
 which are subservient to the cause of virtue, 
 are, " George Barnwell," "Fatal Curiosity," 
 and "Ardeu of Feversham." He died in 
 
 LILLY, John, an English writer, was 
 born in Kent, about 1553, and died about 
 1600. He wrote " Euphues," a description 
 of different characters ; also some plays, as 
 " Endymion," " Campaspe," " Midas," acted 
 
lil] 
 
 ^ j^f&j WinibtriKX Biojp-apl^ii. 
 
 [lin 
 
 before queen Elizabeth ; " The Maid's Meta- 
 morphosis," " The Woman in the Moon," &c. 
 
 LILI^Y, William, an English aatrologer, 
 was born in Leicestersliire, in 1002. After 
 receiving a common education, he went to 
 London, and became boolc-keeper to a trades- 
 man, at whose death he married his widow. 
 In 1&'52 he became the pupil of Evans the 
 astrologer, and soon excelled his master. He 
 was employed by both parties during the 
 civil wars, and even Charles I. is said to 
 have made use of him. Lilly was certainly 
 consulted respecting the king's projected 
 escape from Carlsbrook Castle. He, however, 
 gained more from the parliament party; and 
 the predictions contained in his almanacks 
 had a wonderful eflFcct upon the soldiers 
 I and common people. He died at Horsham, 
 in 1C81. His principal works are, " Christian 
 Astrology," "A Collection of Nativities," 
 and " Observations on the Life and Death of 
 Charles, late King of England." 
 
 LILY, William, a learned grammarian, 
 bom at Odiham, in Hampshire, in 14fi8. He 
 was appointed first master of St. Paul's 
 School by the founder. Dr. Collet, in 1.510, 
 and died of the plague in Loudon, in 1522. 
 He is highly praised by Erasmus, for his un- 
 common knowledge in the languages, and 
 admirable skill in the instruction of youth. 
 He wrote some poems and tracts, but he is 
 chiefly remembered by the Latin grammar 
 which bears his name. 
 
 LIMBOKCH, Philip, a celebrated Dutch 
 theologian, of the sect of Remonstrants, born 
 at Amsterdam, in 163.S ; chosen professor of 
 divinity there in 1(508 ; and died in 1712. 
 He was the author of " A History of the In- 
 quisition," " A System of Christian Theo- 
 logy," and other works. 
 
 LIMONADE, Count de, an emancipated 
 Negro slave of Hayti, bom about 1770 ; dis- 
 tinguished in the war of independence waged 
 by Toussaint ; and was secretary of foreign 
 atfuirs to Christophe, when he superseded 
 Dessalines as emperor of Hayti. He survived 
 the suicidal death of Christophe, and the 
 destruction of the imperial government. 
 His sagacitj' and statesman-like talents were 
 exhibited in frequent diplomatic corre- 
 spondences with Napoleon's ministers. 
 
 LINACRE, Dr. Thomas, a very learned 
 English physician, was born in 1400. He 
 projected the foundation of the college of 
 physicians, was the first president after its 
 erection, and held that office for the seven 
 years he lived afterwards. He was succes- 
 sively physician to four sovereigns ; but at 
 the close of his life he entered into orders, 
 and obtained the precentorship of York, and 
 a prebend of Westminster. Died, 1524. 
 _ LIND, James, an ingenious English phy- 
 sician, who wrote treatises on the scurvy, 
 and on the means of preserving the health 
 of seamen. Died, 1794. 
 
 LINDANUS, William, a native of Dordt, 
 who exercised the oflSce of inquisitor, in 
 Holland and Friesland, with such severity, 
 that Philip II. made him bishop of Rure- 
 mende, in IM'>'2 ; and in l.'iHS he was removed 
 to Ghent, where he died the same year. He 
 was the author of several theological tracts 
 in Latin, all of them tinctured with intole- 
 rance. 
 
 LINDBLOM, Axel, a Swedish lexicogra- 
 pher ; professor of belles-lettres and politics 
 at Upsal, of which place he was afterwards 
 arclibishop. He crowned Bernadotte in 1818, 
 and (lied the year following. 
 
 LINDSAY, or LYNDSAY, Sir Davip, an 
 ancient Scottish poet, descended from a noble 
 family, was bom atGarmylton, in Hadding- 
 tonshire, in 1490, and became page 6f honour 
 to James V., then an infant. His first 
 poetical effort was the " Dreme ;" after 
 which he wrote the " Complaynt," and pre- 
 sented it to the king. In 15S0 he was 
 inaugurated Lyon king-at-arms, knighted, 
 and sent on a mission to Charles V. ; on his 
 return from which he occupied himself on a 
 drama of a singular kind, entitled a " Satyre 
 of the Three Estatis," which was followed 
 by " The History and Testament of Squire 
 Meldrum," and other poems. During the 
 regency, he espoused the cause of the re- 
 formers, and entered with great zeal into 
 religious disputes. His death took place 
 alxjut the year 15.">7. A complete edition of 
 his works was published in 180G. 
 
 LINDSEY, TiiEOPHiLUS, an eminent di- 
 vine of the Unitarian persuasion, was born 
 in 172.3, at Middlewich, in Cheshire, and was 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 He entered into orders, and held the vicarage 
 of Catterick, in Yorkshire, which from con- 
 scientious scruples he resigned, and embraced 
 the principles of Unitarianism. From 1774 
 till 1793 he was minister of a congregation in 
 Essex Street, in the Strand, and died in 1803. 
 He wrote several works on the subject of his 
 faith ; among which are, his " Apology," and 
 a " Sequel to the Apology," "Considerations 
 on the Divine Government," an " Historical 
 View of the Unitarian Doctrine and Wor- 
 ship," &c. 
 
 LINGUET, Simon Nicholas Hetry, a 
 political and miscellaneous writer, was bom 
 at Rheims, in 1730. Early in life he entered 
 the army, and served as aide-de-camp to the 
 Prince de Beauvau, in Portugal ; he after- 
 wards studied the law, and became barrister; 
 but being expelled from the bar, in conse- 
 quence of some dispute with his professional 
 brethren, he turned political writer, and 
 having given offence to the ruling powers, 
 was sent to the Bastile. On obtaining his 
 liberty, he published an account of his im- 
 prisonment, a work which produced a strong 
 sensation, and is said to have prepared the 
 way for subsequent events. He retired to 
 Bmssels in 1787, and there published his 
 " Annales Politiques," for which he was re- 
 warded by the emperor Joseph II. with a 
 present of 1000 ducats. He then returned to 
 France, took an active part in the revolu- 
 tion, and closed his life by the guillotine, at 
 Paris, in 1794. 
 
 . LINIERS, Don Saxtiaoo, a Spanish ad- 
 miral, born in 1700. He re-took Buenos 
 Ajrres from the English in 1808, and treated 
 with Napoleon for the purpose of subjecting 
 New Spain to his brother Joseph's autho- 
 rity. Attending an ultra-royalist plot to 
 suppress the revolution, he was arrested, con- 
 demned, and executed, by the successful in- 
 surgents, at Buenos Ayres, in 1809, 
 
 LINLEY, Thomas, the name of two dis- 
 tinguished English musicians, father and 
 
lin] 
 
 ^ ^tiii Unihtx^nl ^iast!i}?ff\j» 
 
 [lin 
 
 son. The elder received his musical edu- 
 cation under Chillcott, the organist at Bath, 
 and for many years conducted the oratorios 
 and concerts in that city. One of his 
 daughters became the object of a most ro- 
 mantic attachment to, and subsequently 
 married, the celebrated Richard Brinsley 
 Sheridan ; and on that gentleman com- 
 pleting the purchase of Drury Lane Theatre, 
 Linley became joint patentee with him, and 
 conducted the musical department. In con- 
 junction with his son, whose professional 
 abilities were of a high order, he composed 
 the airs to numerous operas, many of which 
 are still held in great esteem. A melancholy 
 fate awaited the younger Linley. In August, 
 1788, while on a visit, with his sisters, at 
 Grimsthorpe, the seat of the Duke of An- 
 caster, he went on board a pleasure-boat in 
 the canal, with three other young men, 
 when, through some mismanagement, the 
 boat upset ; his companions saved themselves 
 by clinging to the keel, but he sank in his 
 endeavours to reach the shore. On the in- 
 telligence being conveyed to his father, he 
 was seived with a brain fever, and though he 
 lived till the year 1795, he never recovered 
 the shock which the loss of his favourite and 
 gifted son occasioned. 
 
 LINN, JoHX Blair, an American poet, 
 born in 1777, at Phippenburgli, Pennsylva- 
 nia. In 1799 he became a preacher among 
 the Presbyterians at Philadelphia ; but con- 
 tinued to cultivate his poetical talents. He 
 replied with zeal and indignation to Dr. 
 Priestley, respecting the comparison drawn 
 by the latter between the merits of Jesus 
 Christ and Socrates ; was the author of " The 
 Powers of Genius," and other poems ; and 
 died in 1804. 
 
 LINN^US, or, more properly, LINNE', 
 Charles von, the most celebrated of 
 modern naturalists, and the founder of the 
 present botanic system, was born in 1707, at 
 Roeshult, in Sweden. From his infancy he 
 discovered a propensity and talent for the 
 study of plants ; and though destined for the 
 church, his predilection for natural history 
 withdrew his attention from theological 
 studies, and his destination was changed for 
 the medical profession. While at the uni- 
 versities of Lund and Upsal, he laboured 
 under great disadvantages, from the narrow- 
 ness of his father's circumstances ; but the 
 patronage of Celsius, the theological pro- 
 fessor, who was also a naturalist, improved 
 his condition, and he obtained some private 
 pupils. It was at this period that he formed 
 the idea of that botanical system which lias 
 immortalised his name. In 1732 he made a 
 tour through Lapland, and, visiting the 
 mining district round Fahlun, formed a 
 system of that science, whicli he afterwards 
 published in his " Systema Naturas." He 
 next resided for three years in Holland, 
 where he took his doctor's degree, and was 
 superintendant of Clifford's celebrated gar- 
 den at Harte-camp, near Haerlem. After 
 visiting England, in 1738, he made an excur- 
 sion to Paris, and, towards the end of that 
 year, returned to his native country, and 
 settled as a physician at Stockholm, where 
 the establishment of a royal academy, of 
 which he was one of the first members, con- 
 
 tributed to the advancement of his reputa- 
 tion, by the opportunities which it afforded 
 for the display of his abilities. In 1741 he 
 succeeded to the professorship of medicine j 
 at Upsal, to which was added the super- 
 intendence of the botanic garden. His fame 
 now spread through the civilised world, and 
 scientific bodies eagerly enrolled him among 
 their members ; in 1747 he was nominated 
 royal archiater ; in 1753 he was created a 
 knight of the polar star — an honour never 
 before bestowed on a literary man ; in 17G1 
 he was elevated to the rank of nobility, and 
 acquired a moderate degree of opulence, 
 sufficient to enable him to purchase an estate 
 and mansion at Hammarby near Upsal, 
 where he chiefly resided during the last 
 years of his life. He died in 1778. Besides 
 his works on natural history, he published a 
 classified " Materia Medica," &c. ; but it is 
 as the founder of a system of botanical science 
 that he ranks as an original genius, and will 
 continue to be remembered. 
 
 LINSCHOTEN, Johx Hugh vait, a 
 Dutch voyager, of the 16th century, who 
 wrote narratives of his voyages to the East 
 Indies, and a description of the coasts of 
 Guinea, Congo, and Angola. Born, 1553 ; 
 died, lfi.%3. 
 
 LINT, Peter van, an historical and por- 
 trait painter of Antwerp, was born in 1609. 
 He painted in Italy several years, and re- 
 turned to his own country increased in wealth 
 
 and reputation A relation of his, Hen- 
 
 DRic VAN Lint, was an eminent landscape 
 painter, and executed some fine views about 
 Rome. 
 
 LINWOOD, Miss, whose unique and ad- 
 mirable "Exhibition," in Leicester Square, 
 for so many years attracted public notice, 
 and obtained universal commendation, was 
 bom in Birmingham in the year 1755 ; but 
 when she was only six years old her friends 
 removed to Leicester, and in that town she 
 continued to reside till her death. We know 
 not the precise time that Miss Linwood be- I 
 gan to collect together those efforts of genius 
 and patient skill by which she earned her 
 popularity ; but the " Exhibition " was first 
 opened at the Hanover Square Rooms in 
 1798 ; it was subsequently removed to Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, Dublin, &c., and was finally 
 located in Leicester Square. Her produc- 
 tions consist of copies from the paintings of 
 the best masters, wrought in worsted in a 
 style of excellence never surpassed. The 
 entire collection comprises nearly 100 pic- 
 tures, the largest of which, "The Judgment 
 upon Cain," was completed in her 75th year; 
 the gem of the whole, however, is probably 
 the " Salvator Mundi," from the original by 
 Carlo Dolce ; for which, it is said, she refused 
 the offer of 3000 guineas. This picture she 
 bequeathed to her Majesty Queen Victoria. 
 But it is not only of her peculiar talent that 
 we ought to speak. She was a kind and en- 
 couraging patroness of unassuming merit ; 
 and her name will long be remembered with 
 affectionate regard by those who knew her 
 moral worth, and witnessed her disinterested 
 acts of benevolence. Died in the 90th year 
 of her age, March 2. 1845. Her celebrated 
 collection was afterwards sold by public auc- 
 tion, and realised but a very trifling sum. 
 
Lir] 
 
 ^ i^clD ^ntljcr^iil %iasra^f}v. 
 
 [lit 
 
 LIPPI, Lorenzo, a painter and poet, 
 was bom at Florence in 1C0(5, and died in 
 1(5()4. He executed many fine pieces for the 
 cliapels and convents of his native city. As 
 a poet he is known by a burlesque piece en- 
 titled " Malmantile Racquistaro," printed 
 at Florence in 1088, 4to., under the name of 
 
 Perloni Zipoli There were also two other 
 
 Florentine artists of the name of Lim ; one, 
 Francisco Filippo, who died in 1488 ; and 
 his son Filippo, who died in 1.505 : the latter 
 was a painter of considerable talent and 
 reputation. 
 
 LIPSIUS, Justus, an eminent critic and 
 scholar, born at Overysche, a village of 
 Brabant, in l.'>47. He studied at Aeth, Co- 
 logne, and Ix)uvain ; then went to Rome, 
 and became secretary to Cardinal Granvella. 
 On his return to the Netherlands, after a 
 short time spent at Louvain, he visited the 
 capital of the German empire, and then 
 accepted a professorship in the university of 
 Jena. Many tempting and honourable offers 
 were made him by various potentates, to en- 
 gage him in their service ; but he refused them 
 all ; and at length died at Louvain, in IGOG. 
 Lipsius changed his religion several times ; 
 and whether as a Catholic, a Lutheran, or a 
 Calvinist, he was equally zealous for the 
 time, and equally bigoted. He wrote many 
 learned treatises, but his principal work is 
 the "VariiB Lectiones." 
 
 LISLE, Sir Georoe, a gallant royalist 
 officer during the civil wars in England, was 
 a native of London, where his father was a 
 bookseller. He distinguished himself so 
 much by his courage at the battle of New- 
 bury, that Charles I. knighted him on the 
 field. In lfi48 he defended Colchester with 
 great bravery; but being at length compelled 
 to surrender the town, he was basely shot by 
 the parliamentarian leaders. He submitted 
 to his fate with heroic fortitude. 
 
 LIST, Fredeuic, a distinguished political 
 economist, was long a member of the Wur- 
 temberg parliament, whence he was ex- 
 pelled for the boldness of his opinions. In 
 1819 he conceived the idea of the " ZoUve- 
 rein" (the Customs Union of the German 
 states; an institution which, after encounter- 
 ing many obstacles, was finally adopted by 
 nearly the whole of Germany), established a 
 journal to support his views, and published 
 several valuable works on political economy. 
 But a series of disappointments preyed upon 
 his mind, and in a fit of insanity lie com- 
 mitted suicide, 1846, in the 57th year of his 
 age. 
 
 LISTER, Thomas Hexry, a novel writer 
 and historian, was born in 1801, and may be 
 said to have inherited literary tastes and 
 capabilities, the poetical talents both of his 
 father and grandfather having been favour- 
 ably mentioned by Miss Seward. He was 
 the only son of Thomas Lister, esq., of 
 Armitage Park, and was related to, or con- 
 nected by marriage with, some of the first 
 families ; the Lord Ribblesdale being his 
 nephew, and the Earl of Clarendon and Lord 
 John Russell, his brothers-in-law. He held 
 the office of registrar-general of births, &c. ; 
 but this did not prevent him from being an 
 industrious and productive author. Besides 
 " Oranby " and " Herbert Lacy" — two novels 
 
 which are among the best of that not very 
 admirable species "the fashionable" — he 
 published "Epicharis," a tragedy; and the 
 " Life and Administration of Lord Claren- 
 don." Died, June 1842, aged 41. 
 
 LISTON, JouN, a very popular actor of 
 low comedy, whose natural humour and pe- 
 culiar drolleries aflforded many a rich treat 
 to the playgoers of London, was bom in 
 St. Anne's parish, Soho, and in the early 
 period of his life was engaged in the unin- 
 viting employment of a teacher in a day- 
 school. Forsaking the thraldom of a school- 
 room, and fancying he possessed the neces- 
 sary requisites for the stage, he formed an 
 acquaintance with, and often exhibited as an 
 amateur performer on the same boards as the 
 late C. Matthews, both of whom at first mis- 
 took their forte, and strutted forth as heroes 
 in tragedy. Having made sundry pro- 
 vincial trips, he was at length seen at New- 
 castle by Mr. C. Kemble, who recommended 
 him to Mr. Colman, and he appeared in 1805 
 before a London audience at the Haymarket. 
 He also obtained an engagement at Covent 
 Garden, where he remained, increasing in 
 public favour, till 1823, when Elliston hav- 
 ing offered him 40/. a week, he transferred 
 his services to Drury Lane, and continued 
 there till 1831 ; but the enormous salary of 
 1007. a week tempted him to enlist under the 
 banners of Madame Vestris at the Olympic 
 Tlieatre, where he performed six seasons, and 
 may be said to have closed his theatrical 
 career. He died rich : how could he do 
 otherwise, who constantly saved money, and 
 never engaged in a questionable speculation ? 
 Died, March 22. 184«, aged 09. 
 
 LISTON, Robert, a surgeon of great 
 celebrity, was bom at Ecclesmachan near 
 Linlithgow, of which parish his father was 
 tlie minister, in 1794. At the termination of 
 his professional studies he fixed his resi- 
 dence in the Scottisli metropolis, where he 
 speedily rose to the highest eminence both 
 as a lecturer and operator. In 1834 he 
 was appointed surgeon to the North Lon- 
 don Hospital ; and he subsequently became 
 professor of clinical surgery in University 
 College, and continued until his death one 
 of the brightest ornaments of that important 
 institution. In 1840 hj was appointed one of 
 the examiners of the Royal College of Sur- 
 geons. His practice had become very ex- 
 tensive, and was steadily increasing ; his 
 name was familiar in every medical school 
 throughout the world ; a rich harvest of 
 honour and wealth lay before him ; but, in 
 the zenith of his manhood and his reputation, 
 he was struck down by sudden death. His 
 chief work was his " Principles of Surgery," 
 the fiist edition of which appeared in 18.'53 ; 
 but his fame, like that of Sir Astley •Cooper, 
 rests mainly on his accurate anatomical 
 knowledge, and the extraordinary facility 
 with which he performed the most difficult 
 operations. Died, 1847. 
 
 LITHGOW, William, a native of Scot- 
 land, who in the reign of queen Elizabeth 
 travelled on foot through numerous countries 
 in Europe, Asia, and America, over a dis- 
 tance of more than 30,000 miles ; during 
 which he encountered many hardships, and 
 was at length thrown into the prisons of the 
 
lit] 
 
 ^ ^ciM Winibtx^Kl 3Stograp]bl'» 
 
 [liv 
 
 Inquisition in Spain, and so cruelly tortured 
 as to be deprived of the use of his limbs. On 
 regaining his liberty, and coming to Eng- 
 land, he published an account of his adven- 
 tures, which he presented to James I. He 
 also wrote a narrative of the siege of Breda. 
 Died, 1640. 
 
 LITTLE, William, an ancient English 
 historian, known also by the name of Gu- 
 lielmus Naubrigensis, was bom at Bidling- 
 ton, in Yorkshire, in 1136, and educated at 
 the abbey of Newborough, in the same 
 county. In his advanced years he composed 
 a History of England, in 5 books, from the 
 Norman Conquest to 1197, which for veracity, 
 regularity of disposition, and purity of lan- 
 guage, is one of the most valuable produc- 
 tions of that period. 
 
 LITTLETON, Adam, a learned divine, 
 was born at Hales Owen, in Shropshire, in 
 1627, and educated at Westminster School, 
 from whence he was elected student of 
 Christchurch, Oxford, but was ejected hy 
 the parliamentary visitors in 1648. He then 
 became usher to Dr. Busby, and in le.^S was 
 appointed under-master. In 1674, being 
 D.D., he obtained the living of Chelsea, and 
 a prebend of Westminster. He was the au- 
 I thor of " Elementa Religionis," a Latin and 
 English Dictionary, several sermons, and 
 other works. Died, 1694. 
 
 LITTLETON, or LYTTLETON, Thomas, 
 a celebrated English judge, and law autho- 
 rity, was born at Frankley, in Worcester- 
 shire. He studied at the Temple, was ap- 
 pointed one of the judges of the common 
 pleas, and continued to enjoy the esteem of 
 his sovereign, Edward IV., and the nation, 
 until his death, at an advanced age, in 1481. 
 The memory of Judge Littleton is preserved 
 by his celebrated treatise on "Tenures," 
 which is esteemed the principal authority 
 for the law of real property in England. 
 This work has been commented on by Coke, 
 Sir M. Hale, Lord Cliancellor Nottingham, 
 and other eminent legal characters. 
 
 LITTLETON, Edward, an able English 
 judge, was of the same family as the pre- 
 ceding, and born at Henley, in Shropshire, 
 in 1589. In 1639 he M'as made chief justice 
 of the common pleas, and the year following 
 lord keeper of the great seal, at which time 
 he was created a peer by the title of Lord 
 Littleton. He died at Oxford in 1645. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, Chakles Jenkinson, Earl 
 of, eldest son of Colonel Jenkinson, was bom 
 in 1727, and was educated at the Charter- 
 house, and at University College, Oxford. 
 He entered parliament in 1761, and soon 
 took office as under-secretary of state ; in 
 1766 he was made a lord of the admiralty ; 
 in 1772, vice-treasurer of Ireland ; in 1778, 
 secretary at war ; and, in 1784, president of 
 the board of trade. He was a great favourite 
 of George III., and was often accused of being 
 one of his secret advisers. In 1786 he was 
 created baron Hawkesbury ; in 1796, earl of 
 Liverpool ; and he died in 1808. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, Robert Banks Jenkix- 
 sox, Farl of, son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1770, and received his education at the 
 same seminaries of learning as his father. 
 On quitting college, he spent some time in 
 foreign travel ; was in Paris during the de- 
 
 struction of the Bastile, and rendered himself 
 useful at that period to the English govern- 
 ment by his communications to Mr. Pitt. 
 At the general election in 1790, Mr. Jenkin- 
 son was returned member for Rye ; and, as 
 he wanted twelve months of the age required 
 for a member to sit in parliament, he spent 
 that time in acquiring further information 
 respecting continental affairs. His maiden 
 speech in 1792 indicated his future eminence 
 as an orator, and as a member of the cabinet. 
 In 1796 his father being created earl of 
 I<iverpool, he became lord Hawkesbury, and 
 was made a commissioner of Indian affairs. 
 In 1801 he was appointed secretary of state 
 for foreign affairs ; which office, four years 
 after, he exchanged for that of the home 
 department. This he resigned on the dis- 
 solution of the Addington administration ; 
 and, at the death of Mr. Pitt, succeeded him 
 as lord warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1807 
 he was again minister for the home depart- 
 ment ; and on the death of his father, in the 
 year following, succeeded to the title of earl 
 of Liverpool. At the death of Mr. Perceval, 
 in 1812, his lordship was raised to the pre- 
 miership, and he held that elevated station 
 till 1827, when an apoplectic and paralytic 
 attack rendered him incapable of public 
 business. He died in 1828. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robert, an eminent 
 American politician, was born at New York, 
 in 1746 ; in which city he practised the law 
 with great success. He was one of the com- 
 mittee to prepare the declaration of inde- 
 pendence ; was appointed secretary of fo- 
 reign affairs in 1780 ; and, throughout tlie 
 war of the revolution, signalised himself by 
 his zeal and efficiency in the cause. He was 
 afterwards chancellor of the state of New 
 York ; and, in 1801, was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Jefferson, minister plenipotentiary to 
 France, where, during a residence of seve- 
 ral years, he was treated with marked atten- 
 tion by Buonaparte, who, on his quitting 
 Paris, presented to him a splendid snuff- 
 box, with a miniature likeness of himself, 
 painted by Isabev. Died, 1813. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, William, an American 
 author and statesman, was born at New 
 York, in 1723. He filled several important 
 situations at New York, and, after the esta- 
 blishment of the constitution, was made 
 governor of New Jersey. He was a zealous 
 advocate of American independence ; wrote 
 a *' A Review of the Military Operations in 
 North America, from 1753 to 1758," "Phi- 
 losophical Solitude," a poem ; and several 
 other works. Died, 1790. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Brockholst, son of the 
 preceding, was born at New York, in 1757 ; 
 entered the army in 1776 ; and being after- 
 wards attached to the suite of General 
 Arnold, with the rank of major, he shared 
 in the honour of the conquest of Burgoyne. 
 In 1779 he accompanied Mr. Jay to " the 
 court of Spain as his private secretary ; 
 studied the law on his return ; and ulti- 
 matelv became judge of the supreme court 
 of the state of New York, in 1802. He en- 
 joyed the reputation of being an upright 
 judge, an able pleader, and an accomplished 
 scliolar. Died, 1823. 
 
 LIVIUS, or LIVY, TiTcs, a celebrated 
 
LLO] 
 
 ^ ^clT) mutljfriSal 2St00ra4Jf)ii. 
 
 [lob 
 
 Roman historian, was bom in the territory 
 of Pataviura, now Padua. In the reign of 
 Augustus he went to Rome, and was held 
 in great esteem by the emperor and many 
 other distinguished characters. Ilis reputa- 
 tion is principally built upon his " History 
 of Rome," from the foundation of the city 
 to the death of Drusus, in 142 books, of which 
 only 35 have been preserved. This history 
 is highly praised by Seneca, Pliny the Elder, 
 Quintilian, &c. ; and may be regarded as one 
 of the most valuable literary relics of anti- 
 quity. 
 
 LLORENTE, Don Juan Antonio, a 
 modem Spanish historian and ecclesiastic, 
 born in 1756. He was secretary-general to 
 the Inquisition, of which court he published 
 a " Complete History." He was also the 
 author of " Memoirs relative to the History 
 of the Spanish Revolution," " Political 
 Portraits of the Popes," and other works. 
 Having accepted a situation under Joseph 
 Buonaparte, and written in his favour, he 
 was compelled to quit Spain on the return of 
 Ferdinand. Died, 1823. 
 
 LLOYD, David, a biographical writer 
 of the 17th century, was born in Merioneth- 
 shire, in 1625 ; was educated at Oxford ; 
 became reader at the Charter-house ; sub- 
 sequently obtained a prebend at St. Asaph ; 
 and died in 1691. His principal works are, 
 " Memoirs of the Statesmen and Favourites 
 of England," " Memoirs of Persons who suf- 
 fered for their Loyalty," a " Life of General 
 Monk," and a " History of Plots and Con- 
 spiracies." 
 
 LLOYD, HuMPUKY, an eminent military 
 officer and writer on tactics, was born in 
 Wales, in 1729. He served with great re- 
 putation in the Austrian, Prussian, and 
 Russian armies, and rose to the rank of 
 general. On his return to England he sur- 
 veyed the coasts, wrote a memoir on the 
 " Invasion and Defence of Great Britain," 
 " The History of the Seven Years' War," 
 and other military treatises. Died, 1783. 
 
 LLOYD, RoisEUT, an English poet, was 
 born in 1733, and was the son of the Rev. 
 Dr. Lloyd, second master of Westminster 
 School. After finishing his education at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, he became an 
 usher at Westminster ; but, disliking the 
 restraints which the situation imposed on 
 him, and having formed an acquaintance 
 with Churcliill, Bonnel Thornton, and other 
 gay wits of that age, he quitted the usher's 
 desk, and commenced author by profession. 
 His first production, "The Actor," gave rise, 
 it is said, to the famous Rosciud of his friend 
 Churchill. His other poems possess much 
 merit ; but his genius could not shield him 
 from the assaults of poverty, and he died a 
 prisoner in the Fleet, in 1764. 
 
 LLOYD, WiLMAM, a learned English 
 prelate, was born in lfi27, at Tilehurst, in 
 Berkshire ; was educated at Oxford ; ob- 
 tained a prebend in the collegiate church of 
 Ripon, soon after the Restoration ; was 
 appointed chaplain to the king in 1666 ; and 
 collated to a prebend in Salisbury the year 
 following. Other church preferments fol- 
 lowed ; and, in 1680, he was raised to the 
 bishopric of St. Asaph, when he joined Arch- 
 bishop Sancroft and other prelates in present- 
 
 ing a petition to James II. deprecating his 
 assumed power of suspending the laws against 
 popery. On the revolution taking place, he 
 was made almoner to king William ; was 
 promoted to the see of Lichfield, in 1692 ; and 
 died, bishop of Worcester, in 1717. His 
 writings, which relate to divinity and his- 
 tory, display much learning and acuteness. 
 Among them are, "A Dissertation upon 
 Daniel's Prophecy of the Seventy Weeks," 
 " An Account of the Life of Pythagoras," 
 "The History of the Govermnent of the 
 Church," &c. 
 
 LOBAU, Count, an eminent soldier, whose 
 name was Mo.vton, was, at the breaking 
 out of the revolution, employed as a jour- 
 neyman baker in his native town, Phals- 
 burg in the Meurthe. But on entering the 
 army he speedilj' signalised himself by acts 
 of bravery, which were rewarded by various 
 steps of promotion, until, in 1804, at the 
 camp of Boulogne, Napoleon, amid the 
 applause of the whole army, made him his 
 aide-de-camp, and gave him the command 
 of the third regiment of the line. In the 
 campaign of 1805 his efficient gallantry 
 obtained him the rank of general of bri- 
 gade, and in 1807 that of general of division. 
 In the campaign of 1809 he defended the 
 little island of Lobau (from which he took 
 his subsequent title) against the Austrians, 
 completely beat them off, and took liis troops, 
 comparatively unhurt, across the Danube, 
 In 1812 he was made aid-major of the im- 
 perial guard ! in 1813, commander of the 
 first corps of the grand army ; and, in 1814, 
 a chevalier of St. I^ouis. During the me- 
 morable " hundred days" he gave his sup- 
 port to Napoleon, and was made command- 
 ant of the first military division, and a 
 member of the chamber of peers. In the 
 brief but easy campaign of 1815, he com- 
 manded the sixth corps of tlie army of the 
 north. He gave the Prussians a severe de- 
 feat on the 8th of June in that year, but 
 was wounded and sent prisoner to England 
 from that burial-place of Jiis aspiring mas- 
 ter's hopes — Waterloo. From that time 
 until 1818 he remained in England ; he 
 was then permitted to return home, and in 
 1828 was sent as a deputy for the Meurthe, 
 and took his seat on the opposition benches. 
 In the revolution of 1830 he took an active 
 part ; and when Lafayette resigned the com- 
 mand of the national guard. Count Lobau 
 was appointed his successor. Shortly after- 
 wards he received his marshal's baton from 
 Louis Philippe, by whom he was greatly 
 respected. Born, 1770 ; died 1839. 
 
 LOBEIRA, Vasco, author of the cele- 
 brated romance of " Amadis de Gaul," was 
 a native of Porta, in Portugal, in the 14th 
 century. In 1386 he was knighted by Joam 
 I. on the field of battle at Aljubarotta ; and 
 he died at Elvas, in 1401. Dr. Southey has 
 translated Lobeira's work, and has satis- 
 factorily proved it to be an original, and not 
 a translation from the French, as many had 
 before imagined. 
 
 LOBO, Jekome, a Portuguese Jesuit, was 
 born at Lisbon, in 1593. He went as a mis- 
 sionary to Abyssinia, and, on his return to 
 Europe, became rector of the college of 
 Coimbra, where he died in 1678. He wrote 
 
 531 
 
 z z 2 
 
LOC] 
 
 ^ 0m WiwihtviKl 23i00rap^e, 
 
 [lol 
 
 "An Account of Abyssinia," of which Dr. 
 Johnson published an abridged transhition. 
 
 LOCK, Matthew, an eminent English 
 musician, was born at Exeter, where he 
 became a chorister in the cathedral. lie 
 publislied some musical pieces in 1657, and, 
 after the Restoration, he was employed as a 
 composer of operas. He was also appointed 
 composer to the chapel royal, and has ac- 
 quired considerable reputation by the beau- 
 tiful music to Shakspeare's Macbeth. 
 
 LOCKE, JoHX, one of the most eminent 
 pliilosophers and writers of modern times, 
 was bom at Wrington, in Somersetshire, in 
 1632. He was educated at Westminster 
 School, and Christchurch College, Oxford, 
 where he distinguished himself much by his 
 general proficiency ; and finally applied to 
 the study of pliysic. In the year 1666 he 
 was introduced to Lord Asliley, afterwards 
 the celebrated Earl of Shaftesburj', to wlxom 
 he became essentially serviceable in his 
 medical capacity, and who formed a high 
 opinion of his general powers, and intro- 
 duced him to the Duke of Buckingliam, the 
 Earl of Halifax, and other distinguished 
 characters. He also confided to him the 
 superintendence of his son's education ; and 
 when, in 1672, Lord Shaftesbury was ap- 
 pointed chancellor, he made ^Ir. I/Ocke 
 secretary of presentations, and, at a later 
 period, secretary to the board of trade. On 
 his patron retiring to Holland, to avoid a 
 state prosecution, Locke accompanied him, 
 and remained there several years. So ob- 
 noxious was he to James's government, that 
 the English envoy demanded Mr. Locke of 
 the States, on suspicion of his being con- 
 cerned in Monmouth's rebellion, which occa- 
 sioned him to keep private, and employ him- 
 self in finishing liis " Essay on the Human 
 Understanding." At the close of the revolu- 
 tion he returned to England, and was made 
 a commissioner of appeals, and in 1695 a 
 commissioner of trade and plantations. He 
 died at Oates, in Essex, in 1704. His prin- 
 cipal works are, an "Essay on Human Un- 
 derstanding," 2 vols. ; " Letters on Tolera- 
 tion," "A Treatise on Civil Government," 
 and " Thoughts concerning Education." 
 
 LOCKAIAN, John, an English writer, 
 was the author of " Rosalinda," a musical 
 drama ; and " David's Lamentations," an 
 oratorio. He was also one of the compilers 
 of the Great Historical Dictionary. He died 
 in 1771. 
 
 LODGE, Edmuxd, clarencieux-king-at- 
 arms, K. H., and F. S. A. ; author of the 
 well-known "Portraits of illustrious Per- 
 sonages of Great Britain," was in early life 
 a cornet of dragoons. He also published 
 several other works, " Illustrations of British 
 History," the " Life of Sir Julius Caesar," 
 &c. &c., besides some elaborate and erudite 
 papers in the Quarterly Review. Born, 1756; 
 died, 1839. 
 
 LODGE, Thomas, an English physician 
 and poet, who died in 1625. He wrote 
 " Wounds of Civil War," a tragedy ; " Look- 
 ing-glass for London and England," a tragi- 
 comedy. He also assisted Robert Green in 
 writing some of his works. 
 
 LOFFT, Capel, a barrister, and the au- 
 thor of several works in polite literature, 
 
 532 
 
 was born in London in 1751. He was edu- 
 cated at Eton and Cambridge, and was 
 called to the bar in 1775. On succeeding to 
 the €apel estates, in 1781, he removed to 
 Troston, in Suffolk, and became an active 
 magistrate of the county till 1800 ; when, 
 for having too zealously exerted liimself as 
 under-sheriff to delay the execution of a 
 young woman who had received sentence 
 of death, he was removed from the com- 
 mission. Mr. LofFt was a very considerable 
 contributor to most of the magazines of the 
 day ; and it was to his active patronage of 
 Robert Bloomfield that the public was in- 
 debted for the " Farmer's Boy," and other 
 poems by that author. Died, 1824. 
 
 LOFTUS, Dudley, an oriental scholar, 
 was bom, in 1618, at Rathfarnham, near 
 Dublin ; studied at Trinity College and at 
 Oxford ; became vicar-general and judge of 
 the prerogative court in Ireland ; and died 
 in 1695. Among his writings are, " A His- 
 tory of the Eastern and Western Churches," 
 " The History of Our Saviour, taken from 
 the Greek, Syriac, and other Oriental Au- 
 thors," " A Translation of the Ethiopic New 
 Testament into Latin," &c. 
 
 LOGAN, Feedekic, Baron de, a German 
 poet, was born in 1604, and died in 1655. 
 Lessing and Ramler published an edition of 
 his Epigrams, which are much esteemed. 
 
 LOGAN, JoHx, a Scottish poet and prose 
 writer of some eminence, was born in 1748. 
 Having studied for the church, his eloquence 
 and ability procured for him the living of 
 South Leith, in 1773. But his conduct 
 having rendered him unpopular with his 
 parishioners, he was induced to resign his 
 charge ; and he then proceeded to London, 
 where he became connected with the press ; 
 and, among other productions, wrote a pam- i 
 phlet, entitled " A Review of the principal ! 
 Charges against Mr. Warren Hastings," | 
 which led to the prosecution of the pub- 
 lisher, Mr. Stockdale, who, however, was j 
 acquitted. His poems, usually printed with j 
 those of Michael Bruce, whose merits he : 
 was the first to make known, are chiefly lyri- I 
 cal ; but he also wrote "Runnymcde," a tra- I 
 gedy ; and published tlie " Elements of the | 
 Philosophy of History " (a most able work), | 
 under the pseudonym of Rutherford ; be- { 
 sides being the author of a volume of ser- j 
 mons, published posthumously, which have 
 enjoyed great popularity. Died, 1788. ! 
 
 LOKMAM, surnamed Al-hakim, or the 
 Wise, an eastern philosopher and fabulist, i 
 who by some is supposed to have been an ' 
 Abyssinian, and by others an Arabian, is j 
 said to have been contemporary with David, | 
 and that he embraced the Jewish faith ; but 
 neither the age in which he lived, nor the 
 country which gave him birth, are cor- 
 rectly known. His fables were published at 
 Leyden, by Erpenius, in Arabic and Latin, 
 in 1636. 
 
 LOLLARD, Walter, the founder of a 
 religious sect in Germany, about 1315. He 
 was burnt, at Cologne, in 1322. 
 
 LOLLI, or LOLLY, Antonio, a cele- 
 brated performer on the violin, was a native 
 of Bergamo, in Italy, and born in 1728. In 
 Germany, Russia, England, Spain, France, 
 and Naples, he excited the admiration of 
 
lom] 
 
 ^ ^tfa UnihtxSnl JSiograjp]^!). 
 
 [low 
 
 the musical world ; but tliough for many 
 years he possessed a wonderful command 
 over the instrument, yet during the latter 
 part of his life not a truce was left of that 
 extraordinary skill which had established 
 his fame. Died, 1802. 
 
 LOM, or LOMMIUS, JossE van, an in- 
 genious physician, was bom at Buren, in 
 Guelderland, in 1500, and died in 15«2. His 
 { Latin style is pure and elegant, and hia 
 I works are held in estimation. 
 I LOMBARD, John Louis, an eminent 
 I writer on military tactics, was born at 
 ' Strasburg, in 1723 ; became professor of 
 [ artillery at Metz ; and died in 1794. He 
 ! translated into French, " Kobins's Prin- 
 ciples of Gunnery," and wrote " Aide 
 Miinoire a I'Usage desOlHciers d'Artillerie 
 de France," 2 vols. ; " Instruction sur la 
 Manoeuvre et le Tir du Cannon de Ba- 
 taille," and "Traitd du Mouvement des 
 I Projectiles." 
 
 I LOMONOZOF, Michael Wasilowitz, 
 I A Russian poet and liistorian of the last 
 j century, was born in 1711. He was the son 
 ' of a lislimonger, and having fled from his 
 father, he took refuge in a monastery, where 
 he received his education, which he after- 
 1 wards improved at a German university. 
 In 1741 he returned to his native country, 
 ! and became member of the academy of 
 1 Petersburgh, and professor of chemistry. In 
 j 1764 he was made a counsellor of state, and 
 I died in the course of the same year. His 
 j Odes partake much of the fire of Pindar, 
 I and he has been justly called the father 
 ! of Russian poetry. He also wrote several 
 I works in prose, particularly a " History of 
 I the Empire of Russia." 
 I LONDONDERRY, Robert Stewart, 
 I Marquis of, who for many years was known 
 as Lord Castlereagh, was a native of Ire- 
 i land, and born in 17G9. He was educated at 
 j Armagh and St. John's College, Cambridge ; 
 i and having made the tour of Europe, was, 
 i on his return, cltosen a member of the Irish 
 I parliament. He joined the opposition in 
 I the first place, and declared himself an ad- 
 ! vocate for parliamentary reform ; but, on 
 obtaining a seat in the British parliament, 
 he took his station on the ministerial benches. 
 In 1797, having then become LordCastle- 
 reagli, he was made keeper of the privy seal 
 ' for Ireland, and soon after appointed one of 
 I the lords of the treasury. Tlie next year he 
 I was nominated secretary to the lord lieu- 
 tenant, and, by hia strenuous exertions and 
 abilities, in the art of removing opposition, 
 the union with Ireland was greatly facili- 
 tated. In 1805 he was appointed secretary 
 of war and the colonies ; but, on the death 
 of Mr. Pitt, he retired, until the dissolution 
 of the brief administration of 180« restored 
 him to the same situation in 1807 ; and he 
 held his office until the ill-fated expedition 
 to Walcheren, and his duel with liis col- 
 league, Mr. Canning, produced his resigna- 
 tion. In 1812 he succeeded the Marquis 
 Wellesley as foreign secretary (which office 
 he held till his decease), and the following 
 year proceeded to the Continent, to assist 
 the coalesced powers in negotiating a gene- 
 ral peace. In 1814 he was plenipotentiary 
 extraordinary to the allied powers, and, 
 
 towards the close of the same year, to the 
 Congress of Vienna. For these services he 
 received the thanks of parliament, and was 
 honoured with the order of the giirter. On 
 the death of his father, in 1821, he succeeded 
 to the title of marquis of I^ondonderry ; but 
 he did not long enjoy it, for in a fit of in- 
 sanity, brought on by excessive mental and 
 bodily exertion in attending to his public 
 duties, he put an end to his existence by 
 severing the carotid artery with a penknife. 
 This event took place on the 12th of August, 
 1822 ; and, on the 20th, his remains were 
 interred in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 L<^)NO, Edwaru, was born in 1734, at 
 St. Blaize, Cornwall. He was brought up 
 to the law, and became judge of the vice- 
 admiralty court in Jamaica, where his father 
 possessed estates, and of which island his 
 brother-in-law, Sir Henrj' Moore, was lieu- 
 tenant-govenior. Being obliged to return 
 to England for the restoration of his health, 
 in 1769, he devoted his time to literary pur- 
 suits, and wrote an admirable " History of 
 Jamaica," 3 vols. ; a collection of essays, 
 entitled " The Prater," " The Antigallican," 
 a novel ; " Letters on the Colonies," &c. 
 Died, 1813. 
 
 LONG, Roger, an English divine, emi- 
 nent as an astronomer and a mathematician, 
 was born in 1C79, in Norfolk ; was educated 
 at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, of which 
 college he became master in 1733 j was 
 chosen Lowndes' professor of astronomy ; 
 held livings in Huntingdonshire and Essex, 
 and died in 1770. Dr. Long was the author 
 of a valuable " Treatise on Astronomy," and 
 constructed, at Pembroke Hall, a hollow 
 sphere, 18 feet in diameter, on the interior 
 surface of which were represented the stars, 
 constellations, &c., the whole being moved 
 by means of machinery. 
 
 LONG, St. Johx, was bom at Newcastle, 
 in Limerick, in 1798. The name of his fa- 
 ther was John Long, whose vocations were 
 no less numerous than those of Caleb Quo- 
 tem himself; for he was a steward, parish 
 clerk, harness-maker, a maker of mouse- 
 traps, and the manufacturer of certain inge- 
 nious machinery for winnowing wheat, &c. 
 John inlierited the multipotent genius of his 
 sire, and was considered a perfect prodigy 
 in painting, glazing, and basket-making ; 
 and a certain lady, having been much 
 pleased with his attempts to copy some 
 drawings, laid the foundation of his future 
 fortune. Through her notice of John, a 
 subscription was raised for him at Done- 
 raile ; he was sent to Dublin, and there 
 placed with a furniture-painter, of the name 
 of Richardson, for two years ; during which 
 period he attended the school of painting 
 attached to the Dublin Society. Having 
 made some little progress in the art, he 
 returned to Limerick, started as drawing- 
 master, and, taking the hint of a friend, 
 adopted the maiden name of his mother 
 (St. John) in preference to plain John, as he 
 had received it at the font ; he then set out, 
 in 1822, to seek his fortune in London, at 
 the age of 25, with some of his own pictures, 
 a light purse, and a good share of confidence. 
 His genius as a painter was, however, not 
 so highly appreciated in London as he had 
 
 z z 3 
 
lon] 
 
 ^ i^m mni&frSal ^BiDfirajP^!?. 
 
 [lon 
 
 I expected ; and he resolved to turn doctor. 
 I The first account of his success in his newly 
 adopted line of business is recorded by him- 
 self in a letter to a friend, in 1826, by which 
 it appeared he had cured a fellow-craftsman 
 (a carriage-painter) of a decline. He now 
 proclaimed his competency to cure consump- 
 tion, rheumatism, and, in short, all other 
 diseases, how incurable soever they might 
 be deemed by the faculty, taking fees ac- 
 cordingly. He made his professional debut 
 in Rowland Street. Here business increased 
 so rapidly, that in the following year he was 
 settled in Harley Street, Cavendish Square, 
 in an elegantly furnished house, with ser- 
 vants in attendance to usher in his patients, 
 who were not only numerous, but of the 
 highest rank. He thus floated on the full 
 tide of fortune for two years, when a tem- 
 porary check was given to his success, in 
 consequence of a young lady having died 
 through the baleful effects of his nostrums, 
 for which lie was tried, and found guilty of 
 manslaughter. In the following year, 1831, 
 another lady died under the same mode of 
 treatment, and he was again tried, but 
 acquitted. On the first of these trials, no 
 less than 63 of his patients, who were all 
 persons of rank and wealth, appeared in his 
 favoui- ! He still continued to practise, and 
 to be visited by many patients ; when a 
 rapid consumption, the very disease which 
 he boasted of eradicating by a simple re- 
 medy, hurried him to an early grave. He 
 died, July 2. 1834, leaving the bulk of his 
 property to his brother William ; and also 
 the celebrated recipe, which he desired 
 should be sold for lO.OOOZ. ; or, otherwise, 
 that his brother should use it, after having 
 studied anatomy. 
 
 LONG, Thomas, an English nonjuring 
 divine, was born at Exeter, in 1621 ; was 
 educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and, 
 after the Restoration, was made prebendary 
 of Exeter, but lost that preferment at the 
 revolution for refusing the oaths. His 
 principal works are, " Calvinus Redivivus," 
 " History of the Donatists," " Vindication 
 of the Primitive Christians in point of Obe- 
 dience," " History of Popish and Fanatical 
 Plots," and " A Vindication of King 
 Charles's Claim to the Eikon Basilike." 
 Died, 1700. 
 
 LONGEPIERRE, Hii.aet Bernaed de, 
 a French critic, bom at Dijon, in 1659 ; 
 author of several tragedies in imitation of 
 the Greek poets ; but only two of them, 
 the " Medea" and " Electra," were ever 
 performed. Died, 1721. 
 
 liONGINUS, DioNYsius, a celebrated 
 Greek critic and philosopher of the third 
 century ; but whether born at Athens, or in 
 Syria, is uncertain. In his youth he tra- 
 velled for improvement to Rome, Athens, 
 and Alexandria, and attended all the emi- 
 nent masters in eloquence and philosophy. 
 At length he settled at Athens, where he 
 taught philosophy, and where he also pub- 
 lished his inimitable " Treatise on the Sub- 
 lime." His knowledge was so extensive, 
 that he was called " the living library ;" 
 and his fame having reached the ears of the 
 celebrated Zeuobia, queen of Palmyra, she 
 invited him to the court, intrusted to him 
 
 the education of her two sons, and took his 
 advice on political affairs. But this distinc- 
 tion proved fatal to him ; for, after the sur- 
 render of Palmyra, Aurelian basely put him 
 to death, for having advised Zenobia to 
 resist the Romans, and for being the real 
 author of the spirited letter which the queen 
 addressed to the Roman monarch. His 
 death took place in 273. He met his fate 
 with calmness and fortitude, exclaiming 
 with his expiring breath, " The world is but 
 a prison ; happy therefore is he who gets 
 soonest out of it, and gains his liberty." 
 
 LONGLAND, JoHX, an English prelate, 
 was born in 1473, at Henley-on-Thames ; 
 received his education at Magdalen Col- 
 lege, Oxford ; was made dean of Salisbury 
 in 1514, and was appointed confessor to 
 Henry VIII., who gave him the bishopric 
 of Lincoln, in 1521. He was a liberal 
 benefactor to the university of Oxford, of 
 which he was chancellor. 
 
 LONGLAND, or LANGELANDE, Ro- 
 bert, an old English poet, was born in 
 Shropshire. He was fellow of Oriel College, 
 Oxford, and a secular priest, but espoused 
 the doctrines of Wickliffe. He is believed 
 to have been the author of the " Vision of 
 Pierce Plowman" and " Pierce Plowman's 
 Crede," two curious poems, containing 
 severe reflections on the Romish clergy, 
 and exhibiting a curious pictiure of the 
 times. 
 
 LONGMAN, Thomas NoRTOif, known for 
 nearly half a century as the head of the emi- 
 nent and long-established publishing firm 
 of Messrs. Longman and Co., of Paternoster 
 Row, was born in the year 1770. In liim 
 were united strict business habits with that 
 enterprising spirit, which happily combines 
 prudence and foresight with honour and 
 liberality. The every-day routine of regular 
 trade, although requiring the patient exer- 
 cise of the intellect, has nothing in it of 
 startling incident, or personal adventure, 
 wherewith to furnish the more attractive 
 materials for biography ; but in conducting 
 important commercial pursuits with credit 
 and advantage, tlie union of several valuable 
 qualities is requisite, and these Mr. Long- 
 man possessed in no ordinary degree. In 
 transacting business lie was prompt and de- 
 cided ; in his intercourse with friends, cour- 
 teous and agreeable : on all occasions proving, 
 that in a well-regulated mind the habits of 
 trade tend neither to circumscribe the sphere 
 of action, nor to counteract the natural ten- 
 dencies of a benevolent disposition. Mr. 
 Longman had for many years been accus- 
 tomed to ride on horseback from his residence 
 at Hampstead to the city ; and on the 28th of 
 August, 1842, when on his way home, his 
 horse having stumbled, he was thrown on 
 his head, and received such severe injury, 
 that he expired shortly after the occurrence 
 of the accident. His personal friends being 
 desirous " to record their deep sense of the 
 many excellences that distinguished his 
 private character, and of the advantages 
 conferred on literature by his ability, inte- 
 grity, and enterprise," erected a monument 
 to his memory in Hampstead church. 
 
 LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a ce- 
 lebrated astronomer, was born in 15C2, at 
 
lon] 
 
 ^ ^eto ©fnibertfal 3SCaflrfqpT)2). 
 
 [lor 
 
 Langsberg, in Jutland, and was obliged to 
 earn his bread by hard labour, having been 
 left an orphan in his eighth year ; notwith- 
 standing which he studied hard, and, with 
 the assistance of the minister of the parish, 
 acquired a good knowledge of the mathe- 
 matics. At last he became a servitor in 
 the college of Wibourg ; the professors of 
 which university recommended him to Ty- 
 cho Brahe, whom he assisted in his astro- 
 nomical researches, and with whoin he 
 lived II years. In 1605 he was made pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Copenhagen, where 
 he died in 1647. He was the author of 
 several works, of which the principal is his 
 " Astronomia Danica." 
 
 LONGUERNE, Louis Di'four i>e, an 
 eminent scholar, was a native of Charle- 
 ville, in France, and bom in 1()52. He was 
 & child of such precocious talent, that be- 
 fore he had attained his lifth year, he 
 attracted the notice of Louis XIV. As he 
 grew up, his application and perseverance 
 in literary pursuits were quite in charac- 
 ter with his early proficiency, and he be- 
 came one of the most profound orientalists 
 of the age. His chief works are, "The 
 Annals of the Arsacides," an "Historical 
 Description of the History of Trance," 
 " Ilemarks on the Life of Cardinal Wolsey," 
 a " Treatise on the Eucharist," and "A Dis- 
 sertation on Tatian," written in Latin. 
 Died, 1732. 
 
 LONGUEVAL, Jacques, a French Je- 
 suit ; author of an elaborate history of the 
 French church, in eight folio volumes, and 
 other theological works. Born, 1680 ; died, 
 1735. 
 
 LONGUS, a Greek pastoral writer, wliose 
 work, entitled "Poimenica," or "The Loves 
 of Daphnis and Chloe," is exceedingly 
 curious, for the incture It affords of rural 
 manners in ancient Greece, but is at the 
 same time tainted with licentiousness. It 
 is supposed to be the earliest specimen there 
 is of a prose romance ; but no account has 
 been transmitted either of the age in 
 which Longus lived, or the place of his 
 birth. 
 
 LONICERUS, Adam, a physician and 
 naturalist, was a native of Marburg, in 
 Germany ; and after occupying the mathe- 
 matical chair there, removed to Frankfort, 
 where he held the office of stipendiary phy- 
 sician to the senate during 32 years. His 
 name has been preserved in the Linnsean 
 appellation of the Lonicera, a beautiful 
 genus of plants. Died, 1586. 
 
 LOOS, Cornelius, a Dutch divine of 
 the 16th century, wlio had the temerity to 
 write a treatise, "De vera et falsa Magia," 
 against the then prevailing notions of witch- 
 craft. Such was the ignorance and super- 
 stition of the age, that Loos was more than 
 once subjected to a prosecution, and obliged 
 to make a recantation of his supposed error. 
 He was also the author of other learned 
 works, and died in 1595. 
 
 L008JES, Adrian, a Dutch novelist, 
 poet, and librarian, born at Ha«rlem, in 
 1761. Always an ardent friend of liberty, 
 he opposed Napoleon's design of convert- 
 ing Holland into a monarchy, with honest 
 but abortive zeal. He was the author of 
 
 "Gewarts und Gyzeslar," a drama; "Lu- 
 cius Junius Brutus," " Marcus Junius Bru- 
 tus," and several romances ; " Life of a 
 Dutch Family in the 17 th Century," " Jeau 
 de Witt," "Conrad and Jacquelin," &c. 
 
 LOPES, Feknam, a Portuguese historian, 
 whose " Chronicle of Joam," describing the 
 great struggle between Portugal and Castile, 
 towards tlie close of the 14th century, ex- 
 hibits, according to the opinion of Dr. Sou- 
 they, all the manners, painting, and drama- 
 tic reality of Froissart. Lojjcs is the oldest 
 of tlic Portuguese chroniclers. 
 
 LOPEZ DE BUEDA, a Spanish drama- 
 tist and actor, who in the 16th century 
 composed humorous pieces, and with his 
 itinerant band of performers exhibited 
 them to his countrymen. Died, 1.564. 
 
 LORENZ, John Michael, was profes- 
 sor of history and rhetoric in the university 
 of Strasburg ; where he was born in 1723, 
 and died in 1801. Among his writings are, 
 " Elementa Historiae Universae," ♦' Ele- 
 menta Historiae Germanica," and "Sum- 
 ma HistorisB Gallo-Francicaj, civilis et 
 sacraj." 
 
 LORENZLNI, or LAURENTINI, Fran- 
 cesco Makia, was a native of Rome, and 
 patronised by Cardinal Borghese, who gave 
 him apartments in his palace and a pension. 
 He was the author of a number of sacred 
 dramas, written in Latin ; and at the time 
 of liis death filled the situation of president 
 of the academy of the Arcadi. Born, 1680 ; 
 died, 1743. 
 
 LORENZfln:, Lorenzo, an ingenious 
 mathematician, who for some offence, while 
 in the service of Ferdinand, son of Cosmo 
 III., was confined in the tower of Volterra, 
 where he solaced the hours of a wearisome 
 imprisonment, which lasted nearly twenty 
 ycai-9, by writing a work on conic sections. 
 Died, 1721 
 
 LORGNA, Antonio Marie, an eminent 
 mathematician of Verona, in which city he 
 was born, about 1730. He became colonel 
 of a corps of engineers, and filled the ma- 
 thematical chair in the military school of 
 Verona. He died in 1796, and had the repu- 
 tation of being one of the best geometricians 
 in Italy. 
 
 LORIOT, Anthony Joseph, an excel- 
 lent French mechanician, who, in 1753, 
 presented to the academy of sciences a 
 machine, by means of wliioh a child might 
 raise a weight of several thousand pounds. 
 He afterwards constructed machines for the 
 naval service; and for working the mines 
 of Pompeah ; claimed the merit of invent- 
 ing a kind of cement used in building, 
 called " mortier Loriot," and a hydraulic 
 machine for raising water. Born, 1716 : 
 died, 1782. 
 
 LORRAINE, Robert le, an eminent 
 French sculptor, was bom at Paris, in 1665 ; 
 studied under Girardon, and afterwards in 
 Italy ; and on his return, in 1701, produced 
 the most beautiful of his works, the " Ga- 
 latea," which at once procured his admis- 
 sion into the society, of which he eventually 
 became the president. Died, 1743. 
 
 LORRIS, William uk. a French poet of 
 the 12th century, was born at Lorris, near 
 Montargis ; and was the first author of the 
 
LOU] 
 
 ^ ^t\33 SJntbcrs'al 33i0flrffp!)t>. 
 
 [lou 
 
 " Romance of the Rose," a comi)osition in 
 part imitating Ovid's Art of Love, and 
 which during the middle ages had a great 
 influence on the literature of France and 
 England. He died young, and left his work 
 nnflni8l»ed ; but it was completed, forty 
 years later, by Jolm de Mcung. 
 
 LOUBERE, Simon de la, a native of 
 Toulouse, who was sent on a diplomatic 
 mission to Siam, and whose account of his 
 " Voyage" to that kingdom contains many 
 curious and interesting particulars. On 
 one occasion, while he was at Madrid, he 
 was arrested as a spy, and confined in the 
 state prisons of that capital for a consider- 
 able time, but was ultimately released, and 
 returned to Toulouse. Died, 1729. 
 
 LOUDON, JoHX Claudius, long known 
 as a distinguished writer on horticultural 
 subjects, was born at Cambuslang,iu Lanark- 
 shire, in 1783, and brought ui) as a landscape 
 gardener. Coming to England in 1803, with 
 numerous letters of introduction to some of 
 the first landed proprietors in the kingdom, 
 and displaying considerable taste as well as 
 industry, he obtained much lucrative em- 
 ployment, and afterwards took a large farm 
 at Tew, in Oxfordshire, where he greatly 
 improved his circumstances. In the years 
 1813, 1814, 1815, he made the tour of northern 
 Europe, traversing Sweden, Russia, Poland, 
 and Austria ; and as it was undertaken just 
 after the close of the French disasters in their 
 retreat from Moscow, many of the incidents 
 he met with created no common interest in 
 the mind of so intelligent and observing a 
 traveller. In 1819 he travelled through Italy; 
 and, in 1828, through France and Germany. 
 But though Mr. Loudon occasionally grati- 
 fied his inclination for foreign travel, his 
 literary labours were during nearly 40 years 
 almost unceasing. " No man," says one of 
 his biographers, " has ever written so much, 
 under such adverse circumstances, as Mr. 
 Loudon. Many years ago, when he first 
 came to England cin 1803), he had a severe 
 attack of inflammatory rheumatism, wliich 
 disabled him for two years, and ended in an 
 anchyloscd knee and a contracted left arm. 
 In the year 1820, whilst compiling the " En- 
 cyclopaidia of Gardening," he had another 
 severe attack of rheumatism ; and the follow- 
 ing year, being recommended to go to Brigh- 
 ton to get shampooed in Mahomet's baths, 
 his right arm was there broken near the 
 shoulder, and it never properly united. Not- 
 withstanding this, he continued to write with 
 his right hand till 1825, when the arm was 
 broken a second time, and he was then 
 obliged to have it amputated, but not before 
 a general breaking-up of the frame had com- 
 menced, and the thumb and two fingers of 
 the left hand had been rendered useless. 
 He afterwards suffered frequently from ill- 
 health, till his constitution was finally un- 
 dermined by the anxiety attending on that 
 most costly and laborious of all his works — 
 the " Arboretum Britannicum." His works 
 were both important and numerous : among 
 the principal were the " Arboretum Britan- 
 nicum," the " Encyclopaedia of Agriculture," 
 the " Encyclopaedia of Gardening," " Hints 
 on the Formation of Gardens," the " Ency- 
 clopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Archi- 
 
 tecture," the " Suburban Horticulturist," 
 and the " Encyclopaadia of Trees and 
 Shrubs," besides which he latterly edited 
 the Gardener's and Agricultural Magazines, 
 and contributed to other publications. Died, 
 Dec. 14. 1843. 
 
 LOUIS IX<, king of France, canonised 
 in the Romish calendar as St. Louis, was 
 born in 1214, and succeeded his father, 
 Louis VIII., in 1226. Being then only in 
 his 12th year, he was placed under the 
 guardiansliip of his mother, who was made 
 regent of the kingdom, and who inculcated 
 in him a strong attachment to religion. 
 He was surrounded by churchmen, and was 
 sincerely devout ; but he knew the limits 
 between secular and ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion, and displayed a well-founded jealousy 
 of usurpation in the latter. Having made 
 a vow, in the event of recovering from a 
 dangerous disease, to march against the 
 infidels, he made preparations for so doing, 
 and, in 1248, he accordingly embarked at 
 Aigues-Mortes, with an army of 50/K)0 men, 
 accompanied by his queen, his brothers, 
 and almost all the cliivalry of France. The 
 particulars of his eventful and disastrous 
 campaign, which ended in his surrender, 
 and that of the remains of his army, cannot 
 be recorded here ; but we may remark, that 
 a greater union of fortitude, punctilious 
 honour, humanity, and personal bravery, 
 was never witnessed in the conduct of a 
 prince than was displayed by Louis through- 
 out the whole of this ill-advised and un- 
 fortunate expedition. The town of Dami- 
 etta, which remained in the possession of 
 the French, was demanded as the price of 
 the monarch's freedom, and a vast ransom 
 was also claimed for his followers. These 
 terms being punctually fulfilled, Louis em- 
 barked with about 6000 men, the sole re- 
 mains of liis fine army, for Acre, and spent 
 four years more in fortifying the strong 
 places in Palestine. On his return to France, 
 he applied to the government of his king- 
 dom with exemplary diligence, and ruled 
 with strict impartiality and moderation. 
 Notwithstanding the disasters of the pre- 
 vious crusade, he was again incited to 
 encounter a new one, the ultimate object 
 of which was the conquest both of Egypt 
 and Palestine. Tunis, however, was the 
 first point of attack ; but while engaged at 
 the siege of that place, a pestilence broke 
 out among the French troops ; and, after 
 seeing one of his sons perish, and a great 
 part of his army, he was himself doomed 
 to be one of its victims, August 24. 1270. 
 The instructions he left in writing for his 
 son, show the noble spirit which inspired 
 this king ; a spirit which, if it had not been 
 infected with the false zeal and bigotry of 
 the times, would have rendered his admi- 
 nistration a perfect specimen of monarchical 
 wisdom. 
 
 LOUIS XL, king of France, was the son 
 of Charles VII., and born at Bourges, in 
 1423. Active, bold, and cunning, he was 
 the reverse of his well-disposed but imbe- 
 cile father, of whose minister and mistress, 
 Agnes Sorel, he soon showed himself a de- 
 cided enemy. In 1440 he left the court, 
 and put himself at the head of an insurrec- 
 
LOU] 
 
 ^ ^tb) HuiberiSal 3fii0srnp]^». 
 
 [lou 
 
 tion. Charles defeated the rebels, and ex- 
 ecuted some, but pardoned his son, whom lie 
 even trusted with a command against the 
 English and Swiss. Louis conducted him- 
 self with valour and prudence, and hit father 
 became entirely reconciled to him j but hav- 
 ing soon entered into new conspiracies, he 
 was obliged to take refuge in Burgundy, 
 and lived tliere live years in a deiicndent 
 condition. On the death of his father, in 
 1461, he dismissed the former ministers, and 
 filled their places with men taken from the 
 lower orders, without character or talents 
 to recommend them. Insurrections broke 
 «ut in various parts of his dominions ; but 
 they were soon quelled, and followed by 
 many executions. Ih every tiling he did, his 
 crooked policy ajid sinister views were evi- 
 dent. Whilst he pretended to reconcile con- 
 tending parties, he secretly instigated them 
 Against each other -, and whenever he had 
 a meeting with a foreign prince, he cor- 
 rupted his courtiers by brilws, and established 
 secret correspondences with them. H« be- 
 fiame iuvolve<l in a war with Charles the 
 Bold, duke of Burgundy ; and having re- 
 quested a passport from the duke, he went to 
 visit him at Peronne, though he had just 
 before secretly instigated the people of Liege 
 to rise, and promised them aid. Charles 
 having discovered this act of treachery, was 
 furious with rage, and hesitated three days 
 (during which he kept the king in prison) as 
 to what course he should adopt. Nothing 
 but the aversion of Charles to take the life 
 of a king, and the greatest presence of mind 
 on the part of the latter, who asserted his 
 innocence under the most solemn oaths, 
 saved him. lie was obliged to accompany 
 Charles to Liege, and to witness the pillage 
 and slaughter of which be had been tlie 
 cause. A peace was concluded on favour- 
 able terms for Charles and his allies ; but, 
 when Louis returned to Paris, he used every 
 artifice to evade its fulfilment. He died 
 in 1483- The great object of Louis was 
 the establishment of the royal power, and 
 the overthrow of the feudal aristocracy ; 
 but it is almost impossible to convey a just 
 idea of his character, so contradictory 
 were its qualities. He was at tlie same 
 time confiding and suspicious, avaricious 
 and lavish, audacious and timid, mild and 
 cruel ; yet he was the first French mon- 
 arch who had the title of "most Christian 
 king." 
 
 LOUIS XII^ king of France, was the son 
 of Charles, duke of Orleans, and born in 
 14C2. On ascending the throne, in 1408, he 
 pardoned the wrongs he had suffered before 
 his accession. " The king of France," said 
 he, " must not revenge the injuries done to 
 the Duke of Orleans." His reign was a con- 
 tinued scene of warfare ; he conquered the 
 Milanese, Genoa, and Naples; but after 
 ravaging Italy, the French were expelled in 
 1513. The emperor Maximilian, Henry VIII. 
 of England, and the Swiss, attacked Louis in 
 his own dominions ; he was obliged to sue 
 for peace, and died in 1515. Louis XII. 
 possessed many of the qualities of a good 
 ruler ; he was oiien, honest, economical, just, 
 kind-hearted, and magnanimous ; he was 
 also a friend to science ; and France enjoyed 
 
 under him a degree of prosperity and secu- 
 rity which it had never possessed before. 
 
 LOUIS XIII., king of France, was the 
 son of Henry IV.. and born in U>()1. Being 
 only nine years old at the deaih of his fa- 
 ther, the care of him and of the kingdom 
 was intrusted to his mother, Mary de Medi- 
 cis. During the early part of his reign, 
 France became the prey of civil dissensions, 
 which Marshal d'Ancre, prime minister at 
 that time, was utterly unable to suppress ; 
 and when the king, in 1015, married a 
 Spanish princess, the disturbances grew still 
 more alarming. At length the Huguenots 
 rose in arms, with Rohan and Soubise at 
 their head ; and a great part of the kingdom 
 rebelled against the king, who now delivered 
 himself up to the guidance of Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu. After victory had inclined, sometimes 
 to one side and sometimes to the other, and 
 both parties felt deeply the necessity -of re- 
 pose, peace was concluded in 1623. But it 
 was of no long duration. Rocbelle, the head- 
 quarters of the Huguenots, revolted, and 
 was supported bv England. The king drove 
 the English to the sea, conquered the island 
 of Rh(5, and at last took Rochelle, which had 
 sustained all the horrors of a siege for twelve 
 months, and cost the crown 40 million livres. 
 After this event, so fatal to the Protestant 
 interest in France, Louis assisted the Duke 
 of Mantua against the emperor, and entered 
 on tlie campaign in person, in which he 
 showed skill and bravery. In 1631 a treaty 
 was concluded, by wliich the duke was con- 
 firmed in his estates. Tlie year following, 
 Gaston of Orleans, only brother of the king, 
 revolted, out of dislike to Richelieu, and was 
 assisted by the Duke de Montmorency, who 
 being wounded and taktn prisoner at the 
 battle of Castlenaudari, in 1632, was be- 
 headed at Toulouse. Louis and the cardinal 
 were attacked with a mortal disease nearly 
 together ; the latter died in December, 1642, 
 and the king in May following. 
 
 LOUIS XIV., son of the preceding, was 
 only five years old on the death of his 
 father, the regency being in the hands of 
 the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, under 
 whom Mazarin acted as prime minister. The 
 nation was then involved in a war with 
 Spain and the «mperor, which was main- 
 tained with glory to the French arms by 
 the Prince of Coiide and the famous Tu- 
 renne : but although Louis was successful 
 abroad, his kingdom was distracted by inter- 
 nal divisions ; the Parisians, irritated against 
 Mazarin and the queen, took up arms ; and 
 the king, his mother and the cardinal, were 
 obliged to fly. The Spaniards, profiting by 
 these troubles, made several conquests in 
 Champagne, Lorraine, and Italy. In 1651 
 the king assumed the government, but 
 Mazarin returning to power the year fol- 
 lowing, the civil war was renewed. On the 
 war breaking out between England and 
 Holland, Louis joined with the latter ; but, 
 after a few naval actions, the peace of Breda 
 was concluded in 1667. In 1672 the French 
 king made an attack on Holland, and re- 
 duced some of the provinces in a few weeks. 
 This invasion produced a new confederacy 
 against Louis, between the emperor, Spain, 
 and the Elector of Brandenburg, in which all 
 
LOU] 
 
 ^ i^tbi Unittx^Kl 28i0graji]b2. 
 
 [lou 
 
 the allies vrere unsuccessful, and which ter- 
 minated, in 1678, by the treaty of Nimeguen. 
 Amidst all his glorj'. Louis committed an act 
 of impolitic cruelty, by the revocation of the 
 edict of Nautes, granted by Henry IV. in 
 favour of tlie Protestants — a measure which 
 drove from France a vast number of inge- 
 nious mechanics and others, who settled in 
 England and Holland. About this time 
 another league was formed against France 
 by the Prince of Orange, the Duke of Savoy, 
 and the electors of Bavaria and Branden- 
 burg. To this league were afterwards added 
 the emperor of Germany and the king of 
 Spain. The dauphin had the command of 
 the French army, and he opened the t«im- 
 paign by taking Philipsburg in October 1G88, 
 but he was soon forced to retreat before a su- 
 perior force. In 1C90 the French were more 
 successful ; Luxemburg gained the battle of 
 Fleurus, and Catinat took Nice, and gained 
 a victory over the troops of the Duke of 
 Savoy ; this was followed by the taking of 
 Mons in Flanders, Valence in Catalonia, 
 Carmanole, and Montmelian in Savoy. 
 These successes were counterbalanced by 
 the defeat of Tourville's squadron off La 
 Hogue, by Admiral Russell, June 2. 1G92. 
 Louis in person took Namur, and Luxem- 
 burg gained the battles of Steenkirk and 
 Nerwinde. In 1(5%, Savoy made a separate 
 peace with France, which was followed by a 
 general one at Ryswick in 1697. Tlie tran- 
 quillity of Europe, however, was again 
 broken by the death of Cliarles II., king of 
 Spain, in 1700. He left his crowu to Philip 
 of France, duke of Anjou, who assumed the 
 title of Philip V. In opposition to him the 
 Arcliduke Charles laid claim to the throne ; 
 and he was supported by the emperor of 
 Germany, Holland, and England. Prince 
 Eugene had the command of the imperial 
 forces, with which he took Cremona. In 1704 
 Eugene and Marlborough gained the great 
 battle of Hochstet ; the year following, Nice 
 and Ville-Franche were taken by the Frencli, 
 who also gained a dear victory at Cassane 
 over Eugene ; on the other hand, Barcelona 
 surrendeied to the archduke, and Gironne 
 declared in his favour ; the battle of Ka- 
 milies was gained by the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, and Prince Eugene saved Turin by 
 defeating the Duke of Orleans. In 1708, 
 Lisle was retaken by the allies, who also 
 gained the battle of Oudenarde, and the im- 
 perialists made themselves masters of Naples. 
 The year following the French lost Tournay, 
 and suffered a defeat at Malplaquet. In 
 1713 a treaty of peace was signed at Utrecht 
 by France, Spain, England, Savoy, Portugal, 
 Prussia, and Holland ; and the next year 
 peace was concluded with the emperor at 
 Radstadt. Louis died in 1715, aged 77 : by 
 his first wife he had one son, Louis, dauphin 
 of France, who died in 1711, leaving three 
 sons, Louis, Philip, and Gaston, besides 
 several illegitimate children by his mis- 
 At the close of life he became 
 
 serious, and even devout, through the in- 
 fluence of Madame de Maintenon, whom he 
 secretly married. The reign of Louis XlV. 
 was adorned by great statesman and gene- 
 rals, ecclesiastics, and men of literature and 
 science, who made the national glory and 
 
 the splendour of the king the object of their 
 exertions. At his court, which became a 
 model for all the others of Europe, every 
 thiug had reference to the king, and tended 
 to augment his dignity ; while no man pos- 
 sessed in a higher degree than Louis the re- 
 quisite qualities for playing well the part of 
 a monarch. He was 20 jears of age, and 
 devoted to tlie pleasures of the court and 
 chase, when Mazarin died. " To whom 
 shall we now apply ?" asked his secretaries 
 of state : " To me," he replied, with dignity ; 
 and he who had grown up in perfect igno- 
 rance, with his heart full of romantic gal- 
 lantry, devoted himself sedulously to busi- 
 ness, and the acquisition of information. 
 But his natural pride often degenerated into 
 haughtiness, his love of splendour into useless 
 extravagance, his firmness into despotism. 
 Determined no longer to tolerate Calvinism 
 in France, which had now, for some years, 
 existed in peaceful separation from the na- 
 tional church, he said, "My grandfather 
 loved the Huguenots without fearing them ; 
 my father feared, without loving them ; I 
 neither fear nor love them." But his con- 
 duct showed that a stern and unfeeling rigour 
 towards tliem was uppermost in his mind ; 
 their privileges were gradually infringed ; 
 missionaries, supported by dragoons, were 
 employed for their conversion ; and severi- 
 ties were practised which excited the horror 
 and indignation of every breast that was not 
 hardened by bigotry and intolerance. 
 
 LOUIS XV., king of France, great grand- 
 son and successor of the preceding, was born 
 in 1710 ; and Louis XIV. dying when he 
 was only five years of age, the kingdom was 
 placed under the regency of Philip, duke of 
 Orleans. He was crowned in 1772, and de- 
 clared of age the following year. The be- 
 ginning of his reign was rendered very dis- 
 tressing by the Mississippi sclieme of Law, 
 the famous financier, which ruined thousands 
 of people. On the death of the Duke of 
 Orleans, in 1723, he was succeeded as prime 
 minister by the Duke of Bourbon, who was 
 displaced in 1725, when Cardinal Fleury 
 entered upon that station. The same year 
 the king married the daughter of the king 
 of Poland. On the death of the last men- 
 tioned monarch, in 1733, Louis supported 
 the election of his queen's relation Stanislaus, 
 against the Elector of Saxony, which occa- 
 sioned a war between France and the em- 
 peror : Stanislaus, however, was forced to 
 abandon the throne ; but the French were 
 successful in Italy, on which a peace was 
 concluded in 1738. The death of the emperor 
 Charles opened a new scene. The succession 
 of the house of Austria was disputed by four 
 persons, and Louis declared himself against 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of the late emperor, 
 contrary to his own engagements. He sup- 
 ported the pretensions of the Elector of Ba- 
 varia, who called himself Charles VII. 
 That prince took Prague, where he was 
 crowned king of Bohemia ; but in 1742 that 
 city was retaken, and the allies, with the 
 king of Great Britain at their head, gained 
 the battle of Dettingen. In 1744, Louis took 
 tlie field in person, and captured Courtray, 
 Menin, and Ypres ; he was also present at 
 the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeld. These 
 
LOU] 
 
 ^ ^eto Bnihtx^Kl ^iasrapf^n* 
 
 [lou 
 
 advantages were accompanied by the taking 
 of Ghent, Ostend, Brussels, Bcrgen-op-Zoom, 
 and other places. On the other hand, the 
 troops of the Duke of Saxony, and of the 
 queen of Hungary, ravaged Provence, and 
 the English completely ruined the French 
 commerce at sea, which effected the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapcllc, in 1748. In 175.'i a new 
 war broke out between France and England, 
 in which the latter power had Prussia for an 
 ally, while Austria leagued with France. 
 At first the French were very successful, by 
 taking Port Mahon, defeating the Duke of 
 Cumberland at Ilastinlieck, and forcing the 
 English general and his army to capitulate 
 at Closter Seven. The electorate of Hanover 
 was conquered ; but in 1757 the French and 
 Austrians were defeated at Rosbach ; this 
 was followed by other losses both by land 
 and sea, particularly of Canada, and Louis 
 died in 1774. He was polite, affable, and 
 naturally humane ; but want of strength of 
 character, and sensual indulgences, degraded 
 him equally as a monarch and a man. The 
 coming storm, which burst on the head of his 
 devoted successor, was fully ex|iected by 
 him ; but he selfishly congratulated himself, 
 that, bad as things were, they would last his 
 time. 
 
 LOUIS XVI., the son of I.ouis the dau- 
 phin, and of Maria Josephine, daughter of 
 Frederic Augustus, king of Poland, was born 
 in 1754, and immediately created duke of 
 Bern. On the death of his father, in 170.5, 
 he beeame the heir to the throne ; and in 
 1770 he married Maria Antoinette, an Aus- 
 trian princess, of great beauty and accom- 
 plishments. In 1774 he succeeded to the 
 crown ! at which period France was in a 
 deplorable state ; her finances were nearly 
 exhausted, her trade diminished, her navy 
 destroyed, and the nation groaned under a 
 weight of debt. In this state of things the 
 people looked to the young king to recover 
 their lost greatness, and he seconded their 
 hopes by calling around him those persons 
 whom he thought most likely to redeem 
 the errors of the late administration. His 
 first act was very popular ; he dispensed with 
 the customary tax paid by the people at the 
 beginning of every new reign. In 1774 the 
 parliament was recalled, and affairs began 
 to assume a favourable aspect, when, un- 
 fortunately, the French government, always 
 jealous of England, took part with the re- 
 volted Americans, and a ruinous war ensued 
 between the two countries ; which, though it 
 terminated in the loss of the colonies to the 
 English, brought about a bloody revolution 
 in France. The finances of the latter country 
 were completely exhausted, and the Cardinal 
 de Brienne, who succeeded Colonne as minis- 
 ter, framed imposts, which laid such intoler- 
 able burdens upon the people, that the par- 
 liament refused to register them. For this 
 the members were exiled toTroyes, but were 
 afterwards recalled by Louis, who, at their 
 request, convened the states-general of three 
 orders. This assembly met in May, 1789 ; 
 the public mind was now agitated, and art- 
 ful demagogues took the advantage of dif- 
 fusing the worst of principles. Mirabeau 
 was the leader of these men ; a violent re- 
 publican and an atheist. At his voice the 
 
 people of Paris arose, and on the 14th of July, 
 that year, stormed the Bastile. Revolution 
 now marched with gigantic steps, and, in 
 October, the armed mob, with a prodigious 
 number of women, marched to Versailles, 
 which palace they forced, murdered the 
 guards, and searched in vain for the queen, 
 who would have shared the same fate, had 
 she not escaped from her bed, which the mis- 
 creants pierced with their sabres. The result 
 of this insurrection was, the leading of the 
 king and his family in triumph to Paris, 
 amidst all the insults of a lawless rabble. 
 In February, 1790, Louis was force<l to accept 
 the new constitution ; but, notwithstanding 
 all his concessions, finding himself a mere 
 prisoner at Paris, and exposed daily to new 
 injuries, he resolved to escape. Accordingly, 
 in the night of June 21. 1791, he and his 
 family quitted the Tuilleries ; but at Va- 
 rennes his person was recognised, and he 
 was conducted back to Paris, where he be- 
 came a prisoner in his own palace, and 
 Buflfered the vilest indignities. War was de- 
 clared against France by the emperor and 
 the king of Prussia ; and the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick marched into the country, but was 
 forced to retreat. In the mean time the 
 people were wrouglit up to a pitch of savage 
 ferocity by the factious leaders, and assaulted 
 the Tuilleries, in storming which they mur- 
 dered the brave and loyal Swiss guards. 
 The king and family sought refuge in the 
 National Assembly, who ordered them to be 
 sent to the Temple. The legislative assemblv 
 gave way to the National Convention, which 
 brought Louis to a mock trial ; his defence 
 was conducted by Malesherbes, Tronchet, 
 and Desfcze, and his own deportment was, as 
 it had uniformly been during his confine- 
 ment, firm and modest, dignified and re- 
 signed. Jan. 17. 1793, he was adjudged to 
 death for conspiring against the public 
 good : his separation from his family was 
 uncommonly affecting, yet in every scene he 
 manifested the spirit of a Christian, and em- 
 ployed the short interval allowed him in the 
 preparations for death enjoined him by his 
 religion, to which he was sincerely devoted. 
 On the 21st of January he was led to the 
 scaffold, where his behaviour partook of the 
 calm fortitude which had distinguished him 
 through all the scenes of suffering and in- 
 dignity to which he had been exposed. On 
 ascending it, he declared his innocence to the 
 surrounding crowd, but was purposely inter- 
 rupted while addressing the people, by the 
 noise of drums and the officious interference 
 of his executioners. He was accompanied 
 by his confessor, the Abb^ Edgeworth, wJio, 
 as the monarch laid his head on the fatal 
 block, exclaimed with energetic force, " As- 
 cend, O son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven ! " 
 His body was thrown into a pit filled with 
 lime, and no vestige left of the place of his 
 interment. Such was the tragical end of 
 Louis XVI., one of the most moral and best- 
 inteutioned sovereigns of France ; and who, 
 in spite of all the prejudices to which the 
 misrule of his ancestors had subjected him, 
 was allowed to possess an amiable heart, an 
 upright mind, and a refined and enlarged 
 
 understanding His son, Louis Charles, 
 
 the daupliin, regarded by tlie mockery of 
 
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 ^ ^c&) Winibtx^Kl ISicffirapTji). 
 
 [lou 
 
 etiquette as Lobis XVII., was, at the death 
 of his father, only 8 years old. The inhaman 
 murderers caused him to be placed with a 
 shoemaker named Simon, who treated him 
 with savage barbarity ; and the innocent 
 victim died shortly after, as was generally 
 believed, of poison. The daughter of Louis, 
 after the murder of her parents and brother, 
 was suffered to quit France, and slie married 
 her cousin, the Duke of Angouleme. 
 
 LOUIS XVIII., Stanislaus Xavier, sur- 
 named le Desire, second son of the daupliin 
 (the son of Louis XV.), was born in 1755, 
 and was originally known as the Count of 
 Provence. At the accession of his brother, 
 Louis XVI., in 1774, he received the title of 
 Monsieur ; and after the death of his nephew, 
 in 1795, from which time he reckoned his 
 reign, he took the name and title of Louis 
 XVIII., king of France and Navarre. As a 
 boy he is said to have manifested a disposition 
 tinctured with much timidity and reserve, 
 but to have exhibited a far more decided 
 turn for literary pursuits than either his 
 elder or liis yoimger brother (Charles X.), 
 with whom he was educated ; and he early 
 acquired the character of a good classical 
 sdiolar. When Louis XVI. attempted to 
 escape to tlie frontiers of the kingdom, and 
 took theroadtoMontmedy, and was arrested 
 at Varennes, Monsieur took that of Mons, 
 and reached Brussels in safety : and, in 1792, 
 he and the Count d'Artois joined the Prussian 
 army, at the head of 60(X) cavalry. The pro- 
 gress of the republican arms, however, com- 
 pelled them to make a retreat, first to Turin, 
 and afterwards to Verona, where he assumed 
 the name of the Count de Lille, a title which 
 he retained till his accession to the French 
 throne. He now led a wandering life, sup- 
 ported by foreign courts, especially the 
 British, and by some friends of the house of 
 Bourbon. In 179«3 he joined the army of the 
 Prince of Conde on the Rhine. After this 
 he went to Blankenburg, where he lived 
 under the protection of the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick, and carried on a correspondence with 
 his friends in France, especially with 
 Pichegru. Being invited to Russia by the 
 emperor Paul, he took up his residence for 
 a while in the ducal castle of Mittau, in 
 Courland. The versatility of his new ally, 
 however, soon put an end to his continuance 
 there, and he received peremptory orders to 
 quit Russia in a week. The Prussian govern- 
 ment then allowed him to reside at Warsaw ; 
 and while there, in 1803, Buonaparte, at 
 that time first consul, attempted to induce 
 him to renounce his claims to the throne. 
 To which he replied, " I do not confound 
 M. Buonaparte with his predecessors ; I es- 
 teem his valour and his military talents, and 
 thank him for all the good he lias done my 
 people. But faithful to the rank in which I 
 was born, I shall never give up any rights. 
 Though in chains, I shall still esteem myself 
 the descendant of St. Louis. As successor of 
 Francis the First, I will at least say like him 
 — 'We have lost all except our honour.'" 
 In 1805, Louis, with the consent of the em- 
 peror Alexander, returned to Mittau ; but 
 the peace of Tilsit obliged him to leave the 
 Continent, and, as a last resource, he took re- 
 fuge iu England. Here he was hospitably re- 
 
 ceived ; and Hartwell, in Buckinghamshire, 
 a seat belonging to the Marquis of Bucking- 
 ham, assigned as his residence, where he re- 
 mainefl till the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, drew 
 him from his retreat to reascend the throne 
 of his ancestors. On the 3rd of May he made 
 his entry into Paris ; on the 30th he caused 
 a constitution to be drawn up ; on the 4th of 
 June it was formally accepted ; and the 
 chamber of deputies, which was established 
 by this instrument, requested the king to take 
 the surname of "Tlie Desired," Louis le 
 Desire. But the disgrace which the French 
 arms had received was too deeply felt by the 
 soldiers who had fought under Napoleon 
 to make them satisfied with the Bourbons, 
 and the prevalence of ultra-liberal opinions 
 rendered a great portion of the people dis- 
 affected to the monarchy ; and when Napo- 
 leon made his appearance in France, March 
 1. 1815, his presence roused every latent feel- 
 ing, and inspired his former followers with 
 tenfold courage and enthusiasm. Louis was 
 compelled to flee from Paris on the 20th, and 
 seek refuge in Belgium. The Duke and 
 Duchess of Orleans, the old Prince of Conde, 
 the Count d'Artois, and the Duke de Berri, 
 also hastily left Paris ; and, proceeding to La 
 Vendt'e and the south of France, they en- 
 deavoured to awaken popular sympathy in 
 favour of the royal cause. The ministers, 
 together with several officers of distinction, 
 followed the king ; and Talleyrand, in par- 
 ticular, was actively engaged in his cause 
 at Vienna. Great events now followed 
 in rapid succession. The battle of Water- 
 loo, fought on the 18th of June, broke the 
 power of Napoleon, and dissolved the charm 
 of his supposed invincibility ; Wellington 
 and Blucher marched to Paris ; and FoucIkS, 
 who had already induced the emperor to 
 leave France, put a stop to the shedding of 
 blood by the capitulation of Paris, July 3. 
 Thus was Louis once more restored to the 
 throne of France. On the 7th of July the 
 British and Prussians occupied Paris ; on 
 the 9th the king entered the capital, under 
 the protection of the Duke of Wellington ; 
 and he immediately appointed his new mi- 
 nistry, at the head of which was Talleyrand, 
 and in which Fouch^ was minister of police. 
 Among the most decided measures by which 
 the king sought to support his throne, was 
 the ordinance of July 16., disbanding the 
 army, according to the wishes of the allies ; 
 and another, dated July 24., excluding from 
 the general amnesty those who were there 
 denominated "rebels," and whose punish- 
 ment, for the most part, consisted in exile, 
 or degradation from the peerage. All the 
 relations of Napoleon were, under pain of 
 death, banished from France ; as were also 
 those who had voted for tlie death of Louis 
 XVI., and those who had in 1815 received 
 offices or honours from the " usurper." Dur- 
 ing the last few years of his reign, he was 
 much enfeebled by disease ; a dry erysipelas 
 in his legs had deprived him of the power of 
 walking ; while his attachment to the plea- 
 sures of the table increased his natural ten- 
 dency to corpulence, and a paralysis of the 
 lower limbs taking place, he died, Sept. 16. 
 1824, having survived his second elevation 
 nine years. 
 
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 LOUIS PHILIPPE, ex-king of the 
 French, the eldest son of the Duke of Or- 
 leans, better known in tlie revolutionary 
 times as Philiijpe Egalite, an<l of Marie, only 
 daughter of tlie Duke of Penthievre, was 
 born in Paris, October 6. 1773. Conducted 
 under the care of Madame de Genlie, his 
 education was based on enlightened prin- 
 ciples, and was dii-ectcd equally to the deve- 
 lopment of the physical, moral, and intel- 
 lectual nature of the pui)il. While being 
 instructed in the ancient and modern lan- 
 gujiges, the various branches of learning and 
 science, Louis Philippe and his brotliers 
 were inured to bodily fatigue ; and garden- 
 ing, turnery, basket-making, and carpentry 
 ranked among the number of their accom- 
 plishments. At the age of 17, liis father 
 introduced him to the Jacobin Club ; in 
 1791, having received the command of a 
 regiment of dragoons, he set out to join it 
 at Valenciennes, and war being declared 
 against Austria, he made his first campaign 
 in 1792, fighting at Valmy at the head of 
 the troops confided to him by Kellermann, 
 Sept. 20th, and afterwards, Nov. 6th, gain- 
 ing great distinction at Jemappes under 
 Dumourier. Meanwhile the revolution was 
 hastening to its crisis. In 1793, Louis XVI. 
 was carried to the scaffold, and a few months 
 afterwards, when the Duke of Orleans, not- 
 witlistanding his connection witii the revo- 
 lutionary cause, shared the same fate, Louis 
 Philippe, duke of Cliartres, had all his 
 worst apprehensions of a reign of terror 
 realised, by a summons to himself to appear 
 before the committee of public safety. He 
 instantly fled to the French frontier, escaped 
 into the Austrian territories, and refusing 
 an invitation to enter into that service, pro- 
 ceeded as a traveller towards Switzerland, 
 where he met with his sister Adelaide and 
 Madame de Genlis, who had also fled thither 
 for safety. The wanderings of Louis Philippe 
 in Switzerland, Hungarj^, Denmark, Nor- 
 way, Sweden, and America are as familiar 
 to the public as any nursery talc, and will 
 be narrated and remembered as long as 
 romance continues to exercise its sway over 
 the human mind. While he remained in 
 Europe, Louis Philippe refused several invi- 
 tations to take up arms against France ; and, 
 on the 24th of Sept. 179<!, he sailed from 
 the Elbe for the United States, wiiere he 
 arrived in safety, and was soon after joined 
 by his brothers, Montpensier and Beaujolais. 
 His residence and travels in America con- 
 tinued until 1800, in the beginning of which 
 year he arrived at Falmouth, and took up 
 his abode on the banks of the Thames at 
 Twickenliam. His brother, the Duke of 
 Montpensier, died in England in 1807, and 
 on returning in the following j-ear from the 
 burial of his other brother, the Count Beau- 
 jolais, in Malta, Louis Pliilippe received an 
 invitation from the king of Naples to visit 
 the royal family at Palermo. During his 
 residence at the Neapolitan court, he gained 
 the atfcctions of the Princess Amelia, the 
 second daughter of the king, to whom he 
 was married in Nov. 1809, his mother, the 
 Duchess of Orleans, who had been released 
 from her thraldom in Spain, being present 
 at the nuptials. Palermo now became the 
 
 residence of Louis Philippe, and the scene 
 of a domestic tranquillity to which he had 
 long been a stranger. The abdication of 
 Napoleon in 1814 introduced a new change 
 in his fortunes, and he returned to Paiis 
 after an absence of 21 years. The return 
 of Napoleon from Elba scattered the Bour- 
 bons once more, and Louis Philiiipe returned 
 to England, till the expiry of the hundred 
 days, when he repaired to France, and en- 
 tered into all the honours due to his rank. 
 A coldness which arose between him and the 
 administration led to his temporary retire- 
 ment to England ; but in 1817 he took up 
 his permanent abode in France, and, while 
 abstaining from politics, devoted liimself to 
 the education of his family and the patron- 
 age of literature and the arts, until the re- 
 volution of 1880 placed him on the throne. 
 The events of that period and his subse- 
 quent reign belong more to history than 
 biography. Suffice it here to say, the first few 
 years after his accession were spent in re- 
 pressing the republican spirit that still lin- 
 gered among the descendants of the /irsl 
 French revolutionists, and in consolidating 
 the throne upon a purely constitutional 
 basis. The various conspiracies that were 
 entered into for overthrowing his govern- 
 ment were detected and suppressed ; re- 
 peated attempts to assassinate the king him- 
 self had proved abortive ; and the specula- 
 tor on probabilities might have justly an- 
 ticipated that Louis Philippe would have 
 spent the remainder of his days in peace, 
 and have bequeathed to his family the mag- 
 nificent heritage of a kingdom. But this 
 was not to be. The fclose of 1847 and the 
 beginning of 1848 had been signalised in 
 France by strenuous elforts, on the part of 
 the opposition, to wrest from the government 
 a measure of " electoral reform." But the 
 Guizot administration turned a deaf ear to 
 their appeals, and went so far as to Interdict 
 a banquet, which had been fixed to be held 
 in Paris, in honour of this movement, on 
 Feb. 21. 1848. A slight riot which took place 
 on that day, soon swelled into a formidable 
 insurrection. In vain the king now offered 
 to change his ministry, and to yield to the 
 popular demands. Even his abdication in 
 favour of his grandson, on February 23rd, 
 came too late : he saw himself compelled 
 to fiight. Hastily quitting Paris with the 
 queen, who had shared with him so many 
 dangers, he made his way to the sea-shore, 
 whence he escaped, in disguise, for England, 
 and landed at Newhaven, in Sussex, March 
 3. 1848. He then took up his residence at 
 Claremont, with an occasional sojourn at 
 Richmond or St. Leonard's, and for a time 
 appeared to bear up manfully under the dis- 
 asters which had befallen him. But, in the 
 spring of 1850, a change suddenly came over 
 him ; his naturally powerful constitution 
 gradually gave way ; and, after lingering a 
 few months in great physical debility, he 
 expired at Claremont, August 26th. His 
 remains were deposited in the vault of a 
 chapel at Weybridge, which he had been in 
 the habit of attending ; there to repose, 
 until, according to the inscription on his 
 tomb, " in patriam avitos inter cineres Deo 
 adjuvante tranaferantur." 
 
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 ^ ^cin Huiijcr^al 23i0sraj>TjM. 
 
 [lov 
 
 LOUISA, ArousTA Wilhelmin'a Amelia, 
 queen of Prussia, daughter of Charles, duke 
 of Mecklenburg Strelitz, was born at Han- 
 over, in 1776, and was married to the crown- 
 prince of Prussia, afterwards king, Dec. 24. 
 1793. In 1797 the king of Prussia" ascended 
 the throne, and his consort became the 
 model of a wife, a mother, and a queen, 
 alleviating misery wherever she could, and 
 rewarding merit. When Napoleon was in 
 the zenith of his power, and Prussia lay- 
 prostrate before him, her popularity rose in 
 proportion to her sufferings ; while her pure 
 and benevolent heart, and the fortitude with 
 which she endured the indignities of the 
 French emperor, rendered her an object al- 
 most of adoration. She died in 1810. 
 
 LOURIERO, Jonx de, a Portuguese bo- 
 tanist, who, being also an ecclesiastic, visited 
 Cochin China as a missionary. To his re- 
 ligious duties he joined the practice of me- 
 dicine ; and not being sufficiently pro\'ided 
 with European remedies, he was induced to 
 collect and examine the plants of China, 
 Malabar, and other parts, whence he pro- 
 cured a large and valuable store. On his 
 return to Portugal, after 30 years' absence, 
 he published the result of his botanical re- 
 searclies in a work, entitled " Flora Cochin- 
 chinensis," 2 vols. Bom, 1715 ; died, 1796. 
 
 I.OUTHERBOTTRG. Puilip James, an 
 eminent landscape painter, was born at 
 Strasburg, in 1740 ; studied under Tisclibein 
 and Casanova ; and displayed great talents 
 in his delineation of battles, hunting pieces, 
 &c. He came to London in 1771, and while 
 there contrived an exhibition, called the 
 Eidophusikon, somewhat on the plan of the 
 Diorama. He was a member of the aca- 
 demy of painting at Paris and a royal aca- 
 demician of England. Died, 1812. 
 
 LOUVEL, Peter Louis, the assassin of 
 the Due de Berri, was bom at Versailles, in 
 1783. He was by trade a saddler, and worked 
 in the stables of the emperor Napoleon and 
 tlie French king. His disposition was gloomy, 
 and his mind seemed devoid of interest, ex- 
 cept on political subjects. He appeared to 
 dwell intently on what he had heard re- 
 specting the causes of the French revolution, 
 until he felt a rooted hatred towards the 
 Bourbons. During six years he ruminated 
 in silence on their destruction, and began 
 with the youngest, as he afterwards acknow- 
 ledged, from a wish to exterminate their 
 race ; having resolved to omit no opportunity 
 of killing the others. Louvel perpetrated 
 the fatal deed on the 13th of Febmary, 1820. 
 He conducted himself with firmness during 
 his long examination, and appeared calm 
 throughout, even in his last moments, posi- 
 tively declaring that he had no accomplice. 
 
 LOTJVET DE COUVRAY, John Bap- 
 tist, a distinguished French advocate during 
 the revolution, was, in 1702, chosen a deputy 
 to the convention, when lie attached himself 
 to the party of the Girondists, and voted for 
 the death of Louis. Denounced by the ter- 
 rorists, and included in an order "of arrest, 
 issued in June 1794, he escaped from the 
 capital, retired to Caen with several of his 
 colleagues, and employed himself in writing 
 against the Jacobins. At length lie returned 
 to Paris, where he kept himself concealed 
 
 till after the fall of" Robespierre, recovered 
 his seat in the convention, and was after- 
 wards a member of the council of five 
 hundred. He died at Paris, in 1797, and is 
 chiefly known in literature as the author of 
 an obscene and disgusting novel. 
 
 LOUVOIS, Francois Michel Letellier, 
 Marquis of, minister of war to Louis XIV., 
 was born at Paris, in 1641. After liXG, he 
 had the whole management of the ministry 
 of war, and soon exercised a despotic con- 
 troul over the king and the army. His ex- 
 tensive knowledge, his decision, activity, 
 industry, and talents, rendered him an able 
 minister ; but he was too regardless of the 
 rights of human nature, too lavish of the 
 blood and treasure of France, and too much 
 of a despot, to deserve the appellation of a 
 great statesman. On the death of Colbert 
 in 1683, of whom he had been the enemy, 
 his influence became still greater, and one of 
 its most fatal eftects was the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, in 1685, and the conse- 
 quent flight of so many peaceful and in- 
 dustrious Calvinists. His atrocious cruelties 
 to the Protestants, indeed, have branded his 
 name with infamy. Died, 1091. 
 
 LOVE, Christopher, an eminent Pres- 
 byterian divine, was born at Cardiff", in 1618. 
 lie studied at Oxford, and entered into 
 orders ; but refusing to subscribe to the 
 canons enjoined by Archbishop Laud, he 
 was expelled the congregation of masters, 
 and repaired to London. He was one of 
 the commissioners for the parliament at the | 
 treaty of Uxbridge ; he was also one of the | 
 assembly of divines, and chosen minister of 
 St. Lawrence Jewry ; yet he signed the de- 
 claration against the murder of the king. 
 After this he was concerned in a plot against 
 Cromwell and the Independents, for which 
 he was tried and beheaded, Aug. 22. 1651. 
 Ashe, Calamy, and Manton, three eminent 
 Nonconformist divines, accompanied him to 
 the scaff'old, and he was deemed a martyr 
 by the whole of the Presbyterian party. 
 
 LOVE, James, a dramatic writer and 
 performer, whose real name was Dance, was, 
 for a time, a partisan of Sir Robert Walpole, 
 and an expectant of political preferment ; 
 but being disajipointed in his hopes, and 
 involved in difliculties, he went on the 
 stage, and excelled in the part of Falstaff. 
 " Pamela," a comedy ; " The Village Wed- 
 ding," a pastoral entertainment ; and " The 
 Lady's Frolic," a comic opera, were the pro- 
 ductions of his pen. Died, 1774. 
 
 LO\TSLACE, Richard, an English poet 
 of the 17th century, was a son of Sir William 
 Lovelace, of Woolwich, and bom in 1618. 
 He was educated at the Charter House, and 
 at Gloucester Hall, Oxford ; became a colonel 
 in the army of Charles I., and spent the 
 whole of his fortime in support of the royal 
 cause ; was imprisoned by the parliament, 
 and died in indigence in 16.58. His poems, 
 published under the title of "Lucasta," are 
 light and elegant ; he also wrote two plays, 
 " The Scholar," a comedy, and " The Sol- 
 dier," a tragedy. For spirit and gallantry. 
 Colonel Lovelace has sometimes been com- 
 pared to Sir Philip Sidney. 
 
 LOVIBOND, Edward, a minor English 
 poet, was the son of an East India director. 
 
low] 
 
 ^ fiebi Winliicv^al JSiOflrapTjg. 
 
 [lot 
 
 who left him a considerable estate at Hamp- 
 ton, Middlesex. He was the author of Poems, 
 in 2 vols., the most pleasing of which is 
 called "The Tears of Old May Day;" he 
 also wrote some papers in the World. Died, 
 1775. 
 
 LOWE, Lieut.-gen. Sir Hudson, K.C.B., 
 &c., entered the army at a very early age, 
 and served with much credit in various parts 
 of the world ; but he will be principally re- 
 membered in liistory as having been goveriior 
 of ISt. Helena, while that inland was the 
 place of detention of the Eniperor Napoleon. 
 For his conduct iu this truly ditRcult and 
 delicate trust. Sir Hudson Lowe has been 
 much abused by French writers, and we are 
 sorry to say that their abuse has been echoed 
 in England by men who ought to have 
 known better. That Sir Hudson's task utw 
 both difficult and delicate must be admitted : 
 and when to the stern sense of duty of a 
 veteran soldier we add the vast additional 
 sense of responsibility that must needs arise 
 from the fact of the peace of Europe — nay, 
 of the whole civilised world — being dei>end- 
 ent upon the safe custody of Napoleon, it 
 is mere drivelling, to say no worse, to con- 
 tend against the strictest fulfilment of the 
 governor's sworn duty. It has always ap- 
 peared to us that most of Napoleon's com- 
 jilainls were unworthily puerile, and that 
 the rest were such as Sir Hudson Lowe 
 might have prevented — but only by perjury 
 as a man, and breach of faith as a soldier — 
 by conniving at the escape of that restless 
 and selfish genius, over whom he had the 
 unpleasant task of being guard. Died, Jan. 
 1844, aged 78. 
 
 LOWENDAL, Uliuch Frederic Wol- 
 DEMAU, Count of, a celebrated military officer 
 and engineer, was born at Hamburgh, iu 
 17U0. He began his military career in Po- 
 land, in 1713 ; but entered the Danish service 
 during the war with Sweden. He afterwards 
 served in Hungary witli great eclat, and 
 next took part in the wars of Naples and 
 Sicily. He returned to Poland in 1721, and 
 was made colonel of infantry and com- 
 mander of the royal horse guards. During 
 the peace he studied gunnery and engineer- 
 ing, and was made lield-marshal and in- 
 spector-general of the Saxon infantry iu the 
 service of Augustus, king of Poland. In 
 1734 and 1735 he was in the Austrian service ; 
 and he subsequently entered into that of 
 Russia. He accepted the commission of 
 lieutenant general in the French army in 
 1743, and distinguished himself at the sieges 
 of Menin, Ypres, Friburg, &c., and also at 
 the battle of Fontenoy. In 1747 he took 
 Bergen- op- Zoom by storm, which, till then, 
 had been deemed impregnable ; for which 
 and his other services he was created a 
 marshal of France. His knowledge of en- 
 gineering and military tactics in general 
 was of the first-rate order ; he spoke all the 
 European languages with fluency ; and with 
 these accomplishments he combined modesty 
 and amiable manners. Died, 1755. 
 
 LOWEll, Richard, a physician and ana- 
 tomist of some eminence in the 17th century, 
 was a native of Cornwall ; assisted Dr. Willis 
 in his anatomical researches, and in his pro- 
 fessional practice ; and obtained considerable 
 
 543 
 
 reputation as a man of science by his ex- 
 periments on the transfusion of blood from 
 one animal to another. Died, 1C91. 
 
 LOWRY, Wilson, F.R.S., an eminent 
 English engraver, was born in 1702, at 
 Whitehaven, where his father, Mr. Strick- 
 land Lowry was a portrait painter. He was 
 the inventor of a ruling-machine, possessing 
 the property of ruling successive lines, either 
 equidistant or in just gradations, from the 
 greatest required width to the nearest pos- 
 sible approximation ; also of one capable of 
 drawing lines to a point, and of forming 
 concentric circles : he likewise introduced 
 the use of diamond points for etching, and 
 many other useful improvements in the art ; 
 and was the first who succeeded in what is 
 technically termed " biting in " well upon 
 steel. For 30 years before his death he was 
 engaged by eminent publishers on their most 
 extensively illustrated works ; and having 
 attained to the highest rank in his peculiar 
 branch of the art, his services were thoroughly 
 appreciated. Died, 1820. 
 
 LOWTH, William, an eminent divine, 
 was born in London, in ICCl, and was edu- 
 cated at Oxford. Being recommended by 
 Ids worth and learning, he became chaplain 
 to Dr. Mew, bishop of Winchester, and was 
 provided with a prebendal stall in his cathe- 
 dral and the living of Buriton. He was an 
 excellent classical scholar and crilic, and 
 the author of several theological works of 
 merit. 
 
 I^OWTH, Robert, son of the preceding, 
 and a distinguished English prelate, was 
 born at Buriton, in 1710; received his edu- 
 cation at .Winchester, and at New College, 
 Oxford ; iu which university he was elected 
 professor of poetry, in 1741. He accom- 
 panied Mr. Legge on an embassy to Berlin, 
 and was subsequently travelling tutor to the 
 sons of the Duke of Devonsliire. In 1753 
 he published his " De Sacra Poesi Ilebraeo- 
 rum Prselectiones Acadeinicae ;" in 1758, the 
 " Life of William of Wykeham ;" in 1702, a 
 " Sliort Introduction to English Grammar ;" 
 and, in 170:5, he replied, in a masterly and 
 unanswerable style, to some acrimonious 
 remarks of Warburton, who thought Dr. 
 Lowth had aimed at his Divine Legation of 
 Moses in the " PrsElectiones." After having 
 enjoyed some valuable preferments, he was 
 raised to the see of St. David's in 1700 ; was 
 translated to Oxford in the same year ; and, 
 in 1777, succeeded to the diocese of London. 
 In 1778 he published his "Translation of 
 Isaiah." The archbishopric of Canterbury 
 was offered him, on the death of Dr. Corn- 
 wallis, but he declined the primacy, and 
 died in 1787, aged 77. 
 
 LOYOLA, Ignatius, founder of the so- 
 ciety of Jesuits, was born in 1491, of a noble 
 family, in the Spanish province of Guipus- 
 coa. He was at first in the army, and served 
 with distinguished bravery : but having been 
 severely wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, 
 he beguiled his time with books, and on 
 reading the Lives of the Saints, his imagina- 
 tion became highly excited, and he deter- 
 mined to devote himself from that time to 
 works of piety. He began by making a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; not from a mere 
 wish to see those places, which had been 
 
 3a 2 
 
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 ^ ^tin Unihtr^iil MiaQi'^j^\)v, 
 
 [luc 
 
 hallowed by the presence of our Lord, but 
 in the hope of converting some of the infidels, 
 who were masters of the Holy Land, or of 
 gaining the palm of martyrdom in the at- 
 tempt. Having accomplished this painful 
 and perilous journey, he returned to Spain, 
 more unprovided even than he had left it. 
 In 1526 he went to the university of Alcala, 
 where he found sonic adherents ; but tJie 
 Inquisition imprisoned him for his conduct, 
 which appeared strange, and rendered him 
 suspected of witchcraft. He was not de- 
 livered from the prison of the holy office 
 until 1528, when he went to Paris to continue 
 his studies, tlie subjects of whicli, indeed, 
 were only works of an ascetic character. 
 Here he became acquainted witii several 
 Spaniards and Frencliinen, who were after- 
 wards noted as his followers. They con- 
 ceived the plan of an order for the couversion 
 of heathens and sinners, and, on Ascension 
 Day, in 15.34, they united for this great work 
 in the subterranean cliapel of tlie abbey of 
 Montmartre. Thej' then met again in 1536, 
 at Venice, whence they proceeded to Rome, 
 and received the confirmation of their fra- 
 ternity from pope Paul III., as " The So- 
 ciety of JesuB." In 1541, Ignatius was cho- 
 sen general of the society ; continued his 
 abstinence and penances during life ; and 
 died in 1566. Loyola was in person of a 
 middle stature, of an olive complexion, with 
 a bald head, eyes full of fire, and an aquiline 
 nose. His fanaticism and enthusiasm were 
 certainly dignified by sincerity, and he 
 doubtless believed as lie taught, that the So- 
 ciety of Jesus was the result of an immedi- 
 ate inspiration from heaven. He was canon- 
 ised in 1622, by Gregory XV. 
 
 LUBIENIETSKL Stanislaus, a cele- 
 brated Socinian minister, was born at Cra- 
 cow, in Poland, in 1623. On the banishment 
 of his sect, he went to Denmark, where he 
 was poisoned, with liis two daughters, in 1675. 
 His principal work is entitled " Theatrum 
 Cometicum ;" but, at the time of his decease, 
 he was engaged in writing an account of 
 the rise and progress of the Reformation in 
 Poland. 
 
 LUBIN, AUGUSTiN, an Augustine friar, 
 was born at Paris, in 1624. He beeame 
 provincial-general of his order in France ; 
 and afterwards assistant-general of the 
 French monks at Rome ; but he returned 
 to Paris, and died there in 1695. He was 
 made geographer royal ; and wrote " The 
 Geographical Mercury," "Notes on tlie 
 Roman Martyrology," " History of the 
 French Abbeys," and the " Geography of the 
 Bible," &c. 
 
 LUCAN, Marcus Axn^us, a celebrated 
 Roman poet, was born at Corduba, in Spain, 
 A. D. 37. He was a nephew of Seneca ; 
 and being taken early to Rome, he studied 
 there under the best masters. Before he 
 was of the legal age he was made a quaestor ; 
 and he was also admitted into the college of 
 augurs. He excited the anger of Nero for 
 having had the etfrontery to recite one of 
 his compositions, in a public assembly, in 
 competition with the emperor, and was 
 ordered never more to recite in public. This 
 induced Lucan to join Piso and others in a 
 conspiracy against the tyrant, for which he 
 
 suffered death, a. d. 65. His "Pharsalia" 
 contains passages of great beauty. 
 . LUCAS, Charles, a noted Irish patriot, 
 who was a physician at Dublin, was born 
 in 1713. He was a member of the Irish 
 house of commons, and obtained immense 
 popularity by his opposition to the court 
 party. Died, 1771. 
 
 LUCAS, Paul, a Frencli traveller, was 
 born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1664. He 
 made trading voyages to the Levant, Greece, 
 Asia Minor, and Africa; and having brought 
 home medals and other curiosities for the 
 king's cabinet, he was made one of the roj'al 
 antiquaries. During one of his voyages he 
 entered into the Venetian army, and served 
 at the siege of Negropont. His travels, which 
 are romantic and improbable, form 7 vols. 
 He died in 1737. 
 
 LUCAS, Richard, D. D., a native of 
 Presteign, in Radnorshire, was born in 1648, 
 and educated at Jesus College, Oxford. He 
 was a pious and learned divine, and held a 
 prebend in Westminster ; but lost his sight 
 many years before his death. Among his 
 writings are " Sermons," 5 vols. ; " An En- 
 quiry after Happiness," 2 vols. ; " The Mo- 
 rality of the Gospel," and " Practical Chris- 
 tianity." Died, 1715. 
 
 LUCCHESINI, GiROLAMO, Marquis of, 
 was born at Lucca, of a noble family, in 
 1752, and became Prussian minister of state. 
 He was the literary friend of Frederic II., 
 and first received a diplomatic appointment 
 under his successor, being sent to the council 
 of state at Warsaw, in 1788, and ultimately 
 brought about an alliance between Prussia 
 and Poland. From that time he was am- 
 bassador on all great occasions, at Vienna, 
 at Paris, and Milan. He accompanied the 
 king to the battle of Jena, then signed an 
 armistice with Napoleon at Cliarlottenburg, 
 of which, however, the king did not approve; 
 in consequence of which, as he believed 
 himself to have lost the favour of the king, 
 he took his dismissal. He was afterwards 
 chamberlain to Napoleon's sister, the prin- 
 cess of Lucca, and accompanied her to Paris 
 on the occasion of her brother's second mar- 
 riage. He was active, sagacious, and zealous; 
 combining the qualities of an experienced 
 courtier with the practical knowledge of a 
 statesman. Died, 1825. 
 
 LUCIAN, a celebrated Creek author, dis- 
 tinguished for his ingenuity and wit, was 
 born at Samosata, the capital of Comagene, 
 during the reign of Trajan. He was of 
 humble origin, and was placed, while young, 
 with an uncle, to study statuary ; but being 
 unsuccessful in his first attempts, he went 
 to Antioch, and devoted himself to literature 
 and forenic rhetoric. In the reign of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius, he was made procurator of the 
 province of Egypt, and died when 80 or 90 
 years old. The works of Luciaii, of which 
 many have come down to us, are mostly 
 in the form of dialogues ; but none are so 
 popular as those in which he ridicules the 
 pagan mythology and philosophical sects. 
 Many of them, however, though written 
 in an elegant style, and abounding with 
 witticisms, are tainted with profanity and 
 indecency. 
 
 LUCILIUS, Caius, a Roman satirist, who 
 
 i 
 
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 ^ ^cfio mnttitri^ar 3Bt00rajpf)5. 
 
 [lul 
 
 served under Scipio in liis expedition against 
 the Numautians. Only a few of his verses 
 remain, wliieh are in the Corpus Poetarum 
 of Maittaire. He died at Naples, b. c. 108. 
 
 LUCKETIA, a Roman matron, was the 
 wife of CoUatinus, and the cause of the 
 revolution of Rome from a monarchy to a 
 republic. Sextus Tarquinius, who contrived 
 to become a guest in the absence of her hus- 
 band, whose kinsman he was, found means 
 to reach her chamber in the middle of the 
 nigljt ; and finding himself repulsed, he 
 threatened to stab her, kill a slave, and 
 place him by lier side, and then swear he 
 had slain them both in the act of adultery. 
 The dread of infamy succeeded, and he tri- 
 umphed over her fears ; but she acquainted 
 her liusband, father, and kindred of the 
 transaction, and, in spite of their soothing 
 remonstrances, drew a dagger, and stabbed 
 herself to the heart. The bloody poniard, 
 with her dead body exposed to the senate, 
 was the signal of Roman liberty. The ex- 
 pulsion of the Tarquins, and the abolition 
 of the regal dignity, was instantly resolved 
 on, and carried into execution. 
 
 LUCRETIUS, Titus Cakvs, on ancient 
 Roman i)hilosopher and poet, much esteemed 
 for his learning and eloquence. His cele- 
 brated work, " De Rerum Natiu-a," has been 
 translated into English by Mr. Creech. 
 Born, B. c. 98 ; died, b. C. ."55. 
 
 LUCUIiLUS, Lucius Licinius, a Roman 
 consul and commander, celebrated for his 
 military talents and magnificence, was born 
 B. c. 115. He first distinguished himself in 
 the social war, and afterwords defeated 
 Ilamilcar in two naval battles. lie also 
 conquered various cities of Pontus ; and, al- 
 though overcome by Mithridates in- a battle, 
 soon acquired such advantages that he 
 finally broke up the hostile army, and Mith- 
 ridates himself sought protection in Ar- 
 menia ; where Tigranes refusing to surrender 
 him to the Romans, LucuUus attacked that 
 monarch, and completely subdued him. By 
 a mutiny of his soldiers, who accused him of 
 avarice and covetousness, he was deprived 
 of the chief command, and recalled. From 
 this time, Lucullus remained a private in- 
 dividual, spending in luxurious case the 
 immense riches which he had brought 
 with him from Asia, without, liowever, 
 abandoning the more noble and serious 
 occupations of a cultivated mind. Died, 
 B. c. 49. 
 
 LUDLOW, Edmund, an eminent repub- 
 lican leader, was born at Maiden Bradley, 
 Wilts, in 1020 ; studied at Trinity College, 
 Oxford, and at the Temple ; was an officer 
 in the parliamentary army, and fought at 
 Edgehill, Newbury, and other places; but 
 when the " self-denying ordinance " took 
 place, he remained out of any ostensible 
 situation, until chosen member for Wiltshire 
 in the place of his father. At this time the 
 niachiuations of Cromwell becoming visible, 
 he was opposed by Ludlow with firmness 
 and openness. To establish a republic, he 
 joined the army against tiie parliament, and 
 sat also as one of Charles's judges. Nomi- 
 nated general of horse in Ireland, he joined 
 the army under Iretou, and acted with great 
 vigour and ability. When Cromwell was 
 
 declared protector, Ludlow used all his in- 
 fluence with the army against him, on which 
 account he was recalled, a>id put under 
 arrest ; but he avowed his republican prin- 
 ciples, and, refusing all security or engage- 
 ment for submission, retired into Essex, 
 where he remained until the death of the 
 protector. When Richard Cromwell suc- 
 ceeded, he joined the army party at Wal- 
 llngford House, and was instrumental in the 
 restoration of the long parliament, in which 
 he took his seat. The Restoration was now 
 rapidly approaching, and finding the repub- 
 licans unable to resist it, he quitted the 
 country, and proceeded to Geneva, whence 
 he afterwards, with many more fugitives 
 of the party, took refuge at Lausanne. After 
 the revolution he ventured to appear in 
 London, which gave such offence, that an 
 address was presented to king William, by 
 the House of Commons, praying his majesty 
 to issue a proclamation for apprehending 
 him. On this, Ludlow went back to Vevay, 
 in Switzerland, where he died in 1C93. He 
 was one of the purest and most honourable 
 characters on the republican side, free from 
 fanaticism or hypocrisy. His " Memoirs " 
 are interesting, and written in a manly and 
 unafltctcd style. 
 
 LUDOLPH, Job, a learned orientalist, was 
 born at Erfurt, in Thuiiugia, in 1024; studied 
 at Leyden ; and became a travelling tutor. 
 In 1049 he went to Rome on a literary com- 
 mission, and while there formed an acquaint- 
 ance with some Abyssinians, from whom he 
 acquired a perfect knowledge of the Etlii- 
 opic langxiage. In 1(!52 he was made aiilic 
 counsellor to the Duke of Saxe Gotha, and 
 governor to the young princes. Among his 
 works are, "A History of Ethiopia" and 
 various lexicons and grammars of the Etlxi- 
 opian dialects. Died, 17(>4. 
 
 LUDOLPH, IIenuy William, nephew of 
 the above, and secretary to Prince George of 
 Denmark, who espoused Queen Anne of Eng- 
 land, settled in London, where he died in 
 1710. He wrote a " Grammar of the Russian 
 Language," and published the New Testa- 
 ment in modern Greek. 
 
 LUl^LI, or LULLY, Jean Baptiste, a 
 musical composer, was born of obscure pa- 
 rents, at Florence, in 1634. Having dis- 
 covered a passionate fondness for music when 
 quite a child, he was sent to Paris in his 
 tenth year, to be page to Mdlle. Montijcnsier. 
 He now rose rapidly, till he obtained the ap- 
 pointment of musician to the court ; and, in 
 1670, was made joint director of the French 
 opera, which situation he filled till his de- 
 cease, in 1687. Lully contributed much to 
 the improvement of French music, composed 
 19 operas, and was much admired by his co- 
 temporaries. Died, 1687. 
 
 LULLY, Raymond, a distinguished phi- 
 losopher and scholar of the 13th century, 
 born at Palnia, in Majorca. In his youth 
 he had been a soldier ; but he became a reli- 
 gious ascetic, and travelled into Africa and 
 the East, for the purpose of converting the 
 Mahometans to Christianity. He suffered 
 tortures and imprisonment at Tunis ; but 
 was released by some Genoese merchants, 
 and died on his voyage home, in 1315. He 
 wrote on divinity, medicine, chemistry, me- 
 
 8a3 
 
lum] 
 
 ^ ^m Winiiiersal 3Si0srapTjg. 
 
 [lux 
 
 taphysics, &c. ; was styled " Doctor Illu- 
 minatus ; " and liis method, wliioh prevailed 
 in Europe during tlie 14th, 15th, and 16th 
 centuries, was dignilied by tlie title of " Ars 
 LuUiana." 
 
 LUMSDEN, MATTiimv, LL.D., professor 
 of Persian and Arabic in the college of Fort 
 William, Calcutta ; author of two grammars 
 of those languages. In 1825 he resigned the 
 service of tlie East India Company, came 
 to England, and died in 1835, aged 58. 
 
 LUPTON, Da.mel, an English author, 
 who, about the middle of the 17th century, 
 published various works, among which are, 
 '•Modern Protestant Divines, the Glory of 
 their Times," " Emblems of Rarities," &c. 
 
 LUSSAN, Makoauet de, a French au- 
 thoress of considerable talents, born in 1G82, 
 was the daughter of one of Cardinal Fleury's 
 coachmen. Among her most esteemed pro- 
 ductions are, " La Comtesse de Goudez," 2 
 vols. J " Anecdotes de Philippe Auguste," 6 
 vols. ; " Anecdotes of Francis I.," 3 vols. ; 
 "La "Vie de M. Crillon," 2 vols. ; and " His- 
 toire de Charles VI.," 9 vols. 
 
 LUTIIEK, Mautix, the great reformer of 
 the church, was born in 1483, at Eisleben, in 
 Lower Saxony. At the age of 14 he was sent 
 j to the school of iMagdeburg, from which lie 
 removed to Eisenach, and thence to the 
 university of Erfurt, where, in 1503, he 
 received a master's degree, and delivered 
 lectures on the physics and ethics of Aris- 
 totle. He was destined by liis fatlicr for the 
 legal profession ; but tlie impression pro- 
 duced on him by the fate of his friend Alexis, 
 who was struck dead by lightning while 
 walking by his side on their road from 
 Mansfield to Erfurt, uniting with the effect 
 of his early religious education, induced 
 him to devote himself to the monastic life, 
 and he entered the monastery of Augustines, 
 in 1505, submitting patiently to all the 
 penances and humiliations which the supe- 
 rior of the order imposed upon novices. In 
 1507 he was constituted priest, and in 1508he 
 was made professor of philosophy in the new 
 university of Wittenberg. In this sphere of 
 action his powerful mind soon showed itself ( 
 he tlirew off the fetters of the scholastic phi- 
 losophy, asserted the riglits of reason, and 
 soon collected a large number of disciples. 
 In 1510 he visited the court of pope Leo X., 
 at Rome; a journey which revealed to him 
 the irreligion and corruption of the clergy, 
 and destroyed his reverence for the sanctity 
 of the pope. After his return, he became a 
 preacher, and was made doctor in theology. 
 His profound learning, together with the 
 fame of his eloquence, soon made Luther 
 known to the principal scholars, and es- 
 teemed as a powerful advocate of the new 
 light which was breaking upon the world. 
 Great, therefore, was the attention excited 
 by his 95 propositions, given to the world, 
 Oct. 31. 1517, and intended to put an end 
 to the sale of indulgences by the Domini- 
 can Tetzel. They were condemned as he- 
 retical ; but neitJier menaces nor persua- 
 sions could induce him to recant, and he 
 still maintained the invalidity of indul- 
 gences, and of the papal supremacy. In 1520, 
 Luther and his friends wore excomiuuul 
 cated, and his writings burnt at Rome, Co- 
 
 logne, and Louvain. Indignant at this open 
 act of hostility, Luther burned the bull of 
 excommunication and tlie decretals of the 
 papal canon. Being called upon by many 
 of the German nobility to defend the new 
 doctrine, lie presented himself at the diet of 
 Worms, April 1521, before the emperor, and 
 a vast assemblage of the princes and prelates 
 of Germany. He there made an elaborate 
 defence, and concluded it with these words : 
 " Let me then be refuted and convinced by 
 the testimony of the Scriptures, or by the 
 clearest arguments, otherwise I cannot and 
 will not recant ; for it is neither safe nor 
 expedient to act against conscience. Here I 
 take my stand ; I can do no otherwise, so 
 help me God ! Amen." He left Worms, in 
 fact, a conqueror ; but it was so manifest 
 that his enemies were determined upon his 
 destruction, that the Elector of Saxony con- 
 veyed liim to the castle of Wartburg, to 
 save his life. In this Patmos, as he called 
 it, Luther remained ten moiuhs, and then 
 returned to Wittenberg, where he published 
 a sharp reply to Henry VIII., who had 
 written a book against him, on the seven 
 sacraments. Luther also printed a transla- 
 tion of the New Testament, which greatly 
 alarmed the Romanists, and severe edicts 
 were issued against the reading of it by the 
 princes of that communion. In 1524 he 
 married Catherine de Bora, who had been 
 a nun, by whom he had three sons. In 
 1529, the emperor assembled another diet at 
 Spires, to check the progress of the new 
 opinions ; and here it was that the name of 
 Protestants first rose, occasioned by the pro- 
 test made, on the part of the electoral princes, 
 who were for the Reformation, against the 
 rigorous impositions brought forward in this 
 assembly. After this, the protesting princes 
 determined to have a common confession of 
 faith drawn up ; which was accordingly per- 
 formed by Melanchthon, and being presented 
 at the diet of Augsburg, in 1530, was called 
 " The Confession of Augsburg." In 1534, 
 Luther's translation of the whole Bible was 
 published ; and the same year he printed a 
 book against the service of the mass. At 
 length, worn out, more by labour than age, 
 this illustrious man died at his native place, 
 Feb. 18. 1546 ; having lived to see that his 
 doctrines had taken such deep root, that no 
 earthly power could eradicate them. 
 
 LUTTI, Benedict, an eminent Italian 
 painter, on whom the emperor of Germany 
 conferred the honour of knighthood, was 
 born at Florence, in 1606. He resided at 
 Rome, where he was president of the aca- 
 demy of St. Luke. His paintings are rare 
 and valuable. Died, 1724. 
 
 LUXEMBOURG, Fkaxcis Hekey de 
 MoNTMOKE2s'Ci, Duke of, a famous general 
 and marshal of France, born in 1028, was 
 the posthumous son of the Count de Boute- 
 ville, who was beheaded in the reign of 
 Louis XIII. for fighting a duel. He served 
 when young under the Prince of Condi5 ; 
 was made a duke and peer of France, in 
 1602 ; was a lieutenant-general at the taking 
 of Franche-CompttJ, in 1()68 ; commanded 
 during the invasion of Holland, in 1672 ; 
 and having gained the battle of Seref, in 
 1674, was created a marshal. He subse- 
 
LYC] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Bnibtr^nl UicgrapTjy. 
 
 [lyn 
 
 qiiently distinguished himself at the battles 
 of Fleiinw, Leuzc, Steinkirk, &c. ; and died 
 in 160">. 
 
 LYCOPHRON, a Greek poet, waa born 
 at Clialcis, in Euba-a. lie flouFished in the 
 age of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was one 
 of the seven poets termed the Pleiades. He 
 wrote numerous tragedies, a satirical drama, 
 and' other works ; but the only extant pro- 
 duction of this writer is a poem relating to 
 tlie predictions of Cassandra, the daughter 
 of Priam, King of Troy. 
 
 LYCURGUS, the celebrated Spartan le- 
 gislator, son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, is 
 supposed to have been born about u.c. 898. 
 Ilis elder brother, Polydectes, who succeeded 
 to the throne on the death of his father, soon 
 after died, and left the kingdom to him ; 
 but Lycurgus finding that the widow was 
 pregnant, forbore to assume the sceptre ; and 
 the issue proving to be a boy, he faithfully 
 fulfilled the office of guardian to it. He 
 made tlie study of legislation his principal 
 object ; and having travelled for the purpose 
 of investigating tiie institutions of other 
 lauds, he returned to his own country, and 
 established those laws by which Sparta was 
 so long governed. Having bound the king, 
 senate, and people, by a solemn oath, not to 
 alter any of the laws he had. made until Ills 
 return, he left Sparta with the avowed in- 
 tention of visiting the oracle of Delphi, but 
 he secretly determined never to see it again. 
 Plutarch affirms, that he put himself volun- 
 tarily to death by starvation, wldle Lucian 
 asserts that he died naturally, at the age of 
 85. The rigid character of the laws of Ly- 
 curgus was intended to make public prin- 
 ciple predominate over private interests and 
 affections. Children were not allowed to l)e 
 the property of their parents, but of the 
 state ; which directed their education, and 
 even determined on their life or death. The 
 severest penalties against debauchery and 
 intemperance were afflxe<l ; and it was en- 
 joined that the people should all take their 
 meals in public. They were allowed to 
 possess neither gold nor silver ; iron was 
 used for money ; the theatres were abo- 
 lished ; and nothing but the most indispen- 
 sable knowledge was allowed to be acquired ; 
 in short, all that tended to soften and 
 humanise mankind was prohibited, while 
 every thing that could promote a liardy life 
 and personal bravery was encouraged. The 
 Spartans, under the laws of Lycurgus, con- 
 sequently became a nation of warriors, who, 
 for ages, proved the bulwark of their friends, 
 the dread of their foes, and an example for 
 future ages — more, however, to be shunned 
 than imitated. 
 
 LYDGATE, John', one of the oldest Eng- 
 lish poets, was a Benedictine monk of Bury 
 St. Edmund's. lie was educated at Oxford, 
 travelled in France and Italy, opened a 
 school on his return for the tuition of the 
 young nobility, and died about 1460. His 
 " Siege of Troy " is very scarce. 
 
 LYDIAT, Thomas, a chronological and 
 mathematical writer, was born in 1572, at 
 Okerton, in Oxfordshire ; received his edu- 
 cation at Winchester School, and New Col- 
 lege, Oxford ; and became rector of his native 
 place. He was reduced to poverty by being 
 
 security for a friend, and afterwards suffered 
 greatly for his loyalty to Cliarles I. This in- 
 dustrious aud able scholar died in indigence 
 and obscurity, in 1649. 
 
 LYE, KnWAKD, a learned antiquary, was 
 born at Totuess, in Devonshire, in 1"()4 ; 
 and he died, rector of Yardley, in North- 
 amptonshire, in 1769. He was well versed 
 in the Anglo-Saxon language and history ; 
 and was the author of an " j\j3glo-Saxou 
 and Gothic Dictionary," 2 vols., with a 
 grammar of the two languages. He was also 
 the editor of " Junius's Etymologicon Angli- 
 canum." 
 
 EYELTv, Charles, well known in the 
 scientific and literary world, was born iu 
 Fifeshire, 1767. Educated partly at St. An- 
 drew's, and partly at Cambridge, he returned 
 to his paternal estate of Kinnordy, where 
 he passed his whole time in those pursuits 
 which have gained him a distinguislied 
 place among men of science. He was the 
 discoverer of many British plants previously 
 uuknowni ; and his translation of the lyrical 
 poems of Dante, with liis illustrative notes, 
 shows a profound knowledge of mediajval 
 Italian liistory and literature. Sir Charles 
 Eyell, the distinguished geologist, is liis son. 
 Died. 1849. 
 
 EYNAR, Rocn Fuederic, Count de ; 
 author of " Travels in Upper Lusatia ;" 
 " Political Reflections and Negotiations," 
 &c., waa a native of Lower Lusatia, and 
 held several imiK>rtaut situations. Born, 
 1708; died, 1781. 
 
 LYNDWODE, or LINDWOOD, Wix.- 
 r.iAJi, an eminent ecclesiaatical lawyer of 
 the 15th century, waa keeper of the privy 
 seal in the reign of Henry VI., and was 
 sent repeatedly on embassies to Spain and 
 Portugal. He died, bishop of St. David's, in 
 1446. 
 
 IjYNEDOCH, Thomas Graium, Lord, 
 an illustrious British general, was born at 
 Balgowan, in Perthshire, in 17.'50, but did 
 not enter the army until he was in his 45th 
 year, nor would he possibly have ever had 
 an opportunity of displaying his skill and 
 courage as a British officer, but for the oc- 
 currence of a domestic calamity — the loss 
 of a beloved wife. . This change in his con- 
 dition and prospects imparted almost a 
 romantic character to the tenor of his life. 
 To alleviate his grief and restore his injured 
 liealth, he was recommended to travel ; and 
 it was during his sojourn at Gibraltar that 
 he fell into the society of the officers of the 
 garrison, and thenceforth determined on 
 devoting himself to the profession of arms. 
 He first served as a volunteer at the siege of j 
 Toulon, under Lord Mulgrave, and on his 
 return he raised from among his country- 
 men a battalion of the 90th regiment, of ' 
 which he was appointed colonel-command- j 
 ant. He then accompanied his regiment I 
 to Gibraltar ; but soon growing tired of the \ 
 idleness inseparable from garrison duty in 
 that stronghold, he obtained permission to 
 join the Austrian army, where he found 
 ample opportunities of perfecting himself 
 in the art of war, while he was enabled to 
 take advantage of his position in sending to 
 the British government intelligence of the 
 military operations and diplomatic measures 
 
LTO] 
 
 ^ f?c&) HiubrrM 3Si0(jTap]^w. 
 
 [lfs 
 
 adopted by the commanders and sovereigns 
 of the Continent. In 1797 he returned to 
 England, and having joined his regiment, 
 he was appointed to act with Sir Charles 
 Stuart in the reduction of the island of 
 Minorca, after which he was employed two 
 years in the blockade of Malta. In 1808 he 
 proceeded with Sir John Moore to Sweden, 
 and afterwards served in Spain with that 
 gallant officer during the fatal Peninsular 
 campaign, which ended in the debarkation 
 at Coriinna. Next year, General Graham 
 commanded a division at the siege of Flush- 
 ing ; in 1810 he commanded the British 
 troops at Cadiz ; and in 1811 he fought and 
 won the memorable battle of Barossa. After 
 this he joined Lord Wellington, and was 
 present at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo ; but 
 ill-health rendered it necessary for him to 
 revisit England for a short period. Early in 
 
 1813, however, he returned to the Peninsula, 
 led the left wing at the battle ofVittoria, 
 reduced the town and citadel of St. Sebas- 
 tian, crossed the Bidassoa, and, after a severe 
 contest, established the British army on the 
 
 I territory of France. On the 3rd of May, 
 
 1814, General Sir Thomas Graham was 
 created a peer of the empire, by the title 
 of baron Lynedoch, of Balgowan, on which 
 occasion he nobly refused a grant of 2(X)0/. 
 per annum, to himself and heirs, which was 
 intended to accompany his elevation. In 
 1826 he was appointed to the governorsliip 
 of Dumbarton Castle. " Never," said Mr. 
 Sheridan, " was there seated a loftier spirit 
 in a braver heart." This gallant officer and 
 excellent man died Dcc.18. 1843, at the ad- 
 vanced age of 93. 
 
 LYON, George Francis, an enterprising 
 traveller, and a captain in the British navy, 
 was born at Chichester in 1795, and entered 
 the service on board the Milford, of 74 guns, 
 in 1809 ; from which period up to the battle 
 of Algiers, where he was present, he was 
 continually engaged in the active duties of 
 his profession. It is, however, in the capa- 
 city of a traveller and navigator that we 
 have to consider him ; for in 1818 he was 
 employed, under Mr. Ritchie, on a mission 
 to the interior of Africa. Of this expedition 
 Mr. Lyon published his journal, under the 
 title of" A Narrative of Travels in Northern 
 Africa, accompanied by Geographical No- 
 tices of Soudan, and of the Course of the 
 Niger." A more disastrous undertaking 
 has been seldom known ; the travellers 
 suifered every kind of privation, were at- 
 tacked with the most alarming disorders, 
 and Mr. Ritchie fell a martyr to extreme 
 suifering and disappointment while at ^Mour- 
 zouk, the capital of Fezzan, from which 
 place Mr. Lyon returned. A very different 
 scene of operations next awaited him. In 
 1821 he was appointed to the command of the 
 Hecla, one of the slups belonging to Captain 
 Parry's expedition to the Polar Seas ; of 
 which he also published " A Private Jour- 
 nal." In 1823 he was raised to the rank of 
 post-captain, and appointed to the command 
 of the Griper gun-brig, then fitting out for 
 another voyage of discovery in the icy re- 
 gions. Here he and his gallant crew en- 
 countered the most frightful perils, but 
 providentially returned to England, though 
 
 without effecting any part of their object. 
 He afterwards went to Mexico as one of the 
 commissioners of the Real del Monte Mining 
 Company, and was wrecked on his return, 
 near Holyhead, in 1827, losing every thing 
 belonging to him. He again visited South 
 America, but died on his passage home, 
 October, 1832, aged 37 ; thus terminating a 
 life of adventures and misfortunes not often 
 paralleled. 
 
 LYONNET, Peter, an eminentnaturalist, 
 was born at Maestricht, in 1707. Being bred 
 to the law, he became one of the secretaries 
 to the states of Holland, and their law trans- 
 lator from the Latin and French. In his 
 latter years he applied to thestudy of natural 
 history, particularly insects ; on which sub- 
 ject he wrote several esteemed books, the most 
 important of which is, " Traite Anatomique 
 de la Chenille qui rouge le Bois de Saule." 
 Died, 1789. 
 
 LYONS, Israel, an astronomer, botanist, 
 and mathematician, bom in 1739, was the son 
 of a Polish Jew, who was a Hebrew teacher 
 at Cambridge. He was Sir Joseph Banks's 
 instructor in botany, and accompanied 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, 
 as astronomer, in his voyage towards the 
 North Pole. He was one of the calculators 
 of the "Nautical Almanack," wrote a 
 " Treatise on Fluxions," and other works, 
 and lectured on botany. Died, 1775 
 
 LYRA, Nicholas de, a converted Jew of 
 the 14th century, was born at Lyre, in Nor- 
 mandy. He assumed the tonsure, and was so 
 remarkable for his intemperate zeal in de- 
 fence of the religion he had embraced, that 
 many Catholic writers assert, that he contri- 
 buted not a little to the progress of the Re- 
 formation. Died, 1340. 
 • LYSANDER, a famous Spartan com- 
 mander, tlie splendour of whose victories, his 
 extraordinary liberality, and his apparent 
 disinterestedness, seconded his ambitious 
 views, and rendered liim in fact, though not 
 in name, the master of all Greece. He was 
 slain fighting against the Thebans, B. c. 366. 
 
 I^YSIAS, an Athenian orator, who died 
 B. c. 378, aged 81. Only 34 of Ms orations 
 are extant. 
 
 LYSIMxVCHUS, one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great. He was killed in battle 
 by Seleucus, b. c. 281. 
 
 LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Grecian sculp- 
 tor, who worked with such extraordinary 
 diligence, that he is said to have left belli nd 
 him fifteen hundred pieces, every one of which 
 evinced marks of superior genius. He i-e- 
 ceived from Alexander the Great the singular 
 privilege of exclusively making his effigy in 
 cast metal ; and he accordingly executed a 
 series of figures of that prince, from childhood 
 to maturity. He greatly improved the art 
 of statuary, and gave to the human figure a 
 degree of symmetry and beauty unpractised 
 by his predecessors. 
 
 LYSONS, Sajtoel, an eminent antiquarian 
 and topographer, was born in 1763, at Rod- 
 merton, in Gloucestershire ; studied at the 
 Middle Temple, and was called to the bar ; 
 was appointed keeper of the records in the 
 Tower of London ; and died in 1819. His 
 works relate principally to the Roman an- , 
 tiquities in Britain. 
 
lyt] 
 
 ^ ^eljj SIm'lJcrsJal 3SiflsrajpI)ti. 
 
 [mac 
 
 LYTE, Henry, an English botanist of the 
 IGth century, was a native of Somersetshire. 
 After he left Oxford, he travelled to foreign 
 countries ; and having collected a number of 
 rare plants, on his return, he formed one of 
 the first botanical gardens in England. He 
 is known as the translator of "Doedon's 
 Herbal." Born. 1.529 ; died, 1607. • 
 
 LYTTLETON, George, Lord, an elegant 
 poet and historian, was bom at Hagley, in 
 Worcestershire, in 1709 ; was educated at 
 Eton, ond Christohurch, Oxford ; and, on 
 entering parliament, became an active mem- 
 ber of the opposition while Walpole was 
 minister. When Frederic, prince of Wales, 
 formed a separate court, he was appointed 
 his secretary ; and, on the resignation of 
 Walpole, he was made one of the lords of 
 the treasury ; he was subsequently chancellor 
 of the exchequer, but resigned in 1757, and 
 was raised to the peerage, after which he 
 withdrew from public affairs. Though in 
 early life Lord Lyttleton had imbibed scep- 
 tical opinions, his works show how sincere a 
 believer he afterwards was in the truths of 
 Christianity. He was the author of a " Dis- 
 sertation on the Conversion of St. Paul," 
 " Dialogues of the Dead," a " History of 
 Henry II.," and " Poems." The latter are 
 correct in versification and replete with 
 delicate sentiments ; nor are his miscellanies 
 in prose devoid of good taste and refinement. 
 Died, 1773. 
 
 LYTTLETON, Thomas, Ix)rd, son of the 
 preceding, was a young nobleman of pro- 
 mising talents, but of dissipated manners ; 
 
 and whose death is said to have been pre- 
 ceded by a very extraordinary circumstance- 
 He dreamt that a young female, dressed in 
 white, solemnly warned him of his dissolution 
 in three days from that time. On the third 
 day, his lordship had a party to sjMjnd the 
 evening with him, and about the time pre- 
 dicted he observed to tlie company present, 
 that " he believed he should jockey the 
 ghost ;" but in a few minutes afterwards he 
 was seized with a sudden faintncss, carried 
 to bed, and rose no more. He died in 1779, 
 aged 35. 
 
 LYTTLETON, Charles, a younger 
 brother of Lord George Lyttleton, was born 
 in 1714, and educated at Eton and Oxford. 
 He first studied the law ; but afterwards en- 
 tered into orders, and rose to the bishopric 
 of Carlisle in 1748. He was emnient as an 
 antiquarian, and, in 17(j.'>, was chosen pre- 
 sident of the society, in which station he 
 contributed several excellent papers to the 
 collection entitled Archaaologia. Died, 17(>8. 
 
 LYTTLETON, William Henuy, Lord, 
 was born in 1782, and educated at Christ- 
 church, Oxford, where he was distinguished 
 for his great natural abilities and acade- 
 mical learning. On the death of his half- 
 brother, William Fulke, lord Lyttleton, in 
 1828, he succeeded to the peerage. In com- 
 pany with Lord Lowther, he visited Napo- 
 leon on board the Northumberland, and 
 printed in 1836, for private circulation, an 
 account of his interview and conversation 
 with the fallen emperor. He died in May, 
 1837. 
 
 M. 
 
 MABILLON, a learned French Benedic- 
 tine, famous as a writer on ecclesiastical 
 antiquities and diplomatics, was born in 
 16;J2, at Pierre Mont, in Champagne, and 
 studied at the college of Rheims. He assisted 
 D'Acheri in his Spicilegium, and published 
 several laborious works, among which are, 
 "De Diplomatica," the " Musajuin Italicum," 
 2 vols.; and "The Annals of the Order of 
 St. Benedict." Died, 1707. 
 
 MABLY, Gabriel BoN!fET de, a French 
 abbe', eminent as a political and historical 
 writer, was the brother of Condillac, and 
 born at Grenoble, in 1709. He was educated 
 by the Jesuits at Lyons, but soon abandoned 
 theological studies for Thucydides, Plutarch, 
 and Livy. His works include " Parallele dcs 
 Koinains et des Franpois," " Le Droit public 
 de I'Europe," " Observations sur les Grecs," 
 " Observations sur les Romains," " Observa- 
 tions sur I'llistoire de la France," "Sur les 
 Constitutions des Etat unis de TAmurique," 
 &c., forming altogether 1.5 vols. All the wi-it- 
 ings of this author display deep thinking, and 
 a regard for the welfare of mankind, but his 
 manner is dictatorial and severe. He died in 
 178.5. 
 
 MABUSE, or MAUBEIJZE, .Toii.v ue, an 
 eminent painter, was born at Maubeuze, in 
 Haiuault, in 1499. Having obtained con- 
 
 siderable reputation, he visited England, 
 and resided sonHj time at the court of IIei\ry 
 VIII. Ue painted the portraits of the royal 
 family, as well as of the nobility ; but his 
 best works arc an altar-piece at Middleburg, 
 representing the descent from the cross, and 
 another of the Madonna and Child. He led 
 a very intemperate life ; and having once 
 received a piece of brocade for a tlress, to ap- 
 pear before the emperor Charles V., he sold 
 tlie stuff at a tavern, and painted a paper 
 dress so like it, that the difference could 
 hardly be distinguished. Died, 1502. 
 
 MACABER, an early German poet ; 
 author of a work, entitled " The Dance of 
 Death," consisting of a series of dialogues 
 between Death and a number of person- 
 ages belonging to various ranks of society. 
 Latin, English, and French versions of it 
 have been printed ; and Holbein's cele- 
 brated paintings have contributed much to 
 this author's fame. 
 
 MACADAM, Jonx Loudox, known as 
 the introducer of an improved system of 
 road-making, which bears his name, was 
 descended from an ancient and respectable 
 family in Kirkcudbright, Scotland, wliere 
 he was born in 1750. He was a man of 
 science generally, and in the course of his 
 active services as a magistrate and trustee 
 
mac] 
 
 ^ ^etu Winibttsal 3St0firjqjT)t). 
 
 [mac 
 
 of roads, his attention was first attracted 
 to the want of scientific principles in the 
 construction of roads. At that time he was 
 in his 60th year, and the subject continued 
 to occupy his leisure till he finally effected 
 what may fairly be termed a national good. 
 Government appreciating the vast utility of 
 his plans, rewarded him by two grants, 
 amounting together to 10,000/., and he was 
 offered tlie honour of knighthood, which, 
 however, he declined, in consequence of liis 
 advanced age, and it was conferred on his 
 son, now Sir James Nicoll M'Adara. He 
 died in November, 1836, aged 80. 
 
 MACARIUS, St. (the elder), a cele- 
 brated anchoret of the 4th century, who 
 passed 60 years in a monastery on mount 
 
 Sccta, and died about 391 St. Macarius 
 
 (the younger) was a monlc of Alexandria, 
 wiio being persecuted by the Arians, and 
 banished to an island, converted its inhabit- 
 ants to Christianity. Died, 395. 
 
 MACAKTIIY, Sir Charles, an active 
 but unfortunate Irish officer, who com- 
 manded at Cape Coast, in 1821. While 
 making preparations to repel the Ashantees, 
 the king sent his compliments to him, and 
 said he hoped to have his head as an orna- 
 ment to his great war-drum. In 1823, Sir 
 Charles marched against the Ashantees, 
 with a mixed force of Europeans and blacks, 
 the latter of whom ran away, and tlie whites 
 being defeated, their commander was cap- 
 tured, and the victor's menace was fero- 
 ciously realised, Jan. 21. 1824. In a subse- 
 quent battle, the Ashantees were defeated, 
 and this barbarous trophy was recovered and 
 conveyed to his relations. 
 
 MACARTNEY, George, Earl of, was 
 born at Lismore, near Belfast, in 1737 ; was 
 educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; and 
 afterwards travelled on the Continent. He 
 was employed by government on several 
 missions, particularly as ambassador from 
 Great Britain to the emperor of China in 
 1792, with a view to extent our commerce 
 there. He conducted himself with great 
 address on that occasion ; and an account of 
 the mission was published by Sir George 
 Staunton, who acted as his secretary. The 
 embassy returned in 1794, and the earl was 
 next sent to Louis XVIII., then Monsieur, 
 at Verona ; after that, he was appointed 
 governor of the Cape of Good Hope, which 
 he was compelled, from ill health, to resign. 
 During his retirement in Surrey, he wrote 
 " The State of Russia in 1767," and " The 
 State of Ireland in 1773." As a writer he is 
 candid and modest ; the Life of Earl Ma- 
 cartney has been published in 2 vols. 
 
 MACAULAY, Catharine, a female his- 
 torian, was the daughter of John Sawbridge, 
 esq., of 011antigh,in Kent, and born in 1730. 
 In 1760 she married Dr. George Macaulay, 
 a physician in London ; and after his death 
 she married, in 1778, Mr. Graham, a clergy- 
 man, and brother to the noted empiric of 
 that name. In 1785 she went to Ameiica, 
 for the purpose of visiting General Wash- 
 ington, with whom slie maintained a cor- 
 respondence during lier life. She died in 
 1791. Among her works are, " The History 
 of England from James I. to the Accession 
 of tlie House of Hanover," 8 vols ; " The 
 
 History of England from the Revolution to 
 the present Time," " Remarks on Hobbes's 
 Rudiments of Government and Society," 
 " A Treatise on Moral Truth," " Letters on 
 Education," &c. The spirit in which her 
 History of England is written is almost 
 purely republican, which, although it elicits 
 a noble zeal for civil liberty, yet, like most 
 party productions, it frequently misrepre- 
 sents facts, and misjudges motives. 
 
 MACAULAY, Zachary,F.R.S., a zealous 
 co-operator with Mr. Wilberforce and other 
 distinguished philanthropists in the abolition 
 of slavery in the British colonies ; to which 
 end he liad devoted his eminent talents and 
 best energies for upwards of forty years. He 
 was the father of the distinguished historian, 
 T. Babington Macaulay, esq. Died, May 13. 
 1838, aged 70. 
 
 MACAUI-EY, Elizabeth Wright, a 
 lady, who, in the varied characters of an 
 actress, a lecturer, and a preacher of the 
 gospel, was well known both in London 
 and the provinces, was born in 1785. She 
 left the stage on the plea of ill health, and 
 became the occupant and preacher of a 
 chapel in the metropolis ; she also occasion- 
 ally entertained audiences with dramatic 
 recitations ; and, for the twelvemonth pre- 
 ceding her death, she was occui)ied in deli- 
 vering lectures on " Domestic Philosophy " 
 in various parts of England. Died at York, 
 1837. 
 
 MACBRIDE, David, a celebrated physi- 
 cian, was bom at Ballymony, in the county 
 of Antrim, in 1727. He was a surgeon in 
 the navy until 1749, when he settled in 
 Dublin, where his industry and genius were 
 directed to medical researches, and were 
 productive of discoveries which will trans- 
 mit his name with honour to posterity. He 
 published his " Experimental Essays " in 
 1764, which work immediately attracted the 
 attention of the faculty, and procured for 
 the author a doctor's degree from the uni- 
 versity of Glasgow ; but his most extensive 
 publication was a " Methodical Introduction 
 to the Theory and Practice of Medicine," 
 a valuable work, which afforded a concise 
 and connected view of the principles and 
 practices of the healing art, as best estab- 
 lished by sound reason, and confirmed by 
 accurate observation. This work, which was 
 higlily appreciated by Dr. Cullen, was trans- 
 lated into Latin, and published at Utrecht. 
 He died in 1778. 
 
 MAC CORMICK, Charles, an historian 
 and miscellaneous writer, was a native of 
 Ireland, and bom in 1744. He entered as 
 a student in the Middle Temple ; but he 
 employed himself in writing for the press. 
 His principal works are, " The Secret His- 
 tory of King Charles II.," " The Reign of 
 George III. to the Year 1783," a " Continu- 
 ation of Rapin's History of England," 
 " Night Reading for Leisure Hours," and 
 the "Life of the Right Honourable Edmund 
 Burke." Died, 1807. 
 
 MAC CRIE, Thomas, D. D., was a native 
 of Scotland, and received his education at 
 the university of Edinburgh. In 18(K5 he 
 separated from the General Associate Synod, 
 and became one of the founders of the Con- 
 stitutional Associate Presbytery. He was 
 
mac] 
 
 ^ ^tto ?n[utljcrjsal ^iosvnp^^* 
 
 [»IAC 
 
 the author of the Lives of "Knox," "Mel- 
 ville," &c.; and a " Ilistory of the Progress 
 and Suppression of the Reformation in 
 Italy, iu the 16th Century." Died, aged G3, 
 in 1835. 
 
 MAC CUIXOCn, John, M.D., was bom 
 in 1773, at Guernsey, aud evinced great pre- 
 cocity of intellect, lie was lirst placed at 
 the grammar school of Lostwithiel, in Corn- 
 wall ; from thence, in 17y<), he was sent to 
 Edinburgh to study medicine ; and, at the 
 very early age of 18, he received the diploma 
 of a physician, being the youngest student 
 who had ever passed the required examina- 
 tion, lie, however, thought himself too 
 young to succeed as a private practitioner ; 
 and, after remaining at Edinburgh 5 years, 
 he entered into the artillery as assistant- 
 surgeon, and became chemist to the ord- 
 nauce in 180.3. lie was afterwards engaged 
 by government in the surveys of Scotland ; 
 and his mineralogical aud geological survey 
 of that portion of the kingdom is deemed 
 his most important public work. In 1832 
 hid able map of it was completed, and he 
 received from government the sum of 7000Z. 
 He also wrote many scientifle works. His 
 studies, or pursuits, were innumerable ; and 
 he is said to have excelled in all, however 
 dissimilar. He held the situation of lecturer 
 on chemistry, &c. in the East India Com- 
 pany's establishment at Addiscombe. In 
 1835, when in the C2nd year of his age, he 
 married ; and while on a visit to some of 
 his old friends in Cornwall, he had the 
 misfortune to be thrown out of a chaise, by 
 which he so much injured one of his legs as 
 to render amputation indispensable. He 
 bore the operation with firmness, and even 
 deliberately gave directions to the surgeon 
 while performing it ; but all attempts to 
 save liim proved abortive. He died, August, 
 1835. 
 
 MACDIARMID, John, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in 1779, at Weem, in 
 Perthshire ; studied at Edinburgh ; and on 
 coming to London, became editor of the 
 St. James's Chronicle. He published " An 
 Inquiry into the System of Military De- 
 fence," 2 vols. ; "An Inquiry into the Na- 
 ture of Civil and Military Subordination," 
 and " Lives of British Statesmen." Died, 
 1808. 
 
 MACDONALD,Etienne Jacques Joseph 
 Alkxamire, duke of Tarentum, and a distin- 
 guished marshal of France, was born at Se- 
 dan, in France, 17G5. Descended from a Scotch 
 family, which had taken refuge in France 
 after the suppression of the rebellion in Scot- 
 land in 1745, he entered the French army in 
 1784, and embracing the revolutionary cause, 
 served on the staff of Dumourier at Je- 
 mappes, and greatly distinguished himself 
 in the cami)aign in the Low Countries under 
 General Pichegru. In 1796, as general of 
 division, he took the command of the army 
 of the Rhine ; he then joined the army of 
 Italy, where he became governor of Rome ; 
 and having soon afterwards been sent against 
 Naples, his skilful retreat saved the French 
 army from the utter ruin with which it was 
 menaced by Stiwarrow. During the 18th Bru- 
 maire, he commanded at Versailles. In 1800 
 he was appointed to the command of the 
 
 army in Switzerland, and immortalised his 
 name in military annals by his celebrated 
 passage of the Splugen. In 1802 he was ap- 
 pointed French ambassador at the court of 
 Copenhagen ; and, on his return to Paris, 
 Napoleon marked his displeasure at some 
 expressions he had made use of in reference to 
 his treatment of Moreau, by withdrawing him 
 from active service. But in 1809 he once more 
 took part in the Italian campaign, shared 
 tlie glories of the victories at Laybach, Raab, 
 and Wagram, his gallant conduct in the last 
 earning for him a marshal's baton at the 
 emperor's hands, and was appointed governor 
 of Griltz, where his humanity gained him 
 " golden opinions from all ranks of people." 
 In 1810 he was created duke of Tarentum, 
 and appointed to command in Catalonia, 
 where, contrary to his wont, he displayed 
 great inhumanity, lie subsequently shared | 
 in the Russian campaign, aud distinguished I 
 himself in the battles of Bautzen and Lut- 
 zcn ; but met with a severe reverse at Katz- 
 bach, where he had imprudently engaged 
 Marshal Blucher with a greatly inferior 
 force. After the fall of Napoleon, he was 
 called to the chamber of peers, and made 
 chancellor of the legion of honour ; but he 
 took little or no part in politics, and his lost 
 years were spent in domestic quiet. Died, 
 1840. 
 
 MACDONALD, John, F.R.S., only eon 
 of the celebrated Flora Macdonald, who so 
 materially assisted in the escape of Charles 
 Edward Stuart, in 1746, was born in 1759. 
 He passed many years in the service of the 
 East India Company, and attained the rank 
 of captain in the corps of engineers on the 
 Bengal establishment. On his return home 
 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the 
 royal Clanalpine regiment, and command- 
 ant of the royal Edinburgh artillery. But 
 it is as a writer on military tactics, and as a 
 man of science, that Colonel Maclonald is 
 especially er.titled to our notice. His pro- 
 ductions relative to the art of war are chiefly 
 translations from the French, and consist of 
 " The Experienced Officer," " Rules and 
 Regulations for the Field Exercise and Man- 
 oeuvres of Infantry," " Instructions for the 
 Conduct of Infantry on Actual Service," 
 &c. ; besides which he produced, in 1808. a 
 "Treatise on Telegraphic Communication, 
 Naval, Military, and Political ;" and, in 1816, 
 a "Telegraphic Dictionary," extending to 
 150.000 words, phrases, and sentences. During 
 the latter part of his liie he resided at Exeter, 
 where he died, aged 72, in 1831. 
 
 MACE', Francis, a popular French eccle- 
 siastic, born at Paris, in 1640, who was cele- 
 brated both for his preaching and his theo- 
 logical writings. He was the author of " A 
 Chronological Abridgment, Historical and 
 Moral, of the Old and New Testament," 2 
 vols. •, " History of the Four Ciceros," " An 
 Analysis of the Works of Saint Augustin," 
 &c. Died, 1721. 
 
 MACE, Thomas, an English musician, who 
 was an excellent performer on the lute. He 
 published a work, entitled "Music's Monu- 
 ment, or a Remembrance of the best Practical 
 Music," &c. Died, 1670. 
 
 MACEDONIUS, a prelate of Constanti- 
 nople in the 4th century. The Arians made 
 
mac] 
 
 ^ ^ctu Hm'bcr^al IJiatji-apT^ii. 
 
 [mac 
 
 him bishop of that see, in opposition to Panl, 
 whom' tlie orthodox party liad cho?en ; but 
 lie was ultimately deposed, lie maintained 
 that the Holy Ghost was not a person, but 
 a divine energy diffused tliroughout the uni- 
 verse. 
 
 MACFARLANE, Hexry, an historical 
 writer, was born in Scotland, in 1734, and 
 educated at Edinburgh. He came when 
 young to I^ondon ; was for some years a 
 reporter of speeches in parliament ; and 
 afterwards kept a r.espectable seminary at 
 Walthamstow. He was the author of a 
 "History of George III.," an "Essay on 
 the Authenticity of Ossian," "An Address 
 to the People of Britain," &c. Died, from 
 l)ruise3 received at the Brentford election, in 
 1804. 
 
 MACHIAVEL, or MACCHIAVELLI, 
 Nicholas, a celebrated political writer and 
 historian, was born at Florence, in 14(59, of 
 a noble family, whose members had en- 
 joyed the highest dignities in the republic. 
 On account of his distinguished talents, he 
 was very early appointed chancellor of liis 
 native state, and not long afterwards ad- 
 vanced to the post of secretary; When 
 Florence had recovered her liberty, by the 
 expulsion of tlie Medici, he was several 
 times charged with important embassies, 
 which were of great use to the commonwealth. 
 On the return of the Medici to Florence, 
 he was deprived of his post ; and being af- 
 terwards accused of participating in a con- 
 spiracy, he was imprisoned, put to the tor- 
 ture, and banished ; all which he endured 
 with a firmness approaching to indifference. 
 Having returned to his native country, tlie 
 favour and confidence shown him by the 
 Medici alienated him from the afiections 
 of tlie Florentines j and he died in indigent 
 circumstances, in 1527. His chief works 
 are, "The History of Florence," "The 
 Life of Castruecio 'Castracani," " A Trea- 
 tise on the Alilitary Art," and " The Prince." 
 This last work, if taken literally, contains 
 the most pernicious maxims of government, 
 founded on the vilest iJrinciples : hence the 
 word Machiavellisin is used to denote that 
 system of policy which disregards every law, 
 liuman or divine, to effect its purposes. 
 There are many, however, who regard it 
 rather as a covert satire upon tyrannj', than 
 as a manual for a tyrant ; while others 
 think it a work full 'of valuable counsel 
 for a prince, to whom all eyes in Italy 
 were turned for deliverance from foreign 
 thraldom. 
 
 MACHIN, John, an English astronomer 
 of tlie 18th century ; author of a treatise on 
 tiie " Laws of the Moon's Motions," pub- 
 lished with Newton's Principia ; and other 
 works. He was professor of astronomy 
 at Gresham College, and secretary to the 
 Royal Society. 
 
 MACK, CiiAELES, Baron von, an Aus- 
 trian general, notorious for his ill- con- 
 certed military operations, was born in 
 1752, at Neuslingen, in Franconia. He en- 
 tered the army as a private in a regiment 
 of dragoons, but gradually rose till he be- 
 came aide-de-camp to General Laudhon, who 
 strongly recommended him to the emperor, 
 As quarter-raaster-general of tlie army of 
 
 the Prince of Coburg, he directed the opera- 
 tions of the campaign of 1793 ; and was 
 afterwards employed in negotiating with 
 Dumourier. At that time the plans and 
 proposals of Mack were so much extolled, 
 that he was sent to London to concert 
 measures with the English ministers. George 
 III. gave him a sword ornamented with 
 diamonds ; and Mr. Pitt so wholly approved 
 of his propositions, that he hastened his 
 return, in order that tlie allied army might 
 benefit by his plans. In 1797 he commanded 
 the Neapolitan troops, but was so out-gene- 
 ralled, tliat he resigned the command, and 
 surrendered himself a prisoner of war. Buo- 
 naparte, then consul, allowed him to reside 
 at Paris, on his parole ; upon which Mack re- 
 quested permission to go to Vienna, tliat he 
 might prevail upon the emperor to exchange 
 him for Generals Perignon and Grouchy ; a 
 request which the court of Vienna refused. 
 Mack then secretly formed a plan of es- 
 cape, which he effected, and took with him 
 as companion of his flight from Paris, in 
 April 1800, Mdlle. Louise, a courtezan of 
 some celebrity. Arrived in Austria, he per- 
 suaded his countrymen that his ill success 
 had arisen solely from the cowardice and 
 disorderly conduct of the Neapolitans. The 
 emperor Francis believed his assertion, and 
 confided to him, in 1804, the command of 
 his troops in the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and 
 Italy ; and in the following year made him 
 president of the council of war. In Sep- 
 tember, 1805, Marshal Soult defeated Mack 
 at Menningen ; he quailed before Napo- 
 leon, who forced him to retreat beyond the 
 Danube ; and in October he surrendered 
 Ulm, by which 28,000 of the Austrians be- 
 came prisoners. Mack once more presented 
 himself at Vienna ; but he was subjected to 
 a courtmartial, and was sentenced to death, 
 which the emperor commuted to perpetual 
 imprisonment, and even from that he was 
 released at the end of one year. Died in 
 1829. 
 
 MACKAY, Andrew, LL. D., an eminent 
 mathematician ; author of a " Treatise on 
 the Longitude," 2 vols., and a contributor 
 to Rees's CyclopsEdia. Died, 1809. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Geoiige ; author of "The 
 Lives and Characters of the most Eminent 
 Writers of the Scottish Nation," &c., a work 
 of considerable research and authority. He 
 practised as a physician at Edinburgh, in 
 the 17th century. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Sir GEonoE, an ingenious 
 lawyer and writer, was born at Dundee, in 
 1636 ; became an eminent advocate j and 
 gained from the covenanters the appellation 
 of "blood-thirsty." When James II. ab- 
 rogated the papal laws he resigned, but was 
 afterwards restored by that prince. Not 
 approving the measures of the Prince of 
 Orange, he again retired and went to Lon- 
 don, where he died in 1G91. He wrote seve- 
 ral works of merit on the laws of Scotland ; 
 " A Defence of the Antiquity of the Royal 
 Line of Scotland," " Essays on Moral 
 Subjects," and some poetical pieces. 
 
 MACKENZIE, George, viscount Tarhat 
 and earl of Cromarty, was born of a noble 
 family, nearly related to that of Sir George 
 Mackenzie. He distinguished liimself by 
 
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 ^ ifletD CIm'lJfnJaT JStajjraj)]^^' 
 
 [mac 
 
 his loyalty, for which, after the Restora- 
 tion, he was made a senator of tlie college 
 of justice, clerk of the jjiivy council, and 
 justice-general. James II. raised hira to 
 the peerage, and queen Anne made him 
 secretary of state and earl of Cromarty. 
 Hedicd, aged88, in 1714. 
 
 MACKENZIE, IIekky, an essayist and 
 elegant writer of works of fiction, was the 
 son of an eminent pliysician at Edinburgh, 
 and boru in 174.'). He received a liberal 
 education ; and, in 1746, became an attor- 
 ney in the Scottish court of exchequer. His 
 first production was " The Man of Feel- 
 ing," which soon acquired unbounded po- 
 pularity : this was followed by " The Man 
 of the World," and he subsequently pro- 
 duced a third, "Julia de Koubignt'." He 
 next, in conjunction with other literary 
 characters, published a series of Essays, 
 under the title of '• The Mirror," and after- 
 wards "The Lounger." He also contri- 
 buted many excellent papers to the Trans- 
 actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
 and of the Highland Society, of both of 
 which he was a member. His dramatic 
 works were by no means so successful : 
 they consist of two tragedies, "The Prince 
 of Tunis " and " The Shipwreck," and of 
 two comediee, "The Force of Fashion" 
 and "The White Hypociite." He was the 
 author of a political tract, entitled " An 
 Account of the Proceedings of tlie Parlia- 
 ment of 1784 ; " and at the commencement 
 of tlie French revolution he published se- 
 veral others, with the view of counteract- 
 ing the prevalence of democratic princi- 
 ples at home, w)\ich introduced him to the 
 notice of Mr. Pitt, and some years after 
 he was appointed comptroller of the taxes 
 for Scotland, an office which he held till 
 his death. For highly wrought scenes of 
 pathos, and for the graces of style, Mac- 
 kenzie has but few rivals : his novels, tales, 
 and essays can never fail to please ; but 
 his dramatic writings are deficient in strik- 
 ing characters, so essential to scenic repre- 
 sentations. In his earliest youth he had 
 opportunities of becoming acquainted with 
 Hume, Smith, Robertson, Blair, and others, 
 who then formed the literary galaxy of 
 Edinburgh ; and his days being protracted 
 to a healthy old age, his reminiscences of 
 tlie great men whom lie had so long sur- 
 vived were highly interesting. He died in 
 1831, aged 8.5. 
 
 MACKEY, Jons, an Englishman, who 
 basely betrayed James II. by giving inform- 
 ation of every secret with which he was 
 intrusted, to William. He wrote a "Pic- 
 ture of the Court of St. Germain" and 
 "Memoirs of the Court of England, in the 
 Reigns of William and Anne," both of 
 wliich abound with many curious anec- 
 dotes. 
 
 MACKINNON, Daniel, Colonel ; a gal- 
 lant British soldier, and nephew to General 
 Mackinnon, who was killed at the storming 
 of Ciudad Rodrigo. He entered the army 
 at the early age of fourteen, and was im- 
 mediately sent to the siege of Copenhagen, 
 tlien to Bremen, and the next year to tlie 
 Peninsula, where he was present in nearly 
 all the great battles ; his cool daring, ex- 
 
 traordinary activity, and amiable disposi- 
 tion rendering liim an e.ipecial favourite. 
 He was also at the battle of Waterloo, 
 where he eminently distinguished himself. 
 He wrote tlie "History of the Coldstream 
 Guards," a work containing much inter- 
 esting information. Died, 183(5, aged 40. 
 
 MACKINTOSH, Sir James, a celebrated 
 British statesman, was born in Inverness, in 
 17C0. His fattier. Captain Mackintosh, in- 
 tended him for tlie medical profession, and 
 conferred on him an excellent education. 
 In 1787, after taking his degree of M. D., ho 
 repaired to the Continent, and establislied 
 himself at Leyden, to improve his knowledge 
 of the medical art. He preferred, however, 
 the study of law to that of medicine ; and, 
 after tlie deatli of his father, devoted himself 
 entirely to the study necessary for the bar. 
 The French revolution, which had just then 
 commenced, gave a new impulse to his mind, 
 and politics and legislation became the para- 
 mount objects of his attention. In conjunc- 
 tion with other partisans of reform, he pub- 
 lished several works in advocacy of this 
 cause, especially his *• Vindicias Gallicas," 
 or defence of the French revolution, against 
 the strictures and accusations of Edmund 
 Burke. But it is said that an interview 
 with this celebrated statesman changed Sir 
 James's opinions — some alleging sincere 
 conviction, some political interest, as the 
 cause. However this may be, the change 
 produced ministerial favour, and he was 
 appointed, by Pitt and Loughborough, a 
 professor of Lincoln's Inn, where, in a 
 course of lectures on the constitution of 
 England, he exhibited himself as an un- 
 compromising censor of the doctrines he 
 had approved in the "Vindiciaj Gallicas." 
 It was Sir James Mackintosh who under- 
 took the defence of the emigrant, M. Peltier, 
 for a libel tfn Buonaparte in the Ambigu; 
 and his address, eloquence, and profound 
 knowledge of the law contributed greatly 
 to the slight penalty which was awarded to 
 his client, and to the frustrated expectations 
 of the first consul. Shortly after this, in 
 1803, he was appointed by the existing mi- 
 nistry recorder of Bombay ; and his admi- 
 nistration there rendered him highly popular, 
 especially his able protection of the rights of 
 native and British subjects. He also estab- 
 lished a literary society there, and became 
 its president. On returning to England, he 
 was elected member of parliament for Nairn ; 
 and, from this time, joined and co-operated 
 Willi the popular party. In 181G-17, he op- 
 posed the green-bag and spy system — con- 
 curred with Lord Milton in a motion for 
 reducing tlie army — voted with Lord Al- 
 thorp against the severe restrictions of the 
 Alien Bill, and against Lord Castlereagh's 
 measures generally. In 1818 he made his 
 first celebrated motion for amending the 
 criminal laws. During the Canning admi- 
 nistration of 1827, Sir James acted in con- 
 currence with the premier, and held office 
 for a short time, but went out on its diasolu- 
 tion ; and, on the fall of the Wellington 
 ministry in 1830, joined Lord Grey's, which 
 succeeded it, as president of the India board. 
 Besides the " Vindiciae Gallicae," Sir James 
 Mackintosh published '• The Regency Ques- 
 
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 ^ 0t^ SHutljer^al 33t0tjnjpfjii. 
 
 [mac 
 
 tion," " Discourse on the Study of the Law 
 of Nature and Nations," and a "History of 
 England," in parts. He was also an exten- 
 sive contributor to the Edinburgh Review, 
 and his essays and reviews liave been pub- 
 lislied separately. Died, 1832. 
 
 MACKI.IN, Charlks, a celebrated vete- 
 ran actor and dramatist, whose real name 
 was Mac Laughlin, was born in the county 
 of Westmeath, Ireland, in 1G90. He came 
 to London, and appeared as a performer at 
 the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, in 172.5 ; 
 but it was not till 1741 that he established 
 his reputation as an actor, by his admirable 
 and still unrivalled performance of Shylock. 
 He continued on 'the stage until 1789; but, 
 during the last years of his life, his under- 
 standing became impaired, and he died in 
 1797, at the patriarchal age of 107. His 
 "Man of the World," a comedy, exposes 
 meanness, sycophancy, and political servility, 
 with considerable skill ; and his " Love k la 
 Mode," a very popular farce, also attests 
 the talents of its autlior. During his long 
 continuance on the stage he experienced the 
 usual vicissitudes of theatrical life ; but he 
 was a zealous supporter of the rights of his 
 professional brethren, and, though dictatorial 
 and irascible, a most entertaining companion, 
 and a steady friend. 
 
 MACKNIGUT, Jamcs, a learned Scottish 
 divine, was born in 1721,at IrNine, in Argyle- 
 shire; and was ordained minister of Maybole, 
 where he composed his " Harmony of the 
 Gospels" and his "New Translation of the 
 Epistles." In 17G3, he became one of the 
 ministers of Eiinburgh, and was employed 
 nearly 30 years in the execution of his last and 
 greatest work, viz. " New Translation from 
 the Greek of all the Apostolical Epistles," 
 with commentaries and notes. Died, 1800. 
 
 MACLAINE, xVrciiibald, a learned di- 
 vine, born at Monaglian, in Ireland, where 
 his father was a dissenting minister, is ad- 
 vantageously known by his "Letters to 
 Soame Jenyns on h.is View of the In- 
 terniil Evidence of Christianity," a trans- 
 lation of Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, 
 and a volume of miscellaneous sermons. 
 Died, 1804. 
 
 MACLAURIN, Colin, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, who was born at Kilmoddan, 
 in Scotland, in lt)98, and educated at the 
 university of Glasgow, where he applied 
 himself assiduously to the study of the ma- 
 thematics, lu 1717 he obtained the mathe- 
 matical professorship in the Marisehal Col- 
 lege of Aberdeen, and in 172.5 was elected 
 professor of mathematics at Edinburgh. In 
 1734 he entered the lists against Berkeley, 
 which produced his excellent "Treatise on 
 Fluxions." He also wrote several papers in 
 the Pliilosophical Transactions ; a treatise, 
 entitled " Geometria Organica," another on 
 "Algebra," and "An Account of Sir Isaac 
 Newton's Philosophical Discoveries." In 
 the rebellion of 174.5 he took so active a part 
 in fortifying Edinburgh, that when the 
 Pretender approached with his forces, Mr. 
 Maclaurin deemed it prudent to retire to 
 York, where he was entertained by Arch- 
 bishop Herring, in whose palace he died, in 
 174«J. 
 
 MACLAURIN, JoiiN-, Lord Deeghorn, 
 
 son of the preceding, was bom at Edin- 
 burgh in 1734 ; was admitted a member of 
 the faculty of advocates ; and in 1787 was 
 raised to the bench by the title of lord Dreg- 
 horn. His works are, " An Essay on Lite- 
 rary Property," " A Collection of Criminal 
 Cases," and an " Essay on Patronage." Died, 
 1796. 
 
 MACLEAN, Lktitia Elizabeth, better 
 known as Miss Landon, or L. E. L., a ce- 
 lebrated English poetess, was born in Hans 
 Place, Chelsea, 1802. At a very early age, 
 she attracted the notice of the reading public 
 by her spirited short poems, published in 
 the Literary Gazette. The reputation she 
 thus acquired was so great, that rival pub- 
 lishers vied with each other in endeavouring 
 to obtain her aid ; and, at one time, the 
 Annuals were scarcely thought complete if 
 they did not contain a contribution from 
 L. E. L. The temptation thus held out to 
 hasty composition, however profitable, must 
 of necessity have detracted from the power 
 of the poetess, and accordingly we find her 
 poems too frequently recurring to the same 
 theme. If L. E. L., however, sometimes fell 
 into the too common error of those yoimg 
 writers who think that to wail and be poetical 
 are one and the same thing, her later writings 
 amply atoned for it. In her novels more es- 
 pecially, there was a vigour and cheerfulness, 
 as well as a depth and clearness of thought, 
 which led us to liope that, beautiful as much 
 of her early poetry really was, we should, 
 during many long years, have to welcome 
 writing from her pen which would not merely 
 far surpass them in value and beauty, but 
 make them appear to have been the mere 
 preparations for a loftier and more daring 
 flight. Her shorter compositions, in the 
 shape of contributions to the periodicals, are 
 almost innumerable ; in addition to those, 
 she published " The Improvisatrice," " The 
 Troubadour," "The Golden Violet" "The 
 Golden Bracelet," and the " Vow of the 
 Peacock," all in verse ; and three prose 
 novels, " Romance and Reality," " Francesca 
 Carrara," and " Ethel Churchill." In June, 
 1838, she was married to George Maclean, 
 esq., governor of Cape Coast Castle, and 
 proceeded thither with him. Being much 
 afflicted with spasms, she was in the habit of 
 taking a powerful medicine, and her death is 
 attributed to her having incautiously taken 
 an overdose. Died, Oct. 15. 1838. 
 
 MACLEOD, John, M.D., a medical prac- 
 titioner, born about 1782, at Bunhill, in 
 Dumbartonshire, Scotland. He made several 
 voyages as a naval surgeon, and accompanied 
 the embassy to China, under Lord Amherst. 
 On his return he published " The Voyage of 
 the Alceste to the Island of Lewchew ;" and 
 died in 1820. 
 
 MACNALLY, Leoxard, a lawyer and 
 dramatist, was born in Dublin, in ]7i)2, and, 
 after studying at the Middle Temple, was 
 called to the Irish Bar in 1776. He was the 
 author of " The Rules of Evidence," 2 vols. ; 
 and " The Irish Justice of the Peace," 2 vols. 
 His theatrical productions are, " Fashionable 
 Levities," a comedy; "Richard Cueur de 
 Lion," an opera ; " Robinhood, or Sherwood 
 Forest," a comic opera ; and "Retaliation," 
 a farce. Died, 1820, 
 
mac] 
 
 ^ JlftD ?autl)««al 23i0arapl)B. 
 
 [mad 
 
 M'NICOL, Rev. Dr. Doxald, a Celtic an- 
 tiquarian writer, well known as the author 
 of " Remarks on Johnson's Journey to the 
 Hebrides," 1 vol. 8vo. 1773, was born at the 
 farm of Sococh, in the parish of Clacliandy- 
 sart, in 1735. He was minister of Saddel 
 and Skipness, previous to his translation to 
 Lismore and Appin.to whicli united parishes 
 he was admitted minister on the 15th Jul^, 
 176<5. Dr. M'Nichol was deeply versed in 
 Gaelic literature and antiquities, as his " Re- 
 marks " so amply testify. Tlie great research 
 and thorough knowledge of his subject, added 
 to tlie keen spirit of satire wliich pervades 
 every line, rendered him more than a match 
 for the " literary Colossus," whose otherwise 
 vigorous intellect was obscured by the inista 
 of prejudice and a total ignorance of Scot- 
 land and the Scotch. Died, 1»02. 
 
 MACNISII, RoBKUT, M.D. and LL.D., 
 better known as " the modern Pythagorean " 
 (the name affixed to most of his contributions 
 to different magazines), was born in Glasgow, 
 1802. Thougli enjoying considerable practice 
 as a physician, he found leisure to engage 
 in literary pursuits ; and his " Anatomy of 
 Drunkenness," " Philosoplxy of Sleep," " Ale- 
 tempsychosis," and " Book of Aphorisms," 
 have gained for him a high place among the 
 most thoughtful writers of his age. Died, 
 1837. 
 
 MACPHERSON, James, a writer distin- 
 guished for his translations or imitations of 
 ancient Gaelic poems, was born at Kiug- 
 cusie, in Inverness, in 1738. Having, m 
 1760, produced "Fragments of Ancient 
 Poetry, translated from the Gaelic or Erse 
 Language," they wer« so well received, that 
 a subscription was formed to enable the 
 author to collect additional specimens of 
 national poetry. The result of his researches 
 waa " Fingal, an Antient Epic Poem, in six 
 books," together with several other poems 
 (professedly translated from originals), by 
 C)3sian,. the son of Fingal, a Gaelic prince 
 of the 3rd century, and his contemporaries. 
 Dr. Johnson treated him as an impostor, and 
 a violent controversy ensued concerning their 
 authenticity. From the evidence of the con- 
 tending parties, it may be concluded, that 
 Macpherson's prose epics were founded on 
 traditional narratives current among the 
 Highlanders ; but the date of the oldest of 
 their lays is comparatively modern ; and it 
 is now impossible to ascertain the precise ex- 
 tent of his obligations to the Gaelic bards of 
 former ages. In 1764 he accompanied go- 
 vernor Johnstone to Florida, as secretary. 
 After his return he translated the Iliad into 
 Ossianic prose ; wrote a " History of Great 
 Britain, from the Restoration to the Accession 
 of the House of Hanover ;" and also employed 
 his pen in vindicating the measures of go- 
 vernment during the American war. He was 
 afterwards appointed agent to the nabob of 
 Arcot, became a member of Parliament, and 
 died in 1790. 
 
 MACQUER. Pkteu Joseph, an eminent 
 chemist, born at Paris, in 1718. He wrote in 
 the Journal des Savans, from 1768 to 1776, 
 the articles relating to natural philosoi)hy, 
 medicine, chemistry, anatomy, &c. ; and he 
 published " Elemens de Chimie," &c. Died, 
 1784 liis brother PiiiLii- was the author 
 
 of an "Ecclesiastical History," 3 vols., and 
 several other historical works. Died, 1770. 
 
 MACROBIUS, AuKELius Ambkosius 
 Theodosius, a Latin author, in the reign 
 of the emperor Theodosius. He held the 
 consular dignity ; and was the author of a 
 miscellaneous work, entitled " Saturnalia," 
 curious for its criticisms, and valuable for 
 the light it throws upon the manners and 
 customs of antiquity. He wrote other works, 
 and died about the year 420. 
 
 MADAN, Maktix, an Englisli divine, 
 was born in 1720, and was educated for the 
 bar, but took orders, and became a popular 
 preacher at the Lock chapel, till, by publish- 
 ing an apology for polygamy, in a work en- 
 titled "Thelyphthora," he lost his popularity, 
 and retired from the pulpit. He was also the 
 author of " A Commentary on the Articles of 
 the Church of England," a " Treatise on the 
 Christian Faith," and the translator of Juve- 
 nal and Persius His brother. Dr. Si'EN- 
 
 CEK Madan, became successivelj^ bishop of 
 Bristol and Peterborough ; and died in 1813. 
 
 MADDEN, Dr. Samuel, an Irish clergy- 
 man, born in 1687, and educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he introduced the 
 scheme for promoting learning by premiums 
 at the quarterly examinations. In 1732 he 
 published the first volume of "Memoirs of 
 the Twentieth Century, or Original Letters 
 of State under George the Sixth ;" which 
 was intended to form vols. This work had 
 excited considerable notice, and been brought 
 out with extraordinary dispatch, but the 
 rapidity with which it was bought up, was 
 still more surprising, 900 out of the 1(K>0 
 copies that were printed being recalled and 
 destroyed v. ithin a week of its publication. 
 He founded a society at Dublin for the im- 
 provement of the arts, in 1740, similar to 
 that which was afterwards established in 
 London. In 1744 he published " Boulter's 
 Monument," a poem ; and a play, entitled 
 " Themistocles." Died, 1765. 
 
 MADDOX, Isaac, an English prelate, 
 was born in London, in 1697. Being left an 
 orphan, he was taken under the care of a 
 relation, who placed him with a pastry-cook ; 
 but he soon left that situation, and went to 
 Scotland with a view of obtaining at St. 
 Andrew's a cheap but solid education, and 
 eventually becoming a minister of the kirk. 
 The tenets and discipline of Presbyterianism, 
 however, not being congenial with his senti- 
 ments, he returned to England, entered at 
 Queen's College, Cambridge, was episcopally 
 ordained, and rose so rapidly, that in 1733 
 he was made dean of Wells. In 1730 he was 
 consecrated bishop of St. Asaph ; whence, 
 in 1743, he was translated to Worcester, 
 where he died in 1759. Bishop Maddox 
 published " A Vindication of the Church of 
 England," in answer to Neal's History of 
 the Puritans ; and 14 occasional sermons. 
 
 MADERNO, Caulo, an Italian architect 
 of the 16th century, appointed by pope 
 Paul V. to complete St. Peter's, at Rome ; 
 in the execution of which he has been 
 charged with committing some important 
 errors. He was, however, in high repute, 
 and built the Maffei palace, and many other 
 public edifices at Rome. Bom, 1556 ; died, 
 1629. 
 
mad] 
 
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 [mag 
 
 MADERNO, Stei'HEX, was an eminent 
 sculptor ; born in Lombardy, 157S ; died, 
 1636. 
 
 MADISON, James, ex-president of the 
 United States of America, born in "Virginia, 
 in 1758. His education was of the best de- 
 scription, and for a time he devoted liimself 
 to the study of t)ie law. He was only 22 
 when he was first invested with public em- 
 ployment, in which he soon distinguislied 
 himself by his zeal and ability ; and as a 
 member of congress, he was remarked for 
 his fluency and eloquence. Attaching him- 
 self to Jefferson, he became secretary of state 
 under tiiat president ; and, on the death of 
 JetFerson in 1809, being appointed to succeed 
 him, he made an inaugural address, which 
 inclined against the federal party. A few 
 days after, he published an order in council, 
 forbidding all communication with Eng- 
 land and France, until those powers had 
 revoked their orders in council and Berlin 
 decrees. At the same time, he took off the 
 embargo laid on all foreign vessels but 
 those of England and France, and took 
 measures to make the American flag re- 
 spected. France complied, but England 
 did not : fruitless negotiations followed ; 
 till, in 1811, a Britisli frigate attacked an 
 American frigate on the coast of the United 
 States, and war broke out between the con- 
 tending parties in 1812. In 1813, Congress 
 re-appointed Mr. Madison to the presidency, 
 and approved his measures with regard to 
 England. Russia offered her mediation 
 between the belligerents ; but the right of 
 search, the abandonment of which was 
 claimed by America, and refused by Eng- 
 land, was a constant obstacle. At length, 
 on the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Mr. Madison, 
 considering tliat England, strengthened by 
 that event, would be less likely than ever 
 to sacrifice the point, declined to press it 
 as a sine qua non. Negotiations were opened 
 at Ghent, and closed again in consequence 
 of the American envoy (Gallatin) declar- 
 ing the conditions demanded by England 
 humiliating. The war was resumed : the 
 British fleet scoured the American coasts, 
 made descents in various places, and took 
 and burned Washington, the capital. Not- 
 withstanding these misfortunes, and the 
 alacrity of the Federalists, he retained the 
 presidency till 1817, when peace was for- 
 merly concluded and ratified with England. 
 He then retired from oflSce with a high 
 reputation for ability and integrity. Died, 
 June 183(5. 
 
 MADOX, Thomas, a legal antiquary and 
 historiographer, who published, in 1702, 
 " A Collection of Charters taken from the 
 Originals," with the title of " Formulare 
 Anglicanum." In 1711 appeared "The 
 History and Antiquities of the Exchequer," 
 folio ; which was followed by his " Firma 
 Burgi, or Historical Essay concerning the 
 Cities, Towns, and Boroughs of England." 
 After his death, a collectfon of his manu- 
 scripts, occupying 90 volumes, was presented 
 by his widow to the British Museum. 
 
 M^CENAS, Caius Cilnius, the friend 
 and minister of Augustus, and the patron 
 of Virgil and Horace, was a Roman knight, 
 and traced liis genealogy from the ancient 
 
 656 
 
 Etrurian kings. He has been described as 
 a pattern of every political virtue, and a 
 most generous patron of the sciences. 
 Though luxurious and effeminate in his 
 hours of relaxation, he was vigilant and 
 active iu business, and well understood 
 how to employ the favours of fortune. 
 Many pleasant and useful qualities gained 
 him the confidence of Augustus, which he 
 enjoyed undiminished until his death, in 
 the year of Rome 745, and 8 b. c. So sig- 
 nal were his good offices towards literary 
 genius, that the name of Msecenas has since 
 become synonymous with that of a liberal 
 patron. 
 
 M^STLINUS, Michael, a celebrated 
 German astronomer, was born in the duchy 
 of Wirtemberg, about 1542. He went to 
 Italy, where he became intimate with Ga- 
 lileo ; and on his return to Germany he Avas 
 chosen professor of mathematics, at Tubin- 
 gen, where he had Kepler for a pupil. He 
 published many mathematical and astrono- 
 mical works, and died in 1500. 
 
 MAFFEI, or MAFFiEUS, Fraxcis 
 SciPio, Marquis, an eminent Italian writer, 
 was born in 1675, at Verona ; and was edu- 
 cated at the college of nobles at Parma. He 
 entered the army, and distinguished him- 
 self as a volunteer at the battle of Dona- 
 wert, in 17M ; but, at the end of the cam- 
 paign, quitted the service, and devoted 
 himself to literature. Among his works 
 are, the tragedy of " Merope," a " Trea- 
 tise against Duelling," a "History of Di- 
 plomacy, " " Musaeum Veronense," and 
 
 " Verona Illustrata." Died, 1755 There 
 
 were several other learned Italians of the 
 name of Maffei, but better known by their 
 
 Latin denomination of Maff-Eus Vegio, 
 
 a native of Eodi ; author of " Epigrams," 
 "Essays," and a "Supplement to Virgil," 
 whichhe called the 13th book of the iEneid. 
 Julius Scaliger and Gerard Vossius have 
 declared him a great poet. Bom, 1407; died, 
 
 1459 Bernardin, a learned cardinal, 
 
 who died at Rome in 1553, aged 40. He 
 wrote a " Commentary on Cicero's Epistles," 
 and a " Treatise on Medals and Inscriptions." 
 
 John Peter, a learned Jesuit, was 
 
 born at Bergamo in 1536, and died at Tivoli 
 in 1603. He wrote the "Life of Ignatius 
 Loyola," a " History of the Indies," and 
 other works, in the purest Latin. 
 
 MAGALOTTI, Lorexzo, Count, an ele- 
 gant poet and learned naturalist, was born 
 at Florence, in 1637. He wrote many philo- 
 sophical and poetical works, of which latter 
 the most valued is his "Canzonette Ana- 
 creontiche," published under his Arcadian 
 name Lindoro Elateo. He died in 1712. 
 
 MAGEE, William, a learned Irish pre- 
 late and a theological writer, was born in 
 humble life, and admitted as sizer at Dublin 
 university. He was soon distinguished for 
 his scholastic attainments ; and in 1806 be- 
 came a senior fellow of Trinity College, and 
 professor of mathematics. In 1801 he pub- 
 lished his celebrated " Discourses on the 
 Scriptural Doctrines of the Atonement and 
 Sacrifice," 2 vols. ; a work directed against 
 the tenets of the Unitarians, and written 
 with peculiar force. By this he added 
 much to his former reputation ; and he was. 
 
mag] 
 
 ^ J2e&j Hiu'tj^r^nl 23t03rni)!;jt. 
 
 [mag 
 
 in 1818, advanced to the deanery of Cork ; 
 in 1819 he was consecrated bishop of Ka- 
 pl»oe ; and, in 1822, translated to the see of 
 Dublin. Died, 1831, aged 06. 
 
 MAGELLAN, or MAGALIIAENS, Fer- 
 dinand, a celebrated 'Portuguese naviga- 
 tor, who, in 1519, discovered and passed 
 ♦he straits which have since been called by 
 his name. His services not being valued 
 by his own country, he offered them to 
 Charles V. of Spain, who intrusted him 
 with a fleet destined to attempt a westward 
 passage to the Moluccas : hence his dis- 
 covery. He was slain in 1521, in a skirmish 
 with the natives of one of the Flulippine 
 islands. 
 
 MAGEOGllEGAN, Jamks, an Irish 
 priest ; author of an " Ancient and Mo- 
 dern History of Ireland," 3 vols. Born, 
 1702 ; died, 17C4. 
 
 MAGGI, or MAGIUS, Jerome, a leanied 
 Italian, was a native of Tuscany. The 
 Venetians appointed him judge of the ad- 
 miralty in the island of Cyprus, where, by 
 his skill, the capital of the island resisted 
 for a long time the attacks of the Turks. 
 When it was taken he was carried in chains 
 to Constantinople, and strangled by order 
 of the vizir, in 1573. 
 
 MAGGI, Carlo Maria, an Italian poet, 
 born at Milan, in 1(330, was secretary to the 
 senate of his native city, and died there in 
 1090. His sonnets are much admired, and 
 some of them have been translated into 
 English. 
 
 M AGINI, or MAGINU8, Jonx ANTUOifY, 
 professor of mathematics at Bologna, was 
 born at Padua, in 1536. He was the author 
 of many valuable astronomical and mathe- 
 matical works ; and is said to have accu- 
 rately predicted the time of liis own death, 
 which took place in 1018. 
 
 MAGINN, William, LL.D., one of the 
 most fertile and versatile writers of modern 
 times, was born at Cork, in 1793. Under the 
 careful and anxious tuition of his father, 
 young Maginn made such rapid progress that 
 he was enabled to enter Trinity College, 
 Dublin, when only 10 years of age 1 Gifted 
 with a fertile fancy, and great classical 
 learning, lie made literature his profes- 
 sion, and having "imped his wings " in 
 contributing various papers to the Literary 
 Gazette, and, under a feigned name, to 
 Blackwood's Magazine, he settled for nearly 
 three years in Edinburgh ; and Blackwood's 
 Magazine owed much of its wit, eloquence, 
 learning, and fun to "Sir Morgan O'Do- 
 herty. " He visited London for the first time 
 in 1823, and settling there, wrote so much, 
 and for such a variety of works, that the 
 attempt to enumerate all of them would be 
 hopeless. Besides the harassing demands 
 upon him as a periodical contributor, he at 
 this time wrote tlie singular and striking ro- 
 mance entitled " Whitehall." About the 
 year 1828, Dr. Maginn became sub-editor of 
 tli« Standard, in which his profound, va- 
 rious, and ever-ready learning made him a 
 most formidable opponent to the liberals 
 and ultra-liberals, and gave the paper a pro- 
 portionate degree of power and influence. 
 While thus engaged, and while writing a 
 multitude of light papers for a host of minor 
 
 557 
 
 publications, he also contributed immensely 
 to the well known Eraser's Magazine. Here 
 he wrote a caustic and powerful review 
 of a " fashionable " novel, entitled Berkely 
 Castle. The author took oftence, and, in 
 company with a friend, committed a most 
 merciless assault upon Mr. Eraser. Aroused 
 by this ill-treatment of his friend and pub- 
 lisher. Dr. Maginn instantly ottered the 
 ottended author satisfaction, and a hostile 
 meeting accordingly took place. The duel 
 fortunately proved a bloodless one, but it 
 was very near havTng a different result, the 
 doctor being hit on the heel of his boot, and 
 his opponent on the collar of his coat. To 
 vast learning, elocxuenee, fancy, and wit, 
 the doctor added a perl'cctly boyish good- 
 liumour and joviality. These alone would, 
 by causing his company to be importunately 
 an<l irresistibly sought by richer und less oc- 
 cupied men than himself, have proved dan- 
 gerous to his prospects. But though his sin- 
 cerest and best friends had to regret that in 
 his case, as in so many other cases, worldly 
 common sense was not added to genius, it is 
 but right to say that the principal cause of 
 the pecuniary embarrassment which em- 
 bittered the last years of his life arose, not 
 from self-indulgence, but from his indis- 
 criminate kindness to others. Let it not be 
 supposed, however, that we arc among those 
 who think that the possession of genius ex- 
 empts its possessor irom the ordinary pru- 
 dential rules : far from it ; we think that the 
 imprudent man of genius is, in strict justice, 
 far less to be pitied for his self-caused sorrows 
 and sufferings, than the imprudent man of 
 a meaner grade of intellect. But, as a co- 
 temporary biographer has observed, " let 
 charitable allowance be made for consti- 
 tutional peculiarities, for temptations which 
 other men cannot estimate, and for frail- 
 ties on which no fellow-mortal should now 
 sit in judgment." But enough of his gene- 
 rous errors — enough of the self-injury by 
 much suffering caused. I^earned among 
 the learned, witty among the witty, gentle 
 and unassuming as a child among men of less 
 ability, he was crushing in his sarcastic 
 scorn against all whom he deemed enemies 
 of the altar and the throne. Died, August 
 1842, aged 49. 
 
 MAGISTRIS, SiMEOx, a learned Corsi- 
 can orientalist, born in 1749; author of 
 "Gli Atti di Cinque Martiri Nella Corea, 
 coir Origiue della Fede in quel Regno." 
 
 MAGLIABECHI, Antonio, a learned 
 critic, whose eccentric habits were almost 
 as extraordinary as his varied erudition, 
 was born at Florence, in 1033. He was 
 placed, when a boy, as servant to a dealer 
 in fruit, or, as others say, with a gold- 
 smith, in which situation he discovered 
 such a propensity to letters, that a book- 
 seller took him into his employment, where 
 his talents and memory made him so much 
 talked of, that the grand duke, Cosmo III., 
 appointed him his librarian. His attention 
 was wholly absorbed by his books ; among 
 them he took liis rest and meals ; nor 
 could he be persuaded to leave his old 
 apartment for one more commodious which 
 the duke had provided for him. A thread- 
 bare cloak served him for a garment by 
 
 8 B 3 
 
mag] 
 
 ^ ^c&j ^nibtv^al Mwqxr^I)^, 
 
 [SIAH 
 
 day, and a covering at night ; he had one 
 straw chair for hia table, another to sleep 
 on, and the only luxury in which he in- 
 dulged was smo'king. He left no literary 
 work deserving of particular notice ; but he 
 freely afforded information to those authors 
 who sought his advice or assistance. Died, 
 1714, aged 81. 
 
 MAGNAN, D., an accomplished French 
 antiquarian and numismatist ; born in 1731, 
 died in 1800. His " Ville de Rome," 4 vols. 
 folio, with 425 plates, is a superb work. 
 
 MAGNENTIUS, a German, who rose, 
 from being a private soldier, to the first 
 employments in the empire. The emperor 
 Constans had a great esteem for him, and 
 in a mutiny among the troops delivered 
 him from the fury of tlie soldiers by cover- 
 ing him with his robe. Magnentius mur- 
 dered his benefactor in 3.50, and assumed 
 the title of emperor ; but Constantius II. 
 avenged the death of his brother, and after 
 a bloody battle took Magnentius prisoner, 
 and put him to death at Lyons, in 353. 
 
 ]^IAHMOUD II., sultan of Turkey, suc- 
 ceeded to the imperial throne in the year 
 1808, on the murder, by the janizaries, of his 
 predecessor, Mustapha IV. The murder of 
 that prince impressed Mahmoud with a pain- 
 ful sense of the incompatibility of his own 
 safety with the existence of the janizaries ; 
 and one of his first acts was to put his own 
 brother to death, to deprive that body, and 
 the scarcely less formidable priests, from 
 having a pretext for open rebellion. The 
 janizaries were cut .off to a man, Mahmoud 
 himself standing within the railing of the 
 mosque of Sultan Achmet on the hippodrome, 
 directing as well as witnessing that most 
 frightful massacre. Daring, subtle, allow- 
 ing no moral considerations to weigh against 
 political expediency, he subdued his rebel- 
 lious pachas by force or fraud, as he found 
 most convenient. If some distant and secure 
 fastness rendered it next to impossible to 
 make force available, honours -were henped 
 upon the intended victim ; and it was only 
 when he reached Constantinople, and the 
 fatal bowstring was at his throat, that he 
 learned that Mahmoud's smile could be as 
 deadly as his frown. Though successful to 
 an extent that could scarcely have been an- 
 ticipated, in bringing about internal changes 
 in his empire, he was externally far less for- 
 tunate. His war with Russia, from 1809 to 
 1812, cost him Bessarabia, and no small part 
 of Moldavia. The Grecian revolution still 
 further diminished his empire, and still 
 further increased the confidence of his tur- 
 bulent vassal of Egypt, who, if European 
 policy had not brought European friends to 
 the sultan's side, would not merely liave 
 converted his pachalic into an independent 
 monarchy, but Imve been in a condition to 
 dictate farther concessions to the son of 
 Mahmoud the Reformer. Died, 1839. 
 
 MAHOMET, or MOHAMMED, the 
 founder of a religion which has spread over 
 a considerable portion of the globe, was 
 born in o70, at Mecca, a city of Arabia, of 
 the noble family of Koreish. Losing his 
 father in his infancy, the guardianship of 
 him devolved on his uncle Abu Taleb, who 
 employed him to go with his caravans from 
 
 Mecca to Damascus. In this employment 
 he continued till he was 28 years of age, 
 when he married Khadijah, a rich widow, 
 lie continued to act for some time as a 
 merchant ; but a disposition to religious 
 contemplation seems to have attended him 
 from his early youth ; and having remarked 
 on his travels the infinite variety of sects 
 which prevailed, he formed the des'ign of 
 founding a new one. He accordingly spent 
 much of his time in a cave near Mecca, 
 seemingly alone, and employed in medita- 
 tion and prayer ; but in reality he called to 
 his aid a Persian Jew, well versed in the 
 history and laws of his persuasion, and 
 two Christians, one of the Jacobite and the 
 other of the Nestorian sect. With the help 
 of these men he framed the celebrated 
 " Koran," or " Book," which he pretended 
 to have received at different times from 
 heaven by the hands of tlie angel Gabriel. 
 At the age of 40 he publicly assumed the 
 prophetical character, calling himself the 
 apostle of God. At first he had only his 
 wife and eight other followers ; but in three 
 years the number of his disciples was very 
 considerably augmented. On these he im- 
 posed the most marvellous tales, and pre- 
 tended to have passed into the highest 
 heavens in one night, on the back of a 
 beautiful ass, called Al-borak, and accom- 
 panied by the angel Gabriel. In the tenth 
 year of his mission, he lost both Abu Taleb 
 and his faithful wife Khadijah, which so 
 exposed him to the enmity of the Koreish- 
 ites, that he found it necessary to make a 
 temporary retreat to the city of Tayef. The 
 fundamental doctrine inculcated in the 
 Koran was, " There is but one God, and 
 Mahomet is liis prophet." His proselytes 
 rapidly increased ; and as they swore fidelity 
 to him, and proffered their assistance, he 
 adopted the resolution of encountering his 
 enemies with force. Being the more exas- 
 perated at this, they formed a conspiracy to 
 murder him : warned of the imminent 
 danger, he left Mecca, accompanied only by 
 Abubeker, and concealed himself in a neigh- 
 bouring cave. Here he spent tliree days un- 
 discovered, after which he arrived at Medina. 
 It is from this event, called the Hegira or 
 Flight, that the Mussulmans compute their 
 time : it corresponds with the l(5th of June, 
 622. Mahomet now assumed the sacerdotal 
 and regal dignity, married Ayesha, daughter 
 of Abubeker, and declared his resolution to 
 propagat« his doctrines by the sword. The 
 hopes of booty were thus added to the re- 
 ligious zeal of his partisans ; and after many 
 minor exploits with various hostile tribes of 
 the Jewish persuasion, he sent a summons to 
 the principal neighbouring princes, par- 
 ticularly Chosrou Parviz, king of Persia, 
 Heracliiis, emperor of Constantinople, Mo- 
 kawkas, ruler of Egypt, the king of Ethiopia, 
 and thf, princes of various districts of Arabia, 
 to embrace his new revelation of the divine 
 law. The more remote and powerful parties 
 gave no heed to him ; others, however, sub- 
 mitted ; and, having made himself master 
 of Mecca, the Arabs, who regarded it as a 
 holy city, embraced the proffered creed. In 
 the tenth year of the Hegira, Mahomet un- 
 dertook his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 
 668 
 
MAl] 
 
 ^ iJciu ^iitbeirfal Matpc^f)}}, 
 
 [mai 
 
 On tliis occasion he was surrounded with the 
 utmost splendour, and attended by 00,(K)0, or, 
 as some say, 150,000 friends. Tliis was the 
 last important event of his life. lie died 
 soon after liis return to Medina, in his 03rd 
 year. The Mahometan writers undoul)tedly 
 exaggerate the corporeal and mental endow- 
 ments of their prophet : it is, however, very 
 credible, tliat tliere was a preiwssessing 
 majesty in his ai)pearance, and that he 
 united much natural eloquence with a de- 
 cisive and enterprising mind. The reverence 
 which the faithful Moslems pay to the pro- 
 phet, and all that is connected with him in 
 tlie remotest degree, proves the sincerity with 
 wiiich tlicy believe in his divine mission. 
 But the wonder-loving populace alone gives 
 credence to the fable that Mahomet's coffin 
 is suspended in the air : on the contrary, he 
 lies buried at Medina, where he died ; and 
 an urn, enclosed in the holy chapel, consti- 
 tutes his sepulchre, which is surrounded with 
 iron trellis-work, and is accessible to noone. 
 MAIGNAN, Emani'kl, an eminent ma- 
 thematician and philosopher, was born at 
 Toulouse, in 1001. He entered into the 
 society of Minims, and acquired such cele- 
 brity as a mathematician, that his superiora 
 called him to Rome, to take upon him a 
 professorship, in 1030. He returned, in IRW, 
 to Toulouse, where he becanje provincial of 
 his order, and refused all higher preferments, 
 lie wrote " De Perspcctiva Iloraria" and 
 " A Course of Philosoiihy," 4 vols. 
 
 MAILLA, JosEru Anna Makia de Mov- 
 RiAC UE, born in Savov, in 1670 ; was brought 
 up in the Jesuit's college, and sent as a mis- 
 sionary to China, where he was greatly es- 
 teemed by the emperor, who employed him 
 in constructing a map of the empire and 
 Chinese Tartary. He afterwards executed 
 some other geographical surveys, and trans- 
 lated the "Great Annals of China" into 
 French, in 13 vols. 4to. Ue died, at Pekin, 
 in 1748. 
 MAILLARD, Oliver, was an eccentric 
 
 I French ecclesiastic, of the 15th century. 
 His sermons were distinguished by their 
 gross and ridiculous denunciations against 
 
 j those who might happen to offend him. 
 
 I Having glanced in one of them at some 
 traits in the character of Louis XI., that 
 king, who had just established the post in 
 France, sent him word that he would have 
 him tlirown into the Seine. "The king is 
 master," he replied ; " but tell him that I 
 sliall get to heaven by water sooner than he 
 will by his post horses." Died, 1.502. 
 
 MAILLE, Duchess of, lady of the bed- 
 chamber to Marie Antoinette, who twice 
 escaped the guillotine by singular contin- 
 gencies. On the 7th of July, 1794, a lady 
 named Maillet, detained in St. Lazare, was 
 executed by Robespierre's revolutionary 
 tribunal, by tnixtuke, in her place ; on the 
 8th she was summoned ; but having re- 
 marked to the huissier that there was a 
 mistake in the register of her baptismal 
 name, a delay occurred, in order to see her 
 sister-in-law on the subiect ; but the latter 
 
 1 being seized with convulsions, the examina- 
 
 I tiou was delayed till the 10th, during which 
 interval Rot)espierre was himself guillotined, 
 
 > and the duchess escaped. 
 
 650 
 
 MAILI.ET, Benedict de, a whimsical 
 but ingenious French writer, born at Lor- 
 raine, in 1059. He successively became con- 
 sul at Egypt and Leghorn, and died in 1738. 
 11)8 principal work, "Tellianied "(the ana- 
 gram of his name), contains a singular sys- 
 tem of cosmogony, in which he maintains 
 that all the land of the globe was originally 
 covered with water, and that every species 
 of animal, man included, owes its origin to 
 the sea. 
 
 MAILLY, John Baptist, a French his- 
 torical writer, born in 1744, at Dijon ; of the 
 academy of which place he became a mem- 
 ber, and where he died in 175)4. His prin- 
 cipal works are, " L'Esprit de la Fronde," 
 5 vols.; "l^'Esprit des Croisades," 4 vols.; 
 and " Fastea Juifs, Romaines, ct Fran^ais," 
 2 vols. 
 
 MAILLY, Antoine, bom in 1775, was an 
 enthusiastic French revolutionist, though a 
 noble ; and editor of the famous " Bouche 
 de Fer." He and his brother Minerve were 
 treacherously seized and beheaded, and their 
 l)odies thrown into tlie sea, at the siege of 
 Acre, by Djezzar Pacha. 
 
 MAIMBOL'KO, Loiis, a celebrated 
 French ecclesiastical historian, was born at 
 Nancy, in Lorraine, in 1010. He entered 
 into the society of Jesuits ; but having writ- 
 ten a treatise in defence of the rights of the 
 Galilean church against the see of Rome, he 
 was expelled the order. Louis XIV., how- 
 ever, mode him ample amends by giving him 
 a pension. His chief works arc, " A History 
 of Arianism," 2 vols.; "A History of the 
 Iconoclasts," " A History of the Crusades," 
 and " Histories of Calvinism and Lutheran- 
 ism." Died, 1(;80. 
 
 MAIMONIDES, or BEN MAIMON, 
 Moses, one of the most celebrated of the 
 Jewish rabbis, called by the Jews the " eagle 
 of the doctors " and the " lamp of Israel," 
 was born in 1131, at Cordova ; was pro- 
 foundly versed in all the learning of the 
 age, became chief physician to the sultan 
 of Egypt, and died in 1204. His works are, 
 the '• Misehna Tcrah," the " More Nevo- 
 chim," and the " Peruschim." Tlie first is 
 a code of the Jewish law ; the second, which 
 was originally written in Arabic, is an ex- 
 planation of obscure places in scripture ; 
 and the last consists of commentaries on the 
 Mishna. 
 
 MAINTENON, Frances d'Auiuoxe', 
 Marchioness of, who rose to share the throne 
 of France, was bora in tlie prison of Niort, 
 where her father, Constans d'AubigniJ, was 
 confined in 1035. On his release he went 
 with his family to Martinico, and died there 
 in 104<!, leaving his widow so poor, that she 
 returned to Europe without this child, who 
 was sent after her to France, and tiiere taken 
 under the protection of her aunt, Madame 
 Villette, who brought her up in the Protes- 
 tant persuasion ; from which, owing to the 
 interference of her mother, a strict Catholic, 
 she was afterwards converted. Subsequently 
 being left in very reduced circumstances, 
 she married the celebrated poet and novelist, 
 Scarron. On liis death, in 16*30, she obtained 
 the continuance of his pension, through the 
 interest of Madame de Montespan, who also 
 appointed her'governess of the children which 
 
MAl] 
 
 ^ iieii^ Winibtr^al ^Si'asrajpTji). 
 
 [mai 
 
 she had by Louis XIV. Tliis connection 
 brought lier merits under the observation of 
 the monarch, who increased her pension ; 
 and in 1679 changed her name to Maintenon, 
 by giving her an estate with tliat title. Be- 
 coming fond of her society, he gradually 
 passed from intimacy to love ; Montespan 
 was supplanted; and La Chaise, his confessor, 
 having advised him to sanction his wishes 
 by a secret but formal marriage, it was so- 
 lemnised in 1G85. After her elevation, she 
 lived in a sort of retirement from the world. 
 Louis visited her several times a-day ; and 
 transacted business with his ministers-iu her 
 apartments, while she read or otherwise em- 
 ployed herself. The king, who sometimes 
 teased her with his ill-humour, endeavoured 
 to atone for this by proofs of his esteem such 
 as he had never shown to any other woman. 
 But she feared to attract the notice of the 
 nation, and would receive nothing more than 
 the estate of Maintenon, with a pension of 
 48,000 livres. Having founded tlie school at 
 St. Cyr, for the education of poor girls of 
 good family, she retired to it, after tlie death 
 of the king, and there passed the remainder 
 of her life. The life of penitential piety 
 after her marriage, and her extensive charity 
 to the poor, in some measure atoned for her 
 ingratitude to Madame de Montespan, who 
 had raised her from indigence ; and she died, 
 generally respected, in 1719. Her Memoirs 
 and Correspondence have been printed, the 
 former in three volumes, the latter in nine. 
 
 MAINVILLE, PiEURE, a rich silk mer- 
 chant of Avignon, born in 1765, who perished 
 by the guillotine on the fatal 30th of October, 
 1792, with the Girondist party ; not for the 
 sanguinary crimes in whicli he participated 
 with the Jacobins at Avignon, but for re- 
 penting of them, and deserting the " Moun- 
 tain," in order to join the Girondists. 
 
 M AIR AN, JoHX jAiiEs d'Oktous de, an 
 ingenious Frenchman, was born at Beziers, 
 in 1678 ; succeeded Fontenelle as secretary, 
 in 1741, and died at Paris, in 1771. His 
 principal works are, a " Dissertation on the 
 Cause of the Phosphoric Light," an "Ilis- 
 torical and Philosophical Treatise on the 
 Aurora Borealis," and " Letters concerning 
 China," &c. 
 
 MAISTllE, Joseph, Count de, a dis- 
 tinguished supporter of absolutism and the 
 papacy, was born at Chanibery in Savoy, 
 1755. Driven by the invasion of the French 
 from his native country, he took up his 
 residence at St. Petersburgh. where he re- 
 mained till the final fall of Napoleon per- 
 mitted him to return to France, and thence 
 to Piedmont, where he became minister of 
 state, in 1818. His literary career began in 
 1796, with hisVork entitled '• Considerations 
 sur la France," in which he combated the 
 revolutionary doctrines then in vogue. In 
 1810 appeared his " Essai sur le Principe 
 Generateur des Institutions Politiques;" and 
 ten years later he published his most cele- 
 brated work, " Du Pape," which may be 
 regarded as the best defence of papal infal- 
 libility that has appeared in modern times. 
 Besides these he wrote " Soirees de Saint 
 Petersburg " and " Examen Critique de la 
 Philosophic de Bacon," both posthumous 
 publications. Died 1821.— His younger bro- 
 
 ther Xavier, wlio repaired also to St. Peters- 
 burg during the revolutionary jjeriod, gained 
 great celebrity by his " Voyage autour de 
 ma Chambre, " Le Lepreux de la Cit<? 
 d'Aoste," " Le Prisonnier du Caucase" and 
 "Prascovie," the last being an interesting 
 narrative of filial devotion on the part of a 
 young Siberian girl. 
 
 MAISTRE, Louis Isaac le. See Sacy. 
 
 MAITLAND, Sir Richaud, jm early Scot- 
 tish poet, distingidshed also as a lawyer and 
 a statesman, was born in 1496. He held the 
 office of a lord of session, and in that capacity 
 he took the title of lord Lethiugton, from 
 his estate. He was appointed keeper of the 
 privy seal, in the reign of queen Mary ; 
 wliich office, as well as his judicial seat, he 
 resigned a few years after, and died in 1586. 
 He wrote several poems, some of which are 
 
 in Allan Ramsay's Evergreen William 
 
 Maitland, of Lethington, the eldest son of 
 Sir Richard, was secretary of state to Mary 
 
 queen of Scots Joux Maitlaxd, second 
 
 son of Sir Richard, succeeded his father in 
 the office of lord privy seal, and lost it 
 tlirougli his attachment to the interests of 
 the queen. He was afterwards secretary to 
 James VI., and at length chancellor of Scot- 
 land. In 1589 he attended the king on his 
 voyage to Norway, where his bride, the 
 Princess of Denmark, wa3 detained by con- 
 trary winds. The marriage was immediately 
 consummated ; and they returned with the 
 queen to Copenhagen, where tliey spent the 
 ensuing winter. In 1590 he was created lord 
 Maitland, of Thirlstane. Towards the end 
 of the year 1592, the chancellor incurred the 
 queen's displeasure, for refusing to relinquish 
 his lordship of Musselburgh, which she 
 claimed as being a part of tliat of Dunferm- 
 line. He absented himself for some time 
 from court ; but was at length restored to 
 favour, and died in 1595. Besides his Scot- 
 tish poetry in the Maitland collection, he 
 wrote several Latin epigrams, &c., to be found 
 in the Deliciaj Poetarum Scotorum. 
 
 MAITLAND, Rear-admiral Sir Frede- 
 KiCK Lewis, the third son of a rear-admiral, 
 was born in 1799, and commenced his naval 
 career at a very early age. Leaving the 
 narration of his first exploits, we come to the 
 period of our expedition to Egypt in 1801, 
 when we find Captain Maitland commanding 
 the armed launches employed to cover the 
 landing of Sir Ralph Abercrombie's army, 
 for which he received the thanks of the 
 naval and military commanders-in-chief. 
 His subsequent successes while cruizing in 
 the Mediterranean as captain of the Loire, 
 of 46 guns, brought him into general notice, 
 and in 1813 he was appointed to the com- 
 mand of the Goliath, and subsequently to the 
 Bellerophon of 74 guns, in whicli ship he was 
 sent to watch that part of the French coast 
 off Rochefort. It was there that he liappily 
 frustrated the hopes of escape which Napo- 
 leon, after the events of the battle of Wa- 
 terloo, had indulged in, by refusing to grant 
 him terms of any sort ; and the fugitive at 
 length resolved to throw himself on the ge- 
 nerosity of "tlie most powerful, the most 
 constant, and the most generous of his 
 enemies." He accordingly surrendered un- 
 conditionally to Captain Maitland on the 
 
MAl] 
 
 ^ ifJetu WiniiitviKl aBtograp^y 
 
 [m.\l 
 
 l")th of July. Tlie BoUeroplion arrived in 
 nine days after Buonaparte's surrender, and 
 from thence proceeded to Plyinoutli, off 
 which port he was removed to the North- 
 umberland on the 7th of August, having pre- 
 viously proposed to present Captain Maitland 
 witli his portrait set with diamonds, of the 
 value of 3(MX) guineas, which offer was po- 
 liteljr declined. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Vengeur of 
 74 guns ; subsequently attained the rank of 
 rear-admiral ; and on tlie .'JOth of December, 
 IXJO, died in tlie East Indies, of which station 
 he ha<l for several years been commander- 
 in-chief. 
 
 MAITLAND, John, duke of Lauderdale, 
 was born at Lcthington, in KUii. He was 
 with Charles II. at the unfortunate battle of 
 Worcester, where he was taken prisoner and 
 committed to the Tower. At the Restoration 
 he obtained his liberty, and was appointed 
 secretary of state and high commissioner of 
 Scotlan<l. Died, 1682. 
 
 MAITLAND, William, an historian and 
 topographer, was born about 1693, at Bre- 
 chin, in Forfarshire. He was originally a 
 travelling hair-merchant, but turned his 
 talents to literature, gained a competent 
 fortune, and liecame a member of the lioyal 
 and Antiquarian Societies. He wrote a 
 " History of London," a " History of Edin- 
 burgh," and " The History and Antiquities 
 of Scotland." Died, 1757. 
 
 MAITTAIRE, Michael, a learned critic 
 and bibliographer, was born in Fronce, in 
 161)8. His parents having fled to England, to 
 avoid the persecutions in his native country, 
 he was educated at Westminster School, and 
 Christchurch College, Oxford ; of the former 
 of which he became for some time second 
 master. His editions of Greek and Latin 
 classics are numerous, and valuable for their 
 accuracy ; but his chief work is his " Annales 
 Typographic! ab Artis Inventione," 5 vols. 
 4to. Died, 1747. 
 
 MAIZEROI, Paul Gidkox Jolt de, an 
 eminent writer on military tactics, and a 
 brave officer, was born at Metz, in 1719 ; 
 entered tlie army at the age of 15, became a 
 lieutenant-colonel, and died in 1780. Be- 
 sides being the author of several excellent 
 works on tactics, he translated the " Military 
 Institutions of the Emperor Leo," and was 
 a formidable opponent of the system of 
 Guibert. 
 
 MAJO, Francesco, or Ciccio di, an emi- 
 nent Italian composer, bom at Naples, in 
 1740; author of "Montezuma," "Iperm- 
 nestra," and other operas. Died, 1773. 
 
 MAJOR, JoHx, a Scotch divine and his- 
 torian, was born near North Berwick, in 1469. 
 He became professor of divinity at St. An- 
 drew's, of which university he was appointed 
 provost. He wrote the " History of Scot- 
 laud," the " Mirror of Examples, ' a "Com- 
 mentary on the Gospels." &c. Died, 1550. 
 
 MaJORIAN, Julius Valerius, emperor 
 of the West, was raised to the tlirone in 457. 
 He made war against the Vandals with 
 success, and drove Gcnseric from Italy. He 
 governed with C(iuity and prudence, made 
 excellent laws, and would in all probability 
 have much longer averted the fall of the 
 western empire, had he not been deposed 
 
 and murdered in 401, after a reign of less 
 than four years. 
 
 MALACHY, St., was born at Armagh, in 
 Ireland, in 1094. He was successively abbot 
 of Benetor, bishop of Connor, and archbishop 
 ofArmaah. Died, 1148. 
 
 MALACKOWSKI, a noble Pole, born in 
 1768. He was a friend of Kosciusko, and 
 one of the victims of the partitioners of 
 Poland. He was president of the diet from 
 1788 to 1792, and chief author of the consti- 
 tution of 1791. 
 
 MALAGRIDA, Gabriel, an Julian Je- 
 suit, who was sent by his superiors to Lisbon, 
 where he was regarded as a saint, till he in- 
 volved himself in the conspiracy of the Duke 
 d'Aveiro. He was then sent to the prison of 
 the Inquisition, where he pretended to visions 
 and prophecy, for which he was burnt as a 
 heretic, in 1761, aged 75. He published the 
 "Life of St. Anne," and other works, and 
 was supposed to have been of unsound mind. 
 
 MALAPERT, Chakles, a poet and ma- 
 tliematician, was born at Mons, in 1581, 
 became a Jesuit ; and died in Spain, in 1630. 
 
 MALCOLM, James Pellek, an artist and 
 antiquary, was a native of America, studied 
 painting in England, and eventually became 
 an engraver. He was the author of " Lon- 
 dlnium Redivivum," "Anecdotes of the 
 Manners and Customs of London," " First 
 Impressions," &c. Died, 1815. 
 
 MALCOLM, Sir John, a distinguished 
 military officer and diplomatist, was born 
 near Langholm, Scotland, in 1769. At the 
 age of 14 he went out as a cadet to India ; 
 and, being placed under the care of his ma- 
 ternal uncle. Dr. Pasley, he soon acquired 
 an intimate acquaintance with the manners 
 of the natives, and with the Persian language. 
 The first service of any importance in wliich 
 he wos engaged, was the siege of Seringa- 
 patain, in 1792, where he attracted the notice 
 of Lord Cornwallis. In 1794, the state of his 
 health requiring a change of climate and a 
 temporary relaxation from the active duties 
 of his profession, he revisited his native 
 country ; but he returned to India the follow- 
 ing year, and having shown great skill in 
 minor situations of responsibility, he was 
 not only appointed to tlie command of tlie 
 regular troops belonging to the Nizam, but 
 had tiie charge of all the supplies from the 
 Deccan. After the teimination of the Mysore 
 war, Captain Malcolm was sent on a mission 
 to Persia, and concluded an important com- 
 mercial and political treaty with that court. 
 In 1804 he concluded a treaty of alliance 
 with Dowlah Rao Scindia ; and continued to 
 display great judgment as the diplomatic 
 agent of the British government in India for 
 several subsequent years. In 1807, intelli- 
 gence having been received that the French 
 designed to invade India through Persia, 
 Malcolm (then a lieutenant-colonel) was 
 vested with plenipotentiary powers in Per&ia, 
 the Persian Gulf, and Turkish Arabia ; but 
 he was at that time unable to accomplish 
 the object of his mission ; and it was not till 
 1810 that he succeeded in establishing the 
 political and commercial relations which 
 at present exist between this country and 
 Persia. He had now attained the rank of bri- 
 gadier-general, and on his return to England, 
 
 661 
 
mal] 
 
 ^ ilei3) ^nihtr^nl 33i05rajpl;y. 
 
 [mal 
 
 in 1812, he received the honour of knight- 
 hood. In 1817 lie again went out to India ; 
 and in the war that followed the defection 
 of the peishwa, his undaunted gallantry in 
 the field, and the admirahletact he displayed 
 in the subsequent negociations, obtained the 
 highest praise from Lord Hajstings, and was 
 universally acknowledged at home. Many 
 brilliant exploits and important services con- 
 tinued to be performed by this able officer, 
 till he quitted the theatre of action in 1822, 
 with a determination to spend the evening 
 of his life in his native country ; but by the 
 earnest solicitations of the court of directors 
 and his majesty's ministers, in 1827, he once 
 more resumed his duties, accepting the high 
 and responsible situation of governor of Bom- 
 bay, which post he continued to fill till 1831, 
 when he finally returned to England, and 
 sat in parliament for the borough of Laun- 
 ceston. As an author. Sir John Malcolm 
 also attained considerable celebrity, as may 
 be seen in his " History of Persia," " Sketches 
 of Persia," " Memoii-s of Central India," 
 " The Administration of British India," &c. 
 He died in 183.3. 
 
 MALEBRANCIIE, Nicholas, a French 
 priest and celebrated philosopher, was born 
 at Paris, in 1038 ; and at the age of twenty- 
 two, being determined to embrace the monas- 
 tic life, was admitted into the congregation 
 of the Oratory. His attention was first 
 directed to metaphysics by perusing Des- 
 cartes' Treatise on Man, and he immediately 
 became a devoted partisan of the Cartesian 
 philosophy. His famous treatise " On the 
 Searcli after Truth," was first printed in 
 1673, and is principally distinguished by the 
 maintenance of a mysterious union between 
 God and the soul of man, and the doctrine 
 that the human mind immediately perceives 
 God, and sees all tilings in him. Male- 
 branche also wrote several other works, 
 among which are, a "Treatise on Nature 
 and Grace," "Christian Conversations," and 
 " Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion." 
 He was highly venerated for his elevated 
 genius, and nothing could be more amiable 
 and simple than his conversation and man- 
 ners. Died, 1715. 
 
 MALESHERBES, Christian- William 
 VE Lamoignox 1)E, an eminent French 
 statesman, was born at Paris, in 1721. He 
 succeeded his father as president of the court 
 of aids ; besides which he had the superin- 
 tendence of the press, in which oflSce he acted 
 with great lenity. In 1771, on the aboli- 
 tion of the legal constitution, Malesherbes 
 was banished to his country-seat ; but he was 
 recalled three years afterwards, and made 
 minister of state, which post he soon resigned, 
 and then went to Switzerland. In 1786 he 
 was again called to tlie councils of his sove- 
 reign, Louis XVI., when he drew up two 
 memoirs, " On the Calamities of France, and 
 the Means of repairing them ;" but his 
 advice was rejected, and he retired to his 
 country house, where he employed himself 
 in agricultural jjursuits. He however has- 
 tened, of his own accord, to plead the cause 
 of his sovereign in 1792 ; and he was one of 
 the last who took leave of him befoi-e his 
 execution. This generous attachment to a 
 fallen master excited the jealousy of the 
 
 French rulers, and caused his destruction. 
 Shortly after his return home, his daughter, 
 JIadame De Rosambo, and her husband 
 were arrested, and conducted to Paris ; and 
 his own arrest, with that of his grandchildren, 
 soon followed. Almost his whole family 
 were extirpated by the merciless proscription 
 of his persecutors. Malesherbes was be- 
 headed, April 22. 1794, and bore his suffer- 
 ings with a spirit worthy of his virtuous and 
 honourable life. 
 
 MALET, General C. F., born in 1754 ; a 
 decided republican, who, opposing Buona- 
 parte's elevation to the empire, languished 
 several years, on a charge of conspiracy, in 
 prison ; but escaping in October, 1812, during 
 Buonaparte's absence at Moscow, nearly 
 overthrew the imperial government, alleging 
 Buonaparte's death, declaring a provisional 
 government, gaining over many Parisian 
 regiments, and taking the Hotel de Ville. 
 The plan being frustrated by the incredulity 
 of HuUin, the governor of Paris, Malet was 
 condemned and shot. 
 
 MALEZIEU, Nicholas de, a learned 
 Frenchman ; author of "Elements of Geo- 
 metry " and " Miscellanies in Verse." Born, 
 1C.W ; died, 1725. 
 
 M^Vl^HERBE, Francis de, a French 
 poet, was born at Caen, about 1555 ; bore 
 arms in the troops of the League, was pen- 
 sioned by Henry IV., and died in 1628. His 
 works consist of paraphrases on the psalms, 
 sonnets, odes, and epigrams. He also trans- 
 lated some of Seneca'c letters ; and may be 
 considered as one of the first who gave to 
 French poetry its polish and regularity ; 
 but he was as lax in morals and religion, "as 
 he was rigid in his zeal for the purity of the 
 French language. 
 
 MALIBRAN DE BERIOT, Maria Fem- 
 CITAS, a celebrated vocal performer, was the 
 eldest daughter of Manuel Garcia, a well- 
 known tenor singer of the Italian Opera, 
 and was born in Paris, in 1808. She was 
 brought to London by her parents when 
 eight years old, and made music her un- 
 ceasing study. Being sustained by a tem- 
 perament of singular energy and vivacity, 
 she was enabled, at the early age of 10, to 
 make her debut as prima donna at the opera. 
 This was in 1825. During the following 
 year she accompanied her father to America, 
 where her union with M. Malibran, an elderly 
 French merchant at New York, took place. 
 Shortly after their marriage, her husband 
 failed, and was thrown into prison ; and 
 Madame Malibran, believing she had been 
 deceived, separated from him, and volun- 
 tarily giving into the hands of his creditors 
 her marriage settlement, returned to Europe. 
 Intense study, the love of her art, and the 
 motives she had for exertion, had already 
 made her a performer of unrivalled excel- 
 lence. The Parisian audiences were per- 
 fectly enraptured, and every night she con- 
 cluded her performances amidst a thunder of 
 applause and a shower of flowers. From 
 Paris she came to London, where she shone 
 with increased lustre, through the brilliant 
 season of 1829, in the characters of liosina, 
 7'ancrcdi, Desdemona, Semiramide, Zerlina, 
 and Ninctta. Her widely extended reputa- 
 tion now occupied the attention of musical 
 
mal] 
 
 ^ ^eto UniiitY^aX 28tn0iap]^g. 
 
 [mal 
 
 society throughout Europe ; and after tra- 
 vefBiiig incredible distances to fulKl ditl'erent 
 engagements, and receiving vast sums for 
 her performances, she revisited England in 
 I ISAj. Slie made her first appearance at 
 Covent Garden, in an English version of 
 " La Somnambula," on the 18th of May. 
 Her thorough knowledge of the English 
 language, her full-toned pronunciation, 
 and her high dramatic talent, combined 
 with her wonderful voice, had the effect of 
 enchantment. But it was not merely at the 
 theatre that her brilliant talents were dis- 
 played ; her nerve and spirit appeared to be 
 unconquerable ; her magic tones were heard 
 at the numerous royal and noble entertain- 
 I ments to which she was invited, and at the 
 I concerts of professors ; in short, such was 
 i her perseverance, that, after her astonishing 
 : exertions in tlie evening, she often rose by 
 five o'clock the next morning, and practised 
 for several hours those miraculous achromatic 
 ! passages by which audiences were again to 
 I be electrified. In March, 1»3(}, Madame 
 ( Malibran, then in Paris, having been freed, 
 I by the French courts, from the bondage of 
 I her union with Monsieur Malibran, woa 
 married to Monsieur de Beriot, a Belgian, 
 whose extraordinary ability as a violinist 
 ! had placed him in the highest rank of his 
 I profession. In Miiy following, she resumed 
 ! her English performances at Drury Lane 
 Theatre ; and, at the close of the seasouj she 
 accompanied her husband to Brussels, and 
 other cities on the Continent. But the end 
 of her career was fast approaching. Having 
 been engaged for the Manchester grand 
 musical festival, she arrived in that town on 
 the nth of September, and, though evidently 
 indisposed, commenced her arduous task the 
 next day. Her illness rapidly increased ; 
 and, though she endeavoured to conceal it, 
 by sustaining her part with the apparent 
 vigour of health and unusual energy, she 
 sank under the effort. On Wednesday, the 
 14th, her last notes in public were heard, in 
 the duet, " Vanne se alberghi in petto," from 
 Amlronico, with Madame Caradori Allan. 
 It was a desperate struggle with expiring 
 nature ; and many who were present de- 
 clared, that they found inMalibran's pealing 
 melody a pathos superior to what they had 
 ever before heard from her. She was im- 
 mediately bled, and removed to her apart- 
 ments ; but notwitlistanding she had the 
 best medical attendance in Manchester, and 
 that of her own physician, Dr. Bclluominl, 
 the homoeopathist, "who was immediately 
 sent for from London, she breathed her last 
 on the 23rd of September, 1836, aged 28. 
 Tliere were many noble traits in the cha- 
 racter of this accomplished vocalist. Her 
 generosity was unbounded ; so that, notwith- 
 standing the immense sums she received, 
 her liberality absorbed all. Of her genius, 
 energy, industry, and high attainments, it 
 is ditficult to speak witliout appearing too 
 eulogistic. In the words of an eminent 
 critic, " she had all the endowment, all the 
 acquisitions, and, above both, all tlie devotion 
 and concentration of mind, common to those 
 strong and gifted individuals who rise to 
 pre-eminence, whatever the nature of their 
 pursuits." 
 
 MALLET, David, whose real name was 
 Mai.locii, a poet and miscellaneous writer, 
 was born about 1700, at Crief, in Perthshire. 
 He was tutor to the sons of the Duke of 
 Montrose ; and, having made the tour of 
 Europe, settled in London, where he altered 
 his name to Mallet, and acquired literary 
 reputation. His first publication was the 
 ballad of " William and Margaret ; " which 
 was followed by " The Excursion," a poem ; 
 and, in 1731, he produced the tragedy of 
 " Eurydice." Soon after this, he formed an 
 acquaintance with Pope, who introduced 
 him to Bolingbroke ; and about the same 
 time he was appointed under-secretary to 
 the Prince of Wales. In 1739 his play of 
 "Mustaiiha" was performed with success; 
 and tlie next year he wrote, in conjunction 
 with Thomson, the masque of " Alfred." 
 He also published a " Life of Lord Bacon " 
 and the works of Bolingbroke, who left 
 them to him as a legacy, and in whose scep- 
 ticism he participated. He died in 17(i5. 
 
 MALLET DU PAN, Jamks, a political 
 writer, was born at Geneva, in 1741). After 
 filling the professorship of Ixilles lettres at 
 Cassel with great reputation, he engaged 
 in politics, and continued the " Annals of 
 Linguet." He also conducted the political 
 part of the " Mercure de France." When 
 the revolution broke out, he espoused the 
 royal cause, and defended it at the risk of 
 his life. Being driven from his country he 
 came to London, where he published his 
 " Mercure Britaunique," and was patronised 
 by government. He also wrote a discourse 
 on the "Influence of Philosophy upon Let- 
 ters;" and another "On Eloquence and 
 Political Systems," "Considerations upon 
 the Frcncli Kevolution," "Correspondence 
 for a History of French Republicanism," 
 and other works of a similar class. Died, 
 1800. 
 
 MALLET, Paul Hexrt, an historian 
 and antiquary, was born at Geneva, in 1730 ; 
 was successively professor of belles lettres at 
 Copenhagen and at Geneva. Being deprived 
 of his fortune during the first revolutionary 
 war, he for some time received pensions 
 from the Landgrave of Hesse and the Duke 
 of Brunswick, of which he was deprived by 
 the late war. His merit as an antiquary 
 was very great. Among his works are. 
 Histories of Denmark, llcsse, the Swiss, the 
 Hanseatic League, and the House of Bruns- 
 wick, and an Introduction to the History of 
 Denmark, which Dr. Percy translated, umlei: 
 the title of " Northern Antiquities." Died, 
 1807. 
 
 M ATiMESBUR Y, William of. an English 
 historian, who flourished in the 12th century, 
 was born in Somersetshire, educated at Ox- 
 ford, became a monk of Malmesbury, and 
 was elected librarian of the monastery. His 
 " De Regibus Anglorum " is a general history 
 of England, in five books, from the arrival 
 of the Saxons, in 449, to the 20th Henry I., 
 in 112i^. He also wrote a " History of his 
 Own Times," in two books, from that year 
 to the escape of the empress Maud from Ox- 
 ford, in 1143 ; an " Ecclesiastical History of 
 England," in four books ; " The Antiquities 
 of Glastonbury," and a " Life of St. Aid- 
 helm." Died, 1143. 
 
MAL 
 
 ^ ^t^ mxihtvs^Kl MiauvKplm, 
 
 [man 
 
 MALMESBIIRY, James IlARnis, Earl of, 
 a distinguished diplomatist, tlie only son of 
 the author of " Hermes," was born at Salis- 
 bury, 1746. After a careful education at 
 Winchester • and Oxford, he passed some 
 time at Leyden, and in a continental tour ; 
 and commenced liis diplomatic career as 
 secretary of embassy at Madrid, in 17G7. 
 Here lie displayed such talent and firmness 
 in conducting the management of the trans- 
 fer of the Falkland Islands to Great Britain, 
 that he was appointed minister at the court 
 of Berlin ; and from this period, with few in- 
 terruptions, down to the close of the century, 
 he bore a large share in all the great diplo- 
 matic transactions of the time, representing 
 England successively at Petersburgh, the 
 Hague, and Paris, and seeing his services 
 rewarded by the order of the Bath» ele- 
 vation to the peerage, and various other 
 marks of respect. Died, 1820. His " Diaries 
 and Correspondence," published in 1844, 
 throw much light on many of the transac- 
 tions of the eventful period to wliieh they 
 refer. 
 
 MALONE, Edmund, a dramatic critic 
 and miscellaneous writer, was the son of 
 an Irish judge, aiul born at Dublin, in 1741. 
 He studied at Trinity College and the Inner 
 Temple, and in 17(57 was called to the bar ; 
 but being possessed of an independent for- 
 time, he retired from the profession, and 
 devoted himself to literature. In 1780 he 
 published two supplementary volumes to 
 Steevens's Shakspeare, and a detection of 
 Chatterton's forgeries. In I'OO appeared 
 his edition of Shakspeare ; and in 1795 he 
 exposed the imposture of the Irelands. He 
 also published a " Life of Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds," prefixed to his writings ; a "Life of 
 Dryden," and a " Biographical Sketch of 
 the Kight Hon. William Wyndham." Died, 
 1812. 
 
 AIALPIGHI, MAiiCELi.ns, an eminent 
 Italian phj'sician and anatomist ; born, 
 1628 ; died, 1604. His discoveries in ana- 
 tomy were considerable, particularly re- 
 specting the liver and kidnej's ; but his 
 merit is still higher as a vegetable anatomist 
 and physiologist. 
 
 MALTE-B'RUN, Coxrad, a poet, geo- 
 grapher, and political writer, was born in 
 177.J, at Thye, in the isle of Jutland. Having 
 given offen'ee by his writings in favour of 
 the liberty of the press, and the enfranchise- 
 ment of the peasants, he M'as banished to 
 Sweden in 1796. After having resided for a 
 time at Stockholm, he went to Paris, where 
 he acquired great reputation, particularly 
 as a geographer. He edited the foreign 
 political department of the Journal des 
 D(5bats, was a contributor to the Biographic 
 Universelle, and produced various works ; 
 among these are his " Precis de la Geogra- 
 phic Universelle," 7 vols. 8vo. ; " Tableau 
 de la Pologne Ancienne et Moderne," 
 " Poems," &c. He also published, in con- 
 junction with Mentelle, " Geographie Ma- 
 th«matique. Physique, et Politique," 16 vols. 
 8vo. Died, 1826. 
 
 MALTHUS, the Rev. Thomas Robert, 
 F. R. S. Few writers (whether deservedly 
 or not, it is not for us to decide) have been 
 more severely attacked than has the subject 
 
 of this brief notice, for his " Essay on Popu- 
 lation," a work, however, which cannot be 
 said to be perfectly original, since Town- 
 shend and others who preceded Malthus 
 advocated the same doctrines in, as some 
 think, a less objectionable form. He was 
 born in Albury, Surrey, in 1766,- and edu- 
 cated at Cambridge. He was appointed 
 professor of history and political economy 
 in tlie college of the East India Company 
 at Ilaileybury, and continued to hold that 
 situation till his death, "which occurred in 
 his 70th year, at Bath, when on a visit to 
 his relatives. By his friends he is honoured 
 
 as a real philanthropist. Died, 1835 The 
 
 Malthusian, or anti-connubial, system is 
 founded on the hypothesis, that population 
 increases in a geometrical, while provisions 
 only increase in an arithmetical, ratio. 
 
 MALUS, Stephen Louis, a French ma- 
 thematician and experimental philosopher, 
 was born at Paris, in 1773 ; became a pro- 
 fessor in the Polytechnic School ; and sub- 
 sequently served as an officer of engineers, 
 on the Rhine, in 1797, and under Buona- 
 parte in Egypt, where he much distin- 
 guished liimself. After this he entered on 
 a course of experiments on the phenomena 
 of optics, and ultimately discovered the 
 polarisation of light. This discovery, the 
 greatest since that of the achromatic tele- 
 scope, gained him admission into the In- 
 stitute ; he also received the gold medal of 
 the Royal Society, and honours flowed in 
 upon him from all quarters. He died in 
 1812, and was at the time of his death di- 
 rector of the Polytechnic School, and super- 
 intendant of fortifications. 
 
 MALVASIA, Charles Cesar, an Italian 
 ecclesiastic ; author of " A History of the 
 Painters of Bologna," 2 vols., and a work 
 entitled "Marmora Fulsinea." 
 
 MALVEZZI, ViRGiMO, Marquis of, was 
 born at Bologna, in 1599. He was a mem- 
 ber of the council of war to Philip IV. of 
 Spain, and died in 1654. His discourses 
 upon Tacitus have been translated into 
 English. 
 
 MAMBRUN, Peter, a French Jesuit, was 
 horn in the diocese of Clermont, in 1581, and 
 died in 1661. He is celebrated for his Latin 
 " Eclogues," and " Georgics." 
 
 MAN, Cornelius de, a Dutch histori- 
 cal and portrait painter. Born, 1621 ; died, 
 1706. 
 
 MANARA, Prosper, Marquis, an Italian 
 poet, bom in the duchy of Parma, in 1714. 
 He became chamberlain to the duke, and 
 was intrusted with the education of the 
 young prince, Ferdinand ; which office he 
 discharged with such satisfaction, that he 
 was advanced to several places of distinc- 
 tion. His works form 4 vols. Died, 18(X). 
 
 MANCO CAPAC, the founder of the 
 Peruvian empire, and the first of its incas, 
 reigned, as is supposed, about 400 years 
 before the Spanish invasion in 1532. Ac- 
 cording to the tradition of the natives, he 
 first appeared with Mama Oella his wife, 
 and sister, in an island of the lake Titicaca, 
 and declared themselves to be children of the 
 sun, sent down to civilise them. _ He is said 
 to have instructed the natives in religion, 
 agriculture, and the useful arts ; to have 
 
man] 
 
 ^ |3ctB ^nibcrifaT aBfoffrajpl^ii. 
 
 [man 
 
 founded Cuzco ; and to have ruled long and 
 prosperously over a grateful people. It is 
 possible he was a stranger from some civil- 
 1 ised land, who suddenly appeared in Peru, 
 I and employed religion in order to procure 
 an ascendancy, which enabled him to form a 
 regular government. 
 
 MANDAB, TiiEoriiiLE, bom in 1750, was 
 one of the most exnlu's of the French re- 
 volutionists, and as remarkable for his 
 sonorous and powerful eloquence as for his 
 small frame, which he told the emperor 
 Alexander was like a sjxirk. lie had the 
 courage to seek Petion, and all the leading 
 Jacobins, at Danton's house, during the 
 height of the massacre of all the prisoners 
 in September, 1792, and state, tliat he would 
 propose a dictatorship Jiext day to the Con- 
 vention, to prevent the furtlier horrible 
 effusion of blood. He produced a number 
 of able works : " Le Gi'nie des Sifccles," " La 
 Cite des Sages," "Des Insurrections," and 
 numerous political brochures and transla- 
 tions from the English. His " Phare des 
 Hois " and " Chant du Crime " are his most 
 eminent poetical pieces. 
 
 MANDEVILLE, Sir JoiiN% an English 
 traveller, was born at St. Alban's about the 
 beginning of the 14th century -, left his na- 
 tive country in 1.3.'12, to i)rocced on his pere- 
 grinations ; spent 34 years in visiting various 
 countries ; and on his return, published an 
 account of his travels ; but the wonders he 
 describes have thrown such an air of im- 
 probability over his narrative, as to stagger 
 the belief of the most credulous. lie died 
 at Liege, in 1372. 
 
 MANDEVILI-E, BEnxARD, a Dutch phy- 
 sician, was born at Dort, about 1G70. lie 
 settled in London at the beginning of the 
 18th century, and published, in 17()9, a li- 
 centious book, entitled " The Virgin Un- 
 masked." In 1711 appeared his treatise 
 on "Hypochondria and Hysteric Passions;" 
 but the work by which he is most known 
 is his " Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices 
 made Public Benefits." He was also the 
 author of "An Inquiry into the Origin of 
 Honour," "Free Thoughts on Religion," &c. 
 Died, 17:W. 
 
 MANES, or MANICH^ITS, the founder 
 of a Christian sect, called, after him, Mani- 
 chaeans, was a native of Persia, and born 
 about the year 23t>. He obtained the tenets, 
 which made his name famous, from the 
 books of Scythianus, an Arabian, who main- 
 tained two co-eternal principles, one good 
 and the other evil. Upon this stock, Manes 
 set up as an heresiarch, blending with the 
 philosophy of Scythianus, or rather of Em- 
 pcdocks, some notions, partly Christian, and 
 partly heathen. He rejected the Old Testa- 
 ment, and taught that Christ had come to 
 save mankind, and that he himself was the 
 Paraclete announced in the New Testament. 
 He also pretended to the gift of healing ; 
 but failing to cure the son of the king of 
 Persia, he was flayed alive, and his body 
 given to the dogs, a.d. 278. 
 
 MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian histo- 
 rian, who was high priest of Heliopolis, in 
 the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 
 .304 B.C. He wrote the history of his coun- 
 try in Oreek, and pretended to liave taken 
 
 565 
 
 it from the sacred inscriptions on the pillars 
 of Hermes Trismegistus. 
 
 MANFREDI, Eustachio, an eminent 
 mathematician and astronomer, born at Bo- 
 logna, in 1G74. He was appointed professor 
 of mathematics, in 1698 ; placed at the head 
 of the college of Montalto, in 17(>4 ; and 
 afterwards nominated astronomer to the 
 Institute of Bologna. He was a member of 
 the French Academy of Sciences, and of the 
 Koyal Society of London. Died, 1739. 
 
 MANILIUS, MAiiCDS, a Koman poet, 
 who flourished in the Augustan age. He 
 undertook a didactic poem, of which we 
 have but !> books, entitled " Astronomica." 
 It is valuable chiefly as a work of science, 
 but contains, however, a few beautiful and 
 splendid passages, particularly in the intro- 
 ductions. 
 
 MANLEY, De la Keviere, was the 
 daughter of Sir Roger Manley, governor of 
 Guernsey, a gentleman who suffered much 
 for his adherence to Charles I., and also 
 distinguished himself as a writer. She was 
 left to the care of a cousin, who seduced 
 her under the mask of a pretended mar- 
 riage, and then abandoned her. Being thus 
 dei)endent on her own exertions for support, 
 she became a dramatic and political writer. 
 Her flrst effort was " The Royal Mistress," 
 a tragedy, which was successful. She then 
 composed " The New Atalanles," 4 vols. ; 
 in which, under feigned names, and with 
 much warmth and freedom, she relates the 
 amours and adventures, real and supposed, 
 of many distinguished persons of the day. 
 For the libels contained in this work she 
 was committed to the custody of a messen- 
 ger, but afterwards admitted to bail ; and a 
 Tory administration succeeding, she lived 
 in high reputation and gaiety. She was 
 also employed in writing for Queen Anne's 
 ministry ; and when Swift relinquished the 
 Examiner, she continued it for a consider- 
 able time with great spirit. Besides the 
 works before-mentioned, she wrote "Lu- 
 cius," a tragedy ; " The Lost Lover," a co- 
 medy ; " Memoirs of Europe towards the 
 Close of the Eighteenth Century," " Court 
 Intrigues," " Adventures of Rivelle," &c. 
 Died, 1724. 
 
 MANLIUS, Marcus, a brave, ambitious 
 warrior of Rome, who saved the capitol, 
 B. c. 390, when attacked by the Gauls under 
 Brennus, and received the surname of Capi- 
 TOLiNus, for his services on that occasion. 
 The people looked up to him as tlieir great- 
 est benefactor, but his restless spirit led him 
 to seditious enterprises, on a charge of which 
 he was condemned to death, and thrown 
 from the Tarpeian rock, b. c. 383. 
 
 MANLIUS, Titus Tokquatus, a famous 
 Roman, who, in a war against the Gauls, 
 accepted a challenge given by one of the 
 enemy, and having slain him,tt)ok his collar 
 from his neck, on which account he assumed 
 the name of Torquatus. But he tarnished 
 his glory by a judicial act of unparalleled 
 severity. Contrary to his express orders, 
 that no Roman should engage in combat 
 without command, out of the ranks, his son, 
 remembering his father's victory, accepted 
 a challenge from one of the chiefs of the 
 enemy. He came off victorious, and laid his 
 
 3 
 
man] 
 
 ^ i^m Bnihn-^td 2StO(jraj)T;y» 
 
 [man 
 
 trophies at his father's feet. He turned re- 
 luctantly from his son, gave him the crown 
 of victory, and immediately ordered the lie- 
 tor to execute upon him the punishment of 
 his disobedience. This gave great disgust 
 to the Romans, and, on account of his seve- 
 rity, all edicts of extreme rigour were called 
 "Manliana edicta." He held the consul- 
 ship in the Latin war, B.C. 340. 
 
 MANNERT, Conrad, a distinguished 
 historian and geographer, was born at Alt- 
 dorf, in Bavaria, 1756, discharged various 
 high educational offices in different towns 
 of Germany, and was at length appointed 
 professor in Munich University, where he 
 died in 1834. His chief title to fame rests 
 upon his elaborate " Geography of the Greeks 
 and Romans," which has gone through 
 several editions. 
 
 MANNI, Dominic Makia, an eminent 
 Italian historian, was bom at Florence, in 
 1G90 ; and died, in his 98th year, in 1788. 
 His principal works are, " A Series of Flo- 
 rentine Senators," 2 vols, folio ; " De Flo- 
 rentinis Inventis Commentarium," " Illus- 
 trations of the Decameron of Boccaccio," 
 " Observations on the Seals of the Lower 
 Age," 30 vols. 4to., &c. 
 
 MANNING, Owen, an English antiquary 
 and topographer, was a native of North- 
 amptonshire ; was educated at Queen's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge ; entered into orders, and 
 became a prebendary of Lincoln, and vicar 
 of Godalming. His principal literary labours 
 are, " Dictionarium Saxonico et Gothico- 
 Latinum, auctore Edvardo Lye, edidit et 
 ttuxit O.M.," 2 vols, folio, and the " History 
 and Antiquities of Surry ;" published post- 
 humously, by Mr. Bray, in 3 vols, folio. 
 He died, aged 80, in 1801. 
 
 MANSART, Francis, a French architect; 
 born, 1J98; died, 16G6. He built several 
 churches, and other public structures at 
 
 Paris His nephew, Jules-Hurdouin 
 
 Mansart, wus also an excellent architect, 
 and the superiutendant of the royal edifices. 
 He built the palaces of Versailles, Marly, 
 and the Great Trianon ; the Hospital of the 
 Invalides, &c. 
 
 MANSFELD, Ernest of, a distinguished 
 military officer of the 17th century, was the 
 natural son of Count Mansfeld, and was 
 born at Mechlin, in 1586. He was intrepid, 
 skilful, patient, and persevering ; and the 
 fame of his exploits will long be remembered 
 in Germany. Died, 1626. 
 
 MANSFIELD, William Murray, Earl 
 of, the fourtli son of David, lord Stormont, 
 was born at Perth, in Scotland, in 1705. He 
 became a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, after 
 the usual term of probation, was called to 
 the bar, gradually making his way to 
 eminence. In 1742 he was made solicitor- 
 general; two years afterwards lie was created 
 chief justice of tlie king's bench ; and, in 
 1776, he was advanced to the dignity of an 
 earl of Great Britain. During the riots in 
 London, June 1780, his house was attacked 
 by the anti-Catholic mob, and his valuable 
 collection of books and manuscripts fell a 
 sacrifice to the fury of the multitude, by 
 whom the mansion was burnt to the ground. 
 He continued for some years longer to exer- 
 cise his judicial functions, but resigned in 
 
 1788, and passed the remainder of his life in 
 retirement. At tlie commencement of the 
 reign of George III. he was assailed with 
 the utmost virulence by the self- called 
 patriots of the day, particularly in the affair 
 of Wilkes ; wliile Junius poured upon him a 
 torrent of malignant slander, which he bore 
 with dignified silence. As a politician, 
 Lord Mansfield inclined to the high maxims 
 of Toryism, but as a judge he was acute, 
 liberal, and disinterested. His lordship died 
 in 1783 ; leaving behind him the reputation 
 of a great lawyer, an upright man, an 
 elegant scholar, and a sincere Christian. 
 
 MANSI, JouN Dominic, a learned Italian 
 prelate, and an indefatigable antiquary, was 
 born at I.,ucca, in 1692. He was several 
 years professor of divinity at Naples, and in 
 1765 was made archbishop of Lucca, where 
 he died in 1769. His principal works are, a 
 Latin translation of "Calmet's History of 
 the Bible," with additions ; " De Veteri et 
 Nova Ecclesiae Disciplina," " Commentaries 
 on the Bible," 17 vols. ; an edition of " Ba- 
 ronius's Annals," 30 vols, folio ; another of 
 the " Councils," 30 vols. ; an edition of 
 "^neas Sylvius's Orations," 2 vols.; and one 
 of Fabricius's " Bibliotheca Latina mediae 
 et infimae ^tatis," 6 vols. 4to. 
 
 MANSTEIN, Chiustopher Herman de, 
 a Russian officer, was born at Petersburg, in 
 1711. At the death of the czarina Anne, he 
 was employed to arrest the Birons, for wliich 
 he was rewarded with the rank of colonel, 
 and tlic grant of estates, but was deprived of 
 all by the czarina Elizabeth. He then went 
 into the Prussian service, and died in the 
 war of 1756. He was the author of " Jlemoirs 
 of Russia," which are much esteemed. 
 
 MANT, Riglit Rev. Richard, bishop of 
 Down, Connor, and Dromore, was born at 
 Southampton, where his father was rector 
 of the chiu-ch of All Saints, 1776. He was 
 educated at Winchester and Oxford, where 
 he gained the chancellor's prize for an Eng- 
 lish essay " On Commerce," 1799 ; and, after 
 taking his degree of M.A., he travelled for 
 some time on the Continent ; on his return 
 from which he became successively curate at 
 Buriton and Sparsholt in Hampshire. In 
 1810 he was presented to the vicarage of 
 Great Coggleshall, in Essex ; and the ser- 
 mons which he preached at the Bampton 
 Lecture, in 1812, liaving attracted general 
 attention, he now rose rapidly in the church. 
 In 1815 he became rector of St. Botolph's, 
 Bishopsgnte Street, and, three years later, 
 vicar of East Horsley, Surrey. In 1820 he 
 was consecrated bishop of Killaloe, and 
 translated to the see of Down and Connor 
 in 1823 ; the care of the diocese of Dromore 
 devolving upon him in 1842, on the death of 
 the last bishop. Dr. Laurie. During his long 
 life, Dr. Mant was constantly engaged in 
 authorship, chiefly on subjects connected 
 with his professional duties. A mere cata- 
 logue of his various sermons, tracts, and 
 charges, occupies nearly four cohimns of the 
 Gentleman's Magazine for January, 1849; but 
 perhaps those which have gained him great- 
 est celebrity are, the edition of the Bible 
 with notes and commentaries, which he 
 prepared in conjunction with Dr. D'Oyley, 
 and several tracts printed by the Society for 
 
man] 
 
 ^ if?etu ?tlm'l)fr)^al 3BiO0rajptn. 
 
 [mar 
 
 promoting Christian Knowledge, such as 
 "A Step in the Temple," &c., "Romanism 
 and Holy Scripture compared," "The 
 Churches of Rome and England compared." 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 MANTEGNA, Andrea, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Padua, in 1431 ; and 
 studied under Squarcione. His chief resi- 
 dence was at Mantua, where he was much 
 employed in oil and fresco ; but he worked 
 a great deal at Rome, and produced some 
 admired paintings there. He had great in- 
 fluence on the style of his age, and distin- 
 guished himself highly in the art of perspec- 
 tive. Died, 1.505. 
 
 MANTOX, Thomas, a Nonconformist di- 
 vine, was bom at Lawrence Lidiard, in So- 
 mersetshire, in 1020 ; received his university 
 education at Wadham College, Oxford ; and 
 obtained the living of Stoke Newington, 
 which he quitted for that of St. Paul, Covent 
 Garden. At the Restoration he was made 
 chaplain to the king, and offered the deanery 
 of Rochester, but declined it, and was de- 
 l)rived of his rectory by the act of conformity. 
 Died, 1077. His works were printed in 5 vols, 
 folio. 
 
 MANTUAN, Baptist, an Italian poet, 
 was born at Mantua, in 144S ; and was a 
 natural son of Peter Spagnolo. After re- 
 ceiving an excellent education, he entered 
 among the Carmelites, but quitted the order 
 to devote himself to letters. He wrote 
 eclogues and other poems ; and so much was 
 he esteemed by his countrymen at the time 
 he lived, tliat they placed him next in rank 
 to Virgil. That was, howcTcr, an honour 
 infinitely greater than he merited. Died, 
 151<i. 
 
 MANUEL, CoMNEXus, emperor of the 
 East, was the son of John Comnenus, and 
 born in 1120. He was crowned in 114;?, to 
 the prejudice of Isaac, his eldest brother, 
 whom liis father had disinherited. Died, 
 1180. 
 
 JfANUEL, Jacques Antoixe, one of the 
 most eloquent and intrepid defenders of 
 French liberty, was born in 1775, at Barce- 
 lonette, in the department of the Lower 
 Alps. He entered as a volunteer in one of 
 the battalions of the requisition in 1793, and 
 rose to the rank of captain. After the peace 
 of Campo Formio, he quitted the army, 
 studied law, was admitted to the bar at Aix, 
 and soon acquired a high reputation for 
 talent. In 1815 he was elected to the cham- 
 ber of deputies, which was convoked by 
 Napoleon, and after the abdication of that 
 monarch, strenuously contended for the 
 rights of his son. In 1818 he was elected a 
 member of the chamber of deputies by three 
 departments, and became one of the most 
 formidable opponents of the ministers. He 
 was fervid and ardent in the cause of the 
 party to which he had attached himself j 
 but having used some violent expressions in 
 his first speech, in the session of 1823, on the 
 subject of the Spanish war, his expulsion 
 was loudly demanded ; the result of which 
 was that a body of the gendarmerie was 
 introduced to arrest him. Manuel was again 
 chosen to the chamber of deputies in 1824, 
 and died in 1827. 
 
 MANUEL, Pal^oloous, emperor of Con- 
 
 stantinople, was the son and successor of 
 John IV. He resigned his sceptre to John 
 YIL, his son, and took a religious habit. 
 He died in 1425, aged 75. 
 
 MANUEL, PiEUUE, a native of Mnntargis, 
 in France, who made himself conspicuous 
 during the i)rogress of the revolution. In 
 1789 he had an office under the municipality 
 of Paris, and was, for a time, one of the most 
 active and dangerous enemies of royalty. 
 He was deei)ly implicated in the massacres 
 which took place in the prisons of Paris in 
 Sept. 1792 ; but, on the king's trial, he voted 
 for his imprisonment during the continuance 
 of the war, and his banishment afterwards. 
 Through this and some other unpopular 
 measures which he advocated, he was obliged 
 to resign his seat as a deputy. He retired 
 to Montargis ; and, in a few months after, he 
 was arrested by his former associates, and 
 sent to the guillotine, Nov. 14. 1793. 
 
 MANUTIUS, Aldus, or MANUZIO, 
 Aldo, a celebrated Italian printer and au- 
 thor, of the 15th and IGth centuries, was born 
 at Bassano, in 1447 ; became tutor to Alljerto 
 Pio, prince of Carpi ; and in 1488 established 
 a printing ofllce at Venice. He printed 
 numerous valuable editions of Greek and 
 Latin classics ; compiled a Greek and Latin 
 Dictionary and Grammar ; and was the in- 
 ventor of "the Italic character, hence called 
 Aldiiic, for the exclusive use of which, for b 
 term of years, he obtained a patent. Died, 
 1515. Paolo Manuzio, son of the pre- 
 ceding, distinguished as a classic scholar, no 
 less than as a printer, was Iwrn at Venice, 
 
 in 1512, and died in 1574 Aldo Makuzio, 
 
 the younger, was a son of Paolo, and equally 
 celebrated as his father and grandfather. 
 He was bom in 1547, and died in 1597 ; and 
 with him expired the glory of the Aldine 
 press. 
 
 MANVEL, Francis, a celebrated Portu- 
 guese lyric poet, bom at Lisbon, in 17.'M. 
 He was the author of many odes, and other 
 poems; was compelled to fly from his country 
 to avoid the Inquisition ; and died at Ver- 
 seilles, in 1821. 
 
 MAPLETOFT, Dr. Jonjf, a very learned 
 English medical and theological writer. 
 Born, 1G31 ; died, 1721. 
 
 MARA, Elizabeth, a celebrated public 
 singer, whose maidtn name was Schmelling, 
 was born in 1750, at Cassel, in Germany. 
 She commenced her musical education by 
 playing on the violin, but as she grew up, 
 she cultivated her vocal talents, and attained 
 an almost unrivalled degree of excellence. 
 On her arrival at Berlin she sang before 
 Frederick the Great, and though he had 
 previously declared that he should as soon 
 expect pleasure from the neighing of a horse 
 as from a German singer, yet he was soon 
 convinced of the excellence of the fair vo- 
 calist, whom he put to the test, by selecting 
 the most difficult airs in his collection, which 
 she executed at sight, with ihe utmost fa- 
 cility. She afterwards visited Italy, Swit- 
 zerland, England, France, and Russia. Ma- 
 dame Mara left England in 1802, and went 
 to reside in Russia ; and when that country 
 was invaded by Napoleon in 1812, she beciinie 
 a sufferer, in consequence of the destruction 
 of her property at the conflagration of Mos- 
 
 3 c 8 
 
marI 
 
 ^ ^tbi Unibtr^Kl 3St0srajpI)j), 
 
 [mar 
 
 cow. About the beginning of 1820 she re- 
 visited England, and gave a concert at the 
 opera house ; but age had weakened her 
 powers, and this once matchless singer ex- 
 hibited only the relics of her former great- 
 ness. She died at Revel, in 183.3, aged 82. 
 
 MARACCI, JoH.y, an historical painter, 
 was born at Lucca, in 1637. His figures 
 were elegantly disposed, and his colouring 
 agreeable. Died, 1704. 
 
 MARACCI, Tvouis, a learned ecclesiastic 
 and orientalist, was bom at Lucca, in 1(512. 
 He acquired a great reputation by his edi- 
 tion of the Koran, printed at Padua, in 
 Arabic and Latin, in 1698, 2 vols, folio. He 
 also assisted in publishing the Arabic Bible, 
 3 vols, folio, at Rome. Died, 1760. 
 
 MARALDI, James Philip, a celebrated 
 mathematician, was born in the county of 
 Nice, in 1665. He was employed under 
 Cassini, in constructing the great meridian 
 through France, and died in 1729, leaving 
 behind him a valuable catalogue of the fixed 
 stars. 
 
 MAR AN A, JoHX Paul, the author of the 
 " Turkish Spy," was born at Genoa, in 1C42 ; 
 and died in 1693. 
 
 MARAT, JoUN Paul, one of those mon- 
 sters which nature rarely produces, was bom 
 in 1744, at Baudry, in the province of Neuf- 
 chatel, in Switzerland. In his youth he 
 applied himself to the study of medicine and 
 anatomy ; and settling in Paris, attracted 
 notice as an empiric and vendor of medicines. 
 But his ambition led him to desire a more 
 extensive popularity, and he wrote a work, 
 which had for its title, " Man, or Principles 
 and Laws, sliowing the Iniluence of the 
 Soul and the Body in their Relations to each 
 other." He also published a daib' paper, 
 called " L'Ami du Peuple," in which he 
 disseminated his venomous hatred towards 
 royalty, while he insulted the nobility, the 
 members of the legislative body, and the 
 most distinguished of the Natioiiial Assem- 
 bly. Having by every means that a diabolical 
 intention could suggest, corrupted the minds 
 of the populace, this wretch became president 
 of the assembly of deputies in Paris, and in 
 that capacity satiated his thirst for human 
 blood. He also denounced the generals of 
 the French army as traitors to their country, 
 and next put the members of the convention 
 under arrest. It was at this time that Char- 
 lotte Corday resolved to rid the world of its 
 greatest monster, and he was stabbed by this 
 enthusiastic young woman, whom Lamartine 
 has styled the " angel of assassination," 
 July, 1793. — See Corday. 
 
 MARATTI, Carlo, an eminent painter, 
 was born in 162.5, at Camerino, in the papal 
 territory. He became an early pupil of 
 Andrea Sacchi ; and on account of his habit 
 of painting female saints, was nicknamed 
 by Salvator Rosa, Carluccio della Madonna. 
 He was also a good architect and an en- 
 graver ; was knighted by Clement XI., who 
 
 gave him a pension. Died in 1713. His 
 
 daughter Makia, who married J. B. Zappi, 
 was also a good artist and a poetess. 
 
 MARBECK, JoHx, a musician of the 16th 
 century, supposed to have been the first com- 
 poser of the cathedral service of the Church 
 of England. He was organist at St. George's 
 
 Chapel, Windsor ; and author of a "Con- 
 cordance of the Bible," " The Lives of the 
 Saints, Prophets, and Patriarchs," &c. 
 
 MARCEAir, Francis Severin Desgra- 
 viTDRs, an eminent French general, distin- 
 guished alike for his military talents and 
 his virtues, was born at Chartres, in 1769. 
 His skill, courage, and humanity were at- 
 tested in La Vendc^e, at Fleurus, and on the 
 Rhine ; and befell atHochsteinbach,inl796. 
 He was buried in the intrenched camp of 
 Coblentz ; and such was the respect paid 
 to hini by both friends and enemies, that 
 the Austrian and French armies joined 
 in honouring the ceremony by volleys of 
 artillery. 
 
 MARCELLO, Benedetto, son of a Vene- 
 tian senator, was born in 1686, and became a 
 great proficient in the science of music. His 
 " Psalms," adapted, in English, to suitable 
 words, is an elaborate work, in 8 vols, folio. 
 Died in 17;59. 
 
 MARCELLUS, M. Claudius, the first 
 Roman general who successfully encountered 
 Hannibal in the second Punic war. Soon 
 after the fatal battle of Canna?, he was sent 
 against that distinguished commander, and 
 forced the Carthaginians to retreat, -with a 
 loss. He afterwards went to Sicily, where 
 the siege ot Syracuse was his most remark- 
 able achievement. Marcellus fell in a san- 
 guinary battle with his former opponent, 
 B.C. 209, when Hannibal caused the body to 
 be burnt with distinguished honours, and sent 
 tlie ashes to his son, in a costly urn. 
 
 MARCET, Alexander, an eminent phy- 
 sician and natural philosopher, was born at 
 Geneva, in 1770 ; studied at Edinburgh ; and 
 settled in London, where he obtained great 
 reputation as a medical practitioner and 
 public lecturer. He was naturalised in Eng- 
 land in 1802, but returned to his own country 
 in 1814. He was the author of " An Essay 
 on the Chemical History of Calculi," and of 
 many valuable papers in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, &c. Died in London, 1822. 
 
 MARCILIUS, TuEODORE, a learned Ger- 
 man, was born at Arnheim, in 1.548, and died 
 in 1617. He published Pythagoras's Golden 
 Verses, with a Latin version and comment- 
 aries, and also some works of his own, as 
 " Historia Strenarum," &c. 
 
 MARCION, a heretic of the 2nd century, 
 was a native of S\'nope, on the Euxine. He 
 espoused the notions of Cerdo, to which he 
 added the doctrine of Manes, and some pecu- 
 liarities of his own. 
 
 MARDONIUS, the son-in-law of Darius, 
 and the general of Xerxes. He was slain at 
 the battle of Platsea, b. c. 479. 
 
 MARE, Nicholas de la, principal magis- 
 trate of the Chatelet under Louis XIV., who 
 employed him in several important concerns, 
 particularly during the scarcity of corn which 
 prevailed in France. He was the author of 
 an elaborate work on the police, in 4 vols, 
 folio ; and died in 1723. 
 
 MARETS, Samuel de, was a native of Pl- 
 cardy, and surnamed " The Little Preacher," 
 from his diminutive stature. He was an 
 eminent controversialist of the reformed 
 church in the 17th century, and from his 
 erudition and ability made a distinguished 
 figure among the polemics of the day. He 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ ^tio mniiitr^til aSiosrapIji?, 
 
 [blvk 
 
 wrote a variety of theological works, parti- 
 cularly an excellent " System of Divinity." 
 Died, 10<i3. 
 
 MARGARET OF ANJOU, daughter of 
 116\\6 d'Anjou, king of Naples, and wife of 
 Henry VI., king of England, was an ambi- 
 tious, enterprising, courageous woman. In- 
 trepid in the field, she signalised herself by 
 heading her troops in several battles against 
 the house of York ; and if she had not been 
 the instrument of her husband's misfortunes, 
 by putting to death the Duke of Gloucester, 
 his uncle, her name would have been im- 
 mortalised for the fortitude, activity, and 
 policy with which she supported tlie rights of 
 her husband and son. The fatal defeat at 
 Tewkesbury, however, put an end to all her 
 enterprises ; the king being taken prisoner, 
 and Prince Edward, their only son, basely 
 murdered by Richard, duke of York. Mar- 
 garet was ransomed b}' her father for 50,000 
 crowns, and died in Anjou, 14S2. 
 
 MARGARET OF FRANCE, queen of 
 Navarre, daughter of Henry II., was born 
 in 1552, and ranked as one of the greatest 
 beauties of her age, with talents and accom- 
 plishments corresponding to the charms of 
 her person. She married Henry, then prince 
 of B'.'arn, but afterwards king of France. 
 On his accession to that throne, he proposed 
 to dissolve their marriage ; to which she con- 
 sented, on condition of receiving a suitable 
 pension ; and, having returned to Paris, lived 
 in great splendour and dissipation till her 
 death, in 1615, at the age of (53. Some very 
 agreeable poems by her are extant, and her 
 '* Alt'moires " are extremely curious. 
 
 MARGARET OF VALOIS, queen of 
 Naples, and sister to Francis I., king of 
 France, was the daughter of Charles of 
 Orleans, duke of AngoulGme, and born in 
 1492. In irm she married Charles, duke of 
 Akncjon, who died in 1,525. Her next hus- 
 band was Henry d'Albret. king of Navarre, 
 by whom she had Joan d'Albret, mother of 
 Henry IV. She was the authoress of some 
 poetical pieces, and of a tract, entitled " The 
 Mirror of the Sinful Soul," which was con- 
 demned as heretical by the Sorbonne. A 
 volume of tales, entitled " Ileptameron, ou 
 Sept Journees de la Reyne de Navarre," 
 which were written by her during the gaiety 
 of youth, are as free in their tendency as those 
 of Boccaccio ; and it certainly, at the present 
 day, appears somewliat extraordinary, that 
 a princess so pious and contemplative as 
 Margaret of Valois should be their author. 
 Died, 1549. 
 
 M ARGARITONE, an Italian painter, was 
 born at Arezio, in U98. He invented the art 
 of gilding with leaf gold upon Armenian bole) 
 and painted historical subjects in fresco and 
 distemper. Died, 1275. 
 
 MARGON, William de. a French eccle- 
 siastic, who died in 17«0. His principal 
 works are, " Memoirs of Marshal Villars," 3 
 vols.; "Memoirs of the Duke of Berwick," 
 2 vols. ; and " Memoirs of Tourville," 3 
 vols. 
 
 MARGRAAF, Andrew Sigismund, an 
 eminent chemist, and director of the academy 
 of Berlin, was born in that city in 1709. He 
 applied assiduously to mineralogy, which 
 science he enriched by the discovery of the 
 
 semi-metal, called manganese. He also made 
 several important discoveries in chemistry, 
 among which are the formic acid and beet 
 sugar. Died, 1782. 
 
 MARIA LOUISA, ex-empress of the 
 French, wife of Napoleon Buonaparte, Mas 
 the eldest daughter of Francis I.,empeior of 
 Austria, and of his second wife, Maria Theresa 
 of Naples, and was born 1791. In ISlOshe was 
 married to the emperor, then in the zenith 
 of his power ; in 1811 she presented her hus- 
 band with a son — afterwards called king of 
 Rome — to the great joy of the French na- 
 tion ; and, in 1813, on his departure to the 
 army, she was nominated regent. In 1814 
 she refused to accompany Napoleon to Elba 
 on the plea of ill-health ; and having ob- 
 tained, by treaty with the allied powers, the 
 duchies of Parma and Placeutia, &c., slie 
 repaired thither with her chamberlain. 
 Count Neipperg, for whom she had con- 
 ceived an attachment, and whom she sub- 
 sequently married. Maria Louisa was en- 
 dowed with considerable talents, which she 
 had cultivated with some care. Her mar- 
 riage with Napoleon being purely conven- 
 tional, it is not surprising that, with his 
 well-known domestic qualities, he failed to 
 elicit either her aifcction or her esteem ; but 
 the impartial biographer must still charge 
 her with a selfishness of character and cold- 
 ness of heart, which the difficulties of her 
 position may perhaps extenuate, but cannot 
 justify. Died, December 18. 1847. 
 
 MARIA THERESA, queen of Hungary 
 and Bohemia, archduchess of Austria, and 
 empress of Germany, daughter of the em- 
 peror Charles VI., was born at Vienna, 
 1717, and, in 1730, married Duke Francis 
 Stephen of Lorraine, who, in 1737, became 
 grand-duke of Tuscany. The day after her 
 father's death, she ascended the throne of 
 Hungary, Bolicmia, and Austria, and de- 
 clared her husband joint ruler. The elector, 
 Charles Albert of Bavaria, supported by 
 France, laid claim to the Austrian hereditary 
 territories, and the electors of Cologne and 
 the Palatine would likewise not acknowledge 
 her succession. In the meanwhile, Maria 
 Theresa threw herself upon her Hungarian 
 subjects ; to whom, with her child in her 
 arms, she made this pathetic address ; 
 "Abandoned by my friends, persecuted by 
 my enemies, attacked by my nearest re- 
 lations, I have no other resource than in 
 your fidelity, your courage, and your con- 
 stancy ; I commit to your hands the child of 
 your king." The youth, the beauty, and the 
 misfortunes of the queen made a deep im- 
 pression. The magnates drew their sabres, 
 and exclaimed, " Moriamur pro rege nostro 
 Maria Theresa." Till then she had preserved 
 a calm, majestic demeanour ; but their fide- 
 lity and courage overcame her feelings, and 
 she gave way to them in tears. The troops 
 furnished by Hungary, by their mode of 
 warfare and their ferocity, spread terror 
 through the German and French armies. 
 In the meantime the allies quarrelled among 
 themselves, and the king of Prussia made a 
 separate peace with her. The general opinion 
 that the balance of Europe depended upon 
 the continuance of the house of Austria, in- 
 duced England to arm for Maria Theresa ) 
 
 5C9 
 
 3 c 3 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ |2c&3 WinihtrSnl 33i0srapl)jj 
 
 [mak 
 
 Holland paid her subsidiea ; and after the 
 death of Cardinal Fleury, in 1743, tlie cause 
 of Austria triumphed throughout Europe. 
 Reverses, however, followed ; and all the 
 belligerents having become desirous of peace, 
 tiiat of Aix-la-ChapcUe was at length con- 
 cluded in 1748, by which Maria Theresa 
 was secured in her rights. In 1756 tliis calm 
 was disturbed by tlie king of Prussia, who 
 marched into Saxony and Bohemia. Mar- 
 shal Brown opposed him under the walls of 
 Prague, but being wounded, he was obliged 
 to retire into that city, which was imme- 
 diately bombarded. Count Daun, however, 
 forced tlie Prussians to raise the siege, by 
 gaining the victory of Chotzemitz. In 17.55 
 her liusband, the emperor Francis, died, 
 which caused her deep and lasting distress. 
 In 1772 she joined the king of Prussia and 
 the empress Catharine in the dismemberment 
 of Poland. By the death of Maximilian 
 Josepli, elector of Bavaria, in 1777, war was 
 rekindled between Austria and Prussia, but 
 was terminated in 1779, by the peace of 
 Teschen, whicli added to the former state a 
 small portion of Bavaria. Maria Theresa 
 founded and improved schools, universities, 
 and academies, and granted prizes to the 
 students. Slie rewarded, also, tliose who 
 made any important improvements in tlic 
 art, and turned her attention particularly 
 to agriculture, which was delineated upon 
 a medal that she caused to be struck. She 
 also reformed many abuses in the church ; 
 suppressed the Inquisition at Milan ; abo- 
 lished the order of Jesuits, and proliibited 
 tlie admission of individuals of both sexes as 
 members of convents before the age of 25 
 years. She also abolished the rack in all her 
 states, and died in 1780, aged 63, with a just 
 claim to the reputation of many royal and 
 domestic virtues. 
 
 MARIANA, Juan de, a celebrated Spa- 
 nish historian, was born at Talavera, in 
 1536, entered the society of Jesuits, and was 
 successively professor of theology in their 
 colleges at Rome and at Paris. His chief 
 work, "Historia de Rebus Ilispaniae," en- 
 titles him to an honourable place among 
 historical writers ; but his treatise, " De 
 Rege," in whicli he maintains the justice of 
 killing a tyrant, excited great clamour, and 
 was publicly burnt by order of the parlia- 
 ment of Paris. Died, 1624. 
 
 MARIGNAN, JoHy James Medichino, 
 Marquis de, a celebrated commander, was 
 born at Milan, in the beginning of the 16th 
 century. Francis Sforza, duke of Milan, 
 employed him and another officer to murder 
 Visconti, a Milanese nobleman ; after which 
 he determined to sacrifice the two instru- 
 ments, lest he should be discovered as the 
 author of the assassination. The one perished, 
 but Medichino escaped, and obtained the 
 government of Musso. In 1528 he entered 
 into the service of the emperor, and ex- 
 clianged Musso for Marignan. in 1554 he 
 defeated the French, commanded by Marshal 
 Strozzi, in Tuscany, and took the city of 
 Sienna, where he committed horrible cruel- 
 ties. Died, 1556. 
 
 MARINI, JoHX Baptist, an Italian poet, 
 was born at Naples, in 156!). He was bred 
 to the law, which he abandoned for litera- 
 
 ture ; but his life and conduct proved very 
 irregular. AV'hile at Turin he had a quarrel 
 with Murtola, a rival poet, who stabbed liim, 
 but not mortally. On his recovery, he went 
 to France, where he was patronised by Mary 
 de' Medici ; and in 1622 he became president 
 of the Umoristi at Rome. His principal 
 poem is an heroic, entitled " Adone," but he 
 wrote many others. Died, 1625. 
 
 MARINO, St., a native of Dalmatia, in 
 the 4th century. He wa« originally a work- 
 man employed in building the bridge of 
 Rimini, but his piety having been noticed 
 by the bishop of Brescia, he was made a 
 deacon, and he retired to an hermitage on 
 Mount Titano, where he died. The miracles 
 said to be wrought at the tomb of tliis ci- 
 devnnt stonemason brought a crowd of pil- 
 grims to the spot ; houses were built to re- 
 ceive them ; an independent community was 
 formed ; and thus rose into existence the re- 
 public of San Marino, which is the smallest 
 state in Europe. 
 
 MARIOTTE, Edmund, a French mathe- 
 matician and experimental philosopher, 
 born at Dijon ; became a member of tlie aca- 
 demy of sciences at Paris, in 1666 ; and died 
 in 1684. He was a great experimentalist on 
 the motion of fluids, the nature of vision, 
 and the constitution of the air. Among his 
 works are, " An Essay on Physics," treatises 
 on " The Pressure and Motion of Fluids," 
 the " Movement of Pendulums," &c. 
 
 MARIUS, Caius, a celebrated Roman 
 general and demagogue, who was seven times 
 consul. He first distinguished himself at 
 the siege of Numantia ; afterwards went to 
 Africa as lieutenant to the consul Met^Uus ; 
 superseded his commander, and obtained 
 the consulship himself, when he subdued 
 Jugurtha, king of Numidia, whom he con- 
 ducted in triumph to Rome. After this he 
 served against the Cimbri and other barba- 
 rous nations, who had poured their myriads 
 into Italy. With a very inferior force he 
 completely routed them, for which a pyramid 
 was erected to his honour. But he tarnished 
 the glory of liis victories by the basest cruel- 
 ties to the vanquished, especially the women. 
 In his sixth consulate he liad Sylla for his 
 rival, who marched to Rome witli his army, 
 and a civil war commenced to decide their 
 superiority. Defeated by his rival, Marina 
 wandered about on tlie coasts of Italy, and, 
 after escaping several times, was found by 
 some horsemen in a marsh. He was con- 
 ducted naked to Minturnas, where the magis- 
 trate, after some deliberation, resolved to 
 obey the orders of the senate and of Sylla. 
 But the Cimbrian slave, to whom the execu- 
 tion was intrusted, awed by the look and 
 words of Marius, dropped Ms sword, and the 
 people of Minturna;, moved with compassion, 
 conducted him to the coast, whence a vessel 
 conveyed him to Africa. Here he remained 
 till his party had once more triumphed in 
 Italy, when he was recalled by Cinna and 
 Sertorius, who making themselves masters 
 of Rome, a terrible proscription took place. 
 Marius enjoyed the dignity of consul for the 
 seventh time, 86 B. c, and died shortly after, 
 
 aged 80 Makius, the Yocngek, had all 
 
 the ferocious character of his father. He 
 usurped the consular dignity B.C. 82, but 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ lletD ?auit)criSaI 38tojirap^n. 
 
 [mar 
 
 was defeated by Sylla, aud slew himself at 
 Priencste. 
 
 MARIUS, Marcus Auuelius, a smith and 
 common soldier in the reign of Gallicnus, 
 who raised liimself to a supreme command 
 in the army, and on the death of Victorinus 
 ascended the imperial throne, but was slain 
 [ shortly after by a soldier. 
 
 MARIVAUX, Petku Carlet de CftAM- 
 I BLAix DE, a celebrated dramatist and no- 
 j velist, was born at Paris, in 1688. His 
 j father, wlio was director of the mint at 
 Riom, gave him an excellent education, and 
 ! liis own talents and social merits gained him 
 j many friends. The drama first attracted 
 his attention, and he was tlie author of about 
 30 pieces ; but it is as a novelist that he is 
 chiefly known to the world of letters. Of 
 tliese, "LePaysan Parvenu," "Marianne," 
 aud " Le Philosophe Indigente," are ac- 
 counted the principal. He also wrote "I-e 
 Spectateur Fran(,'oi8," &c. Died, 170;^. 
 
 MARKHAM, Gekvase, an English au- 
 thor, who lived in the reigns of James I. and 
 Charles I., and who served as a captain in 
 the royal army during the civil wars. He 
 was bom at Gotham, in Nottinghamshire, 
 but the exact time of his birth aud death^is 
 unknown, lie wrote "Herod and Anti- 
 pater," a tragedy, besides several poems ; 
 but he was chiefly noted for his treatises on 
 hawking, husbandry, horsemanship, the dis- 
 eases of cattle, &c. 
 
 MARKLAND, Abraham, a divine and 
 poet, was born in London, in 1(>4.5 ; was edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Oxford, obtained 
 a prebend at Winchester in 1679 ; was after- 
 wards master of the hospital of St. Cross, 
 and died in 1720. 
 
 MARKLAND, Jeremiah, an eminent 
 critic and classical Rcholar, was born at 
 Childwall, in Lancashire, in 1693 ; was edu- 
 cated at Christ's Hospital, nnd Peter House, 
 Cambridge ; and died at Dorking, Surrey, 
 in 1776. His principal works are, an edition 
 of the " SylvoB " of Statius, and " Remarks 
 on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus, and of 
 Brutus to Cicero." 
 
 M^VRLBOROUGH, JoHx Churchill, 
 Duke of, was the son of Sir Winston Chur- 
 chill, of Ashe, in Devonshire, where he was 
 bom, in 1650. At the age of 12 years he was 
 taken from school, to be a page to the Duke 
 of York, who, in 1666, gave him a pair of 
 colours in the guards. His first service was 
 at the siege of Tangier ; and, at his return 
 to England, he became the favourite of the 
 Duchess of Cleveland, who gave him 50001., 
 with which he purchased an annuity for 
 life. He served afterwards under the great 
 Turenne, and distinguished himself so gal- 
 lantly at the siege of Maestricht, tliat the 
 king of France publicly thanked him at the 
 head of the regiment. On Ms return to 
 England he was made lieutenant-colonel, 
 gentleman of the bedchamber, and master 
 of the robes to the Duke of York, whom he 
 attended to Holland and Scotland ; and 
 about tliis time he married Miss Jennings, 
 maid of honour to the princess, afterwards 
 queen Anne. In 1682 he was shipwrecked 
 with the Duke of York, in their passage to 
 Scotland. The same year he was made a 
 pe«r, by the title of baron Eyemouth ; and 
 
 Kl 
 
 when James came to the crown, he was sent 
 to France to notify the event. In 1685 he 
 was created lord Churchill, of Sandridge. 
 The same year he suppressed Monmouth's 
 rebellion, and took him prisoner. He con- 
 tinued to serve king James with great fidelity, 
 till the arrival of the Prince of Orange, wlio 
 created him earl of Marlborough in 1689, 
 and appointed him commander-in-chief of 
 the English army in the Low Countries. 
 He next served in Ireland, and reduced Cork, 
 Kjnsale, and other strong places. But in 
 1692 he was suddenly dismissed from his 
 employments, and committed to the Tower, 
 on suspicion, not wholly groundless, of plot- 
 ting to restore the exiled monarch. After 
 the death of queen Mary he was restored to 
 favour ; and at the close of that reign he had 
 the command of the English forces in Hol- 
 land, and was appointed ambassador extra- 
 ordinary to the States, who chose him cap- 
 tain-general of their forces. Yet his splendid 
 course of glory appeared now only to begin. 
 On the commencement of queen Anne's 
 reign, he recommended a war with France 
 and Spain, which advice was adopted. In 
 the campaign of 1702, he took a number of 
 strong towns, particularly Liege ; and, re- 
 turning to England the following winter, 
 received the thanks of both houses, and a 
 dukedom. In 1704 he joined Prince Eugene, 
 with whom he encountered the French and 
 Bavarians at Hochstedt, and obtained a 
 complete victory, taking Marshal Tallard 
 prisoner, whom he afterwards brought to 
 England, with 26 other officers of rank, 121 
 standards, and 179 colours. He again re- 
 ceived the thanks of parliament, and the 
 grant of the manor of Woodstock, with the 
 hundred of Wotton. On the 12th of May, 
 1706, he fought the famous battle of Ramil- 
 lics, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, 
 Brussels, and other important places ; and 
 arriving in England in November, received 
 fresh honours and grants from the queen 
 and parliament. A bill was passed to settle 
 tlie titles upon the male and female issue of 
 his daughters, and a pension of 5000?. a year 
 granted him out of the post oflice. In 1709 
 he defeated Marshal Villars, at Malplaquet ; 
 for which victory a general thanksgiving 
 was solemnised. In the winter of 1711 he 
 returned to England, and soon after, through 
 party intrigues, was dismissed from all his 
 employments. To add to this imjust treat- 
 ment, a prosecution was commenced against 
 him for applying the public money to his 
 private purposes. Stung at this ingratitude 
 he went into voluntary banishment, accom- 
 panied by his duchess, and remained abroad 
 till 1714, when he landed at Dover amidst 
 the acclamations of the people. Queen Anne 
 was just dead, and her successor restored the 
 duke to his military appointments ; but his 
 infirmities increasuig, he retired from public 
 employment, and died at Windsor Lodge, in 
 1722. 
 
 MARLOE, or MARLOWE, Christopher, 
 an eminent poet and dramatist of the Eliza- 
 bethan age, was educated at Cambridge, 
 afterwards settled in London, and became 
 an actor, as well as a writer for the stage. 
 Besides six tragedies of his own composition, 
 and one written jointly with Nashc, he left 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ i^c\3i Uniittv&al maQtKpf)v, 
 
 [aiAK 
 
 translations from Ovid, Lucan, and others. 
 Ilis powers as a tragic writer were of a high 
 order, and some passages in his plays are 
 fraught with exquisite beauty. Died, 1593. 
 MARMION, Shakekley, a dramatic 
 writer, Mas born at Aynhoe, in Northamp- 
 tonshire, about 1602 ; was educated at Wad- 
 ham College, Oxford ; entered tl\e army, 
 and died in 1G39. He wrote four comedies, 
 and " Cupid and Psyche," a poem. 
 
 MARMONTEL, John Francis, a distin- 
 guished French writer, born in 1723, at Bort, 
 in the Limousin, was the eldest son of a 
 large family in humble life ; and was edu- 
 cated at the Jesuits' college at Mauriac. He 
 first settled at Toulouse, but being persuaded 
 by Voltaire to try his fortune at Paris, he 
 went there in 1745. By his tragedies of 
 " Dionysius " and " Aristomenes," and other 
 I popular works, he soon gained reputation ; 
 and being patronised by Madame de Pom- 
 padour, he received the appointment of sec- 
 retary to the royal buildings. Soon after, 
 he became connected with U'Alembcrt and 
 Diderot in the Encj'clopcdie. He also had 
 a share in the,Mercure Francois, in which 
 liis " Tales " first appeared. ; but having 
 written a satire on the Duke d'Aumont, lie 
 was sent to the Bastile ; from wliich, how- 
 ever, he was liberated in a few days ; and in 
 1763 he obtained a place in the academy, of 
 which he after^vards became perpetual sec- 
 retary. In the early part of his career he 
 indulged in all the licentiousness of Parisian 
 life ; but he at length married, and conducted 
 himself with sense and propriety. He sur- 
 vived the horrors of the revolution, having, 
 when tlie political horizon darkened, retired 
 to a cottage in Normandy, where he passed 
 his time in the education of his children, 
 and the composition of a series of tales, 
 j together witli the amusing memoirs of his 
 ' own life. In 1797 he was chosen a repre- 
 sentative to the National Assembly for the 
 department of the Eure ; but his election 
 being subsequently declared null, he again 
 retired to his cottage, where he died of apo- 
 plexy, in 1799, aged 76. His " Moral Tales," 
 " Belisarius," " The Incas," his own "Me- 
 moirs," and "Elements of Literature," are 
 his most esteemed works ; and though as a 
 poet and dramatist he has of late been some- 
 what disparaged, he still justly holds a high 
 place among modern French authors ; and 
 there are few wlio have more successfully 
 addressed themselves to the imagination, 
 the judgment, or tlie lieart. 
 
 MARNIX, PuiLip DE, seigneur du Mont 
 Saints Aldegonde, was born at Brussels, in 
 1538. He was a zealous disciple of Calvin, 
 and being appointed consul at Antwerp, 
 bravely defended that city against the Duke 
 of Parma. Among otlier works, lie wrote 
 "The Bee-Hive of tlie Romish Church," 
 " Controversial Theses," &c. ; and drew up 
 the form of the celebrated confederacy, by 
 which several lords of the Netlierlands en- 
 gaged to oppose the Inquisition. 
 
 MAROT, Clement, an eminent French 
 poet, was born at Cahors, in 1495. Having 
 accompanied the Duke of AleuQon to Italy, 
 he was wounded and taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Pavia ; was afterwards persecuted 
 for his attachment to the Protestant religion; 
 
 and died in 1544. As a poet he was superior 
 to any of his countrymen who had gone be- 
 fore him, and greatly excelled all his contem- 
 poraries. 
 
 MAROT, FP.ANCI8, a painter, was the pupil 
 of La Fosse, and an associate and professor 
 of the French academy of painting. He 
 died at Paris in 1719, aged 62. 
 
 MARPURG, Frederic William, an emi- 
 nent German musician, born in 1718. He 
 was the autiior of many valuable works con- 
 nected with musical science. Died, 1795. 
 
 MARRY AT, Captain Fredei!IC, R.N., the 
 most popular of England's naval novelists, 
 was born in 1786. Entering the navy at an 
 early age, he served in the Impdrieuse under 
 Lord Cochrane, took part in the attack on 
 the French fleet in Aix Roads, and in the 
 Walcheren expedition in 1809 ; and in 1814, 
 when lieutenant of the Newcastle, gained 
 great distinction by cutting out four vessels 
 in Boston Bay. For his services during the 
 Burmese war he was promoted to the rank 
 of captain, and lie was subsequently made a 
 C. B., with a good service pension of 1501. a 
 year. Captain Marryat commenced his lite- 
 rary career as a contributor to the Metro- 
 politan Magazine, of which he afterwards 
 became the editor ; and in its pages several 
 of his most successful stories appeared. His 
 first work, in three volumes, was the " Naval 
 Oflicer," published in 1829. This was fol- 
 lowed in 1830 by the " King's Own ; " and 
 in 1832 appeared " Newton Foster," a great 
 improvement on the two former works, and 
 "Peter Simple," which is generally con- 
 sidered to be the best and most amusing of 
 all his publications. From tliis period Cap- 
 tain Marryat's industry kept pace with his 
 success ; and among the numerous works, 
 which flowed from his pen in an uninter- 
 rupted stream, may be enumerated, "Jacob 
 Faithful," " Mr. Midshipman Easy," " Mas- 
 terman Ready," " The Pacha of many 
 Tales," " Japhet in search of a Father," 
 " Poor Jack," " The Pirate and Three Cut- 
 ters," " Snarleyow," " Percival Keene," &c. ; 
 besides the " Phantom Ship," originally con- 
 tributed to the New Montlily Magazine, 
 and "Joseph Rushbrook," which first ap- 
 peared in the Era, a London newspaper. 
 In 1837 he paid a visit to the United States, 
 and on his return he published his " Diary 
 in America," which reflected somewhat se- 
 verely on the national cliaracter of the Ame- 
 ricans. This was followed by three addi- 
 tional volumes, and by his " Travels of 
 Monsieur Violet," sui>posed to be founded 
 on the adventures of Cliateaubriand in the 
 woods of the new world. Few men have 
 written so much and so well as Captain 
 Marryat. To the last, his literary powers 
 remained unabated ; and by common con- 
 sent he is facile princeps among tlie de- 
 lineators of naval character and naval life. 
 Died, Aug. 9. 1848. 
 
 MARS, Mademoiselle, a great French 
 comedian, was born in 1779. She made her 
 debut at the early age of 13, and enjoyed 
 tlie rare privilege of retaiuing the public 
 favour till an advanced age, having kept 
 the boards of the Thtatre Fran^ais at Paris, 
 where she had gained innumerable triumphs, 
 till 1841, when she retired in her 63rd year. 
 
mak] 
 
 ^ ^ctD BJniliorjSal 23i0jjrnpTjp. 
 
 [mar 
 
 Her representations of youthful heroines 
 were inimitable. Died, 1847. 
 
 MARSAIS, C^SAR Chesneau dv, an emi- 
 nent French writer on various branches of 
 the belles lettres, was born at Marseilles, in 
 1G76. Ilifl works are, " An Explanation of 
 the Doctrine of the Galilean Church," 
 "Method of Learning Latin," a "Treatise 
 on Tropes ; " " Logic, or Reflections on the 
 Operations of the Mind," &c. Died, 175C. 
 
 MARSDEN, WiLi-iAM. D.C.L., F.R.S., 
 &c., an orientalist and antiquary, was bom 
 in 1754, at Verval, in the county of Wicklow, 
 and went to India at an early age. He con- 
 tributed many interesting papers, printed 
 in the Philosophical Transactions and the 
 Archaeologia, upon subjects connected with 
 the history and learning of Asiatic natious ; 
 and among the separate works he published 
 are, a "History of the Island of Sumatra," 
 a " Dictionary and Granunar of the Malayan 
 Language," " Numismata Oricutulia Illus- 
 trata," "The Travels of Marco Polo," &c. 
 In 17".>5 he was appointed second secretary to 
 tlie admiralty ; and, some years before his 
 death, he voluntarily resigned a pension of 
 1500/. a year, which hud been bestowed on 
 hira as a reward for his public services. He 
 also presented his valuable collection of 
 oriental coins to the British Museum, and 
 his extensive library to King's College, Lou> 
 don. lie died, aged 81, in October, 183(5. 
 
 MARSH. Right Rev. Hekbebt, D. D., 
 bishop of Peterborough. Eminent both as 
 a scholar and a divine, this prelate is chiefly 
 known as the translator of the profound and 
 elaborate work of " Michaelis on the New 
 Testament." For this work he was, perhaps, 
 better qualified than any English clergyman 
 of his day ; for, after llnishnig his classical 
 studies at St. John's College, Cambri<lge, he 
 resided for very many years at Gottingen, 
 where he acquired an intimate acquaintance 
 with the German language. On the invasion 
 of Germany, by the French, he returned to 
 Cambridge and took his B. D. degree, and in 
 1807 he was elected Lady Margaret's profes- 
 sor of divinity. In this important situation 
 he made a most useful change. Up to his 
 election the lectures of the Lady Margaret's 
 prof(;s8or had always been delivered in Latin, 
 but he delivered his in English, and as he 
 did BO from the university pulpits, all ranks 
 flocked to hear him. Besides several im- 
 portant translations from the German, and 
 a long list of controversial pamphlets, he 
 published " A Course of Lectures, containing 
 a Description and Systematic Arrangement 
 of the several Branches of Divinity," &c., " A 
 History of the Translations which have been 
 made from the Scriptures." and " Ilora; Pe- 
 lasgicae." In 1806, Mr. Marsh was created 
 D.D. by royal mandate ; in 1816 he was made 
 bishop of Llandaff ; and, three years later, 
 translated to the see of Peterborough. Emi- 
 nent as were his talents, and unwearied as 
 was his zeal as a divine, he probably owed 
 much of his success in life to some important 
 information on public aft'airs, which he trans- 
 mitted to the English government during 
 Ids residence in Germany, and which Mr. 
 Pitt considered to be so important, that he 
 rewarded it with a pension. Born, 1758 ; 
 died, 18;}8. 
 
 MARSH, Narcissus, a learned prelate, 
 who, to much learning and piety, added the 
 greatest munificence and private charity. 
 He was bom at Hannington, in Wiltshire, 
 in 1638 { was appointed principal of Alban 
 Hall, in 1673 ; but in 1678 he went to Ireland, 
 and was made provost of Trinity College, 
 Dublin, to which he presented a valuable 
 library. He was successively bishop of Leigh- 
 lin and Ferns, Cashel, Dublin, and Armagh. 
 He was the author of " Manuductio ad Lo- 
 gicam," " Institutiones Logicae," and an 
 " Essay on the Doctrine of Sounds." Died, 
 1703. 
 
 MARSHAL, Walter, a Nonconformist 
 minister. He was ejected from the living of 
 Hursley, in Hampshire, in 1662 ; after which 
 he ofliciated to a dissenting congregation at 
 Gosport. He died about 1690. His book, 
 eutitled " The Gospel Mystery of Sanctifi- 
 cation," printed first in 1602, was reprinted 
 with a recommendatory preface by Harvey, 
 anthor of" The Meditations." 
 
 MARSHALL, Natuaniel, an English 
 divine of the 18th century, who was chaplain 
 to George II., and published " The Works of 
 St. Cyprian," " A Defence of our Constitution 
 in Church and State," and three volumes of 
 " Sermons." 
 
 MARSHALL, William, a distinguished 
 modern writer on agricultural and rural 
 economy. He performed a series of journeys 
 through various parts of the kingdom, to 
 procure intelligence concerning tlie modes 
 of cukivation and management among the 
 farmers in different districts and counties. 
 Among his works are, " Minutes of Agricul- 
 ture," "Planting and Rural Ornament," 
 " The Rural Economy of the Midland, South- 
 ern, and Western Counties," and " Experi- 
 ments and Observations concerning Agri- 
 culture and the Weather." Born, 1745 ; 
 died, at Pickering in Yorkshire, 1818. 
 
 MARSHAM, Sir Joiix, a learned writer 
 on ancient history and chronology, was the 
 son of a London alderman, and born in 1602; 
 was educated at Westminster, and St. John's 
 College, Oxford ; and was made one of the 
 six clerks in chancery, which place he lost 
 for his attachment to the cause of royalty 
 during the civil wars. At the accession of j 
 Charles II., however, he recovered his oflSee, 
 was knighted, became M. P. for Rochester, 
 and was afterwards created a baronet. His 
 principal work, " Canon Chronicus ^gyp- 
 tiacus, Ebraicus, Graecus," displays much 
 erudition and ingenuity. Died, 1685. 
 
 MARSHMAN, Dr. Jamks, an eminent 
 Baptist missionary in the East Indies, was 
 the last survivor of those zealous men who 
 were engaged in the Serampore mission. 
 He arrived in India in 1799, and, by dint of 
 incessant labour, he acqiured a complete 
 mastery over the Bengalee, Sanscrit, and 
 Chinese tongues, into the latter of which 
 he translated a considerable portion of the 
 Scriptures. He was also the author of " A 
 Dissertation on the Characters and Sounds 
 of the Chinese Language," "Clavis Sinica," 
 and a translation of the works of Confucius. 
 He was born at Westbury Leigh, in Wilt- 
 shire, in 1768, and died at Serampore, Dec. 
 1837. 
 MARSIGLI, Louis Ferdinand, on Ita- 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ ^elu Unibn^iil 23i03rapTjg. 
 
 [mar 
 
 lian writer, was born in ICoS, of a noble 
 j family, at Bologna. lie served witb great 
 I reputation in tlie imperial army, but was 
 I taken prisoner at the passage of the Raab, 
 I and sent to Bosnia. The year following lie 
 I was ransomed, obtained a colonel's commis- 
 j Bion, and was afterwards advanced to the 
 rank of marshal; but when the Count d'Arco 
 1 was condemned, for giving uji the fortress of 
 i Brisac to the Duke of Burgundy, Marsigli, 
 I who commanded under him, was dismissed 
 ; the service. He then retired to Bologna, 
 I where he formed a museum, and founded 
 the Institute. His most important work is 
 i entitled " Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus," 
 j 6 vols, folio ; he also wrote " A History of 
 : the Sea," and " Tlie Military State of the 
 I Ottoman Empire." Died, IT.'JO. 
 I MARSTON, Jonx, an English dramatist, 
 I who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 James I., and was upon terms of intimacy 
 I with Ben Johnson. He was educated at 
 I Oxford, became lecturer at the Middle 
 ! Temple, and died subsequently to 1G.'5;3. He 
 ; wrote eight plays, and three books of satires, 
 called the " Scourge of Villany." 
 
 MARSY, Francis Maria de, a French 
 writer, was expelled the society of Jesuits on 
 account of his opinions ; and he was also 
 sent to the Bastile for publishing an " Ana- 
 lysis of Bayle," in which he selected the 
 worst part of that author's dictionary. His 
 other works are, a " History of Mary Stuart," 
 3 vols. ; " Dictionary of Painting and Archi- 
 tecture," 2 vols. ; " Le Rabelais Moderne," 
 8 vols. ; " The Modern History," intended as 
 a continuation to Rollin's Ancient History, 
 26 vols. Died, 17fi3. 
 
 MARTELLI, Petur James, an eminent 
 Italian poet, was born at Bologna, in 1G<)5 ; 
 was at first a professor of belles lettres in the 
 university there, and afterwards secretary 
 to Cardinal Aldrovandi. His works consist 
 of several discourses on the art of poetry, 
 "Dialogues on Ancient and Modern Tra- 
 gedy," and " Tragedies," in 3 vols. Died, 
 1727. 
 
 MARTENS, William Frederick vox, a 
 distinguished diplomatist, was born at Ham- 
 burgh, 1756. He was professor of public 
 law at Gottingen ; and, among various high 
 offices which he held in succession, he was 
 appointed secretary of the congress of 
 Vienna in 1814, and representative of Han- 
 over in the German Diet in 1816. His 
 " Precis du Droit des Gens de I'Europe," his 
 " Cours de Diplomatie," and his " Recueil 
 des Principaux Traites de Paix," &c. (with 
 its various supplements"), are quoted as 
 authorities by all who make diplomacy their 
 study. Died, 1821. 
 
 MARTHA, Sister — Axxe Bioet, known 
 as Sister Martha, had, previous to 1792, spent 
 many years in a convent at Besancon, as 
 porteress, and at that time retired on a 
 pension of 133 francs, and a small dwelling- 
 house, where she resided witli another female, 
 devoting their time to the wants of the ne- 
 cessitous. They sought the wounded after 
 an engagement, and, by their humane exer- 
 tions, saved numerous lives. The Spanish 
 prisoners partook largely of their charity ; 
 and when they quitted Besaugon the English 
 troops succeeded them in the care and atten- 
 
 574 
 
 tions of the good sister Martha, who declared, 
 the unhappy of all coimtries were her friends. 
 In the campaign of 1814, though Martha was 
 nearly 70 years of age, 3'ct her energy and 
 activity seemed to receive a new impulse ; 
 and the powerful assistance she rendered the 
 wounded French and allied soldiers caused 
 the Duke of Reggio to say to her, " Sister 
 Martha, I was made acquainted with your 
 character on the field of battle, for there I 
 continually heard the wounded exclaim, ' If 
 the good Sister Martha were here, our suffer- 
 ings would be relieved,' while blessings 
 followed the name." When the allied sove- 
 reigns met in Paris, each was' desirous to see 
 this extraordinary woman ; nor did they 
 forget to reward her virtues. The emperor 
 of Russia gave lier a valuable gold medal, 
 and a sum of money ; the emperor of Austria 
 gave her the cross with the order of Merit, 
 and 2000 francs ; and the kings of France and 
 Spain also sent her medals, and each added 
 a present of money. Martha had no othei 
 ambition than that of doing good ; but she 
 rejoiced in her fortune, as it gave her more 
 ample means to exercise her charitable dis- 
 position ; and she died, regretted and es- 
 teemed, at Besancon. in 1824. 
 
 MARTIAL or MARCUS VALERIUS 
 MARTIALIS, a Latin poet, and the most 
 celebrated of all epigrammatists, was a native 
 I of Spain, but went to Rome in his 20th year, 
 and obtained the favour of Domiiian, who 
 conferred on him many favours, and raised 
 him to the office of tribune. On the death 
 of that emperor he returned to his native 
 country, where he died, a. d. 104. 
 
 MARTIGNAG, Stei'hex Algat, Sienr 
 de, a French writer, who translated Terence, 
 Horace, Juvenal, Persius, Virgil, and Ovid 
 into prose, and v.Tote the " Lives of the 
 Bishops of Paris," of the 17th century. Born, 
 1628 ; died, lODt). 
 
 M ARTIGNAC, M., a distinguished French 
 ad^•ocate and minister of state, who was dis- 
 missed from office by Charles X., to make 
 room for Polignac, to whom he was politi- 
 cally opposed ; yet when that minister was 
 on his trial, before the chamber of peers, he 
 was his eloquent and zealous defender. 
 Died, 1832. 
 
 MARTILIERE, Count de la, a French 
 general of artillery, was a sub-lieutenant 
 in 1757 ; and after serving with distinction 
 in Germany, during the seven years' war, he 
 was employed in the island of Guadaloupe. 
 lie acquired mucli reputation by his tracts 
 on artillery, and by his subsequent successes 
 during the revolutionary wars ; his services 
 in which were rewarded with the rank of 
 general of division in the army of the Rhine 
 and Moselle. In 1802 he was called to the 
 senate, and in 1814 the king made him a 
 peer of France. Died, 1819. 
 
 MARTIN, AiMf , a distinguished French 
 writer and critic, was born at Lyons, 1786. 
 At an early age he repaired to Paris, where 
 he soon gained a liveliliood by his pen, at 
 one time writing in the columns of the 
 Journal des Dt'bats ; at another, editing the 
 works of La Rochefoucauld, Racine, and 
 Fenelon ; and he at last became professor 
 of belles lettres at the Polytechnic School, 
 and librarian at Saintc Guntvifeve. At once 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ ^cti) CJni&er^Kl 23tfliiraplbl?« 
 
 [mab 
 
 the pupil and friend of Bernard St. Pierre, 
 l»e coUccted and published his works, de- 
 fended his memory from hostile attacks, 
 I married his widow, and adopted liis 
 daughter "Virginia. His " LiCttres & Sopliie 
 sur la rhysique, la Cliimie, et I'Histoire Na- 
 turelle," were liighly popular ; and his work 
 on the "Education des Meres de Famille " 
 was crowned by the Institute. Died, 1847. 
 
 M.\RTIN, Bkxj.\mi.v, one of the most 
 i;elcl)rated matlicmaticians and opticians of 
 liis time, was born at Worplesdon, in Surrey, 
 in 1704. After publishing a variety of in- 
 genious treatises on various branches of 
 mathematical science and natural philo- 
 sophy, particularly a scientific " Magazine," 
 i uuder his own name, and carrying on for 
 ] many years a very extensive trade as an 
 optician and globe- maker in Fleet Street, he 
 died in 1782. 
 ! MARTIN, D.K.VID, a French Protestant 
 ! divine, was born at Revel, in the diocese 
 I of Lavaur, in 1U39. On the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, he became pastor of a 
 [ church at Utrecht, where he died in 1721. 
 He wrote a " History of the Old and New 
 j Testament," 2 vols. fol. ; and a " Treatise 
 on Revealed Religion," 2 vols. 8vo. 
 MARTIN, Raymond, a Spanish monk of 
 I the Dominican order, who wrote an excel- 
 lent treatise against the Jews, printed at 
 Paris in l(i.>l, with the title of " Pugio fldei 
 Christiana;." Died, 128(5. 
 
 MARTIN, Sakau, whose pious and phi- 
 lanthropic labours have iiulissolubly linked 
 her name with those of Howard, Buxton, 
 and Fry, was born near Yarmouth, in 1791. 
 Deprived of her parents when very young, 
 her education was merely such as could be 
 obtained at a village school. At 14 she 
 passed a year in learning the business of 
 dress-making ; and she had pursued her 
 humble avocations for about 14 years with 
 various families in Yarmouth, when having 
 long felt a strong desire to obtain admission 
 to the jail to read the Scriptures to the 
 prisoners, her wishes were at length gra- 
 tified ; and her visits were again and again 
 repeated, during such short intervals of 
 leisure as she could spare from her daily 
 labours. At first she contented herself 
 with merely reading to the prisoners ; but 
 familiarity with their wants and with her 
 own powers soon enlarged the sphere of 
 her tuition, and she began to instruct them 
 in reading and writing. This extension of 
 her labour necessarily interfered with her or- 
 dinary occupations, and it became necessary 
 to sacrifice a portion of her time, and con- 
 sequently of her means, to these new duties. 
 After three years' perseverance in this course, 
 she began to introduce employment, first for 
 the female prisoners and then for the male ; 
 and after another interval she proceeded to 
 the formation of a fund for the furnishing of 
 work for prisoners upon their discharge. 
 She had thus, in the course of a few years, 
 during which her mind had gradually ex- 
 panded to the requirements of the subject 
 before her, provided for all tlie most impor- 
 tant objects of prison discipline, moral and 
 intellectual tuition, occupation during im- 
 prisonment, and employment after discharge. 
 But she now claims our attention in another 
 
 capacity as a moral teacher. For many 
 years she had read printed sermons on Sun- 
 days to the prisoners ; but about 18;W she 
 began to write her own sermons, and after 
 continuing this course for five years she 
 was enabled, she says, " by the help of God, 
 to address the prisoners without writing 
 beforehand, simply from the Holy Scrip- 
 tures." Her addresses were formed upon a 
 regular system, admirably suited to the cir- 
 cumstances and comprehension of her au- 
 dience; and there is reason to believe that her 
 appeals, urged with kindly, warm-hearted 
 sincerity, were eminently successful. Mean- 
 while she went on devoting every available 
 moment of her life to her great purpose ; 
 but her customers began to fall off, and she 
 now saw herself on the verge of utter desti- 
 tution. Still she never paused in her course, 
 and not only did she continue her prison 
 instructions, but she organised and super-' 
 intended a large school at the workhouse, 
 and devoted her spare time to visiting the 
 sick and other works of charity. But such 
 unremitting labours of love proved too 
 severe for a constitution naturally delicate, 
 and, after a few weeks of poignant suffering, 
 her pure spirit passed to its reward, October 
 12. 1843. She was buried in the churchyard 
 of Caistre, where a simple monument records 
 her name. Her small volume of posthumous 
 poems, many of which breathe the true 
 poetic spirit, will always be perused with 
 interest. 
 
 MARTIN, St., was born of heathen 
 parents, in 316, at Sabaria, in Pannonia, 
 now Hungary. lie sei-ved in the army some 
 years ; but being converted to Christianity, 
 he embraced a religious life, and appeared 
 as the model of all virtue. In 374 he was 
 made bishop of Tours, but still retained the 
 simplicity and austerity of the recluse. He 
 erected the monastery of Marmontier, and 
 is considered as the apostle of the Uauls. 
 Died, 307. 
 
 Martin, Thomas, an English antiquary, 
 was bom at Thetford, in Suffolk, in l(i97. 
 He wrote " Monumenta Anglicana, a His- 
 tory of Thetford," and was familiarly called 
 " Honest Tom Martin, of Palgrave," where 
 he long resided. Died, 1771. 
 
 martin, William, a naturalist, was 
 born in 1707, at Marsfield, in Nottingham- 
 shire. Being deserted by his father, and 
 left unprovided for, he took to the stage as 
 a profession ; but having married, he estab- 
 lished himself at Burton-on-Trent, and, 
 subsequently, at Macclesfield, as a drawing- 
 master ; where, devoting much of his time 
 to researches in natural history, he pub- 
 lished " Outlines of an Attempt to establish 
 a Knowledge of Extraneous Fossils on Sci- 
 entific Principles," " Petrificata Derbiensia," 
 &c. Died, IHIO. 
 
 MARTINE, Geokoe, a physician, was 
 born in Scotland, in 1702 ; took his doctor's 
 degree at Leyden, after which he com- 
 menced practice at St. Andrew's ; but, in 
 1740, he accompanied Lord Cathcart to 
 America, where he died in 1743. He was 
 the author of " Tractatus de Similibus Ani- 
 malibus, et Animalium Colore," "Essays, 
 Medical and Philosophical," &c, 
 
 MARTINI, JoHX Baptist, a skilful mu- 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ ileU) Wiwi^et^nl Btnsrapi^i). 
 
 [mar 
 
 ] sical composer, was born at Bologna, in 
 I 1706, and died in 1784. He wrote a " History 
 I of Music," 3 vols, folio ; also, an " Essay on 
 I Counterpoint," &c. He was chapel-master 
 I to a convent of Friars Minim ; and from the 
 I school of Martini issued some of the finest 
 I composers in Italy. 
 
 MARTINI, MAKTiy, a Jesuit and mis- 
 sionary of the 17th century, was a native of 
 Trent. He went as a missionary to China, 
 where he remained many years, and re- 
 turned to Europe in 16.51. The result of his 
 observations are contained in his " Sinicae 
 ITistoriaj Decas prima h Gentis Origine ad 
 Christum natum," ♦' China lUustrata," and 
 "De Belle inter Tartaros et Sinenses." 
 
 MARTINIERE, Anthony Augustix 
 Bruoex de la, a celebrated French author, 
 was bom at Dieppe, in 1084 ; studied at 
 Paris ; and was successively patronised by 
 the Duke of Parma, the King of Naples, to 
 whom he was secretary, and the King of 
 Spain, to whom he was geographer. His 
 principal work is entitled " Dictionnaire 
 Gk'ographique, Historifjue, et Critique," in 
 10 vols, folio, a work of great value and 
 importance. Died, 1749. 
 
 MARTOS, Ivan Petrovitch, an emi- 
 nent Russian sculptor, who was for many 
 years director of the Academy of Fine Arts, 
 St. Petersburgh, died, April 17. 1835, aged 82. 
 He liad attained the highest excellence in 
 his art, rivalling Canova in his draperies, 
 and in subjects of bas-relief being superior 
 to any of his contemporaries. Among his 
 best works may be reckoned the colossal 
 group in bronze of Minin and Pozharsky, at 
 Moscow ; the Emperor Alexander, at Tagan- 
 rog ; the Duke of Richelieu, at Odessa, &c. 
 
 MARTYN, John, F.R.S., a skilful bota- 
 nist and learned writer, was born in 1699, 
 at London. For nearly thirty years he was 
 professor of botany at Cambridge, wrote 
 many works, and died in 1768. Besides his 
 botanical productions, he published "The 
 Grub Street Journal," 2 vols. ; " Virgil's 
 Georgics," a " Dissertation on the JEneid" 
 and assisted in the abridgment of the Plxi- 
 losophical Transactions. 
 
 MARTYN, Thomas, F.R.S., an eminent 
 antiquarian and natural philosopher, the 
 son of the preceding, was born at Chelsea, 
 in 173/) ; was educated at Cambridge, and, 
 on his father's resignation in 1761, succeeded 
 to the botanical professorship, which he 
 held for 64 years, during which time he 
 obtained valuable church preferment, and 
 died in 1825. His philosophical writings, 
 and those by whicli he is most advantage- 
 ously known, are, " Planta; Cantabriffienses," 
 " Herbationes Cantabrigienses," " The Eng- 
 lish Connoisseur," "The Antiquities of Her- 
 culaneum," " Elements of Natural History," 
 "Flora Rustica," and an enlarged edition of 
 " M'Uer's Gardener's Dictionary." 
 
 MARTYN, Henry, an able missionary, 
 was born in Cornwall, in 1781 ; was edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Cambridge ; and 
 in 1805 went to India as a chaplain to the 
 East India Company. When arrived in the 
 East he distinguished himself by his rapid 
 acquirement of the native languages, being 
 soon able to translate the Common Prayer 
 into Hindoostanec, and perform divine ser- 
 
 vice in that language. From India he pro- 
 ceeded to Persia, and there translated the 
 New Testament into the Persian tongue, 
 held several conferences with the learned 
 Mohammedans, and converted some to 
 Christianity. Died, 1812. 
 
 MARTYR, Peter, a celebrated reformer, 
 whose family name was Vermigli, was born 
 at Florence, in 1500. He was originally an 
 Augustine monk, and became an eminent 
 preacher, and prior of St. Fridian's at 
 Lucca ; but having read the writings of , 
 Luther, Zuinglius, and other reformers, he ' 
 renounced the Romish faith, and found it 
 necessary to quit his native country. He 
 then, on the invitation of Edward VI., came 
 to England, and was made professor of 
 divinity at Oxford, and canon of Christ- 
 church. But in the succeeding reign he 
 was obliged to leave the kingdom ; on 
 which he went to Switzerland, and died at 
 Zurich, in 1562. His wife, who had been a 
 converted nun, died at Oxford, and in the 
 reign of Mary, her remains were taken up 
 and buried beneath a dunghill ; but when 
 queen Elizabeth came to the throne, they 
 were re-interred in consecrated ground. 
 Peter Martyr was the author of many works 
 on divinity, including commentaries on 
 some parts of the Old and New Testament. 
 His personal character has also been repre- 
 sented as extremely amiable. 
 
 MARVELL, Andrew, distinguished by 
 his integrity as a senator, and by his wit as 
 a political writer, was born at Kingston- 
 upon-IIull, in 1620, and was educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. On the death 
 of his father he spent several years in fo- 
 reign travel ; was appointed secretary to the 
 British legation at Constantinople ; and on 
 his return, in 1657, he became assistant to 
 Milton, as Latin secretary. At the Restor- 
 ation he was elected into parliament for his 
 native place, with a salary from his con- 
 stituents ; and he obtained a high character 
 for diligence, ability, and integrity. He 
 had the character of being the wittiest man j 
 of his time, and wrote a number of poetical I 
 effusions, both humorous and satirical, which 
 were highly effective as party pieces. Among 
 his prose tracts was one, entitled " An Ac- 
 count of tlie Growth of Popery and arbi- 
 trary Government in England," on which 
 a reward was offered for a discovery of the 
 writer and printer. But though Marvell 
 was obnoxious to the ministry, he was some- 
 what of a favourite with the king, who took 
 great delight in his conversation. One day 
 the lord treasurer Danby was sent to find 
 out his lodgings, which were up two pair of 
 stairs in a court in the Strand ; and when 
 his lordship opened the door, the patriot, 
 evidently much surprised, told him, "he 
 believed he had mistaken his way ; " but 
 was told by the earl, that he came from the 
 king, " to know what his majesty could do to 
 serve him ? "_ to which Marvell replied, that 
 " it was not in his majesty's power to serve 
 him." Lord Danby, finding that no argu- 
 ment could prevail upon him to accept a 
 place, concluded by saying, tliat "the king 
 had sgnt him a thousand pounds, as a mark 
 of his private esteem." This also he refused 
 without hesitation j though he was obliged, 
 
mar] 
 
 ^ i^ftQ BnibtrSKl 23insraj>T)w. 
 
 [mas 
 
 on the departure of the courtier, to send to 
 a friend for the loan of a guinea. He died 
 in 1678. Marvell wrote some pieces against 
 Parker, bisiiop of Oxford, besides several 
 miscellaneous poems and tracts, which toge- 
 ther were published in 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 MARY, queen of England, daughter of 
 nenry VIII. by Catharine of Arragon, was 
 bom in 1517. During the life of her father 
 she experienced many marks of his brutal 
 temper, and her inflexible opposition to his 
 will made him sometimes form a resolution 
 of putting her to death, from which he was 
 diverted by Archbishop Cranmer. During 
 the reign of Edward she could not be pre- 
 vailed with to join in communion with tlie 
 Protestant divines. On this account that 
 amiable prince declared lady Jane Grey his 
 heir. At his death in 1553 that lady was 
 proclaimed queen ; but her reign lasted only 
 a few days. The partisans of Mary became 
 numerous, and she entered London without 
 opposition. In 1554 she married Philip of 
 Spain, eldest son of Charles V. ; but her 
 union with him was equally unpropitious to 
 herself and the nation. The sanguinary 
 laws against heretics were revived, and those 
 shocking scenes of cruelty followed, which 
 have fixed upon this princess the epithet of 
 "bloody." The loss of Calais, which had 
 been in the hands of the English 200 years, 
 sank deep into the heart of Mary, her health 
 rapidly declined, and she died in 1558. With 
 her ended the domination of the papal power 
 in England. 
 
 MARY II., queen of England, the wife of 
 William III., was the daughter of James II. 
 by Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Cla- 
 rendon. At the age of 15 she was married 
 to William, prince of Orange, whom she 
 followed to England in l«8a. The same 
 year parliament having declared the crown 
 vacant by tlie abdication of James, conferred 
 ii upon William and Mary. She died of 
 the small-pox, in 1695, aged 32. 
 
 MARY STUART, queen of Scots, famous 
 for her beauty, her wit, her learning, and 
 her misfortunes, was daughter of James V., 
 king of Scotland, and succeeded her father 
 in 1542, eight days after her birth. In 15.58 
 she married Francois, dauphin, and after- 
 wards king of France, by which means she 
 became queen of France. This monarch 
 dying in 1560, she returned into Scotland, 
 and married her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord 
 Darnley, in 1565. Being excluded from 
 any share of the government (as he sus- 
 pected) by the advice of Rizzio, an Italian 
 musician, her favourite and secretary, the 
 king, by the counsel and assistance of some 
 of the principal nobility, suddenly surprised 
 them together, and Rizzio was slain, in the 
 queen's presence, in 1566. An apparent re- 
 conciliation afterwards took place, where 
 Darnley, who had continued to reside sepa- 
 rately from the queen, was assassinated, 
 and the house he had inhabited was blown 
 up with gunpowder, in Feb. 1.567. Tliis bar- 
 barous transaction was but very imperfectly 
 investigated ; and in the month of May fol- 
 lowing, she wedded the Earl ofBotliwell, 
 who was openly accused as the murderer of 
 the late king. Scotland soon became a scene 
 of confusion and civil discord. Bothwell, a 
 
 fugitive and an outlaw, took refuge in Den- 
 mark ; and Mary, made a captive, was 
 treated with insult and contempt, and com- 
 mitted to custody in the castle of Loch Le- 
 ven. After some months-' confinement she 
 eflfected her escape, and, assisted by the few 
 friends who still remained attached to her, 
 made an effort for the recovery of her power. 
 She was opposed by the Earl ol" Murray, the 
 natural son of James V., who had obtained 
 the regency in the minority of her son. The 
 battle of Langside insured the triumph of 
 her enemies ; and, to avoid falling again 
 into their power, she fled to England, and 
 sought the protection of queen Elizabeth ; 
 but that princess treated her as a personal 
 and political rival, and kept her in safe cus- 
 tody. For a period of 18 years was the un- 
 happy queen of Scotland a state prisoner ; 
 and, during the whole of that long term, she 
 was considered as the head of the Popish 
 party, who wished to see a princess of their 
 persuasion on the throne of England. Mary, 
 despairing of recovering that of Scotland, 
 most assuredly became a dupe to this party, 
 and countenanced, if she was not directly 
 concerned in, their plots. She was accord- 
 ingly tried for a conspiracy against the life 
 of the queen of England, condemned, and 
 suffered decapitation, Feb. 8. 1587, in the 
 castle of Fotheringay, where she had been 
 long confined. Her body was interred, with 
 great pomp, in Peterborough Cathedral, but 
 subsequently removed by her son, James I., 
 to Henry the Seventh's Chapel, W^estmin- 
 ster Abbey, where a magnificent monument 
 was erected to her memory. The character 
 and conduct of Mary, queen of Scots have 
 been made the subject of much controversy ; 
 but the fact of her marrying Bothwell, 
 " stained as he was by universal suspicion 
 of Damley's murder, is a spot upon her 
 character for which we iu vain seek an 
 
 MASACCIO, or TOMMASO DAS GIO- 
 VANNI DI VALDARNO, an eminent 
 painter, bom-at Valdarno, in 1402 ; who was 
 admirably skilled in the art of perspective, 
 and of whom it has been said, that while 
 Buonarotti taught all other painters, he 
 learnt from Masaccio alone. 
 
 MASCAGNI, Paul, a celebrated Italian 
 anatomist, was born in Tuscany, in 1752 ; 
 and became professor of anatomy, physio- 
 logy, and chemistry, at Florence. He made 
 several important discoveries in human 
 anatomy ; and published, among other 
 works, " Historia et Scenographia Vasorum 
 Lymphaticorum Corporis humani." Died, 
 1815. 
 
 MASCARDI, AtTGUSTiir, a learned Ita- 
 lian, was born in the republic of Genoa, in 
 1591. Pope Urban VIII. founded for him 
 a professorship of rhetoric in the College 
 of Sapienza. He wrote Latin and Italian 
 poems ; a " History of the Conspiracy of 
 the Count Fiesco," and a curious work, 
 entitled " Dell'Arte Istoriea." 
 
 MASCARON, Julius, an eminent French 
 ecclesiastic, was born at Marseilles, in 1634 ; 
 entered among the priests of the Oratory ; 
 and soon became so popular a preacher, 
 that multitudes thronged from all quarters 
 to hear him. In 1666 he was called to court. 
 
 8d 
 
mas] 
 
 ^ ipettJ Mnitjor^al 23tosrapf)n. 
 
 [mas 
 
 to preach before I^ouis XIV. ; and he suc- 
 cessively became bishop of Tulle and Agen. 
 At the latter place he founded an hospital, 
 and died in 1703. A collection of his " Fu- 
 neral Orations" was published, among which 
 the most admired are those on Marshal 
 Turenne, the Duke of Beaufort, and the 
 Chancellor Seguier. 
 
 MASCHERONI, Laurest, an eminent 
 mathematician, was born at Bergamo, in 
 the Venetian States, in 1750. He published 
 notes on the " Integral Calculus" of Euler, 
 and had a share in the experiments per- 
 formed by the Institute of Bologna, with a 
 view of i)roving the figure of the earth by 
 the descent of bodies. The invention, how- 
 ever, which has rendered his name conspi- 
 cuous, was his celebrated " Geometry of the 
 Compass." He died, at Paris, in 1800. 
 
 MASCLEF, Fkaxcis, a French theolo- 
 gian and orientalist, who was a canon of 
 Amiens, and died in 1728. His works are, 
 "A Hebrew Grammar," 2 vols.; "Eccle- 
 siastical Conferences of the Diocese of 
 Amiens," and " The Catechism of Amiens." 
 
 MASCOV, or MASCOU, Joiix James, a 
 German publicist, was a native of Dantzic, 
 studied at Leipsic, became professor of 
 jurisprudence at Halle, and wrote the 
 "Principles of the Public Law of the Ger- 
 man Empire " and " A History of the Ger- 
 mans." Born, 1089 ; died, 1762. 
 
 MASCRIER, John Baptist de, a French 
 abbt', was born in 1(597, at Caen ; and died 
 pt Paris in 1760. Among his works are, 
 " A Description of Egypt," " A Trans- 
 lation of Cajsar's Commentaries," " Re- 
 flections on the Truths of Faith," and a 
 " History of the Revolution in the East 
 Indies." 
 
 MASDEN, Don Juax Fraxcesco, a na- 
 tive of Barcelona, and member of the order 
 of the Jesuits ; author of " Historia Critica 
 de Espana, y de la Cultnra Espanola en 
 todo genero," 20 vols. Died, 1817. 
 
 MASENIUS, or MASEN, James, a Jesuit, 
 was born at Dalen, in the duchy of Ju- 
 liers, in 1600 ; and died at Cologne in 1681. 
 He wrote a Ivatin poem, called " Sarcothea, 
 or the Fall of Man ;" which Lauder brought 
 into notice by pretending that Milton was 
 indebted to it for part of his Paradise Lost. 
 He was also the author of "TI>e Art of 
 Poetry," 4 vols. ; " Palajstra Styli Romani," 
 "The Lives of Charles V. and Ferdinand," 
 "Notes on the Annals of Treves," &c. 
 
 MASERES, Francis, a sound lawyer and 
 a good mathematician, was bom in 1731 ; 
 was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, 
 and afterwards studied at the Temple. 
 Being called to the bar, he obtained the 
 situation of attorney general of Quebec, 
 and on his return to England, was made 
 cursitor baron of the exchequer. He pub- 
 lished a collection of the "Scriptores Lo- 
 garithmici," in 6 vols. 4to. ; a " Treatise on 
 Life Annuities," " Elements of Plane Trigo- 
 nometry," &c. Died, 1824, aged 93. 
 
 MASKELYNE, Nevil, a mathematician 
 and astronomer, was born in London, in 
 1732 ; received his education at Westminster 
 and Cambridge ; became a fellow of Trinity 
 College, and took the degree ofD. D. in 
 1777. Being chosen a fellow of tlie Royal 
 
 Society, he was appointed, in 1761, to go 
 to St. Helena to observe the transit of 
 Venus ; and during the voyage he deter- 
 mined the method of finding the longitude 
 at sea by lunar observations. In 1763 he 
 undertook another voyage to Barbadoes, 
 to ascertain the longitude of that island, as 
 well as to prove the accuracy of Harrison's 
 time-keeper, with other objects of practical 
 science. On his return he succeeded Mr. 
 Bliss as royal astronomer ; and in 1767 
 commenced the publication of " The Nau- 
 tical Almanack." Dr. Maskelyne was also 
 tlie author of " The British Mariner's 
 Guide" and Astronomical Observations," 
 besides many valuable papers in the Philo- 
 sopliical Transactions. Died, 1811. 
 
 MASON, Charles, an English astrono- 
 mer, was an assistant of Dr. Bradley at 
 the royal observatory at Greenwich. He 
 was employed to examine the lunar tables 
 of Mayer, which, with his improvements, 
 were published by order of the Board of 
 Longitude. Mr. Mason died at Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1787. 
 
 MASON, Francis, a learned divine, was 
 borii in the county of Durham, about 1566, 
 and died at Oxford, in 1621. His learned 
 work, entitled "Vindicise Ecclesife An- 
 glicanae," has been translated into Englisli 
 with a preface and notes by Lindsay. 
 
 MASON, Sir Johx, an eminent states- 
 man, who was employed by Henry VIII. 
 in several embassies, and made a member 
 of the privy council. He afterwards served 
 Edward VI., and contrived to hold his 
 places under Mary. Queen Elizabeth made 
 him treasurer of her chamber, and he was 
 chosen chancellor of tlie university of Ox- 
 ford. He died in 1566. His favourite maxim 
 was, " Do ; and say nothing." 
 
 MASON, John, a dissenting minister, was 
 born at Dunmow, Essex, in 1706. He was 
 the author of an excellent little volume 
 of ethics, entitled " Self-knowledge," of 
 which there have been numerous editions ; 
 he also wrote " Practical Discourses for the 
 use of Families," 2 vols. ; " An Essay on 
 Elocution," two " Essays on the Power of 
 Poetical and Prosaic Numbers," " Christian 
 Morals," 2 vols. &c. Died, 1763. 
 
 MASON, William, an eminent English 
 poet, was the son of a clergyman in York- 
 shire, where he was born in 1725. He studied 
 at Cambridge, and obtained a fellowship in 
 Pembroke Hall. His first appearance as a 
 poet was bj' the publication of " Isis," iu 
 which he satirised the Jncobitism and high- 
 church principles prevalent at Oxford. This 
 was replied to by Thomas Warton in his 
 " Triumph of Isis." In 1752 Mason pro- 
 duced his " Elfrida," a dramatic poem, with 
 choral odes on the ancient Greek model, 
 which was well received, though the attempt 
 to establish it on the stage proved abortive. 
 On entering into orders he was presented to 
 the living of Aston, and appointed one of 
 the king's chaplains ; and in 1762 he ob- 
 tained the precentorship of York, with a 
 canonry annexed. On the commencement 
 of the American war, he became so active 
 an advocate for freedom as to give offence 
 at court, and was consequently dismissed 
 from the chaplainship ; but, like many 
 
KAS] 
 
 <B. iS^tio ^m'faevjfaT 3Si00rap]^», 
 
 [mas 
 
 other eager devotees at the shrine of liberty, 
 when the French revolution broke out, he 
 became alarmed, and Jiis zeal considerably 
 abated. Besides the tragedies of " Eifrida" 
 and " Caractacus," he wrote "The English 
 Garden," a poem ; " Ode to the Naval 
 Officers of Great Britain," " Memoirs of 
 Gray," the poet, &c. Died, 1797. Besides 
 his acknowledged works, it is not known 
 that the poet Mason was the author of the 
 " Heroic Epistle to Sir W. Chamljcrs," and 
 other satirical pieces, published under the 
 signature of Mac Gregor. 
 
 MASQUE UE FER, or the « Tron Masl-r 
 the name of an unknown person in France, 
 who was conveyed in the most secret man- 
 ner to the castle of Pignerol, from whence 
 he was transferred to the isle of St. Mar- 
 guerite. He was a man taller than ordi- 
 nary, extremely well made, and was very 
 attentive to his whole personal appearance. 
 His education appeared to have been care- 
 fully attended to ; and he arrtusod himself 
 by reading, and playing upon the guitar. 
 He always wore a mask with steel springs, 
 which was so constructed as to allow him 
 free liberty to eat and drink. His keepers 
 treated him with the greatest respect. At 
 Pignerol he was intrusted to the charge of 
 an officer named St. Mars, on whose ap- 
 pointment as lieutenant of the isles, this 
 unknown |)ersonage accompanied him, as 
 he finally did to the Bastile, wliere he died 
 in 1703, and was buried under the name of 
 Marchiali. Conjecture has exhausted itself 
 to discover who this mysterious personage 
 might be. Voltaire observes, that at the 
 period when the prisoner was confined, no 
 person of importance disappeared from Eu- 
 rope ; and yet it cannot be doubted that 
 he must have been one. Laborde, first valfet 
 de chambre of Louis XV., and wlio had re- 
 ceived from this prince many proofs of con- 
 fidence, showed a desire to discover him. 
 The king replied, " I pity him, but his 
 detention injures only himself, and has pre- 
 vented great misfortunes ; you cannot know 
 him." The author of " Secret Memoirs," 
 published in 1745, pretends that it was the 
 Count of Veiinandois, who was arrested, it 
 was said, for having given a blow to the 
 dauphin. Lagrange Chancel, in a letter to 
 Freron, attempts to prove that the prisoner 
 is the Duke of Beaufort, and that he was 
 falsely reported to have been killed at the 
 siege of Candia. St. Foix, in 1768, wished 
 to prove that he was the Duke of Monmouth, 
 who was said to have been beheaded in 
 London, but who had been withdrawn from 
 punishment. In a dissertation which pre- 
 cedes the romance of " The Man with the 
 Iron Mask," by RegnauU Warin, the author 
 endeavours to prove that this mysterious 
 personage was the son of the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham and Anne of Austria, and goes so 
 far as to give the portrait of the prisoner. 
 But still no satisfactory evidence has yet 
 been given to establish any one of the hy- 
 potheses, and the secret history of " Masque 
 de Fer " is, perhaps for ever, hidden beneath 
 an impenetrable veil. 
 
 MASSANIELLO, or ANELLO, Thomas, 
 a fisherman of Naples, born 1693, when that 
 kingdom was subject to the house of Austria, 
 
 and governed by a viceroy. The people had 
 borne the yoke with great patience until 
 1()4(>, in which year a new and oppressive 
 tax upon all kinds of fruit being impose<l, 
 ! occasioned general discontent. At this time, 
 I Massaniello, then in his 24th year, earned 
 j his livelihood by fishing ; and observing the 
 murmurings that prevailed, he began to en- 
 tertain an idea of redresssiiig the grievance. 
 I He accordingly imparted his design to some 
 I companions, wlio laughed at him ; but, when 
 he assured them he was in earnest, they 
 readily promised him their assistance. A 
 riot soon ensued, in consequence of the shop- 
 keejiers refusing to trade with the country 
 people ; and an officer was sent by the regent 
 to quell the tumult. The multitude, how- 
 ever, grew more incensed at his appearance ; 
 and Massaniello, by his harangues, inflamed 
 them to acts of more daring violence. After 
 burning the toll-houses, they marched to the 
 palace of the viceroy, which they entered 
 and rifled ; the governor himself escaped 
 with difficulty ; and the Prince of Bisignano, 
 to whom the people were much attacljed, 
 quitted the city. Thus left without a head, 
 the multitude chose Massaniello for their 
 leader ; a stage was erected in the market- 
 pliwe, on which this new ruler sat to give 
 audience and toadminister justice, which he 
 did with equal gravity and impartiality. 
 150,000 men obeyed his orders ; and an in- 
 credible number of women, armed like 
 Amazons, were enrolled in the same cause. 
 In this state of things, the viceroy applied 
 to the archbishop, whose mild persuasions 
 had nearly succeeded in restoring order, 
 when an attempt being made to assassinate 
 the new chief, the negotiation was broken 
 oflf, and the rage of the people burst forth 
 with redoubled fury. Massaniello, however, 
 was prevailed upon to renew the treaty, and 
 to visit the palace, which he did with un- 
 common pomp, mounted on horseback, 
 dressed in cloth of silver, a plume of feathers 
 in his hat, and a drawn sword in his hand, 
 attended by 50,000 armed followers. On the 
 Sunday following the terms were ratified at 
 the cathedral church, and every thing had 
 now an auspicious appearance ; when, un- 
 fortunately for Massaniello, ambition in- 
 duced him to violate his engagement, and to 
 hold a power he knew not how to direct. 
 He became so capricious and tyrannical, 
 that a scheme was laid to assassinate him ; 
 and, as he fell, his last words were, " Un- 
 grateful traitors I " 
 
 MASSENA, Akdre, a victorious general, 
 created prince of Essling, duke of Rivoli, 
 and marshal of France, was born at Nice, in 
 1758. He went through the regular grada- 
 tions in an Italian regiment, commencing 
 his military career at the age of 17. After 
 14 years' service he obtained his discharge ; 
 but, in 1792, the revolution presented an en- 
 viable field for the display of military talents; 
 and his natural sentiments in favour of 
 liberty caused him to enter the service of the 
 French republic, where he obtained rapid 
 promotion. Napoleon, who was quick to 
 discover genius, formed an intimate friend- 
 ship with Massena.; and, after the successful 
 battle of Loveredo, in 1796, against Beaulieu, 
 called him "the favoured child of victory." 
 
mas] 
 
 ^ ^cto UnihtxsAl Mia^xn^'i)}}. 
 
 [mat 
 
 He had the chief command in Switzerland 
 in 1799, when he finished the campaign, by 
 completely routing the Austro-Russian army 
 under tlie Archduke Charles and General 
 Korsakoff. In 1800 he commanded in Italy, 
 but with less success than in his former cam- 
 paigns. He was, however, again successful 
 in the campaigns of 1805 and 180G, taking 
 possession of Naples, and signalising him- 
 self in the campaign of Poland, which ter- 
 minated by the treaty of Tilsit. He was 
 afrerwards employed in Germany, and emi- 
 nently distinguished himself in the memo- 
 rable engagements of Essling and Wagram. 
 His subsequent conduct in Spain, when ad- 
 vancing against Wellington, was equally 
 skilful ; but the prudence and superior tactics 
 of his adversary prevented him from gaining 
 fresh laurels ; and the British general having 
 taken up a strong position at Torres Vedras, 
 Massena was at length compelled to retire. 
 At the landing of Napoleon, in 1815, he swore 
 allegiance to him, was made peer, and com- 
 mander of the national guard at Paris, and 
 contributed much to the preservation of 
 tranquillity in that city during the turbu- 
 lent period which preceded the return of the 
 king. He lived afterwards in retirement, 
 and died in 1817. 
 
 MASSILLON, JoniT Baptist, an eminent 
 French preacher, was bom in 16(53, at Hieres, 
 in Provence. He entered into the congrega- 
 tion of the Oratory, and became so celebrated 
 for his eloquence, that the general of his 
 order called liim to Paris, where he drew 
 crowds of hearers. Louis XIV., who knew 
 the value of a kingly compliment, and 
 seldom passed a bad one, observed to him, 
 " When I hear other preachers, I go away 
 much pleased with them ; but when I hear 
 you, I go away displeased with myself." In 
 1717 he was made bishop of Clermont, and 
 he died in 1742. His discourses were pub- 
 lished in 14 vols. 8vo., and are distinguislied 
 for simplicity, an artless flow of eloquence, a 
 knowledge of the human heart, and a rich- 
 ness of ideas. 
 
 MASSINGER, Philip, a distinguished 
 English dramatist, was born at Salisbury, in 
 1585. He studied at Oxford, but (juitted the 
 university without taking a degree, in con- 
 sequence, it is supposed, of having become a 
 Roman Catholic. Little is known of his 
 personal history, yet he appears to have been 
 intimately connected with the wits and poets 
 of his time, and died in 1639. Some critics 
 rank him next to Shakspeare. In tragedy, 
 however, he is rather eloquent and forcible 
 than pathetic ; and, in riclmess and variety 
 of humour, his comedy can by no means vie 
 with tliat of hia great master. 
 
 MASSON, John Papykus, a French his- 
 torical writer, bom in 1554, and died in 1611. 
 His principal work is entitled "Eulogia 
 Virorum Clarissimorum ; " he also wrote 
 " Annals of France," an " Account of Bishops' 
 Sees," &c. 
 
 MASSON, JoHy and Samuel, brothers, 
 were ministers of the reformed chiircli in 
 France John settled in Holland, and as- 
 sisted in the publication of a critical journal, 
 entitled " Histoire Critique de la Republique 
 des Lettres," from 1712 to 1721. He also 
 wrote the lives of Horace, Ovid, and Pliny 
 
 the younger, in Latin ; and " Histoire de 
 Pierre Bayle, et de ses Ouvrages." He died 
 in England, about 1750 Samuel offici- 
 ated as pastor of the English church at Dor- 
 drecht, and was the conducter of the " His- 
 toire Critique " above mentioned. 
 
 MASSUET, Ren^, a learned French Be- 
 nedictine, born in 1665 ; author of the "Lives 
 of the Saints " and " Annals of the Bene- 
 dictine Order." Died, 1716. 
 
 MASTERS, Thomas, a poet, was bom at 
 Cotes, in Gloucestershire, and educated at 
 Winchester and New College, Oxford. He 
 was the author of various Greek poems and 
 orations ; assisted Lord Herbert of Cherbury 
 in his "Life of Henry VIII.;" and had a 
 share in translating his "De Veritate." 
 Died, 1643. 
 
 MATHER, Increask, D.D., one of the 
 early presidents of Harvard College, was 
 bom at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. 
 His learning, zeal, and general abilities were 
 of great serviae to the institution over which 
 he presided, and he was a skilful and efficient 
 servant of the commonwealth. In 1688 he 
 was deputed to England as agent of the 
 province, to procure redress of grievances. 
 When James II. published his declaration 
 for liberty of conscience. Dr. Mather was 
 again sent to England with an address of 
 thanks to the king ; but, before his return, 
 the Revolution occurred, and he obtained 
 from William a new charter for the colony 
 of Massachusetts. He was the autlior of " A 
 History of the War with the Indians," " An 
 Essay on remarkable Providences," and 
 some other works. Died, 1723. 
 
 MATHER, Cotton, D.D., son of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom at Boston, in 1663, and 
 died in 1728. His principal works are, " An 
 Ecclesiastical History of New England," 
 " The Christian Philosopher," " Psalterium 
 Americanum," and " Tlie Wonders of the 
 Invisible World, or the Trials of Witches." 
 
 MATHEWS, Charles, a comedian of 
 transcendant ability, and one who was long 
 regarded as the master-mind of the mimic 
 art, was born in 1776. He was the son of a 
 bookseller in the Strand, attached to the 
 Wesley an connection, and who had placed 
 him in Merchant Tailors' School, and ap- 
 prenticed him to learn his own business. 
 The stage, liowever, proving more attractive 
 to young Mathews than the shop of his 
 father, the latter gave him twenty guineas 
 and his indentures, with a permission to 
 follow the bent of his inclinations ; and a 
 promise of twenty guineas more if he would 
 abandon histrionics, and " turn to an honest 
 calling." Like most other actors while in 
 their novitiate, he rambled about with pro- 
 vincial companies for a time ; but the great 
 versatility of talent he possessed soon placed 
 him at the top of his profession, and rendered 
 him a general favourite with the public. He 
 was, however, no stranger to the despotic 
 rule of managers, or the envious rivalry of 
 fellow actors ; his metropolitan engagement 
 grew irksome, and he was determined to 
 " set up for himself," and to depend solely on 
 his own exertions. For sixteen years pre- 
 vious to his death, he was accustomed to en- 
 tertain whole audiences by his single efforts^ 
 in a species of entertainment entitled " Ma- 
 
mat] 
 
 ^ ^eitt BnibevM ^iaQVupf)^, 
 
 [mat 
 
 thews at Home ; " and never were admiring 
 crowds more highly delighted than in wit- 
 nessing the vivid portraits wliich he so accu- 
 rately drew. The " At Homes " of MathcMS 
 were not only well received throughout 
 Great Britain and Ireland, but also in Ame- 
 rica, where some of his most felicitous por- 
 traitures were sketched. While on his pas- 
 sage from that country he was taken ill, and 
 on arriving at Liverpool his malady rapidly 
 increased. He expired on his birthday, 
 June 28th, 1835. He was twice married, and 
 had one child only, the present Charles 
 Mathews. 
 
 M ATHIAS, Thomas James, the presumed 
 author of that powerful satire, " The Pur- 
 suits of Literature," was educated at Eton, 
 and Trinity College, Cambridge. During a 
 long life, spent in literary avocations, he 
 naturally produced much that bore the mark 
 of his superior talent^ ; but though he wrote 
 numerous satires, and displayed an extra- 
 ordinary knowledge of Italian in the va- 
 rious poems he composed in that harmonious 
 language, it was to the erudite and caustic 
 notes which are scattered witli an unsparing 
 hand throughout " The Pursuits of Litera- 
 ture," that he attained his chief celebrity ; 
 but for obvious reasons of a personal nature 
 he never o^vned the authorship. Died, at 
 Naples, 1835. 
 
 MATHILDA, wife of William the Con- 
 queror, was the daughter of Buudouin V., 
 count of Flanders, and of Adela. princess of 
 France. She was married to William, the 
 duke of Normandy, in 10.54, crowned queen 
 of England in 1(X«J, and died in 1083. Of 
 her eleven children, the best known are 
 Kobert, William Rufus, and Henry Beau- 
 clerc. She had great influence with lier 
 husband, and brought about a reconciliation 
 between him and his son Robert, who had 
 taken up arms against him. To her is 
 attributed the celebrated tapestry, preserved 
 at Bayeux, representing the chief incidents 
 in the' conquest of England. 
 
 MATILDA or MAUD, the daughter of 
 Henry I., king of England, and wife of 
 Henry IV., emperor of Germany, was no- 
 minated in 1135 successor to the English 
 throne by her father ; but in her absence 
 Stephen usurped the title. Arriving in 
 England, with a large army in 1139, she 
 defeated Stephen, and was acknowledged 
 queen in a parliament held in 1141. Stephen 
 afterwards defeated the empress, on which 
 tlie national synod declared for him, and 
 Matilda was obliged to leave the kingdom. 
 On the death of the emperor, she married 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by 
 whom she had a son, afterwards Henry II., 
 king of England. Matilda died in 11C7, 
 aged 67. 
 
 MATSYS, QuiNTiN, an eminent painter, 
 was bom at Antwerp, in 14C0. He was ori- 
 ginally a blacksmith, but quitted that busi- 
 ness, and by diligent application became 
 such an excellent artist, that, according to 
 the opinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds, some 
 of his heads are not inferior to those of 
 Raphael. One of his best pictures is that 
 of the Two Misers, at Windsor. He died 
 
 in 1529 His son, John Matsys, was also 
 
 a painter of very considerable merit. 
 
 MATTHESON, Johx, an eminent musi- 
 cal composer and performer, was born at 
 Hamburgh, in 1681 ; and gave such early 
 indications of talent, tliat at nine years of 
 age he was able to perform co)npositions of 
 his own at the organ. He composed music 
 for the church and for the theatre, and was 
 always present at the performance of it. 
 Notwithstanding he gave iij) so much time 
 in the pursuit of his favourite science, pro- 
 ducing operas, anthems, and treatises on 
 music, he held the office of secretary to the 
 English resident in Hamburgh for several 
 years, and was intrusted with the conduct of 
 various important negotiations. Died, 1764. 
 
 MATTHEW of Westminster, an English 
 historian of the 14th century. He was a 
 Benedictine monk of the abbey of West- 
 minster, and is highly esteemed for his 
 veracity, acuteness, and diligence. 
 
 MATTHEWS, Thomas, an English ad- 
 miral, who commanded in the Mediter- 
 ranean in 1744, and fought an obstinate but 
 indecisive battle off Toulon, with the com- 
 bined fleets. Owing to his not being sup- 
 ported by l/cstock, his second in command. 
 Admiral Matthews failed in gaining a com- 
 plete victory ; and yet for this he was dis- 
 missed the service, and Lestock was ac- 
 quitted. Died, 1751. 
 
 MATTHISSON, Frederick VON, a cele- 
 brated lyric and elegiac poet, was born near 
 Magdeburg in 1761 ; accompanied the Prin- 
 cess of Dessau in various tours tl>rough the 
 south of Europe ; and in 1812 was appointed 
 librarian at Stuttgard. Among his poems 
 is to be found the celebrated "Adelaide," 
 which, 83 set to music by Beethoven, is still 
 listened to with delight. Died, 1831. 
 
 MATTHIEU, Pktkr, a French historian, 
 was born in the diocese of Basle, in 1583, 
 and died in 1621. He became an advocate 
 at Lyons, and was made historiographer of 
 France. He wrote "Histories of Henry 
 IV.," "Louis XL," and "St. Louis;" also 
 the " History of France," 2 vols, folio ; and 
 " La Guisiade," a tragedy. 
 
 MATTOCKS, Isabella, an eminent ac- 
 tress, born in 1746, was the wife of Mr. Mat- 
 tocks, of Covent Garden, and the daughter 
 of Mr. Hallam, manager of the theatres of 
 New York, Charlestown, and Philadelphia. 
 Her forte lay in such characters as Abigails, 
 citizens' wives, &c., and she was an excellent 
 comic singer. She retired from t)ie stage 
 about 20 years before her death, which took 
 place in 1826. 
 
 MATURIN, Rev. Henrt, rector of 
 Clondewaddock, in the county of Donnegal, 
 was distinguislied as the author of " Bertram, 
 or the Castle of St. Aldebrand," a tragedy, 
 which was received with high approbation. 
 He afterward published "Manuel," a tra- 
 gedy ; " Women, or Pour et Contre," a tale, 
 3 vols. ; " Melmoth, the Wanderer,' 4 vols. ; 
 " The Universe," a poem ; " Sermons." 
 Died, Jan. 1842, aged 70. 
 
 MATURIN, Robert Chari.es, an Irish 
 clergyman of the established church, was 
 born at Dublin, and educated in Trinity 
 College, of that city ; and, on entering into 
 orders, obtained the curacy of St. Peter's 
 church. "Bertram," a wild but powerful 
 tragedy, was the first production which, by 
 
 3d 3 
 
mat] 
 
 ^ ^t^ BnibtviKl 33i0srap]bl'. 
 
 [mau 
 
 its singular success, brought him into notice 
 as an author. Having anticipated liis re- 
 sources, without contemplating the possi- 
 bility of a failure, he contracted embarrass- 
 ments, from which he was seldom entirely 
 free. He was the author of several popular 
 novels, the first three of which, " The Fatal 
 Revenge," " The Wild Irish Boy," and " The 
 Milesian Chief," were published under the 
 assumed name of Dennis Jasper Murphy. 
 He also wrote the novels of " Melmoth " and 
 "Woman ;" "The Universe," a poem ; and the 
 tragedies of "Manuel" and "Fredolpho." 
 He published, in 1824, six " Controversial 
 Sermons," which exhibit him as a well-read 
 scholar and an acute reasoner. Died, 1825. 
 
 MATY, Matthew, an eminent physician, 
 critic, and miscellaneous writer, born in 
 Holland in the year 1718, but settled in 
 England, where he became secretary to the 
 Koyal Society, and principal librarian of 
 the British Museum. Died, 1776. 
 
 MATY, Paul Henuv, son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1743. He was appointed 
 one of the librarians of the British Mu- 
 seum, and, in 1778, a secretary of the Royal 
 Society ; but, in 1784, when there were great 
 divisions in the society, occasioned by the 
 dismissal of Dr. Ilutton from the post of fo- 
 reign secretary, Mr. Maty resigned his place. 
 Died, 1787. 
 
 MAUPERTUIS, Petek I.ouis Moekau 
 DES, an eminent mathematician and astro- 
 nomer, was born at St. Male, in 1698. He 
 studied in the college of La Marche, at 
 Paris ; and in 1723 was admitted a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, the memoirs of 
 which institution abound with lus commu- 
 nications. In 1736 he was sent on an expe- 
 dition to tlie polar circle, to ascertain the 
 figure of the earth. In 1740 he was invited 
 to Berlin by the king of Prussia, whom he 
 followed to the field, and was present at the 
 battle of Mohvitz, where he was made 
 prisoner, and carried to Vienna. On regain- 
 ing his liberty, he married and settled at 
 Berlin, and was appointed president of the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences. In this situ- 
 ation, however, he became involved in a 
 quarrel with Voltaire, which embittered his 
 latter days, from the sarcasm with which 
 the latter continued to assail him. The 
 works of Maupertuis form 4 vols. 
 
 MAUREPAS, John Fkedekic Phili- 
 PEAUx, Count de, a French statesman, bom 
 in 1701. He was made minister of marine 
 at the age of 24, and was afterwards at the 
 head of the foreign department. He was 
 hasty in his decisions, amiable in manners, 
 quick in conception, artful, and penetrating; 
 but being accused of writing an epigram on 
 Madame de Pompadour, it led to his banish- 
 ment from court. After a lapse of 30 years, 
 he was placed at the head of the ministry 
 by Louis XIV., but he was found incapable 
 of performing its duties, and quite destitute 
 of the vigour necessary to aVert the troubles 
 which then threatened the kingdom. Died, 
 1781. 
 
 MAURICE OF NASSAU, prince of 
 Orange, youngest son, by a second marriage, 
 of William I., prince of Orange, born at 
 Dilleuburg, 1567, was studying at Leyden, in 
 1584, when his father was assassinated. The 
 
 582 
 
 provinces of Holland and Zealand, and, 
 soon after, Utrecht, immediately elected the 
 young prince stadtholder ; and his talents, 
 as a general, surpassed all expectations. 
 Previous to the truce of 12 years, concluded 
 in 1609, about 40 towns and several for- 
 tresses had fallen into his hands. His life 
 was an almost unbroken scries of battles, 
 sieges, and victories. War he understood as 
 a master, and couducted like a hero. Like 
 Montecuculi, he possessed the rare art of 
 conducting a march and pitching a camp ; 
 like Vauban, the genius of fortification and 
 defence ; like Eugene, the skill to support 
 the most numerous armies in the most un- 
 productive and exhausted coimtry ; like 
 Conde, that unerring coup d'ceil which de- 
 termines the issue of a battle ; like Charles 
 XII., the power of rendering the troops in- 
 sensible to cold, hunger, and sufferings ; like 
 Turenne, that of sparing human life. In 
 the opinion of Folard, Maurice was the 
 greatest infantry general that had existed 
 since the time of the Romans. He died in 
 1625, and was succeeded by his brother Fre- 
 deric Henry. 
 
 MAURICE, Thomas, a learned oriental 
 scholar and historian, was born at Hertford, 
 in 1753 ; was educated by Dr. Parr, and at 
 St. John's and University Colleges, Oxford ; 
 and distinguished himself as a writer. In 
 1791, he published the first two volumes of 
 his " Indian Antiquities ;" which were suc- 
 ceeded, at intervals, by five more. lu 1795, 
 appeared the first volume of the " History of 
 Hindostan," which was completed in a third 
 volume, in 1799. In 1802, he produced the 
 first volume of the " Modern History of 
 Hindostan ;" and in 1804 the second volume. 
 Besides the works above mentioned, Mr. 
 Maurice wrote " Poems," " Sermons," his 
 own " Memoirs," &c., in all of which are dis- 
 covered spirit, elegance, and perspicuity. 
 Died, 1824. 
 
 MAURUS, Tekentiajs'us, a Latin poet 
 and grammarian, who flourished under Tra- 
 jan. He wrote a poem, "De Literis, Syl- 
 labis, Pedibus, et Metris," which is in the 
 Corpus Poetarum of Maittaire, under the 
 title of " De Arte Metrica." 
 
 MAURY, Jean Siffrein, a French car- 
 dinal, was born in 1746, at Valeras ; studied j 
 at Lyons ; and, on entering into orders, be- 
 came a celebrated preacher at Paris, where 
 he obtained a place in the academy, and 
 obtained an abbey. When the revolution 
 broke out, he was chosen one of the repre- 
 sentatives of tlie clergy in the states-general, 
 where he distinguished himself by his elo- 
 quence in behalf of his order, and also in 
 defence of royalty. On the dissolution of 
 the constituent assembly, he went to Italy, 
 was nominated bishop of Nicaea, and made 
 a cardinal ; and in 1808 Napoleon gave him 
 the archbishopric of Paris, but in 1814 he was 
 obliged to quit the archiepiscopal palace, 
 and retire to Rome. He was not only a 
 great orator, but a man of ready wit. On 
 one occasion, when a furious mob was fol- 
 lowing him with cries of " Hang him on a 
 lamp post," he turned round, and coolly 
 said, " Do you think you should see clearer 
 if I were tliere ?" which well-timed joke 
 saved his life. He was the author of several 
 
MAV] 
 
 ^ fitia WinibtviaX SStOjjrap^I?' 
 
 [may 
 
 works, the best of which is an " Essay on 
 Eloquence." Died, 1817. 
 
 MAYOR, Rev. William, LL.D., was a 
 native of Aberdeenshire, and born in 1758. 
 He came to England early in life, and after 
 due probationary exercise as an assistant in 
 a school at Burford, established himself as 
 the master of an academy at Woodstock, 
 where he gained the favour and patronage of 
 the Duke of Maflborough, entered into holy 
 orders, and was presented to the vicarage of 
 Hurley in Berkshire. But it is as a well- 
 known author and compiler of useful books 
 that Dr. Mavor will be chiefly remembered. 
 Few writers can boast of works so numerous 
 and popular ; fewer still who can truly say 
 with him, " that he never, by a single senti- 
 ment, pandered to vice or injured the cause 
 of virtue." Among his literary labours are a 
 " Universal History," in 25 small volumes ; 
 a collection of " Voyages and Travels," also 
 in 25 volumes ; " The British Tourist," 6 
 vols. ; " The Modem Traveller," 4 vols. ; 
 Histories of Greece, Rome, and England ; 
 Spelling and Class Books ; Miscellanies in 
 Prose and Verse ; and many others, whose 
 merits are in general commensurate with 
 their repute. Died, December 29. 1837. 
 
 MAWE, JosKPH, an eminent mineralogist 
 and conchologist, was born about 175.5, tra- 
 velled in various parts of South America, 
 and published numerous works on the sub- 
 ject of his researches. Among them are, 
 " Travels in the Interior of Brazil," a " Trea- 
 tise on Diamonds and Precious Stones," " Fa- 
 miliar I^essons on Mineralogy and Geologj*," 
 "The Linna:an System of Conchology," and 
 "The Mineralogy of Derbyshire." He died 
 •in 1829. 
 
 MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Va- 
 lerius, a Roman emperor, was the son of 
 Maximianus Hercules, and declared himself 
 emperor in 30G. He was opposed by Galerius 
 Maximianus, who was defeated, and slew 
 himself. Maxentius then marched into 
 Africa, where he becams odious by his cruel- 
 ties. Constantine afterwards defeated him 
 in Italy, and he was drowned in crossing the 
 Tiber, in 312. 
 
 MAXIMIANUS, Galerius Valerius, 
 emperor of the East, was originally a shep- 
 herd in Dacia, afterwards a soldier, and 
 raised to the imperial dignity by Diocletian, 
 who also gave him his daughter in marriage. 
 In 305 he compelled Diocletian to abdicate 
 the throne ; but his cruelty soon rendered 
 him odious to the Romans, who raised Max- 
 entius to the throne. Died, 311. 
 
 MAXIMIANUS, Marcus Aurelius Va- 
 lerius Hekculius, a Roman emperor, who, 
 from being a common soldier, was associated 
 in the government by Diocletian. Wlien 
 that emperor abdicated the crown in 304, 
 he compelled Maximianus, much against 
 his will, to do the same ; but about a year 
 afterwards he resumed the dignity, and op • 
 posed his son Maxentius. The troops, how- 
 ever, mutinied against Maximianus, who fled 
 into Gaul, where he was put to death by 
 order of Constantine, in 310, aged 60. 
 
 MAXIMINUS, Caius Julius Vkrus, em- 
 peror of Rome, was the son of a peasant in 
 Thrace. He was a great persecutor, and 
 put to death about 4000 persons, on suspicion 
 
 of their being concerned in a conspiracy 
 against him ; but he was at last assassinated 
 by his own troops, near Aquileia, in 256. 
 Forty pounds of meat and eighteen bottles 
 of wine were his ordinary allowance for a 
 day, and his strength was such that he is said 
 to have stopped a chariot in full speed with 
 one of his fingers. 
 
 MAXIMUS, Maonus, a Spaniard, was 
 general of the Roman army in Britain, when 
 he proclaimed himself emperor, in 383. 
 Gratian marched against him, but was de- 
 feated, and assassinated. Maximus having 
 made himself master of Gaul, Britain, and 
 Spain, fixed the seat of his empire at Treves. 
 He next marched into Italy, where he com- 
 mitted dreadful cruelties, but was at last 
 besieged in Aquileia, by the Emperor Theo- 
 dosius. His soldiers delivered him up to 
 Theodosius, who caused him to be beheaded, 
 in 388. 
 
 MAXIMUS TYRIUS, a celebrated phi- 
 losopher of the 2nd century, was a native 
 of Tyre, in Phcenicia, whence he took his 
 name. It is generally supposed that he 
 flourished under Antonmus. He appears to 
 have adopted the principles of the Platonic 
 school, with an inclination to scepticism. 
 He left 41 dissertations on various philoso- 
 phical topics, which are still extant. 
 
 MAY, Thomas, a poet and historian, was 
 born in Sussex, in 1594, and educated at 
 Cambridge ; after which he entered of Gray's 
 Inn, where he wrote some plays and trans- 
 lated several authors, particularly Lucan. 
 Charles I. employed him in writing two his- 
 torical poems ; one on the life of Henry II., 
 and the other on the reign of Edward III. 
 But in the civil war May joined the par- 
 liament, and was appointed their secretary 
 and historiographer. He published the 
 " History of the Parliament, which began 
 in 1640," and a " Breviary of the History of 
 the Parliament of England," a work which 
 was extremely obnoxious to the royal party. 
 Died, 16.50. 
 
 M AYENNE, Charles of Lorraixe, Duke 
 of, second son of Francis of Lorraine, duke 
 of Guise, was bom in 1554. He displayed 
 great courage at the sieges of Poictiers and 
 Rochelle, and at the battle of Montcontour. 
 He also defeated the Protestants at Guienne, 
 Dauphiny, and Saintonge. Died, 1611. 
 
 MAYER, JoHS Frederic, a learned Ger- 
 man Lutheran divine, was born at Leipsic, 
 in 1650. He became superintendant of the 
 churches of Pomerania, and professor at 
 Stettin. He died in 1710. He wrote a 
 " Treatise on the Method of Studying the 
 Holy Scriptures," " Dissertations " on par- 
 ticular parts of the Bible, and otlier treatises ; 
 but his principal work is the "Bibliothsca 
 Biblica." 
 
 MAYER, Tobias, a celebrated astronomer, 
 was born at Marbaeh, in the duchy of Wur- 
 temberg, in 1723. He tauglit himself mathe- 
 matics, and at the age of 14 designed ma- 
 chines and instruments with the greatest 
 dexterity and accuracy. His various merits 
 procured him an invitation to Gottingen, as 
 professor of mathematics, in 1750, and the 
 royal society of sciences in that place chose 
 him a member. About this time astronomers 
 were employed iu endeavours to find the 
 
may] 
 
 ^ ^efit) ^SntlicrjSaX 23t0jjrajP^2. 
 
 [maz 
 
 longitude at sea. Mayer overcame all diffi- 
 culties, and his theory of tlie moon, and as- 
 tronomical tables and precepts, were re- 
 warded by the English board of longitude, 
 \¥-ith 300()/., which sum was paid to his widow; 
 for, exhausted by liis incessant labours, this 
 astronomer died, in 17(32, at the early age of 
 39. Among his works are, a "Treatise on 
 
 Curves" and a "Mathematical Atlas." 
 
 His son, JoHANN Tobias, born 1752, was 
 also professor at Gottingen, and gained great 
 distinction by his astronomical writings. 
 Died, 1830. 
 
 MAYERNE, Theodore Turquet de, 
 baron d'Aubonne, an eminent physician and 
 chemist, was born at Geneva, in lfl73. He was 
 pliysician to Henry IV.; but, on the death of 
 that monarch, lie came to England, and M'as 
 appointed physician to James I., who con- 
 ferred on him the order of knighthood. He 
 continued in tlie same favour with Cliarles I., 
 to whom lie adhered faithfully in the rebel- 
 lion. Died, 10">5. 
 
 MAYNARD, Sir John, an English states- 
 man and lawyer, was born at Tavistock, 
 in Devonshire, about 1602. After having 
 studied at Exeter College, Oxford, he en- 
 tered at the Middle Temple, and was in due 
 course called to the bar. In the long par- 
 liament he distinguished himself as one of 
 the prosecutors of Strafford and Laud ; but 
 afterwards he opposed the violent proceed- 
 ings of the army, and the usurpation of 
 Cromwell, for which he was twice sent to 
 the Tower, After the Restoration he was 
 knighted, but refused the lionour of oeing a 
 judge. At the revolution he displayed great 
 talents in the conference between the lords 
 and commons, on the question of the abdi- 
 cation of the throne by James II., and warmly 
 advocated that measvire. When William 
 III., in allusion to Serjeant Maynard's great 
 age, remarked that he must liave outlived all 
 the lawyers of his time. Sir John liappily re- 
 plied, " Yes ; and if your highness had not 
 come over to our assistance, I should have 
 outlived the law too." He was appointed 
 one of the commissioners of the great seal, in 
 1089 ; and died in 1690. 
 
 MAYNE, Jasper, a dramatic writer of 
 the 17th century, was born at Ilatherleigh, 
 in Devonshire, and received his education at 
 Westminster Scliool, and Christchurch, Ox- 
 ford, where he took the degree of D.D., and 
 entered into holy orders. His attachment 
 to the royal cause exposed him to suifering 
 during the civil war ; but, after the Restora- 
 tion, he rose to be archdeacon of Chichester. 
 His theatrical productions display a con- 
 siderable deal of broad humour ; and, in 
 truth, he gave a remarkable instance of his 
 fondness for a joke even in his will, by leav- 
 ing an old trunk to his man serv-ant, saying, 
 that he would find in it something to make 
 him drink. When the funeral was over, the 
 poor fellow Jiastened to enjoy his treasure, 
 and, on opening the trunk, found a red 
 herring ! Died, 1672. 
 
 MAZARIJt, Julius, a cardinal and first 
 minister of Louis XIV., was born of a noble 
 family, at Piscini, in Italy, in 1602. He 
 studied at Alcala, in Spain, after which he 
 went to Rome, and became »tt:ached to the 
 service of Cardinal Sachetti, whom he ac- 
 
 companied on his mission into Lombardy. 
 While in that country Mazarin effected a 
 peace between the French and Spaniards, 
 which procured him the esteem of the Car- 
 dinals Richelieu and Barbarini,by the latter 
 of whom he was recommended to the pope, 
 who sent liim as nuncio-extraordinary to the 
 court of France. In 1641 he was made a 
 cardinal, and on the death of Richelieu suc- 
 ceeded him as prime minister. At first he 
 was rather popular, but in a short time cabals 
 were formed against him with such effect, 
 that he was dismissed from the royal pre- 
 sence, and compelled to leave the kingdom. 
 But though a price was set upon his head, 
 Mazarin contrived to dispel the storm ; and 
 he even returned to court with increased 
 eclat, and held the reins of power till his 
 decease, in 1661. As a politician he dis- 
 played great talents ; as a man he possessed 
 few virtues ; his policy was characterised 
 rather by finesse and forbearance, than by 
 force. The most praiseworthy act of his life 
 was done on his death'-bed, and that was the 
 endowing of the college which bears his 
 name. 
 
 MAZEPPA, JoHx, hettman of the Cos- 
 sacks, whom Lord Byron has made the hero 
 of a poem, was born about the middle of the 
 17tli century, in Podolia, of a poor but noble 
 Polish family, and became page to John 
 Casimir, king of Poland. In this situation, 
 Mazepi^a had an opportunity of acquiring 
 various useful accomplishments ; but an in- 
 trigue was the foundation of his future ele- 
 vation. A Polish nobleman, having surprised 
 Mazeppa with his wife, ordered him to be 
 tied naked upon a wild horse, and committed 
 to his fate. The animal had been bred in 
 the Ukraine, and directed his course thither ; 
 where some poor peasants found him half 
 dead, and took care of him. Their warlike 
 roving life suited his disposition ; he made 
 himself conspicuous and beloved by his dex- 
 terity, bodily strength, and courage ; his 
 knowledge and sagacity procured him the 
 post of secretary and adjutant to the hettman 
 Samoilowitz ; and, in 1687, he was elected in 
 his place. He gained the confidence of Peter 
 the Great, wlio loaded him with honours, 
 and he was finally made prince of the Uk- 
 raine. But though a prince, he was still a 
 vassal ; and his restless spirit made him re- 
 solve to throw off the yoke of subordination. 
 He joined with Charles XII., who had just 
 given a king to Poland, and aimed, by his 
 assistance, to throw off the yoke of subordi- 
 nation. For a long time the intrigues of 
 Mazeppa against Peter were disbelieved by 
 the latter ; but at length he openly joined 
 the Swedish monarch, who by his advice 
 fought the fatal battle of Pultowa. He then 
 sought refuge at Bender, where he died in 
 1709. 
 
 MAZZA, Angelo, an eminent Italian 
 poet, born at Parma, in 1740 ; in the uni- 
 versity of which city he was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of Greek literature. He translated the 
 odes of Pindar, and Akenside's Pleasures of 
 Imagination ; and, having attained a high 
 degree of literary reputation, was admitted 
 into the Arcadian academy at Rome. Died, 
 1817. 
 
 MAZZHINGI, Joseph, Count, a distin- 
 
 I 
 
MAZ] 
 
 ^ fitfsi Bnibtx^al 38iOflra|jl)u. 
 
 [med 
 
 guished composer, was the descendant of an 
 eminent Tuscan family, but was bom in 
 England, and of an English mother. He 
 was very early noted for his musical ability, 
 and so incessantly were his studies pursued, 
 and so ably directed by his preceptors, that 
 he was considered qualified for the dilficult 
 post of director of the opera house when he 
 was but little more than 18 years of age. 
 Tiie theatre being destroyed by fire in 1789, 
 among the valuable property that was lost 
 was the whole of the music of Paesiello's 
 opera, " La Locauda," and Mazzhingi re- 
 wrote the orchestral parts from memory. 
 "The Blind Girl," the "Turnpike Gate," 
 " Paul and Virginia," and a long list of 
 other once popular pieces, were from his 
 fertile pen, and Sir Walter Scott warmly 
 thanked him for the manner in which he 
 adapted some of that great author's poetry. 
 Died, 1844. aged 80. 
 
 MAZZUCHELLI, Giammabia, Count, a 
 Venetian nobleman, was born in 1707, and 
 died in 17C5. He was the author of " La 
 Vita di Pietro Aretino " and " Gli Scrittori 
 d'ltalia ; " but the works on which his 
 fame chiefly rests is, "Notizie Historiche e 
 Critiche." 
 
 MAZZUOLI, Francis, a celebrated pain- 
 ter, known by the name of Pakmeoiano, 
 was bom at Parma, in 1503. He became 
 acquainted with Correggio, but owed his 
 eminence to his studying the works of Ra- 
 phael. His reputation as a painter was very 
 great, but he wasted his energies in the de- 
 lusive labours of alchemy. Died, 1540. 
 
 MEAD, RicUARD, an eminent physicRin, 
 was born at Stepney, in 1673 ; studied at 
 Utrecht, Leyden, and Padua, where he took 
 his doctor's degree ; and, on his return to 
 England, was appointed physician to St. 
 Thomas's Hospital. He became very dis- 
 tinguished in his profession ; was vice-pre- 
 sident of the Royal Society, censor of the 
 College of Physicians, and physician to 
 George II. He interested himself much in 
 the introduction of inoculation for the small- 
 pox, and assisted in the preliminary experi- 
 ments made on criminals. His works con- 
 sist of " A Mechanical Account of Poisons," 
 a " Discourse concerning Pestilential Con- 
 tagion," " De Imperiis Solis ac Lunse, in 
 Corpora humana et Morbis inde oriundis," 
 " De Morbis Biblicis," and " MonitaMedica." 
 Died. 1754. 
 
 MECHAM, Pierre Fransois Andre, a 
 French astronomer and geometrician, was 
 born at Laon, in 1774. On settling at Paris 
 in 1772, he was favourably received by La- 
 laude, who procured for him an appointment 
 in the national depository of marine charts. 
 He calculated the orbit of the comet of 1774, 
 and discovered that of 1781. He edited the 
 Connoissance des Temps from 1786 to 1794. 
 Died, 1805. 
 
 MEDE, Joseph, a learned divine, bom in 
 1586, at Berden, in Essex ; author of the 
 " Clavis Apocalyptica," which is considered 
 by biblical critics as the ablest exposition of 
 the obscure prophecies to which it refers. 
 Died, 1638. 
 
 MEDICI, Cosmo de, an illustrious Floren- 
 tine, born in 1389, was the son of John de 
 Medici, a rich and influential merchant, who 
 
 died in 1428. The vast wealth which Cosmo 
 thus inherited, afforded him the means of 
 displaying his liberality, and of acquiring 
 great influence in the republic. But the 
 splendour and magnificence in which he 
 lived, excited the jealousy and enmity of 
 many of the nobles. The Strozzi, the Albizzi, 
 and many of the first Tuscan families com- 
 bined against him j but, by the most con- 
 summate art and prudent management, he 
 extricated himself from the toils of his ene- 
 mies, and eventually reigned without a rival. 
 His superfluous wealth he expended upon 
 public buildings, and in the encouragement 
 of literature. He was a friend to science, an 
 active merchant, and a sagacious statesman ; 
 and, when he died, in 1464, such was the 
 general estimation in which he was held, 
 that the Florentines inscribed on his tomb 
 the title of "Father of his country." 
 
 MEDICI, Lorenzo de, surnamed the 
 Magnificent, was bom in 1448, and was the 
 grandson of the preceding. He surpassed in 
 wisdom and moderation, in magnanimity and 
 splendour, all of his family who had gone 
 before him, while in active zeal for the arts 
 and sciences he also greatly excelled them. 
 In his political capacity he acquired the 
 respect of foreign potentates, and placed the 
 balance of power in Italy on a footing, 
 which, until his death, insured to her full 
 security and ample scope, to extend and 
 confirm her prosperity. Great losses induced 
 him to give up commerce, which the Medici 
 had always carried on ; yet, when he with- 
 drew his property from trade, he was suffi- 
 ciently wealthy to purchase prin<H:ly do- 
 mains, and not only to adorn them with 
 palaces of regal splendour, but also to orna- 
 ment Florence with elegant edifices. He 
 revived the academy of Pisa, established 
 another at Florence, collected a vast treasure 
 of literature, and founded a gallery of art, 
 where Michael Angelo, under his patronage, 
 pursued his youthful studies, and improved 
 his taste and skill. Nothing, in fact, could 
 exceed the exertions he made for the im- 
 provement of literature ; and he died in the 
 zenith of his renown, in 1492, honoured b^ 
 all the princes of Europe, beloved by his 
 fellow-citizens, and almost worshipped by 
 the votaries of learning and the arts at home 
 and abroad. His works, entitled " Opere 
 di Lorenzo de' Medici, detto il Magnifico," 
 were published at Florence, in 1826, in 
 a splendid edition, 4 vols. 4to., at the expense 
 of the Grand-duke Leopold II., and contain 
 the first complete collection of his poems. 
 
 MEDICI, LuiGi, Don, descended from the 
 ducal house of Ottojann, was duke of Sarto, 
 high steward of the king of Naples, and, for 
 some time, president of the ministry. During 
 the reign of Joseph Buonaparte aud Joachim 
 Murat, he resided in England, and returned 
 with the Bourbons to Naples, where he was 
 minister of the police, when Murat, rushing 
 on his own destruction, invaded the Nea- 
 politan territory, was taken and shot. Some 
 of his measures proving highly unpopular, he 
 gavt in his resignation, and retired to Rome; 
 but he was afterwards appointed president of 
 the council. Died, 1830. 
 
 MEDINA, Sir John, a portrait painter, 
 was born at Brussels, in 1659 ; came to Eng- 
 
Q 
 
 ^ ij^flM UnihtvSal 23tflsraji]^g. 
 
 [meh 
 
 land in 1686 ; and after painting a great 
 number of pictures, went to Scotland, where 
 he was knighted. Died, 1711. 
 
 MEHEGAN, William Alexander, a 
 French historian, but of Irisli extraction, 
 was born at Salle, in the Cevennes, in 1721. 
 He wrote "The Origin of the Guebres," 
 "Considerations on the Revolutions of Arts," 
 " The Origin and Progress of Idolatry," 
 and " A Picture of Modern History," which 
 has been translated into English. Died, 
 1760. 
 
 MEHEMET ALT, pacha of Egypt, and, 
 it may he safely said, one of the most 
 remarkable men of the age, was born at 
 Cavalla in Roumelia, in 1709; the same year 
 that witnessed the birtii of Napoleon Buo- 
 naparte and the Duke of Wellington. He 
 commenced life in the humble career of 
 a tobacconist ; but afterwards volunteered 
 into the army, to which his taste was more 
 congenial. In his new career he soon ob- 
 tained high favour with the governor of 
 Cavalla. In 1799, the period of the French 
 invasion of Egypt, he raised a large body 
 of men for the service of the sultan ; and 
 although the general issue of that struggle, 
 as between the sultan and Napoleon, was 
 unfavourable to the arms of the former, the 
 future viceroy of Egypt had given such 
 proofs of his military capacity, as to lead to 
 his elevation to a higher command. By 
 intrigue combined with the attachment of 
 his followers, whom, like' a prudent leader, 
 he had contrived to bind to his interests, he 
 was enabled to seize the pachalic of Egypt, 
 and was then prepared to set the sultan at 
 defiance, had the latter attempted to over- 
 throw him. But the sultan saw that his 
 vassal was too firmly seated to be easily 
 displaced, and resolved to compromise by 
 exacting an annual tribute from Mehemet 
 Ali as an acknowledgment of his subjection. 
 In this arrangement, which virtually con- 
 stituted Mehemet Ali the independent ruler 
 of Egypt, he had the prudence to acquiesce, 
 and he directed himself steadily to the con- 
 solidation of his newly acquired power, — 
 no easy task in a country which had been 
 distracted by invasion, and at best loosely 
 governed. One great obstacle to his becom- 
 ing the sole ruler and regenerator of the 
 country, lay in the presence of the Mame- 
 lukes, a privileged body-guard, jealous of 
 their power, and ever ready for revolution 
 when it was threatened. He was resolved 
 that, cost what it might, this barrier to his 
 complete ascendancy should be removed. 
 We are told that he first tried moderate 
 measures, by otfering the Mamelukes an 
 asylum in a remote part of his dominion, 
 but they spurned at the idea of quitting 
 their hold in the seat of government. Thus 
 foiled, he adopted the daring and sanguinary 
 expedient of decoying these soldiers into a 
 toil, and then commencing the work of indis- 
 criminate slaughter. So stern were his mea- 
 sures, that this section of the Mamelukes were 
 completely extirpated. This took place in 
 1811. It was a deed which, according to our 
 ideas of morality, can only be viewed with 
 horror ; but, apart from its wholesale bar- 
 barity, there is no doubt that it answered the 
 aim of its author, and he continued to 
 
 rule in comparative security, extending his 
 authority over Nubia, Dongola, and Koor- 
 dossan, and defeating the Wahabees in an 
 arduous and sanguinary campaign. He 
 assisted the sultan in the war of the Greek 
 revolution, and his ships sustained the shock 
 of the allied navy in the " untoward affair " 
 of Navarino in 1827, which well-nigh anni- 
 hilated the naval power of Mehemet Ali, at 
 least for a long season. Notwithstanding 
 this adversity, his power as a ruler of Egypt 
 no way declined, for he long ere this pos- 
 sessed an army disciplined after the Euro- 
 pean fashion : Colonel Selves, a French 
 oflficer (now Suleyman Pacha), having ad- 
 dressed himself to this task in 1815, and at 
 length succeeded, after a persevering contest 
 with tlie prejudices of the people, during 
 which he more tlian once narrowly escaped 
 assassination. In 1831, Mehemet Ali entered 
 into a contest with the sultan for the pos- 
 session of Syria, when the superiority of his 
 army thus disciplined became very manifest. 
 His stepson Ibrahim Pasha, who in 1819 
 had signalised himself by his conquest of 
 the AVahabees, commanded the army sent 
 against Syria ; and such was the vigour with 
 which he assailed the forces of the sultan, 
 that, in autumn 1832, he had carried his 
 victorious arms within a few days' march of 
 Constantinople. For seven years subse- 
 quently, Mehemet Ali remained undisturbed 
 by war, during which his active mind was 
 steadily directed to the internal improvement 
 of his kingdom. But in 1839, the sultan 
 re^glved to have another trial of strength 
 wim his rebellious vassal, and despatched 
 an army into Syria. Again was Ibrahim 
 victorious on land, and the sultan found 
 himself deprived of his navy, which was 
 delivered into the hands of Mehemet Ali 
 by a treacherous admiral. Had Mehemet 
 Ali and the sultan been left to settle their 
 own differences, the probability is that the 
 former would in the end have made himself 
 master of Constantinople, so superior was 
 he to the Turks in all the appliances of 
 war ; but England and the allies (excepting 
 France) resolved a second time to throw 
 their shield over the sultan, and the English 
 fleet, under Admiral Stopford and Sir Charles 
 Napier, having battered down and wrenched 
 Beyrout, Acre, and Sidon from his grasp, 
 Mehemet Ali was compelled to resign Syria 
 to the power of the sultan in 1840. During 
 the progress of this war, Mehemet Ali exhi- 
 bited an instance of magnanimity that is 
 scarcely to be found in the annals of war. 
 At that period tlie overland mail was as now 
 carried across his dominions, when, instead 
 of suspending its transit, in retaliation for 
 what he must have deemed an aggression 
 against himself, he commanded that every 
 facility and protection should be given to 
 those engaged in the duty. The character 
 of Mehemet Ali of course cannot be tried by 
 the standard that would be applied to one 
 reared and educated amidst the advantages 
 of civilisation. To raise Egypt, not only in 
 her armaments but internal resources, to the 
 scale of civilised Europe, was his ruling pas- 
 sion ; and in this pursuit he shunned no 
 means likely to prove successful. Alto- 
 gether, he may be pronounced one of the 
 
meh] 
 
 ^ ^eU) Bnibn^al 38tflsra|jt)n. 
 
 []tfEL 
 
 most remarkable men of his time— the Na- 
 poleon of the East, with this difference, that, 
 unlike the Gallic conqueror, he knew wlien 
 to stop, and thus maintained to the last the 
 ground he had gained, lie had wars with 
 the semi-barbarous tribes on his own fron- 
 tiers, who had little chance with his disci- 
 plined and well-armed troops, and these 
 conquests sen'ed to establish his power ; but 
 he had also to measure his strength with 
 very different foes, and whom he could never 
 dream of conquering : yet even those colli- 
 sions with the powers of Europe did not 
 shake his government, so broad was the 
 basis on which he had placed it, and so 
 enlightened the views which constantly di- 
 rected his policy. He found Egypt a pacha- 
 lie of the Porte, abandoned to a rude and 
 careless sway, the eflfect of which was seen 
 in the neglected state of cultivation, and the 
 prevailing poverty of the inhabitants. He 
 has handed it down to his successors a 
 powerful kingdom, with ample resources, 
 and, above all, with order and security pre- 
 vailing ; 80 mucli so, that foreigners can 
 travel as safely within its limits as in the 
 most civilised country. Considering the 
 country in which he lived, and the slender 
 opportunities he Imd in earlv life of cul- 
 tivating those qualities which afterwards 
 sustained him in his elevated position, we 
 may say, that centuries might have rolled 
 on ere one had arisen who could have worked 
 changes as extensive as we hope they will 
 be permanently beneficial to the country. 
 Mehemet Ali enjoyed robust health till 
 nearly the close of his life. But, about two 
 years before his death, his intellect became 
 clouded, and in September, 1848, his sceptre I 
 passed to tlie hands of his stepson, Ibrahim 
 Pasha, on whose death, ten months after- 
 wards, it devolved on his grandson. Abbas 
 Pasha, the present ruler of Egypt. Died at 
 Alexandria, August 2. 1849. 
 
 MEHUL, Stki'uen Henry, an eminent 
 musical composer, was born at Givet, in 
 France, in 17(i3 ; and was an excellent or- 
 ganist when only 10 years old. He settled 
 at Paris in 1779, where he studied with great 
 advantage under Gluck ; became inspector 
 at the Conservatory of Music ; professor of 
 composition at the Royal School, a member 
 of tlie Academy and Institute, and a knight 
 of the legion of honour. He produced the 
 operas of " Stratonice," "Irato," "Joseph," 
 " Cora et Alonzo," &c., besides the ballets of 
 " The Judgment of Paris," " Perseus and 
 Andromeda," &c. Died, 1817. 
 
 MEIBOMIUS, John Henry, a physician, 
 was born at Helmstadt, in 1590. He became 
 a professor at his native place, and afterwards 
 physician at Lubeck, where he died in 1655. 
 He wrote some works on medical subjects, 
 
 and a " Life of Ma;cenas," in Latin. 
 
 Henuy Meibomius, his son, w^as born at 
 Lubeck, in 1C38. After travelling for im- 
 provement, he took his degree of M.D., and 
 became professor of medicine, to which were 
 added the chairs of history and poetry, at 
 Helmstadt. where lie died in 1700. He pub- 
 lished " Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum," 3 
 vols, folio. 
 
 MEIBOMIUS, Maucus, a learned philo- 
 logist, was born at Tonningen, in the duchy 
 
 of Ilolstein, in 1611. He published several 
 works, the principal of which is an edition of 
 the seven Greek musical writers, Aristoxenus, 
 Euclid, Nicomachus, Alypius. Gaudentius, 
 Bacchius, and Aristides Quintilianus. Died, 
 at Amsterdam, 1711. 
 
 MEINERS, Chkistopher, a German his- 
 torian and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 in 1747, at Warstade, Hanover ; studied at 
 Gottingen, where he became professor of phi- 
 losophy ; and died in 1810, pro-rectorof that 
 university. Among Ins numerous works are, 
 " A History of the Origin and Progress of 
 Philosophy among the Greeks," " On the 
 Origin and Decline of the Sciences among the 
 Greeks and Romans," and others ou kindred 
 subjects. 
 
 MEISSNER, ArousTus Tiieopiiilus, a 
 German romance writer and dramatist, was 
 bom at Bautzen, in Lusatia, in 1757 ; studied 
 at Leipsic and Wittemberg ; and was suc- 
 cessively keeper of the archives at Dresden, 
 professor of belles lettres at Prague, and 
 director of the superior schools at Fulda. 
 Besides writing a number of historical ro- 
 mances and other works, he translated 
 Hume's History of England into German. 
 Died, 1807. 
 
 MELA, PoMPONius, a Latin geograplier, 
 who lived in the 1st century of the Christian 
 era. His treatise, in three books, " De Situ 
 Orbis," contains a concise state of the world 
 as far as it was known tiAthe Romans. By 
 some authors he is supposed to have been re- 
 lated to Seneca and Lucan. 
 
 MELANCHTIION, Puiup. a celebrated 
 German divine, coadjutor with Luther in 
 the Reformation, and one of the wisest and 
 greatest men of his age, was born at Bretten, 
 in the palatinate of the Rhine, in 1497. He 
 studied at Heidelberg and Tubingen ; and, 
 in 1518, was appointed <jrreek professor at 
 Wittemberg, where he l)ecame the friend of 
 Luther, and a convert to his doctrines. Their 
 personal characters, however, were widely 
 different ; Melauchthon being as remarkable 
 for suavity of manners as Luther was for 
 coarse impetuosity and unbending firmness. 
 His judgment, ripened by classical study, 
 his acumen as a philosopher and critic, the 
 uncommon distinctness and order of his 
 ideas, which spread light and grace over 
 whatever he discussed, the caution with 
 which he advanced from doubt to certainty, 
 and the stedfast zeal with wliicli he held and 
 defended the truth when found, — this com- 
 bination of great qualities and merits, at all 
 times rare, contributed greatly to the pro- 
 gress and success of the Reformation. The 
 Augsburg Confession was his work ; and, un- 
 der the sanction of the Elector of Saxony, ne 
 aided in framing a code of ecclesiastical con- 
 stitutions. Even his theological opponents 
 respected the virtues, the talents, the learn- 
 ing, and the mild temper of Melanchthon, 
 though some zealots naturally branded him 
 with opprobrious terms for his tolerant spirit. 
 He wrote numerous theological treatises, 
 Latin poems, works on history, philosophy, 
 &c., and died at Wittemberg, in 1560. 
 
 MELBOURNE, William Lamb, Vis- 
 count, one of the most prominent, if not one 
 of the greatest, statesmen of our times, wds 
 the second son of the first Lord Melbourne, 
 
mel] 
 
 ^ i^etu BnibtY^al MioQtKpfi^. 
 
 [mel 
 
 and born, March IStli, 1779. He was edu- 
 cated at Eton, Cambridge, and Glasgow, 
 wliere his great natural abilities were care- 
 fully matured ; and, on the completion of 
 his academical course, he studied for the bar, 
 and became a member of Lincoln's Inn, with 
 a view to a professional career. But in 1805 
 having, on the death of his elder brother, 
 become the representative of his family, he 
 was brought into the House of Commons, 
 where he joined the Whig party, and gra- 
 dually rose to great distinction for his libe- 
 rality, talent, and independence. His mar- 
 riage with Lady Caroline Ponsonby and its 
 results have been noticed elsewhere. (See 
 Lamb, Lady Caroline.) In 1827 he became 
 secretary for Ireland ; but in 1828 he resigned 
 oflBce, and the same year he was called up to 
 the House of Lords by the death of his father. 
 On the formation of Lord Grey's adminis- 
 tration in 1830, he was appointed secretary 
 of the home department ; and the latent en- 
 ergy of his character was then revealed by 
 the able administration of his duties during 
 a period of violence and lawlessness, such as 
 has been rarely witnessed in the English 
 annals. In March, 1834, on the retirement of 
 Lord Grey, Lord Melbourne succeeded to 
 the premiership ; but in the autumn of the 
 same year, Lord Althorpe's removal from 
 the leadership of the House of Commons was 
 thought to have so weakened the govern- 
 ment, that William IV. somewhat sum- 
 marily dismissed it, and called to his coun- 
 cils the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert 
 Peel. The administration then formed, 
 however, only served to show the great 
 temper, extraordinary skill, and indefati- 
 gable industry of Sir Robert Peel as a par- 
 liamentary leader ; for in the spring of 1835 
 he resigned oflBce, and Lord Melbourne, 
 who, on quitting power, had refused the 
 garter and a higher place in the peerage, 
 was now become first lord of the treasury. 
 In 1837, Lord Melbourne's government, 
 which had become gradually weakened by 
 the attacks of a powerful majority in the 
 upper house, and the hostility of a growing 
 and powerful minority in the lower, gained 
 new strength from the accession of queen 
 Victoria, whose personal sympathies, it was 
 alleged, were enlisted in favour of the party 
 then in power. From this period to the 
 close of his official career, he devoted him- 
 self to the task of instructing his royal 
 mistress in the exercise of her important 
 functions ; and in this sphere of duty his 
 various qualities, talents, and acquirements 
 were so eminently displayed, as not only 
 to merit the gratitude of his royal pupil, 
 but to elicit expressions of approbation even 
 from his political opponents. In 1839, the go- 
 vernment having had only a majority of four 
 on an important question. Lord Melbourne 
 resigned ; but a misunderstanding respecting 
 the appointments of the ladies of the bed- 
 chamber prevented the formation of a new 
 ministry under Sir Robert Peel, and he once 
 more returned to office. In 1841, after a stre- 
 nuous but vain effort to effect some modifi- 
 cation in the corn laws, he finally retired from 
 his high post, and (though he for some time 
 afterwards went down to the House of Lords), 
 it may be said, from public life. Under the 
 
 veil of good-humoured indifference and 
 careless ease. Lord Melbourne concealed 
 many of the best qualities of a statesman : a 
 cool and courageous temperament, a dispas- 
 sionate and unprejudiced mind, and a clear 
 and manly intellect, which had been im- 
 proved by incessant, though not forced, cul- 
 tivation. In society he was perhaps the most 
 graceful and agreeable gentleman that the 
 present generation can remember. In some 
 parts of his character he resembled the jovial, 
 good-humoured, practical Sir R. Walpole ; 
 in others, the studious, the speculative, and 
 refining Bolingbroke ; and we have some- 
 times thought, that if the sect of the Cy- 
 renians still existed among us, he would 
 have been one of its most distinguished ad- 
 herents ; for the couplet in which Horace 
 thus happily describes its founder, might 
 justly have been applied to him : 
 
 "Omnis Aristippum decuit color et status 
 et res, 
 
 Tentantem majora, fere praesentibus 
 sequum." 
 Died, at his family seat. Brocket Hall, Hert- 
 fordshire, Nov. 24. 1848. 
 
 MELCHTHAL, Akitold of (so called 
 from the place of his residence in the canton 
 of Underwalden^, was the son of a rich 
 farmer, who having been cruelly treated by 
 the governor of the district, under Albert of 
 Austria, Arnold conspired with two friends, 
 Furst and Stauffarcher, to effect the de- 
 liverance of their country ; and to the plan 
 which they formed, in 1307, was Switzerland 
 indebted for the restoration of its ancient 
 freedom. 
 
 MELDOLA, Dr. Raphael, the learned 
 Jewish high rabbi of the ancient and chief 
 synagogue in England, was eminent as a 
 profound theologian and philosopher. At an 
 earlj- age he published an interesting work, 
 called "Korban Minha," a literary comment 
 on the service of the high priest, which is 
 read in every synagogue on the fast-day of 
 Kipoor ; and in 1796 a work of great import- 
 ance, entitled "Hupat Hatanira. He died 
 in 1828. 
 
 MELEADEZ, Don Juan, an eminent 
 Spanish poet, was born in 1754, at Riberia. 
 He wrote three volumes of poems, which are 
 distinguished for their graceful harmony, 
 elegant diction, and rich imagery. He filled 
 some public situations during the rule of 
 Joseph Buonaparte, and left Spain on the 
 retreat of the I'rench. He died at Montpelier,- 
 1817. 
 
 MELEAGER, a Greek poet, in the 1st 
 century before the Christian era, was the 
 author of epigrams and other short pieces, 
 which are among the most beautiful relics 
 preserved in the Grecian Anthology. 
 
 MELETIUS, a modem Greek geographer, 
 born at Jannina, in Epirus, in 1C61. He 
 filled, successively, the archiepiscopal sees of 
 Naupactus, Arta, and Alliens; was the author 
 of an "Antient and Modern Geography," 
 and an " Ecclesiastical History ; " and died 
 in 1714. 
 
 MELISSUS, a philosopher of Samos, who 
 flourished about 434 B.C., and who is dis- 
 tinguished not only as a teacher of the 
 Eleatic doctrines, but, in the history of his 
 
mel] 
 
 ^ ^clM Hniber^al 33t0g:raplbl'» 
 
 [mel 
 
 country, as a statesman and naval com- 
 mander. 
 
 MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, and 
 the principal accuser of Socrates. The 
 Athenians, out of compunction for their un- 
 just treatment of that great man, put Melitus 
 to death, b. c. 4<X). 
 
 MELLI, John, a poet, denominated the 
 Sicilian Anacreon, was born at Palermo, iu 
 1740, and destined for the medical profession. 
 At the age of 15 he published a poem, en- 
 titled " The Gallant Fairy," and among his 
 works are idylls, eclogues, and canzonl. Died, 
 181.5. 
 
 MELLON, Harriet, duchess of St. Al- 
 ban's, was born about the year 1775, and 
 was the poelliumous daugliter of a Mr. 
 Matthew Mellon, who held a commission in 
 tlie East India Company's service, and whose 
 widow married a Mr. Entwistle, a musician. 
 Mrs. Entwistle, who was an accomplished 
 woman, went on the stage ; her husband be- 
 came leader of the band in various provincial 
 tlieatres ; and the services of the child, wlio 
 was destined at a future day to become the 
 duchess of St. Alban's, were put in requisition 
 at a very tender age, in order to augment a 
 scanty and precarious income. She passed 
 her childliood in performing such characters 
 as Prince Artliur in King John, the Duke of 
 York in Riciiard the Third, &c. ; and wlien 
 advancing towards maturity, slie personated 
 the walking ladies, and occasionally charac- 
 ters of higlier pretension. At length, while 
 playing at Strafford, iu Stanton's company, 
 she was introduced to Richard Brinsley 
 Sheridan, who had gone tliither on an elec- 
 tioneering expedition ; and as some of her 
 friends there had both " votes and influence," 
 he thought it wortli his while to be no niggard 
 in liis promises of future patronage to the 
 lady, whom they regarded as a highly de- 
 serving candidate for histrionic fame. She 
 accordingly made her debut at Drury Lane, 
 in January, 1795, as Lydia Languish, in the 
 Rivals ; and although she attracted but little 
 notice at first, she gradually rose in public 
 estimation, and ultimately arrived at a degree 
 of professional celebrity, particularly in cha- 
 racters of a vivacious or hoydenish cast. For 
 several years, Thomas Coutts, esq., the 
 wealthy banker, had evinced for her a strong 
 degree of friendship ; and as he made her his 
 wife almost immediately after the death of his 
 former one, which happened in 1814, there can 
 be no doubt of the sincerity of his attachment. 
 In 1822 the venerable banker died, appointing 
 his widow universal legatee, and bequeathing 
 to her his share in the banking house and 
 business in the Strand, and all benefit and 
 interests to arise therefrom. After her mar- 
 riage she had to endure every species of abuse 
 which slander and detraction could invent j 
 but she wisely bore it all in silence ; and 
 now that she was regarded as a female 
 Croesus, she was assailed by a host of un- 
 principled scribblers, who thought that by 
 concocting and threatening her with the 
 publication of a mass of prurient anecdotes, 
 &c., some of the widow's loose cash might 
 find its way into their pockets. She was not, 
 however, to be thus intimidated ; for, tfiough 
 by nature benevolent in a high degree, and 
 practising true charity without ostentation. 
 
 she had firmness and spirit enougli to resist 
 the attacks of these mercenary marauders. 
 Rumour was soon busy in naming the for- 
 tunate suitor of the banker's widow ; till at 
 length, in June 1827, the question was put 
 to rest by her marriage with William, duke 
 of St. Alban's, tlien in the 27th year of his 
 age. She died, Aug. 6. 1837. The bulk of 
 lier immense property, including the half 
 profits of the banking house, the mansion in 
 Stratton Street, and all her moveables, plate, 
 diamonds, &c.,she bequeathed to Miss Angela 
 Burdett, youngest daughter of Sir Francis 
 Burdett, and grand-daughter of Mr. Coutts, 
 who has in consequence taken the name of 
 Coutts. 
 
 MELMOTII, William, an eminent ad- 
 vocate and an excellent writer, was born in 
 106(5. He was a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, 
 and in conjunction with Peere Williams, 
 edited Vernon's Reports ; but he is chiefly 
 remembered now as the author of "The 
 Great Importance of a Religious Life ; " a 
 valuable little book, which has gone tlirough 
 numerous editions. Died, 1743. 
 
 MELMOTH, William, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1710. He published ex- 
 cellent translations of Pliny's and Cicero's 
 Epistles. He was also the author of the 
 " Letters," which bear the name of Sir 
 Thomas Fitzosborne ; some poems in Dods- 
 ley's collection, and memoirs of his fatlier. 
 He was brought up to the law, became a 
 commissioner of bankrupts, and died in 1799. 
 
 MELYIL, Sir James, a statesman and 
 historian, was the son of Lord Keith, and 
 born in 1530. He became page to Mary, 
 queen of Scots, whom he attended in her 
 last moments ; afterwards he entered into 
 the service of the Duke of Montmorency. 
 On his return to Scotland, in 15C1, he was 
 appointed privy-councillor, and gentleman I 
 of the bedchamber, and continued her con- i 
 fidential servant until her confinement in 
 Lochleven Castle. He died in 1C06 ; but his 
 " Memoirs, containing the most remarkable 
 Affairs of State," lay long unknown in the 
 castle of Edinburgh, and were not published 
 till 1683. 
 
 MELVILLE, Henry Dundas, Viscount, 
 the son of Lord Arnistone, a Scotch judge, 
 was born in 1740 ; received his education at 
 the university of Edinburgh ; in 1773 became 
 solicitor-general ; and soon after was ap- 
 pointed to the offices of lord advocate, and 
 joint keeper of the signet for Scotland. In 
 1782 he was made privy-councillor and trea- 
 surer of the navy ; and from that time he 
 took a leading part in all the measures of 
 the Pitt administration. He was appointed 
 president of the board of control, at its 
 formation ; in 1791, made secretary for the 
 home department; and, in 1794, secretary 
 of war, which latter post he held till Mr. 
 Pitt's retirement from office. He was then 
 created a viscount ; and when Mr. Pitt again 
 became premier, he was made first lord of 
 the admiralty. But a variety of charges 
 had been got up against him by the oppo- 
 sition, and in 1805 he was impeached by the 
 Commons ; though he was acquitted of the 
 alleged malversations, and only proved to 
 have been negligent of his duty with respect 
 to his agents, he took no further part in 
 
men] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ^nifen-s'aX 23i0srajj]^g. 
 
 [men 
 
 public aflFairs, and died in 1811. For many 
 years his influence in Scotland was supreme ; 
 and his countrymen, to mark their gratitude 
 for the favours he had conferred on them, 
 erected a monument to his memory in the 
 Scotch metropolis. 
 
 MENAGE, GiLLES, a distinguished man 
 of letters, was born in 1613, at Angers, where 
 his father was king's adrocate. He dedicated 
 himself solely to literary pursuits ; and, 
 being received into the house of Cardinal de 
 Retz, soon made himself known by his wit 
 and erudition. He died in 1()92, at the age 
 of 79, leaving behind him some very able 
 works, of a critical and philological nature. 
 After his death, a "Menagiana" was com- 
 piled from notes of his conversation, anec- 
 dotes, remarks, &c., forming a most lively 
 and interesting work. 
 
 MENANDER, the most celebrated of the 
 Greek writers of comedy, was born at Athens, 
 342 B.C., and is said to have drowned himself, 
 on account of the success of his rival Phile- 
 mon, though some accounts attribute his 
 death to accident, B.C. 299, in the harbour 
 of the Piraeus. He composed 108 comedies ; 
 but there are oiijy a few fragments remaining 
 of the numerous dramas of Menander ; from 
 whom, however, Terence is supposed to have 
 copied the whole of his pieces, except the 
 " Phormio " and " Hecyra." Quintilian ex- 
 presses great admiration for this dramatist, 
 eulogising him for copiousness of invention, 
 elegance of expression, and a general fine 
 feeling of nature. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a celebrated 
 Jewish philosopher, commonly called the 
 " Socrates of the Jews," was born of an 
 lionest but poor family, at Dessau, in 1729. 
 He was bred to merchandise, but devoted 
 himself to literature, in which he acquired 
 a distinguished reputation. In 1755 he pub- 
 lislied his first piece, entitled "Jerusalem ;" 
 in which he pretended that the principle of 
 the Jewish religion is deism. His next work 
 was " Phasdon, or a Discourse on the Spiritu- 
 ality and Immateriality of the Soul." He 
 also vrrote " Philosophical Dialogues," 2 
 vols. ; " Letter to Lavater," a " Dissertation 
 on the Sensation of the Beautiful," " Morning 
 Hours, or Discourses on the Existence of 
 God," &o. At one time he was associated 
 with Lessing, Ramler, Abbot, and Nicolai, 
 in conducting a periodical work, entitled 
 " The Library of Belles Lettres," which ac- 
 quired great distinction in German litera- 
 ture. He was remarkable for the philoso- 
 phical mildness of his disposition, and for 
 the excellence of his character ; and he was 
 accordingly esteemed by persons of the most 
 opposite opinions. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, Felix, 
 the greatest musical composer that this cen- 
 tury has produced, was born at Berlin, Feb- 
 ruary 3. 1809. His grandfather was the 
 celebrated philosopher, Moses Mendelssohn 
 above noticed. His father was a wealthy 
 banker, more favoured with the gifts of 
 fortune than of genius ; and it is related 
 of him that he was in the habit of saying, 
 "When I was a boy people used to call 
 me the son, and now they call me the 
 father, of the great Mendelssohn." The 
 precocity of his son's musical talent sur- 
 
 passed even that of Mozart. Before he was 
 eight years of age, the accuracy of his ear, 
 the strength of his memory, and, above 
 all, his incredible facility in playing music 
 at sight, excited the wonder of his teachers 
 — Zelter and Berger — and gave room to 
 hope that a successor of Mozart was at hand. 
 In his 9th year he performed at a public 
 concert in Berlin, to the admiration of his 
 audience : tlie following year the boy-artist 
 accompanied his parents to Paris ; and when 
 he was 12 years old, he composed his piano- 
 forte quartett in C minor, which is still 
 found to be full of interest and originality. 
 His first compositions were published in 1824. 
 These were soon followed by many otliers, 
 among which was an opera, called "The 
 Marriage of Gamacho ;" which, though be- 
 traying inexperience, lias much character 
 and many beauties. Three years afterwards 
 he made a musical tour through Italy, 
 France, and England ; and it was upon this 
 occasion that he conducted, at the Philhar- 
 monic Concert, in London, his first sym- 
 phony, and his overture to the "Midsummer 
 Night's Dream," which produced an elec- 
 trical effect. Having now resolved to devote 
 himself exclusively to the artist life, he was 
 appointed, in 1833, to the directorship of the 
 concerts and theatre of DUsseldorf, where, 
 in 1835, he produced his great oratorio of 
 " Paulus ;" and ten years afterwards he 
 accepted of the same office at Leipsic, 
 whither young men of talent flocked from 
 all parts of Europe, as well to seek the ac- 
 quaintance of the leading professor of the 
 day, as to submit their own productions to 
 his judgment. He afterwards accepted the 
 musical directorship at Berlin, at the earnest 
 entreaty of the king of Prussia, but resigned 
 it after a short lime, and returned to his 
 favourite Leipsic, where he resided till his 
 death, acting as conductor of the concerts, 
 and, along with his friend Moscheles, di- 
 rector of the Conservatory of Music. During 
 these labours he repeatedly visited England. 
 He conducted the performance at three dif- 
 ferent Birmingham Festivals ; and in the 
 season of 1844 he conducted the Philhar- 
 monic Concerts. His last visit was in 1847 ; 
 and on tliat occasion he conducted the per- 
 formance of his "Elijah" at Exeter Hall, 
 amidst an enthusiasm of admiration which 
 will be long remembered. But about this 
 time his health began to fail, his strength 
 being exhausted by fatigue and excitement ; 
 and the sudden death of a favourite sister 
 at this period inflicted upon his nervous sys- 
 tem a blow from which it never fully reco- 
 vered. After trying to recruit his health 
 and spirits amidst the scenery of the Alps, 
 he returned to his home apparently in better 
 health, but it again gave way, and on the 
 8th November, 1847, the great master, and 
 noble artist, ceased to breathe. As a com- 
 poser, Mendelssohn travelled over a wide 
 field of art. But his genius as it reached 
 maturity became more and more profound 
 and lofty ; and his two oratorios, " Pauli 
 and "Elijah," will form his most enduring 
 monuments. His symphonies are ranked 
 only second to those of Haydn, Mozart, and 
 Beethoven. The dramatic character of his 
 genius is evinced, not only by his youthful 
 
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 ^ ^c&j ^gfm'brrjSal 2iSiOflrap!)i). 
 
 [men 
 
 opera above mentioned, but by his delicious 
 music to the " Midsummer Niglit's Dream," 
 by liis "First Walpurgis Night," and tlie 
 powerful choruses for " Antigone," " Atlia- 
 lia," and " (Edipus." The few songs he 
 wrote, and more especially the "Lieder 
 ohne Worte," show that as a graceful and 
 expressive melodist he has no superior. 
 Mendelssohn was singularly happy in every 
 character and relation of life. Bom to alBu- 
 encc and ease, he pursued art with an ardour 
 and activity scarcely ever paralleled ; and 
 his artist life was an unbroken career of 
 triumph. As a man, he enjoyed the love 
 and esteem of every one who knew him ; 
 and it would scarcely be too much to say, 
 that he had not an enemy in the world. 
 
 MENDEZ, MosKS, an English poet, bom 
 in London of Jewish parentage ; received a 
 liberal education at Oxford, and was created 
 M. A. in 1750. He wrote some very popular 
 musical entertainments, and several poems, 
 which were published in one volume. He 
 was the intimate friend of Thomson. Died 
 in ]7")8. 
 
 MENDEZ-PINTO, Ferdixand, a cele- 
 brated traveller, was bom in Portugal, of a 
 respectable family. He departed for the 
 Indies in 1.5;37, and, on the voyage, the ship 
 was taken by the Moors, who carried her to 
 Mocha, wliere he was sold for a slave ; but 
 after some adventures he arrived at Ormns, 
 and afterwards pursued his original object. 
 In 15.58 he returned to his native country, 
 and published a very curious, but romantic, 
 relation of his voyages, which has been 
 translated into French and English. From 
 his excessive credulity, Mendez-Pinto has 
 been classed with Sir John Mandeville ; and 
 for extravagant fictions his name has become 
 a byword. 
 
 MENDOZA, Joiix Gonzales, a Spanish 
 divine, who was sent ambassador to the em- 
 peror of China, in 1584 ; and, on his return, 
 became successively bishop of Lipari, in 
 Italy ; of Chiapi, in New Spain ; and of 
 Popnyan, in the West Indies. He wrote 
 "A History of China," in Spanish. 
 
 MENEDEMUS, a Greek philosopher, who 
 was a native of the island of Euboea. He 
 became a disciple of Plato and Xenocrates ; 
 but afterwards joined the Cyrenaic sect. 
 Died, B. c. 284. 
 
 MENGS, A^fT^o^^r Rapiiael, who has 
 been called the Raphael of Germany, was 
 born at Aussig, in Bohemia, in 172G. He 
 studied under his father, who was painter to 
 Augustus III., king of Poland, after which 
 he went to Rome, where he was patronised 
 by Charles III., king of Spain, for whom he 
 executed a number of pictures. The best of 
 his pieces in England is an altar-piece at 
 All Souls' College, Oxford. Mengs wrote 
 some works on his art, wliich have been 
 translated into English, in 2 vols., and died, 
 at Rome, in 1779. 
 
 MENINSKI, or MENIN, Fraxcis a 
 Mesionex, a learned orientalist, was born, in 
 1(523, in Lorraine ; studied at Rome ; accom- 
 panied the Polish ambassador to Constanti- 
 nople, in 1652, and acquired the Turkish 
 language ; became principal interpreter of 
 the oriental languages at Vienna, and was 
 intrusted with several important commis- 
 
 591 
 
 sions. His principal work is a " Turkish, 
 Arabic, and Persian Dictiouary." Died, 
 1C98. 
 
 MENIPPUS, styled by Lucian " the most 
 snarling of the cynics," was a native of Ga- 
 dara, in Palestine. He had been originally 
 a slave, but purchased his freedom, and was 
 made a citizen of Thebes. It is said that he 
 hanged himself. His works were of a satiric 
 kind, and written iu prose, but none of them 
 are now extant. 
 
 MENNES, Sir Joiix, an English poet and 
 wit of the 17th century. He was a native of 
 Sandwich, in Kent, and by profession a 
 naval officer ; was knighted by Charles I., 
 and obtained the post of comptroller of the 
 navy, but was removed from his station 
 during the civil war. At the Restoration, 
 however, he regained his appointment, and 
 attained to the rank of admiral. His poetical 
 productions are comprised in a small volume, 
 entitled " Musarum Delicise." Died, 1(571. 
 
 MENNO, SiMONis, or Simon's son, was 
 the founder of the sect of Mcnnonites, or 
 Dutch anabaptists. He was born in 14!t6, 
 and was originally a Catliolic priest. He 
 maintained the necessity of rebaptism in 
 adults; and denied that Jesus Clirist received 
 a human body from the Virgin. A price 
 was set upon his head by Charles V., but he 
 was fortunate enough to escape. He died 
 at Oldcslo, near Hamburgh, in l.".(S."). 
 
 MENOCHIUS, Jamks, an eminent ci- 
 vilian of Pavia, who was called the Jiaklut 
 and BarthoUua of his age. After being pro- 
 fessor in several universities, he became 
 president of the council at Milan, where he 
 died in 1G07, aged 75. His works are, " De 
 Recuperanda Possessione, de Adipiscenda 
 Possessione," " De Presumptionibus," 2 vols.; 
 " De Arbitrariis Judicum Qujestionibus, et 
 Causis Conciliorum." His son. John Ste- 
 phen, became a Jesuit, and died in 1(55(5, 
 aged 80. He wrote " Political and Economi- 
 cal Institutions," a learned " Treatise on tlie 
 Hebrew Republic," and a " Commentary on 
 the Holy Scripture," 2 vols, folio. 
 
 MENSCHIKOFF, Alexander, a cele- 
 brated Russian statesman and general, was 
 the son of a peasant, and born near Moscow, 
 in 1(574. Having attracted the notice of 
 Lefort, he took him into his service, and, 
 discerning his great powers, determined to 
 educate him for public affairs. On the 
 death of his patron, Menschikoff succeeded 
 him in the favour of the czar. He was the 
 companion of Peter in his travels ; and on 
 several occasions he personated the czar, 
 who appeared as a private person in his 
 train. In the war with Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, Menschikoff was the conqueror of 
 Meyerfeldt, a general of that monarch ; he 
 also distinguished himself at l/csnau, in 
 1708, and at the battle of Pultowa. He 
 became first minister and general field- 
 marshal, baron and prince of the German 
 empire, and received the title of duke of 
 Ingria. On the death of Peter, it was cliiefly 
 through the influence of Menschikoff that 
 Catharine was raised to the throne, and that 
 affairs were conducted during her reign. 
 When Peter II. succeeded her on the throne, 
 Menschikoff grasped, with a bold hand, the 
 reins of government ; but when his power 
 
 3 B 2 
 
men] 
 
 ^ jp^iu Bniiitv^aX SSinsraplbl?* 
 
 [mer 
 
 was raised to its highest pitch, he was sud- 
 denly hurled from his elevation. Having 
 embezzled a sum of money which the em- 
 peror intended for his sister, he was Con- 
 demned to perpetual exile to Siberia, and 
 his immense estate was confiscated. He 
 died in 1729, two years after his banishment, 
 having supported the hardships of his situ- 
 ation with great courage, and lived with 
 Buch frugality, that out of his daily allow- 
 ance of 10 roubles, he saved enough to erect 
 a small wooden church. His children were 
 recalled by the empress Anne, and restored 
 to an honourable rank in society. 
 
 MENTZEL, Christian, a physician and 
 botanist, was born at Furstenwald, in Ger- 
 many. His zeal in the cause of science in- 
 duced him to travel to many parts of the 
 globe ; and on his return to Germany he 
 diligently recorded his observations. Among 
 his works are, " Index nomina Plantarum," 
 " A Chronology of China," " Natural His- 
 tory of Brazil," 4 vols. ; " On the Flowers 
 and riants of Japan," 2 vols. He died in 
 1701, aged 79. 
 
 MENZEL, Frederic William, private 
 secretary in the royal cabinet at Dresden, 
 whose treachery hastened the breaking out 
 of the seven years' war. His dissipated 
 habits had plunged him into embarrass- 
 ments ; and, in consideration of a large sura 
 of money, he delivered to the Prussian am- 
 bassador at the court of Saxony, copies of 
 the secret correspondence between Saxony, 
 Russia, and Austria relating to Prussia. 
 He was at length suspected, and though he 
 attempted to save himself by flight, he was 
 arrested at Prague, on the demand of the 
 court of Saxony, and confined in the castle 
 of Konigstein, where he lived 33 years in 
 the strictest custody. Towards the latter 
 part of his life his condition was somewhat 
 alleviated, by receiving better food, and per- 
 mission to take the air occasionally ; he was 
 also relieved of the heavy chains which he 
 had worn many years. He died in 1796, 
 aged 70 years. 
 
 MENZINI, Benedict, an eminent Italian 
 poet, bom at Florence, in 1646. He was 
 patronised, at Rome, by Christina of Sweden ; 
 and at her death found another protector in 
 Cardinal Albani. He died in 1704. Few of 
 his countrymen excel him in Anacreontic 
 odes, sonnets, elegies, or hymns ; and his 
 " Art of Poetry " has always had many 
 admirers. 
 
 MERCADO, Michael de, a learned phy- 
 sician, was born in Tuscany, and became 
 first physician to Clement VIII. and other 
 popes ; also keeper of the botanical garden 
 of tlie Vatican, where he formed a fine 
 cabinet of metals and fossils. He was raised 
 to the rank of nobility by Ferdinand, grand- 
 duke of Tuscany. He wrote a treatise, 
 " Degli Obelischi di Roma," and other 
 works. Died,\l593. 
 
 MERCATOR, Gf;RARD, a mathematician 
 and geographer, born in 1612, at Rupel- 
 monde, in the Netherlands. He published 
 a great number of maps and charts, which 
 he engraved and coloured himself; and is 
 known as the inventor of a method of pro- 
 jection called by his name, in which the 
 meridians and parallels of latitude cut each 
 
 other at right angles, and are both repre- 
 sented by straight lines, which has the eflfect 
 of enlarging the degrees of latitude as they 
 recede from the equator. Died, 1594. 
 
 MERCATOR, Nicholas, an eminent 
 mathematician, was bom at Holstein, about 
 1640. He settled in England, where he be- 
 came fellow of the Royal Society ; and died 
 about 1690. His works are, " Cosmogra- 
 phia," "Rationes Mathematicae," "Hypo- 
 thesis Astronomica," " Logarithmotechnia," 
 " Institutionum Astronomicarum," &c. 
 
 MERCIER, Bartholomew, known by 
 the name of the Abbe de St. Leger, was 
 born at Lyons, in 1784. He entered into the 
 religious society of St. Gen^vifeve, of which 
 he became librarian. Louis XV. gave him 
 the abbey of St. Leger of Soissons, of which 
 he was deprived and reduced to indigence 
 in the revolution. He was an ingenious 
 writer on bibliography and literary history, 
 and died in 1799. 
 
 MERCIER, John, a learned Hebrew 
 critic of the 16th century, was born at L^sez, 
 in Languedoc, and was destined for the pro- 
 fession of jurisprudence ; but he relinquished 
 that for the study of divinity and the oriental 
 languages, and succeeded Vatabulus in the 
 Hebrew professorship at the Royal College, 
 in Paris. He wrote " Commentaries on the 
 Old Testament " and a " Chaldee Gram- 
 mar." Died, 1572. 
 
 MERCIER, Louis Sebastian, a French 
 writer, was born at Paris, in 1740. He com- 
 menced his literary career aa a poet, but 
 soon renounced poetry for criticism. He 
 attacked the reputation of Comeille, Racine, 
 and Voltaire, in his " Essai sur I'Art Dra- 
 matique," and published a violent philippic 
 against the comedians for paying no atten- 
 tion to his remarks. In 1781 he published, 
 anonymously, the first volume of his " Ta- 
 bleau de Paris ;" after which he removed to 
 Switzerland, and printed at Neufchatel ten 
 more volumes of that work. Returning 
 home at the beginning of the revolution, he 
 declared himself a friend to liberty, and in 
 concert with Carra he published " Les An- 
 nales Politiques " and " Chronique du Mois," 
 two journals, displaying both moderation 
 and spirit. He was a member of the Con- 
 vention, and voted for the detention, instead 
 of the death, of the king. Died, 1814. 
 
 MERIAN, John Bernard, perpetual 
 secretary to the Royal Academy of Sciences 
 at Berlin, was a native of Leichstal, near 
 Basle, and was invited from Holland to 
 Berlin, in 1750, on the recommendation of 
 Maupertuis. He enriched the Memoirs of 
 the Berlin Academy with several papers on 
 mathematical and philosophical subjects, 
 one of the most distinguished of which is a 
 parallel between the philosophy of Leibnitz 
 and tliat of Kant. Died, 1807. 
 
 MERIAN, Maria Sibylla, an ingenious 
 female artist, was the daughter of Matthew 
 Merian, an eminent engraver, and born at 
 Frankfort, in 1647. She undertook a voyage 
 to Surinam to draw the insects and reptiles 
 peculiar to that country, of which, on her 
 return, she published a description with 
 beautiful coloured plates, in 2 vols. 4to. Her 
 daugliter, who accompanied her to Surinam, 
 added a third volume to this work. The 
 
 592 
 
mer] 
 
 ^ j^ciD mxihtr^al magpcKpl)}), 
 
 [met 
 
 mother published another valuable per- 
 formance " On the Generation and Trans- 
 formations of the Insects of Surinam." Died, 
 1717. 
 
 MERLIN, Ambrose, a British writer, who' 
 flourished about the latter end of the 5th 
 century. He was supposed to be an en- 
 chanter and a prophet ; but the accounts 
 we have of him are so mixed up with fic- 
 tion, that to disentangle his real life from 
 the mass would be impossible. He was the 
 greatest sage and mathematician of his time, 
 the counsellor and friend of four English 
 kings, Vortigern, Ambrosius, Uther Pen- 
 dragon, and Arthur. The miracles ascribed 
 to him are numerous ; and, instead of dying, 
 it was supposed that he fell into a magic 
 sleep, from wliich, ufter a long period, he 
 would awake. In the Britisli Museum is 
 " Le Compte de la Vie de Merlin et de ses 
 Faiz et Compte de ses Propln'cies," 2 vols, 
 folio, on vellum, without date or place. We 
 have also the " Life of Merlin, sumamed 
 Ambrosius," by T. Heywood. 
 
 MERRET, CiiKisTOPHEK, a physician 
 and naturalist, was born at Winchcombe, 
 in Gloucestersliire, in 1014. Having taken 
 his degree of M. D., at Oxford, he settled 
 in London, where he became a fellow of 
 the College of Physicians and of tlie Royal 
 Society. Among his works are, " A View 
 of the Frauds and Abuses committed by 
 Apothecaries" and "Pinax Rerum Natu- 
 ralium Britannicarum." 
 
 MERRICK, James, a divine and poet, 
 was born at Reading in 17:iO ; was educated 
 at Trinity College, Oxford ; and died in 
 17C9. His principal works are, " Poems on 
 Sacred Subjects," "Annotations on the 
 Psalms," and on the " Gosi)el of St. John," 
 "A metrical Version of the Psalms," and 
 a translation of Tryphiodorus. 
 
 MERRY, RoBEKT, a dramatic writer, 
 was the son of a merchant, and born in 
 London, in 1755. He received his education 
 at Harrow, and next at Christ's College, 
 Cambridge, after which he entered at Lin- 
 coln's Inn ; but instead of being called to 
 the bar, he bought a commission in the 
 guards, which service he also quitted, and 
 went abroad. Wliile at Florence he became 
 a member of the Delia Cruscan academy, 
 and affixed that signature to a number of 
 poems, which being publislied in the English 
 newspapers, at length became the object 
 of the caustic satire of Gilford, in his well- 
 known "Baviad and Majviad." In 1791 
 he married Miss Brunton, an actress, with 
 whom he went to America, where he died 
 in 1798. His dramatic compositions are, 
 "Lorenzo," a tragedy; "The Magician no 
 Conjuror," "Fenelon," and "Ambitious 
 Vengeance." 
 
 MERSCII, Van der, leader of the Bra- 
 bant patriots in 1789, was born at Menim, 
 and entered the French service, in which 
 he acquired the title of " The Brave Flem- 
 ing." He afterwards served in the Austrian 
 army, and rose to the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel. By a series of successful opera- 
 tions against the imperial troops in the 
 Netherlands, Ghent and Brussels fell into 
 his Jiands, and the chief command of tlie 
 Belgian troops was intrusted to him. 
 
 5€3 
 
 Through party intrigue, however, he was 
 removed from his command, and thrown 
 into prison, where lie remained till the Aus- 
 trians recovered possession of the country. 
 Died. 1792. 
 
 MERSENNE, Marin, usually called 
 Mersennus, a French philosopher, was born 
 at Oyse, in the province of Maine, in 1588. 
 After studying at the college of La FlGche, 
 he took the habit in the society of Minims, 
 and became an eminent teacher of pliiloso- 
 phy and tlieology in the convent of Nevers. 
 He was warmly attached to Descartes, and 
 corresponded with most of the scientific 
 characters •of his time. He vrrote a variety 
 of scientific works, and died in 1048. 
 
 MERTON, Walter de, a learned and 
 munificent prelate of the 13th century, and 
 founder of tlie college which bears liis name 
 at Oxford, was born at Merton, in Surrey, 
 and educated at the convent of that place. 
 After obtaining several preferments, he be- 
 came lord cliaucellor in 1258 ; was deprived 
 of the seal tlie same year by the barons, but 
 restored to it in 1201, aud in 1274 conse- 
 crated bishop of Rochester. Died, 1277. 
 
 MESMER, Frederic Anxuonv, a Ger- 
 man physician, autlior of the famous doc- 
 trine of animal magnetism, which is also 
 called Mesmerism, was born in 1734, at 
 Mersburg, in Suabia. He first made his 
 doctrines known to the world in 1700, by a 
 thesis on planetary influence, in which he 
 contended that tlie heavenly bodies diffuse 
 througli the universe a subtle fluid, which 
 acts on tlie nervous system of animated 
 beings. He qutited Vienna for Paris, in 
 1778 ; gained a number of proselytes, and 
 received a subscription of 340,000 livres. 
 Government at length appointed a com- 
 mittee of physicians and members of the 
 academy of sciences, among whom was 
 Franklin, to investigate his iiretensions ; 
 and the result of their inquiries appeared 
 in an admirable memoir, drawn up by 
 Bailly, which comi)letely exposed the futi- 
 lity of animal magnetism, and the quackery 
 of its author, who died in 1815. His theory, 
 however, has of late years again excited 
 considerable attention on the Continent, 
 aud has its advocates even in Great Britain. 
 
 MESSIER, Charles, a French astrono- 
 mer, was bom in 1730, at Badonviller, in 
 Lorraine. For a considerable period he 
 was an assistant to Delisle, but afterwards 
 became astronomer to the navy. His at- 
 tention was particularly directed to the 
 discovery of comets ; and in that he was 
 eminently successful. 
 
 MESTON, William, a burlesque poet, 
 was born in 1088, and educated at Aber- 
 deen ; after which he became tutor to the 
 young earl marshal and his brother, and 
 was appointed professor of philosophy in 
 the Marischal College, which situation he 
 lost in 1715, by joining the Pretender. He 
 was an excellent classical scholar and ma- 
 thematician ; but he is remembered chiefly 
 by the burlesque poems, entitled " Mother 
 Grim's Tales." Died, 1745. 
 
 METASTASIO, Pjktro Antonio Dome- 
 Nico Bl'onaventura, an eminent Italian 
 poet, bom at Assisi, 1098, was the son of a 
 common soldier, named Trapassi. When 
 
met] 
 
 ^ 0tio Winihtx^aX SStograpT)!). 
 
 [meu 
 
 he was only 10 years of age, his talent of 
 extemporising in verse attracted the notice 
 of the celebrated Gravina, wlio took him 
 under his protection, called him (by a trans- 
 lation of his name into Greek) Metastasio, 
 paid great attention to his education, and 
 on his death, in 1717, left him his whole 
 estate. The young poet, being thus placed 
 in an easy condition, devoted himself to his 
 favourite study, and, under tlie guidance 
 of the celebrated singer, Maria Romanina, 
 (afterwards Bulgarelli), created the modem 
 Italian opera. Charles VI. invited him to 
 Vienna in 1729, and appointed him poet 
 laureate, with a iiension of 4000 guilders. 
 Thenceforward no gala took place at court 
 which was not graced by his verses. The 
 empress Maria Theresa bestowed upon him 
 magnificent presents, as also did Ferdinand 
 VI., king of Spain. Tlius honoured and 
 beloved, his life presented a calm uniformity 
 for half a century, during which period he 
 retained the favour of the imperial family 
 undiminished, his extraordinary talents 
 being admirably seconded by the calm tenor 
 of his private character, and his constant 
 observance of the conventional proprieties 
 of high life. He composed no less than 26 
 operas and 8 saered dramas, besides innu- 
 merable minor pieces. Tlie poetical cha- 
 racteristics of Metastasio are sweetness, cor- 
 rectness, purity, gentle pathos, and elevated 
 sentiment. He died in 1782. 
 
 METCALFE, Right Hon. Charles Thko- 
 PHiLUS, Lord, a distinguished officer in the 
 civil service of his country, was born at 
 Fern Hill, Berks, in 178.5. At the age of 15 
 he was sent out as a cadet in the East India 
 Company's service. In the first 7 years we 
 find him holding various important ofllces ; 
 and in 1808 he was selected by Lord Minto 
 to take charge of a difficult mission to the 
 court of Lahore, the object of which was to 
 secure the Sikh states, between the Sutlej 
 and Jumna rivers, from the grasp of Runjeet 
 Singh. In this he fully succeeded, the 
 treaty being concluded in 1809. He sub- 
 sequently filled several other higli offices of 
 trust : advancing from honour to honour, lie 
 was at length, in 1835, upon Lord W. Ben- 
 tick's resignation, provisionally appointed 
 governor-general, which office he held until 
 Lord Auckland's arrival, in the year follow- 
 ing. During this short period he effected 
 many bold and popular measures, not tlie 
 least of which was the liberation of the press 
 of India from all restrictions. This, how- 
 ever, gave umbrage to the directors, and 
 caused his resignation, and return to Europe. 
 A new sphere was now selected for the ex- 
 ercise of his abilities ; he was appointed 
 governor of Jamaica— a situation of peculiar 
 difficulty at that jieriod (the Negro Eman- 
 cipation Act having so recently been passed), 
 but wliicli he discharged greatly to the 
 satisfaction both of the government and the 
 colonists. After a two years' residence, the 
 climate proved so unfavourable to his health, 
 that he was compelled to resign. It was 
 not long, however, before he was selected 
 to undertake the government of Canada. In 
 this truly important and difficult post, his 
 judgment, firmness, and general statesman- 
 like qtualities were most advantageously 
 
 exerted ; but he had by this time become a 
 martyr to a most distressuigly painful and 
 dangerous disease ; and in 1845 he once 
 more returned to liis native country. He 
 had previously been raised to the peerage by 
 the title of baron Metcalfe. Died, Sept. 12. 
 1840, aged 61. 
 
 METELLI, AuGUsTiN, an eminent pain- 
 ter, was born at Bologna, in 1609. He ex- 
 celled in painting perspective and archi- 
 tecture ; and, in conjunction with Michael 
 Angelo, produced several great works. Me- 
 telli died at Madrid in 1660. 
 
 METELLUS, Q. C.*:cilius, an illustrious 
 Roman, who distinguished himself against 
 Jugurtha, king of Numidia, and thence 
 acquired the name of Numidicus. 
 
 METIUS, James, a native of Alkmaar, 
 in Holland, who invented telescopes about 
 
 1609. His brother, Adrian, was professor 
 
 of mathematics and medicine at Franeker, 
 where he died in 1636. He wrote "Doc- 
 trina Sphaericae," "AstronomiaB Universae 
 Institutio," " Arithmeticae et Geometricae 
 Practice," "Geometrices per Usum Cercini 
 nova Praxis," &c. 
 
 METKERKE, Sir Adolphus, a distin- 
 guished classical scholar, was born at 
 Bruges, in 1.528. He was sent on an embassy 
 by the United States to queen Elizabeth, 
 and died in London, in 1591. He was the 
 author of " De veteri et recta Pronuncia- 
 tione Linguae Graecae Commentarius ;" and 
 he edited the works of Bion and Moschus, 
 and translated Theocritus into Latin. 
 
 METO, or METON, an Athenian mathe- 
 matician, who flourished 432 years b. c. 
 In the first year of the 87th Olympiad, he 
 observed the solstice at Athens, and in- 
 vented the cycle of 19 years, to make the 
 solar and luiiar years begin at the same 
 time. This is now called the Golden Num- 
 ber, from its great use in the calendar. 
 
 METTRIE, JuLiEN Offrie de la, a 
 French writer, was born at St. Maloes, in 
 1709. He was a surgeon in the French 
 guards, and in that situation wrote an in- 
 famous book, called " The Natural History 
 of the Soul," for which he narrowly escaped 
 prosecution. His next work was a satire 
 against the faculty, under the title of " Pe- 
 nelope ; or, the Machiavel in Medicine," for 
 which he was obliged to remove to Holland, 
 where he created new enemies by a still 
 more atrocious book, entitled "L'Homme 
 Machine," which being ordered to be burnt, 
 he retired to Berlin, and was patronised by 
 Frederic the Great, whose opinions were so 
 congenial to the author's, that he composed 
 his funeral eulogy witli his own pen. Died, 
 1751. 
 
 METZU, Gabriel, a celebrated painter, 
 born at Leyden, in 1615, who took Gerard 
 Douw, Terbury, and Mieris for his models, 
 but adopted a more finished style. A lady 
 tuning her lute, and another washing her 
 hands in a silver basin held by her woman, 
 are among his best pieces. He usually re- 
 sided at Amsterdam, and died there in 1658. 
 
 MEULEN, Antoky Francis vax der, 
 was born at Brussels, in 1634. By his ta- 
 lents as a painter of battle-pieces he was 
 recommended to Louis XIV., who always 
 took hira on his expeditions, and often 
 
MEU] 
 
 ^ ^ctD mm'tjcrj^al JSiograpl^e. 
 
 [mic 
 
 pointed out the subjects which he desired 
 him to represent. The painter had thus 
 an opportunity of perfecting himself in 
 this department of his art, but he had fre- 
 quently to represent scenes which afforded 
 but little scope for the display of genius. 
 Died, 1690. 
 
 MEUNG, or MEUK, a French poet, sur- 
 named, on account of his lameness, Clopinel, 
 was born at Meuug sur Loire, about 1250. By 
 his poetical talents and vivacity, he rendered 
 himself a favourite at the court of Philip le 
 Bel. Having exercised his satiric powers 
 upon the ladles of the court, they were so 
 irritated against him, that a party of them 
 seized him, and resblved to give him a severe 
 flogging ; but his wit came to his assistance, 
 and he escai)ed castigation, by desiring the 
 most unchaste to give him the first blow. 
 He died about l'S2'2, He was the author of 
 several works, but his principal one was his 
 continuation of the "Koman de la Hose," 
 begun by William de Lorris, which com- 
 prises more than three parts of the whole. 
 
 MEURSIUS, John, a learned Dutch 
 critic, historian, and antiquary, was bom in 
 1579, at Losdun, near the Hague ; studied 
 at Leyden ; travelled over great part of the 
 Continent as tutor to the sons of the cele- 
 brated Barneveldt ; and on his return, after 
 a ten years' absence, was elected professor 
 of history and Greek at Leyden, with the 
 title of historiographer to the states-gene- 
 ral. In 1025 he removed to the professor- 
 ship of history and politics at Sora, in Den- 
 mark, where, also, he was appointed histo- 
 riographer royal. His works, which are 
 chiefly on Athenian history and manners, 
 form 12 vols. His " Eleusinia, sive de Ceteris 
 Eleusinae Sacro et Festo," to which all who 
 have since written upon that subject have 
 been greatly indebted, is a very valuable 
 
 work. Meursius died in 1639 His son 
 
 John, who died at an early age, in 105:3, was 
 the author of several valuable antiquarian 
 treatises. 
 
 MEUSEL, Joiijf George, a famous Ger- 
 man bibliographer, was bom in 1743, at 
 Eyrichshof, in Francouia. After completing 
 liis studies at the universities of Gottingen 
 and Halle, he was appointed, in 1709, pro- 
 fessor of history in the university of Er- 
 furt ; and he afterwards held a similar 
 station at Erlangen, where he remained till 
 his death, in 1820. He wrote statistical and 
 historical works, and compiled several col- 
 lections relating to the history of literature 
 and literary men ; but his principal works 
 are "Bibliotheca Historica," in 22 vols.; 
 and a " Gelehrte Teutschland," bibliographi- 
 cal dictionary of German living authors, in 
 16 vols. 
 
 MEXIA, Pedro, a chronicler to Charles 
 v., was bom at Seville. He was the author 
 of a " History of the Csesars, including the 
 German Emperors," " Silvia de Varia Lec- 
 cion," &c. Died, 1552. 
 
 MEYER, Felix, a German painter, was 
 bom in 1653. He painted some fine views 
 after nature in Italy and Switzerland, and 
 died in 1713. 
 
 MEYER, James, a Flemish historian, was 
 bom near Bailleul, in Flanders, in 1491, and 
 died in 1552. 
 
 MEYER, Jeremiah, a miniature painter, 
 was born at Tubingen, in 1735. He came 
 to England in 1749, with his father, a por- 
 trait painter, who placed him under Zinck, 
 the eminent painter in enamel, but he soon 
 surpassed him. In 1761, the Society of Arts 
 having offered a premium for the best draw- 
 ing of a profile of the king ; the prize was 
 gained by Meyer ; and he was afterwards 
 appointed painter in enamel to their majes- 
 ties. He was one of the founders of the 
 Royal Academy, and died in 1789. 
 
 MEYRICK, Sir Samuel Rush, an emi- 
 nent antiquary, was born at London, 1783. 
 After taking his degree of B. A. at Oxford, 
 he became an advocate in the ecclesiastical 
 and admiralty courts ; and soon began to 
 vary his professional avocations with those 
 ardiaological studies which formed the 
 chief boast and occupation of his life. He 
 contributed innumerable papers to the Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine; on all questions relating 
 to arms and armour his authority was un- 
 assailed ; and his " Critical Inquiry into 
 Ancient Armour," &c. has procured him a 
 high place among the most eminent anti- 
 quaries of his time. In 1832 he was created 
 a knight of the Guelphic order, and soon 
 afterwards dubbed a knight bachelor. Died, 
 1848. 
 
 MEZERAI, Francis Eudes de, a French 
 historian, was born in Lower Normandy, 
 in 1010, and educated at the university of 
 Caen ; on leaving which he obtained a mi- 
 litary employment, and served two or three 
 campaigns in Flanders. Having left the 
 army, he projected " The History of France," 
 in writing which he was liberally encouraged 
 by Cardinal Richelieu, and after its com- 
 pletion, in 1651, he obtained a pension from 
 the king. In 1608 he published an " Abridg- 
 ment " of his History ; and by the freedom 
 of some of his animadversions in it he dis- 
 pleased Colbert, and was deprived of his 
 pension. He died in 1083. Besides his 
 " History of France," he wrote a " Treatise 
 on the Origin of the French," and a " Con- 
 tinuation of the History of the Turks." As 
 an liistorian, he is considered more bold than 
 accurate, with a style harsh and incorrect, 
 but clear, energetic, and occasionally ex- 
 hibiting a vigorous conciseness. 
 
 MICIIAELIS, Joux David, a learned 
 orientalist and biblical critic, was born at 
 Halle, in Saxony, in 1717, and there edu- 
 cated. He visited England, and for a time 
 was preacher at the German chapel, St. 
 James's palace ; and on his return to Ger- 
 many was made professor of theology at 
 Gottingen ; was honoured with the order of 
 the polar star, conferred on him by the king 
 of Sweden ; and was made an aulic coun- 
 cillor of Hanover. Among the most valu- 
 able and best known of his works are his 
 " Introduction to the New Testament," 
 translated into English by Bishop Marsh, 
 and his " Commeutaries on the Law of 
 Moses." Died, 1791. 
 
 MICIIAELIS, JpHX Henry, a German 
 divine, was born at Kettenburg, in Hohen- 
 stein, in 1608. He was educated at Leipsic, 
 and next at Halle, where he taught Greek 
 and Hebrew. In 1099 he succeeded Francke 
 in the Greek professorship ; and, in 1707, 
 
MIc] 
 
 ^ |?el3) ^nitjcrj^al 2Siatj:rajp]^g. 
 
 [mig 
 
 was made librarian of the university. He 
 afterwards became professor of divinity and 
 the oriental languages. Died in 1738. 
 
 MICHAUX, Andre, a French traveller 
 and botanist ; author of a " History of 
 North American Oaks " and an " American 
 Flora." He was born, in 1746, at Satory, 
 near Versailles ; spent many years in jour- 
 neying through the United States ; and 
 died, in 1802, at Madagascar. 
 
 MICHELI, James Baktiiolomew, an 
 astronomer and mathematician, was born 
 at Geneva, in 1C92. He entered into the 
 military service of France, and became a 
 captain ; but on the peace of Utrecht he 
 retired to Switzerland, and devoted himself 
 to the sciences. He constructed a number 
 of charts, aud invented a new thermometer. 
 Several of his papers on astronomy, meteor- 
 ology, and mathematics are in the Me- 
 moirs of the Helvetic Society of Basle. 
 Died, 1760. 
 
 MICHELI, Peter Antiionv, a botanist, 
 ■was born at Florence, in 1679, and died there 
 in 1737. He superintended the botanical 
 garden founded by Cosmo de Medici, and 
 was the institutor of a society of natural 
 history at Florence. He published " Nova 
 Plantarum Genera." 
 
 MICKLE, William Julius, a poet, -was 
 born, in 1734, at Langholm, in Dumfries- 
 ehire. At first he engaged in business as a 
 brewer, but not succeeding, he went to 
 London, and devoted himself to literature. 
 In 1765 he was employed as corrector of the 
 press in the Clarendon printing-office at 
 Oxford, where he published a poem, called 
 "The Concubine," in imitation of Spenser, 
 which he afterwards re-published under the 
 title of "Sir Martyn." Hia principal pro- 
 duction, a translation of " The Lusiad " of 
 Camoens, appeared in 1775 ; prefixed to 
 which is a historical and critical Introduc- 
 tion, with a life of Camoens ; and the work 
 is executed in a highly creditable manner. 
 He was also the author of many of the finest 
 pieces in Evans's Old Ballads. In 1778 he 
 accompanied his friend Commodore John- 
 stone on a mission to Lisbon as secretary ; 
 and died in 1788. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Coin'ERS, a celebrated 
 divine and critic, was born at York, in 
 168;3, and educated at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, of which he became a fellow. In 
 1717 he was created D.D. by mandamus, 
 on which occasion he resisted the claim of 
 Dr. Bentley, regius professor, to exorbi- 
 tant fees. This occasioned a lawsuit, in 
 which Middleton triumtihed. A personal 
 enmity was the consequence of tliis atfair ; 
 aud when Bentley printed his proposals for 
 a new edition of the Greek Testament, Mid- 
 dleton attacked them with such force that 
 the design was abandoned. In 1724 he 
 visited Italy, and having a near observation 
 of the ecclesiastical pomp and ceremonies, 
 he wrote his famous " Letter from Rome," 
 to show that tlie religious rites of popery 
 were very similar to those of paganism. He 
 was subsequently Woodwardian professor of 
 mineralogy, and librarian, at Cambridge. 
 His greatest literary undertaking was "The 
 History of the Life of M. T. Cicero," 2 vols. 
 4to., which ranks among the classical pro- 
 
 ductions of our literature ; but his " Free 
 Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the 
 Church " brought on the author the impu- 
 tation of infidelity, and gave rise to much 
 vehement censure from a host of opponents. 
 He died in 1750. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Sir Hugh, was the son of 
 Richard Middleton, esq., governor of Den- 
 bigh castle, under Edward VI., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth. He entered into business in 
 London as a goldsmith ; and rendered the 
 most imijortant service in supplying the 
 city with water by uniting two streams in 
 Hertfordshire and Middlesex, and convey- 
 ing the same through various soils for a 
 course of sixty miles. This junction, called 
 the New River, was begun in 1608, and com- 
 pleted in 1613. Died, 1631. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Thomas Fansiiaw, first 
 bishop of Calcutta, was born at Kedleston, 
 in Derbyshire, in 1769 ; was educated at 
 Christ's Hospital, and at Pembroke Hall, 
 Cambridge ; and, after having held various 
 small livings, was, in 1809, collated to a 
 stall in the cathedral of Lincoln, which was 
 sliortly after followed by the rectory of Put- 
 tenham, Herts, and the archdeaconry of 
 Huntingdon. The government having de- 
 termined on providing for the spiritual wants 
 of British subjects in the east. Dr. Middleton 
 was selected as the fittest person to take the 
 important charge of bishop in that part of 
 the world ; he was accordingly consecrated 
 at Lambeth, and in November, 1814, he 
 arrived at Calcutta. In 1820 he laid the 
 foundation stone of a church at Calcutta, 
 near to which a school was erected for the 
 Christian poor ; and soon after arose, on the 
 bank of the river, a college for the liberal 
 education of youth. But in the midst of his 
 unwearied efforts for the propagation of 
 true religion, he was seized with a fever, 
 and died in 1822. Among his writings are, 
 " Sermons ; " an erudite work on the " Greek 
 Article ; " and " The Country Spectator." 
 He also for some time edited the new series of 
 " The British Critic." 
 
 MIDDLETON, William, a Welsh poet, 
 was born at Gwenynog, in Denbighshire, 
 and died about 1600. He served in the 
 armies of queen Elizabeth, and afterwards 
 commanded a ship of war. He wrote a 
 paraphrase of the Book of Psalms in Welsh 
 verse, and was also the author of the " Art 
 of Poetry." Died, 1595. 
 
 MIERIS, Fkancis, a celebrated painter, 
 born at Leyden, in 1635, and died in 1681. 
 He was a pupil of Gerard Douw, whose 
 delicate finish he rivalled, and whose co- 
 louring he was thought to excel. He had 
 two sons, John and William, both of whom 
 possessed considerable talent, and adopted 
 their father's style. 
 
 MIGNARD, Petek, sumamed the Ro- 
 man, an historical and portrait painter, was 
 born at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1610. He 
 studied at Rome ; and, during his residence 
 there of 22 years, enjoyed great favour from 
 the popes. At length Louis XIV. sent for 
 him to Paris ; appointed him his principal 
 painter, and director of the manufactories 
 of Seve and the Gobelins ; and ennobled 
 him. Mignard was on habits of intimacy 
 with the principal French wits, and was 
 
mig] 
 
 ^ fitbi Bnihtv^&l 3Si0grajp]^y. 
 
 [mil 
 
 beloved by them for his social disposition. 
 Died, 1695. 
 
 MIGNON, Abraham, a painter of Frank- 
 fort, was born in 1639, and died in 1679. He 
 excelled in the representation of flowers, 
 insects, and still life, which he painted with 
 exquisite delicacy. 
 
 MIGNOT, STEPHEif, a French ecclesiastic, 
 was born at Paris, in 1698. He received his 
 degree of D.D. in 1722 ; was afterwards ad- 
 mitted a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions ; and died in 1771. His works con- 
 sist of various histories relative to ecclesias- 
 tical disputes and church govenunent, and 
 an elaborate treatise in 5 vols., entitled 
 " Des Pr6t8 de Commerce." 
 
 MIGNOT, ViNCEXT, the nephew of "Vol- 
 taire, was born at Paris about 1730. With- 
 out being a priest, he obtained several be- 
 nefices, among which was the abbey of 
 Sellieres, in Champagne. He wrote " His- 
 toire de 1' Empire Ottoman, depuis son Ori- 
 gine jusqu'k la Paix de Belgrade, en 1740," 
 4 vols. &c. Died, 1790. 
 
 MILDMAY, Sir Walter, a statesman of 
 great integrity, who filled several situations 
 under the Tudors. Under Henry VIII. he 
 was employed in the court of augmentation ; 
 under Edward VI. he liad an oflSce in the 
 mint ; in queen Mary's reign he sat in par- 
 liament as member for Cumlierland ; and in 
 Elizabeth's, he was appointed cliancellor of 
 the exchequer ; an office which he held for 
 23 years, and dischargetl with zeal and im- 
 partiality. He was the founder of Emanuel 
 College, Cambridge ; and died in 1589. 
 
 MILHOUSE, RoBEKT, a weaver, whose 
 name we have to add to the many of those 
 who, born in humble station, and passing 
 through life in humble occupation, yet have 
 proved to be gifted in no ordinary degree 
 with the poet s power as well as witli the 
 poet's feeling. His " Vicissitude " and 
 " Sherwood Forest " contain passages of 
 which any poet might be proud ; but they, 
 and, indeed, all his productions, are greatly 
 marred by a melancholy and querulous tone, 
 scarcely justifiable in any one, but least of 
 all in the poet, whose very art should make 
 it impossible to look forth upon the world 
 and exclaim "all is barren." His produc- 
 tions made him many generous friends; and 
 if he was not rich, yet he escaped from the 
 worst sufferings too commonly attendant 
 upon the poet, who has only poetry upon 
 which to depend. Just previous to his death 
 he published " The Destinies of Man," a 
 poem in two parts, whicli contain some 
 splendid passages. Died, 1839. 
 
 MILL, James, an able writer and poli- 
 tical economist, was a native of Kincar- 
 dineshire, and born in 1774. • He first came 
 to London as a tutor in the family of Sir 
 John Stuart, but gave up that employment, 
 and devoted himself entirely to literary 
 pursuits. In 1818 he published his admi- 
 rable " History of British India ;" a work 
 of great research and powerful reasoning. 
 He also produced other works connected 
 with legislation and morals, viz. his " Ele- 
 ments of Political Economy," an " Analysis 
 of the Human Mind ;" and another, en- 
 titled "Prison and Prison Discii)line, Co- 
 lonies, Laws of Nations, and Education." 
 
 He was also the contributor of many ex- 
 cellent articles in the Encycloptedia Bri- 
 tannica, and in the Edinburgh, Westmin- 
 ster, and London Reviews. In morals and 
 legislation he was the powerful auxiliary 
 of Jeremy Bentham ; in political economy, 
 the ally of Adam Smith and Kicardo ; and 
 in metaphysics lie laboured to extend the 
 philosophy of Bacon, Locke, &c., and the 
 promoters of inductive science. He held 
 the office of chief examiner to the East 
 India Company. Died, 1836. 
 
 MILL, John, a learned divine and bibli- 
 cal critic, was born at Shapp, in Westmor- 
 land, in 1645 ; received his education at 
 Queen's College, Oxford ; became rector of 
 Bletchingdon, in Oxfordshire, prebendary of 
 Canterbury, and chaplain in ordinary to 
 Charles II. He was employed 30 years in 
 preparing tins valuable edition of the Greek 
 Testament, with various readings, for which 
 lie is said to have consulted upwards of 
 30,000 MSS. Died in 1707. 
 
 MUjLAR, John, a learned writer, was 
 born at Shotts, in Lanarkshire, in 1735, and 
 educated at Glasgow, where, by the inte- 
 rest of Lord Kaimes, in whose family he 
 had been a tutor, he obtained, in 1761, the 
 professorship of law, which he held for 
 nearly 40 years. He was the author of 
 " The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks in 
 Society " and *' An Historical View of the 
 English Government." 
 
 MILLER, Edward, Mub. Doc, was the 
 son of a pavior at Norwich, and bred to 
 the same business ; but having a dislike to 
 it, he absconded, and became a pupil of 
 Dr. Burney, who was then resident at Lynn. 
 In 1756 he became organist of the church of 
 Doncaster, where he remained till liis death, 
 in 1807. Dr. Miller published " Institutes 
 of Music," "The Elements of Thorough 
 Bass and Composition," " The Psalms of 
 David, set to Music, and arranged for every 
 Sunday in the Year," and " The History and 
 Antiquities of Doncaster." 
 
 MILLER, Jam£:s, a political and dra- 
 matic writer, was bom in Dorsetshire, in 
 1703. He received his education at Wad- 
 ham College, Oxford ; and while at the 
 university, he wrote a satiric piece, called 
 " The Humours of Oxford," which created 
 him many enemies, and hindered his pre- 
 ferment. He also published several poli- 
 tical pamphlets against Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole ; and also some plays, the principal of 
 which is the tragedy of " Mahomet." Died, 
 1744. 
 
 MILLER, Joseph, a witty actor, was 
 born in 1684, and was a favourite low co- 
 median about the time that Congreve's 
 plays were fashionable, to the success of 
 which, it is said, his humour greatly con- 
 tributed. He died in 1738. The compilation 
 called "Joe Miller's Jests" was the work of 
 John Motley. The name has, however, not 
 only been used to pass off the original stock, 
 but thousands of other jokes and witticisms, 
 manufactured long since the bones of Joe 
 were deposited in the churchyard of St. 
 Clements, in the Strand ; where a stone still 
 exists, with an epitaph written by his friend, 
 Stephen Duck. 
 
 MILLER, Philip, a gardener and bota- 
 
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 ^ ^m Winibtx^Kl 28t0B;raqp]^tn 
 
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 nist, was born in 1691. He succeeded his 
 father as gardener to the company of apo- 
 thecaries at Chelsea ; and soon distinguished 
 liimself by his knowledge of plants. He 
 communicated some papers to the Royal 
 Society, of which he became a member ; 
 and in 1730 he published " A Catalogue of 
 Trees, Shrubs, Plants, and Flowers in the 
 Gardens near London." This was followed 
 by his " Gardener's Dictionary ; " a work 
 which is highly eulogised by Linnajus, and 
 through which its author obtained from 
 foreigners the appellation of llortulnnorum 
 Princeps. In 17.55 appeared "Figures of 
 Plants," adapted to the dictionary, in 2 
 vols, folio. His other works are, the " Gar- 
 dener's Kalendar " and " The Gardener's 
 and Florist's Dictionary." 
 
 MILLES, Dr. Jeremiah, an eminent 
 English divine and antiquary ; born, 1713 ; 
 died, 1784. He was ardently engaged in tlie 
 Chattertonian controversy, and publislied 
 the whole of the supposed Rowley's poems, 
 with a glossary. 
 
 MILLEVOYE, Charles Hubekt, a 
 French poet, was born at Abbeville, in 1782, 
 and displayed poetical talents at a very 
 early age. Many of his pieces, particularly his 
 elegiac compositions, are expressed by great 
 feeling, elegance, and animation. Died, 181(5. 
 
 MILLIN, AuBiN Louis, an eminent ar- 
 chaeologist and naturalist, was born at Paris 
 in 1759. In the reign of Napoleon he made 
 two antiquarian researches through France 
 and Italy, where he discovered several re- 
 mains which had been previously overlooked. 
 He edited the "Magazin Encyclopedique " 
 nearly twenty years, and was one of the 
 founders of the" LinnaBan Society in Paris. 
 His works are very numerous : among them 
 the principal are, " Dictionnaire des Beaux 
 Arts " and " Gallerie Mythologique." His 
 lectures, which were fashionably attended 
 contributed, with his works, to diffuse a 
 taste for the study of antiquities in France. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 MILLOT, Claude Franoois Xavier, a 
 French historian, was born at Besangon in 
 1726. He entered into the society of Jesuits, 
 but quitted it in consequence of being illi- 
 berally treated, and officiated as a preacher 
 at Versailles and Luneville. For some time 
 he held the professorship of history at Parma; 
 but relinquished it to become preceptor to the 
 Duke d'Enghien. His principal works are, 
 "Elements of the History of France," 3 vols. ; 
 "Elements of the History of England," 3 
 vols. ; Elements of Universal History," 9 
 vols. ; " History of the Troubadors," 3 vols., 
 and " Political and Military Memoirs to- 
 wards the History of Louis XIV. and Louis 
 XV.," 6 vols. 
 
 MILLS, Charles, an historian, was bom 
 at Greenwich, in 1788. He served his time 
 as clerk to a solicitor, but relinquislied his 
 legal pursuits for otliers more congenial to 
 his tastes. In 1817, he published his " His- 
 tory of Mohammedanism," which was suc- 
 ceeded by the " History of the Crusades," the 
 "Travels of Theodore Ducas," and the 
 " History of Chivalry." 
 
 MILM.^N, Sir Francis, M.D., F.RS., an 
 eminent physician, was the son of a clergy- 
 man in Devonshire, and born in 1740. He 
 
 was designed for the church, but after taking 
 the degree of M. A. at Oxford, he directed 
 his attention to physic, graduated as M. D., 
 travelled on Dr. Radcliffe's foundation, and 
 at Rome attended the Duke of Gloucester. 
 This circumstance fixed his professional 
 pursuits, and on his return to England, he 
 became a member of the Royal Society, and 
 a fellow of the College of Physicians. He 
 was afterwards nominated physician to the 
 royal household, which procured his eleva- 
 tion to the baronetage. Sir Francis was the 
 author of " Animadversiones de Natura Hy- 
 dropis ejusque Curatione " and " A Treatise 
 on the Source of the Scurvy, and Putrid 
 Fever." Died, 1821. 
 
 MILNE, Colin, a divine and naturalist, 
 was born at Aberdeen, and educated at the 
 Marischal College. Having been tutor to 
 Lord Algernon Percy, he obtained, through 
 the interest of the Northumberland family, 
 the rectory of North Chapel, in Essex. His 
 " Botanical Dictionary," " Indigenous Bo- 
 tany," and " Institutions of Botany," are all 
 in high repute with those who are versed in 
 the science. Died, 1815. 
 
 MILNE, Joshua, author of the celebrated 
 " Treatise on Annuities and Assurances," was 
 formerly a clerk in the banking house of the 
 Messrs. Currie previous to his becoming con- 
 nected with the Sun Assurance Company, to 
 wliich he performed the duties of actuary for 
 upwards of 30 years. He contributed various 
 memoirs of great practical value in connec- 
 tion with the subject of mortality and its ap- 
 plications, to theLEncyclop»dia Britannica ; 
 but his chief work, and that by which he will 
 be long and honourably remembered, is the 
 one to which we have already adverted. 
 This, although published so long ago as the 
 year 1815, and notwithstanding the disad- 
 vantage of an involved and awkward nota- 
 tion, still maintains its place as the most satis- 
 factory and complete treatise on the subject 
 in this, or probably in any other, language. 
 To Mr. Milne the community is indebted 
 for the construction of the tables founded on 
 the data of tlie mortality collected at Car- 
 lisle by Dr. Heysham, which are now gene- 
 rally adopted as the basis of calculation in 
 life-assurance offices, and which have ex- 
 ercised a most important influence on the 
 growth of life-assurance in Great Britain. 
 He left behind him the most complete col- 
 lection extant on subjects connected with 
 the statistics of vitality. Died, 1851, aged 78. 
 
 MILNER, John, a celebrated Catholic 
 divine and writer on ecclesiastical antiqui- 
 ties and theology, was born in London in 
 1752. His education commenced at the 
 schools of Sedgley Park, near Wolverhamp- 
 ton, and Edgbaston, near Birmingham, and 
 he finished his studies at Douay. In 1777 
 he was ordained a priest, and commenced 
 his pastoral duties, in 1779, at the Catholic 
 chapel, Winchester, whither he had gone to 
 administer spiritual aid to the French pri- 
 soners confined there. In 1782 he published 
 a funeral discourse for Bishop Challoner, 
 which was his first production. This was 
 followed, in 1785, by " A Letter to the Author 
 of a Book, called a Candid and Impartial 
 Sketch of the Life and Government of Pope 
 Clement XIV." Dr. Milner's attachment 
 
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 <xi Jleiu SInilJcriSal 38i0flrHp]^n. 
 
 [mil 
 
 to the study of ancient ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture led him to an attentive observation 
 of the remains of Catholic antiquity with 
 which Winchester abounds ; and the learn- 
 ing and skill which he displayed procured 
 for him the honour of admission into the 
 Royal Society of Antiquaries, in 1790. He 
 contributed many valuable communications 
 to the Archteologia ; and, in 179H, he evinced 
 his zeal for the preservation of the relics of 
 former ages by the publication of a" Disser- 
 tation on the modern Style of altering Ca- 
 thedrals, as exemplified in the Cathedral of 
 Salisbury." The same year he published 
 his " History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and 
 Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester," 
 2 vols. 4to. ; and, subsequently, a "Treatise 
 on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of Eng- 
 land during the Middle Ages." Some observ- 
 ations on the character of Bishop Uoadley, 
 and other subjects in the " History of Win- 
 chester," gave offence to Dr. Sturges, a pre- 
 bendary of the cathedral, who animadverted 
 on them in a tract entitled " Reflections on 
 Popery." Dr. Milner replied to this attack 
 in his "Letters to a Prebendary," which, 
 like his writings in general, display great 
 learning, ability, and acuteness, with an 
 unflinching zeal for the doctrines of the papal 
 church. In 1803 he was appointed vicar- 
 apostolic in the midland district, with the 
 title of " bishop of Castabala." In 1814 lie 
 visited Rome, where he remained about 
 twelve months. In 1818 he published a 
 treatise, entitled " The End of Religious 
 Controversy," containing a defence of those 
 articles of the Catholic faith usually regarded 
 as most objectionable by Protestants ; and 
 he continued not onlj^ in the active exercise 
 of his prelatical duties, but occasionally to 
 publish theological and controversial trea- 
 tises till a short time previous to his death, 
 which took place in 1826. 
 
 MILNER, Joseph, a Calvinistic divine, 
 was born at Leeds in 1744 ; received his edu- 
 cation there, and at Catherine Hall, Cam- 
 bridge ; was successively master of Hull 
 Grammar School, evening lecturer and 
 vicar of the Holy Trinity. He was the 
 author of a "History of the Church of 
 Christ," and " Sermons." Died, 1797. 
 
 MILNER, Isaac, brother of the preceding, 
 an episcopal divine, a mathematician, and 
 natural philosopher, was born at Leeds in 
 1751. In his youth he was a weaver ; but 
 availing himself of his leisure hours in ac- 
 quiring a knowledge of the classics and ma- 
 thematics, he made such progress as to be- 
 come usher to his brother at Hull. He 
 afterwards entered as a sizer at Queen's 
 College, Cambridge, became senior wrangler 
 in 1774, and gained the first mathematical 
 prize. In 1783 he was chosen professor of 
 natural philosophy, president of his college 
 in 1788, and about the same time he obtained 
 the deanery of Carlisle. He was subse- 
 quently vice-chancellor of the university, 
 and Lucasian professor of mathematics. Dr. 
 Milner wrote against Marsh, in favour of the 
 Bible Society ; and contributed many ex- 
 cellent papers on chemistry and natural phi- 
 losoiihy to tlie Philosophical Transactions. 
 
 MILO, one of the most celebrated Grecian 
 athletes, was a native of Crotona, in Italy, 
 
 and a scholar of Pythagoras. Many instances 
 of liis prodigious strength are cited, of which 
 one will be sufficient to notice here, viz. 
 that he once carried a bull to the sacrifice 
 on his shoulders, and killed it with a blow 
 of his fist. 
 
 MILORADOWITCH, Michael Andre- 
 wiTCU, Count of, a distinguished Russian 
 officer, was born in 1770. He entered the 
 service at au early age, and rose rapidly ; 
 in k799 he commanded the vanguard of Su- 
 warrow's army in Italy: acted as lieutenant- 
 general in the battle of Austerlitz ; fought 
 victoriously against the Turks, in 1808 ; and 
 was of Ihe greatest service in the campaigns 
 of 1812. 1813, and 1814. After the peace, he 
 was appointed military commandant of St. 
 Petersburgh ; and, iu 1825, at the accession 
 of the emperor Nicholas, he was killed by a 
 pistol-shot. 
 
 MILTIADES, an Athenian general, who 
 lived about B.C. 500, and has been immor- 
 talised by defeating the Persians at Mara- 
 thon. This hero, who had saved his country, 
 failed in an attack on Paros, was compelled 
 to refwnd the expenses of the expedition, 
 and died of his wounds in prison. 
 
 MILTON, Joiix, the most illustrious of 
 English poets, was the son of a scrivener in 
 liOndon, and born in Bread Street, in 1608. 
 From St. Paul's School he went to Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, where he took his de- 
 grees in arts, being designed for the church ; 
 but not having an inclination to that calling, 
 he returned to his father, who had retired 
 from business with a good fortune, and set- 
 tled at Horton, in Buckinghamshire. Here 
 our poet wrote his " Comus," "L' Allegro," 
 " 11 Penseroso," and " Lycidas," poems of 
 such merit as would have alone immortalised 
 his name. In 1638 he travelled into France 
 and Italy, and on his return to England 
 settled in London. The troubles breaking 
 out between the king and parliament, Milton 
 engaged as a political writer on the popular 
 side ; and having a great animosity to the 
 hierarchy, he published some virulent pam- 
 phlets against the bishops. In 1643 he mar- 
 ried the daughter of Richard Powell, esq., a 
 magistrate iu Oxfordshire. The father of 
 the lady being a jovial country gentleman 
 and a royalist, the residence of her husband 
 so disgusted the bride, that in less than a 
 month, under the pretence of a visit, she left 
 him, and remained for the rest of the summer 
 with her parents. Milton became incensed, 
 and regarding her conduct as a desertion of 
 the marriage contract, he sought to punish 
 it by repudiation ; and to this is to be at- 
 tributed his treatises on the subject of " Di- 
 vorce." His wife's friends, however, brought 
 about a reconciliation. He continued an 
 ardent champion for the rebellious party, 
 even after the murder of Charles I., which 
 sanguinary deed he vindicated in his "Tenure 
 of Kings and Magistrates ; " but he was not 
 disinterested in this, for the parliament re- 
 warded him with lOOOZ., and soon afterwards 
 nominated him Latin secretary to the new 
 council of state. He also wrote with great 
 asperity against the king's book of prayers 
 and meditations, entitled " Icon Basilike." 
 The treatise of Milton was called " Icono- 
 clastes, or the Image Breaker ; " in which 
 
he calumniated the king for having made 
 use of a prayer taken from "Sidney's Ar- 
 cadia." He was next employed to answer 
 the treatise of Salmasius, entitled " Defensio 
 Regia, or a Defence of the late King." The 
 reply of Milton had for its title "Defensio 
 pro Populo Anglicano ; " and it was observed 
 by Hobbes, in regard to the two disputants, 
 that he did not know whose style was best, 
 or whose arguments were worst. About this 
 time he was wholly deprived of his sight, 
 owing to a natural weakness, and intense 
 application to his studies. In 1652 he lost 
 his wife, and soon afterwards took another. 
 Though he was a determined republican, 
 and wrote with energy and intemperance 
 against monarchial government, " the very 
 trappings of which," he said, " would sup- 
 port a commonwealth," yet he readily sub- 
 mitted to the usurpation of Cromwell, to 
 whom he became Latin secretary. Milton 
 endeavoured to prevent the Restoration ; 
 which event he had undoubted cause to 
 dread, considering the active part taken by 
 him in the rebellion. And when the ancient 
 constitution was re-established, he was ex- 
 cepted out of the act of indemnity, on which 
 he kept himself concealed for some time. 
 By the kindness, however, of Sir William 
 Davenant and others, he obtained liis par- 
 don ; soon after which he lost his second 
 wife, and was hot long without another. In 
 the time of the plague he removed with his 
 family to Chalfont, in Buckinghamshire, 
 where he completed his "Paradise Lost," 
 which was printed first in 1667. For this 
 immortal work he had only 151., and that 
 by instalments. For the idea of it he is said 
 to have been indebted to an Italian drama 
 on the Fall of Man ; and it is certain that 
 he had himself an intention at first of writing 
 only a tragedy on the same subject. As the 
 work grew under his hand, his soaring genius 
 gave it the form and consistence, the variety 
 and elegance, of an epic poem. After this he 
 engaged in another, called "Paradise Re- 
 gained ; " the occasion of which was as fol- 
 lows : John Elwood, the Quaker, who was 
 his amanuensis, calling upon him at Chalfont, 
 and the conversation turning upon Milton's 
 great work, Elwood observed, "Tliou hast 
 said much upon Paradise Lost, but what 
 hast thou to say upon Paradise Found ! " 
 Milton paused, and the next time they met, 
 he showed Elwood the latter poem, saying, 
 " This is owing to you." The " Paradise 
 Regained," though possessing many beauties, 
 is in all respects inferior to the " Paradise 
 Lost ; " yet it is remarkable that the author 
 gave it the preference. Milton died at his 
 house in Bunhill Row, in 1674, and lies in- 
 terred in the parish church of St. Giles, 
 Cripplegate, wliere there is a monument to 
 his memory, and another in Westminster 
 Abbey, erected by William Benson. Besides 
 the poems mentioned above, Milton wrote a 
 drama on the Greek model, entitled " Sam- 
 son Agonistes," which possesses uncommon 
 beauties, though not adapted to theatrical 
 representation. He alse wrote a " History 
 of England to the Conquest," and several 
 tracts. In his youth, Milton was distin- 
 guished for personal beauty ; his habits of 
 life were those of a student and philosopher, 
 
 being strictly sober and temperate ; and his 
 chief relaxation consisted of music and con- 
 versation. Though warm and acrimonious 
 in controversy, and possessing lordly notions 
 of his rights as the head of a family, he is 
 said to have been of a serene and cheerful 
 temper, and particularly urbane in his in- 
 tercourse with society. But whatever may 
 be thouglit of his domestic virtues, there can 
 be but one opinion with regard to the sub- 
 limity of liis genius, and the extent of his 
 erudition. 
 
 MIMNERMUS, a Greek amatory poet of 
 the 6th century b. c, who is said to have in- 
 vented the pentameter measure ; but only a 
 few fragments of his poems are in existence. 
 
 MINA, Don Francisco Esroz y, a dis- 
 tinguished Spanish general, who, for a long 
 time, was commander-in-chief of the Cata- 
 lonian army, was a native of Navarre, and 
 bom in 1782, at Ydocin, near Pampeluna. 
 He first distinguished himself in guerilla 
 warfare, and the incessant activity and ad- 
 mirable presence of mind he displayed. 
 Having co-operated in the blockade of Pam- 
 peluna, and recovered Saragossa and several 
 otlier places, he had the mortification to 
 find that, at the general peace in 1814, he 
 had been labouring only to re-establish the 
 despotic policy of Ferdinand VII., and he 
 made an ineffectual effort in the cause of 
 freedom to gain over the garrison of Pampe- 
 luna. He then sought an asylum in France ; 
 but whilst resident in the French capital, he 
 was arrested by a commissary of police, em- 
 ployed by the Spanish ambassador. On this 
 occasion the conduct of Louis XVIII. was 
 most honourable ; he dismissed the com- 
 missary, insisted upon the ambassador being 
 recalled, and not only released Mina, but 
 granted him a pension of 1000 francs. When 
 the army of Cadiz, in 1822, unfurled the 
 standard of freedom, by proclaiming the 
 constitution of 1812, Mina hastened to Na- 
 varre, and was advancing against Pampe- 
 luna at the head of a few hundreds of fol- 
 lowers, when he was informed that the king 
 had accepted the constitution. He was sub- 
 sequently appointed captain-general of the 
 tliree armies of Navarre, Catalonia, and Ar- 
 ragon ; but when, by the intervention of 
 France, Ferdinand was again .enabled to 
 discard his professed adherence to the con- 
 stitution, Mina left Spain for England, and 
 arrived at Plymouth, Nov. 30. 1823. After 
 the accession of Christina, he took an active 
 part against Don Carlos ; but many of his 
 measures partook of the general sanguinary 
 character of this unnatural warfare, and 
 tended to tarnish the laurels he had formerly 
 so nobly won. Died, 1836. 
 
 MINOT, Laitbence, an English poet, who 
 flourished in the 14th century, whose works 
 lay in obscurity, as well as his name, till 
 accident discovered them to Mr. Tyrwhitt, 
 wliile he was preparing his edition of Chaucer. 
 A complete edition of them was published 
 by Ritson, in 1794. 
 
 MINUCIUS FELIX, Marcus, a rhetori- 
 cian and writer of the 3rd century, who is 
 said to have been a native of Africa, and a 
 lawyer by profession. He lived at Rome, 
 where he wrote a dialogue in defence of 
 Christianity, entitled " Octavius," which 
 
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 ^ iSetu muibn-M 28i0firap]bl?» 
 
 [mib 
 
 possesses very considerable merit, and was 
 long ascribed to Amobius, till Baudouin 
 discovered the real author in 1.560. Another 
 
 i treatise, " De Fato," has also been ascribed 
 
 I to him. 
 
 i MIRABAUD, Jean Baptiste de, per- 
 petual secretary to the French academy, 
 was at first a member of the congregation 
 of the Oratory, and afterwards served in the 
 army. His works are, translations of" Tasso's 
 Jerusalem," and " Ariosto's Orlando," into 
 French ; " Alphabet de la Fee Gracieuse," 
 " Le Monde, son Origine, son Antiquity," 
 " Sentimens des Philosophes sur la Nature 
 de I'Anie." In 1770 was published under 
 his name, but falsely, an atheistical book, 
 entitled the "System of Nature," in 2 
 vols., the real authors being Diderot and 
 D'Holbach. 
 
 MIRABEAU, Victor Riquetti, Marquis 
 de, descended from an ancient family in 
 Provence, but originally of Naples. He was 
 one of the principal propagators of the 
 doctrines of the French political econo- 
 mists, and wrote several books in support 
 of them. His chief work is entitled "Ami 
 des Hommes." Born, 171.5 ; died, 1789. 
 
 MIRABEAU, HoNOEB Gabriel Ri- 
 QDETTi, Count de, one of the most cele- 
 brated characters of the French revolution, 
 was the son of the preceding, and born at 
 Bignon, in Provence, in 174'J. On leaving 
 school, he entered the military service ; and 
 his intercourse with young and dissipated 
 officers familiatised liim to all their vices. 
 His active mind, however, could not remain 
 idle, and he read all the books which he 
 could on the military art. He also fell in 
 love, and his passion was marked by all the 
 impetuosity of a strong and wild character. 
 His fatlier, who systematically thwarted 
 his inclinations, now procured his confine- 
 ment in a fortress on the island of Rh^. 
 After his liberation, he went, as a volunteer, 
 to Corsica, distinguished himself, and ob- 
 tained a commission as captain of dragoons ; 
 but his father refusing to purchase him a 
 regiment, he abandoned, though unwillingly, 
 the military profession. In 1772 he espoused 
 a rich heiress of Aix, but he soon squandered 
 away the fortune he received with her, and 
 plunged himself in debt. He was confined 
 in different prisons, and on obtaining his 
 liberty, eloped to Holland with the wife of 
 the president Mounnier. For this he was 
 afterwards imprisoned in the castle of Vin- 
 cennes, and remained there three years and 
 a half. He then instituted an ineffectual 
 lawsuit against his wife, who obtained a 
 separation from him. In 1784 he visited 
 London, and afterwards Berlin ; and he was 
 variously employed in literary quarrels and 
 occupations till the commencement of the 
 French revolution. This offered Mirabeau 
 an ample element for his activity. Imbibing 
 the delusive doctrine of equality, and being 
 disappointed in his attempts to become a 
 deputy to the states-general from the no- 
 blesse of Provence, he opened a shop, over 
 the door of which was inscribed, " Mirabeau, 
 dealer in drapery." He was now elected 
 deputy to the third estate of Aix, and by 
 the courtiers he was termed the plebeian 
 count. In this new capacity, his extraor- 
 
 COl 
 
 dinary eloquence, his talent, and his bold- 
 ness, soon gave him irresistible weight in 
 the assembly, and rendered him the idol of 
 the people. At length he entered into a 
 treaty with the court, to use his influence 
 in stopping the progress of republicanism. 
 He required a pension of 40,000 francs a 
 week, and the promise of such a diplomatic 
 or ministerial post as he should select, after 
 tlie re-establishment of the royal authority. 
 These demands were conceded, and he re- 
 ceived the pension for several weeks. It 
 was agreed that the dissolution of the as- 
 sembly should be effected by an expression 
 of the will of the nation, and that a new 
 assembly should be convoked, composed of 
 men of more moderate opinions. Before, 
 however, he could carry his intentions into 
 effect, a sudden illness terminated his exist- 
 ence in 1791. His remains were honoured 
 with a public funeral, and deposited in the 
 Pantheon. His principal works are, "A 
 Comparison between the Great Conde and 
 Scipio Africanus," " History of Prussia under 
 Frederic tlie Great," 8 vols. ; " Original 
 Letters containing an Account of his Life 
 and Amours," 4 vols. ; " Secret History of 
 the Court of Berlin," 2 vols., which book 
 was burnt by the common executioner ; 
 " On Lettres de Cachet," and an " Essay on 
 Despotism." Mirabeau was the creature of 
 his passions ; yet he possessed an energy and 
 decision whicli yielded to no opposition, and 
 an audacity of purpose which shrank before 
 no difficulties. 
 
 MIRABEAU, Boniface Riquetti, Vis- 
 count, younger brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1754 ; served in the French army 
 against the English in America, but did not 
 imbibe revolutionary principTfes therefrom. 
 Being chosen a deputy to the states-general 
 from the nobility of Limousin, he constantly 
 resisted the re-union of the three orders, 
 defended the rights of the clergy, and op- 
 posed the progress of the revolution. In 
 1790 he emigrated to Germany, and raising 
 a legion of loyalists, he joined the Prince of 
 Conde, and served under him with great 
 reputation ; but he was unequal to the 
 fatigues to which he was exposed, and died 
 in 1792. 
 
 MIRANDA, Don Francesco, a general 
 in tlie service of the French republic, and 
 the earliest martyr in the cause of freedom 
 in South America, was born at Caraccas, of 
 an ancient Spanish family. He presented to 
 different courts plans for the emancipation 
 of the Spanish American colonies, and with 
 this view went to Paris in 1792, where he 
 connected himself with Petion and the Gi- 
 rondists. While waiting for an opportunity 
 to commence operations in America, Miranda 
 was appointed general of division under 
 Dumouriez. Some time after he was im- 
 prisoned in consequence of his political in- 
 trigues. In 1794 he was liberated ; but a 
 few months only had elapsed before he re- 
 ceived orders to quit France for renewed 
 machinations. This order he evaded ; but 
 a second sentence of deportation, in 1797, 
 obliged him to take refuge in England. In 
 1803 he returned to Paris, and was again 
 banished, for taking part in an opposition 
 to the first consul. Miranda now devoted 
 
mir] 
 
 ^ jpeiu 2anibn;SaI ^Ktograplbi). 
 
 [mit 
 
 himself, with all the energy of his character, 
 to the accomplishment of a long cherished 
 scheme, for overthrowing tlie Spanish do- 
 minion in America. Having procured some 
 secret assistance, he sailed from New York 
 in 1806, with one ship and a number of vo- 
 lunteers, and landed in Venezuela ; but his 
 attempts to rouse the inhabitants were al- 
 together unsuccessful, and he found himself 
 compelled to re-embark. In 1810 he re- 
 newed his attempt with more success, but 
 was finally obliged to capitulate to the 
 Spanish general Monteverde. who, in viola- 
 tion of the articles of surrender, treated him 
 as a prisoner. Miranda was sent to Spain, 
 and confined in the dungeons of the Inqui- 
 sition at Cadiz, where, in 1816, he died, after 
 an imprisonment of four years. 
 
 MIRANDOLA, Giovanni Pico dklla, 
 count and prince of Concordia, one of the 
 brightest ornaments of literature in the 15th 
 century, was born in 1463. In his youth he 
 gave astonishing proofs of his genius ; and, 
 when little more than 20, he set up in all 
 the universities of Italy a number of difficult 
 problems in the sciences, which lie engaged 
 publicly to defend. This extraordinary 
 young man died in 1494 at Florence, where 
 he had resided some time, on terms of in- 
 timacy with the most learned and distin- 
 guished men of the age, particularly Lorenzo 
 de Medici and Politian. 
 
 MISSON, Maximilian, was an eminent 
 French lawyer, who distinguished himself 
 b}' his pleadings before the parliament of 
 Paris, in behalf of the Protestants. He re- 
 tired to England on the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, and afterwards travelled 
 as tutor to an English nobleman. He pub- 
 lished " A Voyage to Italy," 3 vols. ; " A 
 Tour in England," and " Le Theatre sacr*? 
 des Cevennes," in which the author betrayed 
 his credulity and fanaticism by espousing 
 tlie cause of the French prophets. He died 
 in London, in 1701. 
 
 MITAN, James, an liistorical engraver 
 of some celebrity. Born in London, 1776 ; 
 died, 1822. 
 
 MITCHELL, Andrew, a British admiral, 
 born in Scotland about 17.57. In 1776 he 
 accompanied Sir Edward Vernon to India, 
 as a midshipman ; and while there his ser- 
 vices were such that he was rapidly advanced 
 to the rank of post-captain. On the com- 
 mencement of hostilities with the French 
 republic, he was appointed to the command 
 of the Asia, of 64 guns, and next to the Im- 
 pregnable, of 90. In 1795 he was made rear- 
 admiral ; and, in 1799, soon after his promo- 
 tion as vice-admiral of the white, he joined 
 Lord Duncan off the coast of Holland, and 
 entering the Texel, the Dutch fleet surren- 
 dered to him without firing a shot. He was 
 now created a knight of the Bath ; in 1802 
 he was appointed commander-in-cliief off 
 the coast of America ; and he died, at Ber- 
 muda, in 1806. 
 
 MITCHELL, Sir David, an eminent 
 naval commander in the reign of William 
 III., was descended from a respectable fa- 
 mily in Scotland. He commanded tlie Eli- 
 zabeth of 70 guns at the battle off Beachy 
 Head, where he behaved with great gal- 
 lantry. In 1693 he was made rear-admiral 
 
 of the blue, and in 1694 had the honour of 
 knightliood conferred upon him. He was 
 employed in bringing over to England and 
 carrying back Peter the Great, czar of Mus- 
 covy, and was also sent on a diplomatic 
 mission to Holland. He died in 1719. 
 
 MITCHELL, Joseph, a dramatic writer, 
 was born in Scotland, in 1684. He was 
 patronised by Sir Robert Walpole, but died 
 poor, owing to his extravagance and dissi- 
 pated liabits, in 1738. He wrote " The Fatal 
 Extravagance," a tragedy ; " The High- 
 land Fair," a ballad opera; and "Poems," 
 in 2 vols. 
 
 MITCHELL, Thomas, a distinguished 
 philologist, was born in London, in 1783, and 
 educated at Christ's Hospital and at Cam- 
 bridge, and subsequently devoted himself 
 chiefly to private tuition and writing for the 
 press. He contributed several excellent 
 papers to the Quarterly, upon subjects con- 
 nected with Greek manners and literature ; 
 and occasionally superintended the classical 
 works that emanated from the Clarendon 
 press ; but his chief title to fame rests upon 
 his admirable translation of the Plays of 
 Aristophanes into English verse. Died, 1845. 
 
 MITFORD, George, M. D., a descendant 
 of the ancient house of Mitford, of Mitford 
 Castle, near Morpeth, was born at Hexham, 
 in 1760, and married the only daughter of 
 Dr. Russell, rector of Ashe, Hants. Though 
 he practised as a physician for a few years 
 in Reading, his strong preference for country 
 sports and occupations induced him to retire 
 from tlie profession, and he became distin- 
 guislied for his benevolence and hospitality 
 as a country gentleman, and for his intelli- 
 gence and activity as a magistrate. He was 
 for a long period chairman of the Reading 
 bench of magistrates, performing the duties 
 of that station in a manner so able, ingenious, 
 and independent, as to obtain for him a well- 
 earned popularity. He had one daughter, 
 the celebrated Mary Russell Mitford, the au- 
 thoress of "Our Village," whose truthful 
 and artless delineations of country life and 
 manners have secured for her an enduring 
 fame. Dr. Mitford died Dec. 10. 1842, aged 82. 
 
 MITFORD, John, a miscellaneous writer, 
 better known by the familiar appellation of 
 " Jack Mitford." At an early age he entered 
 the royal navy, where lie attained the rank 
 of lieutenant, fought under Hood and Nel- 
 son, and at the end of the war retired on 
 half-pay. But having, during the early 
 investigation into the conduct of queen 
 Caroline, been detected as the fabricator of 
 some letters, and thereby lost not only his 
 rank and emoluments, but also his station 
 in society, he had to depend for support on 
 his literary talents. It appears that his 
 versatility was such, that it was a matter of 
 little consequence to him, whether his theme 
 were grave or gay, while the facility with 
 which he wrote verse was really extra- 
 ordinary.: tlius we find him editing the 
 Scourge' and Bon Ton Magazines, and other 
 works of a similar cast, wliile he edified 
 the world by his contributions to religious 
 periodicals, or charmed it by those lyric 
 eflTusions, which were graced by the classic 
 typography of a St. Giles's press, and ren- 
 dered popular by the sweet voices of itinerant 
 
mit] 
 
 ^ iSitfsy Winibtr^nX Miatira^f)v, 
 
 [mol 
 
 vocalists. His principal work is entitled 
 "Johnny Newcome in the Navy," a poem 
 descriptive of sea life. He died in St. Giles's 
 workliouse, Dec. 1831. 
 
 MITFOKD, JouN Fkeeman. See Redes- 
 dale. 
 
 MITFORD, William, an eminent his- 
 torical and philological writer, was bom at 
 London, in 1734 ; studied at Queen's College, 
 Oxford, and then at the Middle Temple ; but 
 he early quitted the profession of the law, 
 and obtained a commission in the Hampshire 
 militia, of which he rose to be colonel. He 
 was, successively, M.P. for Newport, in 
 Cornwall, Beeralston, and New Romney. 
 I[e was professor of ancient history at the 
 Royal Academy ; and, besides his principal 
 work, " The History of Greece," he published 
 " An Essay on the Harmony of Language," 
 " A Treatise on the Military Force, and 
 particularly the Militia of this Kingdom," 
 " Observations on the History of Cliristi- 
 anity," &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 MITHRIDATES, king of Pontus, sur- 
 named the Great, ascended the throne at the 
 a^e of 13 years, d. c. 124 ; and when he became 
 ot age, travelled through Asia, partly to 
 learn the customs, laws, manners, and lan- 
 guages of the inhabitants, and partly to 
 examine the territories of his neighbours of 
 which he meditated the conquest. After an 
 absence of three years, he returned, attacked 
 Paphlagouia, and divided it with his ally, 
 the king of Bithynia. The Romans, who 
 had declared the country free, threatened 
 him with a war ; but Mithridates was so 
 little alarmed at this menace, that he even 
 possessed himself of Galatia, which had 
 placed itself under the protection of Rome. 
 After various acts of perfidy and aggression, 
 Mithridates declared himself against the 
 Romans, suddenly fell upon Cappadocia and 
 Bithynia at the same time, and was success- 
 ful at the opening of the war. Sylla and 
 Lucullus, however, prevailed against him, 
 and he acceded to a very humiliating peace, 
 but soon renewed the war against Mureua, 
 and, though defeated by that general, ob- 
 tained some ultimate advantages. The war 
 continued to rage with alternate success, till 
 at length Pompey obtained a great victory 
 over him, near the Euphrates, b. c. 66. Mith- 
 ridates fled to Tigranes, who had before been 
 one of his most efficient allies, but that mo- 
 narch now refused him an asylum. He then 
 took refuge in the dominions of a Scythian 
 prince, and sent ambassadors to Pompey to 
 sue for peace, but the Romans insisted upon 
 having his person. Meanwhile, an insurrec- 
 tion broke out in his army, and his son 
 Pharnazes was proclaimed king. Unable to 
 reduce the rebels to their duty, and seeing 
 no hope of retrieving his fortunes, he threw 
 himself on his sword, B. c. 64, having ruled 
 Pontus 59 years. 
 
 MITZLER, Laurence Charles de Ko- 
 LOF, an eminent German musical composer, 
 was bom at Vettlesliiem, in 1711 ; received 
 his education at Anspach ; and, in 1731, re- 
 moved to the university of Leipsic, where he 
 not only perfected himself in musical science, 
 but made a considerable proficiency in mathe- 
 matics and natural philosophy. He after- 
 wards settled at Warsaw, where he became 
 
 So great a favourite at the court, as to obtain 
 from the king a patent of nobility. His 
 principal works arc, " A Musical 1-ibrary," 
 3 vols., and " The Elements of Thorough 
 Bass." Died, 1778. 
 
 MOEHSEN, Jonw Charles William, 
 physician to Frederic the Great, was born at 
 Berlin, in 1722, studied at Jena and Halle, 
 and was a member of various learned insti- 
 tutions. He wrote several works relating to 
 the history of medicine and its professors ; 
 and died in 179.5. 
 
 MOELLENDORF, Richard Joachim 
 Henry, Count de, a Prussian general, born 
 in 1724. His behaviour at the battles of 
 Molwitz and Kotowitz, in the first Silesian 
 war, having attracted the notice of Frederic 
 II., whom he accompanied thither as a page, 
 he was promoted to a company in the guards ; 
 became a colonel in 1761, afterwards lieuten- 
 ant-general, and in 1783 governor of Berlin. 
 During the disgraceful dismemberment of 
 Poland, in 1793, he commanded the Prussian 
 troops, and did everything in his power to 
 alleviate the misfortunes of the Poles. On 
 his return home he was created a field-mar- 
 shal and governor of South Prussia; and suc- 
 ceeded the Duke of Brunswick in the com- 
 mand of the Prussian army on the Rhine, in 
 1794, when he gained the victory of Kaiser- 
 slautern. He was present at the battles of 
 Jena and Auerstadt, where he was wounded; 
 and he liied in 1816. 
 
 MOESEll, Ji-STUS, an eminent German 
 advocate and author, was born atOsnaburgh, 
 in 1720 ; was educated at Jena and Gottingen; 
 acquired great popularity on his return to 
 his native place as an advocate and coun- 
 sellor of justice ; and died in 1794. 
 
 MOLA, Peter Francis, an eminent pain- 
 ter, bom in 1609, at Coldra, in the Milanese. 
 He was a pupil of Albani, and is distin- 
 guished both as a landscape and historical 
 painter. Died, 1665. 
 
 ilOLAI, James de, the last grand-master 
 of the knights Templars, was a native of 
 Burgundy. He was admitted into the order 
 about 1265, and having signalised himself 
 by his valour in Palestine, was unanimously 
 elected grand-master on the deatli of William 
 de Bcaujeu. The great wealth and power of 
 the Templars, their pride and their dissolute 
 manners, created them a multitude of ene- 
 mies, and led to their destruction. At length, 
 Philippe le Bel, king of France, and pope 
 Clement V. formed a plan for their exter- 
 mination. They were accused of heresy, 
 impiety, and various crimes revolting to 
 human nature. In 1307, all the Templars 
 throughout France were arrested at the same 
 hour, and they were tried and convicted, 
 some on their own confessions, and others on 
 such evidence as could be procured. Fifty- 
 seven were committed to tlie flames in 
 1311 ; and after an imprisonment of seven 
 years, De Molai shared their fate at Paris, 
 in 1314, declaring his innocence to the last. 
 
 MOLE', Francis R^ni?, an eminent 
 French comedian, bom at Paris, in 1734. 
 During the progress of the revolution he 
 became an associate of the Jacobins, and 
 impiously oflSciated in the church of St. 
 Roch, as the priest of the goddess of Reason. 
 Died, 1802. 
 
mol] 
 
 ^ ^cbi HuibariSat 23i0flrffjp^w. 
 
 [mol 
 
 MOLE', Mattukw, a French magistrate, 
 remarkable for his probity and courage in 
 the most troublesome times, was born at 
 Paris, in 1584 ; became president of the par- 
 liament, and keeper of the seals ; and died 
 in 1656. 
 
 MOLE, John, an Englishman, who was 
 eminent for his skill and knowledge in the 
 science of algebra. Bom of poor but respect- 
 able parents, Mr. Mole was indebted to a 
 fortuitous circumstance for the discovery 
 of his talent. Having, when a farmer's 
 servant, been sent to a carpenter's shop for 
 a load of timber, a workman asked him 
 whether he could tell how many cubical 
 quarters of inches could be cut out of a solid 
 j foot of wood ; upon which Mole replied, he 
 could tell how many could be cut out of ten 
 thousand solid feet. He then answered the 
 question, — How many farthings there were 
 in a million of moidores, of the value of 
 twenty -seven shillings each. Hitherto Mole 
 had set down his figures in chalk, and asked 
 his fellow-servants to decipher them ; but 
 from that period he applied diligently to 
 acquire a knowledge of figures. He died in 
 1827. 
 
 MOLESWORTH, Robert, Viscount, an 
 Irish statesman, born at Dublin in 1656, and 
 educated in Trinity College. When James 
 II. landed in Ireland, he caused his estate to 
 be confiscated ; but, on the settlement of 
 affairs under William III., he was made a 
 privy-councillor, and sent ambassador to 
 Copenhagen, where he had a dispute with 
 the king, which induced him to return home 
 abruptly. He then published " An Account 
 of Denmark," which was considered as a 
 libel on the country, and complained of as 
 such by the Danish ambassador in London. 
 In 1714 he was made a commissioner of trade 
 and plantations ; and two years afterwards 
 raised to tlie Irish peerage. He died in 1725. 
 
 MOLEVILLE, Anthony Feancis Bkr- 
 TRAND DE, a French statesman, was born at 
 Toulouse, in 1744. He was minister of the 
 marine in the reign of Louis XVI. ; and 
 when the revolution broke out, he sought an 
 asylum in England, where he resided twenty- 
 two years, and published " Memoirs of the 
 Revolution," and several other works on that 
 subject. During his residence in London he 
 acquired such a command of the English 
 language as to write in it " A History of 
 England." Died, at Paris, 1819. 
 
 MOLIERE, John Baptist Poqitelin de, 
 the most celebrated among the French writers 
 of comedy, was born at Paris, in 1622. His 
 father was valet-de-chambre and upholsterer 
 to the king ; and when he became infirm, 
 Moliere was obliged to oflSciate for him in 
 the royal household ; in wliich capacity he 
 attended Louis XIII. to Narbonne, in 1641. 
 On his return to Paris his passion for the 
 stage was unconquerable ; he became a pro- 
 vincial actor, and began also to display his 
 dramatic powers as an author. In 1662 he 
 produced his "Etourdi;" and having the 
 patronage of the Prince de Conti, he finally 
 established himself at Paris. His reputation 
 was carried to its higliest summit when the 
 "TartuflFe" appeared; and tlie piece was 
 played and applauded after it had been kept 
 I back for years by the clamour of false devo- 
 
 tees. In this, hypocrisy is fully unveiled, 
 the characters are equally various and true, 
 and the dialogue is elegant and natural. 
 For twenty years, Moliere wrote for the 
 stage ; and being all the time an actor also, 
 and interrupted by various avocations, his 
 fertility was most extraordinary. His last 
 piece was the celebrated " Le Malade Imagi- 
 naire," to the fourth representation of which 
 he fell a sacrifice. He himself acted the 
 imaginary sick man in the piece ; but labour- 
 ing at the time under a pulmonary complaint, 
 and exerting himself with unusual spirit, his 
 efforts brought on the rupture of a blood- 
 vessel, by which he was suffocated. Moliere 
 may be regarded as the true father of French 
 comedy ; and Voltaire styles him " the best 
 comic writer of any nation." He chased 
 away a great share of the coxcombry, false 
 wit, and pedantry of the day ; and his works 
 may be considered as a history of the man- 
 ners, fashions, and tastes of the times. In 
 private life he was humane and benevolent 
 in a high degree ; and no one had more 
 friends of rank and talent, or was more 
 lamented by them ; but his matrimonial 
 connection with a young actress, whose con- 
 duct subjected him to great annoyances, 
 embittered his domestic enjoyments. He 
 died in 1673. 
 
 MOLIERES, Joseph Privat de, a phi- 
 losophical writer, was born at Tarascon, in 
 1677 ; became a member of the congregation 
 of the Oratory ; and was a pupil of Male- 
 branclie, on whose death he quitted the so- 
 ciety, and devoted himself wholly to physics 
 and mathematics. He was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at the royal college, 
 and died in 1742. His works are, "Philo- 
 sophical Lectures," 4 vols. ; " Mathematical 
 Lectures," and " La Premier Partie des E16- 
 mcns de G<iometrie." 
 
 MOLIN, James, usually called Dumoulin, 
 a celebrated French physician, was born in 
 1666 ; became chief physician to the army in 
 Catalonia, at the age of 26 ; and on his return 
 to Paris, in 1706, added to his reputation by 
 his cure of the Prince of Cond^. In his 
 medical practice he was so partial to vene- 
 section, that it is supposed Le Sage intended 
 to satirise him under the character of Dr. 
 Sangrado. Died, 1755. 
 
 MOLINA, LoTjis DE, a Spanish Jesuit and 
 theologian, was born at Cuenza, in 1535 ; was 
 professor of theology at Evora for 20 years ; 
 and died in 1601. He was the author of a 
 treatise on free will, entitled " De Concordia 
 Gratiae et liberi Arbitrii," which gave rise 
 to such a furious contest between the Do- 
 minicans and the Jesuits, that the pope found 
 it advisable to issue a bull, in order to sup- 
 press it. 
 
 MOLINET, Claitde du, canon regular 
 and procurator general of the congregation 
 of St. G^n(5vi&ve, was born at Chalous-sur- 
 Marne, in 1620, and died in 1687. He was the 
 author of " The Epistles of Stephen, Bishop 
 of Tournay, with Notes," "History of the 
 Popes by Medals," and other works illus- 
 trative of ecclesiastical antiquities. He 
 collected a large cabinet of curiosities, and 
 placed the library of St. Genevifeve in the 
 state for which it is so celebrated. 
 
 MOLINET, John, a French poet of the 
 
 604 
 
f UNP 
 
 UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 or 
 
 mol] 
 
 ^ ^etu Hm'berM 3St0srapIjs. 
 
 [mon 
 
 ISth century ; author of " Faites et Dits," &c. 
 He was almoner and librarian to Margaret of 
 Austria, and historiographer to the house of 
 Burgundy. Died, 1507. 
 
 MOHNIER, William, a celebrated trou- 
 badour of the 14th century, whose " Lays 
 d'Ainors," is a curious monument of the state 
 of literature in the south of France at that 
 period. 
 
 MOLINOS, Michael, a Spanish theo- 
 logian, and founder of the sect called Quiet- 
 ists, was born iu 1027, at Saragossa, but 
 passed the greater part of his life at Rome, 
 where, in 1()75, he published his celebrated 
 "Spiritual Guide," which was condemned 
 by the Inquisition 10 years after its flrst 
 appearance, and the author sentenced to 
 perpetual imprisonment. He died a cap- 
 tive, in 16»). The followers of Molinos, of 
 whom Madame Guyon was the principal, 
 were called Quietists, because tliey main- 
 tained that religion consists in an abstrac- 
 tion of the mind from external and finite 
 objects. 
 
 MOLLOY, Charles, a political writer and 
 dramatist, was born in Dublin, and educated 
 at Trinity College. He afterwards became a 
 student of the Middle Temple, and was the 
 editor of a political paper, called Common 
 Sense." He died in 1767. His plays are, 
 "The Perplexed Couple," "The Coquet," 
 and " Half-pay OiBcers." 
 
 MOLYNEUX. Sir William, a gallant 
 knight in the reign of Henry VIII., who 
 displayed great bravery at the battle of 
 Flodden Field. Ou his death-bed he gave 
 this advice to his son : " Let the under- 
 wood grow ; the tenants are the support 
 of a family, and the commonalty are the 
 strength of a kingdom. Improve this fairly; 
 but force not violently, either your bounds, 
 or your rents, above your forefathers." 
 
 MOLYNEUX, William, an ingenious 
 mathematician, was born at Dublin, in 1656. 
 The philosophical society, established at 
 Dublin in 1683, owed its origin to his en- 
 deavours, and he became the first secretary. 
 Soon after, he was appointed surveyor-gene- 
 ral of the works, and chief engineer. In 
 1685 he was chosen a member of the Royal 
 Society, and in 1689 he settled with his 
 family at Chester, where he employed him- 
 self in finishing his " Treatise on Dioptrics," 
 which was published in 1692. In this year 
 he returned to Dublin, and was chosen one 
 of the representatives for that city. Besides 
 the above, he wrote " Sciothericum Teles- 
 copium ;" also, "The Case of Ireland stated, 
 in relation to its being bound by Acts of 
 Parliament in England ;" and some papers 
 
 in the Philosophical Transactions 
 
 Samuel Molyneux, his son, was born at 
 Chester, in 1689 ; became secretary to George 
 II., when prince of Wales ; and was distin- 
 guished by his skill in astronomy. 
 
 MOLZA, Francis Maki A, an Italian poet, 
 was born at Modena, in 1489. He excelled 
 in various kinds of poetry, combining ele- 
 gance of style with striking imagery and ele- 
 vated ideas ; but he was a man of dissipated 
 manners, and died a victim to his vices 
 and licentiousness, in 1544. —His grand- 
 daughter, Tarquinia Molza, who married 
 Paul Porrino, was bom in 1542, and died in 
 
 1617. Her works consist of translations from 
 Plato, and other classical writers, with Latin 
 and Italian poems, for which her family was 
 honoured by the Roman senate with a patent 
 of citizenship. 
 
 MONARDES, Nicholas, a Spanish phy- 
 sician, was born at Seville, and educated at 
 Alcala ; after which he settled in his native 
 place, and died there in 1578. His works are, 
 " De secanda Vena in Pleuritide inter Gnecos 
 et Arabes Concordia," " De Rosa, ct Partibus 
 ejus," and "Dos Libros de las cosas que so 
 traen de las Indias Occidentales, que sirven 
 al uso de Medicina." This last work has 
 been translated into Latin, French, Italian, 
 and English ; and the name of Monardes is 
 perpetuated by the botanical genus Monaida, 
 in the class Diandria of Linnaeus. 
 
 MONBEILLARD, Puilibert Gceneau, 
 a distinguished French naturalist, born at 
 Semur, in 1720. He obtained great repu- 
 tation in the scientific world, by his con- 
 tinuation of the " Collection Acadi5mique," 
 a work consisting of every interesting cir- 
 cumstance in the memoirs of the learned 
 societies of Europe ; afterwards became the 
 associate of Buffon, in his great work on 
 natural history ; nor was any difference of I 
 style in their writings observed, until Buffon ' 
 himself announced him in liis preface. Died, 
 1785. 
 
 MONCEY, Adrien, duke of Conegliano 
 and marshal of France, was bom at Besau- 
 5on, in 1754. Though lie entered the army 
 at 15 years of age, he did not become a 
 captain till 1791, and in 1793 having been 
 sent to the Pyrenees at the head of the 
 " chasseurs Cantabres," he so distinguished 
 himself by his gallantry, that in a short 
 time he became successively general of bri- 
 gade and general of division. In 1795 and 
 1796 he made a most successful campaign in 
 Spain and Italy ; anil, after the peace of j 
 Luneville, he was appouited inspector gene- 
 ral of the gendarmerie ; in which capacity i 
 he rendered such important services to Na- 
 poleon, that he was made one of his flrst i 
 marshals in 1804, and soon afterwards : 
 created duke of Conegliano. In 1808 he ; 
 once more took part in the war with Spain, 
 and contributed to the capture of Saragossa 
 in 1809 ; but, during the last years of the 
 empire, he ceased to take part in military ^ 
 operations which he disapproved, and did ' 
 not reappear till 1814, when he tried, as ; 
 major-general of the national guard, to 
 defend the walls of Paris, laying down his 
 arms only after the capitulation was signed. I 
 After the " hundred days," he refused to i 
 preside at the council of war appointed to I 
 try Marshal Ney ; and for this generous act j 
 he was imprisoned in the fortress of Ham 
 for three months, deprived of all his fuiic- ] 
 tions, and expelled from the chamber of ! 
 peers, to which, however, he was readmitted 
 in 1819. In 1823 he joined the Duke d'An- 
 goiileme in his invasion of Spain, and 
 finished his military career with a success 
 worthy of his first exploits. He was after- 
 wards nominated governor of the Hotel des 
 Invalides, and in this capacity received the 
 ashes of Napoleon in 1840. Died, 1842. 
 
 MONCONYS, Balthasar de, a traveller, 
 was bom at Lyons. After receiving a liberal 
 
mon] 
 
 ^ ^etD Hiiibrr^al 2St0srapTjj|. 
 
 [mon 
 
 education at the university of Salamanca, he 
 visited the East, for the purpose of tracing 
 the remains of the philosophy of Trismegis- 
 tus and Zoroaster ; but returned without ac- 
 complishing the object of his mission, and 
 died in 1665. His travels were printed in 3 
 vols. 
 
 MONCRIF, Francis Augustin Paradis 
 DE, a member of the French academy, was 
 born at Paris, in 1687 ; became the favourite 
 of fashionable society by his musical, the- 
 atrical, and poetical talents ; and died in 1770. 
 His principal works are, " An Essay on the 
 Art of Pleasing," and a romance, entitled 
 " Les Ames Rivales." 
 
 MONGAULT, Nicholas Hubert, a 
 French writer, was born at Paris, in 1674. 
 He became a member of the congregation of 
 tlie Oratory ; but after teaching with reputa- 
 tion in the college at Mons, he quitted the 
 society, and went to live with the Archbishop 
 of Toulouse, who procured him a priory. 
 He was afterwards tutor to the Duke de 
 Chartres, son of the Duke of Orleans ; was 
 made secretary-general to the French in- 
 fantry, and obtained other places through the 
 interest of his pupil. He was also a member 
 of the French academy, and that of Inscrip- 
 tions. Died, 1746. 
 
 MONGE, Gaspar, a celebrated French 
 mathematician and natural pliilosopher, was 
 born at Beaune, in 1746 ; taught physics 
 and mathematics at the military school of 
 Mezieres ; became a member of the academy 
 of sciences, in 1780 ; was made minister of 
 the marine, in 1792 ; and was ore of the 
 founders of the Polytechnic School. In 1796 
 he was commissioned to go to Italy, and 
 collect the treasures of art and science from 
 the countries conquered by the French ; and, 
 in 1798, he accompanied Bouonaparte to 
 Egypt, where he was cliosen president of the 
 institute of Cairo. Napoleon when emperor 
 made him a senator, created him count of 
 Pelusium, and gave him an estate in West- 
 phalia, accompanied by a present of 200*000 
 francs. On the return of the Bourbons he 
 was deprived of all his offices and emolu- 
 ments, and he died in 1818. His principal 
 works are, "Descriptive Geometry," "The 
 Application of Analysis to the Geometry of 
 Surfaces," and a " Treatise on Statics." 
 
 MONGE, Lieutenant-colonel, a French 
 officer employed by Napoleon, after his 
 return from Elba, to go secretly to Vienna, 
 to bring off Maria Louisa and her son to 
 France. He succeeded, by various disguises, 
 to reach Vienna, and was very near accom- 
 plishing his purpose, when tlie Austrian 
 police got information of the plan, and 
 Monge was compelled to fly. He got back to 
 France, and fought bravely in the battle of 
 Waterloo ; but was eventually reduced to 
 such distress as to work as a common la- 
 bourer and died in the hospital of St. Louis, 
 in 1829. 
 
 MONK, George, duke of Albemarle, a 
 distingiushed military commander, and a 
 great promoter of the restoration of Charles 
 II., v>'as the son of Sir Thomas Monk, of 
 Potheridge, near Torrington in Devonshire, 
 and born in 1608. Being a younger son, he 
 entered the army as a volunteer, and served 
 under his relation Sir Richard Grenville, in 
 
 an expedition to Spain and in the Nether- 
 lands. On the breaking out of tlie war 
 between Charles I. and the Scotch in 1639, 
 he obtained a colonel's commission, and at- 
 tended his majesty in both his expeditions to 
 the north. When the Irish rebellion began 
 in 1641, his services there were so important, 
 that the lords justices thought proper to ap- 
 point him governor of Dublin. On his return 
 to England he was sent to relieve Nantwich, 
 where he was taken prisoner by the army 
 belonging to the parliament, and sent to the 
 Tower, where he remained till 1646. The 
 royal cause being now ruined, he obtained 
 liis liberty on condition of taking a command 
 in Ireland, where he concluded a peace with 
 the rebels, which displeased the parliament, 
 who passed a vote of censure upon him for it. 
 Cromwell, however, who thought highly of 
 his military talents, made him lieutenant- 
 general, and gave him the chief command in 
 Scotland. But the sagacious usurper had 
 strong suspicions of Monk's sincerity ; and 
 not long before his death wrote him a letter, 
 to which he added this postscript : " There 
 be tliat tell me that there is a certain cunning 
 fellow in Scotland, called George Monk, who 
 is said to lie in wait there to introduce Charles 
 Stuart : I pray you use your diligence to 
 apprehend him and send him up to me." On 
 the decease of the protector, the resignation 
 of power by his son, and the contest of parties 
 which subsequently took place, he availed 
 himself of the commanding situation which 
 he occupied, to crush the republicans, and 
 promote the recall and restoration of the 
 Stuart family to the throne, in the person of 
 Charles II. As the reward of his loyalty, he 
 was created duke of Albemarle, with a 
 pension of 7000Z. a year, made a privy-coun- 
 cillor, and invested with the order of the 
 garter. In 1664 he was appointed admiral 
 of the fleet in conjunction with Prince 
 Rupert, and in 1666 obtained a great victory 
 over the Dutch, in a tremendous battle, which 
 lasted three days. He died in 1670, and was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 MONK, Mauv, daughter of Lord Moles- 
 worth, and wife of George Monk, esq., was 
 celebrated for her poetical genius. She was 
 well acquainted with the Latin, French, 
 Italian, and Spanish languages. Died, 1715. 
 
 MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, a natural 
 son of Charles II., was born at Rotterdam, 
 in 1619. He was distinguished by his per- 
 sonal attractions, his affable address, and 
 thoughtless generosity ; hence he became 
 very popular. But he was weak-minded 
 and pliant ; and had he not resigned himself 
 to the guidance of the restless and ambitious 
 Shaftesbury, who flattered him with the 
 hopes of succeeding to the crown, his popu- 
 larity would never have become dangerous. 
 He was concerned in various plots, which 
 had for their object the exclusion of the Duke 
 of York from the crown ; and he was, in 
 consequence, ordered by Charles to quit the 
 kingdom. On the accession of James II., 
 being urged to the act by some of his par- 
 tisans, he landed at Lyme, with scarcely a 
 hundred followers (June, 1685); but his num- 
 bers were soon increased, and he assumed 
 the title of king, and asserted the legitimacy 
 of his birth. His forces were defeated, and 
 
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 the duke himself was made prisoner, having 
 been found in tlie disguise of a i)easant, 
 lying at the bottom of a ditch, overcome 
 with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He nobly 
 refused to betray his accomplices, and con- 
 ducted liimself with much firmness on the 
 scaffold, where his head was severed from 
 his body, after four unsuccessful blows. The 
 people, of whom he was still tlie favourite, 
 believed that the person executed was not 
 Monmouth ; and it was probably this belief 
 which has led some to conjecture that the 
 famous " Iron Mask " was the Duke of 
 Monmouth. 
 
 MONNETT, Anthony Gkimoald, an 
 eminent French chemist and inspector- 
 general of the mines, was born in Auvergne, 
 in 1734. He was one of the verjr few who 
 cultivated the science, that rejected the 
 great discoveries and theories of Lavoisier, 
 and it consequently lessened his reputation. 
 He wrote a variety of works, besides analyses 
 and memoirs in the Journal de Physique ; 
 and died in 1817. 
 
 MONNOYE, Bernard de la, a French 
 poet and miscellaneous writer ; born, at 
 Dijon, 1641 ; died, at Paris, 1727. 
 
 MONRO, Alexander, an eminent phy- 
 sician and anatomist, of Scottish descent, 
 was born in London, in 1697. After study- 
 ing under Cheselden, and travelling on the 
 Continent for improvement, he wa«, in 1719, 
 appointed professor and demonstrator of 
 anatomy to the company of surgeons at 
 Edinburgh ; where, soon after, he instituted 
 that course of instruction for which its me- 
 dical school is so highly celebrated. This 
 was followed by the foundation of an hos- 
 pital, where he delivered courses of clinical 
 lectures ; and also formed a society for col- 
 lecting and publishing professional papers ; 
 the result of wiiich appeared in six volumes 
 of " Medical Essays," and two more on 
 " Physical and Literary Subjects." Besides 
 the papers contained in these volumes, the 
 doctor published a work, entitled " Osteo- 
 logy, or a Treatise on the Anatomy of the 
 Bones ;" and an " Account of the Success of 
 
 Inoculation in Scotland." Died, 1767 
 
 His eldest son. Dr. Alexander Monro, 
 succeeded, on the death of his father, to the 
 anatomical professorship ; and published 
 numerous works, among which are, " Ob- 
 servations on the Nervous System," "The 
 Structure and Physiology of Fishes," " A 
 Description of the Bursse Mucosae," " Three 
 Treatises on the Brain, Eye, and Ear," 
 " Observations on the Crural Hernia," " Out- 
 lines of the Anatomy of the Human Body," 
 
 4 vols His second son, Dr. Donald 
 
 Monro, became a physician in the army ; 
 and wrote " Observations on the Means of 
 preserving the Health of Soldiers," 2 vols. ; 
 and a "Treatise on Medical and Pharma- 
 ceutical Chemistry," 4 vols. Died, 1802. 
 
 MONROE, James, a president of the 
 United States, was bom, in 1758, in West- 
 moreland county, Virginia. He entered the 
 revolutionary army as a cadet, and, being 
 soon after appointed a lieutenantj marched 
 to New York, where he joined the army 
 under Washington. He was engaged in the 
 battle of Harlem Heights, in that of White 
 Plains, in the retreat through the Jerseys, 
 
 and in the attack on Trenton. In the last 
 he was in the vanguard, and received a ball 
 through his left shoulder. For his conduct 
 in this action he was promoted to a cap- 
 taincy. Subsequently he was attached to 
 the staff of general Lord Stirling, with the 
 rank of major, and he fought by the side of 
 Lafayette, when that officer was wounded 
 at the battle of Brandy wine. He was after- 
 wards promoted to the rank of colonel ; and 
 at the end of the contest, in 1783, he was 
 elected a member of congress. In May, 
 1794, he was appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to France, but recalled from this mis- 
 sion in 1796, by president Washington, with 
 strong marks of dissatisfaction, for having 
 succumbed too much to the over-bearing 
 policy of the French directory. He went, 
 however, to London in the same capacity, 
 at a juncture of great importance ; and, in 
 1811, was appointed secretary of state. Six 
 years afterwards, the war department being 
 in a very embarrassed state, he was chosen 
 president, in 1817, as the successor of Mr. 
 Madison ; and, in 1821, re-elected by a vote 
 unanimous, with a single exception. He 
 died on the 4th of July, 1831, the anniver- 
 sary of American independence. 
 
 MONSON, Sir WiLLiAii, an English naval 
 officer, was born at South Carlton, in Lin- 
 colnshire, in 1569 ; was educated at Baliol 
 College, Oxford ; entered the naval service ; 
 served in several expeditions in the reign of 
 Elizabeth ; and was knighted by the Earl of 
 Essex, for his conduct in the expedition to 
 Cadiz. In the reign of James I. he distin- 
 guished himself against the Dutch, and died 
 in 1643. 
 
 MONSTRELET, Enouerrand de, a 
 French chronicler of the 15th century, born 
 about 1390, and died in 1453. He was pro- 
 vost of Cambray, and bailiff of Walincourt ; 
 and wrote a chronicle of events, from the 
 year 1400 to 1453, the year in which he died. 
 
 MONTAGU, George, an eminent natu- 
 ralist, was a native of Wiltshire. He de- 
 voted his particular attention to the study 
 of ornithology and conchology ; and was the 
 author of " An Ornithological Dictionary " 
 and " Testacea Britannica, or Natural His- 
 tory of British Shells." Died at Knowle, 
 near Kingsbridge, Devon, 1815. 
 
 MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, a 
 lady distinguished for her literary attam- 
 ments, was the eldest daughter of Evelyn, 
 duke of Kingston, and born, about 1690, at 
 Thoresby, in Nottinghamshire. She made 
 a great proficiency in the Latin and Greek 
 languages, under the superintendence of 
 Bishop Burnet. In 1712 she married Mr. 
 Edward Wortley Montagu, whom she ac- 
 companied in his embassy to Constantinople, 
 from which place she wrote " Letters," to 
 Mr. Pope, Mr. Addison, and other eminent 
 literati of the time, which are very interest- 
 ing, and contain many curious facts respect- 
 ing the manners of the Turks. She is also 
 memorable for having first introduced the 
 practice of inoculation into this country, for 
 which millions have had cause to bless her 
 memory. She closed a life marked by a 
 great variety of adventures, in 1762. Her 
 collected works have been published in six 
 volumes ; and her " Letters " certainly place 
 
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 her at the head of female epistolary writers 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 MONTAGU, Edwakb Woktley, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Warncliffe Lodge, 
 in Yorkshire, about 1714. He received his 
 education at Westminster School, whence 
 he eloped, and became a chimney-sweep. 
 His family had given him up for lost, when 
 a gentleman recognised him in the street, 
 and took him home to his father. He es- 
 caped a second tijne, and engaged with a 
 master of a fishing smack ; after which he 
 shipped himself on board a vessel bound to 
 Spain, where he served a muleteer. In this 
 situation he was discovered, and conveyed 
 home to his friends, who placed him under 
 a tutor, with whom he travelled abroad. 
 His father being rather scanty in his remit- 
 tances, owing probably to the son's extra- 
 vagance, the tutor is said to have committed 
 a curious fraud to obtain a supply. This 
 was the printing a book, entitled " Observa- 
 tions on the Rise and Fall of Ancient Re- 
 publics, by Edward Wortley Montagu, esq." 
 This work, whether the production of the 
 son or not, gave great pleasure to the old 
 gentleman, who acknowledged it in a hand- 
 some manner. On his return to England, 
 he obtained a seat in the House of Commons, 
 where he sat in two successive parliaments. 
 His future conduct was marked by eccen- 
 tricities not less extraordinary than those 
 by which he had been distinguished in the 
 early part of his life. He went to Italy, 
 where he professed the Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion, and from that he apostatised to Ma- 
 hometanism. After passing many years in 
 Egypt, and other countries on the Mediter- 
 ranean coasts, he died as he was about to 
 return to England, at Padua, in 1776. 
 
 MONTAGUE, Elizabeth, an eminent 
 female writer, was the daughter of Matthew 
 Robinson, esq., of Yorkshire, and was born 
 in 1720. She had an opportunity of prose- 
 cuting her studies under the direction of 
 Conyers Middleton, to whom she was pro- 
 bably indebted for the tincture of learning 
 which so remarkably influenced her cha- 
 racter and manners. About 1742 she mar- 
 ried Edward Montague, a descendant of the 
 first Earl of Sandwich. Mrs. Montague pub- 
 lished " An Essay on the Writings and 
 Genius of Shakspeare," which obtained a 
 great and deserved reputation. She formed 
 a literary society known by the name of the 
 " Blue Stocking Club," from the circum- 
 j stance that Mr. Benjamin Stillingfleet, a 
 ! gentleman belonging to it, wore stockings of 
 that colour. Mrs. Montague was noticed 
 for another peculiarity, that of giving an 
 annual dinner on May-day to the chimney- 
 sweepers of the metropolis. She died in 
 1800, and her epistolary correspondence in 
 4 vols, was afterwards published. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michael de, a celebrated 
 French essayist, was born in 1533, at the 
 castle belonging to his family, in Perigord. 
 His father, Pierre Eyquem, seigneur de 
 Montaigne, bestowed the greatest care on 
 the cultivation of his son's promising talents; 
 and after a course of suitable instruction 
 Montaigne became a parliamentary coun- 
 sellor, but his aversion to the duties of the 
 station led him to retire from it. The study 
 
 of man was his favourite occupation, and he 
 therefore devoted himself entirely to philo- 
 sophical subjects. His quiet, however, was 
 disturbed by the troubles which distracted 
 France in consequence of the cruel persecu- 
 tions of the Huguenots ; his castle was plun- 
 dered by the leaguers, and he himself was 
 ill-treated by their adversaries. To these 
 causes of distress was added the plague, 
 which broke out in Guienne, in 1586, and 
 compelled him to leave his estate, with his 
 family, and wander through the country, 
 which was then the theatre of all kinds of 
 atrocities. He then resided some time in 
 Paris, but finally returned home, and died 
 in 1592. His celebrated " Essays " contain 
 a treasure of wisdom, and may still be 
 deemed one of the most popular books in 
 the French language. Their style, without 
 being pure or correct, is simple, bold, lively, 
 and energetic. Cardinal du Perron em- 
 phatically called them the breviary of honest 
 men ; and La Harpe observes, " It is not a 
 book we are rtading, but a conversation to 
 which we are listening ; and he persuades, 
 because he does not teacli." 
 
 MONTALVAN, Don Luis Perez de, an 
 eminent Spanish dramatist in the reign of 
 Philip IV., whose writings are distinguished 
 by good taste and sound judgment. Died, 
 16;!9. 
 
 MONTALEMBERT, Mark Rene, Mar- 
 quis de, a French general, was born in 1714, 
 at Angouleme ; entered the army early in 
 life ; and in the seven years' war was at- 
 tached to the staff of the armies of Russia 
 and Sweden, to give an account of military 
 operations to the French ministry. He pub- 
 lished a work on fortification, besides three 
 volumes of correspondence on military sub- 
 jects ; and papers in the memoirs of the 
 academy of sciences. 
 
 MONTANUS, the founder of a new sect, 
 in the 2nd century, was a native of Phrygia. 
 He affected to be a prophet ; and, having 
 deceived two rich ladies, named Priscilla 
 and Maximilla, by Jiis pretended sanctity, 
 and exalted them into prophetesses, he as- 
 serted it as an article of faith, that the ful- 
 ness of the Spirit was imparted to these 
 three chosen vessels to complete the mystery 
 of eternal redemption. Among others who 
 fell into this delusion were TertuUian and 
 Theodotus. 
 
 MONTANUS, Benedict Arias, a Spanish 
 Benedictine, was born at Frexenel, in Es- 
 tremadura, in 1527, and educated at Alcala. 
 He was at the council of Trent, and, on his 
 return to Spain, was employed in editing a 
 polyglot Bible, in 8 vols. He was one of 
 the most learned divines of the 16th century, 
 and died at Seville, in 1598. 
 
 MONTANUS, or DA MONTE, Johx 
 Baptist, an Italian physician, was born at 
 Verona, in 1488. He was sent to study the 
 law at Padua, instead of which he applied 
 to physic, and became professor of medi- 
 cine. He died in 1551. He translated into 
 Latin tlie works of -SStius ; the poem of 
 MussEus, the Argonantics of Orpheus, and 
 tlie Tragopodagra of Lucian. 
 
 MONTAUSIER, Charles de St. Maure, 
 Duke of, was born in Touraine, in 1610, and 
 died in 1690. He was governor to the dau- 
 
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 phin, to which office he was appointed in 
 16(58 ; and such was liis character lor inte- 
 grity, and tlie upright manner in wliich he 
 always conducted himself, that he was called 
 by the people " the virtuous man who always 
 tells the truth." Died. 1(590. 
 
 MONTECUCULI, Raymokd de, a cele- 
 brated general, was born in 1608, of a dis- 
 tinguished family in tlie Modenese, and 
 entered into the service of the emj)cror of 
 Germany. In 1(534, at the head of 2,000 
 horse, he surprised 10,000 Swedes, and took 
 their baggage and artillery ; but he was 
 soon after defeated, and taken prisoner. In 
 1637 he defeated Kazolzi, prince of Transyl- 
 vania ; in 1664 he gained a splendid victory 
 over the Turks at St. Gothard ; and, in 1675 
 and 1676, he «omnianded on the Rhine, and 
 foiled all the efforts of Turenne and the 
 Prince of Condt? by his masterly manoeuvres. 
 He died in 1(580, Moutecuculi wrote some 
 excellent " Memoires " on the military art, 
 and a treatise on the " Art of Reigning." 
 
 MONTEMAYOR, Geouoe de, a Castilian 
 poet, was born in 1520, and took his name 
 from the place of his birth. After serving 
 in the army, he was employed at the court 
 of Philip II., where he died in 1562. He 
 wrote " Diana," a pastoral romance, which 
 was continued by Caspar Polo. 
 
 MONTEREUIL, Beknaudik, a learned 
 Jesuit, born at Paris, in 1569, and died in 
 1646. His chief works are, "A History of 
 the early State of the Church " and " A Life 
 of Jesus Christ," whicli is highly esteemed. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU, Chakles de Secon- 
 DAT, Baron de, was bom at the castle of 
 Brede, near Bourd'Caux, in 16^ ; and in 
 1716 became president of tlie parliament of 
 Bourdeaux. His first appearance as an 
 author was in the publication of the " Per- 
 sian Letters," a work whicli gave proofs of 
 a fine genius and a solid judgment. In 1728 
 he was admitted a member of the academy, 
 on which occasion he delivered an eloquent 
 discourse. Having given up his civil em- 
 ployments, he went on his travels, ajid re- 
 mained in England three years. After his 
 return he retired to his estate, and there 
 completed his work *' On the Causes of the 
 Grandeur and Declension of the Romans," 
 which was published in 1734. His greatest 
 performance, however, is the " Spirit of 
 Laws," which came out in 1748, and, though 
 attacked by some writers, secured its ground 
 in the estimation of the literary world. His 
 other works are, " The Temple of Cnidus," 
 a piece called " Lysimachus," and an " Essay 
 on Taste." Burke characterises him as " a 
 genius not born in every country, or every 
 time, — with a Herculean robustness of mind, 
 and nerves not to be broken with labour." 
 He died in 1755. 
 
 MONTEZUMA, emperor of Mexico at the 
 time of the Spanish invasion. Having, by 
 his despotic government, made himself many 
 enemies, they willingly joined Cortez, and 
 assisted him in his progress. Seized in the 
 heart of his capital, and kept as a hostage at 
 the Spanish quarters, he was at first treated 
 with respect, which was soon changed into 
 insult, and fetters were put on his legs. He 
 was at length obliged to acknowledge his 
 vassalage to the king of Spain, but he could 
 
 not be brought to change his religion. He 
 died in 1520, from being struck on the temple 
 with a stone, while persuading his tumultu- 
 ous subjects to receive the Spanish yoke. 
 Charles V. gave a grant of lauds, and the 
 title of count of Montezuma, to one of the 
 sons, who was the founder of a uoble family 
 in Spain. 
 
 MONTFAUCON, Bernard de, a cele- 
 brated French critic and antiquary, was 
 l)Orn at the castle of Sontage, in Languedoc, 
 in 1655 ; became a Benedictine monk, after 
 having engaged in the military service ; and 
 died in 1741. He was a voluminous writer ; 
 but the most important of his works is that 
 treasure of classical archajology, entitled 
 *• L'Antiquite explique et representee en 
 Figures." 
 
 M(JNTFORT, Simon de, earl of Lei- 
 cester, son of the Simon de Montfort who 
 distinguished himself by his zeal and seve- 
 rity in the crusade against the Albigenses, 
 was born in France, and retired to England 
 in 1231, on account of some dispute with 
 queen Blanche. Henry III. received him 
 very kindly, bestowed upon him tlie earldom 
 of Leicester, which had formerly belonged 
 to his ancestors, and gave him his sister, the 
 countess dowager of Pembroke, in marriage. 
 After this, Henry appointed him seneschal of 
 Gascony ; but he ruled so despotically there, 
 that he was recalled, and a violent alter- 
 cation took place between them, in which 
 the king applied the opprobrious epithet cf 
 " traitor " to his subject, and the latter gave 
 his sovereign the lie. A reconciliation was, 
 however, effected, and De Montfort waa 
 employed on several occasions, in a diplo- 
 matic and military capacity. In 1528 he 
 appeared in parliament at the head of the 
 discontented barons, who were all armed, 
 and demanded that the administration 
 should be put in the hands of 24 barons, who 
 were empowered to redress grievances, and 
 to reform the state. This was conceded, 
 and for a time submitted to ; till at length 
 hostilities commenced between the barons 
 and the royal party, which ended in the 
 triumph of the former at the battle of 
 Lewes. From what precise cause it does 
 not appear, but probably it was owing to 
 his arrogance and rapacity, that a powerful 
 party was raised up against him among the 
 barons ; and, according to some, this was 
 the motive which induced him to summon 
 knights of shires and burgesses to the par- 
 liament in 1265. Whatever may have been 
 his motives, however, he thus became the 
 founder of the English House of Commons. 
 In the same year was fought the battle of 
 Evesham, in which the royal forces were led 
 by prince Edward ; and there, in attempt- 
 ing to rally his troops, by rushing into the 
 midst of the enemy, he was surrounded and 
 slain. 
 
 MONTGOLFIER, Jacques Etienne, the 
 inventor of air-balloons, was born in 1745, 
 at Vidalon-les-Annonai. In conjunction 
 with an elder brother, he devoted himself 
 to scientific pursuits, and was the first who 
 manufactured the vellum paper, still so 
 much admired for its beauty. One day 
 while boiling water in a coffee-pot, the top 
 of which was covered with paper folded in 
 
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 a spherical form, he saw tlie paper swell 
 and rise — a circumstance that furnished 
 him with the idea of a light machine, made 
 buoyant by inflation, and traversing the air. 
 After various preliminary trials, it being as- 
 certained that a balloon, with a car attached 
 to it, could be kept suspended by a supply 
 of heated air, the experiment was repeated 
 on a large scale at "Versailles, wlien the Mar- 
 quis d' Orlandes ascended in the presence 
 of the royal family, and a vast concourse of 
 spectators. He died in 1799. His brother, 
 before mentioned, who was tlie inventor of 
 a hydraulic machine, called the water-ram, 
 died in 1810. 
 
 MONTI, VixcENZo, one of the most 
 celebrateil poets of modern Italy, was born 
 at Fusignano, near Ferrara, in 175.3 ; and 
 became as notorious for the versatility of 
 his political principles as for his poetic ta- 
 lents. He commenced his career as secre- 
 tary to Luigi Braschi, nephew of pope Pius 
 "VI., and was then a violent enemy of the 
 French ; he afterwards became a republi- 
 can ; next a panegyrist of Napoleon ; and 
 ended by eulogising the emperor of Aus- 
 tria. His " Basvilliana," written on the 
 murder of Hugo Basseville, the French 
 ambassador at Rome, is a close imitation of 
 Dante, and gained him a high reputation. 
 His other chief works were, " Bardo della 
 Selva nera," and a translation of Homer's 
 Iliad ; and liis dramatic writings are the 
 tragedies of " Galeotti Manfredi," " Aristo- 
 demo," and " Caius Gracchus." He was 
 successively appointed professor of the belles 
 lettres and of rhetoric in the university of 
 Padua, and historiographer of the kingdom 
 of Italy ; and, after the destruction of that 
 state, he was fortunate enough to preserve 
 his place and pension under the new govern- 
 ment. He was also a knight of the legion 
 of honour, and a member of many learned 
 societies. Died, 1828. 
 
 MONTMORENCY, Anne de, peer, mar- 
 shal, and constable of France, born in 1493, 
 was one of the greatest generals of the I6th 
 century. He distinguislied himself under 
 Francis I., in the wars against Charles "V., 
 and was made prisoner at the battle of 
 Pavia, which was fought against his advice. 
 Owing to the hatred of Catharine de IMedici 
 he lost his influence during the reign of 
 Francis II.; but the rising of the Hucuenots 
 occasioned his recall to the court of Charles 
 IX., and he joined the Duke of Guise, in 
 opposition to Cond«5, who was at the head of 
 the Protestants. In the battle of Dreux, 
 Montmorency was made prisoner by the 
 Huguenots, and Cond^ was captured by the 
 royal troops. The former was liberated the 
 next year, and in the second civil war 
 gained a decisive victory over his old ene- 
 mies, at the battle of St. Denis ; but died of 
 the wounds received in the action, in 1567, 
 aged 74. 
 
 MONTMORENCY, Henry II., Duke de, 
 was born in 1595, and in his 18th year was 
 created admiral of France. He defeated the 
 Protestants in Languedoc ; and, in 162&, he 
 gained decided advantages over the Duke de 
 Rohan, leader of the Huguenots. In 1C30 
 he held the chief command in Piedmont, 
 and defeated the Spaniards under Doria. 
 
 His serWces were at length rewarded with a 
 marshal's baton ; and being jealous of the 
 influence of Cardinal Richelieu, he, with 
 Gaston, duke of Orleans, raised the standard 
 of rebellion in Languedoc, where, being 
 opposed by Le Force and Schomberg, lie was 
 wounded and made prisoner. All France, 
 mindful of his services, his virtues, and his 
 victories, desired that the rigour of the laws 
 might be softened in his favour ; but Riche- 
 lieu was resolved to make an example of so 
 powerful an enemy, and the marshal was 
 condemned to death by the parliament of 
 Toulouse, and executed, in 16.'i2. 
 
 MONTPENSIER, Anne Maria Lothsa, 
 of Orleans, better known as Mademoiselle 
 de Montpensier, born at Paris, in 1627, was 
 the daughter of Gaston, duke of Orleans, 
 and the niece of Louis XIII. In the civil 
 contests which distinguished the minority of 
 Louis XI"V., she was a zealous partisan of 
 Cond^ ; and, in fact, her whole life was a 
 scene of restless ambition and intrigue. She 
 was privately married to Count Lauzun, and 
 brought him a fortune of 20,000,000 francs, 
 four duchies, the seigneury of Dombes, and 
 the palace of Luxembourg ; but being treated 
 by him with a degree of hauteur which she 
 could not brook, she at length forbade him 
 ever to appear again in her presence. From 
 tliat time she lived in retirement, and died 
 in 1693. Her " Memoirs," which form eight 
 volumes, are interesting. 
 
 MONTROSE, James Graham, Marquis 
 of, a distinguished royalist under Charles I., 
 was the son of the Earl of Montrose, who 
 gave him an excellent education, which was 
 improved by a residence in France, where 
 he held a commission in tlie Scotch guards. 
 On his return home he experienced such 
 neglect through the jealousy of the Marquis 
 of Hamilton, as induced him to join the 
 Covenanters ; but he afterwards took a very 
 active part on the side of the king ; and in a 
 few months gained the battles of Perth, 
 Al>erdeen, and Inverlochy ; for which ser- 
 vices he was created a maiquis. In 1645 his 
 fortune changed ; and after suffering a defeat 
 from Lesley, he was obliged to leave the 
 kingdom, when he landed in Orkney with 
 a few followers, but was soon overpowered, 
 conveyed to Edinburgh, and there hung and 
 quartered. 
 
 MONTUCCI, Antonio, a learned philo- 
 logist, particularly excelling as a Chinese 
 scholar, was born at Sienna, in 1762, and 
 studied at the university there, devoting 
 himself to the living languages with almost 
 incredible application. In 1785 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of English in the Tolomei 
 college ; and, in 1789, accompanied Mr. 
 Wedgwood to England as Italian teacher in 
 his family. Being in London in 1792, when 
 preparations were making for Lord Macart- 
 ney's embassy to China, Montucci took the 
 opportunity of obtaining assistance from 
 some Chinese youths attached to the em- 
 bassy, in acquiring their language, with 
 which he was before only imperfectly ac- 
 quainted. The result was, that he projected 
 a Chinese dictionary, the prospectus of which 
 he forwarded to several princes and aca- 
 demies in Eiorope. In 1806 lie went to Ber- 
 lin, on the invitation of the king of Prussia ; 
 
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 but the invasion of the country by Buona- 
 parte for Bome time interrupted his plans ; 
 and, returning to Italy, he died at Sienna, 
 in 1829. lie is the author of a " Chinese 
 Dictionary," an "Italian Pocket Diction- 
 ary," and several elementary works in that 
 language ; and he edited tlie " Poesie inedite 
 of Ivorenzo de' Medici," published at the 
 expense of Mr. Roscoe. 
 
 MONTUCLA, John Stephen, an eminent 
 French mathematician, was bom at Lyons, 
 in 1725 ; studied at the Jesuits' college, and 
 acquired legal knowledge at Toulouse, but 
 relinquished the law for the cultivation of 
 mathematical science ; was sent to Cayenne, 
 in 1764, as royal astronomer ; and died in 
 1709. His chief work is his " llistoire des 
 Mathi'matiques," 4 vols. 
 
 MOOR, Kakel dk, a portrait painter, was 
 born at Leyden, in 1G5(;. He studied under 
 Gerard Douw and Francis Mieris. His 
 works were greatly admired, and the empe- 
 ror of Germany conferred on him the honour 
 of knighthood. Died, 1737. 
 
 MOORE, EnwAnn, an English poet and 
 dramatic writer, was the son of a dissenting 
 minister at Abuigdon, in Berkshire, and born 
 there in 1712. lie was brought up as a linen- 
 draper in London, but quitted business for 
 literary pursuits. In 1744 he published his 
 '* Fables for the Female Sex," which became 
 deservedly popular, and procured him friends 
 among the great, particularly Lord Lyttle- 
 ton, whom he afterwards complimented in a 
 piece, entitled " The Trial of Selim." After 
 two ineflfectual attempts at dramatic com- 
 position, in the comedies of the " Foundling " 
 and " Gil Bias," he succeeded completely in 
 the tragedy of " The Gamester." lie next 
 became the editor of a periodical paper, 
 called " The World," in which he was as- 
 sisted by lords Lyttleton, Chesterfield, and 
 many other men of rank and talent. Died, 
 1757. 
 
 MOORE, John, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 was the son of a grazier at Gloucester, and 
 educated at the grammar school of that city, 
 after which he went to Pembroke College, 
 Oxford. Becoming chaplain to the Duke of 
 Marlborough, and tutor to one of his sons, he 
 obtained by that interest a prebendal stall 
 in the cathedral of Durham ; in 1771, the 
 deanery of Canterbury ; in 1776, the bishopric 
 of Bangor ; and, in 1783, he was raised to the 
 metropolitan see. Died, 1804. 
 
 MOORE, Joux, a physician, and miscel- 
 laneous writer of great repute, was born in 
 1730, at Stirling ; studied medicine and sur- 
 gery at Glasgow ; and was successively a 
 surgeon's mate in the Netherlands, and sur- 
 geon to the English ambassador at Paris. 
 In 1772 he took his degree as physician, and 
 became the partner of Dr. Gordon, an emi- 
 nent practitioner at Glasgow. After this he 
 spent five years in travelling upon the Con- 
 tinent with the Duke of Hamilton ; and on 
 his return he settled in London. In 1799 he 
 published the fruits of his travels in " A 
 View of Society and Manners in France, 
 Switzerland, and Germany," 2 vols. This 
 work was so well received, that, in 1781, he 
 added two volumes more, entitled " A View 
 of Society and Manners in Italy." After 
 this, he published his " Medical Sketches." 
 
 eii 
 
 His next performance was a novel of a very 
 superior character, entitled " Zeluco," 2 
 vols., which abounds with incident, and 
 affords a striking illustration of Italian cha- 
 racter and manners. In 1795 he published 
 " A View of the Causes and Progress of the 
 French Revolution," 2 vols. ; describing 
 scenes which he had witnessed during his 
 residence at Paris. He subsequently pub- 
 lished a novel, entitled " Edward, or various 
 Views of Human Nature," and " Mordaunt, 
 or Sketches of Life, Character, and Manners 
 in various Countries." Died, 1802. 
 
 MOORE, Sir John, a distinguished mili- 
 tary commander, was the eldest son of Dr. 
 John Moore, and born at Glasgow, in 1761. 
 Being destined for the military profession, 
 he was educated chiefly on the Continent ; 
 and whilst his father was abroad with the 
 Duke of Hamilton he entered the army, at 
 the age of fifteen, as ensign in the 61st regi- 
 ment of foot ; of which, in 1790, he became 
 lieutenant-colonel, and served with his corps 
 in Corsica, where lie was wounded in storm- 
 ing the Mozello fort at the siege of Calvi. 
 In 179C he went out as brigadier-general to 
 the West Indies, under Sir Ralph Aber- 
 cromby, who appointed him to the govern- 
 ment of St. Lucie, in the capture of which 
 he had a principal share. On his return 
 home, in 1797, he was employed in Ireland 
 during the rebellion, and was raised to the 
 rank of major-general. In 1799 he went on 
 the expedition to Holland, where he did all 
 that military prudence could accomplish to 
 repair the mistakes of an incompetent com- 
 mander, and where he was again wounded 
 severely. He soon afterwards went to Egypt, 
 and at the battle of Alexandria received two 
 more wounds. For his skill and valour in 
 that campaign he received the order of the 
 Bath. He was then dispatched on a mission, 
 both military and diplomatic, to the court of 
 Sweden, in which he conducted himself with 
 equal firmness and dexterity. In 1808 he 
 was appointed to command an army in Spain, 
 where, after a skilful and arduous retreat 
 before a very superior force, he fell by a 
 cannon ball, under the walls of Corunna, 
 January 16th, 1809. His death excited a 
 great sensation throughout the country. 
 The House of Commons ordered a monument 
 to be erected for him in St. Paul's cathedral ; 
 and Glasgow, hrs native city, also erected 
 one to his memory. 
 
 MOORE, Sir Jonas, an eminent mathe- 
 matician, was born about 1620, at Whitby, 
 in Lancashire. His skill in mathematical 
 learning recommended him to Charles II., by 
 whom he was employed in several works, 
 and made surveyor-general of the ordnance. 
 He was also one of the governors of Christ's 
 Hospital, and was the principal means of the 
 above monarch's endowing a mathematical 
 school in that seminary. Sir Jonas compiled, 
 for the use of that institution, a "General 
 System of Mathematics," in 2 vols. 4to., 
 which was published after his death, in 1681. 
 
 MORALES, Ambkose, a learned Spanish 
 Dominican, was born at Cordova, in 1513 ; 
 became historiographer to Philip II., king 
 of Spain ; and died in 1590. He was the 
 author of several works on the history and 
 antiquities of Spain ; but his extreme ere- 
 
moe] 
 
 ^ ^ch) Bnihtv^Kl 33t0g:tajil^|). 
 
 [mob 
 
 dulity greatly deteriorates the value of his 
 writings. 
 
 MORAND, Peter de, a poet and dra- 
 matist ; born at Aries, 1701 ; died, 1757. 
 
 MORANT, Philip, an antiquary and di- 
 vine, was born in the island of Jersey, and 
 educated at Pembroke College, Oxford. He 
 edited several works, and wrote a "History 
 of Colchester." " The History of Essex," &c. 
 Born, 1700 ; died, 1770. 
 
 MORATIN, Nicholas Fernandez de, a 
 celebrated Spanish dramatic poet ; born at 
 Madrid, in 1737 ; died, 1780. He was well 
 acquainted with the old Castilian chroni- 
 clers, and made excellent use of them in his 
 lyric poems and plays. He wrote three tra- 
 gedies, a comedy, a didactic poem, entitled 
 " Diana, or the Art of Hunting," and various 
 other works. 
 
 MORATIN, Leandro Fernandez de, a 
 Bon' of the preceding, was born about 1760, 
 and is considered superior to his father as a 
 dramatic poet. He was patronised by the 
 minister Godoy, who enabled him to visit 
 the principal theatres of England, France, 
 and Italy, at the royal expense ; and on his 
 return liome, appointed him to the situation 
 of principal secretary interpreter. Under 
 the government of Joseph Buonaparte he 
 was made royal librarian ; but he was sub- 
 sequently obliged to quit Spain, and died at 
 Paris, in 1828. He took Moliere for his 
 model ; and among his dramatic eflForts are 
 the comedies of" El Cafe," " El Baron," &c. 
 
 MORDAUNT, Charles, earl of Peter- 
 borough, was born about 1658, and succeeded 
 his father, John, lord Mordaunt, in 1675. 
 He entered into the navy, and distinguished 
 himself at Tangier when it was besieged by 
 the Moors. In 1697, on the deatli of his 
 uncle, he succeeded to the earldom of Peter- 
 borough ; was employed as commander of 
 the English army in Spain ; and, having 
 greatly distinguished himself by his courage 
 and activity, was subsequently appointed ge- 
 neralissimo of the imperial forces. Died, 1735. 
 
 MORE, Antonio, a celebrated portrait 
 painter, born at Utrecht, in 1519. He was 
 very successful in his portraits, of which he 
 painted several in England, in the reign of 
 queen Mary, on whose death he accompanied 
 Philip II. to Spain, where he lived in terms 
 of great intimacy with that monarch for 
 some time ; but presuming too much on his 
 familiarity, he incurred the displeasure of 
 the king, and quitted the country. He then 
 entered into the service of the Duke of Alva, 
 by whom he was made receiver-general of 
 the revenues of West Flanders. Thus pa- 
 tronised, lie was enabled to live in a style of 
 magnificence during the remainder of his 
 life. Died, 1575. 
 
 MORE, Hannah, an eminent moral writer, 
 was born at Stapleton, in Gloucestershire, in 
 1744. She was one of the five daughters of a 
 village schoolmaster, whose means were not 
 sufficient to give his children many of the 
 advantages of education ; but this deficiency 
 was supplied by their own talents and perse- 
 verance. The literary abilities of Hannah 
 early attracted notice, and a subscription 
 was formed for establishing her and her 
 sisters in a school of their own. Her first 
 literary production, " The Search after Hap- 
 
 piness," a pastoral drama, was written when 
 slie was only 18 years of age, though not 
 published till 1773. By the encouragement 
 of Garrick, she tried her strength in tragic 
 composition, and wrote " Tlie Inflexible 
 Captive," a tragedy, which was printed in 
 1764. Her tragedy of " Percy," the most 
 popular of her dramatic compositions, was 
 brought out in 1778, and ran 14 nights suc- 
 cessively ; and her last tragedy, " The Fatal 
 Falsehood," was produced in 1779. Shortly 
 after, her opinions of public theatres under- 
 went a change, and she has stated that she 
 did not consider the stage, in its present state, 
 as " becoming the appearance or countenance 
 of a Christian." Early in life she attracted 
 general notice by a brilliant display of lite- 
 rary talent, and was honoured by the in- 
 timate acquaintance of Johnson and Burke, 
 of Reynolds and Garrick, and of many other 
 eminent individuals, who equally appreci- 
 ated her amiable qualities and her superior 
 intellect. But she quitted, in the prime of 
 her days, the bright circle of fashion and 
 literature, and, retiring into tlie neighbour- 
 hood of Bristol, devoted herself to a life of 
 active Christian benevolence, and to the 
 composition of various works, having for 
 their object the religious improvement of 
 mankind. Her first prose publication was 
 " Thoughts on the Manners of the Great ; " 
 this was followed by lier " Estimate of the 
 Religion of the Fashionable World." In 
 1795 she commenced, at Bath, in monthly 
 numbers, " The Cheap Repository," a series 
 of admirable tales for the common people, 
 one of which is tlie well-known " Shepherd 
 of Salisbury Plain." The success of this 
 seasonable publication was extraordinary ; 
 and it is said that the sale reached the num- 
 ber of 1,000,000 copies. She subsequently 
 produced her " Strictures on the Modern 
 Sj'stem of Female Education," " Hints to- 
 wards Forming the Character of a Young 
 Princess," "Ccelebs in Search of a Wife," 
 "Practical Piety," "Christian Morals," an 
 " Essay on the Character and Writings of 
 St. Paul," and "Moral Sketches of the Pre- 
 vailing Opinions and Manners, Foreign and 
 Domestic, with Reflections on Prayer." The 
 collection of her works comprises 11 volumes, 
 8vo. She died at Clifton, in September, 1833, 
 aged 89, having realised upwards of 80,000?. 
 by her writings, and leaving in charitable 
 bequests about 10,0OOZ. 
 
 MORE, Henrv, an eminent divine of the 
 Churcli of England, was born at Grantham, 
 in Lincolnsliire, in 1614 ; was educated at 
 Eton, and Clirist's College, Cambridge ; and, 
 while at the latter, profoundly studied the 
 most celebrated systems of philosophy, and 
 finally settled into a decided preference for 
 that of Plato. In 1640 he published " Psyeho- 
 Zoia, or the Life of the Soul :" a philosophical 
 poem, which he republished, with other 
 pieces, in 1647. He refused the highest 
 ecclesiastical preferments, and died, univer- 
 sally beloved, in 1687. That he was a man 
 of great genius and vast erudition there can 
 be no doubt ; but his opinions were singular, 
 and deeply tinctured with enthusiasm. The 
 most admired of his works are his " Enchiri- 
 dium Ethicum " and " Divine Dialogues." 
 
 MORE, Sir Thomas, chancellor of Eng- 
 
 I 
 
mor] 
 
 ^ fit^ Bixiiitx^nl 3Si0g:rHp!)ii. 
 
 [mor 
 
 land, was the son of Sir Joliii More, judge 
 of the king's bench, and born in London, in 
 14«0. lie was educated at Christcliurch, 
 then Canterbury College, Oxford ; and, in 
 1499, became a student of Lincoln's Inn. 
 At the age of 21 he obtained a seat in par- 
 liament, where he opposed a subsidy de- 
 manded by Henry "VII. with such force, that 
 it was refused by the liouse. At the accession 
 of Henry "VIII. he was called to the bar, 
 and in 1;>08 he was made judge of the sherift"8 
 court, and a justice of peace. In 1518 he 
 published his " Utopia," a political romance ; 
 and about this time the friendship began 
 between him and Erasmus, which lasted 
 through life. By the interest of Wolsey he 
 obtained the honour of knighthood, und a 
 place in the privy council. In 1520 he was 
 made treasurer of the exchequer ; and in 
 1523 chosen speaker of the House of Com- 
 mons, where he resisted a motion for an op- 
 pressive subsidy, which gave great offence to 
 his former friend, the cardinal. In 1530 he 
 succeeded Wolsey as lord chancellor ; and 
 by his indefatigable application in that 
 office, there was in a short time not a cause 
 left undetermined. He resigned the seals, 
 because he could not conscientiously lend 
 his support to the measures of Henry re- 
 specting his divorce of queen Catharine ; and 
 he was eventually committed to the Tower 
 for refusing the oath of supremacy. After 
 an imprisonment of 12 months, he was 
 brougiit to his trial in the court of king's 
 bench, where, notwithstanding his eloquent 
 defence, he was found guilty of treason, and 
 sentenced to be beheaded. His behaviour, 
 in the interval, con-esi)onded with the uni- 
 form tenor of his life ; and, on July 6. 15:(5, 
 he ascended the scaffold, with his character- 
 istic pleasantry, saying to the lieutenant of 
 the Tower, " I pray you, see me safe up ; 
 and as for my coming down, let me shift for 
 myself." In the same spirit, when he laid 
 his head on the block, lie told tiie execu- 
 tioner to wait till he had removed his beard, 
 " For that," said he, " hath committed no 
 treason." Thus fell this illustrious Eng- 
 lishman, whose integrity and disinterested- 
 ness were on a par wiih his learning, and 
 who wanted only a more tolerant spirit to 
 make liim a perfect character.' 
 
 MOKEAU, James Nicholas, a French 
 advocate, and historiograplier of France, was 
 born at St. Florentine, in 1717. He was em- 
 ployed in collecting and arranging all the 
 charters, edicts, &c., of the French legis- 
 lature ; and was the author of " Memoires 
 pour servir t>, I'llistoire de notre Temps," 2 
 vols. ; " Devoirs d'un Prince," and " Prin- 
 cipes de Morale politi<iue et du Droit pub- 
 lique, ou Discours sur I'llistoire de France," 
 21 vols. 8vo. It was the maxim of Moreau, 
 that every thing should be done for the 
 people, nothing by them. 
 
 MOREAU, Jean' Michel, an eminent de- 
 signer and engraver, was bom at Paris, 1741. 
 He was a man of extensive information on 
 works of art, and his industry was truly 
 surprising. In 1700 he was commissioned to 
 prepare all the drawings required for the 
 l)id)lic festivities and those of the court ; and 
 he commenced his duties with the sketches 
 for the celebration of the nuptials of the 
 
 dauphin and the other royal princess. In 
 1775 he published engravings, executed by 
 himself, of his drawings for the coronation 
 of Louis XVI., and was made member of 
 the academy of painting, and draughtsman 
 of the royal cabinet. Besides what he 
 completed as royal draughtsman, the num- 
 ber of drawings which he executed for 
 engravings amounts to 24(X) ; while, as an 
 engraver also, his labour was prodigious. 
 He prepared 1(50 plates of the History of 
 France, 80 for the New Testament, 60 for 
 Gesner's works, upwards of 100 for editions 
 of "Voltaire and Moliere, and an immense 
 number more for the illustration of tlie 
 standard works of ancient and modem au- 
 thors. Died, 1814. 
 
 MOREAU. Jkax Victor, one of the most 
 celebrated generals of the French republic, 
 was born at Morlaix, in 17C.'}. Though des- 
 tined for the law, he abruptly left his studies, 
 and enlisted in a regiment, before he had 
 attained his 18th year ; bnt his father would 
 not allow him to indulge liis passion for a 
 military life, and procured his discharge. 
 The revolution, liowever, enabled him to 
 gratify his wishes ; and he became com- 
 mander of the first battalion of volunteers 
 raised in the department of Morbihan, at 
 tlie head of which he joined the army of the 
 north. Having greatly distinguished him- 
 self at the head of his battalion, Pichegru, 
 under whom he served, did all he could to 
 befriend him ; and, in 1794, being made ge- 
 neral of division, he was intrusted with a 
 separate force, to act in Flanders, where he 
 took many towns. He was soon after named 
 commander-in-chief of the army of the 
 Rhine, and began that course of arduous 
 operations which terminated in the cele- 
 brated retreat, from the extremity of Ger- 
 many to the French frontier, in the face of a 
 superior force, by which his skill as a con- 
 summate tactician was so much exalted. 
 Meantime, the republic being torn with in- 
 testine dissensions, he, for a time, retired 
 from active service ; but his talents as a 
 general again brought him forward ; and 
 Buonaparte having returned from Egypt, 
 and being now first consul, intrusted him 
 with the command of the armies of the 
 Daimbe and the Rhine, which, in 1800, was 
 productive of the decisive victory of Hohen- 
 linden. Having, some time subsequent to 
 this brilliant campaign, been implicated 
 with Pichegru, Georges, and other royalists, 
 in a plot against the consular government, he 
 was brought to trial with 54 other persons, 
 declared guilty upon slight evidence, and 
 sentenced to two years' imprisonment. This 
 was, however, commuted to a sort of volun- 
 tary banishment ; and he accordingly retired 
 to North America, where he bought an estate 
 near Morrisville, on the Delaware. He there 
 resided some years in the enjoyment of ease 
 and tranqnillity, until listening to the in- 
 vitation of the allies, and more especially of 
 Russia, he embarkeil for Europe in July, 
 1813. At Prague he found the emperors of 
 Austna and Russia, with the king of Prussia, 
 all of whom received him with great cor- 
 diality ; and he was induced to aid in the 
 direction of the allied armies against his 
 countrymen. Soon after his arrival, wliile 
 
 3a 
 
MOR 
 
 9[ flcto Winihcr^aX MiOQtu^'i)}}* 
 
 [mor 
 
 conversing with the emperor Alexander on 
 horseback, in the battle before Dresden, a 
 cannon ball fractured his right knee and 
 leg. Amputation was immediately per- 
 formed ; but the wound proved mortal ; and 
 he died on the 1st of September, 1813. Moreau 
 was brave, generous, and humane ; possess- 
 ing rare merits as a soldier, and highly es- 
 teemed by those who served under him, for 
 the affability and simplicity of his manners. 
 It was thought, and probably with truth, 
 that he was looked upon with a jealous eye 
 by Buonaparte, whose fear of finding iu 
 Moreau a successful rival, led to his expa- 
 triation. 
 
 MORELL, Thoma?, an eminent critic and 
 lexicographer, was born at Eton, in 1703. 
 He published valuable editions of Ains- 
 worth's Latin Dictionary, and Hedericus'a 
 Greek Lexicon, and was the author of " An- 
 notations on Locke's Essay on the Human 
 Understanding." He edited the plays of 
 Euripides and ^schylus, translated the 
 Epistles of Seneca ; assisted Hogarth in writ- 
 ing his Analysis of Beauty ; and selected the 
 passages of Scripture for Handel's Oratorios. 
 Died, 1784. 
 
 MORELLET, Andre, a celebrated abb4, 
 born at Lyons, iu 1727. He wrote some 
 works on political economy and statistics ; 
 lived in habits of friendsliip with the most 
 eminent of his countrymen ; wrote many 
 political brocliures during the revolution ; 
 and died in 1819. He publislied "Literary 
 and Philosophical Miscellanies of the Eigh- 
 teenth Century," and his " Memoirs on the 
 Eighteenth Century " appeared after his 
 death. 
 
 MORERI, Louis, a French ecclesiastic, 
 and the first author of the "Biographical 
 Dictionary " which bears his name, was born 
 in Provence, in 1(j43 ; was educated among 
 the Jesuits at Aix ; became almoner to the 
 bishop of Apt ; and died in 1G80. The volu- 
 minous compilation which Moreri com- 
 menced owed its origin to the prelate before 
 mentioned : when it was first published by 
 Moreri, it consisted of one folio volume ; but 
 the additions made to it by subsequent writers 
 have extended it to ten. 
 
 MORES, Edward Rowe, an English an- 
 tiquary, was born, in 1730, at Tunstall, in 
 Kent. He published an ancient fragment, 
 entitled " Nomina et Insignia Gentilitia 
 Nobilium Equitumque sub Edvardo primo 
 Rege Militantium," 4to. In 1752 he was 
 chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries ; 
 and he projected the equitable society for 
 insurance on lives and survivorship by an- 
 nuities. He was the author of the " History 
 and Antiquities of Tunstall, in Kent." &c, 
 Died, 1778. 
 
 MORETO Y CABANA, Dox Augustin, 
 an eminent Spanish dramatic poet of the 
 17th century, who, after writing 200 plays, 
 became an ecclesiastic. He was contem- 
 porary with Calderon, and was patronised 
 by Philip IV. He may fairly be called the 
 Spanish Moliere, many of his comedies 
 still keeping possession of the stage, from 
 their racy humour, striking incidents, and 
 cliaracteristic language of the dramatis 
 personce. 
 
 MORGAGNI, John Baptist, an eminent 
 
 physician and anatomist, was born at Forli, 
 in Romagna, iu 1682 ; studied imder Val- 
 salva, at Bologna ; and, in 1711, became 
 professor of medicine at Padua. In 1713 
 he was appointed to the first anatomical 
 professorship, in which situation he con- 
 tinued till liis death, in 1771. His works 
 form 5 volumes folio, and are held iu high 
 estimation. 
 
 MORGAN, Sir Henry, a celebrated com- 
 mander of buccaneers in the 17th century, 
 was the son of a Welsh farmer. He took 
 Porto Bello and Panama from the Spaniards, 
 and for several years continued to enrich 
 himself and his followers by the success of 
 his marauding expeditions against that 
 nation. Having amassed a large fortune, 
 he settled at Jamaica, of whicli island he 
 was appointed governor by Charles II., and 
 knighted. 
 
 MORGAN, William, an eminent Welsh 
 prelate, who had a principal concern in the 
 translation of the Bible into Welsh, printed 
 first in 1.588. He died in 1004. 
 
 MORGAN, William, a distinguished ma- 
 thematician, was a native of Glamorganshire. 
 He was actuary to the Equitable Assurance 
 Company, I^ondon ; and remained connected 
 with that institution 56 years. He was the 
 author of " The Doctrine of Annuities and 
 Assurances of Lives," " A Review of Dr. 
 Crawford's Theory of Heat," together with 
 various treatises connected with the financial 
 prosperity of Great Britain. Died, 1833. 
 
 MORGIIEN, Raphael, a celebrated en- 
 graver, born at Naples, in 1758. He was 
 invited to Florence in 1782, to engrave tlie 
 master-pieces of the Florentine gallery ; and 
 the reputation he acquired by his labours 
 there, induced the grandduke to employ 
 him in engraving Leonardo da Vinci's noble 
 composition of the Last Supper, which is 
 painted on the wall of tlie refectory in the 
 Dominicans' convent, at Milan. In 1803 he 
 was chosen an associate of the French In- 
 stitute ; and, in 1812, lie was invited to Paris 
 by Napoleon, who treated him with the most 
 flattering kindness. His works are numerous, 
 and include some of the most remarkable 
 productions of the great masters. 
 
 MORHOFF, Daniel George, a learned 
 German author, boru at Wismar, in Meck- 
 lenburg, in 1639 ; was educated at Stettin 
 and Rostock ; came to England, and resided j 
 for a time at Oxford. His principal work 
 is entitled " Polyhistor, sive de Notitia Auc- | 
 torum et Rerum Commentarii." Died, 1691. | 
 
 MORICE, Sir William, an English gen- i 
 tleman, memorable for the share which he ' 
 had in bringing about the restoration of 1 
 Charles II. lie was the kinsman of General ' 
 Monk, who procm-ed liim the place of secre- 
 tary of state, which he resigned in 16G8, and 
 died in 1676. 
 
 MORIER, James, whose novels descriptive 
 of Eastern life and manners enjoyed at one 
 time great popularity both at home and 
 abroad, was born in 1780. When still very 
 young, he made an extensive tour through 
 the East, the main incidents of which he 
 described in his "Travels through Persia, 
 Armenia, Asia Minor, to Constantinople." 
 In 1810 he was appointed British envoy to 
 the court of Persia, where he remained till 
 
mok] 
 
 ^ ^cH mnihexiHl ISCosraiJlbi). 
 
 [moh 
 
 181G, and soon after his return he published 
 " A Second Journey through Persiii," &c. 
 During his stay in the East, he made great 
 use of his opportunity of studying the cha- 
 racter of the people ; and the knowledge 
 thus acquired was turned to excellent ac- 
 count in his " Adventures of Hajji Baba of 
 Ispahan " (a species of Gil Bias, like Hope's 
 " Anastasius "), whose " adventures in Eng- 
 land " he described in a second series ; 
 " Zohrab, or the Hostage," " Ayesha. or the 
 Maid of Kars." "Abel Alnutt," "The Ba- 
 nished," &c. ; in all of wluch, but especially 
 in the first three, the manners, customs, and 
 modes of thought prevalent in the East are 
 pourtrayed with a liveliness, skill, and 
 truthfulness to nature attained by few. 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 MORIN, Jonx Baptist, a French phy- 
 sician, born at Villefranche, in 1583 ; became 
 regius professor of mathematics at the uni- 
 versity of Paris ; and died in 1(5.56. He was 
 the author of " Astrologia Gallica," a work 
 which cost him 30 years laUour, and was 
 published after his death at the Hague. 
 
 MORIN, Stkimien, a French Protestant 
 divine, born in l(i2,5, at Caen, in which city 
 he settled as pastor of a congregation, and 
 remained there till the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, when he retired to Leyden. He 
 was afterwards appointed professor of oriental 
 languages at Amsterdam ; and died in 1700. 
 His works are chiefly of a philological cha- 
 racter, explanatory of the origin, &c., of the 
 l)rimitive languages. 
 
 MORISON, Robert, an eminent English 
 physician, and professor of botany at Oxford, 
 was born at Aberdeen, in 1<)20. He studied 
 at the university of his native place till in- 
 terrupted by the civil wars, in which he dis- 
 played great zeal and courage in behalf of 
 the royal cause. After this he went to France, 
 where he took his doctor's degree, and was 
 appointed director of the royal garden at 
 Blois. In loco he returned to England, and 
 was nominated physician to Charles II., and 
 regius professor of botany at Oxford. In 
 16t)9 he published his " Prseludium Bota- 
 nicum ; " in 1G80, a portion of his " Historia 
 Plantarum " appeared ; but his death, in 
 1683, prevented him from finishing it, and 
 the second vohune was published by Bobart. 
 
 MORITZ, Chakles Philip, a German 
 writer, was born at Hameln, in 17.57. He 
 travelled in England, Switzerland, and Italy; 
 wrote many works, the chief of which are his 
 " Travels," " The Antiquities of Rome," the 
 novels of " Anthony Reiser and Andrew 
 Hartknopf," and various grammatical trea- 
 tises. Died, 1793. 
 
 MORLAND, Geouge, an eminent painter 
 of rustic scenery and low life, was born in 
 London, in 1764. He was instructed by his 
 father, who employed him constantly in 
 making drawings for sale. By this means 
 he acquired a wonderful facility of invention, 
 and rapidity of execution. He had also 
 great skill as a faithful copier of nature, and 
 in the early part of his caretr confined him- 
 self to the delineation of picturesque land- 
 scapes ; but having contracted irregular 
 habits, and a partiality for the bottle and 
 low company, he forsook the woods and 
 fields for the ale-house ; and stage coachmen, 
 
 out 
 
 postilions, and drovers drinking, became the 
 favourite subjects of his pencil. Some of his 
 best pieces exhibit farmyards and stables, 
 with dogs, horses, pigs, and cattle ; or scenes 
 at the door of the village ale-house, designed 
 with all the truth and feeling which com- 
 municate a charm to the meanest objects, 
 and proclaim the genius of the artist. Many 
 were painted in spunging- houses to clear 
 him from arrest, or in public-houses to dis- 
 charge his reckoning. In one of the former 
 descri{>tion he died, in 18U4, aged 40, a 
 melancholy example of irregular and debas- 
 ing habits. Uis wife survived him only two 
 days. 
 
 MORLAND, Sir Samuel, a statesman and 
 an able mechanist, was a native of Berk- 
 shire, and born in 162.5. He was employed in 
 some diplomatic missions by Cromwell ; and 
 afterwards rendered considerable service to 
 Charles II., for which, at the Restoration, he 
 was made a baronet. Among his inventions 
 are reckoned the speaking-trumpet, the fire- 
 engine, the capstan, and the steam engine ; 
 but of some of these, it is presumed, he 
 was rather the improver than the original 
 discoverer. Me expended a considerable 
 fortune in the prosecution of his favourite 
 speculations, and, like many other projectors, 
 was a benefactor to the public to the detri- 
 ment of his private concerns. Died, about 
 1696. 
 
 MORLEY, George, an eminent English 
 prelate, was bom in London, in 1597. Charles 
 I. gave him a canonry of Christchurch ; but, 
 being deprived of it by the parliament, he 
 left England, and remained abroad till the 
 Restoration, when he was made dean of 
 Christchurch, and, in 1066, consecrated bishop 
 of Worcester. He was next appointed dean 
 of the chapel-royal, and, in 1662, trans- 
 lated to Winchester, to which see he was 
 a great benefactor. He also founded five 
 scholarships in Pembroke College, and 
 gave large sums to various charitable uses. 
 Died, 1084. 
 
 MORLEY, Thomas, an eminent English 
 musician in the reign of Elizabeth. He was 
 distinguished both as a performer and a com- 
 poser ; and among his works are canzonets, 
 madrigals, ballets, and church music. His 
 chief work is entitled, " A plaine and easie 
 Introduction to Practical Musicke." Died, 
 about 1604. 
 
 MORNAY, Philip de, sieur du Plessis 
 Morlay, a celebrated French statesman and 
 writer, was born at Buhl, Normandy, in 
 1549. Hp was a Protestant, and after the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew's, he left the 
 country, and travelled in many parts of the 
 Continent, visiting England also where he 
 was received by Elizabeth with distinguished 
 marks of favour. In 1575 he entered into 
 the service of the king of Navarre, after- 
 wards Henry IV., whom for 30 years he 
 served in the cabinet and the field with the 
 utmost zeal and activity. After Henry had 
 reconciled himself to the church of Rome, 
 De Mornay sent in his resignation, and, re- 
 tiring from a public sphere, devoted the re- 
 mainder of his life to literary pursuits, ad- 
 vocating with his pen the cause which he 
 had defended with his sword. His first 
 work, a " Treatise on the Church," appeared 
 
 8 o2 
 
mok] 
 
 ^ :5Scto Hnibn-^nl SStasr^qpl^i?. 
 
 [mor 
 
 in 1578, and was followed the succeeding 
 year by another, entitled "The Truth of 
 Cliristianity." But his most celebrated one 
 was a " Treatise on the Sacrament of the 
 Lord's Supper," in which lie opposed the 
 doctrine of transubslantiation. So great was 
 his learning, and sucli was his influence 
 over the Huguenots, tliat he acquired from 
 them the appellation of the Protestant pope ; 
 while his constancy and unblemished cha- 
 racter obtained the respect even of his oppo- 
 nents. Died, 1«23. 
 
 MOROSINT, AxnnEA, a senator of Tenice; 
 born, 15.58 ; died, 1618. He rose to be one of 
 the council of ten, and, in ]r>98, was ap- 
 pointed historian to the republic, on which 
 he undertook a continuation of Paruta's 
 History of Venice. 
 
 MOKOSINI, Fkaxcesco, a gallant sol- 
 dier, who, as governor of Candia, about 
 the middle of the 17tli century, defended 
 that island, witli .30,000 men, against a 
 Turkish force of four times that amount ; 
 but was ultimately compelled to surrender. 
 He subsequently, as commander of the 
 Venetian fleet, attacked that of the Turks, 
 near the Dardanelles, and totally defeated 
 it. In 1688 he was elected doge of Venice ; 
 and died in 1694. 
 
 MORRIS, Charles, a celebrated English 
 bard, whose convivial songs were once in 
 high repute. Though many of them might 
 well be spared, some are chaste in senti- 
 ment and felicitous in expression, while 
 others possess, in an eminent degree, those 
 qualities which are supposed to give a zest 
 to bacchanalian orgies. Captain Morris died 
 at Brock ham Lodge, Dorking, in his OCrd 
 year, July 11. 1832. 
 
 MORRISON, the Rev. Robert, D. D. 
 His ancestors were Scottish husbandmen ; 
 but his father, quitting Pertlishire and the 
 plough, became a mechanic and a man of 
 substance in Northumberland, where Ro- 
 bert, tlie youngest of seven children, was 
 born in 1782. He was bred to last-making 
 by his father, who was also an elder of tiie 
 Scotch church. But Robert had a propen- 
 sity for high classical attainments. He ob- 
 tained the rudiments of the Latin, Greek 
 and Hebrew languages from tlie local 
 preacher he attended ; and was, at length, 
 sent by the London Missionary Society to 
 China (having previously studied the lan- 
 guage of that country), where he arrived in 
 1807. In the course of a year or two he had 
 prepared a grammar and' dictionary of tlie 
 Chinese language for the press, besides a 
 Chinese version of the New Testament, 
 which were afterwards printed. He was 
 appointed by the East India Company as 
 their correspondent and interpreter ; but 
 never lost siglit of the chief object of his 
 toil, namely, to extend and establish tlie 
 tenets of the Christian doctrine. In 1817, 
 the degree of D. D. was conferred upon him 
 by the university of Glasgow ; and in the 
 same year he accompanied Lord Amherst in 
 his embassy to Pckin. He afterwards pro- 
 jected an Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca, 
 of whicli he was a liberal patron until his 
 death, which took place at Macao, in 1834. 
 In him was lost to the world the great- 
 est Chinese scholar Europe ever produced, 
 
 Q16 
 
 and one of the most zealous of Christian 
 labourers. 
 
 MORTIER, Marshal, Duke of Treviso, 
 born in 1708, was the son of a mercliant, 
 who represented the tiers etctf of Cambresis 
 at the states-general in 1789. Quitting tlie 
 mercantile profession, for which he had 
 been designed, lie entered the army in 1791 
 with the rank of captain ; and having dis- 
 tinguished liimself on various occasions, he 
 was rapidly promoted, and intrusted with 
 tlie command of the advance-guard, in 
 which situation he was eminently successful, 
 and gained the favour of his superiors. 
 Buonaparte had so high an opinion of his 
 skill and enterprise, that he appointed him 
 to the command of the first army sent 
 against Hanover in 1803, which soon ended 
 in its occupation by the French. In 1804 he 
 was raised to the rank of a marshal, and 
 decorated with the grand cross of the le- 
 gion of honour. In t!ie campaigns of 1805 
 and 180(), General Mortier headed one of 
 the divisions of the grand army, commanded 
 in chief by Napoleon in person ; and during 
 this period he displayed feats of military 
 enterprise and intrejndity which rendered 
 him dear to the troops of the nation. On 
 one occasion, wlien at the head of only 4000 
 men, he fell in with tlie main body of the 
 Russian army under Kutusoflf, and being 
 compelled to figlit or surrender, by his 
 superior tactics and valour he resisted them 
 till tlie arrival of sufficient reinforcements 
 came to his relief. In 1808 he was raised to 
 the imperial dukedom of Treviso, receiving 
 4000/. per annum out of the crown domains 
 of Hanover ; and, soon after the invasion of 
 Spain, he took the command of the French 
 armies there. He subsequently accompanied 
 Na[)oleon in his expedition to Russia ; and 
 to him was intrusted the liazardous under- 
 taking of blowing up the Kremlin at Mos- 
 cow. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. 
 he gave in his adhesion, and lived as a 
 private individual in Paris till 1816, when 
 he was appointed to the command of the 
 15th military division, situated at Rouen. 
 He was afterwards elected a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies, in wliich he sat till 
 1819, when he was raised to the peerage. In 
 1834, Louis Pliilipfie prevailed on hiin to 
 accept office on the resignation of Marshal 
 Soult, but having neither taste nor the re- 
 quisite ability for the arena of politics, he 
 soon after resigned. Being among the staff 
 that accompanied the king and princes to 
 the review at Paris, on the 28th of July. 1835, 
 it was the fate of tliis brave officer to be one 1 
 of the victims of the assassin, Fieschi, whose 
 " infernal machine," sparing the king and 
 princes, for whom it was especially designed, 
 took deadly effect on Marshal Mortier, 
 while it also killed and wounded "several 
 who were near him. 
 
 MORTIMER, JOHX Hamii.tox, an Eng- 
 lish painter, was born at Eastbourne, in 
 Sussex, in 1739. In 1779 he was appointed 
 by his majesty a royal academician, with- 
 out any solicitation ; and died the same 
 year. He excelled in sketches of banditti 
 and terrific subjects. 
 
 MORTIMER, TuoMAS, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in 1730, iu Loudon. He 
 
mor] 
 
 ^ ^t^ WiniiittiaX JSiOflrapl^y, 
 
 [mot 
 
 received a liberal education, and was for 
 some time vice- consul in the Netherlands; 
 His principal works are, " The British Plu- 
 tarch," 6 vols. ; a " Dictionary of Trade and 
 Commerce," *' The Elements of Commerce, 
 Politics, and Finances," a "History of Eng- 
 land," and " The Student's Pocket Dic- 
 tionary." Died, 1809. 
 
 l^IOHTON. See Douglas. 
 
 MOKTOX, Jamks, Earl of, regent of 
 Scotland, was horn at Dalkeith, in 1530, 
 and educated under the famous Buchanan, 
 at Paris. He returned to Scotland in l.'i.54, 
 and greatly promoted the Reformation ; 
 but being accused of participating in the 
 murder of Lord Darnley, he fled to Eng- 
 land. He was afterwards made chancellor 
 of Scotland, and, in 1574, succeeded the Earl 
 of Mar as regent, which office he resigued in 
 1579. He was condemned for high treason 
 in 1.581, and beheaded by a machine called 
 the Maiden, greatly resembling the guillo- 
 tine. Died, 1581. 
 
 MORTON, Joiiy, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury and a cardinal, was born in 1410, at 
 Berc, in Dorsetshire. He received his edu- 
 cation at Baliol College, Oxford ; after 
 which he became principal of Peckwater 
 Inn, now merged in Christchurch. In 1473 
 he was appointed master of the rolls, in 
 wliich situation he adhered faitlifuUy to 
 Henry VI.; notwithstanding which, Edward 
 IV. made him bishop of Ely, and lord 
 chancellor, in 1478. Richard III., however, 
 committed him to the custody of the Duke 
 of Buckingham, who confined him in his 
 castle of Brecknock ; from which fortress he 
 escaped to Ely, and next to the Continent, 
 where he joined the Earl of Richmond. In 
 148<) he was made archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and the next year lord chancellor ; in 1493, 
 he was created a cardinal ; in 1494, elected 
 chancellor of the university of Oxford ; and 
 he died, ased 90, in 1500. 
 
 MORTON, Thomas, a learned English 
 prelate, was born at York, in l.')G4. He was 
 successively dean of Gloucester and Win- 
 chester ; and bishop of Chester, liichfleld, 
 and Durham. He suffered many hardships 
 in the great rebellion from the republican 
 party, notwithstanding his great moderation 
 and piety, which were acknowledged by all. 
 Died, 16.59. 
 
 MORTON, Thomas an eminent and suc- 
 cessful dramatist, was born at Durham, in 
 1704. He entered as a student at Lincoln's 
 Inn, but his taste for theatricals caused him 
 to abandon his profession, and he soon gave 
 proofs of his talents as a dramatic writer. 
 It is remarkable, indeed, that nearly all his 
 pieces still keep possession of the stage. 
 They consist of " The Way to get Married," 
 " Columbus," " Town and Country," " Zo- 
 rinski," "A Cure for the Heart-ache," 
 " Speed the Plough," " Secrets Worth Know- 
 ing," "The Blind Girl," "The Children in 
 the Wood," The School of Reform," " The 
 School for Grown Gentlemen," " A Rowland 
 for an Oliver," and " The Inviucibles." 
 Died, 18.38. 
 
 MOSCHUS, a Greek pastoral poet, a na- 
 tive of Syracuse, who flourished, with his 
 friend Bion, about 200 years, b. c. 
 
 MOSELEY, Benjamin, a physician, was 
 
 C17 
 
 a native of Essex, and born about 1739. For 
 several years he practised as a surgeon and 
 apothecary at Kingston, in Jamaica ; took 
 his degree at Leyden ; settled in London, aa 
 a pliysician, in 1785 ; was appointed phy- 
 sician of Chelsea Hospital ; and died in 1819. 
 He wrote " Observations on the Dysentery of 
 the West Indies ; two treatises " On Cotfee 
 and Sugar," &c.; and made himself very 
 conspicuous by his violent opposition to 
 vaccine inoculation. 
 
 MOSHEIM, John Laurence, a learned 
 German theologian, was boru at Lulwck, in 
 1(!94 ; became a member of the faculty of 
 philosophy at Kiel ; and was appointed 
 chancellor of the university of Gottingen, 
 where he remained till his death in 17.55, 
 lecturing daily on ecclesiastical history and 
 most other departments of theology. His 
 principal work on this subject is the " In- 
 stitutiones Historias EcclesiasticsB," which 
 was afterwards published under various 
 other forms, and translated into German, 
 with additions ; also into English by Dr. 
 Maclaine. Ainong his other numerous 
 writings are, "De Rebus Christianorum ante 
 Constantinum Magnum Commentarii," a 
 " Life of Scrvetus," " The Ecclesiastical 
 History of the Tartars," " Observationes 
 SacriB, and "Sermons," which were much 
 admired for their pure and elegant style. 
 
 MOSS, RoBKUT, an J]nglisli divine, was 
 born at Gillingliam, in Norfolk, about Hi'M. 
 In 1098 he was chosen i)reacher to the 
 society of Gray's Inn, and the following 
 year appointed assistant at St. James's, 
 Westminster. In 1708 he became lecturer 
 of St. Lawrence Jewry; in 1712, dean of 
 Ely ; and he died in 1729. His sermons 
 were published in 8vols. 8vo.; besides which 
 he wrote some Latin and English poems. 
 
 MOSS, Chakles, an English prelate, was 
 the nephew of the [ireceding. He became 
 successively archdeacon of Colchester, pre- 
 bendary of Salisbury, rector of St. Andrew 
 Undershaft, and of St. George, Hanover 
 Square. In 176(5 he was consecrated bishop 
 of St. David's, whence lie was translated to 
 
 Bath and Wells ; and died in 1802 His 
 
 son. Dr. CHaulks Moss, was bishop of Ox- 
 ford, and died in 1811. 
 
 MOSSOM, Robert, a learned Irish pre- 
 late, who suffered much in the civil wars, 
 but on the Restoration he was made dean 
 of Christchurch, Dublin ; with which he 
 held the bishopric of Londonderry, where 
 he died in 1679, His works are, "The 
 Preacher's Tripartite," " Varioe colloquendi 
 Formulae," " Narrative of George Wild, 
 Bishop of Derry," and " Zion'a Prospect in 
 its first View." 
 
 MOSSOP, Henry, an eminent tragic 
 actor, born in Ireland, in 1729, was the son 
 of a clergyman, and was educated at Tri- 
 nity College, Dublin. He made his first 
 appearance on the Dublin stage as " Zanga," 
 in the Revenge ; but soon removed to Lon- 
 don, where, next to Garrick and Henderson, 
 he was esteemed the first tragedian of his 
 time. In 1761 he became manager of one of 
 the Dublin theatres ; but the speculation 
 proved his ruin, and he died in absolute 
 penury at Chelsea, in 1773. 
 
 MOTHERWELL, William, a poet, was 
 
mot] 
 
 ^ ]j9clo mnibfr^al 3!5i09;ra}jl)tt. 
 
 [mou 
 
 bom at Glasgow in 1798 ; and when a youth 
 lie obtained a situation in the sheriflF clerk's 
 office at Paisley, where he continued till 
 within a few years of his death. In 1827 he 
 published a very interesting and valuable 
 collection of ballads, entitled "Minstrelsy, 
 Ancient and Modern ;" and he was after- 
 wards successively editor of the Paisley 
 Magazine, Paisley Advertiser, and tlie Glas- 
 gow Courier. In 1833 was published a col- 
 lected edition of his own poems, some of 
 wliich possess a pathos and an intensity of 
 feeling not often surpassed. Died, 18;W. 
 
 MOTTEUX. PiEKUE Antoise, a miscel- 
 laneous writer, was born at Kouen, in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1060 ; settled in England after 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes ; and 
 embarking his property in trade, opened an 
 East India warehouse in Leadenhall Street, 
 London, and also obtained a situation in the 
 post otfice. He wrote nearly twenty dra- 
 matic pieces, and translated " Don Quixote " 
 and " Rabelais." Died, 1718. 
 
 MOTTLE Y, Joux, a dramatic writer, was 
 the son of Colonel Mottley, wl-.o followed 
 James II. to France, and was killed at the 
 battle of Turin, in 170(5. His son was born 
 in 1692, and received his education at St. 
 Martin's library school ; after which he ob- 
 tained a place in the excise oflice, but was 
 obliged to resign it in 1720. He then had 
 recourse to his pen for support, and wrote 
 live dramatic pieces ; also the " Life of the 
 Czar Peter the Great," 3 vols., and the " His- 
 tory of Catharine of Russia," 2 vols. ; but 
 the work of his which obtained by far the 
 greatest popularity, is the well known col- 
 lection of facetise, called "Joe Miller's Jests," 
 of which we have spoken inider the notice of 
 its assumed author. Died, 1750. 
 
 MOUFET, or MUFFET, Thomas, a phy- 
 sician and naturalist, was born in London, 
 and educated at Cambridge, after which he 
 travelled through several parts of Europe ; 
 took the degree of M. D. while abroad ; and, 
 on his return, settled in London, where he 
 practised with great reputation. He accom- 
 panied Lord Willoughby on an embassy 
 to Denmark, was wiUi the Earl of Essex 
 when he encamped in Normandy ; and died 
 about 1604. His works are, " De Jure et 
 Praestantia Chemicorum Medicamentorum," 
 "EpistolaJ quinque Medicinales," " Noso- 
 mantica Hippocratica," " Health's Improve- 
 ment, or Rules for preparing Food," " In- 
 sectorum, sive miuimorum Animalium The- 
 atrum." 
 
 MOULIN, Charles du, an eminent jurist, 
 was born at Paris, in 15(«). He was edu- 
 cated for the legal profession, and admitted 
 an advocate in the parliament of Paris ; but 
 owing to an impediment in his speech, he 
 gave up pleading for chamber practice, and 
 devoted much of his time to the composition 
 of legal works. He embraced the Protestant 
 religion, and in 1552 attacked the authority 
 of the pope, which compelled him to seek 
 an asylum in Germany. On his return to 
 France he suffered imprisonment at the in- 
 stigation of the Jesuits, and could not recover 
 his liberty without pledging himself to print 
 nothing till he had obtained the royal per- 
 mission. He afterwards reconciled himself 
 to the Catholic faith, and died in 15(?6. 
 
 618 
 
 MOULIN, Pkter du, a Protestant divine, 
 was born at Bechny, in the Vexin, in l.ces. 
 He studied first at Sedan, and next at Cam- 
 bridge, from which university he removed 
 to a professorship of philosophy at Lcyden, 
 where he also taught Greek ,- but in 1599 he 
 returned to France, and became minister at 
 Charenton. On the assassination of Henry 
 IV., Du Moulin charged the guilt of that 
 detestable deed upon the Jesuits, which pro- 
 duced a violent controversy between him 
 and some of that society ; and, in 1615, he 
 visited England on the invitation of James 
 I., who gave him a prebend in Canterbury 
 Cathedral. He did not continue long in 
 England ; but after refusing the divinity 
 professorship at Leyden, he finally settled at 
 Sedan, of which place he became the pastor, 
 filling at the same time the theological chair 
 there. Among his writings are, " A History 
 of Slonachisin," a treatise " On the recent 
 
 Origin of Popery," &c. Died, 1658 Petek 
 
 DU Moulin, his son, was bom in 1600 at 
 Paris, and graduated at Leyden ; but coming 
 afterwards to England, obtained, like his 
 father, a prebend at Canterbury, and was 
 one of the chaplains to king Charles II. 
 He was the author of " The Peace of the 
 Soul," "Clamor Regit Sanguinis," which, 
 being anonymous, was attributed, by Milton, 
 to Alexander More, and "A Defence of tlie 
 
 Protestant Church." Louis nu Moulin, 
 
 his brother, became a violent Independent, 
 and wrote " Para^nesis ad iEdificatores Im- 
 perii," dedicated to Oliver Cromwell ; and 
 "Patronus Bonse Fidei," a fierce invective 
 against the Church of England. Died, 1683. 
 
 MOUNIER, JouN Joseph, a distinguished 
 member of the states-general in 1789, was 
 born at Grenoble, in 1758 ; was brouglit up 
 to the legal profession ; and was successively 
 advocate of the parliament of Grenoble and 
 judge-royal. While he was a member of 
 the National Assembly he exerted all his 
 talents and influence to promote the estab- 
 lishment in France of a limited monarchy ; 
 but finding his efforts vain, he retired first to 
 his native place, and afterwards removed to 
 Geneva, where he published " Recherches sur 
 les Causes qui ont empeche les Fran^iiis de 
 devenir Libres." He subsequently visited j 
 England, but resided chiefly in Switzerland, -j 
 Italy, or Germany, till 1801, when he re- 
 turned to France. In 1804 he was nominated 
 a counsellor of state, and died in 1806. 
 
 MOUNTFORT, William, an English 
 actor and dramatic writer, was born in Staf- 
 fordshire, in 1659. He was an excellent 
 comic performer ; and being in the flower of 
 his age, and one of the handsomest men on 
 the boards, the parts of the lovers were usu- 
 ally allotted to him. In one of these he had 
 captivated the affections of Mrs. Bracegirdle, 
 an actress much admired for her personal 
 charms. This lady had rejected the addresses 
 of a Captain Hill, who, in company with 
 Lord Mohun waylaid Mountfort one night, j 
 in the winter of 1692, as he was returning | 
 from the theatre to his lodgings, in Nor- | 
 folk Street, Strand ; and, before he could j 
 draw his sword, ran him through the body, 1 
 and killed him on the spot. Hill made I 
 his escape to the Continent, and Lord Mo- | 
 hun was tried by his peers for the murder, j 
 
MOTJ] 
 
 ^ ^elxj dm'tjcvs'al JJioflrapl^i). 
 
 [moz 
 
 but, for the want of sufficient evidence, wns 
 acquitted. Tliis noblemiin was himself 
 eventually killed by the Duke of Hamilton, 
 iu a duel fought in Ilyde Park. Mountfort 
 was tlic author of five plays, and was in tlie 
 zenith of his reputation at the time of his 
 death. 
 
 MOURAD BEY, a famous Mameluke 
 chief, was a native of Circassia. After the 
 destruction of AH Bey, in 177;!, he obtained 
 the government of Cairo in conjunction witli 
 Ibrahim Bey, whicli, notwitlistanditg some 
 severe contests with Ismael Bey and tlie 
 Turkish government, who tried to dispossess 
 them, they contrived to keep. When Buo- 
 naparte invaded Egypt, Mourad opposed the 
 French with great vigour; but he was at 
 length obliged to retreat to Upper Egypt. 
 He subsequently entered into a treaty with 
 General Kleber, and accepted the title of 
 prince of Assouan and Jirgeh, under the 
 I)rotection of France. He died of the plague, 
 iu LSOl. 
 
 MOURADGEA D'OIISSON, Ioxatics, 
 an Armenian by descent, was born at Con- 
 stantinople, iu 1740. At the age of twenty- 
 four he understood most of tlie Oriental lan- 
 guages ; and, from having been secretary and 
 first interpreter to the Swedish embassy, was 
 eventually appointed minister of Sweden to 
 the Porte. Died, 1807. He was the author 
 of two valuable works, " A General View of 
 the Ottoman Empire" and aa "Historical 
 View of the East." 
 
 MOURGUES, MiCH-VEL, a French Jesuit, 
 and a man of profound erudition, was born 
 at Auvergne, in 1CI3 ; became professor 
 royal of mathematics and rhetoric in the 
 academy of Toulouse ; nnd died there in 1713. 
 Among his beat works are, "A Parallel 
 between Christian Morality and that of the 
 Ancient Philosophers," " An Explanation 
 of the Theology of the Pythagoreans," " New 
 Elements of Geometry," and a " Treatise on 
 French Poetry." 
 
 MOXON, Joseph, hydrographcr to Charles 
 II. and a mathematical writer, was born at 
 Wakefield in Yorkshire, in 1(527, and died in 
 London, about 1700. He published several 
 scientific books, taught the mathematics, 
 and carried on the trade of a globe and map- 
 manufacturer. 
 
 MO YLE, Walter, a miscellsineous writer, 
 was born a,t Cornwall, in 1072 ; studied at 
 Oxford and the Temple ; and died at his 
 seat in Cornwall, in 1721. His works, con- 
 sisting of an " Essay on the Miracle of the 
 Thundering Legion," an "Essay on the 
 Lacedaemonian Government," another on 
 the " Roman Constitution," and "Letters," 
 were printed after his death, with a biogra- 
 phical memoir, in 3 vols. 
 
 MOZART, John Ciikysostom Wolfgaxo 
 Amadeu?, one of tlie most eminent musical 
 composers that ever lived, was the son of 
 Leopold Mozart, sub-chapelmaster of Salz- 
 burg, and himself a respectable musician. 
 He was born in 17r)6 ; and the precocity of 
 his musical talent was so extraordinary, that 
 it must be our apology for entering at more 
 length than usual into the history of his 
 early years. His father could not fail to 
 observe his genius and love for the science, 
 and he took every advantage of it, 80 that, 
 
 before the child was four years old, he could 
 play small pieces on the harpsichord witli 
 correctness and taste. In his fifth year he 
 wrote a concerto for the harpsichord, per- 
 fectly according to the rules of the art, but 
 which was so difficult that only the most 
 practised performer could have played it. 
 In his sixth year, young Mozart had made 
 such progress, that his father M'as induced 
 to take him and his sister Maria Anna, who 
 was also a musical genius, to Munich and 
 Vienna, where the little artists were intro- 
 duced to the emperor's court, and the un- 
 equalled execution of the boy excited uni- 
 versal surprise, particularly as he seemed 
 anxious only to please connoisseurs. In 
 17tK}, when young Mozart was seven years 
 old, the family made a journey beyond the 
 borders of Germany, which spread his fame 
 universally. In November of the same year 
 they arrived in Paris, where they remained 
 six months, and were overwhelmed with 
 attention and applause. Here he published 
 his first sonatas for the harj)sichord. In 
 17G4, the family proceeded to England, and 
 performed at court, the son playing on the 
 king's organ with great success. At a pub- 
 lic concert, symphonies of his composition 
 only were performed. Here, as well as in 
 Paris, compositions of Bach, Handel, &c. 
 were laid before him, all of which, though 
 exceedingly difficult, he executed with the 
 greatest truth at first sight. During his stay 
 in England, he composed six sonatas, which 
 were published in Loudon, and which he 
 dedicated to the queen. After this he re- 
 turned to Holland, and assisted at the in- 
 stallation of the stadtholder. The family 
 next visited Paris, and after having been 
 twice at Versailles, proceeded, by way of 
 Lyons, through Switzerland to Municli, 
 where the elector gave young Mozart a 
 theme, on which he composed in his pre- 
 sence, without piano or violin, wrote down 
 the music, and, to the astonishment of all 
 present, executed, after having finished it. 
 In 1706 they returned to Salzburg, where 
 they remained till 1708, and then made a 
 second journey to Vienna. In 1709, Mozart, 
 who had been made master of the concerts 
 at the court at Salzburg, commenced a jour- 
 ney to Italy, in company with his father. 
 In 1770 he composed, in his 14th year, his 
 serious opera of " Mithridate," which had a 
 run of upwards of 20 nigh's in succession. 
 When Mozart returned to Salzburg, in 1771, 
 he found a letter, in which he was com- 
 missioned, in the name of the empress Maria 
 Theresa, to compose the grand theatrical 
 serenata, "Ascauio in Alba," for tlie cele- 
 bration of the nuptials of the Archduke 
 Ferdinand. He undertook this commission, 
 and in August returned to Milan for some 
 mouths, where, during the festivities of the 
 marriage, Mozart's serenata and an opera 
 composed by Hasse were performed alter- 
 nately. In 177.5 he went again to Vienna, 
 and, engaging in the service of the emperor, 
 he satisfied the great expectations which 
 were raised by his early genius, and became 
 the Raphael of musicians. Among the works 
 of his which have remained on the German 
 stage, and will always be the delight of every 
 tasteful nation, are " Idomeneo," the " Nozze 
 
 ni9 
 
mud] 
 
 <M 0m Wiixibtv^nl JStngrapl^ii. 
 
 [mul 
 
 di Figaro," the " Zaiiberfldte," the " Cle- 
 menza di Tito," anl, above all, the splendid 
 " Don Giovanni." The music of this opera 
 was the triumph of dramatic composition ; 
 and though its great merits were not appre- 
 ciated on its first performance, lie lived to 
 see justice done to it. He was now in his 
 36th year, and in a state of great physical 
 debility. Tlie composition of his sublime 
 "Requiem," in the decline of his bodily 
 powers, and under great mental excitement, 
 hastened his dissolution : he was seized with 
 repeated fainting fits, brought on by his ex- 
 treme assiduity in writing, in one of wliich 
 he expired, Dec. 5. 1792. 
 
 MUDGE, Joiix, an English physician 
 and an excellent mechanic, was the eon of 
 Mr. Zachary Mudge, vicar of St. Andrew's, 
 Plymouth, and well known by a volume of 
 excellent sermons and an ingenious essay 
 for a new version of the Psalms. Dr. John 
 Mudg'3 settled as a physician at Plymouth, 
 wliere he wrote a treatise " On the Catarrh- 
 ous Cough." He improved the construc- 
 tion of reflecting telescopes, and died in 1793. 
 
 His brother Tuojias, born in 1715, was 
 
 j an excellent watclimaker, and made great 
 
 1 improvements in chronometers, for which he 
 
 received a parliamentary reward. Died, 1794. 
 
 William MuDOE, a nephew of the last 
 
 mentioned, was born in 1702, at Plymouth; 
 rose to tlie rank of major-general in the 
 army ; and died in 1820. He superintended 
 the execution of the grand trigonometrical 
 survey of England and Wales, and wrote an 
 account of the operations. 
 
 MUDIE, Robert, author of numerous 
 works in natural history, and others of an 
 entertaining and instructive character, was 
 born in Forfarshire, in 1777. In 1802 he 
 was appointed Gaelic professor and teacher 
 of drawing in the Inverness academy. He 
 subsequently filled otlier situations of a like 
 nature ; but at length turned Iiis attention 
 exclusively to authorship, and commenced 
 his career with a novel, entitled " Glenfur- 
 gus," in 3 vols. He then for a while sought 
 employment as a reporter for the London 
 newspapers, and his literary efforts were 
 henceforth unceasing. Independently of 
 his contributions to periodicals, upwards 
 of 80 volumes from his fertile pen were in 
 rapid succession brought before the pub- 
 lic. Of these we can only afford room for 
 the titles of the most prominent : " Modern 
 Athens" (a description of Edinburgh) j 
 " Babylon the Great" (a description of Lon- 
 don), 4 vols. ; " The Biitisli Naturalist," 2 
 vols. ; " Tlic Feathered Tribes of the British 
 Islands," 2 vols. ; " Conversations in ]\Ioral 
 Pliilosoi)hy," 2 vols. ; "The Elements : the 
 Heavens, the Earth, the Air, the Sea," 4 
 vols. ; "Popular Mathematics," "Man, in 
 his Physical Structure, Intellectual Facul- 
 ties," &c. 4 vols. ; " The Seasons," 4 vols ; 
 " History of Hampshire and the Channel 
 Islands," 3 vols. ; " Domesticated Animals," 
 " Gleanings of Nature," " China and its Re- 
 sources," &c. So much industry and per- 
 severance one might fairly have expected 
 to see rewarded by a happy independence 
 in the decline of life. That it was not so — 
 that the very reverse, indeed, was the fact — 
 we lament to hear ; and, apart from any 
 
 j morbid feeling on the subject, we are com- 
 pelled to admit, that although in tlie common 
 routine of mechanical or commercial pur- 
 suits, industrj' and perseverance are gene- 
 rally attended with a fortunate issue, yet, 
 as regards the higher operations of the intel- 
 lect, the rule wliich holds good in other 
 cases can no longer be depended upon. 
 Died, May 1842, aged G4. 
 
 MULLER, Carl Ottfkied, an eminent 
 modern scholar and historian, was born in 
 1797, at Brieg, in Silesia. He was a profes- 
 sor of archasology in the university of Got- 
 tiugen, and distinguished himself by his re- 
 searches into mythologic lore, analysing it, 
 and disentangling the allegorical parts from 
 the historical. But his knowledge was by 
 no means confined to that department of 
 literature. His work on the Eumenides of 
 iEschylus, and many others, fully prove his 
 classic erudition ; and his histories of tlie 
 Dorians and the Etruscans have become 
 naturalised in England as standard works. 
 While travelling in Greece, with a view 
 to the commencement of an elaborate work 
 on the history of that country, he was taken 
 ill, and died at Athens, Aug. 1. 1840. 
 
 MULLER, Gerard Fkederic, a German 
 traveller, was born in 1700, at Herforden, in 
 Westphalia ; was educated at Leipsic ; and 
 went to reside at St. Petersburg!!, where he 
 taught Latin, geography, and history. His 
 principal work is, " A Collection of Russian 
 Histories," in 9 vols. Died, 178:5. 
 
 MULLER, JoHX, called Regiomontanus, 
 from Mons Regius, or Konigsberg, where he 
 was born in liiiC,. After studying at Leipsic, 
 he removed to Vienna, where he studied the 
 mathematics under Purbach, whom he as- 
 sisted in his observations. At the desire of 
 Cardinal Bessarion, Regiomontanus and his 
 master went to Rome, to complete the Latin 
 version of Ptolemy's Almagest ; but while 
 there, Purbach died, and the whole task de- 
 volved upon his associate. After a long stay 
 in Italy, he went to Buda ; but on the break- 
 ing out of the war with the Turks he re- 
 moved to Nuremberg, where he built an 
 observatory, and fi)unded a printing-office. 
 He died in 1470, at Rome, whither he had 
 been called by Sixtus IV., to assist in reform- 
 ing the calendar, having been previously 
 raised, for his services, to the archbishopric 
 of Ratisbon. He wrote various astronomi- 
 cal works, and constructed some curious 
 automata. 
 
 MULLER, JoH.vvox, an eminent Swiss 
 historian, was born in 1752 at Schaffhausen, 
 and studied at Gottingcn. In 1780 he pub- 
 lished the first part of his " History of the 
 Swiss Confederation ; " and shortly after he 
 went to Berlin, v/here he printed " Historical 
 Essays." His other principal work was a 
 " Course of Universal History," but he was 
 also the author of several others, which were 
 published collectively at Tubingen, in 27 
 vols. Muller was successively professor of 
 Greek at Schaffhausen, and of liistory at 
 Cassel, councillor of the imperial chancery, 
 secretary of state for the ephemeral kingdom 
 of Westphalia, and director-general of public 
 instruction. Died, 1809. 
 
 MULLER, Loi'is, a celebrated Prussian 
 engineer. He served in the seven j'cars 
 
mtjm] 
 
 ^ '^tiii Bnihtvinl JJi'ojrrajpTjw. 
 
 [mun 
 
 war under Frederic ; rose to the rank of 
 major ; and died in 1804, aged 70. lie was 
 the autlior of a " View of the Wars of Fre- 
 deric tlie Great," and other works relating 
 to the military art. 
 
 MlfMMIUS, Lucics, a Roman consul, 
 who, for liis victoriea over the Acha;an8, was 
 called Achaicus. He was afterwards dis- 
 graced, and exiled to Delos, where he died. 
 
 MUNCEK, or MUNTZEK, a fanatic, who, 
 in the early part of the Kith century, ren- 
 dered himself for aw^liiie extremely formid- 
 able in Germany, where lie preached equality 
 and the community of projierty, and col- 
 lected 40,000 followers, who committed many 
 enormities. He was at length defeated by the 
 Landgrave of Hesse, with the loss of 7000 of 
 I his deluded followers, and being chased to 
 ' Franchausen, was taken prisoner, and exe- 
 cuted at Mulhausen, in l,V2H. 
 
 MUNCilllAUSEN, Jerome Charles 
 Fkeiiekic vox, was a German officer in the 
 i Russian service, who served in several cam- 
 paigns againt the Turks. He was a pass^ion- 
 ate lover of liorses and hounds ; of wliich, 
 and of his adventures among the Turks, he 
 told the most extravagant stories, till his 
 fancy so completely got tlie better of his 
 memory, that he really believed his most 
 extravagant fictions, and felt very much of- 
 fended if any doubt was expressed on the 
 subject. Having become aciiuainted with 
 Burger at Pyrmont, and related these waking 
 dreams to him, the poet published them in 
 1787, with iiis own improvements, under the 
 title of" Wunderbare Abentheuer uud Reisen 
 des Ilerrn von Munchhausen." The wit 
 and humour of the work gave it great success, 
 and it was translated iulo several foieign 
 languages. Died, 1797. 
 
 MUNDAY, Anthony, a dramatic poet of 
 the iCth century. He was tiie author of the 
 " City Pageants," enlarged Stowe's Survey ,of 
 London, and died in 1G.'J.3. 
 
 MUN DEN, Joseph Sni.ruEnn, a celebrated 
 comic actor, who, from 17!»0 to 18ia, delighted 
 the laughter-loving audiences of Coveut 
 Garden with his inimitable representations ; 
 but from 1813 to 1824, when he retired from 
 tlie stage, his services were transferred to 
 Drury Lane. His humour was exuberant 
 and racy ; and though often verging on cari- 
 cature, he could melt the heart by touches 
 of true pathos, as readily as he could stir 
 it into mirth by the exquisite drollery of 
 his ever-varying countenance. Born, 1758 ; 
 died, 18.32. 
 
 MUNNICH, BuncHARD CnRiSTornER, 
 Count, a military officer, was born in Olden- 
 burgh, in 1683.' After distinguishing liimself 
 in the German wars, he entered into the 
 Russian service, and rose to the rank of 
 marshal ; but in 1741 the empress Elizabeth 
 condemned him to perpetual exile in Siberia. 
 He was, however, recalled from banishment 
 on the accession of Peter III., and, on his 
 arrival at court, made his appearance before 
 the emperor in the sheepskin dress which lie 
 had worn during his captivity. Died, 1707. 
 
 MUNOZ, Joiix Baptist, a Spanish his- 
 torian, was born in 174.'), at Museros, near 
 Valentia. He was appointed cosmographer 
 of the Indies, and undertook, by order of the 
 king, a history of America, of which lie lived 
 
 to publish only one volume. His other works 
 are. '• De recto Philosophiae recentis in Thco- 
 logia Usu, Dissertatio," " De Scriptorum 
 Gentilium Lectlone," " Institutiones Pliilo- 
 Bophicre," &c. 
 
 MUNSTER, George Fitzci.arenck, 
 Earl of, was the eldest son of the Duke of 
 Clarence (afterwards ^Villiam IV.) and the 
 celebrated Mrs. Jordan. He was born Jan. 
 29. 1794, and after receiving the elements 
 of instruction at Sunbury, under Dr. Moore, 
 was at twelve years of age received into 
 the Royal Military College at Marlow ; and 
 when scarcely fifteen he commenced actual 
 service in the Peninsula as comet in the 
 Prince of Wales's hussars, and became 
 aide-de-camp to General Slade. On the dis- 
 astrous termination of Sir John Moore's 
 expedition he returned to England for a 
 few weeks, and then started to join the 
 army in Portugal as aide-de-camp to Lord 
 Londonderry, then Sir Charles Stewart, 
 with whom the young soldier (now a cap- 
 tain") joined the army under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley, when that gallant chief took 
 the field in 1809. From this period to the 
 conclusion of the war, he served on the 
 staff at head-quarters, and was present at 
 twelve general engagements ; and on some 
 of those occasions, but more especially at 
 the celebrated battle of Fuentes d'Onoro, 
 his conduct was marked by extraordinary 
 skill and presence of mind ; so much so, 
 indeed, that although he was only 17, a troop 
 was given him in the prince regent's own 
 regiment as a reward for his valour and 
 discretion. At Toulouse he was also se- 
 verely wounded in leading a charge against 
 cavalry. A new 8i)here of action now 
 awaited him. He exchanged into the 20th 
 dragoons, and in January, 1815, Captain 
 Fitzclarence sailed for India as aide-de- 
 camp to Lord Hastings, and while there he 
 closely studied the Oriental languages and 
 literature. During the Mahratta war of 
 1817, he had several opportunities of dis- 
 tinguishing himself, by which liis military 
 reputation was considerably enhanced. On 
 the conclusion of peace with Scindiah, he 
 was intrusted with vhat was at that time a 
 hazardous duty, namely, the carrying home 
 the overland despatches from India ; and 
 in 1819 he published his " Overland Tour." 
 At the recommendation of his friend the 
 Duke of Wellington, he received the brevet 
 of lieutenant-colonel ; soon after whicli he 
 married Miss Mary Wyndham, a natural 
 daughter of the late Earl of Egrcmont, and 
 had seven children. Ere his royal father 
 had been a year on the throne, he deter- 
 mined to confer such defined rank upon 
 his offspring as should at once be consistent 
 with their birth, and agreeable to the feel- 
 ings of the people ; and in pursuance of such 
 determination he created his eldest son 
 earl of Munster, viscount Fitzclarence, and 
 baron Tewkesbury. " No person," saj's 
 Mr. Dodd in his Annual Obituary, " who 
 has observed the career of Lord Munster, 
 can overlook the fact, that he felt himself 
 continually urged, by his peculiar position, 
 to both mental and physical exertions, 
 which were perhaps beyond his strength. 
 He was the acknowledged son of a monarch, 
 
mdn] 
 
 ^ ^clM Bnihtv^nl 33i05rapl)|)» 
 
 [mur 
 
 ruling over one of the most powerful na- 
 tions of the earth ; he was within view, but 
 excluded from the possession, of dominion ; 
 his whole life was an object of attention to 
 thousands of his father's subjects ) he was 
 exposed to all the prominence of a great 
 man without having attained that position 
 by his own actions ; and he dared not live 
 in retirement lest he should be thought a 
 fool. The ill consequences of every tempo- 
 rary indisposition were aggravated by his 
 mental sensibility, and in the month of 
 March, 3842, a considerable change was 
 observed in his manner. Not having given 
 any very decided indications of insanity, he 
 was accidentally left alone on the evening 
 of the 20th of March. lie took that oppor- 
 tunity of using one of his pistols, and 
 having wounded himself in the right hand, 
 lie rung the bell, and despatched his servant 
 for medical assistance. Immediately after- 
 wards he put an end to his existence by 
 firing a second pistol into his mouth." Died, 
 1812. 
 
 MUNSTER, Count, a Hanoverian states- 
 man. In 1806, Hanover being invaded by 
 the Prussians, he entered a spirited protest 
 and retired to England, where, on account 
 chiefly of that protest, he was so great a 
 court favourite, that when the mental 
 malady of George III. was past all doubt, 
 the count was one of the commissioners 
 appointed to protect and administer his 
 private property. But he is chiefly known 
 for the part he took in the cougress of 
 Vienna, 1814, and the declaration of 1815, 
 by which Napoleon was put out of the pale 
 of the law. Died, 183(5. 
 
 MUNSTER, Sebastian", a German divine 
 was born at Ingelheim, in 1489, entered into 
 the order of Cordeliers, but left them to join 
 Luther. He then settled at Basle, where he 
 succeeded Pelicanus in the Hebrew professor- 
 ship. He published a Latin version of the 
 Bible, from the Hebrew, with notes ; " Uni- 
 versal Cosmograpliy," a Treatise on Dial- 
 ling, a Latin Translation of Josephus, and 
 several mathematical works. Died, 1552, 
 
 and, in 1804, he was made marshal, grand 
 admiral, and prince of the French empire. 
 His services in the campaign of 1805 against 
 Austria, during which he entered Vienna at 
 the head of the army, were rewarded with 
 the grand duchy of Berg. He continued to 
 follow up the victories of his master with 
 such distinction, that, in 1808, Napoleon 
 placed him on the throne of Naples, with 
 the title of king Joachim. After reigning 
 peaceably four years, he was called to accom- 
 pany Napoleon to Russia, as commander of 
 all his cavalry; and, after the defeat of Smo- 
 lensko, he imitated the example of his leader, 
 and left the army for Naples. Once more 
 he fought with Napoleon, in the fatal cam- 
 paign of Germany ; but, after the battle of 
 Leipsic, he withdrew, and, finding that the 
 throne of his patron began to totter, actually 
 concluded an alliance against him. In 1815, 
 however, he again took up arms, and formed 
 a plan to make himself master of Italy as 
 far as the Po, at the very time that Austria 
 and the allies, upon his repeated assurances 
 that he would remain true to them, had de- 
 termined to recognise him as king of Naples. 
 It was too late. Austria, therefore, took the 
 field against him, and he was soon driven as 
 a fugitive into France. After the overthrow 
 of Napoleon he escaped, in the midst of con- 
 tinual dangers, to Corsica, from which he 
 sailed with a few adherents, to recover his 
 lost throne. A gale, oflF tlie coast of Calabria, 
 dispersed his vessels, but Murat determined 
 to go on shore. He was seized, and carried 
 in chains to Pizzo, brought before a court- 
 martial, and condemned to be shot. This 
 sentence was executed, Oct. 13th, 1815, when 
 Murat met his fate with undaunted courage. 
 He was remarkable for elegance of person, 
 but, though spirited and active, had few 
 mental qualifications, and fell a victim to 
 the most unpardonable rashness. 
 
 MURATORI, Louis Anthony, an emi- 
 nent Italian historian and antiquary, was 
 bom in 1G72 at Vignola, in the Modenese 
 territories ; was made keeper of the Am- 
 brosian library at Milan, and, subsequently 
 
 MURAT, Joachim, one of the most in- librarian and archivist to the Duke of Mo- 
 
 trepid of the French marslials, and who was 
 placed on the throne of Naples by Buona- 
 parte, was the son of an innkeeper at Cahors, 
 where he was born in 1771. He was intended 
 for the church, but escaping from the college 
 of Toulouse, he enlisted as a chasseur but 
 was shortly after dismissed for insubordi- 
 nation. On the formation of the national 
 guard he entered that corps, and displaying 
 an active zeal for revolutionary principles, 
 he was soon advanced to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel. The overthrow of the ter- 
 rorists checked his progress for a time, but 
 the executive directory made him a chief of 
 brigade, and in 1796 he accompanied Buona- 
 parte to Italy as his aide-de-camp. Here 
 he distinguished himself as a cavalry oflBcer, 
 by his impetuous courage, and M-as employed 
 by his chief as a diplomatist at Turin and at 
 Genoa. He followed the same general to 
 Egypt, where he decided the victory over 
 the Turks at Aboukir, and returned with 
 Buonaparte as general of division. In 1800 
 he married Marie Caroline, the younger sis- 
 ter of his patron, who was then first consul; 
 
 dena. His literary productions are nume- 
 rous and valuable, but his fame chiefly de- 
 pends on the vast erudition he has shown in 
 editing the works of others. His great his- 
 torical collection, entitled " Rerum Itali- 
 carum Scriptores, ab anno iErce Christianae," 
 29 vols, folio ; " Antiquitates Italicae, Medii 
 ^vi," G vols, folio ; " Anecdota Latina," 
 4 vols. 4to. ; " Anecdota Graeca," 4 vols. 4to.; 
 " Annali d'ltalia," 18 vols. 8vo. ; with many 
 others, attest the magnitude of his literary 
 labours. Died, 17.50. 
 
 MURILLO, Bartolomeo Esteven, one 
 of the greatest of the Spanish painters, was 
 bom, in 1618, near Seville. He acquired 
 the rudiments of art from his uncle, Juan 
 del Castillo ; and being encouraged to visit 
 Madrid, he acquired the countenance and 
 patronage of the celebrated painter Velas- 
 quez, tlien in the height of his reputation. 
 He afterwards returned to Seville, and 
 earned by his labours an imperishable fame. 
 While painting the admired picture of St. 
 Catherine, in the church of the Capuchins 
 at Cadiz, he fell from the scaffold, and died 
 
in consetiuence of tlie injuries he received, 
 in 108.5. 
 
 MURPITY, ARTnuK, a dramatic and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Cork in 1727, 
 and educated at St. Omer's. At the age of 
 18 he returned to Ireland, and was placed 
 under a merchant, who was his relation. 
 But not liking that profession he came to 
 London, and tried his dramatic powers in 
 the farce of " The Apprentice," which was 
 soon followed by tlmt of " Tlie Upholsterer;" 
 and, having a great inclination to the stage, 
 he made an eftort in the character of Othello, 
 but without success, lie then produced the 
 " Orphan of China," a tragedy, which was 
 well received. He also wrote a weekly 
 paper, called the " Gray's Inn Journal ;" and 
 two others, in defence of government, en- 
 titled the "Test" and the "Auditor." In 
 these, however, he failed ; and some ludicrous 
 mistakes, into which he was insidiously led 
 by his antagonists, exposed him to ridicule. 
 Having studied the law, he was called to 
 the bar by the society of Lincoln's Inn, but 
 never had much practice. His plays of the 
 " Grecian Daugliter," " All in tlie Wrong," 
 "The Way to Keep Him," and the "Citi- 
 zen," had great success, and produced the 
 author wealth and fame. Mr. Murphy also 
 acquired considerable reputation by his 
 " Lssay on the Life and Genius of Dr. John- 
 eon," published in 1792 ; as well as by his 
 translation of Tacitus and Sallust, and the 
 "Life of Garrick." He was zealous in de- 
 fence of the government measures ; and 
 during his latter years he obtained the ap- 
 pointment of a commissioner of bankrupts, 
 and a pension of 200/. per annum. He died 
 in 1805, aged 77. 
 
 MURPHY, James Cavanau, an eminent 
 architect, antiquary, and traveller, was a 
 native of Ireland. He published his " Tra- 
 vels in Portugal, in 1789 and 1790," " An- 
 tiquities of the Arabians in Spain," and 
 " Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Views of 
 Batalha, in Portugal." Died, 181«. 
 
 MURR, CiiRisioPiiER Theopiiilus vojr 
 the author of various works on bibliography, 
 literary history, and antiquities ; was born 
 at Nuremberg, in 17.3o ; and died in 1811. 
 
 MURRAY, Alexander, a self-taught 
 linguist, was born in 1775, at Kitterick, in 
 Galloway ; and his father being a shepherd, 
 he also was employed, at the age of 10, to 
 assist as a shepherd's boy. By extraordinary 
 application he made himself master of the 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and French lan- 
 guages ; and when, in 1794, the fame of his 
 acquirements gained him admission to the 
 university of Edinburgh, he made a rapid 
 progress also in the Eastern dialects. In 
 180(5 he became assistant to Dr. Muirhead, 
 the minister of the parish of Urr, and soon 
 afterwards he succeeded him in his pastoral, 
 charge ; but in 1812 he was called from 
 thence to fill the chair of Oriental languages 
 at Edinburgh, and at the same time received 
 the degree of D. D. He left a "History 
 of the European Languages," which was 
 printed, with his life prefixed, iu 2 vols. 
 Died, 1813. 
 
 MURRAY, Charles, a theatrical per- 
 former and dramatic writer, was born in 
 1754, at Cheshunt, in llerlfordshire. He 
 
 was the son of Sir John Murray of Brough- 
 ton, who acted as secretary to the Pre- 
 tender in 1745 ; was brought up as a surgeon 
 in the naval service, which he (juitted for 
 the stage ; performed at the chief provincial 
 towns in England : made his debut at Coveut 
 Garden in 179(5, as Shylock ; and ultimately 
 became manager of tlie theatre at Edin- 
 burgh, where he spent the latter part of his 
 life. He was the author of " The New Maid 
 of the Oaks " and " The Experiment." 
 Died, 1821. 
 
 MURRAY, Right Hon. Sir Georoe, a 
 gallant British general, governor of the 
 Royal Military College at Woolwich, &c., 
 was born at the family seat, in Perthshire, 
 in 1772, was educated at the high school 
 and university of Edinburgh, and entered 
 the army in 1789, and gained great distinc- 
 tion in almost every quarter of the globe for 
 his military achievements, and more espe- 
 cially for the skill and ability with which 
 he discharged on some occasions the difficult 
 office of quarter-master-general. In 1812 he 
 was appointed to the government of the 
 Canadas ; but on hearing that Napoleon 
 had escaped from Elba, he obtained his 
 release from the governorship of Canada, 
 and joined the English army in France. On 
 his return to England he was appointed 
 governor of Edinburgh Castle ; and in 1819 
 the governorship of the Royal Military 
 College was given him. In 1823 he became 
 lieutenant-general of the ordnance, was 
 soon after elected M. P. for Perthshire, and 
 in 1828 took office as secretary of state for 
 the colonies. In Sir R. Peel's atlministra- 
 tion of l8;i4-5 he filled the office of master- 
 general of the ordnance ; but lost his seat 
 for Perthshire. At the Westminster elec- 
 tioYi in ISS? he apposed and was defeated 
 by Sir Lacy de Evans and Mr. Leader. 
 When the Whigs resigned in 1841, Sir 
 George again received the appointment of 
 master-general of the ordnance. Sir George 
 Murray came before the public as the editor 
 of " Marlborough's Dispatches," 5 vols. ; but 
 it is not necessary to speak of him in any 
 other capacity than that of a gallant and 
 successful soldier and an able minister. He 
 died, July 28. 1840, aged 74. 
 
 MURRAY, Hugh, a most voluminous and 
 successful writer on geography and kindred 
 subjects, was born at the manse of North Ber- 
 wick, 1779, the living of which his ancestors 
 had held uninterruptedly from the period of 
 the revolution till the death of the last 
 incumbent, his elder brother, in 1824. At 
 an early age he became a clerk in the excise 
 office in Edinburgh, where his official duties 
 leaving him considerable leisure, he culti- 
 vated a taste for literature with rare and 
 indefatigable ardour. In the early part of 
 his career he edited the Scots' Magazine, 
 then in the hands of Mr. Constable, and 
 contributed to the Edinburgh Gazetteer ; 
 and published successively discoveries and 
 travels in Africa, Asia, and America, all of 
 which acquired for their author a liberal 
 share of popularity. At a later period of 
 his life he contributed no fewer than 15 
 volumes to the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 
 on subjects connected with his favourite 
 study ; but the work on which his fame 
 
mdr] 
 
 ^ iim min^tv^aX 3Bi0(irHJpf)i?. 
 
 [mus 
 
 will chiefly rest is liis " Encyclop£Edia of 
 Geography," a stupendous monument of 
 reading, 'industry, aud research. Died, 
 184f;. 
 
 MURRAY, James, an American by birtli, 
 whose real name was lallibridge, was a par- 
 tisan officer in the service of the East India 
 Company. He entered the service of IIol- 
 kar, the famous Mahratta cliief, about the 
 year 1790, and soon became noted for his 
 bravery, military skill, and the good offices 
 he performed to certain British officers, who 
 had been taken prisoners, and who, but for 
 his humane interference, would have been 
 put to the sword. When the war broke out 
 between the British government and Scindia, 
 in wliich Holkar assisted the latter, Murray 
 joined the British general, Lord Lake, with 
 a body of 7000 cavalry. The Marquis of 
 VVellesley at that period had issued a pro- 
 clamation recalling all British subjects from 
 the service of the native princes, but this 
 order could not extend to Murray, as being 
 an American. He was treated by the Britisifi 
 commander with great consideration, aud 
 was employed in many dangerous and im- 
 portant services, still retaining the command 
 of the cavalry which he had brought with 
 him. At the siege of Bhurtpore, where the 
 British army lost nearly 10,000 men, in four 
 attempts to take the fort by storm, he was 
 in continual action, and attained the charac- 
 ter of being the best partisan officer in the 
 army. Died, 1807. 
 
 MURRAY, John, an eminent physician, 
 was a native of Scotland, and educated at 
 Edinburgh, where he rose to eminence as 
 a lecturer in natural philosophy, cliemistry, 
 the materia medica, and pliarmacy. lie 
 was the author of "Elements of Cliemis- 
 try," 2 vols. ; " Elements of Materia Medica 
 and Pharmacy," 2 vols. ; " A System of 
 Chemistr.v," 4 vols. ; and " A System of Ma- 
 teria Medica and Pharmacy," 2 vols. Died, 
 1820. 
 
 MURRAY, Joiix, F. S. A., an eminent 
 publisher, known wherever the English lan- 
 guage is known, by liis connection with the 
 works of I^ord Byron, was born in 1778. 
 Mr. Murray was himself a man of consider- 
 able literary acquirements ; aud while his 
 singular acuteness and judgment ensured 
 his success as a man of business, his fluency, 
 his store of anecdote, and a certain dry 
 quiet humour, closely allied to wit, ren- 
 dered him an agreeable companion for sucli 
 men as Scott, Byron, Moore, Southey, Lock- 
 hart, and a number of other celebrated 
 writers, who were at various times liis guests, 
 and at all times, from their first acquaintance 
 with him, his fast friends. In their dealings 
 with him, literary men were soon convinced 
 that no paltry attempts would be made to 
 depreciate real merit, or to depress below a 
 fair remunerating standard the wages due 
 to intellectual labour : nay, so generous 
 were his impulses, that if he found a work 
 profitable to him beyond what he had cal- 
 culated upon, he frequently added to the 
 stipulated price of copyright — sometimes 
 even doubling it ! Of this we might adduce 
 several instances, did our space permit : we 
 shall conclude by observing, that as he was 
 one of the most successful publishers, so he 
 
 highly deserved success, were it only for his ' 
 wise and consistent liberality. Died, June 
 27. 184.'!, aged (;.">. 
 
 MURRAY, LixDLEV, a grammarian, and 
 moral v/riter, was born in 1745, of Quaker 
 parents, at Swatara, near Lancaster, in 
 Pennsylvania. He was originally destined 
 for the mercantile profession ; but having 
 been severely chastised for a breach of do- 
 mestic discipline, he privately left his father, 
 who was then residing at New York, and, 
 taking up his abode in a seminary at Bur- 
 lington, New Jersey, he there contracted a 
 love of books and study. He afterwards 
 studied the law, and practised as a barrister ; 
 but in course of time he quitted the bar for 
 the counting-house, and by mercantile pur- 
 suits having realised a competcncv, he even- 
 tually settled at Holdgate, near York. His 
 works consist of an "English Grammar," 
 "English Exercises" and "Key;" the "Eng- 
 lish Reader," with an "Introduction" and 
 "Sequel" to the same; two French selec- 
 tions, " Le Lecteur Francois," and " Intro- 
 duction an Lecteur Francois," "The English 
 Spelling Book," " Tlie Power of Religion on 
 the Mind," and " The Duty and Benefit of 
 Reading the Scriptures." These publica- 
 tions were all lucrative, and deservedly so ; 
 and it is no small satisfaction to know, that 
 his private life was as amiable as his labours 
 in the cause of education and morals were 
 successful. He died in 1826, aged 85. 
 
 MURRAY, William Vaus, a distin- 
 guished American diplomatist, was born in 
 Maryland, about 17(52. He studied the law 
 in England, practised it in his native coun- 
 try, and became a senator of the United 
 States. As minister at the Hague he suc- 
 ceeded in preserving harmony between the 
 American and Batavian republics ; and the 
 reconciliation befween the United States 
 and France was effected chiefly through his 
 agency as envoy extraordinary to the French 
 republic. Died, 180.3. 
 
 MUSA, Antoxius, physician to the em- 
 peror Augustus, said to have been tlie first 
 who prescribed the use of the cold bath ; 
 and lived about 20 B.C. 
 
 MUS^US, a philosopher and poet of 
 antiquity, who is said to have been the son 
 of Orpheus, and president of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries at Athens. He versified the 
 oracles, and wrote a poem on the sphere. A 
 hill near Athens was called by his name. 
 He is to be distinguished from Musa:us the 
 grammarian, who wrote a poem, called 
 " Tlie Loves of Hero and Leander." 
 
 MUS.1EUS, John Chaules Augustits, an 
 eminent German writer, born at Jena, in 
 1735, was professor at the gymnasium of 
 Weimar, and author of "Physiognomical 
 Travels," "Popular Tales of the Ger- 
 mans," &c. Died, 1787. 
 
 MUSCULUS, Wolfgang, one of the 
 early reformers, born at Dieuze, in Lorraine, 
 in 1497. He was originally a Benedictine 
 monk ; and on embracing the doctrines of 
 Luther, he was obliged to fly to Strasburg, 
 from which city he removed to Augsburg ; 
 and afterwards went to Berne, where he was 
 appointed professor of divinity. His com- 
 mentaries on the Scriptures are valuable ; 
 besides wliich he published several transla- 
 
MUS] 
 
 ^ fit^ Bnihtr^Kl ^iatpctq?f)v» 
 
 [mtl 
 
 tions from the Greek, particularly of the 
 ecclesiastical historians. Died, l.'iCS. 
 
 MUSGRAVE, Sir Riciiakd, bart., an 
 Irisii historian, was born about 1758. He 
 was a member of parliament, and collector 
 of the excise for Dublin. In 1801 he pub- 
 lished " Memoirs of the Rebellions in Ire- 
 land," 4to., a work which gave great oflFtnce 
 to the Roman Catholics, on account of the 
 glowing picture exhibited in it of the atro- 
 cities committed by the insurgents in 1798. 
 Sir Richard died in 1H18. 
 
 MUSGRAVE, William, a physician and 
 antiquary, was born at Charlton, in Somer- 
 setshire, m l(J57,and educated at Winchester 
 School, and New College, Oxford. He be- 
 came a fellow of the royal college of physi- 
 cians, and also of the Royal Society ; to 
 which last learned body he acted as secre- 
 tary. In 1691 he settled at Exeter, and there 
 died in 1721. Besides some Latin tracts on 
 the gout, he published four volumes of dis- 
 sertations on Roman and British Antiqui- 
 ties His grandson, Dr. Samuel Mis- 
 grave, was also a physician at Exeter, 
 where he died in 1782. He rendered him- 
 self notorious in 17G3, by charging the mi- 
 nisters with having been bribed to settle a 
 peace advantageous to France. As a scholar 
 he is known by an edition of Euripides, 
 4 vols. 8vo. ; and two dissertations on the 
 Grecian mythology and the Olympiads. 
 
 MUSS, Chaklks, an ingenious painter in 
 enamel, whose "Holy Family," after Tar- 
 megiano, is said to be the largest piece of 
 enamel ever painted. Died, 1824. 
 
 MUSSATO, Albehtix, an historian and 
 poet, was born in Tadua, in 12f!l. He rose 
 from a state of indigence to public employ- 
 ments in his native city ; but notwithstand- 
 ing his services, he became an object of 
 popular fury ; and in 1314 an attempt was 
 made to murder him. The ringleaders in 
 this conspiracy were put to death : but 
 Mussato was afterwards banished to Chiozzo, 
 where he died in 1330. In his exile he wrote 
 " Historia Augusta Henrici VII. Im})." 
 
 MUSSCHENBROEK, Peter vax, a cele- 
 brated Dutch natural philosopher and ma- 
 thematician, was born at Leyden, in 1092. 
 He applied himself chiefly to natural philo- 
 sophy ; held professorships at various places, 
 and was a member of the Royal Society, 
 and the French Academy of Sciences. His 
 " Course of Natural and Experimental Phi- 
 losophy " is a valuable work, and has been 
 translated into Englisli by Colson, in 2 vols. 
 Musschenbroek was also the author of " Ten- 
 tamina Experimentorum," " Institutiones 
 Pliysica;," and " Compendium Physicie Ex- 
 perimentalis." Died, 1761. 
 
 MUTIANOjGiuolamo, an Italian painter, 
 born at Brescia. He was a great favourite 
 with Pope Gregory Xlll., who employed 
 him to paint a picture of St. Paul the her- 
 mit, and another of St. Anthony, for the 
 church of St. Peter. Sixtus V. also held 
 him in esteem, and intrusted to him the 
 designs for the bas-reliefs of the column of 
 Trajun. At the instance of this artist, pope 
 Gregory founded the academy of St. Luke, 
 wiiich Sixtus confirmed by a brief; and 
 Mutiano gave two houses to the institution. 
 Died, 1590. 
 
 MUTIS, JosErii Celestixo, a celebrated 
 naturalist, was born at Cadiz, in 1731. In 
 1700 he accompanied the Marquis della 
 Verga to New Granada, and spent nearly 
 half a century in South America, contribut- 
 ing greatly to the spreading of science and 
 the arts of civilisation in that country. On 
 his return to Europe he was appointed keeper 
 of the royal garden at Madrid. He was the 
 first botanist that distinguished the various 
 species of cinchona. Died, 1808. 
 
 MUTIUS, Celius, first named Codrus, 
 and afterwards Scisvola, an illustrious Ro- 
 man, who distinguished himself in the war 
 against Porsenna. When that prince be- 
 sieged Rome, Mutius entered his camp to 
 assassinate him, and, by mistake, stubbed 
 one of his attendants. Being seized and 
 brought before Porsenna, he said that he 
 was one of three hundred who had engaged, 
 by oath, to slay him, and added, " This hand, 
 which has missed its purpose, ought to 
 suffer." On saying this he thrust it into the 
 coals which were burning upon the altar, 
 and suffered it to be consumed. Porsenna, 
 struck with his intrepidity, made peace with 
 the Romans. The name of Scaevola, '>r left- 
 handed, was given as a mark of distinction 
 to Mutius and liis family. 
 
 MYCONIUS, Fkedekic, a German di- 
 vine, originally a Franciscan monk, was 
 born at Lichtenfelt, in Fraijeonia, in 1491. 
 When Luther declared against indulgences, 
 Myconius opposed him, but soon changed 
 his Bentiments, and became a missionary for 
 the proi)agation of the principles of the 
 Reformation. In 1538 he accompanied the 
 chancellor of Weimar in an emba-ssy to 
 England; and, while here, held a disputation 
 with some bishops and other divines. On 
 his return, he was employed to reform the 
 churches of Thuringia ; but he protested 
 strongly ogainst the alienation of the eccle- 
 siastical and monastic revenues to secular 
 purposes. Died, 1.M6. 
 
 MYCONIUS, Oswald, or Geisshaitskr, 
 a reformer, born at Lucerne, in Switzerland, 
 in 1488. He studied at Basle, under Eras- 
 mus and Glareanus, after which he became 
 successively master of the schools of St. 
 Theodore and St. Peter. He next removed 
 to Zurich, where he held the office of regent 
 of the college three years ; after whicli he 
 returned to Basle, obtained the head pastor- 
 ship of the church, and was chosen professor 
 of theology. He wrote several commentaries 
 on the Scripture, a l^atin version of the 
 Catechism of OScolampadius, and a " Narra- 
 tive of the Life and Death of Zuinglius." 
 Died, 1552. 
 
 MYLNE, Robert, an architect of con- 
 siderable eminence, was born at Edinburgh, 
 in 1734. While studying at Rome, he gained 
 the chief architectural prize at the academy 
 of St. Luke ; of which academy, as well as 
 those of Florence and Bologna, he was a 
 member. Mr. Mylne was the builder of 
 Blackfriars Bridge, which was commenced 
 in 1760, and completed in 1770. It was the 
 first work of the kind executed in England, 
 in which arches approacliing to the form of 
 an ellipsis were substituted for semicircles. 
 He also obtained the appointment of sur- 
 veyor of St. Paul's cathedral, and was em- 
 
myr] 
 
 ^ ^ttu WinihexSid 2St05rapIj|). 
 
 [nap 
 
 ployed to erect many private edifices iu 
 various parts of the kingdom. Died, 1811. 
 
 MYRON, a celebrated Greek sculptor, 
 whose works are highly praised by the 
 Greek and Latin poets, was a native of 
 Eleutheris, and is supposed to have flourished 
 about 430 b. c. 
 
 MYSON, one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece. Anacharsis the Scj'thiau having 
 inquired of Apollo, who was tlie wisest man 
 
 in Greece, was answered. " lie who is now 
 ploughing his fields." This was Myson. 
 
 MYTENS, Arnold, a painter, was born 
 at Brussels, in ]a41. lie painted several 
 capital pictures for churches in Italy ; and 
 died in yV)2. 
 
 MYTENS, Martix, a Swedish painter, was 
 born at Stockholm, in 1(595. He fixed his re- 
 sidence at Vienna, and was greatly esteemed 
 by the emperor Charles VI. Died, 17do, 
 
 N. 
 
 NABIS, a tyrant of Sparta, who com- 
 menced his reign about the year 20.5 B.C. lie 
 was surrounded by an armed guard, had a 
 number of secret spies in his service, put to 
 death or banished every suspected person, 
 and indulged in the exercise of every species 
 of cruelty. He contrived an instrument of 
 torture iu the form of a beautiful woman, 
 whose rich dress concealed a number of iron 
 spikes in lier bosom and arms. When any 
 one, therefore, opposed his demands, he 
 would say, " If I have not talents enough to 
 prevail with you, perhaps my Apega may 
 persuade you." Tlie automaton statue then 
 apiieared ; which Nabis taking by the hand, 
 led up to the person, who, being embraced 
 by it, was thus tortured into compliance. 
 He plundered Messina and Argos, and would 
 have continued to extend his dominion still 
 wider over Peloponnesus, had not the Bo- 
 mans, iu alliance with the Achasans, de- 
 clared war against him. lie pursued the 
 war with inveterate enmity, and was for a 
 time successful ; but he was at length de- 
 feated by Philopa;men, at tlie head of the 
 army of the Acha;an league, and was killed 
 while attempting to escape, b. c. 194. 
 
 NABONASSAR, the first king of the Chal- 
 deans or Babylonians. He is celebrated by 
 the famous epoch which bears his name, and 
 which commenced in the year 747 b. c. 
 
 NABOPOLASSAR, king of Babylon. He 
 united with Ast.yages against Syria, which 
 country they conquered, and having divided 
 it between them, founded two kingdoms, 
 that of the Medes under Astyages, and that 
 of the Chaldeans under Nabopolassar, b. c. 
 G2(5. 
 
 N^VIUS, Cneius, a celebrated Latin 
 poet, who wrote several comedies, one of 
 which was so displeasing to Metellus the 
 consul, that he exiielled him from Rome. 
 He was born in Campania, and died at 
 Utica, B. c. 203. 
 
 NiEVmS, a famous augur in the reign 
 of Tarquin, of whom it is related, that, in 
 order to convince the king and the Romans 
 of his supernatural power, he cut a flint with 
 a razor, and thus turned the ridicule of the 
 populace into admiration. Cicero, how- 
 ever, who had himself been an augur, treats 
 this miraculous event as a mere fiction. 
 
 NAHL, JoHANff August, an eminent 
 Prussian sculptor, born at Berlin, in 1710. 
 He executed the admirable colossal statue 
 
 of the landgrave Frederic, which stands in 
 Frederic's Square. In 1755 he was created 
 professor in the academy of arts at Cassel, 
 and died there in 1781. 
 
 NALDI, Sebasti A NO, a celebrated Italian 
 buffo singer, who came to London early in 
 the present century, and obtained great 
 eclat. He was accidentally killed at Paris, 
 in 1819, by the explosion of an apparatus 
 which had been invented for cooking by 
 steam. 
 
 NALSON, Jonx, an English divine, was 
 born in 1G38, and after having gone through 
 the usual course of a university education 
 at Cambridge, obtained the living of Dod- 
 dington, and a prebend in Ely cathedral. 
 He' was the author of " An Impartial Col- 
 lection of the Affairs of State, from the 
 Scotch Rebellion to the Murder of Charles 
 the First." He also wrote an account of the 
 trial of that monarch, and died in 1680. 
 
 NANGIS, William de, a French histo- 
 rian of the 14th century, was a Benedictine 
 monk in the abbey of St. Denis. He wrote 
 the " Lives of St. Philip and Louis le Hardi," 
 together with two chronicles of France. 
 
 NANI, GiovAXXi Battista, a Venetian 
 historian, was born in 1016. He distin- 
 guished himself as ambassador to the French 
 court, where he obtained succours for the 
 republic to carry on the war against Turkey. 
 He was afterwards employed in other mis- 
 sions of importance, for whicli he was made 
 proctor of St. Mark and captain-general of 
 the marine. He was the author of " Istoria 
 della Republica Veneta," and was liisto- 
 riograj)her and keeper of the archives of the 
 repubU:;. Died, 1678. 
 
 NANEK, or NANUK, was a native of 
 Hindostan, and the founder of the sect of 
 Sikhs in India, which has now grown into 
 a powerful nation. He was born at Tal- 
 wendy, in Lahore, in 1409 ; propagated his 
 doctrines with great success ; and died in 
 1539. 
 
 NANNINI, Agnolo, a celebrated author, 
 born at Florence, in 1493. He entered the 
 order of Valombrosa, became abbot of S. 
 Salvador di Vajano, and wrote several works 
 of a lively and satirical character, which are 
 admired for their purity of stvle. 
 
 NAPIER, or NEPER, Joiry, lord of 
 Mercliiston, in Scotland, a celebrated ma- 
 thematician, was bom in 1550, and educated 
 at the university of St. Andrew's. After 
 
 
 I 
 
KAP] 
 
 ^ |!eto Hm'tjcrj^al 3Bt0grai3l)||. 
 
 [nar 
 
 having travelled in France, Italy, and Ger- 
 many, lie returned to his native country, 
 where lie wholJy devoted himself to the 
 study of mathematics and theology. Being 
 mucli attached to astronomy and spherical 
 geometry, he wished to find out a short 
 method of calculating triansjles, sines, tan- 
 gents, &c. ; and to the exertions arising out 
 of this desire is to be attributed liis admir- 
 able invention of logarithms, first made 
 public in 1614, and which alone has immor- 
 talised his name. The Napier "bones, or 
 rods," for multiplying and dividing, were 
 invented by him. lie also made several 
 improvements in spherical trigonometry, 
 and was regarded by the celebrated Kepler 
 as one of the greatest men of the age. Died, 
 1617. 
 
 NAPIER, Macvet, whose name will long 
 be memorable in connection with the Edin- 
 burgh Review and the Encjxdopacdia Bri- 
 tannica, was professor of conveyancing in 
 the university of Edinburgh, and one of the 
 principal clerks of the court of session. He 
 passed as a writer to the signet in 1799 ; but 
 he soon discovered a decided bias for literary 
 pursuits i and his various acquirements, lite- 
 rary and legal, his profound erudition, and 
 his sound judgment, found ample scope for 
 their development in tho last edition of the 
 Eneyclopajdia Britannica, of which he l>e- 
 came the editor. In 1829 he succeeded Mr. 
 (afterwards Lord) JeflVey in the editorship of 
 the Edinburgh Review ; and it is no light 
 praise to say that, under his management, 
 wliich embraced a period of 17 years, that 
 leading organ of constitutional and liberal 
 doctrines, and of manly and enlightened 
 criticism, suffered no decay. Died, 1847. 
 
 NAPIER, William Joux, Lord, a British 
 naval officer, w^as born at Kinsale, In 1787. 
 He entered the service at the age of 10, and 
 was a midshipman on board the Deiiance 
 at the battle of Trafalgar. In 18.33 he was 
 ai)i)ointed superintendent of the trade and 
 interests of the British nation in China, and 
 he arrived at Macao, in July, 1834. Here, 
 however, the object of his voyage was frus- 
 trated by the governor of Canton, who ap- 
 peared anxious that his lordship should not 
 reach that place until notice should have 
 been sent to the court of Pekiu, and the 
 answer of the emperor be made known upon 
 the subject. Lord Napier was not inclined 
 to delay the superintendence of those in- 
 terests which he had been appointed to pro- 
 tect, and, getting into his boat on the 24th 
 of July, sailed up the Canton river, and 
 arrived at the factory (Canton) on the next 
 morning. The orders and edicts of the go- 
 vernor, that he should return to Macao, were 
 replied to by the latter in terms of positive 
 refusal ; commercial transactions between 
 the British and Chinese merchants were 
 prohibited by the governor ; and he sent the 
 Imogeue and Andromache frigates up the 
 Boyne river, which were fired at by the 
 forts, and which, in return, battered the 
 forts about the ears of the Chinese soldiers. 
 This occurred on the 7 th of September ; but, 
 owing to calms, the ships were obliged to 
 come to an anchor for several days. On the 
 14th of the same mouth, Lord Napier became 
 seriously indisposed ; and that the interests 
 
 of the British merchants might not be in- 
 jured by a farther suspension of their ar- 
 rangements, the men-of-war were ordered 
 to " move out of the river," and he returned 
 to Macao, where, ou the 11th of October, 
 1834, he expired. 
 
 N ANTEUIL, Robert, an eminent French 
 engraver, was born at Rlieims, in l&iO. His 
 merit obtained him the place of designer 
 and cabinet engraver to Lotus XIV., with a 
 pension. Died, 1078. 
 
 NANTIGNI, Loris Chazot de, a cele- 
 brated French genealogist, whose genealo- 
 gical and chronological tables are regarded 
 as valuable productions. Born, 1692 ; died, 
 1755. 
 
 NARBONNE LARA, Loris, Count, bom 
 at Parma, in 17.55. He was minister of war 
 under Louis XVI. ; lieutenant-general of 
 France in the third year of the revolution ; 
 and, finally, one of Napoleon's aides-de- 
 camp during the imperial government. He 
 attempted to defend the constitutional mon- 
 archy ; and, after the 10th of August, 1792, 
 which decided the king's fate, was outlawed 
 by the triumphant party of the " Mountain." 
 He was saved, partly by the exertions of 
 Madame de Stal'l and partly of Dr. Boll- 
 man (who subsequently withdrew Lafayette 
 from a similar search of the ultra Jacobins), 
 and retired to England first, and afterwards 
 to Switzerland. Invested with military 
 rank by Napoleon, who greatly esteemed 
 him, he accompanied him in most of his 
 wars with Austria, and was in the fatal 
 Russian campaign, in 1812. In 1813 he was 
 ambassador to Vienna, and died at the end 
 of that year. 
 
 NARDI, Jacopo, an eminent Italian his- 
 torian, was born of an ancient and noble 
 family at Florence, in 147C. Having distin- 
 guished himself by his opposition ^to tlie 
 Medici, he was imprisoned and exile'd ; and 
 he retired to Venice, where he passed the 
 rest of his life in the cultivation of litera- 
 ture. He wrote a " History of Florence," 
 tlie " Life of Malcspini," &c. ; and acquired 
 much reputation by an elegant translation 
 of Livy. Died, about 1555. 
 
 NARDINI, PiETKO, one of the first vio- 
 linists of his time, was bom at Leghorn, in 
 1725 ; studied under Tartini ; and, in 1770, 
 went to Florence, as first violinist in the 
 chapel of the Grand-duke of Tuscany. Died, 
 1796. 
 
 NARES, James, Mus. Doc, was bom at 
 Stanwell, in Middlesex, in 1715. He was 
 one of the children in the royal chapel, and 
 studied under Dr. Pepusch, after wliich he 
 became organist of York cathedral. In 1755 
 he succeeded Dr. Green as organist and com- 
 poser to the king ; and was created doctor 
 of music at Cambridge. In 17.")7 he was 
 appointed master of the choristers of his 
 majesty's chapel. Dr. Nares published, be- 
 sides his compositions of sacred music, which 
 are marked by great genius and a thorough 
 knowledge of the science, several books of 
 instructions, and a royal pastoral on his 
 majesty's nuptials- Died, 1783. 
 
 NARES, Robert, a learned critic and 
 theologian, was the son of tlie preceding, 
 and received his education at Westminster 
 School, and Christchurch College, Oxford. 
 
nar] 
 
 ^ ^etu Bmbtv^al SStosrajjl^tt. 
 
 [nas 
 
 After entering into holy orders lie was pre- 
 sented to the rectory of Sliamford, in Leices- 
 tershire ; he was also chosen preacher at 
 Lincoln's Inn, and obtained the office of 
 assistant librarian at the British Museum. 
 He was afterwards a prebendary of Lincoln ; 
 and at the time of his death, in 1829, he was 
 archdeacon of Stafford, canon of Lichfield, 
 and rector of All hallows, London. Dr. 
 Nares, in conjunction with Mr. Beloe, es- 
 tablished and conducted tiie British Critic, 
 a high church literary review ; and among 
 his separate works are, " Elements of Or- 
 thoepy," " A Glossary of Words, Phrases, 
 &c., in the Works of English Authors of the 
 Age of Queen Elizabeth," " A Chronological 
 View of the Prophecies relating to the 
 Christian Church," &c. 
 
 NAllSES, a celebrated Persian eunuch, 
 who entered into the service of the emperor 
 Justinian at the court of Constantinoi>le, 
 rose by his merit to the highest dignities 
 of the state, and distinguished himself by 
 military exploits. After vanquishing Totila 
 the Goth, he captured Rome ; rescued Italy 
 from the Ostrogoths and other barbarians ; 
 was appointed governor of the country, and 
 ruled it 15 years ; but was at length deposed, 
 and died in .IC?. 
 
 NARVAEZ, Pampiiila de, a native of 
 Valladolid, in Spain, who went to America 
 soon after its discovery, and was appointed 
 commander of the expedition against Cortez 
 by Diego de Velasquez, governor of Cuba. 
 He sailed, in lo28, with 40() men, intending 
 to cstablicih a colony in Florida ; discovered 
 the bay of Peusacola ; and, having marched 
 into the country, was never heard of more. 
 
 NARUSZEWICZ, Adam Stanislaus, an 
 eminent historian and poet of Poland, who, 
 from having made an excellent translation 
 of the works of the great Roman historian, 
 obtained the appellation of the Polish 
 Tacitus ; but his fame chiefly rests on his 
 elaborate " History of Poland," which he 
 left unfinished at his death, in 1706. 
 
 NASH, Joux, a celebrated architect, was 
 one of the architects of the board of works, 
 and amassed a large fortime by tlie extensive 
 speculations in which he engaged for the 
 improvement of tlie metropolis. Regent 
 Street, Waterloo Place, the Regent's and 
 St. James's Parks, and nearly all the impor- 
 tant changes which have taken place in the 
 architecture of London (westward), the 
 aggregate effect of which is really grand and 
 imposing, are due to the mental exertion 
 and indefatigable labour of Mr. Nash. He 
 also built the royal palace at Pimlico, the 
 Haymarket Theatre, All Souls Church, &c. 
 Died, aged 82, 1825. 
 
 NASH, RicnAUD, commonly called Beau 
 Nash, the once celebrated arbiter of fasliion 
 at Bath, was born in 1764, at Swansea, in 
 Glamorgansliire. He was originally in- 
 tended for the law, but entered the army, 
 which, however, he soon quitted, and took 
 chambers in the Temple. Here he devoted 
 himself entirely to pleasure and fashion ; and 
 when king William visited the inn, he was 
 cliosen muster of the pageant with which it 
 was customary to welcome tlie monarch. So 
 pleased was William with the entertainment, 
 that he offered him the honour of knighthood, 
 
 wliich Nash, on account of his narrow cir- 
 cumstances, refused. In 1704 he was ap- 
 pointed master of the ceremonies at Bath, 
 an office for which he was admirably quali- 
 fied by an elegant taste and uncommon 
 vivacity. He immediately instituted a set 
 of regulations as remarkable for their strict- 
 ness as for their judicious adaptation to the 
 wants and society of the place ; and as he 
 drew the whole beau monde to Bath, he was 
 justly regarded as a public benefactor there. 
 While in the plenitude of his power and 
 popularity, Nash lived in the most splendid 
 style, supporting his expenses by a long run 
 of success at the gaming table. His dress 
 was covered with expensive lace, and he wore 
 a large white cocked hat. The chariot in 
 which he rode was drawn by six gray horses, 
 and attended by a long retinue of servants, 
 some on horses, others on foot, while his pro- 
 gress through the streets was made known by 
 a band of French horns and other instru- 
 ments. His common title was the king of 
 Bath; and his reign continued, with undi- 
 minished splendour, for more than fifty 
 years. His health then began to decline, and 
 his resources grew less plentiful. As the 
 change in his spirits and circumstances be- 
 came more evident, his former acquaintances 
 gradually forsook him, and he died, in com- 
 parative indigence and solitude, in 1761. 
 His remains, however, were honoured with a 
 splendid funeral, at the expense of the city ; 
 and an appropriate epitaph, written by Dr. 
 Harrington, is placed over his tomb in the 
 abbey church. 
 
 NASH, Thomas, a satirist and dramatic 
 writer, was born at Lowestoffe, in Suffolk, 
 about 1504 ; educated at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge ; and settled in London, where 
 he died in 1001. He wrote three dramatic 
 pieces ; but was chiefly distinguished by the 
 virulence and scurrility of his pamphlets 
 against Gabriel Harvey and the puritan 
 Penry, who assumed the title of Martin 
 Marprelate. His principal performance is 
 " Pierce Penniless," published in 1589. 
 
 NASH, Treadway Russel, an English 
 divine and antiquary, was educated at Wor- 
 cester College, Oxford, where he took his 
 degree of D.D. in 1758. He was a man of 
 fortune, and died at his seat in Worcester- 
 shire, in 1811, aged 87. Dr. Nash published 
 " Collections for a History of Worcester- 
 shire," 2 vols, folio ; a splendid edition of 
 Hudibras, 3 vols. 4to. ; and some papers in 
 the Archaeologia. 
 
 NASMITH, James, a divine, was bom at 
 Norwich, in 1740, and educated at Bene't 
 College, Cambridge. He took the degree of 
 D. D. in 1797 ; and his last preferment was 
 the rectory of Leverington, in the Isle of 
 Ely, where he died in 1808. Dr. Nasmith 
 published " A Catalogue of Bene't College 
 Library ; " an edition of the " Itineraries of 
 Simon and William of Worcester," 8vo ; a 
 new edition of Tanner's "Notitia Monas- 
 tica," &c. 
 
 NASMYTH, Alexander, a celebrated 
 painter, whose talents gave so strong and 
 strikingly obvious an impetus to the art in 
 Scotland, that he is not undeservedly called 
 the father of the Scottish school of landscape 
 painting. Those who patronised Nasmytli 
 
 I 
 
KAS] 
 
 ^ fit^ ^nibtrSal Miazmpf)}}* 
 
 [NAT 
 
 as a portrait painter were for tlie most part 
 persons of rank and wealth ; and liis visits to 
 various country seats aftbided him excellent 
 opportunities of giving liis advice in land- 
 scape gardening. To that advice it is, at 
 first generally as an amateur and in mere 
 fricudstiip, but subsequently as a part of his 
 profession, that the Scottish nobility and 
 gentry owe some of the finest of tiieir park 
 scenery. It may likewise be added, that to 
 his suggestions his native city, Edinburgli, 
 owes not a few of the judicious changes mude 
 in lier streets and buildings. Born, 1757 ; 
 died, 1840. 
 
 N ASMYTII, Petkk, an eminent landscape 
 painter, was bom at Edinburgh, in 178C. 
 At the age of twenty he removed to London, 
 where his talents soon attracted notice, and 
 procured him the appellation of the English 
 Hobbima. His works are deservedly in high 
 repute, and there are few collections of im- 
 portance in England, but what contain some 
 of them. Died, 1831. 
 
 NATHAN, Isaac, orMoRDECAi, a learned 
 Jewish rabbi, who, about the middle of the 
 loth century, published the first concordance 
 of the Old Testament in the original tongue. 
 This work, with considerable additions, has 
 been several times reprinted ; but little or 
 nothing is known of the personal history of 
 its orignial author. 
 
 NATTIER, Jou.v Mark, a French artist, 
 was born at Paris, in HiH't, and died in 17GG. 
 Louis XIV. ai)pointed him to a professorship 
 
 in the academy of painting Another 
 
 artist of this name went to Petersburgh, where 
 he died in 1703. He was an engraver of 
 intaglios, and published a treatise on gems. 
 
 NAUDE' or NAUD^US, Gaukiel, a 
 French physician and man of letters, was 
 bom at Paris, in UW ; studied medicine at 
 Padua ; and, after a considerable stay in 
 Italy, returned to Paris and became librarian 
 to Cardinal Richelieu, on whose death he 
 entered iuto the service of Mazarin ; but 
 when that minister was banished, Naud^ 
 went to Sweden as librarian to queen Chris- 
 tina, lie was the aiithor of " Bibliographia 
 Politica," "An Apology for the Great Men 
 who have been accused of Magic," "On 
 Liberal Studies," &c. Died, 16.53. 
 
 NAUDE', PuiLiP, a mathematician, was 
 born at Metz, in 1G54. Being a Protestant 
 he retired to Berlin on the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, and there became mathema- 
 tical tutor to the court, lie was also chosen 
 a member of the academy in that city, where 
 he died in 1729. He published a work on 
 
 geometry, and some religious ineces His 
 
 son, who succeeded him in his professorship, 
 was a member of the royal societies of Berlin 
 and London, and died in 174j. 
 
 NAUDET, Thomas Charles, a French 
 landscape painter, born, at Paris, in 1774 ; 
 died, 1810. lie left a collection of near three 
 thousand designs, comprehending the most 
 beautiful views, and the finest monuments of 
 ancient and modern times on the Continent. 
 
 NAUMaNN, John Gottlieb, or Aaia- 
 DEUs, an eminent German musical composer, 
 was born in 1741, of veiy poor parents, at a 
 small village near Dresden ; but his talents 
 for music being soon apparent, he was taken 
 to Italy by a Swedish amateur, and finally 
 
 029 
 
 obtained admission into the number of Tar- 
 tini's pupils at Padua. He afterwards went 
 to Naiiles, where his taste for theatrical music 
 was awakened ; and having remained in 
 Italy eight years, returned to Dresden, and 
 was appointed composer of sacred music to 
 the Elector of Saxony. He subsequently 
 made two journeys to Italy, where he com- 
 posed several operas, which were performed 
 witli brilliant success ; and he was eventually 
 made chapel-master. For some time before 
 his death he devoted himself almost entirely 
 to the composition of sucred music, some 
 very valuable pieces of which are preserved 
 in the archives of the chapel at Dresden. 
 Among his operas are, " I>a Clemenza di 
 Tito," " Tutto per Amore," " Armida," 
 " Amphion," " Gustavus Vasa," " Orpheus," 
 and " Acis and Galatea." Besides these are 
 several oratorios, sonatas, songs, &c. Died, 
 1801. 
 
 NAUNTON, Sir Robert, an English 
 statesman, was born at Sufiblk, and educated 
 at Cambridge. After having been employed 
 on some diplomatic concerns in Scotland and 
 France, he returned to the university, and 
 in 1601 was elected public orator, in which 
 capacity he attracted tlie notice of James I., 
 who made him master of the requests, sur- 
 veyor of the court of wards, and secretary of 
 state. His "Fragmenta Regalia" contains 
 many curious particulars of the court of 
 queen Elizabeth. 
 
 NAVAGERO or NAUGERIU8, A>di;ea, 
 an Italian poet, orator, and statesman, M-as 
 born at Venice, in 1483. He embraced the 
 military life, after which he was employed 
 as an ambassador, and in that situation died 
 at Blois, in 1529. His Latin poems were 
 remarkable for their purity, and have been 
 several times printed. 
 
 NAV ARETE, Juan Fekkandez, a Spa- 
 nish painter, surnamed El Mudo, from his 
 being deaf and dumb, was born in 1562. He 
 was appointed painter to the king, and his 
 best pieces are preserved in the Escurial. 
 From his fine style of colouring, he obtained 
 the name of the Spanish Titian ; but he was 
 so fond of introducing into his pictures a dog, 
 a cat, or a partridge, that scarcely any of his 
 sacred subjects even are without tliem. Died, 
 1579. 
 
 NAVARETTA, FEKNAKrEZ, a Spanish 
 missionary, who went to China in 1646, and 
 was expelled at the time when the persecu- 
 tion there took place. He was afterwards 
 consecrated bishop of St. Domingo, and died 
 in 1689. He was the author of an excellent 
 account of the political and religious condi- 
 tion of the Chinese. 
 
 NAYLOR, James, an enthusiast of the 
 17th centur3-, was born in 1616, at Ardesley, 
 in Yorkshire. He served eight years in the 
 parliamentary army, and on his return home, 
 in 1651, became converted to Quakerism by 
 the preaching of George Fox ; thougli at a 
 future period, in consequence of his extra- 
 vagant conduct, the more formal body of 
 Quakers were led to disown him. Misled by 
 imaginary inspiration, he soon distinguished 
 himself among those of kindred sentiments, 
 both in London and other places, until, in 
 1656, he was committed to Exeter gaol, for 
 propagating his opinions. On his release 
 
 3u3 
 
nea] 
 
 ^ ^m HnibfrjSal 28i0(rrajp!)s. 
 
 [NEC 
 
 from imprisonment, he repaired to Bristol, 
 wiiere hia followers formed a procession, and 
 led him into that city in a manner which 
 they intended to resemble the entrance of 
 Christ into Jerusalem. He was declared 
 guilty of blasphemy by parliament, and bar- 
 barously sentenced to a double whipping at 
 diflerent times, branding, boring of the 
 tongue with a liot iron, and imprisonment 
 and hard labour during pleasure. This sen- 
 tence, though illegal, was fully inflicted upon 
 the unhappy man, who, when the delirium of 
 fanaticism was over, humbly acknowledged 
 and lamented the delusion under which lie 
 had laboured ; and died in J6C0. 
 
 NEAL, Danikl, an eminent dissenting 
 divine, was bom in London, in 1(578, and 
 was educated at the university of Utrecht. 
 On his return he began to oflficiate as a 
 preacher, and, in 17(K5, succeeded Dr. Single- 
 ton as minister of a congregation in Alders- 
 gate Street, in which connection he continued 
 for 30 years. Although assiduous as a mi- 
 nister, lie found leisure for literary labours, 
 and published, among other works, a " His- 
 tory of the Puritans," 4 vols. ; and a " History 
 of New England," 2 vols. Died, 1743. 
 
 NEANDER, Johanx August Wilhelm, 
 one of the distinguished ecclesiastical his- 
 torians of moderu times, was bom at Got- 
 tingen, 1789. His parents were Jews. They 
 removed to Hamburgh when their sou was 
 very young ; and to the excellent institu- 
 tions of that city he was indebted for great 
 part of his education. In his 16th year he 
 was converted to Christianity, and proceeded 
 to study first at Halle and then at Giittin- 
 gen, where he gained the reputation of great 
 learning and piety, though struggling with 
 an extremity of poverty which would have 
 crushed a less ardent and heroic soul. After 
 a short sojourn in Hamburgh, he removed 
 to Heidelberg in 1811, and occupied himself 
 in writing his first work, " The Emperor 
 Julian and his Age," which led to his ap- 
 pointment to a chair of theology, in that 
 university, in 1812. A few months after- 
 wards he was nominated to the same chair 
 in the then infant university of Berlin, where 
 he had Marheinecke and Sclileiermachcr for 
 his colleagues ; and here he laboured as- 
 siduously for 38 years, with what results 
 will be seen if we look at his works on many 
 periods of church history, — his pamphlets 
 and monographs of every variety of subjects, 
 — his daily lectures on every conceivable 
 theological topic, philosophy, doctrine, his- 
 tory, biblical criticism, or the numberless 
 pupils in Germany, England, and America, 
 whom he inspired with a portion of his own 
 noble enthusiasm, and sent out as labourers 
 in the same sacred field. With Neander, 
 theology was not as it is with too many both 
 at home and abroad, a mere profession. The 
 purity of his daily life — his devotion to 
 Christian labour — the self denial which was 
 his soul's habit — prove how sincerely he be- 
 lieved the truth of his favourite motto, that 
 it is neither the profoundest learning, nor 
 most vigorous intellect, nor most fervid elo- 
 quence, but " pectus est quod facit theolo- 
 gum," — "it is the heart wliich makes the 
 theologian." Died, 1850. 
 
 NEAKCHUS, one of the generals of Alex- 
 
 ander the Great, who was employed in con- 
 ducting his fleet from India by the ocean to 
 the Persian Gulf. Fragments of a narrative 
 by this early voyager are extant, and form 
 a curious and valuable record. 
 
 NECHAM, or NEQUAM, Alexakdek, an 
 English monk, of Die order of St. Augustine, 
 who was educated in the abbey of St. Alban's. 
 He completed his studies at Paris, and died 
 abbot of Cirencester, in 1217. His principal 
 work is a Latin poem, " De Laude Sapientiae 
 Divina;." 
 
 NECKER, James, a celebrated statesman, 
 noted as the minister of finance to Louis 
 XVI., was tlie son of Charles Frederic 
 Necker, professor of civil law at Geneva, and 
 born there in 1732. At the age of 15, he was 
 placed in a banking-house at Paris, after 
 which he became partner with Thellusson, 
 on whose death he established a house of his 
 own, in conjunction with his brother and two 
 others. Having distinguished himself by 
 his treatise, entitled " Sur la Lt'gislation et 
 le Commerce des Grains," and acquired great 
 reputation as a financier ; he was, in 177(5, 
 appointed director, and, soon after, comp- 
 troller-general of the royal treasury. Being 
 refused admission into the council on the 
 score of his religion, as he was a Calvinist, 
 he threatened to resign his official situation. 
 He was in consequence removed, and ordered 
 to retire to his country-seat. After this he 
 went to Switzerland, where he purchased the 
 barony of Copet, and published his work, 
 " Administration des Finances de la France," 
 3 vols. 8vo., of which 80,(XK} copies were sold 
 in a few daj's. He was recalled in 1788, as 
 comptroller-general, when his convictions led 
 liim to support the convocation of the states- 
 general, which was the wish of the nation. 
 He was also in favour of the double repre- 
 sentation of the third estate, and may be 
 considered as a spark which kindled the pile 
 of democratic feeling. When the govern- 
 ment determined to take measures against 
 the increasing troubles. Necker, who op- 
 posed the adoption of those measures, was 
 dismissed, and ordered to leave the kingdom 
 within 24 hours. No sooner was his removal 
 known, than all Paris was in a ferment. 
 The storming of the Bastile followed, and 
 the Symplons of popular violence became 
 so alarming, that the king found himself 
 compelled to recal the banished minister. 
 Necker's return to Paris resembled a tri- 
 umphal procession ; yet such is the uncertain 
 tenure of i)opularity, that he soon became as 
 much an object of antipathy to the people 
 as he had been of their idolatry, and in 1790 
 he left France for ever. He died at Copet, 
 in Switzerland, in 1804. 
 
 NECKER, Susanna, wife of the preced- 
 ing, and whose maiden name was Curchod, 
 was the daughter of a clergyman in the 
 canton of Berne, and in her youth was the 
 object of the attachment of Gibbon the his- 
 torian. She received an excellent education ; 
 nor was her heart less carefully cultivated 
 than her mind ; and, on her husband's ele- 
 vation, she made use of his influence and 
 fortune only for purposes of benevolence. 
 She erected an hospital in the neighbourhood 
 of Paris, at her own expense, and devoted 
 to it her personal care. She wrote " Keflec- 
 
NEC] 
 
 ^ i2c&) ?HnibcttfaI 3Bi0ffrap!)2i. 
 
 [nel 
 
 I tions on Divorce," and other works, Died, ! 
 1 1794. I 
 
 NECKER, Noel Joseph, a native of the 
 I Netherlands, who became botanist and his- 
 toriographer to the elector palatine. He 
 wrote " Elcmenta Botanica," and otlier 
 worlcs relating to his favourite science. Died, 
 1793. 
 
 NEEDHAM, Jonx Tubkrville, a Roman 
 Catholic divine, was born in London, in 1713, 
 and educated at Douay, where he entered 
 into orders. He died rector of the academy 
 of sciences at Brussels, in 1781. Mr. Nccdham 
 wrote observations inserted in Burton's Na- 
 tural History ; also " New Enquiries upon 
 Microscopical Discoveries, and the Genera- 
 tion of Organised Bodies." " Enquiries con- 
 cerning Nature and Religion," &c. 
 
 NEEDIIAM, Mauchmont, an active par- 
 tisan and political writer, was born at Bur- 
 ford, in Oxfordshire, in ](>2(), and educated 
 at All Souls' College, Oxford. During the 
 civil war he distinguished himself by his 
 political writings first against the parliament, 
 and afterwards against the king, so that at 
 the Restoration he obtained his pardon with 
 difficulty. He conducted periodical journals, 
 somewhat in the manner of newspapers, the 
 titles of which were, Mcrcurius Britannicus, 
 Mtrcurius Pragmaticus, and Mcrcurius Po- 
 liticus ; and when politics no longer afforded 
 him employment, he practised as a physician. 
 Died. 1678. 
 
 NEEl'S, Peter, the elder, a painter of 
 architectural subject-^, was born at An- 
 twerp, in l.'>70, and died in IfSfd. He studied 
 under Henry Stenwyck, and his favourite 
 subjects were views of the interior of 
 
 churches, convents, palaces, &c His son, 
 
 known as young Neefs, followed the same 
 branch of art as his father, but was inferior 
 to him. 
 
 NEELE, Henuy, a poet and miscella- 
 neous writer, born in 1708, was tlie son of an 
 engraver in the Strand, and was educated 
 for the profession of an attorney, which he 
 practised with reputation in the metropolis 
 till his death. He was a young man of 
 amiable disposition and inoffensive manners, 
 and had a decided taste for literary pursuits; 
 but his intense application to study produced 
 a fit of insanity, and he put a period to his 
 existence, February 7. 1828. He was the 
 author of " Poems," " Dramatic Scenes," 
 the "Romance of History." 3 vols. ; and 
 " Jyiterary Remains," published after his 
 decease. 
 
 NEER, Arxold Vander, an eminent 
 artist, was born at Amsterdam, in 1619. He 
 excelled in painting coast scenery, fisher- 
 men's huts, and in his beautiful delineation 
 
 of moonlight. Died, 1683 His son, Eo- 
 
 LON llENDRiCK, was an historical and portrait 
 painter. Born, 1643 ; died, 1703. 
 
 NELSON, HoKATio, Viscount, Duke of 
 Bronte, &c., England's greatest naval hero, 
 was the fourth son of the Rev. Edmund 
 Nelson, rector of Burnham Tliorpe, in 
 Norfolk, and born there, Sept. 29. 1758. 
 He was educated first at Norwich, and next 
 at North Walsham ; but in his twelfth year 
 he became a midshipman under his uncle. 
 Captain Suckling, of the Raisonahie. Soon 
 after this he sailed to the West Indies in a 
 
 merchant ship, and on his return was ad- 
 mitted on board tlie Carcass, one of the 
 vessels sent on an expedition to the North 
 Pole, under the orders of Captain Phipps. 
 He went next to the East Indies. In 1777 
 he obtained the rank of lieutenant, and in 
 1779 that of post-captain, when he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Hichin- 
 broke, in which ship he sailed to the West 
 Indies, where he distinguished himself in 
 an enterprise on the Spanish main. After 
 the jieace of 1783, lie commanded the 
 Boreas frigate, stationed for the protection 
 of trade at the Leeward Islands, and while 
 there he married Mrs. Nesbit, the widow 
 of a physician. At the commencement of 
 the war with France he was nomhiated to 
 the Agamemnon of 04 guns, on board of 
 which he sailed to the Mediterranean, and 
 was at the taking of Toulon. He was also 
 present at the siege of Bastia, where he served 
 at the batteries with a body of seamen, as 
 he afterwards did at Calvi ; and while em- 
 ployed before that place he lost an eye. 
 While on that station his daring intrepidity 
 and unceasing activity were such, that his 
 name was dreaded throughout the shores 
 of the Mediterranean. He was with Ad- 
 miral Hotham in the action with the French 
 fleet, March 15. 1795 ; and the same year 
 he took the island of Elba. In KiXi he was 
 appointed commodore on board I-a Mi- 
 nerve, ill wliich frigate lie captured I^a Sa- 
 bine, a forty gun ship. Soon after this he 
 descried the Spanish fleet, and steered with 
 the intelligence to Sir John Jcrvis, off" St. 
 Vincent. He had scarcely communicated 
 the news, and shifted his flag on board tiie 
 Captain of 74 guns, wlien the enemy hove 
 in sight. A close action ensued, which 
 terminated in a complete victory on the 
 side of tlie British, who were inferior in 
 numbers. On this occasion Commodore 
 Nelson attacked the Santissima Trinidada 
 of 13(> guns i he afterwards boarded and 
 took the San Nicholas of 80 guns, from 
 whence he proceeded in the same manner 
 to the San Joseph of 112 guns; both of 
 which surrendered to liim. For his share 
 in this glorious victory, the commodore 
 was honoured with the order of the Bath ; 
 and having soon afterwards hoisted his flag 
 as rear admiral of the blue, he was ap- 
 pointed to command the inner squadron 
 at the blockade of Cadiz. He there made 
 a bold but unsuccessful attempt to bombard 1 
 the city, heading his men himself. The i 
 next exploit in which he was engaged was ' 
 an attempt to take possession of Tcneriffc, 
 which design also failed, and Nelson lost 
 his right arm by a cannon-shot, and es- 
 caped with life by the devotion of his step- 
 son, Captain Nesbit, who carried him off on 
 his back to a boat, after lying senseless and 
 exhausted for several hours upon the ground. 
 In 1798, he rejoined Earl St. Vincent, who 
 sent him up the Mediterranean, to watch 
 the progress of the armament at Toulon, 
 destined for the conveyance of Buonaparte 
 and his army to Egyi)t. Notwithstanding 
 the strictest vigilance, this fleet found means 
 to escape, but was followed by Nelson, and, 
 after various disappointments, traced to the I 
 bay of Aboukir. Here he commenced an I 
 
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 ^ iSe&j mm'&crjgal 33iO0rajp|)w. 
 
 [nel 
 
 immediate attack, and by a manoeuvre of 
 equal boldness and ability, sailed between 
 the enemy and the land, though exposed to 
 a double fire. The result was a victory so 
 glorious and decisive, that all the French 
 vessels, with the exception of two men of 
 war and two frigates, were taken or de- 
 stroyed. This achievement was rewarded 
 witli the title of baron Nelson of the Nile, 
 and an additional pension of 2,000^., besides 
 the estate and dukedom of Bronte in Sicily, 
 and higli honours conferred by the Turkish 
 sultan. Soon after this he sailed for Sicily, 
 and from thence to Naples, where he quelled 
 j a rebellion and restored the king. Having 
 performed these and other important ser- 
 vices. Lord Nelson returned to England, and 
 was received with enthusiastic joy — And 
 here we are reluctantly compelled to record 
 the fact, that, during the admiral's stay at 
 Naples, he permitted Lady Hamilton, the 
 j wife of the English ambassador, to exercise a 
 I most pernicious influence over him ; that he 
 i lived publicly with her after the death of 
 : her husband ; and, as a natural consequence, 
 ! that it produced a separation between him 
 I and Lady Nelson on his return — But to re- 
 sume our narrative of his naval glories. A 
 confederacy of the northern powers having 
 alarmed the government, he was employed 
 to dissolve it. A fleet was fitted out in 1801, 
 the command of which was given to Admiral 
 Sir Hyde Tarker, assisted by Lord Nelson. 
 On their arrival off the Cattegat, and being 
 refused a passage. Lord Nelson oftered his 
 services for conducting the attack on the 
 Danish force, which was stationed to oppose 
 j an entrance. This being accepted, he shifted 
 his flag to the Elephant, and passed the 
 Sound with little loss. On the 2nd of April 
 the action commenced at ten o'clock, and 
 after a sharp conflict seventeen sail of the 
 Danes were sunk, burnt, or taken. A nego- 
 tiation was then entered into between his 
 lordship and the crown prince ; in conse- 
 quence of which the admiral went ashore, 
 and an armistice was settled. He next ob- 
 tained from the Swedish government an 
 order for taking oflf the embargo on English 
 ships in the Baltic. Having accomplished 
 these great objects, he returned to England, 
 and was created a viscount. In August, 
 1801, he bombarded the enemy's flotilla of 
 guu boats at Boulogne, but without any 
 material effect. A treaty suddenly taking 
 place, his lordship retired to his seat at Mer- 
 ton, in Surrey ; but hostilities recommen- 
 cing, he sailed lor the Mediterranean, and in 
 March, 1803, took the command of that 
 station on board the Victory. Notwithstand- 
 ing all his vigihince, the French fleet escaped 
 from Toulon, and was joined by that of 
 Cadiz ; of which being apprised, he pursued 
 them to the West Indies with a far inferior 
 force. The combined squadrons, however, 
 struck with terror, returned without effect- 
 ing anything ; and after a partial action 
 with Sir Robert Calder, off Ferrol, re-en- 
 tered Cadiz. Admiral Nelson returned to 
 England, but soon set sail to join his fleet 
 off Cadiz. The French under Admiral Vil- 
 leneuve, and the Spaniards under Gravina, 
 ventured out with a number of troops on 
 board, Oct. 19. 1805, and on the 21st, about 
 
 noon, the action began off Cape Trafalgar. 
 Lord Nelson ordered liis ship, the Victory, 
 to be carried alongside his old antagonist, 
 the Santissima Triuidada, where he was ex- 
 posed to a severe fire of musketry ; and not 
 taking the precaution to cover his coat, 
 which was decorated with his star and other 
 badges of distinction, he became an object 
 for the riflemen placed purposely in the tops 
 of tlie Bucentaur, which lay on his quarter. 
 In the middle of the engagement, a musket- 
 ball struck him on the left shoulder, and 
 passing through the spine, lodged in the 
 muscles of his back. He lived just long 
 enough to be acquainted with the number 
 of ships that had been captured, and his last 
 words were, " I have done my duty, I praise 
 God for it ! " The mighty spirit of Nelson 
 was epitomised in the signal which he 
 hoisted on commencing this action — " Eng- 
 land expects that every man will do his 
 duty 1 " — a sentence that not only testified 
 the pure Spartan love of country which ani- 
 mated liis own breast, but proved the philo- 
 sophical act which inspired him to strike 
 upon the strongest chord that could vibrate 
 in every surrounding bosom. His remains 
 were brought to this country, and buried 
 with unprecedented honours in St. Paul's 
 cathedral, where a suitable monument has 
 
 been erected to his memory. His brother, 
 
 the Rev. William, D. D., &c., succeeded to 
 the titles and honours enjoyed by the Hero 
 of Trafalgar. His death occurred on the 
 28th of Feb. 1835, in the 78th year of his 
 age. The titles, &c. descended to Thomas 
 Bolton, of Wells, Norfolk, who was the son 
 of Thomas Bolton, and Susannah (eldest 
 child of the Rev. Edmund Nelson, father of 
 the admiral) ; but he dying, in his 50th year, 
 in tlie November following, they descended 
 to his son Horatio, born in 1823, and grand- 
 nephew in the female line to the naval 
 hero. 
 
 NELSON, Robert, a pious and learned 
 writer, was born in London, in 165G ; and 
 received his education at St. Paul's School, 
 and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was 
 strongly attached to James II., and he con- 
 tinued to communicate with the nonjurors 
 till the death of Bishop Lloyd, when he re- 
 turned to the established church. He lived 
 on terms of intimacy with Archbishop Til- 
 lotscn, and was the zealous promoter of all 
 works of charity, having the ability as well 
 as the disposition to give what true bene- 
 volence prompted, lie was the author of 
 many popular works ; among which are, 
 " The Practice of True Devotion," " A Com- 
 panion to the Festivals and Fasts of the 
 Church of England," "The Whole Duty of 
 aChristian," "The Great Duty of Frequent- 
 ing the Christian Sacrifice, ' &c. Died, 
 1714. 
 
 NELSON, Sami'el, born in 1759, was one 
 of the most ardent of the " Irish patriots " 
 in 1790; and edited the Northern Star, 
 which produced great effects. On the re- 
 bellion being put down in 1796, he was 
 thrown into prison, where he remained, till 
 set at liberty by French interference, at the 
 treaty of Amiens, in 1802. He then retired 
 to America, where it is understood he died j 
 of the plague. 
 
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 ^ ^eiD ©fm'bcriSal 23t05rajp]bl»» 
 
 [nev 
 
 NEMESIUS, a Greek philosopher in the 
 4lli century, who embraced tlie Christian 
 religion, and was nriade bisliop of Einesa, in 
 Phu;nicia, of which place he was a native. 
 He wrote a treatise entitled "De Natura 
 Hominis," in which he asserts the doctrine 
 of pre-existence. 
 
 NENNIUS, a British historian, and abbot 
 of Uangor in the 7th century, who, when the 
 n)Ouk3~of liis house were massacred, fled for 
 refuge to Chester. His work is entitled 
 " Ilistoria Britonura," and is among the 
 Cottonian MSS. in the British Museum. 
 
 NEPOS, Cdhnelius, a Latin historian in 
 the reign of Julius Cicsar and Augustus, 
 whose patronage he enjoyed. Of all his 
 works, M'e have only his lives of illustrious 
 Greek and Koman generals. 
 
 NERI, St. Piiii.ir r>K, founder of the con- 
 gregation of the Oratory in Italy, was born 
 in l.ilS, of a noble family at Florence, and 
 died at Rome in 159-5. llis order obtained 
 its name from the place of its original es- 
 tablisliment, which was an oratory of St. 
 Jerome's church at Rome. 
 
 NERO, Ll'cu's DoMiTirs, called after his 
 adoption Claudius Dkusus, a Roman em- 
 peror, was the son of Caius Domitius, and of 
 Agrippina, daughter of Germanicua. lie 
 was adopted by Claudius, a. d. .50, and four 
 years after succeeded him on tlie throne. At 
 the commencement of his reign his conduct 
 excited great hopes in the Romans ; he ap- 
 peared just, liberal, affiible, polished, com- 
 plaiaant, and kind ; but this was a mask 
 which hid the most depraved mind that 
 ever disgraced a human being. He caused 
 his mother to be assassinated, and vindicated 
 tlie unnatural act to the senate on a pretence 
 that Agrippina had plotted against him. 
 He also commenced a dreadful persecution 
 of the Christians ; and he is even charged 
 with haviug caused Rome to be set on fire in 
 several places, and during the conflagration 
 to have beheld the scene from a high tower, 
 where he amused himself by singing to his 
 lyre. This atrocity has, however, been 
 denied ; and it is needless to swell the cata- 
 logue of his crimes by inserting any one of 
 doubtful authority. His cruelties, extrava- 
 gance, and debauchery at length roused the 
 public resentment. Piso formed a conspiracy 
 against the tyrant, but it was discovered and 
 defeated. That of Galba, however, proved 
 more successful ; and Nero being abandoned 
 by his flatterers, put an end to his existence, 
 A. D. 08. 
 
 NERVA, Marcus Cocceius, a Roman 
 emperor, who succeeded Domitian, a.w. 96, 
 at the age of 70 ; and died after a reign of 
 two years, during which his virtues did 
 honour to the throne. 
 
 NESTORIUS, a celebrated patriarch of 
 Constantinople, from whom originated the 
 sect of Nestorians, was born in Syria, in the 
 the 5th century. On entering into the priest- 
 hood he became so popular for his eloquence, 
 that Theodosius nominated him, in 429, to 
 the archbishopric of Constantinople; in'which 
 station he displayed great zeal against the 
 Arians and Novatians. lie at length fell 
 under censure himself for affirming that the 
 Virgin Mary is not the motlier of God ; for 
 which he was condemned in the council of 
 
 EphesHs, deprived of his see, and banished. 
 He died in 439 ; but his followers continue 
 to be numerous in the East, and are or- 
 ganised under a patriarch. 
 
 NETSCHER, Gaspar, a celebrated pain- 
 ter, was boin at Heidelberg, in 1639. Being 
 left destitute by his father, he was taken 
 under the protection of a physician at Arn- 
 heim, who, perceiving his genius, placed him 
 with an artist named Terberg. His subjects 
 are conversation pieces and portraits ; the 
 velvet and satin draperies are exquisitely 
 managed, and the whole finished with neat- 
 ness and brilliancy. H? died in 1684. 
 
 His sons, TiiEODOitE and Constantine, were 
 both good j)ortrait painters. The first died 
 in 17.32. and his brother in 1722. 
 
 NETTLEBLADT, Christian, Baron de, 
 an eminent Swedish lawyer, and author of 
 several works, chiefly relating to the state of 
 science and literature in liis native country. 
 Bom, 1696 ; died, 1776. 
 
 NETTLEBLADT, Daniel, a celebrated 
 German jurist, born nt Rostock, 1719. He 
 was professor of the law of nature at Halle ; 
 became a member of the privy council in 
 1765, and subsequently director of the uni- 
 versity. He was the author of many learned 
 and valuable works ; among which are 
 " Systema elementare tliiiverstc Jurispru- 
 dentite naturalis," and " Initia HistoriiB 
 littcrariiB juridicu; universalis." Died, 1791. 
 
 KEUHOFF, Thkouork Stefiikx, Baron, 
 the son of a Westjdialian noble, was born 
 at Metz, about 16'.K). While a student at 
 Cologne, he unfortunately killed a young 
 man of rank in a duel, and fled to the Hague. 
 But through the mediation of the Spanish 
 mini.'^ter he received a lieutenancy in the 
 Spanish regiment of cavalry destined to 
 march against the Moors in Africa, and, on 
 account of his good behaviour, was promoted 
 to a captaincy. When the Corsicans, after 
 several unsuccessful attempts to free them- 
 selves from tlie oppressions of Genoa, re- 
 solved, in 1735, to form a government of their 
 own, Neuhoff was crowned king, had silver 
 and copper coins struck, and established an 
 order of knighthood, under the name of the 
 order of deliverance. Theodore, however, 
 could not maintain himself against the 
 Genoese and a Corsican opposition. He fled 
 to England. Here his Dutch creditors 
 pursued him, and being arrested, he became 
 a prisoner in the king's bench for some years. 
 His liberation was at length, however, 
 eff'ected, through the instrumentality of 
 Horace Walpole ; but he died soon after, in 
 17.55. 
 
 NEUMANN, Ca.spar, an eminent German 
 chemist of the ISthcenturj-. After pursuing 
 his studies with ardour, and travelling for 
 improvement through England, France, and 
 Italy, he was nominated professor of che- 
 mistry at the royal college of Berlin, and 
 afterwards honoured by the king of Prussia 
 with the title of aulic counsellor. His works, 
 which at the time were important, have been 
 translated into Englisli. Died, 1737. 
 
 NEVILE or NEVYLE, Alexander, an 
 English writer, was bom in Kent, in 1544. 
 He took his degree ol master of arts at 
 Cambridge ; after which he became secretary 
 to Archbishop Parker and his successor, 
 
NEV] 
 
 <^ |Ic£d BnibtY^al ISiograp]^}). 
 
 [new 
 
 Griiidal. He died in 1C14. He paraphrased 
 the CEdipus of Seneca, and wrote in Latin, a 
 narrative of tlie insurrection under Kett, to 
 which he added an account of Norwich. He 
 published the Cambridge verses on the death 
 
 of Sir Philip Sidney, &c His brother, 
 
 Thomas Nevile, became dean of Canterbury, 
 and died in 1015. 
 
 NEVILE or NEVILLE, HExnY, a re- 
 publican writer, was born in Berksliire, in 
 1620, and educated at Merton College, Oxford. 
 In the rebellion he took tlie side of parlia- 
 ment, and was elected a member of the 
 council of state ; but, on the usurpation of 
 Cromwell, he gave up his seat. He died in 
 1694. He published Machiavel's works, and 
 a piece entitled " Plato Redivivus, or a Dia- 
 logue concerning Government." 
 
 NEWCASTLE. See Cavexdish. 
 
 NEWCOME, William, archbishop of 
 Armagh, a learned and exemplary prelate, 
 was born, in 1792, at Barton-le-Clay, in 
 Bedfordshire. He completed his studies at 
 Peml)roke College, Oxford ; was successively 
 bishop of Dromore, Ossory, and Waterford ; 
 was raised to the archbishopric of Armagh, 
 in 1795 ; and died in 1800. His principal 
 works are, " A Harmony of the Gospels," 
 " An Historical View of the English Biblical 
 Translations," and " Attempts towards an 
 improved Version of Ezekicl and tlie Minor 
 Prophets." 
 
 NEWCOJrEN, Thomas, a locksmith at 
 Dartmouth, in Devonshire, who, towards 
 the close of tlie 17th century, engaged in 
 scientific researches, and to whom belongs 
 the merit of the first great improvement in 
 Bteam-en^iines, by forming a vacuum under 
 the piston, after it had been raised by the 
 expansive force of the elastic vapour, and 
 thus bringing into action the atmospheric 
 pressure. 
 
 NEWCOMEN, Matthew, an eminent 
 Nonconformist divine of the 17th century, 
 noted as having been one of the authors of 
 the attack on episcopacy, entitled " Smec- 
 tymnuus," from the initials of the names of 
 its contributors. Died, 1766. 
 
 NEWDIGATE, SirRooEE, bart., a mu- 
 nificent patron of learning, was bom at 
 Arbury, in Warwickshire, in 1719. He was 
 first placed in Westminster School, whence 
 he removed to Oxford, as a gentleman com- 
 moner of University College. He represented 
 the university in parliament for many years, 
 was a liberal benefactor to it, and bequeathed 
 the sum of lOOOi. to furnish an annual prize 
 for the best copy of English verses connected 
 with the fine arts, to be written by an under- 
 graduate. Died, 1780. 
 
 NEWLAND, JoHX, abbot of tlie mo- 
 nastery of St. Augustine, at Bristol, in the 
 15th century, was a man of distinguished 
 abilities, and was frequently employed in a 
 diplomatic character by Henry VIII. Died, 
 1515. 
 
 NEWLAND, Peter, an eminent Dutch 
 mathematician, born in 1764. lie was suc- 
 cessively professor of mathematics and phi- 
 losophy at Utrecht and Amsterdam, and was 
 appointed by the Batavian government one 
 of the commissioners of longitude. He wrote 
 several works on astronomy, matliematics, 
 and political economy; and died in 1794. 
 
 634 
 
 NE WT(>N, Gilbert SirARX, a painter of 
 considerable merit, was born at Halifax, 
 Nova Scotia, in 1791 ; visited Italy, about 
 1820 ; and on his return to England, entered 
 himself a student of the Royal Academy. 
 He confined himself chiefly to small pictures, 
 and illustrated many subjects in the " An- 
 nuals" and other elegant publications, in a 
 highly creditable manner. His female figures 
 are strikingly expressive of innocence as well 
 as beautv. Died, 1835. 
 
 NEWTON, Sir Isaac, the most distin- 
 guished philosopher, mathematician, and 
 astronomer of modern times, was bom at 
 Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, on Christmas- 
 day, 1642. Losing his father in his child- 
 hood, the care of him devolved on his mother, 
 who gave him an excellent education. In 
 1054 he was sent to Grantham School, and at 
 the age of 18 removed to Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, where he had the learned Mr. 
 (afterwards Dr.) Isaac Barrow for his tutor. 
 After going through Euclid's Elements, he 
 proceeded to the study of Descartes' Geo- 
 metry, with Oughtred's Clavis and Kepler's 
 Oiitics, in all of which he made marginal 
 notes as he went along. It was in this early 
 course that he invented the method of series 
 and fluxions, which he afterwards brought to 
 perfection, though his claim to the discovery 
 was unjustly contested by Leibnitz. At the 
 age of 22, Mr. Newton took his degree of 
 bachelor of arts, and about the same time 
 he applied to the grinding of optic glasses 
 for telescopes ; and having procured a glass 
 prism in order to try the phenomena of 
 colours lately discovered by Grimaldi, the 
 result of his observations was his new theory 
 of light and colours. It was not long after 
 this, that he made his grand discovery of the 
 laws of gravitation, to which his attention 
 was first turned by his seeing an apple fall 
 from a tree ; but it was not till 1687 that the 
 important principle which forms the foun- 
 dation of the Newtonian philosophy was first 
 published under the title of " Philosophiaj 
 Naturalis Principia Mathematica." On his 
 return to the university, in 1667, he was 
 chosen fellow of his college, and took his 
 degree of master of arts. Two years after- 
 wards he succeeded Dr. Barrow in the ma- 
 thematical professorship, on which occasion 
 he read a course of optical lectures in Latin. 
 He had not finished them in 1671, when he 
 was chosen fellow of the Royal Society, to 
 which learned body he communicated liis 
 theory of light and colours, which was 
 followed by his account of a new telescope 
 invented by him, and other interesting 
 papers. When the privileges of the uni- 
 versity of Cambridge were attacked by James 
 II., Mr. Newton was appointed to appear as 
 one of her delegates in the high commission 
 court, where he pleaded with so much 
 strength, that the king thought proper to 
 stop his proceedings. He was next chosen a 
 member of the convention parliament, in 
 which he sat till it was dissolved. In 1696 
 he was made warden of the mint, and after- 
 wards master of that office ; which place he 
 discharged with the greatest honour till his 
 death. On his last promotion he nominated 
 Mr. Whiston to fill his chair at Cambridge, 
 with all the profits of the place, and resigned 
 
new] 
 
 ^ i9cb) SlnitJcr^nl JSiograpl)!). 
 
 [nky 
 
 it entirely to him in 1703. During tlie same 
 year he was chosen president of the Royal So- 
 ciety, iu which station he continued 25 years. 
 He was also a member of the academy of 
 sciences at Paris, having been chosen in Jf>99. 
 In 1704 he published his treatise on "The 
 Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and 
 Colours of Light ;" but the whole merit of 
 this extraardinary work has not been fully 
 appreciated till lately. In 1705 he received 
 the honour of knighthood from Queen Anne; 
 and lie died, March 20. 1727. On the 28th his 
 body lay in state in the Jerusalem chamber, 
 from whence it was conveyed to Westminster 
 Abbey, the pall being borne by the lord 
 chancellor, two dukes, and three earls. A 
 monument was afterwards erected to his 
 memory ; and liis statue, by Rouhiliac, has 
 been placed iu Trinity College. lie enjoyed 
 his faculties to the close of his long life. 
 His temper, also, was remarkably even, and 
 he might almost be said to have carried 
 patience too far, particularly in suffering 
 other men to run away with the merit of his 
 discoveries. This would have beea tlie case 
 iu regard to theinveutionof fluxions, if some 
 of his friends had not interposed, and asserted 
 the claim of their illustrious countryman. 
 Sir Isuac was not only a philosopher, but 
 a Christian, and spent much of his time in 
 elucidating the sacred Scriptures ; nor could 
 any thing discompose his mind so much as 
 light ond irreverent expressions on the 
 subject of religion. AVhen his friends ex- 
 pressed their admiration of his discoveries, he 
 said. " To myself I seem to have been as a 
 child playing on the seashore, while the 
 immense ocean of truth lay unexplored 
 before me." The following is Pope's well- 
 known epitaph on this prince of philoso- 
 phers : — 
 
 " Isaacus Newton hie jacet. 
 
 Quern immortalem coeli, natura, 
 
 Tcmpus ostendunt. 
 
 Mortalem hoc marinor fatctur. 
 
 Nature and all her works lay hid in night ; 
 God said. Let Newton be, — and all was 
 light." 
 
 NEWTON, JoHX, an episcopal clergyman 
 of Calvinistic principles, was born iu London, 
 in 1725. He did not enjoy the advantages 
 of a regular education, having been bred to 
 the sea under his fatlier, who was master of 
 a merchant vessel. Afterwards he sailed in 
 the Guinea trade, and led a very irregular 
 life for some years ; but at last he grew both 
 serious and studious. By indefatigable dili- 
 gence he attained a knowledge of the Latin 
 and Greek languages ; and in 1 7(54 was or- 
 dained to the curacy of Olneji", in Bucking- 
 hamshire, where he became intimately ac- 
 quainted with Cowper the poet, conjointly 
 with whom he produced the " Olney Hymns." 
 In 1779, Mr. Newton obtained the rectory of 
 St. Mary Woolnoth, London, which lie held 
 till his death, in 1807. He was tlie author 
 of several works, among which may be num- 
 bered a " Review of Ecclesiastical History," 
 " Cardiphonia, or the Utterance of the 
 Heart," " The Messiah, a Series of Dis- 
 courses," &c., forming altogether 6 vols. 8vo, 
 
 Nf^WTON, Richard, an eminent divine, 
 was born in Buckinghamshire, about 167(5. 
 
 635 
 
 He was educated at Westminster School, 
 and Christchurch, Oxford ; became principal 
 of Hart Hall, in 1710, and took his degree of 
 D. D. ; obtained a canoury of Christchurch, 
 in 1752, and died the year following. Dr. 
 Newton, at a great expense, erected Hart 
 Hall into a college in 1740. His works are, 
 "University Education," "Pluralities Inde- 
 fensible," " Sermons," &c. 
 
 NEWTON, THO.MAS, an eminent English 
 prelaty, was born at lyichfield, in 1704. After 
 flriidliing his education at Westminster, he 
 was elected to Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he obtained a fellowship ; and in 1744 
 he was presented to the rectory of St. Mary- 
 le-Bow, Clieapside. In 1749 he published 
 an edition of " Milton's Paradise Lost, with 
 Notes, and the Life of the Author ; " which 
 was followed by the "Paradise Regained," 
 in a similar form. But his literary reputa- 
 tion rests chiefly on his "Dissertations on 
 the Prophccic3,""which he completed in 1758. 
 He was made a prebendary of Westminster 
 in 17.57, and soon after precentor of York ; 
 both which preferments he resigned in 1761, 
 on his promotion to the see of Bristol. In 
 17r)8 he was made dean of St. Paul's, and 
 died in 1782. 
 
 NEWTON, Thomas, a schoolmaster and 
 physician, was born at Butley, in Cheshire ; 
 studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and 
 Queen's College, Cambridge ; became master 
 of Macclesfield School, where he also prac- 
 tised physic ; but, liaving entered into orders, 
 in I.VjS, he obtained the living of Little Ilford, 
 in Essex. His principal works are, a " His- 
 tory of the Saracens," "An Elegiac Poem 
 on the Death of Queen Elizabeth," and 
 " The Herbal to the Bible, translated form 
 Lemnius." 
 
 NEY, Michael, duke of Elchingen and 
 prince of Moskwa, a peer and marshal of 
 France, and one of its greatest military he- 
 roes, was born at Sarre-Louis, in 1769. His 
 early years were devoted to the study of the 
 law, but disliking the confinement, he en- 
 tered the army, as a private hussar, in 1787. 
 His intrepid courage rendered him a distin- 
 guished object in the first years of the revo- 
 lutionary war, when serving with the army 
 of the Rhine, and in 1796 he rose to the 
 rank of brigadier- general. On his marriage 
 with Mile. AnguitS the friend of Ilortense de 
 Beauharnois, Napoleon presented him with 
 a magnificent Egyptian sabre, and named 
 him his envoy and minister plenipotentiary 
 to the Helvetian republic ; but iu 1803 he 
 was recalled to take the command of the 
 army intended to make a descent upon Eng- 
 land. In the following year, when Napoleon 
 received the title of emperor, he saw the 
 necessity of restoring titles and decorations. 
 Ney was then created a marshal, and also 
 received other distinctions of merit, whilst 
 he was with one accord denominated by the 
 army, "the bravest of the brave." After a 
 succession of victories, during which Ney 
 never relaxed in his course of unceasing ex- 
 ertion and personal fatigue, he obtained the 
 additional title of prince of Moskwa ; and in 
 June, 1814, he was invested with the dignity 
 of a peer of France. He retired to liis seat 
 ill the country, from which he was recalled 
 in March, 1815, by information that Napo- 
 
NIC] 
 
 ^ ^efiD Bnibtr^al Mia^tH^l)^, 
 
 [NIC 
 
 leon had quitted Elba. Uitherto one motive 
 alone, the love of country, impelled his every 
 action ; personal or family interest had never 
 appeared throughout liis conduct ; he would 
 have considered a bare attempt at deception 
 degrading. He thought the return of Napo- 
 leon would prove injurious to France, and 
 maintained that the mischief ought to be 
 prevented. On taking leave of Louis XVIII. 
 he therefore made many protestations of his 
 zeal and fidelity to the king, and expressed 
 his determination to stay the progress of the 
 invader. Arrived at Besangon, the marshal 
 found the whole country hastening to meet 
 the returning emiieror ; at Lyons the Dukes 
 d'Artois and d'Orleans acknowledged the 
 fruitlessness of resistance ; the troops winch 
 he commanded shared the delirium ; and 
 Ney himself yielded his opinion, and went 
 over with his army to his former friend and 
 master. He again fought under his banner 
 at the battle of Waterloo, where he had five 
 horses killed under him, and his cloak was 
 perforated with balls. After the conclusion 
 of that eventful day, and the second abdica- 
 tion of Napoleon, Ney was advised to quit 
 France ; for wliich money and every facility 
 of escape were all'orded him. He refused 
 them all, and retired to the residence of a 
 near relative ; but he was soon arrested, 
 brought to trial, and his colleagues and 
 companions in arms having declared them- 
 selves incompetent to form a courtmartial 
 whereby to judge him, the affair was carried 
 to the court of peers, by whom lie was con- 
 demned, though the Duke of Wellington 
 nobly affirmed that it was in defiance of the 
 true construction of the article of amnesty 
 made at the capitulation of Paris. Every 
 avenue to the royal presence was purposely 
 closed against his unhappy wife, who 
 anxiously sought his pardon ; and Ney suf- 
 fered with firmness, declaring with his last 
 breath that he never had acted treacherously 
 to his countrv. He was shot, Dec. 7. 1815. 
 
 NICEPHORUS, Callistus, a native of 
 Constantinople, was an ecclesiastical his- 
 torian of the 14th century ; author of a 
 " History of the Church," and other works 
 of a similar description. 
 
 NICEPHORUS, Gregorias, a Byzantine 
 historian, who flourished in the 14th century. 
 He was a great favourite of Andronicus 
 Palaiologus the elder, who made him libra- 
 rian of the Constantinopolitan church, and 
 employed him as his ambassador to the 
 Prince of Servia. 
 
 NICERON, John Petek, an eminent bio- 
 grapher, was born at Paris, in 1685. He 
 entered into the religious order of the Bar- 
 nabites, and became a celebrated preacher. 
 lie was also successively professor of phi- 
 losophy and theology, and librarian to his 
 society. Died, 1738. His principal work is 
 entitled " Memoirs of Men illustrious in the 
 Republic of Letters, with an Account of their 
 Works," 44 vols. 
 
 NICETAS, David, a Greek historian of 
 the 9th century, who wrote the life of St. 
 Ignatius Achominates Nicetas, an- 
 other Greek historian, died at Nice, in 1206. 
 
 He wrote " Annals from 1118 to 1205.". A 
 
 third, sumamed Seuron, was bishop of He- 
 raclea, iu the 11th century ; and was the 
 
 author of " Panegyrics on St. Gregory Na- 
 zianzen," " Commentaries on the Scriptures," 
 and otlier works. 
 
 NICHOLLS, William, an English divine 
 of great learning and piety, was born at Dou- 
 nington, Bucks, in 1604, and educated at 
 Magdalen Hall, Oxford, after which he be- 
 came fellow of Merton College, and took his 
 degree of D.D. in 1695 ; at which time he 
 was rector of Selsey, in Sussex. He died 
 about 1712. Dr. NichoUs published several 
 valuable works : the principal of which 
 were, "A Conference with a Theist," " A De- 
 fence of the Church of England," and " A 
 Commentary on the Book of Common 
 Praver." 
 
 NICHOLLS, Frask, M.D., F.R.S., an 
 eminent English physician, was born, in 
 London, in 1699. He was educated at West- 
 minster School, whence he removed to 
 Christchurch, Oxford, where he took his 
 degrees, and became reader of anatomj'. On 
 leaving the university he settled in London, 
 and in 1743 he married a daughter of Dr. 
 Mead. He succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as 
 physician to George II., an account of 
 whose death he published in the Philoso- 
 pliical Transactions. Died, 1779. His works 
 are, " De Anima Medica," " De Mortu Cordis 
 et Sanguinis," &c.; and a tract against man- 
 midwifery. 
 
 NICHOLS, Joiix, an antiquary and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, who for nearly half a 
 century conducted the Gentleman's Maga- 
 zine, was bom at Islington, in 1744. Having 
 received a liberal education, he became ap- 
 prentice, at an early age, to Bowyer, the 
 learned printer, and was subsequently ad- 
 mitted into partnership with his master, on 
 whose death he succeeded to the manage- 
 ment of one of the first typographical estab- 
 lishments in London. Among his numerous 
 publications are, " The History and Anti- 
 quities of Leicestershire," " Anecdotes of 
 Bowyer," " Literary Anecdotes of the Eigh- 
 teenth Century," 9 vols.; "Illustrations of 
 the Literature of the Eighteenth Century," 
 6 vols. His personal exertions as well as his 
 pen were frequently used to promote chari- 
 table purposes, and he had sometimes the 
 gratification of being able to assist the indi- 
 gent sons of genius in his office of registrar 
 of the Literary Fund. Died, 1828. 
 
 NICHOLSON, William, au eminent 
 writer on chemistry and natural philosopliy, 
 was born in London, in 1758, and went to 
 India at an early age, in the maritime 
 service. In 1776 he became agent, on the 
 Continent, for Mr. Wedgwood ; and after- 
 wards setted in the metropolis as a mathe- 
 matical teacher. He published an " Intro- 
 duction to Natural Pliilosophy," a " Dic- 
 tionary of Chemistry," a "Journal of Natu- 
 ral Pliilosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts," 
 which was continued for several years ; and 
 various valuable compilations. He also took 
 out patents, for several inventions ; but he 
 was singularly unfortunate in his specula- 
 tions, and died in indigent circumstances, in 
 1815. 
 
 NICIAS, an Athenian commander, who 
 by his merit rose to the highest offices in his 
 country. He was put to death by tlie Syra- 
 cusans, b. c. 413. 
 
 I 
 
NIC] 
 
 ^ ^tto WinibcxiHl 2St0gmpf)i). 
 
 [nie 
 
 NICOLAI, CHRisToniEB Fkederic, a 
 German author and bookseller, of some note 
 In the history of German literature, was 
 born at Berlin, in 1733, and died there in 
 1811. After studying at the university of 
 Frankfort, to which city he was first sent, in 
 order to learn the book trade, he returned to 
 Berlin, and wrote his " Letters on the Pre- 
 sent State of Belles Lettrea," in ll'Ai. With 
 the aid of other literati, he produced his 
 '* Letters on Modern Ijiterature," and in 
 1765 executed his plan of the "General Ger- 
 man Library," a work which was continued 
 40 years, though he ceased to edit it at the 
 end of the 107th volume, in 171(2. Among 
 his other numerous works are, "'Die Life 
 and Opinions of Sebaldus Nothanker," a 
 "Tour in Germany and Switzerland," 
 " Characteristic Anecdotes of Frederic II.," 
 Sec. His criticisms were often severe, and 
 not always just ; hence he was frequently in- 
 volved in disputes with his literary brethren, 
 by some of w^hom he was treated very unce- 
 remoniously. Died, 1811. 
 
 NICOLAS, Sir Nicholas IIahris, an 
 eminent antiquary, was born in Cornwall, 
 1799. At an early age he entered the navy, 
 and received liis commission as licutenunt in 
 181.5, after an active and adventurous service 
 on the coast of Calabria. But he appears to 
 have been now tired of the sea, and to have 
 taken steps to exchange the "jacket" for the 
 " gown," for he was called to the bar in 1825. 
 Shortly afterwards he was elected a fellow 
 of the Society of Antiquaries ; and he thence- 
 I forward devoted himself almost entirely to 
 antiquarian literature, particularly in the 
 departments of genealogy and history j and 
 the works which he produced in rapid suc- 
 cession bore witness at once to his critical 
 acumen and liis almost unparalleled in- 
 dustry. Almost all his works have a sub- 
 stantial historical value ; such for instance 
 as his " History of the Battle of Agincourt," 
 the memoirs in " The Siege of Carlaverock," 
 and the " Scrope and Grosvenor KoU," the 
 "Proceedings of the Privy Council," his 
 " Life of Ilatton," and his " Despatches of 
 Lord Nelson ; " but the most useful in aid of 
 other literary men were his " Chronology of 
 History," his " Synopsis of the Peerage," and 
 his "Testamenta Vetusta." Besides pro- 
 ducing these substantial works, he was a 
 frequent correspondent of the Gentleman's 
 Magazine ; in 182(5 he became co-editor of 
 the Ketrospective Review ; and he subse- 
 quently contributed occasionally to the 
 Atlicnocum, Spectator, and Quarterly Re- 
 view. In 1831 he received tlie honour of 
 knighthood ; a year later he was nominated 
 chancellor ; and, in 1840, grand cross of the 
 order of St. Michael and St. George. Sir 
 Harris prosecuted his favourite studies almost 
 to his latest hour. The last works on which 
 he was engaged were a " History of the 
 Navy," and the editing of the papers of Sir 
 Hudson Lowe. Died, J 848. 
 
 NICOLAUS, DAMASCEifus, a native of 
 Damascus, in Syria, who lived in the time 
 of Augustus. He wrote " A Universal His- 
 tory," " Memoirs of Augustus," &c. 
 
 NICOLE, FiiANCis, a mathematician, was 
 born at Paris, in 1683. He distinguished 
 himself l)y detecting the falsehood of a pre- 
 
 tended quadrature of the circle, and thereby 
 gained a prize of 3,000 livres, which he gave 
 to the hospital of Lyons. Died, 1758. 
 
 NICOLE, Pktkk, an eminent French 
 divine and moralist, waa born at Chartres, 
 in 1625. He became a member of the society 
 of Port Royal, where he taught youth with 
 great reputation, and assisted Arnauld in 
 many of his works. In his latter years he 
 espoused the cause of Bossuet against the 
 Quietists, and was engaged in other contro- 
 versies. His principal works are, " Moral 
 Essays," 23 vols. ; " The Perpetuity of the 
 Faith," and a "Treatise on the Unity of 
 the Church." Died, 1095. 
 
 NICOLO, DEL Abbate, an eminent pain- 
 ter, was bom at Modeua, in 1512. He ob- 
 tained his surname Irom being patronised 
 by Primatice, abbot of St. Martin, who 
 took him to France in 1.".52, and employed 
 him in several works. The style of Nicolo 
 approached to that of Julio Romano and of 
 Parmesan. 
 
 NICOLO, properly NICOLO ISOUARD, 
 one of the most favourite theatrical com- 
 posers of France, was born at Alalia, in 
 1777. At Naples he completed his study of 
 compoi-ition, under the famous Guglielmi. 
 When the French evacuated Italy, General 
 Vaubois took him to Paris as his private 
 secretary. Here he formed himself on the 
 compositions of Monsigny and Gn'try, and 
 produced the popular opera of " Cendril- 
 lon," in 1810. In light dramatical compo- 
 sition, he is distinguished for the ea.se and 
 sweetness of his melodies, the fertility of 
 his imagination, and the happy combina- 
 tion of the modern Italian school with the 
 French. He died at Paris, in 1818. 
 
 NICOLSON, William, a learned English 
 prelate, was born at Orton, in Cumberland, 
 in 1655 i was educated at Queen's College, 
 Oxford ; became, successively, bishop of 
 Carlisle, Derry, and archbishop of Cashel ; 
 but died suddenly a lew days after he was 
 raised to the archiepiscopal dignity in 1727. 
 He published " The English, Scotch, and 
 Irish Historical Library," the " Leges Mar- 
 chiarum, or Border Laws," and several other 
 works. He also distinguished himself by 
 the zeal and ability with which he entered 
 into the Bangorian controversy. 
 
 NICOT, John, a French statesman, who 
 being sent by Francis I. ambassador to 
 Portugal, brought from thence the tobacco 
 plant, which out of compliment to him re- 
 ceived its Latin name of Nicotiana. He 
 was the author of a "French and Latin 
 Dictionary," " Traits de la Marine," &c. 
 Born, 1.5;50; died, 1600. 
 
 NIEBUHR, Caksten, a celebrated tra- 
 veller, was born at Ludengworth, in Han- 
 over, in 1733. At the age of 22 he went to 
 Hamburgh for the purpose of studj'ing geo- 
 metry, after whicli he devoted several years 
 to the study of the mathematics at Gottin- 
 gen. Count Bernstorft', the Danish minister, 
 having determined to send a scientiftc ex- 
 pedition for the purpose of exploring Arabia, 
 Niebuhr went as geographer to it, in March, 
 1761, and, after touching at Constantinople, 
 proceeded to Egypt. Here they remained 
 a year, and reached Yemen, their point of 
 destination, iu 1762. In September, 1763, 
 
nie] 
 
 ^ iJ^cU) WinibtriaX 23t00raj)l)». 
 
 [nip 
 
 he sailed for Bombay, and in December, 
 1704, set out on his return overland, through 
 Persia and Turkey. He arrived at Copen- 
 hagen in November, 1767, and laid the fruits 
 of'^his researches before the world in his 
 "Description of Arabia" and his "Travels 
 in Arabia," both of which have been trans- 
 lated into English and other languages. He 
 was the only one that returned from the 
 mission, was liberally rewarded by the 
 Danish monarch, and died in 1815. 
 
 NIEBUHR, Beuthold Geokge, the ce- 
 lebrated liistorian of Home, was a son of 
 the preceding, and was born at Copenhagen, 
 in 177(5. When 10 years old, he went to the 
 university of Edinburgh, in order to study 
 the natural sciences, remained there one 
 year and a half, and then travelled over 
 England to obtain a knowledge of its in- 
 stitutions. In 180(5 he entered the Prussian 
 service ; was made privy-councillor of state, 
 and a temporary officer in the department 
 of finances. In 1810, when the university 
 of Berlin was established, his friends per- 
 suaded him to deliver his first lectures on 
 Roman history, which were received with 
 snch interest by the hearers, and so much 
 commended by eminent men, that he pub- 
 lished, in 1811 and 1812. two volumes of his 
 " Roman History." This lie afterwards re- 
 modelled and enlarged ; and though it tends 
 to inculcate a great degree of scepticism 
 with regard to many hitherto received facts, 
 throws more light on the genuine annals of 
 Rome than any of his predecessors. Died, 
 1831. 
 
 NIELD, James, a man who, like the phi- 
 lanthropist Howard, devoted a great part 
 of his life to the amelioration of human 
 wretchedness, was born at Knutsfovd, in 
 Cheshire, in 1744 ; and, coming to London 
 as an apprentice to a goldsmith, afterwards 
 realised a good fortune in that business. 
 In 1773, by his exertions, a society was 
 formed in the metropolis, having for its 
 object the relief and discharge of persons 
 confined for small debts. Of this benevo- 
 lent institution Mr. Nield was unanimously 
 chosen treasurer, and he continued to dis- 
 charge that office through life, much to 
 the advantage of the charity, and with 
 great trouble to himself. He travelled not 
 as most do, for pleasure or profit, but to 
 gaixge the depths of human niiser3', and to 
 alleviate the sufferings of his fellow-men. 
 It was his constant practice in his prison 
 excursions, as he called them, during thirty 
 years, to wait upon the magistrates in cities 
 and boroughs, and respectfully to represent 
 what he saw amiss in their gaols. By these 
 means he was the instrument of producing 
 many substantial improvements, and of 
 diffusing a kindred spirit of beneficence far 
 and wide, so that it would be difficult to 
 estimate the extent of his services in the 
 humane cause to which lie cheerfully and 
 perseveringly devoted his time and forttme. 
 He died, universally lamented, in 1814. 
 
 NIEMEYER, Augustus Hermanx, a 
 German theologian and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Halle, in 1754, and died 
 there in 1828. He first began to give in- 
 structions in the university of Ilalle in 1777, 
 was appointed professor of theology in 1780, 
 
 and continued to receive various appoint- 
 ments till 1808, when he was made a member 
 of the estates of the kingdom of Westphalia, 
 chancellor, and rector of the university. lu 
 1813 the university was abolished by Napo- 
 leon ; but when the Prussian government 
 restored it, he was re-appointed. He pro- 
 duced a great number of works, particularly 
 on the subject of education, the bare titles 
 of which would occupy a very considerable 
 space, besides others on theology, ethics, 
 history, &c. Died, 1828. 
 
 NIEREMBERG, Jonx Eusebius, a cele- 
 brated Spanish Jesuit, and a distinguished 
 writer. He was born at Madrid, in 1590, 
 took the habit of St. Ignatius, paid great 
 attention to the study of natural history, 
 and was appointed professor at Madrid, 
 where he remained 14 years. His works are 
 both numerous and important. Died, 1G58. 
 
 NIEUHOFF, Joiix de, a Dutch voyager 
 of the 17th century, who wrote a curious 
 account of his embassy from the Dutch East 
 India Company to the emperor of China. 
 
 NIEUPORT, C. F. A. F. le Pkud'homme 
 d'Hailly, Viscount de, a French diplo- 
 matist, was born at Paris, in 1746. He was 
 early in life admitted into the order of 
 Malta ; and after having served in the Aus- 
 trian army, and in the Maltese expeditions, 
 became charcj^-d' affaires at the court of the 
 Netherlands ; and eventually received from 
 the Prince of Orange the title of chamber- 
 lain, and the decoration of the Belgic legion. 
 He was the author of " Melanges des Mathe- 
 matiques," &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 NIEUWENTYT, Bernard, an eminent 
 Dutcli philosopher and mathematician, was 
 born at Westraadyck, in North Holland, in 
 1654, and died in 1730. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE, Joseph, a dissenting 
 minister of very considerable talent, was 
 born, in 1775, at Chowbent, in Lancashire ; 
 settled in London, and became an author ; 
 left the Methodist connection for Unitarian- 
 ism, and died in 1824. Among his writings 
 are, " A Portraiture of Catholicism," " A 
 Portraiture of Alethodism," several volumes 
 of the " Beauties of England and Wales," 
 " English Topography," and " Sermons." 
 
 NIGHTINGALE, Sir Miles, K.C.B., &c., 
 began his military career in 1787, and pro- 
 ceeded to India, where he was employed 
 under Sir W. Meadows, and in the cam- 
 paigns of 1791 and 1792. In 1798 he sailed 
 for St. Domingo ; and having executed a 
 commission to Toussaiut, the black chief, 
 he returned to England, and afterwards 
 bore a principal part in the continental war. 
 In 1812 he once more visited Bengal ; but 
 in 1820 he fixed his residence in England, 
 and was several years a member of parlia- 
 ment for the borough of Eye, in Suffolk. 
 He died in 1829. 
 
 NIGIDIUS FIGULUS, Publius, a Ro- 
 man author and senator, and friend of 
 Cicero, whom he assisted in defeating the 
 conspiracy of Catiline. He revived the 
 Pythagorean philosophy, was banished for 
 his attachment to Pompey, and died b. c. 45. 
 
 NIPHUS, Augustine, a learned Italian, 
 was born at Sessa, in Naples, in 1473. He 
 became professor of philosophy, first at 
 Padua, and afterwards at Pisa, where his 
 
NIV] 
 
 ^ ^efsy Qlm'ljcrsal JJio^rapIjj). 
 
 [nol 
 
 reputation was so great, that Leo X. made 
 him count palatine. lie wrote "Comment- 
 aries on Aristotle and Averroes," 14 vols. 
 fol. ; "De Intcllectu ct Dcmonibus," "A 
 Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul," 
 and other works. Died. IK?. 
 
 NIVELLE DE LA CIIAUSSEE, Peter 
 Claude, a French dramatist, was bom at 
 Paris in lGy2, and died in 175-t. lie was 
 the first who introduced sentimental comedy 
 on the French stage. 
 
 NIVERNOIS, Lotus Jui-ms Maxcixi 
 Mazaki.m, Duke de, was born at Paris, in 
 1716. lie was, successivelj', ambassador at 
 Rome, Berlin, and Londou, in wliich latter 
 city he negotiated the peace of 1703. On his 
 return to France he produced several poet- 
 ical imitations of Virgil, Horace, TibuUus, 
 Ovid, Ariosto, and Milton. He also wrote 
 "Letters on the Use of the Mind," "Dia- 
 logues of the Dead," " Reflections on the 
 Genius of Horace, Boileau, aiul Kousscau ; " 
 " Fables in Verse," " Dramas," &c. lie was 
 imprisoned by the republicans in 1793, and 
 died in 1798. 
 
 NIZAM AL MULK, an enlightened Per- 
 sian, who, in the 11th century, rose from 
 obscurity to be vizier to tlie sultan Alp 
 Arslan. He was an able statesman and a 
 consummate general ; but, above all, a 
 zealous patron of learning, having founded 
 and endowed the once famous college of 
 Bagdad, and numerous other seminaries of 
 education, while his palace was always 
 open to men of genius, many of whom he 
 I>ensioncd. He was also distinguished as 
 the historian of his own times. At the age 
 of 90 he met his death from the hand of an 
 assassin, while reading a petition which 
 his treacherous foe had just presented to 
 him. 
 
 NIZAML or NIDIIAMI, a celebrated 
 Persian poet ; author of some esteemed 
 poems, among which is " The Loves of Leila 
 and Mejnoun." Died, 1180. 
 
 NOAILLES, liOuis Anjoine de, a car- 
 dinal and archbishop of Paris, was the son 
 of the Duke of Noailles, and born in KJol. 
 He studied at the Sorbonne ; and in 1095 
 obtained the archbishopric of Paris, where 
 he distinguished himself by his zeal against 
 the Quietists and Jansenists, for which, in 
 1700, he was created a cardinal. In 1715 
 he opposed the bull Unigenitus, but after- 
 wards made his submission to the pope. 
 Died, 1729. 
 
 NOAILLES, Adrian Mauhice, Duke of, 
 was president of the council of France during 
 the minority of Louis XV., but was exiled 
 through the influence of Cardinal Dubois, 
 whose elevation he had opposed. On the 
 death of that inti-iguing priest, however, he 
 was reinstated in his former offices, ob- 
 tained a marshal's statl", and displayed great 
 skill as a commander during the Austrian 
 war of succession. In 1743, by the unrea- 
 sonable impetuosity of his nephew, the Count 
 of Grammont, he lost the battle of Dettingen, 
 and, by this means, the fruits of the wise 
 measures by which he brought the British 
 army to the verge of ruin. When his age 
 no longer permitted him to fight at the head 
 of armies, he entered the ministry, and 
 gave proof of his statesmanlike talents, 
 
 630 
 
 though he was by no means free from the 
 faults which stained the characters of the 
 generality of courtiers in that age. His two 
 sons were, in 1775, made marshals of France. 
 
 NOAILLES, Louis, Viscount, bom in 
 17.53, was one of the noblesse who, on the 
 13th of July 1789, resolved to divest them- ! 
 selves of their exclusive privileges, and sit ' 
 with the tiers etat. After the dissolution of | 
 the constituent assembly, he went into the , 
 army, and was killed in 1798, while with- j 
 drawing from St. Domingo, in an action with : 
 
 an English frigate oiF Cuba His son, I 
 
 Alexis, count of Noailles, has figured both ! 
 in the army and the cabinet. The princes | 
 of the house of Bourbon sent him on im- 
 portant missions to the different continental 
 courts, after which he repaired to the resi- 
 dence of Louis, at Hartwell, in England, j 
 He accompanied the allied army to France, ! 
 was afterwards the plenipotentiary of Louis I 
 XVIII. to the congress of Vienna, and has . 
 since held office as a minister. 
 
 NOBLE, Makk, an industrious writer on ! 
 history and biography, was a clergyman of 
 the Church of England, and presented to the ; 
 rectorv of Barming, in Kent, in 1784, at which 1 
 place he died in 1827. He was the author of i 
 "Memoirs of the Protectorate House of 
 Cromwell," 2 vols. ; "Memoirs of the Illus- 
 trious House of Medici, with Genealogical 
 Tables," "The Lives of the English Regi- 
 cides," 2 vols. ; a " History of the College of 
 Arms," and a supplementary continuation 
 of" Granger's Biographical History of Eng- 
 land," 3 vols. He also wrote several papers 
 in the Archaeologia, and was F. S. A. Loud, 
 ct Edin. 
 
 NOEHDEN, Georob Henry, a learned 
 German writer, who for many years resided 
 in England, was born in 1770, at Gottingen, 
 where he received his education. Being 
 introduced to the late Sir William Milner, 
 in 1793, he attended his son to Eton in the 
 capacity of private tutor. Here he obtained 
 the friendship of Jacob Bryant, Ilerschell, 
 &c., till the education of his young pupil 
 being completed, he accompanied a younger 
 son of the same family to Gottingen, where 
 he wrote a dissertation, " De Porphyrii Scho- 
 liis in Homerum." After visiting the courts 
 of Brunswick and Berlin, they returned to 
 Eton, and in 1800 Noehden published hia 
 admirable "German and English Gram- 
 mar." He was an excellent numismato- 
 logist, and some years before his death ob- 
 tained the chief situation in that department 
 of tlie British Museum. He died in 182G, 
 leaving unfinished his " Essay on the North- 
 wick Coins," an " Introduction to Numis- 
 matology," &c. 
 
 NOLAN, Michael, an eminent lawyer, 
 a native of Ireland, who, after distinguish- 
 ing himself at the English bar, obtained the 
 office of chief justice of the Brecon circuit, 
 in Wales. He published " Reports of Cases 
 relating to the Duty and Office of a Justice 
 of the Peace," and other practical law books ; 
 and was particularly conversant with the , 
 poor laws, tithe laws, &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 NOLLEKENS, Joseph Fkancis, was a j 
 native of Antwerp, who settled in London, 
 where he obtained considerable reputation ' 
 as a painter, and died in 1748. His stile 
 
 81 2 
 
nol] 
 
 ^ ^ei» Sllm'bcr^al ^Stotjritjpljy. 
 
 [nor 
 
 regembled that of Watteau, whom lie closely 
 imitated. 
 
 NOLLEKENS, Joseph, son of the preced- 
 ing, was a celebrated sculptor, and born in 
 London, in 1737. He was placed xmder 
 Scheemakers, the sculptor, on leaving whom 
 he went to Italy, and studied there some 
 time under Ciavetti. While at Home, he 
 gained a gold medal from the academy of 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture ; and 
 on his return to England, in 1770, he became 
 a royal academician, executed many works 
 of great beauty, and was so extensively em- 
 ployed, particularly on busts, that he realised 
 a fortune of 200,000/. Nollekens was chiefly 
 distinguished by his careful and accurate 
 imitation of nature, and by the absence of a 
 peculiarity of manner. He was a great 
 favourite with George III., and possessed 
 I many peculiarities of character, of which 
 I his inordinate love of money was not the 
 j least. Died, 1823. 
 
 I NOLI-ET, Jon>r Axtoine, a French na- 
 tural philosopher, was bom in 1770, at 
 : Pimbre, near Noyon. He was lecturer on 
 experimental philosophy to the Duke of 
 Savoy, and afterwards to the royal family 
 in his native country ; he also held the pro- 
 fessorship of physics in the college of Navarre 
 at Paris, and was a member of the Royal 
 Society and other learned bodies. He wrote 
 ; " Ee^ons du Physique Experimentale," 6 
 j voLs. ; besides some works on electricity, and 
 . other scientific subjects. Died, 1770. 
 I NOODT, Gekahd, a famous civilian, was 
 I born in 1()47, at Nimeguen, where he was 
 chosen professor of law in 1671. He after- 
 wards settled at Eeyden, of which university 
 he became rector, and died in 172.5. He 
 published a collection of his works in 1713, 
 which are wholly on subjects of jurispru- 
 dence, and are esteemed of high authority. 
 
 NORDEN, Fheuerick Louis, an eminent 
 Danish traveller, was bom at Gluckstadt, in 
 Ilolstein, in 1708. He was a volunteer in the 
 English fleet under Sir John Norris in the 
 Mediterranean, and was subsequently sent 
 by the king of Denmark to Egypt, to make 
 drawings and observations of the ancient 
 monuments of that country. These he ex- 
 ecuted with great fidelity, and his " Travels 
 in Egypt and Nubia," with plates, were 
 splendidly printed in 2 vols, folio.* Being 
 elected a member of the Royal Society of 
 London, he presented to that learned body 
 his drawings of ruins and colossal statues at 
 Thebes, of which he also published a memoir. 
 Died, 1742. 
 
 NORDEN, Joiix, an old English writer, 
 who is conjectured by Wood to have been 
 a native of Wilts. He received his education 
 at Oxford, and wrote some strange books in 
 divinity, with very whimsical titles, as " The 
 Sinful Man's Solace," " Antithesis, or Con- 
 trariety between the Wicked and Godly set 
 forth in a Pair of Gloves fit for every Man 
 to wear," &c. He was also the author of the 
 " Surveyor's Dialogue," " Labyrinth of Man's 
 Life," a poem, "England, or a Guide for 
 Travellers," and " Topographical Descrip- 
 tions of Middlesex, Hertfordshire, and Corn- 
 wall." He was surveyor of the king's lands, 
 ' and died about 1025. 
 
 NORDENFLEICHT, Chederio Chae- 
 
 i.OTTE DE, a Swedish lady, who wrote an es- 
 teemed and elegant poem " On the Passage 
 of the Belts," two straits in the Baltic, and 
 " An Apology for Women." Died 1703. 
 
 NORGATE, Edwaed, an English artist, 
 was born at Cambridge, where his father was 
 master of Bene't College. He was employed 
 by the Earl of Arundel to purchase pictures 
 in Italy ; but not being supplied with re- 
 mittances, he was compelled to return with- 
 out executing his commissions ; and was 
 afterwards made one of tlie clerks of the 
 signet, and Windsor herald. He died in 
 1G50, and was considered one of the finest 
 illuminators of his age. 
 
 NORIS, Henry, a cardinal, was born at 
 Verona, in 1(531, quitted the Jesuits for the 
 order of Augustines, and published the 
 " History of Pelagianism." In 1700 he was 
 appointed chief librarian of the Vatican, 
 and died in 1704. 
 
 NORMANN EHRENFELS, Charles 
 Fkepeuic Lebrecht, Count de, a distin- 
 guished military officer, born at Stuttgard, 
 in 1784. He entered the Austrian service at 
 the age of 18, in 1809 he became a colonel, 
 and in 1813 commanded the light cavalry of 
 the guard of Napoleon during the campaign 
 of Russia. After the battle of Leipsic he 
 refused to serve against the French, and 
 sought refuge in Saxony. On the insur- 
 rection taking place in Greece, in 1822, he 
 embarked at Marseilles, with a number of 
 German officers, and, on arriving at Greece, 
 he was appointed by tlie government com- 
 mandant of the fort of Navarino. After 
 organising a battalion of Philhellenes at 
 Corinth, he joined Mavrocordato, had a 
 share in the brilliant victory of Combotti, 
 was severely wounded at Peta, and died 
 during the same year, at Missolonghi. 
 
 NORRIS, James (of Nonesuch House, 
 Devizes), an eccentric miser, who, though 
 possessing great wealth, lived the life of a 
 secluded pauper, and died, without a friend 
 to solace him in his last moments, January, 
 183.5. 
 
 NORRIS, Sir Johx, a brave naval officer, 
 who served his country nearly sixty years, 
 commencing in 1689, and terminating, with 
 his life, in 1749. The frequent accidents 
 and misfortunes which befel the ships and 
 squadrons under his command, and which 
 could not be warded off" by any human pru- 
 dence or sagacity, procured him the appel- 
 lation of " Foul- weather Jack ;" yet in the 
 duties of his profession no man could be more 
 assiduous ; and so well did he second the ex- 
 ertions of his friend Sir Cloudesly Shovel in 
 the Mediterranean, that the queen knighted 
 him, and otherwise handsomely rewarded 
 him. 
 
 NORRIS, Johx, an eminent divine and 
 Platonist,wa8 born in 16.57, at Collingbourne 
 Kingston, in Wiltshire ; was educated 'at 
 Winchester School, and at Exeter College, 
 Oxford ; and became rector of Bemerton, 
 near Salisbury, where he died in 1711. He 
 ranks as one of the most eminent of the 
 English Platonists, and v/as a good man, 
 though a visionary. Among his works are, 
 " The Theory and Regulation of Love," 
 "Reflections upon the Conduct of Human 
 Life," "Practical Discourses," 4 vols.. 
 
kor] 
 
 ^ ^efiD ^nibcrjSal SBtograpl^w. 
 
 [nor 
 
 " An Essay towards the Theory of the Ideal 
 or Intelligible World," and "Philosophical 
 Discourse concerning the Natural Immor- 
 tality of the Soul." 
 
 NORRI8, JouN, bom in 1734, Was a native 
 of Norfolk ; and having been educated at 
 King's College, Cambridge, bequeatlicd to 
 the university of which he had been a mem- 
 ber property to the value of 190?. per annum, 
 for the endowment of a divinity professor- 
 ship and a theological priee essay, both of 
 which bear his name. lie was a gentleman 
 of good fortune, and the intimate friend of 
 Porson. Died, 1777. 
 
 NORTH, Sir Edward, an eminent lawyer 
 in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Queen 
 Mary, by the latter of whom he was created 
 baron North, of Catlidge, in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 NORTH, Dudley, Lord, great grandson 
 of the preceding, was born in 1581, and suc- 
 ceeded to the title in ICOO. In the civil war 
 he espoused the cause of the parliament, and 
 
 died in IGOG His son, of the same name, 
 
 wrote a "History of the Life of Edward 
 Lord North," &c., and is classed by Walpole 
 among the "Royal and Noble Authors." 
 He left four sons, all of whom attained poli- 
 tical or literary eminence. (See below.) 
 
 NORTH, Fkawcis, baron Guildlord, lord- 
 keeper of tne great seal under Charles II. 
 and James II., was the eJdest son of the last- 
 mentioned Lord Dudley North. After study- 
 ing at the Middle Temple, and being regularly 
 called to the bar, he became solicitor-general 
 in 1(571, when he received the honour of 
 knighthood ; in 1G73 he was made attorney- 
 general i the next year, chief-justice of tlie 
 common-pleas ; and, in 1C83, he was ap- 
 pointed lord-keeper, and raised to the peer- 
 age. He was tlie author of " A Philosophical 
 Essay on Music," which has been highly 
 praised as a scientific performance, and was 
 
 the first of its kind. He died in 1685 
 
 Sir Dudley Nouth, brother of the lord- 
 keeper, engaged in commercial pursuits, 
 and became an eminent Turkey mercliant. 
 He was afterwards one of the lords of the 
 treasury in the reign of Charles II. ; wrote 
 " Observations on" the Manners, Customs, 
 and Jurisprudence of the Turks ; " and died 
 
 in 1691. Dr. John Noktu, was born in 
 
 1645, and educated at Jesus College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he obtained a professorship of 
 the Greek language, and was created D. D. 
 He was a man of considerable erudition, and 
 is said to have been a great admirer of the 
 writings of Plato, a selection from which he 
 published in Greek and Latin. Died, 1683. 
 RoGEK North, a lawyer and miscella- 
 neous writer, was the youngest brother of the 
 preceding, became attorney-general under 
 James II., and died in 1733. He wrote the 
 lives of his three brothers ; also " Examen, 
 or Inquiry into the Credit and "Veracity of 
 Kennet's History of England," a work, 
 which though obviously written in defence 
 of the Stuarts, abounds with curious inform- 
 ation and anecdote. 
 
 NORTH, FREDKnic, earl of Guildford, 
 better known as Lord North, was of the same 
 family as the foregoing, and was bom in 
 1732. He was educated at Eton, and at 
 Trinity College, Oxford. After having held 
 several less important offices, he was, in 
 
 641 
 
 1767, appointed chancellor of the exchequer, 
 and, in 1770, first lord of the treasury. His 
 administration continued through the whole 
 of the American war, a period of peculiar 
 difficulty and danger, during which he was 
 incessantly assailed by the opposition, and 
 was often threatened with impeachment. 
 On his resignation of office however, in 1782, 
 instead of instituting against him that im- 
 peachment which they had so long threat- 
 ened, a coalition was formed between him 
 and the Whigs ; but this heterogeneous 
 administration lasted only a few months, 
 after which Lord Nortli held no responsible 
 station in the state. He was distinguished 
 for urbanity of manners and a turn for re- 
 partee. For several years previous to his 
 death he was afflicted with blindness. Died, 
 1792. 
 
 NORTH, George, an English antiquary 
 and writer on numismatics, was born in 
 London, in 1710; received his education at 
 St. Paul's School, and Bene't College, Cam- 
 bridge ; became rector of Codicote, in Hert- 
 fordshire ; and died in 1772. 
 
 NORTHAMPTON, Si-ExcER Joshua 
 Alwyxe CoMiTOX, Marquis of, was born 
 Jan. 2. 1790. Educated at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, he there acquired and cultivated 
 the taste which distinguished him in after 
 life. For a short period he sat in the House 
 of Commons for his native county, but being 
 defeated at one election, he was never in- 
 duced again to enter on the field of politics. 
 He rarely spoke in the House of Lords since 
 he succeeded his father in the marquisate in 
 May, 1828, but he was invariably present at 
 all important divisions in that assembly, 
 voting for Catholic emancipation, reform, 
 the repeal of the corn laws, &c. In 1838, 
 when the Duke of Sussex resigned the pre- 
 sidency of the Royal Society, the fellows 
 immediately solicited the noble marquis to 
 become the successor to the royal duke. His 
 attention at the general meetings, and his 
 brilliant re-unions of all the distinguished 
 men in science, literature, and art, at his 
 mansion in Piccadilly, are well known ; and 
 when he retired in 1849 it may be safely said, 
 it was with the unanimous regret of not only 
 the fellows of the Royal Society, but a large 
 circle of literary and scientific friends. At 
 the time of his death he was president of the 
 Royal Society of Literature. Died, 1851. 
 
 NORTHCOTE, James, an eminent por- 
 trait and historical painter, was born in 
 1746, at Plymouth, where his father was a 
 watchmaker. Having a taste for the fine 
 arts, and being flattered by praises bestowed 
 on his early productions, he pursued the 
 practice of drawing and painting with so 
 much assiduity, that Dr. Mudge, a physician 
 of Plymouth, recommended him as a scholar 
 to Sir Joshua Reynolds, with whom he re- 
 mained five years ; and on leaving that great 
 artist he commenced business on his own ac- 
 count, with great success, as a portrait painter. 
 Aspiring, however, to the loftier, tliough less 
 lucrative department of historical painting, 
 he visited Italy in 1777, and remaining there 
 three years, he returned to London with a 
 vastly increased reputation. In 1787 he be- 
 came a royal academician ; and for a period 
 of 30 years his productions formed a con- 
 
nob] 
 
 ^ ^cfio entbcriSaT 23tflcjrap]^i). 
 
 [kou 
 
 spiciiouB part of tlie exhibitions at Somerset 
 i House. He studied deeply, was an acute 
 I obserrer of human nature, and possessed a 
 : Bound judgment, a quick perception, and 
 j great conversational powers. He wrote " The 
 I Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds," also " Fables," 
 "Conversations," and "Tlie Life of Titian," 
 in all of which he was assisted by Mr. Haz- 
 I litt. He amassed a large fortune by his 
 ! profession, and Jiis habits were too penurious 
 to dissipate it. He died, aged 85, in 1831. 
 NORTHUMBERLAND. See DuDLEr. 
 NORTON, John, a writer in the reign of 
 Charles II., who published a curious book, 
 called " The Scholar's Vade-mecum," in 
 which he endeavoured to alter the ortho- 
 graphy of the English language. 
 
 NORTON, Thomas, an English writer, of 
 the l(5th century, was a native of Bedford- 
 shire. He was a zealous Calvinist, and 
 wrote an " Epistle to the Queen's poor de- 
 ceived Subjects of the North Country," a 
 " Warning against the dangerous Practices 
 of the Papists," and other tracts against 
 Popery. He was also the author of 27 of the 
 Psalms of David, in the version of Sternhold 
 and Hopkins ; and he assisted Thomas Sack- 
 ville in liis tragedy of" Ferrex and Porrex." 
 Died, 1584. 
 
 NORWOOD, RicHAKD, an English geo- 
 metrician of the 17th century, was the first 
 person who measured a degree of the me- 
 ridian in England. This was executed in 
 lG3o, the operations being carried on be- 
 tween London and York. He wrote trea- 
 tises on navigation, trigonometry, and for- 
 tification ; but no particulars of his life are 
 recorded. 
 
 NOSTRADAMUS, Michael, a celebrated 
 astrologer and empiric of the 16th century, 
 was born in 1503, at St. Rcmy, in Provence. 
 After graduating in physic at Montpelier, 
 in 1529, he acquired the reputation of a 
 skilful physician by successfully arresting 
 the progress of a pestilential disease. But 
 he aimed at the higher character of an 
 astrologer and adept in the occult sciences, 
 and published a volume of obscure metrical 
 rhapsodies in 1555, under the title of " Pro- 
 phetical Centuries." Though some persons 
 regarded these with contempt, and the au- 
 thor as an impostor, there were not wanting 
 persons of distinction who had faith in these 
 prognostics ; oneof which bore so remarkable 
 an allusion to the death of Henry II., that 
 Nostradamus received m.any presents, and 
 was appointed first physician to CliarlesIX., 
 who came himself in person to Salon, where 
 Nostradamus then resided, for the purpose of 
 visiting him. Died, 1566. 
 
 NOTT, John, M.D., an elegant poet and 
 oriental scholar, was born at Worcester, in 
 1751. After studying surgery at Birmingham, 
 he visited Paris for further instruction, and 
 eubsequently went out to Ciiina, as surgeon 
 in an East Indiaman. In 1788 he graduated 
 in medicine, and soon after attended the 
 Duchess of Devonshire to the Continent, in 
 quality of family physician ; in 1793 he 
 returned to England, and settled at Clifton, 
 where he continued to reside till his death, 
 in 182(5. Among his numerous writings are, 
 I " Alonzo, a poetic Tale," " Poems from the 
 Italian of Petrarch," the " Cynthia " of 
 
 Propertius ; some elegant translations of the 
 odes of Haflz ; an edition of " Catullus," 
 with the Latin text rendered into English 
 verse, and classical notes, 2 vols. ; " The 
 Odes of Horace," 2 vols. ; a translation of 
 the " Basia" of Johannes Secundus, " Sappho, 
 after a Greek Romance," &c. He also pub- 
 lished some professional works, viz. " A 
 Chemical Dissertation on the Springs of Pisa 
 and Asciano," " A Nosological Companion 
 to the London Pharmacopoeia," &o. 
 
 NOTT, Major-general Sir William, one 
 of the successful heroes in the late Affghan 
 war, was the son of an extensive mail-con- 
 tractor and proprietor of the Ivy-bush hotel 
 at Carmarthen, where the distinguished 
 soldier was born in 1782. From his earliest 
 youth he had shown a strong predilection 
 for the profession of arms, and he went out 
 to India as a cadet in 1800 ; but although his 
 talents and gallantry were well known, he 
 was unpatronised, and no striking event 
 occurring to accelerate his progress, we find 
 him only arriving at a majority after a ser- 
 vitude of 2(j years. His health at that time 
 being seriously affected, he returned on leave 
 of absence to England, visited his native 
 place, and there purchased an interesting 
 seat called " Job's Well," where he resided a 
 few years. The failure of the Calcutta bank 
 in which he had invested the greater part of 
 his savings, having rendered it necessary for 
 him to resume his active duties as a soldier ; 
 he, at 60 years of age, returned to India to 
 engage in a fresh career. " To relate ' the 
 moving accidents by flood and field' through 
 which this gallant officer led the troops under 
 his command, would be to write a volume, 
 for which the materials are alike interesting 
 and abundant. By an exercise of skill, 
 judgment, and valour, not often equalled, 
 and probably never surpassed, he extricated 
 our army from difficulties by which they 
 were surrounded in Affghanistan, and suc- 
 ceeded in conveying them, and several cap- 
 tives, whom he released, across the frontier, 
 bringing them with perfect safety, and with- 
 out any loss of honour, within the limits of 
 her majesty's dominions. The victories which 
 he achieved in Candahar closed the Affghan 
 war, and drew forth the gratitude and ap- 
 plause of the whole British empire; even the 
 Duke of Wellington departed from that pe- 
 culiar severity of taste which marks his gene- 
 rally sparing eulogium, and with a fervour 
 unusual to him, he — the best possible judge 
 of Indian warfare — pronounced in a manner 
 the most emphatic his unqualified admiration 
 of General Nott. The crown, of course, lost 
 no time in conferring on him, the highest 
 military distinction— that of a knight grand 
 cross of the Bath ; neither was parliament 
 slow to give expression to the national sen- 
 timent." The Aifghan war concluded. Sir 
 William hastened to return to England, the 
 hardships of a military life and the insa- 
 lubrity of an Indian climate seeming to 
 render repose absolutely necessary for the 
 restoration of his shattered health ; but lie 
 had not long revisited his native town when 
 the unfavourable symptoms increased, and 
 he died on the 1st of January, 1845. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. See Finch. 
 
 NOUE, FitANCis DE LA, sumamed Bras de 
 
NOV] 
 
 ^ ^fixj UnibCY^nl JSiogrnpl^i). 
 
 [nuq 
 
 Fer, or the Arm of Iron, a French soldier 
 and a zealous Calvinist, was born in Brit- 
 tany, in 1531. He took Orleans in 15(!7, and 
 had a principal share in the battle of Jarnac 
 in 15C9. His left arm being amputated in 
 consequence of a wound he received at the 
 capture of Fontenoy, he had anotlier con- 
 structed of iron, whence he derived hia 
 surname. In 1571 he surprised Valenciennes, 
 and on his return the king gave him the 
 command of the troops against Rochelle j 
 but his indignation at tlie massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew overcoming his fidelity, he 
 used the forces for its defence. In l.">78 he 
 entered into the service of the states-general 
 in the T^ow Countries, where he took the 
 Count Egmont prisoner ; but he was taken 
 himself in 1.580, and did not gain liis liberty 
 till five years after. In the time of the league 
 he rendered signal service to Henry IV., and 
 wits killed by a musket shot at the siege of 
 Lamballe, in 1.591. 
 
 NOV ATI AN, or NOVATIANUS,aGreek 
 philosoplicr, who embraced Christianity, 
 and was admitted a meml>er of the priest- 
 hood. He started the doctrine, that it was 
 sinful to admit persons who had once lapsed 
 to idolatry to communion ; a practice then 
 universal in the church. This produced a 
 schism, in which Novatian had many par- 
 tisans, who called themselves Catharitcs 
 (puritans), or Novatians, from their founder. 
 This sect, after tlie council of Nice, fell into 
 disrepute in the Western empire, though 
 they continued to prevail for a much longer 
 period in the East. 
 
 NOVERRE, Joiix George, a great master 
 of the art of dancing, was born at Paris, in 
 1727. He was destined by his father, who 
 was an adjutant in the army of Charles 
 XII., for the military profession ; but his 
 taste led him to prefer the graceful move- 
 ments of Terpsichore. In 174(i he composed 
 for the comic opera his noted Chinese ballet, 
 which made an extraordinary sensation ; and 
 he acquired so much celebrity, that Garrick 
 invited him to England, where his talents 
 attracted great admiration. After adding 
 to his fame, and receiving honours and re- 
 wards from several princes on the Continent, 
 he entered into the service of Marie An- 
 toinette, queen of France, who appointed him 
 chief ballet master of the royal academy 
 of music ; but he suffered greatly at the 
 revolution, and passed tlie latter years of 
 his life in indifferent circumstances. In his 
 " Lcttres sur la Danse " he proposed a radical 
 reformation of his art ; and at the time of his 
 death he was engaged on a " Dictionary of 
 the Art of Dancing," intending to rectify the 
 errors of the Encyclopedic on the subject. 
 Died. ISIO. 
 
 NOVES, Laura de. immortalised by the 
 pen of Petrarch, was born near Avignon, in 
 1307 ; married Hugh de Sade in 1325 ; and 
 died, 1348. 
 
 NO WELL, Alexander, an English divine, 
 was born at Rcadhall, in I>ancashire, about 
 1,507. In 1551 he was installed prebendary of 
 Westminster, and in the first parliament of 
 queen Mary he was returned for Loo in 
 Coniw.all ; but the election was declared 
 void on account of his being a dignitary of 
 the church. Soon after this he went to 
 
 Strasburg, where he remained till the ac- 
 cession of Elizabeth, when he returned ; and 
 in 1560 was made dean of St. Paul's. He 
 was prolocutor of the convocation in which 
 the articles of religion were settled ; and he 
 published his " Greater " and " Lesser " 
 Catechisms, in Latin, the latter being an 
 abridgment of the former. He is also 
 supposed to have written the chief part of 
 the Church Catechism. Besides founding 
 a free grammar school at Middleton, he 
 endowed thirteen fellowships in Brazennose 
 College. Died, 1602 His brother. Lau- 
 rence NowELL, became dean of Lichfield, 
 and died in 1576. He was particularly skilled 
 in the Saxon language, of which he com- 
 piled a dictionary, still extant in the Bodleian 
 library. 
 
 NOY, William, a celebrated lawyer of 
 the 17th century, who may Ik; considered as 
 one of the main authors of the civil war be- 
 tween Charles and his subjects, inasmuch as 
 the fatal i)roject of attempting to raise sup- 
 plies, by what was called ship-money, is said 
 to have been advised by him. He had ori- 
 ginally laboured to abridge the royal prero- 
 gative ; but being made attorney-general, he 
 suddenly veered about, and became its most ! 
 strenuous supiwrter. Died, l(i.34. Among j 
 his works are, " A Treatise on the Grounds 
 and Maxims of the Law of England," " The 
 Perfect Conveyancer," and "The Complete 
 Lawyer." 
 
 NirCK, Anthony, a skilful Dutch ana- 
 tomist, who was professor of anatomy, and 
 president of the college of surgeons^ at Ley- 
 den, where he died in 1692. He was the I 
 discoverer of a new salival duct, of the com- 
 munication between the red veins and the 
 lymjihatics, and of a mode of making pre- | 
 parations of the lungs by inflation. His j 
 principal works are, " De Vasis aquosis ' 
 Oculi," "De Ductu Salivali novo," and I 
 " Operationes et Experimenta Chirurgica." 
 
 NUGENT, George Gkenville, Lord, 
 second son of the Marquis of Buckingham, 
 and brother of the late duke, was born. 1789. 
 In his younger days he was known as Lord i 
 George Grenville ; under which name he j 
 published a long poem on that portion of the \ 
 Peninsular war of which Portugal was the 
 scene. In 1812 he succeeded to an Irish I 
 barony on the death of his mother, who had 
 been created a baroness in 1800, with re- 
 mainder to her second son. During four 
 parliaments previous to the reform bill, he 
 sat in the House of Commons for Aylesbury, 
 displaying great ardour as a politician, and 
 taking an active part in promoting parlia- ; 
 mentary reform, and all the liberal measures 
 of the day. On the accession of the Whigs i 
 to office in the year 1830, he was appointed a ' 
 junior lord of the treasury, and in that ! 
 capacity he iirtroduced the only legislative I 
 measure with which his name was ever mixed ] 
 up ; a bill for the abolition of certain oaths, 
 which it was formerly necessary to take for 
 the most ordinary objects connected with the i 
 revenue laws, and the substitution of simple [ 
 declarations in their place. In 1832 he 
 vacated his scat in parliament on being ap- 
 pointed lord high commissioner of tlie Ionian | 
 Islands, which office he held until 1835. He i 
 was recalled during the short administration 
 
nug] 
 
 ^ iJ9fiu WinihtvUaX SSiOflrajp^y. 
 
 [oat 
 
 of Sir Robert Peel, and he was an unsuccess- 
 ful candidate for Aylesbury at the general 
 elections of 1837 and 18:5!), but succeeded in 
 being returned in 1847. Besides the poem 
 above mentioned. Lord Nugent was the 
 author of several other works. His " Memo- 
 rials of Hampden and liis Times," published 
 in 1831, was favourably noticed in the Edin- 
 burgh Review by Mr. JIacaulay ; and his 
 "Lands, Classical and Sacred," possesses 
 mucli mei-it. Died, IS-W. 
 
 NUGENT, Robert CnAOo.s, Earl, a native 
 of Westmeatli, in Ireland, w^as bred in tlie 
 Roman Catliolic faith, but quitted it for 
 that of the established church, and then 
 became a member of the Englisli parliament. 
 He was tliree times returned for Bristol. In 
 j 1767 he was created viscount Clare, and. in 
 1776, earl Nugent, lie was the autljor of a 
 volume of poems, some of wliich possess con- 
 siderable merit. 
 
 NUGENT, Thomas, was a native of Ire- 
 land, but settled in London, where he pro- 
 duced numerous works. He was an LL.D. 
 and F.S.A.; and occupied himself in wri- 
 ting and compiling a variety of publications, 
 several of wliich possess much merit. Among 
 them are, " A French and English Dic- 
 i tionary," which has been often reprinted ; 
 j " Travels through Germany," 2 vols. ; " Ob- 
 I servations on Italy and its Inhabitants," 
 i 2 vols.; "The Tour of Europe," 4 vols.; 
 *' Condillac's Essay on the Origin of Human 
 Knowledge," " Henault's History of France," i 
 &c. Died, 1772. 
 
 NUMA POMPILIUS. the second king of 
 Rome, was chosen by the people after the j 
 death of Romulus, and, during a reign of | 
 43 years, introduced mtiuy salutary refor- | 
 mations among tliem. He was not, like Ro- j 
 mulus, a warrior, but possessed all the quali- j 
 ties of a lawgiver, and a just and wise ruler ; j 
 and he greatly strengthened the institutions j 
 of Rome, by uniting them with religious 
 ceremonies. He was the fourth son of Pom- 
 pilius Pompo, a distinguished Sabine, and | 
 the husband of Tatia, the daughter of the 
 j Tatius, who for a long period shared the 
 \ kingdom with Romulus. He reigned from 
 ' 714 to 7o7 B. c, and left an onlydaughter, 
 ! wlio married Numa Martins, and became 
 ; the mother of Ancus Martius the fourth ; 
 j king of Rome. i 
 
 I NU^IERIiVN, Makcus Aureuus, a Ro- 
 : man emperor, who succeeded to the throne 
 on the death of Carus, his fatlier, a. n. 282 ; 
 but was murdered by his fathel-in-law, after 
 
 a reign of 8 months. He displayed consi- 
 derable talent both as a writer and an orator. 
 
 NUNEZ, Feknan de Guzma.v, a knight 
 and commander of the order of Santiago, in 
 the _16th century, was born at Valladolid, 
 studied at Bologna, and on his return home 
 was appointed Greek professor at the uni- 
 versity of Alcala, by its founder, Cardinal 
 Ximenes, who also employed him on his 
 celebrated Polyglott. He afterwards re- 
 moved to Salamanca, where he was also ap- 
 pointed Greek professor ; and died in ITt-Vi. 
 His writings chiefly consist of annotations 
 on the works of Seneca, Pliny, aud other 
 classic authors. 
 
 NUVOLONE, Chari.es Francis, a cele- 
 brated painter, born in 1608, at Milan, 
 where his father was an eminent artist, and 
 directed his studies with great success. He 
 adopted Guido's style, and his Madonnas 
 are highly valued. Died, lO'A His bro- 
 ther, Joseph Nuvoloke, also executed se- 
 veral fine pictures, particularly one of St. 
 Dominic raising a dead man to life. He 
 died, aged 84, in 1703. 
 
 NUZZI, Mario, commonly called Mario 
 d^ Fiori, a celebrated flower painter, was 
 born in 1603, at Penna, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. His pictures were highly esteemed, 
 and he was chosen a member of the aca- 
 demy of St. Luke. Died, 1673. 
 
 nITE, Philip, an eminent Nonconform- 
 ist divine, was bom in Sussex, in 1596, and 
 took his degrees in arts at Magdalen Hall, 
 Oxford. He became minister of St. Mi- 
 chael's church, Cornhill ; but in 1633 he 
 went to Holland, and remained there till 
 the rebellion, wlien he obtained the living of 
 Kimbolton, in Huntingdonshire. He was 
 also one of the assembly of divines, and 
 rector of St. Bartholomew behind the Ex- 
 change. In 1647 he was appointed one of 
 the chaplains who attended the commis.sion- 
 ers empowered to treat with Charles I. in 
 the Isle of Wight : and he lost no oppor- 
 tunity of showing his enmity to the cause of 
 royalty. His conduct, in fact, had been so 
 violent, that he was not only deprived of his 
 living at the Restoration, but an act was 
 passed, restraining him from holding auy 
 office in future. Died, 1672. 
 
 NYSTEN, Peter Hubert, an eminent 
 physiologist and physician to the Foundling 
 Hospital at Paris, was born at Liege, in 1771. 
 He was the autlior of " Rechcrches de Phy- 
 siologic et de Chimie Pathologique," aud 
 other medical works. Died, 1818. 
 
 o. 
 
 GATES, TiTi-s, an infamous character, 
 born about 1619, was the son of an Anabap- 
 tist preacher ; received his education at 
 Merchant Tailors' School, and at Cam- 
 bridge ; and afterwards entered into holy 
 orders. In 1677 he pretended to be a con- 
 vert to the Roman Catholic religion, and 
 was admitted into the society of Jesuits i but 
 subsequently declared himself a Protestant, 
 
 and, in conjunction with one Dr. Tongue, 
 gave information of a pretended popish plot 
 for the overthrow of the Protestant faith ; 
 falsely accused several Catholic lords, and 
 other persons of quality, of being concerned 
 in it ; and having excited a popular ferment, 
 brought Lord Stafford, among other inno- 
 cent individuals, to the scaffold. Such was 
 the credulity of the times, that he m as re- 
 
obe] 
 
 ^ ^cin HnibcrjSal UtograiJijM. 
 
 [OCK 
 
 warded with a pension of \200l. per annum, 
 I and lodged for safety at the palace of White- 
 hall. On the accession of James II., how- 
 I ever, he was thrown into prison, and in- 
 dicted for perjury ; and, being convicted, was 
 I sentenced to stand in the pillory five times 
 a year during liis life, and to be whipped 
 I from Aldgate to Newgate, and thence to 
 j Tyburn. Though the wliippiiig was very 
 i severely inflicted, he recovered from its 
 ; effects ; and, in the reign of William III., 
 1 this execrable tool of faction obtained his 
 : liberty and a pension of -iOOl. a year. He 
 I died in 1705. 
 
 I O'BEIRXE, TnoMAS Lewis, a learned 
 ! Iilsh prelate, was born in 1748, in the county 
 of Longford, in Ireland ; was educated at 
 St. Omer's for the priesthood, but renounced 
 the creed in which he had been brought up, 
 ' and at tlie commencement of the American 
 I war sailed witli Lord Howe as chaplain to 
 the fleet. In 1782 lie accompanied the Duke 
 of Portland to Ireland as private secretary, 
 obtained two valuable livings in North- 
 umberland jind Cumberland, was promoted 
 to the see of Tipper Ossorj', and translated 
 to that of Meath. He wrote several political 
 pamphlets, sermons, and cliargcs on various 
 occasions ; " Tli<? Generous Impostor," a 
 I comedy ; and " The Crueillxion," a poem. 
 
 Died, 1823. 
 I OBERKAMPF, C. P., bom in 1738 ; died 
 ; in 1815 ; founder of the great French manu- 
 1 facture of printed cottons at Jouy, and of 
 I cotton thread at Essonc. 
 
 OBEKLIN, Jkkemiaii James, a German 
 ' antiquary and philologist, was born at 
 Strasburg, in 1735. He began his career as 
 teacher in the gymnasium of liis native 
 place, aud after he had extended his know- 
 ledge and reputation by his travels, he was 
 transferred to the university ; in 1782 he 
 obtained the cliair of logic and metaphysics ; 
 to wliich, in 1787, was added the office of 
 director of the gymnasium. Tlie French 
 revolution interrupted his learned labours ; 
 and in 1793 he was imprisoned at Metz, and 
 treated with great cruelty ; but at the ter- 
 mination of Robespierre's tyranny he was 
 liberated, and resumed his literary occu- 
 pations. He publislied valuable editions of 
 .Tacitus, Coesar, Ovid, aud Horace ; and pro- 
 duced a number of works on archaeology, 
 statistics, &c. Died, 18{X3. 
 
 OBSEQUENS, Julius, a Latin writer, 
 who flourislied about A.n. 305. He was the 
 author of a treatise " De Prodigiis." 
 
 OCARIZ, or OCARITZ, Don Joseph, 
 Chevalier d', a Spanish diplomatist, who 
 distinguished himself by his attempts to pre- 
 vent the execution of Louis XVI. In 1788 
 he was sent to Paris as consul-general ; and 
 in 1792 he held the post of diarye-<V affaires. 
 He addressed two letters to the National 
 Convention, offering the mediation of his 
 sovereign to engage Prussia and Austria to 
 terminate the war with France, on condition 
 of the suspension of judgment against the 
 king. He afterwards occui)ied otlier diplo- 
 matic situations, and died on his way to 
 Constantinople, in 1805. 
 
 OCCAM, or OCKHAM, William, an 
 English scholastic divine of the 14th cen- 
 tury, was a native of Ockham, in Surrey ; 
 
 studied at Merton College, Oxford, under 
 the celebrated Duns Scot us ; and obtained 
 the name of " the invincible doctor." He 
 wrote against pope John XXII., whom he 
 treated as a heretic, and joined the anti- 
 pope, Nicholas V., set up by the emperor of 
 Bavaria. For this he was excommunicated, 
 and he died in 1.347. 
 
 OCELLUS LUCANUS. so called from 
 being a native of Lucania, was a Pytha- 
 gorean philosopher, and flourished u. c. 500. 
 liis treatise " On the Universe " is still 
 extant. 
 
 OCHINUS, or OCHIN, Berxakpix, an 
 Italian monk, was born at Sienna, in 1487. 
 His eloquence was so mucli admired, that 
 pope Paul III. made him his confessor. 
 Ochin however, on meeting witli the works 
 of Luther, turned Protestant, and went first 
 to Geneva, and next to England, where he 
 obtained a prebend in Canterbury catliedral ; 
 but on the accession of Mary lie retired to 
 Strasburg, whence he removed to Zurich, 
 and became minister of the Italian church ; 
 but was banished in 15(!3, for writing his 
 dialogues in defence of jwlygamy. He tlien 
 went to Moravia, where he joined the So- 
 cinians, but died of the plague the year fol- 
 lowing. His "Sermons," in Italian, 5 vols. 
 8vo., are scarce. He also wrote several con- 
 troversial books. 
 
 OCHS, PKTEI5, a chevalier and grand tri- 
 bune of the state of Basle, was born in 1749 ; 
 and liaving finished his academical studies, 
 was soon distinguished for his legal and 
 political knowledge. In 1795 he was chosen 
 by his fellow-citizens to negotiate with M. 
 Barthelcmj'. agent of the French directory ; 
 and he at length became president of the 
 assembly convened to organise a constitution 
 for the state of Basic, under the influence 
 of France. Being snbsequeritly displaced, 
 he went to Paris, and, after remaining there 
 some years, was appointed by Buonaparte 
 a member of the council of slate, under the 
 new Helvetic government, which subsisted 
 till the return of the Bourbons in 1814. He 
 was the author of " Ilistoire de la Ville et 
 du Pays du Bale," 5 vols. ; " Projet de Con- 
 stitution Helvi'tique," and some dramatic 
 pieces. Died, 1821. 
 
 OCIITERLONY, Sir David, bart., of the 
 East India Company's service, was bom at 
 Boston, in New England, in 1758. At the 
 age of 18 he went to India as a cadet, and 
 rose, by regular gradation, to the rank of 
 major-general, in 1814. In the Nepaulese 
 war he distinguished himself by a series of 
 skilful operations and brilliant successes, 
 and was rewarded with the order of the 
 Bath, the dignity of baronet, and a pension 
 of KKW. per annum. Died, 1825. 
 
 OCKLEY, SiMox, a learned divine and 
 eminent orientalist, was born at Exeter, in 
 1078, and educated at Queen's College, 
 Cambridge. In 1705 he was presented to 
 the vicarage of Swavesey, in Cambridge- 
 shire ; in 1711 he was chosen professor of 
 Arabic ; and died in indigence, in 1720. 
 His principal works are, "Introductio ad 
 Linguas Orieutales," "The History of the 
 preent Jews throughout the World," "The 
 Iini)rovement of Human Reason, or the Life 
 of Hai Ebn Yok'dhan," translated from the 
 
oco] 
 
 ^ ^e&) Hm'ber^al 23i0Q;rajp]^g. 
 
 [oco 
 
 Arabic; "Sermons," a " Life of Mahomet," 
 2 vols. ; and " The History of the Saracens," 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; which is by far the most im- 
 portant of all his works. 
 
 O'CONNELL, Daxiel, of Darrynane Ab- 
 bey, the great Irish " Agitator," or " Libe- 
 rator," as he delighted to 6t3'le himself, was 
 the son of a small landed proprietor in the 
 coimty of Kerry, where he was bom, Aug. 6. 
 1775. Educated at the Catliolic College of 
 St. Omer,and at the Irish seminary at Donay, 
 he at first intended to enter the church, but 
 after the repeal of the act which prohibited 
 Roman Catholics from practising at the bar, 
 he became a student of Lincoln's Inn in 1794, 
 was admitted a barrister in 1798. and soon 
 acquired a large practice, which yielded him 
 a handsome income. In 1809 he became 
 connected witli the associations which had 
 the emancipation of the Catholics for tlieir 
 object, and the powers of eloquence, together 
 with tlie boundless zeal which he displayed in 
 this cause, soon made him the idol of his 
 Catholic, and the dread of his Protestant, 
 countrymen. The vehemence with which 
 he denounced the wrongs of his country and 
 its so-called "oppressors" frequently in- 
 volved him iu personal rencontres with his 
 political opponents. In 1815, having applied 
 the epithet " beggarly " to the Dublin cor- 
 poration, he was challenged by Alderman 
 d'Esterre, who resented it as a personal in- 
 sult. The cliallenge was accepted, but the 
 alderman fell. The same year Mr. O'Con- 
 nell received a hostile message from Mr. 
 Peel, then secretary for Ireland ; but their 
 meeting was prevented by the police, who 
 had obtained knowledge of the affair ; and 
 Mr. O'Connell soon afterwards resolved that 
 he would thenceforward neither send nor 
 accept a challenge for any injury that he 
 might inflict or receive ; a resolution to 
 which he stedfastly adhered. Several years 
 elapsed before Mr. O'Connell's continued 
 efforts for the enfranchisement of the Irish 
 Catholics were followed by any adequate 
 result. But in 1823, in conjunction with 
 Mr. Sheil, he founded a new Catholic asso- 
 ciation, which soon extended over the whole 
 of Ireland, and from that period down to 
 his decease, his personal history is identified 
 with that of Ireland. In 1828, stimulated 
 by his friends, and " encouraged by tlie 
 strongest assurances of support, Mr. O'Con- 
 nell resolved, notwithstanding the existing 
 disabilities precluded all hopes of legal suc- 
 cess, to become a candidate for a seat in 
 parliament ; and a vacancy having occurred 
 in the representation of the county of Clare, 
 he was nominated in opposition to Mr. 
 (afterwards Lord) Fitzgerald, who had re- 
 presented that county for many j'ears. A 
 most violent contest ensued, at that period, 
 and perhaps since, unparalleled in the his- 
 tory of electioneering. But Mr. Fitzgerald's 
 own connections, the intluence of the go- 
 vernment, and the power of the gentry, 
 were unavailing against the ardour and 
 determination of Mr. O'Connell's friends ; 
 and on the 5th of July, 1828, he was returned 
 to parliament by a large majority of the 
 Clare electors. He lost no time in pre- 
 senting himself at the table of the House 
 of Commons, and expressed his willing- 
 
 ness to take the oath of allegiance ; but, 
 refusing the other oaths, he was ordered to 
 withdraw. Discussions in the house and 
 arguments at the bar ensued ; the speedy 
 close of the session, however, precluded any 
 practical result. Agitation throughout every 
 part of Ireland now assumed so formidable 
 a character, that ministers apprehended a 
 civil war, and early in the next session 
 the Roman Catholic relief bill was intro- 
 duced and carried. Mr. O'Connell was there- 
 fore, in tlie month of April, 1829, enabled 
 to sit for Clare without taking the objec- 
 tiojiable oaths ; but it was necessary that a 
 new writ should issue, under which he was 
 immediately re-elected. At the death of 
 George IV., Mr. O'Connell withdrew from 
 the representation of Clare, and was re- 
 turned to the new parliament for the county 
 of Waterford. In the House of Commons, 
 elected iu ]8;31, he sat for his 'native county 
 (Kerry). Dublin, the city in which the 
 greater part of his life was spent, enjoyed 
 his services as its representative from 1832 
 till 1836, when he was petitioned against 
 and unseated, after a long contest, before a 
 committee of the House of Commons. lie 
 tlien for some time represented Kilkenny ; 
 but, at the general election in 1837, he was 
 once more returned for the city of Dublin, 
 and in 1841 for the county of Cork. Mr. 
 O'Connell had thus a seat in the House of 
 Commons for 18 years, in 7 several parlia- 
 ments, and for 6 different constituencies. 
 In 1841 he was elected lord mayor of Dublin. 
 The return of the conservatives to power in 
 the autumn of that year was the signal for 
 renewed agitation in Ireland. In the follow- 
 ing year a repeal of the union was demanded 
 by every parish and hamlet in Ireland ; 
 and in 1843 ' monster meetings ' were lield 
 on the royal hill of Tara, on the Curragh 
 of Kildare, the rath of Mullaghmast, and 
 other renowned localities. A meeting for 
 Clontarf was fixed for the 8th of Oct., when 
 the government interfered, and the prosecu- 
 tions commenced which will be fresh in the 
 reader's recollection. Mr. O'Connell was 
 sentenced to pay a fine of 2000/. and to be 
 imprisoned for a year. This judgment was 
 afterwards reversed by the House of Lords ; 
 but the prosecution had answered its pur- 
 pose, O'Connell's credit as a politician was 
 impaired, and the costs of his defence had 
 nearly exhausted the funds of the Repeal 
 Association. The return of the Whigs to 
 power in 184(5, and Mr. O'Connell's avowed 
 adherence to them, introduced dissension 
 among those with whom, for 50 j'cars, he 
 had possessed ' a voice potential.' The 
 opposition which aforetime he could put I 
 down with a jest, or awe into silence with a | 
 frown, now irritated and subdued him. He i 
 retired from the arena of strife, and com- j 
 menced a pilgrimage in 1847, more for devo- I 
 tion than for health, towards Rome ; but he j 
 had proceeded no further than Genoa, when, | 
 with comparatively little suffering, he ex- I 
 pired, in his 72nd year. His heart was em- [ 
 balmed, and carried forward to Rome ; and ' 
 Ins body was brought to Ireland for inter- [ 
 ment." The time has not yet arrived to 
 judge Mr. O'Connell with impartiality. To 
 great abilities, marvellous activity and i 
 
oco] 
 
 ^ ^m BnibniKl 38t00rajpTji». 
 
 [<ECO 
 
 I energy, and an extraordinary gift of popular 
 eloquence, he united a thorough knowledge 
 of and identification with, the Irish cha- 
 racter. By these qualities, and by long 
 service on behalf of the rights of his Roman 
 Catholic iellow-citizens, he obtained, and 
 nearly to tlic last retained, an almost super- 
 human power over the great body of the 
 Irish people. But even if we should admit 
 that he was a patriot at heart, and that he 
 had noble desires for his country's welfare, 
 it is but too manifest that he was altogether 
 careless as to the means for accomplisiiing his 
 ends. His political lite was tinged throughout 
 with the policy that distinguished that dan- 
 gerous order in which his religion has found 
 at times her ablest but most unscrupulous 
 champions. The last years of his life were 
 frittered away in the pursuit of an imprac- 
 ticable object ; and his last moments were 
 embittered by the spectacle of his unhappy 
 country torn by political dissensions which 
 he had mainly fostered, and groaning under 
 a load of pestilence and famine. The onlv 
 substantial literary achievement with which 
 his name was connected are his "Memoirs 
 of Ireland." Died, 1847. 
 
 O'CONNOR, Charles, a learned Catholic 
 clergyman, w ho for many years was a resi- 
 dent in the family of the Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, at Stowe, as librarian to that noble- 
 man. He was the author of" Colnmbanus's 
 Letters," 2 vols. ; a " Narrative of the most 
 interesting Events in Modern Irish History," 
 and a collection of the ancient Irish chro- 
 nicles ; his studies having been chiefly di- 
 rected to the elucidation of the history and 
 antiquities of Ireland. He died in 182ti, 
 at Balinagar, the seat of his brother, the 
 O'Connor Don. 
 
 ODENATUS, Septimius, an Arabian 
 prince, the husband of queen Zenobia, and 
 who reigned ill Palmyra. He espoused the 
 cause of the Romans in their contests with 
 Persia ; defeated Sapor, and was admitted 
 by Gallienus to participate in the imperial 
 authority. He was assassinated a.d. 2ii7 . 
 
 ODERICO, Gaspak Louis, a learned 
 antiquary and medalist, was boni at Genoa, 
 in 1725, and entered into the society of the 
 Jesuits. His love, however, for coins, 
 medals, and other relics of antiquity, pre- 
 vailed over theological studies, and he was 
 admitted a member of tlie Etruscan academy 
 of Cortona, under the name of Theodemio 
 Ostracinio. On the suppression of the order, 
 he was made conservator of the library of 
 Genoa, and was subsequently clioseu a 
 member of the Institute. He published 
 some valuable works on numismatics and 
 ancient inscriptions, and died in ISOo. 
 
 ODESCALCHI, Makc Antonio, an Ita- 
 lian of high rank, who devoted Jsis time 
 and fortune to acts of philanthroi)y. He 
 was cousin to pope Innocent XL, who offered 
 him many high dignities in the church. 
 Observing that though Rome contained se- 
 veral hospitals for the relief of the poor of 
 different nations, there were many strangers 
 who could find no asylum in any of them, 
 but were obliged to take shelter in the 
 porches of churches, the porticos of palaces, 
 or the ancient ruins of the city, he converted 
 his house into an hospital for the reception 
 
 of these outcasts, without distinction. Here 
 he fitted up 1000 beds, and employed a num- 
 ber of tailors constantly in making clothes 
 for the objects of his bounty. If in his rides 
 he chanced to observe a forlorn wanderer, 
 he would stop, take him into his carriage, 
 and convey him to his mansion. At his 
 death, in 1()70, he left all his property to the 
 support of the hospital. 
 
 ODESCALCHI, Thomas, another mem- 
 ber of the same family, who was almoner 
 to pope Innocent XI. In imitation of the 
 preceding, he gave himself up to works of 
 charity. Perceiving that in the hospital of 
 St. Gale there were a number of children 
 destitute of education, he conceived the idea 
 of erecting an asylum for their reception ; 
 which he carried into execution, beginning 
 with 38 children, who were instructed, and 
 brought up to industry. The number soou 
 increased, through the liberality of pope In- 
 nocent, to 70 i and, in 1G8G, Thomas Odes- 
 calclii laid the foundation of a large hos- 
 pital for the education and employment of 
 poor children in weaving cloth. This pious 
 prelate died in 1692, and left considerable 
 funds for the support of his institution, to 
 wliich he gave the name of St. Michael de 
 Riptgrande. 
 
 ODIER, Louis, an eminent Gencvese 
 physician, was born in 1748 ; studied at 
 Edinburgh, Leyden, and Paris ; and, re- 
 turning to Geneva, commenced a course of 
 lectures on chemistry. He practised medi- 
 cine with great reputation in his native city, 
 filled several public offices, distinguished 
 himself by his successful endeavours to in- 
 troduce vaccine inoculation on the Conti- 
 nent, and was the author of a " Manual of 
 Practical Medicine." Died, 1817. 
 
 ODINGTON, VValtkk, called Walter of 
 Evesham, was a monk of that monastery in 
 Worcestersliire, and lived in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. He was an astronomer, ma- 
 thematician, and musician ; on each of 
 which subjects he wrote treatises. " De 
 Motibus Planetarum et de Mutatione Aeris" 
 is attributed to him ; and Dr. Burney ob- 
 serves of his treatise, entitled " Of the Spe- 
 culation of Music," which is preserved in 
 the library of Bene't College, Cambridge, 
 " that if all other musical tracts, from the 
 time of Boethius to Franco and John Cotton 
 were lost, with this MS. our knowledge 
 would not be much diminished." 
 
 ODO, St., a celebrated abbot of Clngni, in 
 France, was born at Tours, in 879, and died 
 about y4o. He introduced the most rigorous 
 discipline into his order, obtained a high 
 reputation for sanctity and wisdom, and 
 wrote several books full of superstitious 
 
 notions and legendary tales Another 
 
 of this name, called Odo ok Kent, was a 
 Benedictine monk, who became abbot of 
 Battle, and died in 1800. 
 
 GECOLAMPADIUS, John, an eminent 
 reformer, was born in Franconia, in 1482. 
 He studied at Heidelberg, after which he 
 became tutor to the son of the elector pala- 
 tine, and was presented to a benefice. In 
 1520 he entered into a monastery, but on 
 reading the books of Luther, he quitted his 
 cell, and went to Basle, where he was made 
 professor of divinity. He embraced the 
 
OEC] 
 
 ^ ^t^ SUni'liersal 3Si0QrapTjp. 
 
 [OGI 
 
 doctrine of Zuinglius on the sacrament, but 
 conducted himself with great moderation. 
 In 1528 he married tlie widow of Cellarius. 
 His works evince considerable learning, and 
 he appears to have been held in great esti- 
 mation even by his opponents. He died of 
 the plague in f531. 
 
 OECUMENIUS, an ancient Greek com- 
 mentator upon the Scriptures, was bishop of 
 Trica, in Thessaly, in tlie 10th century. 
 
 OEDER, Geouge Chuistian, an eminent 
 physician and botanist, was born at Ans- 
 pach, in 1728. He studied at Gottingen, 
 under Haller, by whose interest he became 
 professor of botany at Copenhagen ; but, on 
 account of liis intimacy with the unfortu- 
 nate Struensee, he was obliged to retire to 
 Oldcnburgh, where he died in 1791. His 
 works are, " Flora Danica," 3 vols. fol. ; 
 " Elementa Botanica," " Nomenclator Bo- 
 tanicus, " and " Enumeratio Plautarum 
 Flora: Danicae." 
 
 OEIILENSCHLOEGER, Adam, the most 
 celebrated dramatic poet of Scandinavia, 
 was born, at Copenhagen, 1777. When 
 still a child he evinced great skill in writing 
 verses ; and even in his 9th year he wrote 
 short comedies for private theatricals, in 
 which the chief performers were liiinself, 
 his sister, and a friend. These and other 
 similar attempts created the wish to go 
 upon the stage ; and when he was in his 
 17th year he put his design in execution. 
 But he soon found that tlie stage was not in 
 unison with his inclinations ; and he aban- 
 doned it first for the study of law, and after- 
 wards for general literature. In 1805 he 
 left Copenhagen with a stipend from the 
 Danish government, on a lengthened tour 
 through Germany and Italy ; and on his 
 return, in 1810, he was appointed to the chair 
 of literature in the university of Copen- 
 hagen, where he laboured assiduously till 
 his death. His earliest works were com- 
 posed in Danish, but he rewrote most of 
 them in German, and Germany has given 
 them a prominent place in her own litera- 
 ture. His most important works are, 
 "HakonJarl," " Correggio," " Palnatoke," 
 "Aladdin," " Der Hirten-knabe," &c. His 
 " Autobiography " is a beautiful perform- 
 ance, fully displaying the qualities for 
 which he was distinguished through life — 
 strong feelings and earnestness of purpose 
 — and which gained liim urdversal respect 
 while he lived, and more than regal honours 
 at his death. Died, Jan. 28. ISoO. 
 
 OELRICIIS, Joiis Chaules Conead, 
 a German historian and bibliographer, was 
 born at Berlin, in 1722 ; became professor 
 of history and civil law at the academy of 
 Stettin ; published many valuable works in 
 Latin and German ; obtained the post of 
 counsellor of legation, and resident of the 
 duke of Deux Fonts, at the court of Berlin, 
 in 1784 i and died in 1793. 
 
 OFFA, king of Mercia, succeeded Ethel- 
 bald in 755. He murdered Ethelbert, king 
 of the East Angles, and took possession of 
 his kingdom. Died, 794. 
 
 OGDEN, Samuel, an eminent divine, 
 was born at Manchester, in 1716, and edu- 
 cated at the grammar school there, from 
 which he was removed to King's College, 
 
 Cambridge, and next to St. John's, where he 
 obtained a fellowship. In 1744 he became 
 master of the school at Halifax, but resigned 
 that situation in 1753, and, returning to 
 Cambridge, took his degree of D.D., and was 
 presented to the vicarage of Dumerham, in 
 Wiltshire. In 1764 he was appointed Wood- 
 wardian professor, and in 1766 obtained the 
 rectories of Lawford, in Essex, and Stans- 
 field, in Suffolk. He published two volumes 
 of sermons, which, from their pithy and 
 animated character, obtained considerable 
 
 I 
 
 ' celebrity. Died, 1778. 
 
 ! OGE, a Creole of St. Domingo, who, at the 
 commencement of the French revolution, 
 having occasion to visit Paris on mercantile 
 affairs, was there admitted into the society 
 of Amis des Noirs, or Friends of the Negroes, 
 and warmly solicited, though ineflfectually, 
 the National Assembly to grant to men of 
 colour the rights of equality. Returning to 
 his native island in 1790, with a determina- 
 tion to effect by force wliat was denied to 
 his solicitations, he issued a proclamation, 
 inviting all the people of colour, as well as 
 the negro slaves, to join him. At first the 
 insurgents demanded nothing but what was 
 
 j just — freedom and political equality ; but 
 
 I their cause was soon disgraced by crimes of 
 the most atrocious description. These, how- 
 ever, were not attributable so much to Ogt, 
 as to his lieutenant, Chavannes, a san- 
 guinary wretch, who delighted in deeds of 
 violence. At length they were overpowered 
 by the regular troops sent against them, 
 and Oge and Chavannes were condemned to 
 be broken on the wheel. When the former 
 heard his doom, he took a quantity of black 
 seeds in the hollow of his hand, and covered 
 tliem with a small quantity which were 
 white ; he then shook them together, and 
 the former remaining uppermost, he ex- 
 claimed to his judges, "Where are the 
 whites ? " — an impressive allegory, which 
 was fatallj' verified in the subsequent revo- 
 lution in that colony. 
 
 OGILBY, John, a multifarious writer, 
 was born at Edinburgh, in 1600. He be- 
 came a teacher of dancing, in the practice 
 of which he contracted a lameness, but still 
 continued to give instruction in families. 
 On going to Ireland with the Earl of Straf- 
 ford, he was made deputy master of the 
 revels in that kingdom, and he also built a 
 theatre at Dublin ; but in the rebellion he 
 lost all his i)roperty. After suffering great 
 vicissitudes, lie returned to England, and 
 settled at Cambridge, where he published a 
 translation of Virgil. At the age of 54 he 
 learnt Greek, and gave a specimen of his 
 proficiency in the translation of the Iliad, 
 published in 16C0, which was followed by the 
 Odyssey in 1055. While at Cambridge, he 
 edited a superb impression of the Bible, for 
 which he was remunerated by the House of 
 Lords ; and, in 1061, he was appointed to 
 conduct the poetical part of the coronation 
 pageantry. He was also restored to his place 
 of master of the revels in Ireland, where he 
 again built a theatre. In London, after the 
 great fire, he erected a printing-office, and 
 was appointed king's cosmographer ; in 
 which capacity he published several volumes 
 of a large atlas, and an account of the great 
 
OGl] 
 
 ^ iScU) Bnibtr^Hl ISiOflrapl^i). 
 
 [old 
 
 and cro88-road8 of the kingdom, from his 
 own actual survey. Died, 1676. 
 
 OGILVIK, JoHX, an able and pious Scotch 
 divine and poet, was bom in 1733 ; received 
 his education at the university of Aberdeen ; 
 was for more than half a century minister 
 of Midmar, in Aberdeenshire ; and died in 
 1814. Among his works are, " Britannia," 
 an epic poem ; " Philosophical and Critical 
 Observations on Composition," " An Exami- 
 nation of the Evidence of Prophecy," and 
 " Sermons." 
 
 OGLETHORPE, Jamks Edward, an 
 English general, was the son of Sir Theophi- 
 lus Oglethorpe, of Godalming, Surrey, and 
 bom in London, in 1698. He served under 
 Prince Eugene, and, in 1733, distinguished 
 himself by his exertions to found the colony 
 of Georgia, for whicli he obtained the royal 
 charter. In 1745 he was promoted to the 
 rank of major-general, and was sent against 
 the rebels, but did not overtake them, for 
 wliich he was brought to a courtmartial, and 
 honourably acquitted. He died in 1785, at 
 the ajlvanced age of i)7, being the oldest ge- 
 neral in the service. The private cliaracter 
 of Oglethorpe was extremely amiable, and 
 he has been eulogised by Thomson, Pope, 
 and Johnson. 
 
 O'UALLORAN, Svlvester, an Irish an- 
 tiquary. He was born in 1728, was brought 
 up and practised as a surgeon, and wrote 
 several medical treatises. But it is as an 
 antiquary and historian that he is now prin- 
 cipally known. In 1772 he published an 
 "Introduction to the Study of the History 
 and Antiquities of Ireland," 4to., which was 
 followed by a " General History of Ireland," 
 2 vols. 4to. Died, 1807. 
 
 O'HAKA, Kane, an Irish dramatist, who 
 had much nmsical taste, fhid a happy talent 
 of adapting verses to oTd airs. His chief 
 productions are, " Midas," which was ex- 
 tremely well received, and is still a favourite; 
 " The Golden Pippin," " The Two Misers," 
 " April Day," and " Tom Thumb." Died, 
 1782. 
 
 O'KEEFE, JoHX, a celebrated dramatist, 
 was born at Dublin, in 1748, and was origin- 
 ally intended for the profession of a painter; 
 but his taste for theatrical amusements in- 
 terfered with his studies, and he soon forsook 
 the easel for the sock and buskin. Having 
 been introduced to Mr. Mossop, he obtained 
 an engagement at the Dublin Theatre ; and 
 he continued to perform in that city, and in 
 the towns to which the company made sum- 
 mer excursions, for 12 years, as a comedian, 
 with considerable success. His ambition to 
 figure as an author was coeval with his thea- 
 trical taste ; fur, at the age of 15, he at- 
 tempted a comedy in five acts. Among his 
 early productions whicli attracted notice, 
 was a kind of histrionic monologue, called 
 "Tony Lumpkin's Rambles tiirough Dub- 
 lin," which atforded him abundant scope for 
 the exhibition of broad humour, and was 
 received with applause, not only in Dublin 
 but at the Haymarket Theatre, London. 
 He at length left Ireland, about 1780, with 
 the view of obtaining an engagement in 
 London ; but, as he did not succeed in his 
 endeavour, he applied himself with great as- 
 siduity to dramatic composition; and between 
 
 1781 and 1798 he produced nearly 50 comedies, 
 comic operas, and farces. Many of these ac- 
 quired a flattering popularity, and some still 
 keep possession of the stage ; among which are, 
 " WildKJats," the " Castle of Andalusia," the 
 "Agreeable Surprise," the "Poor Soldier," 
 " Peeping Tom,' the " Young Quaker," &c. 
 In 1800, 0'Keefe, who was then blind, and had 
 been reduced by misfortunes to a state of great 
 embarrassment, had a benefit at Covent Gar- 
 den Theatre, when between the acts of his 
 comedy of the "Lie of the Day," which was 
 performed on that occasion, he was led on the 
 stage to deliver a poetical address of his own 
 composition, in which humour and pathos 
 were very happily blended. He subsequently 
 published his " Recollections, or Biographical 
 Memoirs ; " and died, at Southampton, in his 
 8«th year, in 18;«. 
 
 OLAFSEN, Eggert, a learned Icelander, 
 who studied at Copenhagen, after which he 
 returned to his native island, which he tra- 
 velled over repeatedly in company with his 
 fellow-student Biarne Paulsen. The result 
 of their observations was printed at Copen- 
 hagen in 2 vols. 4to. 1772. Olafsen was then 
 appointed a magistrate in Iceland, where he 
 devoted much of his time to natural liistory 
 and poetry ; but, about four years before his 
 death, he applied almost wholly to the study 
 of the Scriptures. He was <lrowncd with his 
 wife in crossing the Breidafiord in 1776. 
 
 OLAHUS, Nicholas, archbishop of Stri- 
 gonia, in Hungary, and chancellor of that 
 kingdom, was born at Hermenstadt, in 14{>3, 
 and died in 15fj8. He was a liberal prelate, 
 and published a "Chronicle of his own 
 Times," a " History of Attila," and a "De- 
 scription of Hungary." 
 
 OLAVIDES, Paul Anthony Joseph, 
 Count de, was bom in 1725, at Lima, in Peru, 
 but was educated at Madrid. Charles III. 
 created him a count, and appointed him in- 
 tendant of the province of Andalusia. He 
 undertook the great work of fertilising the 
 Sierra Morena, or the Black Mountain ; and 
 by his perseverance, and the colonies of Ger- 
 mans he brought thither, it became the seat 
 of agricultural and commercial industry. 
 Notwithstanding tlie benefits which this 
 worthy man had thus rendered his country, 
 he fell into disgrace, was charged with he- 
 resy, tried by the merciless tribunal of the 
 Inquisition, and condemned to eight years' 
 imprisonment in a monastery, and to be 
 incapable of all public employment ever 
 after. He contrived to escape from the con- 
 vent, and took refuge in France, whither 
 monastic hate pursued him, and he was 
 forced to seek an asylum at Geneva. After 
 the death of Charles III. he was permitted 
 to return to France. He resided there at 
 the revolution; and, under the reign of terror, 
 he was imprisoned at Orleans, but was re- 
 leased after the fall of Robespierre. He em- 
 ployed the period of his confinement, and 
 his subsequent leisure, in writing an excel- 
 lent work, entitled "The Triumph of the 
 Gospel ; " and the zealots who had persecuted 
 the author assuming the merit of having 
 converted him, obtained his recal to Spain, 
 and he retired to his estates in Andalusia, 
 where he died in 1803. 
 
 OLDCASTLE, Sir John, lord Cobham, 
 
old] 
 
 ^ ^clD Bnihtt^nX SSiosrapl^p. 
 
 [OLI 
 
 the first martyr among our nobility, was 
 born in the reign of Edward III. He was 
 an adherent of Wicklifle, wliose doctrines he 
 propagated with such zeal, that in the reign 
 of Henry V. he was sent to the Tower, 
 whence he made his escape into Wales, A 
 report was then circulated by the clergy, 
 and sent to the king, that 2t),()00 Lollards 
 were assembled in St. Giles's for his destruc- 
 tion, with Lord Cobham at their head ; upon 
 which a bill of attainder was passed against 
 him, and he was burnt alive in St. Giles's 
 Fields, in 1417. He was a man of high spirit 
 and extensive acquirements, and was the 
 author of " Twelve Conclusions, addressed to 
 the Parliament of England." 
 
 OLDFIELD, AXN, a celebrated English 
 actress, was bom in London, in 1683. Sir 
 John Vanbrugh recommended her to Mr. 
 Rich, patentee of the king's theatre, by 
 whom slie was engaged. Her great ex- 
 cellence lay iu comedy, though she often 
 appeared with great eclat in tragic parts; 
 and having the advantages of a good figure 
 and a fine voice, she soon became a general 
 favourite. She was at first the mistress of 
 Mr. Artliur Maynwaring, and after his death 
 of General Churchill ; yet she was much es- 
 teemed in private life. She died in 1730, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 OLDHAM, JoHX, an English poet, was 
 born at Shipton, in Gloucestershire, in 1653. 
 He was appointed tutor to the grandsons of 
 Sir Edmund Thurland, and afterwards to a 
 son of Sir William Hicks. He next resided 
 with the Earl of Kingston, and died of the 
 small pox in 1683. His poems were pub- 
 lished in 4 vols., and there is much force 
 and spirit in many of them, though they 
 partake largely of the licentious sentiments 
 which disgraced the age in which he lived. 
 
 OLDSWORTH, William, an English 
 writer, who was one of the original authors 
 of a periodical paper called the Examiner. 
 He also published a volume, called " State 
 Tracts ; " and another, entitled " State and 
 Miscellaneous Poems," &c. Died, 1734. 
 
 OLDYS, William, an antiquary and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, the natural son of Dr. 
 Oldys, a civilian, was bom in 1606 ; became 
 librarian to Lord Oxford, and was employed 
 in the selection of the "Harleian Miscel- 
 lany ;" was appointed Norroy king-at-arms, 
 and died in 1761. He was the author of 
 many works, of which the following are the 
 principal : " The Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," 
 " The British Librarian," " The Scarborough 
 Miscellany," " The Universal Spectator ; " 
 besides several lives in the Biographia Bri- 
 tannica, General Dictionary, &c. 
 
 OLE ARIUS, or CELSCHL AEGER, Adam, 
 an eminent traveller, was born iu 1599, at 
 Aschersleben, in Anhalt. He received his 
 education at Leipsic ; after wliich he became 
 secretary to an embassy sent to Russia and 
 Persia, by the Duke of Holstein. On his 
 return the prince made him his librarian 
 and keeper of his museum. He was an able 
 mathematician ; wrote an account of his 
 "Travels," a "Chronicle of Holstein," and 
 other works. Died, 1671. 
 
 OLE ARIUS, Godfrey, a learned divine, 
 was born at Leipsic, in 1672. After studying 
 in his own country and Holland, he visited 
 
 Oxford ; and on his return home was ap- 
 pointed professor of Greek. In 1708 he suc- 
 ceeded to the chair of divinity, and died in 
 1715. He wrote several works, historical 
 and theological. 
 
 O'LEARY, Aktiidr, a Roman Catholic 
 divine, was bom at Cork, and educated at 
 St. Maloes, where he became a Franciscan. 
 On his return to his native place he distin- 
 guished himself by persuading his brethren 
 to take the oath of allegiance ; for which, 
 and his other exertions in the cause of 
 loyalty, he obtained a pension, and won the 
 esteem of moderate men of all parties. He 
 afterwards settled in London, and officiated 
 as principal minister in the Roman Catholic 
 chapel in Soho Square. He died in 1802. 
 His addresses to the Catholics of Ireland^ 
 and other tracts, were collected into one 
 volume, 8vo. ; besides which he published 
 "A Defence of his Conduct and Writings," 
 in reply to the Bishop of Cloyne. O'Leary 
 was an acute and spirited writer, and was re- 
 markable for his powers of wit and humour. 
 
 OLIVA, Joux, an eminent antiquary, was 
 born in 1689, at Rovigo, in the state of 
 Venice. He became, successively, professor 
 of ethics at Azzolo, secretary to the con- 
 clave at Rome, and librarian to Cardinal 
 de Rohan, at Paris, where he died in 1757. 
 He published a treatise " On the Study of 
 Medals," and another "On the Progress 
 and Decay of Learning among the Romans;" 
 besides a dissertation, entitled " De Antiqua 
 in Romanis Scholis Grammaticorum Disci- 
 plina," &c. 
 
 OLIVAREZ, Gaspak Guzmas-, Count 
 Duke d', an eminent Spanish statesman, 
 was born at Rome, where his father had 
 been sent on an embassy to pope Sixtus "V. 
 When Philip IV. succeeded to the crown, 
 the management of public affairs was in- 
 trusted wholly to Olivarez, and he enjoyed, 
 during a period of 22 years, almost unbounded 
 authority. The domestic regulations of the 
 kingdom he conducted with much success ; 
 but in foreign affairs he was constantly 
 thwarted by the bolder genius of the French 
 minister Richelieu, and had the mortification 
 to witness the dismemberment of Portugal 
 from the crown of Spain, and the loss of 
 Brazil and other foreign colonies, which fell 
 into the hands of the Dutch. In consequence 
 of these misfortunes the king was reluc- 
 tantly forced to dismiss him in 1643, when 
 he was succeeded by his nephew Don Louis 
 de Haro. 
 
 OLIVER OF MAIJVIESBURY, a Bene- 
 dictine monk of the 11th century, chiefly 
 memorable as the first Englishman who at- 
 tempted to travel through the aerial regions. 
 He is said to have been well skilled in me- 
 chanics ; but in attempting to fly from a 
 lofty tower, with wings of his own construc- 
 tion fastened to his hands and feet, he fell, 
 and broke both his legs. 
 
 OLIVER, Isaac, an English painter, was 
 bom in 15.56. His miniatures were painted 
 in a style of exquisite beauty, and he also 
 executed some good historical pictures. Died, 
 
 1617 His son, Peter Oliver, who died 
 
 about 1654, was also an admirable artist 
 in the same line, and much employed by 
 Charles I. 
 
OLi] 
 
 ^ ^m ^nibtxial JStnjjrapi^B. 
 
 [OMB 
 
 OLIVET, Joseph Thoulier d', a learned 
 critic, was bom at Salins, in France, in 1682. 
 He entered into the society of Jesuits, but • 
 left them to lead a retired life at Paris, where 
 he was admitted a member of the academy, 
 whose history he continued in 2 vols. His 
 greatest work, however, is his edition of 
 Cicero, in 9 vols. 4to., or 10 vols. 8vo. The 
 Abbe Olivet also published translations from 
 Cicero and Demosthenes, executed in a 
 spirited and elegant manner. Died, 1768. 
 
 OLIVETAN, Robert, a French reformer, 
 who was the first that translated the Scrip- 
 tures into French immediately from the 
 Hebrew and Greek. Some writers, however, 
 allege, that he made his version irom that of 
 St. Jerome ; while others assert that Calvin, 
 who was related to Olivetan, polished and 
 revised the whole work, which was printed 
 atNeufchatel in 1535, but is now exceedingly 
 rai-e. It is called the Bible of the Sword, on 
 account of that emblem being adopted by 
 the printer. Olivetan being banislied from 
 Geneva, went to Rome, where he died, as is 
 supposed of poison, in 1539. 
 
 OLIVE YRA,FKAJf CIS Xavier de, a Por- 
 tuguese knight, and gentleman of the house- 
 hold to the king, was born at Lisbon, in 1702. 
 On going to Vienna, as secretary to the em- 
 bassy, he became a convert to the Protestant 
 faith ; to profess which he came to England 
 in 1746. He published "Memoirs of his 
 Travels," "Familiar Letters," " A Pathetic 
 Discourse to his Countrymen, on the Earth- 
 quake at Lisbon in 1756," " Tlie Chevalier 
 d'Oliveyra burnt in Effigy as an Heretic, 
 why and wherefore T' &c. ; and he left at his 
 death, which happened at Hackney, in 1783, 
 a great number of MSS., including " Olivey- 
 riana, or Memoirs, historical and literary," 
 27 vols. 4to. 
 
 OLIVIER, GciLLAUME Antoise, an emi- 
 nent French naturalist and traveller, was 
 born in 1756, at Frejus. He made botany 
 and entomolo^ his especial study, went on 
 a scienUflc mission to Persia in 1792, re- 
 turned with a valuable collection after an 
 absence of six years, and died in 1814. He 
 published the result of his researches in the 
 East, under the title of " Voyage dans 
 I'Empire Ottoman, I'Egypt, et la Perse," 
 3 vols. 4to., with an atlas and plates ; also, 
 a " Natural History of Coleopterous In- 
 sects," &c. 
 
 OLIVIERI, Annibal, a learned Italian 
 antiquary, bom at Pesaro, in 1708 ; author of 
 " Marmora Pesauriensi a Notis illustrata," 2 
 vols. ; " Memoirs of the ancient Port of 
 Pesaro," and "Memoirs of the Chevalier 
 Passeri." He was honorary cliamberlain 
 to pope Clement XIII., and perpetual secre- 
 tary of the academy of Pesaro. 
 
 OLYMPIAS, wife of Philip, king of Ma- 
 cedonia, and mother of Alexander the Great, 
 was the daughter of Neoptolemus, king of 
 Epirus. Her haughtiness, and, more pro- 
 bably, her infidelity, iuduced Philip to re- 
 pudiate her ; and as Philip's murder soon 
 followed this disgrace, some have attributed 
 it to her intrigues. Antipater, the successor 
 of Alexander on the Macedonian throne, 
 left the administration of the country to 
 Polyperchon, who, to confirm his power, re- 
 called Olympias from Epirus, whither she 
 
 651 
 
 had fled, and confided to her the guardian- 
 ship of the young son of Alexander. She 
 now cruelly put to death Aridseus, son of 
 Philip, with his wife Eurydice, as also 
 Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, with 100 
 leading men of Macedon, who were inimical 
 to her interest. But such barbarities did 
 not long remain unpunished. Cassander be- 
 sieged her in Pydna, where she had retired 
 with her family ; and being obliged to sur- 
 render, after an obstinate siege, she was put 
 to death. 
 
 OLYMPIODORUS, an Alexandrian phi- 
 losopher of the 5th century, celebrated for 
 his knowledge of the Aristotelian doctrine. 
 
 Another Olympiodouus was a Pla- 
 
 tonist, who wrote a " Life " of, and " Com- 
 mentary " on, Plato. A third, who 
 
 flourished in a later age, was a peripatetic, 
 who wrote " A Commentary ou the Meteor- 
 ology of Aristotle." 
 
 OMAR I., caliph of the Saracens, was the 
 successor of Abubeker, and father-in-law of 
 Mahomet. He began his reign a.d. 634, and 
 is conspicuous among the conquerors who 
 have desolated the face of the earth. His 
 generals, Kaled and Abu Obeidah, drove tlie 
 Greeks out of Syria and Phoenicia, and the 
 caliph himself took possession of Jerusalem 
 in 638, which city remained in the hands of 
 the infidels till it was reconquered by Godfrey 
 of Bouillon, at the end of the Uth century. 
 Amru, one of his generals, defeated the 
 troops of Heraclius, near Antioch, in 681 ; 
 Memphis and Alexandria surrendered ; all 
 Egypt, and a part of Libya, were conquered 
 from the Romans ; and the famous library, 
 which had been founded at Alexandria by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, was burnt by the 
 express orders of Omar. Having flxed-his 
 residence at Jerusalem, he was there assassin- 
 ated by a Persian slave, in the lOtli year of his 
 government, A.D. 643. He refused to appoint 
 a successor, and thus the caliphate became 
 elective. 
 
 O'MEARA, Barry Edward, the confi- 
 dential medical attendant of the emperor 
 Napoleon in his last days, and author of" A 
 Voice from St. Helena," was a native of Ire- 
 land, and bom about 1778. He was originally 
 a surgeon in the British navy, and was ou 
 board the Bellerophon in tliat capacity, ou 
 the 7th of August, 1815, when Napoleon went 
 on board. Napoleon having observed Dr. 
 O'Meara's skill in attending to some of tlie 
 crew, and his knowledge of Italian, made 
 overtures to him, on being transferred to the 
 Northumberland, to accompany liim to St. 
 Helena as his surgeon, his own not being 
 able to go with lum. Having obtained Ad- 
 miral Keith's permission. Dr. O'Meara as- 
 sented, and remained with the ex-eniperor 
 till July, 1818, when he was recalled and 
 deprived of his rank. He was latterly an 
 active partisan of O'Connell's, at one of whose 
 agitation meetings he is said to have cauglit 
 the illness which terminated fatally, June 3. 
 1836. In the following month a sale of his 
 eflfects took place ; and it is surprising what 
 competition there was for such articles as had 
 been the property of the French emperor, 
 A few lines in his handwriting sold for 11 
 guineas ; a lock of his hair, 21. 10s. ; one of 
 his teeth, 7 guineas and a half ; and the in- 
 
 8k3 
 
ome] 
 
 a ^cto mnihtr^al 38t05rapf)g. 
 
 [OKI 
 
 strument used by O'Meara in extracting it, 3 
 guineas ! 
 
 O'MEARA, Theodosia Beauchamp, wife 
 of the preceding Barry O'Meara, but who 
 styled herself Lady Leigh, died in 1830. She 
 was the widow of Captain John Donellan, 
 who was hung at Warwick, in 1781, for 
 poisoning Sir Theodosius Boughton ; she 
 next married Sir Egerton Leigh, bart.; and 
 at liis death, in 1818, slie gave her liand to 
 the author of" A Voice from St. Helena." 
 
 OPIE. John, an eminent historical painter, 
 was born, in 17C1, at St. Agnes, near Truro, 
 in Cornwall. At the age of 12 he was con- 
 sidered a phenomenon of learning ; he had 
 mastered Euclid, and commenced teacher to 
 the peasants in that immediate neighbour- 
 hood. His father, who was a carpenter, saw 
 his dwelling-house hung with likenesses and 
 sketches of landscapes with anger, at what 
 he thought a mere idle propensity ; but his 
 uncle witnessed these efforts of early genius 
 with pleasure. His talents at length attracted 
 the notice of Dr. Wolcot, the satirist, whose 
 instructions greatly served him. He com- 
 menced as a portrait painter, and visited the 
 neighbouring towns in quest of employment; 
 and on one of these occasions he returned 
 home well dressed, with 20 guineas in his 
 pocket. Tliis money he gave to his mother, 
 of whom he was excessively fond, and told 
 her that in future he should maintain him- 
 self. He accordingly removed to London, 
 and was introduced to Sir J. Reynolds. 
 Wolcot was impatient to see his progress ; 
 and as his fame had preceded him, the Lon- 
 don connoisseurs were all eager to behold the 
 Cornish wonder. He was then 20 years 
 of age, people of distinction crowded his 
 door, and it became the fashion to sit to 
 him ; but as the novelty wore off, so did the 
 fashion ; and, by the time he was 40, though 
 he gradually improved, he was comparatively 
 deserted. The first specimen he gave of his 
 literary ability was in a life of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, in Dr. Wolcot's edition of Pil- 
 kington's Dictionary. He then published 
 " An Enquiry into the requisite Cultivation 
 of the Arts of Design in England ;" and he 
 delivered lectures at the Royal Institution. 
 On Fuseli's death, he was appointed to 
 succeed him as professor of painting to the 
 Royal Academy. He died in 1807, and was 
 interred near bir Joshua Reynolds, in St. 
 
 Paul's cathedral His wife Amelia Opie, 
 
 born in 1771, at Harwich, was highly distin- 
 guished for her literary abilities, and was the 
 author of" A Life of Opie," " Adeline Mow- 
 bray," "Simple Tales," "The Eve of St. 
 Valentine," &c. 
 
 OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Martin, a German 
 poet, was born at Bunzlau, in Silesia, in 1597. 
 He became schoolmaster at V/eissenberg, 
 and afterwards secretary to a nobleman, at 
 whose expense he travelled to Paris, where 
 he formed an acquaintance with Grotius. He 
 is called the father of German poetry. Died, 
 1689. 
 
 OPPIAN, a Greek poet, who lived under 
 Caracalla, in the beginning of the 3d century, 
 wrote poems distinguished for elegance and 
 sublimity, two only of which are now extant, 
 his " Halieuticon," or five books on fishing, 
 and four books on hunting, entitled "Cy- 
 
 nsegeticon." He died in his 30th year, a.d. 
 213. 
 
 O'REILLY, ALEXANDEn, a native of Ire- 
 land, who entered into the Spanish army, 
 where he obtained the favour of Charles III., 
 and was raised to the highest militarj' rank 
 for his eminent services. Born, 1735 ; died, 
 1794. 
 
 O'REILLY, Andrew, Count, a general 
 of cavalry in the Austrian service, was a 
 native of Ireland. He was a brave and 
 skilful officer, and had filled in succession 
 all the military grades in the Austrian 
 army, with the exception of that of field- 
 marshal. At the battle of Austerlitz, so 
 fatal to their cause, the remnant of the army 
 was preserved from destruction by his courage 
 and skill ; and when, in 1809, he held the post 
 of governor of Vienna, the difficult task of 
 making an honourable capitulation with the 
 French emperor devolved on him. He died 
 in the 91st year of his age. 
 
 ORELLANA, Francis, a Spanish officer, 
 who is regarded as the discoverer of the river 
 Amazons, in South America. At least, he 
 was the first European that navigated that 
 mighty stream, and it still bears his name. 
 Died, 1549. 
 
 ORFORD. See Russell and AValpolk. 
 
 ORGAGNA, Andrew, an Italian painter, 
 was born at Florence, in 1329. He was 
 also a sculptor and architect. In a picture 
 of the Last Day, he represented his friends 
 in paradise, and his enemies in hell. Died, 
 1389. 
 
 ORIGEN, a father of the church, and one 
 of the most learned ecclesiastical writers, 
 was born at Alexandria, a. d. 185, of Chris- 
 tian parents, who early instructed him in 
 religious knowledge and in the sciences. At 
 the age of 17 he lost his father, who was be- 
 headed for his profession of Christianity. 
 Origen had now recourse to the teaching of 
 grammar for the support of himself, his 
 mother, and brethren ; but this occupation 
 he relinquished, on being appointed professor 
 of sacred learning in the church of Alexan- 
 dria. In this si tuation he distinguished him- 
 self by the austerity of his life ; and taking 
 the Scripture in the most rigid sense, he 
 carried it so far as to put in practice the 
 passage of the gospel, " There be some who 
 have made themselves eunuchs for the king- 
 dom of heaven." From Alexandria he went 
 to Rome, where he began his famous " Hex- 
 apla," or the Bible in different languages. 
 At the command of his bishop he returned 
 to Alexandria, and was ordained. Soon 
 after this he began his " Commentaries on 
 the Scriptures ; " but Demetrius, who en- 
 vied his reputation, persecuted him with 
 violence, and in a council assembled in 231, 
 it was decreed that Origen should desist 
 from preaching, and quit the city. On this 
 he went to Caesarea, where he was well re- 
 ceived by the bishop, and permitted to 
 preach. He was consulted in several epis- 
 copal synods j but in the persecution under 
 Decius he was thrown into prison, and put 
 to the torture. On his release he applied 
 himself to his ministerial labours, and to 
 writing. He died in 254. In his Commen- 
 taries he indulged too much the fancy for 
 allegory ; and in his other works he ad- | 
 
orl] 
 
 ^ ^m Bnihtt^Ki ^BtOjarapljn. 
 
 [OBL 
 
 vanced notions more agreeable to the Pla- 
 tonic philosophy than the Scriptures. The 
 most offensive of his doctrines related to tlie 
 pre-existence of souls, and the finite dura- 
 tion of future punishment. 
 
 OllLANDI, Pekegkijje Anthonv, a 
 learned bibliographer and writer on the 
 history of the arts, was pr<3fessor of theology 
 at Bologua, where he died in 1730. 
 
 ORLEANS, Chaui.es, Duke of, was made 
 prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, in 1415. 
 He remained in England 25 years ; and on 
 his return to France he undertook the con- 
 quest of the duchy of Milan, to which he 
 conceived himself entitled in right of his 
 mother. He was not, however, successful in 
 this enterprise ; and died in 14(55. 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis, Duke of, was the son 
 of Philip the regent of France, and born at 
 Versailles, in 1703. In study, devotion, and 
 acts of charity he spent his life. In 1733 he 
 saved numbers from perishing by famine in 
 the Orleannois ; as he again did throughout 
 France, in the dearth of 1740. He also ex- 
 tended his benevolence to distant countries ; 
 while in his own he founded schools, profes- 
 sorships, hospitals, and colleges. But his 
 charitable occupations did not draw him 
 aside from his studies, which he pursued 
 with such diligence as to become master of 
 the oriental languages, and most of the 
 sciences. He died in 1752, leaving many 
 works in manuscript, the chief of which 
 were " Commentaries on the Scriptures." 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis Joseph Philip, Duke 
 of (better known by his republican appella- 
 tion of EgaiM), was the cousin of Louis XVI., 
 and father of Louis Philippe, the late king 
 of the French. He was born at St. Cloud, in 
 1747 i married the daughter of the Duke of 
 Penthievre, grand admiral of France, in 
 17C9 ; was from his youth guilty of the most 
 unbridled licentiousness ; and acquired a 
 base notoriety by his conduct during the 
 French revolution. After the death of his 
 father, in 1787, he became possessed of the 
 hereditary title and estates ; and, having 
 indulged to satiety in all sensual pleasures, 
 he found a new kind of excitement for his 
 palled appetites in the storms of the revolu- 
 tion, and a new source of pleasure in the 
 gratifications of revenge. He had entered 
 the navy, and was entitled by his birth to 
 the place of grand-admiral ; but having 
 been accused of cowardice while in com- 
 mand of a division of the fleet against Kep- 
 pel, in the action ofi'Ushant, in 1778, instead 
 of receiving promotion in the navy, the post 
 of colonel-general of the hussars was created 
 and bestowed on him. From this time may 
 be dated his hatred of Louis XVI.; and he 
 subsequently adopted every method to ob- 
 tain popularity, with a view to political 
 power. In the disputes between the court 
 and the parliament, he constantly opposed 
 the royal authority. His object evidently 
 was to reduce the king to a state of tutelage, 
 and procure for himself the formidable 
 office of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. 
 He caused scandalous libels against the 
 queen, whom he pursued with the most 
 hitter hatred, to be distributed ; and his bust 
 was carried in triumph through the streets 
 by the populace. He was chosen a member 
 
 653 
 
 of the National Convention, with Marat, 
 Danton.and Robespierre, in September, 1792, 
 at which time the commune of Paris autho- 
 rised hira to adopt for himself and his de- 
 scendants the api^ellation of E^alit^, in- 
 stead of the name and titles of his family ; 
 and he not only voted for the death of the 
 king, but was present at his execution. But 
 he was not qualified to profit by the commo- 
 tions he had promoted ; he was as weak as 
 he was wicked, as indecisive as he was am- 
 bitious. The Jacobins had no longer any 
 occasion for him ; he was struck from their 
 rolls, and included in the general proscrip- 
 tion of the Bourbons ; and was committed 
 to prison at Marseilles, with other members 
 of the family. Being brought before the 
 criminal tribunal of the department, he was 
 declared innocent of the charges of conspi- 
 racy that were preferred against him ; but 
 the committee of public safety forbade liis 
 liberation ; and, after six months' detention, 
 he was transferred to Paris, tried, and con- 
 demned to sulfer by the guillotine ; to which 
 he submitted with firmness and courage, on 
 the same day, Nov. 6. 1793. His widow re- 
 turned to Paris after the restoration, and 
 died there in 1821. 
 
 ORLEANS, Ferdinand Philippe Loins, 
 Duke of, prince-royal of France, was born 
 at Palermo in 1810, and was the eldest child 
 of Louis Philippe, then duke of Orleans, and 
 afterwards king of the French, by Maria 
 Amelia, daughter of Ferdiuand, king of the 
 Two Sicilies. The prince served with great 
 distinction with the French army at the 
 siege of Antwerp, and in the African war ; 
 and his horse was wounded at the time of 
 the murderous attempt upon tlie life of his 
 royal father in 1835. Young, popular, a 
 patron of the arts and literature, and de- 
 votedly attached to his profession, every 
 thing seemed to promise to this prince a 
 career glorious to himself and useful to his 
 country, when he was unfortunately thrown 
 from his carriage, and he died on the spot, 
 July 13. 1842, aged 32, leaving a widow 
 and two sons. 
 
 ORLEANS, Marie, Princess of, daughter 
 of Louis Philippe, ex-king of the Frencli, 
 was born at Palermo, 1813. From her earliest 
 years she evinced a remarkable love of the 
 fine arts, and more especially of sculjiture, 
 which she cultivated with a zeal and as- 
 siduity that soon gave her a prominent 
 place among the most distinguished artists 
 of her time. Her marvellous statue of Joan 
 of Arc, in the museum of Versailles, was 
 finished before she had reached her 20th 
 year ; and besides this she produced nu- 
 merous has reliefs, busts, and statuettes, of 
 rare beauty and excellence. In 1837, she 
 married Alexander, duke of Wtlrtemberg ; 
 a union rich in promises of earthly happi- 
 ness ; but she was prematurely cut off by 
 consumption in 1839, to the inexpressible 
 grief of her family and the friends of art. 
 
 ORLOFF, Gregory, a favourite of Ca- 
 tharine II. of Russia. He had a principal 
 share in the revolution that placed his mis- 
 tress on the throne of Russia ; after which 
 he was made grand-master of the artillery, 
 and raised to the first dignities in the state, 
 and was allowed to wear the picture of the 
 
 3k 8 
 
orl] 
 
 ^ ^ztxi Unibtx^al SSifltjrap^^. 
 
 [OSM 
 
 empresa in his button-hole. His ambition 
 prompted hira to aim at sharing the throne 
 with the empress, wlio would have submitted 
 to a private marriage. This he imprudently 
 refused to accept, and he was supplanted by 
 a new favourite. He was tlien ordered to 
 travel, but was gratified with magnificent 
 presents, and received the title of prince of 
 the German empire, which Catharine pro- 
 cured for him. Died, 1783. 
 
 ORLOFF, Alexis, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was remarkable for his gigantic 
 stature and Herculean strength. He was 
 one of the chief instruments in effecting the 
 revolution that ended in the murder of 
 Peter III., and is said to have been the 
 person who strangled him in prison. He 
 rose to high dignities in the army ; and, in 
 1768, was made admiral of the Russian fleet 
 in the Archipelago, with unlimited power, 
 against the Turks, whom he defeated off 
 Tschesme ; for which exploit he was called 
 Tsdiesmengkoi. On the accession of Paul I. 
 he was disgraced, and banished from Russia; 
 but, after the death of that emperor, he re- 
 turned to Moscow, and died there in 1808. 
 
 ORLOFF, Gregory Vlauimiromitz, a 
 Russian nobleman, distinguished by his at- 
 tachment to literature and the sciences, was 
 born in 1777, and died in 182(5. His chief 
 works are, "Mt'moires Historiques, Politi- 
 ques, et Litteraires sur le Royaume de 
 Naples," 5 vols.; and " Histoire des Arts en 
 Italic." 
 
 ORME, Robert, an historian, was born in 
 1728, at Anjengo, in the East Indies, where 
 his father was a physician in the company's 
 service. He was educated at Harrow, ob- 
 tained a civil appointment in India, became 
 a member of the council at Fort St. George, 
 and was a commissary and accomptant-ge- 
 neral. In 1758 he returned to England, and 
 employed himself in writing " The History 
 of the Military Transactions of the British 
 Nation in Indostan," the first volume of 
 which was published in 1763, and the second 
 in 1778. The author compiled also a work, 
 entitled " Historical Fragments of the Mogul 
 Empire of tlie Malirattas," &c. Died, 1801. 
 
 ORMOND; James Butler, Duke of, an 
 eminent statesman, was born in 1610, in 
 London, and succeeded to the earldom of 
 Ormond in 1632. During tlie wars between 
 Charles I. and the parliament he strenu- 
 ously laboured, though with very inade- 
 quate force, to uphold the king's authority 
 in Ireland ; and on the ruin of the royal 
 cause, he retired to the Continent, and ex- 
 erted himself to promote the re-establish- 
 ment of monarchy in England. After the 
 restoration of Charles II. he was created a 
 duke, and was twice appointed lord-lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland. In 1670 he narrowly 
 escaped with his life from a plot formed 
 against him by the desperado Colonel Blood. 
 Died, 1688. 
 
 OROBIO, Balthasar, a Spanish Jew, 
 who became professor of metaphysics at 
 Salamanca, and afterwartls a physician at 
 Seville, where his family were nominally 
 Cliristians. Orobio at last fell under tlie 
 suspicion of the holy office, and was tor- 
 tured and imprisoned. At the expiration of 
 three years he obtained his release, and then 
 
 went to Toulouse ; from which place he re- 
 moved to Amsterdam, where he made an 
 open profession of Judaism, submitted to the 
 rite of circumcision, took the name of Isaac, 
 and practised as a physician. He wrote a 
 book against Spinoza, entitled " Certamen 
 Philosophicum." Limborch had a confer- 
 ence with him on the subject of the Chris- 
 tian religion, of which he published a cele- 
 brated book, entitled " Arnica Collatio cum 
 erudito Judajo." 
 
 ORTE, Viscount d', whose name de- 
 serA-es to be recorded as an instance of manly 
 integrity and true honour, was governor of 
 Bayonne at the time of the infamous mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew. Having received 
 an order from Charles IX. to put to death 
 all the Protestants in his government, he 
 replied in the following words, " Sire, I have 
 communicated your majesty's letter to the 
 garrison and inhabitants of tliis city. I have 
 found only brave soldiers and good citizens, 
 and not a single executioner." 
 
 ORTELL, or ORTELIUS, Abraham, a 
 learned geographer, born at 'Antwerp, in 
 1527. After travelling on the Continent and 
 in Great Britain, he published an Atlas, 
 which gained for him the appointment of 
 geographer to Philip II. of Spain. His 
 principal works are, "Thesaurus Geogra- 
 phicus " and " Theatri Orbis Terrarum." 
 Died, 1598. 
 
 ORTON, Joe, an eminent dissenting mi- 
 nister, was born at Shrewsburj-, in 1717. He 
 was the author of a " Life of Dr. Doddridge," 
 '' Sacramental Meditations," " Discourses on 
 Christian Worship," " Discourses on Practi- 
 cal Subjects," &c. After his death, which 
 happened in 1783, was printed his " Practical 
 Exposition of theOld Testament," 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 ORVILLE, James Philip d', an eminent 
 writer on classical literature, was born at 
 Amsterdam, in 1696. He travelled in Eng- 
 land, Italy, France, and Germany, visiting 
 every where the public libraries, and form- 
 ing an acquaintance with the most celebrated 
 classical scholars of the age. He occupied 
 the ciiair of history, rhetoric, and Greek 
 literature at Amsterdam, from 1730 to 1742, 
 published several critical works, and died, 
 in 1751. 
 
 OSBORNE, Fraxcis, an English gentle- 
 man, was born in Bedfordshire, about 1588. 
 He became master of the horse to the Earl 
 of Pembroke, and in the civil wars he joined 
 the parliament. Mr. Osborne wrote, " Ad- 
 vice to a Son," and " Letters aud Poems," 2 
 vols.; " Historical Memoirs on the Reigns of 
 Queen Elizabeth and King James," " Plea 
 for a Free State compared with Monarchy," 
 &c. Died, 1658. 
 
 OSIANDER, Andrew, a celebrated Ger- 
 man Protestant theologian, was bom at 
 Guntzenhausen, in Franconia, in 1498. He 
 early adopted the opinions of Luther, and 
 took an active part in forming the Confession 
 of Augsburg ; became minister and professor 
 at Konigsberg, in Prussia ; and died in 1552. 
 He was the author of " HarmoniaB Evan- 
 gelicae." — There were several others of this 
 family, all Protestant divines, and similarly 
 distinguished. 
 
 OSMAN BEY, Nemsey, a colonel in the 
 Austrian service, who having been accused 
 
of robbing the regimental chest, and received 
 for it a year's iitiprisonment, determined to 
 
 go to Constantinople, and turn Mahometan. 
 He accordingly arrived there in 1779, made 
 proi'ession of the Moslem faith, and received 
 
 from the grand seignor a handsome pension, 
 with an estate in Magneiiia, in Asia Minor. 
 He possessed a taste for the fine arts, and for 
 the study of archaeology and numismatics ; 
 and he amused himself in adding to his 
 collection all the scarce coins and medals he 
 could collect. He had continued thus to 
 employ himself for some years, when he was 
 murdered by two of his servants, who were 
 tempted to the deed by the hope of obtaining 
 a large booty, a considerable sum of money 
 being in his possession at the time. This 
 hap|)ened in 178.5. 
 
 OSMOND. St., bishop of Salisbury in 
 the 11th century, accompanied William the 
 Norman to England, and was not less dis- 
 tinguished for military reuovm in the early 
 part of his life, than for his learning and 
 piety at a subsequent period. He erected a 
 cathedral at Old Sarum, in which he was in- 
 terred, but his ashes were afterwards taken 
 up and enshrined. He wrote a " Missal," or 
 service book, which became the most popular 
 manual of public devotion among the Eng- 
 lish clergy, and has principally contributed 
 to hand down his name to posterity. 
 
 OSSIAN, an ancient Gaelic bard, is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the 3rd century, and 
 to have been the son of Fingal, a Caledonian 
 hero, whom he accompanied in various 
 military expeditions. His name has derived 
 its celebrity from the publications of Mac- 
 pherson, which comprise a remarkable series 
 of ballads, on the deliverance of Erin from 
 the haughty Swaran, king of Lochlin, by 
 Fingal. They have been translated into all 
 the European languages, and please by their 
 successful delineation of t!ie passions, pic- 
 turesque expressions, bold but lovely images 
 and comparisons, deep pathos, and tender 
 melancholy tone. 
 
 OSTADE, Adriax van, a painter of the 
 Flemish school, was bom at Lubeck, in 1010, 
 and studied under Francis Hals. His pic- 
 tures are characterised by an exact imitation 
 of nature, and usually consist of alehouse 
 interiors, with Dutch peasants smoking, 
 quarrelling, or drinking. His colouring is 
 rich and clear, his touch spirited and free, 
 and all his works are highly finished. Died, 
 IdSr,. 
 
 OSTERVALD, John' Fuedekic, a Swiss 
 Protestant di\'ine, was born at Neufchatel, 
 in 16C3 ; became pastor of the church in that 
 place in 1699 ; and died in 1747. His chief 
 works are, " A Catechism of the Christian 
 Religion," " Arguments and Reflections on 
 all the Books of the Bible," 2 vols. ; " Trea- 
 tise against Uncleanness," "Treatise on the 
 Sources of Corruption," and " Sermons." 
 
 OSTER WICK, Maria van, who is ranked 
 among the most celebrated flower painters, 
 was born at Nootdorp, near Delft, in 1030, 
 and died in 1693. She was patronised by 
 the emperor Leopold, William III., and 
 Louis XIV. ; and her pictures were eagerly 
 sought after, and admitted into the choicest 
 collections. 
 OSWALD, king of Northumberland, was 
 
 obliged, after the death of Ethelred his 
 father, to take refuge in Ireland ; his uncle, 
 Edwin, having usurped the throne. He be- 
 came a Christian in his retreat ; and return- 
 ing to his own country, defeated Cerdowalla, 
 king of the Britons, who lost his life. Os- 
 wald reunited the two kingdoms of North- 
 umberland ; but was slain in a battle with 
 Penda, king of Mercia, in 043. 
 
 OSYMANDYAS, an ancient king of 
 Egypt, who flourished about 1500 years b. c, 
 or, as some authors conjecture, 2.*100 years. 
 He erected the gigantic works of Thebes, 
 built the Memnonium in the city of the 
 hundred gates, and, according to Diodorus, 
 inscritted on his colossus, "I am Osyman- 
 dyas, king of kings ; if any man will know 
 my greatness and my resting-place, let him 
 destroy one of my works." 
 
 OTHO, Marcus Salvius, a Roman em- 
 peror, was born at Rome, a.d. 32, of a family 
 which descended from the ancient kings of 
 Tuscany. After Nero's death he attached 
 himself to Galba, but that emperor having 
 adopted Piso as his heir, Otho excited an 
 insurrection, murdered Galba and Piso, and 
 ascended the throne in 69. He was opposed 
 by Vitellius, who was supported by the Ger- 
 man army, and, in a battle between the two 
 rivals near Cremona, Otho was defeated, on 
 which he slew himself, after reigning three 
 months. 
 
 OTHO I., emperor of Germany, called 
 the Great, was the eldest son of Henry the 
 Fowler, and crowned in 9.36, at the age of 14. 
 Berenger having usurped the title of emperor 
 in Itair, Otho entered Rome, where he was 
 crowned by John XII. That pontiff after- 
 wards leagued with Berenger, on which 
 Otho caused him to be deposed, and put 
 Leo XIII. in his place in 963. On the em- 
 peror's return to Germany, the Romans re- 
 volted, and imprisoned Leo ; for which Otho 
 again visited Rome, wliere he severely exer- 
 cised his vengeance on the senate. He next 
 turned his arms against Nicephorus, emperor 
 of the East, whose army he defeated, and, 
 after cutting off their noses, sent the pri- 
 soners to Constantinople. John Zimisces, 
 the successor of Nicephorus, made peace witli 
 Otho, who died in 973. 
 
 OTHO, Venius, a painter and the in- 
 structor of Rubens, was born at Leyden, in 
 1556. After residing at Rome several yeais, 
 he went to Germany, where he was employed 
 by tlie emperor. Died, 1634. 
 
 OTTLEY, AVm. Youxg, F.R. S., F. S. A., 
 and keeper of the prints in the British Mu- 
 seum. During the whole of his life, Mr. 
 Ottley devoted himself to the fine arts, and 
 was known as an artist, a collector, and an 
 author. When scarcely 20 years of age he 
 proceeded to Italy ; where, wrapt in admi- 
 ration of the endless treasures of art, he not 
 only employed his own talents, but the 
 talents of others, in taking copies of the 
 most esteemed paintings, and in collecting 
 whatever appeared most interesting and 
 valuable. There he remained about 10 years; 
 and on his return to England he produced a 
 series of facsimiles of the original drawings 
 of the best masters, under the title of the 
 " Italian School of Design," a magnificent 
 work, consisting of 84 plates. His other prin- 
 
ott] 
 
 ^ fitbi UniiitY^id BCosrapl^i?. 
 
 [OUD 
 
 cipal works are, " The Florentine School," 
 the " Origin and Early History of Engrav- 
 ing," 2 vols, i " The Stafford Gallery ."^ and 
 " The Critical Catalogue of the National 
 Gallery." Born, 1772 ; died, 1836. 
 
 OTTO, Lonis William, count de Mosloy, 
 an eminent French diplomatist, was born in 
 Baden, in 17.54, and educated in the univer- 
 sity of Strasburg. lie was employed in 1779, 
 secretary and ckargi d'affaires to the United 
 States in America, where he remained till 
 1792. He was then employed by the com- 
 mittee of public safety in the foreign de- 
 partment of the state ; but, on the fall of the 
 Girondists, shortly after, he was sent to the 
 Luxembourg prison, where he remained till 
 the revolution of the 9th Thermidor. In 
 1800 he was sent to England, and he re- 
 mained there, as minister-plenipotentiary, 
 till the peace of Amiens, when he was suc- 
 ceeded by General Andreossy. In 1809 he 
 was sent ambassador to Vienna, where he 
 negotiated the marriage of Buonaparte with 
 Maria Louisa, the archduchess ; and re- 
 mained there till 1813, when, on his return to 
 Paris, he became minister of state. At the 
 restoration, in 1814, he was unemployed; and 
 in 181o, during the hundred days, was made 
 secretary for foreign affairs. He was, after 
 the battle of Waterloo, employed by Napo- 
 leon to negotiate for his personal security 
 with the English government ; but the object 
 failed, through not receiving passports. 
 
 OTWAY, Thomas, an English dramatic 
 writer, was born in 1651, at Trotting, in 
 Sussex ; was educated at Winchester, and 
 Christchurch College, Oxford ; and after 
 having made some attempts as an actor, lie 
 became a writer for the stage. In 1675 he 
 produced his first tragedy of " Alcibiades," 
 and the following year appeared his " Don 
 Carlos," which proved extremely successful. 
 His theatrical reputation introduced him to 
 the patronage of the Earl of Plymouth, a 
 natural son of Charles II., who procured 
 him a cornetcy in a regiment of cavalry, 
 destined for Flanders, in which country he 
 served for a short time, and then returned, 
 pursued by habitual poverty. He continued 
 to write for the stage, but found it a very 
 scanty means of subsistence, and died, 
 during 1685, in his 34th year, at a public- 
 house on Tower Hill, where he had secreted 
 himself from his creditors, in a state of great 
 destitution. As a tragic writer he stands 
 high, and no one has touched scenes of 
 domestic distress with more force and feeling. 
 
 OUDET, James Joseph, a French repub- 
 lican officer, of distinguished merit, who 
 was supposed to have been concerned in the 
 formation of a secret society, directed against 
 the imperial power of Napoleon. His move- 
 ments were accordingly watched by the go- 
 vernment with great suspicion ; and, after 
 having been alternately employed and ex- 
 iled, he had the command of a division at 
 the battle of Wagram, where he highly sig- 
 nalised himself, and soon after died of the 
 wounds he received on that occasion. 
 
 OUDIN, Casimiu, a French monk, was 
 born at Mezieres, in 1638. He entered among 
 the Premontres, and, while in the abbey of 
 Bucilly, in Champagne, attracted the notice 
 of Louis XIV. so much by his talents and 
 
 genius, that his superiors employed him to 
 make collections for a history of their order. 
 He afterwards embraced the Protestant re- 
 ligion at Leyden, and was made librarian of 
 the university. His works are, " History of 
 Ecclesiastical Writers," " Commentarius de 
 Scriptoribus Ecclesiae Antinuis, illorumque 
 scriptis," &c., 3 vols. ; " Veterum aliquot 
 Gal lias et Belgiae Scriptorum Opuscula 
 Sacra." 
 
 OIJDINET, Marc Awthony, a learned 
 French Jesuit ; professor of law in the uni- 
 versity of Rheims, and author of several 
 esteemed works on medallic history and an- 
 tiquities. Bom, 1643 ; died, 1712. 
 
 OUDINOT, Charles Nicholas, Duke of 
 Reogio, marshal of France, was the son of 
 a merchant, and bom in 1767. He entered 
 the army early, and in 1791 was captain of 
 the 3rd battalion of volunteers who served 
 in the department of the Meuse. Distin- 
 guishing himself by his courage and mili- 
 tary skill, he attained the rank of general 
 of division, and was placed on the staff in 
 Massena's army, whom he accompanied into 
 Italy in 1799, and by his courageous conduct 
 during the siege of Genoa, in going twice 
 through the English fleet to communicate 
 with General Suchet, saved the French troops 
 from becoming the victims of famine. In 
 1800 he joined General Brune's army in 
 Italy, where he gained fresh laurels in forcing 
 the Austrians to repass the Adige ; and when 
 war again broke out between France and 
 Austria, in 1805, Napoleon confided an ho- 
 nourable station to General Oudinot, who 
 appeared covered with glory in the field of 
 Austerlitz. In 1806 he was sent to take pos- 
 session of Neufchatel, where Oudinot con- 
 ducted himself with so much disinterested- 
 ness, as to gain the esteem of its inhabitants, 
 who, in token thereof, presented him with 
 the freedom of their city. He assisted at the 
 siege of Dantzic ; and after the battle of 
 Wagram, Napoleon made him marshal of 
 the empire, and created him duke of Reggio. 
 In 1810 he went to Holland to take possession 
 of the throne, which Louis Buonaparte had 
 quitted in disgust. He afterwards shared in 
 the disastrous invasion of Russia, and was 
 there seriously wounded. In 1814 he was 
 again called into action, and again was dis- 
 tinguished for his courage, his great military 
 talents, and a conduct that was never tar- 
 nished by the slightest accusation of in- 
 humanity. On the capitulation of Paris, 
 March 31. 1814, the duke agreed to the de- 
 termination of the provisional government, 
 and did not see Napoleon after that day. 
 On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he 
 placed himself at the head of the grenadiers ; 
 but finding it impossible to secure their fide- 
 lity to the cause of Louis XVIIL, he retired 
 to his seat at Montmorenci. He subsequently 
 received the command of the national guard 
 at Paris ; was made a peer of France and a 
 minister of state ; and during the war with 
 Spain, in 1823, he entered Madrid, of which 
 he retained the situation of governor a few 
 months, and then returned to Pai-is. In 1830 
 he adhered to the new dynasty ; and in 1842 
 succeeded Marshal Moncev as governor of 
 the " Invalides." Died, 1847. 
 OUDBY, Jeax Baptiste, a French pain- 
 
ouo] 
 
 ^ ^eto ^ui&cr^al SSinsrapI^g. 
 
 [ovi 
 
 ter of portraits and liistorical subjects. His 
 skill in animals, particularly dogs, was such, 
 that Louis XV. is said to hav6 recognised 
 his favourite ones whenever he saw them in 
 the groups of Oudry, who was pensioned by 
 that monarch, and had apartments in the 
 Tuilleries. Born, 1(>85, became a member 
 of the academy in 1717, and died in 175."). 
 
 OUOHTRED, Wiii.iAM, an English di- 
 vine and mathematician, was born in 1574, 
 at Eton ; was educated there, and at King's 
 College, Cambridge ; obtained the living of 
 Shalford, in Surrey, whioh he exchanged 
 for that of Albury ; and died in WM), as it 
 is said, of joy, at hearing of Charles's re- 
 storation. Though a profound mathema- 
 tician, his method of treating his subjects 
 was both dry and obscure. lie wrote trea- 
 tises on trigonometry, aritlimetic, conic 
 sections, &c. 
 
 OUVLLLE, Anthony le Metel d' the 
 brother of Boisrobert, the favourite of Car- 
 dinal Richelieu. He was the author of some 
 dramas and tales, the latter of which rivalled 
 those of La Fontaine in licentiousness, but 
 were far inferior to them ia wit and humour. 
 Died, 16.')7. 
 
 OUVRARD, Julian, was bom at Nantes, 
 in 1772, and was a grocer at the era of tlie 
 revolution. Being an excellent calculator, 
 and of great address and boldness, he soon 
 made a rai)id fortune. He was a contractor 
 under the republican, the imiHjrial, and the 
 restored Bourbon regime ; he had the pro- 
 visioning of the foreign armies during their 
 occupation of France by the allied troops in 
 1816, and of tlie French army in Spain during 
 the war in 182a. He was often <Ienounced 
 for his contracts during the revolution, and 
 escaped the guillotine in 1794, by General 
 Boivin concealing him in his house at 
 Nantes. Under the successive regimes, he 
 owed many an escape to the influence of his 
 friend Fou<:he. In 1810 he was sent on a 
 secret mission by the latter to England, while 
 Napoleon also sent a mission to negotiate a 
 peace. The two ambassadors counteracted 
 each other — the British government evaded 
 what it considered as a trap — they were 
 dismissed ; and, on their return, Fouch6 was 
 disgraced, and Ouvrard imprisoned by Na- 
 poleon. He subsequently became bankrupt, 
 but he lived in such extraordinary luxury 
 in prison, that his creditors held him con- 
 fined there for a long time. Great complaints 
 were made in the chamber of deputies in 
 1824, of the intrigues, extravagance, and ma- 
 terial deficiencies of his contract for supply- 
 ing the French army in Spain ; but it was 
 supposed he was protected by the strong arm 
 of authority, as no inquiry into these financial 
 operations was made. He subsequently re- 
 sided in England, where he died, 1847. 
 
 OUVRARD, RENg, a French divine, poet, 
 musician, and mathematician, was born at 
 Chinon in Torraine. He published several 
 works in each capacity, became music- master 
 of the Holy Chapel at Paris, and afterwards 
 canon of Tours, where he died in 1694. 
 
 OVERALL, John, an English prelate, 
 was born in 1550 ; and, after taking his de- 
 grees, became master of Catherine Hall. 
 Through the patronage of queen Elizabeth 
 he was made dean of St. Fuul's, afterwards 
 
 657 
 
 bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and, in 
 1618, he was translated to the see of Norwich. 
 He compiled a work, called " The Convoca- 
 tion Book," in which he maintained the 
 divine origin of government. He had also 
 some concern in the present translation of 
 the Bible, and wrote the sacramental part of 
 the Church Catechism. 
 
 OVERBURY, Sir Thomas, an English 
 gentleman, principally known by the tragic 
 circumstance of his death, was born at II- 
 mingtou, in Warwickshire, in 1581, and 
 educated at Queen's College, Oxford, after 
 which he became a student of the Middle 
 Temple. Tlie intimacy which he formed 
 with Robert Carr, the worthless favourite 
 brought from Scotland by James I., and who 
 was afterwards earl of Somerset, proved his 
 ruin. In 16U8 he was knighted, and his 
 father was made one of the judges for Wales ; 
 but at length Overbury, by venturing to 
 dissuade his friend from marrying the di- 
 vorced Countess of Essex, provoked the 
 anger of both, and through their contrivance 
 he was sent to the Tower, where he was 
 poisoned, Sept. 15. 1613. This iniquitous 
 deed was not discovered until two years 
 afterwards, when Sir Gervase Elways, lieu- 
 tenant of the Tower, and some others, were 
 tried and executed ; but the principals, to 
 the eternal disgrace of the king, were par- 
 doned, from no assignable cause that will 
 not add to the ignominy of the proceeding. 
 Sir Thomas Overbury wrote a poem, entitled 
 " The Wife," which, with his piece called 
 " Characters," went through many editions. 
 
 His nephew. Sir Thomas Ovekbuuy, 
 
 published " An Account of the Trial of Joan 
 Perry and her two Sons for the Murder of 
 William Harrison ;" a most remarkable case, 
 the parties who were executed having con- 
 fessed themselves guilty of the murder, 
 altliough innocent ; " Queries on Persecution 
 in Religion," &c. 
 
 OVID or OVIDIUS, PuBLius Naso, a ce- 
 lebrated Latin poet of the Augustan age, 
 was of the equestrian order, and born at 
 Sulmo, now called Abruzzo, b. c. 43. He 
 studied the law, and pleaded with eloquence 
 in the court of the centumviri ; he was also 
 constituted one of the triumviri, whose au- 
 thority extended to the trial of capital 
 causes i but his decided predilection for 
 polite literature, and particularly poetry, 
 led him to neglect severer studies ; and on 
 succeeding to the paternal estate, he quitted 
 the bar for poetry and pleasure. His wri- 
 tings and his morals, however, appear to 
 have coincided, for he indulged in a prurient 
 fancy, and repudiated two of his wives soon 
 after marriage. Virgil, Horace, TibuUus, 
 and Propertius were his friends, and Au- 
 gustus was a liberal patron to him ; but he 
 at length fell under the displeasure of the 
 epiperor, wiio, for some cause never ex- 
 plained, banished him from Rome, and sent 
 him to live among the Getse, or Goths, on 
 the Euxine. It is probable that the political 
 intrigues of the empress Livia and her son 
 Tiberius contributed to the removal of the 
 poet ; while the licentiousness of his wri- 
 tings, and the irregularities of his life, af- 
 forded plausible pretexts for the infliction of 
 this punishment. His chief works consist of 
 
ovi] 
 
 ^ ^efco ^anibcrM 23t0srrtp!)t.n 
 
 [OZA 
 
 "De Arte Amandi," " Heroic Epistles," the 
 " Fasti," and " Metamorphoses." He in vain 
 Bolicited his recal to Rome, and died at 
 Tomi, A. D. 17. 
 
 OVIEDO, a Spanish Jesuit, was bom at 
 Illescas. In 1554 lie was consecrated bishop 
 of Heliopolis, and went to Abyssinia, where 
 he obtained the title of patriarch ; translated 
 several works into Etliiopic, and died there 
 in 1557. 
 
 OVIEDO, Jonx Goxzales, a Spaniard, 
 who soon .after the discovery of America 
 visited the West Indies, to examine the na- 
 tural productions of that part of the world. 
 He published the result of his researches ; 
 and, according to Fallopius, was the first 
 who discovered the virtues of guaiacum in 
 the cure of syphilis. Died, 1540. 
 
 OVIEDO Y VALDES, Goxzalvo Hbr- 
 iTANDEZ d', a Spanish military officer, who 
 was intendant or inspector general of com- 
 merce in America, in the reign of the em- 
 peror Charles V. He wrote a complete 
 " History of the Indies ; " from which suc- 
 ceeding writers have drawn much of their 
 information relative to the intercourse of 
 the Spaniards with America. 
 
 OWEN, Henry, a learned divine of the 
 Church of England, was bom in Monmouth- 
 shire, and educated first at Ruthin School, 
 and next at Jesus College, Oxford, where he 
 took his degree of M. D., but afterwards en- 
 tered into orders, and obtained the vicarage 
 of Edmonton, in Middlesex, and St. Olave, 
 Hart Street. He died in 1795, aged 80. His 
 chief works are, " Observations on the Scrip- 
 ture Miracles," " Remarks on the Four Gos- 
 pels," " An Inquiry into the Septuagint 
 Version," " Sermons preaclied at Boyle's 
 T^ecture," 2 vols. ; and " An Introduction to 
 Hebrew Criticism." 
 
 OWEN, John, an epigrammatist, was 
 bom in Caernarvonshire ; was educated at 
 Winchester, and New College, Oxford ; after 
 which he became master of Warwick School, 
 and died in 1622. His Latin epigrams pos- 
 sess great point, and several of them are in- 
 ferior only to those of Martial. 
 
 OWEN, John, D. D., a learned independ- 
 ent divine, was born at Stadham, in Ox- 
 fordshire, in 1616, and educated at Queen's 
 College. In the civil wars he was a zealous 
 advocate for the parliament against the 
 king ; and the very day after the murder of 
 Charles I. he preached a sermon before the 
 House of Commons, making himself so ac- 
 ceptable to those in power, that Cromwell 
 made him his cliaplain, and gave him the 
 deanery of Christchurch, Oxford, where he 
 served the office of vice-chancellor in 1652. 
 At the Restoration he was deprived of his 
 deanery ; on which he retired to his estate 
 in Essex. He died in 1683. Dr. Owen was 
 a very voluminous writer. His princi- 
 pal works are, " An Exposition of the He- 
 brews," 4 vols. ; a " Discourse concerning 
 the Holy Spirit," a "Treatise on Original 
 Sin," " VindiciBB Evangelicse," " Tracts and 
 Sermons," &c. 
 
 OWEN, John, a divine of the Church of 
 England, was born in London, about 1765, 
 and received his education at St. Paul's 
 School, and at Cambridge. Having taken 
 orders, he became a popular preacher at 
 
 Fulham, and obtained from Bishop Porteus 
 the living of Paglesham, in Essex. Dr. Ran- 
 dolph, the successor of the bishop in the see 
 of London, insisting upon Mr. Owen's re- 
 sidence at his rectory, he was obliged to 
 relinquish the curacy of Fulham, the in- 
 habitants of which parish presented him 
 with a purse of near 700?. He was one of 
 the earliest members of the Bible Society, 
 of which institution he continued to be the 
 principal secretary till his death in 1822. 
 Besides various tracts and sermons, he was 
 the author of "The Retrospect, or Reflec- 
 tions on the State of Religion and Politics 
 in France and Great Britain," " The Chris- 
 tian Monitor for the Last Days," " A''indica- 
 tion of the Bible Society," its " History," &c. 
 
 OWEN, Thomas, a learned judge, was 
 bom at Condover, in Shropshire, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford ; from whence he removed 
 to Lincoln's Inn, where he became Lent 
 reader to the Society, in 1583. In 1590 he 
 was made serjeant-at-law, and afterwards a 
 judge of the common pleas. Died, 1598. 
 
 OWEN, William, an eminent English 
 artist, was a native of Shropshire. After 
 studying under Charles Catton, and receiving 
 considerable attention from Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, he made great progress in the art, 
 and in 1813 was appointed principal portrait 
 painter to the prince regent, who offered to 
 knight him, but he modestly declined the 
 honour. He executed some admirable por- 
 traits of distinguished statesmen, &c., and 
 also employed himself occasionally on his- 
 torical subjects, some of which were of a first- 
 rate character. Born, 1769 ; died, 1824. 
 
 OWTRAM, William, a learned English 
 divine. He was prebendary of Westminster 
 in the reign of Charles II., and wrote an ex- 
 cellent treatise "De Sacrificiis." He died 
 in 1679. 
 
 OXENSTIERN, Axel, an eminent Swe- 
 dish statesman, distinguished for profound 
 sagacity, patriotism, and political honesty, 
 was born in 1583. He was the favourite of 
 Gustavus Adolphus, after whose death lie 
 conducted the affairs of the kingdom with 
 
 equal ability and integrity. Died, 1654 
 
 His sons John and Eiuc both distinguished 
 themselves as diplomatists. 
 
 OZANAM, James, an eminent French 
 mathematician, was bom at Boligneux, in 
 Brescia, in 1640. He was educated for the 
 church i but on the death of his father he 
 relinquished that pursuit, and applying to 
 the study of the sciences, was for many 
 years in high repute as a mathematical 
 teacher. Died, 1717. He wrote a great num- 
 ber of useful works, the principal of which 
 are, " Dictionnaire des Mathematiques," 
 " Cours des Mathematiques," 5 vols. ; " Re- 
 criJations MathtJmatiques et Physiques," 4 
 vols. ; " La Perspective Theoretique et 
 Pratique," &c. 
 
 OZAROUSKI, Peter, bom in 1769, het- 
 man of the crown of Poland ; was one of the 
 most zealous of the partisans of Russia in 
 destroying the new constitution of 1792. In 
 the insurrection at Warsaw in 1794, his hotel 
 was plundered, and himself hung before his 
 door by the people. His two sons remained 
 faithful to the patriot cause, and served in 
 the Polish army. 
 
oze] 
 
 ^ licUj ^nihexiaX 38i05rap]bl?' 
 
 [I'AD 
 
 OZELL, John, a miscellaneous writer, 
 waa bom in England, of a French family, 
 and was intended for the church, which pro- 
 fession he declined, and obtained the ofticea 
 of auditor-general of the city and bridge 
 accounta, of the accounts of St. Paul's ca- 
 thedral, and of St. Thomas's Hospital. His 
 principal works are translations from the 
 French, Italian, and Spanish, among which 
 arc Kabelais, Don Quixote, and Moliere. 
 He is described by Pope, in his Dunciad, as 
 a man of consummate vanity ; which he re- 
 sented by an extraordinary advertisement, 
 signed with his name, in a paper, called 
 "The Weekly Medley," wherein he drew a 
 comparison between Pope and himself, of 
 course very unfavourable to the former, with 
 regard to their general learuing and poetical 
 genius. Died, 1743. 
 
 OZERETZKOFFSKY, Nicholas Yakov- 
 LEVicH, one of the earliest members of the 
 academy of sciences at St. Petersburgh ; au- 
 thor of "Memoirs of the Progress of the 
 Sciences in Russia, from 1803 to 1810," " Ele- 
 ments of Natural History," and various 
 other publications serviceable to the ad- 
 Tancement of science and literature. Born, 
 1751 ; died, 1827. 
 
 OZEROFF, Vladislas Alexandro- 
 viTscu, a celebrated Russian tragic poet, 
 was born in 1707 ; entered the army, in which 
 he attained the rank of major-general, and 
 afterwards obtained a civil appointment. He 
 wrote the tragedies of "Fingal," "Deme- 
 trius Donskol," " (Edipus," and " Polyx- 
 ena," which exhibit beauties of a high or- 
 der : he also wrote some lyric poems. Died, 
 1816. 
 
 PA AW, Peter, an eminent Dutch phy- 
 sician and botanist, bom at Amsterdam, in ! 
 1564. He was appointed professor of medi- j 
 cine at Leyden, where he founded the bo- ! 
 tanical garden, and published several works 
 on anatomical and botanical subjects, which, 
 though surpassed by subsequent productions, 
 are still esteemed. Died, 1(517. 
 
 PACATIANUS, Titus Julius Marinus, 
 an usurper, who excited the Gauls to revolt 
 in his favour in the reign of the emperor 
 Philip ; but he was defeated and put to 
 death by the troops which raised Decius to 
 the throne, a.d. 249. 
 
 PACATUS, Latijtus Drepanius, a Latin 
 poet and orator of the 4th century, who was 
 sent from Gaul to offer congratulations to 
 Theodosius the Great after the defeat of 
 Maximus, for which he was rewarded with 
 a proconsulship in Africa, and in 393 with 
 the oiBce of superintendant of the imperial 
 lands. His poems are lost, but his pane- 
 gyric on Theodosius was printed at Amster- 
 dam, in 1753. 
 
 PACCA, Cardinal, was bom at Bene- 
 vento, 1756. After rising through the usual 
 ecclesiastical degrees, and discharging the 
 office of nuncio at various courts, he received 
 from pope Pius VII. the cardinal's hat in 
 1801, drew up the famous bull which ex- 
 communicated Napoleon in 1809, and was in 
 consequence imprisoned at Fenestrella. In 
 1813 he rejoined Pius VII. atFontainebleau, 
 where he induced him to withdraw the con- 
 cessions a short time previously established 
 with Napoleon by a concordat, returned to 
 Rome with the pope in 1814, and finally 
 retired from office in 1816, after having re- 
 established the order of the Jesuits. Died, 
 1844. His interesting " Memoirs " have been 
 translated into English by Sir G. Head. 
 
 PACE, Richard, a learned and eloquent 
 divine and statesman, was born in Ilamp- ] 
 shire, in 1482, studied at Padua, and on his \ 
 return became a member of Queen's College, 
 Oxford, but soon afterwards accompanied 
 Cardinal Bambridge to Rome. In 1515 he 
 
 was sent to the court of Vienna, and in 1522 
 was made dean of Exeter. He was also dean 
 of St. Paul's ; but, falling under the displea- 
 sure of Wolsey, he lost his preferments, and 
 retired to Stepney, where he died in 1532. 
 He wrote a book on the lawfulness of Henry's 
 marriage with Catharine of Arragon, " De 
 Fructu Scientiarum," &c. ; and he enjoyed 
 the friendship of Erasmus, Sir Thomas 
 More, and Cardinal Pole. 
 
 PACIIYMERA, Georoe, a Greek histo- 
 rian of the 14lli century, was born at Nice, 
 of a noble family, and rose to high offices in 
 church and state. He died in 1310. He 
 wrote a "History of Michael Palajologus 
 and Andronicus,'' published in Greek and 
 Latin, at Rome, in 1666, in 2 vols, folio ; 
 and a compendium of Aristotelic philosophy 
 was published from his MSS. at Oxford in 
 1666. 
 
 PACIANDI, Paul Maria, an Italian 
 ecclesiastic, antiquary, and historian, was 
 bom at Turin, in 1710. He studied at Bo- 
 logna, became professor of philosophy at 
 Genoa, and in 1761 he settled at Parma as 
 librarian to the grand-duke, who also ap- 
 pointed him his antiquary and director of 
 some public works ; besides which he was 
 historiographer of tlie order of Malta. He 
 died in 1785. His principal works are, " A 
 Series of Medals representing the most re- 
 markable Events of the Government of 
 Malta," " Monumenta Peloponnesia," 2 vols. 
 4to. ; and " Memoirs of the Grand Masters 
 of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem," 3 
 vols. 4to. 
 
 PACU VIUS, Marcus, a tragic Latin poet, 
 was a native of Brundusium, and flourished 
 at Rome about 154 b.c. He obtained great 
 reputation by his tragedies, and was much 
 esteemed by Laelius and Cicero, who placed 
 him above Sophocles ; but we have nothing 
 of his left by which to judge of his merits, 
 except a few fragments in the "Corpus 
 Poetarum." He died, aged 89, at Tarentum. 
 
 PADILLA, Dos Johx dk, a noble Spa- 
 niard, who espoused the cause of the people 
 
PAO] 
 
 ^ iJ^rto Hm'bcrsal ISioarajil^w. 
 
 [PAI 
 
 during their arduous struggle for liberty, 
 from 1420 to 1422. Being defeated and taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Villalar, he was 
 put to death on the following day, and met 
 his fate with the heroism of a true patriot. 
 Donna Maria, his heroic wife, partici- 
 pated in all his labours, and after his death 
 gained several advantages at the head of 
 her troops, and defended Toledo for several 
 months. She was at length deserted by the 
 citizens, and retired to Portugal, where she 
 died. 
 
 PAGAN, Blaise Feansois, Count de, an 
 eminent French military engineer, was born 
 at Avignon, in 1604. He entered into the 
 army at an early age, and lost an eye, in 
 1621, at the siege of Montauban. After this 
 he distinguished himself on several occa- 
 ' sions, particularly at the passage of the 
 Alps and the barricade of Suza, where lie 
 was the first to lead the way over a dan- 
 gerous height. In 1642 he lost his sight en- 
 tirely; notwithstanding which he pursued 
 l^is military studies, and in 1645 published 
 an excellent work, entitled " Traits de 
 Fortification." Died, 1665. 
 
 PAGANACCI, Jea.v, bom at Lyons, in 
 1729 ; died in 1797. His great work, the 
 " Manuel des Ni^gocians," a commercial en- 
 cyclopaadia, is justly esteemed in France. 
 
 PAGANEL, Petek, a member of the 
 French Legislative Assembly and Conven- 
 tion, was born in 1745. He was chosen a 
 deputy in 1791 ; and when, on the 10th of 
 August, 1792, tlie unfortunate Louis XVI. 
 sought an asylum in the hall of the represent- 
 atives, he was one of the first to join in a 
 deputation to the people, in order to restrain 
 their violence ; yet he afterwards voted for 
 the king's death. He was consequently 
 obliged to quit France in 1816, and he died 
 at Brussels in 1826. Paganel was the au- 
 thor of " Essai Historique et Critique sur 
 la Revolution Fran?aise," 3 vols., and some 
 other works of minor importance. 
 
 PAGANINI, NicoLO, the inimitable vio- 
 linist, was born at Genoa, 1784. His father, 
 who was a commission-broker by trade, but 
 a great musical amateur, initiated him in 
 the principles of music from his earliest 
 years ; and the progress thus made under 
 parental care was still further increased by 
 subsequent instructions from Costa, RoUa, 
 and Paer. His first public engagement was 
 at Lucca. Here he found a zealous patroness 
 in the Princess Bacchiochi, sister of Napo- 
 leon ; but in 1813 he left Lucca for Milan, 
 and three years later his reputation had so 
 spread abroad, that the Leipsic Musical Ga- 
 zette, no mean authority at that time, pro- 
 nounced him the first violinist in the world. 
 From this epoch dates his wondrous per- 
 formance on a single string, which at a later 
 period called forth such bursts of applause 
 from innumerable audiences in Germany, 
 France, and England. In 1828 he visited 
 Vienna, where he met with an enthusiastic 
 reception. Thence he visited the chief 
 cities of Germany ; and in 1831 he made 
 a musical tour through France and Eng- 
 land, where he realised enormous sums, 
 which, however, the gambling table swal- 
 lowed up, frequently even with greater ra- 
 pidity than he gained them. His last years 
 
 were spent at his villa Gajona near Parma ; 
 and he died at Nice, 1840. Tlie most ab- 
 surd stories were circulated regarding Paga- 
 nini during his lifetime ; nor did they cease 
 even with his death. Crimes of the deepest 
 dye were imputed to him without a vestige 
 of foundation ; though it must be admitted 
 that the singular cast of his countenance, 
 his reserved character, his sudden bursts 
 of passion, and tlie mysterious veil which 
 he was fond of throwing around all his 
 proceedings, were well fitted to awaken 
 public curiosity, with its usual adjunct, ex- 
 cessive credulity. 
 
 PAGES, Francis Xavier, an indefati- 
 gable French romance writer, &c., was born 
 at Aurillac in 1745, and died at Paris in 
 1802. Among his numerous works are, 
 "Histoire secrfete de la Revolution Fran- 
 ?aise," 6 vols. 8vo., and "Nouveau Voyage 
 autour du Monde, en Asie, en Amerique, et 
 en Afrique, pr^ced^ d'un Voyage en Italic." 
 
 PAGES, Pierre Marie Fransois, Vis- 
 count de, a celebrated French navigator, was 
 bom at Toulouse, in 1748. He sailed from 
 Cape Francois, in St. Domingo, in 1797, with 
 a view to explore the Indian Seas, and travel 
 through China and Tartary to the Northern 
 Ocean ; but on arriving at the Philippine 
 Islands in October, 1768, and finding it im- 
 possible to penetrate China, he went by sea 
 to Bassora, and travelling through the desert 
 to Syria, he reached France in December, 
 1771. He afterwards sailed in Kerguelen's 
 expedition to the south pole, and on his re- 
 turn proceeded as far as 81 degrees and a 
 half of north latitude. He served in the 
 American war, after which he retired to his 
 estate in St. Domingo, where he was mur- 
 dered during a revolt of the negroes in 1793. 
 
 PAGI, Anthony, a famous Cordelier, 
 who was four times provincial of his order. 
 Born, 1624 ; died, 1699. He was tlie author 
 of a " Critique on Baronius's Annals," 4 
 vols, folio, and a " Dissertation on the Con- 
 sulates." His nephew, Francis Pagi, 
 
 also a Cordelier, assisted his uncle in his 
 great work on Baronius, and was the author 
 of" Breviarium Historicochronologico-criti- 
 cum," 4 vols. Died, 1721. 
 
 PAGNINUS, S ANTES, a Dominican friar, 
 born at Lucca, in 1466. He was an able 
 classic and oriental scholar, and was em- 
 ployed 25 years in translating the Scriptures, 
 Leo X. furnishing him with all necessary 
 expenses. He was also the author of a 
 " Hebrew Lexicon and Grammar." 
 
 PAHLEN, Peter, Count, descended from 
 a noble Livonian family, was born, 1744. 
 He was appointed military governor of Pe- 
 tersburgh by the emperor Paul ; but fearing 
 to fall a victim to the capricious disposition 
 of that despot, he formed a conspiracy against 
 him, caused him to be strangled in 1801, and 
 proclaimed his son Alexander emperor. Soon 
 afterwards he withdiew from public life. 
 Died, 1826. 
 
 PAINE, Thomas, a deistical and political 
 writer, was born in 1737, at Thetford, in 
 Norfolk, where his father, who was a Quaker, 
 carried on the business of a staymaker, and 
 brought up his son to it. He, however, sub- 
 sequently became an exciseman, and wa« 
 living at Lewes, in Sussex, when he lost his 
 
PAl] 
 
 ^ ^m Hntbcrtfal 3S(0sra}j^ij. 
 
 [PAJ 
 
 situatioa in consequence of keeping a to- 
 bacconist's shop, wliich was considered in- 
 compatible -witli his duties. His literary 
 abilities having appeared in a pamphlet com- 
 posed by him in order to show the necessity 
 of advancing the salaries of excisemen, he 
 was introduced to Dr. Franklin, who urged 
 him to go to America, and use liis pen in be- 
 half of the colonies. lie accordingly went 
 there, and reached Philadelphia in 1774. At 
 first he conducted the PennsylvaniaGazette, 
 which from the boldness of its arguments 
 attracted considerable notice. He then pub- 
 lished his celebrated pamphlet, entitled 
 " Common Sense," which being written witli 
 great vigour, and addressed to a highly ex- 
 cited population, had a prodigious sale, and 
 undoubtedly accelerated the famous De- 
 claration of Independence. For this pro- 
 duction the legislature of Pennsylvania 
 voted him 5007. He was afterwards also re- 
 warded with a grant of 500 acres of well cul- 
 tivated land from the state of New York, 
 and made clerk to the committee for foreign 
 affairs. While in this office he published a 
 series of political pamphlets on what he 
 termed the " Crisis." In 1787 he embarked 
 for France, and, after visiting Paris, went to 
 England, with a view to the prosecution of a 
 project relative to the construction of an iron 
 bridge, of liis own invention, at Rotherham, 
 in Yorkshire. This scheme involved him in 
 considerable difficulties ; but his writings, in 
 which he foretold, or rather recommended, 
 the change that was approaching in France, 
 brought him a supply of money. On tlie ap- 
 pearance of Burke's Keflections on the French 
 Revolution, he wrote the first part of his 
 celebrated " Rights of Man," in answer to 
 that work. The second part was published 
 early in 1792 ; and. May the 21st, in that 
 year, a proclamation was issued against 
 wicked and seditious publications, evidently 
 alluding to, though it did not name, the 
 " Rights of Man. On the same day, the 
 attorney-general commenced a prosecution 
 against Paine as the author of that work. 
 While the trial was pending, he was chosen 
 member of the National Convention for the 
 department of Calais ; and, making his es- 
 cape, he set off for France, and arrived there 
 in September, 1792. The garrison at Calais 
 were under arms to receive this " friend of 
 liberty," the tri-coloured cockade was pre- 
 sented to him by the mayor, and the hand- 
 somest woman in the town was selected to 
 place it in his hat. Meantime Paine had 
 been declared in Paris worthy of the honours 
 of citizenship, and he proceeded thither, 
 wliere he was received with every demonstra- 
 tion of extravagant joy. On the trial of 
 Louis XVI., he voted against the sentence of 
 death, proposing his imprisonment during 
 the war, and his banishment afterwards. 
 This conduct offended the Jacobins, and, 
 towards the close of 1793, he was excluded 
 from the convention, on the ground of his 
 being a foreigner (.though naturalised) ; and, 
 immediately after, he was arrested, and com- 
 mitted to the Luxembourg. Just before his 
 confinement, he had finished the first part 
 of his work, entitled the " Age of Rea- 
 son ;" and, having confided it to the care 
 of Ilia friend Joel Barlow, it was published. 
 
 661 
 
 On the fall of Robespierre he was released ; 
 in 1795 he published the second part of his 
 " Age of Reason ;" and, in May 1796, he ad- 
 dressed to the council of five linndred a 
 work, entitled the " Decline and Fall of the 
 System of Finance in England," and also 
 published liis pamphlet, entitled "Agrarian 
 Justice." Fearful of being captured by 
 English cruisers, he remained in France till 
 August, 1802v when he embarked for America, 
 and reached Baltimore the following Octo- 
 ber. His subsequent life was by no means 
 happy ; for, although occupied in various 
 mechanical speculations, and other engross- 
 ing pursuits, and possessed of decent com- 
 petence, his attacks upon religion had ex- 
 ceedingly narrowed his circle of acquaint- 
 ance ; and his habitual intemperance tended 
 to the injury of his health, and the bltimate 
 production of a complication of disorders, to 
 which he fell a victim in 1809. The Quakers 
 refused to admit his remains among their 
 dead, and he waa buried on his own farm. 
 Cobbett boasted of having disinterred him in 
 1817, and brought his body to England ; 
 many, however, assert that Cobbett did not 
 talu that trouble, but brought over from 
 A^trica the remains of a criminal, wlio had 
 been executed. 
 
 PAISIELLO, Giovanni, a celebrated 
 singer and composer, was the son of a vete- 
 rinary surgeon of Tarento, in Italy, and 
 born in 1741. He was put under the care of 
 the celebrated Durante, and, in 1763, pro- 
 duced his first opera, " La Papilla," with 
 great applause, at the Marsigli Theatre, in 
 Bologna. From this period commenced a 
 long career of success ; and his works were 
 not only applauded in Italy, but extended 
 his fame over the whole Continent. In 1796 
 he was induced to enter the service of 
 Catharine II. of Russia, who settled upon 
 him a pension of 4000 roubles, and he re- 
 mained there nine years. He next settled 
 at Naples ; and, on the French revolu- 
 tion extending to that country, he received 
 from the republican government the appoint- 
 ment of composer to the nation. In 1801 
 he went to Paris at the request of Buona- 
 parte ; but, after having been there three 
 years, he returned to Naples, where he 
 died in 1816. His operas, serious and comic, 
 exceed 70, besides a great variety of ballets, 
 cantatas, &c. Simplicity, elegance, and I 
 correctness are the characteristics of his 
 style. 
 
 PAJOL, Pierre, a distinguished soldier, 
 was bom at Besan(;on, 1772. Entering the 
 army in 1791, he served in all the campaigns 
 of the Republic, and gradually rose to the 
 highest military honours. Nominated ge- 
 neral of division in 1812, he commanded the 
 vanguard in the Russian campaign, when 
 he took Minsk and some other towns ; was 
 left for dead at the battle of Leipsic in 1813, 
 recaptured Montereau from the allies in 
 1814, and had gained possession of Namur, 
 at the moment when the battle of Water- 
 loo decided the fate of France. He then 
 retired from the service of his country, 
 but re-entered it in 1830, when the revo- 
 lution of July broke out, and directed the 
 attack of the Parisians upon Rambouillet, 
 which led to the flight of Charles X. For 
 
 81. 
 
PAJ] 
 
 91 ^elt) Winibtx^al 3St0srap]^ii, 
 
 [pal 
 
 these services he was made a peer of France. 
 Died. 1844. 
 
 PAJOU, AuGUSTiN, an eminent French 
 sculptor, was boru at Paris, in 1730 ; gained 
 the prize at the academy when 18 years 
 of age ; studied at Rome, where he re- 
 mained for 12 years ; and obtained on his re- 
 turn a first- rate reputation from his country- 
 men, who called him the restorer of the art. 
 Died, 1809. 
 
 PALyEMON, Quintus Rhemmius, a gram- 
 marian, who lived at Rome in the reign 
 of Tiberius. He was the son of a slave at 
 Vicenza, and acquired his learning by at- 
 tending on the son of his master at school, 
 in consequence of which he was rewarded 
 with his freedom, and became a teacher at 
 Rome. There are extant, under liis name, 
 " Ars Grammatica " and " De Ponderibua et 
 Mensuris." 
 
 PALAFOX, Don Joseph, immortalised 
 by his lieroic defence of Saragossa in 1808-9, 
 was sprung from an old Arragonese family, 
 and liaving entered the military service of 
 Spain at an early age, accompanied Fer- 
 dinand to Bayonne ; but, on tlie resignation 
 of that monarch, he returned to Arragon, 
 and lived in retirement at a short disWnce 
 from Saragossa. Proclaimed governor of 
 Saragossa by the people who saw themselves 
 menaced on all sides by the armies of France, 
 he took instant measures to sustain a siege ; 
 and such was the effect of liis combined in- 
 telligence and determination, that with a 
 comparative handful of men, the city man- 
 fully resisted an overwlielming force, and at 
 length compelled the French general to re- 
 treat after a siege of 61 days and the loss of 
 thousands of his men. But the reduction of 
 Saragossa was of too great importance to the 
 French for them not to strain every nerve to 
 accomplish it ; and Marshals Mortier and 
 Moncey marched in November of the same 
 year, at the head of a large army, to recom- 
 mence the siege. After suffering two defeats 
 before Saragossa, Palafox once, more retired 
 within its walls, and commenced the same 
 vigorous course of action whicli had been 
 already crowned with success ; but on this 
 occasion all his efforts were in vain ; the 
 besiegers were backed by a force more terrible 
 than themselves : an epidemic fever was 
 raging in the garrison ; and Palafox who 
 was attacked by it, was obliged to resign the 
 command on tlie 20th February, to General 
 St. Marc, who signed the capitulation on the 
 following day. Palafox was now sent into 
 France, and remained a close prisoner at 
 Vincennes, till the restoration of Ferdinand, 
 by whom he was sent on a secret mission to 
 Madrid. In June, 1814, he was appointed cap- 
 tain general of Arragon ; but, for nearly 30 
 years before his death, he took no part in pub- 
 lic affairs. Born. 1780. Died at Madrid, 1847. 
 
 PALAFOX Y MENDOZA, Juax de, 
 bishop of Angelopolis, in New Spain, where 
 he became viceroy in the absence of the 
 Duke de Escalona. His principal work is a 
 " History of the Conquest of Cliina by the 
 Tartars." Died, 1659. 
 
 PALAPRAT, John de Bigot, a French 
 dramatist, was born in 1650, at Toulouse ; of 
 which city he became chief magistrate, and 
 head of the consistory. Died, 1721. Many 
 
 of his comedies were written in conjunction 
 with the Abbe Brueys. 
 
 PALESTRINA, Giovanni Pietro Aloi- 
 sio, the most celebrated master of the old 
 Roman school of music, was born at Pales- 
 trina, the ancient Preneste, about the begin- 
 ning of the 16th century. He died iu 1594. 
 Some of his pieces are still performed in the 
 Sistine chapel at Rome. 
 
 PALEY, William, an eminent divine of 
 the English church, was born at Peter- 
 borough, in 1743 ; and was educated as a 
 sizar at Christ's College, Cambridge, of 
 which he became a fellow in 1766. For ten 
 subsequent years he resided at the university; 
 but in 1776 he obtained the vicarages of 
 Dalston, in Cumberland, and Appleby, in 
 Westmoreland. In 1780 he was collated to 
 a prebend in the cathedral of Carlisle, of 
 which diocese he became archdeacon in 
 1782, and in 1785 he was appointed chan- 
 cellor. In that year he published his great 
 work, " The Elements of Moral and Political 
 Philosophy," in 1 vol. 4to. His next pub- 
 lication was entitled " Horas Paulinae." In 
 1793 he vacated Dalston, on being presented 
 to the vicarage of Stanwix, near Carlisle ; 
 and the year following he printed "A View 
 of the Evidences of Christianity," 2 vols. 8vo. 
 The same year he was instituted to the pre- 
 bend of St. Pancras in the diocese of London, 
 and soon afterwards was promoted to the 
 sub-deanery of Lincoln. In 1795 he took his 
 doctor's degree on being presented to the 
 living of Bishops Wearmouth, where he 
 wrote his last work, entitled " Natural Theo- 
 logy, or Evidences of the Existence and 
 Attributes of the Deity." Besides the above 
 excellent productions. Dr. Paley published 
 BOine smaller works; and a volume of sermons 
 appeared after his death, which took place in 
 1805. 
 
 PALISSY, Bernard de, a celebrated 
 French potter and chemist, was bom at Agen, 
 and for his ingenuity in painting on glass 
 and other works was patronised by Henry 
 III. He made considerable discoveries in 
 natural history, and is said to have been the 
 first who gave a true theory of fountains. 
 Palissy was a zealous Calvinist ; and, during 
 the fury of the league under Henry III. in 
 1584, he was committed to the Bastile. Died, 
 1590. 
 
 PALISSOT DE BEAUVOIS, Ambroise 
 Marie Francois Joseph, an eminent natu- 
 ralist, was born at Arras, in the French 
 Netherlands, in 1752. After studying at the 
 college of Harcourt, at Paris, he was, in 
 1772, admitted a counsel of the parliament 
 of that city ; and subsequently became re- 
 ceiver-general of territorial imposts, till the 
 suppression of that office in 1777. He then 
 devoted himself to the study of natural 
 history, and he undertook a voyage to the 
 coast of Guinea, with an intention to travel 
 across the African continent to Egypt ; but 
 being unable to execute that design, he 
 sailed for St. Domingo, in 1788, and there 
 occupied some official situations. Having 
 opposed the revolutionary attempts of the 
 negroes, he with difficulty effected his escape 
 to America, purposing to return to France, 
 when he learnt that he had been proscribed 
 as an emigrant. He occupied himself while 
 
pal] 
 
 ^ ^tbi Bnibtr^Kl 23tOflrapT)«, 
 
 [pal 
 
 in America as a teacher of languages and as 
 I a musician, but he did not neglect his 
 favourite pursuits ; and on hearing that his 
 name had been erased from the proscribed 
 list, he returned to his native country, tak- 
 ing with liim the rich collection of natural 
 curiosities which he had formed. He died in 
 1820. 
 
 PALISSOT DE MONTENOY, Chari.es, 
 a French dramatist, born at Nancy, in 1730. 
 Having given great oflFence to the philoso- 
 phical party of the French literati, by ridi- 
 culing Rousseau, lie was engaged in a series 
 of controversies, and in 17i;4 he published his 
 "Dunciade," in imitation of tlie satire of Pope. 
 He wrote " Le Cercle," " Les Philosophes," 
 and some other comedies; besides " Memoires 
 Bur la Litt^rature Fran^aise," &c. , and died in 
 1814. 
 
 PALLADINO, James, an Italian prelate, 
 who was also called James de Tcramo, from 
 the place of his birth. He became succes- 
 sively archbishop of Tarento, Florence, and 
 Spoleto ; and in 1417 was sent legate to 
 Poland, where he died the same year. He 
 wrote a religious romance, entitled " Conso- 
 latio Peccatorum." 
 
 PALLADIO, Andrea, one of the greatest 
 classical architects of modem Italy, was 
 born at Vicenza, in 1,518, and learnt the 
 principles of his art from Trissino. He went 
 to Rome, where he acquired a maturity of 
 skill and science from an examination or the 
 productions of ancient and modern art which 
 that capital afforded. Returning to his native 
 country, he establislied his fame by his de- 
 signs for many noble edifices both there and 
 in other parts of Italy, which have afforded 
 models for many beautiful structures in most 
 parts of Europe. He wrote a " Treatise on 
 Architecture," which has been many times 
 reprinted, lie was likewise the author of a 
 work, entitled " Le Antichita di Roma," and 
 an illustration of Caesar's Commentaries. 
 Died, 1580. 
 
 PALLAS, the freedman of the emperor 
 Claudius, over whom he had so great an 
 ascendancy as to persuade him to espouse 
 Agrippina his niece, and to adopt Nero for 
 his successor. Nero caused him to be put 
 to death secretly, but erected a superb 
 monument to his memory. Pallas was 
 brother to the Felix before whom St. Paul 
 pleaded. 
 
 PALLAS, Peter Simon, a celebrated 
 traveller and naturalist, was bom at Berlin, 
 in 1741 ; and studied at Halle, Gottingen, and 
 Leydcn. Tlie empress Catharine, seeking 
 for a naturalist to explore her immense em- 
 pire, invited Pallas to Petersburgh, and, in 
 1777, he became a member of the committee 
 for the measurement and topography of 
 Russia. As it was his desire to reside in 
 the Crimea, the empress gave him several 
 estates in the most fertile part of it. There 
 he remained 15 years ; but at length he 
 quitted Ilussia, and settled at Berlin, where 
 he died in 1811. Among his numerous 
 works are his "Travels," which Saussure 
 denominated an inexhaustible mine for the 
 naturalist and statesman -, " Historical Do- 
 cuments on the Monguls," and a " Physi- 
 cal and Topographical Description of the 
 Taurida." 
 
 PALLAVICINO, Sfokza, a learned and 
 pious cardinal, was born at Rome, in 1647. 
 He was employed by pope Innocent X. in 
 various important affairs, and obtained a 
 cardinal's hat in 1657. He wrote a "His- 
 tory of the Council of Trent," 2 vols. ; and 
 died, 1667. 
 
 PALLISER, Sir Huon, an English ad- 
 miral, was bom in 1721. He entered into 
 the navy early in life, and distinguished 
 himself on many occasions, particularly at 
 the taking of Quebec. In 1773 he was made 
 a baronet ; but being second in command 
 to Admiral Keppel, in the memorable battle 
 off Ushant, July 27. 1778, some misunder- 
 standing took place, and these two officers 
 preferred charges against each other. Kep- 
 pel was acquitted, and Palliser censured. 
 This sentence, however, was considered as 
 more the effect of party than of justice ; and 
 he was made governor of Greenwich Hospi- 
 tal, where he died in 179C. 
 
 PALM, James Philip, a citizen and 
 bookseller of Nureml)erg, who, in 180(5, being 
 accused of having distributed a pamphlet 
 against Buonaparte, entitled " Germany in 
 her deepest Humiliation," was arbitrarily 
 arrested, by virtue of an order sent from 
 Paris, and conducted to Brennau, where he 
 was arraigned before a military commission, 
 pronounced guilty, and shot. This act of 
 tyranny was everywhere regarded with 
 horror. Palm was considered throughout 
 Germany as a martyr, and public subscrip- 
 tions were entered into for his widow and 
 children. 
 
 PALMA, Jacob, a painter, was a native 
 of Serinalto, in the territory of Bergamo, 
 and the disciple of Titian, to whose style he 
 also added that of Giorgione. His pictures 
 
 are very fine and rare. Died, 1588 His 
 
 great nephew, Jacob Palma, who resided 
 at Venice, and whose paintings are also 
 much admired, was bom in 1544, and died 
 in 1C28. 
 
 PALMEI<LA, Duke of, a distinguislied 
 Portuguese statesman, was bom in 1781. He 
 took an active part in all the political trou- 
 bles of his country during the last 30 or 40 
 years ; and it was owing to his aid and coun- 
 sels that the queen of Portugal was indebted, 
 in a great measure, for her establishment on 
 the throne of her ancestors. A very consider- 
 able part of his life was dedicated to the 
 diplomatic service of his country, which he 
 represented at the congress of Vienna and in 
 liOndon. In 1820 he made a fmitless voyage 
 to Brazil, to pacify the revolution which had 
 burst forth. He was also selected to attend 
 at the coronation of Queen Victoria ; and 
 his great wealth enabled him to vie on that 
 occasion with the representatives of the other 
 courts of Europe. He was several times 
 called on to offer advice to his sovereign, but 
 only held office for a limited period. Died, 
 18-.0. 
 
 PALMER, JoHx, an eminent English 
 actor, was born in London, about 1742, and 
 made his first appearance in the metropolis 
 at the Haymarket Theatre. He was after- 
 wards engaged by Garrick at Drury Lane, 
 and gradually rose to eminence in his pro- 
 fession, both in comedy and tragedy. He 
 unfortunately involved himself in great 
 
 3 L 2 
 
pal] 
 
 ^ ^c£d Bnibtv^Kl 23tflgrajil)i?. 
 
 [PAO 
 
 pecuniary difficulties, by engaging in the 
 building of a new theatre near Wellclose 
 Square, for which a licence could not be 
 obtained ; and his career was dosed by a 
 truly tragic catastrophe. While performing 
 the principal character in " The Stranger," 
 at Liverpool, Aug. 2. 1798, he i'ell on the 
 stage in a state of exhaustion, and almost 
 immediately expired, having just exclaimed, 
 in the words of the drama, " There is an- 
 other and a better world 1 " 
 
 PALMER, John, the first projector of 
 mail-coaches, was a native of Bath, where 
 he was brought up as a brewer, but subse- 
 quently solicited and obtained a patent for 
 a theatre in his native city, which concern 
 proved eminently successful under his ma- 
 nagement. Being much in the habit of 
 travelling from place to place, for the pur- 
 pose of securing rising performers, the idea 
 occurred to him that a better mode of con- 
 veying the mails was most desirable, and he 
 accordingly matured the plan of transmit- 
 ting letters by coaclies with guards, now su- 
 perseded by tlie railway. He succeeded in 
 his object, though not without great opposi- 
 tion ; but the utility of the plan soon became 
 manifest, and he was made comptroller- 
 general of the iK)st-office, with a salary of 
 1500/. a year. Some disputes, however, occur- 
 ring, he lost his situation in 1702 ; and though 
 he afterwards, through petitions, was re- 
 imbursed by parliament, the compensation 
 was very inadequate to the per ceutage he 
 was to have received, in case his plan suc- 
 ceeded. Died. 1818. 
 
 PALMER, Samuel, an English printer of 
 considerable eminence ; author of a " Gene- 
 ral History of Printing " and a " Printer's 
 Grammar." Died, 1732. 
 
 PALOMINO DE VELASCO, Aciscles 
 Antonio, an eminent Spanish painter, was 
 bom near Cordova, in 1053, and was a pupil 
 of Valdes. He was apiK)inted royal painter, 
 with a pension ; and he distinguished him- 
 self also as an author, having written a work 
 on'the theory and practice of painting, with 
 the lives of the most celebrated artists, &c. 
 Died, 1726. 
 
 PAMPHIIJUS, an ancient painter, who 
 flourished in the time of Philip, king of 
 Macedon. He was the first who taught the 
 art on mathematical principles, in his 
 school at Sicyon ; and Apelles was one of 
 his scholars, 
 
 PANARD, Charles Francis, a French 
 poet and dramatist, born at Courville, near 
 Chartres, in 1001 ; died, at Paris, in 1764. 
 He was the author of numerous comedies, 
 operas, and songs. 
 
 PANCIROLIJS, Gi-r, an eminent Italian 
 civilian, was born, at Reggio, in 1523. He 
 became professor of the Institutes at Padua ; 
 and, after filling that chair seven years, was 
 appointed to that of the Roman law, but 
 resigned it in 1571, to go to Turin, where 
 lie obtained the professorship of civil law. 
 In 1582 he returned to Padua, where he 
 died, in 1500 ; having given to the world 
 several excellent works on jurisprudence, 
 besides a curious treatise on the aucient 
 inventions which are lost, and on those in- 
 ventions which belong to the moderns. 
 
 PANCOUCKE, Charles Joseph, an 
 
 eminent bookseller, and also a man of lite- 
 rary talent, was born, in 1736, at Lisle, 
 where his father had carried on a highly 
 respectable business, and likewise distin- 
 guished himself as an author. He settled 
 at Paris, became connected with the most 
 able writers, and published many magni- 
 ficent works. He established the Moniteur, 
 projected the Encyclopedic Methodique, and 
 was himself the author of " De I'Homme et 
 de la Reproduction des Diff>5rents Individus," 
 and other works. Died, 1798. 
 
 PANETIUS, a stoic philosopher, was a 
 native of Rhodes, and flourished l.W b. c. 
 He studied at Athens with such credit as to 
 be offered the rights of citizenship, which he 
 refused, saying, " a modest man is content 
 with one country." 
 
 PANIN, Nakita Ivanowitz, Count de, 
 a Russian statesman, was bom in 1718. His 
 father, who was a lieutenant-general in the 
 service of Peter I., was originally of Lucca, 
 in Italy. Young Panin, by his artful 
 address, gained the favour of his sovereign, 
 who sent him, in 1747, to Copenhagen, and 
 afterwards to Stockholm, with the title of 
 minister plenipotentiary. On his return 
 he was made governor of the grand-duke, 
 and, lastly, prime minister to Catharine II. 
 Died, 1783. 
 
 PANT^NUS, a Christian philosopher of 
 the stoic sect, in the 2nd century. He is sup- 
 posed to have been a native of Alexandria, 
 and to have taught philosophy there about 
 A.D. 180. He went on a mission to Ethiopia, 
 from whence he is said to have brought the 
 gospel of St. Matthew, written in Hebrew. 
 Died, 213. 
 
 PAOLI, Hyacinth, a native of Corsica, 
 who was elected one of the chief magistrates 
 of the island in 1735. On account of the 
 revolutions which distracted his country, 
 and the oppressions of the Genoese, he re- 
 tired to Naples, where he died. 
 
 PAOLI, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and 
 general, son of the preceding, was bom in 
 1720, at Stretta, in Corsica ; followed his 
 father into exile ; and was educated at the 
 Jesuits' College, at Naples. In 1775, his 
 countrymen having elected him their gene- 
 ralissimo, he returned to Corsica, where he 
 acted with such vigour against the Genoese, 
 that he confined their dominion within the 
 narrow limits of the fortified seaports, while 
 he exerted himself in promoting such objects 
 as were best calculated to secure the inde- 
 pendence of the republic. The Genoese, 
 however, having made a transfer of the 
 island to France, that power sent such an 
 overwhelming force into it as compelled 
 Paoli again to be an exile ; and, embarking 
 on board an English vessel, went to England, 
 where he obtained from the government a 
 pension of 1200Z. a year. In 1789 the island 
 was recognised, by a decree of the National 
 Assembly, as a department of France ; and 
 Paoli, being invited to resume his station 
 at the head of affairs, resigned his pension, 
 took his departure from England, and, in 
 1700, attended by deputies from Corsica, 
 presented himself at the bar of the National 
 Assembly at Paris, where he was received 
 with enthusiasm, and took the oath of 
 fidelity to the French government. The 
 
pap] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Bin^tx^nl JJiOflraplbS' 
 
 [par 
 
 progress of the revolution disappointed the 
 hopes which he had conceived ; but he con- 
 tinued the connection with France till after 
 the execution of Louis XVI., when he aban- 
 doned his allegiance, and was invested with 
 his original dignities of the president of the 
 national council, and commander-in-chief 
 of the island. lie was encouraged to adopt 
 these measures by tlie promise of assistance 
 from Great Britain ; and in February, 1794, 
 an English army landed in Corsica. On the 
 14th ot June following, a meeting took place 
 of deputies from the different parts of the 
 island, when, through the influence of Paoli, 
 a decree was made declaring the separation 
 of Corsica from France, and its union to 
 the British empire. Shortly after, Paoli 
 revisited London ; and, being in embar- 
 rassed circumstances, owing to a commer- 
 cial failure at Leghorn, the English govern- 
 ment restored lus pension ; ajid he continued 
 to reside in the metropolis till liis death, in 
 1807. 
 
 PAPIN, Den'YS, an eminent natural phi- 
 losopher and physician, was l)orn at Blois, 
 in France. After taking the degree of M.D., 
 he visited England ; and, in 1G80, became a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. While here 
 he made many attempts to bring the steam- 
 engine to perfection, and i>ublished an ac- 
 count of an invention, which still bears his 
 name. His work is entitled "The New 
 Digester, or Engine for the Softening of 
 Bones," 4to. Papin assisted Mr. Boyle in 
 his pneumatic experiments ; and, on leaving 
 England, he went to Marpurg, where he was 
 made mathematical professor in 1687, and 
 died in 1710. 
 
 PAPINIAN, JEmilius, a celebrated 
 Roman lawyer, was bom in the year 175 ; 
 and became advocate of the treasury, and 
 afterwards praetorian prefect under the em- 
 peror Severus, who recommended his sons, 
 Caracalla and Geta, to his care. When the 
 former murdered his brother, he ordered 
 Papinian to justify the deed, which he not 
 only refused, but nobly observed, that it was 
 easier to commit a parricide than to excuse 
 it, and that slander of innocence was a 
 second parricide. He was accordingly soon 
 after put to death, a. d. 212. 
 
 PAPON, John Petei:, an ingenious writer, 
 was born in Puget, near Nice, in 1736. He 
 was a priest of the congregation of the Ora- 
 tory, but he quitted that society to become 
 keeper of the library at Marseilles. During 
 the stormy era of the revolution, he removed 
 to the Puy de Dome ; and, after remaining 
 there some years, he returned to Paris, where 
 he died in 1803. His principal works are, 
 " Histoire g^ntSrale de Provence," 4 vols. ; for 
 which he obtained a pension ; and " Histoire 
 de la Revolution de France," 6 vols., a post- 
 humous publication. 
 
 PARACELSUS, Philipfus Aureolus 
 TuEOPHHASTUs, tt Celebrated Swiss empiric 
 and alchemist, was born at Einsiedelm, near 
 Zurich, in 1493. He travelled through 
 France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, with a 
 view to improvement in medicine, and the 
 arts and sciences connected with it, especially 
 chemistry. In the course of his travels he 
 became acquainted with some remedies not 
 in common use among the faculty, by means 
 
 665 
 
 of which he performed extraordinary cures, 
 and obtained great reputation. Yet it is 
 evident that he was an impudent charlatan ; 
 for, not contented with the fame he had 
 acquired by the boldness of his practice, he 
 boasted of an intercourse with spirits, the 
 possession of the philosopher's stone, the 
 elixir of life, &c. He died, at Salzburg, in 
 1541. 
 
 PARADISI, Count JoHX, bom in Modena, 
 in 17liO. He was a director of the Cisalpine 
 republic, and president of the senate of Na- 
 poleon's kingdom of Italy. Author of " Re- 
 cherche suUa Vibrazione delle Lamine Elas- 
 tiche," " II Vitalizzio, Commedia," &c. 
 
 PARE', Ambrose, called the father of 
 French surgery, was born at Laval, about 
 the beginning of the ICth century. He was 
 a bold and successful operator, particularly 
 in the practice of tying divided arteries, and 
 in liis treatment of gun-shot wounds. He 
 was successively surgeon to Henry II., Fran- 
 cis II., Charles IX., and Henry III. ; and 
 died in 1590. 
 
 PAREJA, JuAK DE, a painter, was bom in 
 the West Indies, in 1610, and became the 
 slave of Diego Velasquez. In the absence of 
 his master, Pareja amused himself in draw- 
 ing and copying his works, but secretly, for 
 fear of giving offence. Philip IV., king of 
 Spain, coming one day to visit Velasquez, 
 Pareja contrived to place one of his own i)ic- 
 tures in his way, with which his majesty was 
 extremely pleased. The slave then fell on 
 his knees, and besought the king to ask his 
 master to forgive him. Philip not only did 
 this, but obtained him his liberty ; but the 
 faithful Pareja would not quit Velasquez till 
 his death. His portraits are very fine. He 
 died in 1670. 
 
 PARINI, Joseph, an eminent Italian 
 poet, was bora in 1729, at Bosizio, in the 
 Milanese. He raised himself to eminence 
 by his talents, which he employed in sati- 
 rising the vices and follies of the age. He 
 first exerted his poetical abilities to procure 
 the means of support for himself and his 
 widowed mother ; but he was obliged to 
 struggle through nearly 20 years of obscurity 
 and indigence, ere he emerged into reputa- 
 tion and competence. He was professor of 
 belles lettres, eloquence, and the fine arts, at 
 Milan ; and died in 1799. His works form 6 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 PARIS, Felix, bom in 1769 ; notary to 
 the revolutionary tribunal. When La Pel- 
 letier was assassinated by Paris, he took the 
 name of Fabricius, and attached himself to 
 Danton. When Robespierre wanted to de- 
 stroy the latter, Paris exerted every effort 
 to save him, by giving timely warning to tlie 
 latter's naturally bold insouciance. He told 
 him that he would be arrested in the night, 
 and even went to meet him at the opera, to 
 prevent his going home ; but Danton's fate 
 prevailed. Paris was directly after sentenced 
 to the guillotine, but escaped. 
 
 PARIS, Francis, commonly called the 
 Abh6 Paris, was born in the French capital, 
 where his father was counsellor to the par- 
 liament ! but the son embraced the ecclesias- 
 tical life, and devoted himself to devotion and 
 charity. He died in 1727, and was buried in 
 the cemetery of St. Medard, where the Jan- 
 
pae] 
 
 ^ ^c&i Winibtv^Kl Btflsray^g. 
 
 [par 
 
 senists pretend<id that miracles were wrought 
 at his tomb ; in consequence of which such 
 crowds resorted to the place, that the govern* 
 ment caused the churchyard to be walled up 
 in 1732. 
 
 PARIS, Matthew, a Benedictine monk 
 of St. Alban's. He was a mathematician, 
 poet, divine, and historian ; and is said to 
 have been a man of great accomplishments 
 and of rare integrity. His principal work is 
 "A History of the World, from tlie Creation 
 to the Conquest ;" which lie afterwards con- 
 tinued to 12,59, the year in whicli he died. 
 
 PARISEAU, N. DE, born in 1753 ; a cele- 
 brated victim of the " mistakes " of the guil- 
 lotine. Pariseau was director of the opera 
 ballets at Paris, and ardently espoused the 
 cause of the revolution in "La Feuille du 
 Jour." He was arrested by the revolutionary 
 tribunal in 1793, and beheaded by mistake, 
 instead of Parisot, a captain of the king's 
 guard. 
 
 PARISOT, or NORBERT, Petek, a Ca- 
 puchin, was born at Bar-le-Duc, iulG97. In 
 173(5 he went as a missionary to the East 
 Indies ; but having quarrelled with the 
 Jesuits, they had him removed to America. 
 He returned to Europe in 1744 ; and soon 
 after published a work, entitled " Historical 
 Memoirs relative to t)ie Missions in the 
 Indies," which giving offence to his own 
 order, as well as the Jesuits, he withdrew to 
 England, where he established two manu- 
 factories of tapestry. After visiting part of 
 Germany and the Peninsula, he at length 
 returned to his native country, became re- 
 conciled to his order, and again abjured it. 
 His most important work is a " History of the 
 Society of Jesus, from its first foimdation by 
 Ignatius Loyola." Died, 1770. 
 
 PARK, Sir James Allan, an eminent 
 English lawyer, was bom at Newington, 
 Surrey, and was educated at the free gram- 
 mar school at Northampton. He was called 
 to the bar in 1784, and speedily brought him- 
 self into notice by tlie profound knowledge 
 he displayed in mercantile law and marine 
 insurance. A work which he published on 
 this latter subject rapidly became the com- 
 plete text book of the profession, and con- 
 tinues so to this day. At the bar he was an 
 admirable speaker ; and when raised to the 
 bench in 1816, as one of the justices of the 
 court of common pleas, he proved himself 
 a no less admirable judge. In addition to 
 the legal work of which we have made men- 
 tion, he published, in 1801, " An Earnest 
 Exhortation to a Frequent Reception of the 
 Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, ad- 
 dressed to Young Persons, by a Layman." 
 Died, 1839. 
 
 PARK, MuNoo, the celebrated Afiican 
 traveller, was born in 1771, at Fowlshiels, 
 near Selkirk, Scotland, and brought up to 
 the medical profession. After having made 
 a voyage to the East Indies, as a ship's 
 surgeon, he was engaged, in 1795, by the 
 African Society, to penetrate into the interior 
 of Africa, and explore the course of the 
 Niger. He arrived on the coasts of Senegal 
 in June, 1795, and in December proceeded 
 from Pisania on Ms adventurous journey. 
 On the 20th of July following, he came in 
 sight of the long sought river; but after 
 
 605 
 
 tracing it for a considerable distance, he was 
 under the necessity of desisting from his 
 enterprise, owing to the state of destitution 
 to which he had been reduced. He accord- 
 ingly returned towards the coast, and arrived 
 in England at the end of the year 1797. Of 
 his interesting discoveries he published an 
 account in his " Travels in the Interior of 
 Africa." He then returned to Scotland, 
 married, and entered upon tlie practice of his 
 profession at Peebles ; nor would he in all 
 probability have again exposed himself to 
 fresh perils, but for the extraordinary in- 
 ducement held out to him by government to 
 take tlie command of a second expedition. 
 He took with him 30 Europeans, of whom 30 
 were soldiers, and the rest mechanics ; and 
 he was liberally provided with presents and 
 merchandise. Some time having elapsed 
 without any intelligence being received of 
 him, Isaaco his interpreter (who had been 
 sent back with communications from the 
 Niger) was despatched to procure informa- 
 tion. He succeeded in finding the person who 
 had taken his place as interpreter, and from 
 him received a journal, containing an account 
 of the voyage, from which it appeared that 
 the party was attacked by the natives at 
 Boussa, and all killed with the exception of 
 one slave. This account has been subse- 
 quently confirmed by Clapperton and the 
 Landers. The journal of Park's second ex- 
 pedition was published in 1815. 
 
 PARK, Thomas, a celebrated biblio- 
 grapher, who, after having published many 
 works, and been admitted a fellow of the 
 society of antiquaries, withdrew his name 
 from its roll, and retired to Hampstead ; 
 where he devoted his latter days to aflfairs of I 
 a purely local nature. He died in 1834, aged 
 75. 
 
 PARKE, John, a celebrated musician, 
 born in 1745, was the best hautboy player of 
 his time, and succeeded Fischer at "Vauxhall, 
 in 1770. About the same time Garrick en- 
 gaged him, on very liberal terms, to play at 
 Drury Lane, and in 1783 he was attached 
 to the Carlton House band at a yearly 
 salary of KM. He was now in the highest 
 reputation ; he performed at the concert 
 of ancient music, at the best private con- 
 certs, and was also regularly engaged at the 
 great provincial music meetings. Died, 
 1829. 
 
 PARKER, He.vry, lord Morley, a noble- 
 man of the lethcentury, wasoneof the barons 
 who signed the declaration to pope Clement 
 VII., threatening him with the loss of his 
 supremacy if he refused his consent to the 
 divorce of Henry VIII. He wrote "A Decla- 
 ration of the 94th Psalm," and is said to have 
 been the author of several tragedies and 
 comedies, but not even the names of them are 
 on record. 1 
 
 PARKER, Matthew, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was born at Norwich, in 1504, and j 
 received his education at Corpus Cliristi ! 
 College, Cambridge. He was a prelate of i 
 great learning and accomplishments, and ! 
 was zealous in promoting the Reformation, j 
 and in restraining the encroachments of the ! 
 puritans. During the reign of Mary he j 
 narrowly escaped being burnt ; but when ! 
 Elizabeth came to the throne he was con- 
 
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 <M ^c&) ^uibertfal 3BtosrapT)2f. 
 
 [par 
 
 secrated archbishop of Canterbury ; in which 
 high station he conducted himself with great 
 prudence and firmness. lie died May 17. 
 1573, and was buried in the eliapel at Lam- 
 beth ; but during the Cromwellian usurpa- 
 tion his tomb was demolislied, and his bones 
 lay scattered about, till Dugdale deposited 
 them in the midst of the chapel. The 
 archbishop published a sermon preached at 
 the funeral of Bucer ; and besides his share 
 in the reformed liturgy, l>e was principally 
 concerned in the Bisliops' Bible. He was 
 also an eminent antiquary, as appears in 
 his editions of the old English historians, 
 and his work, **De Antiquitate BritaunicsB 
 Ecclesiae." 
 
 PARKER, Richard, an English sailor, 
 notorious as the ringleader of the mutineers 
 on board Admiral Bridport's squadron, 
 lying at the Nore, in 1797. IJe was born at 
 Exeter about 17t>0, received a decent educa- 
 tion, and entered into the navy. Being on 
 board the fleet at the Nore at the time of the 
 mutiny, he took a very active part in it, 
 was made principal of the delegates, and so 
 far acquired the confidence of the men by 
 his boldness and talent, that they appointed 
 him admiral of the fleet, lie ruled with 
 great authority for some time ; but the revolt 
 having at length been suppressed, through 
 tlie prudent management and firmness of 
 Lord Howe, Parker was tried at Sheerness, 
 condemned, and hanged on board the Sand- 
 wich, to wliich ship he had belonged, June 
 30. 1797. 
 
 PARKER, Samuel, bishop of Oxford in 
 the reign of James II., was born at North- 
 ampton, in 1640. lie was educated at Wad- 
 ham College, Oxford, from whence he re- 
 moved to Trinity College. In 1(505 he became 
 a fellow of the Royal Society, and published 
 a work in Latin, entitled " i"entamina Phy- 
 sico-Theologica de Deo ;" for which Arch- 
 bishop Sheldon made him one of his chap- 
 lains, and gave him the archdeaconry of 
 Canterbury. He also obtained a prebend in 
 that church, and other preferments : in re- 
 turn for which he displayed his zeal by 
 writing against the Nonconformists, in a 
 " Discourse of Ecclesiastical Polity." At the 
 commencement of the next reign he was made 
 bishop of Oxford, and constituted by manda- 
 mus president of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
 He wrote many works, among others a " De- 
 monstration of the Divine Authority of the 
 Law of Nature and the Christian Religion ;" 
 but though he was a prelate of considerable 
 learning, he was contemptible from his ver- 
 satility and time-serving disposition. Died, 
 1687. 
 
 PARKES, Samuel, an ingenious and 
 scientific chemist, was bom in 1759, at Stour- 
 bridge, in Worcestershire ; and was educated 
 at Market Harborough, under Dr. Addington. 
 He was an eminent experimental chemist, 
 belonged to several literary and philosophical 
 institutions, and was the author of some 
 very useful works, viz. a " Chemical Cate- 
 chism," "Rudiments of Chemistry," an 
 " Essay on the Utility of Chemistry in the 
 Arts and Manufactures," and " Chemical 
 Essays," He died in 1825. 
 
 PARKHURST, John, a learned divine, 
 was bom at Catesby, in Northamptonshire, 
 
 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge. 
 He published a " Greek and English Lexi- 
 con," also a " Hebrew and English Lexicon," 
 and a tract in defence of the divinity of Je- 
 sus Christ. Though he was in holy orders, 
 he held no preferment ; and being possessed 
 of an independent fortune, he devoted him- 
 self entirely to literary pursuits. He died 
 at Epsom, in Surrey, in 1797. 
 
 PARKINSON, Thomas, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, was bom at Kirkham, in Lan- 
 cashire, in 1745, and educated at Christ's 
 College, Cambridge. He became rector of 
 Kegworth, archdeacon of Leicester, chan- 
 cellor of Chester, and a prebendary of St. 
 Paul's, London. In 1789 he published " A 
 System of Mechanics and Hvdrostatics," a 
 work of great value ; and, while at college, 
 he was employed by the board of longitude 
 in the laborious calculation of tables of the 
 series of parallax and refraction. Died, 1830. 
 
 PARMENIDES, a Greek philosopher of 
 the Eleatic school, in the 5th century b. c. 
 He was highly esteemed by the ancients, 
 not merely as a speculative pliilosopher, but 
 as the wise lawgiver of Elea. 
 
 PARNELL, TuoMAS, a poet and divine, 
 was born in Dublin, in 1079 ; educated at 
 Trinity College ; and, in 1705, presented to 
 the archdeaconry of Clogher. He was con- 
 nected with Addison, Congreve, Steele, and 
 other Whigs in power ; but later in life he 
 was the friend of Swift and Pope, the latter 
 of whom gave the works of Parnell to the 
 press. His poems are pleasing, sprightly, 
 and harmonious ; while in sentiment they 
 are elegant and pure in morals. He ob- 
 tained a prebend in Dublin cathedral and 
 the vicarage of Finglass. Died, 1717. 
 
 PARR, Thomas, an extraordinary in- 
 stance of longevity, was born in Shropshire 
 in 1483. He was bred to husbandry, in which 
 he laboured after he was 130 years old. Ten 
 years before this he married a widow ; and 
 he exhibited every sign of health, when, in 
 1635, the Earl of Arundel took him to the 
 court of Charles I., where he died through 
 the change of air and mode of living, at 
 the age of 152 years and 9 months. His 
 body was opened by Dr. Harvey, who dis- 
 covered no internal marks of decay A 
 
 grandson of Parr died in Shropshire, at the 
 age of 120. 
 
 PARK, Catharine, the sixth and last 
 wife of Henry VIII. In 1547 she married 
 Sir Thomas Seymour, lord admiral of Eng- 
 land, who is said to have treated her so ill 
 that she died of it the year following. She 
 wrote "Prayers," "Meditations," and other 
 religious pieces. ' 
 
 PARR, Samuel, a learned divine and a 
 profound scholar, was horn in 174(5, at Har- 
 row-on-the-Hill, Middlesex, and was edu- 
 cated at the grammar school of that place, 
 and at Emanuel College, Cambridge. He 
 accepted the situation of usher at Harrow, 
 under Dr. Sumner ; at whose death he of- 
 fered himself as a candidate for the master- 
 ship, but without success. He first opened 
 an academy at Stanmore, which commenced 
 under very promising appearances, but 
 which, ultimately failing, he gave up in 
 1776, and then became masterof the grammar 
 school at Colchester ; whence, in 1778, he 
 
par] 
 
 ^ i^tta Uniiitr^nl Miastn^f)^. 
 
 [pas 
 
 removed to that of Norwich. In 1783 he 
 obtained the perpetual curacy of Hatton, in 
 Warwickshire, and a prebend in St. Paul's 
 cathedral. In 1790 he exchanged Hatton 
 for the rector^' of Wadeuhoe, in Northamp- 
 tonshire, though he still continued to live 
 at the former place, to which he was much 
 attached, and the parish church of which he 
 greatly ornamented. In 1802, Sir I'rancis 
 Burdett gave him the rectory of Graflfham, 
 in the county of Huntingdon, and this com- 
 pleted the course of his church preferment. 
 As an elegant classical scholar Dr. Parr 
 stood pre-eminent among his cotemporaries ; 
 his prodigious memory and extent of re- 
 search rendered him astonishingly powerful 
 in conversation ; and it is to be regretted 
 that the greater part of his labours as an 
 author had reference to topics which were 
 of a temporary nature, and tlierefore, though 
 written with vigour, are fast sinking into 
 oblivion. He died in 1825. 
 
 PARBHASIUS, a painter of antiquity, 
 who was a native of Ephesus, though others 
 say he was an Athenian, where he flourished 
 in the time of Socrates, and was the rival of 
 Zeuxis. He was so excessively vain as to 
 wear a crown of gold, and to carry a staff 
 studded with gold nails, to indicate that he 
 was the prince of painters. 
 
 PARRY, Caleb Hillier, M.D., F.R.S., 
 a physician and naturalist, was born in 1756, 
 and after graduating in the university of 
 Edinburgh, settled for some time at Norwich, 
 and there married a sister of Dr. Rigby. 
 From thence he removed to Bath, and resided 
 there above 40 years, with great reputation, 
 as one of the physicians of the hospital. He 
 was the author of a "Treatise on Angina 
 Pectoris," another upon " Wool," and a 
 work on " Hydrophobia ;" but his greatest 
 performance is entitled " The Elements of 
 Pathology," published in 1816. He died in 
 1822, leaving two sons ; the eldest, a phy- 
 sician at Bath, and tlie other, Sir Edward 
 Parry, the distinguished commander of the 
 arctic expedition. 
 
 PARSONS, J.AJUES, an eminent English 
 physician and medical writer, was born at 
 Barnstaple, in Devonshire, in 1705. Physic, 
 anatomy, natural history, antiquities, &c., 
 are indebted to his skill and industry for 
 many important discoveries. His most re- 
 markable production is his " Remains of 
 Japhet," being historical inquiries into the 
 affinities and origin of the European lan- 
 guages. Died, 1770. 
 
 PARSONS, William, an eminent English 
 comic actor, was bom in 1736, and made his 
 first appearance at Edinburgh, where he soon 
 established a high reputation as a represent- 
 ative of old men. In 1763 he made his debut 
 at Drury Lane, and was a great favourite 
 with the public, particularly in low comedy. 
 To his theatrical talents he added consider- 
 able skill as a painter. Died, 1795. 
 
 PAS, Anthony de, marquis de Feu- 
 quieres, one of the greatest generals of his 
 age. He was so severe a disciplinarian, that 
 it was usually said, " He must be the bravest 
 man living, since he slept every night in the 
 midst of 100,000 enemies. He died in 1711. 
 
 PASCAL, Blaise, one of the most pro- 
 found tliinkers and accomplished writers 
 
 that ever lived, was bom at Clermont, in 
 Auvergne, June 19th, 1623. His family was 
 one of considerable distinction, his grand- 
 father having been a treasurer of France at 
 Riom, and his father president of the court 
 of aids, in Auvergne. From his earliest 
 childhood he exhibited the most precocious 
 proofs of inventive genius, especially in the 
 department of mathematics. Having been 
 purposely kept in ignorance of geometry, 
 lest his propensity in that direction should 
 interfere with the prosecution of other 
 branches of knowledge, his self-prompted 
 genius discovered for itself the elementary 
 truths of the forbidden science. At 12 years 
 of age he was surprised by his father, in the 
 act ot demonstrating, on the pavement of an 
 old hall where he used to play, and by 
 means of a rude diagram traced by a piece 
 of coal, a proposition which corresponded 
 to the 32nd of the first book of Euclid. At 
 the age of 16 he composed a little tractate 
 on conic sections, which excited the mingled 
 incredulity and admiration of Descartes. 
 At 19 he invented his celebrated arithmetical 
 machine, and at the age of 26 he had com- 
 posed the greater part of his mathematical 
 works, and made those brilliant experi- 
 ments in hydrostatics and pneumatics, which 
 have associated liis name with those of Tor- 
 ricelli and Boyle, and ranked him amongst 
 the first philosophers of his age. But a 
 strong religious impulse having been im- 
 parted to his mind at this period, deepened no 
 doubt by the attacks of disease, wliich he had 
 suffered uninterruptedly from his 18th year, 
 he suddenly renounced the career to which 
 his genius so unequivocally invited him, and 
 thenceforward devoted himself to theology 
 and polemics, and to the promotion of the 
 spiritual and temporal welfare of his fellow 
 man. After a short interval spent at Paris, 
 he retired to Port Royal in 1654, where 
 he spent the remainder of his days in the 
 practice of every Christian duty, accom- 
 panied, however, by ascetic observances, for 
 wliich many sincere believers find no war- 
 rant, either in the doctrines or the precepts 
 of Christianity. The two works for which 
 he is best known in England are, his " Pro- 
 vincial Letters," a caustic satire upon the 
 Jesuits, published in 1056, under the name 
 Louis de Montalte ; and his posthumous 
 " Penst'es," which have always been regarded 
 as among the richest repositories of eloquent 
 thought and profound theology. Died, 1662. 
 An excellent translation of nearly the whole 
 of Pascal's works (exclusive of those strictly 
 scientific) has recently been published by 
 Mr. Pearce. 
 
 PASCHAL, Charles, an eminent writer 
 on ethics, antiquities, and jurisprudence, in 
 the 17th century, was a native of France. 
 He was tlie author of an elaborate work, in 
 10 books, entitled " De Corona," and another, 
 called " Virtutum et Vitiorum Characteres." 
 Died, 1625. 
 
 PASQUIER, Stephen, an eminent French 
 civilian, bom at Paris, in 1529, who first rose 
 into reputation, as an advocate, by pleading 
 against the Jesuits before the parliament. 
 In his writings also he proved himself a 
 formidable adversary of that dangerous and 
 encroaching order. Died, 1615. 
 
 i 
 
pab] 
 
 ^ j^ctD Jam'bcr^al 3StafirapT)j). 
 
 [pat 
 
 PASSEMANT, Claltpe Simeox, a ma- 
 thematician, was boru in Paris in 1702. He 
 publislied an account of a large reflecting 
 telescope made by him in 1738. He also 
 constructed an astronomical pendulum sur- 
 mounted on a celestial sphere, which he 
 presented to Louis XV. Died, 1769. 
 
 PASSERI, JoH.v Baptist, a painter and 
 poet, was the disciple of Domenichino. He 
 wrote " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects " of his time. Died, 1679. 
 
 PASSIONEI, Dojnxic, a cardinal, was 
 born at Fossombrone, in the duchy of Urbino, 
 in 1682; and studied in the Clementine 
 College at Rome. In 1706 he went with 
 Gualterio, the nuncio, to Paris ; and in 1708, 
 he became a secret agent for the pope in 
 Holland. He was also employed on several 
 other missions, particularly in Switzerland, 
 of which he published an account, entitled 
 " Acta Legationis Helveticae," folio. Inno- 
 cent XIII. made him archbishop of Ephesus, 
 Clement XII raised him to the purple, and 
 Benedict XIV. appointed him librarian of 
 the Vatican ; in which situation he promoted 
 Dr. Kennicott's great undertaking, by caus- 
 ing the Hebrew manuscripts to be collated 
 for his use. Died, 1761. 
 
 PASSWAN OGLOU, Osman, a celebrated 
 Turkish rebel, was born in 1758, at Widdin, 
 in Bulgaria. His father having been put to 
 death by the Porte, Passwan took refuge 
 in the mountains, and gathered round him 
 a considerable body of partisans ; and having 
 seized upon Widdin, he held the fortress for 
 several years, in spite of all the efforts which 
 were made to dispossess him, so that the 
 sultan at length felt it necessary to confirm 
 him in the government. Died, 1807. 
 
 PATERCULU8, Caii'S Velleius, an 
 ancient historian, was born in the year of 
 Rome, 735 ; served under Tiberius in Ger- 
 many, as commander of the cavalry ; and, 
 in the first year of that emperor's reign, 
 was nominated praetor. He died in his 50th 
 year, leaving an abridgment of Roman his- 
 tory in 10 books, of which the greater part 
 is lost. 
 
 PATERSON, Samuel, a bibliographer, 
 was bom in London, in 1728. He became 
 an orphan at the age of 12 years, and was 
 sent, by a dishonest guardian, to France, 
 where he acquired such a knowledge of 
 books as induced him to open a shop in the 
 Strand, but without success. He next 
 turned auctioneer ; and, in 1757, sold the 
 manuscript collections of Sir Julius Coesar, 
 which circumstance brought his talents into 
 notice, and he was employed in the forma- 
 tion of catalogues and the sale of libraries. 
 His principal performance in this line is the 
 " Bibliotheca Universalis Selecta." He also 
 wrote "Cursory Remarks on a Journey 
 through the Netherlands, by Coriat, junior," 
 3 vols. Died, 1802. 
 
 PATIN, Guv, a French physician, memor- 
 able for the inveterate hatred he professed 
 for all autimonial preparations, was bom 
 near Beanvois, in 1601 ; chosen dean of the 
 faculty of medicine at Paris, in 1650 ; and 
 died in 1672. His works, which form seven 
 volumes, chiefly consist of "Letters," and 
 
 are remarkable for their caustic satire 
 
 His son Chakles, who was also a physician, 
 
 669 
 
 I wrote some clever treatises on medals, and 
 died in 1693. 
 
 PATKUL, John RiixnoLD, Count, a 
 Livonian who endeavoured to shake off the 
 Swedish yoke ; but, being unsuccessful, went 
 to Saxony, where he resided as agent for 
 Peter the Great. On being delivered up to 
 Charles XII., he was executed on tl>e charge 
 of treason, in 1706. 
 
 PATRICK, St., the apostle or patron 
 saint of Ireland, is supposed by some to 
 have been a native of Cornwall, whose zeal 
 prompted him to cross the Channel for the 
 conversion of the pagan Irish. By others, 
 however, he is said to have been a native 
 of Kirkpatrick, on the Clyde ; and that his 
 name was Saccuthus, until changed by pope 
 Celestinc. Others again assert, that he was 
 born in Brittany, and carried by some free- 
 booters to Ireland, where he was at first 
 employed in keeping sheep. Be this as it 
 may, it is allowed by all that his endeavours 
 were crowned with great success, and that 
 he established there a number of schools 
 and monasteries. Nennius states that his 
 missions continued 40 years, and various 
 miracles are attributed to him, particularly 
 the often-repeated assertion of the absence 
 of ail venomous creatures from Ireland, 
 ascribed by the superstitious to his holy 
 benediction. We can no more reconcile the 
 conflicting testimonies relative to the place 
 of- his birth, than we could determine the 
 validity of his miraculous powers ; and 
 perhaps, for the sake of truth, the least that 
 is said of cither the better. It would seem 
 that the latter years of his life were devoted 
 to acts of piety and religious meditatisn ; 
 and that he died, at an advanced age, about 
 the year 493. His works, or at least those 
 ascribed to him, were published, with re- 
 marks, by Sir James Ware, in 1658. 
 
 PATRICK, Samuel, a learned critic, 
 editor of a number of useful works relating 
 to classical literature, viz. " Planti Co- 
 mediae Quatuor, eum Notis Operarii," " He- 
 derici Lexicon Manuale Grascum," " Clavis 
 Homerica," &c. Died, 1748. 
 
 PATRICK, SiMOX, an English prelate, 
 born in 1626, at Gainsborough, in Lincoln- 
 shire. He was educated at Queen's College, 
 Cambridge ; became vicar of Battersea, in 
 1658 ; obtained the living of St. Paul's, 
 Covent Garden, in 1662 ; and endeared him- 
 self much to his parishioners by remaining 
 with them during the plague. He was af- 
 terwards, successively, a prel)endary of West- 
 minster, dean of Peterborough, bishop of 
 Chichester, and, lastly, bishop of Ely, where 
 he died, in 1707, in high reputation for learn- 
 ing, talent, and piety. During the reign of 
 James II. he was one of the ablest defenders 
 of the Protestant religion ; and among his 
 works are " Christian Sacrifice," " The De- 
 vout Christian," "Jesus and the Resurrec- 
 tion Justified," a " History of the Church of 
 Peterborough," " Commentaries " and " Pa- 
 raphrases " on the principal books of the 
 Old Testament ; and some others of less 
 note. 
 
 PATRIN, Eugene Louis Melchior, a 
 celebrated French geologist, was bom at 
 Lyons, in 1742. After ten years' travelling 
 through the north of Europe, for the purpose 
 
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 ^ 0ci\3 Hui&cr^al 28t0jaTajpl)w. 
 
 [PAU 
 
 of forming a collection of mineral speci- 
 mens, he revisited France, and was chosen a 
 member of the National Convention for his 
 native city. Having voted for the banish- 
 ment of Louis XVI., he was proscribed, and 
 obliged to conceal himself during the reign 
 of terror. On the creation of the School of 
 Mines, he presented his museum of minerals 
 to that institution, of which he was made 
 librarian. His principal work, " Histoire 
 Naturelle dee Mineraux," in 5 vols., forms a 
 sequel to the works of Buflfon. Died, 1815. 
 
 PATTISON, James, a member of a family 
 that has for generations held a high com- 
 mercial rank in the city of London, was 
 born, 178<j. In 1835 he was chosen one of 
 the members of parliament for London. In 
 1841 he again contested the city, though un- 
 successfully, on the " liberal " interest, but 
 was returned in 1843, to fill the vacancy 
 caused by the death of Sir M. Wood, and 
 was again chosen at the general election of 
 1847. He had been governor of the Bank of 
 England. Died, 184'J. 
 
 PATTISON, William, bom at Pease- 
 marsh, in Sussex, in 1700, was an English 
 poet of great genius, but whose imprudence 
 made his life miserable and his death pre- 
 mature. Having quarrelled with his tutor 
 at Sydney College, Cambridge, and fearing 
 an expulsion, he came to London, where he 
 plunged into all the pleasures of the metro- 
 polis, was soon reduced to indigence, and 
 died of the small-pox in his 21st year. 
 
 PAUL OF BURGOS, a converted Jew, 
 who became patriarch of Aquileia, and 
 died in 1435. He wrote " Scrutinium Scrip- 
 
 turarum" and other works. His son Al- 
 
 PHOjfso was bishop of Burgos, and wrote an 
 abridgment of the Spanish history. 
 
 PAUL THE DEACON, or PAULUS 
 DIACONUS, was a native of Friuli, and a 
 monk in the abbey of Monte Cassino, where 
 he wrote a "History of the Lombards," 
 Died, 743. 
 
 PAUL OF SAMOSATA, so named from 
 the place of his birth, flourished in the third 
 century. In 260 he was chosen bishop of 
 Antioch ; but having preached against the 
 divinity of Christ, he was deposed in 270. 
 The queen Zenobia took his part, but the 
 emperor Aurelian expelled him from An- 
 tioch in 273, and what became of him after- 
 wards is unknown. His followers were 
 called Paulinists for a long time after liis 
 death. 
 
 PAUL, St. Vincent de, an ecclesiastic of 
 the Church of Rome, was bom in 1576. In 
 a voyage which he made from Marseilles, his 
 ship was taken by the Turks, and he re- 
 mained in slavery some years ; but having 
 made a convert of his master, he obtained 
 his liberty, and returned to France. Louis 
 XIII. made hira abbot of St. Leonard de 
 Chalme, and he also had the living of Clichy, 
 where he built a church at his own expense. 
 He was next placed at the head of the coun- 
 cil of conscience, and chief of the house of St. 
 Lazare, in which situations his zeal and cha- 
 rity knew no bounds. He projected missions 
 into all parts of the world, and instituted a 
 number of benevolent establishments. He 
 died in 1660, and was afterwards canonised. 
 
 PAULIAN, AiME IlE.vKi, a French Je- 
 
 suit, was bora, in 1722, at Nismes, and was 
 distinguished as the author of several works 
 on natural philosophy. Died, 1802. 
 
 PAULIN PR St. BARTHELEMI, or 
 JOHN PHILIP WERDIN, was a monk of 
 the Carmelite order, born in Austria, in 1748, 
 and having studied the oriental languages, 
 went as a missionary to the East Indies, where 
 he passed 14 years, and was honoured with 
 the title of apostolic visitor. He was then re- 
 called to Rome, to give an account of the 
 eastern missions, and to correct the cate- 
 chisms, &c., then printing for the use of the 
 missionaries. When the French invaded 
 Italy in 1798, he removed to Vienna ; but he 
 returned to Rome in 1800 ; was patronised 
 by Pius VII. ; wrote an account of his 
 travels, and the state of Christianity in 
 India ; and died in 1806. 
 
 PAULINUS, patriarch of Aquileia, in the 
 8th century, was bora near Friuli, in 726. 
 He was a zealous defender of the doctrine of 
 
 the Trinity, and died in 804 Another 
 
 Paulinus, born at Bordeaux, in 3,53, having 
 married a Spanish lady, who converted him, 
 settled at Nola, of which he became bishop, 
 and died in 439. He was a learned and 
 liberal prelate, much esteemed by his cotem- 
 poraries. 
 
 PAULLI, Simon, a physician and natu- 
 ralist, was born at Rostock, in 1603, and died 
 at Copenhagen, in 1680. He wrote " Qua- 
 dripartitum Botanicum," " Flora Danica," 
 "A Treatise against Tobacco and Tea," 
 translated into English by Dr. James. 
 
 PAULISIY, Mark Antoky Rexe pk 
 VoYEK, Marquis de, minister of state, and a 
 member of the French academy, was bom at 
 Valenciennes, in 1722. He collected one of 
 the most magnificent libraries in Europe, 
 which was sold to the Count d'Artois, brother 
 to Louis XVI. M. de Paulmy published 
 "Melanges d'une grande Bibliotheque," 69 
 vols. 8to., and a work entitled " Essays in 
 the Style of those of Montaigne," 9 vols. 8vo. 
 Died, 1787. 
 
 PAULUS, Julius, a celebrated Roman 
 lawyer, of the 3d century, who, being made 
 an imperial counsellor under Severus and 
 Caracalla, distinguished himself by the bold- 
 ness with which he delivered his opinions. 
 Under Heliogabalus he was banished ; but 
 the emperor Alexander Severus recalled 
 him, raised him to the consular dignity, and 
 appointed him praitorian prefect, after the 
 death of Ul pi an. 
 
 PAULUS, Peter, grand pensionary of 
 Holland, was born in 1754. As a minister of 
 the marine department he displayed great 
 activity and intelligence ; but having of- 
 fended the stadtholder's government, he was 
 removed from his situation in 1787, and re- 
 tired into France. He afterwards returned, 
 and held very important offices in the state. 
 Died, 1796. Paulus was the author of a 
 " Commentary on the Treaty of Utrecht," 3 
 vols., a " Memoir on the Equality of Man- 
 kind," and other works. 
 
 PAUSANIAS, the son of Cleombrotus, 
 king of Sparta, governed the kingdom for 
 his nephew during his minority. Being dis- 
 contented with his country, he entered into 
 a secret treaty with the king of Persia ; but I 
 this being discovered by the ephori, to avoid I 
 
PAU] 
 
 ^ ^eb) ^ni^trinl Utoffrajil^ii. 
 
 [PED 
 
 the punishment due to his treason, he fled 
 into the temple of Minerva, which being 
 held sacred, the Lacedaemonians blocked it 
 up with stones, tlie first of which was placed 
 by Fausanias's mother. Ue was there starved 
 to death, B.C. 474. 
 
 PAU8ANIAS, a Greek topographical 
 writer, who flourished during the reigns of 
 Adrian and the Antonines. He taught at 
 Athens, and afterwards at Rome, wliere he 
 died. His " Descriptio Grmciae," a kind of 
 journal of his travels, in which he describes 
 every thing remarkable in Greece, is still 
 extant, and is a valuable work for the anti- 
 quarian. 
 
 PAUSIAS, a painter of Sicyon, and the 
 disciple of Pamphilius, flourished about 352 
 B. c. He was the first who applied colours 
 to wood and ivory by fire, now called en- 
 caustic painting. 
 
 PAUVV, CoKNELius PK, a Dutch writer, 
 was bom at Amsterdam, in 1739. He was 
 an ecclesiastic, and had a canonry in Ger- 
 many, where he died in 1799. He was 
 uncle to Anacharsis Cloots, who figured at 
 the French revolution, and his opinions 
 were in some respects as singular. His 
 principal work is entitled " Recherches Phi- 
 losophiques, sur les Grecs, les Am^ricains, 
 les Egyptiens, et les Chinois," 7 vols. 8vo., a 
 work of talent, but full of paradoxes and 
 free opinions. 
 
 PEACHAil, Henry, an ingenious writer 
 of the 17th century, was born at North 
 Mims, in Hertfordshire, and educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. He afterwards 
 went to Italy, and while in that country 
 studied painting, music, and the fine arts 
 generally. His principal work, entitled 
 " The Complete Gentleman," was once ex- 
 tremely popular. Besides this, he published 
 " Minerva Britannica," " Thalia's Banquet," 
 " The Valley of Variety," " The Worth of a 
 Penny," and the " Gentleman's Exercise." 
 Died, about 1C40. 
 
 PEACOCK, Reginald, a learned and 
 worthy prelate, was successively bishop of 
 St. Asaph and Chichester, by the favour of 
 Humphry, the good duke of Gloucester. 
 But he was deposed for resisting the papal 
 authority and denying transubstantiation, 
 with other articles of the Roman Catholic 
 faith. He was obliged to recant liis notions, 
 and his books were publicly burnt ; after 
 which he was confined in Thorney Abbey, 
 where he died, in 1400. 
 
 PEARCE, Nathaniel, a sailor, was bom 
 in 1780, at Acton, near London. In 1805 he 
 accompanied Lord Valentia to Abyssinia ; 
 and being, by his own desire, left there, 
 married, and enjoyed for many years the 
 favour of the king. He died, on his journey 
 to England, in 1820, at Alexandria. Though 
 an uneducated man, Pearce was a shrewd 
 observer, and has contributed much to our 
 knowledge of the present state of the country 
 in which he was domiciled. 
 
 PEARCE, Zachaey, bishop of Rochester, 
 a prelate of great learning and piety, was 
 born in London, in 1690 ; was educated at 
 Westminster School, and Trinity College, 
 Cambridge ; became, successively, vicar of 
 St. Martiu's-in-the-Fields, dean of Win- 
 chester, bishop of Bangor and bishop of 
 
 Rochester. His principal works are, erudite 
 editions of Longinus and Cicero, a " Review 
 of Paradise Lost," a " Commentary on the 
 Four Evangelists," &c., 2 vols.; and "Ser- 
 mons," 4 vols. He left, among other chari- 
 table bequests, 50001. to the college for 
 clergymen's widows at Bromley. 
 
 PEARSON, Geouue, M.D., F.R. S., was 
 a native of Rotherham, in Yorkshire. He 
 studied medicine in London, Edinburgh, 
 and Leyden ; was one of the physicians of 
 St. George's Hospital ; and rendered essen- 
 tial benefit to the lovers of chemistry by his 
 experimental knowledge of the science. The 
 component parts of Dr. James's febrifuge 
 powders having been kept a profound secret. 
 Dr. Pearson analysed the composition, and 
 proved them to be composed solely of anti- 
 mony and phosphate of lime. Died, 1828. 
 
 PEARSON, John, an eminent English 
 prelate, was born at Snoring, in Norfolk, in 
 1612, and died bishop of Chester, in 1686. He 
 is principally known by his valuable " Ex- 
 position of the Creed." He also wrote " Vin- 
 diciaj Ignatii, or a Defence of the Epistles of 
 St. Ignatius," and other learned works. 
 
 PEARSON, Margaret Eglinotok, a 
 lady distinguished for her skill in the art of 
 enamelling, or painting on glass, was the 
 daughter of Samuel Paterson, the bibliogra- 
 pher, and married an artist named Pearson, 
 with whom she established a manufactory 
 of stained glass at Hampstead. Some of her 
 productions have scarcely ever been equalled, 
 particularly her copies of Raphael's car- 
 loons. Died, 1823. 
 
 PECK, Francis, a learned antiquary, was 
 born at Stamford, in 1692. He took his 
 several degrees in arts at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge ; became rector of Godeby, in 
 Lincolnshire ; obtained a prebend in the 
 cathedral of Lincoln, and died in 1743. His 
 principal publications are, " The Antiquarian 
 Annals of Stamford," " Desiderata Curiosa," 
 "Memoirs of Oliver Cromwell," and "Me- 
 moirs of John Milton." 
 
 PECQUET, John, a celebrated anatomist 
 and physician, was born at Dieppe, and died 
 at Paris in 1674. He discovered the thoracic 
 duct and the receptacle of the chyle, and 
 traced the progress of the chyle into the left 
 subclavian vein. He wrote "Experimenta 
 Nova Anatomica " and other works. 
 
 PEDRO I., Antonio Jose d' Alcantara, 
 Don, ex-emperor of Brazil, was the eldest 
 son of John VI. king of Portugal, elder bro- 
 ther of Don Miguel, and nephew to Fer- 
 dinand VII. king of Spain, lie was born in 
 1798, and was taken in 1808, with the rest of 
 the royal family, to Brazil. In 1817 he 
 married Leopoldine, archduchess of Austria, 
 daughter of the emperor Francis I., by whom 
 he had five children, among whom was the 
 present queen. Donna Maria. Leopoldine 
 died in 1826 ; and in 1829 he married Amelia, 
 princess of Leuchtenberg, the daughter of 
 Eugene Beauhamois. On account of the 
 events which led to Pedro's abdication of 
 the crown of Brazil, in favour of his son, 
 Pedro II., he embarked on board an English 
 ship of war for Europe, in the spring of 1831, 
 and arrived in London in July, as a private 
 gentleman, bearing the title of the Duke of 
 Braganza. Operations immediately com- 
 
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 ^ ^ebi WinibtvSiil SStOffrapl^M. 
 
 [pee 
 
 menced for displacing his brother, Don 
 Miguel, from the throne of Portugal, and 
 many severe conflicts took place ; at length, 
 in July 1832, the fleet of Pedro, under the 
 command of Admiral Napier, signally de- 
 feated that of Miguel ; which event, with 
 other successes of the Pedroite party, led to 
 his brother's abandonment of the throne, 
 and the accession of Donna Maria. Don 
 Pedro died in 1834. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, bart, third son of 
 Mr. Peel, of Peel Cross, Lancashire, and 
 father of the celebrated statesman who in- 
 herited his name and title, was born in 17.50. 
 This gentleman evinced, at a very early 
 age, a quickness of perception and a spirit 
 of enterprise wliich led to distinguished acts 
 in the course of his useful life. In 1770 he 
 devoted a great portion of his time to the 
 improvement of machinery, and succeeded 
 in the application of mechanical power to 
 an extent which caused the abridgment of 
 human labour, and added greatly to the 
 facilities of commerce. He embarked in 
 the cotton trade in 1773, and carried on a 
 manufactory at Bury with great success. 
 From his earliest years he had encouraged 
 a belief that a person had it in his power to 
 attain eminence by industry and persever- 
 ance, and he spent many of his youthful 
 nights in reading and study, so that he ac- 
 quired a thorough knowledge of commercial 
 and manufacturing subjects. In politics he 
 adopted the sentiments of Mr. Pitt, and was 
 a strenuous supporter of every measure which 
 had for its object the commercial prosperity, 
 or the internal peace, of the country. He 
 was created a baronet in 1801. In the fol- 
 lowing year he brought a bill into parlia- 
 ment for ameliorating the condition of ap- 
 prentices employed in the cotton and woollen 
 trades. Sir Robert filled the oflSce of vice- 
 president of the Literary Fund, and was a 
 governor of Christ's Hospital. He died at his 
 seat, Drayton Manor, Stafl:brdshire, in 1830. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, bart., the eldest son 
 of tlie preceding, and the most distinguished 
 English statesman of his age, was born, 
 Feb. 5. 1788. Destined by his father for a 
 political life, he was educated first at Har- 
 row, and afterwards at Oxford, at both of 
 which places he distinguished himself by 
 his patient diligence, his correct taste, and 
 his scholarly acliievements. At Oxford he 
 took a first class degree both in classics and 
 mathematics. No sooner was this accom- 
 plished, than his father, in 1809, had him 
 brought into parliament as member for 
 Cashel, whilst he was little more than 21 
 years of age ; and the House of Commons 
 became thenceforward the arena of his life. 
 He had not sat long in it until he proved 
 himself an able speaker, and a laborious 
 and sagacious worker. This led to his 
 speedily finding his way to office. In 1811 
 he was appointed under-secretary of state 
 for the colonies, under the Percival ad- 
 ministration. In 1812 he was made chief 
 secretary for Ireland — an office which he 
 held with much advantage to the country 
 till 1818. In 1817 he was elected one of the 
 members for the university of Oxford. After 
 remaining oiit of office for nearly 4 years, 
 which, however, were signalised by his 
 
 carrying through his famous currency mea- 
 sure, and many other useful acts, he in 1822 
 became secretary of state for the home de- 
 partment. Among many other useful mea- 
 sures identified with his name, during this 
 period of his career, may be mentioned his 
 admirable plan for the reform of the cri- 
 minal code, which he brought forward and 
 carried in 1826. On the accession of Can- 
 ning to the premiership in 1827, he refused to 
 take office under that distinguished states- 
 man ; but he returned in 1828 to the office 
 of home secretary under the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, and held that post during the diffi- 
 cult times which preceded the dissolution 
 of the Tory government in 1830. Hitherto, 
 his political career had borne the aspect of 
 devoted adherence to Toryism ; but, on ac- 
 cepting office under the Duke of Wellington, 
 he entered upon a course in which the in- 
 fluence of a different set of principles came 
 to be apparent ; for he but feebly opposed 
 the bill of Lord John Russell for the repeal 
 of the test and corporation acts, and himself 
 introduced, and carried tlirough, in 1829, the 
 bill for tlie removal of the Catholic disabili- 
 ties, to which he had previously been op- 
 posed. The change in his opinions upon 
 Catholic emancipation having excited great 
 dissatisfaction among his constituents, he 
 resolved to give them an opportunity of 
 recording their sentiments, by resigning his 
 seat ; but he was opposed and beaten by Sir 
 Robert II. Inglis, finding his way back to 
 parliament for the small borough of West- 
 bury. On May 3. 1830, he succeeded his 
 father in the baronetcy, and also as member 
 for Tamworth, which he continued to repre- 
 sent till his death. The accession of Wil- 
 liam IV., who was known to be attached to 
 " liberal " opinions, together with the almost 
 simultaneous outbreak of the French revo- 
 lution, having given an irresistible impulse 
 to the cause of reform in England, the Wel- 
 lington administration resigned in Novem- 
 ber 1830, after its defeat on the civil list ; 
 and Sir Robert Peel offered to the reform 
 bill of the Grey administration a persevering 
 and able, though not factious, opposition. 
 On the passing of that bill, however, he im- 
 mediately accepted it as irrevocable, and 
 set himself to reconstruct his party on the 
 basis of the altered constitution of the House 
 of Commons. The death of Earl Spencer, 
 in 1834, having afforded the king a pretext 
 for dismissing his Whig ministers. Sir Robert 
 Peel was summoned from Rome, whither he 
 had gone with his family, in the course of 
 a continental tour, and requested to form 
 an administration. He had now reached 
 the summit of political power, and the 
 same abilities which had displayed them- 
 selves whilst he was in subordinate offices, 
 shone forth with increasing brilliancy now 
 that he had the chief control of affairs. 
 But his position in tlie house was not yet 
 sufficiently strong to enable him to retain 
 his place, and the government being beaten 
 on more than one question, on the 8th of 
 April, 1835, they resigned, and the Whigs 
 once more returned to office. In 1839 he 
 was again prime minister for a still shorter 
 period, the famous " Bedchamber plot," as it 
 was called, having compelled him to relin- 
 
 I 
 
pee] 
 
 ^ i^cto ^m'&cri^al 23i0flrapl)5. 
 
 [PEB 
 
 quish the reins almost as soon as he had 
 grasped them. In the meantime, however, 
 circumstances were gradually ripening to 
 render his accession to power inevitable. 
 Justly or unjustly, a general impression had 
 gone abroad unfavourable to the Whig admi- 
 nistration ; it was accused of administrative 
 incapacity ; and, in the summer of 1841, Sir 
 Robert Peel led on an attack which ended 
 in the resignation of Lord Melbourne, and 
 placed him once more at the head of affairs. 
 Meaii while, too, the conservative party had 
 been busy in the registration courts ; and, 
 on the dissolution of parliament in the 
 autumn of that j ear, a new election returned 
 to tlie house a large majority prepared to 
 support the Peel administration. Sir Ro- 
 bert's power was now as real as his position 
 was diguitied. lu 1842 he proposed one of 
 the most extensive alterations in the tariff 
 of the country that had ever been effected. 
 Hundreds of imposts — many of them insig- 
 nificant, but all of them vexatious — were 
 swept away. The confidence of the protec- 
 tionist party in their leader was grievously 
 shaken, and their complaints of being duped 
 by him were loud and clamorous. But in 
 losing their confidence, he gained that of the 
 opposite party, who began to look upon him as 
 the man destined to realise all their hoi>cs. In 
 the autumn of 1845, the famine wlUch then 
 threatened to sweep over the country roused a 
 universal agitation, free from all party strife; 
 and meetings were held in all the large 
 towns, praying for the immediate opening 
 of the ports, to relieve the people from their 
 sufferings. The Peel cabinet split upon this 
 question — Lord Stanley leading the opposi- 
 tion—and resigned in December. Lord John 
 Russell attempted to form a government, 
 but was prevented by personal disputes, and 
 after some vain efforts, he abandoned the 
 task, and Sir Robert Peel was again rein- 
 stated. Shortly after the opening of the 
 session of 1846, he formally announced, to 
 the surprise of all, the hope of thousands, 
 and the rage and dismay of his party, his 
 intention, not of modifying, but of entirely 
 repealing, the corn laws. Instantly he be- 
 came the object of the most unsparing in- 
 vective, unceasing attack, and bitter reproach 
 from those who accused him of having de- 
 ceived them. All this he bore with firmness 
 and equanimity. He was convinced that 
 no other plan would meet the wants of the 
 country, and he persevered against an oppo- 
 sition strong, bitter, and powerful, but ulti- 
 mately unavailing, his policy triumphing 
 in both houses of parliament. The corn 
 laws were abolished in June 1846, and free 
 trade proclaimed as the commercial policy 
 of the country. Simultaneously with the 
 passing of this measure. Sir Robert Peel 
 resigned office, a coalition of Whigs and 
 Protectionists having defeated him on the 
 Irish coercion bill. From that period he 
 gave a general support to the Whigs, de- 
 claring that he had no wish to resume 
 otfiee. But though destitute of office, he 
 was not destitute of power ; for never, per- 
 haps, was his influence over the destinies of 
 this country more felt than during the four 
 years which followed his retirement. The 
 last time he spoke iu the house was on 
 
 (573 
 
 Friday the 28th of June, 1850, on the dis- 
 cussion of the foreign policy of the govern- 
 ment. On the afternoon of the following 
 day, wliile riding up Constitution Hill, his 
 horse started and threw him over its head, 
 falling heavily upon him. He was conveyed 
 home, and medical attendance was instantly 
 with him, but he grew gradually worse, and 
 expired July 2., to the great regret of all 
 classes of the community, who mourned his 
 loss as that of a statesman of the highest 
 order, a great financier, an excellent admi- 
 nistrator, and an upright and truth-loving 
 man. A national monument was decreed 
 to his memory. Her Majesty herself has- 
 tened to evince her sympathy in the loss 
 which the nation had sustained, by offering 
 to confer on his family the honours of the 
 peerage ; and the popular feeling in regard 
 to him was still further increased, when it 
 became known that the great statesman had 
 interdicted his family from accepting any 
 honours for any services which he might 
 have been supposed to have rendered to his 
 country. The time has not arrived to judge 
 Sir Robert Peel with impartiality. But even 
 at this short interval since his death, we 
 believe that in avowing the conviction, that 
 this country owes to him as deep a debt of 
 gratitude as to any statesman that has ever 
 presided over her destinies, we are only 
 giving utterance to an opinion which pos- 
 terity, a tribunal to which Sir Robert Peel 
 was fond of appealing, will amply con- 
 firm. The reformer of the criminal code, 
 the introducer of an effective system of 
 police, the founder of a system of mone- 
 tary affairs, which has been lauded by the 
 most eminent financiers, the restorer of 
 civil equality to Christians of all denomi- 
 nations, to say nothing of his establishment 
 of the principles of free trade, on which 
 opinions still differ, might well be entitled 
 to the highest honours that can be rendered 
 to his memory. But besides his devotion 
 to politics. Sir Robert Peel foimd leisure to 
 attend to the pursuits of literature, and 
 the promotion of science and art. His own 
 literary attainments were extensive ; and 
 his taste in the fine arts was attested by 
 the magnificent gallery which he had col- 
 lected, and of which all the world has 
 heard. From the resources of his own 
 wealth he munificently encouraged the exer- 
 tions of all those engaged in Jhe pursuits of 
 literature and art ; as the dispenser of tlie 
 public bounty, he caused it to flow liberally 
 in their direction ; and not a few of the 
 families of men of genius were rescued from 
 poverty by his prompt and judicious aid. 
 In private life his character was " without a 
 flaw ; " and the reserve whicli perhaps not 
 unnaturally marked his intercourse with 
 strangers, is said to have had no existence 
 within the domestic and social circle. 
 
 PEELE, George, a dramatist and poet of 
 the Elizabethan age, was a native of Devon- 
 shire, and was educated at Oxford, where he 
 completed his degrees in arts in 1579. On 
 coming to London he formed an acquaintance 
 with Shakspcare, Jonson, and other dra- 
 matic writers, and wrote for the stage. He 
 wrote five plays, which were well received ; 
 also, some pastoral and other poems. There 
 
 S u 
 
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 ^ 0tio ^iittjcr^al 38tOffrajpl)n. 
 
 [PEM 
 
 is a scarce book still extant, entitled " The 
 Merry conceited Jests of George Peele," &c. 
 He died about 1598. 
 
 PEGGE, Samuel, LL.D., an eminent di- 
 vine and antiquary, was born at Chesterfield, 
 in 1704, and educated at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge. Besides other church prefer- 
 ment, he obtained two prebends, one in 
 Lichfield cathedral and the other in Lin- 
 coln. His principal works are, " Dissertations 
 on Anglo-Saxon Remains," "The Life of 
 Robert Grossetete, Bishop of Lincoln," 
 " Anonymiana ; or Ten Centuries of Observ- 
 ations." He also contributed numerous 
 papers to the Archaeologia and tlie Gentle- 
 man's Magazine. Died, 179(! His son 
 
 Samuel, a barrister, was born in 1731, and 
 died in 1800, groom of the king's bedchamber. 
 He was the author of" Curialia " and " Anec- 
 dotes of the English Language." Sir 
 
 Chkistopher Peooe, the son of the last- 
 mentioned, practised with great success as a 
 physician at Oxford, where he held the re- 
 gius professorship in medicine. Died, 1825. 
 
 PEIRESC, Nicholas Claude Fabri, a 
 learned Frenchman, was born at Beaugen- 
 sier, in 1580, and distinguished himself by 
 his application to the study of antiquities, 
 and by his extraordinary abilities, while at 
 the Jesuit's college, at Avignon. He after- 
 wards fixed his residence at Padua, and 
 made himself master of the mathematics, 
 and of the Hebrew, Samaritan, Syriac, and 
 Arabic languages. In 1005 he visited Eng- 
 land, and became acquainted with Camden 
 and other English literati. In 1607 he was 
 admitted a senator at Aix, and in 1618 he 
 obtained the abbey of Guistres, in Guienne, 
 where he employed himself in literary and 
 scientific pursuits till his death, in 1637. 
 
 PELAGIUS, a British ecclesiastic of the 
 5th century, whose real name was Morgak, 
 which he changed for the corresponding 
 Greek term, signifying " born of the sea." 
 He is said to have been abbot of Bangor ; 
 and, about the year 400, he went to Rome, 
 where he opposed the doctrines of St. Au- 
 gustine respecting original sin, irresistible 
 grace, and eternal election, asserting the 
 possibility of man's being saved by his own 
 merits. Accompanied by his countryman 
 Celestius, he went to Palestine, and met 
 with a kind reception from the bishop of 
 Jerusalem. In the meantime, Augustine 
 and Jerome attacked his tenets with great 
 severity, and the council of Carthage con- 
 demned his opinions as heretical. At the 
 accession of pope Zosimus he took Pelagius 
 and Celestius under his protection, but he 
 afterwards turned against them, and insti- 
 gated the emperor to persecute their fol- 
 lowers. The time and place of his death 
 are alike uncertain. 
 
 PELL, John, an English divine and very 
 eminent mathematician ; born, 1610 ; died, 
 1685; leaving very numerous and valuable 
 treatises on the mathematics. 
 
 PELLEGRIN, Simon Joseph, a French 
 poet and ecclesiastic, was born at Marseilles, 
 in 1663, and died in 1745. He wrote several 
 pieces for the stage, and some poems. 
 
 PELLERIN, Joseph, a French antiquary, 
 who was commissary-general and clerk of 
 the marine, at Paris, where he died at the 
 
 age of 99, in 1782. He published 10 volumes 
 in quarto on the subject of medals ; and his 
 cabinet, which was one of the richest in 
 Europe, was purchased by the king of France. 
 
 PELLETIER, Bernard, an ingenious 
 French chemist, was born at Bayonne, in 
 1761, and died of a consumption, brought on 
 by inhaling oxymuriatie acid gas, in 1797. 
 He made a number of discoveries, the parti- 
 culars of which were communicated to the 
 public in the Journal of Natural History, of 
 which he was the principal conductor. 
 
 PELLETIER, Claude le. a French 
 financier, was born at Paris, in 1680. He 
 succeeded Colbert as comptroller of the 
 finances in 1683. Six years afterwards he 
 resigned his place, and in 1697 he retired 
 from court to lead a life of study and devo- 
 tion. The quay at Paris which bears his 
 name was built by him. Died, 1711. 
 
 PELLISSON-FONTANIER, Paul, an 
 eminent French writer, was born at Beziers, 
 in 1624. He was bred to the law, and, at the 
 age of 21, published " A Commentary on the 
 Institutes of Justinian." In 1652 he became 
 secretary to the king, and in the same year 
 he published the " History of the French 
 Academy," which procured him the extra- 
 ordinary honour of being admitted a member 
 of that learned body, though at tlie time 
 there was no vacancy. The minister Fouquet 
 appointed him master of the accounts at 
 Montpelier ; but when that statesman was 
 disgraced, Pellisson was sent to the Bastile, 
 where he remained four years. On recovering 
 his liberty, he attended the king as histo- 
 riographer, in his expedition againt Hol- 
 land. After this he abjured the Protestant 
 religion, entered into orders, and obtained 
 several benefices. He was the author of 
 " R«5flexions sur les differends en Mati&re de 
 Religion," and other works. Died, 1693. 
 
 PELLOUTIER, Simon, an historian, was 
 born at Leipsic, in 1694. He became pastor 
 of the French church at Berlin, counsellor 
 to the consistory, and librarian of the aca- 
 demy. He wrote a work replete with re- 
 search, entitled " Histoire des Celtes." 
 
 PELOPIDAS, a valiant and patriotic 
 Theban general, was the friend of Epami- 
 nondas and the associate of his victories. 
 When the Spartans conquered Thebes, Pe- 
 lopidas went to Athens, where he assembled 
 his exiled countrymen ; with whom he re- 
 turned, seized apon Thebes, and expelled 
 the invaders. Afterwards he defeated the 
 LacedjEmonians at Tegyra, and shared with 
 Epaminondas the victory of Leuctra. Pelo- 
 pidas being sent ambassador to Alexander, 
 the tyrant of Pheraea, was thrown into 
 prison ; but on the appearance of Epami- 
 nondas he obtained his release. He went 
 next to the court of Persia ; and, after his 
 return, commanded the forces sent to the 
 relief of Thessaly, where he fell, b. c. 364. 
 
 PEMBERTON, Henry, a learned phy- 
 sician and mathematician, was born in Lon- 
 don, in 1694 ; studied under Boerhaave, at 
 Leyden ; became intimately acquainted with 
 Sir Isaac Newton and other eminent men, 
 and was himself much distinguished for his 
 scientific acquirements. He became pro- 
 fessor of medicine in Gresham College, and 
 an active member of the Royal Society. 
 
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 ^ ^tlii Bnihu'^nX 3Bt00rap]by. 
 
 [per 
 
 His principal works are, " A View of Sir 
 Isaac Newton's Philosophy," " Lectures on 
 Chemistry," and " Observations on Poetry." 
 Died, 1771. 
 
 PENN, AViLUAM, an English admiral, 
 was born at Bristol, in 1621. He commanded 
 the fleet, and Venablcs the land forces, at tiie 
 taking of Jamaica in 1055. After the Restora- 
 tion he served under the Duke of York, in 
 the successful battle with the Dutch fleet in 
 16ti4, for wliicli he was knighted. lie died 
 at Wanstead, in Essex, in 1670. 
 
 PENN, William, the founder and legis- 
 lator of Pennsylvania, was the son of the 
 preceding, and born in London, in 1644. He 
 was educated at Christchurch College, Ox- 
 ford, and there imbibed the principles of 
 Quakerism, which he afterwards publicly 
 professed. This was considered by Sir Wil- 
 liam as a heinous oflence ; and finding his 
 son inflexibly adhered to that plainness of 
 speech and deportment which are the dis- 
 tinguisliing characteristics of the sect, he on 
 two occasions drove him from his family ; 
 yet, after awhile, becoming convinced of his 
 integrity, he permitted him to return, though 
 he never openly countenanced lum, neither 
 would he use his interest to get him released 
 when imprisoned for his attendance at re- 
 ligious meetings. In the 24th year of liis 
 age, Penu first appeared as a minister and 
 au author ; and it was on account of his 
 second essay, entitled the " Sandy Founda- 
 tion Shaken," that he was imprisoned in the 
 Tower, where he remained 7 months, during 
 which time he wrote his most celebrated 
 work, " No Cross, no Crown," and finally 
 obtained his release from confinement by an 
 exculpatory vindication, under the title of 
 " Innocency with lier open Face." In 1070 
 Sir William died, fully reconciled to his son, 
 and leaving him a plentiful estate. Penn 
 now devoted himself to a steady perseverance 
 in the propagation of his opinions ; and from 
 that time published a great variety of tracts, 
 and travelled much in Holland and Germany 
 to support the cause of Quakerism. In 1081 
 Charles II., in consideration of the services 
 of his father, and sundry debts due to him 
 from the crown at the time of his decease, 
 granted Mr. Penn and his heirs, by letters 
 patent, the province lying on the west side 
 of the river Delaware, in North America, 
 and made them absolute proprietors and 
 governors of that country. The name, too, 
 was changed in honour of Penn, from the 
 New Netherlands to Pennsylvania. Upon 
 this he published " A Brief Account of the 
 Province of Pennsylvania," proposing an 
 easy purchase of lands, and good terms of set- 
 tlement to such as were inclined to remove 
 thither. In 1082 he embarked for his new 
 colony ; in the following year he founded 
 Pliiladelphia ; nor did he cease to watch 
 over its interests with a paternal eye till his 
 death, which happened in 1718. 
 
 PENNANT, Thomas, an eminent natu- 
 ralist and antiquary, was born at Downing, 
 the family seat in Flintshire, in 1726. After 
 travelling over England, he went abroad, 
 and was introduced to Voltaire, Butfon, 
 Linnaeus, and other eminent men. In 17jO 
 he published the "British Zoology," a work 
 j of considerable merit. In 1771 appeared his 
 
 " Tour in Scotland," which was followed, at 
 different periods, by a great number of in- 
 genious performances, as, " Arctic Zoology," 
 " A View of Hindostan," " An Account of 
 London," various Tours, &c. He also pub- 
 lished his " Literary Memoirs ; " and, at the 
 time of his death, in 1798, was engaged on a 
 description of India, of which one volume 
 was printed. 
 
 PENRY, or AP HENRY, John, a violent 
 Puritan, better known by his assumed name, 
 Martin Marprelate, was born in Wales in 
 15.'>S), and educated at Peter House, Cam- 
 bridge, from whence he removed to Oxford, 
 where he took his degree of master of arts, 
 and entered into orders. In the controversy 
 between the Puritans and the hierarchy, he 
 wrote some scandalous libels against the 
 church, under the assumed name of Martin 
 Marprelate, for which he was tried, con- 
 demned, and executed, in 1593. 
 
 PEPUSCH, JoHN^ CiiKisTOi'HEE, B mu- 
 sician, was bom at Berlin, in 1G67, and gave 
 early proofs of his genius for the science. 
 After obtaining considerable reputation in 
 his native place, he came to England, took 
 his doctor's degree in music at Oxford, and 
 was very successful as a composer for the 
 stage. Though he had the good fortune to 
 acquire a handsome competency by marry- 
 ing Signora de I'Epine, an opera singer, he 
 continued to follow music as a profession till 
 his death, in 1752. He was the author of a 
 very valuable treatise " On Harmony." 
 
 PEPYS, Samuel, secretary to the admi- 
 ralty in the reigns of Charles II. and James 
 II., was bom at Bampton, in Huntingdon- 
 shire ; received his education at St. Paul's 
 School, and at Magdalen College, Cambridge; 
 and being patronised by Alontagu, after- 
 wards the Earl of Sandwich, accompanied 
 him as secretary, in the fleet that was sent 
 to bring back Charles II. He was in high 
 favour with the monarch, and introduced 
 many important improvements into the 
 navy. On the accession of William and 
 Mary he resigned, and published his "Me- 
 moirs " relating to the navy, which is a very 
 valuable work. But, independent of his 
 great skill and experience in naval affairs, 
 he was well informed in history, painting, 
 sculpture, architecture, &c. ; such indeed 
 was his reputation, that in 1084 he was 
 elected president of the Royal Society. But 
 that which has most contributed to give 
 an interest to the name of Pepys of late 
 years, is the publication of his very amusing 
 and instructive " Diary," which, besides 
 illustrating his own prudent and wary cha- 
 racter with extreme fidelity and naivete, 
 affords a most curious and instructive picture 
 of the court of Charles II., and the habits, 
 manners, and conduct of the people at large. 
 He died in 1703. 
 
 I'ERCEVAL, JoHX, first earl of Egmont, 
 was bom at Barton, in Yorkshire, in 1683. 
 At the accession of George I. he was created 
 baron Perceval, and in 1733 was made earl 
 of Egmont. He was a principal promoter of 
 the settlement of Georgia in America, and 
 
 died in 1748 His son, John, second Earl 
 
 of Egmont, was bom at Westminster, in 
 1711 ; filled a situation in the household of 
 the Prince of Wales, and that of joint post- 
 
 3 M 2 
 
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 ^ ^£&) Winibtr^Kl JJiflffrap^ij. 
 
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 master-general ; was in 17(52 created an 
 English peer by the title of Lord Lovel and 
 Holland ; was made first lord of the admi- 
 ralty in 1703 ; and died in 1770. 
 
 PERCEVAL, the Right Hon. Spexcer, 
 second son of the preceding, was born in 
 1762, was educated at Harrow and Cam- 
 bridge, practised as a chancery barrister, 
 and attached himself at his onset in political 
 life to the system of Mr. Pitt, who brought 
 him into parliament for Northampton. Mr. 
 Perceval's knowledge of finance opened to 
 him a field for promotion ; he was appointed 
 one of the counsellors for the crown, and 
 soon became solicitor-general, and, in 1802, 
 attorney-general. He advocate! the union 
 of England with Ireland, but was against 
 concession to the Catholics ; in short, lie 
 was a firm supporter of the measures of 
 ministers during the life of Pitt, and sat on 
 the opposition side during the administration 
 of Fox ; at whose decease, in 1807, he ob- 
 tained a place in the cabinet as chancellor 
 of the exchequer, and also that of chancellor 
 of the duchy of Lancaster. He was supposed 
 to have the lead in the cabinet, although he 
 did not then liold the ofiice of first lord of 
 the treasury, but to this he succeeded at the 
 death of the Duke of Portland in 1809. It 
 was very generally considered that he held 
 the office pro tempore, until the Marquis 
 Wellesley should return from his embassy 
 to Spain ; but when the latter did return, 
 Mr. Perceval still managed to retain his 
 place. When the prince regent took the 
 reins of government into his own hands, he 
 confirmed Mr. Perceval in his ofiice, and the 
 Marquis Wellesley resigned that of minister 
 for foreign aff'airs, telling the prince he would 
 willingly act with Perceval, but not under 
 him. Mr. Perceval kept his exalted station 
 only a short period, for on the 11th of May, 
 1812, he was shot on entering the lobby of 
 the House of Commons, by a person named 
 Bellingham, wlio avowed that he had been 
 waiting with the view of destroying Lord 
 Leveson Gower, late ambassador to the court 
 of St. Petersburgh. Thus the unfortunate 
 minister fell a victim to the misdirected 
 vengeance of a man who conceived himself 
 injured by the conduct of another member 
 of the government, for whom he had mis- 
 taken him. The assassin was found guilty, 
 and executed on the 18th of the same month. 
 
 PERCIVAL, Thomas, an eminent phy- 
 sician and miscellaneous writer, was born at 
 Warrington, in Lancashire, in 1740. After 
 studying at Edinburgh and Leyden, he 
 settled at Manchester, and there founded a 
 literary and pliilosophical society, of which 
 he was chosen president. Among his works 
 are, " Medical Ethics," " Moral and Literary 
 Dissertations," and " A Father's Instructions 
 to his Children." Died, 1804. 
 
 PERCY, Thomas, an eminent prelate, 
 related to the Northumberland family, was 
 born in 1728, at Bridgenorth, in Shropshire ; 
 was educated at Christchurch College, Ox- 
 ford ; became chaplain in ordinary to the 
 king ; was next promoted to the deanery of 
 Carlisle ; and, in 1782, advanced to the 
 bishopric of Dromore, in Ireland, where he 
 died in 1811. His principal works are, " The 
 Hermit of Warkworth," a poem ; " The Re- 
 
 liques of English Poetry," some translations 
 from the Chinese, a translation of Mallet's 
 Northern Antiquities, &c. 
 
 PERDICCAS, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, after whose death he aspired 
 to the crown of Macedon ; to accomplish 
 which design he divorced his wife, and es- 
 poused Cleopatra, sister of Alexander. His 
 project being discovered by Antigonus, he 
 entered into a league with Craterus and 
 Ptolemy, governor of Egypt, against Per- 
 diccas, who marched to Memphis, but was 
 slain in his tent by some of his soldiers, b. c. 
 322. 
 
 PEREFIXE, HARDOum de Beaumont, a 
 French historian and divine, was born at 
 Paris, in 1G05 ; studied at Poictiers and his 
 native city ; acquired great popularity as a 
 preacher j and was appointed preceptor to 
 Louis XIV. In 1G48 he was raised to the see 
 of Rhodes, in 1CG2 he was made archbishop 
 of Paris, and he died in 1670. His " Life of 
 Henry IV." is a work of great merit. 
 
 PEREIRE, Jacob Rodriguez, a native 
 of Estremadura, in Spain, was the first who 
 practised in France the art of teaching the 
 deaf and dumb. His method of instruction 
 was quite different to that of the abbe I'Epi^e; 
 but it was considered so good, that Louis XV. 
 bestowed on him a pension of 500 francs. 
 He wrote several treatises on the subject, 
 and died in 1780. 
 
 PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista.e dis- 
 tinguished musician, was bom at Casoria, in 
 the kingdom of Naples, in 1704, and died in 
 1737. He is called the Domenichino of 
 music, and, according to the opinion of his 
 countrymen, no one ever excelled him in 
 musical expression. Among his most cele- 
 brated works are, the " Stabat Mater," " Olim- 
 piade," an opera ; " Orfeo e Euridice," and 
 " Salva Regina." 
 
 PERICLES, one of the most illustrious 
 statesmen of Greece, was a native of Athens, 
 who flourished about five centuries before 
 Christ. Having gained the confidence of 
 the people, he effected a revolution in the 
 state, by reducing the authority of the Are- 
 opagus, and banishing Cimon, with some 
 other powerful men of the republic. He 
 then led the Athenians against the Sicy- 
 onians, the Samians, and Lacedaemonians ; 
 but at last the people, forgetful of their 
 obligations to Pericles, condemned him to 
 pay an exorbitant fine, for having advised 
 the war in which they had gained so much 
 glory. He was, however, soon reinstated, 
 and maintained himself at the head of public 
 aff'airs till his death, b. c. 429. 
 
 PERIER, Casimik, a celebrated French 
 banker, and subsequently a statesman, was 
 bom at Grenoble in 1777. He at first en- 
 tered the army, and served with reputation 
 in the campaigns of Italy (1799 and 1800), 
 but on the death of his father, a respectable 
 merchant, abandoned the profession of arms 
 for commercial business. In 1802 he estab- 
 lished a banking-house in company with his 
 brother, Scipio Perier, in the management 
 of which he acquired an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the most difficult and important 
 questions of public credit and finance. At 
 the revolution of 1830 he took a decided 
 part in favour of the national liberties, was 
 
 676 
 
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 ^ ^ftD HnibcriSal 28i0flrajpl)j». 
 
 [per 
 
 subsequently chosen president of the cham- 
 bers, aud finally formed one of the first 
 cabinet of the new king, without holding 
 the portfolio of any department. In March, 
 1831, he succeeded Laffltte as president of 
 the council ; and died, of cholera, in May, 
 1832. 
 
 PERIER, James Constantixe and 
 CuAKLES, brothers, two eminent French 
 meclianics. They were natives of Paris ; 
 and being engaged in hydraulic inventions, 
 the former made repeated visits to England 
 to examine tlie steam engines, and other 
 important machines invented or improved 
 in this country. During the revolutionary 
 war, 1200 pieces of cannon were cast at their 
 establishment at Chaillot, under the direc- 
 tion of MongtS : they also erected a foundry 
 of cannon for the navy, at Liege ; and at 
 one period no less than 93 establishments 
 were owned by them. They were, in fact, 
 the greatest manufacturers in France, par- 
 ticularly of steam-engines ; and J. C. Perier, 
 who was a member of the academy, wrote 
 an "Essay on Steam Engines." Ue died 
 in 1818. 
 
 PERIGNON, Dominique Catiielike de, 
 a peer and marshal of France, was born 
 at Grenoble, in 1754. He succeeded Du- 
 
 foramier as commander of the army of the 
 lastern Pyrennees ; and, on the conclusion 
 of the iieace with Spain, he was nominated 
 ambassador at Madrid, where lie signed an 
 offensive aud defensive treaty of alliance 
 l)etween France and Spain in I'iHJ. He sub- 
 seqnenlly distinguished himself in the army 
 of Italy, and in 1808 he replaced Jourdan 
 as commander of the French at Naples. 
 After the second restoration of Louis XVIII. 
 he was appointed to the first military divi- 
 sion, and was made a peer of France. Died, 
 1819. 
 
 PERON, FuAXCis, a French voyager and 
 naturalist, was bom in 1775, at Cerilly ; 
 entered the army in 1792, but having lost 
 an eye in the service, quitted it in 1795 ; 
 studied natural history after his discharge ; 
 was appointed, in 1800, zoologist to tlie 
 expedition which was sent to the Austra- 
 lian ocean ; and died in 1810. He was the 
 auilior of " Observations sur I'Anthropo- 
 logie " and " Voyage de Decouvertes aux 
 Terres Australes." 
 
 PEllOUSE, John Francis Galaup pe 
 la, a French circumnavigator, was bom in 
 1741, at Albi, in Languedoc, aud entered at 
 an early age into the naval service of his 
 country. In 1782 he commanded an ex- 
 pedition against the British settlements in 
 Hudson's Bay, and destroyed the trading 
 establishments there. The French govern- 
 ment having resolved on the prosecution of a 
 voyage of discovery, fitted out two vessels for 
 that purpose, and, in 1785, M. de la Perouse 
 proceeded with thera to the South Sea ; and 
 in March, 1788, he sent home an account 
 of his progress. From that period, however, 
 nothing more was heard of him, though every 
 pains was taken to gain some clue relative 
 to tlie course they had taken, and, if possible, 
 what catastrophe had befallen the ships and 
 their crews. Till within these few years 
 the whole was a perfect mystery ; but it is 
 now known that both vessels were lost on 
 
 different islands of the New Hebrides, and 
 that every soul on board perished. 
 
 PERRAUIiT, Claude, a celebrated 
 French architect, was born at Paris in 1(513. 
 He forsook the practice of physic to study 
 the fine arts, particularly architecture, in 
 which he rose to great eminence, and con- 
 structed many noble works, tlie principal 
 of which is the facade of the Louvre. He 
 published a translation of Vitruvius, with 
 notes ; a work "On tlie five Orders of Archi- 
 tecture," " Medical Essays," and " Memoirs 
 of the Natiu-al History of Animals." Died, 
 1688. 
 
 PERRAULT, Charles, brother of the 
 preceding, was born in 1628. He for some 
 time practised as a barrister, but afterwards 
 became comptroUei-general of tlie royal 
 buildings, in which situation he contributed 
 to the foundation of the Academy of Paint- 
 ing, Sculpture, and Architecture. He was 
 admitted into the French academy in 1671 { 
 soon after which he had a famous contro- 
 versy with Boileau, respecting the compa- 
 rative merits of the ancients and moderns ; 
 Perrault maintaining the superiority of the 
 latter, and Boileau as vigorously asserting 
 that of the former. This dispute was car- 
 ried on with great asperity and personal 
 rudeness on both sides. The work by which 
 Perrault is best known, is entitled " The 
 History of Illustrious Men of the Age of 
 Louis XIV." Died, 1703. 
 
 PERRIER, Francis, a French painter 
 and engraver, celebrated for his antique 
 statues and bas-reliefs. Died, 1660. 
 
 PERRIN, P. N., an eminent merchant 
 of Troyes, born in 1751. In 1789 he was 
 member for De I'Aube to the National Con- 
 vention, where he exhibited a true but 
 moderated love of liberty. He contracted 
 to supply the republic with five millions of 
 francs' worth of cotton cloth. Being accused, 
 in 1793, of jobbing, he was condemned to be 
 exposed publicly for six hours, and finally 
 to the galleys for 12 years. This unjust sen- 
 tence (reversed with reparation to his sur- 
 viving family, after the fall of Robespierre) 
 caused him to die with grief. 
 
 PERRONET, John Rodolphus, director 
 of the bridges and roads of France, was born 
 in 1708, and died at Paris in 1794. To him 
 France is indebted for the construction of 
 many noble bridges, particularly those of 
 Neuilly, Nemours, Pont St. Mayence, and 
 Louis XVI. at Paris ; and, while under his 
 management, the roads and canals of France 
 were also greatly improved. 
 
 PERROT, Nicholas, sieur d' Ablancourt, 
 celebrated for his excellent translations into 
 French of the Greek and Latin classics. 
 Born, 1606 ; died, 1664. 
 
 PERRY, James, an able political writer, 
 known for many years as the editor ond 
 proprietor of the Morning Chronicle, was 
 born at Aberdeen, in 1756, and educated at 
 the high-school and university of that city. 
 He came to London in 1777, and was en- 
 gaged as a writer in the General Advertiser 
 and London Evening Post. In 1782 he pro- 
 jected, and for a time edited, the European 
 Magazine ; but this he quitted for the Ga- 
 zetteer, with an express stipulation that he 
 was to be left to the free exercise of his own 
 
 err 
 
peb] 
 
 ^ ^tby Winibtx^al aSiograpi^y. 
 
 [pet 
 
 judgment and political opinions in the con- 
 ducting of it. Up to this period it had been 
 the custom for a single person to furnish au 
 abstract of the nightly parliamentary de- 
 bates ; but Mr. Perry employed a succession 
 of reporters for that purpose, and thus in- 
 troduced the practice which is at present 
 adopted. He subsequently became sole editor 
 and proprietor of the Morning Chronicle, 
 whicli he conducted in such a manner, that 
 Mr. Pitt and Lord Shelburne, iu order to 
 make use of his influence, offered him a seat 
 in parliament. This, however, he refused ; 
 and continued to edit his paper (which was 
 regarded as a sort of official organ of the 
 Wliig opposition) till the illness which pre- 
 ceded liis death, in 1821. 
 
 PERRY, John-, an English engineer, who, 
 after having been in the navy, went to Rus- 
 sia on the invitation of Peter the Great, but 
 in 1712 returned to England, and was en- 
 gaged in stopping the Dagenham Breach in 
 Essex ; of which he published an account. 
 He was also the author of the " Present 
 State of Russia." Died, 1733. 
 
 PERSEUS or PERSES, son of Philip, 
 king of Macedon. He declared war against 
 the Romans, but was defeated, near Padua, 
 by Paulus .^milius, in 168 b. c. From 
 thence he fled to Samothracia, where he 
 was taken prisoner, and brought to Rome in 
 triumph. 
 
 PERSIUS, Flaccus Aulus, a Roman 
 satirical poet, was bom a. d. 34, at Volterra, 
 in Etruria, and died iu 62, aged 28. His six 
 "Satires," which present a picture of pre- 
 vailing corruption, are distinguished for 
 vigour, conciseness, and austerity of tone. 
 They have been frequently translated into 
 English. 
 
 PERUGINO, PiETRO Vanucci, founder 
 of the Roman school of painting, was born 
 in 1446, and received the rights of citizen- 
 ship in Perugia, whence his surname. He 
 was the pupil of Andrea Verocchio, and the 
 master of Raphael. His pictures have much 
 grace, and are particularly successful in 
 female and youthful figures, but his outlines 
 are often incorrect. Died, 1524. 
 
 PERUZZI, Balthasae, an eminent 
 painter and architect, born in 1481, at Ac- 
 cajano. He went to Rome, was patronised 
 by Alexander VI., and particularly distin- 
 guished himself by his able management of 
 the chiaroscuro, and liis imitations of basso- 
 relievo, iu his architectural views. He died, 
 by poison, in 1536. 
 
 PESCENNIUS NIGER, Caius, a Roman 
 emperor, was a native of Aquino. He was 
 appointed governor of Syria, and commander 
 of the legions in Asia, by Commodus ; and 
 on the death of Pertinax, in 193, the troops 
 of Pescennius appointed him emperor. He 
 was defeated at Issus, in 195, and was killed 
 by some soldiers, while on his flight to the 
 Parthian dominions. 
 
 PESSELIER, Charles Stephen, a 
 Frencli writer, was born at Paris in 1712. 
 He was bred to the law, and became assist- 
 ant to a farmer-general ; notwithstanding 
 which he found time to compose some pieces 
 of poetry, particularly fables, and comedies. 
 He was also the autlior of " Letters on Edu- 
 cation," &c. Died, 1763. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Henry, a practical phi- 
 losopher, celebrated for having introduced 
 a new method of education, was born at 
 Zurich, in Switzerland, in 1745. After 
 having studied theology and jurisprudence, 
 he relinquished his views with respect to 
 the church and the bar, and adopted from 
 inclination the employment of a teacher. 
 Having become acquainted with the moral 
 wretchedness of the lowest classes, he began 
 a career of instruction by the admission of 
 the children of paupers into his house ; and, 
 in 1798, the directory of Switzerland invited 
 him to establish a house of education at 
 Stanz, where he became the kind and atten- 
 tive instructor of 80 poor children. War 
 destroyed this establishment, and Pestalozzi 
 then took charge of a school at Burgdorf, 
 where he also received pupils, who paid for 
 their instruction, so that he was enabled to 
 employ able assistants. This institution 
 flourished, and, in 1804, he removed it to 
 Yverdun, where he occupied the castle given 
 to him by government. Pestalozzi's method 
 turns on the idea of communicating all in- 
 struction by immediate address to the sen- 
 sations or conceptions, and effecting the 
 formation of the child by constantly calling 
 all his powers into exercise. He composed 
 several works illustrative of his plans, and 
 closed a long life of labours for the benefit 
 of societv, in 1827. 
 
 PETAVIUS, DiONYSius, or Denis Petau, 
 a French Jesuit of great erudition, born at 
 Orleans, in 1583 ; died, 16.52. He published 
 " The Works of Synesius " and of " Chrysos- 
 tom ; " but is most highly celebrated, even 
 at the present day, for an excellent work, 
 entitled " Rationarium Temporum," which 
 is an abridgment of universal history, from 
 the earliest times down to 1632, digested in a 
 chronological order, and supported through- 
 out by reference to proper authorities. 
 
 PETER III., king of Arragon, succeeded 
 his father, James I., in 1276. Having mar- 
 ried the daughter of Mainfroy, king of Sicily, 
 he resolved to make himself master of that 
 island, and, to eff'ect his purpose, contrived 
 the horrid massacre of the " Sicilian vespers," 
 or the murder of all the French in the island 
 at the hour of vespers, on Easter-day, in 
 1282. For this crime, pope Martin IV. ex- 
 communicated Peter and the Sicilians, and 
 laid Arragon under an interdict. He died 
 in 1285. 
 
 PETER THE CRUEL, king of Castile, 
 succeeded his father Alphonsus XL, in 1350, 
 at the age of 16. He commenced his reign 
 by several wanton acts of barbarity. Having 
 married the daughter of Philip, duke of i 
 Bourbon, lie repudiated her three days after, | 
 and sent lier to prison, that he might renew I 
 his connection with Maria de Padilla his i 
 former mistress. His cruelties provoked his j 
 subjects to take up arms against him in 1366, 
 and they placed at their head Henry of 
 Transtamare, his natural brother, who slew 
 Philip in battle, in 1369. 
 
 PETER ALEXIE VITSCH, usually styled 
 Petee the Great, czar of Russia, was bom 
 in 1672 ; and in 1696 he obtained the sole 
 authority, on the death of his brother Ivan, 
 with whom he had been before associated in 
 the government of the empire. After having 
 
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 ^ |5cto Slniljcr^al 3Si05vap]^i?. 
 
 [pet 
 
 suppressed a conspiracy of the Strelitzes 
 against his life, in wliich he displayed much 
 personal courage, he travelled in foreign 
 countries, setting out on this celebrated 
 journey, not in the character of czar, but as 
 a member of an embassy, wliich was to visit 
 foreign courts, according to the old Russian 
 custom. At Amsterdam he worked, incognito, 
 in a Dutch shipyard, went to the village of 
 Saardam, where he appeared in the dress of 
 his own country, and caused himself to be 
 enrolled among the workmen, under the 
 name of Peter Michaeloff. Here he lived in 
 a little hut for 7 weeks, made his own bed, 
 and prepared his own food, corresponded 
 with his ministers at home, and laboured at 
 the same time in ship-building. Induced, 
 by his love for the sea, to accept the invita- 
 tion of king William III. to visit London, 
 he resided there in the royal shipyard, and 
 often declared that, if he were not czar of 
 Russia, he would be an English admiral. 
 Having proceeded to Vienna, he there re- 
 ceived intelligence of a new rebellion of 
 the Strelitzes, on which he returned home, 
 crushed the insurrection, and visited the 
 rebels with all the severity that a despotic 
 tribunal could suggest. In 1700 he entered 
 upon a war with Sweden, which lasted till 
 1721. At the commencement of it he was 
 repeatedly defeated, at Narva and other 
 places ; but he at length acquired the as- 
 cendancy, gained a decisive victory at Pul- 
 towa, and wrested several provinces from the 
 Swedes. The history of his life and reign, 
 however, is so eventful as to defy abridg- 
 ment into any reasonable limits. The most 
 striking passages of it are his travels, stu- 
 dies, and personal fatigues, for the attaining 
 of knowledge in civil and military affairs, 
 and the improvement of his subjects ; his 
 introduction of arts and sciences, a naval 
 force and commerce with foreign nations ; 
 his many reformations in church and state, 
 the army, and the customs and manners of 
 his people ; his wars with the Swedes, Turks, 
 Tartars, and Persians ; victories by sea and 
 land, acquisitions of territory, and increase 
 of power ; his regard to genius and merit, 
 and his severe justice on offenders against 
 the laws. All these very justly entitle him 
 to the appellation he obtained of " Father 
 of his Country," which he left to lament his 
 death, Jan. 28. 1725. It has been truly re- 
 marked, that Peter was a man of powerful 
 and original genius, who did everything 
 himself, and was never the instrument of 
 others. His ardour was joined with pru- 
 dence, resolution, and a generous humanity; 
 and if he suffered himself to be swayed, as he 
 often did, by passion and prejudice, it may 
 fairly be attributed to his defective education, 
 and the position in which he was placed. 
 
 PETER OF BLOIS, so named from the 
 place of his birth, was a learned ecclesiastic 
 of the 12th century, who, settling in England 
 in the reign of Henry II., obtained the arch- 
 deaconry of Bath, and afterwards that of 
 London. He wrote " De Officio Episcopi," 
 " De Studio Sapientite," &c. Died, 1200. 
 
 PETER DE CLUGNY, sometimes styled 
 Petkk the Veneeaele, from the gravity 
 of his deportment, was a French monk, who 
 in 1123 became abbot of Clugny. In 1140 he 
 
 679 
 
 afforded shelter to the imfortnnate Abelard, 
 and by his interposition at Rome he pre- 
 vented the execution of the unjust sentence 
 which had been pronounced against him. 
 Died, 1156. 
 
 PETER THE HERMIT, a French officer, 
 of Amiens, who, quitting the military pro- 
 fession, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land 
 about 1093. Being instigated by the diffi- 
 culties and dangers he had undergone in his 
 progress, and witnessing the deplorable situa- 
 tion of the few Christians residing in that 
 country, he preached up that crusade for the 
 recovery of Palestine from the infidels, which 
 precipitated the whole strength of Christen- 
 dom into the plains of Syria, there to fall by 
 the sword of the Saracen, or to perish with 
 hunger and disease. Peter himself led the 
 first irregular band of crusaders, amounting 
 to about 300,<JOO men, and displayed great 
 personal courage at the storming of Jeru- 
 salem ; and having so far witnessed the ac- 
 complishment of his undertaking, returned 
 to his native country, where he founded the 
 abbej' of Noir-moutier, and died in 1115. 
 
 PETERKIN, Alkxandek, an able and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Macduff, 
 Banffshire, of which parish liis father was 
 minister, in 1781. By profession a soli- 
 citor, he acted, from 1814 to 1823, as sheritt'- 
 substitute of Orkney. In the ecclesiastical 
 struggles, which terminated in the " disrup- 
 tion of the Scottish National Church in 
 1843, he took an active part as agent for the 
 seven Strathbogie clergymen. He was long 
 connected with the public press in Scotland, 
 advocating the views of a " Whig of 1088 ;" 
 and his clear-sightedness, rectitude, and 
 kindliness of heart gave him great weight 
 with his contemporaries. The works which 
 bear his name as author in some cases, and 
 as editor in others, are, " A Review of the 
 Life of Burns," prefixed to an edition of the 
 works of Burns ; " Notes on Orkney." " Ren- 
 tals of Orkney," " Compendium of the Laws 
 of the Church of Scotland," " Records of the 
 Kirk," " Constitution of the Church of Scot- 
 land," and the " Universall Booke of the 
 Kirke." Died, 1846. 
 
 PETERS, Hugh, an English fanatic, was 
 born at Fowey, in Cornwall, in 1599, and 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 from whence he was expelled for irregular 
 behaviour. lie afterwards went on the 
 stage, where he acquired that buffoonery 
 which subsequently distinguished him in the 
 pulpit. He was for some time lecturer of St. 
 Sepulchre's, London ; but afterwards joined 
 the Independents, and went to America. 
 At the beginning of the rebellion he returned 
 to London, wliere he became a zealous 
 preacher in the cause of the parliament, and 
 an active promoter of the king's death. For 
 this lie Xvas tried and executed, with the 
 regicides, in 1660. Some of his Discourses, 
 and his "Last Legacy to his Daughter," have 
 been printed. 
 
 PETHION, DE Vn.LENEUTE, Je- 
 rome, a French revolutionary statesman, 
 originally an advocate at Chartres, was 
 chosen deputy, by the tiers 6tat of that city, 
 to the states-general, and, December 1790, 
 was elected president of the National Assem- 
 bly. In June following he became president 
 
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 ^ ^eto 2ttm'l)£r^al 2Siofirap!)g. 
 
 [pet 
 
 of the criminal tribunal of Paris, and was 
 made maj'or, November, 1791. He became 
 tlie first president of the National Conven- 
 tion, but excited the jealousy of Robespierre, 
 and was included in the proscription of the 
 Girondists, May, 1793. Ue escaped to the 
 department of Calvados, but, some time 
 after, his body was found in a field, half de- 
 voured by wolves, and it was supposed that 
 he had perished from hunger. 
 
 PETION, Alex.\ndke, president of the 
 southern parts of the island of Hayti, was a 
 mulatto, and received his education in the 
 military school of Paris. Being a man of 
 cultivated understanding and attractive 
 manners, and, moreover, well instructed in 
 the art of war, he served in the French, and 
 afterwards in the Hay tian, armies, witli suc- 
 cess and reputation. He was in high credit 
 as a skilful engineer, in whicli capacity he 
 rendered the most essential services to 
 Toussaint and Dessalines j and, assisted by 
 the English, they at length, in 1804, ex- 
 pelled the French from the island. After a 
 variety of struggles for superiority between 
 Christophe, the lieutenant and successor of 
 Dessnlines, Petion was elected president in 
 1807, and retained his office, in spite of all 
 opposition, till his death in 1818, when he 
 was succeeded by General Boyer. 
 
 PETIS DE LA CROIX, Francis, a 
 French scholar, was born in 1654. He be- 
 came secretary, and interpreter of the ori- 
 ental languages, to the king of France, in 
 which offices he succeeded his father. He 
 also undertook several voyages into the East, 
 and in 1692 was made Arabic professor in 
 the royal college. He died in 1713. His 
 "Persian Tales" were first published in 
 1722, in 5 vols. His other works are, "The 
 History of Timur Bee," 4 vols. 12mo.; " The 
 State of the Ottoman Empire," 3 vols. 12mo.; 
 and " The History of Genghis Khan." 
 
 PETIT, Lotus Hayes, F.R.S., descended 
 from one of the French families who came 
 to England at the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, was born in London, 1774. His 
 actual achievements in the field of litera- 
 ture or science were not considerable ; but his 
 extensive patronage of the arts and sciences, 
 and the zeal with which lie contributed to 
 carry out any benevolent or literary scheme, 
 will make his name long remembered. He 
 sat in parliament for Ripon, from 1827 to 
 1832. Died, 1849. 
 
 PETIT, Peter, an eminent French ma- 
 thematician, was born at Montlucon, in 
 1598, and died in 1677. He wrote treatises 
 " On the Compass of Proportion," " On the 
 Construction and Use of the Calibre of 
 Artillery," " On Sight," " On Comets," &c. 
 
 PETIT-THOUARS, Albert du, a dis- 
 tinguished French botanist, who was for 
 more than 20 years director of the royal 
 nursery of Roule, and a member of the In- 
 stitute, &c. He was the author of " Melanges 
 des Botanique," " Dialogues sur I'Histoire 
 Natnrellc," &c. Died, 1831. 
 
 PETITOT, Claude Bernard, director- 
 general of the university of Paris, was born 
 at Dijon, in 1772. He was appointed chief 
 of the bureau of public iustruction of the 
 prefecture of the Seine, iu 1800 ; became a 
 member of the royal council of the univer- 
 
 sity in 1821, and died in 1825. He was the 
 author of three tragedies, and the transla- 
 tor of the tragedies of Alfleri, the novels of 
 Cervantes, &c. 
 
 PETITOT, Jonx, an unrivalled painter 
 in enamel, was born at Geneva, in 1607. 
 He visited England, where he was greatly 
 patronised by Charles I. ; after whose death 
 he went to France, and was employed by 
 Louis XIV. He painted the face and hands, 
 and his brother-in-law, Bordier, added the 
 drapery. Died, 1C91. 
 
 PETIVER, James, an English botanist, 
 who was apothecary to the Charter House, 
 and died in 1718. He was fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and made so great a collection 
 of rare and curious plants, animals, and in- 
 sects, that Sir Hans Sloane, who afterwards 
 purchased it, oft'ered him in his lifetime 4000?. 
 for his collection. He was the author of 
 several botanical works. 
 
 PETRARCH, or PETRARCA, Fran- 
 cesco, one of the most celebrated Italian 
 poets, was born at Arezzo, in 1304. On ac- 
 count of the dissensions which raged in his 
 native country, his father removed with him 
 to Avignon, and afterwards to Carpentras, 
 where Petrarch received his education, which 
 was completed at Montpelier and Bologna. 
 He was intended for the law, but Cicero and 
 Virgil liad more charms for him than Justi- 
 nian. On the death of his parents he en- 
 rolled himself in the clerical order, but not 
 being much confined by the duties of his 
 several benefices, he followed the impulse of 
 his genius, which led him to literary pursuits. 
 Having brought to light Cicero's "Epistolae 
 Familiares," and formed a collection of 
 manuscripts with great labour, one of the 
 first places is due to him among the restorers 
 of ancient literature. Having settled at 
 Avignon, he became inspired with a lasting 
 passion for the beautiful Laura de Noves ; 
 but though he poured forth his tributary odes 
 and sonnets to her charms, he failed to gain 
 the object of his affections. After having 
 travelled in the vain hope of moderating his 
 love, he settled at Vaucluse, a romantic 
 spot, where he wrote some of his finest works. 
 His literary reputation attracted the regard 
 of princes ; he was invited to Paris, to Naples, 
 and to Rome ; and received the laureate 
 crown in the latter city, wherein the title 
 and prerogatives of poet-laureate were re- 
 vived, after a lapse of 1300 years. In 1348 
 his feelings were deeply wounded by the 
 death of Laura, who appears to have fallen 
 a sacrifice to the pestilence, then racing 
 throughout Europe, and which also deprived 
 him of his great patron. Cardinal Colonna. 
 He survived the idol of his soul, however, 
 nearly 30 years ; during all which period he 
 was admired and honoured by his country- i 
 men. Petrarch was undoubtedly one of the 
 most memorable characters of his age and \ 
 nation ; and altliough his countrymen may j 
 have estimated his genius at too high a rate, , 
 he merits the applause and admiration of j 
 posterity. He died, near Padua, in 1374. I 
 
 PETRE, Sir William, a native of De- I 
 vonshire, was educated at Exeter College, ' 
 Oxford ; elected fellow of All Souls in 1523, 
 and became principal of Peckwater Inn. ; 
 He was employed by Thomas, lord Crom- j 
 
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 ^ ^efco Hm'ber^al 38i0ffrajil^g. 
 
 [PFK 
 
 well, in a visitation of the monasteries ; be- 
 came master of the requests, was knighted, 
 made one of the secretaries of state, and was 
 appointed treasurer of the court of first-fruits. 
 lie was a liberal benefactor to Exeter and 
 All Souls' Colleges, and died in 1572. 
 
 PETROF, Basil Petrovitsch, a Russian 
 poet and philologist, was born in 173G, at 
 Moscow ; became reader to the empress Ca- 
 tharine, and held a place under government ; 
 but he resigned his offices in 1780, and de- 
 voted the remainder of his life to literary 
 pursuits. Died, 1799. 
 
 PETRONIUS, Titus, sumamed Arbiter, 
 a Roman author, notorious for his licentious- 
 ness and Obscenity, was born at Marseilles, 
 and lived in the court of Nero. He was, for 
 a time, the favourite of the emperor, who 
 made liim master of his voluptuous banquets 
 and revelries. But he finally fell a victim 
 to the suspicions of the tyrant, and was 
 condemned to death, but he avoided the 
 ignominy of a public execution by opening 
 his veins, a. d. 6(1. 
 
 PETTY, Sir William, the founder of the 
 Lansdowne family, was born in 1C23, at 
 Romsey, in Hampshire, where, and at Caen, 
 in Normandy, he was educated. Having 
 studied medicine and anatomy at Leyden 
 and Paris, he took his degree, and was sub- 
 sequently made professor of anatomy, and 
 Greshara professor of music. In 1652 he 
 was appointed physician to the army in 
 Ireland, and secretary to Henry Cromwell, 
 by whom he was employed in surveying the 
 forfeited lands ; for which charges were 
 alleged against him in the House of Com- 
 mons, and he was dismissed from his places. 
 At the Restoration he was knighted, and 
 made surveyor-general of Ireland. He was 
 one of the first fellows of the Royal Society ; 
 to which he presented the model of a double- 
 bottomed ship, to sail against wind and tide. 
 He suflEered much by the fire of London ; 
 but by marriage, and various speculations, 
 he recovered his loss, and died very rich, in 
 1687. Of his works, the " Political Arith- 
 metic " is the most important. 
 
 PETTY, William, the first marquis of 
 Lansdowne, was a descendant of the pre- 
 ceding, and bom in 1737. He succeeded his 
 father as earl of Shelburne in 1761, and in 
 1763 was placed at the head of the board of 
 trade, which he soon quitt«d to join Lord 
 Chatham, with whom he came into power, 
 in 1766 ; but on the change of ministry, in 
 1768, he became a zealous oppositionist, and 
 so continued till 1782, wlien he was appointed 
 secretary of state for the foreign department. 
 When the Marquis of Rockingliam died, his 
 lordship became the head of the ministry, 
 but was forced to yield to the coalition of 
 Lord North and Mr. Fox ; after whicii he 
 was created marquis of Lansdowne. He died 
 in 180.'). 
 
 PEUTINGER, Conrad, a celebrated 
 scholar, was born in 1465, at Augsburg. He 
 was one of the first Germans that employed 
 himself in collecting antiquities, and he 
 was the author of several erudite works. 
 Died, 1547. 
 
 PEYRE, Antoine Francois, a French 
 painter and architect, born in 1739. He be- 
 came a pensionary student at Rome in 1763, 
 
 and executed some very beautiful designs. 
 After liis return he was made comptroller of 
 the royal buildings at Fontaiuebleau, and 
 then at St. Germains. During the reign of 
 terror he was imprisoned ; but being libe- 
 rated on the death of Robespierre, he was 
 admitted a member of the Institute, of the 
 council of civil architecture, &c. Died, 1823. 
 PEYRERE, Isaac de la, was born in 
 1592, at Bourdeaux ; was for many years in 
 the service of the Prince of Condi?, and ob- 
 tained considerable notoriety by a work 
 which he wrote to support a favourite theory 
 he entertained respecting the existence of a 
 race of men previous to Adam. Died, 1676. 
 PEYRON, Jean Fkansois Pierre, a 
 French historical painter, was born at Aix, 
 in 1744. He was a member of the royal 
 academy, and director of the royal manu- 
 facture of the Gobelins, of which situation 
 he was deprived by the revolution. Died, 
 1820. 
 
 PEYSONNEL, Charles de, an ingenious 
 antiquary, was born in 1700, at Marseilles. 
 He was secretary to the French embassy at 
 Constantinople, and afterwards consul' at 
 Smyrna. He travelled over the greater part 
 of Asia Minor, collecting rare coins and 
 medals ; and published the result of his ob- 
 servations on the topography and antiquities 
 
 of the countries he visited. Died. 1757 
 
 His son (born At Marseilles, in 1727, suc- 
 ceeded him as consul, and died in 1790) was 
 a sensible writer, and published, among other 
 works, an " Historical Account of the An- 
 cient Inhabitants of the Banks of the Danube 
 and the Borders of the Black Sea," " On the 
 Commerce of the Euxine," 2 vols. ; " Les 
 Numeros," " Political Situation of France," 
 2 vols., &c. 
 
 PEZAY, M^SSON, Marquis of, a native of 
 Paris, who was a captain in the dragoons. 
 He instructed Louis XVI. in military tac- 
 tics, for which he was appointed inspector- 
 general of the coasts ; but complaints being 
 preferred against him, he was exiled to his 
 estate, where he died, in 1778. He wrote 
 some elegant poems, and translated Catullus 
 and TibuUus into French. He was also the 
 author of the " Campaigns of Maillebois," 3 
 vols. 4to. ; "Les Soir^s Helv^tiennes," and 
 other works. 
 
 PEZRON, Paul, a Bernardin, and doctor 
 of the Sorbonne, born at Hennebon, in 1639. 
 For a time he held the abbey of Charmoy, 
 which he resigned to pursue his studies, and 
 died in 1708. He was the author of several 
 able works on theological and antiquarian 
 subjects, in one of which he endeavours to 
 support the chronology of the Septuagiut 
 against that of the Hebrew Bible. 
 
 PFEFFEL, Christian Frkijeric, a juris- 
 consult and diplomatist, was born at Colmar, 
 in 1726. Becoming the friend of the Count 
 deBruhl, he was employed on various diplo- 
 matic missions, and was made jurisconsult 
 to the king ; but during the revolution his 
 property was confiscated, and he was placed 
 on the list of emigrants. He was the author 
 of several excellent works, among which is 
 " Abr^g^ Chronologique de I'Histoire, et du 
 Droit publique d'Allemagne." Died, 1807. 
 
 PFEFFERCORN, John, a converted Jew, 
 who endeavoured to persuade the emperor 
 . 
 
pfe] 
 
 ^ ^eiu Uxxibtr^al ISiosrajpl^tt. 
 
 [phi 
 
 Maximilian to burn all the Hebrew books 
 except the Bible, as blasphemous ; but this 
 was prevented by Reuchlin. He wrote 
 " Narratio de Batione celebrandi Paschte 
 apud Judaeos " and " De abolendis Judse- 
 orum scriptis." 
 
 PFEIFFER, Augustus, a learned orien- 
 talist, was born at Lauenbourg, in 1040. He 
 professed the eastern languages at Leipsic, 
 and was superintendant of the churches in 
 Lubeck, where he died in 1698. Among his 
 works are, "Pansophia Mosaica," "Critica 
 Sacra," "Sciagraphia Systematica Antiqui- 
 tatum Hebraeorum," &c. 
 
 PFEIFFER, Fraxcis Louis, a Swiss ge- 
 neral in the French service, was born at 
 Lucerne, in 1716. After being .W years in 
 the army, he retired to his native country, 
 and devoted his leisure hours to the con- 
 struction of a model of the cantons of Un- 
 derwalden, Schwitz, and Uri, 22 feet by 12, 
 in which every object was laid down with 
 the greatest precision. Died, 1802. 
 
 PlI^DON, a Greek philosopher of Elis, 
 who flourished about 400 B.C., was originally 
 a slave, but obtained his freedom by the in- 
 terest of Socrates, whose disciple he became, 
 and remained with him till his death. After 
 tills he settled at his native place, where he 
 founded a school called the Eleatic. 
 
 PH^DRUS, Lucius, an elegant Latin 
 poet, was a native of Thrace, and appears to 
 have been the freed-man of Augustus. Under 
 Tiberius he was persecuted by Sejanus ; to 
 which circumstance he has alluded in his 
 fables, which are written with great purity 
 of style. 
 
 PHALARIS, a native of Crete, whose 
 cruelty, and the horrid instrument with 
 whicli he wreaked his vengeance on those 
 who fell under his displeasure, have become 
 proverbial. In 571 B.C. he made himself 
 master of Agrigentum, in Sicily, where he 
 was guilty of horrible cruelties. Among 
 other instruments of destruction, he caused 
 a hollow brazen bull to be made, so con- 
 trived, that when a fire was kindled under 
 the body, the cries of the unhappy victim 
 within resembled the roarings of the animal 
 it represented. Phalaris, after commending 
 the work, ordered Perillus, the artist, to be 
 the first to make trial of it. After a san- 
 guinary reign of eight years, the citizens at 
 length seized the tyrant, and with a severe 
 but just retaliation consumed him by a slow 
 fire in his own bull, B. c. ,563. 
 
 PIIARAMOND, according to many his- 
 torians, was the name of the first king of 
 France, who reigned at Treves about a.d. 
 420. To him is attributed the celebrated 
 Salique law, by which females were ex- 
 cluded from the succession to the throne. 
 
 PHELIPPEAUX, A. le Picard de, a 
 French otficer of artillery, the fellow-pupil 
 and rival of Buonaparte, was born in 1768. 
 Having quitted France in 1791, he made a 
 campaign the following year with the corps 
 of emigrants under the French princes. In 
 1793 he re-entered France to organise a 
 royalist insurrection in the central pro- 
 viiices, when he took Sancerre, and for some 
 time maintained his position in Berri. He 
 afterwards went to Paris, where he efi"ected 
 the liberation of Sir Sidney Smith from the 
 
 C62 
 
 prison of the Temple, and, accompanying 
 him to England, obtained the rank of colo- 
 nel in the English service. He assisted Sir 
 Sidney in the defence of Acre against Buo- 
 naparte ; but died of fatigue shortly after 
 the raising of the siege, in May, 1799. 
 
 PHERECRATES, a Greek comic poet, 
 the contemporary of Plato and Aristophanes, 
 some fragments of whose plays only have 
 been preserved by Ilertelius and Grotius. 
 
 PHERECYDES, a philasopher of the isle 
 of Scyrus, who flourished about 600 b. c. He 
 was the disciple of Pittacus, and the master 
 of Pythagoras, who regarded him as a father, 
 and derived from him the doctrine of the 
 metempsychosis. 
 
 PHIDIAS, a celebrated Athenian sculp- 
 tor, supposed to have been born about 498 
 B. c, and to have died 432 b. c. His Olym- 
 pian Jupiter represented the serene majesty 
 of the king of heaven, and was ranked, for 
 its beauty, among the wonders of the world. 
 Phidias received great honours from the 
 Athenians, while Pericles had the sovereign 
 power ; but he was subjected to a change of 
 fortune when the popularity of liis patron 
 declined, and died in prison. 
 
 PHILIDOR, Andrew, a musician of some 
 reputation, and celebrated as the best chess- 
 player of his age, was born at Dreux in 
 France, in 1726 ; became a page in the king's 
 band ; and, before his 12th year, made much 
 proficiency in music. As he grew up his 
 fondness for the game of chess increased into 
 a passion, in order to indulge which he tra- 
 velled over great part of Europe, engaging 
 every where with the best players. He con- 
 tinued in England some time, during which 
 he printed his "Analysis of Chess." He 
 was a member of the chess-club 30 years ; 
 and of his skill in that game, a stronger 
 proof could not be given than that of his 
 defeating blindfold two of the best players a 
 short time before his death, in 1795. 
 
 PHILIP II., king of Macedon and father 
 of Alexander the Great, equally renowned 
 as a legislator, politician, and warrior. After 
 having conquered Greece, he meditated the 
 conquest of Persia ; but while he was pre- 
 paring for this expedition, he was assassinated 
 at a banquet by Pausanias, a captain of his 
 guards, 336 b. c. 
 
 PHILIP, Marcus Julius, called the Arab, 
 was born of an obscure family, and became 
 a common soldier in the Roman army ; but 
 by his merit lie rose to the rauk of captain [ 
 of the imperial guard. In 244 he assassinated j 
 the emperor Gordian the younger, and seized 
 upon the throne. He gained great popularity | 
 at Rome by his generosity, and by making a | 
 canal for supplying the city with water. 
 He celebrated the secular games with great 
 pomp, and gave toleration to the Christians. 
 Philip was slain by his soldiers, near Verona, 
 in 249, after having been defeated by Decius. 
 His son Philip, aged 12 years, was assassin- 
 ated in the arms of his mother. 
 
 PHILIP I., king of France, succeeded his 
 father Henry I. in 1060, under the regency 
 of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, and died in 
 1108. 
 
 PHILIP II., surnamed the Augitst, was 
 born in 1165, and succeeded his father Louis 
 VII. in 1180, at the age of 15. Died, 1223. 
 
phi] 
 
 ^ fit^ Unihex^al 3Bta0rapI;u. 
 
 [phi 
 
 PHILIP m. surnamed the Hardy, was 
 proclaimed king of France on the death of St. 
 Louis, his father, in 1270. Peter of Arragon 
 having occabioned the horrible massacre of 
 the French iii Sicily, called the " Sicilian 
 Vespers," Philip marched against him, and 
 took Gironne ; but died on his return, at Fer- 
 pignan, in 1285. 
 
 PHILIP IV., called the Fair, succeeded his 
 father, the preceding monarch, at the age of 
 17, and died in 1314. 
 
 PHILIP v., surnamed the Long, was the 
 younger eon of the last mentioned, and 
 succeeded his younger brother Louis Uutin, 
 by virtue of the Salique lawr, in 1316. Died, 
 1321. 
 
 PHn.IP DE VALOIS, the first king of 
 France of the collateral branch of Valois, 
 was the son of Charles, count of Valois, 
 brother of Philip the Fair. In 1329, Edward 
 III., king of England, did homage for the 
 duchy of Guienne, but not long after he as- 
 sumed the title of king of France on the pre- 
 tence of l>eing a grandson of Philip the Fair, 
 by his mother. This produced a disastrous 
 war, which lasted, with a few intervals, many 
 years. In 1346, Edward gained the great 
 battle of Crecy, in which the French lost near 
 30,000 men, and the flower of the nobility. 
 This was followed by the loss of Calais and 
 other important places. Edward sent a 
 challenge to Philip to decide their pretensions 
 by single combat, which the latter refused. 
 Philip died in 1*50. 
 
 PHILIP II., king of Spain, was the son of 
 the emperor Charles V. In 1554 he became 
 king of Naples and Sicily, and the same 
 year married Mary, queen of England. In 
 1556 his father resigned to him the crown of 
 Spain. He declared war against France, 
 and was present at the battle of St. Quentin, 
 where it is said he made two vows, the 
 one never again to hazard his person in any 
 engagement, the other to build a monastery 
 by the name of St. Laurence. This last he 
 executed at Escurial, near Madrid. In 1559 
 he made peace with France, and on his re- 
 turn to his own country he caused an auto da 
 fi to be celebrated. In 1588, Philip fitted out 
 his famous expedition called the " Invincible 
 Armada," for the invasion of England. 
 This fleet was nearly all destroyed by tlie 
 storm or the English ships. Wlien Philip 
 heard of the disaster, he said, " I sent my 
 fleet to combat the Euglish, not the elements ; 
 God's will be done." He died ia 1598, aged 
 72. 
 
 PHILIP III., the son of Philip IL and 
 of Anne of Austria, succeeded his father at 
 the age of 20. This prince was the victim of 
 etiquette. Being at a council, he complained 
 of the fume arising from a pan of charcoal 
 which was burning in the room. The proper 
 person who had the charge of the fire was 
 not present, and no one would undertake the 
 office of removing it ; which piece of ridi- 
 culous etiquette cost the monarch his life, in 
 1621. 
 
 Plin^IP v., duke of Anjou, the second 
 son of Louis, dauphin of France, and of 
 Mary Anne of Bavaria, assumed the title of 
 king of Spain in 1700, by virtue of the will of 
 Charles II. His claim, however, was con- 
 tested by the house of Austria, in favour of 
 
 tlie Archduke Charles. This produced the 
 grand alliance, in which Austria was sup- 
 ported against France and Spain, by Eng- 
 land, Holland, Savoy, Portugal, and Prussia. 
 The beginning of this war was very disastrous 
 to Philip, who lost Arragon, Gibraltar, and 
 the islands of Minorca and Majorca, also 
 Sardinia and the kingdom of Naples. The 
 victories of the Duke de Vendome, and those 
 of Marshal Villars in Flanders, confirmed 
 Philip on the throne, and restored peace to 
 Europe by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. 
 Died, 1746. 
 
 PHILIPPON, Baron, a French lieutenant- 
 general, distinguished for his defence of Ba- 
 dajoz, in 1811. He was taken prisoner, and 
 in 1812 made his escape from Oswestry. Died, 
 aged 76, in 1836. 
 
 PHILIPS, Ambrose, a poet and dramatist, 
 was a native of Leicestershire. He received 
 his education at St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge; and, on coming to I^ondon, associated 
 with Steele, Addison, and the literary wits of 
 the day. He was the author of the tragedies 
 of the " Distrest Mother," " The Briton," and 
 " Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester," some 
 pastoral poems ; a " Life of Archbishop 
 Williams ; " and was also a contributor to a 
 periodical paper called the Freethinker, 
 through his connection with which he was 
 made registrar of the Irish prerogative court. 
 Died. 1749. 
 
 PHILIPS, Fabi AX, an English lawyer, was 
 bom at Prestbury, in Gloucestershire, in 1601. 
 He was a zealous partizan of Charles I., and 
 wrote several political pamphlets ia his 
 favour. Died, 1690. 
 
 PHILIPS, John, a poet, was bom at 
 Bampton, in Oxfordshire, in 1676 ; was edu- 
 cated at Winchester School, and Christ- 
 church, Oxford ; and was the author of " The 
 Splendid Shilling," " Blenheim," a poem in 
 praise of Marlborough's victory ; and one on 
 * Cyder," formed on the Georgics of Virgil. 
 Died, 1708. 
 
 PHILIPS, TnoMAS, a Roman Catholic 
 divine, was born at lekford, in Buckingham- 
 shire, and received his education at St. 
 Omer's. He entered into orders, and became 
 a Jesuit, but quitted that society, and ob- 
 tained a prebend in the collegiate church of 
 Tongres. He was the author of " The Study 
 of Sacred Literature, stated and considered,'' 
 and " The Life of Cardinal Pole," 2 vols. 
 Died, 1774. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Edwahd, one of the nephews 
 of Milton, was born in London, in 1630, and 
 was educated by his celebrated uncle. He 
 was the author and compiler of several 
 works ; but that by which he is best known 
 is the " Theatrum Poetarum, or a complete 
 
 Collection of the Poets." Jou.v Phillips, 
 
 the brother of Edward, was also educated 
 under his uncle, whose political opinions he 
 espoused and defended till the Restoration, 
 and then he became a writer on the side of 
 royalty. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Thomas, R. A., a portrait 
 painter of considerable merit, was born at 
 Dudley, in Warwickshire, in 1770. Having 
 had some initiatory practice in the country, 
 he came to London when he was about 20, 
 and found employment at Windsor, under 
 Benjamin West, who was at that time ea- 
 
gaged in decorating St. George's chapel, 
 lie was devotedly attached to his profession, 
 but for many years lie had to contend with 
 the superior talents of West, I/awrence, 
 I Iloppner, &c., who were in their zenith ; but 
 i by unceasing application, and a laudable 
 I emulation which never forsook him, he 
 I gained so much celebrity, aa to number 
 j among his sitters some of the most eminent 
 men in the kingdom. He also wrote many 
 I occasional essays on the fine arts ; and, in 
 I co-operation with Turner, Chantrey, Ro- 
 j bertson, and others, he planned and success- 
 fully matured the Artists' General Bene- 
 ' volent Institution. He died, April 20. 1845, 
 ; aged 74. 
 
 j PHILO, Jdd.eus, a learned Jewish writer 
 j of Alexandria, who was one of the depu- 
 I tation sent by the Jews to lay their com- 
 plaints against the Greeks of Alexandria 
 j before the emperor Caligula, a. d. 40. lie 
 wrote several works in Greek, the principal 
 of which is entitled, " Of the Contemplative 
 Life." 
 
 PHILO, of Byzantium, an architect, who 
 flourished 300 B.C. He wrote a treatise on 
 the machines used in war ; and there is also 
 attributed to him a piece, entitled " De Sep- 
 tem Orbis Spectaculis." 
 
 PHII-OLAUS, of Crotona, a celebrated 
 Pythagorean philosopher, who flourished B.C. 
 375. He belonged to the Pythagorean school, 
 and by some is supposed to have written the 
 " Golden Verses of Pythagoras." He is also 
 said to have first taught the true system of 
 the universe, revived by Copernicus, but this 
 supposition is erroneous. 
 
 PHILOPCEMEN, a celebrated general, 
 and the last great commander among the 
 ancient Greeks, was born at Megalopolis, 
 in Arcadia, b. c. 253 ; became generalissimo 
 of the Achaean League ; reduced the Spar- 
 tans to a tributary state, dismantled Sparta, 
 and abolished the laws of Lycurgus, which 
 had lasted 700 years. He was at length, 
 however, taken prisoner by the Messenians, 
 and was put to death by poison, b.c. 183. 
 The unworthy fate of this great man ex- 
 cited general resentment throughout the 
 League ; and when the Achaeans took 
 Mcssene, the perpetrators of his death were 
 immolated on his tomb, and a yearly sacri- 
 fice was instituted to commemorate his 
 heroism. 
 
 PHILPOT, Jonx, an English divine, who 
 in the reign of Mary was brought before 
 Bishop Gardiner, convicted of heresy, and 
 burnt in Smithfield, in 1555. 
 
 PHOCION, a renowned Athenian general 
 and philosopher, the disciple of Plato. After 
 having resisted all the oifers of Alexander 
 the Great and Antipater, his successor, to 
 desert the Athenian service, he was at last 
 condemned on a false accusation of treason, 
 by his ungrateful fellow-citizens, and put to 
 death, b.c. 318. 
 
 PHOTIUS, patriarch of Constantinople in 
 the 9th century, was a native of that city. 
 He rose to the highest offices of the state, 
 before he entered into orders, wliich took 
 place on the deposition of Ignatius in 858. 
 Photius was deprived in his turn by Basilius 
 in 867, but after living in exile 11 years, he 
 forcibly regained his seat, which he kept till 
 
 and was then deprived by the emperor 
 Leo, who sent him into Armenia, where he 
 died. His " Bibliotheca " contains the sub- 
 stance of near 300 ancient authors. He had 
 great talents, but was intriguing, and it was 
 principally through his conduct that the se- 
 paration of the eastern and western churches 
 took place. 
 
 PHRYNICUS, a tragic poet of Athens, who 
 first introduced female parts into the drama, 
 and the wearing of masks by the actors. He 
 wrote nine tragedies, and gained the prize, 
 B.C. 511. 
 
 PIAZETTA, John Baptist, a celebrated 
 painter of Venice, was born in 1682, and died 
 in 1754. His figures are well designed and 
 executed, and are much in the style of 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti. 
 
 PIAZZA, Jerome Bartholomew, a na- 
 tive of Alexandria, in Italy, who had been 
 a judge in the Inquisition, but on embracing 
 the Protestant religion he quitted Italy and 
 settled in England. He taught the Italian 
 and French at Cambridge, where he died 
 about 1745. He wrote a curious account of 
 the Inquisition. 
 
 PIAZZI, a celebrated Italian astronomer, 
 was born in 1746, at Ponte, in the Valteline ; 
 entered into the order of the Theatines ; 
 and, after having been a professor at Genoa, 
 Malta, Ravenna, and Palermo, was in 1787 
 made director of the observatory founded in 
 the latter city. About this time he visited 
 Paris and London, and entered into a corre- 
 spondence with the most celebrated European 
 astronomers. In 1801 he discovered a new 
 planet, which he named Ceres Ferdinandea, 
 and in 1805 he made a new catalogue of 7646 
 fixed stars. This distinguished astronomer 
 produced various treatises and memoirs of 
 great importance to the science, and was a 
 member of many learned institutions. Died, 
 1826. 
 
 PICARD, John, an eminent mathema- 
 tician and prior of Rille in Anjou, was a 
 native of La Fleche. He was engaged in 
 measuring a degree of the meridian, and in 
 determining the meridian of France ; was 
 the first who applied the telescope to quad- 
 rants, and the first who observed the mer- 
 curial phosphorus in the barometer. Died, 
 1683. 
 
 PICART, Bernard, an eminent en- 
 graver, was born at Paris in 1673, and died 
 in 1733. 
 
 PICCINI, Nicholas, a celebrated mu- 
 sician, was born at Bari, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. From Italj' he went to Paris, but 
 in the revolution Piccini returned to Naples, 
 where he was described as being a Jacobin ; 
 on which he went again to France, and died 
 at Passy, in 1800, aged 72. His principal 
 operas are, "Roland," "Atys," " Iphigenia 
 in Tauris," and " Dido." Piccini was a most 
 industrious and original composer ; more 
 than 300 operas, besides numerous oratorios, 
 cantatas, &c. having been produced by him. 
 When Gluck was in the zenith of his reputa- 
 tion, a spirited contest was maintained be- 
 tween Piccini and him respecting the com- 
 parative excellencies of the German and 
 Italian schools, and all Paris was for a time 
 interested in the question. 
 
 PICHEGRU, Charles, a celebrated ge 
 
^ ^eto mntbertfal 38f02[rajiTji?. 
 
 [pic 
 
 I neral of the French republic, was bom, 1761, 
 I of poor parents, at Aibois, iii Franche- 
 Comte ; was educated in a monastery, and 
 ! afterwards studied at the college of Brienne, 
 where he distinguished himself by his pro- 
 gress in mathematical science. At an early 
 age, he enlisted as « private soldier, and 
 went with his regiment to America. After 
 his return, he was made serjeant-major ; 
 and soon after the commencement of the 
 revolution, he attained the rank of general 
 of division. In 1794 he took tlie command 
 of the army of the North, where he was 
 embarrassed by many difficulties arising 
 from the flight of generals Dumouriee and 
 I>afayette. He, however, restored order and 
 discipline ; and undertook the conquest of 
 Holland, the moat brilliant of all his ex- 
 ploits. The Convention now conferred on 
 him the chief command of the army of the 
 Rhine and Moselle ; but he retained at the 
 same time the command of the army of the 
 North, under Moreau, and of the army of 
 the Meuse, under Jourdan. In April, 1795, 
 he was recalled, to take command of the 
 capital, where the terrorists were making 
 eflForts to recover their power. Having sup- 
 pressed the insurrection of the faubourgs, 
 for which he was called in the Convention 
 " the saviour of the country," he retunied to 
 the army of the Rhine, where, however, his 
 career, hitherto so brilliant, now took another 
 turn. He entered into negotiations with 
 the Prince of Condi?, to co-operate in the 
 restoration of the Bourbons ; but the secret 
 was soon revealed to the French government, 
 who, however, being too weak at the mo- 
 ment to bring him to an account, he was re- 
 called, in 179G, under pretence of going am- 
 bassador to Sweden. Pichegru declined the 
 post, but was blind enough not to perceive 
 the storm which threatened him ; and, in- 
 stead of saving himself while it was still 
 time, retired to an estate near Arbois. In 
 March, 1797, he was chosen deputy from the 
 department of Jura to the council of five 
 hundred. He only retained his office till 
 the 4th of September, when a new revolution 
 taking place, he was one of the sixty-five 
 deputies, who, together with Carnot and 
 Barthelemy, two of the directors, were de- 
 clared by their coadjutors guilty of a royalist 
 conspiracy, and condemned to deportation. 
 Pichegru with others was sent to Cayenne, 
 whence he made his escape to England ; and 
 while there he became acquainted with 
 Georges Cadoudal, the Chouan chief, and 
 readily entered into the plans of the emi- 
 grants to effect the overthrow of Buona- 
 parte's government. Having been landed 
 on the Frencli coast by Captain Wriglit, in 
 January, 1804, with several of the old Ven- 
 dean leaders, they repaired in disguise to 
 Paris, hoping to find a party favourable to 
 their views ; but the police (under Fouch^) 
 discovered the plot, and botli Georges and 
 Pichegru were arrested. The latter was 
 confined in the Temple, and a process com- 
 menced against him ; but he was found one 
 morning strangled in prison, April the Gth, 
 1804. In this country it was believed that 
 his death proceeded from the direct com- 
 mand of Buonaparte ; but there is no posi- 
 tive evidence to support the accusation. 
 
 PICULER, Caeolixe, one of the most 
 prolific writers that Germany has produced, 
 was born at Vienna, 1769. Her maiden 
 name was Greiner. Her father held a high 
 position at the court of Vienna ; and his 
 house was long celebrated for its reunions of 
 all that was most distinguished in that me- 
 tropolis for rank, fashion, and genius. She 
 received a first-rate education, and showed 
 an early predilection for literary pursuits ; 
 but it was not till after she had attained her 
 30th year that she appeared as an authoress, 
 her first work, called the " Gleichnisse," 
 being published in 1799. This was followed 
 from time to time by various other works of 
 considerable merit; but these were all thrown 
 into the shade by her " Agathocles," which 
 appeared in 1808, and was written with the 
 view of counteracting Gibbon's attacks upon 
 the Christian faith. Her works amount to 
 more than 60 volumes, consisting chiefly of 
 dramas and historical romances ; of which 
 may be mentioned the " Grafen von Hohen- 
 berg," "Die Belagerung Wien's von 1683," 
 *' Die Schweden in Prag," " Die Wiederero- 
 berung von Ofen," " Ilenriette von England," 
 "Die FrauenwUrde,'" and the "Nebenbuh- 
 ler," &c. Died, 1843. 
 
 PICKEN, Andrew, a miscellaneous writer, 
 was bom at Paisley, in Scotland, in 1788. 
 After some unsuccessful attempts of a com- 
 mercial nature, he entered on a literary 
 career, by publishing a volume, entitled 
 " Tales and Sketches of the West of Scot- 
 land." This was followed by " The Sec- 
 tarian " and " The Dominie's Legacy ; " the 
 latter of which established his fame as the 
 delineator of Scottish humble life. He sub- 
 sequently engaged in writing tales, &c. for 
 the periodical press ; and a short time pre- 
 vious to his death appeared his " Tradition- 
 ary StQries of Old Families," in 2 vols., de- 
 signed as the first part of a series, which was 
 intended to embrace the legendary history 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. His death 
 took place in November, 1833 ; and a novel, 
 entitled " The Black Watch," which he had 
 just completed, was afterwards published. 
 
 PICTET, Benedict, a divine and histo- 
 rian, was born at Geneva, in 1655. He be- 
 came professor of theology in his native 
 city, and died there in 1724. His principal 
 works are, " Theologia Christiana," 3 vols. 
 4to.; "Christian Morality," 8 vols. 12mo.; 
 and a " History of the 12th and 13th Cen- 
 turies," 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 PICTET, Mark Augustus, a natural 
 philosopher, was born in 1752, at Geneva, 
 where he succeeded Saussure as professor. 
 Among his works is a " Three Months' 
 Journey in England, Scotland, and Ireland." 
 Died, 1825. 
 
 PICTET DE RICIIEMONT, Charles, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Geneva 
 in 1755. After several years spent in the 
 military service, he retired to his estate; and 
 occupied himself in agricultural and literary 
 pursuits, but was subsequently called on to 
 fill a public situation, and in 1815 he ap- 
 peared as negotiator for Switzerland at Paris, 
 Vienna, and Berlin. He translated various 
 works from the English ; conducted, in con- 
 junction with his brother and M. Maurice, 
 the Britannic Library ; and wrote " A 
 
 Sw 
 
pic] 
 
 ^ ^m Wini^tx^Kl I8t0flrajp^w. 
 
 [pin 
 
 Course of Agriculture," and other works on 
 the same subject. Died, 1824. 
 
 PICTON, Sir Thomas, K.C.B., &c., a 
 gallant British oflRcer, was descended from 
 an ancient family of Pembrokeshire, and 
 commenced his military career as an ensign 
 in the 12th regiment of foot in 1771. He 
 served on the Gibraltar station till 1778, 
 after which he was promoted to a captaincy 
 in the 75th. In 1794 he embarked for the 
 West Indies ; and, after the reduction of St, 
 Lucia and Trinidad in 1797, he rose to the 
 rank of colonel, and was appointed governor 
 of the latter island. AVhilst holding that 
 situation he was applied to by a Spanish 
 magistrate to sign an order for inflicting the 
 torture ou a female slave, named Louisa 
 Calderon ; and on being told it was a cus- 
 tomary practice, he signed it without in- 
 quiry. The girl, who was only 14 years of 
 age, was accordingly picketed, with a view to 
 extort from her the discovery of a theft com- 
 mitted by her paramour. For this act of 
 cruelty the governor was, in 1807, indicted, 
 and found guilty by an English jury. As 
 many exaggerated rumours had preceded 
 the colonel to England, a new trial was 
 granted, and though he was acquitted of 
 moral guilt, the deed was one which threw a 
 shade over his bright career. However, in 
 1809, he was again employed for his country. 
 He was at the siege of Flushing, and on its 
 capture was appointed governor. From 
 Flushing he returned to England an invalid, 
 but was soon again in the field. His courage 
 and intrepidity shone on every occasion ; 
 ever foremost in the fight, he was a victorious 
 leader at Badajoz, at Vittoria, at Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, &c. At the battle of Waterloo, 
 General Picton commanded the 5th division 
 of the army, and fell in a moment of glory, 
 having just repulsed one of the most serious 
 attacks made by the enemy. A monument 
 to his memory was voted by the parliament, 
 and erected in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 PICUS, John, of Mirandola, was the 
 youngest son of John Francis Picus, prince 
 of Mirandola, and born in 1463. He is said 
 to have been* acquainted with 22 languages 
 when he was but 18, and was accounted a 
 prodigy of erudition and accomplishment. 
 In 1486 he went to Rome, where he published 
 a challenge, offering to dispute on 90<) pro- 
 positions on difierent subjects. Instead, 
 liowever, of being answered as he expected, 
 a cliarge of heresy was brought against him ; 
 he was accordingly compelled to leave Rome ; 
 and settling at Florence, on an estate given 
 to him by Lorenzo de Medici, he gave up 
 his latter years to the study of theology ; 
 and died in 1496. 
 
 PICUS, JoHx Francis, nephew of the 
 preceding, was born about 1469. He wrote 
 several theological works, poems, &c. ; and 
 was assassinated in his castle, together with 
 his son. by his nephew, in 1533. 
 
 PIERCE, Edwaud, an English painter in 
 the reigns of Charles I. and II. He was 
 eminent in history and landscapes ; but as 
 his works chiefly consisted of altar-pieces 
 and ceilings of churches, there are few of his 
 pictures in existence, most of them liaving 
 
 been destroyed in the fire of London. One 
 
 of his sons was an excellent sculptor, and 
 
 executed the statues of Sir Thomas Gresham 
 and Edward III., which ornamented the 
 Royal Exchange before it was destroyed by 
 fire, Jan. 10. 1838. 
 
 PIGALLE, John Baptist, an eminent 
 sculptor, was born at Paris, in 1714. He 
 studied in Italy, and on his return to France 
 became sculptor to the king, chancellor of 
 the academy of painting, and a knight of the 
 order of St. Michael. Died, 1785. 
 
 PIGNOTTI, Laukence, an Italian poet 
 and historian, was born at Figliena, in Tus- 
 cany, in 1739 ; was educated at Arezzo and 
 Pisa ; practised as a physician at Florence ; 
 was created historiographer of the court, 
 and became rector of the university of Pisa. 
 His "Fables" have acquired an extensive 
 popularity, but his great fame was ac- 
 quired by his " History of Tuscan j." Died, 
 1812. 
 
 PILATUS, Leontius, a monk of Cala- 
 bria in the 14th century. He was the master 
 of Petrarch and Boccaccio ; and on his re- 
 turn from Greece, where he had been in 
 search of MSS., he was killed by lightning. 
 
 PITyES, Roger de, a French painter and 
 a writer ou painting, was born in 1635, at 
 Clameci. In 1692 he was sent by the 
 French ministry into Holland as a secret ne- 
 gotiator, or spy, but being discovered by the 
 Dutch, they imprisoned him for five years, 
 during which period he wrote his " Lives of 
 the Painters." He was also the author of 
 " Dialogues on the Knowledge of Painting," 
 "A Dissertation on the Works of famous 
 Painters," " Elements of practical Painting," 
 &c. Died, 1709. 
 
 PILKINGTON, James, an English bishop, 
 was born at Rivington, in Lancashire, in 
 1520, and educated at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, of which he became master, i 
 During the persecution under JIary, he was 
 obliged to leave the kingdom, but on the 
 accession of Elizabeth he was made bisliop 
 of Durham, and died in 1575. He wrote 
 some valuable " Commentaries on the Scrip- 
 tures." 
 
 PILKINGTON, Letitia, the daughter of 
 Dr. Van Lewen, a physician of Dublin, was 
 born in 1712. She became the wife of the 
 Rev. Matthew Pilkington, from whom she 
 was separated on account of the irregularity 
 of her conduct. After this she settled in 
 London, where she subsisted partly by writ- 
 ing, and partly by the bounty of her friends. 
 She wrote " Tlie Roman Father," a tragedy ; 
 and " The Turkish Count, or London Ap- 
 prentice," a comedy; " Memoirs of her Life ; " 
 and various poems, &c. Died, 1750. 
 
 PILPAY, an oriental fabulist, was a 
 Brahmin of Hindoostan, and counsellor to 
 one of the rajahs. He is said to Jiave 
 flourished 2000 years before the Christian 
 era. His fables were translated from the 
 Persian into French, by Galland, in 1714. 
 
 PINDAR, the most famous lyric poet of 
 ancient Greece, was born at Thebes, in 
 Boeotia, about 540 b. c. He quitted his na- 
 tive country, which was proverbial for the 
 stupidity of its inhabitants, and went to 
 Athens, where the greatest honours were 
 bestowed upon him. But his principal pa- 
 tron was lliero, king of Syracuse, at whose 
 court he is supposed to have resided the 
 
pin] 
 
 ^ 0tio Bluibfr^al 23i0sm|)!)i). 
 
 [PIO 
 
 latter part of his life. He expired in the 
 public theatre, in his 55th year. Such was 
 the respect paid to liis memory, that when 
 the Lacedaemonians took Tliebes, they 
 spared liis house, as also did Alexander the 
 Great. Of his works, which were numerous, 
 and in various kinds of composition, there 
 are now extant only four books of Odes ; 
 but they are amply sufficient to vindicate 
 his claim to be ranked among the most 
 illustrious of the ancient bards. 
 
 PINDEMOSTE, IIippolito, Count, an 
 eminent Italian poet, was born at Verona, 
 in 1753, and distinguished himself at a very 
 early age by the beauty of his lyrical com- 
 positions. He travelled in England, France, 
 Holland, Germany, ftc-, forming acquaint- 
 ance with men of worth and ability, and 
 obtaining tt)e esteem of all who knew him. 
 Died, 18228. 
 
 PINE, John, an eminent engraver, was 
 bom in 1600, and died in 175(!. He executed 
 some large plates of the tapestry hangings 
 in the House of Lords, which were so ap- 
 proved, that the parliament passed an act to 
 secure to him the emolument arising from 
 them. He also engraved the text of Horace, 
 and the Bucolics and Georgics of Virgil, 
 illustrated with gems and baa-reliefs. 
 
 PINEAU, Gabhiei, ixj, a lawyer, was 
 born at Angers, in 16TX He distinguished 
 himself by his pleadings, and was appointed 
 counsellor to the presidial of Angers, where 
 his reputation was such as to procure him 
 the appellation of " Father of the People." 
 Died, 1644. 
 
 PINEL, Philip, an eminent French phy- 
 sician, particularly distinguished for the 
 important improvements he introduced in 
 the treatment of patients labouring under 
 insanity. Among his works are, " A Medi- 
 co-philosophical Treatise on Mental Alien- 
 ation," "Philosophical Nosography," and 
 "Clinical Medicine." He practised with 
 great success at Paris, where he also acquired 
 much popularity by liis lectures. Born, 
 1742 ; died, 1826. 
 
 PINGERON, Jean Claude, a French 
 writer, born at Lyons, in 1730. He was a 
 captain of artillery in the Polish service, 
 and afterwards travelled a great deaL 
 I When lie settled, he devoted his attention 
 to literature, and published a number of 
 works, chiefly translations from the Italian. 
 Died, 1795. 
 
 PINGRE, Alexander Gut, a French 
 astronomer, was born at Paris, in 1711. He 
 was originally an ecclesiastic ; and though 
 he began the study of astronomy at a late 
 period, he distinguished himself by the zeal 
 and success with which he followed it. In 
 1760 lie made a voyage to the island of Diego 
 Rodriguez, to observe tlie transit of Venus ; 
 and undertook three subsequent voyages, 
 to try tlie chronometers of Berthoud and 
 Le Roy. .The most important of his works 
 is his " Cometographie," 2 vols. 4to. Died, 
 1796. 
 
 PINKERTON, John, a prolific but eccen- 
 tric author, was born at Edinburgh, in 1758. 
 He was educated at Lanark grammar school, 
 and served 5 years with a writer of the sig- 
 net ; after which he settled in London, and 
 devoted the remainder of his life to litera- 
 
 C87 
 
 ture. He began his career by a volume of 
 jniscellaneous poetry, unassumingly entitled 
 "Rhymes." This work was followed by 
 two others, one contiiining "Dithyrombic 
 Odes," Sec, the other entitled "Tales in 
 Verse." He also produced two volumes of 
 pretended " Ancient Scottish Poems," a 
 forgery after the manner of Chatterton j and 
 " Letters on Literature," under the assumed 
 name of Robert Heron, in which he dis- 
 played a degree of impudent pedantry 
 almost unparalleled. It, however, obtained 
 him tlie patronage of Horace Walpole ; of 
 whose witticisms, &c. he published a col- 
 lection after his decease, under the title of 
 " Walpoliana." A bare catalogue of the 
 works of this indefatigable writer would fill 
 a considerable space. Among them are, an 
 excellent " Essay on Medals," " Modern 
 Geography," 3 vols. ; " The Treasury of 
 Wit," 2 vols. ; " General Collection of Voy- 
 ages and Travels," 19 vols. ; " Iconographia 
 Scotica," 2 vols. ; "Recollections of Paris," 
 2 vols. ; and " Petrology, or a Treatise on 
 Rocka," 2 vols. For many j'cars Mr. Pin- 
 kerton resided at Paris, and there died in 
 182G. 
 
 PINSON, Richard, printer to Henry VIL 
 and VIII., was a native of Normandy, and 
 became servant to William Caxton. He 
 printed Magna Charta, and several books 
 which are now scarce and valuable. He 
 died about 1530. 
 
 PIOMBO, Sebastiano del, an eminent 
 painter, born at Venice, in 1485. He re- 
 nounced music, of which he was very fond, 
 for painting, and studied under Bellini, but 
 afterwards took the fine colouring of Gior- 
 gione as a model. The delicacy of his pencil 
 was much admired, and Michael Angelo 
 encouraged him to enter into competition 
 with Raphael, and even supplied him with 
 designs, which Piombo often executed very 
 happily, although by no means capable of 
 lofty conceptions or sublime inventions. 
 His greatest work is his " Resurrection of 
 Lazarus," now in our National Gallery. 
 Died, 1.547. 
 
 PIOZZI, Hester Lynch, born in 1739, 
 was the daughter of John Salisbury, esq., a 
 gentleman of Carnarvonshire. Early in life 
 she was distinguished by lier beauty and 
 accomplishments, and, in 1763, married 
 Mr. Thrale, a brewer of great opulence in 
 Southwark, which borough he then repre- 
 sented in parliament. Soon after com- 
 menced her acquaintance with Doctor John- 
 son, of whom, in 1786, she published " Anec- 
 dotes," in one 8vo. volume. On the death 
 of Mr. Thrale, in 1781, she retired to Bath, 
 where she married Piozzi, an Italian music- 
 master, with whom she went abroad. At 
 Florence she formed one of the nssociateil 
 English, who conducted a kind of poetical 
 magazine there, in which the eflfusions of 
 Mrs. Piozzi figured conspicuously. Her 
 subsequent publications are, "Observations 
 and Reflections made in a Journey through 
 France, Italy, and Germany," 2 vols. 8vo. ; 
 " The Florence Miscellany," 8vo. ; " British 
 Synonymy," 2 vols. 8vo. ; and " The Retro- 
 spect," 2 vols. 4to. But she is now chiefly 
 remembered as an authoress by her inge- 
 nious tale of " The Three Warnings." On 
 
 3 N 2 
 
pip] 
 
 0t\xi Winibsx^nl 23tosrap^j). 
 
 [pit 
 
 the death of her second' husband, Mrs. Piozzi 
 returned to England, and died at Clifton 
 in 1821. 
 
 PIPER, CUARLES, Count, chief minister 
 of Charles XII. of Sweden. He was born 
 of obscure parents, and by liis talents raised 
 himself to the eminent station he occupied. 
 He accompanied Charles in all his cam- 
 paigns, was taken by the Russians at the 
 battle of Pultowa, and died a prisoner in 
 the fortress of Schlusselburg, in 1716. 
 
 PIPER, Francis le, an English comic 
 painter, was born in Kent, where he inhe- 
 rited a handsome estate. He painted only 
 for amusement, and chiefly such subjects as 
 afforded him an opportunity for indulging 
 in caricature ; his talent for drawing faces 
 remarkable for singularity of expression, 
 or wliimsical combination of feature, being 
 unrivalled. Died, 1740. 
 
 PIRANESI, John Baptist, an eminent 
 engraver, architect, and antiquary, was 
 born at Venice, about 1711, but lived prin- 
 cipally at Rome, of which city, with its 
 models of ancient and modern art, he was 
 an enthusiastic admirer. He was one of 
 the most indefatigable of artists, and liis 
 talents were equal to his industry ; his 
 works form 16 atlas fol. vols., and delineate, 
 in the most spirited manner, most of the 
 remarkable ancient ediiices and objects of 
 antiquity in the papal states, together with 
 numerous views and modern buildings. 
 Died, 1778. 
 
 PIRANESI, Feancis, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, and, like him, an artist of great 
 talent, was born at Rome, in 1748. He 
 completed many of the magnificent works 
 begun by his father, and executed many 
 others of equal magnitude ; in which he 
 was assisted by his brother Peter and his 
 sister Eaura. Having taken an active part 
 in the revolution, he ultimately found it 
 necessary to quit his native country ; and 
 he continued to reside at Paris from that 
 time till his death, in 1810. 
 
 PIRON, Alexis, a French poet and dra- 
 matist, was born at Dijon, in 1689. Having 
 for a while earned a scanty subsistence at 
 Paris as a copyist, he turned his thoughts to 
 dramatic composition, and produced a piece 
 for the comic opera, entitled " Arleqnin 
 Deucalion." This succeeding, he was en- 
 couraged to persevere, and "L'Ecole des 
 P&res," a comedy ; and the tragedies of 
 "Callisth&ne" and " Gustave Vasa" fol- 
 lowed. It was not, however, till 1738 that 
 he gained a place among the highest class 
 of dramatists, by his admirable comedy of 
 " Metromanie," which Laharpe characterises 
 as excelling in plot, style, humour, and vi- 
 vacity almost every other composition of 
 the kind. His " Bon Mots," " Poesies Di- 
 verses," and "Plays," form 7 vols. Died, 
 1773. 
 
 PISISTRATUS, an Athenian citizen, who 
 usurped the sovereignty of his country, was 
 a descendant of Codrus, and inherited from 
 his father, Hippocrates, a large fortune. He 
 was ambitious, eloquent, and courageous ; 
 and, pursuing the policy which has so often 
 succeeded in democracies, he gained over the 
 lower classes of the citizens by his affability 
 and unbounded liberality. He made no 
 
 attempt to abolish the wise laws of Solon, 
 but confirmed and extended their authority; 
 and though he was twice expelled, he re- 
 gained the sovereignty, and continued to 
 exercise it, not as the oppressor, but as the 
 father of his country. He died 527 b. c, 
 leaving his two sons, Hippias and Hippar- 
 chus, to iuherit his power. He established 
 a public library at Athens, and collected 
 and arranged the poems of Homer. 
 
 PISTORIUS, a polemic of the 16th cen- 
 tury, was born at Nidda, in 1346. He was 
 at first a physician, then a lawyer, and rose 
 to be one of the counsellors of state in the 
 court of Baden Dourlach ; but his religious 
 opinions undergoing a change, he took 
 orders, and, as a Romish priest, wrote vio- 
 lently against Lutheranism and its profes- 
 sors. He finally became prelate of the abbey 
 of Fulda, and provost of the cathedral of 
 Breslau, with the rank of imperial counsel- 
 lor. Died, 1008. 
 
 PITCAIRNE, Archibald, an eminent 
 physician, born at Edinburgh, in 1652. 
 After receiving his education in his native 
 city and at Paris, he was for a short time 
 professor of medicine at Leyden, and even- 
 tually settled at Edinburgh. Among his 
 works are, " Solutio Problematis de Inven- 
 toribus," "Disputationes MedicaB," "Ele- 
 menta Medicinae Physico-mathematica," 
 and " Dissertatio de Legibus Naturse." Died, 
 1713. 
 
 PITHOU, Peter, an eminent French 
 writer on jurisprudence and philology, was 
 born at Troves, in 1539. Being a Calvinist, 
 and at Paris during the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew's Day, he narrowly escaped 
 becoming one of the victims. He after- 
 wards conformed to the Catholic church, 
 was employed in many public affairs, and 
 used all his influence to promote the sub- 
 mission of the city of Paris to the authority 
 of Henry FV. Died, 1596. 
 
 PITISCUS, Bartholomew, a divine and 
 mathematician, was bom in Silesia, in 1561, 
 and died at Heidelberg, where he was first 
 preacher to the court, in 1613. He wrote 
 "Synopsis Theologicae Methodicse," "The- 
 saurus Mathematicus," " Liber pro Reform- 
 atione Ecclesiarum Anhaltinatus." 
 
 PITOT, Henry, a mathematician, was 
 born in Languedoc, in 1695 ; and in 1740 
 was appointed engineer to his native pro- 
 vince, and inspector-general of the canal 
 which forms a junction between the Medi- 
 terranean and the Bay of Biscay. One of 
 his principal works was that of supplying 
 Montpelier with water, for which he re- 
 ceived the order of St. Michael. He was 
 also a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and of the Royal Society of London. Died, 
 1771. 
 
 PITT, Christopher, an English clergy- 
 man and an elegant poet, was born in 1699, 
 at Blandford, in Dorsetshire ; was educated 
 at Winchester and at New College, Oxford ; 
 and having obtained the family living of 
 Pimperne, he there passed his life, in the 
 performance of his clerical duties and the 
 cultivation of literature, beloved and re- 
 spected for his suavity of manners and ge- 
 neral benevolence. His poems have con- 
 siderable merit, and his translations of the 
 
 I 
 
pit] 
 
 % ^m mnihtviKl 3B{0ffrapl)fi, 
 
 [pit 
 
 " ^neid " and " Vida's Art of Poetry " are 
 both tasteful and harmonious. Ue died in 
 1748. 
 
 PITT, Thomas, the founder of an illus- 
 trious family, was bom at St. Mary's, Bland- 
 ford, in liioi'>. Towards the end of that cen- 
 tury he went to the East Indies, as governor 
 of Fort St. George, where he resided many 
 years, and realised a large fortune ; par- 
 ticularly by a diamond (called after him 
 the Pitt diamond) which he purchased for 
 2(),400/., and sold to the king of France for 
 somewhat more than five times that sum. 
 A rumour having prevailed in England, that 
 the governor gained this jewel unfairly, and 
 Poi)e having most unwarrantably given the 
 slander currency, by a sort of poetical adop- 
 tion of it in the following couplet — 
 
 " Asleep and naked as an Indian lay. 
 An honest factor stole a gem away," 
 
 he published a narrative containing a fair 
 statement of the transaction, which com- 
 pletely refuted the calumny. In 171G, Mr. 
 Pitt was made governor of Jamaica, but did 
 not hold that situation above a year. lie 
 eat in four parliaments, for Old Sarum and 
 Thirsk ; died in 1726 ; and was buried in 
 Blandford church, where a monument was 
 
 erected to his memory Ilis eldest son, 
 
 BoBKUT Pitt, of Boconnoc, who died in 
 1727, was the father of the great Lord 
 Chatham. 
 
 PITT, William, an illustrious English 
 statesman, was the second sou of the Earl 
 of Chatham, and born May 28. 175'J, at 
 Hayes, in Kent. After receiving the rudi- 
 ments of his education at home, under the 
 watchful superintendence of his father, he 
 was sent to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 
 where his tutor was Dr. Prettyman ; and 
 on leaving the university he was entered at 
 Lincoln's Inn, and in three years was called 
 to the bar. But he was destined shortly to 
 move in a higher sphere. In 1780 he stood 
 candidate for the university of Cambridge, 
 but was unsuccessful. By means, however, 
 of Sir James Lowther, he was returned for 
 the borough of Appleby, and he immediately 
 became one of the most distinguished oppo- 
 nents of the ministry. In 1782 he brought 
 forward a motion for an inquiry into the 
 state of the representation in parliament, 
 which was rejected by a small majority. 
 On the death of the Marquis of Rockingham, 
 Lord Shelburne obtained the office of first 
 lord of the treasury ; and Mr. Pitt, then 
 only 23 years of age, was appointed chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. A general peace 
 soon followed, which being made the ground 
 of censure by a strong opposition, the cabinet 
 was dissolved, and the Fox and North co- 
 alition took its place. On his retirement 
 from office, Mr. Pitt resumed his efforts for 
 a reform in parliament, and submitted three 
 specific motions on the subject, which, al- 
 though supported by Mr. Fox, then secretary 
 of state, were rejected. On the failure of 
 the India bill of the latter, wliich produced 
 the dismissal of the coalition, Mr. Pitt, al- 
 though at that time only in his 24th year, 
 assumed the station of prime minister, by 
 accepting the united posts of first lord of the 
 treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Although strongly supported by the sove- 
 reign, he stood opposed to a large majority 
 of the House of Commons, and a dissolution 
 took place in March, 178G. At the general 
 election which followed, the voice of the 
 nation appeared decidedly in his favour, 
 and some of the strongest aristocratical in- 
 terests in the country were defeated, Mr. 
 Pitt himself being returned by the university 
 of Cambridge. His first measure was the 
 passing of his India bill, establishing the 
 board of control, which was followed by 
 much of that fiscal and financial regulation, 
 which gave ^clal to the early period of his 
 administration. One of the most momentous 
 periods in modem history had now arrived. 
 The French revolution broke out, and pro- 
 duced a vibration in every neighbouring 
 state. War against free principles was de- 
 clared on the one side, by which all amelio- 
 ration was opposed ; while, on the other, the 
 friends of rational reformation found them- 
 selves confounded with ignorant and heated 
 men, who espoused some of the wildest and 
 most visionary innovations. Under this 
 state of things a vigilant eye and a steady 
 hand were obviously necessary to steer the 
 vessel of state ; and whatever opinions may 
 be formed by different parties, in respect to 
 the necessity of our interference, or the 
 measures adopted by the minister — whether 
 he deserved the censures which were so 
 lavishly heaped upon him, or whether he 
 was entitled to the gratitude of his country, 
 as " the pilot that weathered the storm," — 
 certain it is, that he displayed talents, energy, 
 and perseverance, almost unparalleled m 
 the world's history. At length he acceded 
 to the wish that an experiment for peace 
 should be tried, which took place in 1801, 
 under Mr. Addington ; but the event proved 
 how fallacious were the hopes of the people ; 
 and, in 1804, Mr. Pitt once more resumed his 
 post at the treasury. Returning to power as 
 a war minister, he exerted all the energy 
 of his character to render the contest suc- 
 cessful, and found means to engage the two 
 great military powers of Russia and Austria 
 in a new coalition, which was dissolved by 
 the battle of Austerlitz. But his health was 
 now in a very precarious state, and an heri- 
 ditary gout, aggravated by public cares, and 
 a too liberal use of wine, by way of stimulant, 
 completely undermined his constitution ; 
 and he died Jan. 23. 180C. Mr. Pitt was a 
 minister of commanding powers, both as a 
 financier and an orator ; his eloquence, 
 though not so imaginative as that of Burke, 
 or so captivating as that of his father, was 
 more uniformly just and impressive than 
 either ; while the indignant severity and 
 keenness of his sarcasm were unequalled. 
 A public funeral was decreed to his honour 
 by parliament, as also a grant of 40,000<. to 
 pay his debts ; for although his whole life 
 was devoted to the service of his country, 
 such was his disinterestedness in pecuniary 
 matters, that he never received one shilling 
 of the public money beyond his fair emolu- 
 ments of office, to supply the o'X'asional great 
 expenses to which he was put as prime 
 minister. 
 
 PITTACUS, one of the seven sages of 
 Greece, was born at Mitylene, in the island 
 
PIU] 
 
 91 ^eto Unibtv^al ajiasiajpTjn. 
 
 [PLA 
 
 of Lesbos, about 650 b. c. He was a warrior 
 as well as a philosopher ; expelled the tyrant 
 Melancthus from Lesbos ; and on becoming 
 its sovereign, he discharged the duties of his 
 station in the most exemplary manner ; and 
 died, after a reign of 10 years, b. c. 570. 
 
 PIUS VI., whose secular name was John 
 AifOELO Bkaschi, was bom at Cesena, in 
 1717, and succeeded pope Clement XIV. in 
 1775. His first act was to make a reform in 
 the public treasury ; he then completed the 
 museum in the Vatican ; but the greatest 
 work of his pontificate was the draining of 
 the Pontine marshes, — a project whicli 
 baffled several of the emperors, and many of 
 the popes. Wlien the emperor Joseph II. 
 decreed that all the religious orders in his 
 dominions were free from papal jurisdiction, 
 Pius, apprehensive of the consequences of 
 sucli a measure, went in person to Vienna 
 in 1782 ; but though he was honourably re- 
 ceived, his remonstrances were ineflfectual. 
 The French revolution, however, was of 
 more serious consequence to tlie papal see. 
 The pope having favoured the allies, Buona- 
 parte entered the ecclesiastical territory, and 
 compelled him to purchase a peace by the 
 contribution of several millions, and de- 
 livering up the finest works of painting and 
 sculpture. Basseville was then sent as envoy 
 from the republic to Rome, wliere he behaved 
 with so much Insolence, that the people 
 assassinated him in 1793. General Dui^hot 
 entered the city with his troops to restore 
 order, but the papal soldiers routed them, 
 and Duphot was slain. On this, Buonaparte 
 again entered Italy, and made the pope 
 prisoner in the capital, which was plun- 
 dered. The venerable pontiff was carried 
 away by the victors, and hurried over tlie 
 Alps to Valence, where he died of excessive 
 fatigue and ill-usage, Aug. 29. 1799. 
 
 PIUS VII., or Gregokv Bakjtabas Chia- 
 RAMONTi, the successor of the preceding 
 pontiff, was born at Cesena, in 1740. He 
 was raised to tlie cardinalate in 1785 ; and 
 when Buonaparte entered Imola, in 179(5, 
 the cardinal, who was also bishop of that see, 
 found means to conciliate the favour of the 
 French general, and thereby paved the way 
 for his elevation to the papacy in 1800. In 
 July, 1801, he signed the concordat ; and in 
 1804 he crowned Napoleon at Paris, but 
 refused to perform the same oflSce for Louis 
 I XVIII. Notwithstanding the courtesy 
 ' whicli he showed to Buonaparte, the latter 
 seized the pope in 1809, and imprisoned him 
 at Foutainebleau, where he remained till 
 the downfal of his oppressor in 1814, when 
 he returned to Rome to resume his autho- 
 rity. He died in 1823, and was succeeded 
 in the pontificate by Cardinal Sella Genga, 
 who assumed the appellation of Leo XII. 
 
 PIUS VIII., by name FEArrcis Xaviero 
 Castigliojn'i, was born at Cingolia in 1761, 
 was made bishop of Montalto in 1800, 
 created cardinal in 1816, was elected pope 
 on the death of Leo XII. in 1829, and died 
 in the following year. He was distinguished 
 for his industry, talents, and learning ; 
 spared no expense to preserve the remains of 
 ancient architecture in Rome, and was a 
 sincere patron of the fine arts. Gregory 
 XVI. was his successor. 
 
 PIZARRO, Francisco, the conqueror of 
 Peru, was the illegitimate son of a gentleman 
 in Truxillo, and being left entirely depend- 
 ent on his mother, a peasant girl, he re- 
 ceived no education, and was, in his early 
 years, employed as a swineherd. Quitting 
 tliis inglorious occupation, he embarked, 
 with some otlier adventurers, for America ; 
 and, in 1524, associated at Panama with 
 Diego de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, 
 a priest, in an enterprise to make discoveries. 
 In this voyage they fell in with the coast of 
 Peru, but being too few to make any at- 
 tempt at a settlement, Pizarro returned to 
 Spain, where all that he gained was a power 
 from the court to prosecute his object. How- 
 ever, having raised some money, he wa» 
 enabled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, where 
 a civil war was then raging between Huas- 
 car, the legitimate monarch, and his half- 
 brother, Atahualpa, or Atabalipa, as he is 
 variously called, the reigning inca. Pizarro, 
 by pretending to take the part of the latter, 
 was permitted to march into the interior, 
 where he made the unsuspecting chief his 
 prisoner, while partaking of a friendly ban- 
 quet to which he had invited him and his 
 whole court ; then extorting from him, as 
 it is said, a house full of the precious metals 
 by way of ransom, he had him tried for a 
 pretended conspiracy, and condemned him 
 to be burnt, allowing him first to be stran- 
 gled, as a reward for becoming a Christian. 
 In 1535 the conqueror laid the foundation of 
 Lima ; but, in 1537, a contest arose between 
 him and A.ln>agro, who was defeated and 
 executed. Tlie son and friends of Almagro, 
 however, avenged liis death, and on June 26. 
 1541, after ruling despotically for six years, 
 Pizarro met with the fate he so richly de- 
 served, being assassinated in his palace at 
 Lima. 
 
 PLACE, FiJANCrs, a native of Dinsdale, 
 in the county of Durham. He was bred to 
 the law, and afterwards expended consi- 
 derable sums in an attempt to make porce- 
 lain. He was an excellent painter as well 
 as engraver, but executed all his works for 
 amusement ; and he refused a pension of i 
 5001. to draw the royal navy. His etchings 
 of landscapes and birds are admirable ; and 
 his portraits in mez^otinto also prove that 
 he possessed great abilities. Died, 1728. 
 
 PLATINA, Baetolojieo, an historian, 
 whose real name was Sacchi, was born in 
 1421. Having fallen under the displeasure 
 of pope Pius II., he was imprisoned and put 
 to the rack, on a charge of being implicated 
 in a conspiracy against him. His sufferings, 
 however, were aiterwards recompensed by 
 Sixtus IV., who, in 1745, made him keeper 
 of the Vatican library. His principal work, 
 composed in elegant Latin, is a history of 
 the "Lives of the Roman Pontiffs." He 
 also wrote, in Latin, a " History of Mantua." 
 Died, 1481. 
 
 PLATO, one of the most illustrious phi- 
 losophers of antiquity, and the founder of 
 the academic sect, was born in the island of 
 -(Egina, in the 88th Olympiad, or b. c. 430. 
 In his youth he applied to poetry and 
 painting, both which pursuits he relin- 
 quished to become a disciple of Socrates. 
 During the imprisonment of his master, Plato 
 
pla] 
 
 ^ fim Uni^mal StOjarap^B* 
 
 [PLI 
 
 attended him and committed to writing his 
 last discourses upon the Immortality of the 
 Soul. He then retired to Megara; after 
 wliich he extended his travels to Magna 
 GrsEcia and Kgypt. On his return to Athens, 
 he formed his scliool in a grove, called the 
 Academy, over the door of which seminary 
 was this inscription, "I^t no one ignorant 
 of geometry enter here." He was soon at- 
 tended by a crowd of hearers of every de- 
 scription j and among other illustrious names 
 to be ranked among his disciples, are those 
 of Dion, Aristotle, Hyperides, I.ycurgus, 
 Demosthenes, and Isocrates. The ancients 
 thought more higlily of him than of all their 
 pliilobophers, ond always called him the 
 Divine Plato. TuUy, whose regard and ve- 
 neration for him were boundless, observes 
 that he was justly called by Pausetius, tlie 
 divine, the most wise, the most sacred, the 
 Homer of philosophers ; and made him so 
 implicitly his guide in wisdom and philo- 
 sopiiy as to declare, that he had rather err 
 with Plato, than be right with any one else. 
 He thrice visited the court of Sicily ; once 
 invited by the elder Dionysius, and twice 
 by tlie younger. The former he so much 
 offendeci, that the tyrant caused him to be 
 seized on his passage home, and sold for a 
 slave ; and the philosopher was indebted for 
 his liberation to Aniceris of Cyrene. On 
 his return to Athens, Plato resumed his 
 school, and no persuasion could afterwards 
 induce him to quit his peaceful retirement. 
 At his death, which hajipened in his TDlh 
 year, b. c. 348, statues and altars were erected 
 to his memory ; and the dav of his birth was 
 long celebrated as a festival. 
 
 Pl.ATOFF, Count, a celebrated hetraan 
 of the Cossacks, was born in the southern 
 part of Russia, about 1703. He entered 
 young into the military service, distinguished 
 himself against the Turks in Moldavia, and 
 was made a general of cavalry. When the 
 Prencii invaded Russia in 1812, Platoff, 
 with twenty regiments of Cossacks, harassed 
 them in their flight, and contributed greatly 
 to the advantages gaineti over them. He 
 came with the emperor Alexander to Eng- 
 land, and, at London, was the object of 
 popular admiration. lie retired to the river 
 Don, and died in 1818. 
 
 PLAUTUS, Makcus Accius, a comic 
 writer of ancient Rome, who acquired the 
 surname of Plautus from the ill shape of 
 his feet. He died b. c. 184. 
 . PLAYFAIR, Jony, an eminent mathe- 
 matician and natural pliilosopher, was born 
 at Bervie, near Dundee, of whicii parish his 
 father was minister, in 1749. He received 
 his education at St. Andrew's ; and, in 1772, 
 succeeded to his father's living ; but resigned 
 it some years atlerwards, and went to Edin- 
 burgh, where he became professor of mathe- 
 matics. In his latter years he applied to the 
 study of geology, which he pursued with in- 
 defatigable ardour ; and, in 1816, undertook 
 a journey to the Alps, for the purpose of 
 making observations on those mountains. 
 Among his works are, "Elements of Geome- 
 try," " Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory 
 of tlie Earth," "System of Geography," 5 
 vols. 4to. 5 and Outlines of Philosophy." 
 Died, 1819. 
 
 PLAYFAIR, Wii-LiAM, brother of the 
 preceding, born in 1759, was an ingenious 
 projector and author. After serving an ap- 
 prenticeship to a'millwright, he was engaged 
 as a draughtsman at Boulton and Watt's es- 
 tablishment, Soho, Birmingham. Oncoming 
 to London, he obtained patents for various 
 inventions, and engaged in many specula- 
 tions, became a fertile writer on politics 
 and other subjects, and died in 1823. His 
 most important publications are, " A Com- 
 mercial and Political Atlas," " An Inquiry 
 into the Decline and Fall of Nations,'' 
 " France as it is," " History of Jacobinism," 
 and "British Family Antiquity." 
 
 PLAYl'ORD, Joux, a wTiter on music, 
 was born in 1013, and published "An In- 
 troduction to the Skill of Music," often re- 
 printed ; " Court Ayres," and " Psalms and 
 
 Hymns in solemn Music." His son, 
 
 Henky Playfokd, was the publisher of 
 " Orpheus Britannicus." 
 
 PLINIUS, Skcujjdi-s Caius, or Plinv the 
 Eldek, one of the most celebrated writers of 
 ancient Rome, was born a. d. 23, at Verona, 
 or, as some say, at Como, served in the 
 army in Germany, afterwards became an 
 advocate, and was ultimatelj^ procurator 
 in Spain and Africa. As an inquirer into 
 the works of nature he was indefatigable, 
 and he lost his life by his thirst for know- 
 ledge. Being at Miseuum with a fleet which 
 he commanded, on the 24th of August, A. d. 
 7S), his sister desired him to observe a re- 
 markable cloud that had just appeared. 
 Pliny, discovering that it proceeded from 
 Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galleys to sea, 
 to assist the inhabitants on the coast, while 
 he himself steered as near as possible to the 
 foot of the mountain, which now sent forth 
 vast quantities of burning rock and lava. 
 Pliny and his companions landed at Stabias, 
 but were soon obliged to leave the town for 
 the fields, where the danger was equally 
 great, from the shower of fire which fell 
 upon them. In this state they made the best 
 of their way to the shore, but Pliny, who 
 was very corpulent, fell down dead, suffo- 
 cated by th? noxious vapours. The eruption 
 which caused his death appears to have been 
 that in which tlie cities of Ilerculaneum 
 and Pompeii were destroyed, in the first year 
 of the emperor Titus. He wrote the " His- 
 tory of his own Time," in 31 books, which is 
 lost, and his " Natural History," in .37 books, 
 one of the most precious monuments of an- 
 tiquity extant. 
 
 PLINIUS, C^ciLius Secundus Cars, or 
 Plkvythe Youxgeu, nephew of the prece- 
 ding, was born a. d. 62, at Como. He studied 
 under Virginius and Quintilian, and in his 
 eighteenth year began to plead in the forum. 
 Soon after this he went as tribune to Syria ; 
 from whence he returned, when he had made 
 one or two campaigns, and settled at Rome. 
 He was promoted to the consular dignity by 
 Trajan, in praise of whom he pronounced a 
 famous oration, which is extant. He was 
 next chosen augur, and afterwards made 
 proconsul of Bithynia, from whence he 
 wrote to Trajan a curious account of the 
 Christians, and their manner of worship. 
 The " Epistles of Pliny " are elegant speci- 
 mens of letter- writing, and very instructive ; 
 
PLO] 
 
 ^ ^cto eJniticrjSal 3Si00rapl)jj. 
 
 [POC 
 
 they have been translated into English by 
 Lord Orrery and Mr. Mehnoth. 
 
 PLOT, RoBEUT, a naturalist, was bom in 
 1640, at Borden, in Kent ; was educated at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, where he gra- 
 duated as LL.D. ; became one of the secre- 
 taries of the Royal Society, royal historio- 
 grapher, archivist of the herald's office, &c. ; 
 and died in 1690. llis chief works are, " The 
 Natural Histories of Oxfordshire and Staf- 
 fordshire." 
 
 PLOTINTJS, a Platonic philosopher, was 
 born in 20;!, at Lycopolis, in Egypt ; and 
 accompanied the emperor Gordian in his 
 expedition against the Parthians, in order 
 to obtain a knowledge of Indian and Persian 
 philosophy. He afterwards resided at Rome, 
 and died in 270. 
 
 PLOWDEN, Charles, a Jesuit, born in 
 England, in 1743, but educated at Rome, 
 where he entered into the society in 1579. 
 On his return to his own country after the 
 suppression of his order in 1773, he was one 
 of the most zealous advocates for their re- 
 uniting in England. He afterwards became 
 president of the Catholic College of Stony- 
 hurst, in Lancashire, and died in 1821. 
 
 PLOWDEN,Edmlind, an eminent lawyer, 
 was born in Shropshire, in 1.517, and died in 
 1584. His " Commentaries and Reports" are 
 greatly esteemed. 
 
 PLOWDEN, Francis, an historian and 
 miscellaneous writer, was a native of Ireland, 
 and by profession a barrister and convey- 
 ancer. He was the author of "Jura An- 
 glorum," " Church and State," "A Treatise 
 upon the Law of Usury and Annuities," and 
 "The History of Ireland." In consequence 
 of a verdict obtained against him for a libel 
 in the latter work, with 5000^ damages, he 
 retired to France, where he afterwards re- 
 sided ; and died, at an advanced age, in 
 1829. 
 
 PLUCHE, Noel Antoine, a learned 
 French writer, born at Rheims, in 1688, in 
 the college of which city he was professor of 
 rhetoric. He was afterwards appointed pre- 
 sident of the college of Laou, but was re- 
 moved from his office in consequence of his 
 opposition to the bull Unigenitus, and died 
 in 1761. His " Histoire du Ciel " and " Spec- 
 tacle de la Nature," both of which were 
 translated into English, were at one time 
 very popular. 
 
 PLUKENET, Leoxard, an eminent Eng- 
 lish botanist, was born in 1642. He practised 
 as an apothecary in Westminster, and raised 
 a botanic garden there. After the greater 
 part of his life passed in struggling against 
 adversity, he was appointed superintendant 
 of the gardens at Hampton Court, and royal 
 professor of botanj'. He died about 1708. 
 His " Phy tographia " is an honourable proof 
 of his abilities. He also published " Alma- 
 gestum Botanicum," " Almagesti Botaiuci 
 Mantissa," and " Amaltheum Botanicum." 
 
 PLUMPTBE, James, a clergyman and 
 miscellaneous writer, was the sou of Dr. 
 Plumptre, president of Queen's College, 
 Cambridge, where he entered as a student 
 in 1787. At the commencement of his career 
 he wrote several dramatic pieces, viz. " The 
 Coventry Act," a comedy ; " Osway," a tra- 
 gedy ; and several others ; besides " Obser- 
 
 vations on Hamlet," " The English Drama 
 Purified," and " Four Discourses on Subjects 
 relating to the Amusements of the Stage." 
 His other works consist principally of 
 " Sermons " preached on particular occasions, 
 several of which are of a very popular cha- 
 racter. He was also the author of " Letters 
 to Dr. Aikin on his Volume of Vocal Poetry." 
 Died, 1832. 
 
 PLUTARCH, a celebrated Greek philo- 
 sopher and historian, was a native of Che- 
 ronea, in Bceotia. On visiting Rome, he was 
 received with flattering marks of distinction 
 by Trajan, who raised him to the consular 
 dignity, and appointed him governor of 
 Illyria. After the death of his patron, Plu- 
 tarch returned to Cheronea, where he died at 
 an advanced age, a. n. 120. The most cele- 
 brated of his works are, his " Lives of Illus- 
 trious Men " and his " Morals." 
 
 PLUVINEL, AXTHOXY, a native of Dau- 
 phin3', who was master of the horse to Henry 
 IV., by whom he was sent ambassador to 
 Holland. He was the first in France that 
 opened a school for riding, on which subject 
 he wrote a work, called " L'Art de monter h 
 Cheval." Died, 1620. 
 
 POCOCK, Dr. Edward, a most learned 
 English critic and commentator, and famous 
 particularly for his great skill in oriental 
 languages, was born at Oxford, in 1604 ; re- 
 ceived llis education at Magdalen and Corpus 
 Christi Colleges ; twice visited the liCvant, 
 for the purpose of collecting ancient manu- 
 scripts and coins ; was afterwards Hebrew 
 professor at Oxford, rector of Childrey, and 
 canon of Christchurch -, and died in 1691. 
 Among his works are, " Specimen Historia3 
 Arabum," " Albufaragius Historia Dynastia- 
 rum," " Commentaries ou the Minor Pro- 
 pliets," &c. Died, 1691. 
 
 POCOCK, Isaac, an artist and dramatist, 
 was born at Bristol, in 1782. His father had 
 distinguished himself as a marine painter ; 
 and Isaac appearing to have the same genius 
 for the art, was placed first with Romney, 
 and afterwards studied under Sir William 
 Beechy. He gained the first prize given by 
 tlie British Institution, by the production of 
 his historical picture of the murder of Thomas 
 a. Becket. He afterwards painted other pic- 
 tures, but becoming independent, he gra- 
 dually relaxed in the prosecution of that 
 profession, and retired to Maidenhead, where 
 he occasionally used both his pencil and pen, 
 and produced mauy dramatic pieces, the 
 greater part of which were successful. Here 
 he was nominated to the commission of the 
 peace and deputy-lieutenant of the county 
 of Berks. He died after the illness of a few 
 hours only, August 23. 1835. He was tlie 
 autlior of about 40 melodramas, farces, 
 and operatic pieces ; among which were, 
 " The Miller and his Men," " Hit or Miss," 
 " John of Paris," " Robinson Crusoe," " Alon- 
 trose," &c. 
 
 POCOCKE, Richard, a learned prelate 
 and traveller, was born at Southampton, in 
 1704 ; received his education at the free- 
 school there, of which his father was master, 
 and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford ; tra- 
 elled in the East from 1737 to 1742 ; was, 
 sivccessively, precentor of Waterford, arch- 
 deacon of St. Patrick's, bishop of Ossory, and 
 
 C92 
 
pog] 
 
 ^ i^fUj ^Snibrrsal 3Si05rap!)t). 
 
 [POL 
 
 of Meath ; and died in 1765. His " Travels " 
 are rich in description, particularly of the 
 " Curiosities of Egypt and Palestine." 
 
 POGGIO BRACCIOI>INI, an Italian 
 writer of the loth century, who contributed 
 greatly to the revival of classical literature 
 in Europe, was born at Terranova, in Tus- 
 cany, was educated at Florence, and lield 
 the office of ai)08tolical Bccrctary to no less 
 than eight popes. He devoted much of his 
 time in the search after manuscripts ; and to 
 him the world is indebted for Quintilian.the 
 orations of Cicero, Lucretius, part of Plautus, 
 and other remains of antiquity. lie was a 
 man of eminent talent, but his morals and 
 disposition were most reprehensible. His 
 chief works are, a " History of Florence," 
 "Dialogiies on Nobility," and "Funeral 
 Oriiti(.ns." Died, 1459. 
 
 POISSON, Raimond, a French actor and 
 dramatist of the 17th century, who obtained 
 great celebrity in low comedy. He wrote a 
 uuml)er of theatrical pieces, and died in 1G90. 
 
 His son Paul Poisson, was eminent as 
 
 a comic actor. Died, 173.5 The two sous 
 
 of Paul, Pjiii-ir and Aknollt pe Roin- 
 viLLE, were also distinguished for their 
 theatrical talents : the former wast lie author 
 of 10 comedies, and was a good tragic per- 
 former ; while the latter fully supported the 
 reputation of his family as a comic actor. 
 He died in 17.53. 
 
 POISSONNIER, Petek Isaac, an emi- 
 nent pliysician, was bom at Dijon, in 1720. 
 He became professor of medicine in tlie 
 college de France, and was the first who 
 gave chemical lectures at Paris. In 1758, 
 being first physician to the French army, he 
 went to Russia, to attend the empress Eli- 
 zal)eth in her illness. In 17C4 he was ap- 
 pointed inspector-general of physic in the 
 ports and colonies, and died in 1798. M. 
 Poissonnier wrote several practical works, 
 but he is chiefly known by his method of 
 procuring fresh water from that of the sea, 
 for which he received a pension of 12,000 
 livres. 
 
 POIVRE, N., a French naturalist, was 
 born at Lyons, in 1719. He was appointed 
 intendant of the isles of France and Bourbon, 
 where he introduced the bread-fruit tree 
 and other valuable plants. Died, 178C. 
 
 POLE, Reoimalu, Cardinal, an eminent 
 statesman, and archbishop of Canterbury in 
 the reign of queen Mary, was descended from 
 the blood-royal of England, and born at 
 Stourton Castle, in Staffordshire, in 1500. 
 He was educated at Sheen monastery, and 
 Magdalen College, Oxford ; and after obtain- 
 ing preferment in the church, went to Italy, 
 where he long resided. On his return to 
 England he opposed the divorce of Henry 
 Vm. from Catharine of Arragon in sucli 
 terms, that the king drove him from his pre- 
 sence, and never saw him more. He again 
 left England, was made a cardinal, and very 
 nearly obtained the popedom on the death 
 of Paul III. When Mary ascended the 
 throne, Pole returned to England as legate, 
 in wliich capacity he absolved the parlia- 
 ment from the sin of heresy, and reconciled 
 the nation to the holy sec. The very day 
 after the burning of Crannier, the cardinal 
 was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 
 soon after which he was elected chancellor 
 of both universities, and he survived the 
 queen but one day, Nov. 15. 1558. 
 
 POLEMBERG, Coknelius, a painter, was 
 born at Utrecht, in 1586. He was a disciple 
 of Abraham Bloemart, and completed his 
 studies at Rome. On his return he received 
 much encouragement from Rubens ; and 
 Charles I. invited him to England, where he 
 painted a number of beautiful landscapes, 
 principally of a small size, and which ore 
 now rare. 
 
 POLEMON, a Greek philosopher, was 
 born at OSta. In his youth he led a very 
 dissipated life, but by hearing Xenocrates 
 discourse on the miseries of intemperance, 
 he became reformed, and succeeded that 
 
 philosopher in his school There was also 
 
 a rhetorician of this name, who lived in the 
 reign of Trajan. 
 
 POLI, G. Saverio, an eminent naturalist, 
 was born at Molfetta, in Italy, in 1746, and 
 studied in the university of Padua. He was 
 the friend of Morgagni, Fracciolati, Poleni, 
 and Valsecchi ; and became director of the 
 military academy at Naples, where he died 
 in 1825. He was the author of a very popu- 
 lar " System of Natural Philosophy " and 
 also of a work on " Testacea." 
 
 POLIGNAC, Jules, Prince de, prime mi- 
 nister of Charles X. of France, whose admi- 
 nistration produced the revolution of 1830, 
 was sprung from an ancient family, whose 
 vicissitudes of fortune were remarkable even 
 in revolutionary France, and which num- 
 bered among its members the famous Abbi5 de 
 Polignacwho died, 1741. Driven from Paris 
 by tlie clamour of the mob, his parents re- 
 paired to Vienna ; but scarcely had they 
 reached that capital, before the fate of her be- 
 loved mistress and friend, Maria Antoinette, 
 was communicated to his mother, and within 
 a few days she fell a victim to her grief and 
 affection. Deprived of a mother's care, young 
 Polignac and his two brothers were educated 
 in devoted attachment to their religion and 
 their exiled sovereign ; and, before reaching 
 manhood, Jules de Polignac proceeded to 
 Russia, then a refuge for the royalists, and 
 shortly afterwards repaired to Edinburgh, 
 where the Count d'Artois, afterwards Charles 
 X., resided. Under the mingled influences 
 of religion and loyalty, he embarked with 
 his brother Armand in Georges' conspiracy 
 in 1804 against Napoleon. The conspiracy 
 was detected ; the brothers were arrested, 
 tried, and condemned to death ; but, at the 
 intercession of Josephine and Madame Murat, 
 the emperor's sister, the sentence of death 
 was commuted to imprisonment, and the 
 two young men were sent to Vincennes, 
 where they remained six years. On the re- 
 storation of Louis XVIII., Jules de Polignac 
 devoted himself heart and soul to the so- 
 called party of the Congregation, in the in- 
 terest of the Pope, the Church, and the Count 
 d'Artois ; and his services were rewarded by 
 the Pope conferring on liim the title of a 
 Roman prince, by which he has since been 
 known. In 1823, Prince Polignac was sent 
 as ambassador to London, where he remained 
 six years ; and the intrigues of the priest party 
 being finally crowned with success, he re- 
 turned to Paris in 1829, to assume the premier- 
 
 603 
 
 / ^ or THF *^ \ 
 
pol] 
 
 ^ ^tia Bniiitr^aX 28iosrap!)g. 
 
 [pol 
 
 
 ahip of the new ministry ; but the nation 
 was loud in its expression of distrust, till at 
 length the unconstitutional course that he 
 adopted towards the chambers was suddenly 
 arrested by the " three glorious days," which 
 led to his own overthrow, and the dethrone- 
 ment of his sovereign. Pursued and taken at 
 Granville, he was tried before the chamber 
 of peers, and condemned ; but his life was 
 spared; and, after undergoing a short im- 
 prisonment at Ham, he was allowed to go 
 into exile. His remaining years were spent 
 chiefly at Munich. At length he was allowed 
 to return to France, though not to Paris ; 
 but the death of Charles X. and the Duke 
 d'Angouleme gave the last blow to a consti- 
 tution already broken down by many re- 
 verses,and he sank into a state of melancholy , 
 from which he never recovered. Born, 1783; 
 died, 1847. His brother Armand died about 
 a month before him. 
 
 POLIGNAC, Mki.chior de, a French 
 cardinal and statesman, was born in 16C1, 
 at Puy en Velay in Languedoc. He was 
 employed aa a negotiator at Rome, in 
 Poland, and in Holland, and acquitted him- 
 self so well that he was rewarded with the 
 purple. During the regency he was ba- 
 nished to his abbey of Anchin, but after- 
 wards he was recalled, and appointed agent 
 for French affairs at Rome. In 1726 he was 
 made archbishop of Auch, and died in 1741. 
 He wrote a Latin poem, entitled " Anti- 
 Lucretius ; " which has often been reprinted, 
 and was translated into English by the 
 father of the late Mr. Canning. 
 
 POLITIAN, Anoelus, an eminent Ita- 
 lian scholar, was born in 1454, at Monte 
 Pulciano, in the Florentine territories, 
 whence he derived the appellation by which 
 he is more usually known than by that of 
 Ciiiis, his family name. He assumed the 
 ecclesiastical habit, and acquired by his ac- 
 complishments the favour of Lorenzo the 
 Magnificent, who made him tutor to his 
 children, and presented him with a canonry 
 in the cathedral of Florence, which he held 
 with the professorship of the Greek and 
 Latin languages. Among the most esteemed 
 of his writings are, " A Collection of Greek 
 Epigrams," the " History of the Conspiracy 
 of the Pazzi," the drama of " Orpheus," and 
 a Latin version of Herodian. Died, 1494. 
 
 POLK, James Kxox, ex-president of the 
 United States of America, was bom in 
 North Carolina, 1795. After an honourable 
 university course, he became a member of 
 the Tennessee bar in 1820, and pursued his 
 professional career with such success, that he 
 was soon marked out by his countrymen for 
 the highest services at their command. In 
 1825 he was elected to congress, where he be- 
 came conspicuous for firmness, regularity, 
 and assiduity ; and after sitting in congress 14 
 years, two or three of which he was speaker, 
 he was elected president of the federal re- 
 public in 1844. His administration was dis- 
 tinguished by various important events, bear- 
 ing on the fortunes of the United States. By 
 the annexation of Texas and California, he 
 extended the boundaries of his country ; he 
 laboured to organise the national treasury 
 on the principles of the constitution, and in- 
 troduced into the government many finan- 
 
 cial and commercial improvements. Died, 
 1849. 
 
 POLLEXFEN, Sir IlENRr, an eminent 
 English judge, who in 1688 was one of the 
 counsel for the seven bishops. After the 
 revolution he was knighted, and made cliief 
 justice of the common pleas. Died, 1692. 
 
 POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a celebrated 
 Roman, who was much esteemed by Au- 
 gustus, and gained a great reputation by 
 his military exploits, but more by his lite- 
 rary connections. He filled the oflSce of 
 consul B. c. 40, and was the intimate friend 
 of Horace and Virgil. He was the author 
 of tragedies, orations, and a liistory, which 
 are lost. Died, aged 80, b. c. 4. 
 
 POLLOK, RoBEKT, a Scotch clergyman 
 and writer of sacred poetry, was born in 
 1799, at Eagle8ham,in Renfrewshire. Being 
 intended for the church, he was sent to the 
 university of Glasgow to study theology ; 
 but his health became so much impaired by 
 study, that he had scarcely entered on his 
 ministry before he found it necessary to 
 quit the north with a view to a residence 
 in Italy, in order to try the effect of change 
 of climate. He left Scotland in August, 
 1827, but he had only proceeded to South- 
 ampton, when his malady increased to such 
 a degree as precluded all hope of recovery, 
 and he died there in the following month. - 
 His principal production is entitled " The 
 Course of Time," a poem in 10 books. He 
 also wrote " The Persecuted Family," a nar- 
 rative of the sufferings of the Presbyterians 
 in the reign of Charles II. ; and " Ralph 
 Gemmel," a tale for youth. 
 
 POLLUX, Julius, was bom in Egypt in 
 180; he taught rhetoric at Athens, and was 
 appointed preceptor to the emperor Com- 
 modus, for whose use he drew up an " Ono- 
 masticon, or Greek Vocabulary." Died, 238. 
 
 POLO, Marco, a celebrated traveller of 
 the 13th century, was the son of a Venetian 
 merchant, who had penetrated to the court 
 of Kublai, the great khan of the Tartars. 
 This prince being highly entertained with 
 their account of Europe, made them his 
 ambassadors to the pope ; on which they 
 travelled back to Rome, and, with two mis- 
 sionaries, once more visited Tartary, accom- 
 panied by the young Marco, who became a 
 great favourite with the khan. Having ac- 
 quired the different dialects of Tartary, he 
 was employed on various embassies ; and, 
 after a residence of 17 years, all the three 
 Venetians returned to their own country in 
 1295, with immense wealth. Marco after- 
 wards served his country at sea against the 
 Genoese, and, being taken prisoner, remained 
 many years in confinement, the tedium of 
 which he beguiled by composing the history 
 of his " Travels." Marco Polo relates many 
 things which appear highly incredible, but 
 the greater part of his narrative has been 
 verified by succeeding travellers. 
 
 POLWHELE, Rev. Richard, an anti- 
 quarian, historian, poet, and miscellaneous 
 writer, whose works are exceedingly volu- 
 minous, was born at Truro, in 17G0, where 
 he was also educated, and where, when a 
 boy, with the assistance of the celebrated 
 Dr. Wolcot, then a physician in that town, he 
 first essayed as a poet. His principal works 
 
pol] 
 
 ^ ^eto Winibtvial 28t0srapT)|?. 
 
 [PON 
 
 are " The History of Cornwall," 7 vols. 4to., 
 The History of Devonshire," 3 vols., "Tra- 
 ditions and Recollections," 2 vols., "The Ru- 
 ral Rector," 3 vols., " Biographical Sketches 
 in Cornwall," 3 vols., "Anecdotes of Me- 
 thodism," " Illustrations of Scriptural Cha- 
 racters," several volumes of sermons ; with 
 numberless poems, and other writings of a 
 miscellaneous character. Died at Truro, 
 aaed 78, March, 18;J8. 
 
 "POLYii:NUS, a Greek author in the 2nd 
 century, who wrote 8 books of the " Strata- 
 gems of illustrious Generals." He appears 
 to have been a Macedonian, and, after serv- 
 ing in the army, he became a statesman 
 under Antoninus and Varus. 
 
 POLYBIUS, a celebrated Greek historian, 
 son of Lycortus, general of the Achaeans, 
 was born in Arcadia, B.C. 203. He was 
 formed for public business by the precepts 
 and example of Philopoemen, and at the 
 funeral of that general he bore the urn which 
 contained his ashes. Being sent to Rome us 
 one of the hostages demanded of the Achxans, 
 his residence at the capital of the world was 
 of great importance to Polybius, who, on his 
 return to Greece, was employed in public 
 affairs by several states. He wrote a " Uni- 
 versal History," in 40 books, of which we 
 have only 5 complete, and an abridgment of 
 12 others. 
 
 POLYCARP, St., a Christian father and 
 martyr, who, according to tradition, was a 
 disciple of the apostle John, and by him ap- 
 pointed bishop of Smyrna. He made many 
 converts, and violently opposed the heresies 
 of Marcion and Valentinus ; but during tlie 
 persecution of the Christians under Marcus 
 Aurelius, he suffered martyrdom with the 
 most heroic fortitude, a.i>. 1G9. His " Epistle 
 to the Philippians " is the only one of his 
 pieces that has been preserved. 
 
 POLYCLETUS, a famous sculptor, was 
 born at Sicyon, and flourished about the 
 year B.C. 430. He is considered to have 
 attained perfection in single figures ; and 
 a statue of a boy, executed by him, was 
 sold for 190 talents, equivalent to 20,000/. 
 
 POLYGNOTUS, a painter of Thasos, 
 about 422 B. c. He gained celebrity by a se- 
 ries of pictures on the war of Troy, for which 
 he refused the presents offered him by the 
 states of Greece ; he also painted the temple 
 of Delphi, and part of the Poccile at Athens 
 gratuitously, for which it was decreed that he 
 should be supported at the public expense. 
 
 POMBAL, Sebastian Joseph Carvalho 
 Mei.iio, Marquis of, a Portuguese statesman, 
 was born at Soura, in 1C99. After having 
 been ambassador to I-ondon and Vienna, he 
 was, in I'.W, appointed secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs, and, in 17.5fi, prime minister. 
 He introduced many reforms and changes 
 in the government ; but as his measures 
 were frequently severe and arbitrary, he 
 raised up many enemies, and on the death 
 of the king, in 1777, he was disgraced, and 
 exiled to his estates, where he died in 1782. 
 
 POMFRET, John, an English poet, was 
 born at Luton, in Bedfordshire, in 1(567; was 
 educated at Queen's College, Cambridge ; 
 and obtained the living of Maiden. He was 
 the author of " The Choice," a poem which 
 has ever been popular ; but owing to an 
 
 equivocal expression therein, Dr. Compton, 
 bishop of London, thought him unfit for the 
 clerical office, and refused to induct him to 
 another and more considerable benefice. 
 The prelate was, however, soon after con- 
 vinced of his mistake ; but in the meantime 
 Pomfret, who had been detained in London, 
 caught the small-pox, and died of it in 1703. 
 
 POMPADOUR, Jea.n'nk Antoinkttk 
 PoissoN, Marchioness de, the mistress of 
 Louis XV., in whose affections she suc- 
 ceeded Madame de Chateauroux, was the 
 daughter of a financier, and born in 1720. 
 At the age of 21 she was married to M. 
 d'Etioles ; first attracted the king's notice 
 while he was hunting in the forest of Senart; 
 appeared at court in 174.5, under the title of 
 marchioness of Pompadour ; and died in 
 17(;4, aged 44 years. She certainly used her 
 influence with the king in promoting tlie 
 progress of the fine arts, but her cupidity 
 and extravagance were unbounded ; and 
 many of the evils which oppressed France in 
 the succeeding reign have been attributed to 
 the power she possessed of filling the. most 
 important oflSces of the state witli her fa- 
 vourites, wliose measures were generally in- 
 glorious, both at home and abroad. 
 
 POMPEY, surnamed the Great, or Cneius 
 PoMPEius Magnus, was of a noble family, 
 and born b. c. 105. He studied the art of 
 war under his father, and, when he was 
 only 23, raised three legions, with which he 
 joined Sylla, whose opponents he drove out 
 of Sicily and Africa. That commander re- 
 called him to Rome, and gave him the name 
 of Magnus. Pompey also obtained the 
 honours of a triumph, and was chosen con- 
 sul i in which office he restored the tribunes, 
 and extended the Roman empire beyond 
 Asia Minor. For these services he received 
 another triumph, soon after which he formed 
 the first triumvirate with Csesar and Crassus; 
 but though he married the daughter of Cassar, 
 a civil war broke out between them, in which 
 Pompey was utterly defeated, at Pharsalia. 
 He then fied to Egypt, and was there assassin- 
 ated, by order of the ministers of Ptolemy, 
 king of that country, b. c. 48. 
 
 POMPIGNAN, JouN James le Fkance, 
 Marquis of, was born at Montauban, in 1709. 
 He gained a great reputation by his tragedy 
 of" Dido," acted in 1734. His works, which 
 have been published in 6 vols. 8vo., consist 
 of dramatic pieces, sacred odes, moral dis- 
 courses, a translation of the Georgics, &c. 
 Died, 1784. 
 
 POMPONIUS L^TUS, JuliTjs, some- 
 times styled Peter of Calabria, a learned an- 
 tiquary of the 15th century, was professor of 
 rhetoric at Rome, and the founder of an 
 academy, which was oppressed by Paul II., 
 and many of the members imprisoned and 
 put to the torture ; but Sixtus IV. released 
 tliem, and restored Pomponius to his pro- 
 fessorship. Died, 1498. 
 
 POND, John, F. R. S., an eminent English 
 astronomer, who for a period of 25 years 
 held the important office of astronomer- 
 royal, died at his house, in Greenwich, in 
 September, 1836 ; and his remains were in- 
 terred in the same tomb, at Lee, that for 93 
 years had given shelter to the ashes of his 
 celebrated predecessor. Dr. Edmund Halley. 
 
According to the testimony of Sir Ilumphry 
 Davy, " the enthusiasm with which he pur- 
 sued his favourite science, and the sacrifices 
 of time, health, and money that he made 
 in consequence, were great indeed. As a 
 practical astronomer, he had scarcely any 
 equal ; his talent for taking observations 
 was quite unique ; and to his zeal our na- 
 tional observatory is indebted for many of 
 the new instruments which have, confessedly, 
 rendered it so pre-eminent and complete. 
 
 PONIATOWSKI, Stanislaus Augustus, 
 the last king of Poland, was the son of a 
 private gentleman of Lithuania, and was 
 born in 1732. Having been fortunate enough 
 to please the grand duchess, afterwards Ca- 
 tharine II., he was elected king in 1764. At 
 the commencement of his reign he gave 
 many proofs of his moderation and love of 
 justice ; but his attempts to introduce some 
 modifications into the Polish constitution, 
 rallied a powerful party against him. The 
 Protestants, who were excluded from a place 
 in the diet and from the right of votes, claimed 
 the restoration of the treaty of Olivia, made 
 in 1660. The ministers of Russia, England, 
 and Prussia favoured their claim, and Sta- 
 nislaus was also inclined to grant their 
 request ; but the Catholic bishops protested 
 against the measure, as favouring the ene- 
 mies of the state. Russian troops soon after 
 appeared at the gates of Warsaw, when the 
 Catholics formed themselves into an army, 
 to wliich they gave the name of " confede- 
 rates." Pulaski, one of their chiefs, proposed 
 carrying ofiF the king ; for which purpose he, 
 with two other chiefs and 40 dragoons, dis- 
 guised as peasants, laid wait for him near 
 the town. When the royal carriage ap- 
 proached, they seized the king, and then 
 placed him on one of their horses. The 
 night was dark, but they forced the animals 
 forward until they were exhausted ; they 
 then walked, dragging Stanislaus with them, 
 but at dawn of day, finding they had missed 
 the way, and that tliey were only a short 
 distance from the city, all, except Kosinski, 
 fled. Struck with remorse, he implored the 
 king's pardon, which the monarch readily 
 granted, and, on his return to his palace, 
 settled a pension on the penitent chief. But 
 Stanislaus still continued to be afflicted by 
 the divisions of his people. In 1787 the 
 empress Catharine visited the Crimea, and 
 the king obtained from her a promise of 
 security for his kingdom ; the emperor Jo- 
 seph II. also made him a like solemn pro- 
 mise. Nevertheless, in 1792 the Russians 
 and the Prussians invaded Poland, and, in 
 defiance of tlie efforts of tlie brave Kosciusko, 
 divided the unhappy kingdom between them, 
 and Stanislaus was compelled to sign his 
 abdication. He then retired to St. Peters- 
 burgh, and lived as a private individual 
 until his death, in 1798. 
 
 PONIATOWSKI, Prince Joseph, an il- 
 lustrious Polish general, was the nepliew of 
 the preceding, and born at Warsaw, in 1763. 
 At the age of 16 he entered into the service 
 of Joseph II.' of Austria, but quitted it for 
 the purpose of aiding Ids country, the mo- 
 ment that he saw there were hopes enter- 
 tained of her throwing off a foreign yoke. 
 He served with courage against the Russians, 
 
 under Kosciusko, who gave him the com- 
 mand of a division, at the head of which he 
 distinguished himself at the two sieges of 
 Warsaw. After the surrender of the city, 
 he went to Vienna, and, rejecting the offers 
 of Catharine and Paul, lived in retirement, 
 on his return to Poland, at his estates near 
 Warsaw. The creation of the duchy of 
 Warsaw rekindled the hopes of the Polish 
 patriots, and Poniatowski accepted the place 
 of minister of war in the new state. In 1809 
 he commanded the Polish army against the 
 superior Austrian force, which was sent to 
 occupy the duchy ; compelled it to retire, 
 rather by skilful manceuvres than by force 
 of arms, and penetrated into Galicia. In 
 the war of 1812, against Russia, he was 
 again at the head of the Polish forces, and 
 distinguished himself in all the principal 
 affairs of this chequered campaign. After 
 the battle of Leipsic, during which Napoleon 
 created him marshal of France, he was or- 
 dered to cover tlie retreat of the French 
 army. The enemy were already in posses- 
 sion of the suburbs of Leipsic, and had 
 thrown liglit troops over the Elster, when 
 the prince arrived, with a few followers, at 
 the river, the bridge over which had been 
 blown up by the French. The brave Po- 
 lander, already wounded, plunged with his 
 horse into the stream, and was drowned, 
 Oct. 19. 1814. His body was found on the 
 24th, and, having been embalmed, was buried 
 at Warsaw, with all tlie honours of his 
 rank, by order of the emperor Alexander. 
 
 PONSONBY, Sir Fkederic Cavendish, 
 K.C. B., a distinguished cavalry officer and 
 major-general in the British army, was 
 the second son of the Earl of Besborough, 
 and born in 1783. He was appointed to a cor- 
 netcy in the 10th dragoons in 1800, and after 
 passing through the intermediate grades of 
 rank, obtained a majority in the 23rd light 
 dragoons in 1807. During the Peninsular 
 war this gallant soldier had frequent oppor- 
 tunities of distinguishing himself, and was 
 regarded as the beau ideal of a cavalry officer. 
 At Talavera, Barrosa, Vimiera, Salamanca, 
 and Vittoria, he performed some of the most 
 brilliant exploits recorded in that fierce and 
 enterprising era of the war ; and during the 
 whole of the retrograde movement of the 
 army from the Douro, a day seldom passed 
 without his being more or less engaged with 
 the enemy's advance. But we must omit 
 the details of his valuable operations in the 
 Peninsula, to describe the termination of his 
 splendid career on the field of Waterloo. 
 In the absence of his commanding officer, 
 General Vandeleur, who had a few minutes 
 before led forward the 16th light dragoons, 
 he observed a French column rapidly ad- 
 vancing into the small valley which lay 
 between the two armies. There was not a 
 moment to lose : Col. Ponsonby, calculating 
 the column at about 1000, exclaimed, " They 
 must not be allowed to come further," and 
 with his well-known " Come on, 12th ! " 
 dashed down the field, followed by his men. 
 At the very moment when they had driven 
 their opponents back into the enemy's lines, 
 and. the colonel was anxious to draw off his 
 comrades, who were now fighting at fearfUl 
 odds, he received a cut on his right arm. 
 
pon] 
 
 ^ ^ch) Bnihtr^nX 38t0flrapl)tn 
 
 [pop 
 
 which caused his sword to drop, and imme- 
 diately afterwards he received another on 
 his left, which he raised to protect hia head. 
 By the latter he lost the command of his 
 horse, which gallopped forward, and Col. 
 Ponsonby, unable to defend himself, received 
 a blow from a sword on his head, which 
 brought him senseless to the ground. There 
 he lay, exposed on the field, during the 
 whole of the ensuing night. After being 
 wantonly pierced through the back by a 
 lancer, plundered by a French tirailleur, 
 rode over by two squadrons of Prussian ca- 
 valry, and encumbered for some hours by a 
 dying soldier lying across his legs, he was at 
 length accosted by an English soldier, whom 
 he persuaded to stay by him until morning, 
 when a cart conveyed him to the village of 
 Waterloo. He had received seven wounds, 
 but by constant attention he at length re- 
 covered. Colonel Ponsonby was one of the 
 brightest ornaments of the army, and a uni- 
 versal favourite. To the most chivalrous 
 bravery he united military talents of no or- 
 dinary cast, which were guided by a remark- 
 able calmness of judgment and coolness of 
 decision. No lesson of experience was ever 
 lost upon him ; and his authority in matters 
 of his profession, particularly the cavalry 
 service, was regarded with general respect. 
 Ue died Jan. 11. 1837 ; being at the time a 
 major-general in the army, K. C. B., and 
 colonel of the royal dragoons, besides en- 
 joying the honour of four foreign orders of 
 knighthood. 
 
 PONTOPPIDAN, Eric, a Danish prelate, 
 distinguished as a theological and historical 
 writer, was born at Aarhuys, in 1698 ; be- 
 came bishop of Bergen in 1746 ; and died in 
 17(54. Ills principal works are, "Annals of 
 the Danish Church " and the "Natural Ilis- 
 tory of Norway." 
 
 POOL, Matthew, a Nonconformist mi- 
 nister, was born at York, in 1C24. He dis- 
 played so much zeal against popery, that, 
 according to the deposition of Titus Gates, 
 his name was among those intended to be 
 taken off in the popish plot. On this he 
 went to Amsterdam, where he died in 1679. 
 Besides "Sermons," he wrote "Annotations 
 on the Bible ; " but his greatest work was 
 the " Synopsis Criticorum," in 6 vols. 
 
 POPE, Alexander, a celebrated poet, 
 was born in 1688, in Lombard Street, Lon- 
 don, where his father had carried on an 
 extensive business as a linen-draper, and 
 amassed a considerable fortune. His parents 
 being of the Romish persuasion, he was 
 placed at 8 years of age under one Taverner, 
 a priest, who taught him the rudiments of 
 liatin and Greek. At the age of 12 he re- 
 tired with his parents to Binfield, in Wind- 
 sor Forest, where his father had purchased 
 a small estate. Here he wrote his " Ode on 
 Solitude," which appears as the first-fruits 
 of his poetic genius. It was here also that 
 he first met with the works of Waller, Spen- 
 ser, and Dryden ; but on perusing Dryden 
 he abandoned the rest, and studied him as 
 his model. At the age of 16 he wrote his 
 " Pastorals," which procured him the friend- 
 ship of the principal wits of the time. His 
 next performance was the " Essay on Criti- 
 cism," published in 1711. The " Messiah " 
 
 697 
 
 appeared first in the Spectator, and this was 
 followed by his " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day." 
 About this period also he produced the 
 " Rape of the l-ock," occasioned by Lord 
 Petre's cutting off a ringlet of Mrs. Arabella 
 Fermor's hair. He next brought out his 
 "Epistle from Eloisa to Abelard," "The 
 Temple of Fame," and " Windsor Forest." 
 Pope now undertook his translation of the 
 "Iliad," which he published by subscrip- 
 tion, and cleared by it above 5000/., part of 
 which he laid out in the purchase of a house 
 at Twickenham, whither he removed in 
 171.5. After completing the "Iliad," he 
 undertook the "Odyssey," for which also 
 he experienced a liberal subscription. He 
 was, however, materially assisted in these 
 works by the learning and abilities of others, 
 particularly Broome, Fenton, and Parnell. 
 The reputation he had acquired by the suc- 
 cess as well as the merit of his works, pro- 
 cured him numerous enemies among writers 
 of the minor class, from whom he expe- 
 rienced frequent splenetic attacks. Perhaps 
 it would have been more to his honour had 
 he taken no notice of them ; but in 1727 he 
 vented his resentment in a mock heroic, 
 entitled " The Dunciad," in which he took 
 more than warrantable revenge, and, what 
 was worse, exposed to ridicule many ingeni- 
 ous and respectable persons who had given 
 him no offence. In 1729, by the advice of 
 Lord Bolingbroke, he turned his pen to a 
 moral and philosophical subject ; the result 
 was his " Essay on Man," an ethical poem, 
 addressed to that statesman, which attracted 
 universal admiration. It was followed by 
 " Imitations of Horace," accompanied by a 
 "Prologue and Epilogue to the Satires," 
 and by " Moral Epistles," which exhibit 
 him as a satirist of the school of Boileau. 
 In 173", Pope printed his "Letters" by sub- 
 scription, for which he alleged as his excuse, 
 that some of his epistles had been surrep- 
 titiously published by Edmund Curll. In 
 1742, at the suggestion of Warburton, he 
 added a fourth book to his " Dunciad," in- 
 tended to ridicule useless and frivolous 
 studies, in which he attacked Colly Cibber, 
 then poet laureate. Cibber retaliated by a 
 pamphlet which told some ludicrous stories 
 of his antagonist, and so irritated the latter, 
 that, in a new edition of the " Dunciad," he 
 deposed Theobald, its original hero, and 
 promoted Cibber in his place, who, although 
 a great coxcomb, could scarcely be deemed 
 a dunce. An oppressive asthma began now 
 to indicate a commencing decline ; and 
 while he was engaged in preparing a com- 
 plete edition of his works, he expired. May 
 30. 1744, aged .56. 
 
 POPE, Sir Thomas, a statesman and a 
 patron of learning, was born at Dedington, 
 in Oxfordshire, in 1508 ; was educated at 
 Eton; and, after studying at Gray's Inn, 
 was called to the bar. He was knighted 
 in 1540, and held various important offices 
 under Henry VIII. and Mary. He was the 
 intimate friend of Sir Thomas More, to 
 whom, by order of the king, he communi- 
 cated the sad tidings of his intended exe- 
 cution. In 1554 he founded Trinity College, 
 Oxford : and died in 1558. 
 
 POPHAM, Sir Home Riogs, a naval com- 
 
pop] 
 
 ^ i^ebi Winibtr^Kl 33taflrajp]^g. 
 
 [POR 
 
 mander, was born in Ireland, in 17C2. lie 
 served as a lieutenant in the American war ; 
 and rose to tlie rank of post- captain soon 
 after the commencement of the war with 
 France, having rendered essential service 
 to the Duke of York in Holland. He was 
 next employed in the Baltic, and, in 1800, 
 appointed to a command in the East Indies. 
 In 1803 he entered the Red Sea, and settled 
 advantageous terms of commerce for the 
 Englisli merchants. He was afterwards 
 engaged in an expedition against Buenos 
 Ayres, for which, as he was charged with 
 acting without sufficient authority, he was 
 tried by a court-martial, and reprimanded. 
 He finally obtained the situation of com- 
 mander-in-chief on the Jamaica station ; 
 and had but just returned to England in 
 1820, when he died. 
 
 POPHAM, Sir Jojin, an eminent judge, 
 was born in Somersetshire, in 1531. After 
 serving the offices of attorney and solicitor- 
 general, he was appointed, in 1581, chief 
 justice of the king's bench. He died in 1G07. 
 Ilis " Reports and Cases," in folio, show his 
 abilities to great advantage. 
 
 PORDENONE, (so called from his birth- 
 place, his true name being Giovanni Antonio 
 Licinio,) a painter of the Venetian school, 
 ond rival of Titian, was bom in 1484, He 
 executed many great works for Mantua, 
 Genoa, and Venice ; and died at Ferrara, 
 in 1.540. 
 
 PORLIER, Juan Diaz, surnamed El 
 Marquesito, a Spanish patriot and general, 
 was born, about 1775. at Carthagena, in 
 South America, where his father held a high 
 public situation. He first entered the navy, 
 and served as a midshipman at the battle of 
 Trafalgar ; but when the cry of independence 
 spread through the Peninsula in 1808, he 
 raised a guerilla corps, of which he became 
 the leader, and distinguished himself in a 
 series of brilliant actions, and effected the 
 celebrated retreat from Santander, closely 
 pursued by a corps four times more nume- 
 rous than his own. The regency then ap- 
 pointed him captain-general of Asturias, 
 in which station he remained till the resto- 
 ration of Ferdinand VII. Having unsuc- 
 cessfully attempted to restore the constitu- 
 tion of the Cortes in 1815, he was delivered 
 over to the military authorities at Corunna, 
 condemned, and executed. 
 
 PORPHYRY, or PORPHYRIUS, a phi- 
 losopher, whose original name was ^Malclius, 
 was born at Tyre, in 233 ; studied under 
 Origen and Longinus ; afterwards became 
 a disciple of Plotinus, whose life he wrote ; 
 and died in 304. His works against the 
 Christians, to the number of 15, are all lost ; 
 but his " Life of Pythagoras," " A Treatise 
 on Abstinence and Animal Food," and 
 "Questions on Homer," are extant. 
 
 PORPORATE, CuARLES, a celebrated 
 Italian engraver, bom in 1741, died in 1816. 
 Among his chef-d'cetivres are the "Little 
 Girl and the Dog," " Leda at the Bath," 
 " Susannah," and " ODnone and Paris." He 
 was also a porirait-painter, and his por- 
 traits are admired for their colouring and 
 truth. 
 
 PORSON, Richard, an eminent critic, 
 and professor of Greek in the university of 
 
 Cambridge, was bom in 1759, at East Ruston, 
 in Norfolk, where he was first instmcted by 
 his father, who was the parish clerk, and 
 afterwards by Mr. Norris, the vicar. His 
 proficiency in the classics was so great, that 
 Mr. Norris sent him to Eton in 1774, and in 
 1777 he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where, in 1781, he was elected to a fellow- 
 ship. In 1785 he took his master's degree, 
 but having an objection to the church, he 
 was under the necessity of resigning his fel- 
 lowship, and, in 1793, was elected Greek pro- 
 fessor. In 1797 he published the " Hecuba" 
 of Euripides, which was followed by the 
 "Orestes," the " Phoenissae," and "Medea." 
 His last literary work was an edition of 
 "^schylus," 2 vols. He enjoyed the repu- 
 tation of being one of the best Greek scholars 
 and critics of the age in England, notwith- 
 standing which, he experienced little patron- 
 age — a circumstance partly attributable to 
 his intemperate habits. Towards the latter 
 part of his life, he was appointed librarian 
 to the London Institution, with a salary of 
 200?. a-year ; and it was there he died, in 
 1808. After his death were published his 
 "Adversaria, or Notes and Emendations of 
 the Greek Poets," and his " Tracts and Mis- 
 cellanies." 
 
 PORTA, Baccio della, a painter of 
 Florence, who belonged to the order of 
 Dominicans, and is sometimes called Fra 
 Bartolomeo, or II Frate. He was intimate 
 witli Raphael, and, it is said, the two artists 
 benefited by reciprocal instruction. Died, 
 1517. 
 
 PORTA, Giovanni Battista della, a 
 natural philosopher and mathematician, was 
 born at Naples, in 1540. He devoted a great 
 part of his life to the sciences, established 
 two academies for its promotion, and was 
 the inventor of the camera obscura. He 
 wrote treatises on natural history, optics, 
 hydraulics, physiognomy, and agriculture ; 
 and also produced nearly twenty dramatic 
 pieces. 
 
 PORTALIS, Jean Etienne Marie, a 
 French statesman, was born at Beausset, in 
 Provence, in 1746 ; and was at the com- 
 mencement of the revolution one of the 
 most distinguished advocates of the parlia- 
 ment of Aix. During the tyranny of Robes- 
 pierre he was imprisoned, but subsequently 
 became president of the Council of Ancients. 
 He was proscribed by the directory, in 1807, 
 for the moderation of his principles, and 
 fled to Holstein ; but when Buonaparte 
 became first consul, Portalis was recalled, 
 and nominated minister for religious affairs, 
 and grand cordon of the legion of honour. 
 Died, 1807. 
 
 PORTER, Sir Robert Ker, born at Dur- 
 ham, in 1780 — a gentleman alike distin- 
 guislied in the arts, in diplomacy, in war, 
 and in literature — was the son of a military 
 officer, and brother to the well known novel- 
 ists, Jane and Anna Maria Porter. Having 
 a taste for drawing, he became a student of 
 the Royal Academy, and soon showed his 
 skill by the production of several altar- 
 pieces, of considerable merit, besides his 
 large pictures of the " Storming of Seringa- 
 patam," the " Siege of Acre," and the 
 " Battle of Agincourt," which latter was 
 
pob] 
 
 ^ lictD dutberiSal 3Jtflsraqp!;n, 
 
 [POS 
 
 presented to the city of London. In 1804 he 
 was appointed historical painter to the em- 
 peror of Russia, and during his stay at St. 
 Petersburgh he gained the affections of the 
 Princess Mary, daughter of Prince Theodore 
 von Scherbatoff, to whom he was afterwards 
 married. Though he had cultivated his 
 talents as an artist, he had always shown a 
 decided preference for the military profes- 
 sion ; and on leaving Russia he accompanied 
 Sir Jolm Moore to Spain, in the hardships 
 and perils of which unfortunate expedition 
 he shared till its final embarkation at Co- 
 tunna. From 1817 to 1820, Sir Rol)crt was 
 engaged in travelling throughout the East. 
 In 1826 he was appointed consul at Vene- 
 zuela, in South America, where he continued 
 to reside till 1841, wlien he left his mission 
 on leave of absence, and visited his old 
 friends in Russia, with an intention of pro- 
 ceeding thence to England ; but as he was 
 on the eve of preparing for the voyage, he 
 was seized witli an apoplectic attack, and 
 expired. May 3. 1842. His works consist of 
 "Travelling Sketclies in Russia and Swe- 
 den," 2 vols. 4to., " Letters from Portugal 
 and Spain," " A Narrative of the late Cam- 
 paign in Russia," "Travels in Georgia^- 
 Fersia, Armenia," &c. 
 
 PORTER, Anxa Maria, younger sister 
 of Miss Jane Porter, the authoress of " Thad- 
 deus of Warsaw," &c., and of Sir R. K. Por- 
 ter, was the daughter of an officer in the 
 army, who died a few months after her birth. 
 With her orphan family, Mrs. Porter retired 
 to Edinburgh, where Anna Maria's early 
 talents, cherished by an enthusiastic love 
 for the beautiful in nature and the pure in 
 morals, quickly developed themselves. After 
 a time they settled in the neighbourhood 
 of London ; the sisters distinguishing them- 
 selves in the literary world, while their pri- 
 vate lives were models for imitation. Several 
 admirable novels were produced by Miss 
 A. M. Porter, besides poems, in all of which 
 the inculcation of virtuous and heroic sen- 
 timents is steadily kept in view. Among 
 her novels may be mentioned, " The Hun- 
 garian Brothers," " Don Sebastian," " Tales 
 round a Winter's Hearth," " The Recluse of 
 Norway," "The Knight of St. John," "The 
 Barony," &c. Died, 18.32. 
 
 PORTER, Jane, sister of the preceding, 
 and of Anna Maria Porter, who has also ob- 
 tained a niche in our Biographical treasury, 
 was born at Durham, 177(5. Like her sister, 
 she soon gave indications of superior abilities; 
 and though she did not appear before the 
 world as an author till she was in her 27th 
 year, her first work, " Thaddeus of Warsaw," 
 published in 1803, at once placed her in the 
 foremost rank as a writer of fiction. In 
 1809 appeared her " Scottish Chiefs," which 
 was no less successful than its predecessor ; 
 and this was followed, at intervals more or 
 less distant, by the " Pastor's Fireside," 
 "Duke Christian of Luneburg," "Tales 
 round a Winter's Hearth," (in which she 
 was joined by her sister,) " The Field of 
 Forty Footsteps," &e. She also contributed 
 largely to the periodicals of the day ; and 
 her last separate publication was "Sir Sea- 
 ward's Diary," the forerunner of a class of 
 works lately become numerous, and of which 
 
 COD 
 
 perhaps the best specimen is the well-known 
 " Diary of Lady Willoughby." In 1842 she 
 accompanied her brother. Sir R. K. Porter, to 
 Petersburgh ; and after his death she resided 
 chiefly at Bristol, where it is said she was 
 chiefly engaged in writing her brother's 
 memoirs. Died, May 24th, 1850. 
 
 PORTEUS, Bejlbv, an eminent English 
 prelate, was born at York, in 1731, and en- 
 tered as a sizar at Christ's College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he obtained a fellowship. He 
 was, successively, chaplain to Archbishop 
 Seeker, rector of Hunton, prebendary of 
 Peterborough, rector of Lambeth, king's 
 chaplain, and master of St. Cross Hospital, 
 near Winchester. In 1776 he was raised to 
 the see of Chester, at the express instance of 
 queen Charlotte ; and in 1787 he was trans- 
 lated to the bishopric of London, over which 
 diocese he continued to preside till his death 
 in 1808. Bisliop Porteus was a man of deep 
 erudition and considerable ability. Among 
 his works are, a " Life of Archbishop 
 Seeker," " Sermons," and a Seatonian prize 
 poem on " Death." It is said that he also 
 assisted Hannah More in the composition of 
 her religious novel, " Coelebs in Search of a 
 Wife." 
 
 POSSEVIN, Anthony, a learned Jesuit, 
 was born at Mantua, in 1534. Pope Gregory 
 XIII. employed him in several embassies ; 
 but having given offence to the court of 
 Spain, he was banished to the city of Rome, 
 and died at Ferrara, in 1611. 
 
 POSSIDONIUS, a celebrated architect, 
 who lived in the 4th century, B.C., was a 
 native of Rhodes, and was engineer to Alex- 
 ander the Great, whom he accompanied in 
 his various expeditions. Among other in- 
 ventions, he contrived a moving and revolv- 
 ing tower, to facilitate the work of sieges. 
 
 POSTEL, William, one of the most 
 learned men of his age, and one of the 
 wildest visionaries, was born in Normandy, 
 in 1510. In his youth he supported himself 
 at the college of St. Barbe, by waiting upon 
 the other students. His reputation for ge- 
 neral learning and antiquarian research in- 
 duced Francis I. to send him to the east to 
 collect manuscripts, which commission he 
 discharged so well as to be appointed pro- 
 fessor of mathematics and languages, but he 
 afterwards fell into disgrace, and lost his ap- 
 pointments. Having wandered about from 
 place to place, he was recalled ; but lost his 
 situation again, and died in a monastery in 
 1581. Among the wild and extravagant 
 notions that he entertained, one was, that he 
 had died, and risen again with the soul of 
 Adam; whence he called himself" Postellus 
 restitutu?;" he also maintained, that women 
 shall have the dominion over men ; and that 
 his writings were revealed to him by JesuB 
 Christ. 
 
 POSTIIUMUS, Marcus Cas.sianus La- 
 TiNiLS, a Roman emperor, one of the thirty 
 tyrants, was of obscure family, but rose in 
 the army till he obtained the chief command 
 in Gaul. He assumed the imperial title in 
 257, ruled Gaul and part of Spain, waged a 
 successful war against the Germans, and 
 was at length put to death by his own 
 soldiers in 2<i7. 
 
 POSTLETHWAYTE, Malacui, a Lon- 
 
pot] 
 
 ^ i^cto ^nifaersaX JSiosvapTju. 
 
 [pot 
 
 don merchant and a commercial writer ; 
 born, about 1707 ; died, 1707. He was a 
 fellow of the Antiquarian Society, and the 
 author of " The Dictionary of Trade and 
 Commerce," " Great Britain's true System," 
 '* The Merchant's Public Counting-House," 
 "Britain's Commercial Interest," &c. 
 
 POTEMKIN, GuEGORY Alexandro- 
 viTSCn, a Kussian prince and field-marshal, 
 was born In 1730, near Smolensko. lie dis- 
 tinguished himself against the Turks, par- 
 ticularly in the war of 1787, when he com- 
 manded in chief. He had acquired an 
 unbounded influeme over Catharine II., and 
 was accordingly regarded as one of her 
 especial favourites. His introduction to the 
 empress and subsequent elevation are de- 
 scribed as follows: — After Catharine had 
 taken the sceptre from her weak husband, 
 she paraded the streets of St. Petersburgh, 
 sword in hand. Young Potemkin, then 26 
 years of age, of a manly appearance, well- 
 made and handsome, seeing that the sword 
 which the empress used had not the dragon, 
 a mark of distinction attached to the swords 
 of the northern commanders, instantly un- 
 buckled his, and presented it with a grace 
 that was highly pleasing to Catharine, and 
 from that day his promotion went rapidly 
 forward. Though Orloff had enjoyed tlie 
 title of favourite, it soon became known that 
 he had a rival, and one that had the vanity to 
 
 boast of the favours he received Orloff had 
 
 then recourse to jntrigue ; he availed himself 
 of the absence of Potemkin, whom his royal 
 mistress had honoured with a high com- 
 mission in her army against the Turks, to 
 introduce a youth to the notice of the cm- 
 press, who was devoted to his service ; so 
 that, at Potemkin's return, though he came 
 charged with victory, he found he had been 
 robbed of his dearest treasure, and he in- 
 stantly retired to a convent of monks at 
 Newsky, and exchanged his military deco- 
 rations for the coarse habit and tlie cowl. 
 The empress sent her lady of honour, the 
 Countess de Bruce, to bring her a true report 
 of Potemkin's situation, and having heard 
 of his violent passion and the sacrifice he 
 had made, she sent for him : he returned to 
 the court, and soon reigned the master of the 
 state, and even of the proud Catharine her- 
 self. Died, 1791. 
 
 POTENGER, or POTTINGER, Johx, a 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 
 1647, at Winchester, and educated at Wyke- 
 ham's School, of which his father was head- 
 master. Besides a variety of minor pieces, 
 he composed "A Pastoral Reflection on 
 Death," and translated Tacitus's " Life of 
 Agricola." He studied at Oxford and the 
 Temple, was called to the bar, became 
 comptroller of the pipe-oflice, and died in 
 1733. 
 
 POTHIER, Robert Joseph, an eminent 
 French lawyer, was born at Orleans, in 
 1669. He became professor of law in the 
 university of his native city, and died there 
 in 1772, as much beloved for his virtues as 
 admired for his extensive learning. His 
 treatises on various legal subjects form 17 
 octavo vols., but his great work is a " Digest 
 of the Pandects of Justinian," in 3 vols. fol. 
 
 FOTOCKI, Count Ignatius, a Polish 
 
 nobleman, bom in 1741. He interested him- 
 self greatly in the attempts to free his 
 country from the yoke of her more power- 
 ful neighbours : and after the overthrow of 
 Kosciusko, with whom he co-operated, he 
 was arrested and sent a prisoner to Russia. 
 Before the destruction of the Polish mon- 
 archy he was grand-marshal of Lithuania. 
 Died. 1809. 
 
 POTOCKI, Count John, born in 1769 ; a 
 noble Polonese historian, brother of the 
 several Couats Potocki, most of whom were 
 attached to Russia. He was one of the am- 
 bassadors to China, in 1803 ; was author of 
 a work on that country, " Sarmatian Re- 
 searches," " History of the Primitive Rus- 
 sians," &c. Died, 1815. 
 
 POTOCKI, Count Stai^islaits, a Polish 
 statesman and writer, born in 1757, at War- 
 saw. He was one of those who contributed ' 
 most actively to establish the constitution of j 
 1791, was president of the senate in 1818, { 
 and died in 1821. Among his works are a 1 
 " Treatise on Eloquence and Style" and ! 
 "The Journey to Ciemnogrod," a satirical | 
 romance. | 
 
 POTOCKI, Claudia, the wife of Count 
 Bernard Potocki, was born in the grand 
 duchy of Posen, in 1802. She was the lineal 
 descendant of the Polish ambassador, Dzia- 
 lynski, who was sent to England in Eliza- 
 beth's reign, to remonstrate against the in- 
 fraction of a treaty between this country 
 and Poland, and whose bold and successful 
 eloquence is recorded in history. During 
 the patriotic struggle for Polisli freedom, 
 from 1830 to 1833, the Countess Potocki not 
 only became the munificent benefactress of 
 her countrymen, but devoted her personal 
 energies to the sacred cause, and alleviated by 
 her kind attentions to the sick and wounded, 
 much of the misery that the unequal contest 
 entailed on the gallant spirits who strove to 
 shake off the oppressor's yoke. Surrounded 
 by wounded warriors and the victims of 
 cholera in the hospitals of Warsaw, neither 
 the sight of hideous gashes, nor the fear of 
 contagion, deterred her from her course of 
 charity : there, for seven successive montlis, 
 she was constantly occupied ; and when the 
 day of adversity came, the remains of her 
 fortune, her influence, her personal exer- 
 tions, were entirely at the disposal of the 
 unfortunate refugees. At one time, while 
 residing at Dresden, where she had formed 
 a ladies' committee for the relief of these 
 brave men, she pledged her jewels and most 
 expensive dresses, for 40,000 florins, and the 
 whole amount was instantly sent to its pious 
 destination. For this the Poles assembled 
 at Dresden presented to her a bracelet, with 
 an inscription commemorative of the noble 
 act, and pointing it out for national grati- 
 tude. She at length fixed her residence at 
 Geneva ; and there, in the exercise of those 
 Christian virtues, which will immortalise 
 her name, but worn out by silent grief, she 
 died in 1836. 
 
 POTT, Percival, an eminent surgeon, 
 to whom the science is materially indebted 
 for many improvements, was born in Lon- 
 don, in 1713 ; and became principal surgeon 
 to Bartholomew's Hospital in 1749. He 
 wrote " On Hernia," " Ou Fistula Lachry- 
 
pot] 
 
 ^ ^tby mnlhei-^hX SStograjpl^p. 
 
 [pow 
 
 mails," " On Hydrocele," " On Cataract," 
 " On Wounds of the Head," &c. ; was es- 
 pecially celebrated for the mildness and 
 humanity of liis treatment, and was the in- 
 ventor of many useful surgical instruments. 
 Died, 1788. 
 
 POTTER, Francis, an ingenious divine, 
 who wrote a curious book on tlie mystic 
 number of titid in tlie Revelations. Ue was 
 also an able mathematician, and invented 
 several hydraulic maclunes, for which he 
 was elected a member of the Royal Society. 
 Died, 1(J78. 
 
 POTTER, Jou^f, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was born in l<)74, at Wakefield, in 
 Yorkshire, in the grammar school of which 
 town he received the rudiments of a classical 
 education, lie then became a member of 
 University College, Oxford ; and, in 1(3'J7, 
 printed his " Archaiologia Groica, or the An- 
 tiquities of Greece," in 2 vols. 8vo., which 
 has gone through many editions, and is 
 almost indispensable to the classical student. 
 He was appointed archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and died in 1747. His theological works, 
 including liis " Discourse on Church Go- 
 vernment," were collected and published in 
 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 POTTER, Paul, a celebrated Dutch 
 painter, was born at Enkhuysen, in 1G2.5 ; 
 settled at the Hague ; and painted cattle and 
 landscapes, but was particularly successful 
 in the former, the latter being designed 
 merely to afford an opportunity for exhibit- 
 ing animals in different attitudes and cir- 
 cumstances. His colouring is uncommonly 
 brilliant, and for tidelity to nature he is un- 
 excelled ; his pictures are consequently held 
 ill the highest estimation. Died, 1C54. 
 
 POTTER, RoBEKT, an English divine 
 and admirable classical scholar. He held 
 the livings of Lowestofft and Kessiiigland, 
 with a prebend in the cathedral of Norwich; 
 and is advantageously known in the republic 
 of letters by his excellent translations of 
 Sophocles, Euripides, and iEschylus. He also 
 wrote several ingenious poems, an " Answer 
 to Dr. Johnson's Lives of the Poets," " A 
 Translation of the Oracle concerning Baby- 
 lon," &c. Born, 1721 ; died, 1804. 
 
 POULLE, Louis, preacher to the French 
 king, and abbot of Nogent, died at Avignon 
 in 1781, aged 79. His abilities as a preacher 
 were very great, and his sermons, published 
 in 1778, 2 vols. 12mo., possess a commanding 
 eloquence, enriched with vivid imagery, and 
 replete with noble sentiments. 
 
 POUPART, Fkancis, a French physician 
 and anatomist, was bom at Mans, in 1660 ; 
 studied at the Hotel Dieu ; and was admit- 
 ted into the academy of sciences. His name 
 is given to an important ligature ; and 
 many of his papers, chiefly on entomology, 
 are in the memoirs of the Academy. Died, 
 1709. 
 
 POURCIIOT, Edmund, a learned Orien- 
 talist, and professor of philosophy in the 
 college of the Four Nations at Paris, was 
 born at Poilly, in 1651. He was seven times 
 chosen rector of the college, of whicli he 
 was also syndic forty years. Died, 1734. 
 
 POUSCHKINE, Alexander, a distin- 
 guished Russian poet, was born at St. Peters- 
 burgh, 1799. Having at an early age ia- 
 
 (01 
 
 curred tlie displeasure of the government for 
 the liberality of his opinions, he was removed 
 to a distant province of the empire, where he 
 discharged various offices ; but he was re- 
 stored to favour on the accession of the 
 emperor Nicholas in 1825, and appointed im- 
 perial historiographer. His works, which 
 consist of odes, poetical romances, and dra- 
 matic pieces, are chiefly descriptive of the 
 national character and manners. The most 
 popular are his romantic poem, "Roustan 
 and Ludmila," published in 1820 ; " Tsigani " 
 (the Bohemians), published in 1827 ; " One- 
 ghine," an unfinished poem in the manner 
 of Byron's Don Juan ; and his tragedy, 
 "Boris Godunow," published in 1831. He 
 fell by the hand of his own brother-in-law in 
 a duel, 1837. 
 
 POUSSIN, Nicholas, one of the most 
 eminent of the French painters, was born in 
 1594, at Andelys, in Normandy. Having 
 practised the art under diflerent masters at 
 Paris, he went to Rome, and studied the 
 works of Raphael, Domenichino, and Ti- 
 tian, with great attention ; but his taste for 
 the antique prevailed, which is observable 
 in all his works. Louis XIII. invited him 
 to France in 1630 ; and gave him a pension, 
 with apartments in the Louvre ; but Foussin 
 was so annoyed by the envy and intrigue of 
 contemporary artists, that he returned to 
 Rome, and remained there during the rest 
 of his life. He chiefly excelled in land- 
 scapes, but all his works are valuable, and 
 highly esteemed. Died, 1665. 
 
 POUSSIN, Gaspae, an eminent painter, 
 whose proper name was Dugiiet, was born 
 at Rome, in 1613. His sister married Ni- 
 cholas Poussin, which circumstance led him 
 to study painting under that great master, 
 whose name he adopted. He particularly 
 excelled in the representation of laud- 
 storms, in which every tree seems agitated, 
 and every leaf in motion. Died, 1675. 
 
 POWELL, David, a learned antiquary, 
 was born in Denbighshire, about 1552, and 
 died in 1590. 
 
 POWEI-L, Sir John, bart., an eminent 
 and honest lawyer, was born of a very 
 ancient and wealthy family at Pentrymey- 
 rick, in the parish of Llanwrda, Carmar- 
 thenshire. He was a judge in the Court of 
 King's Bench, in 1688, and distinguished 
 himself so much by his integrity and ability 
 on the trial of the seven bishops, that James 
 the Second deprived him of his oflJce, but he 
 was restored to it at the revolution, and sat 
 there until his death in 1696. In Heber's 
 life of Jeremy Taylor it is stated that he 
 was a pupil of that distinguished man, and 
 was offered the great seal of England if he 
 would have decided against the bishops. 
 When every effort to influence him against 
 the bishops had failed, the court, it is said, 
 made the same attempt upon his eldest son 
 Thomas, who for many years represented 
 the county of Carmarthen in parliament, 
 which reaching the judge's ears, he sent for 
 him, and told him that if he accepted of any 
 place, or the promise of any place under go- 
 vernment, he should consider it as intended 
 to bias his judgment, and would disinherit 
 him ; and, as to himself, he would rather 
 live upon his cockle-bank at Langharne, 
 
pow] 
 
 ^ 0t^ Hiubcr^al 28t0gTap^«. 
 
 [POZ 
 
 than do any thing so repugnant to liis con- 
 science. 
 
 POWELL, George, was an actor and 
 dramatic writer, contemporary with Bet- 
 terton and Colley Gibber, and is spoken of 
 by the critics of the day with commendation. 
 Died, 1714. 
 
 POWELL, William, an eminent English 
 actor, the pupil and protege of Garriek, 
 made his first appearance at Drury Lane in 
 1763, and in 17C7 became one of the mana- 
 gers of Covent Garden Theatre. Died, 1769. 
 
 POWNALL, Thomas, a learned anti- 
 quary and politician, was born at Lincoln, 
 in 1722. He held several situations under 
 government ; and having greatly exerted 
 himself in America to suppress the rising 
 spirit of discontent among the colonists, he 
 was, in IT-'iJ, appointed governor of Massa- 
 chusett's Bay, and subsequently of Carolina. 
 On returning to England in 1761, lie was 
 made director-general of the control office, 
 with the military rank of colonel ; but the 
 latter part of liis life was spent at Bath, in 
 literary retirement. His principal works 
 are, " On the Administration of the Colo- 
 nies," "Description of part of North Ame- 
 rica," " Treatise on the Study of Antiqui- 
 ties," " On the Antiquities of the Provincia 
 Romana of Gaul," " Descriptions of Roman 
 Antiquities dug up at Bath," " Intellectual 
 Physics," besides many political tracts. 
 Died, 180,5. 
 
 POZZETT, PoMriLio, a learned Floren- 
 tine, born in 1769, died in 1816. He was 
 curator of the library at Modena, and mem- 
 ber of the Bolognese Institute. He was 
 author of " Elogio di Ridolfiuo Venuti," 
 " "Vita del Fabroni," &c. 
 
 POZZO DI BORGO, Charles Andreas, 
 Count, an eminent diplomatist, was born in 
 the island of Corsica, in 1768, and belonged 
 to an ancient and honourable family, which 
 for ages had ranked high among the Cor- 
 sican nobility. AVhen the island was placed 
 under the supremacy of Great Britain, Poz.zo 
 di Borgo was elected president of the state 
 council, and the entire administration of the 
 country was re-organised by him. It soon, 
 however, became evident that Corsica must 
 j'ield to France ; the count therefore sought 
 refuge first at Naples and Elba, and after- 
 wards in England, where he was received 
 with every mark of respect due to his high 
 abilities and firm fidelity. He was sub- 
 sequently employed in some secret diplo- 
 matic missions, in the execution of which he 
 displayed the greatest zeal and ability ; but 
 his labours were ultimately defeated by the 
 successes of Buonaparte. After the peace 
 of Amiens, Pozzo di Borgo entered into the 
 diplomatic service of Russia, and represented 
 his royal master at Vienna, whither he was 
 sent in order to consolidate a new coalition 
 against France. Thence he repaired to 
 Italy, where the combined military opera- 
 tions of England, Russia, and Naples were 
 about to commence. After the battle of 
 Austerlitz, and the secession of Austria from 
 the league, he again went to Vienna, and 
 thence to Petersburg]!. When Prussia joined 
 the coalition, Pozzo di Borgo was created a 
 count, and attached to the statf of the em- 
 peror as a colonel ; but after the battle of 
 
 702 
 
 Jena he was again employed at the Austrian 
 court in tlie vain attempt to rouse it from 
 its political lethargy. His next mission 
 was to the Dardanelles, for the purpose of 
 oo-operating with the British ambassador in 
 treating with Turkey ; and in the engage- 
 ment between the Russian and Turkish fleets 
 he greatly distinguished himself. When 
 the hollow peace of Tilsit brought about a 
 kind of intimacy between Napoleon and the 
 young czar, Pozzo di Borgo saw the impend- 
 ing danger, and requested permission to re- 
 tire. " My presence," said he to the emperor, 
 " can only tend to injure your majesty's 
 service. Buonaparte is not the man to forget 
 early antipathies, and sooner or later he i 
 will seize some opportunity to demand pos- ! 
 session of my person." '• Free your arms," | 
 was his parting advice, " from your present 
 entanglement, that you may be at liberty 
 for your final, and, I trust, successful struggle 
 with France." He then retired to Vienna ; 
 and from that time, till after the treaty of 
 peace had been signed between Austria and 
 France, this able statesman so energetically 
 employed his diplomatic skill, that Napo- 
 leon did actually demand that his perse- 
 vering enemy should be delivered up to 
 him ; but the demand was refused, and in 
 the following j'ear (1810) Pozzo once more 
 came to England. His thorough experience 
 was here appreciated and understood, and 
 to him may much of that energy which sub- 
 sequently appeared in the councils of Britain 
 be traced. He knew the most vulnerable 
 part in Napoleon's overgrown power, and to 
 that he directed the particular attention of 
 the Marquis of W^ellesley. In 1812 the war 
 between France and Russia broke out anew 
 with exterminating fury ; and when the 
 mighty army of the French emperor perished 
 on the whitened plains of Russia, Alexander 
 thought that enough of victory had been 
 achieved. Not so, however, thought the 
 great diplomatist : he felt convinced that 
 the safety of Europe was only to be found in 
 the complete destruction of the fallen co- 
 lossus, and he exerted all his energies to the 
 accomplishment of an event so desirable. 
 At length Sweden and Austria appeared in 
 arms, Pozzo was made a general in the 
 Russian service, and joined Bemadotte, who 
 was then covering Berlin. The defence of 
 Dresden and the battle of Leipsic soon fol- 
 lowed ; the allied forces moved slowly and 
 warily towards France ; while the moral, 
 physical, and political condition of that 
 country was still considered before thej' 
 hazarded the decisive blow. In January, 
 1814, Pozzo di Borgo was despatched to Lon- 
 don on the part of the allied monarchs ; his 
 mission succeeded; and Lord Castlereagh re- 
 turned with him to the liead-quarters of the 
 allies at Baden. Tlie moderation and irre- 
 solution of the emperor Alexander often put 
 the plans of his minister in extreme peril ; 
 but his advice eventually prevailed ; the 
 allied armies marched en masse on Paris ; 
 the abdication of the French emperor fol- 
 lowed ; and when Pozzo di Borgo had at 
 length obtained the promise of Alexander, 
 that no negotiation should be entered into ] 
 either with Napoleon or his family, he 
 hastened to Talleyrand, exclaiming in the 
 
pra] 
 
 ^ ^c&) WiniiiCviKX 28i0iirap]^i). 
 
 [pre 
 
 fulness of his joy, *' Not only have I slain 
 Napoleon politically, but I have just thrown 
 the last shovel-full of earth over the im- 
 perial corse I " But his labours were not 
 yet at an end. He proceeded to London to 
 announce to Louis his accession to the 
 throne of his ancestors ; after wliich he was 
 summoned to the congress of Vienna, where, 
 with a degree of prescience resulting from 
 his thorough knowledge of the man, he vehe- 
 mently pressed the removal of Napoleon 
 from Elba to some more remote and obscure 
 corner of the glol>e. And when the news 
 arrived that the ex-emperor had disem- 
 barked on the French coast, he coolly ob- 
 served to the assembled statesmen, " I know 
 Buonaparte ; he will marcli on Paris ; our 
 work is before us ; not a moment must be 
 lost." Pozzo di Borgo immediately joined 
 the Anglo- Prussian armv, forming the van- 
 guard of the allies in Belgium ; and, though 
 wounded, he followed Wellington to Paris, 
 and resumed his portfolio as Russian am- 
 bassador. His last political mission was as 
 ambassador to England. Here he remained 
 upwards of two years, till ill health induced 
 him to return to Paris, where he died on the 
 17th of February, 1842, aged 73. 
 
 PRADT, Abbe Dominique de, a French 
 ecclesiastic and a political writer, was born 
 at Auvergne, in 1759. He was grand vicar 
 at the revolution to the Cardinal Roche- 
 foucauld, and was elected deputy for the 
 N(Jrman clergy to the states-general in 1789. 
 He opposed the union of his order to tlie 
 tiers etat, protested against the new order 
 of things, and was consequently obliged to 
 emigrate, establishing himself for a con- 
 siderable time at Hamburgh. In that city 
 he published, in 1788, the first of his vo- 
 luminous series of political pamphlets, called 
 " Antidote to the Congress of Radstadt." 
 In another, termed " Prussia and her Neu- 
 trality," he urged a coalition of Europe 
 against the French republic. But after the 
 revolution, which made Buonaparte first 
 consul, he made interest with his patron, 
 Duroc, to enter Buonaparte's service, and, 
 by dint of well-timed flattery, became his 
 grand almoner. On the coronation of tlie 
 emperor, in 1801, at wliich he assisted, he 
 was invested with the title of baron, re- 
 ceived a gratuity of 40,000 francs, was made 
 bishop of Poitiers, and was ordained by 
 Pius VII. in person, in 1805. He afterwards 
 officiated at Napoleon's coronation as king 
 of Italy. In 1808 he accompanied him to 
 the Bayonne conference, and was invested 
 with the most delicate details of that great 
 diplomatic difficulty. For this service. Na- 
 poleon gave him another gratuity of 50,000 
 francs, and made him, in 1809, archbishop of 
 Malincs, and member of tlie legion of honour. 
 On the war against Russia occurring in 1812, 
 he was sent ambassador to the duchy of 
 Warsaw, as he states, in his " History of the 
 Polish Embassy," painfully and violently 
 against his wish. During the retreat from 
 Moscow, Napoleon had an interview with 
 him at a lone cottage, reproached him with 
 treachery, and divested him of his embassy. 
 On his return to Paris, he found all his ern- 
 ployments taken from him. He was ordered 
 to quit Paris for his diocese, and did not re- 
 
 turn till the fall of Napoleon, and the entry of 
 the Bourbons into France, in 1814. He wrote 
 his "Vindicatory History" then, but did 
 not publish it till after the battle of Water- 
 loo and Napoleon's departure for St. Helena. 
 Tlie attack in this pamphlet on the latter 
 and the chief Buonapartists, drew on him 
 the enmity of the great majority of the 
 public, but served his cause with the restored 
 regime. He stated, in a preceding pamphlet, 
 that it was by his advice the allied sovereigns 
 resolved to break entirely with Napoleon, 
 and restore the Bourbons. He was made by i 
 the latter chancellor of the legion of honour ; i 
 but a new disgrace overtook him ; he retired \ 
 from the scene, and did not re-appear till 1 
 after the " hundred days." He subsequently j 
 ceded all the rights of his archbisliop's see to | 
 the king of the Netherlands, for a yearly j 
 pension of 10,000 francs, and, retiring into 
 private life, occupied himself with the con- 
 tinued publication of political pamphlets. I 
 In all these latter publications, however, he j 
 espoused the cause of wise and temperate 
 constitutional reform. He died in 1837. 
 
 PRATT.Lieut.-gen.SirCiiAKLKS, K.C.B., I 
 a gallant and distinguished officer, who j 
 served throughout the Peninsular war, and | 
 was present at the battles of Salamanca, 
 Vittoria, Nivelles, Orthes, and Toulouse. 
 Born, 1771 j died, 1839. 
 
 PRATT, Samuel Jackso.v, a novelist, 
 poet, and miscellaneous writer, was born at 
 St. Ives, in Huntingdonshire, in 1749. Early 
 in life he went on the stage, but relinquished 
 that pursuit, and subsequently became an 
 itinerant lecturer, a bookseller, and, lastly, 
 an author by profession. He settled at 
 Bath, where, under the fictitious appellation 
 of Courtney Melmoth, he published several 
 novels and poems. The principal of his 
 poems were, " The Tears of Genius, on the 
 Death of Goldsmith," "Sympathy," and 
 " Landscapes in Verse." His best novels 
 were, " I^iberal Opinions," 5 vols.; "Emma 
 Corbett," 3 vols.; "The Pupils of Pleasure," 
 2 vols.; and " Family Secrets," 5 vols. Be- 
 sides these works, he published " Gleanings 
 through Wales, Holland, and AVestphalia," 
 " Gleanings in England," 3 vols.; " Harvest 
 Home," " The Fair Circassian," a tragedy ; 
 and some others. He died in 1814. 
 
 PRAXITELES, one of the greatest sculp- 
 tors of Greece, united grandeur with grace, 
 and flovirished about 800 B.C. He worked 
 both in bronze and marble, and Pliny has 
 preserved a list of his principal statues. The 
 group of Niobe, still in existence, has been 
 attributed to him. 
 
 PREMONTVAL, Andre Pieure le 
 GuAY DE, a French mathematician, bom at 
 Charenton, in 1716 ; died, 17C7. He wrote 
 " Preservatifs contre la Corruption de la 
 Langue Franc^oise en AUemagne," "La Mo- 
 nogamie, ou I'Unite en Marriage," 3 vols. &c. 
 
 PRESTON, THOMA.S, a dramatic writer, 
 was fellow of King's College, Cambridge, 
 afterwards doctor of the civil law, and 
 master of Trinity Hall, where he died, in 
 iodH. He acted a part in tlie tragedy of 
 Dido, played before Queen Elizabeth, who 
 settled a pension of 20Z. a-year on him. He 
 wrote a tragedy, called " The Life of Cam- 
 byses, King of Persia," which is mere fus- 
 
pre] 
 
 ^ i^m mniUv^aX 3Bifl3rajpT)i). 
 
 [piii 
 
 tian, and has not escaped the ridicule of 
 Shakspeare, who, in Henry IV., makes 
 FalstafF talk of speaking in "king Cam- 
 byses' vein." 
 
 PREVOST, Isaac Be.vedict, an eminent 
 naturalist, was born at Geneva, in 1755. 
 Physics and natural history were the prin- 
 cipal objects of his researches j and in 1810 
 he became professor of philosophy in the 
 Protestant university of Montauban, where 
 he died, in 1S19. 
 
 PREVOST, Peter, a French painter, 
 said to have been the inventor of panoramas, 
 was born at Montigni, in 17(34. Among the 
 panoramas which he painted, were those of 
 Paris, Rome, Naples, Amsterdam, Antwerp, 
 London, Jerusalem, and Athens. The two 
 last were the fruits of a visit to Greece and 
 Asia in 1817 ; and he was engaged in paint- 
 ing a view of Constantinople, when he died, 
 in 1823. 
 
 PREVOT D'EXILES, Anthony Fkax- 
 cis, one of the most fertile of French writers, 
 was born in 1697, at Ilesdin, in Artois. His 
 early life was extremely unsettled and 
 changeful ; he was alternately a Jesuit and 
 a military officer ; after which he entered 
 into the monastery of St. Germain dc Pres ; 
 but quitted that society also, and withdrew 
 to Holland. His next removal was to Lon- 
 don ; but in 17;{4 he obtained leave to return 
 to France, where he became secretary to the 
 Prince de Conti. His end was equally sin- 
 gular. In 1763 he was seized with apoplexy 
 in the forest of Chan til ly, and was found 
 apparently lifeless. An ignorant magistrate 
 being called in, ordered a surgeon, as preci- 
 pitate as himself, to open the body, when a 
 loud shriek from the victim convinced the 
 spectators of tlieir error : the abbe opened 
 his eyes, but the incision was mortal, and he 
 almost immediately expired. His works 
 amount to one hundred and seventy volumes. 
 The principal are, " M(5moires d'un Homme 
 dc Qualito," G vols. ; " Histoire de M. Cleve- 
 land, Fils naturel de Cromwell," 6 vols.; 
 " Pour et Centre," a literary journal, 20 
 vols.; "The Dean of Coteraine," a novel, 6 
 vols.; "History of Margaret of Anjou," 2 
 vols.; "Histoire geuerale des Voyages," 
 16 vols. 
 
 PRICE, Sir John, an eminent antiquary, 
 of Brecknockshire, who wrote a " Defence 
 of British History in Answer to Polydore 
 Virgil." He died about 1553. 
 
 PRICE, JouN, a learned critic, was born 
 at liOndon, in 1600. Having suffered con- 
 siderably in the civil wars, he went to Flo- 
 rence, where he espoused the Roman Catholic 
 faith ; and the grand duke appointed him 
 keeper of the medals and Greek professor. 
 He afterwards removed to Rome, where he 
 died in 1676. He wrote Commentaries on 
 the Psalms, the Gospel of St. Matthew, and 
 the Acts ; Notes upon Apuleius, &c. 
 
 PRICE, Dr. Richard, an eminent dissent- 
 ing minister, universally known and cele- 
 brated for his great abilities in arithmetical 
 calculations, and for very numerous and 
 valuable writings, theological, moral, and 
 scientific. He was born at Llangunnor, in 
 Glamorganshire, in 1723, and was educated 
 at Talgarth, in his native county, whence he 
 removed to a Presbyterian academy in Lon- 
 
 don, and became pastor of a Nonconformist 
 congregation, of Arian or semi-Arian prin- 
 ciples, at Hackney, where he continued as 
 long as he lived. He was the friend of man, 
 and the most intrepid asserter of his rights. 
 During the American war, he printed two 
 pamphlets against that measure, one entitled 
 " Observations on Civil Liberty," and the 
 otlier, " Observations on Civil Government," 
 for which the corporation of London voted 
 him thanks and a gold box, and the Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow conferred on him the 
 degree of D.D. In 1778 he had a friendly con- 
 troversy with Dr. Priestley, on materialism 
 and necessity. On the termination of the 
 war, Mr. Pitt consulted Dr. Price respecting 
 the best mode of liquidating the national 
 debt, the result of which, it is said, was the 
 adoption of the sinking fund. When the 
 French revolution broke out, the doctor dis- 
 tinguished himself by a sermon, "On the 
 Love of Country," in which he hailed that 
 event as the commencement of a glorious era. 
 This drew upon the preacher some strong 
 animadversions from Mr. Burke in his cele- 
 brated Reflections. Besides many papers in 
 the Transactions of the Royal Society, of 
 which he was a fellow, he published sermons 
 and pamphlets, which established his cha- 
 racter as a sound advocate for civil liberty, 
 and a profound master of financial calcula- 
 tion. Died, 1791. 
 
 PRICHARD, Jajies Cowi,ks,M.D., whose 
 ethnographical researches have placed him 
 high in the ranks of science, was bom at 
 Ross, in Herefordshire, 1786 ; settled as a 
 physician at Bristol, in 1810, where he rose 
 to eminence ; and after devoting five and 
 thirty years to professional duties, varied 
 only hy literary avocations, removed to 
 London in 1845 as one of her majesty's com- 
 missioners in lunacy — a branch of medical 
 science with which he had long been fa- 
 miliar. Dr. Prichard's contributions to me- 
 dical and scientific inquiry were neither few 
 nor unimportant ; but the work on which 
 his reputation chiefly rests, is his " Re- 
 searches into the Physical History of Man- 
 kind," which has been translated into almost 
 every European language, and generally 
 regarded as an authority. Died, 1848. 
 
 PRICHARD, Rees, a divine, was born in 
 Caermarthenshire, and educated at St. John's 
 College, Oxford. He became vicar of Lian- 
 ydmodyfri, and rector of Llamedy, in his 
 native county, prebendary of Brecon, and 
 chancellor of St. David's. He was the autiior 
 of some religious poems in the Welsh lan- 
 guage, wluch still continue popular. Died, 
 1644. 
 
 PRIDEAUX, HuMPHHY, a learned di- 
 vine, was bom in 1648, at Padstow in Corn- 
 wall ; was educated at Westminster School, 
 and at Christchurch College, Oxford ; became 
 dean of Norwich ; and died in 1724. He 
 wrote a "Life of Mahomet," " The Original 
 Right of Tithes," &c. ; but his great work is 
 " The Connection of the History of the Old 
 and New Testament.'' 
 
 PRIESTLEY, Joseph, an eminent dis- 
 senting divine and experimental philoso- 
 pher, was born in 1733, at Fieldhead, in 
 Yorkshire, and educated at Daventry. He 
 became minister to the congregation at 
 
PBl] 
 
 ^ ^clB Sliufaerjial ^Stograplji). 
 
 [PRI 
 
 Needham Market, in Suffolk ; whence he 
 removed to Namptwich, in Clieshire, and 
 next to Warrington, where the dissenters 
 had formed a seminary. While tutor in this 
 institution, he published tlie " History of 
 Electricity," which procured his election into 
 the Royal Society, and the degree of doctor 
 of laws from Edinburgh. It was here also 
 that his political opinions were first mani- 
 fested in an " Essay on Government." Soon 
 after this he left Warrington, and went to 
 Leeds, where he made those important dis- 
 coveries with regard to the properties of fixed 
 air, for which lie obtained tlie Copley medal 
 from the Royal Society in 1772. In 177ti he 
 communicated to the same learned body his 
 observations on respiration, being the first 
 who experimentally ascertained that tlie 
 common inspired air becomes both lessened 
 and injured, by the action of tlie blood, as it 
 passes through the lungs. He had already 
 declared himself a believer in the doctrine 
 of philosophical necessity, and expressed 
 some doubts of the immateriality of the sen- 
 tient principle in man. This doctrine he 
 still more forcibly supported in his " Disqui- 
 sitions on Matter and Spirit," and the ob- 
 loquy which these works brought on him 
 producing a coolness in his patron. Lord 
 Shelburne, the connection was dissolved, the 
 doctor retaining an annuity of 150?. per 
 annum, by original agreement. He next re- 
 moved to Birmingham, where he became 
 once more minister of a dissenting congrega- 
 tion, and occupied himself in his "History 
 of the Corruptions of Christianity," writing, 
 also, in support of the claims of tlie dis- 
 senters for a repeal of the test acts. But it 
 was the French revolution that afforded hira 
 the widest field, and he did not fail to 
 display his zeal on that occasion. This ex- 
 cited the indignation of the higli cliurch 
 party ; and in the riots which took place in 
 July, liis house, library, manuscripts, and 
 apparatus were committed to the flumes by 
 the mob, and he was exposed to great per- 
 sonal danger. After this he removed to 
 Hackney, where he succeeded Dr. Price ; 
 but in 1794 he went to tlie United States of 
 America, took up his abode at Northumber- 
 land, in Pennsylvania, and died there in 
 1804. His works extend to between 70 and 
 80 volumes. Besides tliose before mentioned 
 are, " Lectures on General History," on the 
 t' Theory and History of Language," and 
 on the " Principles of Oratory and Criti- 
 cism," " Hartleian Theory of the Human 
 Mind," " Letters to a Philosophical Unbe- 
 liever," "Institutes of a Natural and Re- 
 vealed Religion," &c. As a philosopher, 
 I his fame principally rests on his pneumatic 
 I inquiries. 
 
 PRINCE, John, a divine and antiquary, 
 
 was born at Axminster, in Devonshire, and 
 
 I died about 1720. He published a work, en- 
 
 I tilled " The Worthies of Devon," which is 
 
 exceedingly curious and valuable, but very 
 
 I scarce. 
 
 I PRINGLE. Sir Joii.v, an eminent phy- 
 ' sician and natural philosopher, was born in 
 1707, in Roxburghshire ; was educated at 
 ; St. Andrew's and Edinburgh, and afterwards 
 ! studied at Leyden, under Boerhave and Van 
 Swieten. After settling at Edinburgh, where 
 
 he became professor of pneumatics and 
 moral philosophy, he was appointed phy- 
 sician-general to the forces abroad, and was 
 generally on the continent till the peace of 
 Aix-ltt-Chapelle ; afier which he took up 
 his residence in London, and engaged iu 
 medical practice. In 17.50 he communicated 
 to the Royal Society, of which he was a 
 member, his " Experiments on Septic and 
 Antiseptic Substances," for which he received i 
 the Copley medal. In 1752 lie published his I 
 admirable " Observations on the Diseases of | 
 tlie Army," and in ]7til he was appointed 
 physician to the queen's household. In 1736 
 he was created a baronet, and, in 1772, was 
 elected president of the Royal Society, which 
 office he resigned, in consequence of ill health, 
 in 1778 ; and died in 1782. 
 
 PRINGLE, Thomas, a highly esteemed 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was bom at 
 Blaiklaw, in Teviotd*le, 1789. Soon after 
 Ills studies at the university of Edinburgh 
 were completed, he obtained a clerkship in 
 the register oflice ; but his poetic aspirations 
 found vent even in tlie dull routine of such 
 an occupation, and in 1816 his " Scenes of 
 Teviotdale," which he contributed to the 
 " Poetic Mirror," having attracted the notice 
 of Sir W. (then Mr.) Scott, lie was led to em- 
 brace literature as a profession. He was for 
 a short period editor of Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine in 1817, but a difference of politics be- 
 tween him and the publisher soon led to his 
 resignation. After some abortive attempts to 
 establish a newspaper in Edinburgh, he was 
 enabled, through Sir Walter Scott's influence, 
 to emigrate to the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 he settled, and for some years throve under 
 the governor's protection ; but his prospects 
 there were suddenly mined, in consequence 
 of liis determination to publish a liberal 
 journal, against the wish of the authorities ; 
 and he then returned to England in 1826, 
 when he became secretary of the Anti- 
 slavery Society ; a situation which he held 
 till the object of that body was accomplished. 
 Besides being the editor of the well-known 
 annual, " Friendship's Offering," he pub- 
 lished in 1828 liis " Ephemerides," a collection 
 of songs, sonnets, and other juvenile pieces ; 
 and in 1834 appeared his " African Sketches," 
 which, togetlier with his interesting account 
 of a " Narrative of a Residence in South 
 Africa," seem likely to perpetuate his fame. 
 Died, 1834. 
 
 PRIOR, Matthew, an English poet, was 
 bom in 1664. He lost his father at an early 
 age, and was brought up by his uncle, a 
 tavern-keeper at Charing Cross, who sent 
 him to Westminster School ; but, after some 
 time, took him home to assist in the business. 
 Here his classical knowledge becoming 
 known to the Earl of Dorset, he sent liim to 
 St. John's College, Cambridge, where he ob- 
 tained a fellowship. In 16f<H, Prior wrote, 
 in conjunction with Charles Montagu, after- 
 wards earl of Halifax, the burlesque poem 
 of " The City Mouse and Country Mouse." 
 In 1691 he was appointed secretary to the 
 English embassy at the Hague, and, soon 
 after, king William made him one of his 
 gentlemen of the bed-chamber. In 1697 he 
 was secretary to the embassy at the treaty 
 of Ryswick, and the following year he went 
 
in the same capacity to France. At length 
 he was made under-secretary of state, and 
 in 1701 he succeeded Locke as a commissioner 
 at the board of trade. After the accession 
 of queen Anne he joined the Tories, by 
 whom he was employed to negotiate the 
 treaty of Utrecht, and was sent ambassador 
 to the French court ; from whence, at the 
 commencement of the next reign, he was 
 recalled, committed to custody, and threat- 
 ened witli an impeachment, which, however, 
 did not take place. Being without any pro- 
 vision for his declining years except his 
 fellowsliip, he again applied himself to 
 poetry ; and having finished his " Solomon," 
 he published his poems by subscription. 
 The publication, being liberally encouraged 
 by party zeal, produced a considerable sum, 
 which was doubled by the Earl of Oxford, at 
 whose seat the author died, after a lingering 
 illness, in 1721, and was interred in West- 
 minster Abbey. His poems are light and 
 harmonious, and the ease and vivacity with 
 which he tells a story, constitutes the great 
 charm of his poetry. Formerly his merit 
 was overrated ; at present bare justice is 
 scarcely done to his genius. 
 
 PRISCIAN, a celebrated grammarian of 
 Caesarca, in the 5th century, whose strict 
 attention to correctness in composition has 
 made it proverbial to say of one who writes 
 false Latin, that he breaks Priscian's head. 
 He was the master of a school at Constan- 
 tinople, and was tlie author of several gram- 
 matical works. 
 
 PRISCILUAN, a heretic of the 4th cen- 
 tury, was a native of Spain, where his 
 opinions were condemned in 380, by a 
 council held at Saragossa. Priscillian was 
 ordained bisliop of Avila by his own party ; 
 but put to death, with some of his adherents, 
 in 387. He is said to have united in his 
 system the errors of the Gnostics, the Mani- 
 cheans, the Arians, and the Sabellians ; and 
 the Priscillianists are charged with infamous 
 practices, resulting from these opinions. 
 
 PRITCHARD, Hannah, a celebrated 
 English actress, born in 1711. She per- 
 formed at Drury Lane, and was almost with- 
 out a rival among her contemporaries in the 
 personification of tragic characters. Died, 
 1768. 
 
 PROBUS, Makcus Aueelius Valerius, 
 a Roman emperor, was born at Sirmium in 
 Pannonia, obtained several victories over 
 the barbarians, reigned with honour to him- 
 self, but was at length slain by his mutinous 
 troops, in 282. 
 
 PROCACCINI, Camillo, an eminent 
 painter, born at Bologna, in 1546. He studied 
 the works of Parmegiano and Michael An- 
 gelo, and obtained a high reputation for 
 the beauty of his colouring and the lightness 
 
 of his touch. Died, 1626 His brother, 
 
 GiULio Cesake, born in 1548, adopted the 
 style of Correggio, and surpassed all his other 
 
 imitators. Died, 1626 Carlo Antonio, 
 
 another brother, excelled as a fruit and 
 flower painter. 
 
 PROCLD A, John of, a native of Palermo, 
 
 was born of a noble family, about 1225. He 
 
 was tlic cliief of the conspiracy against 
 
 Cliarles of Anjou ; and his efforts to accom- 
 
 j plish the expulsion of the French displayed 
 
 talents of a high order, and were finally 
 crowned with success. Died, 1303. 
 
 PROCLUS, a Platonic philosopher, was 
 born in 410, at Constantinople. He studied 
 at Alexandria, and next at Athens, where 
 he succeeded Syriacus in the Platonic school, 
 and died in 485. Several of his works are 
 extant. 
 
 PROCLUS, St., patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, was the disciple of Chrysostom. He 
 died in 447. 
 
 PROCOPE COUTEAU, a physician and 
 man of letters, was born at Paris, in 1684. 
 He was the author of several professional 
 tracts, remarkable for their satirical humour ; 
 he was also the author of the comedies of 
 "Arlequin Balourd " and "Pygmalion," 
 besides several comic dramas, &c. Died, 
 1753. 
 
 PROCOPITJS, a Greek historian, was pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at CsBsarea, and attended 
 Belisarius as his secretary. He wrote a 
 " History of the Wars of the Persians, the 
 Gauls, and the Goths," also a " Secret History, 
 or Anecdotes," a " History of his Times," and 
 a treatise on public buildings. Died, about i 
 660. 
 
 PROCOPIUS, of Gaza, a Greek sophist, i 
 who lived about a.d. 560. i 
 
 PRODICUS, a celebrated sophist and ' 
 rhetorician of the isle of Cos, flourished j 
 about 396 B. c. lie had Socrates for one ' 
 of his disciples ; and was put to death at 
 an advanced age, on a charge of corrupting 
 youth. I 
 
 PRONAPIDES, a Greek poet, wlio, ac- i 
 cording to Diodorus Siculus, was the master 
 of Homer. j 
 
 PRONY, Gaspard-Clair-Francois-Ma- ! 
 RiE-RiCHE DE, baron de Prony, a distin- 
 guished French mathematician. He was ! 
 the pupil, and subsequently the assistant, 
 of Perronet, and was much employed by j 
 Napoleon, though the latter was deeply } 
 offended by Prony's refusal to accompany 
 him to Egypt. Independent of his various : 
 missions as an engineer, and of his labours i 
 as a professor at the Polytechnic School, M. ; 
 Prony was author of between thirty and 
 forty volumes, chiefly of most laborious and : 
 extensive calculations. One work, forming 
 17 volumes in folio, was executed in obedi- ' 
 ence to an order of the French government I 
 for '* tables which should be as exact as pos- ' 
 sible, and, at the same time, the greatest and 
 most imposing monument of calculation that 
 had ever been executed, or even thought of." 
 It is supposed that the French government 
 will one day give to the world this truly ex- i 
 traordinary work, which at present is in MS. ' 
 in the library of the observatory at Paris. ; 
 Born, 1755; died, 1839. I 
 
 PROPERTIUS, Sextus Aurelius, a 
 Latin poet, was bom at Mevania, B.C. 52, : 
 and died about a. d. 12. Nothing more of 
 his life is known than that, after the end i 
 of the civil war, he found a patron at Rome ; 
 in Mecasnas, through whom he obtained the ! 
 favour of the emperor. He appears to have 
 been the bosom friend of 0\nd, and was also 
 on terms of intimacy with Virgil and other . 
 eminent contemporaries. I 
 
 PROSPER, St., was born in Aquitaine, at 
 the beginning of the 5th century. He opposed j 
 
pro] 
 
 ^ ^cfco mnibtv^nl 28t05Tap]b2' 
 
 [PSA 
 
 the Pelagians with considerable ability, and 
 died about 403. 
 
 PROTAGORAS, a Greek sopliist, bom at 
 Abdera, B.C. 488, was originally a porter, but 
 by hearing Democritus, lie attained such 
 eminence, as to become a teacher at Athens ; 
 from which city he was banished on the 
 charge of atheism. He then went to Epirus, 
 where he resided several years ; and died on 
 his voyage to Sicily, 
 
 PROTOGENES. an eminent Grecian 
 painter, who flourished about 336 B.C., was a 
 native of Cannus, in Caria, a city subject to 
 Rhodes. A considerable part of his life was 
 passed in obscurity, but he was at length 
 brought into notice by Apelles giving a large 
 price for one of his pictures. On the siege of 
 Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. Protogenes 
 is said to have continued tranquilly working 
 at his house in the suburbs ; and being asked 
 by Demetrius wliy he ventured to remain 
 without the walls of the city, he answered, 
 that he well knew that the king was at 
 war with the Rhodians, but not witli the 
 arts ; with which answer Demetrius was so 
 pleased, that he gave him a guard for liis 
 protection. 
 
 PROYART, LiEVAiiV Bonavkntuke, a 
 French historical writer, bom in the province 
 of Artois, in 1743. lie adopted the ecclesias- 
 tical profession, and, devoting his time to 
 public instruction, he was employed to or- 
 ganise the college of Puy, wliich, under his 
 direction, became one of the most flourishing 
 schools in the kingdom. Being a canon in the 
 cathedral of Arras, he was at the commence- 
 ment of the revolution deprived of his pre- 
 ferment, and obliged to emigrate to the 
 Netherlands. He returned to France on the 
 conclusion of the concordat ; but on publish- 
 ing his work, entitled "Louis XVI. et ses 
 Vertus aux Prises avec la Perversito de son 
 Si&cle," 5 vols., he was arrested and confined 
 in the BicGtre, which he did not long sur- 
 vive. His works are numerous, and form 
 17 vols. 
 
 PRUDHOMME, L., editor of Le Journal 
 des Revolutions de Paris, was born at 
 Lyons, in 1752, where he was brought up to 
 the business of a bookseller. In 1788 he fixed 
 his residence in Paris, and became a zealous 
 promoter of the new principles. In 1789 he 
 established the above journal, which had for 
 its motto, " The great seem to us to be great, 
 only because we are on our knees : let us 
 rise !" Although he constantly assailed the 
 government in this publication, as well as in 
 the countless pamphlets which were issued 
 by him, he opposed the tyranny of Robes- 
 pierre, and was in consequence arrested as a 
 royalist ; but having speedily obtained hia 
 liberty, he quitted Paris, and was absent till 
 the death of that inexorable dictator. Among 
 his numerous works is a " General History 
 of the Crimes committed during the Revolu- 
 tion." 6 vols. Died, 1830. 
 
 PRUDHON, PiEKKE Paul, a French 
 painter, born in 1760, at Cluny, where he was 
 educated by tlie monks of the celebrated 
 abbey of that place. After having studied at 
 Rome, he settled at Paris, and finally gained 
 celebrity by his famous allegorical picture, 
 " Crime pursued by Divine Justice." Died, 
 1823. 
 
 PRYNNE, William, a learned lawyer, 
 political writer, and antiquary, was born in 
 1609, at Swanswick, in Somersetshire ; was 
 educated at Bath grammar school, and Oriel 
 College, Oxford ; and, removing tol^incoln's 
 Inn to study the law, became barrister, 
 bencher, and reader of that society. His 
 attendance upon the lectures of Dr. Preston, 
 a distinguished puritan, strongly attached 
 him to that sect, and he began to write as 
 early as 1627, attacking the drinking of 
 healths, love-locks, popery, and Arminian- 
 ism, which he deemed the enormities of the 
 age. In 1632 he publislied his work against 
 theatrical exhibitions, entitled "Histrio-Mas • 
 tix ;" and having therein libelled the queen, 
 he was the subject of a star-chamber prose- 
 cution, and condemned to pay a fine of 5000/., 
 to be expelled the university of Oxford and 
 I-incoln's Inn, to be degraded from his pro- 
 fession of the law, to stand twice in the 
 pillory, losing an ear each time, and to re- 
 main a prisoner for life. Prynne continued 
 writing against prelacy in prison ; until, 
 for a virulent piece, entitled "News from 
 Ipswich," he was again sentenced by the 
 star-chamber to a fine of .lOOOi., to lose the 
 remainder of his ears in the pillory, and to 
 be branded on each cheek with the letters 
 S. L. (seditious libeller). This sentence was 
 also executed, and he was removed for im- 
 prisonment to Caernarvon castle, and after- 
 wards to the island of Jersey. In 1640 he 
 obtained his liberty, was elected member for 
 Newport, and bore a prominent part in the 
 trial of Laud, his former persecutor. After 
 the overthrow of Charles, however, Prynne 
 endeavoured to eflFect on accommodation be- 
 tween him and his subjects ; and he opposed 
 Cromwell with such boldness, that the Pro- 
 tector imprisoned him. He joined in the 
 restoration of Charles II. ; was appointed 
 chief keeper of the records in the Tower, and 
 died in 1669. He wrote a prodigious number 
 of books, chiefly on politics and religion ; 
 also the " History of Archbishop Laud," and 
 the " Lives of Kings John, Henry III., and 
 Edward I." 
 
 PSALMANAZAR, George, a literary 
 impostor, was born in France, in 1679, and 
 received an excellent education. He com- 
 menced his career by leading a wandering 
 life, and assumed the habit of a pilgrim ; 
 but this not answering his purpose, he pre- 
 tended to be a native of Formosa ; and to 
 keep up the delusion, he invented a new 
 alphabet, and a grammar of the Formosan 
 tongue. At this time he became acquainted 
 with a clergyman named Innes, who, con- 
 ceiving he could turn the impostor to good 
 account, persuaded the pretended Formosan 
 to suflFer jilmself to be converted to tlie 
 church of England ; and the clergyman and 
 his new disciple went to London, where tlie 
 latter was presented to Bishop Compton and 
 others, and tlie former was rewarded for his 
 zeal with church preferment. Psalmanazar 
 had the effrontery to translate the Church 
 Catecliism, into his newly invented For- 
 mosan language ; and he published a " His- 
 tory of Formosa," which was considered as 
 authentic by many eminent men ; nor was 
 the cheat discovered till after he had been 
 sent to Oxford. After this he gained a sub- 
 
TTO] 
 
 % |5eto 2aiu&rriSal ^toflrapi^w* 
 
 [PUL 
 
 I sistence by writing for the booksellers, and 
 
 I became remarkable in hia latter years for 
 
 his sincere and unaffected piety. A large 
 
 I portion of the ancient part of the " Universal 
 
 i History" was written by him, and he left 
 
 I behind him his own "Memoirs." Died, 
 
 17f53. 
 
 PTOLEMY, Claudius, a geographer and 
 
 I astronomer of antiquity, was bom, as is sup- 
 
 I posed, at Pelusium, in Egypt, about a. d. 70. 
 
 j He resided at Alexandria, where he had an 
 
 I observatory ; but it is evident from his cos- 
 
 I mography that he was also a voyager, and 
 
 had visited many of the countries which 
 
 1 he has described. He corrected Hipparchus's 
 
 ! catalogue of fixed stars, and formed tables of 
 
 j the planetary motions. The scattered obser- 
 
 ! vations of tlie ancients were first collected by 
 
 j him, and reduced to a system, known under 
 
 j the name of the Ptolemaic, whicli makes the 
 
 earth the centre of tlie solar system. 
 
 PUBLIUS S YRIITS, a comic poet of Syria, 
 who flourished at Rome about 50 years before 
 the Christian era. 
 
 PUFFENDORF, Samuel, Baron Von, an 
 eminent German civilian and historian, born 
 near Cliemnitz, in Saxony, in 1631. He was 
 successively in the service of the Elector- 
 palatine, Charles XI. of Sweden, and the 
 Elector of Brandenburg. Very numerous 
 are the works of this learned and excellent 
 man ; but the most important, and what will 
 immortalise his name, is his treatise " De 
 Jure Naturae et Gentium." It is indeed a 
 body of the law of nature and nations well 
 digested, and, as some think, preferable to 
 Grotius's book, De Jure Belli et Pacis, since 
 the same subjects are treated in a more ex- 
 tensive manner and with greater order. His 
 other principal works are, " The Elements 
 of Jurisprudence," " The State of the Ger- 
 man Empire," "An Introduction to tlie 
 Study of Europe," the " Life of Gustavus of 
 Sweden," the " Life of Frederic III., of 
 Brandenburg," &c. He died at Berlin, in 
 1694. 
 
 PUGATSCHEFF, Jemeljax, or Yem- 
 elka, the leader of a predatory band in 
 Russia and a daring impostor, was a Don 
 Cossack, and born in 1726. After serving in 
 the Prussian and Austrian armies, he re- 
 turned to his own country ; and being 
 possessed of a striking personal resemblance 
 to the lately deceased emperor, Peter III., 
 he was in 1773 encouraged to pass himself 
 for that monarch. At first he had but few 
 followers, but they increased to tlie number 
 of 16,000 men. He several times defeated the 
 troops of tlie empress ; captured Kasan, the 
 old capital of the empire ; and continued his 
 ravages for nearly two years. At length, 
 just as Moscow was threatened, he was be- 
 trayed by some of his party, and executed, 
 together with the other rebel leaders, at Mos- 
 cow, in 1775. 
 
 PUGET, Peter, a celebrated French 
 sculptor, painter, and architect, was born in 
 1622, at Marseilles ; resided for a considerable 
 time at Genoa, but was recalled to France 
 by Colbert ; and died there, in 1691. Many 
 of his finest productions are at Genoa ; but 
 his colossal group of Milo, and his Andro- 
 meda, are at Versailles. 
 PUGHE, Dr. William Owen, a celebrated 
 
 Welsh lexicographer and author, whose life 
 was devoted to the literature of his native 
 country, died at the foot of Cader Idris (the 
 mountain near which he was born), in June 
 1835, aged 75. 
 
 PUISAYE, Count Joseph, an able royalist 
 chief, was descended from an ancient and j 
 noble family, and born at Montagne, about ! 
 1754. He was intended for the church, but | 
 preferred the military profession, and ob- ! 
 tained the brevet of colonel in the royal j 
 Swiss corps. He sat in the constituent as- j 
 sembly, and regularly voted with the par- i 
 tisans of political regeneration. In 1793, j 
 forces having been collected in the northern ] 
 departments to oppose the Jacobins, he was 
 appointed to act as second in command 
 under General Wimpfen, and was con- 
 sequently proscribed by the convention. He 
 took refuge in Brittany, where he organised 
 a formidable body of Chouans. He visited 
 England in 1794, obtained a considerable 
 succour, was invested with unlimited powers 
 by the Count d'Artois ; and, on his return to 
 France, every preparation was made by the 
 Bretons to join the English and emigrant 
 troops as soon as they should appear on the 
 French coasts. But his hopes were blasted by 
 envious intriguers of his own party ; the 
 expedition was diverted to La Vendee, and 
 the unfortunate disaster at Quiberon followed. 
 He at length resigned his commission and 
 went to Canada ; but he subsequently came 
 to England, where he resided till his death, 
 in 1827. 
 
 PULCI, Luioi, an Italian poet, was bom 
 at Florence, in 1431. His principal per- 
 formance, entitled " Morgante Maggiore," is 
 a poetical romance, and was printed at 
 Venice, in 1488 ; and a spirited translation 
 of it, by Lord Byron, was given in the 
 Liberal. Pulci also wrote sonnets, pub- 
 lished with those of Matteo Franco, in which 
 the two authors satirised each other for their 
 
 amusement His brothers, Bernardo and 
 
 LucA, were also poets. The former published 
 a translation of the eclogues of Virgil, and a 
 poem on the passion of Christ ; the latter was 
 the author of " Giostra di Lorenzo de Medici," 
 and an epic romance, called " II Ciriffo Cal- 
 vaneo." 
 
 PIJLTENEY, William, earl of Bath, the 
 political antagonist of Sir Robert Walpole, 
 was born in 1682, and educated at West- 
 minster School and Christchurch, Oxford. 
 After travelling through Europe, he was 
 elected into parliament, and became distin- 
 guished as a zealous Whig. On the acces- 
 sion of George I. he was appointed a privy 
 councillor and secretary at war ; but a 
 dispute with Sir Robert Walpole caused his 
 removal to the ranks of the opposition. He 
 joined Bolingbroke in conducting a paper, 
 called the Craftsman, the object of which 
 was to annoy the minister. This produced 
 a duel between Pulteney and Lord Hervey ; 
 and the king was so much displeased with 
 the conduct of the former, that he struck his 
 name out of the list of privy councillors, 
 and also from the commission of the peace. 
 On the resignation of Walpole, in 1741, Pul- 
 teney was created earl of Bath ; but from 
 that time his popularity and influence ceased. 
 Died, 1764. 
 
pul] 
 
 ^ ^etD HntbcrM ^iasrtip})^}. 
 
 [PTR 
 
 PULTENEY, Richard, a physician and 
 botanist, was born at Louglvborough, in 1730. 
 He first practised as a surgeon at I^eicester ; 
 but in 17G4 he took the degree of M. D. at 
 the university of Edinburgh, and settled at 
 Blandford, in Dorsetshire, lie was the au- 
 thor of "Historical and Biographical Sketches 
 of the Progress of Botany in England," be- 
 sides several professional treatises, and a 
 variety of papers in the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, &c. Died, 1801. 
 
 PUKCELL, Hknkv, a celebrated musical 
 composer, was born in 1G58 ; and being ad- 
 mitted as a chorister in the king's chapel, 
 was brought up under Dr. Blow, organist of 
 Westminster Abbey, and afterwards of the 
 chapel royal; and, from this period, his fame 
 seems to have increased rapidly, his anthems 
 and church music in general being popular 
 in all tlie cathedrals of the kingdom ; nor 
 were his compositions for the stage and 
 music-room less successful. Among his 
 works are many excellent anthems, sonatas, 
 catches, rounds, glees, &c. ; the opera of. 
 " Diocletian," and " Orpheus Britanuicus." 
 
 PURCHAS, Samuel, a divine, was bom 
 in 1577, at Thaxted, in Essex ; and died in 
 1028, rector of St. Martin's, Ludgate. His 
 principal work is the well known "Collec- 
 tion of "Voyages," in 5 vols., and his " Pil- 
 grimages, or Relations of the World." 
 
 PURVER, Anthony, a self-instructed 
 man, of humble birth, was bom at Up 
 Ilurstboume, in Ilampshire, in 1702, and 
 was apprenticed to a shoemaker. Being 
 afterwards employed in keeping sheep, he 
 found leisure for study ; and his curiosity 
 being excited by tlie perusal of a tract in 
 which some inaccuracies in the authorised 
 version of the Bible were pointed out, he 
 resolved to make himself acquainted with 
 the Scriptures in their original tongues. 
 Accordingly, with some assistance from a 
 Jew, he acquired a knowledge of the He- 
 brew, then applied to the Greek, and next 
 studied Latin. On settling at Andover as 
 a schoolmaster, he undertook the extraor- 
 dinary labour of translating the Bible into 
 English ; which work he actually accom- 
 plished, and it was printed at the expense of 
 Dr. Fothergill, in 2 vols, folio. Died, 1777. 
 
 PUTTENllAM, George, an English wri- 
 ter, who lived in the court of Edward VI., 
 and became one of the gentlemen pen- 
 sioners to Queen Elizabeth. He died about 
 1600. His works are "Elpine," "Parthe- 
 niades," and " The Art of Poesie." 
 
 PUY, Louis du, a learned writer, was 
 born at Bugey, in 1709. He was editor of 
 the Journal des Savans, 30 years secretary 
 to the Academy of Inscriptions, and librarian 
 to the Prince de Soubise. lie translated 
 Sophocles into French, and wrote a work 
 on geometry. 
 
 PUY, PiEitRE DU, an antiquary and his- 
 torian, was the son of Claude du Puy, an 
 advocate of some eminence, and born at 
 Agen, in 1582. He was related to DeThou, 
 whose great work he edited, in conjunction 
 with Rigault. Du Puy was appointed 
 counsellor and librarian to the king, who 
 employed him to defend his rights over the 
 bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. He 
 was the author of a variety of valuable 
 
 works connected with politics, ecclesiastical 
 affairs, and national history ; and died in 
 1651. 
 
 PUY-SEGUR, James de Ciiastenbt, 
 Lord of, a French officer, was born in Ar- 
 magnac, in 1600. He rose to the rank of 
 lieutenant-general ; but though he served in 
 40 campaigns, was present at 120 sieges, and 
 in more than 30 battles, he never received a 
 wound. On retiring from the service, he 
 wrote his own " Memoirs," and died in 1682. 
 His son, born in 1655, was aUo an excel- 
 lent officer, and became a marshal of France. 
 Died, 1743. 
 
 PYE, Henry James, poet laureate, was 
 descended from an ancient Berkshire family, 
 and born in London, in 1745. He was edu- 
 cated at Magdalen College, Oxford ; was for 
 some time an officer in the Berkshire militia, 
 and ruined his fortune by the expenses of a 
 contested election as a candidate for the re- 
 presentation of the county. In 1790 he was 
 appointed poet laureate ; and, in 1792, one of 
 the police magistrates- His principal works 
 are, " Alfred," an epic poem ; " The Progress 
 of Refinement," "The Democrat," "The 
 Aristocrat;" translations from Aristotle, 
 Pindar, and Homer ; a collection of poems, 
 2 vols.; and " Comments on the Commenta- 
 tors on Shakspeare." Died, 1813. 
 
 PYLE, Thomas, an English divine, was 
 bom at Stodey, in Norfolk, in 1674, and was 
 educated at Caius College, Cambridge. On 
 taking the part of Bishop Hoadley, in the 
 Bangorian controversy, that prelate re- 
 warded him with a prebend and residenti- 
 aryship in Salisbury cathedral, lie was the i 
 author of a " Paraphrase on the Historical I 
 Books of the Old Testament," 4 vols. ; 
 " Paraphrase on the Acts and Epistles," 2 
 vols.; a " Paraphrase on the Revelations of 
 St. John ;" and 3 volumes of " Sermons." 
 Died, 1756. 
 
 PYM, John, a parliamentarian in the 
 reign of Charles I., and by profession a bar- 
 rister, was a native of Somersetshire, and 
 born in 1584. He became a member of par- 
 liament in the reign of James I., and distin- 
 guished himself as a zealous opponent of the 
 court, being a rigid puritan. In the next 
 reign he acted with greater violence, and was 
 one of the five members who were demanded 
 by the king to be delivered to him as traitors. 
 In 1643 he was appointed lieutenant of the 
 ordnance, and died shortly after. 
 
 PYNSON, Richard, a printer, was by 
 birth a Norman, but naturalised in England 
 by letters patent, and appointed king's 
 printer. He is noticed here on account of 
 his being the first that introduced the Roman 
 letter into this country. Died, about 1529. 
 
 PYRRIIO, the celebrated philosopher of 
 Elis, and founder of the sect called Sceptics, 
 or Pyrrhonists, flourished about B.C. 340. 
 He was originally a painter, but afterwards 
 became a disciple of Anaxarchus, whom he 
 accompanied to India, in the train of Alex- 
 ander the Great, and while there obtained a 
 knowledge of the doctrines of the Brahmins, 
 Gymnosophists, Magi, and other Eastern 
 philosophers. On the return of Pyrrho to 
 Greece, the inhabitants of Elea made him 
 their high priest, and the Athenians gave 
 him the rights of citizenship. Died, b.c. 288. 
 
 3p 
 
ptr] 
 
 ^ ^cto Sffiitber^al Biojprapl^w. 
 
 [qua 
 
 PYRRHUS, king of Epirus, b. c. 300, was 
 one of the greatest warriors of antiquity. 
 He ascended the throne of his fatlier when 
 but 12 years old ; and being driven from it, 
 five years afterwards, by Neoptolemus, he 
 soon regained it, and increased his power by 
 the conquest of Macedonia. Of his various 
 contests, that with the Roman republic oc- 
 cupies the most distinguished place in history. 
 The Romans entertained the highest opinion 
 of his military skill, and from him, in fact, 
 they learned most of their art in war. He 
 was fond of glory, and personally brave, even 
 to rashness ; but his faults of ambition were 
 counterbalanced by acts of courtesy and 
 benevolence. He was killed by a tile thrown 
 from the top of a house at the siege of Argos, 
 B. c. 272. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, one of the most cele- 
 brated philosophers of antiquity, and the 
 founder of the Italic school, was the son of 
 Mnemarchus, an engraver of Samos, and 
 born at Sidon, in Phoenicia, about 580 b. c, 
 while his parents were travelling in that 
 country. His history is mingled with many 
 fables. In Egypt he was probably admitted 
 to the mysteries of the priests, and made 
 acquainted with the whole range of Coptic 
 learning. From Egypt he is said to have 
 journeyed to the East, and visited the Per- 
 sian and Chaldean Magi, as well as the 
 Indian Gymnosophists. After his return, he 
 opened a school at Samos, and taught his 
 
 doctrines in a symbolic form ; in which 
 veiled manner he treated of God and the 
 human soul, and delivered a vast number 
 of precepts relating to the conduct of life, 
 political as well as civil. He also made 
 considerable advances in the sciences, par- 
 ticularly in arithmetic, geometry, and as- 
 tronomy. After a life of extensive travel, 
 constant labour, and severe persecution, he 
 died at Metapontum, in the temple of the 
 Muses, where, according to tradition, he 
 perished from want of sustenance, at eighty 
 years of age. If we measure the glory of a 
 philosopher by the duration of his doctrine, 
 and by the extent of its propagation, nothing 
 can equal that of Pythagoras, since most of 
 his opinions are at this day literally followed 
 in the greatest part of the world. What are 
 called " The Golden Verses of Pythagoras " 
 have been frequently published, and are 
 well known ; but it is supposed that this 
 short abridgment of his popular doctrines 
 was the work of some later writer. 
 
 PYTHEAS, was a celebrated ancient tra- 
 veller, who lived in the time of Alexander 
 the Great, and born at Massilia, now Mar- 
 seilles, then a colony of the Plioceans. He 
 was a good mathematician, and is said, not 
 only to have explored the coast as far as 
 Cadiz, but to have sailed from thence to the 
 Ultima Thule, or Iceland, where he made 
 some astronomical observations. 
 
 Q- 
 
 QUADRATUS, a bishop of Athens, who 
 lived in the early part of the 2nd century. 
 He was the successor of Publius, who was 
 martj'red in the persecution under Adrian ; 
 and when that emperor visited the Athenian 
 capital in 12(5, Quadratus presented to him 
 "An Apology for the Christian Religion," 
 which, Eusebius says, had the desired effect 
 of occasioning a temporary cessation of the 
 persecution. Of this work there is only a 
 fragment remaining ; but it is curious for 
 the testimony it gives to the reality of the 
 miracles of Christ and his apostles, assert- 
 ing, that in his time several of the persons 
 were living in whose favour the miracles 
 were wrought. 
 
 QUADRIO, Fraxcts Xavier, an Italian 
 Jesuit, born in the Valteline, in 1695. He 
 was the* author of "Dissertations on the 
 Valteline," 3 vols. ; a " History of Poetry," 
 7 vols. ; &c. Died, 175G. 
 
 QUAGLIATI, Paolo, a musician and 
 actor of modern Rome ; the first who pro- 
 duced dramatic action or representation in 
 music ever witnessed in that city. This was 
 during the carnival of 1606, and the per- 
 formance was on a stage in the open air. 
 
 QUANZ, John Joachim, an eminent 
 musical composer and flute player ; born 
 near Gottingen, 1097 ; died, 1773. He was 
 the author of a "Series of Pieces for two 
 Flutes," " Instructions," &c. 
 
 QUARIN, Joseph, first physician to the 
 
 emperor Joseph II., was bom at Vienna, 
 in 1773 ; obtained great reputation for me- 
 dical skill, was created a count in 1797, , 
 filled the office of rector in the university 
 six times, and died in 1814. 
 
 QUARLES, Fra.ncis, an English poet, 
 was born in 1592, near Romford, Essex, and 
 received his education at Cambridge. He 
 obtained the place of cup-bearer to the queen 
 of Bohemia, daughter of James I., and was 
 afterwards secretary to Archbishop Usher in 
 Ireland ; from which country he was driven, 
 with the loss of his property, by the rebel- 
 lion of 1641, and was appointed chronologer 
 to the city of London. At the commence- 
 ment of the civil wars he wrote a work, 
 entitled the " Loyal Convert," which gave 
 ofience to the parliament ; and, when he 
 afterwards joined the king at Oxford, his 
 property was sequestrated, and his books 
 and MSS. plundered. He was so much af- 
 fected by his losses, that grief is supposed to 
 have hastened his death, in 1614. Of the 
 works of Quarles, in prose and verse, the 
 most celebrated is his " Emblems," a set 
 of designs in prints, illustrated by verses, 
 which, with all their false taste and conceit, 
 have merit, and still continue to be printed. 
 His other works are, " Argalus and Parthe- 
 nia," a romance ; " Enchiridion of Medita- 
 tions," " Divine Fancies," and "The Shep- 
 herd's Oracles." 
 
 QUATROMANNI, Sertoeips, an Italian 
 
que] 
 
 ^ fitia WinibtrM 38t00rfqp]^g, 
 
 [qui 
 
 writer, was bom at Cozenza, in 1551, and 
 died in 1606. His life was passed in the 
 cultivation of poetry and literature ; but he 
 was of a most irritable temper, which ren- 
 dered him odious to all the learned of his 
 time. He translated the iEneid into Italian 
 verse, and wrote several poems, botli Latin 
 and Italian. 
 
 QUELLINUS, Erasmus, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Antwerp, in 1C07. lie 
 was a pupil of Rubens, and execute<l seve- 
 ral pictures of great merit. He died in 
 1678, and left a son, Joiix Ekasmcs Quei.- 
 I4INUS, whose liistorical pieces arc held in 
 estimation. He had also a nephew, Ar- 
 thur QuELLiNUS, who was an excellent 
 sculptor. 
 
 QUERENGHI, Antonio, an Italian poet, 
 born at Padua, in 1546, distinguished him- 
 self at an early age for erudition, was 
 secretary of the Sacred College under Ave 
 popes, and died at Rome in 1633. 
 
 QUERLON, Annk Gauriel Meusniek 
 DE, a celebrated French journalist, was born 
 at Nantes, in 1702, and died in 1780. For 
 upwards of 20 years he conducted a periodi- 
 cal paper iu Brittany, called I-es Petites 
 AlBches ; he was also a writer in the Gazette 
 de France, the Journal Etrang&re, and the 
 Encyclop(5dique. His works are " Les Im- 
 postures Innocentes," "Le Testament de 
 i'Abb*? des Fontaines," " Le Code Lyrique," 
 "A Continuation of Prevot's History of 
 Voyages," and a translation of " Marsy's 
 Latin Poem on Painting." 
 
 QUERNO, Camillo, a Neapolitan poet of 
 the 15th century, who acquired great fame 
 by his facility in extempore versification, 
 and obtained the name (at first given in a 
 joke by some of his convivial friends while 
 at Rome, in 1514) of arch-poet. Leo X. 
 was much pleased with his buffoonery, 
 and often admitted him to his table. Died, 
 1528. 
 
 QUER Y MARTINEZ, Joseph, a Spanish 
 botanist, born at Perpignan, in 1095. He 
 was a surgeon-major in the army, and made 
 good use of the opportunities which his 
 visits to the coast of Africa afforded him, 
 while attached to his corps, of collecting 
 numerous plants and seeds. This led to 
 the formation of a royal botanic garden at 
 Madrid, over which Quer presided. He 
 wrote and published the first 4 volumes of 
 " Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas 
 que se crian en Espagna," which was com- 
 pleted by the publication of 2 volumes more, 
 by Orteza. Died, 1764. 
 
 QUESADA, Don, a Spanish general, who, 
 after having signalised himself as a leader 
 in the army of the Faith, became attached 
 to the queen's cause, and held a chief com- 
 mand. He was very unpopular with the 
 republican party in Spain ; and during an 
 insurrectionary movement on the part of 
 the populace and some of the soldiery, which 
 he had been actively engaged in quelling, he 
 found it necessary to make his escape from 
 the capital. He was, however, discovered a 
 few miles off, taken, and placed in confine- 
 ment ; but the infuriated mob being deter- 
 mined to wreak summary vengeance on him, 
 they murdered him in his prison, and car- 
 ried his mangled relics to Madrid, where, 
 
 71] 
 
 with savage exultation, they exhibited them 
 in the public streets, August, 1836. 
 
 QUESNAY, Francis, a physician, but 
 more known as a writer on political eco- 
 nomy, was born in 1694, near Montfort 
 I'Amaury, in the isle of France. His father 
 was a farmer, and he acquired the rudiments 
 of his profession from the surgeon of his 
 native village. He then went to Paris, and 
 became secretary to a society instituted for 
 the improvement of surgery ; but afterwards 
 he took his degree in medicine, and became 
 physician to Louis XV., who loved to con- 
 verse with him, and called him his "thinker." 
 He was the author of " A Philosophical Es- 
 say on the Animal Economy," 3 vols. ; 
 " Physiocracy," and various articles in the 
 Encyclopaidia, &c. to promulgate his doc- 
 trines, to which some have unjustly attri- 
 buted the French revolution. Died, 1774. 
 
 QUESNEL, Pasquier, a priest who was 
 born at Paris, in 1634, and became the head 
 of the sect of Jansenists. He wrote a great 
 many books, chiefly of the polemic kind ; 
 but gave offence to the court of Rome by 
 his edition of the works of pope Leo the 
 Great ; and when his celebrated "New 
 Testament, with Moral Reflections," in 8 
 vols, appeared, it was formally condemned, 
 and the author was obliged to retire to Hol- 
 land, where he died, in 1719. 
 
 QUESNEL, Baron, born in 1775 ; a gene- 
 ral officer, who served with distinction in 
 most of Napoleon's campaigns. He was 
 made, on the restoration in 1814, grand 
 oflicer of the legion of honour ; and, during 
 the "hundred days" in 1815, was found 
 drowned in the Seine. 
 
 QUESNOY, Francis du, a sculptor, was 
 bom at Brussels, in 1592. He acquired the 
 principles and practice of the art from his 
 father, but far excelled him. The Arch- 
 duke Albert gave him a pension, and sent 
 him to Italy, where he made himself known 
 by some beautiful works, particularly a cru- 
 cifixion wrought in ivory, wliich procured 
 him the patronage of pope Urban VIII. He 
 particularly excelled in making models and 
 bas-reliefs of cupids and children, which he 
 finished with peculiar grace and delicacy ; 
 but he was at the same time quite capable 
 of executing works of the highest import- 
 ance ; of which a St. Susanna, in the chapel 
 of Loretto, and a St. Andrew, in St. Peter's, 
 afford sufficient proof. He died in 1046. 
 
 QUEVEDO VILLEGAS, Francisco de, 
 a Spanish poet and satirist, was born at 
 Madrid, in 1570. He was a knight of the 
 order of St. J ago, and was thrown into prison 
 for an alleged libel on the Count d'Olivarez, 
 prime minister to Philip IV. ; but when 
 that statesman was disgraced, he recovered 
 his liberty. He died in 1647. He wrote 
 "The Spanish Parnassus," "Visions of 
 Hell," " Comic Tales," and various works, 
 satirical and religious, both in verse and 
 prose ; and holds a high rank among Spa- 
 nish satirists. 
 
 QUEVEDO, P., the benevolent Spanish 
 bishop of Orense, who at the revolution 
 maintained 200 French refugee clergymen 
 at his own cost, estimated annually at 80,000 
 francs. Died, 1818. 
 
 QUICK, John, an eminent comic actor, 
 
 3 P 2 
 
qui] 
 
 ^ ilfto WiwifitY^nl 23iograpT;i.u 
 
 [qui 
 
 was the son of a brewer in London, where 
 he was born in 1748. When only 14 years 
 old he left his home, and joined a company 
 of provincial actors ; and as he gradually 
 rose in his profession, he obtained an engage- 
 ment at the Haymarket in 1769, and subse- 
 quently established his fame by his admir- 
 able performance of Mordecai in "Love k 
 la Mode." He afterwards went to Covent 
 Garden, where for many years he held a 
 prominent station, filling the best parts in 
 light comedy. In 1798 he retired from the 
 stage, and died in 1831. 
 
 QUIEN DE LA NEUFVILLE, James 
 LE, an historian, was born at Paris, in 1647. 
 He served first in the army, and afterwards 
 became an advocate, but without success ; 
 on which he had recourse to literature for 
 support. He published the "History of 
 Portugal," which obtained him a place in 
 the Academy of Inscriptions. His " Treatise 
 on the Use of Posts among the Ancients and 
 Moderns " procured him the direction of 
 the posts of French Flanders, and a pension. 
 Died, 1728. 
 
 QUILLET, Claudius, a French physi- 
 cian and ingenious Latin poet ; born, 1602 ; 
 died, 1661. His chief work is a poem in 4 
 books, entitled " Callipaedia." 
 
 QUIN, James, an eminent actor, was 
 born in London, in 1693. He performed at 
 Drury Lane and at the theatre in Lincoln's 
 Inn Fields ; and though for a considerable 
 period he was confined to inferior parts, he 
 at length rose into high reputation, and was 
 without a rival till the aj)pearance of Gar- 
 rick. His last performance was Falstaff 
 (1753), in which character he is supposed 
 never to have been excelled. He survived 
 his retreat several years, which he spent 
 chiefly at Bath, where his fund of anecdote, 
 and pointed sense, made him much sought 
 after. Quin, who was convivial and too fond 
 of the bottle, was often coarse and quarrel- 
 some on these occasions, which led to two 
 or three hostile encounters, one of which 
 proved fatal to his antagonist. He was 
 otherwise manly, sensible, and generous. 
 He had been employed by Frederic, prince 
 of Wales, to instruct the royal children in 
 elocution ; and when Quin was informed of 
 the graceful manner in which George III. 
 delivered his first speech from the throne, 
 he emphatically said, " Ay, it was I who 
 taught the boy to speak." About this time 
 he obtained a pension. Died, 1766. 
 
 QUINAULT, Philip, a French dramatic 
 poet, was born at Paris in 163<i, and died 
 in 16?8. His operas were highly and de- 
 servedly popular, but they excited the envy 
 of Boileau, who attacked them with cha- 
 racteristic asperity. They were printed at 
 Paris, with his life, in 1778, 5 vols. 12mo. 
 
 QUINCY, John, an English physician 
 and medical writer of the last century, who 
 practised his profession, and delivered lec- 
 tures in London, where he died in 1723. 
 Among the different works he produced was 
 his "Lexicon Physico-Medicum," which 
 had served as the basis of Dr. Hooper's Me- 
 dical Dictionary, and other subsequent com- 
 pilations of a similar nature. 
 
 QUINETTE, Nicholas Marie, was bom 
 at Soissons, where, previous to the Revolution, 
 
 he practised as an attorney. He voted for 
 the death of Louis XVI., was a commissioner 
 in the army of Dumouriez, and was one of 
 the four deputies delivered up to the Aus- 
 trians, who were afterwards exchanged for 
 the infant princess. In 1799 he was appointed 
 minister of the interior, was a member of the 
 chamber of peers during the 100 days, and, 
 after the second abdication of Napoleon, he 
 was called by Fouchd to form a part of the 
 provisional government. In 1815 he was 
 banished as a regicide, retired to Brussels, 
 and died in 1821. 
 
 QUINTILIAN, Marcus Fabius, a cele- 
 brated orator and critic, who is supposed to 
 have been born about a.d. 42, at Rome ; fol- 
 lowed Galba into Spain, and taught rhetoric 
 there ; and died, as is supposed, in his 80th 
 year. His " Institutiones Oratoricae " may 
 be justly pronounced the finest svstem of 
 rhetoric ever written. This invaluable work 
 was discovered by Poggio in 1415, in the abbey 
 of St. Gal. 
 
 QUINTINIE, John de la, a celebrated 
 French horticulturist, was born at Poictiers, 
 in 1626. He was originally an advocate, but 
 took more pleasure in the study of horticul- 
 ture ; to perfect himself in which he visited 
 Italy, and, on his return to France, became 
 director-general of the royal gardens. He 
 died at an advanced age. 
 
 QUINTUS CALABER, or QUINTUS 
 SMYRNEUS, a Greek poet. Mho wrote a 
 supplement to Homer's Iliad. He is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the 5th century, and 
 to have been a native of Smyrna. His poem 
 was first brought to light by Cardinal Bes- 
 sarion, who found it in the church of St. 
 Nicolas, near Otranto, in Calabria, whence 
 he had the name of Calaber. 
 
 QUIRINI, A.NGELO Maria, a cardinal, 
 was born at Venice, in 1684. Benedict 
 XIII. made him archbishop and cardinal, 
 which dignities he filled with great reputa- 
 tion. He died in 1755. Cardinal Quiiini 
 collected a magnificent library, which he 
 gave to the Vatican ; and though he was 
 a zealous champion of the papacy, his 
 writings are marked by candour and mode- 
 ration. 
 
 QUIROGA, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, was 
 born at Lugo, in Gallicia, and distinguished 
 himself as a missionary in America. During 
 his residence there he collected much inform- 
 ation respecting the countries he visited, 
 and on his return jjublished his travels. Died, 
 1784. 
 
 QUIROS, Pedro Fernandez de, a ce- 
 lebrated Spanish navigator of the 16th cen- 
 tury, who explored many of the islands 
 afterwards visited by Captain Cook. Died, 
 1614. 
 
 QUITA, DoMiNGOS DOS Reis, a Portu- 
 guese poet, was born in 1728. He was ap- 
 prenticed to a barber, but his attachment 
 to learning enabled him to overcome the 
 diflSculties he had to experience ; and 
 making himself master of Italian, Spanish, 
 and French, he wrote verses, and at length 
 obtained the patronage of Count San Lo- 
 renzo. He was the author of " Inez de 
 Castro," and four other tragedies ; besides 
 many sonnets, elegies, pastorals, &c. Died, 
 1770. 
 
rab] 
 
 ^ ^t\si BnihexM JSingrajp^i). 
 
 [rad 
 
 K. 
 
 RABAUT DE ST. ETIENNE, John 
 Pai'l, one of t)ie most steady, moderate, 
 and honourable of the French revolutionists, 
 was born at Nismes, in 1741 ; for which city 
 he was chosen a deputy for the constituent 
 assembly in ITS'J. lie attached himself to 
 the party of the Girondists. His father was 
 proscribed when he was boru ; and lie relates, 
 in a short memoir of his life, attached to a 
 romance of his publication, called "I>e Vieux 
 Cevenal," that his infancy was passed in 
 continual danger and alarm, and that he 
 never knew when he awoke, where his 
 mother and her Iriends would conduct him 
 to sleep at night. He was proscribed, like 
 the rest of the moderatists, for opposing the 
 excesses of the Mountain party in ITiKi. He 
 was sheltered by several female friends of his 
 wife for some days ; but being at length dis- 
 covered, he was immediately guillotined, 
 after a short form of identification before the 
 revolutionary tribunal. His wife killed her- 
 self, and all those who assisted in concealing 
 him were guillotined. One of his numerous 
 political works is," Sur la Necessity d'Etablir 
 une Constitution." 
 
 RABELAIS, Francois, a celebrated 
 French wit and satirist, was born at Chinon, 
 in Touraine, about 1483. He was at first a 
 monk, but in consequence of ha%ing been 
 punished for some indecorous behaviour, he 
 quitted the Benedictine order, studied me- 
 dicine at Montpelier, and for a time practised 
 as a physician. He subsequently obtained, 
 through the influence of his patron, Cardinal 
 du licllay, whom he accompanied to the 
 court of Rome, the rectory of Mendon ; and 
 died in IMS. He wa« the author of several 
 books ; but the only one by which he is 
 known is the romance called " The Lives, 
 Heroic Deeds, and Sayings of Gargantua and 
 Pantagruel," an extravagant satire upon 
 monks, priests, popes, and pedants ; in 
 which much obscenity and absurdity are 
 blended with learning, wit, and humour. 
 Rabelais was a conscientious teacher of his 
 people, and it was his pleasure to instruct the 
 children of his parish in sacred music. His 
 house was the resort of the learned, his 
 purse was always open to the needy, and his 
 medical skill was employed in the service of 
 his parish. 
 
 RABENER, Gottlieb William, a Ger- 
 man satirist, bom near Leipsic, in 1714, 
 was educated for the legal profession, and 
 obtained the oflS<;e of comptroller of the 
 taxes in the district of Leipsic. He died in 
 1771. 
 
 RABUTIN, Roger, Count de Bussy, a 
 French wit and satirist, was born in 1018, at 
 Epiry, in Nivernois. He entered the army 
 at the age of 12, under his father, and would 
 probably liave attained a high rank but for 
 the oflenee he gave to persons in power by 
 his scandalous lampoons. In KJtto he was 
 sent to the Bastile for writing a libel, entitled 
 " The Amorous History of the Gauls ;" and 
 on his release he was banished to his estate, 
 where he remained till IGMl, when he re- 
 
 turned to court. His other works are, " M6- 
 moires," 2 vols. ; and " Lettres," 7 vols. Died, 
 1(593. 
 
 RACAN, IIoNORAT DE BuEiL, Marquis of, 
 an eminent French poet, was born in loSd, at 
 La Roche Raean, devoted himself to litera- 
 ture, and was one of the first members of the 
 French Academy. Died, 1C70. Besides his 
 poems, he wrote "The Life of Malherbe," 
 his friend and poetical instructor. 
 
 RACINE, BoNAVENTUUE, a French ec- 
 clesiastical historian, was born in 17US, at 
 Chnuny. He became head of the college at 
 Rabastens ; but being banished by the in- 
 trigues of the Jesuits, he retired to the college 
 of Ilarcourt, and afterwards obtained a 
 canonry in the cathedral of Auxerre, where 
 he died in 175,5. He wrote an " Ecclesiastical 
 History," 13 vols. 
 
 RACINE, John, an eminent French dra- 
 matic poet, was bom at La Ferti; Mi Ion, in 
 1031), and was educated at Port Royal. He 
 commenced his poetical career in KWO, by an 
 ode on the king's marriage, for which he 
 was handsomely rewarded. In 1004 he pro- 
 duced his tragedy of "Tlu'baide," which 
 was followed in 1000 by "Alexander." 
 In 1088 appeared his " Androniaciie," which 
 placed him far above all his contemporaries 
 except Comeille ; and his fume was still 
 farther increased by the production of "Bri- 
 tannicus," " Berenice," and other tragedies. 
 In 1677 appeared his tragedy of " Phaidra," 
 which waa opposed by one on the same sub- 
 ject written by Pradon, which gave him 
 great uneasiness ; and owing to a base cabal 
 that was formed against him, he was induced 
 to desist from writing for the stage. After a 
 lapse of 12 years he wrote, by desire of Louis 
 XIV. and Madame de Mai ntenon, the sacred 
 dramas of "Esther" and " Athalia," which 
 were performed by the young ladies of her 
 institution of St. Cyr. Besides his dramatic 
 works, he wrote " Canticles or Hymns for 
 the Use of St. Cyr," the " History of Port 
 Royal," &c. In 1073 he was received into 
 the Academy, and continued to enjoy the 
 highest favour at court ; but having ottended 
 the king for having too freely used his peq, 
 in drawing up a memorial on the distresses 
 of the people, he died of chagrin, in 1690. 
 
 RACINE, Louis, a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Paris, in 1692, and educated 
 under RoUin. He was eminent for talent, 
 piety, and modesty, was made an inspector- 
 general in the finance department, and died 
 iu 1703. Among his works are two poems, en- 
 titled " Grace " and " Religion," " Epistles," 
 "Memoirs" of his father, and a translation 
 of Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 RADCLIFFE, Jonif, an eminent phy- 
 sician, was born in 1650, at Wakefield, in 
 Yorksliire, and was educated at the grammar 
 school there, and at University College, 
 Oxford. Having obtained his medical de- 
 gree, he settled in London in 1084, where he 
 soon acquired great reputation, to which his 
 ready wit and conversational powers contri- 
 buted. In 1080 he was appointed physician 
 
rad] 
 
 ^ i^flM ^nitjcrs'al ^ia^vn^i)}}. 
 
 [rag 
 
 I 
 
 assistant secretary at Prince of Wales's ' 
 Island ; and, in 1811, became lieutenant go- | 
 vernor of Java. Tlierc he remained till j 
 1816 ; and during his administration of the 
 government many judicial reforms were ef- I 
 fected. In 1818 he was placed at the head of j 
 the factory at Bencoolen, in Sumatra, where j 
 he introduced many wise reforms, and even- 1 
 tually succeeded in establishing the settle- I 
 ment and free port of Singapore, in 1819. On ! 
 his last visit to the island, in 1823, he laid j 
 the foundation of a college for the encourage- i 
 ment of Anglo-Chinese literature, with a [ 
 library, museum, branch schools, &c.; but 
 the impaired state of his health rendered it 
 necessary that lie should return to Europe ; ' 
 and he accordingly, in February, 1824, em- 
 barked, with his family, on board the Fame. 
 On the evening of the same day, when about 
 fifteen miles from Bencoolen, the vessel took ! 
 fire, and all his valuable collections and 
 manuscripts became a prey to the flames. 
 The crew and passengers, in utter destitu- 
 tion, with difficulty saved their lives in the 
 boats ; and Sir Thomas, with his family, 
 again embarked in April, and arrived in 
 England m the following August. He sur- 
 vived this event only about two years, dying 
 of apoplexy, at Highwood Hill, Middlesex, 
 in July, 182(!. His chief work is, " Tlie His- 
 tory of Java," 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 RAGHIB PACHA, Mohammed, grand 
 vizir of the Ottoman empire, was born in 
 1702, and manifested, at an early period, 
 such a decided taste for learning, that he 
 acquired the name of Raghib, or the Stu- 
 dent. In 173G he was appointed secretary- 
 general to the grand vizir ; became reis 
 elFendi, a pacha of three tails, and succes- 
 sively governor of Aidin, Aleppo, and Egypt. 
 In 1757 he was elevated to the dignity of 
 supreme vizir, and retained that dangerous 
 post till his death, in 17G3. He was one of 
 the most enlightened ministers of the Turk- 
 ish empire, and surpassed by none of his 
 countrymen in literary talent. 
 
 RAGOTSKI, Francis, prince of Tran- 
 sylvania, was born in 1676. Zealous for the 
 independence of his country, he secretly 
 entered into a negotiation with Louis XIV., 
 which being betrayed, he was arrested, and 
 found guilty of high treason. He had, how- 
 ever, tlie good fortune to escape ; receiving 
 assurances of succour from France, he en- 
 tered Hungary, and, by a manifesto, urged 
 the people to free themselves from the 
 tyranny of the Austrians. For a time he 
 was eminently successful, and in 1704 he 
 was proclaimed prince of Transylvania, and 
 protector of Hungarj*. Tlie crown of Po- 
 land, at that time vacant, was offered to him 
 by the czar Peter, but he refused it ; and his 
 patriotic exertions being ultimately defeated 
 by the Hungarian states entering into a 
 treaty with tlie emperor, he renounced his 
 estates, and withdrew into Turkey, where 
 he died in 1735. 
 
 RAGUENET, Francis, a native of Rouen, 
 who, in 1689, gained a prize from the French 
 Academy for a discourse, " Sur le Merite et 
 rUtilit^ de Martyre." In 1704 he published 
 " A Parallel of tlie Italians and French, iu 
 regard to Music and the Opera ; " in which 
 he gave the preference to the Italian music, 
 
 to the princess Anne of Denmark, and, after 
 the revolution, he was often consulted liy 
 king William III., whose favour he lost in 
 consequence of the freedom with which he 
 delivered his opinions when in attendance 
 on his royal master. When Anne succeeded 
 to the crown, Godolphin could not obtain for 
 him the post of chief pliysician, as he had 
 given her offence by telling her that her 
 ailments were nothing but the vapours. But, 
 though deprived of oflSce, he was consulted 
 in all cases of emergency, and received a large 
 I sum of secret service money for his prescrip- 
 tions. Dr. Radcliffe left 40,000?. to the 
 university of Oxford for the foundation of a 
 public library of medical and philosophical 
 science. Died, 1714. 
 
 RADCLIFFE, Ann, a celebrated novelist, 
 whose maiden name was Ward, was born in 
 London, in 1764 ; and in her 23rd year was 
 married to Mr. W. Radcliffe, proprietor and 
 editor of the English Chronicle. Soon after 
 her marriage, Mrs. Radcliffe began to display 
 the powers of her genius in works of imagi- 
 nation. Her first performance was a ro- 
 mantic tale, entitled " The Castles of Athlin 
 and Dumblaine," in 1 vol. ; which was suc- 
 ceeded by " The Sicilian Romance " and 
 " The Romance of the Forest," each in 2 
 vols. ; but that which stamped the author's 
 reputatioii, as the first novelist of the age, was 
 the " Mysteries of Udolpho," in 4 vols., for 
 which she received the sum of 500/. Her next 
 performance was " The Italians." She also 
 published a volume of "Travels through 
 Holland and along the Rhine," in 1793. Mrs. 
 Radcliffe possessed the art of exciting a high 
 degree of interest in her narrative ; her de- 
 scriptive powers were of a superior order, es- 
 pecially in the delineation of scenes of terror, 
 and in those aspects of nature which excite 
 sentiment, and suggest melancholy associa- 
 tions. To quote the words of Mrs. Barbauld, 
 " she seems to scorn to move those passions 
 which form tlie interest of common novels : 
 she alarms the soul with terror ; agitates it 
 with suspense, prolonged and wrought up to 
 the most intense feeling by mysterious hints 
 and obscure intimations of unseen danger." 
 Died, 1823. 
 
 RAEBURI«r, Sir Hen'ry, an eminent por- 
 trait painter, was born in 1786, at Stock- 
 bridge, near Edinburgh ; was apprenticed 
 to a goldsmith, but turned his talents to 
 painting, and acquired extensive popularity, 
 being considered second only to Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence. He received the honour of knight- 
 hood from George IV. when he visited Edin- 
 burgh, was appointed portrait painter to the 
 king in Scotland, and died in 182 ?. 
 
 RAFFENEL, Claude Denis, a French 
 author, born in 1797, in the department of 
 Jura. He was attached to the French con- 
 sulate at Smyrna ; went, in 1826, to Greece, 
 and was killed at the siege of Athens in the 
 following year. He wrote " Histoire Com- 
 plete des Ev&nemens de la Grfece," and other 
 works. * 
 
 RAFFLES, Sir Thomas Stamford, an 
 eminent public functionarj% was the son of 
 a naval captain, and born at sea, oft' Jamaica, 
 iu 1781. He entered the India Company's 
 service early in life, as a clerk in the home 
 secretary's office ; was appointed, in 1805, 
 
and thereby highly ofifended his country- 
 men. Ue also wrote " Les Monuinens de 
 Roitve," "llistoire d'Olivier Cromwell," "IIls- 
 toire de I'Aucien Testament," and " llistoire 
 du Vicomte de Turenue." Died, 1722. 
 
 RAIKES, RoBKUT, a printer at Gloucester, 
 who having realised a good property, em- 
 ployed it with his pen and his influence in 
 acts of benevolence. Conjointly with Dr. 
 Stock, he planned and instituted Simday- 
 Bchools. Born, 1735; died, 1811. 
 
 RAIMBACH, Abkauam, u distinguished 
 line engraver, was born in London, 1776. 
 Educated in Archbishop Tennison's library 
 school, where he had the late Cliarlcs Ma- 
 thews for a school-lellow, he showed an early 
 predilection for the fine arts ; and after 
 serving his apprenticeship with Mr. Hall 
 Uie engraver, he Ijccame a student of the 
 Royal Academy, and soon obtained sucli 
 proficiency in handling the pencil, that by 
 uniting tlie profession of a miuiature painter 
 with that of engraver, l>e was enabled to earn 
 a handsome livelihood. In 1802 he illustrated 
 Smirke and Forster's edition of the Arabian 
 Kights ; in 1807 he made the acquaintance 
 of Sir D. (then Mr.) Wilkie ; an acquaint- 
 ance which soon ripened into friendship, and 
 led to his being employed in engraving that 
 distinguished painter's works from 1812 
 down to his decease. In fact, it is chiefly 
 in connection with Wilkie that Raimbach 
 has achieved his well-deserved reputation. 
 Died, 1843. 
 
 RAIMONDI, Joux Baptist, a celebrated 
 orientalist, born at Cremona, in Italy, about 
 ir>40. He passed several years in Asia, where 
 he acquired a knowledge of the Arabic, Ar- 
 menian, Syriac, and Hebrew languages. 
 Returning to Italy, Cardinal Ferdinand de' 
 Medici made him director of the oriental 
 press, whence originated the famous insti- 
 tution of the Propaganda. 
 
 RAIMONDI, Maec Antonio, a cele- 
 brated engraver, born at Bologna, in 1748. 
 After studying at Venice, he settled at Rome; 
 was employed by Raphael to engrave several 
 of his designs ; and he soon formed a school 
 there, which eclipsed those of Germany, and 
 the Italian style of engraving became the 
 standard of excellence, Ue was imprisoned 
 by Clement VII. for having engraved a 
 series of abominable designs in illustration 
 of the Aretine verses, but procured his liber- 
 ation, and was restored to favour by his ex- 
 quisite martyrdom of St. Lawrence." Died, 
 1540. 
 
 RAINOLDS, John, a learned divine, was 
 born at Pinho, in Devonshire, in 1549 ; and 
 became president of Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, lie was considered the leader of 
 the Puritan party, and distinguislied himself 
 greatly at the Hampton Court conference, in 
 1G03, where he suggested the necessity of the 
 present translation of the Bible, in which 
 work he was afterwards engaged. Died, 1607. 
 
 RAKOUBAH, or RAGUBAH, peishwah, 
 or prince-regent of the Mahrattas, acted an 
 important part in the events which occurred 
 in the East Indies, from 1772 to 1782. Hav- 
 ing usurped the sovereign power to the 
 prejudice of his nephew, he was deposed, 
 and abandoned by all the Mahratta chiefs, 
 when he fled to Bombay, and procured the 
 
 715 
 
 protection of the English government. At 
 length, peace taking place between the East 
 India Company and the Mahrattas, the cause 
 of the peisliwah was abandoned by the 
 former ; and from that time he sunk into 
 obscurity. 
 
 RALEIGH, or RALEGH, Sir Walter, 
 a distinguished statesman, scholar, and war- 
 rior, in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., 
 was born in 1552, at Budkigh, in Devonshire, 
 and educated at Oriel College, Oxford. At 
 the age of 17 he made one of a troop of an 
 hundred gentlemen volunteers, whom Queen 
 Elizabeth permitted to go to France, under 
 the command of Henry Champernon, for the 
 service of the Protestant princes. He next 
 served in the Netlierlands ; and, on his re- 
 turn from the Continent, his half-brother, 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, having obtained a 
 grant of lauds in North America, he engaged 
 with a considerable number of gentlemen to 
 go out to Newfoundland ; but the expedition 
 proving unsuccessful. Sir Walter returned to 
 England, after being exposed to several dan- 
 gers ; and proceeded thence to Ireland, where 
 he made his bravery so conspicuous in quell- 
 ing the insurgents, that he was received at 
 court with considerable favour, and obtained 
 permission and supplies to prosecute his dis- 
 coveries in America, which ended in his 
 settling a colony in that country, called, in 
 honour of his maiden sovereign, Virginia ; 
 and he is said to have first introduced to- 
 bacco and potatoes into Europe. In the 
 mean time tlie queen conferred on him the 
 distinction of knighthood, and rewarded 
 him by several lucrative grants, including a 
 large share of the forfeited Irish estates. 
 Wlien his country's safety was tlireatened 
 by the famous Spanish Armada, he raised 
 and discii)lined tlie militia of Cornwall ; and 
 afterwards, by joining the fleet with a 
 squadron of siiips belonging to gentlemen 
 volunteers, assisted in obtaining the signal 
 victory which it jileased Providence to give 
 the English over the Spaniards on that oc- 
 casion. He was now made gentleman of 
 the privy chamber ; but shortly after fell 
 into disgrace, and was confined for some 
 months, partly on account of a tract which 
 he had publislied, entitled " The School for 
 Atheists," wliich was unfairly construed by 
 his enemies into a vindication of atheistical 
 principles ; and partly by a clandestine at- 
 tachment to one of the queen's maids of ho- 
 nour, tlie daughter of Sir Nicholas Throck- 
 morton ; which lady, however, he afterwards 
 honourably married. During his seclusion, 
 he planned the discovery of the extensive 
 country of Guiana, in South America, in 
 which he took an active part himself, as 
 soon as he was set at liberty ; but the season 
 being unfavourable, he returned to England, 
 and was soon after appointed to a command 
 in the important expedition to Cadiz, of 
 which the success was in a great measure 
 owing to Sir Walter's valour and prudence. 
 This, joined to several other important ser- 
 vices, restored him completely to the favour 
 of Elizabeth, towards the end of her reign. 
 Her successor, James, prejudiced against him 
 by the Earl of Essex, disapproving of his 
 martial spirit, and jealous of his abilities, 
 availed himself of a court conspiracy against 
 
this great man, charging him with partici- 
 pating in an attempt to place upon the 
 throne Arabella Stuart, and of carrying on 
 a secret correspondence with the king of 
 Spain. By the base subservience of the 
 jury, he was brought in guilty of high 
 treason, even to the surprise of tlie attorney- 
 general Coke himself, who declared that lie 
 had only charged him with misprision of 
 treason. Raleigh was reprieved, and com- 
 mitted to the Tower, where his wife, at her 
 earnest solicitation, was allowed to reside 
 witli liim, and where liis yonngest son was 
 born. Twelve years was Sir Walter detained 
 a prisoner in the Tower ; during which 
 time, besides various minor compositions, he 
 wrote his " History of the World ; " a work 
 distinguished for the richness of its inform- 
 ation, the judiciousness of its reflections, 
 and the vigour of its style. At length his 
 release was obtained, in 1616, by the advance 
 of a large sum of money to the new favourite, 
 Villiers ; and, to retrieve his broken fortunes, 
 he planned another expedition to America. 
 He obtained a patent under the great seal 
 for making a settlement in Guiana ; but, in 
 order to retain a power over him, the king 
 did not grant him a pardon for the sentence 
 passed upon him for his alleged treason. 
 Having reached the Orinoco, he despatched 
 a portion of his force to attack the new 
 Spanish settlement of St. Thomas, which 
 was captured ; but he had to lament the 
 death of liis eldest son, who fell on that oc- 
 casion. The expected plunder proved of 
 little value ; and Sir Walter, having in vain 
 tried to induce liis captains to attack other 
 Spanish settlements, arrived at Plymouth 
 in July, 1616. Being brought before the 
 court of king's bench, his plea of an implied 
 pardon by his subsequent command was 
 overruled ; and the doom of death being 
 pronounced against him, it was carried into 
 execution the following day, Oct. 29. 1618, 
 in Old Palace-yard. His behaviour at the 
 scaffold was calm, and, after addressing the 
 people at some length in his own justifica- 
 tion, he received the stroke of death with 
 perfect composure ; remarking to the sheriff 
 with a smile, as lie felt the edge of the axe, 
 " This is a sharp medicine, but it is a phy- 
 sician that will cure all diseases." 
 
 RAMBERG, John HEXKr, an eminent 
 draughtsman and engraver, was bom in 1767, 
 in Hanover ; studied under Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds ; and, after visiting Italy, was appoin- 
 ted, in 1790, painter to the court of Hanover. 
 He produced an immense number of paint- 
 ings and etchings, and particularly excelled 
 in caricature. 
 
 RAMEAU, Jean Philippe, an eminent 
 French composer and writer on music, was 
 born, in 1083, at Dijon, and studied in Italy. 
 He did not produce his first opera, " Hippolite 
 and Aricie," till he was in his 50th year ; 
 but he subsequently brought out many 
 others, by which lie acquired high reputation. 
 He also wrote various excellent works on 
 music, of which the chief is " A Treatise on 
 
 j Harmony." Died, 1767. 
 
 I RAMEL, JoHX Peter, bom at Cahors, 
 in 1770, was chief of a battalion in the army 
 
 j of the Pyrenees in 1794, when he incurred 
 
 I the hatred of the Jacobins, and narrowly 
 
 escaped falling a sacrifice to their vengeance. 
 Being one of the victims to the revolution of 
 the 18th Fructidor, he was banished with 15 
 more persons to Cayenne, whence Ramel, 
 Pichegru, Barthelemy, Willot, and others, 
 made their escape in June, 1798, to the Dutch 
 colony of Surinam. After the elevation of 
 Buonaparte to power, Ramel returned to 
 France, and entering into active service, 
 made many campaigns. In 1814 he was 
 made a major-general, and in 1815 appointed 
 commandant at Toulouse. He retained that 
 post after the second restoration of I^ouis 
 XVIII., and he exerted himself to establish 
 tranquility among the inhabitants ; but 
 having endeavoured to disarm the companies 
 of Verdets, whose existence was not au- 
 thorised by the government, he became all 
 at once the object of public displeasure, and 
 was assassinated by a band of ruffians who 
 rushed into his hotel, August, 1815. 
 
 RAMELLI, AuousTiN, an ingenious me- 
 chanic and engineer, was bom at Milan, 
 about 1531, and distinguished himself by his 
 attention to mathematical studies. Having 
 adopted tlie military profession, he signalised 
 himself on several occasions in the armies of 
 the emperor Charles V., and afterwards going 
 to France, he was well received by the Duke 
 of Anjou, who made him his engineer, and 
 subsequently bestowed on him a considerable 
 pension. He was the author of a rare and 
 curious work, entitled " Le Diverse ed Ar- 
 tificiose Machine." Died, 1590. 
 
 RAMLER, Charles William, a German 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 
 1725, at Kolberg. He became teacher of the 
 belles lettres at Berlin ; where his " Lyrical 
 Anthology " procured him the name of the 
 German Horace ; but thoiigh he did mucli 
 to polish German versification, he was far 
 below his model. He also composed ora- 
 torios, and translated some works into his 
 native language. Died, 1798. 
 
 RAMMOHtJN ROY, Rajah, by birth a 
 Brahmin, and a man of the most enlightened 
 mind, was bom about the year 1776, at Bor- 
 duan, in the province of Bengal. His father 
 gave him a good education, and trained him 
 in the doctrine of his sect ; but the son ob- 
 serving the diversities of opinion that existed 
 on religion, not only among Mussulmans and 
 Christians, but even among his Hindoo j 
 brethren, he determined on leaving his pa- 
 ternal home, for the purpose of investigating 
 a subject on which he felt such a deep and 
 paramount interest. For a time he sojourned 
 at Thibet ; and on his return to Hindostan he 
 devoted himself to the study of the Sanscrit 
 and other languages ; after which he was 
 employed by the East India Company as 
 principal native officer in the collection of 
 the revenues in the district of Borduan. 
 On the death of his father, in 1803, he ap- 
 pears to have commenced liis plans of re- 
 forming the religion of his countrymen ; 
 and, on removing to Moorshedabad, he pub- 
 lished, in Persian, a work entitled " Against ' 
 the Idolatry of all Religions." This raised i 
 up against him a host of enemies, and in | 
 1814 he retired to Calcutta, where he dili- | 
 gently applied himself to the study of the ' 
 English language. He afterwards translated 
 from the Sanscrit into the Bengalee and I 
 
ram] 
 
 ^ ^cfiti Huitjci'^al 25ia3rajp!;y. 
 
 [ram 
 
 Hindostftnee languages tlie " Vedant," the 
 principal book of Hindoo theology ; and 
 prefixed to some chapters of the Veils, which 
 he afterwards published, is a letter contain- 
 ing the following sentence : " TJie conse- 
 'luence of my long and uninterrupted re- 
 searches into religious truth lias l)cen, that 
 I have found the doctrines of Christ more 
 conducive to moral principles, and better 
 adapted for the use of rational beings, than 
 any other which have come to my know- 
 ledge." In this spirit, having acquired a 
 knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, that he 
 might be competent to study the original 
 Scriptures for himself, he published, in 
 Englisli, Sanscrit, and Bengalee, a series of 
 selections from the Gospel, entitled, "The 
 Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and 
 Happiness;" which being animadverted upon 
 by Dr. Marshman, of Serampore College, the 
 learned Hindoo published his " Second Ap- 
 peal," and on this being replied to by the 
 doctor, a " Final Appeal " api)eared. During 
 his residence at Calcutta, Kammohurt Roy 
 connected himself with the periodical press, 
 and he was at different times the proprietor 
 and conductor of newspapers printed in the 
 native languages. In April, 1801, the Rajah, 
 Accompanied by his youngest son, arrived in 
 England, where he was received with every 
 mark of distinction and respect. In every 
 kind of assemblage, religious, political, lite- 
 rary, and social, the amenity of his manners, 
 his distinguished attainments, and his uni- 
 versal philanthropy, rendered him a wel- 
 come guest i and his advice was sought by 
 ministers on topics connected with the future 
 government of India. He did not, however, 
 live to carry into effect the various plans for 
 improving the condition of his countrymen, 
 whose welfare he had so much at heart, 
 having been taken ill while on a visit at 
 Bristol, where he expired in October, 1833. 
 
 RAMOND DE CARBONNIERES, Louis 
 Francis Elizabeth, Baron, who acquired 
 considerable reputation as a philosopher and 
 geologist, was born at Strasburg, in 1775. At 
 the beginning of the Revolution he belonged 
 to the household troops ; and when, in 1791, 
 lie was chosen a deputy from Paris to the 
 legislative assembly, he appeared there as a 
 zealous defender of the monarchical govern- 
 ment. During Robespierre's domination he 
 was an exile ; but he subsequently obtained 
 the prefecture of Puy-de-dome, and he 
 became, in 1818, councillor of state extra- 
 ordinary. He published " Observations faites 
 ilans les Pyrenees," 2 vols, and other works. 
 Died, 1827. 
 
 RAMSAY, Allan, an eminent Scotch 
 poet, was bom at Leadhills, in 1685. He 
 served his apprenticesliip to a wig-maker, 
 which trade he followed for a time, and then 
 became a bookseller at Edinburgh, where, in 
 1721, he published a quarto volume of his 
 poems, which were so well received, that he 
 was encouraged to print another in 1728. 
 The principal piece in the last collection is 
 the celebrated pastoral, called " The Gentle 
 Shepherd." His poems and fables rendered 
 him in the highest degree popular ; and 
 while he acquired fame by his talents, lie 
 amassed a fortune by his traJde; his acquaint- 
 ance was courted by many distinguished 
 
 individuals, and his shop became the common 
 resort of the literary characters and wits of 
 
 Edinburgh. Died, 1758. His son, Allan, 
 
 was an eminent portrait painter ; and wrote 
 the " Investigator " and " T)ic Present State 
 of the Arts in England." Bom, 1709 j died, 
 1784. 
 
 RAMSAY, Andrew Michael, better 
 known as the Chevalier Ramsay, was born 
 at Ayr in Scotland, in 168(5. He was edu- 
 cated at Edinburgh ; visited Eenelon at 
 Cambray, and being received into his house 
 as an inmate, the good prelate made a con- 
 vert of him to tlie Catholic religion, and 
 procured him the appointment of tutor to 
 the Duke de Chateau Thierry and the Prince 
 de Turenne. He next went to Rome, to 
 educate the children of the Chevalier St. 
 George, commonly called the Pretender; 
 and on quitting that situation, he returned 
 to Scotland, and resided in the family of the 
 Duke of Argylc. His principal works are, 
 " Dlscours sur le Poeme Epique," prefixed to 
 Telemachus ; " Les Voyages de Cyrus," 2 
 vols. ; "Philosophical Principles of Reli- 
 gion," 2 vols, i and the lives of Fenelon and 
 Turenne, Died, 1743. 
 
 RAMSAY, David, an eminent American 
 physician and historian, was born in 1749 ; 
 studied medicine in Pliiladelphia ; and prac- 
 tised at Charleston, South Carolina, where 
 he soon acquired celebrity. From 1776 to 
 1785 he distinguished himself in a political 
 capacity, first as a member of the legislature 
 of South Carolina, and afterwards as a 
 member of congress. He laboured zealously 
 with his pen to pre mote the independence of 
 his country ; and among his publications are, 
 " The History of the American Revolution," 
 "The Life of Washington," and " The His- 
 tory of South Carolina." But his most im- 
 portant work appeared after his deatli, and 
 consisted of a series of historical volumes, 
 entitled " Universal History Americanised, 
 or an Historical View of the World, from 
 the earliest Records to the Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury," &c., 12 vols. 8vo. He died May 8. 
 1815, in consequence of wounds received two 
 days previous from the pistol of a maniac, 
 who tired at him when close to his own 
 dwelling. 
 
 RAMSDEN, Jesse, an eminent optician 
 and mathematical instrument maker, was 
 born at Halifax, in Yorkshire, in 1735. He 
 was brought up as a hot-presser, and after- 
 wards studied engraving. He next became 
 a mathematical instrument-maker in Pic- 
 cadilly, and marrying the daughter of Mr. 
 DoUond, the optician, he adopted the same 
 business as his father-in-law. Among other . 
 discoveries made by him, was one for an I 
 accurate division of instruments, wliich pro- 
 cured him a premium from the board of 
 longitude. His mural quadrants also are in 
 high estimation. Died, 1800. 
 
 RAMUS, or LA RAMEE, Peter,^ French 
 philosopher, was born in a village of the 
 Vermandois, in 1515. When a boy, he ob- 
 tained the place of servant in the college of 
 Navarre, where he devoted his leisure hours 
 to study, and became a most consummate 
 scholar. Having ventured to attack the 
 doctrine of Aristotle, he was interdicted from 
 teaching philosophy ; but this judgment was 
 
 717 
 
KAN] 
 
 ^ ^£t3i Winiiin'^aX ^Sioflrapljn. 
 
 [rap 
 
 reversed by Henry II., and in 1551 he was 
 made royal professor of rhetoric and phi- 
 losopliy. His spirit of free inquiry ultimately 
 led him to become a Protestant ; as this could 
 not be long concealed, he was obliged to 
 leave Paris, to which city he returned in 
 1571, and lost his life in the massacre on St. 
 Bartholomew's Day, in the following year. 
 His works on mathematics, philosophy, logic, 
 &c., are numerous. 
 
 RANCE, Armand John le Bouthillier 
 DE, the reformer of La Trappe, was born in 
 1626, at Paris, and adopted the ecclesiastical 
 profession. He obtained several benefices 
 before he was in orders, acquired great cele- 
 brity as a preacher, and might have risen to 
 the most elevated stations in the church, 
 had he not taken the resolution of retiring 
 from the world. Various reasons are as- 
 signed for this ; the most probable of which 
 appears to be, that although he was a man of 
 large fortune, and indulged in all the plea- 
 sures of the world, the death of the Duchess 
 of Montauban, to whom he was attached, 
 produced such a revulsion in his feeling*, 
 that he abandoned society, and retired to his 
 abbey of La Trappe, where he introduced a 
 reform of the most rigid kind in the monastic 
 discipline. He was the author of several 
 theological works, and died in 1700. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Sir Thomas, an eminent 
 statesman, was born in Kent, in 1523, and 
 died in 1590. On the accession of Elizabeth 
 be was sent on embassies to Scotland, France, 
 and Russia. His letters are in different 
 collections, and his account of Russia in 
 Hackluyt's Voyages. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Thomas, an English dra- 
 matic poet, born 1605 ; died, 1634. His 
 " Muse's Looking Glass," a comedy, is ■well 
 known and much admired. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Thomas, a learned divine, 
 was the son of the recorder of Canterbury, 
 where he was born in 1701, and educated at 
 tl>e king's school. After studying at Oxford, 
 and obtaining his degree of D. D., he received 
 church preferment in his native county, and 
 became, in 1763, archdeacon of Oxford, and 
 Margaret professor of divinity. Among his 
 works are, " The Christian's Faith," " A 
 Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity," 
 and " A View of Our Blessed Saviour's Mi- 
 nistrv." Died, 1783. 
 
 RANDOLPH, JoHX, a learned prelate, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1749 ; 
 studied at Christchurch, Oxford, where he 
 graduated, and in 1783 was elected to the 
 regius professorship of divinity. He became, 
 successively, bishop of Oxford, Bangor, and 
 London ; but he did not enjoy the latter 
 diocese more than two years, having died of 
 apoplexy in 1813. Though austere in his 
 manners. Dr. Randolph was distinguished 
 by the real benevolence of his disposition, 
 as much as by the soundness of his abilities, 
 and the« firmness he displayed in the regu- 
 lation of his diocese. He was the author of 
 " Praelectio de Linguae Graec» Studio," &c., 
 " Sylloge Confessionum," " Concio ad Cle- 
 rum," &c. 
 
 RANSOME, James, one of the most en- 
 terprising manufacturers of the age, was 
 born near Ipswich, 1783. The firm with 
 which he was connected is know:i not only 
 
 throughout England but in very distant 
 parts of the globe, as manufacturers on the 
 largest scale of agricultural implements and 
 machinery ; but his chief title to respect 
 consisted in his almost incredible efforts to 
 promote the comforts of his workmen and 
 dependents ; some account of which will he 
 found in one of the admirable works pub- 
 lished under the title of " Small Books and 
 Great Subjects." Died, 1849. 
 
 RANTZAU, JosiAH, Count de, a French 
 marshal in the 16th century, was descended 
 from an illustrious family in Holstein, and 
 entered when young into the Swedish army. 
 In 163.5 he went to France with the chan- 
 cellor Oxenstiern ; and Louis XIII. being 
 pleased with his agreeable manners, he made 
 him a major-general, and gave him the com- 
 mand of two regiments. He served under 
 the Duke of Orleans and the great Cond^, 
 with high reputation, rose to the rank of a 
 marshal, completed the conquest of Flan- 
 ders, and was made governor of Dunkirk in 
 1646 ; but becoming an object of suspicion to 
 Cardinal Mazarin, he was confined 1 1 months 
 in the Bastile, and died soon after his libe- 
 ration, in 1650. During his different cam- 
 paigns he was so often severely wounded, 
 that at last he had but one eye, one ear, one 
 arm, and one leg. 
 
 RAPHAEL, or RAFFAELLO SANZIO, 
 DA Ukbino, the most celebrated of modern 
 painters, was born at Urbino, in 1483, being 
 the son of a painter named Sanzio. At the 
 age of 13 his father placed him under Peru- 
 gino, where he soon surpassed his numerous 
 compeers. Three years afterwards he went 
 with Pintuiicchio to Siena, to assist him in 
 painting the history of Pius II„ for the cathe- 
 dral there ; but Raphael soon left that work 
 to visit Florence, where he improved his style 
 by studying the designs of Da Vinci and 
 Michael Angelo. His favourite artist, how- 
 ever, was Fra Bartolomeo, who gave him a 
 more correct knowledge of colouring. In 
 1508 he was invited to Rome by Julius II., 
 who employed him to paint the " School of 
 Athens" in the Vatican. In performing 
 this commission, he gave such satisfaction, 
 that the pope ordered all the pictures, al- 
 ready painted in the various rooms, to be 
 obliterated, and the walls prepared for the 
 productions of Raphael alone, who, with 
 difficulty, succeeded in saving from destruc- 
 tion a ceiling, painted by his old master 
 Perugino. On the accession of Leo X. he 
 prosecuted his labours with increased spirit, 
 and executed his " Attila " and the " De- 
 liverance of St. Peter." The " Cartoons " 
 and the " Transfiguration " were among the 
 last of his labours. To his other talents he 
 added that of being an able architect ; the 
 principles of which science he studied under 
 Bramante, who recommended liim for his 
 successor in conducting the great work of St. 
 Peter's, the general plan of which, as it now 
 stands, was designed by Raphael. He like- 
 wise constructed a number of magnificent 
 buildings, particularly the Caffarelli palace 
 at Rome. As a sculptor also he evinced 
 great skill, though in that department of art 
 he was able to pay but little attention. He 
 died in 1520, at the age of 37 years. 
 
 RAPIN DE TIIOYRAS, Paul, an his- 
 
rap] 
 
 ^ ^fi» ^nfbrri^al 38t0srajpf)j). 
 
 [raw 
 
 torian, was born in 1661, at Castres, in Lan- 
 guedoc. He studied law under his father, 
 who was an advocate, until the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes drove him to England, 
 and subsequently to Holland, where he en- 
 tered a company of French cadets. In 1089 
 he followed the Prince of Orange into Eng- 
 land, and distinguished himself at the battle 
 of the Boyne, and the siege of Limerick. In 
 1707 he settled at Wesel, in the duchy of 
 Cleves, and devoted himself to the compo- 
 sition of his "History of England," which 
 was published at the Hague in 10 vols. 4to., 
 and was for a long time in great repute, 
 being the only complete narrative of English 
 events. Died, 172,5. 
 
 RAPIN, Nicholas, a French poet, was 
 born at Fontenai-le-compte, in Poictou, in 
 153.'), and died in 1609. The principal of his 
 French poems, entitled " l.es Plaisirs du 
 Clentilhomme ChampStre," and his Latin 
 epigrams, are much admired. 
 
 RAPIN, Renatus, a French Jesuit and 
 critic, famous for his skill in classical learn- 
 ing. Bom, 1621 ; died, 1687. 
 
 RAPP, JouN, Count de, a French general, 
 was born at Colmar, in Alsace, in 1772. He 
 attracted notice by his skill and bravery in 
 the early progress of the revolutionary wars ; 
 was aide-de-camp to General Desaix during 
 Jiis campaigns in Germany and Egypt, and 
 filled the same situation under Buonaparte 
 when first consul. In 1802 he was employed 
 in the subjugation of Switzerland, defeated 
 the Russian imperial guard, and took Prince 
 Repnin prisoner at the battle of Austerlitz, 
 was appomted governor of Dantzic in 1807, 
 and after the retreat of the French army, he 
 defended the city with consummate ability 
 and valour, till he was compelled by famine 
 to capitulate. Returning to France in 1814, 
 he was received with distinction by Louis 
 XVIII., but joined Napoleon on his return 
 from Elba. He was, however, again taken 
 into favour by tlie king, and died, lieutenant- 
 general of the cavalry, in 1821. 
 
 RASORI, Joux, an eminent Italian phy- 
 sician, was born in 1767, at Parma ; became 
 professor of pathology at Pavia, was em- 
 ployed in his medical capacity by the vice- 
 regal government, was imprisoned by the 
 Austrians as one of the Carbonari, and died 
 in 1824. 
 
 RASTALL, Jonir, a learned printer in 
 London, who wrote a " Dramatic Description 
 of Asia, Africa, and Europe," " Cauoiies 
 Astrologici," " Dialogues concerning Pur- 
 gatory," "Anglorum Regum Chronicum," 
 &c. He married a sister of Sir Thomas 
 More, and died in 1536. 
 
 RATCLIFFE, Thomas, earl of Sussex, 
 who died in 1583, went as ambassador to 
 Charles V. to negotiate the marriage between 
 queen Mary and Philip of Spain. On his 
 return he was made lord deputy of Ireland, 
 and chief justice of the forests north of 
 Trent, and in the succeeding reign he was 
 appointed to the office of lord ciiamberlain. 
 
 RATTE, Etienne Uyacixthe dk, an 
 astronomer, was born at Montpelier, in 
 1722. He was secretary to the Academy of 
 Sciences in his native city ; also counsellor 
 to the court of aids; and, when the National 
 Institute was formed, he was chosen an asso- 
 
 ciate. De Ratte made important observa- 
 tions on the transit of Venus in 1761, and 
 furnished many articles on natural philo- 
 sophy to the Dictionnaire Encyclop^dique, 
 &c. Died, 1805. 
 
 RAULIN, John, a celebrated French 
 preacher, of the 15th century, whose sermons 
 and letters were greatly admired, and to 
 whom both Rabelais and La Fontaine have 
 been partially indebted for their pathos. 
 Born, 1443 ; died, 1514. 
 
 RAULIN, Joseph, an ingenious French 
 physician, was born in 1708, and die<l at 
 Paris in 1784. He wrote several medical 
 treatises, and was regarded as a practitioner 
 of great knowledge and experience. 
 
 RAUWOLF, Leoxakh, a distinguished 
 German botanist and |)hysician who tra- 
 velled through Syria, Palestine, Egypt, &c., 
 making many valuable observations in na- 
 tural history. He was a native of Augsburg, 
 became a physiciaa in the Austrian army, 
 and died in 1606. 
 
 RAVAILLAC, Fkancis, the murderer of 
 Henry IV. of France, was born at Angou- 
 Kme, in 1578. Having been ruined by a 
 lawsuit, and for a long time confined in 
 prison for debt, his naturally gloomy dis- 
 position degenerated into a morbid fanati- 
 cism ; and he became accustomed to consider 
 the good and humane Henry IV. as the 
 arch-enemy of the church, to destroy whom 
 would be doing God service. Filled with 
 this notion, he followed the royal carriage 
 from the Louvre to the Rue de la Ferron- 
 nierre, and while it stopped in the street, in 
 consequence of some obstruction, he mounted 
 the coach-wheel, and thrusting his hand in 
 at the window, armed with a knife, stabbed 
 the king to the heart. He was instantly 
 seized, interrogated, and underwent the tor- 
 ture ; but he declared he had no accomplice ; 
 and, on May 27. 1610, his limbs were torn 
 asunder by horses. 
 
 RAVENET, Simon Fraxcis, a French j 
 engraver, who came to England about 1750, I 
 and executed many large historical prints in i 
 an excellent style. Died, 1774. 
 
 RAVENSCROFT, Thomas, an English | 
 musician, whose collections of psalm tunes, ' 
 songs, &c., were at one time in high repute. ! 
 Died, 1640. j 
 
 RAVIUS, or RAU, Christian, a learned ! 
 German professor, was born at Berlin, in I 
 1613. Coming to England, and being an ! 
 admirable orientalist, he was patronised by i 
 Archbishop Usher, who sent him on a voyage 
 to the East for the purpose of procuring ma- 
 nuscripts. He afterwards resided at Utrecht, 
 Upsal, Kiel, &c., where he read lectures in 
 Arabic, and wrote several useful treatises 
 on Hebrew, Samaritan, and other eastern 
 literature. Died, 1677. 
 
 RAWLEY, William, an English divine, 
 was chaplain and secretary to Bacon, lord 
 Verulam ; and to him we are indebted for 
 collecting many of his patron's excellent 1 
 works. He held the living of Sandbeach, in \ 
 Cambridgeshire ; and died in 1667. | 
 
 RAWLINSON, Chkistophek, an able ; 
 scholar, was bom in Lancashire, in 1677, and j 
 educated at Queen's College, Oxford, where 
 he was distinguished by his knowledge of 
 the Saxon language. He published an 
 
edition of king Alfred's translation of " Bo- 
 j ethius de Consolatione Pliilosophiae ;" and 
 died in 1773. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Sir Thomas, lord mayor 
 of London, of wliich city he was a native. 
 He beautified and repaired Guildhall, and 
 died in 1724. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Thomas, eldest son of the 
 preceding, was a remarkable collector of 
 books, of which he had so great a number, 
 as to be obliged to take Loudon House, in 
 Aldersgate Street, to contain them. After 
 his death, which occurred in 172.5, his li- 
 brary was disposed of by auction, and the 
 sale of the manuscripts alone occupied 16 
 days. His bibliomanic propensity induced 
 Addison to designate him, in the Tatler, as 
 " Tom Folio." 
 
 RAWLINSON, Dr. Richard, the fourth 
 son of Sir Thomas, was an eminent anti- 
 quary and topographer. He was educated 
 at St. John's College, Oxford, and founded 
 in that university an Anglo-Saxon lecture- 
 ship. He wrote " The English Topogra- 
 pher," and translated " Du Fresnoy's Method 
 of Studying History," 2 vols. Died, 1755. 
 
 RAWSON, Sir William, a celebrated 
 oculist, whose family name was Adams, was 
 a native of Cornwall, and was apprenticed 
 to a surgeon at Barnstaple, in Devonshire. 
 He subsequently devoted his attention to 
 the cure of diseases of the eyes, and especially 
 cataract; was appointed oculist to ophthalmic 
 institutions at Bath and Exeter ; and, re- 
 moving to the metropolis, became a member 
 of the Royal College of Surgeons, and oculist 
 extraordinary to the prince regent, &c. He 
 received the honour of knighthood for his 
 professional skill ; and took the name of 
 Rawson, in consequence of the will of a 
 person from whom he received a considerable 
 bequest of property. Died, 1829. 
 
 RAY, .ToiiN-, a celebrated naturalist, born 
 at Black Notley, in Essex, in 1028. He re- 
 ceived liis education at Catharine Hall and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, but lost his 
 fellowship by refusing to comply with the 
 act of uniformity. After this he devoted 
 himself to the study of nature, and in 1603 
 accompanied Mr. Willoughby on a tour 
 through Europe, of which journey he pub- 
 lished au account in 1673. Mr. Ray was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society iu 1667, 
 and the Transactions of that body aflbrd 
 ample proofs of his attention to science. His 
 works were numerous and valuable. The 
 principal are, " A Collection of English Pro- 
 verbs," " Tlie Wisdom of God manifested in 
 the Works of the Creation," " Three Dis- 
 courses concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and 
 Dissolution of the World," "Synopsis Me- 
 thodica Animaliam Quadrupedum," and 
 " Sylloge Stirpium Europearum extra Bri- 
 tanniam." Died, 1705. 
 
 RAYNAL, William Thomas Francis, 
 an eminent French historian and philoso- 
 pher, was born at St. Genies, in 1718 ; and 
 after quitting the Jesuits, by whom lie was 
 educated, he became an historical and poli- 
 tical writer. He joined the French philo- 
 sophical party, as it was called, adopted 
 their principles to the fullest extent, and 
 became one of the writers in the Encyclo- 
 paedia. He also published several works 
 
 at Paris ; the principal of which was his 
 '■ Political and Philosophical History of 
 the European Settlements in the East and 
 West Indies." This was followed by an 
 essay on the "Revolution of America," 
 written in a style of declamation, and full 
 of enmity to the English. In 1791 the Abb^ 
 Raynal addressed a letter to the constituent 
 assembly, in defence of the rights of pro- 
 perty, which greatly irritated the revolu- 
 tionists ; and though he escaped the tyranny 
 of Robespierre, he was stripped of his pro- 
 perty, and died in great indigence, at Passy, 
 in 1796. Among his other works are, a 
 " History of the Stadtholdership," 2 vols. ; 
 " History of the Parliament of England," 
 2 vols. ; " Historical Anecdotes," 3 vols. ; 
 " History of the Divorce of Henry VIII. of 
 England," " The Military School," 3 vols. ; 
 and " Historical Memoirs of Europe," 3 vols. 
 
 RAYNOUARD, M., an eminent philo- 
 logist, was born at Brignole, in Provence, 
 in 1761. Until he was near 40 years of age, 
 he practised as an advocate ; when, having 
 fortunately attained an honourable inde- 
 pendence, he determined to gratify his love 
 of literature by steadily pursuing it ; but 
 the events of the revolution forced him to 
 take a part in public affairs ; and in 1791 he 
 was nominated a member of the legislative 
 assembly. Shortly after, being undeceived 
 in the favourable opinion he had formed of 
 its tendencies, he attempted to escape, but 
 was thrown into prison, and did not recover 
 his liberty until after the 9th Thermidor. 
 In 1806 he was summoned to the corps le- 
 gislatif, by the department du Var, where 
 his name and exalted qualities were gene- 
 rally known. Died in 1836. 
 
 RE, Philip, au eminent Italian agricul- 
 turist, was born at Reggio, in 1763. He 
 studied in the college of his native city, and 
 in 1793 an agricultural professorship was 
 founded there in his favour. In 1803 he was j 
 called to the professorial chair at Bologna ; | 
 and on the re-organisation of the university | 
 of Modena, in 1814, he became professor of j 
 agriculture and botany, to which was added i 
 the superintendence of the royal gardens. I 
 He published several excellent works on his | 
 favourite study ; and died in 1817. 
 
 REAL, Gasi'akd de, Seigneur de Curban, 
 was born at Sisteron, in 1082, and died at I 
 Paris, in 1752. He wrote an able work on I 
 the "Science of Government," in 8 vols., I 
 and was regarded as one of the most en- 1 
 lightened politicians of his time. | 
 
 REAUMUR, RtxE Antoine Fercuault i 
 DE, a philosophic naturalist, was born in 
 1683, at Rochelle ; studied under the Jesuits i 
 at Poitiers ; and afterwards went through a 
 course of law at Bourges. But his tastes led 
 him to the observation of nature ; and, hav- | 
 ing made himself acquainted with the ma- 1 
 tliematical sciences, he was chosen a member j 
 of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to which j 
 he had presented some memoirs on geometry, j 
 He discovered the art of manufacturing - 
 porcelain, of converting iron into steel, of , 
 tinning iron plates, and of making artificial 
 pearls. He ascertained, also, the existence | 
 of mines of turquoises in France equal to ■ 
 those of Persia ; and he invented a method i 
 of hatching eggs by artificial heat. But he i 
 
reb] 
 
 ^ i^etM Utxihcv&al 3$tograpf)p. 
 
 [rek 
 
 13 principally celebrated for being the first 
 who reduced thermometers to a common 
 standard ; and the instruments constructed 
 upon his principles still go by his name. 
 His chief works are, " Memoirs of his Dis- 
 coveries," " The History of Insects," 6 vols. ; 
 and a " History of the Auriferous Rivers of 
 France." 
 
 REBOIXEDO, Bernardin', Count de, a 
 Spauisli soldier, writer, and diplomatist, was 
 born at Leon, in 1597, and died at Madrid, 
 in 1(;"7. He rendered important services to 
 iiis country, and added to his fame by his 
 literary labours. His poetical productions 
 form 4 vols. 
 
 REDESDAI.E, Joh.v Freeman MiiFORn, 
 Buron, an eminent English lawyer and 
 statesman, was born in 1748. He was edu- 
 cated at New College, Oxford, and having 
 studied at Lincoln's Inn, he was called to 
 the bar. Devoting himself to chancery 
 practice, he soon obtained a high reptitation; 
 and, in 1782, he published " A Treatise on 
 Pleadings in Suits in the Court of Chan- 
 cery." He was afterwards made a Welsh 
 judge. In 1789 he M'as chosen M.P. for Beer- 
 alston ; in 1793 he was appointed solicitor- 
 general, and in that capacity he assisted in 
 conducting the state trials of Hardy, Home 
 Tooke, and Thelwall. He succeeded Sir 
 John Scott (.Lord Eldon) as attorney-gene- 
 ral in 1799 ; and in 1801, when he sat in 
 parliament for the borough of East Looe, he 
 was chosen speaker of the House of Com- 
 mons, on the resignation of Mr. Addington. 
 In 1802 he was raised to the peerage, and 
 made lord chancellor, and a member of the 
 privy council in Ireland ; but he resigned 
 the seals in March, 1806, in consequence of 
 the death of Mr. Pitt. He died in 18;». 
 
 REDI, Francis, an Italian physician and 
 naturalist, was born at Arezzo, in 162(5, and 
 became first physician to the Grand-duke of 
 Tusc;any. He distinguished himself as a 
 man of science, by his experiments on the 
 poison of tlie viper and the generation of 
 insects. Redi was also a good poet, and 
 cultivated the belles lettres with such suc- 
 cess, that the academy Delia Crusca, when 
 compiling their dictionary, were proud of 
 his assistance. Died, 1G98. 
 
 REDING, Aloys, Baron von, landemann 
 and general of the Swiss, was born in 17o.5. 
 On the invasion of Switzerland by the 
 French, in 1798, he commanded the troops 
 raised to repel them ; but though he ob- 
 tained some advantages over the enemy, his 
 forces were inadequate to the task assigned 
 them, and the Swiss were compelled to sub- 
 mission. Having afterwards endeavoured to 
 secure some degree of independence for his 
 country, Buonaparte had him arrested and 
 confined in the fortress of Arbourg, but he 
 was set at liberty in a few months. He 
 was subsequently at no pains to conceal 
 his antipathy to Buonaparte ; and he is 
 believed to have favoured the passage of 
 the allied troops through the Swiss territories 
 over tlie Rhine, after the campaign of 1813. 
 Died, 1818. 
 
 REDMAYNE, Jons, a learned divine, 
 born in Yorkshire, in 1490, was archdeacon 
 of Taunton, and a prebendary of Wells and 
 Westminster. He wrote some theological 
 
 721 
 
 works, and was one of the compilers of the 
 English liturgy. Died, 15.">1. 
 
 REED, IsAjkC, a critic and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in London, in 1742, and 
 brought up to the conveyancing business, | 
 which he relinquished for literary pursuits. 
 He published the poems of Lady Mary 
 Wortley Montagu, edited the Seatonian 
 prize poems, and revised and enlarged 
 Dodsley's " Old Plays." He afterwards also 
 published the "Biographia Dramatica," 2 
 vols. ; and four volumes of humorous pieces, 
 under the title of the " Repository ; " but the 
 work by which he is most advantageously 
 known is an edition of Shakspeare, in 10 
 vols., which he extended, afterwards, to 21 
 Yols., embodying in its pages all the most 
 valuable notes and elucidations of former 
 commentators, with much original informa- 
 tion. He was also a great book collector, in 
 which he displayed considerable judgment 
 and perseverance. At his death, in 1807, his 
 library was sohl by auction, and it took 39 
 days to dispose of it. 
 
 REED, JosEi'H, a dramatic writer, was 
 born at Stockton-upon-Tees, in 1743, and 
 carried on business as a rope-maker at Step- 
 ney, till liis death, in 1787. He was the 
 author of " Dido," a tragedy ; " Tom Jones," 
 a comic opera ; several farces, &c. 
 
 REES, Abraham, D. D., a dissenting mi- 
 nister, whose labours as an encyclopscdist 
 liave gained for him great and deserved 
 celebrity, was born in Montgomeryshire, in 
 1743. Being intended for the ministry, he 
 was educated at Mr. Coward's academy, at 
 Hoxton. On the death of Dr. Jennings, in 
 1702, though Mr. Rees was only 19 years of 
 age, he was appointed mathematical tutor 
 of that institution, which office he filled till 
 the academy was dissolved, in 1784. Soon 
 after this he became theological and philo- 
 sophical tutor in the new college, founded 
 at Hackney, which place he held till 179.5, 
 when that establishment also terminated. 
 In 1770 he was employed as editor of " Cham- 
 bers's Cyclopaedia," which he completed in 
 1786, in four vols, folio. After a lapse of 14 
 years, the proprietors embarked in a more 
 comprehensive undertaking, which also Dr. 
 Rees brought to a conclusion in 4r> vols. 4to. 
 Besides these great literary pciformances, he 
 published two volumes of "Practical Ser- 
 mons " and several other works. It was at 
 the express recommendatiou of Robertson, 
 the historian, that Dr. Rees obtained his 
 degree from the university of Edinburgh. 
 He officiated more than 40 years as minister 
 of the congregation in the Old Jewry, was 
 a fellow of the Royal Society and other 
 institutions, and died in 182.5. 
 
 REEVE, Clara, a novelist, was born at 
 Ipswich, in 1723, and was the daughter of a 
 clergyman, who gave her an excellent edu- 
 cation. She possessed great learning and 
 research, which she displayed in her first 
 literary essay, a translation of Barclay's 
 " Argenis." Among her subsequent produc- 
 tions are, " The Progress of Romance," 
 " Memoirs of Sir Roger de Clarendon," 4 
 vols., "The School for Widows," and the 
 well-known tale of "The Old English 
 Baron." Died, 1808. 
 
 REEVE, John, a celebrated comic actor, 
 
 3<J 
 
{fiiT many years the focus of attraction at 
 the Adclphi Theatre, in the Strand, and 
 whose matchless representation of burlesque 
 characters will long be remembered), was 
 born in London, in 1799 ; made his first ap- 
 pearance on the boards of Drury I^ane, as 
 " Sylvester Daggerwood," in 1819 ; was subse- 
 quently engaged at the ITaymarkct, English 
 Opera lloiise, and Adelphi ; and died, aged 
 38, in January, 1838. John Reeve was the 
 absolute liersonification of hilarious jollity 
 and genuine good-humour; nnd was as 
 much beloved by his private^ friends for his 
 frank and generous disposition, as he was 
 admired by the public for his facetious 
 drollery. 
 
 REEVES, John, the founder of the cele- 
 brated association for protecting liberty and 
 property against republicans and levellers, 
 was born in 17.52, and died in 1829. This 
 gentleman was called to the bar in 1780, but 
 discontinued the active practice of his pro- 
 fession, and was deputed by government to 
 regulate the administration of justice in 
 Newfoundland, for which purpose he made 
 two voyages tliere. Soon after his return 
 from the first, he published " The History of 
 the Law of Shipping and Navigation," a 
 work that proved highly useful. But having, 
 in 1795, published a pamphlet, entitled 
 " Thoughts on the English Government," in 
 which an alleged libellous passage appeared, 
 the author was prosecuted by order of the 
 House of Commons, and underwent his trial 
 at Guildhall, when he was acquitted. He 
 was appointed one of the king's printers in 
 1799, and from 1803 to 1814 lie had an ap- 
 pointment in the alien office. 
 
 REGA, Henut Joseph, a benevolent 
 physician of Louvaln, where he was born 
 in "l(i90. He was no less distinguished by 
 his talents, than by the zeal with which he 
 conseerated his time and fortune to the 
 consolation and relief of the afflicted. He 
 was the author of "De Sympathia," &c. 
 Died, 1754. 
 
 REGIS, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, 
 who went as a missionary to China. He 
 was distinguished for his skill in geography, 
 and drew up for the use of his brethren a 
 general map and description of the Chinese 
 empire. He took part in the discussions of 
 the missionaries with the emperor Young- 
 tching, in 1724, concerning the proscription 
 of the Christian religion in China ; but the 
 date of his death is not recorded. 
 
 REGIS, PiEKRE SvLVAix, a French phi- 
 losopher, was born at Agenois, in 1G32. 
 After studying in the Sorbonne, he read 
 lectures upon and espoused the Cartesian 
 philosophy, till interdicted from doing so 
 by the royal mandate. He, however, pub- 
 lished an elaborate view of that system, in 
 3 vols. 4to. ; and wrote several defences of it, 
 in answer to Huet, Du Hamel, and others. 
 Died, 1707. 
 
 REGIUS, Urban, or Ee Roi, a learned 
 poet and controversialist, distinguished also 
 as one of the early reformers, was born at 
 Langenargen, in Germany. He completed 
 his studies at Ingoldstadt, under Eckius; and 
 when tlie emperor Maximilian visited tliat 
 university, he made Regius liis poet laureate 
 and orator. He afterwards obtained a pro- 
 
 fessorship ; but when the controversy arose 
 between Luther and Eckius, the reformed 
 doctrines operated so strongly upon his con- 
 Tiction, that he sided with tlie former against 
 his old tutor in polemics. In 1530 he ac- 
 cepted an invitation from the Duke of 
 Brunswick to settle as pastor of the church 
 of Lnnenberg, and died in 1541. 
 
 REGNARD, John Fuancis, a comic 
 writer, was born at Paris, in 1655. He went 
 to Italy about 1076, and was returning home 
 with considerable property, when he was 
 captured by an Algerine corsair, and sold for 
 a slave. During his captivity, he obtained 
 the favour of his master by his skill in 
 cookery ; but being caught in an intrigue 
 with one of the women, he was required to 
 turn Mahometan, or suffer death. The 
 French consul, however, saved him by pay- 
 ing his ransom ; and Regnard returned to 
 France about 1081. After this he wrote a 
 number of successful comedies, besides poems 
 and other works ; was made a treasurer nf 
 France, and lieutenant of the waters and 
 forests ; and died in 1709. 
 
 REGNAULT, Michael Louis Stephen, 
 a French advocate and statesmon, was born 
 at St. Jean d'Angeli, in 1760. Having dis- 
 tinguished himself at the bar, he was chosen 
 a deputy of the states-general from the 
 tiers ^tat of the country of Aunis, and be- 
 came the editor of a daily paper called the 
 Journal de Versailles. He was proscribed 
 in 1792, and being discovered and arrested 
 at Douai, he did not obtain his liberty till 
 after the fall of Robespierre. During the 
 consulate and imperial sway of Buonaparte 
 he was honoured and promoted, and ac- 
 quitted himself with great ability as attor- 
 ney-general. &c. Although he foresaw the 
 fall of Napoleon on the opening of the 
 Russian campaign, he continued faithful to 
 his interests, and followed Maria Louisa to 
 Blois. After the battle of Waterloo he 
 pleaded for the resignation of Buonaparte 
 in favour of his son ; and his proposition 
 being rejected, he quitted France for Ame- 
 rica, where he remained four years. He 
 at length, in 1819, obtained permission to 
 return ; but being in the last stage of sick- 
 ness when he lauded, he expired in a few 
 hours after his arrival. 
 
 REGNAULT, Noel, a learned mathe- 
 matician and philosopher, was born at Arras, 
 in 1683 ; belonged to the society of Jesuits ; 
 and died at Paris, in 1762. The study of 
 philosophy occupied most of his time, though 
 not to the exclusion of religious and moral 
 duties. He published several scientific and 
 metaph3'sical works, the principal of wliich 
 are his " Philosophical Conversations." 3 
 vols., and his " Ancient Origin of the New 
 Philosophy." 3 vols. 
 
 REGNIER, Claude Ambrose, duke of 
 Massa, minister of justice under the govern- 
 ment of Napoleon, was born at Biamont, in 
 La Meurthe, in 1736 ; practised as an advocate 
 at Nancy, was a member of the constituent 
 assembly, retired from public affairs during 
 the reign of terror ; but, after the fall of 
 Robespierre, became a member of the council 
 of ancients, and took an active part in the 
 senate. He assisted in the elevation of 
 Buonaparte as first consul ; and, in 1802, he 
 
REG] 
 
 ^ j5[clj) Hm'ljcrjsfal Uiosrajpl^i?. 
 
 [rem 
 
 was appointed grand judge, minister of 
 justice, &c. In 1813 he became president of 
 the legislative body, and died in the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 REGNIER, Mathukin, a French poet, 
 and the first who succeeded in France as a 
 satirist, was bom at Clmrtres, in 1573. He 
 was brouglit up to the cliurch, which he 
 disgraced by his debaucheries ; yet he ob- 
 tained a canonry in the cathedral of hia 
 native place, with other benefices, and a 
 pension. Died, 1613. His "Satires" still 
 retain a pluce in the standard literature of 
 his country. 
 
 REGULITS, Marcus Attilius, a Roman 
 general, celebrated for liis patriotism and 
 devotion in the service of his country, was 
 made consul a second time about '2.'>6 b. C, 
 and with his colleague, Manlius Vulso, com- 
 manded in the first war against Carthage. 
 Made prisoner by his opponents, he was sent 
 to Rome with an embassy, that peace might 
 be procured on favourable terms, and bound 
 himself, by an oath, to return if the terms 
 were rejected. He, however, considered it 
 his duty to advise the continuance of tlic 
 war ; which being determined on, no en- 
 treaties or sut)pliciition8 could prevent liim 
 from fulfilling his solemn engagement ; and 
 the Carthaginians, on his return, put him to 
 an ignominious and cruel death. 
 
 REICHARD, Hksky Augustus Otto- 
 CAit, a German writer, was born at Ootha, 
 in 17.">1, and died in 1828. He is extensively 
 known by his "Traveller's Guide in Eu- 
 rope," 2 vols. He also wrote poems, come- 
 dies, &c. ; and held a considerable office in 
 the government of Saxe-Gotha. 
 
 REICll^VRDT, John Fkedekic, a mu- 
 sical composer and author, was born at 
 Konigsberg, in 17.51 ; studied under Kant, 
 was for a long time director of the Italian 
 opera at Berlin, and subsequently had the 
 direction of the French and German theatres 
 at Cassel. Among his compositions, which 
 are very numerous, are the " Tamerlane " of 
 Morel, and the " Panthea" of Berquin. His 
 literary productions are, " Familiar I^etters 
 written during a Journey in France in 1792, 
 and again in 1H03 and 1804," 5 vols. ; " Fami- 
 liar l^etters on Vienna," &c. ; and " Napoleon 
 Buonaparte and the French People under 
 his Consulate," &c. Died, 1814. 
 
 REICliENBACII, Geokge of, a distin- 
 guished mechanical artist, was born at 
 Manheim, in 1772, and died at Municli, in 
 182'i. He and his coadjutor, Fraunhofer, were 
 unsurpassed in the manufacture of optical 
 instruments generally, and quite unrivalled 
 in the execution of telescopes, lielioineters, 
 theodolites, &c. 
 
 RE ID, Thomas, a celebrated Scotch di- 
 vine and metaphysician, was born in 1709, 
 at Strachan, in Kincardineshire, and edu- 
 cated at the Marischal College, Aberdeen. 
 In 1704 he succeeded Adam Smith as pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy at Glasgow, and 
 died in 179o. His principal works are, " An 
 Inquiry into the Human Mind" and "Essays 
 on the Intellectual and Active Powers of 
 Man." Dr. Rcid was the first writer in Scot- 
 land who attacked the scepticism of Hume, 
 and endeavoured to refute the Ideal theory 
 which was then prevalent. 
 
 \\z' 
 
 REIGNY, Louis Abel Beffroi, an ec- 
 centric and fertile French writer, commonly 
 called Cousin Jaques, was lK>rn at I>aon, in 
 1757, and died at Charenton, in 1810. He 
 was the author of several successful plays 
 and works of a burlesque character ; and he 
 commenced a periodical publication, entitled 
 " Dictionnaire des Honmies et des Choses," 
 which, on account of its offensive politics, 
 was suppressed. 
 
 REINECCIUS, Reinier, a German wri- 
 ter, was a native of Steinheim, and the 
 disciple of Melanchthon. He taught the 
 belles lettres, first at Frankfort and next at 
 Ilelmstadt. where he died, in 1595. 
 
 RE IN HOLD, Erasmus, a German ma- 
 thematician and astronomer, was born at 
 Salfeldt, in Thnringia, in 1511 ; became pro- 
 fessor of niatliematics at Witteml)erg, and 
 died there in 1553. His works arc, " The- 
 oria nova Planetarum," "Ptolemy's Alma- 
 gest, with a Latin version," "PrutcniciB 
 Tabulaa Cocleslium Motuum," and "Piimus 
 Liber Tabnlarum Directionum." 
 
 REISKE, John James, an eminent phi- 
 lologist and oriental scholar, was born at 
 Zorbig, in Saxony, in 171(5 ; studied at Halle 
 and Leipsic, became Arabic professor at the 
 latter place, was appointed rector of the 
 college of St. Nicholas, and died in 1774. 
 His works and translations of classic authors | 
 are numerous and erudite : among them are i 
 valuable editions of the "Moslem Aimals of 
 Abulfeda," the " Greek Anthology," " Plu- 
 tarch," the " Greek Orators," &c. He was 
 assisted in his researches by his wife, Eunes- 
 TiNA Christina, who learned Greek and 
 Latin for the express purpose ; and after his 
 death she completed some of his under- 
 takings, and published his autobiography. 
 
 REIZ, or REITZ, Frederic WoM'Gang, 
 a German philologist, born in 1733. He 
 successively held the professorships of phi- 
 losophy, Latin and Greek, and poetry, in the 
 university of Leipsic, of the library of which 
 he was also director. He edited the works 
 of Herodotus and some other classic authors. 
 Died, 1790. 
 
 RE LAND, Adrian, a learned orientalist, 
 was born at Alkmaer, in lfi7C. He studied 
 at Amsterdam, Utrecht, and I^eydcn ; and 
 was successively professor of philosophy at 
 Hanlerwick, and of oriental languages and 
 ecclesiastical liistory at Utrecht, wliere he 
 died in 1718. Among his works arc, " De 
 Religione Mohammedica," "Dissertationum 
 Miscellanearum, " " Antiquitates Sacise 
 Veterum IlebriEOmm, " " Dissertationes 
 quinque de Nummis Veterum Hebrae- 
 orum," " Palsstina ex Monumentis veteri- 
 bus iliustrata et Chartis Geographicis," &c. 
 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 REMBRANDT VAN RHYN, Paul, one 
 of the most celebrate painters and engravers 
 of the Dutch school, was born in lOOt!, near 
 Leydcn. His passionate love for art disap- 
 pointed his father's desire of educating him 
 as a scholar ; but he received some instruc- 
 tion in the art of painting from Peter Last- 
 mann of Amsterdam, but soon returned 
 home, and pursued his labours there, taking 
 nature as his sole guide. He came into 
 notice by taking a picture to the Hague, 
 where a dealer gave him 100 florins for it ; 
 
 Sq 2 
 
rem] 
 
 ^ iHciu Bnibtr^aX 23t00rajp!;i). 
 
 [ren 
 
 which circumstance procured him employ- 
 ! ment and pupils. Kembrandt was master of 
 I all that relates to colouring, distribution of 
 > liyht and shade, and the management of the 
 I pencil, and though he was deficient in some 
 ! of the otlier requisites of a true artist, it can- 
 I not be denied, that his pencil is masterly and 
 I unique, possessing an energy and effect be- 
 1 longing to no other painter. His etchings 
 j possess a wonderful freedom, facility, and 
 ' boldness, and are truly picturesque. Rem- 
 ; brandt married the handsome daughter of a 
 ' peasant, who used to sit to him as a model. 
 He resided during the greater part of his life 
 at Amsterdam, and he soon acquired a large 
 fortune. His habits, however, were low, 
 and his avarice insatiable ; so that he lived 
 like a beggar, and descended to the meanest 
 tricks to increase his hoard. He died in 
 1G74. or. according to some accounts, in 1688. 
 REMIGIUS, St., or REMI, was arch- 
 bishop of Rheims, and converted king Clovis 
 
 to Christianity. He died in 15;!3 Tliere 
 
 was another St. Remigius, who was arch- 
 bishop of Lyons in the 9th century. He de- 
 fended St. Augustine's doctrine of grace and 
 predestination against Godeschalc, and pre- 
 sided at the council of Valence in 855. Died, 
 87«. 
 
 REMIGIUS. of Auxerre, a learned Bene- 
 dictine of the 9th century, was brought up in 
 the abbey of St. Germaine ; but afterwards 
 he taught at Rheims, and next at Paris, where 
 he opened the first public school in that city. 
 He wrote several commentaries on diiferent 
 portions of Scripture. 
 
 REMUSAT, Jean Pierre Abel, an emi- 
 nent linguist, was born at Paris, in 1788. 
 He was professor of the Chinese and Tartar 
 languages at the College de France ; was 
 admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions 
 in 181(5 ; and, after Visconti's death, in 1818, 
 he was appointed editor of the Journal des 
 Savans. His principal works are, " Essai sur 
 la Langue et Litterature Chinoises," " Plan 
 d'un Dictionnaire Chinois," " Melanges 
 Asiatiques," and " Comtes Cliinois," 3 vols. 
 Died, 1832. 
 
 RENAU D'ELISAGARAY, Ber^'ard, 
 an able French naval architect, was born in 
 Beam, in 1652. He was employed at Brest 
 in the construction of large sliips ; and, in 
 1680, he conceived the idea of bomb- vessels, 
 which were used at the bombardment of 
 Algiers, and the success of which led to his 
 being appointed to conduct several sieges 
 under Vauban. For these services he was 
 made a captain in the navy, honoured with 
 the cross of St. Louis, and rewarded with a 
 pension of 12,000 livres. He wrote " Theorie 
 de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," and died 
 in 1719. 
 
 RENAUDOT, Tiieophrastus, a phy- 
 sician, was bom at Loudun, in 1583 ; and 
 died at Paris, in 1653. He was the first pro- 
 jector of gazettes, or newspapers, in France, 
 which he published under the title of" Mer- 
 cure Fran?oise," from 1635 to 1643.. He was 
 the author of a " Life of Henry II., Prince of 
 
 Conde," and other biographical works 
 
 His son EusEBius, who died in 1720, was a 
 learned oriental scholar. He became prior 
 of Frossey, in Bretagne ; was admitted a 
 member of the academy Delia Crusca, and of 
 
 that of the Inscriptions ; and was the author 
 of several works illustrative of the literature 
 and manners of the East. 
 
 RENNEL, Major Joiix, was born at 
 Chudleigh, in Devonshire, in 1742 ; first en- 
 tered the naval service as a midshipman, 
 and served in India, but quitted it for the 
 East India Company's military service, and 
 became surveyor-general of Bengal. Re- 
 turning to England in 1782, he was elected a 
 member of the Royal Society ; and from 
 this period he held an extensive correspond- 
 ence with men of learning both at home 
 and abroad. He now published his cele- 
 brated " Memoir and Map of Hindostan," 
 and he assisted in the formation of the Asiatic 
 Society. He was also the author of " Obser- 
 vations on the Topography of the Plain of 
 Troy," three memoirs on the " Geography of 
 Africa," the " Geographical System of Hero- 
 dotus explained," and tlie " Marches of the 
 British army in the Peninsula of India." lie 
 died in ]8;50. 
 
 RENNELL, Thomas, D.D., dean of Win- 
 chester, and one of the most learned and 
 eloquent preachers of his time, was born, 
 1753. In 1786 he was inducted to the living 
 of Alton, in Hampshire ; and in 1805 he was 
 appointed to the deanery of Winchester, by 
 his admirer and friend, Mr. Pitt. Though 
 his scholarship was at once profound and 
 various, lie published nothing but a volume 
 of sermons, principally a selection from those 
 which he preached at the Temple church, 
 London, and in the cathedral of Winchester. 
 The perusal of this one volume causes us to 
 regret that he publislied no more ; for in ad- 
 dition to the most fervent and sound piety, 
 couched in the most glowing and nervous 
 language, they incidentally afford abundant 
 proof of the correctness of an opinion given 
 by a contemporary writer, that, "both as a 
 theologian and a scholar, in the most com- 
 prehensive sense of the words. Dr. Rennell 
 was one of the most remarkable and accom- 
 plished men of the age." Late in life he 
 lost his wife, the daughter of Sir William 
 Blackstone. Died, 1840. 
 
 RENNELL, Thomas, son of Dr. Rennell, 
 the learned and venerable dean of Win- 
 chester, was born in that city, in 1787, and 
 was i)laced at an early age at Eton, where 
 he distinguished himself by his proficiency 
 in classical literature, and obtained Dr. Bu- 
 chanan's prize for the best Greek Sapphic 
 ode " On the Propagation of the Gospel in 
 India." In 1806 he removed to King's 
 College, Cambridge, and two years after 
 gained the Brunonian prize for the best 
 Greek ode. On taking his first degree, he 
 entered into orders, and became assistant 
 preaclier to his father at the Temple church; 
 in 1811 he published " Animadversions on 
 the Unitarian Version of the New Testa- 
 ment ; " about which time he undertook the 
 editorship of the British Critic. In 1818 he 
 was presented to the vicarage of Kensington, 
 and in the same year he was elected Chris- 
 tian advocate in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, in which capacity he published two 
 excellent treatises ; one, entitled " Remarks 
 on Scepticism, especially as connected with 
 the Subjects of Organisation and Life ;" the 
 other, " Proofs of Inspiration on the Grounds 
 
ren] 
 
 SI jJclD ?auitjrri^al 3iJt0grai)I)y. 
 
 [reu 
 
 of Distinction between the New Testament 
 
 and the Apocryphal Volume." In 1S2;J, Mr. 
 
 Rennell was presented to tlie mastership of 
 
 St. Nicliolas's liospital, and a prebend in 
 
 Salisbury cathedral ; but a violent attack of 
 
 i fever, which terminated in a gradual decline, 
 
 j put an end to the hopes of his friends and 
 
 admirers in the following year. He died at 
 
 Winchester, June, 1824, just as he had com- 
 
 I pletcd his Inst work, a new translation of 
 
 j "Munster's Narrative of the Conversion of 
 
 Count Struensee." 
 I KENNIE, Joiisr, a celebrated civil en- 
 gineer and mechanist, was born at Fhan- 
 tas^ie, in East J^otliian, settled in London 
 in I7So, and first became known by tlie 
 talent he displayed in the construction of 
 the Albion Mills. His next concern was in 
 superintending the new machinery of Whit- 
 bread's brewery, tlie execution of which 
 increased his fame. He soon, however, be- 
 came eminent in labours of a superior kind, 
 and stood at the head of the civil engineers 
 of this country. Among his public works 
 may be mentioned, Kamsgate Harbour ; 
 Waterloo, South wark, and New London 
 I Bridges ; the Breakwater at Plymouth ; the 
 Crinan, Lancaster, Kennet, and Avon, and 
 other canals ; and several docks and har- 
 bours, among which arc those of I^ondon, 
 Hull, and Sheerness. But the Bell Rock 
 Lighthouse, constructed on the same prin- 
 ciple as that of the Eddystone, will, perhaps, 
 be deemed the gieatest effort of his genius. 
 For steady resolution and inflexible perse- 
 verance Mr. Kennie was rarely surpassed ; 
 and it was these qualities, combined with 
 eminent natural talents, that so udmirably 
 fitted him to contend with or guard against 
 the great pliysical operations of nature — 
 coniining torrents williin specific bounds, or 
 subduing tlie violence of the most boisterous 
 seas. Died, 1821. 
 
 RENTI, Gaston Jean Baptiste, Baron 
 de, a Eronch nobleman of tlie 17th century, 
 remarkable for his ascetic piety. After 
 serving witli distinction in the wars of Lor- 
 raine, and obtaining the approbation of his 
 sovereign, he determined to retire from the 
 world ; and, from the age of 27, he devoted 
 the remainder of his life to works of charity, 
 religious exercises, and mortification. He 
 died in 1649. An abridgment of his life by 
 de St. Jure, a Jesuit, was published by the 
 celebrated John Wesley. 
 
 REPNIN, Nicholas Wasimewitscii, 
 Prince, lx)rn in 1731, was a Russian field- 
 marshal, and served under Peter I. He 
 was afterwards appointed by Catliarine II. 
 assistant to the Russian ambassudor at the 
 elevation of Stanislaus to the throne of Po- 
 land, in 1704, and he sul)sequently became 
 Russian minister at Warsaw. He was soon 
 after this employed on diplomatic missions 
 at Constantinople and Breslau. In 1789 he 
 succeeded Count Romanzoff in the command 
 of the army of the Ukraine, and in 1791 he 
 defeated tlie grand vizir Yusuf; but having 
 offended Prince Poteinkin, he was disgraced 
 and banished to Moscow ; whence, however, 
 he was recalled to be made governor of 
 Livonia. In 1790, Paul I. promoted Prince 
 Repiiin to the rank of a field-marshal, and 
 in 1798 sent him on a secret mission to Ber- 
 
 lin ; but l)eing unsuccessful in his endeavours 
 to prevail on the Prussians to join the con- 
 federacy against France, he was on his return 
 ordered to retire to Moscow, where he died 
 in 1801. 
 
 REPTON, HuMPHREy, a private gentle- 
 man, distinguished by his skill in orna- 
 mental gardening and architecture, was born 
 at Bury St. Edmunds, in 1702. In 1783 he 
 accomjiauied Mr. Windham to Ireland, and 
 for a i^hort time held a situation at Dublin, 
 under government. On his return to Eng- 
 land, he adopted the profession of landscape 
 gardening, in which he soon obtained ex- 
 tensive celebrity. He published several 
 works on miscellaneous subjects, but his 
 principal productions are on the theory and 
 practice of his art. Died, 1818. 
 
 REQUENDO, Vincknte, a learned Spa- 
 nish Jesuit, born at Grenada, in lliU). He 
 had a great taste for tlie tine arts, and pub- 
 lished an elaborate work on the "Roman 
 Antiquities in Spain ; " but he is best known 
 by his " Saggi sul ristabilimento dell' anlica 
 Arte de' Greci, e de' Romaui Pittori," 2 vols.i. 
 in which he proposed to restore the Grecian 
 and Roman art of painting. Died, 1792. 
 
 RESTOUT, John, a French painter, was 
 born at Rouen, in 1G92, became director of 
 the Academy of Paintings and died in 1708. 
 
 His son, who was also a good painter, 
 
 and a member of the Academy, died at Paris 
 in 1797. 
 
 RETZ, Joir.v Francis Paul de Goxdi, a 
 French cardinal, and a celebrated iKilitical 
 character, was born at Montmirail, in 1013 ; 
 became coadjutor to his uncle, the arch- 
 bishop of Paris ; and, after many intrigues, 
 and fighting several duels, he was made 
 archbishop of Corinth and a cardinal. He 
 conspired against the lite of Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, and took a prominent part in opposing 
 JIazarin during the minority of Louis XIV. 
 In short, he was the Catiline of the day. At 
 length Mazarin, who both hated and feared 
 him, imprisoned him in the castle of Vin- 
 cennes, whence he was removed to Nantes, 
 from which he escaped, and subsequently 
 travelled through Holland, Flanders, and 
 England. In 1075 he wished to give up his 
 cardinal's hat, and retire from the world, 
 but the pope would not receive it ; and as 
 the latter years of Ms life made some amends 
 for his former crimes, he died regretted, at 
 Paris, in 1079. He was daring, turbulent, 
 and intriguing ; and in his " Memoirs," 
 which were written by himself during his 
 retirement fiom the busy scenes of public 
 life, he haa drawn his own portrait with con- 
 siderable skill and impartiality. 
 
 REUCULIN, John, a celebrated German 
 philologist, born at Pfortzheim, in 1455. 
 Having studied the law, and obtained the 
 diploma of licentiate in that faculty at 
 Poictiers, he was employed in several di- 
 plomatic missions ; and while at Rome with 
 Everard, count of Wirtemberg, he was re- 
 ceived with the distinction due to his talents, 
 and was particularly noticed by Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, at Florence. After the renewal of 
 the league of Suabia, in 15(X), Reuchlin was 
 appointed judge of a tribunal at Tubingen, 
 which office he held eleven years. In his 
 old age he was reduced to poverty, and was 
 
 3 Q 3 
 
REU] 
 
 ^ l^ciM Slm'tjcr^al 3Bt05rapT)i|. 
 
 [ret 
 
 persecuted by the ecclesiastics for opposing 
 Pfeflfcrcorn's design of burning all the Jew- 
 ish books except the Bible. Reuchlin was 
 the preceptor of Melanchthon, and died in 
 1522. He composed the first Hebrew gram- 
 mar and lexicon for the use of Christians, and 
 he was the author of several other works. 
 
 REUVENS, Joiix EvEUAKD, one of the 
 most profound lawyers Holland ever pro- 
 duced, was born at Haarlem, in 1763 ; stu- 
 died at Leyden ; acquired great reputation 
 at the Hague as an advocate ; and was ap- 
 pointed, in 1795, counsellor to the court of 
 justice of the province of Holland. In 1801 
 he became president of the high court of 
 justice i and under the regal government, in 
 180G, he was nominated counsellor of state 
 extraordinary, and subsequently vice-presi- 
 dent of the council. On the union of Hol- 
 land to France, in 1810, he became president 
 of the court of appeal at the Hague ; but was 
 soon after invited to Paris, and made coun- 
 sellor of the court of cassation ; which otflce 
 he relinquished, when, in 1814, the inde- 
 pendence of his native country was secured, 
 and veturned to the presidency he had 
 quitted at the Hague. He went to Brus- 
 sels in 1816, on a legal mission, and there 
 perished, the victim of a dark conspiracy, the 
 autliorsof whicli liave never been discovered. 
 His judicial and jjolitical knowledge enabled 
 liim to fill his different offices with vigour 
 and ability ; and he earned a lasting repu- 
 tation by the criminal code of the Nether- 
 lands, which may be said to be almost en- 
 tirely his work. 
 
 REVELEY, WiLLEY, an English archi- 
 tect and antiquary, was a pupil of Sir Wil- 
 liam Chambers. He accompanied Mr. Stuart 
 to Greece, and completed the great work on 
 the " Antiquities of Athens " left by that 
 eminent artist. Mr. Reveley built the church 
 of All Saints at Southampton, and various 
 other structures. Died, 1799. 
 
 RE VELLIERE-LEPAUX, Louis Marik, 
 one of the members of the French directory, 
 was born at Montaigne, in 1753, and brought 
 up to the profession of the law. On the 
 breaking out of the revolution, he displayed 
 great ardour in supporting popular opinions; 
 became a member of the Constituent Assem- 
 bly ; and, in 1792, of the National Conven- 
 tion. He procured the decree of the conven- 
 tion, purporting " that the French nation 
 would give assistance to all oppressed people 
 who wished to recover their liberty ; " and 
 voted for the death of the king, and against 
 the appeal to the people. He afterwards 
 opposed Dan ton, and in vain defended the 
 proscribed Girondists ; was compelled to 
 seek for safety in concealment, but returned 
 to Paris after the death of Robespierre. On 
 the creation of the Institute, he was nomi- 
 nated a member of the class of moral and 
 political sciences ; advocated some religious 
 ceremonies which resembled the principles 
 of the theophilanthropiste ; and was repre- 
 , sented as the liigh-priest of that once preva- 
 lent sect. He refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance to Napoleon required from the 
 I members of the Institute, and retired to the 
 j neighbourhood of Orleans, where he lived 
 I in obscurity for a time ; afterwards returned 
 I to Paris, and died in 1824. He left " Me- 
 
 moirs," witli directions for their being pub- 
 lished at II future time. 
 
 REVVBELL, Jkan Baptiste, one of the 
 directors of the French republic, was born at 
 Colmar, in 1746. On Ijeing chosen a deputy 
 from the tiers etat to the states-general in 
 1789, he displayed a decided enmity to the 
 existing government. He became attorney- 
 general syndic of the department of the 
 Upper Rhine ; and on being nominated a 
 deputy to the convention in 1792, he voted 
 for the establishment of a republic, and 
 strenuously recommended the trial of Louis 
 XVI. After filling several important situ- 
 ations, he was at length raised by his col- 
 leagues to the highest magistracy of the 
 state. He held the office of director till 1799, 
 when he was replaced by the Abbe Sieyes ; 
 and he died in comparative obscurity, in 
 1801. 
 
 REY, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French 
 musician, was born at Lauzerte, in 1734. 
 While at Nantes, his reputation as a com- 
 poser having reached the ears of the court, 
 he was sent for, and appointed chamber- 
 musician to the king, with a salary of 2000 
 francs ; and though the revolution inter- 
 fered with his promised advancement in the 
 royal household, he continued to direct the 
 opera orchestra for more than thirty-five 
 years, and vmder Napoleon was appointed to 
 superintend tliat of the chapel royal. He 
 composed a number of operas, &c.,'and died 
 in 1810. 
 
 REY, Joii.v, a French physician, of the 
 17tli century, who may be regarded as one of 
 the precursors of the science of pneumatic 
 chemistry. He published an interesting 
 work in 1630, by which it appears he had 
 discovered that the increase of weight in cal- 
 cined metals arises from the absorption and 
 solidification of air ; and on this the anti- 
 phlogistic theory of chemistry is, in a great 
 measure, founded. He died in 1645. 
 
 REYNEAU, Chaui.es Ren^, an eminent 
 French mathematician, was born at Brissac, 
 in 1656, and entered into the congregation of I 
 the Oratory. Having become well ac- 
 quainted with geometry, and studied the 
 Cartesian philosophy, he taught mathema- 
 tics and physics at Toulon and Angers. lie 
 was the author of " Analyse D(5montree," 2 
 vols. 4to. ; and " Science du Calcul des 
 Grandeurs." Died, 1728. 
 
 REYNER, Edward, a Nonconformist 
 divine, was born in Yorkshire, and educated 
 at Cambridge, where he took his degrees in 
 arts, and, about 1627, settled at Lincoln ; but 
 in 1662 was ejected from his living, and died 
 soon after. He wrote " Precepts for Chris- 
 tian Practice," " Vindication of Human 
 Learning and Universities," &c. 
 
 REYNIER, John Louis Ebenezer, a 
 French general, was born at Lausanne, in 
 1771. He entered into the army, and in 
 the early campaigns of the French republic 
 he so far signalised himself, as to be ap- 
 pointed a general of brigade during the con- 
 quest of Holland in 1794. He afterwards 
 served under Moreau, as chief of the staff ; 
 and in the memorable retreat in 1796, as well 
 as on other occasions, gave proofs of liis su- 
 perior military talents. In 1798 he accom- 
 panied Buonaparte to Egypt, was present 
 
^ ^tto ?lTnibcri!^aT 23i0tp:apl)ii. 
 
 [rhi 
 
 at the battle of tlic Pyramids, commanded 
 ' for a time at Acre, overthrew the junizza- 
 I ries, and thus contributed greatly to the 
 I victory of lleliopolis ) but having subse 
 I quently quarrelled with General Menou, he 
 j Mas coolly received by Buonaparte on his 
 I return to France. Having killed General 
 d'Estaign in a duel, he was exiled from 
 ; Paris ; but in 1805 he was recalled, and 
 I served in Italy. Soon after, he entered into 
 i the service of Joseph Buonaparte, at that 
 1 time king of Naples, and was defeated by the 
 j English, under General Stuart, at the battle 
 of Maida. He commanded the Saxons at 
 ! the battle of Wagram ; was engaged, in 
 I 1812, in the Russian campaign ; was made 
 i prisoner at tlie battle of Leipsic ; and, on 
 I being exchanged, he went to Paris, where he 
 I died in 1814. 
 
 REYNOLDS, Edwahp, an English pre- 
 I late, was born at Southampton, in 1505. He 
 was one of the assembly of divines, and be- 
 came bishop of Norwich, where he died, in 
 1(J7(). 
 
 REYNOLDS, Sir JosinjA, an eminent 
 English painter, equal in many points to 
 the " old masters," and often excelling them 
 in grace, in taste, and in the harmony of 
 colouring, was the son of a clergyman at 
 Plympton, in Devonshire, where he was 
 born, in 1723. He early discovered a predi- 
 lection for theartof drawing, which induced 
 his father to place him, at the age of 17, with 
 Hudson, the most famous portrait painter 
 in London, with whom he remained three 
 years, and then, upon some disagreement, 
 returned home. He then proceeded to Rome, 
 in which capital, and other parts of Italy, he 
 spent three years. On his return to London, 
 his talent placed him at the head of the 
 English portrait painters ; and being a man 
 of literary abilities and an amiable com- 
 panion, as well as a flrst-rate artist, he soon 
 numbered among his intimate friends, several 
 of the most distinguished characters of the 
 day. Rejecting the stiff, unvaried, and un- 
 ! meaning attitudes of former artists, he gave 
 I to his iigiires air and action adapted to their 
 I characters, and thus invested them with 
 something of the dignity of history. When 
 j the Royal Academy was instituted, in 17G8, 
 I he was imanimously chosen president, and 
 j was knighted ; and although it was no pre- 
 j scribed part of his duty to read lectures, yet 
 i his zeal for the advancement of the fine arts 
 j induced him to deliver annual or biennial 
 i discourses before the academy on the prin- 
 ciples and practice of painting. Of these he 
 • pronounced fifteen, from 1709 to 1790, which 
 ' were published in two sets, and form a 
 standard work. He was a member of the 
 I celebrated club which contained the names 
 of Johnson, Garrick, Burke, and others of the 
 first rank of literary eminence, and seems to 
 have been universally beloved and respected 
 by his associates. In 1773 the university of 
 Oxford conferred on Sir Joshua the honorary 
 degree of doctor of laws, and in 1783 he was 
 appointed principal painter to the king. 
 This great artist died unmarried, at his house 
 in Leicester Square, Feb. 23. 1792, and was 
 buried in St. Paul's cathedral. Speaking of 
 his talents and his general character, Burke 
 happily remarks, " lie had too much merit 
 
 not to excite some jealousy ; too much inno- 
 cence to provoke any enmity." 
 
 REYRAC, Francis Philip Laureits de, 
 a French ecclesiastic, was born at Longville, 
 in the Limousin, in 1734. He became canon 
 regular of Chancelade, prior of St. Maclou, 
 at Orleans, and an associate of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. He is principally known by 
 his " Hymns to tiie Sun," in the florid prose 
 style of Fenelon. He also wrote " Idylls in 
 prose," " Sacred Poems," &c. Died, 1782. 
 
 REYS, A>TO>'io DOS, a learned Portu- 
 guese divine, was born at Pernes, near Sau- 
 tarem, in 1(J90. He became historiogrnpher 
 to the congregation of the Oratory, chrono- 
 logist of the kingdom, and a member of the 
 Portuguese Academy of History. Among 
 his works are, " Latin Poems," " Life of Fer- 
 dinand de Meiiezes," " Corpus illustrium 
 Poetarum Lusitauorum," 7 vols. &c. Died, 
 1738. 
 
 REZZONICO, Anthony Joseph, Count, 
 an Italian nobleman, born at Como, in 1709. 
 He became marshal of the camp, chamber- 
 lain to the Duke of Parma, and governor of 
 the citadel. He devoted much of his time to 
 literary pursuits, and produced several works, 
 among which are two volumes of poems 
 possessing considerable merit. Died, 1795. 
 
 RHAZES, or ALBUBECAR MOHAM- 
 MED, an Arabian physician, was born in 
 Khorasan about 852, and resided at Bagdad, 
 where he was superintendant of the public 
 hospital. He was the first who gave a dis- 
 tinct account of the small-pox, which disease 
 made its first appearance in Egypt, in the 
 reign of the caliph Omar. Died, 932. 
 
 RHEINEK, Christopher, a German 
 musical composer, born at Memmingen, in 
 1748. Me produced the operas of "Le Nou- 
 veau Pygmalion," "LeFils Reconnoissant," 
 and "Rinaldo;" besides the oratorio, "Der 
 Todgesang Jcsu," and a collection of songs, 
 in 4 vols. Died, 179C. 
 
 RHIGAS, or RIGAS, a modem Greek 
 patriot, born at Velcstini, inThessaly, about 
 1753. He was soon distinguished for his 
 ready apprehension and extensive acquire- 
 ments, being intimately acquainted with the i 
 ancient literature of Greece, as well as with j 
 the Latin, French, German, and Italian j 
 languages. Looking forward for an o|)por- 
 tunity when his country might throw oif the I 
 Turkish yoke, he conceived the project of | 
 a grand secret society, and among the dis- 
 contented chiefs who became associated with 
 him, was the pacha Pass wan Oglou. He 
 then proceeded to Vienna, which place he ; 
 made the focus of an extensive correspond- i 
 ence with persons of intelligence possessing i 
 similar principles with himself in various 
 parts of Euroi)e. He also commenced a 
 Greek journal for the instruction of his 
 countrymen, composed a treatise on military 
 tactics, drew up a grand chart of all Greece, 
 in 12 divisions, and translated the travels of 
 Anacharsis the Younger and other French 
 works. But being treacherously denounced 
 to the Austrian government by one of his 
 associates, as a conspirator against the state, 
 he was arrested at Trieste, and ordered to be 
 delivered up to the Ottoman Porte. His con- | 
 ductors, however, fearing to be intercepted I 
 by Passwan Oglou, drowned him in the 
 
 727 
 
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 ^ J5elB Hntbcrj^al JSiasrapl^D. 
 
 [ric 
 
 I Danube, together witli 8 of his companions, 
 i wlio had been arrested at the same time. 
 May, 1798. 
 KlIODE, JouN George, an eminent 
 I orientalist, of Breslau. in Silesia ; parti- 
 cularly distinguished for his scientiflc re- 
 Bcarulies into the natural history and anti- 
 quities of India and Bactria. Died, 1827. 
 
 1UI0DE8, Alkxakdeu de, a French Je- 
 suit missionary, who in ](ilS went to the 
 East Indies, and after residing for some time 
 at Goa, proceeded to Tonquin and Cochin 
 Cliina to preach Christianity ; but being, 
 through persecutions, compelled to relinquish 
 liis labours there, he returned to Europe, and 
 afterwards engaged in a new mission to 
 Persia, where he died in IGOO. He wrote 
 several worlis, relating chiefly to tlie progress 
 of the gospel in those parts of tiie East 
 which he had visited. 
 
 RIIU^'KEN, or IIUIINKEN, David, an 
 eminent critic, was born at Stolpen, in 
 Pomerania, in 172.'5, and was for many years 
 professor at Leyden. Died, 1798. 
 
 RIIYNE, William Ie.v, a celebrated 
 Dutch pliysician and naturalist, born at 
 Dcventer, about 1040. Being appointed phy- 
 sician to the Dutch East India Company, in 
 lG7o. he remained some time at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, to examine the productions of 
 the country and the manners of the inha 
 bitants ; after which he went to Java with 
 the same object, and employed himself In 
 scientific researches. While tliere, it is said, 
 he made a voyage to Japan, and cured the em- 
 peror of a dangerous malady. On iiis return 
 he published the result of his observations. 
 
 lilBAS, Joseph de, a general in the 
 Russian army, was a native of Naples, and 
 born about 17o5. Being at Leghorn at the 
 time Alexis Orloff arrived there with his 
 fleet for the purpose of carrying off the 
 natural daughter of the empress Elizabeth, 
 whom Prince Radzivill liad taken to Rome 
 and then abandoned, he assisted in this un- 
 dertaking, and then went to Russia to obtain 
 from Catharine II. the reward of his services. 
 After attending on the son of the empress by 
 Gregory Orloff, in his travels, he obtained a 
 regiment of carabineers; and in 1790 he com- 
 manded, with the rank of admiral, the fleet 
 destined for the attack of Kilia and Ismail, 
 to the success of which he greatly contri- 
 buted. Having again signalised himself in 
 her service, both as an oflicer and a diplo- 
 matist, the empress, in 1792, made him a 
 rear-admiral, and further rewarded liim with 
 a pension of 20,000 rubles. 
 
 RIBERA, Anastasius Pantaleox de, 
 a Spanish poet, called the Scarron of Spain, 
 was horn at Madrid, and on account of his 
 wit was entertained at the court of Philip IV. 
 RIBERA, Joseph, called I.c Si-agno- 
 LEiTO, an eminent painter, was born at 
 Xativa. in Valencia, about l.'iSO. He was at 
 first a pupil of Caravaggio, and on going to 
 R(jine, lie studied the works of Raphael, the 
 Caracci, &c. with great advantage. He then 
 visited Parma and Modena, and thence went 
 to Naples, where the viceroy named liim Jus 
 own painter. In 1048, when Don John of 
 Austria visited Naples, Ribcra imprudently 
 boasted to him of the beauty of his daughters, 
 which led to an intrigue with one of them, ! 
 
 and the prince carried her off. This so 
 affected the father, that, according to some 
 accounts, he left his house suddenly one day, 
 in 1649, and was never again heard of. 
 Others state that he died at Naples, in 1056. 
 His historical pictures are chiefly representa- 
 tions of martyrdoms, tortures, &c. ; the 
 genius of Spagnoletto, in fact, seemed to revel 
 in scenes of horror and cruelty. 
 
 RIBES, Ann Aknaud de, a French oflficer 
 of engineers, born in 1731, was a lieutenant- 
 colonel at the commencement of the revolu- 
 tion, and in 1793 contributed to the capture 
 of Rosas and several other fortified towns, 
 while attached to the army of the eastern 
 Pyrenees. He had afterwards tlie direction 
 of the fortifications in the isle of Elba ; and 
 in 1808 he added to his reputation by triumi)h- 
 ing a second time at Rosas over the strength 
 of the fortifications and the resistance of the 
 bcfiieged. Died, 1811. 
 
 RICARDO, David, celebrated for liis 
 writings on finance and statistics, was born 
 in London, of a Jewish family, in 1772. 
 His character for probity, industry, and 
 lalent, early procured for him the means of 
 support ; and, becoming a member of the 
 stock exchange, he accumulated immense 
 proi)erty. In 1810 he appeared as a writer 
 in the Morning Chronicle, on the subject 
 of the depreciation of the national currency ; 
 he advocated the principles of Malthus con- 
 cerning population ; and published a trea- 
 tise on " Political Economy and Taxation," 
 which affords a luminous exposition of the 
 origin and fluctuation of national wealth 
 and expenditure. In 1819, Mr. Ricardo was 
 elected into parliament for the Irish borough 
 of Portarlington ; but he never spoke, except 
 on subjects of finance and commerce, on 
 Mhich occasions he was always attended to 
 with great deference. Died, 1823. His works 
 have been collected and published by Mr. 
 M'Culloch. 
 
 RICAUT, or RYCAUT, Sir Paul, an 
 English traveller and historical writer, was 
 the son of a merchant in I/ondon ; received 
 liis education at Trinity College, Cambridge; 
 and in 1061 went to Constantinople, as secre- 
 tary to the embassy, and there wrote his 
 " State of the Ottoman Empire." He was 
 next appointed consul at Smyrna, where, 
 by the command of Charles 11., he wrote 
 "The present State of the Greek and Arme- 
 nian Churches ;" and on his return home he 
 was made secretary to the lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland, a privy councillor, and a judge of 
 the high court of admiralty. William III. 
 employed him as the English resident in tlie 
 Hansc Towns, where he continued 10 years. 
 Besides the works before mentioned, he wrote 
 a continuation of Knolles's " History of the 
 Turks," a translation of Platina's '' Lives 
 of the Popes," and Garcilasso de la Vega's 
 " History of Peru." Died, 1700. 
 
 RICCI, LoiiENzo, the last general of the 
 Jesuits previous to their suppression by pope 
 Clement XIII., was born at Florence, in 
 1703 ; entered into the order of St. Ignatius 
 at the age of 15 ; became, successively, spiri- 
 tual director at the Roman college, and 
 secretary of his order ; and succeeded, on the 
 death of Centurioni, in 1758, to the office of 
 general. On the suppression of the Jesuits 
 
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 ^ lictu Unifitx^aX JJiograpT^y. 
 
 [ric 
 
 he was confined as a prisoner in tlie castle of 
 St. Angelo, and there died in 1775. 
 
 RICCI, SciFio, an Italian prelate, was a 
 nephew of the i)receding, and born at Flo- 
 rence, in 1741. He was raised to the bishop- 
 ric of Pistoja and Prato, in 1786 ; and distin- 
 guished himself by strenuously seconding 
 the Grand-duke Leopold in the attempt to 
 introduce a reform into the ecclesiastical 
 discipline of the duchy. By doing this, he 
 incurred the displeasure of the pope, was 
 i obliged to resign his bishopric, and subse- 
 quently underwent much persecution ; 
 I though he became reconciled to the holy see, 
 I in 1U<)5, by signing a formula of adhesion to 
 I the bulls which he had objected to. Died, 
 
 1810. 
 I RICCI, Matthew, a Jesuit and missionary 
 i in China, who was in such high favour with 
 ^ the emperor, that he gave him permission 
 ; to hnild a church there. Died, 1610. 
 
 RICCOBONI, LoDOVico, an eminent co- 
 median and author, was born at Modena, in 
 1674, acquired an early reputation on the 
 stage, and was popular both in his own 
 country and at Paris. In 1729 the Duke of 
 Parma appointed him inspector of the the- 
 atres in his dominions; but in 1731 he returned 
 to Paris, where lie devoted his last years to 
 literature, and died in 17.53. He wrote seve- 
 ral comedies and poems, besides a " History 
 of the Italian Tlieatre," and other works on 
 dramatic subjects. 
 
 RICCOBONI, Anthony Francis, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Mantua, in 1707, 
 and was also an actor and a dramatic writer. 
 His comedies were very successful ; but what 
 he gained by the stage he spent in foolish 
 attempts to discover the philosopher's stone. 
 
 Died, 1773 His wife was a celebrated 
 
 French novelist : but, from the neglect of 
 her husband, she suft'ered much, and died in 
 poverty, in 1792. 
 
 RICH, Claudius James, a learned ori- 
 entalist, was born, near Bristol, in 1776. At 
 the age of 17 he was made a writer to the 
 East India Company, and he finally became 
 their resident at Bagdad. His researches 
 into the antiquities of the East were exten- 
 sive, as may be seen by his " Memoirs of 
 Ancient Babylon," and his valuable coUec- 
 j tion of oriental MS8., which was purchased 
 by parliament for public use. Died, 1821. 
 
 RICHARD I., king of England, surnamed 
 Coeur de Lion, was born in 1157, and ascended 
 the throne on the death of his father, Henry 
 II. in 1189. He had taken the cross previous 
 to his accession, and now bent all his views 
 to the gratification of his martial ardour in 
 the fields of Palestine ; for which object he 
 raised money by the sale of the crown pro- 
 perty and offices, and a great number of 
 English barons joined in the enterprise. In 
 1190, Richard joined the crusade with Philip 
 of France ; and 100,000 of their bravest sub- 
 jects met together on the plains of Vezelai. 
 They at length reached their place of des- 
 tination ; but mutual jealousies among the 
 Christian princes took place, and Philip re- 
 turned to Europe, leaving behind him 10,000 
 of his men. Richard remained in the East, 
 where he displayed the most heroic valour 
 against Saladin, whom he signally defeated 
 near Caesarea, and having made a truce, em- 
 
 720 
 
 barked in a vessel, which was shipwrecked 
 on the coast of Italy. He then, in the dis- 
 guise of a pilgrim, travelled through part of 
 Germany ; but being discovered by I^eopold, 
 duke of Austria, he was made prisoner, and 
 sent to the emperor Henry VI., who kept 
 him confined in a castle some time. He was 
 at length ransomed by his subjects, on the 
 payment of 150,000 marks, and landed at 
 Sandwich in 1194 ; after which he was again 
 crowned. Philip having, contrary to treaty, 
 seized on part of Normandy, Richard in- i 
 vaded France with a large army, but a peace i 
 was concluded in 1196. The war was, how- I 
 ever, renewed in 1199 ; and Richard, in be- j 
 sieging the castle of Chalons, was wounded j 
 by a shot from the cross-bow of one Bertrand 
 de Gourdon, who being asked what induced ' 
 him to attempt the king's life, replied," You I 
 killed my father and my brother with your 
 own hand, and designed to put me to an I 
 ignominious death." The prospect of his | 
 own death inspired Richard with sentiments ; 
 of moderation and justice, and he ordered 
 Gourdon to be set at liberty, and allowed a 
 sum of money ; but the savage Marcad>'e, 
 who commanded the Brabangons, caused him 
 to be flayed alive. Richard died of his 
 wound on the 6th of April, 1199, in the 42nd 
 year of his age, and the 10th of his reign, 
 leaving no issue. His character was strongly 
 marked, presenting much to admire and 
 much to condemn. He was the bravest 
 among the brave ; frank, liberal, and often 
 generous ; at the same time, he was haughty, 
 violent, unjust, and sanguinary ; uniting, as 
 Gibbon observes, " the ferocity of a gladiator 
 to the cruelty of a tyrant." His talents were 
 considerable, both in the cabinet and in the 
 field ; neither was he deficient in the art of 
 poetry, as some of his compositions, preserved 
 among those of the Troubadours, bear wit- 
 ness. In fine, there is a sort of romantic in- 
 terest attached to his character and exploits 
 calculated to interest our feelings, rather 
 than to satisfy our reason. 
 
 RICHARD II., king of England, the son 
 of Edward, prince of Wales, commonly 
 called the Black Prince, was bom in 1366, 
 and succeeded Edward III., his grandfather, 
 in 1377. In his minority he displayed re- 
 markable promptitude in quelling the dan- 
 gerous insurrection headed by Wat Tyler, 
 in Smithfield. When that insurgent was 
 slain by Walworth, mayor of London, the 
 young king, then about 15 years of age, rode 
 up to the irritated populace and said," Follow 
 your king ; I will be your leader and redress 
 your grievances." The people, struck with 
 astonishment, obeyed the call, and dispersed 
 quietly to their own homes, with the excep- 
 tion of a few ringleaders who were executed. 
 The remainder of his reign, however, was 
 less fortunate. Discontents prevailed among 
 the nobility, of which Henry, duke of Lan- 
 caster, availed himself, and assumed the 
 title of king. Richard was betrayed into his 
 hands by the Earl of Northumberland in 
 1392, and confined in Pontef'ract Castle, 
 where he abdicated the throne in a written 
 instrument, but was assassinated the same 
 year. 
 
 RICHARD III., king of England, born 
 in 1450, was the brother of Edward IV., and 
 
RIC] 
 
 ^ llelu ^nibn-^al IStograjjloi?* 
 
 [mo 
 
 created duke of G!oiicester. He is repre- 
 sented as having been of diminutive stature, 
 deformed from Jiis birth, and of a forbidding 
 aspect ; but far more depraved in liis mind 
 tlian forbidding in liis person. lie caused 
 his nephews, Edward V. and Kicliard, duke 
 of York, to be secretly murdered in tlie 
 Tower ; after which lie procured himself to 
 be proclaimed king, in 1483. Tiie Diike of 
 Buckingham, who had assisted him in Ids 
 usurpation, conspired against him, but was 
 taken prisoner and beheaded. Henry, earl 
 of Kichmond, afterwards Henry VII., of the 
 house of Lancaster, was abroad, but returned 
 privately, and lauded at Milford, in Wales, 
 wliere he was joined by a few followers, who 
 Boon increased. He then marched against 
 the tyrant, whom he encountered at Bos- 
 worth Field, where Ilichard, after perform- 
 ; iiig prodigies of valour, was slain ; and his 
 crown being found, it was placed on the 
 head of Henry, August 22. 14)-:5. Thus fell, 
 I in his SiUh year, this odious prince, who 
 : united deep policy and dissimulation with 
 the basest treachery and the most insatiable 
 ambition. 
 
 RICHARD, surnamed Aumachanus, a 
 pious and sensible prelate, who, after having 
 been commissary-general of the university 
 of Oxford and dean of Lichfield, was raised 
 to the see of Armagh in 1347, and honour- 
 ably distinguished himself by his opposition 
 to the mendicant orders, wiiose alFectation 
 of poverty, superstitious practices, and irre- 
 gularities, he exposed in his lectures. For 
 this he was obliged to repair to Avignon, 
 to defend himself before pope Innocent VI., 
 who decided against him. Died, 1360. 
 
 RICHARD OF CiKKXCESTEK, so named 
 from his native place, was an historian of 
 the 14th century. He became a Benedictine 
 monk of the abbey of St. Peter, Westmin- 
 ster ; devoted his leisure to the study of our 
 natural history and antiquities ; wrote "The 
 Description of Britain," first published in 
 Latin, at Copenhagen, in 17C7 ; and died in 
 1401. 
 
 RICHARD, Louis Ci.aude Marie, an 
 eminent French botanist, was born at Ver- 
 sailles, in 1754 ; completed his education at 
 the Mazarin College, Paris, where he assi- 
 duously applied himself to the study of 
 botany, comijaratis^e anatorrt^, mineralogy, 
 and zoology. On being appointed naturalist 
 to the king in 1781, he sailed on a voyage 
 of research to Frencli Guiana and the An- 
 tilles, and returned in 1789 with an immense 
 collection of newly discovered plants, in- 
 sects, birds, quadrupeds, minerals, geological 
 specimens, &c. On the formation of the 
 Institute, he was chosen a member of the 
 first class in the section of zoology and com- 
 parative anatomy, was also a corresponding 
 member of the Royal Society of London, 
 and was made a member of the legion of 
 honour. Besides writing many valuable 
 memoirs in periodical works, he was the 
 author of " Di'monstrations Botaniques, ou 
 Analyse du Fruit consider^ en general." 
 Died,' 1821. 
 
 RICHARDSON, JoifATiiAy, a painter and 
 author, was born about 160.5. He quitted 
 the profession of a scrivener to become a 
 pupil of Riley, the portrait painter, whose j 
 
 niece he married. After the death of 
 Kneller and Dahl, he was considered at the 
 head of iiis profession in this country. lie 
 was the author of an " Essay on the Art of 
 Criticism in Painting," " An Argument in 
 behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur," 
 "Account of Statues, Bas-reliefs, Drawings, 
 and Pictures, in Italy;" "I:^otes and Re- 
 marks ou Paradise Lost," &c. Died, 1745 • 
 
 In tlie two last-mentioned performances he 
 was assisted by his son, who died in 1771. 
 
 RICHARDSON, JosKrii, a lawyer and 
 poet, was born at Hexham, in Northum- 
 berland ; was entered of St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, in 1774 ; became a student of 
 the Middle Temple in 1779, and was called 
 to the bar in 1784. He wrote " Criticisms on 
 the RoUiad" and "Probationary Odes for j 
 the Laureateship," two satirical works on 
 public characters, which were very popular 
 at the time, and " The Fugitive," a success- 
 ful comedy. Died, 1803. 
 
 RICHARDSON, Samiei.. a celebrated 
 novelist, was born in 1689, in Derbyshire, 
 and received his education at a common 
 day-school. At the usual age he was bound 
 apprentice to a London printer, and after 
 the expiration of his time he worked as a 
 compositor and corrector of the press some 
 years. At length he took up his freedom, 
 and set up business for himself, first in a 
 court in Fleet Street, and afterwards in 
 Salisbury Square. He became one of the 
 principal in his profession, and, by the in- 
 terest of Mr. Onslow, speaker of the House 
 of Commons, obtained the printing of the 
 Journals. In 1754 he was chosen master of 
 the stationers' company ; and, in 1760, he 
 purchased a moiety of the patent of law- 
 printer to the king. In 1740 he published 
 " Pamela," the popularity of which was so 
 great, that it ran through five editions in one 
 year, being recommended even from the 
 pulpit. In 1748 " Clarissa " fully estab- 
 lished his literary reputation ; and its pa- 
 thos, its variety of character, and minute 
 development of the human heart, will cause 
 it ever to be regarded as a work of real 
 genius. The " History of Sir Charles Gran- 
 dison" appeared in 1753, and was received 
 with great applause. Besides these works, 
 all of which have a moral tendency, Mr. 
 Richardson pidjiislied a volume of " Familiar 
 Letters for the Use of Young People," 
 and an edition of " ^sop's Fables, with 
 Reflections." His "Correspondence" with 
 persons of eminence was published in 1804, 
 with his "Life " by Mrs. Barbauld. He was 
 unaffectedly pious, and unostentatiously be- 
 nevolent, and lived surrounded by a circle 
 of affectionate friends, who valued him for 
 his moral worth and amiable disposition. 
 Died, 1761. 
 
 RICHARDSON, William, a poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, was a son of the 
 minister of Aberfoyle, and was educated at 
 the university of Glasgow. He accompanied 
 Lord Cathcart, who had been his pupil, to 
 Russia ; and was for more than 40 years 
 professor of humanity at Glasgow. Among 
 his works, all of which are marked by ele- 
 gance and erudition, are " Anecdotes of the 
 Russian Empire," "Essays on Shakspeare's 
 Dramatic Characters, " " Observations on 
 
RIC] 
 
 ^ JJctD BnibtxSaX 38tasrapTjj?. 
 
 [rid 
 
 the Study of Shakspeare," poems, and tales. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 RICIIELET, CvESAK Pkter, was born at 
 Cheminon, in 1031, and died in 1(!91. He 
 compiled a dictionary, full of information, 
 but interspersed with mucli satire. It was 
 first publislied in 1080, in 1 vol. 4to. ; but 
 was afterwards enlarged to 3 vols, folio. 
 
 RICHELIEU, Armand Johx nv Plk.5- 
 sis, a cardinal, and minister of state in 
 France, was born at Paris, in 158,5. He was 
 at first intended for the army, but the bishop- 
 ric of LuQon being open to him by the resig- 
 nation of his brother, he studied theology, 
 and obtained the mitre before he was 22. 
 He was also appointed grand almoner, and in 
 1010 made secretary of state. When Mary 
 de' Medici fell into disgrace, Richelieu was 
 j banished to Avignon, where he wrote his 
 " Method of Controversy." Being soon after 
 recalled to court, he brought about a recon- 
 ciliation between the king and queen, for 
 which he was rewarded with a cardinal's 
 hat, and appointed prime minister. Being 
 a man of prodigious capacity and of a rest- 
 less and insatiable ambition, he formed to 
 himself vast designs, which made his whole 
 life a series of agitations and inquietudes : 
 still he showed himself a patron of men of 
 letters, and caused the arts and sciences to 
 flourish in the kingdom. He abounded, 
 however, rather with great qualities than 
 good ones, and therefore was much more 
 admired tlian beloved. He died in 1042, 
 amidst storms and perils, before he had com- 
 pleted any of his designs. Cardinal Mazarin 
 carried on Richelieu's plans, and completed 
 many of his schemes. 
 
 RICHELIEU, Louis Francis Armand 
 DU Plessis, Duke of, a French marshal, 
 descended from the same family as the car- 
 dinal, was born in 1090. After the death of 
 Louis XIV. he was admitted into the court of 
 the regent, Duke of Orleans, and he largely 
 participated in its profligacy. He was sent 
 to the Bastille in 1710, for figliting a duel 
 with the Count de Gace, and again in 1719, 
 as an accomplice with the Spanish ambas- 
 sador, in a conspiracy against the regent. 
 He distinguished himself under Villars, and 
 afterwards at Kehl, Philipsburgh, Dettingen, 
 and Fontenoy ; conquered Minorca, forced 
 the ]>uke of Cumberland to sybniit to the 
 capitulation of Glosterseven, and devastated 
 the electorate of Hanover. In 1781 lie obtained 
 the rank of dean of the French marshals ; and 
 he concluded his long career, varied as it was, 
 with acts of heroism and villany, in 1788. 
 
 RICHELIEU, Au.mand Emanukl du 
 Plessis, Duke of, grandson of the preceding, 
 was born at Paris, in 1770, and eventually 
 became prime minister to Louis XVIII. 
 He emigrated at the commencement of the 
 revolution, entered the Russian service, 
 and distinguished In'mself at the siege of 
 Ismail, for which he was rewarded with the 
 rank of major-general. In 1801 he revisited 
 France, when Buonaparte endeavoured to 
 attach him to his service ; but he returned 
 to Russia, an<l in 18<t3 he was appointed 
 governor of Odessa, which city, by his pru- 
 dent measures, he raised frominsignificance 
 to the height of prosperity. On the resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons, he took his seat in 
 
 the chamber of peers ; accompanied Louis 
 XVIII. to Ghent ; and, returning with him 
 to Paris after the battle of Waterloo, was 
 appointed president of the council of minis- 
 ters, and placed at the head of the foreign 
 department. He soon resigned his post, but 
 again held the office of prime minister in 
 1820. and died in 1822. 
 
 RICHMOND, Ledh, a clergyman of the 
 established cliurch, was born at Liverpool, 
 in 1772 ; became chaplain to the Lock Hos- 
 pital, I<ondon, and afterwards rector of 
 Turvey, in Bedfordshire. He is principally 
 known as the author of " Annals of the 
 Poor," containing the " Dairyman's Daugh- 
 ter," and other devotional tales, written 
 with great force, originality, and i)atho8. He 
 also wrote a work, entitled " The Fathers of 
 the English Church," &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 RICHTER, John Pacl FuEnERic, a cele- 
 brated German novelist, was born in Fran- 
 conia, in 17<)3 ; studied at Leipsic ; was inti- 
 mately associated with Goethe, Herder, and 
 the galaxy of genius that gave its celebrity 
 to Weimar ; finally settled at Baireuth, and 
 died in 182,5. His works are very numerous. 
 They are generally in the form of romances ; 
 but many of them treat of abstruse questions 
 in philosophy, and though marked by much 
 singularity of style, they evince the pro- 
 fouudest erudition, infinite humour, and a 
 richness of imagery which have earned for 
 their author the title of "The only One." 
 Among his most celebrated works are, "Ti- 
 tan," "Hesperus," " Das Campaner Thai," 
 " Selina," and " Levana," an admirable trea- 
 tise on education, which has been ably trans- 
 lated into English. 
 
 RICHTER, Otto von, a Russian travel- 
 ler, who accompanied Undmann, a learned 
 Swede, to Egypt and Nubia, where they dis- 
 covered several remains of ancient archi- 
 tecture. They returned to Cairo, in 1815, and 
 proceeded by water to Jaffa : at Acre the two 
 friends separated, and Richter went alone 
 by the way of Tyre and Sidon, to Balbec, 
 after which he traversed Syria as far as the 
 mountains of Lebanon, and went to Tadmor, 
 in tlie desert ; but on his return to Smyrna, 
 in 1817, lie died. 
 
 RICKMAN, JonN,F.R. 8., clerk assistant 
 at the table of the House of Commons. This 
 gentleman first brought himself into public 
 notice by the great attention he paid.to the 
 means of obtaining accurate statistical know- 
 ledge of the population, &c. of Great Britain. 
 He was for 38 years oflScially connected with 
 the House of Commons, and his life may be 
 best described as one course of laudable zeal 
 in the service of the public. He lived on 
 terms of intimacy with Southey, Coleridge, 
 Charles Lamb, Telford the celebrated en- 
 gineer, and many other men, whose congenial 
 tastes and acquirements rendered the con- 
 nection mtitually jilcasant and desirable. 
 Born, 1771 ; died, 1841. 
 
 RIDER, William, an English divine, 
 several years under-master of St. Paul's 
 School, and lecturer of St. Vedast, Foster 
 Lane. He published a " History of Eng- 
 land," a " Commentary on the Bible," and 
 other compilations. Died, 1785. 
 
 RIDLEY, Gloster, an English divine, 
 and a dramatic and tlieological writer ; bom 
 
rid] 
 
 ^ ^riu ^nibtviciX JStasrapTji). 
 
 [rig 
 
 1702 ; died, 1774 His eldest son, James, 
 
 was author of " The Tales of the Genii " 
 and some other literary performances. 
 
 IIIDLEY, Nicholas, an eminent English 
 prelate and Protestant martyr, was born in 
 1500, at Tynedale, in Northumberland, and 
 educated at Cambridjic. He travelled on the 
 Continent, and, din-ing a 3 years' absence 
 from liis native country, became acquainted 
 with several of the early reformers, wliose 
 doctrines he afterwards warmly espoused. 
 Returning to Cambridge, he filled the office 
 of proctor to the university, and as such pro- 
 tested against the claims of the papal see to 
 the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the 
 realm. He was also chosen public orator, 
 became one of the king's cliaplains, and was 
 finally elevated to the see of London, where 
 he discharged the duties of his office with 
 unwearied diligence. He was likewise 
 employed in all the most important eccle- 
 siastical measures of that reign, particularly 
 in the compiling of the liturgy, and tlie 
 framing of the articles of religion. But one 
 of the most distinguislied acts of his life 
 was that of inciting king Edward to endow 
 the three great foundations of Christ's, 
 Bartholomew's, and St. Thomas's hospitals. 
 Having unadvisedly concurred in the pro- 
 clamation of Lady Jane Grey, he was, on 
 the death of Edward, marked out as one of 
 the most prominent victims of papal autho- 
 rity ; and being condemned, as a heretic, 
 to the stake, he suffered, witli the venerable 
 Latimer, at Oxford, Oct. 15. 15.55. 
 
 RIDLEY, Sir Thomas, a learned civilian, 
 of the same family as the preceding, but 
 born at Ely, was educated at Eton, and at 
 Kitig's College, Camlnidge ; he afterwards 
 became a master in chancery, and vicar- 
 general to tlie Archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 and died in 1G28. He wrote " A View of 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical Law." 
 
 RIEDESEL, Frederica Charlotte 
 Louisa, Baroness, wife of Colonel Biedesel, 
 who commanded the troops at Brunswick, 
 employed in tlie English service in America 
 in 1777, accompanied her husband, and 
 wrote an interesting account of her ad- 
 ventures, entitled "Voyage de Mission en 
 Am^rique," &c. She returned to Europe in 
 1788 ; and, having lost her husband, fixed 
 her residence at Berlin, where she died in 
 1808. 
 
 RIEDINGER, JoHX En as, a celebrated 
 painter of animals, bom at Ulm, in Suabia, 
 in 1095 ; died, 17()7. 
 
 RIEGO, Rafael del, a Spanish patriot 
 officer, was born in tlie Asturias, in 1785. 
 Tlie enthusiasm with which he embraced 
 the cause of independence rendered liim a 
 zealous patriot, and a long imprisonment 
 in France afforded him leisure to contem- 
 plate the miseries of his countrymen. Before 
 he returned to S|)ain, he visited Germany 
 and England. Till 1820 every effort for 
 liberty had been followed by exile, and the 
 j horrors of the inquisition ; nearly all the 
 1 chiefs who favoured liberty were in confine- 
 I ment : but the valour of Riego was at once 
 triumphant ; he delivered Quiroga from the 
 I hands of his gaolers, and. on the 1st of Janu- 
 ! ary, his troops proclaimed the constitution. 
 j General O'Donnell made his victory difficult, 
 
 732 
 
 but he was victorious ; and in the first sit- 
 ting of the Cortes, in 1822, they appointed 
 liim their president. At the height of his 
 glorious career his moderation was most 
 conspicuous ; he avoided parade, and dis- 
 played real magnanimity, prudence, and dis- 
 interestedness. Fortune, however, changed; 
 Ferdinand VII. was reinstated ; and the 
 popularity of the brave Riego exciting the 
 jealousy of those in power, he was calum- 
 niated as a promoter of anarchy. Still lie 
 preserved the confidence of the people, and 
 again appeared in arms to assert the liberty 
 of his countrj', but it was destined to fall 
 before foreign foes. He was taken prisoner 
 after the surrender of Cadiz, and conveyed 
 to Madrid on the 2nd of October. His wife 
 and brother came to England, where they 
 hoped to obtain friends for Riego ; but their 
 supplications were vain, and he was con- 
 demned to an ignominious death, viz. that 
 his limbs should be sent to different parts 
 of the Peninsula, and his head kept at Las 
 Cabezas, where the constitution was first 
 declared. He suftered, Nov. 7. 1823 ; and 
 his wretched wife died of grief a few mouths 
 after. 
 
 RIENZI, Nicholas Gabrini de, a native 
 of Rome, who in the 14th centiny obtained 
 great celebrity by his attempts to restore 
 tlie republic. He was of low origin, but had 
 received a liberal education, and possessed 
 great eloquence and lofty views, which in- 
 duced his fellow-citizens to send him as one 
 of their deputies to pope Clement VI., then 
 at Avignon. Rienzi, on this occasion, drew 
 so affecting a picture of the distressed state 
 of the city, that the pope appointed him 
 apostolic notary, which ofTice he discharged 
 with great credit. But while he appeared 
 actuated by the purest principles, he was 
 secretly forming a conspiracy for the altera- 
 tion of the government, and he let no oppor- 
 tunitj' pass of exciting the discontent of the 
 people, by haranguing against the nobility 
 and the defects of the public administration. 
 By these means he became the idol of the 
 people, who conferred upon him the title of 
 tribune, with the power of life and death, 
 and all the other attributes of sovereignty. 
 What was more extraordinary, the pope 
 confirmed the title, and Rienzi for some 
 time governed the city with judgment and 
 moderation. But the intoxication of su- 
 preme power betrayed him into extrava- 
 gances, and he was expelled, and imi)ri- 
 soiied for 3 j'ears by Clement VI. He was 
 released by Innocent II., who sent him again 
 to the Roman capital as governor. But 
 Rienzi's cruelties raised him new enemies, 
 and he was massacred in 1354, about 7 years 
 after the commencement of his extraordinary 
 career. 
 
 RIES, Ferdi.na.vd, an eminent musical 
 composer and performer, was bom at Bonn, 
 in 1783, and was early distinguished for the 
 precocity of his genius. He became a pupil 
 of Beethoven, and as a pianist he had few 
 superiors. From the year 1813 to 1825 lie 
 resided in England, and produced numerous 
 musical compositions, some of which possess 
 first-rate merit. He died at Frankfort, Jan. ! 
 1838. 
 
 RIGAUD, HrAciNTHE, an eminent per- 
 
rig] 
 
 ^ iletD ?a[uibn'^al aSiDflr/ijplbfi. 
 
 [rit 
 
 i trait painter, was born at Perpignan, in 
 j ]6<Vi ; and died at Paris, in 1743. He met 
 1 with distinguished patronnge, aud has been 
 called the V'andyck of France. 
 
 RIG AUD, SiEniEx Peter, Savilian pro- 
 fessor of astronomy in the university of Ox- 
 ford, was born at Richmond, in Surrey, and 
 may almost be said to have been the in- 
 heritor of scientific pursuits, both his father 
 and grandfather having iilled the office of 
 observer in the royal observatory at Kew. 
 His contributions to the scientitic works of 
 the day were both numerous and valuable. 
 Born, 177.5 ; died, 1839. 
 
 RILEY, John, an eminent painter, born 
 in London, in 104 !. After the death of Sir 
 Peter Lely lie was appointed painter to the 
 king, and rose greatly in public estimation ; 
 but, according to the opinion of I^ord Orford, 
 he was so distrustful of his own merit, that 
 his modesty and humility were great impe- 
 diments to liis advancement. He died in 
 1691. 
 
 RING, JoHx, an eminent surgeon, was 
 born near Salisbury, in 1751 ; was a pupil 
 of the two Hunters, at St. George's Hos- 
 pital ; and practised in the metropolis, with 
 deserved reputation, till his death, which 
 occurred in 1821. He was a aealous de- 
 fender of vaccination, to support which he 
 established an institution at a considerable 
 expense, and he also liberally gave his as- 
 sistance to other charities. Besides his 
 medical works, he occasionally composed 
 Latin and English verse, with fluency, 
 spirit, and elegance ; among which should 
 be noticed his " Translation of the Works of 
 Virgil, partly original, and partly altered 
 from Dryden and Pitt," 2 vols. 
 
 RINGGLI, GoTHAUD, a celebrated Swiss 
 artist, was born at Zurich, in lo7o, and died 
 in 1635. 
 
 RINUCCINI, Ottavio, a Florentine 
 poet, who went to France with Mary de' 
 Medici, and is said to have been the first 
 who invented the opera, or musical drama, 
 in the year 1600. He wrote three pieces, 
 "Daphne," "Eurydice," and "Ariadne." 
 Died, 1621. 
 
 RIOJA, Francisco df, an eminent Spa- 
 nisli poet, was born in 1600, and became 
 librarian and historiographer to Philip IV. 
 Besides his jjoeins, he produced several 
 excellent oomic dramas, and other pieces 
 adapted for scenic representation. Died, 
 1659. 
 
 RIOLAN, JouK, an eminent physician, 
 bom at Amiens, became dean of the faculty 
 at Paris, and died in 1603. He was defender 
 of tlie doctrines of Hippocritus and the an- 
 cients, against the chemists His son, of 
 
 the same name, born in 1577, became royal 
 professor of auatomy and botany, and phy- 
 sician to Mary de' Medici ; and to him the 
 university of Paris is indebted for its botanic 
 garden. lie made discoveries in anatomy, 
 published several works, and died in 1657. 
 
 RIPLEY, Georoe, an English alchemist 
 aud poet, who died in 14'.iO. He wrote a 
 work, entitled "A Compound of Alchymie," 
 &c., and " Aurum Potabile, or the Universal 
 Medicine." 
 
 RIPPERDA, John- William, Baron de, 
 a celebrated adventurer, was born of a 
 
 733 
 
 noble family in Groningen, in 1C80 ; served 
 some time as colonel of infantry in the 
 Dutch army ; and, in 1715, was sent on a 
 mission to Spain, where he acquired such an 
 ascendancy over Philiji.V., that the monarch 
 took him into his service, made him prime 
 minister, and created him a duke. At length 
 he fell into disgrace, and was imprisoned in 
 the castle of Segovia, whence he escaped in 
 172S, and came to England. In 1731 he 
 went to Morocco, where he was favourably 
 received by Muley Abdalla, and declaring 
 himself a convert to the Mahometan reli- 
 gion, and taking the name of Osman, he 
 obtained the chief command of the Moorish 
 army at the siege of Ceuta. But the Moors 
 being defeated, he fell from his second eleva- 
 tion ; and, retiring to Tetuau, he there died 
 in 1737. 
 
 RIQUET, Peter Pacl de, a celebrated 
 Frencli civil engineer, born at Beziers, in 
 1604. He projected the noble canal of 
 Languedoc, which opens a communication 
 between the Mediterranean and the Bay of 
 Biscay. It was commenced in 1666, and 
 carried on during the remainder of his life. 
 After his death, which occurred in 1G80, his 
 two sons completed it. 
 
 RISDON, Tristram, an English topo- 
 grapher ; author of a "Description or Sur- 
 vey of the County of Devon." Born, 1580 ; 
 died, 1640. 
 
 RITCHIE, JosEPn, an English traveller, 
 who, in 1819, in conjunction with Captain 
 Lyon, engaged in the mission to explore the 
 interior of Afiica. They set out from Tri- 
 poli, and reached Mouzouk, the capital of 
 Fezzan, where for some months they re- 
 sided in circumstances of distress, arising 
 from the want of funds, heightened by the 
 treacherous conduct of Mukin, the bey of 
 that country. Mr. Ritchie fell a sacrifice to 
 the hardships and vexation he experienced ; 
 but Captain Lyon returned to England, and 
 published liis well-known " Narrative " iu 
 1821. 
 
 RITSON, Isaac, a poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born near Penrith, in Cumber- 
 land, in 1761 ; received a medical education 
 at Edinburgh ; came to liondon, where he 
 became an author by profession ; and died 
 in 1789. 
 
 RITSON, Joseph, an English lawyer and 
 antiquary, was born at Stockton, in Dur- 
 ham, iu 1752 ; settled in London as a con- 
 veyancer, and purchased the office of high- 
 bailiff of the Savoy ; and died in 1803. As 
 an antiquary, particularly in our early 
 national poetry, he exhibited much industry 
 and intelligence ; but his morbid singular- 
 ities of temper, and his avowed contempt 
 for religion, more than counterbalanced 
 whatever merit he might have otherwise 
 possessed. It would, however, be uncha- 
 ritable not to attribute his imperfections to 
 a species of long protracted mental derange- 
 ment, of which distressing malady he died 
 in 1803. His principal publications are, 
 "A Collection of English Songs," 3 vols ; 
 " The English Anthology," 3 vols. ; " Me- 
 trical Romances," 3 vols. ; " Biographia 
 Poetica,' &c. 
 
 RITTENHOUSE, Davip, a celebrated 
 American mathematician, was born in 
 
hit] 
 
 ^ ^cbi WinibtvsKl 23i05V.ipI)y. 
 
 [rob 
 
 rennsylvania, in 1732. In 1760 tlie Ame- 
 rican Philosophical Society employed him 
 to observe tlie transit of Venus ; and he 
 afterwards constructed an observatory, 
 where he made some important discoveries. 
 After the revolutionary war, he was ap- 
 pointed director of the mint and treasurer 
 of his native province. He also had tlie de- 
 gree of LL.D. conferred on him, and lie 
 succeeded Franklin as president of the Phi- 
 losophical Society. Died, 179G. Dr. Ritten- 
 house is regarded by his countrj'men as the 
 Newton of America. That he possessed 
 great talents and industry is indisputable ; 
 and it is more than probable that his exer- 
 tions in the cause of science contributed in 
 no small degree to the diffusion of a taste 
 for mathematical and physical knowledge 
 in the United States ; but their encomiums 
 of him are truly hyperbolical. 
 
 RITTER, John Williaif, ft celebrated 
 German philosopher, was born at Samitz, 
 in Silesia, in 1776. The study of electricity 
 occupied his chief attention ; and in 1798 
 he started the idea that the phenomena of 
 animal life are connected with galvanic 
 action ; but, though highly scientific, he ad- 
 vocated the reveries of animal magnetism, 
 &c. He wrote " Physico-Medical Memoirs," 
 3 vols., and other works. Died, 1810. 
 
 RITTERSHUYS, CoxitAD, an eminent 
 civilian and philologist, born at Brunswick, 
 in l.'.GO. He became professor of law at 
 Altorf ; wi-ote some works on civil law, 
 and notes upon Greek and Latin authors. 
 
 Died, 1()18. Nicholas Ritteksuuvs, his 
 
 I son, liecame professor of feudal law at 
 I AUoif, where he died in l(i70. He pub- 
 lished a collection, entitled "Genealogia 
 Imperatorum, Regum, Ducum, Comitum," 
 &c., 4 vols, folio. 
 
 RIVAROI, AxTHOKY, Count de, an able 
 French writer, was born at Bagnois, in Lan- 
 guedoe, in 1757, and settled at Paris, wliere 
 he formed an acquaintance with the most 
 eminent literary characters of the age ; but, 
 on the breaking out of the revolution, he 
 went to Germans', and obtained the patron- 
 age of Prince Heni-y of Prussia. He was 
 much admired for his powers of wit and 
 satire ; and died at Berlin, in 1801. His 
 chief works are, "Discourssurl'IIniversaUtiS 
 de la Langue FranQoise," "L'Enfer," trans- 
 lated from Dante ; " Lettres sur la Religion 
 et la Morale," "Petit Almanach des grands 
 Hommes," and " Lettres h la Noblesse 
 Francoise." 
 
 RIVAULT, DAVin, a French mathemati- 
 cian, born at Laval, about 1571, who became 
 tutor in mathematics and military tactics 
 I to Louis XIII., and was made a counsellor 
 I of state. Died, KiUi. 
 
 RIVAZ, Peteij Joseph de, a skilful 
 French mechanist and chronologer, born in 
 1711. He made a watch which had the sin- 
 gular property of winding up spontaneously, 
 invented an improved pendulum, &c. lie 
 also drained the mines of Pontpeau, in 
 Brittany, and made many mechanical dis- 
 coveries. Died, 1772. 
 
 RIVE, JoHx Josicrii, a French bibliogra- 
 pher, \v as born in 17;50, at Apt, in Provence. 
 He was brought up to the church ; but, on 
 the breaking out of the revolution, he became 
 
 734 
 
 a furious anarchist, and ended a turbulent 
 life at Marseilles, in 1792. He wrote nume- 
 rous works, the most important of wliich 
 is, " La Ghasse aux Bibliographes et Auti- 
 quaires mal advist's," 2 vols. 
 
 RIVIERE, Merciek de la, a celebrated 
 French political economist, wlio obtained 
 the post of counsellor of the parliament of 
 Paris in 1747 ; was afterwards made inten- 
 dant of Martinique ; and, on his return, pub- 
 lished ills noted work, entitled "L'Ordre 
 naturel et essentiel des Societes Politiqucs." 
 The singularity of his schemes and his high 
 pretensions were ridiculed by Voltaire, 
 Grimm, and others ; but had some of his 
 precautionary advice been attended to, it is 
 possible that tlie revolution, which he lived 
 to witness, would not have taken place. 
 Died. 1794. 
 
 RIVIERE, the Duke de, governor of the 
 young Duke of Bourdeaux, was a devoted 
 servant of the Bourbons. He emigrated 
 with the French princes in 1789. served in 
 the army of Condi?, and became aide-de- 
 camp to the ex-king of France, Charles X. 
 Seven times he entered France in disguise, 
 to correspond with the friends of h.is royal 
 master; but In 1804 he was arrested, tried, 
 and sentenced to death, from which he es- 
 caped through the intercession of Josephine, 
 his punishment being mitigated into an im- 
 prisonment for 4 years. 
 
 RIVINUS, Augustus Quirinus, an emi- 
 nent botanist and physician, whose real 
 name was Bachmann, was born at Leipsic, 
 in 1G52 ; practised medicine, and was pro- 
 fessor of physiology and botany in his native 
 city, and died in 1723. He was the author 
 of " Introductio generalis in Rem Herba- 
 riam " and " Systema Plantarum," in which 
 he divides all plants into 18 classes, distin- 
 guished by the number and form of their 
 petals. 
 
 RIZZIO, RIZZI, or RICCL David, the 
 son of a music and dancing-master at Turin, 
 was born there in the earlier part of the l(!th 
 century. His musical abilities procured 
 liim notice at the court of Savoy, while his 
 talents as a linguist caused him to be se- 
 lected by the ambassador from the giand 
 duke to Mary, queen of Scots, as a part of 
 his suite. In 1.5C4 lie first made his appear- 
 ance at Ilolyrood House, where he soon 
 became so great a favourite with the queen, 
 that he was appointed her secretary for 
 foreign languages. The distinction with 
 which he was treated by his royal mistress 
 excited the envy of the nobles, and the jea- 
 lousy of Darnley. A conspiracy, with the 
 king at its head, was accordingly formed for 
 his destruction ; and before he h.ad enjoyed 
 2 years of court favour, the Lord Rutliven 
 and others of his party were introduced by 
 Darnley liimself into the queen's apartment, 
 where tliey assassinated the unfortunate 
 object of their revenge, who fell at the feet 
 of his royal mistress, having received no less 
 than .W stabs in her presence, a. d. 1566. 
 
 ROBERT, FuANCis, a modern geogra- 
 pher, born at Chalons, in France. In 1780 
 he obtained the title of royal geographer ; 
 in 1789 he joined the most active partisans 
 of the revolution ; was nominated mayor of 
 the commune of Besnote, in 1793 ; and, in 
 
rob] 
 
 ^ fitio ?H[iTiljn'iSaT 23t00rapTji». 
 
 [rob 
 
 1797, was chosen a member of the council of 
 live hundred. The latter part ol his life was 
 spent in travelling; and he dieil at lluili- 
 gcnstadt, in Saxony, in 1819. Besides some 
 useful elementary works on geography, &c., 
 he published his " Travels in Switzerland "' 
 and a "Description of France." 
 
 ROBERT, IIuiiEitT, an eminent French 
 painter, was born at Paris, in 1732, and may 
 be considered the first artist Of the French 
 school who studied with effect tlie decline 
 and ruin of the monuments of aticieut archi- 
 tecture, lie resided in Italy several years, 
 and during that time lie painted the gardens 
 and cascades at Rome in a most masterly 
 manner. On his return to France he ob- 
 tained admission into the academy ; but his 
 merit could not screen him from persecution 
 in the revolution, and he was thrown into 
 prison, where he amused himself by design- 
 ing, even though he expected every hour 
 to be dragged to the scaffold. At length 
 he obtained his release, and continued in 
 the exercise of his profession till his death, 
 in 1808. 
 
 ROBERT, Peter Francis Joseph, a 
 French revolutionary statesman, born near 
 Givet, in 1743. Becoming secretary to Dan- 
 ton, lie was elected a deputy to the con- 
 vention, in wliich he voted for the death of 
 the king. Having married Mademoiselle 
 Keralio, he adopted the literary profession, 
 
 and wrote several political works His 
 
 wife, Louise Fei.icite de Keralio, was 
 born at Paris, in 1758, and died at Brussels, 
 in 1821. Among her various works were, 
 '•llistoire d'Elizabeth, Reine d'Angleterre," 
 5 vols. ; "Amclie et Caroline," .5 vols., &c. ; 
 besides several translations from English 
 and Italian authors. 
 
 ROBERT DE VAUGONDY, Giles, a 
 French geographer, .born at Paris in 1(588, 
 and died there in 1706. Among his works 
 are, " Grand Atlas Universel " and " Atlas 
 
 complet des Revolutions du Globe." His 
 
 son, who assisted in his professional labours, 
 held the office of royal censor, and was geo- 
 grapher in ordinary to Stanislaus I., king of 
 Poland. He was the author of " Tablettes 
 Parisiennes," " Cosmographie," &c. Born, 
 1723 ; died, 1786. 
 
 ROBERTI, John Baptist, Count, an 
 Italian writer, was born in 1719. He was 
 successively professor of pliilosophy in the 
 college of Brescia, director of that at Parma, 
 and, lastly, superior of the one at Bologna. 
 He acquired great reputation by his writirigs, 
 which relate to polite literature generally, 
 and form 15 vols. Died, 178(5. 
 
 ROBERTS, E.MMA, a lady of distinguished 
 literary talent, and an early friend of the 
 highly gifted but ill- fated :Miss Landon. Jliss 
 Roberts was the author of " Memoirs of the 
 Rival Houses of York and Lancaster, His- 
 torical and Biographical," 2 vols.; "Oriental 
 Scenes, Sketches, and Tales," &c. She died 
 at Poonah, in India, Sept. 1840 ; the object 
 of her mission thither having been tlie fur- 
 ther illustration of life and manners in the 
 East. 
 
 ROBERTSON, William, an Irish divine, 
 was born at Dublin, in 1705 ; studied at 
 Glasgow, but was expelled the university for 
 the part he took in asserting the right of the 
 
 733 
 
 students to choose a rector. On taking 
 orders he obtained some preferment in Ire- 
 land, which he vacated by turning Arian. 
 In 1708 he was chosen master of the gram- 
 mar-school at Wolverhampton ; and in 1772 
 he appeared as one of the committee of 
 clergymen employed to form and present 
 the famous petition to parliament, to be re- 
 lieved from the obligation of subscribing to 
 the thirty-nine articles. Died, 1783. 
 
 ROBERTSON, William, D.D., a cele- 
 brated historian, was born in 1721, at Borth- 
 wick, where his father was minister. Having 
 completed his theological studies at Edin- 
 burgh, he obt.xined a licence to preach, and 
 in 1743 was presented to the living of Glads- 
 mnir, in East Lothian. He soon became 
 distinguished by his eloquence and good 
 taste as a preacher ; but it was not till 1759 
 that, by his " History of Scotland," he ac- 
 quired a place among British classical 
 writers. The distinction and patronage ac- 
 quired by this work, which reached a four- 
 teenth edition before his death, appeared in 
 his successive preferments. He became chap- 
 lain of Stirling Castle in 1759, king's chap- 
 lain in 17G1, principal of the university of 
 Edinburgh in 17(52, and historiographer 
 royal of Scotland in 1704. At the head of a 
 flourishing seat of education, he was minutely 
 attentive to all its duties ; and co-operated 
 with the greatest liberality in all the im- 
 provements which have raised Edinburgh to 
 its present celebrity. Yet, notwithstanding 
 his numerous pursuits and official avoca- 
 tions, he found time to employ himself in 
 his celebrated " History of Charles V.," 
 which, in 1777, was followed by the "His- 
 tory of America ;" and his last publication 
 was " An Historical Disquisition concern- 
 ing the Knowledge which the Ancients had 
 of India." He died in 1793. As an historian, 
 Dr. Robertson is admired for luminous and i 
 skilful arrangement, graphic description, and j 
 a singularly perspicuous style. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE, Francis Maximiliax 1 
 Joseph Isidore, one of the most violent of i 
 the French revolutionists, was the son of a 
 counsellor at Arras, and was born in 1759. 
 After completing his studies at the college 
 of Louis le Grand, at Paris, wliich he is said 
 to have done in a manner highly creditable 
 to his talents and assiduity, he adopted the 
 law as a profession, and distinguished him- 
 self as an advocate of the council of Artois. 
 At the convocation of the states-general, in 
 1789, Robespierre went to Paris as deputy, 
 and appeared, for the first time, in the con- 
 stituent assembly, on the 20th of July. In 
 the sitting of the 24th of August, he moved 
 for the liberty of the press : indeed, during 
 this and the two following years, he ap- 
 peared, on all subjects, the friend of the 
 human race. His voice was raised against 
 martial law, against the frequent punish- 
 ment of death, and against slavery, as the 
 most degrading of all punishments that man 
 had the power to inflict ; nay, so invincible 
 appeared to be his justice and integrity, and 
 80 constantly and consistently did he de- 
 claim against political corruption, that he 
 obtained the title of " The Incorruptible." 
 To this period he was esteemed his country's 
 friend, and the Jacobin club raised him 
 
 U a 
 
rob] 
 
 ^ 4^cU) ^nibtr^Kl 33ia0raj|jl)in 
 
 [rob 
 
 to power ; but the Girondist!? were opposed 
 to the Jacobins, and a scene of blood followed, 
 to which hardly a parallel can be found in 
 history. He laboured to form a reiiublic ; 
 his rivals proposed a division in the govern- 
 ment, so that it should exist in federative 
 states, as of Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, 
 &c.; and the latter accused Robespierre of 
 aspiring to the dictatorship. However, in 
 1792, the Jacobins carried the decree in 
 1 favour of an united and undivided republic. 
 Another faction now arose, called " Tlie 
 Mountain," who also opposed the Jacobins. 
 Violent contentions prevailed at every sit- 
 ting, and Robespierre spent many hours in 
 self- vindication, without being able to silence 
 his enemies. Though it does not appear that 
 Robespierre actively interfered in tlie mas- 
 sacres which took place in the prisons of 
 Paris, in the beginning of September, he had 
 sufficient address to reap the fruits, and, like 
 other tyrants, he at length made liis instru- 
 ments his victims. After the trial and ex- 
 ecution of the king, in promoting which the 
 Girondists co-operated witli Robespierre and 
 the Jacobins, the former were speedily sacri- 
 ficed to the ascendancy of the latter. Tlie 
 Herbertists, who had joined in this work of 
 destruction, were the next victims to the 
 jealousy of the dictator, who had no sooner 
 sent them to the scaffold, with the assistauce 
 of Danton and his friends, than he adopted 
 measures for the ruin of that popular dema- 
 gogue, whom he dreaded as his most dan- 
 gerous rival. In August, Robespierre pre- 
 sided in the National Assembly ; and from 
 that period lie played the part of a consum- 
 mate hypocrite. The surrender of Toulon, 
 I by tlie party who had set out as supporters 
 j of the Girondists, completed his triumph ; 
 j and under his influence the convention 
 I established an organised government, in 
 which terror was the order of the day. So 
 powerful were his talents, and so judiciously 
 did he manage them, that he pretended 
 to guard against the prevalence of atlieism 
 and immorality at the time that he was un- 
 dermining the principles of religion itself. 
 Barere, by his direction, promulgated his 
 new system of worship ; and, on the 8th of 
 June, 1794. Robespierre, in person, celebrated 
 what he impiously termed "Tlie Feast of 
 the Supreme Being." But, powerful and 
 secure as lie appeared, his cruel tyranny and 
 mysterious denunciations had alarmed many 
 of those who had been most intimately con^ 
 nected with him, and a conspiracy was 
 formed for his destruction. Instead of act- 
 ing with his accustomed decision, he now 
 secluded himself from the public for more 
 than a month ; and when lie again made his 
 appearance in the National Convention, Tal- 
 lien and others openly accused him of des- 
 potism ; and amidst cries of " h has le ty- 
 ran," he, with his brother, and his friends 
 St. Just, Couthon, and Le Bas, were arrested 
 and sent to the Luxembourg prison. In the 
 night, however, he was set free by the keeper, 
 and was conducted to the hall of the com- 
 mune of Paris, where llenriot, commander 
 of the national guard, and others were wait- 
 ing to receive him. Robespierre's friends 
 proposed his placing himself at the head of 
 the people, and to fall upon the members of 
 
 736 
 
 the convention, whom it was then easy to 
 have delivered up as prisoners. To the pro- 
 posal, he replieil, " I should then conduct 
 myself like a tyrant, were I to expose tJie 
 lives of the citizens in my single cause. I 
 shall submit to the will of the sovereign 
 people, who are at liberty to protect or to 
 abandon me : if the latter, I know how to 
 die like Tiberius." Meanwhile his enemies 
 proceeded to action. Barras and other com- 
 missioners, directing the military of Paris, 
 seized the fallen tyrant and his associates ; 
 and he entered his solitary room with ap- 
 jiarent indifference. Le Bas, having pro- 
 vided a pair of pistols, killed himself with 
 one of them ; and Robespierre taking the 
 other, put the muzzle to his mouth, and 
 drew the trigger, intending to blow out his 
 brains ; but the ball fractured his lower jaw, 
 and he was thus subjected to protracted suf- 
 fering, which excited neither sympathy nor 
 compassion. On the next day, July 28. 1794, 
 he and his associates were guillotined. Tlie 
 career of Robespierre exhibits one of the 
 most signal instances of terrorism upon 
 record. But. though he was the most noto- 
 rious of all the wretches that disgraced the 
 name of man in France during the revolu- 
 tionary furor, and entailed on his name the 
 greatest degree of infamy, it is certain that 
 some of his former accomplices, who contri- 
 buted most to his overthrow, and were loud- 
 est in their accusations against him, had 
 been the authors of many of the enormities 
 with which he was charged. This was the 
 opinion of Napoleon, who asserted that he 
 had seen proofs of his having intended to re- 
 establish order after he had overturned the 
 contending factions ; but not being powerful 
 enough to arrest the progress of the revolu- 
 tion, he suffered himself to be carried away 
 by the torrent, as was the case with all before 
 Napoleon himself, who engaged in a similar 
 attempt. 
 
 ROBIN, Jeax, a celebrated French bo- 
 tanist, to whose care the Jardin des Plantes, 
 at Paris, was first confided. Born, 1500 ; 
 died, 1.597. 
 
 ROBINS, Ben.jamtx, an English mathe- 
 matician of great genius and eminence, was 
 born at Bath, in 1707 ; was a teacher of 
 mathematics, became engineer-general to 
 the East India Company, wrote " New Prin- 
 ciples of Gunnery," and was the real nar- 
 rator of Lord Anson's " Voyage round the 
 World," though it was published under the 
 name of Walter. Died, 1751. 
 
 ROBINSON, Anastasia, a public singer 
 of some eminence, in the early part of the 
 last century. She was placed under the 
 tuition of the celebrated Dr. Croft and | 
 Signora Cuzzoni Sandoni ; and though she 
 never ranked as a first-rate vocalist, she 
 sang at the opera for some years, more 
 admired perhaps for her personal charms, 
 accomplishments, and irreproachable con- 
 duct, than for her acknowledged talents. 
 At length she quitted the stage, in conse- 
 quence of her marriage with the Earl of 
 Peterborough, though the connection was 
 not publicly acknowledged till some years 
 after it took place. Died, 1750. 
 
 ROBINSON, Marv, a poetess and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, whose maiden name was 
 
kob] 
 
 ^ ^cfio ^Ilnibni^at 2St0grapf)p. 
 
 [rob 
 
 Darby, was born in IT.W, at Bristol. At 
 the age of 15 slie was married to an attorney 
 of the name of Rol)inson, which precipitate 
 step appears to have embittered the rest of 
 her life. Being reduced in circumstances, 
 she had recourse to the stage, and made licr 
 first appearance at Drury Lane in the clia- 
 racter of Juliet, in which slie was instructed 
 by Mr. Garrick. Her reception was very 
 flattering, and she continued to perform in 
 vai ious characters till her representation of 
 Perdita, in the " Winter's Tale," when her 
 beatity attracted the admiration of the Prince 
 of Wales (.afterwards George IV.), in conse- 
 quence of which she quitted the stage, and 
 l)ecame his mistress. This connection, how- 
 ever, was but of short duration. In 1784 slie 
 had the misfortune to be attacked by a 
 violent rlieumatism, which progressively de- 
 jirived her of the use of her limbs, and she 
 was partly dependent on her pen for tlie 
 means of living. Slie wrote a number of 
 poetical pieces under the name of Laura 
 Maria ; besides which she was tlie author of 
 " Vuncenza," a romance ; "Poems," 2 vols.; 
 " Walsingham," a novel, 4 vols.; her "Me- 
 moirs," 4 vols., &c. Died, 1800. 
 
 ROBINSON, Rich A I! D, archbishop of 
 Armagh and baron RoVeby, was born in 
 York»;;!ie, in 1709, and died in 1794. The 
 archbishop, besides building a palace at 
 Armagh, with an observatory, founded a 
 sihool and a public library there, whicli last 
 he furnished with a large collection of books, 
 and icit a liberal endowment for its supiiort. 
 lie also erected four new churches in his 
 diocese. 
 
 ROBINSON, RoBEitT, an English divine, 
 was born at Swatfham, in Norfolk, in 1735 ; 
 pubiisiicd a translation of Saurin's Sermons, 
 an " Essay on the Composition of a Sermon," 
 a " History of Baptism," &c. He was, suc- 
 cessively, a Calvinistic methodist preacher, a 
 Bai>tist minister, and a Socinian. Died, 1790. 
 
 ROBINSON, Thomas, an English natu- 
 ralist, was an episcopal clergyman, and held 
 the rectory at Ousley, in Cumberland, where 
 he died in 1719. His long residence in the 
 neighbourhood of a mountainous and mineral 
 disirict led him to turn his Bttcntion to the 
 study of mineralogy, geology, &c. He wrote 
 an interesting " Essay towards a Natural 
 History of Westmoreland aud Cumber- 
 land," &c. 
 
 ROBISON, JOHX, an eminent mathema- 
 tician, professor of natural philosophy at 
 EdinburgIi,Mas born at Boghall, in Stirling- 
 shire, in 1789; was educated at Glasgow; 
 became director of the marine cadet aca- 
 demy at Cronstadt, in Russia ; and, on his 
 return to his native country, was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Glasgow, from 
 whence he removed to Edinburgh, where 
 he died in 1805. Dr. Robison published, 
 In 1797, a book, entitled " Proofs of a Con- 
 spiracy." This work excited considerable 
 notice and controversy. He was also the 
 author of "Elements of Mechanical Philo- 
 sophy," and some articles iu the Eucyclo- 
 pcedia Britannica. 
 
 ROBOHTELLO, Fuaxcesco, an Italian 
 writer, was bom at Udina, in 1516, and died 
 at Padua, where he was professor of rhetoric 
 and philosophy, in 15U7. He wrote "De 
 
 Vita et Victu populi Romani sub Impcra- 
 toribus" and other treatises, besides editing 
 the works of many of the classic poets. 
 
 ROB BOY, which signifies Jiobert the Red, 
 was a celebrated Highland freebooter, whose 
 true name was Robert Macgregor, but who 
 assumed that of Campbell, on account of 
 the outlawry of the clan Macgregor by the 
 Scotch parliament, in 1GG2. He was bom 
 about 1(5«)0, and was the younger son of 
 Donald JIacgregor of Glengyle, said to have 
 been a lieutenant-colonel in the service of 
 James II., by his wife, a daughter of Camp- 
 bell of Glenfalloch. Like other Highland 
 gentlemen, Rob Roy was a trader in cattle 
 previous to the rebellion of 1715, in which 
 he joined the adherents of the Pretender. 
 On the suppression of the rebellion, the Duke 
 of Montrose, with whom Rob Roy had pre- 
 viously had a quarrel, took the o])portunity 
 to deprive hhn of his estates ; and the latter 
 began to indemnify himself by a war of re- 
 prisals upon the property of the duke. An 
 Euglish garrison was stationed at Inver- 
 snaird. near Aberfoyle, the residence of 
 Rob Roy ; but his activity and courage 
 saved him from the hands of his enemies, 
 from whom he continued for some time to 
 levy black mail. The time of his death is 
 uncertain, but he is known to have survived 
 the year 1733, and died at a very advanced 
 age. 
 
 ROBSON, George Fennel, an eminent 
 draughtsman and lands(rape painter iu 
 water-colours, Mas born at Durham j and 
 as he showed a decided taste for the art 
 while a mere child, he was placed under the 
 tuition of Mr. Harle, a drawing-master in 
 that city. His progress was extremely rapid; 
 and before he attained the age of 20 he vi- 
 sited London, where liis talents soon became 
 known. His first publication was a view of 
 his native city, the profits of which enabled 
 him to undertake a journey to the Scottish 
 highlands, with whose wild and romantic 
 scenery he had long wished for an Oi)por- 
 tunity to make himself acquainted. In the 
 dress of a shepherd, with a wallet at his 
 back, and Scott's poem, " The Lay of the 
 Last Minstrel," in his pocket, he wandered 
 over the mountains, winter and summer, till 
 he had become familiar with the various 
 aspects they presented under different 
 chungcs of seasons, and was enabled to lay 
 up a rich store of materials for tlie improve- 
 ment of his taste and skill. On his return 
 to London, where he took up his future 
 residence, he published "Outlines of the 
 Grampian Mountains," which, as well as his 
 future productions, obtained him patronage 
 and fame. One of his last and best pictures 
 was a " View of I^ondon Bridge before Sun- 
 rise." He died in 1833. Among the engrav- 
 ings and published works of Robson may be 
 mentioned, " Picturesque Views of English 
 Cities," with descriptive letter-jircss by J. 
 Britton, F.S.A. ; and "Landscape Illustra- 
 tions of the Wftverley Novels," engraved by 
 tlie Findens. 
 
 ROBY, Jonx, whose varied acquirements 
 nnd benevolence of disposition have gained 
 him extensive fame, was long a banker at 
 Roclidale in Lancashire, the " Traditions " of 
 which county he made known to the world 
 
 TS7 
 
in two works, published respectively in 1829 
 and J831. His first literary production was 
 ] " Sir Bartram," a poem in six cantos, pub- 
 I lished in 1815 ; and his last was his "Seven 
 I Weeks in Belgium, Switzerland, Lombardy, 
 ! &c.," the result of a continental tour made 
 i in 1838. But besides conducting an exten- 
 ! give business, and engaging in literary pur- 
 I suits with a view to publication, Mr. Roby 
 1 was in the habit of delivering lectures on 
 various subjects of literature and science ; 
 and many a large audience has been de- 
 ; lighted with the homely but forcible illus- 
 trations of the banker, poet, and historian. 
 His active career was cut short by the ca- 
 lamity which befel the " Orion," on her 
 passage from Liverpool to Glasgow, June 
 [ 17th, 18-;0. 
 
 ! ROCCA, Ajtgemts, a learned ecclesiastic, 
 j born at Rocca Contrata, in tiie marche of 
 j Ancona, in 154.5. He studied at Rome, 
 j "Venice, and Padua ; and in 1579 obtained 
 , a place in the Vatican, where also he had 
 I the superintendence of the apostolic press. 
 His works display great learning, and chiefly 
 relate to morals and history. At his death, 
 which happened in 1C20, he left his valuable 
 library to the Augustinian monastery at 
 Rome, on condition that it should be acces- 
 sible to the public. 
 
 ROCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptiste Do- 
 NATiEjf DK ViMEUR, Couut de, marshal of 
 France, was born at Vendomc, in 1725, and 
 entered the army at the age of IC. In ]74(! 
 he became aide-de-camp To Louis Philippe, 
 duke of Orleans ; and afterwards obtaining 
 the command of the regiment of La Marnhe, 
 distinguished himself at the battle of La- 
 feldt, where he was wounded ; obtained fresh 
 I laurels at Creveldt, Minden, Corbach, and 
 I Clostercamp ; and, having been made lieu- 
 I tenant-general, was, in 1780, sent with an 
 I army of (5(X)0 men to the assistance of the 
 United States of America. Having em- 
 I barked in Rhode Island, he acted in con- 
 ! cert with Washington, first against Clinton, 
 j in New York, and then against Cornwallis. 
 I Rochambeau was raised to the rank of mar- 
 shal by Louis XVI., and, after the revolu- 
 I tion, he was appointed to the command of 
 1 the army of the north : but he was super- 
 seded by more active officers, and, being 
 calumniated by the popular journalists, he 
 addressed to the legislative assembly a vin- 
 dication of his conduct. A decree of appro- 
 bation was consequently passed in May, 1792, 
 and he retired to liis estate, near Vendome, 
 with a determination to interfere no more 
 with public atFiiirs. He was subsequently 
 arrested, and narrowly escaped suffering 
 death under the tyranny of Robespierre. In 
 1803 he was presented to Buonaparte, who 
 granted him a pension, and the cross of grand 
 officer of the legion of honour. His death 
 took place in 1807; and liis "Memoires" 
 were published in 1809. 
 
 ROCHE, Regixa Maria, a novelist, whose 
 productions were very popular in their day, 
 was born in 1705. Among her fictions were 
 " The Children of the Abbey," 4 vols., a 
 great favourite also ; " The Nocturnal Visit," 
 4 vols. ; " The Monastery of St. Columb," 5 
 vols. ; and many others. But they have 
 almost faded from the memory, or been over- 
 
 whelmed by the myriad volumes which have 
 succeeded them. Died at Waterford, May, 
 1845. 
 
 ROCHEFORT, William de, a French 
 writer, was born in 1731, at Lyons, and died 
 at Paris, in 1788. His principal work is en- 
 titled "Rt'futation du Systeme de la Nature," 
 but he also wrote some" tragedies, and trans- 
 lated the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the 
 plays of Sophocles, &c. 
 
 ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, Earl of, a 
 witty and profligate nobleman of the court 
 of Charles II., was born in 1048, and, on the 
 death of his father, succeeded to his titles 
 and estates, the latter of which, by extra- 
 vagance, he soon dissipated. He became 
 the personal friend and favourite of his so- 
 vereign, who is said to have encouraged and 
 shared many of his exploits. The levity of 
 his disposition frequently brought him into 
 disgrace, and he was more than once for- 
 bidden the royal presence : his companion- 
 able qualities, however, which made him 
 necessary to the amusement of his master, 
 prevented his occasional exile from being 
 ever of long continuance. His constitution 
 at length gave way under such excesses ; 
 and, at the age of 30, he was visited with all 
 the debility of old age. He lingered for 
 some time in this condition, and died, pro- 
 fessing great penitence for his misspent life, 
 in 1G80. His satirical poems are keen, but 
 their obscenity and impiety render them 
 alike dangerous and disgusting. 
 
 ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson 
 Wextworth, Marquis of, a British states- 
 man, born in 1730, succeeded his father in 
 his titles and estates in 1750, and in 17C5 
 became first lord of the treasury. American 
 aifairs formed at that time a leading subject 
 of discussion ; and Rockingham took the 
 middle way, by repealing the stamp act, and 
 declaring the right of Great Britain to tax 
 the colonies. He was, therefore, deserted 
 by some of his supporters, and retired from 
 the ministry in 1706. He afterwards acted 
 in concert with Chatham, in opposition to 
 the ministry of Lord North ; on the fall of 
 which, in 1782, he was again placed at the 
 head of the administration, but died in the 
 same year, and was succeeded by Lord 
 Shelbnrne. 
 
 RODNEY, George Brydges, Lord, a 
 gallant English admiral, was the son of 
 Captain Henry Rodney, a naval officer, who, 
 at the time of his son's birth, was command- 
 ing the yacht in which the king, attended 
 by the Duke of Cbandos, used to pass to 
 and from Hanover : hence he was christened 
 George Brydges, the names of his royal and 
 noble god-fathers. He entered the navy 
 early in life, and obtained the command of 
 a ship in 1742. In 1749 he was appointed 
 governor of Newfoundland ; and on his 
 return, in 1753, married the sister of the 
 Earl of Northampton. In 1759 he was made 
 admiral of the blue ; and in the same year 
 he destroyed the stores prepared at Havre 
 de Grace for an invasion of England. In 
 1701 he served on the West India station 
 with such activity, that, at the conclusion of 
 the war, he was made a baronet. In 1768 he 
 was elected into parliament for Northamp- 
 ton ; but the contest ruined his estate, and 
 
rod] 
 
 ^ ^ftu iantber«laT 23tfl£jrap?)y. 
 
 [roh 
 
 he found it necessary to retire to the Con- 
 tinent. The French government made some 
 overtures to him, wliich would liave recruited 
 his fortune. Tliese he rejected ; and, the 
 fact having transpired, he was placed in 
 command of a squadron destined for the 
 Mediterranean. In 1780 he fell in with 
 Lungara's fleet, off Cape St. Vincent, and 
 completely defeated it ; and on the 12th of 
 April, 1782, obtained a decisive victory over 
 the French fleet under De Grasse, captur- 
 ing five and sinking one of Ills largest ves- 
 sels. A barony and a pension of 2(KK)/. were 
 bestowed upon him for his services ; and on 
 his decease, in 1702, a monument was voted 
 to his memory, at the national expense, in 
 St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 FiODOLPH I., emperor of Germany, and 
 founder of the imperial house of Austria, 
 was born in 1218, being the eldest son of 
 Albert IV., count of Ifapsburg and land- 
 grave of Alsace. He first served under Otto- 
 car, king of Bohemia, against the Prussians, 
 and distinguished himself by his prudence, 
 valour, and the spirit of justice with which 
 he protected the inhabitants of the towns 
 from their baronial oppressors. In 1273, as 
 he was encamped before the walls of Basle, 
 he received the unexpected intelligence that 
 he was elected king of the Romans and 
 \ emperor, in preference to Alphonso, king of 
 1 Castile, and Ottocar, king of Bohemia, the 
 j latter of whom opposed his election, but was 
 I defeated and slain. After a reign of 19 
 j years he expired, in 1291, aged 72. He was 
 ; brare, indefatigable, aflfable, magnanimous, 
 intelligent and just. 
 
 ROE, Sir Thomas, an able statesman and 
 ambassador, was born about 1580, at I>ow 
 Layton, in Essex, and educated at Magdalen 
 College, Oxford. In 1G04 he was knighted, 
 and soon after went to make discoveries in 
 America. In 1614 he was sent on an em- 
 bassy to the Great Mogul, at whose court he 
 remained tliree years. In ]{')21 he went in the 
 same capacity to the Grand Seignior ; in 
 which post he continued under O.-sman, Mus- 
 tapha I., and Amurath IV. During his 
 residence there, he collected a number of 
 manuscripts, which he presented to the Bod- 
 leian library, and also brought over the 
 Alexandrian MS. of the Greek Bible, as a 
 present to Charles I., from Cyril, patriarch 
 of Constantinople. In 1(V29, Sir Thomas 
 negotiated a peace between Poland and 
 Sweden ; and it was by his advice, that Gu3- 
 tavus Adolphus entered Germany, where he 
 gained tlie battle of Leipsic. After the vic- 
 tory, the king sent him a present of 2tX»0/. 
 In 1C40 he was chosen to represent the uni- 
 versity of Oxford in parliament. The next 
 year he was sent ambassador to the diet of 
 Ratisbon, and on his return was made clinn- 
 cellor of the garter and a privy councillor. 
 Died, 1644. 
 
 ROEBUCK, John, a physician and natu- 
 ral philosopher, was born at Sheffield, in 
 1718, was educated at Edinburgh and Ley- 
 den, and engaged in practice at Birming- 
 ham. He devoted his attention particularly 
 to chemical experiments ; and, in conjunc- 
 tion with Mr. Garbett, he established a sul- 
 phuric acid manufactory at Preston Pans, in 
 Scotland, which proved very successful. In 
 
 1759 they also founded the celebrated Carron 
 iron works. An unfortunate speculation, 
 however, in attempting to work mines of 
 coal and salt, on the estate of the Duke of 
 Hamilton, ruined his fortune ; and he died, 
 in embarrassed circumstances, in 1794. 
 
 ROEMER, Ol.\us, a Danish astronomer, 
 was born at Arhusen, in Jutland, in 1644. 
 He studied at the university of Copenhagen, 
 where he applied so diligently to the ma- 
 thematics, that he was appointed tutor to 
 the Dauphin of France. In 1681 he returned 
 to his native place, and held several consi- 
 derable offices previous to his decease, which 
 took place in 1710. lie made many scien- 
 tific discoTcries, the most important of which 
 was that of the velocity of light, from the 
 observation of the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- 
 lites. Died, 1710. 
 
 ROGERS, the Rer. Geokoe, who, for 
 upwards of half a century, was the rector of 
 Sproughton, near Ipswich, was born in 1741; 
 and died at the patriarchal age of 94, in iK.'i.'i. 
 He was the author of several treatises on 
 theological subjects, a strenuous advocate 
 for civil and religious liberty, and an im- 
 pressive preacher. 
 
 ROGERS, Jonx, an eminent English 
 divine of the 16th century, was educated at 
 Cambridge, and became chaplain to the 
 factory at Antwerp, where be assisted Tin- 
 dal and Coverdale in translating the Bilile 
 into English. In the reign of Edward VI. 
 he returned to England, and obtained a 
 prebend in St. Paul's cathedral. He was 
 the first person executed in the succeeding 
 reign on the score of his religion, being burnt 
 at Smithfield, in 1555. 
 
 ROGERS, John, a celebrated divine, was 
 born at Ensham, in Oxfordshire, in 1679, and 
 educated at Corpus Christi College, of which 
 he became fellow. He wrote an able treati.se 
 on the "Visible and Invisible Church of 
 Christ," against Hoadly ; 4 volumes of " Ser- 
 mons," and an "Answer to Collin's Scheme 
 of Prophecy." Dr. Rogers obtained the living l- 
 of St. Giles's, Cripplegate, and died in 1729. 
 
 ROGERS, Woods, an English circum- 
 navigator, who belonged to the royal navy 
 in 1708, when he was invited by the mer- 
 chants at Bristol to take the command of an 
 expedition to the South Sea. He set sail 
 with two vessels, taking out Dampier as a 
 pilot. Passing to the south of Terra del 
 Fuego, in January, 1709, they entered the 
 Pacific Ocean, and in February arrived at 
 the isle of Juan Fernandez, 'where they 
 found Alexander Selkirk : they then visited 
 the coast of California, crossed the Pacific, 
 and returned to England in Octoljer, 1711. 
 Captain Rogers was afterwards employed 
 with a squadron to extirpate the pirates who 
 infested the West Indies. Died, 1732. 
 
 ROHAN, Henry, Duke of, a very dis- 
 tinguished peer of France, born in 1579. 
 After the death of Henry FV. in 1610, he 
 became the chief of the Huguenots; and 
 having ably maintained three wars against j 
 Louis XIII., procured a peace upon ad- I 
 vantageous terms, 1629. He distinguished ■ 
 himself also as a political writer, but at j 
 length died of wounds received at the battle ' 
 of Rhinficld, in 1638. Among his works ■ 
 are, "Memoirs on French Aftairs," "The 
 
roh] 
 
 ^ |5cto ^ITiubcr^al 33i05rsp!)y. 
 
 [ROM 
 
 Perfect Captain," and " Memoirs relative to 
 
 the War of the Valteline," 3 vols Ilis 
 
 widow, Maugaket de Betiiuxe, daugliter 
 of the great Sully, was a courageous woman, 
 and defended Castres against the Marechal 
 
 deTheniines. Died,lGGO A.vne IloiiAtf, 
 
 sister of the duke, was distinguished by her 
 si)irit, learning, and piety. At the taking of 
 liochelle, slie and her mother refused to be 
 included in the capitulation, and were made 
 prisoners of war. Died, IGl!). 
 
 IlOIIAUI/r, James, a French mathema- 
 tician and natural philosopher, was born at 
 Amiens, in l(i20. lie was a zealous Car- 
 tesian, and wrote a papular treatise on that 
 system, which Dr. Clarke translated into 
 English. Rohault was also the author of 
 " Eli'mens de Mathi'matiques," a " Treatise 
 on Mechanics," and " Dialogues on Philo- 
 sophy." Died, 1075. 
 
 ROLAND, Philip Lauresce, an eminent 
 Frencli sculptor, was born near Lisle, in 
 ir4(>, and, after studying at Home, acquired 
 great reputation in Paris. Died, 181(5. 
 
 KOLAND DE LA PLATIERE, Jeax 
 Makiic, a French statesman, was born at 
 Lyons, in 1732, and held tlie otlioe of in- 
 si)ector-general of manufactures after the 
 commencement of the revolution. lie es- 
 poused the popular cause, and becoming 
 closely connected with the Girondist party, 
 he was made minister of the interior in 
 1792. The downfall of his party, in 1793, 
 exposed him to proscription, but he found 
 a secret asylum at Rouen. On hearing, 
 however, of the condemnation and death of 
 his wife, he deliberately stabbed himself, 
 Nov, l;-). 1793. 
 
 ROLAND, Mantox Jeax Piiii.ipny, wife 
 of the preceding, born at Paris, in 1754, was 
 remarkable for her beauty, and received an 
 excellent education. After her marriage, 
 in 1779, Madame Roland took part in the 
 studies and tasks of her husband, and the 
 revolution found in her a ready convert to 
 its principles. On the appointment of lier 
 husband to the ministry, she participated in 
 Ills official duties, writing and preparing 
 many papers, and taking a share in the 
 political councils of the Girondist leaders. 
 She was arrested on the fall of the party, 
 and, when condemned to death, conducted 
 herself with great firmness, exclaiming at 
 the time of her execution, " Oh Liberty, what 
 crimes are committed in thy name ! " Her 
 death took place, Nov. 8. 1793. She wrote 
 " An Appeal to Impartial Posterity," and 
 "^Miscellaneous Works," 3 vols. 
 
 ROLANDINO, an old Italian liistorian, 
 was born at Padua, in 12(X), and died in 
 1276. 
 
 ROLLE, Denn'is, a native of Devonshire, 
 who traced his descent from Rollo, first duke 
 of Normandy. In 1760 he purcliased a whole 
 district in Florida, whither he proceeded 
 with a tliousand persons to people his new 
 possessions ; but through the unhealthiness 
 of the climate, and the desertion of those 
 who escaped disease, he soon found himself 
 witliout colonists and without money ; so 
 that, in order to revisit England, he was 
 compelled to work his passage back in an 
 American vessel. He was then satisfied to 
 live on his paternal estate, had a seat in 
 
 the House of Commons, and filled the office 
 of sheriff for the county. He devoted much 
 of his time to the improvement of the con- 
 dition of the lower classes. Died. 1707. 
 
 ROLLE, Hexuy, an eminent lawyer and 
 judge, wa:s born at Hcanton, in Devonshire, 
 in 1589, and educated at Exeter College, 
 Oxford ; after which he became a student of 
 the Inner Temple, and was called to the 
 bar. In 1640 he was made a serjeant-at- 
 law, and in 1648 he accepted the office of 
 chief justice of the court of king's bench. 
 He wrote " Reports," 2 vols, folio : and " An 
 Abridgment of Cases and Resolutions of the 
 Law," which was published by Sir Matthew 
 Hale. 
 
 ROLL!, Paul Axtoxio, an Italian poet, 
 bom at Todi, in 1087. He came to England, 
 and was emi)loyed in teaching some of the 
 children of George II.; and died at Rome, 
 in 1707. He published a collection of poenisi 
 also editions of several Italian authors ; was 
 tlie editor of Marchetti's Lucretius, and 
 the translator of Milton's Paradise Lost into 
 Italian verse. 
 
 ROLIilN, CiiAHLES, an eminent historian, 
 born at Paris, in lOtil. He was intended for 
 business, but his talents obtained the notice 
 of a learned Benedictine, by which he was 
 enabled to gratify his inclination for learn- 
 ing. After going through a course of the- 
 ology at the Sorbonne, he received the 
 tonsure, and was twice chosen rector of the 
 university of Paris. When elected a third 
 time, he was deprived of his situation by the 
 intrigues of the Jesuits ; but he employed 
 his leisure in composing his excellent work, 
 " On the Manner of Studying and Teaching 
 the Belles Lettres," 4 vols. This was fol- 
 lowed by his " Ancient History " and nine 
 volumes of the " Roman History." Died, 
 1741. 
 
 ROLLO, the conqueror of Normandy, was 
 a Norwegian duke, banished from his country 
 on account of his piracies, by Harold Har- 
 f.xger, who conquered Norway in 870. He 
 first retired with his fleet among the islands 
 of the Hebrides, whither the flower of the 
 Norwegian nobility had fled for refuge when 
 Harold had become master of the kingdom. 
 He was there received with open arms by 
 those warriors, who, eager for conquest and 
 revenge, waited only for a chief to lead them 
 on. Taking advantage of their sentiments 
 at such a crisis, he pretended to have had a 
 supernatural dream, which promised him 
 a glorious fortune in France. This served 
 at least to support the ardour of his fol- 
 lowers ; but the weakness of the French 
 government, and the confusion in which it 
 was involved, were still more persuasive 
 reasons. Having, therefore, sailed up the 
 Seine to Rouen, lie immediately took the 
 capital of that province, then called Neustria, 
 the sovereignty of which Charles the Simple 
 was obliged to give up to Rollo and his 
 Normans, to purchase a peace. Soon after, 
 Rollo was persuaded to embrace Christianity, 
 and was baptized by the Archbishop of 
 Rouen, in the cathedral. 
 
 ROMAINE, WiLLiASt, a popular Calvin- 
 istic divine, was born in 1714, at Hartlepool, 
 in Durham, and was educated at Hertford 
 and Christchurch colleges, Oxford. In 1748 
 
ROM] 
 
 ^ i^(io Hntbrvs'al 3Bt05rnjpl)i?. 
 
 [roo 
 
 he obtained the lectureship of St. Botolph, 
 IJishopsgale ; the j'ear following he was 
 chosL'it lecturer of St. Dunstan in the West ; j 
 and, in 1750. he was apiwinted assistant | 
 morning preacher at St. George's, Hanover j 
 Square. Soon after this he was elected j 
 Gresham professor of astronomy, which situ- j 
 ation he soon resigned. He obtained such 
 popularity by his opposition to the bill for 
 the naturalisation of tlie Jews, that his pub- 
 lications on that subject were printed by the j 
 corporation of jA)ndon. In lliii he was ' 
 elected to the living of St. Ann, Black- i 
 friars, where, as well os at St. Dunstan's, he I 
 continued to otilciate till his death, in 1795. j 
 Among his works are, " Discourses on the ' 
 Law and Gospel," "The Life of Faith," 
 • The Walk of Taith," and the " Triumph 
 of Faith." 
 1 ROMANA, Don Petkr Caro y Sureda, 
 Marquis dc la, a Spanish general, was born 
 at Majorca, in 1701. He distinguished him- 
 self in the campaigns against the French, on 
 the Pyrenean frontier, from 1793 to 1795 ; 
 and commanded the auxiliary Spanish corps 
 of 14,00() men, which was sent to the north 
 of Germany by Napoleon ; but when Spain 
 rose against her oppressor, I^a llomana, 
 aided by an English squadron, succeeded 
 in embarking his troops from the island 
 of Funen, and leading them home in safety. 
 During 1809 and 1810, he displayed great 
 talents both as a general and a statesman ; 
 and his death, in 1811, was a real loss to hia 
 country. 
 
 ROMANZOFF, Peteu Alexaxdrovitch, 
 Count, a Russian general and field-marshal, 
 was born about 1730, and having entered 
 into the army when very young, his courage 
 and abilities soon procured him promotion. 
 He succeeded Prince A. Galitzin, as com- 
 mander-incliief against the Turks, in 1770, 
 and obtained many advantages over the 
 enemy in that and the following years, pre- 
 viously to the treaty which he compelled 
 the grand vizier to sign, in his camp at Kai- 
 nardji, in 1774. He soon after set out for 
 his government of the Ukraine. He waa 
 again placed at the head of an army against 
 tlie Turks, in the war which began in 1787 ; 
 but being thwarted by Potemkin, he retired 
 in disgust. Died, 179(5. 
 
 ROMANZOFF, Miciiael Paul, Count, 
 son of the preceding, entered early on his 
 diplomatic career, by accompanying his so- 
 vereign, in 1808, to the conference at Erfurt. 
 He also executed other missions to the satis- 
 faction of Alexander, wlio, after his rup- 
 ture with France, appointed him minister at 
 St. Petersburgh. Having obtained leave to 
 retire after the emperor's return, Romanzoff 
 begged permission to devote the pension 
 which ha<l been settled upon him, as also 
 the valuable presents made him during his 
 diplomacy, for the use of tlie Rus^-iiuns who 
 had been wounded in the previous cam- 
 paign. He also emidoyed his wealth in 
 erecting churches, schools, and other pa- 
 triotic establishments ; and was at the ex- 
 pense of constructing and fitting out the 
 ship in which young Kotzebue made his 
 voyage of discovery. The sculptor Canova, 
 a short time before hi.i deatli, sent him as a 
 present, a colossal statue representing the 
 
 741 
 
 Goddess of Peace holding the olive branch, 
 and leaning against a pillar, on whiclx is 
 engraved, "Peace of Abo, in 1743: Peace 
 ofRudschuck Kairnadji, In 1774 ; Peace of 
 Fredricksham, in 1809 ;" these treaties hav- 
 ing been severally signed by himself, lus 
 father, nnd his grandfather. 
 
 ROME DE L'ISLE, Joh.v Baptist Louis, 
 a French mineralogist, was born at Grai, in 
 173(5 ; went to the East Indies as secretary 
 to a company of artillery and engineers, 
 and was made prisoner at Pondichcrry, next 
 visited China, and returned to France in 
 17(54. He afterwards studied natural history, 
 and gave lectures on mineralogy ; wrote 
 works on crystallography, metrology, &c., 
 and died in 1790. 
 
 ROMILLY, Sir Samuel, a celebrated 
 English advocate, and M.P. for Westmin- 
 ster (.descended from a Protestant family, 
 who left France after the edict of Nantes), 
 was born in London, in 1757, and placed in 
 the office of a solicitor, which he quitted to 
 study for the bar. Called in 1783, for some 
 years his practice was chiefly confined to 
 draughts in equity ; but he gradually rose 
 to distinction in the court of chancery, and 
 ultimately took the lead, being equally dis- 
 tinguished by profound information and 
 forcible eloquence. His general politics 
 agreeing with those of the Whigs, he was, 
 during the short administration of Mr. Fox 
 in 180(5, appointed to the office of solicitor- 
 general, and knighted. He was particularly 
 distinguished by the eloquence with which 
 he pleaded the necessity of a revision of the 
 criminal code ; on which subject he also 
 composed a very able pamphlet, entitled 
 " Observations on the Criminal I^aw of 
 England." His knowledge of the law, his 
 great talents, and his known integrity, ren- 
 dered him the highest authority of his time. 
 This good and useful miin was, by the death 
 of his beloved wife, afflicted with a brain 
 fever, and, during a paroxysm, he put an 
 end to his valuable life, Nov. 1818. 
 
 ROMNEY, Geokoe, an excellent painter, 
 was born at Dalton, in Lancashire, in 1734. 
 Having served his time to an artist named 
 Steele, whom he soon surpassed, he came 
 to London with a picture of the " Death of 
 General Wolfe," which obtained the second 
 prize in the exliil)ition, and sold for a con- 
 siderable sum. After visiting Italy he re- 
 turned to London, wliere he obtained great 
 reputation. Died, 1802. 
 
 ROMULUS, tlie founder of Rome, and 
 brother of Remus, was the son of Rliea 
 Sylvia, daughter of Numitor, king of Alba. 
 He died, B.C. 715. 
 
 RUNSARD, Peter de, a French elegiac 
 and epigrammatic |)oet, of a noble family. 
 Born, 1524 j died, 158';. 
 
 ROOKE, Sir Geokoe, a gallant British 
 admiral, was a native of Kent, and born in 
 1(550. He destroyed the French and Si)anish 
 fleets in Vigo Bay, in 1702, and captured 
 several men of war and galleons ; he also 
 bore a part in the reduction of Gibraltar, in 
 1704. Admiral Rooke was not less distin- 
 guished for disinterestedness than for skill 
 and intrepidity. He died in 1709, declaring, 
 in allusion to the contracted fortune he left 
 behind him, that, " though small, it was 
 
KOO] 
 
 ^ |2ctD ^lubcr^al StJiosm^jTu'. 
 
 [ros 
 
 lionestly acquired, and had never cost a sai- 
 lor a tear, or the nation a farthinfr." 
 
 ROOKE, LAirKKXCK, an eminent geome- 
 trician and astronomer, born at Dcptford, 
 in Kent, in 170.'5 ; became astronomical pro- 
 fessor of Gresham College, and was one of 
 tlie original members of the lloyal Society. 
 Died, U;o2. 
 
 ROSA, SAr.vATon, a celebrated painter, 
 
 poet, and musician, was born at Naples, in 
 
 I 1(515. After studying under Francanzani, 
 
 I he became a disciple of Ribera, with whom 
 
 i he went to Rome. But his taste was formed 
 
 I more from the study of nature among the 
 
 wilds of the Apennines, than from the les- 
 
 ' sons of other artists ; and he delighted in 
 
 delineating scenes of gloomy grandeur and 
 
 magnificence. He also wrote plays, and 
 
 peiVormed parts in them ; besides wbich he 
 
 composed many cantatas, lie was liberally 
 
 patronised by the Orand-duke of Florence 
 
 I while residing in that city ; the Maffei 
 
 I family also proved great friends to him, and 
 
 ! it was at their seat that he wrote his cele- 
 
 i brated satires. On his return to Rome, he 
 
 ■ executed many pictures for churches ; but 
 
 j Ills principal merit lay in the representation 
 
 I of tlic wild scenery of nature, storms, &c. 
 
 Died, IC.T.'l. 
 
 ROSAMOXD, usually called Fair Rosa- 
 mond, was the daughter of Walter de Clif- 
 ford, baron of Hereford, and the favotirite 
 mistress of Henry IT. She had two sons by 
 Henry ; William, called Long-sword, and 
 Jetferv, who became archbishop of York. 
 
 ROSAPINA, Fraxcesco, a celebrated 
 Italian engraver, was bom near Rimini, in 
 1702, and settled at Bologna. Many noble 
 engravings from the old masters owe their 
 existence to his superior skill ; but his 
 greatest performance is the work known as 
 the " Gallery of Bologna," of which all the 
 drawings and most of the engravings were 
 executed by his own h.and. Died, 1841. 
 
 ROSCIUS, QiTiNTUS, a Roman actor, bom 
 at Lanuvium, was so celebrated for liis 
 powers of representation, that his name 
 has ever since been the characteristic dis- 
 tinction of performers of pre-eminent merit. 
 Died, B.C. 61. 
 
 ROSCOE, William, an eminent biogra- 
 pher and miscellaneous writer, whose life 
 affords a memorable instance of what may 
 be effected by the persevering efforts of 
 unassisted genius, in acquiring a taste for 
 the arts and sciences, with an extensive 
 knowledge of ancient and modern litera- 
 ture. His parents, who were in an liumble 
 sphere, gave him the mere rudiments of a 
 common education ; and even of this young 
 Roscoe neglected to avail himself. But he 
 early began to think for himself; and his 
 liabits of mental application soon gave evi- 
 dence of that genius which afterwards shone 
 forth with so much splendour. Placed very 
 early in a lawyer's office, he found leisure, 
 without neglecting any of the duties of a 
 clerk, to make himself master of the Latin 
 language, so as to translate the classics, and 
 also to study other ancient languages ; and 
 he then went through the same course with 
 the modern languages, reading the best 
 authors in each. At the age of 16 he pub- 
 lished " Mount Pleasant," a poem that was 
 
 742 
 
 well received. On tlie expiration of his 
 clerkship, he entered into partnership with 
 Mr. Aspinall, an attorney of considerable 
 practice. But while he strictly attended to 
 his professional duties, he did not lose sight 
 of literature and the arts. Painting and 
 statuary were objects of his regard ; and in 
 1773 he read, at the society in Liverpool, an 
 ode on those subjects : he also occasionally 
 lectured there. When tlie projected abo- 
 lition of the slave trade became a subject of 
 public discussion he warmly interested him- 
 self in its success ; and his " Scriptural Re- 
 futation of a Pamphlet on the Licitness of 
 the Slave Trade " and his " Wrongs of 
 Africa" appeared in 1788. His ardent love 
 of liberty induced him to hail the com- 
 mencement of the French revolution as an 
 era of promised happiness to the human 
 race : and under the influence of such feel- 
 ings he composed two songs, " O'er the vine- 
 covered hills and gay regions of France " 
 and "Millions be free," which were, for a 
 time, highly popular both in France and 
 England. In 1795 he brought out that great 
 work on which his fame chiefly rests, en- 
 titled " The Life of Lorenzo de' Medici," 2 
 vols. 4to.; soon after which he retired from 
 the practice of an attorney, and entered 
 himself as a student at Gray's Inn, with a 
 view to the bar. During this period he had 
 leisure for other studies. In 1798 lie pub- 
 lished "The Muse," apoem,from theltalian; 
 and in 1805 appeared his second great work, 
 " The Life and Pontificate of Leo X., the 
 Son of Lorenzo de' Medici," 4 vols. 4lo. He 
 also subsequently wrote several political 
 pamphlets, and scientific treatises. Mr. Ros- 
 coe being attached to the Whig party, they 
 supported him as a candidate to represent 
 Liverpool, and after a severe contest with 
 General Tarleton, in 1806, he was returned. 
 His senatorial career, liowever, was brief, for 
 after the dissolution of parliament in 1807, 
 he retired from the representation. Some 
 time previous to this, he had become a 
 banker at Liverpool ; but the house to which 
 he belonged ultimately failed, and his pri- 
 vate property was wrecked ; his valuable 
 library, prints, drawings, &c., producing 
 about 8000/. Mr. Roscoe had long been 
 considered as the head of the literary and 
 scientific circles of his native town ; and 
 much of his time was spent in promoting 
 the objects of its many noble public institu- 
 tions. He died, June 30. 1831. 
 
 ROSCOE, Henky, youngest son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1800 ; studied the 
 law, and was called to the bar in 1826. 
 Like his father, he united with his profes- 
 sional studies an extensive acquaintance 
 with polite literature, and was an accom- 
 plished writer. Independent of many " Di- 
 gests " of different branches of the law, he 
 was the author of " Lives of eminent Bri- 
 tish Lawyers," in Lardncr's Cyclopaidia ; 
 a " Life " of his father, 2 vols. : and the editor 
 of " North's Lives." Died, 1836. 
 
 ROSCOE, W. S., son of the celebrated 
 scholar and banker of I^iverpool, resembled 
 his illustrious father in his love of learning 
 and the arts, and was specially conversant 
 with Italian literature ; but has left, as the 
 monuments of talents that were admired by 
 
ROS] 
 
 ^ ficia Wmhtv^tiX 2Si'0tirr[jpTjM. 
 
 [ros 
 
 those who knew him, only a volume of mis- 
 cellaneous poems and some MSS., including 
 a translation of Klopstock's Messiah. Died, 
 October, 1S43, aged (Jl. 
 
 ROSCOMMON. See Dillon. 
 
 ROSE, Geouoe, a statesman and political 
 writer, was born at Brechin, in Scotland, in 
 1744. He waa a purser in tlie navy, but 
 through the interest of tlie Earl of March- 
 mont he was afterwards made keeper of the 
 records in tiie exchequer. Here his talents 
 for business were soon discovered, and he 
 was appointed to superintend the publication 
 of the Domesday Book, and to complete the 
 Journals of the Lords. From this period 
 his advancement was rapid ; and wlien Mr. 
 Pitt (whose friendship and full confidence 
 he possessed) returned to power, Mr. Rose 
 was made president of the board of trade, 
 and treasurer of the navy. On the death of 
 that minister he lost these situations ; but 
 when the administration formed by Lord 
 Grenville retired, he resumed his former 
 station, and continued in it till his deatli, 
 wliicli happened at Cuifnells, liis seat in 
 Hampshire, in 1818. He published "A 
 brief Examination into tlie Increase of the 
 Revenues, Commerce, and Navigation of 
 Great Britain," " Considerations on the 
 Debt due by the Civil List," " Observations 
 respecting the Public Expenditure, and the 
 Influence of the Crown," &c. 
 
 ROSELLINI, Iri'OLiTO, one of the most 
 celebrated archieologists of modern times, 
 was born at Pisa, 18(XI ; completed his studies 
 at the university of his native town, in 1821 ; 
 three years later obtained the chair of ori- 
 ental languages, wliich he had prosecuted 
 at Bologna meanwhile with great zeal nnder 
 the celebrated Cardinal Mezzofante. Having 
 made Egyptian antiquities his peculiar study, 
 he followed eagerly in the steps of the illus- 
 trious ChampolHon, whom he accompanied 
 first to Paris and tlien to Egypt in the pro- 
 secution of his researches ; and on wliose 
 death he undertook the publication of tlie 
 splendid work, the result of their united 
 efforts, entitled tlie " Monuments of Egypt 
 and Nubia," &c. Died, 1843. 
 
 ROSENMULLER, Joirx George, a cele- 
 brated German theologian, was professor of 
 theology at Erlangen and Leipsic, and dis- 
 tinguished himself as a preacher, and by his 
 activity in the cause of education. Born, 
 1736 ; died, 1815 His son, Ernest Fre- 
 deric Charles, a distinguished orientalist, 
 was born at Leipsic, in 1708 ; in which uni- 
 versity he became professor of Arabic, &c., 
 and rendered important services to oriental 
 literature by various learned works An- 
 other son, John CiiutsxiAN, celebrated as an 
 anatomist, was born at Hessberg, in 1771 ; 
 became professor of anatomy and surgery at 
 Leipsic, and died in 1820. He was the 
 author of " Anatomico-Surgical Delinea- 
 tions," a "Manual of Anatomv," &e. 
 
 ROSIN, John, or ROSINUS, an anti- 
 quary, was born at Eisenach, in 1551, and 
 died of the plagne in 1()20. He wrote " An- 
 tiquitatum Romanorum," a work of consi- 
 dcral)le value. 
 
 ROSS, Alexa^jder, a native of Aberdeen, 
 was master of tlie grammar school at South- 
 ampton, and chaplain to Charles I. His 
 
 works are very numerous ; the most known 
 of which is, a " ^'iew of all Religions." He 
 was also the author of a curious jierformance, 
 called " Virgilius Evangelizans," which is a 
 cento on the life of Christ, taken wholly 
 from Virgil. He died in 1C54. 
 
 ROSS, Alexander, a Scotch poet, born in 
 Aberdeenshire, in 1009. He was educated at 
 the Marischal College, Aberdeen, and spent 
 his life in discharging the duties of a parish 
 schoolmaster at Lochlee, in Angusshire. It 
 was not till he was nearly 70 years of age 
 that he first appeared as an author, when 
 he published " Helenore, or the Fortunate 
 Shepherdess," a poem which in the north of 
 Scotland is nearly as popular as the writings 
 of Ramsay and Burns. He was also the 
 author of some favourite songs, and died in 
 1784. 
 
 ROSS, David, a theatrical performer at 
 Drury Lane, cotemporary with Garrick. He 
 was educated at Westminster School j and 
 having the advantages of a good figure and 
 a classical education, he acquired reputation 
 both as a tragic and a comic actor. Died, 
 17S0. 
 
 ROSS, or ROUSE, Joii.v, called the anti- 
 quary of Warwick, of which town he was a 
 native, studied at Balliol College, Oxford, 
 and afterwards became canon of Osney. 
 After travelling over the greater part of the 
 kingdom to collect information respecting 
 historical events, he settled at Guy's Clilf, 
 in Warwickshire, wliere he died, in 1491. 
 He wrote a work on the "Antiquities of 
 Warwick" and the " History of our Kings," 
 and left a MS. on the " History of the Earls 
 of Warwick," which is in the Bodleian 
 Library. 
 
 ROSS, Jou.N', a learned prelate, was born 
 in Herefordshire, and educated at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge, where he took the degree 
 of D. D. In 1746 he published a pamphlet 
 in defence of Dr. Middleton against the criti- 
 cisms of Mr. Markland ; and, in 1749, an 
 edition of Cicero's Epistolas ad Famiiiares, 
 2 vols. Svo. He was presented to the vicarage I 
 of Frome, in Somersetshire ; and, in 1778, ' 
 advanced to the bishopric of Exeter. Died, | 
 1792. 
 
 ROSSI, Pellegrino, Count, was bom at ' 
 Carrara, in 1787. Though of humble origin, 
 he received a liberal education, studied law at 
 Pisa, and commenced practising at the bar 
 of Bologna in 1809, where his success was 
 rapid and complete. But in 1814, fired witli 
 the ambition of giving freedom to Italy, he 
 renounced his profession for that of arms, 
 and, on the overthrow of Murat, fled into 
 Switzerland, where he sought consolation 
 for political disappointments in the j)ur- 
 suits of science. At Geneva, wliure he iixcd 
 his residence, his varied acquirements, his 
 great oratorical powers, and his commanding 
 intellect, soon made themselves felt and 
 acknowledged. In 1810 he was appointed 
 professor of law. In 1820 he was elected 
 a member of the council of Geneva, and : 
 soon afterwards he was sent as deputy to I 
 the diet, when he drew up his celebrated 
 report on the revision of the Swiss federal | 
 constitution, which has ever since been as- | 
 sociated with his name. Meanwhile the 
 moderation of his political views, so closely j 
 
% i^^Jxj Hm'tieri^aT 33iagrap]^M. 
 
 [ros 
 
 resembling those of tlie French Doctrinaires, 
 had brought him into connection witli the 
 leading members of that party in Paris, 
 Messrs. Guizot and De Broglie ; and wil- 
 lingly availing himself of their friendly 
 services to open to him a more extensive 
 career than Switzerland presented, he quit- 
 ted Geneva for Paris in 1833, with a view to 
 employment in the service of the French 
 government. On his arrival at Paris he was 
 appointed professor of political economy, was 
 soon afterwards adorned with the honours of 
 the Institute, was created a peer in 1839 ; and 
 in 1845, being now a naturalised Frenchman, 
 lie was appointed ambassador to Rome. 
 Through his influence Pius IX. ascended 
 the pontifical throne in 1846 ; and at his in- 
 stigation the pope entered upon the liberal 
 I career, since cut short by unexpected emer- 
 gencies. In 1848, carried away by the re- 
 miniscences of his youth, he heard with 
 delight the cry of national independence 
 raised in Piedmont. He immediately set out 
 for Carrara, where he was welcomed with 
 enthusiasm ; which still further increased 
 when he sent his son to the army of Cliarles 
 Albert, to contend for tlie wreath of free- 
 dom. But the victories of Radetzky checked 
 his ardour, and for a time consigned him 
 to privacy and neglect. lie was permitted, 
 however, to have one more glimpse of fortune 
 ere his sun finally set. In the midst of sur- 
 rounding confusion and danger, he was aj)- 
 pealed to by the pope, then bewildered in 
 theQuirinal, and with his dominions crumb- 
 ling beneatli his feet, to aid him witli his 
 counsel. liesponding to the appeal, he took 
 office as prime minister, IGth of September, 
 and for two months laboured to secure free- 
 dom for the Roman people and peace for 
 Italy ; but his career of noble promise was 
 cut short by an assassin, Nov. 14. 1848, and 
 immediately afterwards the revolution broke 
 out, which comi)elled Pius IX. to take refuge 
 at Gaeta. Count Rossi has not left behind 
 him any literary production commensurate 
 to his great reputation ; but his " Traite du 
 Droit Penal " C3 vols.) and his " Cours 
 d'Eeonomie Polititiue" may be consulted 
 with profit. 
 
 ROSSLYN, Alexander Weddkrburne, 
 Earl of, an eminent lawyer and statesman, 
 was born in Scotland, in 1733. He received 
 his education at Edinburgh, and was called 
 to the bar in 1757. His application was in- 
 defatigable, and in 17G3 he obtained a silk 
 gown as king's counsel. Not long afterwards 
 he was returned to parliament for Richmond. 
 He joined Mr. Grenville in opposition to the 
 administration, and distinguished himself 
 by his eloquence and political firmness. In 
 1771 he was appointed solicitor-general ; in 
 1778, attorney-general ; and, in"l780, chief 
 justice of the common pleas, with the title 
 of lord Loughborough. He adhered to the 
 party of Mr. Fox when Mr. Pitt first came 
 into power ; but joined the administration, 
 with many others, under the alarm produced 
 by the French revolution in 1793, when he 
 succeeded Lord Thurlow as chancellor, which 
 office he held till 1801, when he retired witli 
 the title of the earl of Rosslyn, and died in 
 1805. In legal affairs, he was able, plausible, 
 subtle, and eloquent ; in his political ca- 
 
 pacity, a steady partisan, highly serviceable 
 to the cause he espoused. His lordship wrote 
 a pamphlet, entitled " Observations on the 
 State of the English Prisons, and the Means 
 of improving them." 
 
 ROSSLYN, James St. Clair Erskine, 
 Earl of, eldest son of Lieutenant-general 
 Sir Henry Erskine, and nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, succeeded his father as a baronet in 
 1763, and commenced his military career in 
 1778, as cornet in the 1st horse-guards. In 
 1782 he served on the ftaif in Ireland, as 
 aide-de-camp to the lord lieutenant, and 
 was subsequently appointed assistant-ad- 
 jutant-general in that country. In 1783 he 
 obtained a majority in the 8th light dra- 
 goons, and in 1792 the lieutenant-colonelcy 
 of the 12th light dragoons. He served with 
 that regiment at Toulon in 1793, and after- 
 wards as adjutant-general to the forces in 
 the Mediterranean, under Sir David Diuidas 
 and Sir Charles Stuart. In 1795 he obtained 
 the rank of colonel, being appointed aide- 
 de-camp to the king. He was employed as 
 brigadier-general and adjutant-general to 
 the British army in P&rtuaal, from Nov. 
 1796 to the end of 1797. In 1798 he was 
 appointed major-general, and was present 
 at the reduction of Minorca. In 1805 he was 
 appointed lieutenant-general, and placed on 
 the staff in Ireland ; in 1806 he was again 
 appointed to serve in Portugal, was at the 
 siege of Copenhagen in 1807, and in 1809 in 
 the Zealand expedition. In 1810 his lordship 
 received the colonelcy of tlie 9th lancers; 
 and in June, 1814, he was appointed general. 
 Sir James Erskine was a member of the 
 House of Commons for 23 years before his i 
 accession to the peerage in 1805. In 1829 he 
 was appointed a keeper of the privy seal, 
 and sworn a member of the privy council ; 
 and in December, 1834, he was lord president 
 of the council in Sir Robert Peel's brief 
 administration. The Earl of Rosslyn 
 was one of the most intimate friends of the 
 Duke of Wellington, and a firm upholder 
 of conservative principles. He died in 
 1837, and was succeeded by his sou. Lord 
 Loughborough. 
 
 ROSTOPSCHIN, Feodor, Count, a Rus- 
 sian statesman and military officer, v/as born 
 in 1760; entered the army as a lieutenant 
 in the imperial guards ; received high pro- 
 motion from the emperor Paul, but was dis- 
 missed in disgrace ; and subsequently, under 
 Alexander, became governor of Moscow. He 
 exercised an important influence over the 
 campaign of 1812, and is charged by the 
 French with having caused the conflagration 
 of Moscow, which is the general opinion 
 even in Russia, although Rostopschin has 
 positively denied it. It is certain, however, 
 that he took measures for the destruction of 
 the magazines in that citj' ; and should it 
 be proved that his emissaries set fire to the 
 ancient capital of Russia at his express com- 
 mands, desperate as the measure may appear, 
 it ever ought to be regarded as the act of a 
 patriot, rather than that of an incendiary, ! 
 inasmuch as it deprived the French invaders I 
 of a resting-place, and was the death-blow | 
 to Napoleon's boundless ambition. In 1814 i 
 Count Rostopschin accompanied the emperor 
 Alexander to the congress of Vienna, after- 
 
 744 
 
rot] 
 
 ^ ^cto mnibtviaX 23iajjraj)f)y. 
 
 [rou 
 
 wards spent several years in France, and 
 died lit Moscow, in 182i5. 
 
 ROTGANS, Luke, an eminent Dutch 
 poet, was born in 1045, at Amsterdam, and 
 died in 1710. He wrote the "lafe of Wil- 
 liiun III., King of England," an epic poem, 
 in eiglit books, and several other less impor- 
 tant pieces. 
 
 ROTHERAM, John, an English physi- 
 cian ; autlior of a " Philosoi>hical Enquiry 
 into the Nature and Properties of Water." 
 Died, 1787. 
 
 ROT HER AM, Jonx, a clergyman of the 
 establislied church, was born in Cumber- 
 land, and educated at Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford. He became a curate in Yorkshire, 
 where he wrote a valuable treatise on the 
 "Doctrine of Justification by Faith," for 
 whicli the university conferred on him the 
 degree of M. A. ; and the bishop of Durham 
 gave him the living of Houghton-le- Spring, 
 wiicre he died, in 1788. He also wrote, " An 
 Apology for the Athanasiau Creed," " Sketch 
 of the grand Argument for Christianity," 
 " Essay on tlie Soul and Body," &c. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD, Nathan Mayee, the 
 greatest millionaire of the age, was one of 
 live brothers, wlio, by their wealth, connec- 
 tions, and financial skill, have for years ex- 
 ercised a great control over the monied, 
 commercial, and political interests of Eu- 
 rope. Mayer Anselm, their father, and the 
 founder of the house of Rothschild, was 
 bom at Frankfort. Tliongh educated for 
 the priesthood, he turned his attention to 
 commerce, became eminent as a banker, 
 and being trusted with the most important 
 affairs by the Landgrave of Hesse during 
 the dominion of Napoleon in Germany, he 
 executed his trusts so faithfully and suc- 
 cessfully, that his house ranked among the 
 most celebrated on the Continent. Mayer 
 Anselm died in 1812, leaving for inheritance 
 to his sons the example of his life and wise 
 counsels, an immense fortune, and un- 
 boimded credit ; and they, by combining 
 their operations, and always acting in con- 
 cert, formed among themselves an invincible 
 phalanx, whose power at one time was suffi- 
 cient to influence the counsels of a mighty 
 empire, and to regulate its financial opera- 
 tions. Their names and residences were as 
 follow: Ansei.m, at Frankfort; Solomon, 
 at Berlin and Vienna ; Nathan Maveh, at 
 London j Charles, at Naples ; and James, 
 at Paris. N. M. Rothschild, whose life we 
 are recording, came to England in 1800, 
 where he acted as agent for his father in the 
 purchase of Manchester goods for the Con- 
 tinent. Shortly afterwards, through the 
 agency of his father, for the Elector of Hesse 
 Cassel and other German princes, he had 
 large sums placed at his disposal, which he 
 employed with such extraordinary judgment, 
 that his means went on at a rapid rate of 
 accumulation. Besides the essential co- 
 operation of his brothers, he had agencies in 
 almost every city in the world, with hosts of 
 minor dependent capitalists who participated 
 in liis loans, who placed implicit confidence 
 in the family, and were ready at all times to 
 embark with them in any operation that 
 was proposed. Nothing, therefore, was too 
 great or extended for him. His great success 
 
 745 
 
 in loan operations made it a matter almost 
 of rivalry with all those states who wanted 
 to borrow money, to obtain his co-operation ; 
 and yet he continued literally to steer clear of 
 all the bad bargains which were made during 
 the zenith of his career as a banker and 
 financial merchant. His transactions in 
 bullion and foreign exchanges were also on 
 an immense scale, and not less lucrative, 
 perhaps, than his foreign loans ; in short, as 
 they were not subject to the reverses which 
 his loan contracts necessarily at times were, 
 they might even be the most important 
 branch of the whole concern. Mr. Roths- 
 child had gone to Frankfort, to be present 
 at the marriage of his eldest son, Lionel, 
 with one of his cousins, a daughter of Baron 
 Anselm, when he was taken ill, and speedily 
 died. His corpse was conveyed to London, 
 and deposited in the burial-ground belonging 
 to the German synagogue in Duke's Place, 
 on the 8th of August, 1830. 
 
 ROTROU, John de, a French dramatic 
 poet, was born in 1609, at Dreux ; and died 
 in 1650. He was the author of 37 plays, 
 many of which were highly popular ; but 
 he willingly bore public testimony to the 
 superior merit of his rival Corneille. Being 
 at Paris when a pestileniial disorder broke 
 out at Dreux, he hastened to afford relief to 
 his fellow-citizens ; but, three days after his 
 arrival, in 1650, he died, the victim of his 
 benevolent exertions. 
 
 ROTTECK, Chakles von, a celebrated 
 modem liistorian, was born at Freiburg, in 
 Baden, in 1775. Carefully educated under 
 the care of his father, who had been ennobled 
 for his medical skill, he joined the university 
 of his native town in 1790 as a law student"; 
 and eight years later he obtained the chair 
 of history, where his lectures laid the found- 
 ation of tlie great historical work which has 
 secured him so high a place among the his- 
 torians of Europe. In 1818 he exchanged 
 his chair of history for that of politics and 
 the law of nations ; in 1819 he was chosen 
 member for the university in the first cham- 
 ber of the states of Baden ; and the liberal 
 tenor of his lectures and speeches was well 
 seconded by immerous able works which 
 fiowed from his pen on various constitutional 
 questions. The outbreak of the French re- 
 volution in 1830 having given fresh vigour 
 to his liberal views, he founded A'arious 
 journals to enunciate and propagate his 
 opinions ; but his zeal was viewed with a 
 jealous eye by the government, which not 
 only deprived him of his chair in 1832, but 
 interdicted him from editing any political 
 journal for five years, and sought in various 
 other ways to thwart his designs. Henceforth 
 he was regarded as a martyr to the liberal 
 cause ; his name became a watchword to the 
 opposition ; and though in 1848 he was re- 
 stored triumphantly to the enjoyment of his 
 previous rights, the redress came too late, 
 for he died the same year, to the general 
 regret of his countrymen. A list of his 
 various productions would occupy more 
 space than we can aflTord ; but his fame 
 chiefly rests upon his "Allgemeine Welt- 
 Geschichte," which has been translated into 
 nearly every European language. 
 
 ROUBILLIAC, Louis 1 kancis, an emi- 
 
EOU] 
 
 ^ 0tbi ^niiitv^Kl 33(0srapt;i). 
 
 [rou 
 
 nent sculptor, was a native of Lyons, but 
 came to England in the reign of Geoi-ge I., 
 and was employed on several great works ; 
 among which are, the monument of tlie Duke 
 of Argyle, in Westminster Abbey ; the statue 
 of llaiidcl, at Vauxhall ; tliat of Sir Isaac 
 Newton, at Trinity College, Cambridge ; and 
 many other statues and monuments in va- 
 rious parts of the kingdom. He long stood 
 at the head of his profession, and had also a 
 talent for poetry. Died, 1762. 
 
 ROUCIIER, John AxTiiojfv, a French 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was burn 
 at Montpelier, in 1745, and obtained from 
 Turgot a place in the revenue department. 
 Wlieu the revolution took place, he opposed 
 the excesses of the more violent politicians ; 
 and for liis moderation suffered by tlie guil- 
 lotine, in 1794. His principal work is " Lcs 
 Muis," a poem, in 2 vols. 
 
 KOUELLE, William Francis, one of the 
 earliest of the modern chemists in France, 
 was born at Caen, in 1703. Having devoted 
 great attention to chemical science, botany, 
 and pliarmacy, he settled at Paris as an 
 apothecary, and afterwards became professor 
 of chemistry at the royal botanic garden. 
 lie also held tlie office of insi)eetor-general 
 of pharmacy at the Hotel Dieu, and was a 
 
 popular lecturer. Died, 1770 His brother, 
 
 HiLAKY Mauinus, who was a clever expe- 
 rimental philosopher, assisted him in his 
 lectures, and succeeded liim as professor at 
 tlie royal garden. Born, 1718 ; died, I77i>. 
 
 liOUS, Fkaxcis, an English republican 
 writer, was born at Halton, in Cornwall, in 
 1579 ; educated at Oxford ; and became a 
 memi)er of parliament in the reign of 
 Charles I., when he was distinguislied by 
 his zeal for the establishment of a common- 
 wealth, on the plan of the Hebrew republic. 
 He was afterwards the tool of Cromwell, 
 whom he compared to Moses, and, in conse- 
 quence, was made one of his lords. He was 
 also appointed provost of Eton, where he 
 died, in 1(J50. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jacques, a French painter, 
 born at Faris, in 1630. He studied in Italy, 
 where he acquired great skill in his art ; 
 and, returning to France, was employed by 
 Louis XIV. He afterwards came to Eng- 
 land, and painted many excellent pictures. 
 Died, 1(594. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Baptiste, a distin- 
 guished lyric poet, was born at Paris, in 
 1069. His father, though a shoemaker, gave 
 him a liberal education, and at an early 
 period he displayed a decided taste for 
 poetry. In 168S he became page to the 
 French minister at the court of Denmark ; 
 after which he was secretary to MaisJial 
 Tallard, in his embassy to England. In 
 1701 he was admitted into the Academy of 
 Inscriptions ; but, in 1712, he was banished 
 from France, on the charge of writing some 
 grossly libellous verses, which, during the 
 remainder of his life, and even in his last 
 moments, he solemnly declared were for- 
 geries, devised for his ruin. He then went to 
 Switzerland, and afterwards to Vienna, 
 under the patronage of Prince Eugene. 
 Some of his odes and epigrams are excellent, 
 but among the latter are many which are 
 unfit for perusal from their obscenity. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, one of the 
 most elociuent writers and singular charac- 
 ters of the age, was the son of a watch- 
 maker at Geneva, wiiere he was born, in 
 1712. Like most of the citizens of that 
 place, his father had a taste for literature : 
 this he communicated to his son, whose love 
 of marvellous adventure he not only en- 
 couraged by reading romances with him in 
 his childhood, but lie fostered the growth of 
 those free principles which are the natural 
 characteristics of a zealous republican. 
 Rousseau neglected his school education ; 
 and, in his celebrated " Confessions," he 
 represents himself,, in his childhood, as of a 
 warm and sensual temperament, and replete 
 with mental and corporeal sensibility. He 
 was first placed with an attorney, who soon 
 dismissed him for negligence ; he was then 
 apprenticed to an engraver, from wiiom he 
 ran away before lie was sixteen, and wan- 
 dered about for some time in Savoy, where 
 he was saved from starving by a priest, and 
 placed in a monastery. It was not long, 
 however, before he found means to escape 
 from this restraint, and anew scene awaited 
 him. The noted Madame de Warens, a 
 recent convert to the Catliolic chinch, who 
 had left her husband at Lausanne lor the 
 pious work of proselytism, and who con- 
 trived to unite devotional feelings with 
 amorous propensities, took him under her 
 especial protection, caused him to be in- 
 structed in science and music, and continued 
 to live with him, at intervals, on terms of 
 more intimacy than delicacy, for about eight 
 years. At length, being superseded by 
 another gallant, he left his once agreeable 
 benefactress ; but was so fortunate as to 
 obtain the place of secretary to the French 
 ambassador in Venice, in 1742. But it was 
 not till 1750 that he manifested his splendid 
 literary talents. In that year he gained tlie 
 prize offered by the academy of Dijon, on 
 the question, " Whether the revival of learn- 
 ing lias contributed to the improvement of 
 morals " — taking the negative side of the 
 question, it is said, at the suggestion of 
 Diilerot. From tliis period his pen became 
 fertile and popular. He soon after brought 
 out his " Devin du Village," a comic opera, 
 of which he had himself composed tlie 
 music. This piece was received with general 
 favour, and the author was almost wor- 
 sliippcd by the French ; but the appearance 
 of his celebrated "Letter on French Music " 
 (1753), in which he pointed out its defects, 
 excited a general storm. Singers and con- 
 noisseurs, who could not wield the pen, con- 
 tributed to spread calumnies, pasquinades, 
 and caricatures against the author, who 
 retired to Geneva. By his change of religion 
 he had lost the rights of a citizen. He now 
 again embraced Protestantism, and was for- 
 mally reinstated in the privileges of a ftee 
 citizen of Geneva. From Geneva, Rousseau 
 went to Chamberry, where he wrote his 
 essay, " Sur I'lni-'galite parmi les Hommes," 
 which excited still more sensation than his 
 prize essay. In 1760 he published " Julie, 
 on la Nouvelle HtUoise," a romance, of the 
 most seductive description. His next work, 
 entitled " Du Contrat Social," struck at the 
 foundation of all governments, and therefore 
 
EOW] 
 
 ^ ^rio ?0[nibcri^al aSiograpl^w. 
 
 [rot 
 
 was prohibited, both in France and Switzer- 
 land. This treatise was followed, in 17C2, 
 by "Eniile, ou de I'Education;" which being 
 of an immoral tendency, the book was 
 anathematised by the Archbishop of Paris, 
 and ordered to be burnt by the parliament 
 of Paris and the authorities of Geneva. 
 Obliged to flee from France and Switzerland, 
 the author took shelter in the principality of 
 Neufclmtel, where he published his " Letter 
 to the Archbishop of Paris " and "Lettres de 
 la Montague," a remonstrance against the 
 proceedings of the Genevese republic, the 
 citizenship of which he renounced. Thence- 
 forth liis existence was passed in frequent 
 changes of place, to escape real or fancied 
 persecution, and in suspecting all his friends 
 of insulting and conspiring against him. 
 This was particularly the case with Hume 
 the historian, who secured for him a hospi- 
 table asylum in England, but whose friend- 
 ship he solemnly renounced, and returned 
 to France, wliere he died suddenly, in 1778. 
 Rousi-cau was the author of many works 
 besides those we have noticed, all of tlicm 
 marking his peculiar warmth and energy 
 of style, and vigour of thinking. That he 
 exercised a great influence over the theo- 
 retical opinions of the age, at the period of 
 tl»e French revolution, if he did not greatly 
 accelerate it, there can be little doubt ; and 
 that his writings have been highly injurious 
 to society as at present constituted, there can 
 be still less. 
 
 ROWE, Elizabeth, a lady distinguished 
 for her piety and learning, was the daughter 
 of a dissenting minister Jiamed Singer, and 
 was born at Ilchester, in 1674. She was 
 married to Mr. Rowe, a young gentleman of 
 considerable literary attainments, who died 
 of a consumption a few years after ; upon 
 which event she retired to Frome, where she 
 resided for the remainder of her life, with 
 the exception of occasional visits to the 
 Countess of Hertford, and a few other friends 
 of rank and talent who highly valued her 
 society. Her principal works are, "Friend- 
 ship in Death," " Letters, Moral and En- 
 tertaining, in Prose and Verse," the " History 
 of Josepli," a poem ; and " Devout Exercises 
 of the Heart." Died, 1737. 
 
 ROWE, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist, 
 whose father was a serjeant-at-law, was 
 born in 1073, at Little Berkfoi d, in Bedford- 
 shire ; was educated at Westminster School, 
 and was intended for the bar ; but on the 
 death of his father he gave up all thoughts 
 of the profession, and devoted himself to the 
 cultivation of literature. His first tragedy, 
 which he published when he was 24, was 
 " The Ambitious Step-mother," and its 
 success gave him encouragement to proceed. 
 It was followed by "Tamerlane," "The 
 Fair Penitent," " Ulysses," " The Royal 
 Convert," " Jane Shore," " Lady Jane Grey," 
 and a comedy called " The Biter." He also 
 wrote miscellaneous " Poems " and the 
 " Life of Shakspeare ; " but his principal 
 performance is a translation of Lucan's 
 Pharsalia. On the accession of George I. he 
 was made poet laureate, and he also obtained 
 some government situations, the emoluments 
 of which, with his paternal fortune, enabled 
 him to live in a style of great resiiectability, 
 
 747 
 
 He died in 1718, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abl)ey. 
 
 ROWE, Thomas, a Nonconformist divine, 
 was born at North Petherwin, in Devonshire, 
 and died about l(;!t8. He wrote a pious book 
 called " the Christian's Work." 
 
 ROWLANDS, Henky, a Welsh divine 
 and antiquary, was a native of Anglesey, of 
 which island he published an elaborate ac- 
 count, entitled "MonaRestaurata." Died, 
 1722. 
 
 ROWLANDSON, Tuoma.s, an artist cele- 
 brated for his skill in caricature, was born 
 in London, in 17.56. He studied drawing at 
 Paris ; and, on his return, availed himself of 
 the advantages which an attendance at the 
 Royal Academy aflbrded him ; rose to some 
 degree of eminence in his profession, and 
 died in 1827. Among his works are the plates 
 to "Dr. Syntax," " The Dance of Life," and 
 " The Dance of l^teath." 
 
 ROWLEY, William, a dramatic writer in 
 
 the reign of queen Elizabeth There was 
 
 also a Samukl Rowley of the same period, 
 who wrote two historical plays. 
 
 ROWLEY, William, an eminent phy- 
 sician, born in liOndon, in 174!^. After 
 having served abroad as a surgeon in the 
 army, and made professional visits to Cuba 
 and the Leeward Islands, he settled in 
 London, where he obtained considerable 
 reputation as a practitioner, though he 
 somewhat marred his fame by his endeavours 
 to oppose vaccine inocidation. He wrote 
 " Schola Mtdicinse universalis nova," and 
 several tracts on medical subjects. Died, 
 18W. 
 
 ROWNING, Jony, a mathematician and 
 divine, who was fellow of Magdalen College, 
 Cambridge, and rector of Anderbury,in lyin- 
 colnshlre. He was the author of a " Com- 
 pendious System of Natural Philosophy," 
 2 vols. Died, 1771, aged 72. 
 
 ROXBURGH, William, a physician 
 and botanist, was born at Craigie, in Ayr- 
 shire, in 17.59. He received his education 
 at Edinburgh, served his time to a sur- 
 geon, went to India, and was appointed 
 keeper of the botanical garden at Calcutta, 
 where he formed an intimacy with Sir 
 AVilliam Jones, and became a member of 
 the Asiatic Society. Dr. Roxburgh made 
 several important discoveries, particidarly 
 in the colom-ing matter of the lacca insect, 
 and the cultivation, of hemp in Bengal, 
 for which he received three gold medals 
 from the Society of Arts. His principal 
 work is, " The Plants of the Coasts of Coro- 
 mandel," 2 vols. 4to. He died at Edinburgh, 
 in 181.5. 
 
 ROY, Count Antoine, an able French 
 statesman, was bom at Savigny, in 1764. 
 Soon after the first revolution broke out, he 
 quitted the bar, to which he had been ad- 
 mitted in 178.5, and took part in several 
 mining speculations, which turned out most 
 successful. After the fall of Napoleon he 
 ably maintained constitutional principles in 
 opposition to the ultra-royalist opinions 
 then in vogue. He also displayed such a 
 thorough acquaintance with financial ques- 
 tions, that he was made minister of finance 
 in 1810-20 ; and short as was his tenure of 
 olfice, it was distinguished by various mea- 
 
 8 S 2 
 
royJ 
 
 ^ ^clM ^iitbcr^al Jjtagrajjlji). 
 
 RUD 
 
 sures of reform, wliich won for hiin the 
 honours of the peerage. lie was a member 
 of the Martignac administration in 1828, 
 but retired from office when Prince Polignac 
 became minister in 1829 ; and thongh he 
 accepted of no office under the regime of 
 Louis Pliilippe, his long experience, saga- 
 cious judgment, and moderate counsels were 
 for many years placed at tlie service of the 
 chamber of peers. His private fortune was 
 immense. Died, 1847. 
 
 ROY, Julian i.e, a celebrated clock and 
 watch-maker, was born at Tours, in 1C86. 
 When very yoimg, he showed a decided par- 
 tiality for mechanical pursuits, and acquired 
 I the reputation of being a first-rate horologist. 
 
 Died, 1759 His son, Petek le Roy, was 
 
 watcli-maker to the king, and died in 1785. 
 He published " Memoires pour les Horlogers 
 de Paris," " Etrennes Chronomotriques," &c. 
 
 JrLiAN David, another son, became a 
 
 member of the National Institute, and at- 
 taclied himself to architecture. He wrote 
 " On the Ruins of tlie finest Monuments of 
 Greece," " On the Construction of Christian 
 Temples," &c. 
 
 ROY, 1?KTKR Charles, a French satirist 
 and dramatic poet, was born at Paris, in 
 1()83. His principal pieces adapted for the- 
 atrical representation are, the operas of 
 " Callirlioe " and " Semiramis," the ballets 
 of "Tlie Elements" and "The Senses," 
 and the comedy of "The Captives," imitated 
 from Plautus. His satires against the mem- 
 bers of the Frencli Academy prevented his 
 gaining admission into that assembly, and 
 he died in 1704. 
 
 ROYER-COLLARD, Pieure Paul, a dis- 
 tinguished French statesman and philoso- 
 pher, was bom at Sommepuis, 1703. Not 
 long after his admission to the bar at Paris, 
 he embraced the principles of the revolution 
 in 1789 ; but he soon became disgusted with 
 tlie scenes of violence that prevailed, and 
 after on abortive attempt to aid the cause 
 of the royalists, he bade adieu for a time to 
 politics, and gave himself up wholly to 
 literary pursuits. In 1810 he was appointed 
 to a chair of literature and philosophy. 
 After the restoration he once more entered 
 upon a political career, and gradually rose 
 in public favour by his sagacity, moderation, 
 and honesty, till in 1828 he was nominated 
 president of the chamber of deputies, of 
 which he had long been a member, but re- 
 tired from this office in 1830. He was one 
 of the founders of the school of politicians in 
 France, known by the name of Doctrinaires ; 
 and as a philosopher he has well founded 
 claims to esteem for having introduced in 
 France that system of philosophy so clearly 
 illustrated by Cousin, Jouffroy, and Damiron, 
 and which bears so close an analogy to that 
 of Reid and the other Scotch philosophers. 
 Died, 1845. 
 
 ROZEE, Mademoiselle, an ingenious 
 artist, was born at Lcyden, in 1C32. She 
 neither used oil nor water colours in her 
 pictures, but silk floss on the ground, dis- 
 posed according to the different degrees of 
 the bright and dark tints, which she applied 
 with great judgment and taste. In this 
 manner she executed historical subjects, 
 landscapes, and portraits. Died, 1682. 
 
 I ROZIER, Francis, a botanist and agri- 
 I cultural writer, was born at Eyons, in 1734. 
 j He was an ecclesiastic, and obtained a 
 priory, but devoted himself almost wholly 
 to botany and natural history. He con- 
 ducted the Journal de Physique et His- 
 toire Naturelle, and was the author of a 
 "Course of Agriculture," "Elementary De- 
 monstrations of Botany," &c. He was killed 
 during the siege of Lj'ons, in 1793. 
 
 RUBENS, Peter Paul, the most distin- 
 guished painter of the Flemish school, was 
 born at Antwerp, in 1577. He received an 
 excellent education ; and, after studying in 
 liis own country, he went to Italy, where he 
 greatly improved himself after the works of 
 the best masters, but chiefly Titian. While 
 in Italy, he was employed by the Duke of 
 Mantua, not only as an artist, but on an 
 embassy to Madrid. In 1020 he was em- 
 ployed by the Princess Mary de' Medici to 
 adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg with 
 a series of paintings, illustrative of the prin- 
 cipal scenes of her life. While thus engaged, 
 he became known to the Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, who purchased his museum for 10,000/. 
 He was afterwards employed by the Infanta 
 Isabella and the king of Spain in some im- 
 portant negotiations, which lie executed with 
 such credit as to be appointed secretary 
 of the privy council. On going to Eng- 
 land with a commission from the king of 
 Spain, lie obtained the favour of Charles I. 
 While here he painted the Apotheosis of 
 James I. and the picture of Charles I. as 
 St. George ; for which he was knighted, and 
 received a chain of gold. He died at An- 
 twerp, in 1640. Rubens, beyond all com- 
 parison, was the most rapid of the great 
 masters ; andj according to Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, he was the greatest master of 
 the mechanical part of his art that ever 
 existed. 
 
 RUBENS, Albert, son of the preceding, 
 was born at AntMcrp, in 1614. He suc- 
 ceeded his father as secretary to the council, 
 and was greatly esteemed by the Archduke 
 Leopold, governor of the Low Countries. 
 Died, 1057. He wrote " De Re Vestiaria 
 Veterum," " Rcgum et Imperatorum Ro- 
 manorum Numismata," " De Vita Elavil 
 Manlii Theodori," &c. 
 
 RUCELLAI, Bernarp, an Italian states- 
 man and liistorian, born at Florence, in 
 1449. Having married the sister of Lorenzo 
 de' Medici, he was promoted to the office of 
 gonfalonier of justice, and employed on 
 several important diplomatic missions. After 
 the death of Lorenzo, he protected the mem- 
 bers of the new Platonic academy, for wliose 
 use he erected a palace with gardens, em- 
 bellished with noble monuments of ancient 
 
 and modern art. Died, 1514 His son 
 
 John, born in 1475, was sent ambassador to 
 Venice in 1505 ; and, in 1512, he took an active 
 part in the measures which led to the re- 
 storation of the Medici familj'. He was 
 afterwards papal nuncio in France, apos- 
 tolical protlionotary, and governor of the 
 castle of St. Angelo. Died, 1525. 
 
 RUDBECK, Olaus. father and son, were 
 both eminent Swedish physicians and na- 
 tural philosophers. The elder, who died in 
 1702, wrote an able work, entitled " Exerci- 
 
rod] 
 
 ^ |5ctu Wiiuber^Kl SBtDgrap^y. 
 
 [rum 
 
 tatio Anatomica ;" he was also the aullior of 
 a wliimsical but learned Mork, on the lo- 
 cality of Paradise, which he places in Swe- 
 den ; and assigns that country as the com- 
 mon parent of the German, English, Danish, 
 and even Greek and Latin nations. The 
 B«m is known chiefly as the autlior of a work 
 on the natural history of the Bible. Died, 
 1740. 
 
 KUDDIMAN, Thomas, a distinguished 
 grammarian and critic, was born in 1G74, at 
 Boyndie, in Banffshire ; was educated at 
 King's College, Al)enleen ; became assistant 
 keei>er of tlie advocates' library at Edin- 
 burgh ; set up a priming-office in conjunction 
 i with liis brotlier ; was one of the founders of 
 the earliest literary societv in Scotland, in 
 I 1718; and died in 1757. Ilis "Rudiments 
 I of the Latin Tongue," long used as an ele- 
 mentary book in (icliools, is the most popular 
 of his productions ; but he wrote other 
 grammatical works, and was tlie editor 
 I of the works of George Buchanan, in 
 i Latin. He also established the Caledonian 
 I Mercury. 
 
 1 RIIDING, RooERs, an English divine, 
 I born ot Leicester, in 1751 ; becwme fellow of 
 i ^lerton College, Oxford ; was presented to 
 the living of Mordcn, in Surrey ; and soon 
 ! after was elected a fellow of the society of 
 : aritiquaries, to wliose ArchaDoIngia he was a 
 I contributor. He published " Annals of the 
 : Coinage of Britain and its Dependencies," 
 i iu 4 vols. 4to. Died, 1820. 
 I RUDOLPH. Sue RouoLni. 
 I RUE, Chaules pe la, a French poet and 
 I popular preacher, was bom at Paris iu 164.3. 
 and died iu 1725. He was the author of 
 several tragedies, both French and Latin ; 
 and edited the works of Virgil for the cele- 
 brated Delphin classics, 
 j RUFFHEAD, Owen, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in London, about 1723 ; 
 entered at the Middle Temple, and was 
 , cnlled to the bar; published an edition of 
 tha statutes, and conducted a periodical 
 paper, called the Contest. He also wrote 
 I the " Life of Pope," &c. Died, 17(19. 
 I RUFINUS, by some called Tokaxius, a 
 ! priest of Aquileia, in the 4th century. He 
 became so attached to St. Jerome, that he 
 accompanied him to the East ; but being 
 1 peis'.cuted by the Arians under Valens, he 
 i was banished into Palestine, where he 
 i founded a monastery on Mount Olivet, and 
 emploj'ed himself in translating Greek au- 
 thors into Latin. His version of Origen 
 gave such oflfence to his old acquaintance, 
 Jerome, that he wrote bitterly against him, 
 and Ruftuus was cited to Rome by pope 
 I Anastasius, who condemned his translation ; 
 , upon which he retired to Sicily, where he 
 died, about 410. The works of Josephus, the 
 i Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, and the 
 : writings of Gregory Nazianzen and St. Basil, 
 j were also translated by Ruflnus. 
 I RUFUS, a physician of Ephesus, flourished 
 : in the reign of Trajan. He discovered the 
 I origin of t!ie nerves of the brain, and made 
 1 observations on the crystalline lens of the 
 eye. He also wrote treatises on the diseases of 
 the urinary organs, &c. ; and was esteemed by 
 Galen to have l)een one of the ablest phy- 
 ; bicians who had preceded him. 
 
 749 
 
 RUGENDAS, Geoi;ge Piiilip, a cele- | 
 brated battle-painter, born at Augsburg, in ; 
 KJOti. Such was his zeal for the advancement 
 of his art that, during the siege of Aug>burg, ; 
 he freely exposed himself amidst tlie tire 
 and carnage, that he might be able to sketch 
 the scenes around him. Died, 1742. ! 
 
 RUGGLK, Geokge, a dramatic satirist, 
 born at Lavenham, in Suffolk, in 1575. He 
 was a fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, and 
 author of the famous Latin comedy, called 
 " Ignoramus," performed in that university ; 
 before James I. in 1014. | 
 
 RUHS, Fkedekic, a German historian, ; 
 born in Swedish Pomerania, in 1780 ; studied 
 at Gottingen ; was made professor at Griefs- | 
 wald ; wrote a " History of Sweden," 4 vols, j 
 afterwards became a professor of history at 
 Berlin ; and died at Leghorn, in 1820. 
 
 RUINART, TiiiEKuy, a French theolo- 
 gical writer, was born at Rheims, in 1057. 
 lie became a Benedictine, and was the as- 
 sociate of Mabillon in his literaiy labours. 
 He also printed an edition of the works 
 of Gregory of Tours, a volume on the Mar- 
 tyrs of the first four centuries, and other 
 books on ecclesiastical history. He died in 
 1707. 
 
 RULHIERE, CLAUnius Carloman de, 
 a French historian, was born in 1735, at 
 Bondi, near Paris. After having been in 
 the army, and attained the rank of aide-de- 
 camp to Marshal Richelieu, then governor 
 of Guienne, he went with the minister 
 plenipotentiary, Breteuil, to St. Petersburgh, 
 as his secretary and cor.tidential friend, 
 and there witnessed the dtthvor.ement of 
 Peter III. aud the elevation of Catharine 
 II., of which, on his return fo France, he 
 published an account. He was also employed 
 by the government to write a " History 
 of the Anarchy iu Poland," 4 vols. Died, 
 1791. 
 
 RUMFORD, Count, so called from the 
 title conferred on him by the Elector of 
 Bavaria, but whose real name was Ben- 
 jamin Tjiompson, was born in Woburn, 
 New England, in 1752. He acquired, when 
 young, a knowledge of natural philosophy, 
 aud employed himself as a teacher, till he 
 was raised to independence by an advan- 
 tageous marriage, when he became a major 
 in the militia of his native province ; and 
 when the war took place between Great 
 Britain and her colonies, his local knowledge 
 enabled him to render services of importance 
 to the English commanders. He went to 
 England, and, as the reward of his sex-vices, 
 obtained a situation in the foreign office, 
 under Lord George Germaine. Towards 
 the close of the war, he was sent to New 
 York, where he raised a regiment of dra- 
 goons, of which he was appointed colonel, 
 and returning to England in 17b4, received 
 tlie honour of knighthood. He was for some 
 time one of the under-secretaries of state. 
 Soon after he went to the Continent, and 
 through the recommendation of the Prince 
 of Deux-Ponts (afterwards king of Bavaria), 
 entered into the service of the reigning elec- 
 tor palatine and duke of Bavaria, when he 
 effected many important and useful reforms 
 in both the civil and military departments 
 of the state. As the reward of his services, 
 
rum] 
 
 ^ i^tto Umbtr^nX aStograpIjij. 
 
 [rus 
 
 he received various orders of knighthood, 
 was made a lieutenant-general, and created 
 count Rumford. He left Bavaria in 1799, 
 and returned to England, where he employed 
 himself in making exjierimentson the nature 
 and application of lieat, and on other subjects 
 of economical and philosophical research. 
 He likewise suggested the plan, and assisted 
 in the foundation, of the Royal Institution, 
 which led to other establishments of a similar 
 description. In 1802 he removed to Paris, 
 in the neighbourhood of wliich he took up 
 liis residence, married the widow of the 
 celebrated I/avoisier, and died in 1814. 
 
 RUMPH, Gi:oRGE Everaud, a botanist, 
 was born at Hanau, in 1G37. He took his 
 I doctor's degree in physic, after which he 
 I went as consul and senior merchant to Am- 
 I boyna, where he made valuable botanical 
 ! collections, the results of which were pub- 
 I lished by Burman, in 1751, under the title of 
 I " Herbarium Amboinense." 
 I RUNCIMAN, Alexander, a Scotch 
 I painter, was the son of an architect, and 
 ! born at Edinburgh, in 1731). After serving 
 i his time to a portrait painter, he went to 
 I Rome with his brother John, a most pro- 
 I mising artist, who died in Italy. Alexander 
 I continued his studies with diligence, and on 
 I his return home was employed by Sir James 
 I Clerk, to decorate his house with scenes from 
 Ossian. His best pictures arc, an " Ascen- 
 ' sion," in the episcopal chapel at Edinburgh; 
 ' his " Lear," " Andromeda," and " Agrip- 
 
 pina." Died. 1785. 
 ! RUNNINGTON", Charles, eerjeant-at- 
 i law, was born in Hertfordshire, in 1751 ; 
 and in 1768 he was placed with a special 
 pleader, who employed him on a digest of 
 the law of England. In 1778 he was called 
 to the bar ; in 1787 he was made serjeant-at- 
 law ; and, in 181.5, appointed commissioner 
 for the relief of insolvent debtors, which 
 office he resigned in 1819. He published 
 " Hale's History of the Common Law," 2 
 vols. ; " Gilbert's Law of Ejectments," and 
 " Ruffhead's Statutes at large," 4 vols. 4to. 
 Died, 1821. 
 
 RUPERT, or Robert of Bavaria, 
 Prince, the third son of Frederic, king of 
 Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of James I., 
 was born in 1C19, and received a military 
 education. He commanded the cavalry of 
 Charles I. during the civil war, and on 
 various occasions manifested the most daring 
 valour ; but his impetuosity and imprudence 
 more than counterbalanced the effects of his 
 bravery ; and at length, having surrendered 
 Bristol to General Fairfax, by whom it was 
 besieged, the king dismissed'him from his 
 service. The prince, however, was more 
 successful as a naval commander, parti- 
 cularly after the Restoration, in the great 
 Dutch war ; on the conclusion of which he 
 led a retired life, occupied wholly in scien- 
 tific pursuits. He invented a composition, 
 called "prince's metal," improved the 
 strength of gunpowder, found out a method 
 of fusing black lead, and discovered the art 
 of engraving in mezzotinto. He was an 
 active member of the board of trade ; and to 
 his influence is ascribed the establishment 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company, of which he 
 was governor. Died, 1(582. 
 
 750 
 
 RUSH, Bexjamix, a celebrated American 
 physician, was born in 1741, at Biistol, in 
 Pennsylvania ; was educated at Princeton 
 College ; took his degree at Edinburgh, in 
 17G8 ; was chosen a member of congress for 
 Pennsylvania, in 1776 ; was appointed pro- 
 fessor of medicine and clinical practice at 
 the university ; and died in 1813. During 
 the devastation caused by the yellow fever 
 in 1793, Dr. Rush highly distinguished him- 
 self, and his history of that epidemic is a 
 work of great value. He also wrote "Me- 
 dical Inquiries and Observations," and 
 " Essays, Literary, Moral, and Philoso- 
 phical." 
 
 RUSHWORTH, Joiix, an historian, was 
 born in Northumberland, in 1607 ; studied at 
 Oxford, and became a barrister. In 1640 he 
 was appointed assistant-clerk of the House 
 of Commons, was much employed in ne- 
 gotiations during the civil wars, and after 
 the Restoration he became secretary to the 
 Lord-keeper Bridgeman. His " Historical 
 Collections," in 8 vols., is a laborious and 
 liighly useful compilation. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, fifth earl, and first 
 duke of Bedford, was bom in 1614 ; received 
 his education at Magdalen College, Oxford ; 
 was a member of the long parliament in 1640, 
 and commanded the reserve of horse at the 
 battle of Edgehill ; but in 1643 he joined 
 the royal standard, and fought with great 
 bravery at the battle of Newbury. He was 
 not. however, in favour with the royal party, 
 and he retired to private life till the Restora- 
 tion, when he assisted at the coronation, and 
 was elected a knight of the garter. He also 
 attended the coronation of William and 
 Jlarj', who, in 1694, exalted him to the rank 
 of marquis of Tavistock and duke of Bedford. 
 Died, 1700. 
 
 RUSSELL, William, Lord, third son of 
 the preceding, was a distinguished supporter 
 of constitutional liberty, and was born about 
 1641. In 1679, when Charles II. found it 
 necessary to ingratiate himself with the 
 Whigs, Lord Russell was appointed one of 
 the members of the privy council. He soon, 
 however, found that his party was not in the 
 king's confidence, and the recal of the Duke 
 of York, without their concurrence, induced 
 him to resign. Although his temper was 
 mild and moderate, his fear of a Catholic 
 succession induced him to take decisive steps 
 in the promotion of the exclusion of the 
 Duke of York. In June, 1680, he went pub- 
 licly to Westminster Hall, and, at the court 
 of king's bench, presented the duke as a 
 recusant ; and, on the November following, 
 carried up the exclusion bill to the House of 
 Lords, at the head of 200 members of par- 
 liament. The king dissolved the parliament, 
 evidently resolved to govern thenceforward 
 without one ; and arbitrary principles were 
 openly avowed by the partisans of the court. 
 Alarrned at the state of things, many of the 
 AVhig leaders favoured strong expedients, in 
 the way of counteraction, and a plan of in- 
 surrection was formed for a simultaneous 
 rising in England and Scotland. Among 
 these leaders, including the Dukes of Mon- 
 mouth and Argyle, the Lords Russell, Essex, 
 and Howard, Algernon Sidney, and Hamp- 
 den, diftereut views prevailed ; but Lord 
 
RUS] 
 
 ^ f}e&3 fTnibcrM JSinjjra^jIjn. 
 
 [rut 
 
 Russell looked only to the exclusion of the 
 Duke of York. He was, however, accused 
 of liaving engaged in " the Rye-house Plot," 
 which had for its object the assassination of 
 the king on his return from Newmarket ; and 
 on this pretext he was committed to the 
 Tower, tried, condemned, and executed in 
 July, 1(583, being tlien in tlie 42d year of his 
 age. After the Revolution, the proceedings 
 against him were annulled. 
 
 RUSSELL, Lady Rachel, wife of the pre- 
 ceding, was daughter of the Earl of South- 
 ampton, and widow of Lord Vaughan. In 
 1C67 she was married to Lord William Rus- 
 sell; and the affectionate zeal with which she 
 assisted him when in trouble, and the mag- 
 nanimity of her behaviour after his death, 
 have excited for her a general feeling of 
 respect and sympathy. Being refused coun- 
 Bcl upon his trial, and allowed only an 
 amanuensis, she stood forth in that capacity, 
 and took down the notes. She survived his 
 lordship 40 years, which period she occupied 
 in the exercise of pious and social duties, 
 Her "Letters," which do equal credit to her 
 understanding and heart, have been often 
 reprinted. Died, 1723. 
 
 RUSSELL, EuwARD, earl of Orford, a 
 British admiral, was born in 1651. lie 
 iKicame gentleman of the bed-chamber to 
 James, duke of York ; but on the execution 
 of his cousin, Lord William Russell, he 
 retired from court, and was an active pro- 
 moter of the Revolution. He gained the 
 celebrated battle of La Hogue, in 1C92, 
 commanded subsequently in the Mediterra- 
 nean, was first lord of the admiralty, and 
 died in 1727. 
 
 RUSSELL, W'lLUAM, an historical writer, 
 was born in the county of Midlothian, in 
 174G. lie was brought upas a printer, which 
 business he for a time followed, and then 
 became an author by profession. His works 
 are, " A History of America," 2 vols. 4to. ; 
 " A History of Modern Europe," 4 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and " A History of Ancient Europe," which 
 was completed in 3 vols, by Dr. Coote, the 
 work being unfinislied at his death, in 1793. 
 
 RUSSELL, Michael, LL.D., bishop of 
 Glasgow and Galloway, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, 1781; studied at Glasgow, and having 
 received ordination, was in 1808 appointed 
 to St. James's chapel, l>eith, where he con- 
 tinued to officiate till his deatli. To exten- 
 sive acquirements, theological and literary. 
 Dr. Russell added the pen of a ready and 
 elegant writer. His contributions to the En- 
 cyclopaedia Metropolitana and the British 
 Critic were remarkable for their learning 
 and research ; his works on Palestine, Egypt, 
 and various other publications written for 
 tlie Cabinet liibrary, still hold their ground ; 
 and his " Connection of Sacred and Profane 
 Histories " extended his fame far beyond 
 tlie limits of his native land. On his ele- 
 vation to the episcopal chair in 1837, the 
 university of Oxford marked its respect 
 for his character and attainments by con- 
 ferring on him the degree of D. C. L. by 
 diploma ; an honour never before bestowed 
 on a Scotchman not educated at Oxford. 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 RUST, Geouge, a learned prelate, was 
 born at Cambridge. He became fellow of 
 
 Christ's College ; but, at the Restoration, he 
 went over to Ireland, and was preferred to 
 the deanery of Connor and the rectory of 
 Magee. He was afterwards made bishop of 
 Dromore, where he died in 1070. 
 
 RUTHERFORD, Daniel, a natural phi- 
 losopher and physician, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1749 ; studied in that university ; 
 succeeded Dr. John Hope as professor of 
 botany and keeper of the botanic garden, 
 in 178IJ ; and died in 1819. Dr. Rutlierford 
 was the discoverer of nitrogen, and was the 
 first who represented oxygen gas (then called 
 vital air) as the necessary constituent of all 
 acids. 
 
 RUTHERFORTH, Thomas, an English 
 divine, was born at Papworth Everard, in 
 Cambridgeshire, 1712 ; was educated at St. 
 John's College, Cambridge ; where, in 1745, 
 he was appointed professor of divinity ; and 
 died, rector of Barley in Hertfordshire, with 
 the archdeaconry of Essex, in 1771. His 
 most important works are, "A System of 
 Natural Pliilosophy," 2vols. ;"Au Essay 
 on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue," 
 "A Discourse on Miracles," "Institutes of 
 Natural Law," 2 vols. ; and " Sermons." 
 
 RUTHVEN, Edwakd Southwell, the 
 friend and fellow-member of Mr. O'Connell 
 for Dublin in the parliament of 183,5 ; whose 
 return, after undergoing a scrutiny of a 
 committee unusually protracted and ex- 
 pensive, was declared to be illegal, and 
 Messrs. Hamilton and West seated in their 
 stead. Mr. Ruthven, however, did not live 
 to hear the verdict, the labours of the com- 
 mittee not being brought to a close till six 
 weeks after his decease. Died, ISiW. 
 
 RUYSCH, Fkeuekic, an eminent ana- 
 tomist, was born in 1G38, at the Hague, and 
 died in 1731. His anatomical works^ which 
 contain many new discoveries, have been 
 
 printed in 4 vols. 4to His son Henry 
 
 published " Theatrum Animalium," 2 vols, 
 folio. 
 
 RUYSCH, Rachel, one of the most ce- 
 lebrated painters of fruit and flower pieces, 
 was born at Amsterdam, in 10G4, and died 
 in ]7o(). Her pictures are distinguished for 
 truth and splendour of colouring, united 
 with great finish. 
 
 RUYSDAAL, Jacob, a celebrated Dutch 
 painter, was born at Haerlem, in 103(5. He 
 stood unrivalled in the representation of 
 woods, groves, and pieces of water, parti- 
 cularly cataracts ; and died in 1(581. 
 
 RUYTER, Michael Adrian, a gallant 
 Dutch admiral, was bom in 1607, at Flush- 
 ing. He entered the naval service when he 
 was only 11 years old, and, by dint of bravery 
 and skill, rose to the summit of his profes- 
 sion. On many occasions he nobly dis- 
 tinguished himself when engaged against 
 the English, especially in the terrible battle 
 fought in February, 1(553, near the mouth of 
 tlie Channel, when Blake commanded the 
 English, and Van Tromp and Ruyter the 
 Dutch. In the reign of Charles II., Ruyter 
 gained an advantage over Prince Rupert 
 and Monk j but, two months afterwards, 
 another battle was fought, in which the 
 Dutch were defeated. The following year, 
 however, he avenged himself, by riding tri- 
 umphantly in the Thames, and destroying 
 
ryd] 
 
 ^ ^tia Winibtv^Al SSinQrap^w. 
 
 [sab 
 
 several English men-of-war at Sheemess. 
 I lie died in the port of S^vracuse, in con- 
 I sequence of a ■wound received a few days 
 I before, when engaging with tlie French fleet 
 ■ off Messina. 
 
 I KYDEK, Sir Dudley, an eminent Eng- 
 i lish lawj'cr, was descended from an ancient 
 ! Yorkshire family, and born in 1091. lie 
 held tlie office of attorney-general from 17.36 
 I to 1754, was made lord cJiief ju.'-tice, and 
 j died in 17. 'i!',. 
 
 I RYL.\ND, John-, a dissenting minister, 
 I who kept an academy, and officiated many 
 I years to a Baptist congregation at North- 
 \ ampton. ;Mr. Ryland publislied " The 
 j Cliristian Student and Pastor," " Elements 
 I of Aleclianics," " Tlie Preceptor," and several 
 ! tracts and sermons. He died at Enfield, in 
 I 17!)2. 
 
 IIYLAND, William Wynne, an engra- 
 j ver, was born in London, in 17o2. He at- 
 I tained great excellence in his art < but liis 
 I end M-as truly melancholy, for, in order to 
 I extricate himself from some embarrassments, 
 i he, in 1782, committed a forgery on tlie East 
 I India Company, and was tried and executed 
 the year following. 
 
 RYMER, Thomas, a critic and antiquary, 
 was a native of Yorkshire ; studied at Cam- 
 bridge and at Gray's Inn ; and, succeeding 
 Sliadwell, in 1692, as royal historiographer, 
 employed the opportunities alfurded liim by 
 his office, to make a valuable collection of 
 public treatises, which he began to publish 
 in 1704, under the title of " laidera, Cou\ en- 
 
 tiones, et cujuscunqne Generis Acta publica, 
 inter Rcges Anglias, et alios Principes," 1.5 
 vols, folio, five more being added bj- Robert 
 Sanderson. He also wrote some poetical 
 pieces, and left an unpublished collection 
 relating to English history, in 58 vols., now 
 in the British Museum. Died, 1713. 
 
 RYSBRACII, John Michael, an eminent 
 statuary, was horn at Antwerp, in 1694. He 
 came to England early in life, and derived 
 considerable reputation and profit from the 
 exercise of his art. Westminster Abbey 
 and other cathedral churches contain speci- 
 mens of his abilities, among which should 
 be noticed tlie monuments of Sir Isaac New- 
 ton and the Duke of Marlborough. Died, 
 1770. 
 
 RZEWtlSKY, or RZEWIESKY, Wen- 
 CKSLAUS, a Polish nobleman, born in 170.5. 
 After travelling through the principal coun- 
 tries of Europe, he filled various hi«h offices, 
 among wliich was that of grand general of 
 the crown, to which he was appointed on 
 the invasion of Poland by the Tartars, in 
 1739. Having opposed the election of Sta- 
 nislaus Poniatowski to the throne, he gave 
 great oftence to the empress, and was sub- 
 jected to fix years' imprisonment in Russia. 
 As he possessed an extensive acquaintance 
 with natural pbilosoi)hy, and indulged his 
 taste for literature, music, &c., he employed 
 himself during his confinement in these 
 pursuits. He translated the Odes of Horace, 
 and was the author of some poems, dramas 
 and other works. Died, 1779. 
 
 s. 
 
 SAAD EDDIN MOHAMMED BEN 
 HASSAN, a Turkish historian of great emi- 
 nence, and preceptor of sultan Amurath III. 
 He was well known under the name of 
 Khodja Effendi, and became appointed to 
 tlie office of mufti to the sultan, which he 
 held till his death in KRM). 
 
 SAAVEDRA FAXARDO, Diego de, a 
 Spanish writer and diplomatist, was born at 
 Algezares, in Murcia, in 1.584. He became 
 secretary to the embassy at Rome, and 
 afterwards was appointed sole agent for 
 Spain at the papal court. He also assisted 
 at some diets in Switzerland, and enjoyed 
 for his reward, the collar of St. Jviso, a 
 canonry of the churchy and a seat in the 
 cotmcil-board for the Indies. He died in 
 1648. 
 
 SABAS, the head of the sect of the Mcs- 
 salians, in the third century, whose doctrine 
 enforced a strict adherence to every part of 
 the Scriptures ; and whoj literally inter- 
 preting the divine instruction, " Labour not 
 for the meat that perisheth," refused to en- 
 gage in any employment. 
 
 SABATAI 8EVA, a Jewish impostor of 
 Smyrna, who, in 1666, arrogated to himself 
 the character of the Alcssiah. He obtained 
 such belief and so numerous were his ad- 
 herents, that the jealousy of the Turkish 
 
 752 
 
 government caused him to be seized and | 
 sent a prisoner to Constantinople. He here 
 saved his life at the expense of his religion, 
 and turned Mahometan. This pretender 
 was the last of the false Messiahs. 
 
 SABATIER, AxToiNE, or SABATIER 
 HE Castres, was born at Castres, in 1742. 
 He was a very celebrated French writer, 
 and was early connected with Helvetius and 
 the philosophical party of the literati ; but 
 he soon left these, and showed his opposition 
 to them in his work, " Les Trois Si&cles de la 
 liittt'rature Fran(;aise," &c., which procured 
 Jiim many enemies, but brought him into 
 notice. He next advocated religion and 
 morality, but his practices being so discredit- 
 able, he emigrated at the revolution. On 
 the restoration of the king he obtained but a 
 comparatively small income, and continued 
 his satire on "the court and clergy, till sick- 
 ness reduced him to find alleviation in the 
 house of the Charitable Sisters at Paris, 
 where he died in 1817. Among his numerous 
 works are, " Les Sifecles Pai'ens, ou Diction- 
 naire Mj thologique, Ileroi'que, Politique, 
 Littyraiie, et Geographique de I'AntiquitiS 
 Paienere," 9 vols., and " Les Caprices dc la 
 Fortune," &c. 
 
 SABATIER, or SABATHIER, Piekke, 
 a learned Benedictine, bom at Poictiers, in 
 
sab] 
 
 ^ ^m WinihtrinX 3Bi0(rr*ipl)». 
 
 [sac 
 
 1()82. His great work was an edition of all 
 tlie ancient Latin versions of tlie Bible, 3 
 vols, folio. Died, 1742. 
 
 SABBATINI, Andkea, or Axprea del 
 Salekno, the first painter of the Neapolitan 
 Bciiool, was born about 1180. He studied 
 under Raphael, and imitated his manner 
 with great success. He died at Naples, in 
 
 1545.. Loke.vzo, called also Lorenzo di 
 
 Bologna, was another admired artist of the 
 KJtli century, and his pictures are frequently 
 mistaken for those of Andrea. Ue died at 
 Home, in 1577. 
 
 SABBATINI, P. LtiD. Ant., known as 
 Sabbatiui of Padua, was a distinguished 
 professor of music, and writer also ou that 
 science. Died, ISOl). 
 
 SABELLICUS, Marcus Antonius Coc- 
 cms, an Italian historian and critic, was 
 born in the Roma Canipagna, in 1436. He 
 became professor of eloquence at Udino, and 
 subsequently at Venice, where he obtained 
 a pension for writing the " History of the 
 Republic." He died in 1506. His other works, 
 moral, philosophical, and historical, have 
 been printed in 4 vols, folio. 
 
 S ABELLIUS, a heretic, born at Ptolemais, 
 in Libya, in the third century, was a dis- 
 ciple of Noetus of Smyrna. He advanced 
 the doctrine of Unity in the Deity, de- 
 claring the Son and the Holy Ghost to be 
 mere qualities. These tenets obtained many 
 proselytes, and met with great success till 
 the opposition of St. Denys caused them to 
 be formally condemned. 
 
 SABINE, JosKPH, F.R.S., honorary se- 
 cretary of the horticultural society, trea- 
 surer and vice president of the zoological 
 society, &c., was born in 1770, and was ori- 
 ginally intended for the bar. In 1808 he 
 was appointed inspector-general of taxes, 
 which office he held for 26 years ; and when 
 it was abolished, in 1835, government allowed 
 him a compensation pension of 3501. per 
 annum, seven of his colleagues having 
 retired, 18 years before, on 400i. Mr. Sabine 
 was a most accomplished man; and for many 
 years previous to his death, which occurred 
 m January, 1837, his time was almost wholly 
 engrossed in managing the affairs of the 
 scientific institutions of which he was a 
 functionary. 
 
 8AB1NUS, George, in German, " Schel- 
 ten," a modern Latin poet, was born in 
 Brandenburg, in l.WS. He studied at Wit- 
 temberg, when but 15 years old, under Me- 
 lanchthon, whose eldest daughter he ulti- 
 mately married. He became professor of 
 the beUes lettres at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 and afterwards rector of the new university 
 of Konigsberg. His great repute made him 
 known to tlie emperor Charles V., who en- 
 nobled him, and employed him on several 
 embassies. Died, 1560. 
 
 SACCIII, Andkea, an eminent painter of 
 Rome, where he was born in 1594. He 
 studied under Albano ; and, assisted by the 
 patronage of pope Urban VIIT., his talent 
 raised him to great eminence. Tlie churches 
 and palaces of Rome contain many speci- 
 mens of his skill and genius. Died, 1604. 
 
 SACCIIINI, Antonio Makia Gaspakd, a 
 celebrated Italian conijioser, was born at 
 Naples, in 1735. Ue studied under Durante, 
 
 and, after being employed in Rome, Venice, 
 and several other cities of Italy with great 
 eclat, he went to London, where he com- 
 jwsed several operas. Meeting some ojipo- 
 sition there, he left for Paris, where he 
 reached the height of his fame, and obtaineil 
 a pension from the queen. He died in 1786, 
 leaving upwards of 80 dramatic pieces. 
 
 SACHEVERELL, Henry, an English 
 divine, was educated at Oxford, where, in 
 1708, he obtained the degree of D.D. In 
 1705 he was appointed preacher at St. Sa- 
 viour's, Southwark ; during which period he 
 preached two famous sermons, the objects of 
 which were to create alarm for the safety of 
 the churcli, and to excite hostility against 
 the dissenters. Being impeached in the 
 House of Commons, he was sentenced to be 
 suspended from preaching for three years. 
 This persecution, however, established the 
 fortune of Sacheverell, who was collated to 
 a living near Shrewsbury ; and the same 
 month that his suspension terminated, wos 
 oppointed to the valuable rectory of St. 
 Andrew, Holborn. His abilities, however, 
 were poor and contemptible. Died, 1724. 
 
 SACKVILLE, George, Viscount, a sol- 
 dier and statesman, was the tliird son of the 
 first Duke of Dorset, and was born in 1716. 
 He was educated at Westminster, and after- 
 wards at Trinity College, Dublin, when his 
 father was lord-lieutenant of Ireland. En- 
 tering the army, he distinguished himself at 
 the battles of Dettingen and Pontcnoy ; and 
 in JloS lie was made a lieutenant-general; 
 but the year following he fell into disgrace 
 for his conduct at the battle of Miiiden, 
 where he commanded under Prince Ferdi- 
 nand of Brunswick, whose orders to advance 
 with his troops during tlie engagement he 
 disobeyed. His behaviour being, at home, 
 attributed to cowardice, he was tried by a 
 court-martial, and sentenced to be dismissed 
 from the service. Under the administration 
 of Lord Bute, however, he was restored to 
 favour, and i« 1775 he was appointed co- 
 lonial secretary of state, which he held 
 during the American war. On quitting 
 office, in 1782, he was created viscount. On 
 succeeding to the estates of Lady Germaine, 
 for a long time he went under that name. 
 He died in 1785 ; and, from his talent, and 
 the bias of his opinions, the "Letters of 
 Junius" have been attributed to his pen. 
 
 SACY, Louis Isaac, whose proper name 
 was LE MAISTRE, was born at Paris, in 
 1613. He entered into orders, but being a 
 zealous Jansenist, he was sent to the Jiastile, 
 where he continued two years, and wrote 
 some works, particularly one, entitled "The 
 Figures of the Bible." He also published a 
 new translation of the Scriptures, "Let- 
 ters of Piety," 2 vols. ; " Heures de Port 
 Royal," " An Attack on the Jesuits," &c. 
 Died, 1684. 
 
 SACY, Baron Silvestre de, a profound 
 and various scholar, but especially eminent 
 as an orientalist, was born, 1758. At the early 
 age of 12 he was fortunate enough to attract 
 the notice of Berthereau, from whom he ob- 
 tained both his tastes for oriental studies, and 
 his earliest direction in them. During the 
 stormy times of the revolution, and the sway 
 of Napoleon, as well as under Louis XVIIl., 
 
bad] 
 
 ^ jj^ctti Efuibci-i^al 28taflrapf)w. 
 
 [sad 
 
 Charles X., and Louis Philippe, the splendid 
 talents of M. de Sacj' obtained for him the 
 highest and most vahiable literary appoint- 
 ments. As a lecturer, he was singularly bril- 
 liant, lucid, and effective. In addition to 
 valuable literary offices, he was a peer of 
 France, and an officer of the legion of honour. 
 Nor was his fame confined to France ; for, 
 in 1829, our Royal Society of Literature 
 unanimously voted its gold medal to M. de 
 Sacy. Plis " Arabic Grammar," " Relation 
 de I'Egypte par Abd Allatif, Mi'decin Arabe 
 I de Bagdad," 'Expose de la Rtligion des 
 { Druzea," " Chrestomathie Arabe." and 
 j " Anthologie Grammaticale Arabe," are cs- 
 I pecially valuable to students. Died, 183'.). 
 
 SADE, James Fraxcis Paul ALVHoyso 
 I DE, a native of France, was born in 1705. 
 After becoming vicar-general of the arch- 
 j bishops of Toulouse and Narbonne, he was 
 employed on a miseion from Languedoffto 
 the court at Paris ; and in 1744 he was no- 
 minated abbot of Ebrueil, in Auvergne. 
 After the lapse of eight j'ears, he retired to 
 Saumane, where he devoted himself to lite- 
 rary pursuits ; and died in 1778. 
 
 SADE, DoNATiAX Alphosso Fraxcis, 
 Count de, nephew of the above, was born 
 in Paris, in 1740. He was educated at tlie 
 college of Louis le Grand, and then entered 
 the army. He was one of the most aban- 
 doned and profligate of the French nobility. 
 At length, however, his friends terminated 
 his career by procuring his confinement in 
 the madhouse at Charenton, where he died, 
 in 1814. lie had great talent, but wrote only 
 the most licentious novels. 
 
 SADEEL, Antuont, a learned French 
 Huguenot and theological writer, was born 
 of a noble family, in the Ma(,onai3, in 1534. 
 At an early age he preached the reformed 
 persuasion ; for which, however, he was im- 
 prisoned, but obtained his release through 
 the interposition of his royal jiatron. Henri 
 Quatre made him his chajilain, and he 
 attended that monarch in some of his cam- 
 paigns ; but, on the reconciliation of Henri 
 to tiie Church of Rome, he retired to Geneva, 
 where he was chosen pastoFand Hebrew pro- 
 fessor. He died in 15i)l, and his works were 
 printed the following year. 
 
 SADELER, JoH.v. a distinguished en- 
 graver was born at Brussels, in 1556. He 
 executed many masterly works, and was 
 honoured by the patronage of the Elector of 
 
 Bavaria. Died, 1000 Raphael, brother 
 
 and pupil of the above, was born in 1555. 
 He worked in conjunction with his relative, 
 and executed upwards of 500 religious en- 
 gravings Giles, who was the nephew and 
 
 pupil of the above brothers, excelled both of 
 them in correctness and taste. 
 
 SADI, SiiEiK MosLEiiEinx, one of the 
 most celebrated poets of Persia, was born at 
 Shiraz, in 1175, and died in the 120th year 
 of his age. He studied at Bagdad, and 
 pursued a religious course of life under 
 the direction of the famous Sophi Abd al 
 Kadir Gliilani, whom he accompanied on a 
 pilgrimage to Mecca. He fouglit against the 
 infidels, and carried his arms into India and 
 Asia Minor. Being, however, taken prisoner 
 by the Turks, he was put to work on the 
 fortifications of Tripoli ; but was redeemed 
 
 by a merchant of Aleppo, who gave him his 
 daughter in marriage with a dowry. To- 
 wards the close of his life he built a hermit- 
 age neiffthe walls of Shiraz, where he passed 
 his time in exercises of piety ; and his tomb, 
 on the spot where he had lived, was long 
 visited by tlie admirers of his genius and 
 devotion. He wrote " Gulistun, or the Gar- 
 den of Roses," and other works. 
 
 SADLER, John, a political writer, w.aa 
 born in Shropshire, in l(jl5. He was edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, and was a favourite of 
 Oliver Cromwell. He published a work, 
 entitled "Rights of the Kingdom, or Cus- 
 toms of our Ancestors." Died, 1674. 
 
 SADLER, Michael Thomas, F.R.S., was 
 born at Snelston, in Derbyshire, in 1780 ; 
 and it may be truly said of him that he was 
 a scholar, an orator, a gentleman, and a 
 philanthropist. He had, however, chiefly 
 devoted himself to mercantile pursuits at 
 Leeds, in connection with a brother, until 
 1829, when he was invited by the electors of 
 Newark-upon-Trent to become a candidate 
 for the representation of that borough in 
 parliament, and for which he was ultimately 
 returned, in opposition to Mr. Serjeant 
 Wylde. At the general election (1830) he 
 was again returned for Newark ; and, in the 
 ensuing year, for Aldborough, Yorkshire. 
 His political opinions were generally more 
 conscientious than popular, and he never 
 failed, if not persuasively, yet honestly and 
 fearlessly, to express them. His cliief object 
 in parliament appeared to be nothing less 
 tlian conferring the largest portion of sub- 
 stantial benefits upon the great mass of the 
 poor, for the agricultural portion of whom 
 he sought to obtain parliamentary aid, to 
 provide them with allotments of ground, &c.; 
 while for Ireland, in the distresses of which 
 he felt a deep sympatliy, he eloquently 
 urged the justice and necessity of a well- 
 regulated system of poor laws. To spare 
 the sacrifice of life among the children em- 
 ployed in the manufactories was another of 
 his great objects ; and on each he wrote as 
 forcibly and clearly as he had spoken. To 
 his perseverance, the amelioration of the 
 condition of tlicse poor children is owing ; 
 since, although his benevolent intentions 
 were frustrated in the first instance, by the 
 too powerful opposition of those whose cu- 
 pidity rendered them deaf to any appeal 
 against their pecuniary interests, yet his 
 impressive eloquence had so thoroughly 
 aroused the public to a sense of the evil, 
 that, in the ensuing session of parliament, 
 the late opponents of the measure were com- 
 pelled to carry a similar bill to that which 
 had been proposed bj' himself. His parlia- 
 mentary exertions, and the intense anxiety 
 they occasioned, are said to have been the 
 primary cause of his death, which occurred 
 in July, 1835, while he was in Ireland. Mr, 
 Sadler's two principal works were, "Ire- 
 land, its Evils, and their Remedies," and 
 Ills "Law of Population," in which the 
 Malthusian doctrines were impugned and 
 refuted. 
 
 SADLER, or SADLIER, Sir Ralph, an 
 English statesman, was born in 1507, at 
 Hackney, in Jliddlesex. In early life he 
 enjoyed the patronage of Cromwell, earl of 
 
sad] 
 
 ^ i!i?U) SJntbcr^aT 5Si0grnpT)i). 
 
 [SAI 
 
 Essex, who introduced him to Henry VIII., 
 in consequence of which lie was employed 
 in many political aflfairs, and liad t^ share 
 in the dissolution of the monasteries, par- 
 taking also of the spoil. He was sent on 
 8ome embassies to Scotland ; and at the 
 battle of Musselburgh, in that kingdom, Sir 
 Ralph greatly distinguished himself, and 
 was made a knight banneret in reward of 
 his services. At tlie accession of Elizabeth 
 he was again sent to Scotl.and ; and when 
 the unfortunate Mary came to England, she 
 was committed to his care. He died in l"i87. 
 A collection of his " Letters and Nego- 
 ciations" was published in 1809, in 2 vols. 
 4to., with a memoir, written by Sir Walter 
 Scott. 
 
 S.VDLER, William WiNnriAM, a well- 
 known aeronaut and chemist. He was in 
 the establishment of the first gas company 
 in Liverpool, where he also erected accom- 
 modations for warm, medicated, and vapour 
 baths. During this period, however, lie 
 practised aerostation, and made 30 aerial 
 voyages, in one of which he crossed the Irish 
 Channel, from Dublin to Wales. In the 
 last attempt from Blackburn, in Lancashire, 
 Sept. .30. 1821, while descending, the car of 
 his balloon struck against a chimney, and 
 violently precipitated him to the earth and 
 caused his death, aged 28. 
 
 SADOC, a learned Jewish doctor, in the 
 3rd century h. c. He was the disciple of 
 AntigonusSocluEus, president of the Sanhe- 
 drim. Joining Baithosus, a fellow-disciple, 
 he denied tlie resurrection, and from him 
 and his name originated the sect of Sad- 
 ducees. His followers disclaimed also the 
 existence of ansrels and tlie doctrine of pre- 
 destination. They believed there was no 
 distinct principle like the soul, and, in con- 
 sequence, opposed the idea of a future state 
 of rewards and punishments. 
 
 SADOLET, James, a learned cardinal, 
 was born at Modena, in 1477. His father 
 was a professor of jurisprudence at Ferrara, 
 where he received his education, and at- 
 tained great celebrity by his Latin poetry 
 and philosophy. On the election of Leo X. 
 to the pontificate, he was made one of his 
 secretaries, and soon after bishop of Car- 
 pentras. He suflTered mucli from the vicis- 
 situdes of war, and was several times com- 
 pelled to quit the city, leaving his palace, 
 &c. to the plunder of the soldiery. Clement 
 VII. restored liim to his otKce ; and the 
 succeeding pontiff, Paul III., again recalled 
 him to Rome, raised him to the purple, and 
 employed him on mauy negotiations. Died, 
 1547. 
 
 SAEMTJND, SiGFUSSON-, a celebrated 
 Icelandic priest, poet, legislator, and his- 
 torian in the 11th century. He had a share 
 in forming the ecclesiastical code, wrote a 
 " History of Norway," and was the compiler 
 of that Scandinavian collection of poetry, 
 termed " Edda." printed at Copenhagen, in 
 17S7.4to. Died, n.'}5. 
 
 ST. BEUVE, Jacques de, a celebrated 
 theologian, born at Paris, in 1013. He was 
 famous for his controversies relative to the 
 doctrines of grace and predestination, which 
 agitated the French churcli in the middle 
 of the 17th century. Died, 1C77. 
 
 ST. CROIX, GuiLLAiTME Emanuel Jo- 
 seph, Buron de, a learned French writer, 
 was born at Mormoiron, in 174ti ; studied 
 at the Jesuit's College, Grenoble ; obtained 
 the rank of captain in the grenadiers, but 
 quitted the army for literary pursuits ; suf- 
 fered greatly during the revolution, and 
 dit'd in 1800. His princii)al works are, a 
 " History of the Naval Power of England," 
 2 vols. ; and a " Critical Examination of the 
 Historians of Alexander the Great." 
 
 ST. FOIX, Gekmai.v FitAXfois Poullaix 
 DK, a French dramatist and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Rennes, in Brittany, in 
 170.'{ ; became a captain in the army, and 
 distinguished himself by his valour on many 
 occasions. He afterwards devoted himself 
 to literature, and published 4 vohunes of 
 "Comedies," "Turkish Letters, written in 
 the Manner of Montesquieu ; " " Historical 
 Essays upon Paris." 7 vols. &c. Died, 177(J. 
 
 ST. GERMAIN, Claude Louis, Count 
 de, a French soldier and statesman, was 
 born in 1707, in Franche Compt<5 ; served 
 with distinction in the army for many 
 years ; but having quarrelled with the Duke 
 de Broglio, he quitted it for the service of 
 Dcimiark, where he was made a field mar- 
 shal. He subsequently accepted the situa- 
 tion of war-minister to Louis XVI., which 
 he held 2 years : aud died in 1778. 
 
 ST. HILAIRE. See GEOFFiiOV. 
 
 ST. JUST, Antuonv, a political agent 
 and associate of Robespierre, was born in 
 1768, and was educated for the legal profes- 
 sion. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., 
 materially assisted in the destruction of the 
 Girondists, acted as a, commissioner of the 
 National Convention to the army in Alsace, 
 where he was distinguished for his severity ; 
 and, on his return to Paris, becoming in- 
 volved in the ruin of Robespierre, was guil- 
 lotined in July, 1794. This demagogue, 
 who was the author of several works, among 
 wliich were some licentious poems, has ofteii 
 been confounded with Loi!is Leo.v St. Just, 
 the writer of " Esprit de la Revolution, et 
 de la Constitution de France." 
 
 ST. LAMBERT, Ciiai«le3 Fraxcks de, a 
 member of the National Institute of France, 
 was born at Nancy, in 1717. lie entered the 
 army, which he left at the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, and obtained an otHce iu the court 
 of Stanislaus of Poland ; became a devoted 
 adherent of Voltaire's, and a favoured ad- 
 mirer of Madame de Chatelet ; again en- 
 tered the army, and died in ISO.-;. Among 
 his works are, " Tiie Seasons," a poem ; 
 " Oriental Tales," and a philosophical 
 work, in 3 vols., entitled "Cati'chismc Uui- 
 verselle." lie also contributed to the Ency- 
 clopodie. 
 
 ST. MARC, CiiAnLES Hugh Lefebvre 
 DE, a Frencli author, born at Paris, in 1C98. 
 His most important work is, " A Chrono- 
 logical Abridgment of the History of Italy, 
 from the Downfall of the Western Empire," 
 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 ST. MARC, JEAJf Paul Andke des Rai- 
 si N's, Marquis de, a French lyric poet, author 
 of " AdMe de Ponthieu," &c. Born, 1728 ; 
 died, 1818. 
 
 ST. PALAYE, Jean Baptiste de la 
 Cukse de, a learned and ingenious writer, 
 
 755 
 
SAl] 
 
 ^ ^ctD Bnihtv^al 33i0srapTjy. 
 
 [sal 
 
 ! born at Auxerre, in 1097 ; died, 1781. He 
 ! studied the manners and customs of ancient 
 { France with great diligence and success, and 
 I wrote "Miimoiressur I'aucienne Chevalerie," 
 3 vols., wliich have been translated into 
 ] English. After liis death, the Abb(S Millot 
 I published another -work of his, entitled 
 " L'Histoire des Troubadours," 3 vols. ; and 
 he left a voluminous collection of MSS. 
 
 ST. PIERRE, CiiAKLES IKENEE Castel 
 r>E, a Freiicli publicist and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at St. Pierre, in Normandy, 
 in 1658. He was brought up as an eccle- 
 siastic ; hence he is generally known as the 
 Abb^ de St. Pierre ; but he was more distin- 
 guished as a politician and philanthropist. 
 Cardinal Polignac took him to the con- 
 ferences at Utrecht, where he formed a pro- 
 ject for a diet to secure a perpetual peace; 
 which Cardinal Dubois called " the dream of 
 a good man." He had the boldness to expose 
 the errors of the government of Louis XIV., 
 and to deny that monarch's right to the 
 epithet of "Great," for which he was ex- 
 pelled the Academy. His worksform 18 vols. 
 ]2mo. His aim through life was the social 
 elevation of the people ; and many of the 
 schemes which he projected for this purpose, 
 though treated witli scorn and ridicule at 
 the time he wrote, are daily being carried 
 into eifect. Died, 1743. 
 
 ST. PIERRE, Eustace de, a citizen of 
 Calais, who signalise<l himself when that 
 place was besieged by Edward III., king of 
 England, in 1347. 
 
 ST. PIERRE, Jacques BEn.vARDiN 
 Henri de, a most ingenious and pliilosophi- 
 cal Frencli author, was born at Havre, in 1737, 
 was educated in the engineer school at Paris, 
 for a time followed the military profession 
 in the service of Russia, afterwards obtained 
 a commission in the engineer corps of France; 
 and, retiring from a military life, he devoted 
 the remainder of his days to literature. In 
 1784 appeared his " Etudes de la Nature," 
 and, in 1788, his " Paul et Virginie," which, 
 after passing through 50 impressions in one 
 year, has been translated into almost all the 
 languages of Europe. Napoleon conferred 
 on him the order of the legion of honour, 
 and Joseph Buonaparte granted him a pen- 
 sion of 6000 francs. St. Pierre was also the 
 author of " La Chaumi&re Indienne " and 
 several other works, all replete with ele- 
 gant taste and philosophical feeling. Died, 
 1814. 
 
 ST. PRIEST, Francis Emanuel Guig- 
 NARD, Count de, a French statesman, born 
 at Grenoble, in 1735. He first served in the 
 army, and was afterwards engaged in diplo- 
 matic missions to Portugal, Constantinople, 
 and the Hague ; at which last place he was 
 residing when the revolution commenced. 
 In 1789 he succeeded Baron de Bretueil as 
 minister of the royal household : but subse- 
 quent events drove him from France, and he 
 remained in exile till after the restoration of 
 the Bourbons. He was raised to the peerage 
 in 1815, and died in 1821. 
 
 ST. REAL, C.T-S-Ui Vichard de, an able 
 French author, was born at Chamberri, in 
 Savoy, where he died in 1692. He wrote 
 " De rUsage de I'Histoire," "Conjuration 
 des Espagnols contre la Republique de Venise 
 
 en 1618 ; " and several other treatises on 
 morals, politics, and philosophv. 
 
 ST. SIMON, Claudius Henry, Count de, 
 was born at Paris, 1760. He was the founder 
 of a politico-philosophical sect, whose lead- 
 ing dogma is, that industry is the definitive 
 purpose of life, and that those engaged in it 
 constitute the superior class of society. He 
 published a variety of works to give currency 
 to his doctrines ; among which are, an " In- 
 troduction to tlie Scientific Labours of the 
 Nineteenth Century ;" and " I'olitical, Mo- 
 ral, and Philosophical Discussions." Died, 
 1825. 
 
 ST. SIMON, Louis de Rouvroi, Duke of, 
 was born in 1675. In 1721 he was appointed 
 ambassador extraordinary to tlie court of 
 Spain, to negotiate a marriage between 
 the Infanta and Louis XV. ; and died in 
 1757. His " Memoirs of the Reign of Louis 
 XIV. and the Regency," containing a 
 vast mass of anecdotical information, form 
 13 vols. 
 
 SALADIN, a famous sultan of Egypt, 
 equally renowned as a warrior and legislator. 
 He was born in 1137, raised himself from the 
 station of an olficer to that of a sovereign, 
 and supported himself by his valour and 
 the influence of his amiable character, 
 against the united efforts of the chief Cliris- 
 tian potentates of Europe, who carried on 
 the most unjust wars against him. under the 
 false appellation of crusades. He obtained 
 various successes over the Christians, but was 
 defeated by Richard Cceur de Lion, and died 
 in 1193. 
 
 SALARIO, Andrew, a painter of Milan, 
 and a disciple of Leonardo da Vinoi. His 
 pictures are valuable. He died at Florence, 
 in 1559. 
 
 SALE, George, an English writer, who 
 was well versed in the oriental languages. 
 His greatest work is an excellent translation 
 of the Koran, to which he prefixed a curious 
 dissertation. Mr. Sale was also one of the 
 principal authors of the " Antient Universal 
 History." Born, 1680 ; died, 1736. 
 
 SALE, Sir Robert Henry, known to his 
 countrymen as the "hero of Jellalabad," 
 was the son of Colonel Sale, of the East 
 India Compan3''s service, and entered the 
 army in 1795, when only 13 years of age, as 
 ensign in the 36th foot. He served at the 
 siege and storming of Seringapatam, in 1799; 
 at the storming of the Travancore lines, in 
 1809 ; at the capture of the Mauritius, in 
 1816, and of Rangoon, in 1824. On these 
 and many other important occasions this 
 gallant officer distinguished himself ; and in 
 18.38 he was appointed to the command of 
 the 1st Bengal brigade of the army of the 
 Indus, whicli advanced on Affghanistan. He 
 commanded the storming party at Ghuznec, 
 and was severely wounded ; received the 
 rank of major-general, and commanded 
 the force sent to subdue the Kohistan 
 country in 1840, when, after numerous 
 stormings and captures, he compelled Dost 
 Mahommed Khan to surrender himself to 
 Sir W. M'Naghten. In 1841 he commanded 
 the brigade which stormed the Khoord Cabul 
 pass, and was there shot through the leg ; 
 with eminent skill he next forced tlie Jug- 
 dullock pass, stormed the fort of Maraoo 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
sal] 
 
 a ^ctn Bnibtv^nX 3Bt00rap]^t'' 
 
 [SAN 
 
 Khail. and finally retreated upon Jellalabad. 
 Here he and his gallant band were besieged 
 by the Affghan trooi)s, from the 12th Nov. 
 1841, to the 7th April, 1842; on which day 
 the wearied garrison attacked and utterly 
 routed the besieging army under the noto- 
 rious Akbar Khan. He afterwards contri- 
 buted to the capture of Cabul, &c., and re- 
 ceived the thanks of parliament for tlie 
 share he had in redeeming the British name 
 in Affghanistan. He was quarter-master- 
 I general to the army of the Sutlej, when he 
 I received his fatal wound in the action of 
 j the JHtli of December, 184.'>, being then in 
 I Ws ().')th year. Lady Sale, whose heroic 
 I conduct during the too memorable retreat 
 ! from Atfghanistau will not Eoon be for- 
 gotten, was married to Sir Kobert in 1809. 
 
 SALICETI, Chkistophkr, a Corsican by 
 birth, and a member of the French National 
 Convention, who voted for the death of 
 Louis XVI., and advocated the other violent 
 measures of his brother revolutionists. When 
 Buonaparte became first consul, he was at 
 first proscribed, but afterwards restored to 
 favour, and sent ambassador to Genoa. He 
 was mitiistcr of police at Naples, when that 
 country was under the rule of Joseph Buona- 
 parte ; and died in 18()9. 
 
 SALISBURY, Joux of, a learned Au- 
 gustine monk of the 12th century ; author 
 of "Polycraticon," &c. He was a friend 
 of Thomas h. Becket, whose murder he is 
 said to have witnessed. After that event 
 he retired to France, and was made bishop 
 of Chartres by the pope. Died, 1 182. 
 
 SALISBURY, William, a Welsh lawyer 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, celebrated as "the 
 first translator of the Liturgy of tiie Church 
 of England into the Welsh language. He 
 died in ^r>7^). 
 SALISBURY. See Cecil. 
 SALLO, Denis de, a French writer, born 
 at Paris, in 1(52(5. He is distinguished as 
 the original conductor of the first literary 
 journal established in Europe, the Journal 
 desSavans being commenced by him in 1(565. 
 Died, l(!(i9. 
 
 SALLUST, Caius Ckispus, a Roman his- 
 torian, distinguished equally for his talents 
 and profligacy, was boi-n at Amiternum, 
 B. c. 8.5. He was expunged from the list of 
 senators, in consequence of his extravagance 
 and shameless debaucheries ; but being re- 
 stored by Julius Ciesar, and made governor 
 of Numidia, he there amassed an enormous 
 fortune by acts of rapine. He died u. c. 3.5. 
 His '• History of the Jugurthine War " and 
 "The Conspiracy of Catiline" bear ample 
 testimony to his genius ; but the rigid mo- 
 rality displayed in his writings forms a 
 curious contrast to the vices of the author. 
 
 SALMASIUS, or SAUMAISE, Claude, 
 an eminent French scholar, was born at 
 Saumur, in 1588, and succeeded Scaliger as 
 professor of history at I^eyden. In 1(549 he 
 wrote a defence of Charles I., king of 
 England, which was forcibly and con- 
 clusively replied to by Milton. The year 
 following he went to Sweden, on an invita- 
 tion from queen Christina ; and died in 
 10,53. His principal works are, "HistorisE 
 August* Scriptores Sex," "De Modo Usu- 
 rarum," "De Re Militari Romanorum," 
 
 "Ilellenistica," and several editions of an- 
 cient authors. 
 
 SALM(3N, Thomas, an industrious writer 
 and compiler, whose productions include "An 
 Examination of Burnet's History of his own 
 Times," "The Chronological Historian," a 
 " History of England," 12 vols. ; " Modern 
 History," 3 vols, folio ; a " Universal Gazet- 
 teer," S.C. Died, 1743. 
 
 SALMON, William, an empirical phy- 
 sician and a voluminous compiler of books, 
 among which are, "The Complete Physician," 
 " The Universal Herbal," a " Treatise on 
 Astrology," " Polygraphiee, or the Art of 
 Painting." He died about 17(X). 
 
 SALMON, Nathaniel, brother of the 
 preceding, an English divine, biographer, 
 and antiquary ; was admitted of Corjjus 
 Christi College. Cambridge, in 1(590, and en- 
 tered into holy orders, but subsequently 
 studied medicine, and died in 1742. He 
 wrote the " History and Antiquities of seve- 
 ral of the English Counties," and is esteemed 
 for the accuracy of bis deductions and 
 patient research. 
 
 SALVATOR ROSA. See Rosa. 
 
 SALVIATI, Francesco Rossi, an emi- 
 nent Italian painter, whose style of de- 
 signing approached that of Raphael, though 
 greatly inferior in sublimity and grandeur 
 of composition. Born in Florence, 1510 ; 
 died, 1.563. 
 
 SAMPSON, Dr. Henky, an English divine 
 and physician, was born at South Leverton, 
 in Nottinghamshire; studied physic at Padua 
 and Leyden ; and, on his return to England, 
 was chosen a member of the college of phy- 
 sicians. Died, 1705. 
 
 SAMWELL, David, anative of Nantglyn, 
 in Denbighshire. He was surgeon of the 
 ship Discovery, with Captain Conk, and was 
 an eye-witness of the death of that cele- 
 brated navigator ; of which event he wrote 
 a circumstantial account. He was also the 
 author of some Welsh poems. Died, 1799. 
 
 SANAEKJN, Noel Stephen, a learned 
 French Jesuit, was born at Rouen, in 167(5, 
 and died in 1733. His principal works are 
 " Latin Poems," 2 vols. ; and a translation 
 of Horace, with valuable notes, 2 vols. 
 
 SANCHO, Ignatius, a negro, whose lite- 
 rary abilities attracted much notice, was 
 born in 1729, on board a slave-ship, and 
 carried to Carthagena. While a boy he was 
 brought to England by his master, and given 
 to three maiden ladies, sisters, living at 
 Greenwich, who named him Sancho. The 
 Duke of Montague afterwards took him into 
 his service, and encouraged his love of learn- 
 ing ; and the duchess left him an annuity 
 at her death. He numbered among his 
 friends, Stenie, Garrick, and other literary 
 characters ; and was the author of " Letters," 
 "Poems,:i&c. Died, 1780. 
 
 SANCROFT, William, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was born at Fresinfleld, in 
 Suffolk, in 1(516. In 1064 he was made dean 
 of York ; then dean of St. Paul's ; and, in 
 1077, he was raised to the highest station in 
 the church, where he conducted himself with 
 zeal and judgment. He was one of the 
 seven bishops sent to the Tower by James 
 II. ; but at the Revolution he refused to take 
 the oaths, for which he was deprived of his 
 
san] 
 
 ^ i^tiM ^nihtt^Kl 23tff5rai)]^i). 
 
 [san 
 
 see. Died, 1693. He wrote " Tlie Predesti- 
 nated Thief," " Modern Folitics, taken from 
 Machiavel," &c. 
 
 SANCTORIUS, an eminent physician, 
 was born at Capo d'Istria, in 1,5<51 ; filled the 
 professor's chair in the university of Padua, 
 was the first physician that endeavoured to 
 ascertain the licat of the skin by a thermo- 
 meter, and rendered his name memorable 
 by his work, entitled "Ars de Statica Me- 
 dicina." Died, 1630. 
 
 SANDBY, Paul, an eminent artist, born 
 at Nottingham, in 1732. He took numerous 
 views in Wales and Scotland, which lie 
 transferred to copper- plates, in imitation of 
 drawings in India ink ; a method of aqua- 
 tint engraving whiuli he carried to great 
 perfection. On the institution of the Royal 
 Academy he was elected a member ; and, in 
 1768, he was appointed chief drawing-master 
 at Woolwich. Died, 1809. 
 
 SANDEMAN, Robekt, a Scotch minister, 
 was born at Perth, in 172:5, and educated at 
 St. Andrew's. He formed a sect which still 
 goes by his name. In 1765 he went to New 
 England, made many proselytes, and died 
 in 1772. The chief opinions and practices 
 in which the sect differs from others are, 
 their weekly administration of the Lord's 
 supper, washing each other's feet, &c. 
 
 SANDERS, Nicholas, a zealous Roman 
 Catholic writer, was born at Charlewood, in 
 Surrey. About 1500 he went to Rome, and 
 was sent by pope Gregory XIII. as nuncio 
 to Ireland, where, to avoid falling into the 
 hands of the English, he wandered about 
 in the woods and bogs, and perished of want 
 1 in 1581. His principal work is his treatise 
 1 against the Reformation, entitled " De Ori- 
 1 gine ac Progressu Schismatis Anglicani." 
 i SANDERSON, Dr. Robeut, bishop of 
 Lincoln, an eminent polemical writer and 
 casuist. Born, 1587 ; died, 1663. 
 I SANDERSON, RoBEnT, a learned anti- 
 quary, was usher of the court of chancery 
 and clerk of the rolls. He continued " Ry- 
 : mer's Focdcra " from the 10th to the 20th 
 
 volume, and died in 1741. 
 j SANDFORD, Sir Daniel Kbyte, D.C.L., 
 professor of Greek in the university of Glas- 
 gow, was the son of Dr. Sandford, one of the 
 bishops of the Scottish episcopal church. 
 This accomplished scholar and brilliant ora- 
 tor was not more distinguished for his clas- 
 Kie attainments, than for the enthusiasm 
 with which he advocated the reform bill, 
 and other measures which had for their 
 : objects the extension of popular rights and 
 I privileges. As a teacher he was highly suc- 
 ; cessful ; and to his efforts Scotland is in- 
 ! debted for mncli of her present eminence, as 
 I a school for the study of classic literature. 
 ! Died. Feb. 9. 1838. 
 
 I SANDWICH, EnwARD Moxtagu, Earl 
 I of, a distinguished naval commander in 
 the reign of Charles II., was born in 1625. 
 ! At the age of 18 he raised a regiment in the 
 i service of parliament, and was present in 
 ' several battles ; but in the Dutch war he 
 left the army for the navy, and was asso- 
 ciated with Blake in the Mediterranean. 
 i Afterwards he commanded the fleet in the 
 ■ North Sea ; but at his return was deprived 
 I of it on suspicion of being in the royal 
 
 ' interest. Monk, however, procured him to 
 be replaced ; and he conveyed the king to 
 England ; after which he was created earl 
 of Sandwich. In the war of 1664 he com- 
 manded under tlie Duke of York, and had a 
 principal share in the great battle of June 3. 
 1665. On the renewal of hostilities with the 
 Dutch, he v,'.a3 again emploved ; and in the 
 battle of Southwold Bay, after he had by 
 his conduct rescued a great part of the fleet 
 from the most imminent danger, and given 
 astonishing proofs of his bravery, his ship 
 caught fire, on whicli lie leaped into tlie sea 
 and was drowned, in 1072. 
 
 SANDYS, Edwkv, an eminent English 
 prelate, was born in 1519, at Hawkshead, in 
 Lancashire. At the accession of Mary he 
 was vice-chancellor, and on refusing to pro- 
 claim her, he was deprived of his office, and 
 sent first to the Tower, and afterwards to the 
 Marshalsea. When Elizabeth came to the 
 throne he was appointed one of the com- 
 missioners for revising the Liturgy. He 
 was also made bishop of Worcester, and had 
 a share in the translation of the Scriptures, 
 commonly called the " Bishops' Bible." In 
 1570 he was translated to London, and in 
 1570 to York, where a conspiracy was laid 
 by Sir Robert Stapleton, to ruin him by the 
 imputation of adultery ; but it was disco- 
 vered, and the parties concerned in it were 
 punished. He died in 1588. 
 
 SANDYS, Sir Edwin, second son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1501, and edu- 
 cated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 
 under the learned Hooker. He ^hen went 
 on his travels, and published the result of 
 his observations under the title of " Europae 
 Speculum." He was knighted by James I., 
 who employed him in many important 
 missions ; and he died in 1029. 
 
 SANDYS, Geokge, second son of the 
 archbishop of that name, was born in 1577, 
 at Bishop's Thorpe, and was educated at 
 St. Mary Hall, Oxford. He travelled through 
 the Levant and Italy, of which, in 1615, he 
 published an account. Among his other 
 works are, a translation of Ovid's Metamor- 
 phoses, and paraphrases of various parts of 
 Scripture. He died in 1643. 
 
 SANGALLO, Antonio, an eminent Ita- 
 lian architect of the 10th century, was born 
 at Florence ; and on visiting Rome, where 
 he had two uncles who were architects, he 
 was instructed by them, and subsequently 
 perfected himself in the art under Bramante, 
 whom he succeeded as architect of the church 
 of St. Peter. He was much employed under 
 the popes Leo X., Clement VII., and Paul 
 III., both in fortifying places, and in the 
 construction of public buildings, the grandeur 
 and solidity of which have been much ad- 
 mired. Died, ]54<3. 
 
 SANMICHELI, Michael, a celebrated 
 architect, bom at Verona, 1484. He erected 
 several cathedrals and other magnificent 
 edifices, and excelled in the construction 
 of fortified works. Died, 1559. 
 
 SANNAZARIUS, or SANNAZARO, Ja- 
 copo, a distinguished Italian poet, who wrote 
 both in Latin and Italian, was born in 1458, 
 at Naples, where he died in 1533. He was 
 the author of sonnets, canzoni, elegies, 
 eclogues, epigrams, and a poem entitled. 
 
san] 
 
 ^ §tfii ^iiibcisal 18i03raji!jj). 
 
 [SAR 
 
 " De Partu Virginis." Ilis elegance of ex- 
 pression, no less than the poetical beauty of 
 his thoughts, gave liim a distinguished place 
 among tlie modern Latin poets. 
 
 SANSEVEKO, Kaymund di Sanqro, 
 eminent for Ids mechanical inventions and 
 scientific discoveries, was born at Naples, in 
 1710, and died in 1771. Among the multi- 
 farious and extraordinary inacliiiies invented 
 by himself was a four-wheeled vehicle, to 
 pass over the surface of the water, which he 
 exhibited on the bay of Naples. 
 
 SANSON, Nicholas, a celebrated geo- 
 grapher and engineer, was born at Abbe- 
 ville, in IWK) ; and constructed, even while 
 a youth, a map of ancient Gaul, remarkable 
 for its excellence and accuracy. He subse- 
 quently produced upwards of three hundred 
 maps, all on a large scale, with several 
 volumes to illustrate them ; reached the 
 head of his profession, and was appointed 
 geographer and engineer to the king. Died, 
 
 1WJ7 His three sons, Nicholas, William, 
 
 and Aduian, who also were excellent geo- 
 graphers, collected and published the works 
 of their father, as well as several of their own. 
 SANSOVINO, GiACOJio Fatti, an emi- 
 nent sculptor and architect, was born at 
 Florence, in 1479. He ornamemed Rome 
 and Venice with many splendid structures, 
 and enjoyed so great a rei)utation, that when 
 a general impost was levied at Venice, he 
 and Titian were the only persons exempted 
 from the tax. Died, 1570. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ DE MARZENADO, Don 
 Alvau de Navia Osokio, Maiquis of, an 
 able Spanish oflBcer and diplomatist, who 
 distinguished himself in the war of the suc- 
 cession, was born in 1687 ; and was killed, 
 in 1732, in a sally from Oran, of whicli city 
 he was governor. lie wrote "Militaiy Re- 
 flections," 11 vols. 4to. 
 
 SANTERRE, Jean Baftiste, a French 
 painter, was born at Magny, near Pontoise, 
 in 16.51. He painted historical subjects, on a 
 small size, and with great delicacy. Died, 
 1717. 
 
 SANTERRE, M., commandant of the na- 
 tional guard of Paris, and general in the 
 republican army, was a rich brazier, who, 
 having acquired some influence with the 
 citizens, availed himself of the circumstance 
 to act a part in the French revolution. He 
 rendered himself notorious at the demolition 
 of the Bastille on the memorable 14th of 
 July, 1789 ; but, deficient of the talents 
 which are most necessary to Ibrm the leader 
 of a party, lie was satisfied to follow the in- 
 spirations which were excited by his more 
 fortunate competitors for public favour. 
 Appointed to command a battalion of the 
 Parisian guard, he figured on the 20th of 
 June, 1791, as the agent to intimidate the 
 minority in the legislative assembly, and 
 assist in delivering up Louis XVI. and liis 
 unhappy family to the violence of an in- 
 furiated mob. He presided at the sad ca- 
 tastrophe, on the 21st January, 1793 ; and, 
 by ordering the drums to beat when his 
 majesty addressed his people, prevented the 
 voice of the victim from being heard. On 
 the lOth of June following, he headed 14,0(X) 
 men against the royalist army ; but, as he 
 possessed mere courage without any military 
 
 759 
 
 talent, his campaign was a failure. He lost 
 his counsellor in the death of Danton ; and 
 tiie committee of public safety suspecting 
 his fidelity, he was arrested in April, 1794. 
 After obtaining his liberty, which he was 
 lucky enough to effect in a short time, Sau- 
 terre sunk into deserved obscurity. 
 
 SANTEUL, or SANTOLIUS, John de, 
 a distinguished modem Latin poet, was 
 born at Paris, in. 1C30 ; and after studying 
 under the Jesuits, entered among the canons 
 of the abbey of St. Victor, and died in 1697. 
 He was eccentric, witty, and capricious ; 
 generally licentious, but at times endeavour- 
 ing to atone for it by sudden fits of devotion. 
 
 SAPPHO, a celebrated Greek poetess, 
 born at Mitylene, in the island of Leslws, 
 about B.C. 600. ller writings were highly 
 esteemed by the ancients, and she is re- 
 garded as the inventress of the metre which 
 bears her name ; but, of her works, there 
 at present exist only a "Hymn to Venus," 
 
 an ode, and a few trifling fragments 
 
 Another Sappho, of a later date, who is 
 usually confounded with the foregoing, from 
 being also a native of Lesbos, was no less 
 distinguished for amorous propensities than 
 for the warmth of her lyrical efiusions, and 
 is said to have thrown herself into the sea, 
 from the promontory of Leucate, in conse- 
 quence of the neglect she experienced from 
 Pliaon, her lover. 
 
 SARAZIN, Jacques, a sculptor, was 
 bom at Noyon, in 1698. After learning the 
 rudiments of his art at Paris, he went to 
 Rome, where he studied painting as well as 
 sculpture, and, on his return, lie was much 
 employed at the palace of Versailles. Died, 
 1660. 
 
 SARAZIN, Jonx, a French marshal, was 
 born in 1770. In 1793 he was secretary to 
 General Marceau ; and, in 1798, he was em- 
 ployed in the expedition to Ireland. He 
 served in the German campaigns under 
 Buonaparte, during 180.5 and 1806 -, but, in 
 1809, deserted from the camp at Boulogne, 
 and came to England in a fishing-boat. He 
 treated with the English ministry for em- 
 ployment, but disagreed about terms ; then 
 followed the English invading army into 
 Spain, and re-appeared in France after the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, to whom he 
 avowed an ardent attachment. He was 
 accused of trigamy in 1819; but justified 
 himself in person, without denying the 
 charge, and was condemned to the galleys 
 for ten years. The punishment, however, 
 was not carried into eliect. Died, 1824. 
 
 SARBIEWSKI, Matthias Casimir, a 
 Polish poet, usually known by the name of 
 Cafimir, was born in 1.595, became a pro- 
 fessor in the Jesuits' college at Wilna, 
 wrote some elegant Latin poems, and died 
 in 1610. 
 
 SARRASIN, John Fkancis, an eminent 
 French poet, born in Normandy, in 1604. 
 He was secretary to the Prince of Conti, 
 wrote a " History of the Siege of Dunkirk," I 
 poems, and various other works ; and died 
 in 1654. 
 
 SARTI, Joseph, a graceful musical com- 
 poser, born at Faenza, in 1730 ; who, after 
 having been master of the conservatorio of 
 La Pieta at Ycuiec, was invited to St. 
 
 3 T 2 
 
SAU] 
 
 ^ ^tbi UnihtviaX SBiostapi^y* 
 
 [SAU 
 
 Petersburgh by tlie empress Catharine, who 
 appointed him director of music at the con- 
 servatory of Catharineslali', with a munificent 
 salary, to which slie afterwards added a title 
 of nobility and an estate. Died, 1802. 
 
 SAUMAREZ, Right Hon. James, Lord 
 de, a distinguished officer in the British 
 navy, was born in tlie island of Guernsey, 
 in 1757, and was descended from a French 
 family, wliose ancestor accompanied Wil- 
 liam the Conqiieror to this country. He 
 entered tlie naval service at the age of 1.5, 
 accompanied Sir Peter Parker across the 
 Atlantic, and having signalised himself in 
 an attack upon Fort Sullivan, received the 
 command of the Spitfire ; but the cutter 
 having been mucli damaged, was burnt, to 
 avoid falling into the hands of the enemy, 
 and he returned a passenger to England. 
 After being actively engaged, under Sir 
 Hyde Parker, at Dogger Bank, and with 
 Admirals Hood and Rodney, he was sent to 
 cruise on the French const, where he cap- 
 tured La Recession, a fine French frigate, 
 without the loss of a single man, while 120 
 were killed or wounded on the part of the 
 enemy ; which gallant action procured him 
 the liTinour of knighthood. He afterwards 
 sailed witli Sir Jolni Jervis in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and shared in the victoi^- off Cape 
 St. Vincent in 1797 ; and going again to the 
 Mediterranean, was second in command to 
 Lord Nelson in the glorious victory of the 
 Nile. On his return to England, Sir James 
 received the decoration of the order of the 
 Bath, and was appointed colonel of marines; 
 and in 1801 he was made a rear-admiral of 
 the blue, created a baron, and appointed to 
 the command of the squadron oflf Cadiz. 
 On the Gth of July he made a daring attack 
 on a superior force in the bay of Algesiras ; 
 but owing to the protection of the batteries, 
 and the wind failing, he was compelled to 
 withdraw his ships after an action of five 
 hours, and repair to Gibraltar to refit. With 
 unparalleled expedition he again put to sea, 
 and offered battle to the enemy's fleet, now 
 amounting to 10 sail of the line, his own 
 squadron consisting of only half the number; 
 which ended in two of the enemy's S-deckers 
 being blown up, and a74-gun ship captured; 
 and though the darkness of night gave the 
 remainder an opportunity of escaping, they 
 were so crippled that they were laid up at 
 Cadiz, and never again during the war left 
 that port. For this brave action Sir James re- 
 ceived the thanks of both houses of parlia- 
 ment, and a pension of 1200/. per annum. 
 After this he performed a series of signal 
 services to his country, as commander-in- 
 chief of the Britisli fleet in the Baltic ; and 
 when this country was visited by the Emperor 
 of Russia and the King of Prussia, he received 
 the personal thanks of those monarchs, to- 
 gether with those of Prince Metternich, on 
 the part of the Emperor of Austria, for the 
 services he had rendered to the common 
 cause of Europe. In 1831 he was appointed 
 vice-admiral of England, which appoint- 
 ment he resigned for that of general of ma- 
 rines ; and at the coronation of William IV. 
 he was called to the House of Peers, as Baron 
 de Sauinarez. Died at Sauniarez, his seat 
 in the island of Guernsey, 183(5. 
 
 I SAUNDERS, Sir Edmund, an English 
 judge in the reign of Charles II., who was 
 originally an errand-boy at the inns of 
 court. A lawyer of St. Clement's Inn per- 
 ceiving his genius, took him into his office, 
 and made him his clerk. He afterwards 
 became an eminent counsel, and rose to be 
 chief justice in the court of king's bench. 
 Died, 1683. 
 
 SAUNDERS, John Cunningham, a sur- 
 geon and oculist, was born in 1773, in Devon- 
 shire, and became demonstrator of anatomy 
 at St. Thomas's Hospital, London. He was 
 particularly skilful in the treatment of dis- 
 orders of the eye, for which lie instituted 
 an infirmary in 1804. He wrote "On the 
 Anatomy and Diseases of the Ear" and 
 " On the Diseases of the Eye." Died, 1810. 
 
 SAUNDERS, William," an eminent phy- 
 sician and medical writer, was born in 1743, 
 became senior physician to Guy's Hospital, 
 and died in 1819. Among his works are, 
 treatises on the " Structure, Economy, and 
 Diseases of the Liver," on " Indian Hepa- 
 titis," on " Mineral Waters," &c. 
 
 SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, an eminent 
 mathematician, was born in 1682, at Tliurl- 
 ston, in Yorkshire. He lost his sight when 
 12 months old, by the small-pox ; but was 
 sent to the free-school at Penniston, where 
 he made a great proficiency in classical 
 learning. At the age of 18 he was intro- 
 duced to Mr. West, a lover of the mathe- 
 matics, who instructed him in algebra and 
 geometry ; and he made such progress, that 
 his friends sent him to Cambridge, where he 
 delivered lectures on the mathematics to 
 crowded audiences. Having been created 
 M. A. by royal mandate, he was appointed 
 Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1711 ; 
 and in 1728 he received the degree of LL.D. 
 Died, 1739. 
 
 SAURIN, James, an eminent French 
 Protestant preacher, was born at Nismes, 
 in 1677. Upon the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, in 1085, his father retired with 
 his family to Geneva, where the subject of 
 this article made a considerable progress in 
 learning, but quitted his studies, and went 
 into the army. When the Duke of Savoy, 
 under whom he served, made peace in 1696, 
 he returned to Geneva, with a view to engage 
 in the ministry. In 1700 he visited England, 
 where he preached nearly 5 years to his 
 fellow refugees in London. He subsequently 
 became pastor to a congregation of French 
 refugees, who assembled in a chapel belong- 
 ing to the Prince of Orange, at the Hague. 
 He was the author of 12 vols, of" Sermons," 
 " The State of Christianity in France," 
 "Discourses, Historical. Critical, and iloral, 
 on the most remarkable Events of the Old 
 and Ntw Testaments," &c. Died, 1730. 
 
 SAURIN, JosKPU, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1659, and distinguished 
 himself as a mathematician. He was origi- 
 nally a Protestant minister ; but, in 1690, he 
 embraced the Catholic faith, and was pen- 
 sioned by Louis XIV. He contributed for 
 some years to the Journal des Savans, and 
 died in 1730. 
 
 SAURIN, Bernard Joseph, son of the 
 last mentioned, was born in 1706, at Paris ; 
 and quitted the bar to become a dramatic 
 
SAU] 
 
 ^ i5lc&) ^uibcrM 33t05raj}T)^, 
 
 [SAV ; 
 
 writer. lie was the author of " Spartacus," 
 a tragedy i " Mocurs des Temps," a spirited 
 eomcUy ; aud a variety of other dramas. 
 Died, 1781. 
 
 SAUKIN, Right Hon. William, an emi- 
 nent Irish lawyer. He was called to tlie bar 
 in the year 1790 ; in 1798 he received a pa- 
 tent of precedence, which was soon followed 
 by liis appointment to the office of solicitor- 
 general. As a member of tlie Irish parlia- 
 ment he took an active part in the politics 
 of tlie latter end of the 18th century ; yet, 
 turbulent as were the times, aud fierce as 
 were the political antagonists to whom he 
 was opposed, his personal integrity and 
 highly honourable feelings were on all hands 
 admitted. His powers us a debater, and Itis 
 eminence and celebrity as a lawyer, caused 
 him, in 1807, to be made attorney-general 
 for Ireland, and he held that important 
 office until 1822, when he was succeeded by 
 Mr., now Lord, Plunkett. Though for many 
 years previous to his death he had bceu 
 greatly afflicted in health, his faculties re- 
 mained unimpaired to the last. Born, 17G7; 
 died, 1840. 
 
 SAUS8URE, Horace Benedict de, a 
 celebrated naturalist, was born at Geneva, 
 in 1740 ; attained an early proflciency in 
 the mathematical and physical sciences, 
 and was for several years professor of phi- 
 losophy at Gentva. He travelled in France, 
 England, Italy, &c. ; and by the valuable 
 observations whicli he made, particularly 
 among tlie glaciers of the Alps, he contri- 
 buted much to the advancement of geology 
 and meteorology. He also showed great 
 ingenuity in tlie conslruction of improved 
 instruments adapted to scientific uses, viz. 
 a thermometer, a hygrometer, a eudiometer, 
 an electrometer, &c. Died, 1799. 
 
 SAUVAGES, FnANCis Boissier dk, a 
 celebrated French botanist and physician, 
 born In 1706, at Alais ; became professor 
 of medicine and botany at tlic iinirersity of 
 Montpelier, was a member of nearly all the 
 learned societies in Europe, aud acquired, 
 by his writings and lectures, as well as by 
 his zeal, a high reputation. His principal 
 work is entitled "Nosologia Methodica," 
 5 vols. Died, 1767. 
 
 SAUVEUR, Joseph, a French mathema- 
 tician, born in 1653, at La Fleche. He was 
 dumb till he had passed his 7th year, but 
 such was his love for the mathematical sci- 
 ences, that he acquired them with scarcely 
 any instruction, aud became professor at 
 the royal college. He was the discoverer 
 of that branch of science called musical 
 acoustics, and died in 1710. 
 
 SAVAGE, RicuAUD, an English poet, 
 celebrated for his genius, irregularities, and 
 I misfortunes, was born in London, about 1698. 
 I The singular story of Savage, adorned as it 
 is by tlie pen of his intimate friend. Dr. 
 Johnson, has acquired great interest. He 
 was the natural son of the Countess of Mac- 
 clesfield by Earl Rivers. No sooner did he 
 see the light, than a most unnatural hatred 
 took complete possession of his mother, who 
 placed him witlfi an old woman in the lowest 
 state of indigence, with directions that he 
 should be brought up in utter ignorance of his 
 birth, and in the meanest condition. He was 
 
 761 
 
 i an apprentice to a shoemaker, when tliis 
 j woman d^ ing suddenly, some of Lady Mo- 
 { son's (the mother of the countess) letters, 
 i which he found among her papers, discovered 
 j to him the secret of his birth. From tliis 
 ; moment his attempts to obtain the notice of 
 i his mother were incessant, but all his assidu- 
 ; iiics and applications were unavailing ; and 
 in justice to the Countess of Macclesfield it 
 I must be observed, that she always asserted 
 i that her child died while quite young, and 
 
 that Savage was an impostor. 
 
 yoi 
 lie 
 
 now be- 
 
 came an author, and, in 1723, produced the ; 
 tragedy of " Sir Thomas Overbury," the : 
 profits of which produced him 200/. ; and he I 
 was rising in reputation, when, in 1727, he I 
 accidentally killed a Mr. Sinclair, at a house | 
 of ill-fame, in a drunken quarrel. For this '< 
 he was tried, and found guilty ; but obtained ! 
 the royal pardon, through the intercession | 
 of Lady Hertford. Soon after, Lord Tyr- 
 connel became his patron, received him into 
 his house, and allowed him 200/. a year ; but 
 the bard and the peer quarrelled, and he 
 was again turned adrift upon the world. A 
 " Birth-day Ode," addressed to the queen, 
 procured him a pension of 50/., but on her 
 majesty's death this was discontinued, and 
 he subsequently endured much misery and 
 privation ; till at length, in 1743, he died in 
 the debtors' prison, at Bristol ; exhibiting, as 
 his biographer, Johnson, observes, a lament- 
 able proof that " negligence and irregularity, 
 long continued, will make knowledge use- 
 less, wit ridiculous, and genius contemptible." 
 
 S.AVARY, Nicholas, a French traveller 
 and author, was a native of "Vitre, in Brit- 
 tany ; travelled to Egypt and the Levant, 
 where he gathered much information rela- 
 tive to the antiquities, manners, and cus- 
 toms of the country, and died in 1788. He 
 translated the Koran, wrote a "Life of Ma- 
 homet," " letters on Egypt," &c. 
 
 SAVEREIN, AtiiXAXDER, a French ma- 
 thtmatician, was born at Aries, in 1720 ; 
 aud died in 1805. His principal works re- 
 late to naval tactics and maritime aft'uirs ; 
 but he also wrote on philosophical and other 
 sul.jects. 
 
 SAVILLE, Sir Hknuy, one of the most 
 profound and elegant scholars of his age, 
 was born in 1549, and after graduating at 
 Brazennose College, Oxford, removed on a 
 fellowship to Merton College, in the same 
 university. In his 29th year he made a 
 tour on the Continent for the purpose of 
 perfecting himself in elegant literature, and. 
 on his return was ai)i)ointed tutor in Greek 
 and mathematics to Queen Elizabeth. Seven 
 years after, the wardenship of his college 
 was conferred on him, which he held lor [ 
 about 36 years, the provostship of Eton 
 being added to it in 1596. Among his works 
 are, " Commentaries on Roman Warfare," 
 and other learned treatises. Died, 1622. 
 
 SAVONAROIvA, Jerome, a Dominican, 
 was born at I'errara, in 1452. He was re- 
 garded by some as an enthusiast, and by 
 others as an impostor ; but he preached 
 with great zeal against the corruptions of 
 the Roman church, for which he was con« 
 denined to the flames in 1498. He wrote 
 sermons, a treatise entitled " The Triumph 
 of the Cross," and other works. 
 
 8X8 
 
sax] 
 
 ^ ^eiu Hntbcrj^aX 2StonT«P?)e. 
 
 [SCA 
 
 i SAXE, Maukice, Count de, marshal- 
 ' general of the French armies, was bprn at 
 Dresden, in 1G96. He was tlie natural son 
 of Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland, 
 ; by the Countess of Kcinigsmark, and died in 
 ! 1750, leaving behind him the cliaraeter of 
 one of the greatest and most successful ge- 
 nerals of the age. His " Reveries, or Me- 
 moirs concerning the Art of War," together 
 j with otlier small pieces, were translated 
 < into English, and publisiied at Loudon, in 
 1757. 
 
 S AXO, Grammaticus, a Danish historian, 
 who flourished in the 12th century. 
 
 SAY, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French 
 writer on political economy, born in 1767. 
 i He concerted with Chamfort (who was guil- 
 j lotined) the " Decade Philosophique," during 
 tlie revolution. Buonaparte, on going to 
 j Egypt, made him his librarian extraordinary, 
 j and afterwards appointed him a member of 
 the tribunate, from which post he was dis- 
 ! missed by liis patron, for having the consist- 
 ent honesty to vote against the creation of 
 an emperor and empire. His " Traite d'Eco- 
 nomie Publique " is a most valuable work, 
 and has been compared to Adam Smith's 
 Wealth of Nations. Among his other works 
 are, " Observations sur I'Angleterre et les 
 Anglais," " Cours complet d'Economie Poli- 
 I tique," vols. &c. In his private life, M. 
 ' Say is said to have exhibited a model of the 
 domestic virtues ; and, as a political cha- 
 racter, though assailed by trials and tempta- 
 tions, throughout tlie stormy periods of the 
 French revolution, as well -as during the 
 despotism of Napoleon, he maintained an 
 unsullied reputation. He died in 1832. 
 
 SCALA, BARTHELMi.an Italian statesman 
 and historian ; born, 1430 ; died, 1497. His 
 chief work is a *' History of the Florentine 
 Republic." 
 
 SCALIGER, JuLins Cesar, generally 
 known as the elder Scaliger, a celebrated 
 scholar, was born in 14S4, at the castle of 
 Riva, on lake Garda, and became a page of 
 the emperor Majcimilian, whom he served in 
 war and peace for 17 years. When he was 
 about 40, he quitted the army, and applied 
 himself to the study of natural law, medi- 
 cine, and the learned languages. In 1525 
 he accompanied the Bishop of Agen to liis 
 diocese in France, where he died in 1558. 
 His work " De Arte Poetica " gained him 
 much reputation, and few men have sur- 
 passed liim in erudition ; but liis vanity and 
 insolence were on a i)ar with his talents. 
 
 SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Agen, in 1540 ; was 
 made professor of polite literature at Ley- 
 den, and is said to have been master of no 
 less than 13 languages. Died, 1609. 
 
 SCANDERBEG (which means the Bey 
 Alexander), whose proper name was (ieorge 
 Castriotto, was the son of John, prince of 
 Albania, and was born in 1404. Being given 
 by his father as a hostage to sultan Amu- 
 rath II., he was educated in the Moham- 
 medan religion^ and at the age of 18 was 
 placed at the head of a body of troops, with 
 the title of sangiac. After the death of his 
 father in 1432, he formed the design of pos- 
 sessing himself of his principality; and hav- 
 ing accompanied the Turkish army to Hun- 
 
 gary, he entered into an agreement with 
 Hunniades to desert to the Christians. This 
 design he put into execution ; and, having 
 ascended the throne of his fathers, he re- 
 nounced the Mohammedan religion. A long 
 warfare followed ; but although frequently 
 obliged to retire to the fastnesses of moun- 
 tains, he always renewed his assaults upon 
 the first favourable occasion, until the sultan 
 proposed terms of peace to liim, which were 
 accepted. He, however, renounced liis treaty 
 with the sultan, obtained repeated victories 
 over the Turkish armies, completely estab- 
 lished his power, and died in 1467. His per- 
 sonal prowess was doubtless prodigious, but 
 the accounts which are related of it exceed 
 all credibility. His death was a great loss 
 to Christendom ; and when the Turkish em- 
 peror heard of it, he exultingly exclaimed, 
 " Who shall now prevent me from destroying 
 the infidels, who have lost their sword and 
 buckler ? " The Albanians, after the death 
 of their chief, appeared to have been deprived 
 of all energy, and in no long time submitted 
 again to the Mussulman dominion. 
 
 SCAPULA, John, the author of a valuable 
 lexicon of the Greek language, published 
 originally in quarto, in 1583, and which has 
 since gone through a variety of editions. 
 
 SCARLATTI, Alessandro, born at 
 Naples, in 1658, was educated at Rome under 
 Carissimi, and died in 1728. The Italians 
 called him the " glory of the art," and the 
 first of composers. He composed about 100 
 operas, a great number of motets, and nearly 
 
 2(X) masses Domenico Scarlatti, his 
 
 son, born in 1683, resided for a time at Rome 
 and Naples, but finally settled at Madrid, 
 where he obtained the appointment of chapel- 
 master to the queen of Spain. He produced 
 several operas and some good church music, 
 and was on terms of friendship with Handel. 
 
 SCARPA, Aktonio, a celebrated Italian 
 anatomist, was born in 1746, at Friuli ; and 
 died at Pavia, in 1826. He enjoyed an ex- 
 tensive reputation throughout Europe, by 
 his admirable description of the nerves in 
 his " Tabula Necrologise." His treatises on 
 the organs of hearing, sight, and smell, and 
 on aneurism, hernia, and lithotomy, &c., 
 further contributed to his surgical fame ; 
 while his exquisite taste for the fine arts, and 
 his amiable disposition, rendered him a great 
 favourite in a more extended sphere. 
 
 SCABBON, Paul, n comic poet and sa- 
 tirist, was born at Paris, in 1610, and was 
 intended for the church, to which he was 
 averse, and for which his habits were de- 
 cidedly unfit. At the age of 24 he travelle<l 
 into Italy, where he gave himself up without 
 restraint to indulgences of every kind, and 
 continued his excesses after his return to 
 Paris. At the age of 27, having appeared 
 during the carnival at Mans as a savage, he 
 was pursued by the populace, and being 
 obliged to hide himself in a marsh, he lost 
 the use of his limbs. Notwithstanding his 
 sufferings, he never lost his gaiety ; and, 
 settling at Paris, his wit and social powers 
 gained him a wide circle of acquaintance, 
 among whom was the beautiful Mademoiselle 
 d'Aubigne, who after his death was known 
 as the widow Scarron, and who was even- 
 tually rendered still more famous as Madame 
 
SCAJ 
 
 ^ |}cb) ^iiibevi^al 33i0arapT)n. 
 
 [SCH 
 
 (le Maintenon. His principal writings are, 
 liis "Comic Romance" and liis "Virgilie 
 Travestie." Died, lOGO. 
 
 SC.VIISGILL, W. P., author of "The 
 Puritan's Grave," " The Usurer's Daugh- 
 ter," " Provincial Shetches," &c. Died, 183(5. 
 SCIIADOW, JoiiANX Gkokkuoy, a dis- 
 tinguislied modern sculptor, was horn at 
 Berlin, 1701. Having evinced an early pre- 
 dilection for the fine arts, he repaired to 
 Rome in 178.", for the cultivation of liis taste, 
 and after initiating himself in the school 
 of the best Italian masters, he returned to 
 Berlin in 17W, where he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of sculpture in the university of that 
 city, and subsequently director in chief of 
 the academy of the tine arts. Here he lived 
 and laboured for the long period of 02 years, 
 not only designing and producing the great 
 works whicii have placed him in the first 
 rank of artists, but forming the distinguished 
 school, which is so nobly represented by such 
 men as Rauoh, Dannecker, Zauner, Tieck, 
 and many others. One of his earliest works 
 was the monument of Count van der ilark, 
 in the chuiuh of St. Dorothy, at Berlin ; and 
 among liis most celebrated productions may 
 be mentioned, the statues of Frederick the 
 Great at Stettin, Marshal Blucher at Ros- 
 tock, Luther at Wittenberg, and the Quad- 
 riga in bronze on tlie Braiidenl)urg gate at 
 Berlin. Died, 1S50. One of his sons has 
 attained great distinction as an arti>>t at 
 Rome. 
 
 SCIIADOW, Zoxo RiDOLFO, an Italian 
 sculptor, was born at Rome, in 178(J ; and 
 was instructed by Canova and Tliorwaldsen. 
 He executed many admired sculptures and 
 has reliefs, and died in 1822. 
 
 SCIIAEFFER, Gkoffuov IlEi.vnicir, a 
 distiuguislied philologist, professor of Greek 
 literature and librarian at Leipsig, where lie 
 was born, 17G4. He is chiefly known for his 
 edition of tiie Greek authors, published by 
 Tauehnitz. Died, 1810. 
 
 SCHAEFFER, Jacob CuniSTiAN, a dis- 
 tinguislied German philosopher, was born in 
 171.5, and died at Ratisbon in 1700. 
 
 SCHALKEN, Godfrey, a Dutch painter 
 of considerable merit, who chiefly excelled 
 in painting candle-light scenes. Born, 1C43; 
 died, 170(5. 
 
 SCFI ANK. JOHX, a naval ofBcer, was born 
 in 1740, at Castlerig, in Fifcshire ; entered 
 the service early in life, and distinguished 
 himself on the Canadian lakes during the 
 American war as an able engineer. After 
 the peace, he devoted himself chiefly to the 
 improvement of shipping, and, among other 
 contrivances, invented one for navigating 
 vessels in shallow water, by means of sliding 
 keels. He was actively employed in the 
 defence of the British coast, and in the trans- 
 port service, during the war witli France, 
 and rose to the rank of admiral of the blue 
 in 1821. He was one of the first founders of 
 the society for promoting naval archi- 
 tecture, and wrote several valuable papers 
 for the institution. Died, 1823. 
 
 SCHEEIiE, Charles William, an emi- 
 nent chemist, was born in 1742, at Stralsund, 
 in Swedish Pomerania ; was brotjglu up as 
 an apothecary at Strasburg, became pro- 
 I prietor of a pharmaceutial establishmeut at 
 
 763 
 
 Keeping, and died in 1786. He wrote 
 " Chemical Essays," and was the discoverer 
 of the oxalic, fluoric, malic, and lactic acids. 
 
 SCHIAVONETTI, Louis, an eminent en- 
 graver, was born in 17G5, at Bassano, in the 
 state of Venice, and settled in England, 
 where he acquired a high reputation, both 
 as an artist and a man. Died, 1 jlO. 
 
 SCIIILL, Ferdi.vand vox, a distin- 
 guished Prussian oflScer, was born in 1773, 
 and entered the army in 1789. He was 
 severely wounded at the battle of Jena ; but 
 took the field again at the head of a free 
 corps, displaying great ability. Indignant at 
 the sulijectiou of his country to the influence 
 of Buonaparte, he resolved to make a great 
 effort for the liberation of Germany. With 
 that view he collected a small body of troops, 
 ajid commenced operations on the Elbe ; 
 but, after having obtained some successes, 
 he was overpowered, and slain at Stralsund, 
 in May, 1809. 
 
 SCHILLER, JoiiJf Christopher FRKnE- 
 rick vox, one of the most illustrious names 
 in German literature, was born at Marbach, 
 in WUrtemberg, in 17."i9. After having 
 studied medicine, and become surgeon in a 
 regiment, he, in his 22d year, wrote his 
 tragedy of WThe Robbers,'* which at once 
 raised him to the foremost rank among the 
 dramatists of his country. It was performed 
 at Mannheim, in 1782. But some passages 
 of a revolutionary tendency having incurred 
 the displeasure of the Duke of WUrtemberg, 
 he left Stuttgard by stealth, and made his 
 way to Mannheim, where, after various 
 wanderings and many hardships, he got his 
 tragedy of " Fieseo" brought out on the 
 stage. The tragedies of " Cabal and Love " 
 and "Don Carlos" M'ere his next produc- 
 tions. In 1785 he repaired to Leipsig and 
 Dresden, where he found many admirers. 
 Here he wrote his singular romance called 
 the " Geisterseher " and his " Philosophical 
 Letters," and collected materials for a " His- 
 tory of the Revolt of the Netherlands under 
 Philip II." In 1787 he repaired to Weimar, 
 where he was welcomed with great warmth 
 by Wieland and Herder, undertook the 
 management of a periodical called the Ger- 
 man Mercury, and not long afterwards 
 made the acquaintance of Goethe, which 
 soon ripened into a friendship only dissolved 
 by death. In 1789 he was appointed to the 
 chair of history in the university of Jena, 
 and besides lecturing to crowded audiences, 
 he published his celebrated " History of the 
 Thirty Years' War," and engaged in various 
 literary enterprises, which have more or less 
 had great influence on the literature of 
 Germany. " Die Horen " and " Der Musen- 
 Almanach," to wliich the most eminent men 
 in Germany contributed, belong to this 
 category. He also produced tlie " Xenien," 
 a (wllection of epigrams, and wrote his 
 " Ballads," which are reckoned among the 
 finest compositions of their kind in any j 
 language. About this period he exhibited a 
 strong tendency to consumption, which by 
 precluding him from lecturing, greatly re- 
 duced Ids income ; but he was relieved from 
 the pressure of misfortune by the kindness 
 of the Prince of Denmark, who settled upon 
 him a pension of a thousand dollars for three 
 
8CH] 
 
 ^ f}cl3) CJm'tjerjSal 3ai0ffrajpT)n. 
 
 [SCH 
 
 years, and thus enabled him to pursue his 
 studies, free at once from narrow circum- 
 stances and public duties. lie soon after 
 settled at Weitriar, in order to direct the 
 theatre in conjunction with Goethe, in ac- 
 cordance with their mutual tastes and opi- 
 nions ; and here he at intervals published 
 the works which, together with those above 
 mentioned, have immortalised his name. 
 Among these are " Wallenstein," " Mary 
 Stuart," "Joan of Arc," " William Tell," 
 " History of the Kemarkable Conspiracies 
 and Revolutions in the Middle and Later 
 Ages," &c. Died, 1805. 
 
 SCIIIPANI, Giuseppe, a patriotic general 
 of the Neapolitan republic in 1799, defeated 
 and executed by -Cardinal Ruffo and the 
 counter-revolutionists, who restored the 
 Neapolitan Bourbons. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, August Wimielii vox, a 
 celebrated critic, poet, and philologist, was 
 born at Hanover, 17C7. After finishing his 
 studies at Gfittingen, he became professor 
 at Jena, where he lectured on the tlieory 
 of art, and joined his brother Friederich 
 in the editorship of the Athenaeum. In 
 1802 he repaired to Berlin, as a wider field 
 for his literary predilections ; accompanied 
 Madame de Stael, in 1805, on a tt)ur through 
 Italy, France, Germany, and Sweden ; de- 
 livered lectures in Vienna, in 1808, on dra- 
 matic art ; became secretary to Bernadotte, 
 the crown prince of Sweden, in 181.3 ; and. 
 after studying Sanscrit in Paris, obtained 
 in 1818 the professorship of history at Bonn, 
 which he held till his death. It would be 
 diflicult within the brief space at our com- 
 mand to indicate the great literary achieve- 
 ments of A. W. von Schlegel, and the 
 influence which his works exercised upon 
 the minds not only of his own countrymen 
 but of Europe at large Besides publishing 
 numerous profound philological works, and 
 many dissertations on subjects connected 
 with the fine arts and poetry, he was the 
 founder of the so called romantic school, in 
 contradistinction to the classical; his poems 
 and ballads rank among the highest in 
 Germany ; his lectures on dramatic art and 
 literature have become a standard work 
 even in England ; and his translation of 
 Shakspeare is accounted one of the most 
 wonderful achievements in that difficult, 
 though too often ill-appreciated, art. Though 
 a Protestant by birth and education, Schlegel 
 became warmly attached to Catholicism ; 
 but he often displayed a puerile passion for 
 titles and small court distinctions, which 
 formed a great drawback to his real merits, 
 and drew down upon him much merited 
 ridicule. Died, 1845. 
 
 SCHEEGEL, Fkiedkricii vox, a cele- 
 brated German critic and philologist, and a 
 younger brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1772, and studied at Gfittingen and Leip- 
 sig. His first production of any importance 
 was the " History of the Poetry of the Greeks 
 and Romans." He then joined his brother 
 in conducting a periodical called the Athe- 
 naeum, and after publishing the philosophi- 
 cal romance of " Lucinda," he visited Paris, 
 where he delivered lectures on philosophy, 
 and occupied himself with the fine arts. In 
 180 1 he published a "Collection of the Ro- 
 
 mantic Poetry of the Middle Ages." After 
 this, he repaired to Vienna, and, in 1809, 
 received an appointment at the head- 
 quarters of the Archduke Charles, where he 
 drew up several powerful proclamations. 
 When peace was concluded, he delivered in 
 Vienna the lectures known as " The History 
 of Ancient and Modern Literature ; " a work 
 which has been justly designated as a great 
 European possession, for it has been trans- 
 lated into nearly every European language, 
 lu 1812, he edited the " German Museum,'' 
 and gained the confidence of Prince Mctter- 
 nich by the composition of various diploma- 
 tic papers ; in consequence of wliich he was 
 appointed Austrian counsellor of legation at 
 the Germanic diet, which he held from 1814 
 to 1818. He then returned to Vienna, and re- 
 sumed his literary occupations with great 
 zest ; contributing to various journals and 
 reviews, lecturing on many topics connected 
 with philosophy and a3sthetics ; and above 
 all producing his " Philosophy of Life " and 
 his "Philosophy of History," which rank 
 among his best literary efforts. I/ike his 
 brother, Friederich Schlegel became a Roman 
 Catholic ; and his strong devotional tenden- 
 cies may be seen in his interesting " Letters 
 on Christian Art." Died, 1829. 
 
 SCHLEIERMACHER, Fkederic Er- 
 NI2ST Daniel, equally distinguished as a 
 theologian, a philologist, a critic, an orator, 
 and a translator, was born at Breslau iu 
 17«8 ; studied at Halle in 1781 ; and, after 
 holding various ecclesiastical appointments 
 in different parts of Germany, was called to 
 Berlin in 1809 as preacher, and about the 
 same time received the chair of theology in 
 the university of that city. The influence of | 
 his writings on the German mind was and | 
 still is very great ; but it was far surpassed | 
 by that which his oral instructions, and the ! 
 purity and piety which his personal cha- j 
 racter exercised over those who lived within : 
 his sphere. His works on moral philosophy, I 
 his sermons, and his masterly translation of 1 
 Plato, will secure him lasting fame in the j 
 literarv world. Died, 1834. 
 
 SCHLOETZER, Augustus Louis, a Ger- I 
 man historian, was born iu 1737, became I 
 professor of philosophy and politics at Got- \ 
 tingen, and died in 1S09. Among his works | 
 are, " A History of Lithuania ;" and he was 
 one of the conductors of what may be called 
 the Literary Gazette of Gottingen. I 
 
 SCHMAUSS, JoHx James, historian and i 
 publicist, was born at Landau, in 1690. He I 
 was educated at Halle, and commenced a 
 life of literary labour at the age of 21, from j 
 which he was relieved by the Margrave of i 
 Baden-Dourlach, who gave him ofificial \ 
 employment at his court. In 1734 he was I 
 appointed professor of history at the univer- 
 sity of Gottingen, which was then regarded as 
 a school of diplomacy for the youth of the 
 greatest families in Europe. Among his 
 principal works are, " A Sketch of the His- 
 tory of the Empire," " Corpus Juris publici 
 Academicum," " Corpus Juris gentium Aca- 
 demicum," and an " Introduction to the 
 Science of Politics." Died, 1757. 
 
 SCHOEPFLIN, Joiix Daniel, a learned 
 German historian, was born in 1694, and be- 
 came professor of history and rhetoric at 
 
ecu] 
 
 ^ ^elu dnibcriSnl UiograjpI)M. 
 
 [sen 
 
 Strasburg ; where he died in 1771. He pub- 
 lished several works of great research, and was 
 for more than half a century one of the most 
 distinguished ornaments of tlie university of 
 Strasburg. His valuable library and museum 
 he left to the public. 
 
 SCIIOEl'FER,PETKU,one of the inventors 
 of printing, was born at Gernslieim, in the 
 territory of Darmstiult ; was a partner with 
 Guttcmbergand Faust ; a«id having married 
 the daugliter of the latter, became sole pos- 
 sessor of the printing establishment. He died 
 about I.W2. 
 
 SCHOMHERG, Hknrv de, marshal of 
 France, was descended of a German family. 
 He served in 1617, in Piedmont, under Mar- 
 shal d'Estrees, and afterwards against tlie 
 Huguenots in the civil wars. In 102.5 he 
 was made field-marshal, and two years 
 afterwards defeated the English at the isle 
 of Rht.'. In 1629 he forced the passage of 
 Susa, on which occasion he was severely 
 wounded. The next year he took Pignerol, 
 and relieved Casal. In 1633 he defeated 
 the rebels in Liinguedoc at the famous 
 battle of Castelnuudari, for which he was 
 made governor of that province. He wrote 
 a narrative of tlie war of Italy, and died in 
 I6;5;i. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Fkederick Armand, 
 Duke of, was born of an illustrious family, 
 but different from the preceding. He began 
 his military career under Frederic Heury, 
 prince of Orange, and his son VVilliam ; but 
 in 16.50 he passed into the French service, 
 became acquainted with Condu and Tu- 
 reune, and obtained the government of 
 Gravelines and Furnes. In 1661 he was 
 sent to Portugal, where his success against 
 the forces of Spain procured a favourable 
 peace. On the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, he left France and went to Bran- 
 denburg, the elector of which made him 
 minister of state. He accompanied the 
 Prince of Orange to England at the revo- 
 lution, was created a peer, made knight of 
 the garter, and obtained a grant of 100,000/. 
 In 1689 he went with William to Ireland, 
 and was accidentally shot as he was crossing 
 the Boy ne, by the French refugees of his own 
 regiment. 
 
 SCHOMBERG, Isaac, a naval officer and 
 historian. He served as lieutenant in the 
 American war, distinguished himself in the 
 victory gained by Admiral Rodney over 
 Count de Grasse, and was captain of the 
 Culloden in liOrd Howe's fleet on " the glo- 
 rious first of Jime," 1794. He eventually 
 became a commissioner of the navy, and at 
 his leisure devoted his attention to tlie com- 
 position of a work, entitled " Naval Chrono- 
 logy." .5 vols. Died. 1813. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, Joiiaxxa, a German 
 authoress of great celebrity, was born at 
 Dantzig, 1770. Her father, whose name was 
 Trosina, was a wealthy citizen of that town; 
 and under the paternal roof she enjoyed 
 every facility for the improvement of her 
 great natural abilities. Soon after her 
 marriage she entered on an extensive tour 
 through France, Italy, and the British 
 Islands, of which she subsequently published 
 an account; and, on the death of her husband, 
 she went to reside at Weimar, where she 
 
 lived in the closest Intimacy with Goethe, 
 her home being the resort of all the emi- 
 nent persons who were attracted to that 
 court. Her chief works arc, " Fernow's 
 Leben," "Ausflucht an denRhein," "Jugend- 
 leben und Wanderbilder " (an English 
 translation of which was published in 1847), 
 "Sidonia," "Die Tante," and above all 
 " Gabriele," which presents a charming 
 picture of female character. Died, 1838. 
 
 SCHREVELIUS, Coknelius, a learned 
 critic, was born at Haarlem, about l(il4. His 
 father was rector of the school at Lcyden, in 
 which office he succeeded him. His name is 
 now principally known by his " Greek and 
 Latin Lexicon." Died, 1667. 
 
 SCHROEDER, Joiix Joachim, a learned 
 orientalist, born in Hesse Cassel, in 1680. 
 He undertook a journey to Armenia, in 
 order to prosecute his researches concerning 
 the language of that country, and on his 
 return published his " Thesaurus Linguae 
 Armenicas." He was, successively, professor 
 of the oriental tongues, ecclesiastical his- 
 tory, and theology, at Marpurg ; where he 
 died in 175C. 
 
 SCHUBERT, Fkancis, an eminent musi- 
 cal composer, was born at Vienna, 1795. His 
 melodies, known by their German name, 
 "Lieder," have attained great celebrity 
 throughout Germany, France, and England ; 
 among the l)est known are the " Erl K(5nig," 
 " Ave Maria," " Der Wanderer," and " Die 
 Erwartung," &e. Died, 1830. 
 
 SCHULEMBOURG, Joiix Matthias, 
 Count de, a celebrated general, born at 
 Magdeburg, in 1661. He first served in 
 the Danish army ; after which he distin- 
 guished himself as a brave and skilful 
 general in the wars of Poland, under So- 
 bieski ; on quitting which service he became 
 generalissimo of the Venetian forces, and 
 in 1716 giiined great renown by his noble 
 defence of Corfu against the Turks. Died, 
 1747. 
 
 SCHULTENS, Albert, a German divine,' 
 who has been designated the restorer of 
 oriental literature in the 18th century, was 
 born at Groningen, in 1086 ; became pro- 
 fessor of eastern languages at Franeker, 
 and afterwards at Leyden ; wrote several 
 learned works, among which are " Origines 
 Hebraicaj" and a "Commentary on the 
 
 Book of Job," and died in 1750 John 
 
 Jacob, his son,whodiedin 1778; and Henry 
 Albert, his grandson, who died in 1793, 
 were both distinguished by their knowledge 
 of the oriental tongues, and filled the same 
 situations at Leyden. 
 
 SCIIULZE, JoHX Hexrv, a German 
 physician, was born at Colbitz, in the duchy 
 of Magdeburg, in 1687. He was i)rofessor 
 of rhetoric and antiquities at Halle, and 
 died there in 1745, with the reputation of 
 being a profound scholar and an able ana- 
 tomist. 
 
 SCHUMACHER, Heinricii CiiRiSTiAX,n 
 distinguished astronomer, was born in Hol- 
 stein, 1780 ; was successively professor of 
 astronomy at the university of Copenhagen, 
 director at the observatory of Mannheim, in 
 the grand duchy of Baden, and for many 
 years astronomer in the observatoiy at 
 Altona, and editor of the Astronomische 
 
sch] 
 
 ^ ^eU) OnibfriSal 3Sta(jrap]^i). 
 
 [sci 
 
 Nachrichtcn. From 1817 to 1821 lie mea- 
 sured, by order of t)>e government, the de- 
 grees of longitude from Copenhagen to the 
 western coast of Jutland, and the degrees 
 of latitude from Skagen (the northern ex- 
 tremity of Jutland) to the frontiers of the 
 kingdom of Hanover ; a work which was 
 afterwards continued by the astronomer 
 Gauss. Among many other important works 
 which came from his hands, he executed 
 for the English government the measure of 
 the difference of longitude existing between 
 the observatories of Greenwich and of Altona. 
 He was a diligent and accurate observer, 
 one of his latest labours being connected 
 with Encke's planet Astrsea. Died, 28th 
 Dec. 18,50. 
 
 SCHURMANN, An'xa Mahia de, born at 
 Cologne, in 10(»7, whose acquirements in the 
 learned languages, the fine arts, and polite 
 literature were so great, that slie obtained 
 the appellation of the modern Sappho. 
 This erudite and accomplished lady, who 
 understood the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Chal- 
 dee, and several modern languages, and who 
 was mistress of painting, engraving, sculp- 
 ture, and music, at length became the victim 
 of fanatical delusion. In 1(550 she appeared 
 as a zealous disciple of the enthusiast 
 Labadie, to whom, it is said, she was secretly 
 married ; and. after his death, she retired to 
 Weivart, in Friesland, where she died in 
 1(578. Her "Opuscula, or Pieces in Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew," were printed in 1(552. 
 She also wrote " Latin Poems " and a " De- 
 fence of Female Study." 
 
 SCHUSTER, Ignatius, a famous comic 
 actor at Vienna, on whose tomb the follow- 
 ing expressive tribute is recorded : — " Here 
 lies Ignatius Schuster, who made Vienna 
 laugh daily for 30 years, and caused it to weep 
 only once — upon the day of his death." 
 Died, 1833. 
 
 SCHWANTHALER, Ludwio von, an 
 eminent sculptor, descended from a family 
 that for generations had been distinguished 
 in the arts, was born at Munich, 1802. At 
 the age of 16 he entered the academy of 
 Munich, where he soon attracted the atten- 
 tion of Cornelius, by whose advice he re- 
 paired to Rome ; and after enjoying there 
 the friendship and instructions of Thorwald- 
 sen, he returned to his native city in 1827, 
 where he found ample scope for tlie develop- 
 ment of his genius in the numerous com- 
 missions entrusted to him by the royal 
 family of Bavaria. It would be difficult 
 with our limits to point out even a tithe of 
 his productions ; suffice it to say, that ricli 
 as Munich has become in works of art, it 
 owes no small portion of its celebrity to this 
 artist, whose marvellous power ofcomi>osit ion 
 and versatility of genius showed themselves 
 no less in his admirable statues and reliefs, 
 than in his frescoes and cartoons. Died, 
 1818. 
 
 SCHWARTZ, Bertiiold, a monk of the 
 order of Cordeliers, at the end of the 13th 
 century, was a native of Fribourg in Ger- 
 many, and an able chemist. It is said, that 
 as he was making some experiments with 
 nitre, it led to his invention of gunpowder, 
 which was first applied to warlike purposes 
 by the Venetians in 1300. There is, how- 
 
 ever, much discrepancy in the accounts of 
 this discovery ; and it is certain that Roger 
 Bacon, who died in 1292, was acquainted 
 with an inflammable composition similar 
 to gunpowder, the knowledge of which 
 Europeans appear to have derived from the 
 Orientals. 
 
 SCHWARTZ, CHKiSTrAN Fkederic, a 
 German missionary to the East Indies. In 
 17(57, he was employed by the English Society 
 for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 
 and lie continued throughout his life to 
 labour in the sacred cause with unceasing 
 zeal. He was held in high esteem for his 
 character by the Hindoos, and the rajah of 
 Tanjore made him tutor to his sou. Died, 
 
 'SCHWARTZENBERG, Charles Pin- 
 Lir, Prince, an Austrian field-marshal, was 
 born of an ancient and illustrious family at 
 Vienna, in 1771. He entered into the army 
 early, and rapidly proceeded through all the 
 grades of military rank until he became a 
 general officer. After serving two cam- 
 paigns against the Turks, he was employed 
 in the first campaign against the French in 
 the war that followed the execution of Ltmis 
 XVI. On the death of the emperor Paul 
 in 1801, he was sent to St. Petersburgh to 
 congratulate Alexander on his accession. 
 He served under General Mack in 1805, and 
 succeeded in withdrawing the cavalry under 
 his command from the consequences of the 
 capitulation of Ulm. He also took a share 
 in the battle of Austerlitz, which was fought 
 against his advice, as well as in that of 
 Wagram. In 1812 he was appointed to the 
 command of the auxiliary force of 30,000 
 Austrians, extorted by Napoleon in aid of 
 his disastrous invasion of Russia ; and in j 
 1813 he was invested with the rank of field- ] 
 marshal, with the commandcrship-in-chief 
 of all the armies allied against France. On 
 the return of Buonaparte from Elba he was 
 again entrusted with the command of a great | 
 portion of the allied forces ; and at the con- | 
 elusion of tlie war he was made president of 
 the aulic council, which post he occupied 
 until his death, in 1820. 
 
 SCIOPPIUS, Gaspar, a learned German 
 writer of the 17th century, but who, on ac- 
 count of his spiteful and injurious way of 
 calumniating all that were eminent for their 
 learning, was j ustly called the " grammatical 
 cur." Born, 157G ; died, 1049. 
 
 SCIPIO AFRICAN US (the elder), Pub- 
 LiusCoKN'ELius, a renowned Roman general, 
 who obtained his surname in honour of his 
 conquests in Africa. His other signal mili- 
 tary exploits were, his taking the new city 
 of Carthage in a single day ; his complete 
 victory over Hannibal, the famous Cartha- 
 ginian general ; the defeat of Syphax, king 
 of Numidia ; and of Antiochus in Asia. He 
 was as eminent for his chastity, and his 
 generous behaviour to his prisoners, as for 
 liis valour. Neither his laurels, nor his spot- 
 less character, however, could protect him 
 from tlie intrigues of his enemies in Rome ; 
 from which city he at length retired in dis- 
 gust, and died at Liternum, his country seat, 
 B. r. 189. 
 
 SCIPIO, Lucius Cornelius, surnamed 
 AsiATicus, was brother of the preceding. 
 
sa] 
 
 ^ ifJcto mm'berM masrnpl)^. 
 
 [sco 
 
 with whom he served in Spain and Africa. 
 lie obtained the consulate, b. c. 186. 
 
 SCIPIO, jEmimanus Publius, knonii as 
 Africanus the Younger, was the son of 
 Puulus ^milius, and was adopted by the 
 son of Scipio Africanus. In his youth he 
 served in tlie army in Spain, wlien he ob- 
 tained a mural crown for scaling the walls 
 of a besieged city, and conquered in single 
 combat a gigantic Spaniard. He carried on 
 the third Punic war, which ended in the de- 
 struction of Carthage, and the subjugation 
 of tl\e Carthaginians, a. c. 147. lie was both 
 a cultivator and a patron of literature. Died, 
 B. <-. 12<>. 
 
 SCOP AS, a celebrated Grecian sculptor, 
 was a native of the isle of Paros, and flou- 
 rished in the .5th century. 
 
 SCOPOLI, John Anthony, an Italian 
 naturalist and physician, was born in 1723, 
 at Cavalese in the Tyrol ; and became, suc- 
 cessively, first physician of the Tyrolese 
 mines, professor of mineralogy at Chemnitz, 
 and professor of botany and chemistrj' at 
 Pavia. He wrote several works on botany 
 and entomology. !;ied, 1787. 
 
 SCOTT, David, author of a " History of 
 Scotland," was born near Haddington, in 
 East Lothian, in 1075 ; and died in 1742. 
 
 SCOTT, Helenas, an eminent physician, 
 who, after receiving his education at Aber- 
 deen and Edinburgh, visited London, and 
 went to Venice M'ith an intention of travel- 
 ling overland to India ; but his pecuniary 
 resources failing, he was under the necessity 
 of returning to England. He, however, 
 subsequently went thither, and realised a 
 considerable fortune. He was the author of 
 a romance, entitled "The Adventures of a 
 Rupee." He died, while on a voyage to 
 New South Wales, in 1821. 
 
 SCOTT, James, an eloquent preacher, 
 belonging to the Church of England, was 
 born at Leeds, in 1733 ; studied at Cam- 
 bridge ; and afterwards distinguished him- 
 self as a pulpit orator at Trinity Church, 
 Leeds, where he was lecturer. But he was 
 still more noted f» a political partisan, by 
 writing in the public juurnals under tlie 
 signatures of " Anti-Scjanus" and "Old 
 Slyboots." Through the interest of Lord 
 Sandwich he was presented to the rectory of 
 Simonbourn, in Northumberland, wliere he 
 unfortunately got into a litigation with his 
 parishioners, which lasted twenty years, and 
 created such a hostile feeling ngainst him, 
 that he was compelled to move to the metro- 
 polis, in order to insure his personal safety. 
 Died, 1814. 
 
 SCOTT, John, a learned English divine, 
 born at Cliippenham, in Wiltshire, in 1G38. 
 He became the rector of St. Giles in the 
 Fields, and a prebendary of St. Paul's, was 
 author of " The Christian Life," and died in 
 
 vm. 
 
 SCOTT, John, a quaker poet, bom at 
 Bermondsey, in 1739. He resided, during 
 the greater part of his life at Amwell, and 
 died in 1783. He was the autlior of " Am- 
 weli," and other poems; a "Digest of the 
 Higliway Laws," " Critical Essays." 
 
 SCOTT, John, tlie original editor of the 
 London Magazine, and the autlior of " A 
 Visit to Paris in 1814," &c. His remarks on 
 
 some articles in Blackwood's Edinburgh i 
 Magazine having given offence to the editor | 
 of that work, a quarrel ensued, which ended 
 in a duel between a friend of the editor and 
 Mr. Scott, who, a few days after, died of the 
 wound he had received from his adversary. 
 
 SCOTT, Michael, a celebrated Scottish 
 philosopher of the 13th century, whose 
 knowledge of the occult sciences caused 
 him to pass among the unlettered for a 
 magician, was born at Balwirie, in Fife- 
 ghire. He travelled in France, Germany, 
 and England, and was received with great 
 distinction by the respective sovereigns ; re- 
 ceived the honour of knighthood from the 
 Scottish monarch, Alexander III.; and died 
 in 12113. 
 
 SCOTT, Michael, the well-known author 
 of" Tom Cringle's I-og," was born in Glas- 
 gow, 1789 ; received his education at the high 
 school and university of that city, repaired 
 to Jamaica in 1806, where he remained till 
 1822, and finally settled in Scotland, where 
 he embarked in commercial speculations. 
 During liis leisure he composed the enter- 
 taining sketches above mentioned, which 
 first appeared in "Blackwood's Magazine" 
 (but which have since been published sepa- 
 rately) ! and he preserved his incognito so 
 well, that it was not until after his death 
 that they were found to have proceeded 
 from his pen. Died, 18.3.'5. 
 
 SCOTT, Rf.oinald, or REYNOLr, wag 
 a native of Kent, and received his education 
 at Hart Hall, Cambridge. He had both the 
 good sense and courage to oppose the absurd 
 opinion, at that time prevalent, of the exist- 
 ence of witches, by publishing his "Dis- 
 coveries of Witchcraft." Died, 1599. 
 
 SCOTT, Samuel, an eminent painter of 
 scenery, who took Vandervelde for his model, 
 and often excelled him. Died, 1772. 
 
 SCOTT, Thojias, an English divine, born 
 in 1747, at Braytorf, in l^incolnshire, was 
 intended for the medical profession, but 
 entered the church, and rendered himself 
 celebrated as a theological writer. He be- 
 came chaplain of the Lock Hospital in 1785, 
 and rector of Aston Saudford in 1801 ; was 
 the author of " The Force of Truth," a 
 " Defence of Calvinism," a " Commentary 
 on the Bible," and " Sermons." Died, 1821. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Walter, bart., wlio is gene- 
 rally placed at the head of Jhiglish novelists 
 in the 19tli century, was born at Edinburgh, 
 in 1771. He passed the years of his youth 
 between the pleasures of hunting, the study 
 of the law, and an indulgence of his taste in 
 reading old plays, romances, travels, and 
 marvellous adventures. The antiquities and 
 ancient poetry of Scotland seem to have 
 early inflamed his imagination ; he read the 
 old clnonicles, and made himself acquainted 
 with the customs, obsolete laws, and even 
 the traditions of individual families, and was 
 versed in the localities and the superstitoius 
 belief of the inhabitants of the Scottish 
 mountains. Thus lie became an able anti- 
 quary, his natural genius rendered him a 
 poet, and his correct judgment lias subse- 
 quently caused him to be regarded as the 
 patron of literature. He made his debut as 
 an original author in "Specimens of Ancient 
 Scottish Poetry," which had great success. 
 
SCO] 
 
 ^ ^cUj SSniber^al l3tograpT)». 
 
 [SKB 
 
 His next work, the " I^ay of the Last Min- 
 strel," was received with still greater favour. 
 "Marmion" and " Rokeby " followed, and 
 gave a climax to his poetical reputation ; but 
 It was soon afterwards eclipsed by the rise 
 of Lord Bj'ron's poetical star, his vigorous 
 and impassioned verses diverting the public 
 poetical taste into an entirely new channel. 
 Subsequently appeared " Pnul's Letters to 
 his Kinsfolk " and the " Battle of Waterloo," 
 the first successful, the latter a failure. His 
 novels, however, are his great passport to 
 fame. Tliose masterly productions, on whicli 
 criticism would be out of place, need only 
 be enumerated : " Wavcrley," " Tales of my 
 Landlord," " Iranhoe," " Tlie Monastery," 
 " The Abbott," " Quentin Durward," " Pe- 
 veril of the Peak," " Woodstock," " Rob 
 Roy," "The Heart of Mid Lothian," "Chro- 
 nicles of the Canongate," &c. Sir Walter 
 Scott was made a baronet by George IV., 
 in 1821, after tlie coronation ; in giving effect 
 to the splendid and antiquarian costumes of 
 which, it appears, his taste and erudition 
 were consulted. Our restricted limits pre- 
 vent us from detailing, with anything like 
 order or minuteness, the numerous engage- 
 ments of tliis highly gifted and industrious 
 man : suffice it, therefore, to say, that from 
 the commencement of his literary career in 
 1792 to the year of his decease, he was con- 
 stantly producing some popular or talented 
 work, and that he reaped an abundant har- 
 vest from the scattered seeds of his genius. 
 His patrimonial estate was also considerable; 
 and, in 1800, he obtained the preferment of 
 sheriff of Selkirkshire, worth about 300/. a 
 year ; which sum was considerably increased 
 in 1806, by his being appointed one of the 
 principal clerks of the session in Scotland. 
 He accordingly, in 1811, removed 6 or 7 miles 
 below his former residence on the Tweed, 
 where he purchased a farm of about 100 
 acres, for the purpose of having some more 
 quiet outdoor occupation than field sports, 
 and built a mansion, to which he gave the 
 appellation of Abbotsford. Here he con- 
 tinued to reside, exercising the most open 
 hospitality, and receiving the homage of 
 admiration from all parts of the world, while 
 j he pursued his literary labours with unre- 
 mitting activity. At length, in 1825, the 
 firm of Constable and Co., at Edinburgh, 
 having projected a cheap series of original 
 and selected works, engaged Sir Walter to 
 compose a " Life of Buona'parte." It was in 
 progress when tliese publishers became bank- 
 rupts, and by that nnhappy failure Scott 
 found himself involved, on their behalf, for 
 accommodation bills to the enormous amount 
 of 120,000/. The estate of Abbotsford had 
 been settled on Sir Walter's eldest son on 
 his marriage, and it was therefore beyond 
 the reach of the creditors ; but though he 
 had very little property to answer the im- 
 mense amount of his debts, there was still a 
 vast source of profit remaining — his literary 
 talents. " Gentlemen," said he to his cre- 
 ditors, " time and I against any two. Let 
 me take this good ally into company, and I 
 believe I shall be able to pay you every 
 farthing." He further proposed, in their 
 behalf, to ensure the sum of 22,000/. upon 
 his life, which proposal was accepted ; and 
 
 he then sat down, at the age of 53, to the 
 task of redeeming, by the exertion of his 
 talents as a public writer, a debt exceeding 
 100,000 pounds ! In the autumn of 1S2C he 
 visited Paris, in order to protecute researches 
 into several local and other details relating 
 to the subject of his work ; whicli appeared 
 during the summer of 1827, in 9 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and realised the sum of 12,000/., being at the 
 rate of 33/. a day for the time he had devoted 
 to it. Though from the time of the publica- 
 tion of " Waverley," Sir Walter had been 
 generally considered the author of the 
 " Scotch Novels," yet he had managed to 
 preserve his incognito by various modes of 
 evasion and half-denials whenever the sub- 
 ject was publicly mooted ; and the author, 
 whoever he might prove to be, was fancifully 
 styled the "Great Unknown." At lengtli, 
 the mystery was solved. At the annual 
 dinner of the Theatrical Fund Association 
 in 1827, Sir Walter, in returning thanks for 
 the honour which the company had done 
 him by drinking his health, unreservedly 
 declared that they were wholly and solely 
 his own compositions. By the republication 
 of the former novels, in a cheap form, with 
 new notes and prefaces ; and by new works, 
 viz. " Tales of a Grandfather," a " History 
 of Scotland," in Dr. Lardner's Encyclo- 
 paedia; " Letters on.Hemonology and Witch- 
 craft," in the Family Library, &c., he had 
 paid, in part of his liabilities, 64,000/. ; and 
 his creditors presented to him, personally, 
 the library, manuscripts, curiosities, and 
 plate, which had once been his own, as a 
 token of their gratified feelings. Early in 
 1831, symptoms of paralysis began to be 
 manifested, and in the autumn hispliysicians 
 recommended an excursion to Italy, as the 
 means of delaying that illness which too 
 obviously approached. A passage to Malta, 
 in the Barham ship of war, wag obtained for 
 him, and he reached Naples by that route, 
 Dec. 27. In April, 1832, he went to Rome, 
 inspected the classical antiquities of that 
 city with great interest, and visited Tivoli, 
 Albani, and Frescati. Feeling, however, 
 that his strength was rapidly decreasing, he 
 determined upon returning, with all possible 
 speed, wishing to die in his native country. 
 On his arrival in London it was found that 
 medical assistance was now useless ; all hope 
 of his recovery had fled ; and at his own | 
 anxious desire he was conveyed by sea to 
 Newhaven, where he landed on the 9lh of 
 July, reached Abbotsford on the 11th, aTul, 
 after lingering for two months in a state of 
 almost total insensibility, he died on the 
 21st of September, 1832. 
 
 SCOTTI, Maeceli.o, a learned Nea- 
 politan, born in 1742 ; having been nomi- 
 nated against his will a member of the 
 legislature of the short-lived Neapolitan re- 
 public of 1799, he fell a victim to the fury of 
 RuflTo and the counter-revolutionary jiarty 
 on the triumph of tlie latter. He had been 
 previously proscribed and persecuted for tlie 
 too great freedom of his remarks in the 
 "Monarchia Universale Dei Papi." 
 
 SEBASTIAN, king of Portugal, was born 
 in 1554, and ascended the throne at three 
 years of age, on the death of his grand- 
 father, John III. Possessed of a romantic 
 
seb] 
 
 ^ llriu Hnibrrsfal JStosrapTji). 
 
 [SEG 
 
 disposition and an extravogunt admiration 
 of tlic glories of chivalry, lie rashly deter- 
 mined to carry on war nguinst the Moors in 
 Africa, hoi)ing therchy to effect something 
 for Christianity and the fame of Portugal. 
 lie accordingly equipped a fleet and an 
 army, which comprised the flower of the 
 Tortnguese nobility, and sailed for Africa 
 in 1578, at the age of 23 years. A general 
 engagement soon took place, and the ardour 
 of the young king bore him into the midst 
 of the enemy, who were already pouring on 
 the rear of his troops. Sebastian fought 
 with the most determined bravery, while 
 most of his attendants were slain by his 
 side. He at length disappeared ; and so 
 complete was the slaughter, that no more 
 than 50 Portuguese are said to have sur- 
 vived this wild and ill-fated expedition. 
 The mystery which involved the fate of this 
 royal madman led several adventurers to 
 assume his person and his claims, but there 
 seems to be no doubt that he died on the 
 field of battle. 
 SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO. See 
 
 j PlOMIiO. 
 
 I SECKER, Thomas, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, an eminent and pious prelate, was born 
 at Sibthorpe, in Nottinghamshire, in 1G93, 
 and was educated with a view of becoming 
 a dissenting minister. He, liowever, de- 
 clared that he could not conscientiously 
 assent to the tenets held by his family, and 
 he therefore conformed to the Cliurch of 
 England, took orders, and obtained prefer- 
 ment. He became, successively, rector of 
 Houghton-le-Spring, prebendary of Durham, 
 king's chaplain, and rector of St. James's, 
 Westminster. In 1735 he was elevated to 
 the see of Bristol ; whence he was translated 
 to that of Oxford, in 1737 ; and, in 175«, he 
 was raised to the archiepiscopal see of Can- 
 terbury ; in-which situation he conducted 
 himself with great dignity, munificence, and 
 proper severity against any laxity in the 
 morals and manners of the clergy under his 
 more especial superintendence. His ser- 
 mons, charges, and other works, form 12 vols. 
 Died, 1768. 
 
 SECUNDUS, Joannes, a celebrated Latin 
 poet, was born at the Hague, in 1511. His 
 best known work is entitled "Basia, or the 
 Kisses." Died, 153G. 
 
 SEDLEY, Sir Charles, a celebrated wit, 
 courtier, and poet, of the age of Chaj Ics II., 
 was born at Aylesford, in Kent, in 1G39, and 
 was educated at Wadham College, Oxford. 
 He was a conspicuous character among the 
 licentious circle which surrounded the gay 
 monarch ; but though himself a profligate, 
 he was so much annoyed by an intrigue 
 which James II. carried on with his 
 daughter, afterwards created by thsit mon- 
 arch, countess of Dorchester, that he took 
 an active part in promoting the revolution. 
 Died. 1701. 
 
 SEED, Jekkmiah, a learned divine, was 
 born at Clifton, in Cumberland, and educated 
 at Queen's College, Oxford, where he ob- 
 tained a fellowship. He was afterwards pre- 
 sented to the rectory of Enham, in Hamp- 
 shire, and died in 1747. His " Sermons" are 
 liighly esteemed. 
 
 SEETZEN, Ui.Ric Jasper, a celebrated 
 
 German traveller, was a native of East 
 Friesland, and received his education in the 
 university at Gottingen, where he pnrticu- 
 larly studied natural history and jdiilosophy. 
 Seconded by the patronage of the Dukes 
 Ernest and Augustus of Saxe-Gotha, in a 
 desire to visit the interior of Africa, he com- 
 menced his perilous undertaking in 1802, at 
 Constantinople, where he stayed six months. 
 The ambassadors there assembled, en- 
 couraged his enterprise ; and at Smyrna, 
 the Russian prince Oczakow, who hud been 
 over Asia Minor and Egypt, assisted him 
 with many useful instructions. Seetzen 
 stopped one year at Aleppo to learn the 
 Arabic language, and to collect MSS. for the 
 library of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, and 
 reached Damascus in April, lte05. From 
 thence he explored many parts of Syria, 
 Palestine, and Arabia, which had not before 
 been visited bj' any European ; and in order 
 that he might be able to undertake a pil- 
 grimage to Mecca and Medina, he made a 
 profession of Mahometariism. In IblO he 
 was at Mocha, whence he wrote the lust 
 letters that arrived from him in Europe. 
 Having had his property seized by the Arabs, 
 under the i)retence of his being a magician, 
 he proceeded towards Saama, to comjilain to 
 the iman of that place ; and, a few days 
 after his departure (December, 1811), he died 
 suddenly at Taes, probably from the efltcts 
 of poison given him by order of the iman. 
 
 SEGAR, Sir William, garter-king-at- 
 arms, was author of " Honour, Civil and 
 Military." Died, 1633. 
 
 SEGRAIS, Jon.v Renaud ije, a celebrated 
 French poet and novelist. Born, 1024 ; died, 
 1701. 
 
 SEGUIER, John Francis, an eminent 
 botanist, was born at Nismes, in 1703, and 
 died in 1784. His works are "Bibliotheca 
 Botanica," " Planta Veronenses," 3 vols. ; 
 and a translation of the works of Maffei. 
 
 SEGUR, Joseph Alexanuek, Viscount 
 de, second son of the Marshal de Segur, 
 engaged when young in the military service, 
 but having attained the post of mareschal 
 de camp in 1790, he gave up his time entirely 
 to the cultivation of literature, and published 
 several romances, &c. Died, 1805. 
 
 SEGUR, Louis, Count de, a French diplo- 
 matist and historical writer, was the eldest 
 son of the Marshal de Segur, and born in 
 1753. He served during two campaigns in 
 the American war, and was afterwards am- 
 bassador to St. Petersburg!! and Berlin. On 
 the overthrow of the French monarchy he 
 relinquished his connection with affairs of 
 state ; he was, notwithstanding, arrested by 
 order of the committee of public safety ; but 
 being liberated shortly after, he quitted 
 I ranee, and did not return till after the fall 
 of Robespierre. In 1803 he was nominated 
 to the council of state ; and, under the im- 
 perial government, he was appointed to the 
 oflTice of grand-masttr of the ceremonies at 
 court. In 1813 he was made a senator ; and, 
 on the restoration of the Bourbon family, he 
 was created a peer of France ; notwithstand- 
 ing which, after Buonaparte's return from 
 Elba, he resumed his legislative functions, 
 and again became grand-master of the cere- 
 monies, and one of the peers appointed by 
 
 8c 
 
Napoleon. On the final restoration of Louis 
 XVIII. in 181,5, the count was stripped of 
 all his dignities, and passed the remainder 
 of his life in literary retirement. He died 
 in 1830. Among iiis works are, " A Political 
 Picture of Europe," " The Reign of Frederic 
 William II.," the " History of Modern 
 Europe," &c. 
 
 SELDEN, Jonx, on English antiqiiary, 
 law writer, and historian, of most extensive 
 acquirements, was a native of Sussex, and 
 born in l.'>84. After receiving his education 
 I at Chichester, and Hart Hall, Oxford, he 
 I studied the law in the Temijle, and was 
 j called to the bar. He practised chiefly as a 
 I chamber counsel, and devoted much of his 
 I time to studying the history and antiquities 
 j of his country. So early as 1007 he drew 
 i up a work, entitled " Analectum Anglo- 
 i Britannicum," which was quickly succeeded 
 j by several others ; and in 1614 appeared his 
 "Titles of Honour." Next followed his 
 " De Diis Syriis " and " Mare Clau-sum," in 
 which latter he endeavours to historically 
 establish tlie British right of dominion over 
 the circumjacent seas. He now entered the 
 field of politics, and in 1040 was elected 
 member of parliament for Oxford ; at which 
 time he was so well affected to the existing 
 constitution of church and state, that when 
 the king withdrew to York, he had some 
 notion of appointing him chancellor. At 
 the commencement of the disputes between 
 Charles and the parliament ke acted with 
 great moderation, and uniformli' endea- 
 voured to prevent an ultimate appeal to the 
 sword. In 1C43, the House of Commons 
 appointed him keeper of the records of the 
 i Tower, and, the following year, one of the 
 commissioners of the admiralty, voting him 
 ' 5000?. as a reward for his services. He em- 
 I ployed all his influence for the protection of 
 learning, and was universally esteemed for 
 his urbanity of manners and goodness of 
 heart. Died, lG->4. 
 
 SELEUCUS I., surnamed Nicator, or the 
 Conqueror, one of the chief generals under 
 Alexander the Great, and, after his death, 
 founder of the race of princes called Seleu- 
 cidaj. He is eciually celebrated as a re- 
 nowned warrior and as the father of his 
 people ; yet his virtues could not protect 
 him from the fatal ambition of Ceraunus, 
 one of his courtiers, by whom he was assassiu- 
 ated, B.C. 280. 
 
 SELKIRK, Alexaxt)ee, a Failor, was 
 born at I-argo, in Scotland, about 1080. He 
 was a good navigator, and made several 
 voyages to the South Sea, in one of whicli, 
 having a quarrel with his commander, he 
 was put ashore on the island of Juan Fer- 
 nandez, with a few necessaries, a fowling- 
 piece, gunpowder, and shot. Here he re- 
 mained in solitude nearly three years, till he 
 was taken away by Captain Woods Rogers, 
 in 1709. On his return to England, he is 
 said to have employed Daniel Defoe in 
 drawing vip a narrative of his adventures 
 j for the press, from which source originated 
 j the popular and interesting "Adventures of 
 Robinson Crusoe." 
 SELLE, Christian Theophilu.s, born at 
 ' Stettin, in Pomerania, in 1748, was physician 
 ' to Frederic the Great, a particular detail of 
 
 whose last illness he published. In 1790 he 
 went to Paris, where he visited the hospitals 
 and other public establishments ; and on his 
 return he publislied two memoirs on animal 
 magnetism, and others against the critical 
 philosophy of Kant, in the Transactions of 
 the Berlin Academy of Sciences, of which he 
 was a member. He wrote several medical 
 works, and was appointed privy councillor 
 and director of the college of medicine, &c. 
 Died, 180O. 
 
 SELLON, Baker Jouk, a barrister, was 
 born in 1762. He was the son of the Rev. 
 W. Sellon, minister of Clerkenwell church, 
 and educated at St. John's College, Oxford. 
 He was called to the bar in 1792, and after- 
 wards admitted to the rank of serjeant-at- 
 law in 1798. For the last 20 years of his 
 life he sat as a police magistrate, having 
 been compelled by deafness to relinqui.sh 
 his avocations as a pleader. He published 
 an " Analysis of the Practice of the Court of 
 King's Bench and Common Pleas," 2 vols. 
 8vo., which, by the profession generally, is 
 regarded as a standard book. Died, 1835. 
 
 SEMLER, John Solomon, a celebrated 
 Lutheran divine, born atSaalfeld,iii Saxony, 
 in 1725, and became professor of theology at 
 Halle, where he lemained till his death, in 
 1791. He was so determined to explain 
 away every thing miraculous in the gospel 
 history, and criticised the Bible with such 
 temerity, that he appeared more like an 
 advocate of infidelity than of revelation. 
 His principal work is entitled " Historicx 
 Ecclesiasticae selecta capita," 3 vols. 
 
 SENEBIER, John, a natural philosopher 
 and historian, was born at Geneva, in 17!2. 
 He adopted the ecclesiastical profession, but 
 his attention was more particularly directed 
 to philosophy and natural history. He 
 obtained the oflRce of public librarian at Ge- 
 neva in 1773, became one of the conductors 
 of the Geneva Journal in 1787, and died in 
 1809. Among his chief works are, " A Lite- 
 rary History of Geneva" and "Vegetable 
 Physiologj'." 
 
 SENECA, Lccics AxNyEUS, a celebrated 
 Roman philosopher, moralist, and statesman, 
 the son of ilaicus Annaeus, an eminent ora- 
 tor, was born at Corduba, in Spain, during 
 the first year of the Christian era. His re- 
 putation soon extended to tlie imperial court ; 
 and his various learning and practical wis- 
 dom caused him to be appointed tutor to 
 Nero, and procured him several important 
 pliices. After his accession to the throne, 
 liis imperial pupil for awhile loaded him 
 M-ith favours ; but at length resolving to rid 
 himself of his old preceptor, the tyrant 
 charged him with being an accomplice in 
 the conspiracj' of Piso, and he was condemned 
 to death. The method of his execution was, 
 however, left to his own choice. He conse- 
 quently, with the characteristic ostentation 
 of a stoic, finished his life in the midst of his 
 friends, conversing on philosophical topics 
 while the blood was flowing from his veins, 
 which he had caused to be opened for that 
 purpose. He was a man of undoubted 
 genius, but rapacious and intriguing, accu- 
 mulating vast wealth by the most unjustifi- 
 able means. Dion Cassius ascribes the revolt 
 of the Britons under Boadicea to the distress 
 
to which they were driven througli the ra- 
 pacity of Seneca and his agents. His death 
 happened a. d. 65. 
 
 SENNERTUS, DANtEL, an eminent phy- 
 sician and medical writer of Germany. Born, 
 1572 ; died, 1(!37. 
 
 SEPULVKDA, Jonx Ginkz de, born in 
 1491, was historiographer to the emperor 
 Charles V., and rendered himself ignobly 
 conspicuous as the author of a " Vindication 
 of the Cruelties of the Spaniards against the 
 Indians," in opposition to the benevolent 
 representations of Las Casas. He was also 
 the author of a " Life of Charles V.," 4 vols. 
 SERASSI, PiUR Antonio, an Italian 
 biographer, born at Bergamo, in 1721. lie 
 wrote the lives of Tasso, Dante, Molza, Poli- 
 tian, Petrarch, and other eminent Italians, 
 which are much esteemed. Died, 17'.)1. 
 
 SERGEL, John Tobias, a celebrated 
 Swedish sculptor, was bom at Stockholm, 
 in 1740 ; studied in Italy, and rose to great 
 eminence in his art ; was ennobled on his 
 
 I return to Sweden, and died in 1814. His 
 
 I numerous able works are chiefly confined to 
 Sweden, but an admired " Diomede stealing 
 the Palladium of Troy " is in England. 
 
 8ERRES, Olia'e, the self-styled princess 
 of Cumberland, was born at Warwick, in 
 1772, and educated under the protection of 
 her uncle, the Rev. Dr. Wilmot. At an 
 early age she married Mr. Serres, marine 
 painter to George III. ; but after a few 
 years they separated, and she had to sup- 
 port herself and children by her own efforts. 
 
 ! She was both an artist and an authoress, 
 and was appointed landscape-painter to the 
 Prince of VVales ; but her literary perform- 
 ances were certainly of no very high order. 
 As this female attracted a large share of the 
 public attention for a number of years ; and 
 as there were not a few who, after inspecting 
 the mass of documents she possessed, really 
 believed her to be the legitimate daughter of 
 Henry Frederick, duke of Cumberland, by a 
 marriage with the sister of Dr. Wilmot, we 
 shall here give the outlines of a history, 
 which those wlio opposed her claims de- 
 clared was a barefaced imposture. That she 
 had convinced many, there is no doubt, and, 
 perhaps, the striking " family likeness" ob- 
 servable in her features, contributed not a 
 little to give a plausibility to her statements. 
 In 181.5, it appears, she first became ac- 
 
 I quainted with the secret of her birth ; at 
 least it was so alleged in the affidavits pro- 
 duced by her counsel in the prerogative 
 court, in order to obtain tb.e sum of 15,000?. 
 bequeathed to her by a will of George III., 
 to which the sign-manual and attesting sig- 
 natures were attached. It was also alleged 
 that, in the year 1815, the Earl of Warwick, 
 in presence of the Duke of Kent, informed 
 her, at her own house, in Seymour Place, 
 that she was the lawful daughter of the late 
 Duke of Cumberland. He exacted a solemn 
 pledge, both from her and the Duke of 
 Kent, not to disclose this communication 
 until after the death of the king ; and ulti- 
 mately (in presence of the royal duke) de- 
 I>osited with her the proofs slie possessed ; 
 among which was the sign-manual for the 
 15,(K)0/. The folly, inconsistency, want of 
 principle, and, it may be truly added, ia- 
 
 771 
 
 sanity of many of her actions, would certainly 
 go far towards defeating her claims, whether 
 jnst or unjust. In June, 1822, Sir Gerard 
 Noel was induced to move for an investiga- 
 tion of her claims in the House of Commons, 
 and was seconded by Mr. Hume ; but Sir 
 Robert Peel saw there was abundant room 
 for a laugh at the expense of the soi-disant 
 princess and her supporters ; and, in a vein 
 of successful irony, he overturned the whole 
 fabric that had been raised to support " the 
 Princess Olive's claims." Her latter years 
 were passed in poverty, within the rules of a 
 prison, in consequence of debts contracted 
 while under her delusion of royalty ; having 
 at that time commenced a splendid estab- 
 lishment, assumed the royal livery, &c. She 
 was at length liberated, and went to reside 
 with Miss Macauley, at Somer's Town, a 
 short time previous to her death, which 
 occurred in 18'>4, at the age of 52. 
 
 SERVETUS, MiciiAKL, a learned Spa- 
 niard, memorable as the victim of religious 
 intolerance, was born at Villanueva, in 1509 ; 
 was educated at Toulouse, studied medicine 
 at Paris, and was in constant correspond- 
 ence with Calvin, whom he consulted in 
 respect to his Arian notions. He published 
 several anti-trinitarian works, which excited 
 against him the violent hatred of both Ca- 
 tholics and Protestants ; and though he was 
 60 fortunate as to escape from the perse- 
 cutions of the former, he could not elude 
 the vengeance of the latter, headed and in- 
 cited as they were by his implacable enemy, 
 the stern and unforgiving reformer of Ge- 
 neva. He was seized as he was passing 
 through that city, tried for " blasphemy 
 and heresy," and condemned to the flames, 
 which sentence was carried into execution, 
 Oct. 27. 1553. Servetus is supposed by many 
 to have anticipated Harvey in the discovery 
 of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 SERVIUS TULLIUS. king of Rome, was 
 the son of a female slave. He married the 
 daughter of Tarquin the elder, whom he 
 succeeded b. c. 577, and was murdered by 
 his son-in-law, Tarquin Superbus, b. c. f>?A. 
 
 SESSA, an Indian philosopher or mathe- 
 matician, and the inventor of the game of 
 chess. He lived about the 11th century. 
 
 SETTLE, Elkanah, an English poet, 
 was born at Dunstable, 1(518 ; educated at 
 Trinity College, Oxford ; was much engaged 
 in the political squabbles of the age, and wrote j 
 some smart pieces both in prose and verse. 
 He was also an indefatigable writer for the | 
 stage, but none of his dramas are now acted, i 
 Died, 1724. 
 
 SEVEKUS, CoKNELius, a Roman poet, 1 
 who lived in the reign of Augustus. He was 
 the author of " vEtna," a poem, which has 1 
 been attributed to Virgil. j 
 
 SEVERUS, in church history, a sectary : 
 of the second century, a follower of Tatian, I 
 and chief of the sect of the Severians. He 
 flourished about a. d. 178. 1 
 
 SEVERUS I., Lucius Septimius, a Ro- 
 man emperor, was born A.n. Mii, at Lcptis, I 
 in Africa, and was raised to the throne on I 
 the death of DidiusJulianus. He has been | 
 so much admired for his military talents, 
 that some have called him the most warlike I 
 of the Roman emperors. As a monarch he 
 
 8u2 
 
KEV] 
 
 ^ fit^xt Winibtvitil 2i3i0cirajp!j». 
 
 [SHA 
 
 was cruel ; and it has been observed that he 
 never performed an act of liumanity, or 
 forgave a fault. He loved the appellation of 
 a man of letters, and he even composed a 
 history of his own reign, which some have 
 praised for its correctness and veracity. He 
 died at York, in 211. 
 
 SEVEPvUS I[.,Flavius Valehhts, ashort 
 lived emperor, who was raised to the purple 
 by Galerius ; but, being deserted by his 
 soldiers when ready to engage Maxeutius, 
 he killed himself, a. d. 307. 
 
 SEVERUS, SuLi'icius, a historian, was a 
 native of Aquitaine, wlio flourished in the 
 beginning of the oth century, and by his 
 writings acquired the title of the Christian 
 Sallust. 
 
 SE'VIGNE', Mart de Rabutiv, Mar- 
 chioness de, daughter of the Baron de Chan- 
 tal, was born in 1026. At the age of 18 she 
 married the Marquis de Seviguc', who was 
 killed in a duel seven years afterwards. 
 Being thus left a widow, with two cliildren, 
 Bhe paid great attention to their education ; 
 and when her daughter married the Count 
 de Grignan, she kept up a correspondence 
 witli her ; to which circumstance the world 
 is indebted for those letters wliich are re- 
 garded as models of epistolary composition. 
 Died, 169G. 
 
 SEWARD, AxNA, daughter of the Rev. 
 Thomas Seward, liiinself a poet and the 
 author of an edition of Beaumont and Flet- 
 cher, was born at Eyam, in Derbyshire, in 
 1747. She evinced a poetical taste in early 
 life. In 1782 she published her poetical ro- 
 mance of " Louisa ; " and she subsequently 
 printed a collection of sonnets, and a " Life 
 of Dr. Darwin," in whicli slie asserted her 
 claim to the first fifty lines of that author's 
 "Botanic Garden." Died, 1809. An edition 
 of her works, with a biographical preface, was 
 published by Mr. (afterwards Sir VValter) 
 Scott; her "Letters" also appeared in 6 vols. ; 
 but her fame lias passed away. 
 
 SEWARD, Wii,i,iAM, a biographical wri- 
 ter, was born in London, 1747. lie was 
 educated at the Charter House and at Ox- 
 ford ; was intimate witii Dr. Johnson, and 
 otlier eminent literary characters ; and was 
 the author of " Anecdotes of distinguished 
 Persons," " Biographiana," &c. He died 
 in 1799. 
 
 SEWELL, George, a poet and miscella- 
 neous writer, was born at Windsor, and 
 after completing his education at Peter- 
 house, Cambridge, studied medicine in Hol- 
 land under the celebrated Boerliaave, and 
 settled at Hampstead as a pliysician. Ilis 
 chief literary productions are, " Sir Walter 
 Raleigli," a tragedy ; " A Vindication of the 
 English Stage;" translations of parts of 
 Lucan, Ovid, and TibuUus ; and " Epistles 
 to Mr. Addison." Died, 1726. 
 
 SEWELL, WiLLiAJi.the son of an English 
 refugee at Amsterdam, who, though brought 
 up as a weaver, made himself master of 
 several languages, and compiled an "Eng- 
 lish and Dutch Dictionary ; " but he is best 
 known by his " History of the Quakers," of 
 which sect he was himself a mem]jer. Died, 
 1725. 
 
 SEXTIUS, QiJi.vTUS, a Pythagorean phi- 
 losoplier, iu the time of Augustus. He re- 
 
 fused the senatorial rank, and established a 
 school upon the most rigid principles of 
 self-denial. 
 
 SEXTL'S EMPIRICUS, a Greek phi- 
 losopher and physician, who lived in the 
 reign of Commodus. Only two of his works 
 are extant, the " Institutes of Pyrrhon- 
 ism," and ten books against the mathema- 
 ticians. 
 
 SEYMOUR, EnwAUD, Duke of Somerset, 
 in the reign of Edward YI., to whom he 
 was maternal uncle, being brother of Jane 
 Seymour, third wife to Henry VIII. He 
 devoted himself to the military profession, 
 and commanded in a maritime expedition 
 against tlic Scots, in 1544, when he landed 
 a body of troops at Leitli, and set fire to 
 the city of Edinburgh. On the death of 
 Henry VIII. he rose to unbounded power, 
 procuring himself to be appointed governor 
 of the king, and protector of the realm. In 
 1548 he obtained the post of lord treasurer, 
 was created duke of Somerset, and made 
 earl-marshal. The same year he headed 
 an army, with which he invaded Scotland, 
 and after having gained the victory of Mus- 
 selburgh, returned in triumph to England. 
 His success excited the jealousy of the Earl 
 of Warwick and others, who first procured 
 his confinement in the Tower, for a short 
 time during 1549, on the charge of arbitrary 
 conduct and injustice, and finally caused 
 him to be again arrested, two years after- 
 wards, on the charge of treasonable de 
 signs against the lives of some of the privy 
 councillors, for which he was beheaded on 
 Tower Hill, Jan. 22. 1552. 
 
 SFOKZA, James, called the Great, was 
 born of humble parentage, at Cotignola, iu 
 1639. A company of soldiers happening to 
 pass through his village, young Sforza joined 
 them, and, after passing through the inferior 
 military ranks, became a general. He 
 obliged Alphonsus, king of Arragon, to raise 
 the siege of Naples, and he retook several 
 important places which had revolted ; but 
 being too eager in pursuing the flying enemy, 
 he was drowned iu the river near Pescara, in 
 1424. 
 
 SFORZA, Fraxcis, natural son of the pre- 
 ceding, commanded with distinction in the 
 service of Naples ; after which he married 
 the daughter of the Duke of Milan, on whose 
 death he was chosen general of the duchy ; 
 but he abused that trust, and usurped the 
 sovereignty. Died, 1460. 
 
 SHADWELL, the Right Hon. Sir Lan- 
 celot, vice-chancellor of England, was born 
 1779 ; educated at Eton and Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree of B. A. in 1800. as 
 seventh wrangler, obtaining also the second 
 chancellor's medal. He was called to the 
 bar by the honourable society of Lincoln's 
 Inn in 1803, was appointed a king's counsel 
 in 1821, sat for Ripon as Jf.P. in 1820, and 
 was elevated to the vice -chancellorship of 
 England in 1827. His honour also twice 
 filled the office of a commissioner of the 
 great seal ; first in 1835, after Lord Brough- 
 ham's, and in 1850, after Lord Cottenham's, 
 resignation of the chancellorship. As a 
 judge. Sir Lancelot gave great satisfaction. 
 He disposed with great rapidity of the mere 
 routine business of his court, and he was no 
 
sua] 
 
 ^ j2etu ?am'&tr^al 2St0!irap!)ti. 
 
 [SHA 
 
 less remarkable for his affability and cour- 
 tesy, than for the humorous and classical 
 vit with which he seaaoued his dicta. 
 Died, Aug. 10. 1850. 
 
 SlIADNVELL, Thomas, a dramatic poet, 
 was bora in 1640, at Stanton Hall, Norfolk, 
 and was educated at Cambridge. When 
 Dryden was removed from the offices of 
 laureate and historiographer royal. Shad- 
 well was appointed his successor, which 
 exposed him to the severity of that poet's 
 satire, who ridiculed him imder the appel- 
 lation of Macflecknoe. Died, l(i!)2. His 
 principal plays are " Epsom Wells," " Ti- 
 mon the Misanthrope," the " Virtuoso," the 
 " Gentleman of Alsace," and the " Lanca- 
 shire Witches." — Chaulks Shadwei.l, sup- 
 posed to have been tlie sou or nephew of the 
 preceding, wrote some plays, the best of 
 which is entitled the " Fair Quaker of Deal." 
 Died, 172fi. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY. See Coopeh. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE, William, the most il- 
 lustrious dramatic poet of England, was 
 born at Stratford-upon-Avon, April 20. 1504, 
 and was the 8<m of a dealer in wool, who ap- 
 pears also to have carried on the business of a 
 butcher. His education was confined to what 
 he could attain at the free-school of his native 
 place ; and l)eing taken from it early, he made 
 no farther progress than the rudiments of 
 Latin. In his 18th year he married Ann 
 Hathaway, a farmer's daughter, who was con- 
 siderably older than himself. Of his occupa- 
 tion at this period, nothing determinate is re- 
 corded ; but it appears that he was wild and 
 irregular, and that he was more than once 
 concerned with others in stealing deer from 
 the park of Sir Tliomas Lucy, of Charlecote, 
 near Stratford. For this he was prosecuted 
 by that gentleman ; but he retaliated by a 
 severe lampoon on him, and then lied to 
 London, in order to escape another prosecu- 
 tion. Here he formed an acquaintance with 
 the players, and was enrolled among them, 
 though what sort of characters he performed 
 does not appear. Mr. Rowe observes, that 
 he could never meet with any further ac- 
 count of him as an actor, than that his 
 highest part was the Glwst in his own 
 Hamlet. Queen Elizabeth had several of 
 his plays acted before her, and without doubt 
 gave him many marks of her favour. She 
 was so pleased with the character of Falstaff 
 in the two parts of Henry IV., that she com- 
 manded him to exhibit him in love, on which 
 occasion Sliakspeare wrote his rich and 
 admirable comedy of the " Merry Wives of 
 Windsor." His greatest patron was the 
 Earl of Southampton, who is said on one 
 occasion to have presented him with lOOOi. ; 
 and he enjoyed the friendship of his most 
 eminent literary contemporaries. Having 
 become proprietor and manager of the Globe 
 Theatre, he realised a handsome fortune, 
 which enabled him to spend the close of his 
 life at his native town, where he purchased 
 a house and estate, to which he gave the 
 name of New Place. The house and lands 
 continued in the possession of the poet's de- 
 scendants, till the Restoration, when they 
 were re- purchased by the Clopton family. 
 Here Sliakspeare planted the famous mul- 
 berry tree, which remained an object of profit 
 
 to the people of Stratford, and of veneration 
 to visitors, till about 1750, when the pos- 
 sessor, out of hatred to the inhabitants, cut 
 it dowu. Shakspeare died on his 52nd birth- 
 day, in 1610, and was buried in the church 
 of Stratford, where his monument still re- 
 mains. In 1741, a monument was erected to 
 him in Westminster Abbey, and paid for by 
 the proceeds of benefits at the two great the- 
 atres. In 1709, by the efforts of Garrick, a 
 festival was celebrated in honour of the poet 
 in his native town. Tlie only notice re- 
 corded of the person of Shakspeare is to be 
 found in Aubrey, who says that " he was a 
 handsome, well-shaped man," and adds, that 
 he was " verie good company, and of a verie 
 ready, pleasant, and smooth witt." Besides 
 his Immortal plays, Shakspeare was the 
 author of two poems, " Venus and Adonis " 
 and " Lucrece," which, although lost in the 
 blaze of Jiis dramatic genius, exhibit much 
 of poetrv that is worthy of admiration. 
 
 SHARP, Jamls, archbishop of St. An- 
 drew's, a distinguished prelate of tlie 17th 
 century, was born in Banffshire, in 1018, and 
 obtained a professorship in the university of 
 St. Andrew's. Tlie presbytery being over- 
 turned by parliament, under Charles II., 
 Sharp, who had treaclierously promoted 
 that measure, was rewarded with the pri- 
 macy, and appointed archbishop of St. 
 Andrew's. Tlie wanton cruelties which 
 followed confirmed the horror entertained 
 against him. and raised the fury of some of 
 his more bigoted opponents to conspire 
 against his life. His carriage, in whicli he 
 was travelling, about three miles from St. 
 Andrew's, on the 3rd of May, 1679, was met 
 by some fanatics, headed by John Balfour 
 of Burley, who were waiting there to in- 
 tercept a servant of the archbishop's, named 
 Carmichael. To tempers thus heated by 
 fanaticism, the appearance of the arclibisliop 
 himself was deemed a sign of the intention 
 of Providence to substitute a more important 
 victim ; and, regardless of the tears and en- 
 treaties of his daughter, they dragged him 
 from his carriage, and with savage ferocity 
 murdered him before her face. 
 
 SHARP, John, a learned prelate and 
 theological writer, was born at Bradford, 
 in Yorksliire, in 1044 ; studied at Christ's 
 College, Cambridge ; and rose, by gradual 
 preferments, to the deanery of Norwich. 
 In the reign of James II. he gave such of- 
 fence to the court by preaching against 
 popery, that an order was sent to tlie bishop 
 of London to suspend him ; but the bishop 
 having refused on the ground of its being 
 contrary to law, he as well as Dr. Sliarp 
 were_ suspended by the ecclesiastical com- 
 mission. The doctor, however, was soon 
 restored to the exercise of his function ; and, 
 after the revolution, he was made dean of 
 Canterbury ; from whence, in 1601, he was 
 elevated to the archbishopric of York. Died, 
 1713. His "Sermons," published after his 
 death, form 7 vols. 
 
 SHARP, Thomas, a younger son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1093 ; received his 
 education at Trinity College. Cambridge, of 
 which he became a fellow and D.D. in 1729 ; 
 obtained various preferments in the church ; 
 finally became archdeacon of Northumber- 
 
 8u3 
 
sha] 
 
 ^ i^c&j saniber^al 33io0raj|)!)]j. 
 
 [sha 
 
 land and a prebendary of Durham ; and 
 died in 1758. lie wrote " Discourses on the 
 Hebrew Tongue," &c. 
 
 SHARP, GitANViLLE, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, distinguislied for his philanthropy 
 and learning, was born at Durham, in 1734. 
 He obtained a place in the ordnance office, 
 which he resigned at the commencement of 
 the American war, because he disapproved 
 of its principles ; after which he devoted his 
 life to private study, and the active exer- 
 cise of a benevolent mind. With infinite 
 difficulty and expense, he established the 
 right of negroes to their freedom while in 
 England, instituted the society for the abo- 
 lition of the slave trade, advocated the 
 principles of parliamentary reform, and dis- 
 tingjiishcd himself with equal zeal in other 
 patriotic and benevolent objects ; the last of 
 which was the promotion of the distribution 
 of the Scriptures. He was critically skilled 
 in the Hebrew and Greek languages, and 
 was the author of various works, the prin- 
 cipal of which are, " Remarks on the Uses of 
 the Definite Article in the Greek Testa- 
 ment," a " Short Treatise on the English 
 Tongue," " Remarks on the Prophecies ;" 
 " Treatises on the Slave Trade," on " Duel- 
 ling," the " The People's Right to a Share 
 in the Legislature," the " Law of Nature, 
 and Principles of Action in Man," &c. Died, 
 1813. 
 
 SHARP, RiciiAUD, a gentleman well 
 kno^vn in the literary world as " Conver- 
 sation Sharp," and whose taste and judg- 
 ment as a critic were equal to his conver- 
 sational powers, died, aged 7G, while on the 
 road from Torcjuay to his residence in 
 London, March 30. 1835. Mr. Sharp was 
 deeply engaged in commercial concerns, but 
 employed his leisure hours in literary pur- 
 suits ; and had he more devoted himself to 
 study and composition, he might have taken 
 a high station among the best writers of the 
 day. He was the author of "Letters and 
 Essays in Prose and Verse." He had for- 
 merly been an M.P. adhering to the Whig 
 interest ; and few men disjilayed more 
 anxiety than he did for the extension of 
 civil and religious liberty, and the moral 
 improvement of the community. He left 
 250,000/!., which was divided between his 
 nephews and nieces. 
 
 SHARP, William, an eminent engraver, 
 was born in London, in 1740, rose to excel- 
 lence in his profession, and produced many 
 admirable prints. But with all his merits 
 as an artist, he was credulous in the extreme, 
 and became, in succession, a believer in the 
 reveries of Mesmer and Swedenborg, a dupe 
 of the notorious Richard Brothers, and a 
 supporter of the infamous pretensions of 
 Joanna Southcott. Died, 1824. 
 
 SHARPE, Gregory, an eminent oriental 
 scholar and able divine, was born in York- 
 shire, in 1713, was educated at Westminster 
 and Aberdeen and eventually became mas- 
 ter of the Temple. Among his writings are, 
 " A Review of the Controversy on the De- 
 moniacs," " Defence of Dr. Clarke against 
 the Attacks of I/Cibnitz," " Dissertations on 
 the Origin of Languages, and the Powers of 
 Letters, with a Hebrew Lexicon," " Disser- 
 tations on th<j Latiu and Greek Tongues," 
 
 "Three Discourses in Defence of Christi- 
 anity," an " Introduction to Universal His- 
 tory," and "The Rise and Fall of the City 
 and Temple of Jerusalem." Died, 1771. 
 
 SHAW, CuTHBERT, a poet of very humble 
 origin, born at Richmond, in Yorkshire, in 
 1739. He was usher at a school in Darling- 
 ton, and while there he published a poem, 
 entitled " Liberty." He afterwards joined 
 a company of comedians, under the name of 
 Seymour ; but he relinquished the stage 
 about 1762, and became a professional writer. 
 In 1766 he published the "Race," a satire 
 against most of the living poets ; and, on the 
 death of his wife, he produced a pathetic 
 " Monody," esteemed his best performance. 
 He lived a life of intemperance and de- 
 bauchery, and he died in wretchedness and 
 poverty, in 178(5. 
 
 SHAW, George, a distinguished writer 
 on zoology, &c., was born in 1751, at Bier- 
 ton, in Buckinghamshire ; was educated at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford ; studied medi- 
 cine at Edinburgh, and graduated as M.D. 
 at Oxford. He then settled as a physician 
 in London, was elected F. R. S., and ap- 
 pointed a vice-president of the Linnxan 
 Society ; delivered lectures on zoology at 
 the Leverian Museum and at the Royal 
 Institution ; and was made librarian and 
 assistant keeper of natural history at the 
 British Museum. He was the author of 
 several works on "Zoology," conducted the 
 " Naturalist's Miscellany," and was one of 
 the editors of the abridged Philosophical 
 Transactions. Died, 1813. 
 
 SHAW, Sir James, bart., was bom at 
 Riccarton, in the county of Ayr, in the year 
 1764 ; became a junior clerk in a mercantile 
 house of the city of London ; and, by constant 
 diligence and great ability, gradually rose to 
 a partnership in the firm. In 1798 his cha- 
 racter was so high alike for probity and 
 industry, that he was elected alderman for 
 his ward of Portsoken ; in 1803 he served 
 the office of sheriff, and in 1805 that of lord 
 mayor ; and, on the very day previous to 
 Ids vacating the civic chair, he vras elected 
 M.P. for the city of London, which honour- 
 able position he retained till 1818, when he 
 retired, having been created a baronet in 
 1809. In 1831 he was elected chamberlain 
 of London, when he resigned his alder- 
 manic gown. On occasion of the memorable 
 forgery of exchequer bills. Sir James was 
 supposed to have been unfortunate enough 
 to have received 40,000Z. of them in Ids 
 capacity of banker to the city. But the bills 
 happily proved to be genuine, and Sir James 
 received the full amount, with interest to 
 the day of payment. Simple in his habits, 
 singularly industrious and persevering. Sir 
 James was also extremely charitable. Died, 
 Oct. 22. 1843, aged 80. 
 
 SHAW, SxEBBiNG, a divine and topo- 
 graplier, was born in 1762, at Stone, in 
 Staffordshire, and was educated at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, where he obtained a fel- 
 lowship. He became tutor to Sir Francis 
 Burdett, with whom he made a tour to the 
 Highlands, and published an account of tlie 
 journey. He also wrote a " Tour in the 
 We^t of England," " A History of Stafford- 
 shire," and ■' The Topographer," published 
 
 I 
 
sha] 
 
 % ^cfio ^auibcr^al JSiosrapIjiJ. 
 
 SHE 
 
 in periodic numbers. He died, rector of 
 Hartshorne, in Stttiibrdshirc, in 1802. 
 
 SHAW, Thomas, an English divine and 
 antiquary, famous for his " Travels, or Ob- 
 servations relating to several parts of Bar- 
 bary and the Levant." Born, 101)2 ; died, 
 1751. 
 
 SHEA, David, one of the professors of 
 oriental languages at Ilaileybury College, 
 was bom at Dublin, in 1772, and educated 
 at its university. Having held a situation 
 as chief clerk to a large mercantile esta- 
 blishment in Malta, which had extensive 
 connections in the East, he studied the 
 Arabic and Persian tongues ; and his oriental 
 acquirements becoming known, a situation 
 at Haileybury was provided for him. He 
 translated " Mirkhoud's History of the earlpr 
 Kings of Persia," and at the time of his 
 death was engaged in the translation of the 
 Dabistan. This work he had completed, 
 and it was presented to the Asiatic Society 
 after his death. Died, 183(3. 
 
 SUEBBEARE, Joii.f, a physician and 
 political writer, was bom at Bidcford, in 
 Devonshire, in 1709, where he was appren- 
 ticed to an apothecary. Having made a 
 visit to Paris, he there obtained the degree 
 of M.D., and was admitted into the aca- 
 demy of sciences. He settled in London, 
 and commenced his career as a party writer ; 
 for his violence in which character he was 
 once pilloried and twice imprisoned. After- 
 wards, imder the administration of Lord 
 Bute, he apostatised from the popular cause, 
 and obtained a pension. His chief works 
 are, " Letters to the People of England," 
 " The Marriage Act," a satirical romance ; 
 " Lydia, or Filial Piety," " Letters on the 
 English Nation," and the " History of the 
 Sumatrans," a political satire. Died, 1788. 
 
 SIIEE, Sir Martin Akciier, at once pre- 
 sident and senior member of the Royal Aca- 
 demy, was born in Dublin, 1709. On his first 
 arrival from Ireland in the British metro- 
 polis, he was introduced to the notice of Sir 
 .Toshua Reynolds, and to some other distin- 
 guished persons, by his illustrious friend and 
 countryman, Edmund Burke. He became 
 an exhibitor at the Royal Academy for the 
 first time in the year 1789. In 1791 he sent 
 four portraits to the exhibition ; in 1792 
 he exhibited seven works ; and in 1790 he 
 reached what is now the full academical 
 number of eight portraits, including that of 
 Mrs. S. Kemble in the character of Cowslip, 
 in " The Agreeable Surprise." He continued 
 equally industrious for many successive 
 years ; and was in such favour with his fellow 
 artists, that he was elected an associate of the 
 Royal Academy in 1798. In 1800 he was 
 elected a full royal academician ; and of his 
 39 brethren by whom he was chosen he was 
 the last survivor. He continued to produce 
 numerous portraits with amazing readiness ; 
 and for a time he was in nearly as great re- 
 quest as Lawrence. In 1805 he made his 
 appearance as a poet by the publication of 
 his " Rhymes on Art, or the Remonstrance of 
 a Painter ; in two parts, with Notes and a 
 Preface, including Strictures on the State of 
 the Arts, Criticism, Patronage, and Public 
 Taste ;" and this was followed in 1809 by a 
 second poem, in six cantos, entitled "Ele- 
 
 776 
 
 ments of Art," to which Byron alludes in 
 his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." 
 A third poetical production, entitled " The 
 Commemoration of Reynolds," &c. appeared 
 from liis pen in 1814. In 1821 he published 
 a tragedy called "Alasco," with an angry 
 preface directed against Mr. Colman, the 
 licenser of plays, wlio had some years pre- 
 viously put a veto on its being brought upon 
 the stage. On the death of Lawrence in 
 1830, he was elected president of the Royal 
 Academy, and immediately knighted. Sir 
 Martin excelled in short, well-timed, and 
 well-delivered speeches, and his eloquence 
 was highly appreciated within the walls of 
 the academy. His name, says a contem- 
 porary from whom this memoir has been 
 abridged, will descend in the history of 
 painting as a clever artist with greater ac- 
 complishments than have commonly fallen 
 to the class to which he belongs, and as a 
 painter who has preserved to us the faces and 
 figures of Sir Thomas Munro, Sir Thomas 
 Picton, Sir Eyre Coote, Sir James Scarlett, 
 Sir Henry Halford, and the poet Moore. 
 Died, Aug. 19. 1850. 
 
 SHELDON, Gilbert, an eminent prelate, 
 was born at Stanton, in Staffordshire, in 
 1598. On the death of Archbishop Juxon he 
 was raised to the primacy, and expended 
 above 00,000/. in charitable uses. But the 
 greatest of his works was building the theatre 
 at Oxford. He died in 1077. 
 
 SHELLEY, Pkkcy Byssiik, an eminent 
 modern poet, eldest son of Sir Timothy Shel- 
 ley, Sussex, was born at Field Place, in that 
 county, in 1792. He was sent to Eton, 
 whence, owing to his eccentricity of cha- 
 racter, whicli led him to neglect the studies 
 and violate the rules of the school, he was 
 removed to Oxford, much before the usual 
 period. Here a repetition of youthful ir- 
 regularities, deeply aggravated by liis open 
 avowal of atheism, occasioned his expulsion ; 
 and his family, naturally offended with his 
 conduct and irreligious opinions, were still 
 further estranged by an ill-assorted m arriage. 
 After the birth of a boy and a girl, he sepa- 
 rated from his wife, who died shortly after ; 
 which event exposed him to much obloquy 
 and misrepresentation. Mr. Slielley then 
 married Miss Godwin, daughter of the au- 
 thor of " Political Justice " and the famed 
 "Mary Wolstoncroft," and soon after retired 
 to Marlow, in Buckinghamshire, wlierc he 
 wrote his "Revolt of Islam." About tliis 
 time the guardianship of his children was 
 taken from him, by an order of the chan- 
 cellor, on the ground of alleged atheistical 
 and sceptical notions, and of certain avowed 
 opinions regarding the intercourse of the 
 sexes, which were deemed immoral and 
 dangerous. He now repaired to Italy, with 
 his second wife and a new family, and re- 
 newed an acquaintance with Lord Byron, to 
 whom he had been known during a former 
 visit to the Continent. There, in conj unction 
 with his lordship and Mr. Leigh Hunt, he 
 contributed to " The Liberal," a periodical 
 miscellany, which contained the " Vision of 
 Judgment," by Lord Byron, and other ori- 
 ginal productions ; but which, partly owing 
 to Shelley's untimely death, was very soon 
 discontinued. He was drowned by the wreck 
 
sue] 
 
 ^ ^cto Unibtr^al 23f0jQfrap^v. 
 
 [she 
 
 of his own small sailing-boat in a violent 
 storm, on his return from Leghorn to his 
 house, on the gulf of Lerici, July 8. 1822. 
 Fifteen days afterwards his body was dis- 
 covered, and, agreeably to his own desire, 
 often expressed to his friend Byron, it was 
 burnt on the sea-shore, and the ashes con- 
 veyed to Rome, where they are interred in 
 the burial-grotmd near the pyramid of Caius 
 Cestus. Tlie poetical works of this writer 
 are, "Prometheus Chained," " Alastor, or 
 the Spirit of Solitude," " Queen Mab," and 
 " Cenci ; " tlie whole of which display a 
 poetical genius of tlie highest order, tliough 
 
 blighted by the miasma of infidelity. 
 
 His wife above alluded to, born in 1797, 
 gained great distinction by her " Franken- 
 stein," published in 1817. She was also 
 the authoress of the "Lives of Eminent 
 Literary Frenchmen," published in Lard- 
 ner's Cabinet Cyclopasdia ; and, among other 
 literary performances of merit, she edited 
 with notes her husband's poems. Died, 
 ISol. 
 
 SHENSTONE, William, an English poet, 
 born in 1714, at Hales Owen, in Shropshire, 
 was the son of a gentleman farmer residing 
 on his own estate, called the Leasowes. He 
 was educated at Oxford ; and on coming into 
 possession of his paternal property, he re- 
 linquished all views of an active life, and 
 occupied himself with rural embellishments, 
 and the cultivation of poetry. His great 
 desire to render the Leasowes famous for 
 picturesque beauty and elegance, led to ex- 
 penses which he could but ill support, and he 
 was by no means a happy inhabitant of the 
 Eden "which he had created. His works, which 
 consist of songs, elegies, pastorals, and mis- 
 cellaneous essays, were printed in 3 vols. 8vo. 
 by Dodsley. As a poet, he is pleasing, ten- 
 der, and correct in sentiment ; and his prose 
 works displayed good sense and cultivated 
 taste. Died, 17G3. 
 
 SHEPKEVE, JoHX, an English writer, 
 of the IGth century, was born in Berkshire, 
 and educated at Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, where he became Hebrew professor 
 about 1538. He had a surprising memory, 
 and was one of the most learned men of his 
 time. Died, 1542. 
 
 SHERARD, or SHERWOOD, William, 
 an English botanist, was born in Leicester- 
 shire, in 1659. About 1702 he was appointed 
 consul at Smyrna, and during his residence 
 in the East he collected specimens of all the 
 plants of Natolia and Greece, and made 
 observations on subjects of natural history 
 and antiquities. He died in 1728, and by 
 his will gave SOOOl. to provide a salary for a 
 professor of botany at Oxford. He published 
 Herman's " Paradisus Batavus" and a work 
 entitled " Schola Botanica." 
 
 SHERBURNE, Sir Edward, an inge- 
 nious writer, was born in London, in 1018. 
 He held the office of clerk of the ordnance 
 under Charles I., and suffered greatly during 
 tlie civil war ; but was restored to his office, 
 and knighted by Charles n. Died, 1702. 
 He translated " Seneca's Tragedies," the 
 " Sphere of Marcus Manilius," and other 
 works, into English, and wrote poems. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Dr. Thomas (the well- 
 known friend of Dean Swift), was born in | 
 
 lfi84, and died in 1738. He was eminent as 
 a teacher ; but being singularly thoughtless 
 and extravagant, he closed his life in great 
 poverty. He was the author of some ser- 
 mons, and a translation of the satires of 
 Persius. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Thomas, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1721, at Quilca, in 
 Ireland, and was educated at Westminster 
 School, and at Trinity College, Dublin. In 
 1742 he went upon the stage, and gained 
 much celebrity as a tragedian, both in his 
 native country and in England. He next 
 became manager of the Dublin company ; 
 but being ruined by the opposition of a rival 
 theatre and by riots in his own, he relin- 
 quished the profession, and commenced as a 
 lecturer on elocution, which for a time was 
 very successful. During the ministry of 
 Lord Bute, he obtained a pension of 200Z. a 
 year. He subsequently beeaine manager of 
 Drury Lane Theatre ; but some disputes 
 taking place, he retired from the situation, 
 and resumed his attention to oratory. His 
 principal works arc, an "Orthoepical Dic- 
 tionary of the English Language " and a 
 " Life of Swift." Died, 1788. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Frances, wife of the pre- 
 ceding, was the writer of "Sidney Bid- 
 dulph," a novel; "Nourjahad," an eastern 
 tale ; and the comedies of " The Discovery " 
 and " The Dupe." Born, 1724 ; died, 1707. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Buinsley, third 
 son of the precediug, distinguished as a 
 statesman, wit, and dramatist, was born at 
 Dublin, in 1751. He was educated at Har- 
 row School, aud became a student of the 
 Middle Temple, but was not called to the 
 bar. His first dramatic attempt was " The 
 Rivals," which was acted at Covent Garden 
 in 1775, with moderate success ; but the 
 " Duenna," a musical entertainment, which 
 foliowed, was received with general admi- 
 ration ; and his " School for Scandal" gained 
 him the highest reputation as a comic writer. 
 On the retirement of Garrick from Drury 
 I^ane Theatre, Sheridan purchased a share 
 in that property, which qualified him for a 
 seat in parliament ; and, in 1780, he was 
 chosen member for the borough of Stafford. 
 He attained distinguished celebrity as an 
 orator, aud made the grandest display of 
 eloquence during the progress of tlie im- 
 peachment of Warren Hastings. The poli- 
 tical changes consequent on the death of 
 Pitt, in 1800, occasioned the exaltation of 
 the party with which Sheridan was con- 
 nected, aud he obtained the lucrative post 
 of treasurer of the navy, and the rank of a 
 privy councillor. This administration being 
 weakened by the loss of Mr. Fox, who sur- 
 vived his celebrated rival only a few months, 
 new alterations took place, and Siieridan 
 was deprived of office, to which he never 
 returned. At the general election in 1800, 
 he obtained a seat for Westminster, the great 
 object of his ambition ; but he was alter- 
 wards nominated for the borough of Ilchester, 
 which he continued to represent during the 
 remainder of his parliamentary career. The 
 latter part of the life of this highly talented 
 individual was embittered by misfortunes, 
 principally arising from his own improvi- 
 dence. His profuse habits involved him 
 
she] 
 
 ^ |2ctt) Unifitr^al 33t0flrflpf)s. 
 
 [SHI 
 
 deeply in debt ; his failure of a seat in par- 
 liament deprived liim of protection from 
 arrest ; intemperance had undermined his 
 constitution ; mental anxiety completed the 
 destruction of liis health ; and his death 
 took place amidst a complication of diffi- 
 culties, fears, and sorrows, July 7. 1816. 
 Besides the pieces already noticed, he was 
 the author of part of " A Translation of 
 Aristaenetus ; " the farces of " The Critic," 
 a " Trip to Scarborough," and " St. Patrick's 
 Day," a " Letter to Henry Dundas," " Pi- 
 zarro," a droma altered from Kotzebue, and 
 poems. Mr. Sheridan was twice married, 
 llrst to Miss Liiiley, a celebrated singer ; 
 and the second time to Miss Ogle, daughter 
 of the Dean of Winchester. 
 
 S11I':RL0CK, William, an eminent Eng- 
 lish divine, bom in KUl. lie became dean 
 of St. Paul's, and wrote numerous books 
 and pamphlets, tlie greater part of which 
 were of the controversial kind. His " Prac- 
 tical Treatise on Death," however, haa been 
 highly valued and very much read. Died, 
 1770. 
 
 SHERLOCK, Thomas, an eminent pre- 
 late, son of tlie preceding, born in lO'S, 
 was distinguished as a warm and spirited 
 controversial writer. His works are very 
 numerous, and his sermons particularly to 
 be admired for their ingenuity and elegance. 
 He was, successively, dean of Chicliester, 
 and bishop of Bangor, Salisburj', and Lon- 
 don. Died, 17()1. 
 
 SHERWIN, Joiix Ketse, an eminent 
 engraver, who, till the age of IP, exercised 
 the humble occupation of a wood-cutter. 
 He was at that period employed on the 
 estate of Mr. Mittbrd, near Petworth, in 
 Sussex ; and being one day at the house of 
 that gentleman, the attention witli which 
 he observed some of the family who were 
 drawing, attracted Mr. Mitford's notice, who 
 asked him if he could do any thing in that 
 way I Slierwin said that he could not tell, 
 but he should like to try. On tliis a port- 
 crayon was put into his hand, and he pro- 
 duced such a drawing as astonished all 
 present ; and the society of arts, to whom it 
 was presented, voted him the silver medal. 
 He was then placed under Bartolozzi, and 
 became his favourite pupil. His engravings 
 are of the first excellence. Dieil, 1790. 
 
 SHIELD, William, an eminent musical 
 composer, was born at Swalwell, Durham, 
 in 1754. His father, who was a teacher of 
 singing, and who had given him a taste for 
 music, died when his son was in his 9th 
 year. He was apprenticed to a boat-builder, 
 but quitted that business as soon as his in- 
 dentures expired, for he had never ceased to 
 cultivate the knowledge of the violin, which 
 he had early acquired. It was not long 
 before he gained very considerable reputa- 
 tion at Scarborough, &c. as the leader of the 
 principal concerts, which led to his being 
 offered a situation in the orchestra of the 
 Italian Opera House, where he remained 18 
 years as principal viola. In 1778 he came 
 for\vard as a dramatic composer in the music 
 to "The Flitch of Bacon," the success of 
 which was great and decisive. It procured 
 for him the situation of composer to Covent 
 Garden Theatre, which he held for several 
 
 777 
 
 years. At the death of Sir W. Parsons he 
 was appointed master of his mnjesty's mu- 
 sicians in ordinary ; and he continued to 
 enjoy a high degree of popularity to the 
 time of his death, which took place in 
 January, 1829. His style was simple, chaste, 
 and graceful. Among his dramatic pieces 
 are, " Rosina," the " Poor Soldier," " Robin 
 Hood," "Marian," "Oscar and Malvina," 
 " Hartford Bridge," &e. He also set to music 
 many excellent songs, as "Tom Moody," 
 " The Heaving of the Lead," " The Thorn," 
 " Old Towler," &c. 
 
 SHIPLEY, JoxATHAK, an English pre- 
 late, was born in 1714. He was educated 
 at Christehurch, Oxford ; and became, suc- 
 cessively, dean of Winchester, bisliop of 
 Llandaff, and bishop of St. Asaph. He died 
 in 1788, leaving a son, who became dean of 
 St. Asaph ; and two daughters, one of whom 
 married Sir William Jones. The works of 
 the bishop were published in 2 vols. 
 
 SHIRLEY, AxTiioNV, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish traveller, was born at Weston, in Sussex, 
 in 1565. On leaving Oxford University, he 
 served under the Earl of Essex, with such 
 reputation as to receive the honour of 
 knighthood. He next went to Italy, and 
 from thence travelled to Persia, where he 
 became a favourite with Shah Abbas, who 
 in 1012 sent him as his ambassador to Eng- 
 land. After this, the emperor of Germany 
 created him a count, and the king of Spain 
 appointed him admiral in the Levant seas. 
 He died in Spain about 1G30. 
 
 SHIRLEY, Jamics, an eminent English 
 dramatic writer and poet of the Elizabethan 
 age, was born in London, about 1694 ; was 
 educated at Merchant Tailors' School, and 
 at St. John's College, Oxford ; obtained a 
 curacy at St. Alban's, whicli he resigned on 
 becoming a Catholic ; and then endeavoured, 
 though without success, to establish a gram- 
 mar school there. He next removed to 
 London, and became a fertile writer for the 
 stage ; and, having obtained considerable 
 celel)rity, he was taken into the service of 
 queen Henrietta Maria. He afterwards ac- 
 companied the Earl of Kildare to Ireland, 
 but returned on the breaking out of the 
 rebellion, and resumed his scholastic em- 
 ployment in the \Vliilefriars. At the Resto- 
 ration many of his plays were again acted, 
 and he appears to have been comparatively 
 prosperous ; but having lost all his property 
 by the fire of London, in 1G66, both he and 
 his wife were so affected by the calamit'>u8 
 event, that they died of grief and tenor 
 within 24 hours of each other, on the 29th of 
 October, and were buried in tlie same grave. 
 Shirley was the author of 37 tragedies, come- 
 dies, &c., besides a volume of poems ; which 
 are now well known, a complete edition of 
 his works having been published by the late 
 Mr. Gilford. 
 
 SHIRLEY, the Right Rev. Walter Ar- 
 GUSTrs, bishop of Sodor and Man, was born 
 at Westport, in Ireland, 1797 ; was educated 
 at Winchester, and New College, Oxford ; 
 ordained in 1820 ; and took up his residence 
 with his father at Ashbourne, where he 
 undertook lectureships and service, and per- 
 formed all the duties of an able and active 
 clergyman. While residing liere he gained 
 
SHO] 
 
 ^ ^clxi Mniijn'^al 3t5tflsrajpf)B, 
 
 [snu 
 
 a prize for an able essay on " The Study of 
 Moral Evidence." In 1826 he took the 
 situation of examiner at Oxford ; and, in 
 the autumn of tiie same year, he repaired to 
 Kome, where lie officiated as minister of the 
 English chapel. On his return in 1828 lie 
 became vicar of Shirley in Derbyshire, on the 
 nomination of Earl Ferrers, a family con- 
 nection ; and here, besides discharging his 
 ministerial duties with great faitlifulness 
 and success, he devoted himself with un- 
 wearied attention to what he considered the 
 calls of professional duty, such as Bible 
 societies, missionary deputations, evening 
 lectures, curate societies, training schools, 
 boards of education, and all other means for 
 improving and extending the influence of the 
 church. In 184G he was selected as preacher 
 of the Bampton Lectures at Oxford. Tlie 
 same year he was nominated to the bisliopric 
 of Sodor and Man, and had just entered on 
 what promised to be a career of extensive 
 usefulness, when he was cut off, after a short 
 illness, April 21. 1847. The "Letters and 
 Memoirs of Bishop Shirley " have been pub- 
 lished by Archdeacon Hill. 
 
 SHORE, Jaxe, the beautiful and unfor- 
 tunate mistress of Edward IV., was the 
 daughter of a London citizen, and the wife 
 of a rich jeweller in Lombard Street. Her 
 personal charms are represented as being 
 transcendant ; her connubial state, infelici- 
 tous ; and the monarch's admiration of her, 
 unbounded. Her virtue was not sufficiently 
 strong to resist her roj-al lover, and she un- 
 reluctantly yielded to his desires. She had 
 an entire command over his heart and his 
 purse i but she made no improper use of his 
 munificence, her greatest happiness consist- 
 ing in relieving the necessitous, and in being 
 the mediatress between the sovereign and 
 those who were under his displeasure. After 
 the king's death she became attached to 
 Lord Hastings ; and their known partiality 
 to the young princes rendered them ob- 
 noxious to the Duke of Gloucester, who 
 accused them of witchcraft. On this charge 
 Hastings was beheaded, and his pretended 
 accomplice committed, by the tyrant's order, 
 to the Tower. After undergoing the form of 
 a mock trial, she Mas ordered to do penance 
 in St. Paul's, in a white sheet, and was 
 paraded through the public streets, the 
 bishop of London heading the procession. 
 Her house and fortune were seized by the 
 protector, and the unfortunate woman was 
 reduced to the greatest distress ; but her 
 perishing in a ditch, which is said to have 
 given rise to Shoreditch, does not appear to 
 be founded upon fact. Where or when slie 
 died is not known ; but it is certain she was 
 living in the reign of Henry VIII. Sir 
 Thomas More mentions her iu terms of the 
 highest commendation ; and observes that 
 although time and affliction had destroyed 
 her personal charms, still she retained that 
 softness of manners which had conspired to 
 enslave the monarch's heart. 
 
 SHORT, James, a natural philosopher 
 and eminent optician, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1710 ; received his education at the 
 high school and the university, and studied 
 mathematics under Maclaurin, by whose in- 
 terest he became mathematical tutor to the 
 
 Duke of Cumberland and a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. In 1739 he was employed 
 on a survey of the Orkney islands ; and, on 
 his return to London, obtained deserved 
 celebrity for his skill in the construction of 
 telescopes. Died, 17C8. 
 
 SHORT, Thomas, a physician and me- 
 dical writer, was a native of Scotland, and 
 was educated at Edinburgh. He settled 
 first at Sheffield, but removed to Rother- 
 liam, wlicre he died in 1772. He wrote a 
 variety of works, among which were the 
 " Natural History of Mineral and Medicinal 
 Waters," a " Chronological History of the 
 Air, Weather, Seasons, ^leteors," &c. 2 vols. 
 
 SHOVE!-, Sir Ci.oudeslev, a gallant 
 British admiral, was born near Claj', in 
 Norfolk, about 1050. In 1074 he was a lieu- 
 tenant imder Sir John Narborough, who 
 sent him to the dey of Tripoli with a re- 
 quisition, which the latter treated with 
 contempt. On his return he stated to the 
 admiral the practicability of destroying the 
 enemy's shipping, which service he per- 
 formed the same night without the loss of a 
 man. For this exploit he was appointed to 
 the command of a ship, and he gradually 
 rose in his profession, till he became a rear- 
 admiral. He had a share in the victories off 
 La Hogue and Malaga. While in command 
 of the Mediterranean fleet in 1705, he sailed 
 for England, and in the night of October 
 22nd fell by mistake upon the rocks of 
 Scilly, where his ship was totally lost with 
 some others, and all on board perished. His 
 body being found by the fishermen, they 
 stripped and buried it ; but the fact becoming 
 known, his remains were brought to London, 
 and interred in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 SHOWER, Sir BAnxiioLOMEw, a cele- 
 brated lawyer, was born at Exeter, studied 
 in the Temple, and became so eminent as a 
 counsellor, that James II. appointed him 
 recorder of London. He published " Cases in 
 
 Parliament resolved," &c His brother, 
 
 John, was an eminent Puritan divine, and 
 of very opposite principles to Sir Bartholo- 
 mew. Disgusted with the measures of James 
 II. lie retired to Holland until after the 
 revolution ; and, on his return, he preached 
 at the chapel in the Old Jewry. He was the 
 author of " Reflections on Time and Eter- 
 nity," " The Mourner's Companion." Died, 
 171.-,. 
 
 SHRAPNEL, Lieut.-general HExnr, the 
 inventor of the case-shot known as Shrap- 
 nel-shells, received his commission as second 
 lieutenant in the royal artillery in 1779, and 
 attained the rank of lieutenant-general in 
 1837. Shortly after the siege of Gibraltar 
 he invented the spherical case-shot : this 
 consists of a hollow globe of iron, filled with 
 musket-balls and gunpowder, which, when 
 the shell explodes, are projected about 150 
 yards, and do as much injury as tlie same 
 number of muskets in addition to the effects 
 produced by the splinters of the exploded 
 shell. On the adoption of these shells by 
 the artillery. General Shrapnel was granted 
 a pension of 1200Z. per annum in addition to 
 his regular pay. Died, March, 1842. 
 
 SHUCKFORD, Samuel, a learned divine, 
 who was educated at Caius College, Cam- 
 bridge, and became prebendary of Canter- 
 
siiu] 
 
 ^ f}cfco Huitier^at 33i0ffrnj)I)t». 
 
 [siD 
 
 bury, and rector of Allhallows, ii» Lombard 
 Street. He wrote two works, " On the Cre- 
 iition and Fall of Man," and " The History 
 of the World, Sacred and Profaue." Died, 
 
 nrA. 
 
 SlIUTER, Edward, a celebrated comic 
 actor, whose talents in the delineation of 
 ]>umoron8 cliaracters rendered him a public 
 favourite. Died, 1776. 
 
 SHUTTLE WORTH, the Bight Rev. 
 Philip Nicholas, bishop of Chichester, was 
 born in 1782, at Kirkham, Lancashire. He 
 received his education at Winchester, and 
 New College, Oxford, and was distinguished 
 at both these learned seminaries by his su- 
 perior attainments. For some considerable 
 time he resided in Oxford, and filled tlie 
 situation of tutor to his college ; and when, 
 in 1822, the wardenship of New College be- 
 came vacant, he was unanimously elected 
 to that honourable station. In 1840, Dr. 
 Shuttleworth was promoted to the see of 
 Chichester ; but his episcopal dignity was of 
 brief duration, this able prelate dying in 
 January, 1812. His principal works are a 
 "Discourse on the Consistency of the whole 
 Scheme of Revelation with itself and with 
 Human Reason," " Scripture not Tradition," 
 in which liis objections to Fuseymn are 
 stated with great force and learning ; a 
 volume of excellent sermons, &c. 
 
 SIBBALD, Sir Rodekt, a phj'sician and 
 naturalist, born near Leslie, iu Fifeshire, 
 about 1643. He was physician and geogra- 
 pher to Charles II. ; and contributed to the 
 foundation of the college of physicians at 
 Edinburgh, of which he became the first 
 president. Among his works are, " Scotia 
 Illustrata" and "The Taberty and Independ- 
 ency of the Kincdoni and Chunih of Scot- 
 land." Died, I7T2. 
 
 SIBTHORP, Joiix, a very learned natu- 
 ralist and regius professor of botany in tlie 
 university of Oxford, was a native of that 
 city, and received his education at Lincoln 
 College. After studying medicine at Edin- 
 burgli, he visited France, Switzerland, and 
 Greece, for the purpose of making botanical 
 researches. In 1794 he published "Flora 
 Oxoniensis ;" and left an estate of 300?. a 
 year to the university, in order to defray tlie 
 expense of publishing a splendid work, en- 
 titled " Flora Grajca," and towards the 
 foundation of a professorship of rural eco- 
 nomy. Died, 17i>;. 
 
 SICARD, Rocii-Ambkose Cocurrox, an 
 eminent teacher of the deaf and dumb, was 
 born in 1742, at Fousseret, near Toulouse. 
 On the death of I'Epee, in 1789, the Abbt' 
 Sicard was called to Paris, to succeed him in 
 the direction of the establishment there. In 
 1792 he was arrested amidst his scholars, 
 sent to prison, and was in imminent danger 
 of becoming a victim in the ensuing mas- 
 saci'os. He, however, obtained his liberty, 
 and in 1796 took part in compiling the " Re- 
 ligious, Political, and Literary Annals of 
 France," for which he was sentenced to 
 transportation, but escaped. When this 
 storm had passed away, he resumed his 
 situation as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, 
 which office he held for many years with 
 great credit to himself and advantage 
 to his pupils. He wrote several valuable 
 
 779 
 
 works relating to tuition, &c. ; and died in 
 1822. 
 
 SIDDONS, Sarah, the most celebrated 
 of English tragic actresses, was a daughter 
 of Roger Kemble, manager of an itinerant 
 company, and born at Brecknock, in 1755. 
 She commenced her theatrical career as a 
 singer, but soon relinquished that line, and 
 attempted tragedy. In her 18th year she 
 was married to Mr. Siddons ; wlien she and 
 her husband played at Liverpool and other 
 places, gnining both reputation and profit. 
 In 1775 she tried her powers on the London 
 boards, but was unsuccessful. She then ob- 
 tained an engagement at Bath, where she 
 improved rapidly, and became a general 
 favourite. Time, with study and practice, 
 matured her powers ; and when she re- 
 appeared at Drury Lane, in October, 1782, as 
 Isabella, her success was complete ; und, 
 from that time forward, her theatrical career 
 was one continued trimnph. In 1801 slie 
 transferred lier talents to Covent Garden 
 Theatre ; and in 1812, having acquired an 
 ample fortune, she retired from the stage ; 
 appearing only once again in London, which 
 M-as in 1816, for the benefit of her brother, 
 Mr. Charles Kemble, and a few nights at 
 Edinburgh, to assist her widowed daughter- 
 in-law. Mrs. Siddons possessed every re- 
 quisite, personal and acquired, for the high 
 dramatic walk she had aspired to ; and 
 those who witnessed her in the meridian 
 of her splendid career, can never forget her 
 surpassing intellectual powers, or her un- 
 paralleled dignity of deportment. She died 
 in IS.",]. 
 
 SIDDONS, Mrs. II., for many years the 
 principal actress at the Tlieatre Royal, Edin- 
 burgh, was the daughter of Mr. JIurray, 
 comedian, formerly of Covent Garden, and 
 the wife of Mr. Henry Siddons, son of that 
 distinguished actress, who, like lier brothers, 
 John and Charles Kemble, raised the cha- 
 racter of the British drama, and shed a 
 brilliant lustre on the stage. Mr. H. Siddons 
 died in 1814, leaving his widow and four 
 children ; when Mr. Murray, her brother, 
 kindly undertook the management of the 
 Edinburgh theatre for her, and conducted it 
 with such success, that in 1830 the widow 
 was able to retire from the concern with an 
 ample fortune. The range of characters 
 which Mrs. H. Siddons filled was of that 
 class which may be best expressed by the 
 term " ladylike '' in genteel comedy, and of 
 the gentle and pathetic in tragedy, and in 
 these she excelled. In private life this lady 
 w^as both admired and respected. 
 
 SIDMOUTH, Henry, Viscount, &e., was 
 the eldest son of Dr. Addington, an eminent 
 physician ; was educated at Winchester, 
 and Brazennose College, Oxford ; and was 
 intended for the profession of the law, which, 
 however, he abandoned almost as soon as he 
 was called to the bar, in order to follow the 
 political fortunes of his boyhood's friend, the 
 second William Pitt. Entering parliament 
 for Devizes, in 1784, he in 17K) succeeded 
 Lord Grenville as speaker of the House' of 
 Commons — an honour, we believe, never 
 before or since conferred on so young a 
 member. In this post he remained fur 12 
 years ; during which period he commanded 
 
sid] 
 
 ^ ilefcu HniiJcrsfaX 3Si0flrapI;i). 
 
 [siD 
 
 the respect of both friends and foes, and only 
 ceased to be speaker in order to take, at tlie 
 urgent request of George III., tlie still more 
 arduous post of prime minister. His ministry 
 lasted only two years and four months, but 
 never were an English minister's talents and 
 courage tried during a like space of time by 
 a more perplexing state of public affairs, 
 both foreign and domestic ; and, when cir- 
 cumstances led him to resign, he most 
 honourably supported government whenever 
 he believed its measures to be caloulated to 
 benefit the country. In 1805 he accepted 
 the office of president of the council, under 
 Mr. Pitt's government, and was elected to 
 the peerage. This office he more than once 
 resigned, and re-accepted the office of presi- 
 dent of the council ; but, on the formation of 
 the liiverpool administration, he accepted 
 office as home secretary. The Spa Fields 
 and the Manchester meetings and the Cato 
 Street conspiracy furnish abundant proofs 
 alike of the difficulties against which I^ord 
 Sidmouth had to contend, and of the sagacity, 
 courage, and firmness with which he opposed 
 and overcame them. In 1822, after i>assing 
 nearly 40 years in the public service, he felt 
 the infirmities of age pressing heavily upon 
 him, and finally retired to private life. 
 That he was singularly disinterested no one 
 ever ventured to deny ; more than once he 
 refused a pension, and on one occasion he 
 refused an earldom and the garter — those 
 dazzling prizes for which so many statesmen 
 Imve bartered both personal and political 
 honour. He passed the remainder of life in 
 retirement at his official residence as ranser 
 of Richmond Park. Born, 17.',7 ; died, 1844. 
 SIDNEY, Sir Philip, son of Sir Henry 
 Sidney, of Penshurst in Kent, was born 
 in l.j.>t, and became one of the most ac- 
 complished statesmen and writers of the 
 age. After leaving college, he travelled in 
 France, Germany, and Italy ; and, on his 
 return, he became a favourite of queen 
 Elizabeth, who, in 1576, sent him on an 
 embassy to the emperor Rodolph, the real 
 object of which was to promote a league 
 among the Protestant states, which he ef- 
 fected. In 1581 he distinguished himself 
 in the jousts and tournaments celebrated 
 for the entertainment of the Dukeof Anjou ; 
 and, on the return of that prince to the 
 Continent, he accompanied him to Antwerp. 
 The prince palatine being invested with 
 the order of tlie garter in 1.580, Mr. Sidney 
 was a|)pointed his proxy, when he received 
 the honour of knighthood. In 1585 he pro- 
 jected, in concert with Sir Francis Drake, 
 an expedition against the Sjianiards in 
 America ; and he had gone to Plymouth to 
 embark on the undertaking, when an ex- 
 press mandate from the queen recalled him 
 to court. Her influence also was exerted to 
 prevent him from being elected king of 
 Poland ; " refusing," as Camden says, " to 
 further his advancement, out of fear that she 
 should lose the jewel of her times." He was 
 subsequently appointed governor of Flnsh- 
 ing, and general of the cavalry under his 
 uncle, Dudley, earl of Leicester, who com- 
 manded tlie forces sent to assist the Dutch 
 against tlie Spaniards. On the 22nd of Sep- 
 tember 158(5, he fell in with a convoy scut 
 
 780 
 
 by the enemy to Zutphen ; and though the 
 English troops were inferior to the enemy, 
 they gained the victory ; but it was dearly 
 purchased with the loss of their commander, 
 who, after one horse was shot under him, 
 mounted another, and continued the fight, 
 till he received a ball in the left thigh, 
 which proved fatal. As he was borne from 
 the field, languid with the loss of blood, he 
 asked for water, but just as the bottle was 
 put to his lips, seeing a dying soldier look- 
 ing wistfully at it, he resigned it, saying, 
 " This man's necessity is greater than mine." 
 He died on the 15th of October, and his body 
 was brought to England, and interred in St. 
 Paul's Cathedral, lie was the author of 
 " A Defence of Poesy," " Sonnets and 
 Poems," and the celebrated heroic romance 
 of "Arcadia." Thus perished the gallant, 
 amiable, and accomplished Sir Philip Sid- 
 ney, in his 32nd year, whose fate was the 
 object of general regret, and whose talents 
 and acquirements entitle him to be recorded 
 among the most distinguished persons of his 
 age and nation. 
 
 SIDNEY, Mary, countess of Pembroke, 
 was the sister of the preceding, and possessed 
 kindred talents, which she assiduously culti- 
 vated. She wrote an " Elegy " on her la- 
 mented brother, a " Pastoral Dialogue in 
 praise of Queen Elizabeth," a " Discourse of 
 Life and Death," &c. Died, IGOl. 
 
 SIDNEY, Algernon, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish republican, second son of Robert, earl 
 of Leicester, was born in 1017. He was care- 
 fully educated under the inspection of his 
 father, and early trained to a military life ; 
 served with considerable distinction under 
 his brother. Lord Lisle, during the Irish re- 
 bellion ; joined the parliamentarians on his 
 return, in 1043 ; and, having displayed his ! 
 skill and bravery in several actions, was | 
 ultimately made governor of Dover. When i 
 the high court of justice was formed for the I 
 trial of the king, he was nominated a mem- ! 
 ber ; and although he was neither present 
 when sentence was pronounced, nor signed 
 the warrant for the execution, yet he vin- 
 dicated that measure ; and it is supposed, 
 therefore, that he withheld his signature at 
 the desire of his father. The same principles, 
 however, which led him to oppose Charles, 
 made him hostile to the usurpation of Crom- 
 well, during whose government he retired to 
 Penshurst, and there occupied himself in 
 composing his celebrated " Discourses on 
 Government." In 1059 he was one of the 
 commissioners sent to mediate between Den- 
 mark and Sweden ; and, conscious of the 
 offence he had given the royal party, he re- 
 mained abroad till 1077, when he received a 
 pardon, and returned. In 1683, being im- 
 plicated in what was called the Rye-house 
 Plot, he was arrested, with Lord William 
 Russell and others ; and when arraigned 
 before the chief justice, JefFeries, Ire was 
 found guilty, though the evidence was de- 
 fective, and in every sense illegal. He was 
 executed on Tower Hill, December 7. 1078, 
 and suffered with characteristic firmness and 
 constancy. One of the first acts of the Re- 
 volution was to reverse his attainder ; and 
 I the name of Algernon Sidney has since been 
 j held in honour by the majority of those who 
 
 I 
 
8IB] 
 
 ^ ^tto WiniittviKl JStflcjrajj^t). 
 
 [slM 
 
 maintain tlie fundamental principles of free 
 government. 
 
 SIEVES, Count Emanuel, usually cnlled 
 the Abbe Sieves, was Iwm in 1748, at Fre- 
 jug, where his father was director of tlie 
 post-office. Having finished his studies in 
 the university of Paris, he was one of the 
 grand vicars to the bishop of Chartres ; but 
 at tl»e time of tlie American revolution, he 
 abandoned his ecclesiastical pursuits to 
 enter into the field of politics, where he 
 boldly promulgated new doctrines, and ac- 
 quired very considerable influence. His 
 abilities having soon made themselves 
 known, he was in 1787 named a member of 
 the provincial assembly which Necker had 
 established at Orleans. He advocated t)ie 
 necessity and expediency of calling the states 
 in 1787, and in 1789 publislied his pamjjhlet 
 " Qu'est ce que le Tiers Etat ? " whicli gained 
 immense reputation, and undoubtedly hast- 
 ened the crisis of tlie revolution. Soon after- 
 wards he became one of tlie members for Paris 
 in the states-general ; and it was at his insti- 
 gation that they assumed the name of Na- 
 tional Assembly. In 17U0 he brought forward 
 a project for repressing the licentiousness of 
 the press, and voted for the establishment of 
 civil and criminal juries. When tlie Moun- 
 tain ruled, in 1795, he declined sitting in the 
 convention, but went to Berlin as ambas- 
 sador. After the I8th he was named one of 
 the three consuls ; and frorri that time he 
 remained steady to the constitutional prin- 
 ciples lie first asserted, opposing tlie Jacobins, 
 declining union with Buonaparte, thougli 
 he remained a tacit member of the senate. 
 When Napoleon returned from Elba, he 
 protested against his mockery of a constitu- 
 tion, although Napoleon made liini one of 
 his peers. In 1816 he was obliged to retire 
 from France, in consequence of tlie decree 
 against the members of the convention who 
 voted for the death of the king in 1793, and 
 he took up liis abode in Brussels. After the 
 revolution of 1830, he, like the other Frencli 
 exiles, returned to his native country ; but 
 he never re-appeared on tlie political scene. 
 He died in June, 183(i, aged 88. The Abb^ 
 Sieves, during the various phases of the 
 revolution, published numerous pamphlets, 
 the object of which was to consolidate a 
 settled constitutional government, opposed at 
 the same time to tyranny, dictatorship, and 
 anarchy, and resting on the broadest possible 
 base of freedom. 
 
 SIGAUD DE LAFOND, John Ren- 
 ATUs an eminent surgeon and natural phi- 
 losopher, was born, in 1740, at Dijon, and 
 died in 1810. He devoted himself chiefly 
 to obstetric practice, and projected a new 
 mode of operation in certain cases of diffi- 
 cult parturition. His principal works are, 
 " Elements of Theoretical and Experimental 
 Philosophy" and "A Dictionary of Natural 
 Philosophy." 
 
 SIGNORELLI, LucA, a painter, was born 
 at Cortona, in 1439, and died in 1521. He 
 was one of the first who designed the naked 
 figure anatomically. 
 
 SIGONIUS, Charles, a learned Italian, 
 born in 1.524, at Bologna. He published 
 the " Fasti Consulares," with an ample 
 commentary ; and wrote many esteemed 
 
 works on the ancient republics, &c. Died, 
 1,585. 
 
 SII^ANION, an eminent Greek sculptor, 
 contemporary with Alexander the Great. 
 His statues of Theseus, Achilles, Corinna, 
 and Sappho are among his most admired 
 
 SILIUS ITALICUS, Caiits, a Roman 
 poet, was born a. i>. 15. He became a cele- 
 brated orator and advocate, rose to the 
 dignities of consul and proconsul in Asia, 
 and died at his villa of Tusculum, iu his 
 75th year. He wrote a poem in 10 books, ou 
 the second Punic war. 
 
 SIMEON, Rev. CiiAnLEs, an eminent 
 English divine and theological writer, was 
 born at Reading, in 1759, and was brother 
 to the late Sir John Simeon, hart., recorder 
 of that town, and a master of chancery. 
 He was educated at Eton, and entered at 
 King's College, Cambridge, in 177G, where 
 he made great progress in his theological 
 studies, and received those religious impres- 
 sions for which through life he was distin- 
 guished. In 178."} he was presented to the 
 living of Trinity Church in that university, 
 of which he continued to be the rector and 
 officiating minister during the remainder of 
 his life — a period of .53 years. His works 
 are numerous and highly important. When 
 they were published entire, in 1832, tliey 
 consisted of 21 closely printed 8vo. volumes, 
 containing 2.5aj sermons and skeletons of 
 sermons, which form a commentary upon 
 every book of the Old and New Testament ; 
 besides various tracts and devotional trea- 
 tises. When Mr. Simeon received from Mr. 
 Cadell, the bookseller, the sum of 5(X)0/. for 
 the copyright, he ai)propriated lOOO/. to the 
 Society for promoting Christianity among 
 the Jews, 1000/. to the London Clerical and 
 Education Society, and 1000/. to the Church 
 Missionary Society. The death of this truly 
 venerable pastor took place, Nov. 13. 18.3(>. 
 
 SIMEON OF DURHAM, an English his- 
 torian of the 12th century, who composed a 
 history of the Saxon and other kings, from 
 01(5 to 1130. 
 
 SIMEDN, surnamed Metaphrastes, an 
 ecclesiastical writer of the 10th century, who 
 rose to high employments under the emjie- 
 rors Leo and Constantine Porphyrogenitus. 
 He wrote the " Lives of the Saints," of wliich 
 several Latin versions exist. Died, 976. 
 
 SIMEON, surnamed Stvlites, a ridicu- 
 lous fanatic, born about A. D. 392, at Sison, 
 on the borders of Syria. In the plenitude 
 of ascetic extravagance, he adopted the 
 strange fancy of fixing his habitation on 
 the tops of pillars (whence his Greek ap- 
 pellation), and with the notion of climbing 
 higher and higher towards heaven, removed 
 by degrees from a pillar of six cubits high 
 to one of 40 cubits, and, what is truly 
 wonderful, he was enabled to pass 47 years 
 of his wretched existence u|ion his pillars. 
 Such was the extraordinary folly of the age, 
 that this madness was regarded as a proof of 
 holiness ; and when he died at the age of 
 69, his body was taken down from his last 
 pillar by the hands of bisho[)3, and conveyed 
 to Antioch by an escort of COiH) soldiers, and 
 buried with almost imperial honours. 
 
 SIMONIDES, a Grecian philosopher and 
 
sim] 
 
 ^ ^eh) emlipri^ar 23t0(jr'tp^;»« 
 
 [sin 
 
 poet, was bom b. c. 558, in the island of Ceos, 
 and died, aged 88, at the court of Iliero, Icing 
 •of Syracuse, lie excelled iu lyric poetry 
 and elegv. 
 
 SIMPLICIUS, a pliilosopher of the sixth 
 century, was born in Cicilia. He was the 
 disciple of Ammonius, the peripatetic, and 
 settled at Atliens, where he laboured to effect 
 a union of the different sects, without success. 
 Simplicius wrote commentaries on the works 
 of Aristotle and Epictetus. 
 
 SIMPSON, Thomas, an eminent mathe- 
 matician, was born in 1710, at jSIarket Bos- 
 worth, in Leicestershire, and was the son of 
 a weaver, who brought him up to his own 
 trade, and, perceiving his inclination for 
 reading, took away his books. He in con- 
 sequence left his father, and, after many 
 vicissitudes, one of which was his becoming 
 a fortune-teller, he acquired a perfect know- 
 ledge of mathematics, and rose to be a ma- 
 thematical professor at the Royal Academy, 
 Woolwich, and a member of the Royal 
 Society. He wrote "Treatises on Fluxions, 
 Annuities, and Algebra," " Elements of Gco- 
 metrj'," and other scientific works. Died, 
 
 1761 Simpson's widow, who was allowed 
 
 a pension of 2(iO/. per annum, reached the 
 extraordinary age of 102. 
 SIMS, Dr. James, an eminent physician 
 
 I and botanist, M'as born at Canterbury ; 
 studied medicine at Edinburgh ; removed to 
 
 i Leyden, where he took the degree of M.D. 
 
 I in 1764 ; and afterwards settled in London. 
 He became physician to the Surrey dispen- 
 
 j sary, and also to the charity for lying-in 
 
 I women ; devoting much of his time to, and 
 
 I gaining great reputation by, obstetric prac- 
 tice. Ilis chief works are, " Observations on 
 Epidemic Disorders," " On the best Method 
 of prosecuting Medical Inquiries," and the 
 " Principles and Practice of Midwifery." 
 He was also the editor of the Botanical Ma- 
 
 j gazinc, from vol. xiv. to xlii., and contributed 
 to the Transactions of the Linnaian Society, 
 
 I of which he was a member. Died, 1831. 
 SIMSON, RoBEiJT, an eminent mathe- 
 matician, was born in 1C87, at Kirton Hall, 
 in Ayrshire ; studied medicine at Glasgow, 
 but never practised ; was professor of ma- 
 thematics at Glasgow during a period of 
 nearly half a century ; and died in 1768. 
 Among his works are, " A Treatise on Conic 
 Sections." " The Loci Plani of ApoUonius 
 restored," &c. 
 
 SINCLAIR, Charles Gideox, Baron, a 
 distinguished Swedish general and writer 
 on military tactics. He was engaged in 
 the service of various governments, in dif- 
 ferent parts of Europe, during the wars of 
 the last century; and published "Military 
 Institutions," 3 vols. &c. Died. 1803. 
 
 SINCLAIR, or SINCLAIRE, George, 
 professor of philosophy at Glasgow during 
 the period of the Commonwealth and Crom- 
 well's usurpation. Being a zealous Presby- 
 terian he lost his situation at the Restoration, 
 but was restored to it on the accession of 
 William III. He was distinguished for his 
 researches in philosophical science, was an 
 able engineer, and published treatises on 
 hydrostatics and other branches of the ma- 
 thematics. He was also the author of a 
 book, entitled " Satan's Invisible World dis- 
 
 covered," which was for a long time popular 
 among the Scottish peasantrj-. Died, 169fi. 
 
 SINCLAIR, Sir John, bart., an active 
 and enlightened philanthropist, was born at 
 Thurso Castle, in the county of Caithness, 
 in 17.>i. He received his education chiefly 
 at the High School, Edinburgh, but subse- 
 quently attended the universities of Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, and Oxford. In 1775 he 
 was admitted a member of the faculty of 
 advocates, and was afterwards called to 
 the English bar. In 1780 he was elected 
 member for the county of Caithness, which 
 he also represented in the parliaments of 
 1790, 1802, and 1807 ; and sat for the bo- 
 rough of Lostwithiel in 1784, and for Pe- 
 tersficld in 179f3. For more than half a 
 century Sir John Sinclair occupied a promi- 
 nent station in public life ; and there was 
 scarcely any topic in the whole range of 
 political, statistical, or medical science, 
 which had not encaged his active and in- 
 quiring mind. His reputation as a patron 
 and promoter of agricultural improvement, 
 in particular, was not confined to Britain, 
 nor even to Europe ; the most eminent po- 
 litical economists in America had appreci- 
 ated and eulogised liis valuable labours. He 
 was the originator of the board of agri- 
 culture, which he established in 1793 ; and 
 he also procured the establishment of a 
 society, in Scotland, for the improvement 
 of w-ool : of both these he was the presi- 
 dent. Nor were h'la patriotic exertions in 
 defence of his country less conspicuous 
 than his endeavours to improve its moral 
 and statistical condition. He raised two 
 battalions of 1000 men each, in the counties 
 of Ross and Caithness, which were the first 
 fencible regiments whose services were ex- 
 tended beyond Scotland. To a disposition 
 as truly patriotic and philanthropic as ever 
 warmed a human breast, he added an un- 
 flincliing perseverance, which he evinced 
 not merely by his support of all public 
 institutions that had for their object the 
 amelioration of mankind, but by advocating 
 every useful public measure by his pen. 
 To enumerate the whole of his literary pro- 
 ductions here, would be perfectly incom- 
 patible with our limits ; for during upwards 
 of CO years tliey were incessantly issuing 
 from the press. The " Plans," " Proposals," 
 " Hints," " Observations," &c. of Sir John 
 Sinclair were promulgated unceasingly ; 
 and, though many of them possessed only a 
 local interest, they were not the less useful 
 or meritorious. His principal works consist 
 of a " History of the Revenue of Great 
 Britain," 3 vols. ; a " Statistical Account of 
 Scotland," a work of unexampled labour; 
 " Thoughts on the Naval Strength of Great 
 Britain," " Considerations on Militias and 
 Standing Armies," "Essays on Agriculture," 
 " The Code of Health and Longevity," " An 
 Account of the Northern Districts of Scot- 
 land ; " papers on the " Bullion" question ; 
 and his publication of the originals of the 
 Ossianic Poems, with a " Dissertation." It is 
 said that at the time of his death he had 
 made a considerable progress in a " Political 
 Code" and a "Code of Religion." Died, 
 Dec. 21. 1885. 
 
 SINDIAII, or SCINDIA, M.\hadjee, a 
 
sin] 
 
 ^ |5clM Wimbev^Kl l5tograj|jIjM. 
 
 [six 
 
 bold and ambitious Mahratta prince, was 
 born in Hindostan, about 1741. Lie was the 
 son of a Mahratta officer at the court of tlie 
 peishwa, and was at the battle of Panniput 
 in 17(il, where he was wounded and taken pri- 
 soner ; but made his escape, and took refuge 
 in the Deccan. In 1770 he invaded Hindostan 
 in concert with llolkah, and made himself 
 master of Delhi ; lie also took Agra, where 
 he established a cannon foundry, and was 
 the flrat Indian prince whose trooi)3 were 
 armed and disciplined after the manner of 
 Euroi)ean3. lie was greatly in(lebte<l to tlie 
 talents of Leborgne de Boigne, a French 
 general whom he had taken into his service, 
 and who commanded the army which gained 
 the famous battle of Patan, in 171)0. He 
 possessed an extensive territory, and was en- 
 gaged in schemes of farther aggrandisement 
 at the time of his death, which happened in 
 1794. Uis nephew, Dowla Rao Siudia, suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 SINGU, Maha Rajah Run-iket, chief of 
 Lahore and Cachmire, was born in 1779. 
 Perhaps neither ancient nor modern times 
 can furnish a more striking proof of the 
 power that lies in an iron and energetic will, 
 than is furnished by the singular career of 
 this chief, who from being the leader of a 
 gang of robbers, became the absolute despot 
 of despots ; whose word was law to princes, 
 and who ruled 20,000,000 of men with a rod 
 of iron. Brave, active, and remorseless, his 
 bandit troop swelled its numbers, and be- 
 came an army ; the mere speck of earth 
 which he first seized upon by the right of the 
 strongest, a centre from which he carried the 
 sword or the snare into the dominions of his 
 neighbours. Of education he was so destitute 
 that he could not read ; but he had a very 
 IKjwerful memory, much shrewdness, and 
 great discrimination ; and as he was in the 
 daily habit of being read to in both Persian 
 and Hindoo, it is probable that he was no 
 great loser by his want of early tuition. 
 Accessible to all rauks of his people, he 
 administered justice with the utmost im- 
 partiality, at least when his own interests 
 did not stand in the way of an equitable de- 
 cision ; but in taxing, or, to speak more 
 correctly, in plundering the people who 
 were unhappy enough to fall beneath his 
 swaj', he was absolutely merciless. Avarice 
 seems to have been fully as much his in- 
 centive to warfare as ambition ; for he has 
 been known to undertake a military expe- 
 dition against a distant prince who had the 
 reputation of possessing particularly fine 
 horses, or costly jewels. Among liis im- 
 mensely valuable treasures of the latter kind 
 was the celebrated Khah-i-Xoor, or ]Moun- 
 tain of Light, now in possession of the 
 queen of England. In stature he Mas 
 very short, and the naturally sinister ex- 
 pression of his countenance was much in- 
 creased by the loss of his left eye by the 
 small-pox. His long grey tapering beard, 
 which descended below his breast, gave him 
 something of a venerable appearance. At 
 his death, four of his princesses and seven 
 slave girls were permitted to burn themselves 
 upon his funeral pyre. Born, 1779 ; died, 
 1839. 
 
 SLBI, ViCTOK, an Italian 'monk and an- 
 
 783 
 
 nalist, was born at Parma, in 1613. He 
 published a political journal, under the name 
 of "Memorie Recondite;" which induced 
 Mazarin to invite him to France, where he 
 obtained an abl)ey, and was appointed al- 
 moner and historiographer to the king. 
 Died, IfiS;?. 
 
 SIRMOND, James, a learned French Je- 
 suit, was born at Riom, in 1.559. For several 
 years he taught in the college at Paris ; but, 
 in 1.J90, Aquaviva, the general of his order, 
 called him to Rome, and made him his secre- 
 tary. On his return to Paris, he devoted 
 himself to literary researches, and published 
 the works of several writers in the middle 
 ages, particularly Sidonius ApoUinarius. He 
 died in 1*551, aged 92. 
 
 SISMONDI, CllAliLES SlMOJfDE DE, onc of 
 
 the most eminent of modern historians and 
 political economists, was born at Geneva, in 
 1773. In 1794 the house of his father, who had 
 been an eminent member of the government 
 of Geneva, was pillaged, two fifths of his 
 property confiscated, and both father and 
 son condemned to 12 months' imprisonment. 
 The future historian, as soon as he obtained 
 his release, sought safety and peace in Tus- 
 cany ; but here he was even more unfortunate 
 than in his native country, for the French 
 , imprisoned him as being an aristocrat, and 
 the Italian insurgents imprisoned him as 
 being a Frenchman. In 1800 he returned to 
 Geneva, where in the following year he 
 commenced his career as an author, by the 
 publication of " A View of the Agriculture 
 of Tuscany." His subsequent works have 
 been numerous and varied, including history, 
 political economy, criticism, and biography. 
 But the works by which he is the most 
 w idely known, and which in fact have gained 
 him a European celebrity, are his " History 
 of the Italian Republics during the Middle 
 Ages " (an abridgment of which he wrote for 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopsedia), " History of 
 the Fall of the Roman Empire " (also written 
 for Lardner), and his elaborate " History of 
 the French," 31 vols. 8vo. In 1838 he was i 
 elected one of the five foreign members of | 
 the Institute of France, in the department | 
 of moral and political sciences. M. de Sis- 
 mondi was in principle a rigid republican, ( 
 and so tiuly humane in heart and mild in 
 manner, that he won the esteem of all who 
 knew him. Died, 1842, aged (J9. 
 
 SIX, Joiix, a Dutch dramatic poet, was 
 born in 1618, and died in 1700. The works 
 of Six are remarkable for purity of style. 
 He was the friend and patron of Rembrandt, 
 and his portrait was engraved by that artist. 
 
 SIXTUS v.. Pope, Felix Pekktti, the 
 son of a vine-dresser, was born in l.'i21, at 
 Montalto, in the marquisate of Ancona, and 
 in his early youth was employed in keeping 
 swine. Having obtained admission, as a lay- 
 brother, in the convent of Ascoli, and being 
 afterwards ordained priest, he acquired great 
 popularity by his preaching, and rose, suc- 
 cessively, to be commissary-general at Bo- 
 logna, and inquisitor at Venice, general of 
 his order, bishop of St. Agatha, and a car- 
 dinal. On the elevation of Gregory XIII. 
 to the pai)al chair, he assumed a character 
 of meekness and humility, and took no part 
 in political contentions. He even feigned to 
 
ske] 
 
 ^ Hitb) Slnibcr^al 33tOQrapT)y. 
 
 [SME 
 
 be bowed down with age and infirmities ; 
 and wlien pope Gregory died, tlie interest of 
 the more influential candidates being nearly 
 equal, they agreed to choose Montalto for the 
 present, who appeared incessantly coughing 
 and at the very threshold of death. But no 
 sooner had the tiara been placed on his head 
 than he threw away his staff, and chanted 
 Te Deum with a voice so strong, that the 
 roof of the chapel echoed with the sound. 
 He held the papal chair only five years ; 
 during which period he undertook numerous 
 magnificent works, governed with firmness 
 and talent, and left a large sum in Ills 
 treasury. 
 
 SKELTON, John, an old English poet, 
 was born, towards the close of the 15th cen- 
 tury, in Cumberland ; was educated at Ox- 
 ford, was made poet laureate, and obtained 
 tlie living of Diss, in Norfolk. He was a 
 coarse and caustic satirist, and was obliged 
 to take refuge in the sanctuary of West- 
 minster, in consequence of his satires on 
 VVolsey and the mendicant friars. Died, 
 152!). 
 
 SKELTON, Philip, an eminent Irish di- 
 vine of exemplary character, was born in 
 1707, and was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin. In 1732 he settled on the curacy of 
 Monaghan, in the diocese of Clogher, with a 
 salary of 40/. a year ; out of which he allowed 
 ten to his mother, and ten for the payment 
 of his debts. While in this situation, he 
 published some tracts, one of which, entitled 
 " Proi)osals for the Revival of Christianity," 
 was attributed to Swift. His other works 
 are, " Deism Revealed," 2 vols ; and " Ser- 
 mons," 3 vols. Died, 1787. 
 
 SKINNER, Steimien, a philologist, was 
 born in I<ondon, about 1G22 ; was educated 
 at Christchurch, Oxford ; settled as a pliy- 
 f ician at liincoln, and died in 1CC7. He was 
 author of " Etymologicon Linguse Angli- 
 canoE." 
 
 SLEIDAN, Joiix Philipson, an eminent 
 German historian, was born, in 1500, at 
 Schleide, near Cologne, and completed his 
 studies at the universities of Paris and Or- 
 leans. For many years he was confidential 
 secretary to Cardinal du Bellay ; but on es- 
 pousing the doctrines of the Reformation, 
 he settled at Strasburg, and was employed 
 in various negotiations. Of his works the 
 most important are, "A History of the 
 Reformation " and " A History of the Four 
 Ancient Monarchies." Died, 1556. 
 
 SLOANE, Sir Hans, a distinguished phy- 
 sician and naturalist, was born at Kilileogh, 
 I Ireland, in IGOO, and studied medicine in 
 London, where he settled. He was the first 
 in England who introduced into general 
 I practice the use of bark, not only in fevers, 
 I but in a variety of other disorders. He also 
 I formed a valuable museum of the raiest 
 productions of nature and art, which together 
 I with his library, consisting of upwards of 
 50,000 volumes and 35G0 manuscripts, were 
 purchased of his executors for 20,000/. by act 
 of parliament, and made part of the collec- 
 tion of the British Museum. George I. 
 created him a baronet in 1716, and he was 
 ajipointed physician-general to the army ; 
 on the accession of George II., he was named 
 physician in ordinary to his majesty ; and 
 
 in 1727 he became president of the Royal 
 Society, of which be had previously been 
 secretary. Died, 1752. 
 
 SLODTZ, Re.ne, Michaei-, surnamed 
 Michael Angelo, a sculptor, was born in 
 Paris, in 1705, and died in 1764. One of his 
 greatest works is the monument of Languet, 
 in the church of St. Suli>ice. 
 
 SMALRIDGE, Dr. GEonoE, bishop of 
 Bristol ; an able and elegant theological I 
 writer. Born, 1066 ; died, 1710. 
 
 SAIART, CaitisTOPiiEH, an English poet, j 
 born in 1722, at Sliipbourne, in Kent, was i 
 educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, ! 
 where he obtained a fellowsliip, but vacated 
 it by marriage, and having settled in London j 
 commenced author. The gaiety of his dis- 
 position, and the buoyancy of his spirits, [ 
 rendered him an acceptable companion to I 
 the wits and public writers of the day, with j 
 many of whom, particularly Pope, Johnson, 
 Garrick, and Hawkesworth, he became inti- 
 mate. He translated Pope's " Ode on St. 
 Cecilia's Day," and the " Essay on Criticism," 
 into elegant Latin verse ; wrote a poetical 
 version of the Psalms ; a volume of original 
 poems ; " Hannah," an oratorio ; with several 
 odes, fables, &c. He also gave to the world, 
 translations of the works of Horace, both in 
 prose and verse. Poverty, however, overtook 
 him ; and his distresses, aided by intemper- 
 ance, so unsettled his intellects, that he was 
 placed for awhile under personal restraint. 
 His "Song to David," written in a mad- 
 house, and partly with charcoal, on the 
 walls of liis cell, bears a melancholy attes- 
 tation to the strength of his mental powers, 
 even in their derangement. He died, within 
 tlie rules of the king's bench prison, in 1771. 
 
 SMEATON, John, an eminent civil en- 
 gineer, was born in 1724, at Austhorpe, near 
 Leeds. His father, who was an attorney, 
 was desirous of bringing up his sou to the 
 same profession ; but finding that the law j 
 was not suited to his taste, he wisely per- j 
 mitted him to follow the impulse of his ! 
 genius, and he became a mathematical in- j 
 strument maker. In 175!) he received the | 
 gold medal of the Royal Society, of which j 
 he was a member, for a paper on the power 
 of wind and water to turn mills ; and as an I 
 engineer, he gradually rose to the summit of j 
 his profession. In 1755 the Eddystone 
 lighthouse was burnt down, and Mr. Snieaton 
 being recommended to the proprietors of 
 that building as an engineer in every way 
 calculated to rebuild it, he undertook the 
 work, and executed it in such a manner, as 
 almost to bid defiance to the power of time, 
 or accident. His last public employment 
 was that of engineer for the improvement of 
 Ramsgatc Harbour. Died, 1792. 
 
 SMKIiLIE, William, a Scotch surgeon 
 and physician, who distinguished himself as 
 a lecturer and practitioner in midwifery in 
 London, died in 1763. He wrote a " Com- 
 plete System of Midwifery," and published 
 a set of '• Anatomical Tables, with Explana- 
 tions." 
 
 SMELLIE, William, a printer at Edin- 
 burgh, distinguished also as a man of sci- 
 ence and learning, was born in 1740. He 
 was the translator of BufFon's Natural His- 
 tory, and author of the "Philosophy of 
 
SMl] 
 
 ^ fim duibers'aT JJtoQTfqjI;!). 
 
 [SMI 
 
 1 Natural History," and of many other inge- 
 ! nious works. lie was a fellow of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and was much es- 
 teemed among the literati of his native city, 
 where he died in 1795. 
 
 SMIRKE, RoHEKT, esq., R. A., was born 
 at Wigton, near Carlisle, in 17.')2 ; entered, 
 at the age of 19, as a student at the Royal 
 Academy (then in its infancy) ; wliere in 
 1786 he first became an exhibitor, and in 
 1792 was elected one of its members. His 
 
 Sictures, generally speaking, were of an 
 istorical or imaginative character, his fa- 
 vourite subjects being taken either from tlie 
 sacred writings, English histoi-y, the works 
 of Shakspeare, Cervantes, or other eminent 
 authors. Died, Jan. 5. 1845. 
 
 SMITII, Adam, a celebrated writer on 
 morals and political economy, was born at 
 I Kirkaldy, in Scotland, in 1723. He received 
 i his education first at Kirkaldy school, and 
 I afterwards at the university of Glasgow, 
 I where he became professor of logic and 
 j moral philosoyliy, and took his degree of 
 I doctor of laws. In 17.59, by the publication 
 ■ of his "Theory of Moral Sentiments," he 
 ' acquired a reputation which was greatly 
 I heightened and extended by his " Enquiry 
 into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of 
 Nations," which soon became a standard 
 work in Europe, and may be considered the 
 precursor of the modern science of political 
 economy. Dr. Smith wtvs the intimate 
 friend of Hume, and published an " Apology 
 for his Life," which was severely animad- 
 verted on by Dr. Uorne for advocating 
 sentiments and opinions that, in a religious 
 point of view, were wholly indefensible. 
 Died, 1790. 
 
 SMITII, Charlotte, a novelist and poet, 
 whose maiden name was Turner, was born 
 in Sussex, in 1749. At the age of 16 she 
 married a West India merchant, who was 
 subsequently ruined ; and her pen, which 
 she had used before merely for her amuse- 
 ment, now became the support of her hus- 
 band and family. Her first production was 
 entitled " Elegiac Sonnets and other Essays." 
 After this, she published " The Romance 
 of real Life ; " the novels of " Emmeline," 
 " Marchmont," " Desmond," " Etheliuda," 
 *' Celestine," and " The Old Manor House ; " 
 besides several poems, and tales for youth ; 
 all of which were well received. Died, 
 1806. 
 
 SMITH Elizabeth, a young lady of ex- 
 traordinary accomplishments, the daughter 
 of a gentleman residing at Burnhall, near 
 Durham, was born in 1776. According to 
 I Miss Bowdler's memoir of her, she possessed 
 a knowledge of the mathematics, and an 
 exquisite taste for drawing and poetry ; 
 understood the French, Italian, Spanish, 
 and German languages ; made herself ac- 
 quainted with the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Arabic, and Persian ; and was 
 thoroughly versed in biblical literature. She 
 died of consumption, in 1806. Her trans- 
 lations of the book of Job, and the Life of 
 Klopstock, have been published. 
 
 SMITH, Geokge, a painter, was bom at 
 Chichester, in 1714. He excelled in land- 
 scape, and some of his pieces gained prizes 
 from the Society of Arts. Died, 177G. 
 
 785 
 
 SMITH, Sir James Edward, an eminent 
 English physician and naturalist, was bom 
 at Norwich, in 1759 ; studied medicine at 
 Edinburgh, and took his degree at Leyden, 
 in 1786 ; visited France and Italy ; and, on 
 his return to England, published " A Sketch 
 of a Tour on the Continent," 3 vols., in 
 which there is much information on subjects 
 of natural history. He established the Lin- 
 naean Society, and was its first president ; 
 received the honour of knighthood from 
 George IV., and died in 1828, at his native 
 city, where he had long practised as a phy- 
 sician. Besides his "Tour" before men- 
 tioned, he wrote a " Natural History of the 
 Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia," 2 vols, 
 folio i " English Botany," .le vols. 8vo. ; 
 " Flora Botanica," 3 vols. 8vo. ; tlie "Eng- 
 lish Flora," 4 vols. 8vo. ; and an " Introduc- 
 tion to Botany." 
 
 SMITII, James and Horace, a celebrated 
 literary duumvirate, were the sons of Robert 
 Smith, solicitor to the board of ordnance, 
 and 1 orn respectively in London, Feb. 10. 
 1775, and Dec. 31. 1779. James was articled 
 to his father, was subsequently taken into 
 partnership, and eventually succeeded to 
 his business as well as to his official appoint- 
 ment. Horace became a member of the stock 
 exchange. Perhaps no two situations in life 
 could at first sight appear less favourable to 
 tlie cultivation of the muses than a lawyer's 
 desk and Capel Court ; but James and Horace 
 Smith triumphed over obstacles that would 
 have crushed less genial natures, and went 
 on from step to step till they left their names 
 deeply graven in the literature of their time. 
 Their first effusions were contributed to the 
 Pic Nic newspaper, established by Colonel 
 Greville, in 1802. They also wrote largely 
 for the Monthly Mirror and the London Re- 
 view, and some of their best vers de society 
 appeared in the New Monthly Magazine, 
 while under Thomas Campbell s editorsliip. 
 But the work by whicli the brothers are best 
 known, and by which tliey will be longest 
 remembered, is the " Rejected Addresses," 
 which appeared on the reopening of Drury 
 Lane Theatre in 1812, and of which twenty- 
 two editions have been sold. The popu- 
 larity of this work appears to have satisfied 
 the ambition of the elder brother. But soon 
 afterwards Horace became an indefatigable 
 novel writer. He commenced his novels 
 with "Gaieties and Gravities" in 1825, and 
 ended them with " Love and Mesmerism " in 
 1845; and within these 20 years he alsogave to 
 the public " Brambletye House," " Tor Hill," 
 " Reuben Apsley," " Zillah," " The New 
 Forest," " Adam Brown," &c., all of which 
 were well received. James Smith died in 
 London, Dec. 24. 18u9 ; Horace died at 
 Tunbridge Wells, July 12. 1849. 
 
 SMITII, James, esq., of Deanston, a name 
 intimately associated with agricultural and 
 manufacturing improvement, was born in 
 Glasgow, 1789. While only a youth of 18, 
 he had attained such a thorougli knowledge 
 of all the intricacies botli of mechanics and 
 cotton spinning, that his uncle gave him the 
 entire management of the extensive cotton 
 works at Deanston, in which he was a partner; 
 and he soon afterwards began tojiut in prac- 
 tice on the Deanston farm various schemes for 
 
 3x3 
 
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 ^ ^cU) Sliubnj^al ^tSiasn-cpTjt?, 
 
 [SMI 
 
 tliorough draining and deep working, which 
 have since been so generally adopted. In 
 1831 he published a pamphlet on this subject 
 which attracted great attention ; and since 
 that period he rose so highly in public esti- 
 mation, that he became an authority on all 
 questions connected with agricultural pur- 
 suits. In 1848 he was one of the commis- 
 sioners appointed by Sir Robert Peel to 
 inquire into and report upon the sanitary 
 condition of the manufacturing towns ; and 
 the schemes of improvement which he sug- 
 gested can hardly fail of their effect. Died, 
 suddenly, June 9. 1850. 
 
 SMITH, John-, an English adventurer, 
 was born at Willoughby, in Lincolnsliire. 
 In the wars of Hungary, about 1002, he 
 served against the Turks with such valour, 
 that Sigismund, duke of Transylvania, gave 
 him his picture set in gold, and a pension. 
 After this he went to America, and contri- 
 buted to the settlement of New England and 
 Virginia. Died, 1631. He wrote " A His- 
 tory of Virginia, New England, and the 
 Summer Isles." " Travels in Europe," &c. 
 
 SMITH, John', a pliysiclan, born in 1630, 
 practised in London, and was a fellow of 
 the College of Physicians. He was the au- 
 thor of a clever treatise, called " The Por- 
 trait of Old Age," being a paraphrase of part 
 of the twelfth chapter of Ecclesiastes. Died, 
 1679. 
 
 SMITH, Jotiy, an English divine, par- 
 ticularly versed in northern literature and 
 in antiquities ; born 1659 ; died, 1715. He 
 published an edition of the historical works 
 
 of Venerable Bede His son, George, 
 
 who was born at Durham in 1693, was the 
 author of a book, entitled " Britons and 
 Saxons not converted to Popery." Died, 
 175(5. 
 
 SMITH, Rev. Dr. Joiix, an eminent an- 
 tiquarian and Celtic scholar, was born at 
 Glenorchy, in Argyleshire, in the year 1747; 
 completed his studies at the universitj' of St. 
 Andrews ; and, in 1774, was appointed assist- 
 ant and successor in the parish of Kilbran- 
 don. Lorn, where he preached for 7 years 
 with great zeal and effect. About this time 
 he translated into Gaelic," Alleine's Alarm" 
 and the " Catechisms of Dr. Watts," besides 
 other small works. In 1781 he bc.ame 
 minister of Campbelton. Soon after his settle- 
 ment in this parish, he published his " Essay 
 on Gaelic Antiquities, containing the History 
 of the Druids, particularly those of Cale- 
 donia," " A Disscvtation on the Authenticity 
 of the Poems of Ossian," and a " Collection 
 of Ancient Poems, translated from the 
 Gaelic." In 1783 he published a work on the 
 last judgment, editions of which have been 
 published in England and America. About 
 this time he was associated with the Rev. 
 Dr. Stewart, minister of Luss, in translating 
 the Scriptures into Gaelic. While engaged 
 in trauslating the Scriptures, Dr. Smith, in 
 studying the original, was led to write a 
 concise commentary on the whole of the 
 Bible. In 1787 he published the portion 
 of it which embraced the prophets, and 
 several editions of it were published both in 
 England and America. Home, in his Intro- 
 duction to the Study of the Scriptures, men- 
 tions it with approbation, and says that the 
 
 786 
 
 Bishop of London was in the habit of re- 
 commending it to his clergy. In 1787 he 
 published the "Life of St. Columba, the 
 Apostle of the Highlands," extracted from 
 the Latin of St. Adamnan, &c. About the 
 same time he published a new and improved 
 edition of the Psalms in Gaelic, also a trans- 
 lation of the paraphrases used in our English 
 psalm books. He also published a " Dis- 
 sertation on the Nature and Duties of the 
 Sacred Office." Besides his unwearied labours 
 for the spiritual improvement of the people 
 committed to his care, he was eager to intro- 
 duce among them an improved system of 
 husbandry. With this view, he wrote many 
 essays on the subject, and frequently ob- 
 tained prizes frBVn the Highland Society. 
 He wrote a " Survey of the County of Ar- 
 gvle," of which a second edition was pub- 
 lished. Died, 1807, aged 60. 
 
 SMITH, John, an eminent London banker, 
 and for upwards of 30 years a member of the 
 House of Commons, was born in the year 
 1767. He was first returned to parliament 
 in 1802 as member for Wendover, from 
 1806 to 1818 he sat for Nottingham, and 
 from that time till 1830 he represented 
 Midhurst. He subsequently came in as one 
 of the members for Buckinghamshire, but 
 at the dissolution in 1835 he retired from 
 parliament. He always maintained Whig 
 principles, and gave his support to the re- 
 form party. Mr. Smith was an East India 
 proprietor, and connected with many public 
 institutions. Died. Jan. 1842, aged 75. 
 
 SMITH, JoHx Pye, D.D.. LL.D., F.R.S., 
 an eminent Nonconformist divine, was bora 
 at Sheffield, 1775. He was the son of a book~ 
 seller, and was intended for his father's busi- 
 ness. But his distinguished piety, together 
 with his talents and ardent love of learning, 
 clearly marked him out for the ministry, 
 and he became a student at Rotherham 
 College in 1793. When his own academical 
 course was finished, his scholarship was so 
 distinguished, that he was at once chosen 
 classical tutor of the college ; and the ex- 
 emplary discharge of the duties of that office, 
 together with his theological learning and j 
 the excellence of his character, led to his 
 being invited, at the early age of 25, to ' 
 become theological tutor and principal of | 
 Homerton College, the oldest of the institu- ] 
 tions for training ministers among the In- 1 
 dependents. In January, 1801, he entered ' 
 on the duties of that responsible post, which : 
 he filled with untiring devotedness and the ' 
 highest efficiency for the long space of 50 
 years. Two or three years after his settle- , 
 ment at Homerton, he became the pastor of 1 
 the church assembling at the Gravel Pits I 
 Chapel, and continued to discharge his pas- 
 toral duties in that congregation for about 
 47 years. The mind of Dr. Smith was sin- 
 gularly energetic. There was no depart- 
 ment of knowledge which he was not eager 
 to explore. He was critically acquainted 
 both with ancient and modern languages. 
 From the earliest of the fathers to the 
 latest English, German, or American di- 
 vine, he neglected no author that it was 
 possible for him to read. Besides this 
 he studied both the exact and the expe- 
 rimental sciences. AVhen geology offered 
 
SMl] 
 
 ^ |2cU) ^ffniljcr^al J}t05vai)Tj». 
 
 I 
 
 I its somewhat startling revelations, he em- 
 
 ! braced it as a part of the communications 
 of the Author of nature and of truth ; and 
 b}- his patient investigations he showed the 
 tangible records of creation to be quite in 
 harmony with the word of God. On the 
 
 I publication of his valuable work, " Scripture 
 and Geology," the Royal Society enrolled 
 him as one of their fellows. Dr. Smith was 
 involved in literary warfare with Professor 
 
 I Lee, of Cambridge, on the question of union 
 of church and state ; and with the Kev. 
 Thomas Belsham, and other Unitarians, on 
 the divinity of Christ. Among other works 
 which emanated from liis pen were, " Four 
 Discourses on Priesthood and Sacrifice ; " and 
 he also published a very able statement of the 
 " Reasons of the Protestant Faith, with an 
 Exposure of Popish Errors," which he repub- 
 lished, with a new preface, within a few weeks 
 of his death. But the largest and most 
 
 I elaborate of his publications is that entitled 
 
 1 " The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah ; " 
 a work marked by profoimd and accurate 
 learning and candid criticism, and wliich 
 has received the rare honour of being ad- 
 mitted, though the work of a dissenter, as an 
 
 I authority in the English universities. Dr. 
 Smith was on the side of progress in general 
 
 ; politics ; shrunk not from the public support 
 
 I and advocacy of the repeal of the corn laws ; 
 
 j went to an extreme, even, as many deem it, 
 in respect to some modes of social reforma- 
 tion ; but whatever he did. it was impossible 
 to doubt either the conscientiousness of his 
 princi])les, the purity of his motives, the 
 piety that consecrated the most trivial and 
 the most secular acts, or the philanthropy 
 and benevolence that filled his heart with 
 the force of an irrepressible instinct. Died 
 at Guildford, Feb. 5. 1851. 
 
 SMITH, Miles, a learned bishop, was 
 born at Hereford, in 1508. He was well 
 acquainted with the oriental languages, and 
 was one of the principal persons engaged in 
 the translation of the Bible, to which he 
 wrote the preface. Died, 1(524. 
 
 SMITH, KouEHT, a divine and mathema- 
 tician, born in 1()89, was educated at Trinity 
 College Cambridge, of wliich he became 
 master on the death of Dr. Bentley ; and 
 was mathematical preceptor of the Duke of 
 Cumberland. He wrote " A System of Op- 
 tics," 2 vols. 4to.; and " Harmonics, or the 
 Philosophy of Musical Sounds." Died, 1768. 
 SMITH, Sir William Sidney, G.C.B., a 
 chivalric and far-famed British admiral, was 
 the son of a captain in the army, John 
 Spencer Smith, esq., of Midgham, Sussex, 
 where ho was born, 1704. He received his 
 education chiefly under Dr. Vicesimus Knox, 
 of Tunbridge School; but manifesting a great 
 desire for a naval life, he was sent, before he 
 was 12 years of age, as a midshipman on board 
 the Sandwich, under Lord Rodney. In 1780 he 
 became a lieutenant ; in 1782 a commander ; 
 and, in 1783. obtained post rank, with the 
 command of the Nemesis, of 28 guns. The 
 American war having just been brought to a 
 close, and there being no opportunity of 
 acting in the navy of his own country, the 
 young captain (who was not quite 20) entered, 
 with the permission of his sovereign, into 
 the service of the king of Sweden, who pre- 
 
 787 
 
 [SMI 
 
 sented him with the grand cross of the order 
 of the sword, for the skill and energy he 
 displayed on several occasions, particularly 
 in an attack on a Russian flotilla, a great 
 part of which he destroyed. A peace be- 
 tween Sweden and Russia again threw him 
 out of active life, and he travelled into the 
 south of Europe. Hearing that Lord Hood 
 had got possession of Toulon, he hastened 
 thither, and offered his services. Soon after 
 his arrival it was determined to evacuate 
 the city ; and the destruction of the ships of 
 war, which could not be carried oft", was in- 
 trusted to Sir Sidney, who performed the 
 difficult and hazardous exploit with signal 
 ability. He was now appointed to the com- 
 mand of the Diamond frigate, of 38 guns, in 
 wliich, with a small flotilla under his direc- 
 tion, he greatly annoyed the enemy ; but in 
 a gallant attempt to cut out a ship at Havre- 
 de-Grace, he was taken prisoner, and, on 
 pretence of having violated the law of 
 nations, by landing assassins in France, 
 he was confined for two years in the 
 prison of the Temple, at Paris. At length, 
 by the address and intrepidity of a French 
 officer, named Phillippeaux, and two of his 
 friends, Sir Sidney's escape was somewhat 
 mysteriously effected. An order of the 
 minister of the day was forged, directing the 
 gaoler of the Temple to deliver to the 
 bearers Le Chevalier Sidney Smith, for the 
 purpose of transferring him to another 
 prison ; and having thus far succeeded, he 
 and Phillippeaux proceeded, by means of 
 false passports, to Rouen, and thence in an 
 open boat, to the Channel, where they were 
 taken up by the Argo frigate, which soon 
 landed them at Portsmouth. In 1798 he 
 sailed in the Tigre of 80 guns, for the Medi- 
 terranean, to assume a distinct command, as 
 a commodore, on the coast of Egypt. In 
 March, 1799, he proceeded to St. Jean 
 d'Acre ; and, on the lOth, captured a French 
 flotilla, the guns of which he employed in 
 the defence of Acre, against Buonaparte, 
 who invested it two days after. Many fierce 
 contests followed, and the French repeatedly 
 endeavoured to carry the place by storm ; 
 but the determined valour of the British com- 
 modore and his gallant band, assisted by the 
 troops of Hassan Bey, frustrated every at- 
 tempt. Buonaparte having quitted Egypt, 
 Sir Sidney negotiated with General Kleber 
 for the evacuation of the country, and by a 
 treaty signed at Al Arisch, that desirable 
 event was agreed to ; but, though highly ad- 
 vantageous, the British government refused 
 to abide by it. In 1801 he co-operated, at the 
 head of a party of seamen, with the army sent 
 out to Egypt under Abercromby ; and he was 
 wounded in the battle which proved fatal to 
 that gallant general. On his return to Eng- 
 land he received a valuable sword, with the 
 freedom of the city, from the corporation of 
 London ; and at the general election, in 
 1802, he was returned to parliament as one 
 of the representatives for Rochester. He 
 was subsequently employed in the Mediter- 
 ranean and South America, where his 
 gallantry and skill were conspicuously dis- 
 played down to the close of the war. On his 
 return to England, in 1814, he was presented 
 with the freedom of Plymouth; in the 
 
 .J 
 
SMi] 
 
 ^ ^tio BnibtvM asmsrapljw. 
 
 [SMI 
 
 following year he -was made a knight com- 
 ' mander of tlie Bath ; in 1821, a fulj admiral ; 
 I and, in 1830, he was appointed lieutenant- 
 i general of marines, succeeding therein his 
 I late majesty William IV. We have yet to 
 I notice that, in 1814, he endeavoured to 
 procure, from the congress of Vienna, the 
 I abolition of the slave trade, and a con- 
 I joint attack of the sovereigns upon the 
 1 piratical states of Barbary ; but his laudable 
 exertions proved fruitless. He then formed 
 at Paris an association called the Anti- 
 Piratic ! and there is reason to believe that 
 the objects it expressed and the principles it 
 espoused had considerable weight in render- 
 I ing the subjugation of Algiers a popular 
 I measure in France, if it did not immediately 
 I lead to that event. At the close of the war 
 I Sir Sidney's services were rewarded with a 
 I pension of lOOO/. a year. A more chivnlric 
 : character than Sir Sidney Smith is not to be 
 found among the heroes of modern times ■ 
 and those who recollect his brilliant career 
 will be ready to subscribe to the eulogium 
 passed on him by his biographer, E. Howard, 
 esq., " All his public actions seem to have 
 I been less the offspring of mere military cal- 
 [ culation and naval science, than of the in- 
 tuition of the most romantic courage and the 
 highest moral feeling, always controlled by 
 prudence and intrepidity, that no danger, 
 however sudden, could surprise, and no 
 difflculty, however menacing, vanquish." 
 There was a time when his very name, like 
 that of Nelson, struck terror into our ejie- 
 mies ; and his constitutional activity kept 
 him constantly on the alert to take advan- 
 tage of every opportunity to harass and 
 annoy them. He died at his residence in 
 Paris, on the 2Gth of May, 1840, aged 76. 
 
 SMITH, the Rev. Sydney, M.A., canon 
 residentiary of St. Paul's, rector of Combe 
 Florey, Somersetshire ; who, for half a cen- 
 tury, rendered himself conspicuous as a po- 
 litical writer and critic, was born at Wood- 
 ford, in Essex ; received his education at 
 Winchester College, and was thence elected 
 to New College, Oxford, in 1780. He com- 
 menced his ministry as curate of Netheravon, 
 Wilts ; but relinquished it soon after, in 
 order to travel with the son of Mr. Hicks 
 Beach, M. P. for Cirencester ; which event, 
 and its immediate consequences, he thus 
 humorously describes in the preface to his 
 collected writings: — "When first I went 
 into the church, I had a curacy in the 
 middle of Salisbury Plain. The squire of 
 the parish took a fancy to me, and requested 
 me to go with his son to reside at the uni- 
 versity of Weimar. Before we could get 
 there, Germany became tlie seat of war, and 
 in stress of politics we put into Edinburgh, 
 where I remained five years. TJie principles 
 of the French revolution were then fully 
 afloat, and it is impossible to conceive a 
 more violent and agitated state of society. 
 Among the first persons with whom I became 
 acquainted were Lord Jeffrey, Lord Murray 
 (late lord advocate for Scotland), and Lord 
 Brougham ; all of them maintaining opi- 
 nions iipon political subjects a little too 
 liberal for the dynasty of Dundas, then ex- 
 ercising supreme power over the northern 
 division of the island. One day we happened 
 
 to meet in the eighth or ninth story or flat 
 in Bucclcugh Place, the elevated residence 
 of the then Mr. Jeffrey ; I proposed that we 
 should set up a ' Review : ' this was acceded 
 to with acclamation. I was appointed edi- 
 tor, and remained long enough in Edin- 
 burgh to edit the first number of the Edin- 
 burgh Review." He soon after removed to 
 London, and though the editorial department 
 fell into the hands of Mr. Jeffrey, he con- 
 tinued for many years one of the most active 
 contributors to this celebrated organ of 
 Whig principles. During his residence at 
 Edinburgh, Mr. Smith was minister of the 
 episcopal church there ; and when he settled 
 in London, he became in every sense of the 
 word "a popular preacher," who could at 
 once delight and instruct the crowded as- 
 semblages of wealth and fashion that re- 
 sorted to the west-end chapels. Nor were 
 his oral eloquence, wit, and learning confined 
 to the pulpit alone ; with equal success he 
 displayed his abilities as a lecturer on the 
 belles lettres at the Royal Institution, his 
 fame increasing with every fresh effort of 
 his genius. During the Perceval adminis- 
 tration, Mr. Smith's activity as a political 
 writer was at its height ; and it was thought 
 that the celebrated "and amusing " Letters 
 of Peter Plymley," which he produced at 
 that period, did more in effecting " Catholic 
 emancipation" than any, or perhaps all, of 
 the numerous publications that issued from 
 the press. Throughout his whole career, 
 indeed, he exerted himself in favour of 
 " liberal " measures ; or, if we may use his 
 own words, he " always endeavoured to fight 
 against evil." His last literary efforts were 
 made in denouncing the repudiators of Penn- 
 sylvania. His " Contributions " to the Edin- 
 burgh Review and various other productions 
 of his fertile and witty pen have been col- 
 lected, and have gone through numerous 
 editions ; and, more recently, his " Sketches 
 of Moral Philosophy," or lectures upon that 
 subject, delivered at the Royal Institution, 
 have been published. He died, Feb. 21. 1845, 
 aged 76. 
 
 SMITH, Robert Percy, brother of the 
 Rev. Sydney Smith, was one year his junior, 
 and survived him only about a fortnight. 
 He was a barrister-at-law, and had formerly 
 been advocate-general of Bengal and M. P. 
 for Lincoln. In wit, learning, and original- 
 ity, he was every way fitted for the com- 
 panionship of his critical relative. At 
 Eton he was the intimate associate of Can- 
 ning, Frere, and Lord Holland ; and at 
 Cambridge he obtained the highest classical 
 honours. In 1797 he was called to the bar. 
 He was nine years in Bengal as advocate- 
 general, discharging the duties of his office 
 with credit to himself and satisfaction to the 
 inhabitants. On his return from India he 
 entered parliament as member for Gran- 
 tham ; he afterwards represented the city of 
 Lincoln, and finally retired iu 1820. Died, 
 March 10. 1845, aged 75. 
 
 SMITH, Dr. Thomas, a learned English 
 divine, historian, biographer, and critic ; 
 born in London, in 1638 ; died, 1710. He 
 wrote numerous works, among which is one 
 " On tlie Credibility of theMysteries of the 
 Christian Religion." 
 
SMl] 
 
 ^ ^c£d ?Kntbcri*aT 23t0STHp^i». 
 
 [SNE 
 
 SMITH, Sir Thomas, a learned English 
 statesman, historian, and critic, was born 
 at SaftVon Waldon, in Essex ; and after 
 having been Greek professor and university 
 orator at Cambridge, became secretary of 
 state in the reigns of Edward VI. and Eliza- 
 beth. Born, 1512; died, 1577. His "Com- 
 monwealth of England " is the book by 
 which he is best known. 
 
 SMITH, Wii.i.iAM, LL.D., F.G. S., an 
 eminent geologist, was bom at Churchill, in 
 Oxfordshire ; and at the outset of his career 
 he studied geology and land-surveying. In 
 1806 he published '* A Treatise on Irriga- 
 tion," in which his geological studies and 
 discoveries had enabled him to make some 
 importantly valuable improvements. From 
 this time he rapidly and steadily rose into 
 notice in the scientific world. In 1808 his 
 collection of organic remains was visited 
 and carefully examined by the president 
 and principal members of the Geological 
 Society ; and in the first volume of the 
 society's Transactions, which appeared in 
 1811, his discoveries are prominently and 
 favourably noticed. But it was not until 
 1815 that he gave to the world the long pro- 
 mised and much desired " Delineation of the 
 Strata of England and Wales," in the form 
 I of a handsomely engraved map. This pub- 
 lication led to the purchase, in the same 
 year, by the British Museum, of the whole 
 of his organic remains ; and the task of 
 arranging and describing this curious and 
 valuable collection caused him to publish 
 " Strata Identified by Organised Fossils " 
 and a " Stratigraphical System of Organised 
 Fossils." From 1815 to 1825, Mr. Smith 
 published twenty geological maps of various 
 counties of England, delivered a series of 
 lectures in several provincial towns, and 
 travelled from place to place in search of 
 new facts, having, for a long time, " scarcely 
 any home but the rocks, except one year 
 which he passed at Kirkby Lonsdale, in 
 Westmoreland." In 1835 the degree of 
 LL.D. was conferred upon him by Trinity 
 College, Dublin. But though careful, he 
 became embarrassed ; and it was at length 
 well known to his scienliflc friends and other 
 influential persons, that this excellent and 
 highly-gifted man, now fast falling into the 
 " sere and yellow leaf" of age, was without 
 the means of procuring even the common 
 comforts of life. An application was ac- 
 cordingly made to the crown by his zealous 
 friends, and a pension of KM. per annum was 
 immediately l)estowed upon him. Born, 
 17C9 ; died, 1840, 
 
 SMITH, William, who for 46 years 
 was a member of the House of Commons, 
 and the leading advocate of the Dissenting 
 interest, first entered Parliament in 1784, as 
 M. P. for Sudbury, and in 1802 was returned 
 for Norwich. From the commencement of 
 his senatorial career he was the consistent 
 supporter of liberal measures, and the advo- 
 cate of all reforms calculated to promote the 
 happiness of the human race. Died, 1835, 
 aged 7!>. 
 
 SMOLLETT, Tobias, a writer of varied 
 talents and considerable note, was born at 
 Dalquhurn, in Dumbartonshire, in 1721 ; 
 was apprenticed to a surgeon at Glasgow, 
 
 789 
 
 and became surgeon's mate in a man-of- 
 war ; but quitted the service in 1746, and, 
 settling in London, commenced his career 
 as an author. The tragedy of " The Regi- 
 cide," the " Tears of Scotland," a spirited 
 poem, and " Advice " and " Reproof," two 
 satires, were his first productions. In 1748 
 his novel of " Roderick Random" appeared, 
 which at once rendered him popular ; and 
 it was followed, at intervals, by " Peregrine 
 Pickle," " Count Fathom," a translation of 
 Don Quixote, " Sir Launcelot Greaves," 
 the " Adventures of an Atom," " Humphrey 
 Clinker," a " Continuation of Hume's 1 1 istory 
 of England," and " Travels through France 
 and Italy." In 1756 he established "The 
 Critical Review ; " for a libel in which, upon 
 Admiral Knowles, he suffered fine and im- 
 prisonment. When Lord Bute came into 
 power, Smollett was engaged to support him 
 in a weekly paper, called "The Briton," 
 which soon had a formidable opponent in 
 the "North Briton" of Wilkes, and was 
 unable long to maintain its ground. As a 
 novelist, Dr. Smollett exhibits considerable 
 originality, with much knowledge of life and 
 manners, and an exuberance of humour, but 
 he is open to the charge of indelicacy. As a 
 poet, he appears to considerable advantage 
 in his " Tears of Scotland" and the " Ode 
 to Independence ; " but as a satirist he is 
 coarse and virulent. He died while on his 
 travels, near Leghorn, in 1771. 
 
 SMYTH, William, professor of modern 
 history in the university of Cambridge, was 
 born in 1764. He took his degree of M. A. 
 in 1790, and in 1807 he was appointed to the 
 chair of modern history, wliich he held 
 for 42 years. Most of his life was passed at 
 Cambridge, in a constant train of quiet 
 duties and innocent pleasures. Endowed 
 with a fine taste and correct j udgment, he de • | 
 lighted in nursing the flame of infant genius. } 
 He was among the first to appreciate the j 
 merits of Henry Kirke White, whom he 
 treated during his life with characteristic | 
 kindness, and after his death consigned to j 
 posterity a durable expression of his friend- i 
 ship in the beautiful lines inscribed on the I 
 youthful poet's monument in All Saints' ■ 
 church, Cambridge. Mr. Smyth was himself 
 a poet. In 1806 he published " English ! 
 Lyrics," a volume of elegant poetry, which 
 was very favourably received ; but bis chief ] 
 title to fame are his "l^ectures on Modern I 
 History " and " On the French Revolution," ! 
 and his " Evidences of Christianity." Died ' 
 at Norwich. June 26. 1849. j 
 
 SNELL, RoDoLPii, an eminent mathema- 
 tician and philological writer, was born at ! 
 Oudewarde, in Holland, in 1547. He became '■ 
 professor of mathematics, and afterwards of 
 Hebrew, in the university of Leyden, where 
 he died in 161.3. He published " ApoUonius 
 Batavius," and several treatises on the works 
 
 of Ramus His son Willebkod Snell, 
 
 born at Leyden, in l.VJl, succeeded his father > 
 in the mathematical chair, and died in 1626. i 
 He discovered the law of the refraction of 
 the rays of light ; and undertook the ' 
 measurement of the earth, or a degree of tJie 
 meridian, which Mussclienbroek afterwards 
 corrected. He published some of the works 
 of the ancient mathematicians, and a few • 
 
SNy] 
 
 ^ iSeto ^aiiibcr^al 3Sia0rapTj». 
 
 fsoc 
 
 learned treatises of his own on matliematical 
 subjects. 
 
 SNYDERS, Francis, a celebrated painter 
 of the Flemish school, born at Antwerp, in 
 l."i79. lie stuflied under Henry Van Balen ; 
 and, after visiting Italy for improvement, 
 settled at Brussels, under the patronage of 
 the Archduke Ferdinand. His battles and 
 hunting pieces are admirable, and in the 
 representation of animals none have ever 
 surpassed him. Died, 1657. 
 
 SOANE, Sir Jdir.v, an eminent architect, 
 was born at Reading, in Berkshire, in 1752 ; 
 came to London at an early age with his 
 [ father, who was a builder ; was placed with 
 j Mr. Dance, the celebrated architect, when 
 I about 15, and afterwards acquired more 
 practical experience in the art under Jlr. 
 Holland. In 1772, being a student of tlie 
 Royal Academy, he was awarded the silver 
 medal for the best drawing of the Banquet- 
 i ting House, Whitehall. Four years after- 
 j wards he obtained the gold medal for the 
 best design for a triumphal bridge. Soon 
 I after this he was introduced to George III., 
 : by Sir W. Chambers, and was sent to pursue 
 his studies at Rome, with the customary 
 academy pension of 6(M. per annum for three 
 j years, and the same amount of travelling 
 1 expenses out and home. Here he continued 
 j until the summer of 1780, and during his 
 j sojourn in Italy he studied most assiduously 
 the grand remains of ancient art. On his 
 return to England he was employed on 
 I many public works, as well as private build- 
 1 ings ; and on the death of Sir Robert Taylor, 
 j in 1788, he was appointed arcliitect and 
 surveyor to the Bank of England, but not 
 ' without severe competition, in which there 
 I were 13 candidates. To this success is attri- 
 j butable the superstructure of his subsequent 
 I fortunes. In 1791 he was appointed clerk of 
 the works to St. James's Palace, the Parlia- 
 ment Houses, and other public bnildings ; 
 and in 1795 he was nominated architect of 
 the Royal Woods and Forests, both of 
 which offices he some years after resigned. 
 In 1794, a committee of the House of Lords 
 directed him to consider what alterations 
 could properly be made to render the house, 
 offices, &c., more convenient and commo- 
 dious. He accordingly made all the re- 
 quisite surveys, plans, elevations, &c., in 
 which was first introduced the noble idea of 
 enriching the Hall of Rufus, the Court of 
 Requests, and the Painted Chamber with 
 painting and sculpture, to commemorate 
 great public actions and distinguished talent; 
 but though his designs were fully sanctioned 
 and approved of by the king, the execution 
 of the work fell to tlie lot of the late Mr. 
 James Wyatt. In 1806 he was elected pro- 
 fessor of architecture to the Royal Academy. 
 At this period, and for many years after, 
 Mr. Soane was most actively engaged in 
 erecting or improving numerous public 
 edifices in the metropolis and elsewhere. 
 Among these may be mentioned the Dul- 
 wich Gallery, the National Debt Redemption 
 Office in the Old Jewry, the new Law Courts, 
 &c. In 1821 he made a magnificent design 
 for a new palace, to be constructed on Con- 
 stitution Hill, but Buckingham House was 
 unfortunately preferred. In 1824 he was 
 
 elected architect to the Koyal College of 
 Surgeons, and a member of the Royal So- 
 ciety. In 1826 he built the present Free- 
 mason's Hall, in Queen Street, and gave 
 500?. towards the expense of its erection, 
 having been chosen grand snperintendant of 
 works to the fraternity of freemasons some 
 years before. He subscribed 1000?. towards 
 erecting the monument to his Royal High- 
 ness the Duke of York, and presented StW. 
 to the Royal British Institution, Pall Mall. 
 In 1833 he completed the new State Paper 
 Office in St. James's Park. This was the 
 last of his professional works ; and, having 
 passed Iris 80th year, he retired from a pro- 
 fession in which he had been engaged 60 
 j'ears, and tendered his resignation to the 
 governor and directors of the Bank of Eng- 
 land, in whose service he had been for 45 
 years. He tlien set seriously about the idea 
 he had long formed of bequeathing his large 
 and valuable collection of works of ancient 
 and modern art (valued at upwards of 
 5O,00OZ.). in perpetuity to the nation, for the 
 benefit of students in the arts, and especially 
 for the advancement of architectural know- 
 ledge. This he lived to see completed by 
 act of parliament ; and at his death, which 
 occurred Jan. 20. 1837, his splendid house 
 and museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields became 
 the property of the public. An unhappy 
 difference had for many years subsisted Ijc- 
 tween Sir John Soane and Mr. George Soane, 
 his son. We have understood that it origin- 
 ated in the latter having criticised, with un- 
 becoming levity, some of his father's per- 
 formances ; but whatever might have been 
 the offfence, it is sincerely to be regretted 
 that, to all appeals on behalf of his son, Sir 
 John for ever remained inexorable. 
 
 SOBIESKI, JoHX IIL, king of Poland, 
 surnamed the great for his military genius 
 and warlike exploits, was born in 1629, of 
 an illustrious ' family, at the castle of 
 Olesko, in Poland. In spite of the enor- \ 
 mous disparity of numbers with which he 1 
 had to contend in the Polish wars, from j 
 1648 to 1674, he was often eminently suc- 
 cessful. After coming to tlie throne, in I 
 1674, he led his troops to fresh victories ; \ 
 overrunning Moldavia and Wallachia, and \ 
 crowning all his former brilliant exploits 
 by raising the siege of Vienna, in 1683 ; j 
 whereby Europe was saved from the dread- i 
 ful calamities to be apprehended from an ! 
 irruption of the Ottoman forces. Died, 
 1696. I 
 
 SOCINUS, L.5LIUS, an Italian sectary, was 
 born at Sienna, in 1525 ; studied at Bologna ; 
 and in 1546 became member of a secret society 
 formed in the territory of Venice, on tlie 
 principle of free inquiry. This institution 
 being soon broken up, Socinus quitted Italy 
 to join the reformers in Switzerland ; and 
 died at Zurich, in 1562. j 
 
 SOCINUS, Faustus, nephew of the pre- j 
 ceding, was born at Sienna, in 1539. Having [ 
 imbibed tlie opinions of his uncle, he pro- i 
 pagated them with such zeal, as to become j 
 the founder of a sect called by his name. He '' 
 resided some years at the court of Florence, 
 where he held a civil employment ; but in , 
 1574 he went to Germany, and next to Po- j 
 land, where he strenuously laboured to re- | 
 
soc] 
 
 ^ |2clD CJm'fafriSal 3SiO0rapI)i). 
 
 [sol 
 
 coiicile the differences existing between the 
 linitariun churdies. The tenets of Sociniis 
 diflered but little from Arianisni, by reject- 
 ing the divine nature of Christ altogether, 
 and regarding his mission as merely designed 
 to introduce a uew moral law. lie died in 
 
 low. 
 
 SOCRATES, the most eminent of the 
 Grecian philosophers, and the one who is 
 handed do^ii to us as a model of wisdom 
 
 j and virtue, was born in Attica, b. c. 470. 
 
 ' His father was a statuary, in which em- 
 ployment Socrates was brought up ; but 
 tlie cultivation of his mind was the object 
 nearest his heart, and to that his attention 
 was unremittingly devoted, lie attended 
 the lectures of tlie most celebrated philoso- 
 phers of his time ; and studied the prin- 
 ciples of eloquence, poetry, music, and the 
 matliematical sciences. But the moral 
 improvement of his fellow-men was the 
 end and aim of all his studies and all his 
 e.\crtions. His method of teaching was by 
 proposing to his hearers a series of questions 
 in such a manner as to produce in their 
 minds a conviction of the truth of the pro- 
 position originally advanced ; a mode of 
 argument ever since termed Socratic. He 
 maintained the existence of one Supreme 
 Intelligence, whose providence is over all 
 his works ; and he was equally clear in the 
 existence of a future state, llis system of 
 morals corresponded with these principles ; 
 and his invariable maxim was, that virtue 
 and wisdom are inseparable. Socrates, how- 
 ever, while he taught these truths, and ex- 
 hibited in his own conduct all the temper- 
 ance, forbearance, and self-command, which 
 principally constitute elevation of character, 
 could not altogether divest himselfof the su- 
 perstitious notions of his times. He affirmed 
 that an invisible genius constantly attended 
 upon his own person, warning him of danger, 
 and directing him in the course of life he 
 should pursue. As a citizen he discharged, 
 with exemplary faithfulness, all his public 
 dutief. Three times he served in the army 
 of his country, excelling his fellow soldiers in 
 the ease with which he endured the hardships 
 of their campaigns. The last part of his 
 life occuried during that unhappy period 
 M'hen Athens had sunk into anarchy and 
 despotism, in consequence of the unfortunate 
 result of the Peloponnesian war. Amid the 
 general immorality, hatred, envy, and malice 
 of such an epoch, Socrates was charged, by 
 the infamous Melitus and Anytus, with in- 
 troducing new gods, of denying the ancient 
 divinities of the state, and of corrupting 
 youth, &c. He defended himself with the 
 calm contidence of innocence ; but was con- 
 demned by a majority of three voices, and 
 sentenced to driuk poison. Xenophon de- 
 scribes the scene with much aflFccting sim- 
 plicity. When the cup of hemlock was 
 presented to him, he received it with a 
 steady Jiand ; and after a prayer to the gods 
 for a favourable passage to the invisible 
 world, he serenely swallowed the fatal 
 drauglit. Thus perished, in his 70th j'ear 
 (h. c. 4iK)), a man whom all heathen an- 
 tiquity has pronounced the wisest and most 
 virtuous of mortals. Party enmity for a 
 while pursued his memory ; but at length 
 
 the Athenians became sensible of their in- 
 justice, put to death or banished his accusers, 
 recalled his friends, and erected a statue to 
 his memory. 
 
 SOCRATES, an ecclesiastical historion of 
 the 5th century, lie was born at Constanti- 
 nople, and bred to the bar, whence he ob- 
 tained the name of Scholasticls. lie wrote 
 the History of tlie Church, from the period 
 where that of Eusebius terminates to the 
 year 440. 
 
 SOLANDER, Daniel Ciiaki.es, a natu- 
 ralist, was born in Sweden, in ITM ; studied 
 at Upsal, where he became a pujiil of Lin- 
 naeus, and took his degree of M. D. In 
 1700 he came to England, obtained an em- 
 ployment in the British Museiun, and was 
 electe<l a member of the Royal Society. In 
 1768 he accompanied Mr. Banks (after- 
 wards Sir Joseph) in his voyage round the 
 world with Captain Cook ; and he was sub- 
 sequently employed in arranging and de- 
 scribing the valuable botanical collections 
 whicli were the result of their researches. 
 He was created D.C.L. at Oxford, in 1771 : 
 was made one ot the assistant librarians at 
 the British Museum, in 1773 ; and died in 
 1782. 
 
 SOLE, Antonio, n landscape painter, was 
 born at Bologna, in 1597, and died tliere in 
 1G77. 
 
 SOLIMENE, Francis, a painter and poet, 
 bom ot Naples, in 1057, and die<l in 1747. 
 Philip V. sat to him for his portrait ; and the 
 emperor Charles VI. conferred on him the 
 honour of knighthood. 
 
 SOIJNUS, Cails Julius, a grammarian 
 in the Krd century. He compiled from the 
 nattiral history of Pliny a collection, entitled 
 " Polyhistor," an edition of which was pub- 
 lislied by Salmasius. 
 
 SOLIS, Antonio de, a Spani.sh poet and 
 historian, was born at Placenza, in Old Cas- 
 tile, in ](!I0 ; was appointed historiographer 
 of the Indies, and wrote the " History of 
 the Conquest of Mexico." His other Morks 
 consist of dramas, poems, and letters. At 
 the latter part of his life, De Soils entered 
 into orders, and died in 1G86. 
 
 SOLON, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 and the celebrated legislator of Athens, was 
 born at Salamis, in the 6th century b. c. 
 Inheriting but a small patrimony, he had 
 recourse to commerce ; but at the same time 
 he ajiplied himself to the study of moral and 
 political wisdom, and soon became distin- 
 guislicd by his superior knowledge in state 
 affairs. After having enhanced the glory of 
 his country by recovering Salamis, he re • 
 fused the sovereignty of Athens ; but being 
 chosen archon by acclamation, b. c. 594, he 
 set himself down to the task of improving 
 the condition of his countrymen. He abo- 
 lished most of the cruel laws of Draco, and 
 formed a new constitution, founded on the 
 principle that the supreme power resided in 
 the peo{)le. When Solon had completed his 
 laws, he caused them to lie engraved on 
 wooden cylinders, and bound the Athenians 
 by an oath not to make any changes in his 
 code for ten years. He then left the country, 
 to avoid being obliged to make any altera- 
 tions in them ; and visited Egypt, Cyprus, 
 and Lydia. On his return, ofler an absence 
 
sol] 
 
 ^ 0cbi BnibcvSaX 3Jiogi7tjpI;i). 
 
 [sot 
 
 of ten yeara, he found the state torn by party 
 violence, and his kinsman Pisistratus aiming 
 at tlie sovereignty. He tlien withdrew from 
 Alliens, and is supposed to have died at 
 Cyprus, aged 80. 
 
 SOLVYNS, Fkancis BAi.TiiASAn, an able 
 artist, born at Antwerp, in 1760. lie accom- 
 panied Sir Home Popham in a voyage to the 
 Red Sea and the East Indies ; and having 
 arrived at Hindostan, lie studied the lan- 
 guages, manners, customs, and religion of 
 the Hindoos, that he might be able accu- 
 rately to illustrate them by liis pen and 
 pencil. After an aV)sence of 15 years, he 
 returned to Europe, settled at Paris, and 
 published, as the result of his labours, " Lea 
 Hindous, ou Description pittoresque des 
 Moeurg, Costumes, et Ceremonies Religieuses 
 de ce Peuple," 4 vols, folio. He died at 
 Antwerp, in 1824. 
 
 SOMBREUIL, Charles Verot de, a 
 French royalist officer, who, at the com- 
 mencement of the revolution, distinguished 
 himself by his courageous defence of the 
 monarchy. He afterwards served in the 
 I emigrant armies ; and having the command 
 I of part of the forces in the unfortunate 
 ! expedition to Quiberon, in 1794, was taken 
 prisoner, tried before a military commission, 
 I and shot. 
 
 SOMERS, JoHX, Lord, a distinguished 
 statesman and lawyer, was bom at VVor- 
 I cester, in 1652. He passed some time as 
 i clerk to a barrister, and, when called to the 
 I bar himself, evinced talents of a high order. 
 ] He made himself conspicuous by his oppo- 
 ! sition to the measures of Charles 11. and 
 James II. ; and acquired great credit as one 
 [ of the counsel for the seven bishops. He 
 strenuously promoted the revolution, and 
 I sat, as one of the representatives for Wor- 
 ! cester, in the convention parliament. He 
 j became, successively, solicitor-general, at- 
 j torney-generul, lord keeper, and, in 1605, 
 lord high chancellor of England, with the 
 ! title of lord Somers, baron Evesham. After 
 I the death of William III., Lord Somers 
 j spent his time in literary retirement, and 
 I was chosen president of the Royal Society. 
 In 1706 he drew up a plan for eifecting an 
 union between England and Scotland, 
 which was so much approved, that Queen 
 Anne appointed him one of the commis- 
 sioners to carry it into execution. Upon a 
 change of ministry, in 1708, he was nomi- 
 nated president of the council. He died 
 in 1716, having earned a high character for 
 political purity and legal ability. He was 
 also deservedly esteemed as a patron of men 
 of letters. 
 
 SOMERVILLE, William, the author of 
 " The Chase " and other poems, was born at 
 Edston, in Warwickshire, in 1602, where he 
 inherited a considerable paternal estate, on 
 which he chiefly lived, mingling an ardent 
 attachment to the sports of the field with 
 the studies of a man of letters. Died, 1742. 
 SOMNER, William, a learned antiqua- 
 rian, was born at Canterbury, in 1606. He 
 was the author of " The Antiquities of Can- 
 terbury," a " Saxon Dictionary," and a 
 " Treatise on Gavelkind." Died, 1669. 
 
 SONNERAT, Peter, a naturalist and 
 traveller, was bom at Lyons, about 1745. 
 
 After making several voyages to the East 
 Indies, Malacca, the Philippine Islands, &c., 
 he returned to France with a rich collection 
 of natural curiosities, wrote narratives of 
 his voyages to Kew Guinea, the East Indies, 
 and China ; and died in 1814. 
 
 SONNINI DE MANONCOURT, Charle-s 
 Nicholas Sigisbert, an eminent French 
 traveller and naturalist, was born at Lune- 
 ville, in 1751 ; studied the law, which he 
 relinquished for the military profession ; 
 and being sent to Cayenne as an officer of 
 marine engineers, he was enabled at the 
 same time to gratify his love of travelling 
 and taste for natural history. He assisted 
 Buffon in his account of foreign birds, visited 
 different parts of the European and African 
 continents, and employed himself in various 
 scientific researches till the commencement 
 of the revolution, when he narrowly escaped 
 from the tyranny of Robespierre. Under 
 the consular and imperial governments he 
 was unable to obtain any employment, in 
 consequence of the prejudices entertained 
 against him by Buonaparte ibr his remarks 
 on the Egyptian expedition. Among the 
 works of Sonnini are, " Travels in Egypt," 
 " Travels in Greece and Turkey," and an 
 edition, in 127 vols. 8vo., of Buffon'a Natural 
 History. He also assisted in the Diction- 
 nairc d'Histoire Naturelle, 24 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and was conductor of the Bibliothi'que Phy- 
 sico-econoniique. Died, 1811. 
 
 SOPHOCLES, a celebrated tragic poet, 
 who carried the Greek drama to jierfection, 
 was bom at Athens, about 496 b. c. In his 
 95th year he is said to have expired from 
 excessive joy, in consequence of the unex- 
 pected success of one of his dramas at the 
 Olympic games. Of his numerous plays, 
 only seven have reached modern times, but 
 they are sufl^iciently meritorious to establish 
 Ills fame. 
 
 SORBONNE, Robert he, founder of the 
 college of that name at PaJ^is, was born in 
 1201. He was confessor and chaplain to St. 
 Louis, who gave him the canonry of Cam- 
 bray. He died in 1274. 
 
 SOSIGENES, an astronomer of Egypt, 
 who was invited to Rome by Julius CiEsar, 
 for the reformation of the calendar. He 
 fixed the year at 365 days, called the Julian 
 year, which commenced b. c. 45. No farther 
 particulars respecting him are known, nor 
 are anv of his works extant. 
 
 SOSTRATUS, an eminent architect, who 
 flourished in the 3rd century b. c, and was 
 patronised by Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
 Among his works was the famous Pharos, 
 or light-house of Alexandria, which is said 
 to have cost 800 talents, and was reckoned 
 one of the wonders of the world. 
 
 SOTHERON, Admiral Fraxk, a gallant 
 English officer. His services during several 
 years of the hottest warfare procured him 
 the distinguished honour of being intrusted 
 by Loid Nelson with the defence of the bay 
 of Naples at the time of tlie French usurpa- 
 tion there ; and the admirable arrange- 
 ments made by him prevented the tremen- 
 dous mischief which the slightest want of 
 prudence would have given rise to. He was 
 of a very wealthy landed family in Notts 
 and Yorkshire, which former county he for 
 
sou] 
 
 ^ fitbi ^m'ber^al SSiograjpl^w. 
 
 [sou 
 
 Bome years represented in parliament. Born, 
 1707 ; died, 1«;!9. 
 
 SOUFFliOT.JAJiEsGEnMAiy, an eminent 
 French arcliitect, born in 1713. He studied 
 at Rome, and after travelling in Italy and 
 the Levant, to examine the remains of an- 
 tiquity, he settled at Lyons, where he built 
 an exchange and hospital, which gained him 
 ao much credit, that he was called to Paris, 
 and made superinlendant of the royal build- 
 ings. His principal work is the church of 
 St. G(?n<?vi6ve. He was a knight of the order 
 of St. Michael, and died in 17S0. 
 I SOUTH, KoBERT, an eminent divine, was 
 born at Hackney, in ItJSS ; and educated at 
 i Westminster School, and Christchurch, Ox- 
 ford. In ICCO he was chosen public orator 
 of the university, and successively became 
 chai>lain to the Earl of Clarendon, prebend- 
 ary of Westminster, canon of Christchurch, 
 and rector of Islip, in Oxfordshire. lu 1C93 
 he carried on a controversy with Slierlock, 
 on the doctrine of the Trinity, when both 
 disputants were charged with heresy, for at- 
 tempting to explain an indefinable mystery. 
 He was a man of great wit, and did not spare 
 to display' it even on serious occasions. His 
 " Sermon's " possess the merit of earnestness 
 and originality. Died, 1716. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, an ignorant fe- 
 male fanatic, was bom in the west of Eng- 
 land, of parents in humble life, in 1750. 
 When about 40 years of age, she assumed 
 the airs of a prophetess ; and her numerous 
 converts, who are said at one time to have 
 amounted to at least ltX),000, put implicit 
 faith in her wild and blasphemous rhap- 
 sodies. She described herself as the woman 
 spoken of in the book of Kevclations ; and, 
 although in the highest degree Uliterate, 
 she scribbled a mass of unintelligible non- 
 sense, which she dignified by the title of 
 prophetic inspirations, while she carried on 
 a lucrative trade in the sale of seals, which 
 were, under certain conditions, to be the 
 passports to eternal salvation. At length, 
 after having passed her grand climacteric, 
 she was attacked with a disease which had 
 the outward appearance of pregnancy, and 
 she boldly announced to the world that she 
 j was destined to be the mother of the pro- 
 ; mised Shiloh. So fully persuaded, indeed, 
 j were her deluded followers of its truth, that 
 I they made the most splendid preparations 
 ' for the reception of the miraculous babe that 
 superstition and credulity could suggest ; 
 when, about the end of 1814, her death put 
 an end to their expectations. The body of 
 Joanna underwent an anatomical examina- 
 tion after her death, when the extraordinary 
 appearance of her shape was fully accounted 
 for on medical principles ; but the belief in 
 her divine mission was not eradicated from 
 the minds of her votaries, and the sect is not 
 even yet wholly extinct. 
 
 SOUTHERN, Thomas, an eminent dra- 
 matic poet of the age of Charles II., was 
 born in Dublin, in 16C0 ; became a servitor 
 in Pembroke College, Oxford ; and then 
 settled in London. He wrote the " Persian 
 Prince," " Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage," 
 " Oroonoko," tragedies ; the " Disappoint- 
 ment," the " Rambling Lady," and the 
 " Wife's Excuse," comedies. His tragedy 
 
 703 
 
 of "Isabella" is one of the moet pathetic 
 and effective dramas in the language. He 
 held a commission in the army, which with 
 his writings produced him a handsome com- 
 petency ; and he died, aged iiC>, in 1740. 
 
 SOUTHEY, RoBEUT, was the son of a 
 respectable linendraper, and was born at 
 Bristol, in 1774. After receiving the rudi- 
 ments of education at the hands of country 
 schoolmasters, he was sent to Westminster 
 School, and thence to Baliol College, Ox- , 
 ford ; his early display of more than ordinary 
 talents and a corresponding steadiness of 
 character having led his friends to choose 
 the church as his destination. At Oxford, 
 however, he remained but two j-ears, the 
 then unsettled state of his opinions as to 
 both church and state causing him to quit 
 the university, and wholly renounce the 
 idea of taking orders, in the year 1794. 
 After travelling in Spain and Portugal, and 
 residing in Ireland as secretary to Mr. Corry, 
 he having for some time been married, he 
 at length settled at Keswick, in Cumber- 
 land, in 1803. He was already pretty ex- 
 tensively known as the author of " Joan of 
 Arc," "Wat Tyler," "Lines on Bradshaw 
 the Regicide," and other pieces, which in- 
 dicated more political and poetical fire than 
 political judgment or personal prudence, and 
 in settling at Keswick he commenced an 
 almost unexampled career of industry on 
 literary composition of every description : 
 his ovei-flowing mind and ready pen being 
 equal to whatever could be demanded of 
 them, a mere list of his separate publications 
 would form a long article, not to speak of 
 his numerous and elaborate contributions 
 to the Quarterly Review. But though he 
 wrote so much, he wrote everything both 
 carefully and well. His biographies espe- 
 cially are admirable ; that of the great Nel- 
 son is, perhaps, the most perfect biography 
 in our language ; while that of Wesley is 
 highly appreciated both by churchmen and 
 dissenters, for its candour and impartiality. 
 Such a mind as Southey's could not long 
 be overcast ; and he had not long been 
 known as the writer of some ill-judged poems, 
 ere he found out his errors, and became 
 the eloquent and efflcient defender of the 
 church and of the throne ; and he continued 
 to delight and instruct the reading world by 
 his genius, and to astonish both the reading 
 and writing world by his industry, until 
 1840, when the intense labours of a long life 
 at length overpowered even his fine mind, 
 and he remained in a state of mental dork- 
 ness to the day of his death. He had re- 
 ceived the appointment of poet laureate in 
 1813, and in 1835 he received a i)ension of 
 300/. per aunum. His poetical works, col- 
 lected in a large volume, enjoy great popu- 
 larity ; and his admirable philosophic gos- 
 xipping romance "The Doctor," &c., which 
 was published anonymously (also in one 
 volume), must long continue to be the wonder 
 and delight of the reading and the thinking 
 world. His " Common Place Book," a post- 
 humous publication in 4 vols. 8vo., is a 
 marvellous monument of his reading and 
 research. 
 
 SOUTHWELL, Robkht, an English Je- 
 suit and poet, was born in 15C0 ; studied at 
 
sou] 
 
 ^ i9c£D SUm'tJcriSaT 3Siofirajpl)i). 
 
 [SPE 
 
 Rome, and afterwards returned to England 
 as a missionary. In 1592 he was sent to 
 prison, where he remained three years before 
 he was brought to trial, when, owning that 
 he came to England in order to propagate 
 the Catholic religion, he was condemned 
 and executed, in 1595. He was the author 
 of several poems possessing considerable 
 merit. 
 
 SOUZA, JoHX DE, a Portuguese historian, 
 born at Damascus, in Syria, about 17aO, and 
 died at Lisbon, in 1812. lie was employed 
 as secretary interpreter to the Spanish am- 
 bassador at Morocco, and published some 
 etymological works, explanatory of the con- 
 nection between Arabic and Portuguese. 
 
 SOWERBY, James, a naturalist and ar- 
 tist, was born in 176(5. He was originally a 
 drawing-master, but subsequently acquired 
 considerable reputation both as a botanist 
 and mineralogist, and published several 
 works on each science, which he illustrated 
 by his pencil. Died, 1822. 
 
 SPAENDONCK, Gexaud van, an emi- 
 nent flower and miniature painter, was born 
 in 1746, at Tilburg, in Holland settled at 
 Paris, where he became miniature painter to 
 the king, and professor of iconography at the 
 Jardin des Plantes. Died, 1822. 
 
 SPALDING, John Joachim, a celebrated 
 Swedish divine and author, born in 1714. 
 He wrote several able works : the " Desti- 
 nation of Man," "Religion the most im- 
 portant Affair of Mankind," &c. Died, 1804. 
 
 SPALLANZANI, Lazarus, an eminent 
 naturalist, was born at Scandiano, in Italy, 
 in 1729. He studied at Modena, and next 
 at Bologna, where his cousin, Laura Bassi, 
 was at that time one of the most distin- 
 guished professors in Italy, After having 
 held professorships at Reggio and Modena, 
 he became professor of natural history, and 
 director of the museum, at Pavia, where he 
 devoted himself to experimental researches 
 into nature, and published many valuable 
 works on physiology. He travelled over a 
 great part of Europe and Asia, and was 
 enrolled among the associates of numerous 
 societies. Died, 1798. His principal works 
 are, " Experiments on the Reproduction 
 of Animals," an " Essay upon Animalcula j 
 in Fluids," "Microscopical Experiments," 
 " Travels in the Two Sicilies and the Appe- 
 nines," 6 vols. ; and an elaborate " Cor- 
 respondence" with the most celebrated na- 
 turalists of the age. 
 
 SPANHEIM, Fkederic, professor of 
 divinity at Leyden ; autiior of " Exerci- 
 tationes de Gratia Universal!," and other 
 learned works. Born, 1600 ; died, 1649. 
 
 SPANHEIM, EzEKiEL, a learned writer 
 and statesman, was the eldest son of the 
 preceding, and born in 1029, at Geneva, 
 ■where he was appointed professor of elo- 
 quence at the age of 20. He soon after 
 became tutor to the son of Charles Louis, 
 elector palatine, who employed him in 
 several important missions. After the peace 
 of Ryswick he was sent as ambassador to 
 France, and from thence to England, where 
 he died in 1710. His principal works are, 
 " De Pra;stantia et Usu Numismatum anti- 
 quorum," 2 vols. ; and "Letters and Disser- 
 tations on Medals." 
 
 SPARRMAN, Andrew, a Swedish na- 
 turalist and traveller, was bom about 1747, 
 and studied at Upsal, where, by his atten- 
 tion to natural history, he attracted the 
 notice of Linnjeus. He visited China and 
 the Cape of Gooil Hope, penetrated a con- 
 siderable distance into tlie interior of South- 
 ern Africa, and accompanied Captain Cook 
 on one of his voyages. He wrote narratives 
 of his travels, and died at Stockholm, in 
 1820. 
 
 SPARROW, Anthonv, bishop of Nor- 
 wich, in the time of Charles II., was a pre- 
 late distinguished for his learning, piety, 
 and benevolence : and is known as a wiiter 
 by his " Rationale of the Book of Common 
 Prayer." Died, 1685. 
 
 SPARTACUS, a Thracian general, who 
 had been taken by the Romans, and made 
 a gladiator ; but escaping with a few of his 
 companions from his tyrants, he rallied 
 round his standard a formidable army, and 
 repeatedly defeated the Roman forces. He 
 was at length slain, B. c. 71. 
 
 SPEED. JoHX, a well-known English 
 chronologist, historian, and antiquary, bom 
 in ir)55. He is the author of " The Theatre 
 of the Empire of Great Britain," " A Cloud 
 of Witnesses," and " Tlie History of Great 
 Britain, from Julius Cassar to James I." 
 Died, 1629. 
 
 SPELMAN, Sir Henry, an eminent 
 English historian and antiquary, was born 
 at Congham, in Norfolk, in 1561. James I. 
 frequently employed him on public busi- 
 ness, and he received the honour of knight- 
 hood for his services. He died in 1641, leav- 
 ing many valuable works, among which his 
 "Glossarium Archaeologicum" and " Vil- 
 !are Anglicanum" are .'itill highly esteemed. 
 
 His son, Sir JoH.v Spei.man, inherited 
 
 his father's taste for archajological inquiries, 
 and was the author of a " Life of Alfred the 
 Great." He was knighted by Charles I., 
 and died at Oxford, in 1643. 
 
 SPENCE, Joseph, a divine and critic, 
 was born in 1698, and received his eilucation 
 at Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship, 
 and was elected professor of poetry. He 
 afterwards held the living of Great Hor- 
 wood, and a prebend in Durham cathedral. 
 He wrote an " Essay on Pope's Odyssey," 
 but his principal work is entitled "Poly- 
 metis ; or, an Inquiry into the Agreement 
 between the Works "of the Roman Poets 
 and the Remains of Ancient Artists." The 
 " Anecdotes collected by him, concerning 
 eminent Ijterary Characters," have been 
 published. His death, which happened in 
 1768, was occasioned by his having acci- 
 dentallv fallen into a pond. 
 
 SPENCER, Dr. John, an ingenious and 
 learned English divine and critic, was bora 
 in 1630, at Boughton, in Kent ; became mas- 
 ter of Corpus Christi College, archdeacon of 
 Sudbury, and dean of Ely ; and died in 
 1695. His principal and most erudite work 
 is, "De Legibus Hebraeorum Ritualibus et 
 earum Rationibus." 
 
 SPENCER, John Charles, Earl (better 
 known as Viscount Althokf), was born in 
 1782, and was educated at Harrow and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. He first en- 
 tered the House of Commons as member for 
 
^ ^tta WiixihtvitiX aSiograplby. 
 
 [SPI 
 
 Northampton ; but from the year 1806 to 
 1834, wlien he 8uccee<led to "the peerage, 
 he represented the county of Northampton, 
 generally supporting all the important mea- 
 sures advocated by the Whig party. Shortly 
 after the accession of William IV. he was 
 made chancellor of the exchequer ; and, 
 though he was occasionally convicted of 
 making erroneous calculations, yet in bring- 
 ing forward the financial details he showed 
 eiugular industry and candour. He was 
 manly, liberal, straightforward, and disin- 
 terested ; his honesty of purjwse was never 
 questioned ; but he possessed not the phy- 
 sical powers requisite for a good orator. In 
 another and a very different sphere of action, 
 however, he was unrivalled. The improve- 
 ment of agriculture was at all times his great 
 aim ; and when he retired from oflSce, he 
 applied himself with zeal and energy to the 
 practice and encouragement of that great 
 branch of our national prosperity. To liis 
 exertions the establishment of the Royal 
 Society of Agriculture was mainly owing ; 
 ajid he was present at nearly all the great 
 agricultural meetings throughout the coun- 
 try ; promoting the general good by his 
 example, either as the president or as an 
 exhibitor of prize cattle, the patron of me- 
 chanical and scientific improvements, or as 
 the generous rewarder of the labourer's skill 
 and iiidnstry. Died, Oct. 1. 1845. 
 
 SPENCER, tlie Hon. William Robeht, 
 the Ijest writer of vers de socidti in his 
 time, was the younger son of I.ord Charlcg 
 Spencer, and was born in 1770. lie wvs 
 educated at Harrow and Oxford ; and in 
 17tK> published a translation of BUrger's 
 Lenore, l;eautifully illustrated by Lady 
 Diana Beauclerc. In proof of his astonish- 
 ing power of memory, it is gravely asserted 
 that he undertook, for a wager, to get 
 the whole contents of a newspaper by rote, 
 which he won, by repeating it without 
 the omission of a single word. He held 
 the situation of a commissioner of stamps. 
 Died, \^H. 
 
 SPENSER, Edmund, one of the most 
 illustrious among our early poets, was born 
 in London, about 1553 ; was educated at 
 Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and, on leaving 
 the university, took up his resi<lence with 
 some relations in the north of England, 
 probably as a tutor. In 1580 he accom- 
 panied Lord Grey de W^ilton, viceroy of 
 Ireland, as his secretary, and procured a 
 grant of 3028 acres in tlie county of Cork, 
 out of the forfeited lands of the Earl of 
 Desmond ; on which, however, by the 
 terms of the gift, he was obliged to become 
 resident. He accordingly fixed his residence 
 at Kilcolman, in the county of Cork, where 
 he was visited by Sir Walter Raleigh, who 
 became his patron in lieu of Sir Philip 
 Sidney, then deceased, and whom he cele- 
 brates under the title of the "Shepherd of 
 the Ocean." Sir Walter persuaded him 
 to write the" Faerie Queen," the first edition 
 of which was printed in 1590, and presented 
 to Elizabeth, wiio granted the poet ai^ension 
 of !M. per annum. In l.'jOo he published 
 his pastoral of "Colin Clout's come home 
 agaiu ; " and. the year following, the second 
 part of his "Faerie Queen ; " but the poem, 
 
 7»S 
 
 according to the original plan, was never 
 completed. About this time Spenser pre- 
 sented to the queen his " View of the State 
 cf Ireland," being the clerk of the council 
 of the province of Munster. In l.'W he 
 returned to Ireland ; but when the rebellion 
 of Tyrone broke out, he was obliged to fly 
 with such precipitancy, as to leave behind 
 his infant child, whom the merciless cruelty 
 of the insurgents burnt with the house. The 
 unfortunate poet came to England with a 
 heart broken by these misfortunes, and died 
 at Westminster, January 16. 1598-9. His 
 remains were interred at the expense of the 
 Earl of Essex, in Westminster Abl)ey, where 
 tlie Countess of Dorset raised a monument 
 to his memory. 
 
 SPIELMANN, James Reinhold, an emi- 
 nent chemist, was born at Strasburg, in 
 1722. He became professor of chemistry at 
 his native place, where, by his means, a 
 botanic garden was established. He held 
 also the chair of poetry three years. Among 
 his works are, "Elementa Chimiae," " Pro- 
 dromus Flora Argentinensis." " Institu- 
 tiones Materiae Medicse," &c. Died, 1782. 
 
 SPIGELIUS, or VANDEN SPIEGHEL, 
 Adrian, a physician and anatomist, was 
 born at Brussels, in 1578. He studied at ! 
 I^uviiin and Padua, in which last university | 
 he became professor of anatomy and sur- i 
 gery ; which office he discharged witii such 
 reputation, that the Venetian government 
 made him a knight of St. Mark, and gave 
 him a chain of gold. Died. 1025. 
 
 SPILLER, John, a young English sculp- 
 tor, of great promise, was born in London, 
 in 1 763, and studied under Bacon. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his talents at the 
 Roj'al Academy, and was chosen to execute ! 
 a statue of Charles II. for the centre of the , 
 old Royal Exchange ; but the much admired 
 production had scarcely been erected before 
 the artist expired, a victim to consumption, ' 
 at the age of 30, in 1794. " The energy of 
 his labour, with the strong excitement of his ! 
 feelings, had already made fatal inroads ou \ 
 his constitution. But he was willing, he I 
 said, to die at the foot of his statue. The 
 statue was raised, and the young sculptor, 
 with the shining eyes and hectic flush of 
 consumption, beheld it there, returned home, 
 and shortly was no more." j 
 
 SFINOJyA, Ambrose, Marquis, a cele- i 
 brated Spanish general, was born in ]5f59. j 
 He commanded an army in Flanders, and in 
 lt5i)4 lie took Ostend, for which he was made 
 general of all the Spanish troops in the Low : 
 Countries, where he was opposed by I 
 Maurice of Nassau. During a cessation of 
 operations, Spinola went to Paris, and in 
 an interview with Henry IV., the monarch 
 asked him what were his plans for the en- 
 suing camiiaign. The general, without he- 
 sitation, entered into a detail of his projects, 
 and Henry communicated to Maurice the 
 direct contrary, as he could not believe that 
 Spinola had revealed to him his real inten- 
 tions. Finding, however, that the Spaniard 
 was as good as his word, he exclaimed, 
 "Others deceive by telling falsehoods, but 
 this man by speaking the truth." In the 
 war occasioned by the disputed succession 
 to the duchy of Clevcs and Juliers, Spinola j 
 
 Sr 3 
 
sri] 
 
 ^ i^m BniSitx^Kl ^Singrapfji?. 
 
 [SPD , 
 
 took Aix-la-Chapelle, Wesel, and Breda. 
 He was subsequently employed in Italy, 
 where he made himself master of the city of 
 Casal ; but not being able to subdue the 
 citadel, owing to the imprudent orders sent 
 to him from Madrid, he exclaimed, " they 
 have robbed me of my honour," aud fell a 
 prej' to chagrin, in IGJiO. 
 SPINOZA, Benedict, one of the most 
 r profound thinkers of the 17th century, and 
 the founder of modern pantheism, was born 
 at Amsterdam, in 1633. His parents were 
 Portuguese Jews, who gave him the name 
 of Baruch, which, on renouncing his reli- 
 gion, he altered to Benedict. He resided 
 chiefly at the Hague ; and strenuously re- 
 fused to accept of any of the numerous 
 proposals he received to enter upon a career 
 tliat might have led to his worldly advance- 
 ment. He was for some time a Calvinist, 
 and afterwards a Mennonist, but at last 
 adopted the views, religious and political, 
 with which his name is now connected, and 
 in support of which he published numerous 
 works. His " Tractatus-theologico-politicus" 
 was repiinted in London in 17t!.5, by Hume, 
 though without his name or that of the 
 author. Died, 1677. 
 
 SPIZELHIS, Theopiiii-us, a learned 
 German ecclesiastic, author of an elaborate 
 " Commentary on the State of Literature 
 among the Chinese," and other works. 
 Died, 1691. 
 
 SPOHJT, Frederic Augustus William, 
 an eminent German writer on philology. 
 He was born at Dortmund, in 1792 ; became 
 professor of philosophy and ancient litera- 
 ture in Leipsic, and died in 1824, from the 
 effects of excessive study. 
 
 SPONDE, IlENKr i)E, or SPOXDANUS, 
 a French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 
 was born in 1508, and was educated in the 
 Protestant college at Ortez ; after wliicli he 
 studied the law, and became so eminent as a 
 pleader, that Henry of Navarre made him 
 master of requests. In 1.59.5 he changed his 
 religion, and took orders at Rome ; was made 
 bishop of Pamiers in 1620, and died in 1643. 
 Spondanus abridged the annals of Barouius, 
 and continued them from 1197 to 1640. He 
 also wrote " Annates Sacri kMundi Creatione 
 , ad ejusdem Redemptionem." 
 i SPONTINI, Gasparo, a distinguished 
 I musical composer, was born at Majolatti, 
 i near Jesi, in the Roman states, 1778. lie was 
 1 educated at the Conservatorio de la Pietsl of 
 j Naples, and began his career when 17 years of 
 I age, as the composer of an opera, " I Puntigli 
 I delle Donne." This was followed by some 
 I 16 operas, produced within 6 years, for the 
 I theatres of Italy and Sicily, but not a note 
 of which has survived. In 1803 Spontini 
 came to Paris, in which capital again he 
 liroduced some half-a-dozen operas aud an 
 oratorio, all of which have perished. In 
 1807 he was appointed music-director to the 
 empress Josephine ; and in 1808 he produced 
 liis most famous work, "La Vestale," with 
 brilliant and decisive success. His "Fer- 
 nando Cortez " appeared in 1809 ; and the 
 next year witnessed his appointment to the 
 directorship of the Italian Opera in Paris, 
 which he held for 10 years. lu 1820 the 
 -j magnificent appointments offered by the 
 
 703 
 
 court of Prussia tempted him to leave Paris 
 for Berlin, in which capital his last 3 grand 
 operas, "Nourmahal" (founded on Lalla 
 Rookh), " Alcidor," and " Agnes von Ho- 
 henstauffen," were produced with great 
 splendour, bnt with little comparative suc- 
 cess. Spontini continued to reside as first 
 chapel-master in Berlin till the death of the 
 late king in 1840, when his professional 
 career may be said to have ended. 'Die 
 latter period of his sojourn at Berlin had 
 been embittered by professional disputes ; 
 and in 1842 he once more repaired to Paris, 
 where he had, in 1839, been elected one of 
 the five members of the Academic des 
 Beaux Arts. Died, at the place of his birth, 
 18.-.1. 
 
 SPOTSWOOD, or SPOTISWOOD. Joiiy, 
 archbishop of St. Andrew's, in Scotland, 
 was born in 1505, educated at Glasgow, and 
 in 1001 went as chaplain to the Duke of 
 Lennox in his embassy to France. On the 
 accession of James VI. to the throne of Eng- 
 land, he accompanied him ; and the same 
 year was raised to the archbishopric of 
 Glasgow, and made one of the privy council 
 in Scotland. In 1615 he was translated to 
 St. Andrew's. He crowned Charles I. at 
 Holyrood House, in 1033 ; and, two years 
 afterwards, was made chancellor of Scotland; 
 but, on the breaking out of the rebellion, he 
 retired to London, where he died in 1639, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He 
 wrote the " History of the Church of Scot- 
 land." 
 
 SPOTSWOOD, Sir Robert, second son 
 of the preceding, was put to death by the 
 covenanters, for adhering to the Marquis of i 
 Montrose. 
 
 SPRAGG, EnwAKD, a brave English ad- i 
 miral, was a captain in the first engagement | 
 with the Dutch in 1065, when, for his gallant i 
 conduct, he was knighted by the king on ! 
 board the Royal Charles. He attracted the • 
 particular notice of the Duke of Albemarle , 
 in tlie four days' battle in 1066 ; and the | 
 year following he burnt a number of Dutch 
 fire-ships when they came up the Thames, ! 
 which threw their whole fleet into confusion. I 
 In 1671 he destroyeil, in the Mediterranean, | 
 seven Algerine men of war. He was sunk ; 
 in his boat in an eogagement with Van 
 Tromp in 1673, as he was going from his j 
 sinking ship to another. i 
 
 SPRANGHER, Baktholomew, an emi- ' 
 nent painter of Antwerp, was born in 1546, 
 and died in 1623. j 
 
 SPRAT, Dr. Thomas, bishop of Rochester, 
 an historian and poet, was born in 1636, and I 
 died in 1713. He wrote the " History of the . 
 Royal Society," the " History of the Rye- | 
 house Plot," " The Life of Cowley," a volume 
 of sermons, and a few poems. 
 
 SPURZHEIM, Gasi'aud, a celebrated i 
 physiologist, was born near Treves, in 1776. j 
 anil received his medical education at Vienna, 
 where he became acquainted with Dr. Gall, ( 
 the founder of the science of phrenology. 
 To this science Spurzheim became exceed- 
 ingly partial ; and he soon joined Gall in 
 making inquiries into the anatomy of the 
 brain. They quitted Vienna in 1805, to 
 travel : visited Paris ; and lectured in Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, on their very , 
 
SQU] 
 
 9i fitfjy Huiberiial 3Jt0gT«pl)B. 
 
 [STA 
 
 curious and original system. Spurzheim 
 finally proceeded to the United States, where 
 lie died in 1832. 
 
 SQUIRE, Samuel, a learned and exem- 
 plary Englisli prelate, was born at War- 
 i minster, in 1714 ; and after obtaining various 
 I preferments, reached the see of St. David's ; 
 and died in ITiHi. lie wrote several works, 
 ■ theological and political. 
 
 STA AL, Madame de, whose maiden name 
 I was Dk Launai, was the daughter of a 
 I painter at Paris, who abandoned her when 
 I a child, and she was taken into the priory 
 I of St. Louis, at Rouen. After this, she be- 
 came waiting-woman to the Duchess of 
 Maine, when her literary talents were sud- 
 j denly discovered by lier being found to be 
 the author of a very witty letter to M. de 
 I Fontenelle, on the subject of a beautiful girl 
 I at Paris, who was said to be possessed, which 
 { imposture was at that time occupying public 
 j attention. From that time the duchess 
 reposed an entire confidence in her ; and 
 Mademoiselle de Launai shared in her mis- 
 fortune, by being committed to the Bastile. 
 After her release, she married XI. de Staal, 
 an officer of the Swiss guards ; wrote some 
 entertaining " Memoirs of her Life," and 
 died in 17 rA). 
 
 STACK HOUSE, Thomas, a divine of the 
 churcii of England, who was many years 
 curate of Finchley, in Middlesex, and vicar 
 of Benham, in Berkshire. He wrote a " Re- 
 view of the Controversy concerning Mira- 
 cles," on the " Miseries of the inferior 
 Clergy," a " Body of Practical Divinity," 
 and a " Defence of the Christian Religion ;" 
 but his most important work, which hus 
 often been reprinted, is his " History of tlie 
 Bible," 2 vols, folio. Born, 1680 ; died, 17r,2. 
 There was anotlier Rev. Thomas Stack- 
 house, who published " A Greek Gram- 
 mar," a "General View of Ancient History, 
 Chronology, and Geography;" and an " At- 
 las of Ancient and Mo<lern Geography." 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIX, Anna Louisa Geu- 
 .MAiNE Nkckek, Baroness de, was born at 
 Paris, in 170(3, where the elevation of her 
 father, M. Necker, to the ministry of finance, 
 brought liim into close connection with the 
 most brilliant circles of the capital. Siie 
 soon displayed signs of a precocious genius ; 
 and the encouragement to converse which 
 she received in this society, and the various 
 excitements which it furnislied to her facul- 
 ties, had an important influence on the 
 formation of her mind. Her earliest pro- 
 ductions were "Sopliia," a comedy, written 
 in 1786, and two tragedies. •' Lady Jane 
 Grey " and " Montmorency ;" but her " Let- 
 tres sur les Ouvrages et le Caractfere de J. J. 
 Rousseau," printed in 1788, first attracted the 
 public notice. lu 1786 she was married to 
 the Baron de Stael Holstein, Swedish am- 
 bassador to the French court. She was 
 warmly attached to the principles of liberty; 
 and the breaking out of the revolution, in 
 1789, necessarily exercised a powerful in- 
 fluence botli on her mind aud fate. During 
 Robespierre's ascendancy, she exerted her- 
 self, even at the hazard of her life, to save 
 the victims, and published a powerful and 
 eloquent " Defence of the Queen." The 
 populace being called to riot and murder, 
 
 797 
 
 she attempted to leave Paris, but was de- 
 tained, and escaped the popular fury only by 
 a remarkable concurrence of circumstances. 
 When Sweden recognised the French re- 
 public, her husband was again sent as am- 
 bassador to Paris, whither she also returned, 
 in 1795. Barras became her friend ; and she 
 acquired so much influence, that, on Tulley- 
 rend's return from America, in 179<J, she 
 obtained, through Barras, his appointment 
 to the ministry of foreign afifairs. In Dec. 
 1797, she for the first time saw Buonaparte, 
 then at Paris, preparing for liis ex|>edition 
 to Egypt ; and the admiration with which 
 she had regarded the conqueror of Italy was 
 succeeded by a sentiment bordering on aver- 
 sion, which api)ears to have been mutual ; 
 and in 1801, in consequence of her attempting 
 to thwart his government, she was ordered 
 to quit Paris. After visiting Germany, 
 Prussia, and Italy, she returned to France, 
 and published her romance of " Delphine ; " 
 but this work, and a tract entitled " Les 
 Deruitres Vues de Politique et de Finance," 
 published by M. Necker, had given so much 
 offence to Napoleon (who had no great es- 
 teem for female politicians), that in 1803 he 
 banished her from his territories. Her pere- 
 grinations were next extended to Moscow, 
 Stockholm, and London ; nor did slie again 
 behold her favourite abode, Paris, till after 
 the restoration of Louis XVIII. On the 
 escape of Buonaparte from Elba, she retired 
 to Copi>et ; and, after the battle of Waterloo, 
 she once more made her api)earance in the 
 French capital, with her daughter, who was | 
 married to the Duke de Broglio. She was 
 favourably received by the king, and ob- 
 tained an order on the royal treasury for 
 the payment of two millions, which had 
 been deposited there by her father. Her 
 husband, the baron, died in 1801 ; and in 
 1811 she was married to M. de Rocca, a 
 young French officer, by whom she had a 
 son ; but their union was kept secret till 
 alter her death. She died in 1817. Besides 
 the works before-mentioned, she wrote the 
 romance of " Coriune," " Considerations on 
 the French Revolution," " Dramatic Essays," 
 " Considerations on Literature," " Germany," 
 " Ten Years of Exile," &c. 
 
 STAHL, Gkokgk Eunest, an eminent 
 German physician and chemist, was born 
 at Anspach, in 1660, studied at Jena, be- 
 came phytician to the king of Prussia, and 
 died in 1734. Ills discoveries and theories 
 in medical science were highly ingenious 
 and valuable ; and he may be ranked as one 
 of the most illustrious medical philosophers 
 of his age. 
 
 STAIIREMBERG, Guido Baldi, Count 
 de, a celebrated Austrian field-marshal, was 
 born in 10.57. He commanded the imjjerial 
 army in Germany, Italy, and Spain ; and 
 during a long career was distinguished for 
 his military skill and bravery. l3ied. 1737. 
 
 STANDISH, FiiA.NK Hall, author of 
 the " Life of Voltaire," &c., and well known 
 by his elegant taste for the arts, was the 
 son of Anthony Hall, esq., of Flass, in the 
 county of Durham ; and having succeeded 
 to the estates of Sir Frank Standish, bart., 
 as cousin and heir at law, assumed tlie 
 name, &c. by royal licence. Having the 
 — .- 
 
sta] 
 
 ^ ^c^ Bnibtx^nX Ijiosop^y. 
 
 [sta 
 
 opportunity of gratifying his natural in- 
 clination by foreign travels, for acquiring 
 information on classic antiquities and litera- 
 ture, and being moreover possessed of an ex- 
 quisite jiulgment as a connoisseur of tlie fine 
 arts, he made an admirable collection of the 
 best pictures, boolcs, manuscripts, &c. during 
 his sojourn on the Continent : the whole 
 of which he bequeatlied to Louis Philippe, 
 liing of the French, " in token (as lie says) of 
 his esteem for a generous and polite nation, 
 one that is always ready to welcome tlie 
 traveller and relieve the stranger, and one 
 that he has ever gone to witli pleasure and 
 quitted with regret." The works published 
 by Mr. Standish are as follows : " The Life 
 of Voltaire," " The Shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean," 2 vols. ; " Notices on the Northern 
 Capitals of Europe," "Seville and its Vi- 
 cinity," and a volume of "Poems." Died, 
 aged" 42. Dec. 1840. 
 
 STANHOPE, Jambs, Earl, a celebrated 
 English nobleman, was born in Hereford- 
 shire, in 1073. He entered early into the 
 army, and distinguished himself with so 
 much bravery at the siege of Namur in 1695, 
 that king William gave him a company and 
 tlie rank of colonel. In 1705 he served as a 
 brigadier-general under the Earl of Peter- 
 borough, at the siege of Barcelona. He 
 afterwards contributed to the victories of 
 Almanza and Saragossa ; but being intrusted 
 with the defence of Driheuga, he was obliged 
 to surrender it. after a gallant resistance, to 
 the Duke de Vendome. Died, 1721. 
 
 STANHOPE, Charles, Earl, grandson of 
 the above, a politician and man of science, 
 born in 1753 ; was educated at Eton and 
 Geneva ; and came into parliament for 
 High Wycombe, which he represented until 
 1780, when he succeeded his father in the 
 peerage. He distinguished himself at an 
 early period of the French revolution by an 
 open avowal of republican sentiments, and 
 went 80 far as to lay aside the external 
 ornaments of the peerage. As a man of 
 science he ranked high, and was the author 
 of many inventions, particularly of a method 
 of securing buildings from lire, an arith- 
 metical machine, a new printing press, a 
 monochord for tuning musical instruments, 
 and a vessel to sail against wind and tide. 
 He was twice married, first to Lady Hester 
 Pitt, daughter of the great Earl of Chatham, 
 by whom he had three daughters ; and 
 secondly to Miss Grenville, by whom he had 
 three sons. Died, 1816. 
 
 STANHOPE, Lady Hestkr, avery highly 
 accomplished, but no less eccentric, English 
 lady, niece of the celebrated William Pitt. 
 Soon after the death of that great statesman, 
 with whom she was domesticated, and with 
 whose pursuits she so much sympathised, as 
 to act upon some occasions as his private 
 secretary, she went to Syria, assumed the 
 dress of a male native of that country, and 
 devoted herself to astrology, in which vain 
 science she was a most implicit believer. 
 She had a large pension from the English 
 government, and for many years was pos- 
 sessed of considerable influence over the 
 Turkish pachas, which however, when ha- 
 bitual carelessness in money matters had 
 deprived her of the means of bribing them, 
 
 she so entirely lost as to be in actual danger 
 of her life. Of her way of life as well as her 
 way of thinking, some notion will easily be 
 formed from a jxirusal of her reply to an 
 eminent English traveller, who humanely 
 advised her to quit her perilous and desolate 
 abode, and return to England : "As to 
 leaving this country," said her ladyship, 
 " your advice is in vain : I will never return 
 to England. I am encompassed by perils, 
 true ; but I am no stranger to them. I have 
 suffered shipwreck off the coast of Cyprus, 
 I have had the plague here ; I fell from my 
 horse near Acre, and was trampled upon by 
 him ; I have encountered the robbers of the 
 desert ; and when my servants quailed I have 
 gallopped in among them, and compelled 
 them to be courteous : and when a horde of 
 plunderers was breaking in at my gate, I 
 sallied out among them sword in hand, and 
 having convinced them that they could not 
 hurt me if they would, I fed them at my 
 gate, and they behaved like thankful beg- 
 gars. Here I am destined to remain. What 
 fs written in the great book of life, who can 
 alter ? It ia true that I am surrounded by 
 perils ; it is true that I am at war with the 
 prince of the mountains, and with the pacha 
 of Acre ; it is very true that my enemies are 
 capable of assassination, but if I do perish, 
 my fall shall be a bloody one. I have plenty 
 of arms, good Damascus blades ; I use no 
 guns, and while I have an arm to wield a 
 hanjar, these barren rocks shall have a 
 banquet of slaughter before my face looks 
 black in the presence of my enemies." So 
 completely anti-national were the prejudices 
 of this very eccentric lady, that though at 
 the time of her death she had no fewer than 
 23 domestics, not one of them was English, 
 and her last sigh was breathed among fo- 
 reigners and hirelings. Born, 1766 ; died, 
 
 STANLEY, the Right Tlev. Edward, 
 bishop of Norwich, was the younger son of 
 Sir John Thomas Stanley, bart., of Alderley, 
 in Cheshire, and was born in 1770. Having 
 finished his studies at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, he was presented by his father 
 to the rectory of Alderley in 1805 ; and here 
 he laboured for upwards of 30 years in the 
 faithful discharge of his pastoral duties. 
 His connection with the Whig party led to 
 his nomination to the see of Norwich in 
 1837 ; and such was his unwearied devotion 
 to every good and useful work, his sincerity, 
 his disinterestedness, and his pure and active 
 benevolence in all the relations of life, that 
 his character truly corresponded with the 
 apostolic portrait of a Christian bishop. 
 Bishop Stanley also attained distinction as 
 an author. Whilst rector of Alderley, he 
 occasionally delivered lectures on various 
 branches of natural history, and contributed 
 papers on the same subject to Blackwood's 
 and the British Magazine, besides publishing 
 various panlphlcts on questions more imme- 
 diately connected with his clerical office. 
 But his most popular work was his " Familiar 
 History of Birds," published in 1835, which 
 has gone through several editions. Died, 
 Sept. 6. 1849. 
 
 STANLEY, Thomas, a learned writer, 
 was the sou of Sir Thomas Stanley, and 
 
sta] 
 
 ^ ^cto ^Umbrv^at JBiograpT)!). 
 
 [STB 
 
 born at Laytonstone, in Essex, in 1644. lie 
 received his education at Pernbrolte Hall, 
 Cambridge, then went on his travels, and on 
 his return took up his residence in the 
 Middle Temple. His works are, " The His- 
 tory of Pliilosophy and Lives of Philoso- 
 phers," "Poems and Translations," an 
 edition of ^schylus, &c. Died, 1078. 
 
 STAPLETON, Sir Robekt, a soldier and 
 poet of the 17th century. On the breaking 
 out of the civil wars, he distinguished him- 
 self by his gallant behaviour at the battle of 
 Edgehill, in 1G42, for which the king knighted 
 I liim. At the Restoration he accompanied 
 ! Charles II. to London, and remained about 
 f the court till his decease in 1(509. He truns- 
 j lated Juvenal and other authors, wrote four 
 
 plays, and was created LL.D. at Oxford. 
 
 j STAKCK, John AtGUsTfs von, a Ger- 
 
 ! man divine and theological writer, bom at 
 
 Schwerin, in 1741. He was professor of 
 
 oriental literature and antiquities at St. 
 
 Petersburgh, subsequently tilled the chair of 
 
 philosophy at Mittau, and in 1781 he was 
 
 appointed' first preacher at the court of 
 
 1 Darmstadt, where he was highly esteemed 
 
 by the Landgrave of Hesse, who in 1811 made 
 
 him a baron. Among his principal works 
 
 ' are, " The History of the First Age of the 
 
 I Christian Church,^' 3 vols. ; and " The Tri- 
 
 I umph of Philosophy in the Eighteenth Cen- 
 
 turv." Died, 1816. 
 
 STATIUS, PuBUirs Papjnics, a Latin 
 
 1 poet, was born at Naples, a.d. CI. His 
 
 [ principal productions are two epic poems, 
 
 1 the " Thebais," in twelve books, and the 
 
 ' " Achilleis," in two books, which he left 
 
 unfiuislied at his death, iu his 35th year. 
 
 STAUNTON, Sir Geokoe Leonahd, was 
 born in the county of Galway, in Ireland, 
 and educated at Montpelier, where he took 
 his medical degree. About 1702 he went to 
 the island of Grenada, where he practised 
 physic, and formed an intimacy with Lord 
 Macartney, the governor, who made him 
 i his secretary, and whom he accompanied to 
 Madras, where he displayed his talents in 
 I treating with Tippoo Saib, and in seizing 
 General Stuart. On his return to England 
 he was created a baronet, and, in 17W), 
 received the degree of LL.D. When Lord 
 Macartney was selected as the head of the 
 intended embassy to China, Sir George was 
 appointed secretary of legation, with the 
 title of envoy-extraordinary. Of that mission, 
 and of the empire and people of China, he 
 published an interesting account in 1797, 2 
 vols. 4to. He died in 1801. 
 
 STEBBING, Henky, a learned divine and 
 theological writer. He was educated at 
 Cambridge, and distinguished himself greatly 
 in the Bangorian controversy ; for which 
 Bishop Sherlock made hirn chancellor of 
 Salisbury. Died, 1703. 
 
 STEDMAN, JoH.v Gabkiel, a military 
 officer in the Dutch service, was born in 
 Scotland, in 1745. He was the author of an 
 interesting " Narrative of an Expedition 
 against the revolted Negroes of Surinam," in 
 2 vols. 4to. He died at Tiverton, in Devon- 
 shire, in 1797. 
 
 STEELE, Sir Richahd, a celebrated es- 
 sayist and dramatic writer, was a native of 
 Dublin, where hia father, who was a barrister, 
 
 acted in the capacity of secretary to the 
 Duke of Ormond. He obtained an ensigncy 
 in the guards j and while in that service 
 wrote a little treatise, called "The Christian 
 Hero," which he dedicated to Lord Cutts, 
 who appointed him his secretary, and pro- 
 cured him a captain's commission in the 
 fusileers. In 1702 he commenced dramatic 
 writer, in his comedy of "The Funeral, or 
 Grief ii-la-Mode," which had great success. 
 This was followed by " The Tender Hus- 
 band " and " The Lying Lover." In 1709 
 he began the "Tatler," a periodical paper 
 under the name of Isaac Bickerstaff, and 
 in which he had the able assistance of Addi- 
 son, as he also had in the " Spectator " 
 and " Guardian ;" the former commenced 
 in 1711, and the latter in 1713. His reputa- 
 tion as a writer procured him the place of 
 commissioner of the stamp office, which 
 he resigned on being chosen member for 
 Stockbridge, but was expelled the house 
 soon after for writing two alleged libels, 
 under the titles of " The Englishman " and 
 " The Crisis." On the accession of George I. 
 he received the honour of knighthood, and 
 was appointed surveyor of the stables at 
 Hampton Court, and governor of the royal 
 company of comedians. He was also, on 
 the suppression of the rebellion, made one 
 of the commissioners of the forfeited estates 
 in Scotland. In 1722 his play of the " Con- 
 scious Lovers " was acted with great success; 
 and, when published, was dedicated to the 
 king, who gave the author 500/. ; but being 
 always engaged in some unsuccessful scheme 
 or other, and with habits both benevolent 
 and lavish, he wasted his regular income in 
 anticipation of a greater, until absolute dis- 
 tress was the consequence. A paralytic 
 attack at length rendered him incapable of 
 literary exertion ; and he retired to Llan- 
 gunnor, in Caerma'rthenshire, where he died, 
 in 1729. 
 
 STEEN, Jan, an eminent painter, was 
 born at Leyden, in 1036. One of his masters 
 was Van Goyen, whose daughter he married ; 
 but Steen proved a dissipated character, and 
 totally neglected his family. Died, 1689. 
 
 STEEN WICK, Henky, a Flemish painter, 
 was born in 1550, and died in 1003. 
 
 STEEVENS, Geokoe, a celebrated dra- 
 matic commentator, was born at Stepney, 
 in 1736 ; and was educated at the Grammar 
 School, Kingston, and King's College, Cam- 
 bridge. In 1700 he published 20 of Shak- 
 speare's plays, in 4 vols. 8vo. ; and in 1770 
 his notes on the great dramatist were incor- 
 porated with those of Johnson in 10 vols. 8vo., 
 and afterwards in 15 vols. Mr. Steeveus, 
 who was an elegant scholar, and well versed 
 in old English literature, was one of the 
 contributors to Nichols's Biographical Anec- 
 dotes of Hogarth, and also assisted in the 
 Biographia Dramatica. He died at Ilamp- 
 stead, in 1800. 
 
 STEFFANI, Agostixo, an Italian pre- 
 late, distinguished also as a musical com- 
 poser, was bom in 1055. In his youth he 
 was a chorister of St. Mark's, at Venice, 
 where a German nobleman being attracted 
 by the sweetness of his voice, took him to 
 Bavaria, gave him a classical education, and 
 put him under the best musicians. After 
 
ste] 
 
 ^ 0tio Bnihtv^Kl %ia^rn^\)v. 
 
 [ste 
 
 this he entered into orders, and at last became 
 bishop of Spiga. Died, 1730. 
 
 STEFFENS, Heinkich, a distinguished 
 naturalist, novelist, and miscellaneous 
 writer, was born at Stavanger, in Norway, 
 1773 ; studied at Copenhagen, and delivered 
 lectures at Kiel on natural liistory, in 1796 ; 
 and was successively appointed to the chair 
 of natural history in Jena, Haile, Breslau, 
 and Berlin. He took an active part in the 
 German war of liberation, to the success of 
 which he largely contributed, not merely by 
 his personal exertions but by liis spirit- 
 stirring harangues in support of the national 
 cause. Among his chief works are his 
 " Beitrage zur inneren Naturgeschiclite der 
 Erde," " GrundzUge der Philos. Wissen- 
 schaft," " llandbuch der Oryktognosie," 
 " W^alseth und Leith," " Die Vier Norwe- 
 ger," and an interesting autobiograpliical 
 sketch, entitled " Was icli erlebte," &c. 
 Died, 1848. 
 
 STEIN, Heinrich F. Karl, Baron von, 
 a distinguished Prussian statesman, was 
 born at Nassau, in October, 17.57, of an old 
 noble family, whicli held immediately of the 
 empire. He received the rudiments of liis 
 education at Giittingen, and afterwards 
 studied public law at Wetzlar, tlie seat of 
 the imperial chamber. In 1780, at the age 
 of 23, he first entered tlie civil service of 
 Prussia, to which he had been early destined 
 by his father, as director of the mines at 
 Wettin, in Westphalia ; and, in 1784, was 
 appointed ambassador at Aschaffenberg. 
 Ilis great abilities having become known in 
 these situations, he was, in 1780, appointed 
 to the important situation of president of all 
 the Westplialian chambers, in wliich office 
 he laboured assiduously and successfully 
 till 1804. In that year he was, on t.'ie death 
 of Struensee, minister of finance and trade, 
 promoted to that elevated situation ; in 
 which capacity he remained till 180(!, when, 
 on account of some differences with the 
 king of Prussia, as to the course to be pur- 
 sued in the critical circumstances of the 
 monarchy, he resigned his office, and retired 
 to his estates at Nassau. The king, how- 
 ever, was 80 well aware of liis abilities, that 
 he recalled him soon after the peace of Til- 
 sit ; and it was then that he planned and 
 executed those great, yet cautious, social 
 reforms, which laid the foundations of the 
 resurrection of the monarchy. Ere long, 
 however, his patriotic spirit and great abili- 
 ties excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who 
 made the king of Prussia send him into 
 exile. He retired to Prague, where he re- 
 mained, associating much with Arndt, the 
 banished Elector of Cassel, and otlier vehe- 
 ment enemies of Napoleon, till May 1812, 
 when, on the approach of the French em- 
 peror to Dresden on the eve of the Moscow 
 campaign, he went to St. Petersburgli, where 
 his firmness and energy were of great ser- 
 vice in supporting tlie emperor Alexander 
 through that dreadful crisis. After the 
 occupation of Saxony by the allied forces, 
 he was placed at the head of the central 
 administration, and put forth all his ener- 
 gies in keeping alive the patriotic enthu- 
 siasm which displayed itself on all sides. 
 But the principles proclaimed at the first 
 
 800 
 
 peace of Paris did not meet the objects 
 which he had in view for the political or- 
 ganisation of the German peojjle, and he 
 withdrew in disappointment to his estate, 
 which he continued to cultivate till 1827, 
 when he once more briefly appeared on the 
 stage of politics. Died, 1831. His"Briefe 
 an den Baron von Gagern"— a name since 
 become famous throughout Europe — have 
 been published. 
 
 STELLA, James, an eminent painter, 
 was born in 1506, at Lyons, where his father 
 gave him his first Instructions. While at 
 Florence he was patronised by the grand- 
 duke. He then went to Rome, where lie 
 spent several years, and on his return to 
 France had a pension granted liim, with 
 apartments in the Louvre. He there painted 
 several excellent pictures for the king, wlio 
 lionoured him with the order of St. Michael. 
 Died, 1647. 
 
 STENO, Nicholas, a celebrated anato- 
 mist, was born at Copenhagen, in 1638. He 
 was a pupil of Bartholin ; and afterwards 
 travelled into Germany, France, and Italy, 
 where he abjured the Protestant faith. On 
 his return home, he was made professor of 
 anatomy ; but the change of his religion 
 having raised him enemies, he renounced 
 his medical studies for the church ; and pope 
 Innocent XII. consecrated him bishop, in 
 partibus, of Titopolis, and vicar apostolic in 
 the north of Europe. He was the author of 
 many works, medical and theological ; and 
 died in 1687. 
 
 STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS, or Stk- 
 PUEX OF BvzA.VTiUM, an able Greek gram- 
 marian and lexicographer, who lived in the 
 6th century. 
 
 STEPHEN, king of England, the son of 
 Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, fourth 
 daughter of William the Conqueror, was 
 born in 1104. On the death of Henry I. he 
 immediately came over from Normandy to 
 England, and laid claim to the crown, al- 
 though he had been one of the most zealous 
 in taking the oath for securing the succession 
 to Henry's daughter, the empress Matilda. 
 By the aid of his brother, who was bishop of 
 Winchester, he possessed himself of the royal 
 treasure, and was enabled to bribe some of 
 the most restive of his opponents, while he 
 sought the support of the people at large by 
 promising to restore the laws of Edward the 
 Confessor. After a war with the Scots, who 
 were finally defeated at the famous battle of 
 the Standard, the empress Matilda landed in 
 England with her brother, the Earl of 
 Gloucester ; and being joined by several i 
 powerful barons, a civil war ensued, which j 
 for cruelty and devastation proved one of 
 the most calamitous in the annals of the ] 
 country. After various turns of fortune, i 
 Matilda retired to Normandy, and the con- | 
 test was carried on by her son, Henry Plan- j 
 tagenet, who in 1153 landed an army in ; 
 England. Being joined by the barons of 
 his mother's party, the competitors met at j 
 the head of their respective forces at Wal- : 
 lingford ; but an armistice took place instead • 
 of a battle ; by which it was agreed, that 
 Stephen should reign during his lifetime, 
 and that Henry should succeed him. In the 
 following year Stephen died, aged 49. 
 
ste] 
 
 ^ ^ftD ^nitjtr^al SBtflgraplbj!* 
 
 [ste 
 
 STEPHEN, James, an eminent lawyer 
 and political writer, was a native of Poole, 
 in Dorsetshire, received his education at 
 Winchester, was brought up as a barrister, 
 and became parliamentary reporter for the 
 Morning Chronicle. He at length obtained 
 an appointment in the prize court at the 
 island of St. Christopher's, where he realised 
 a handsome fortune ; and on his return to 
 England he formed a matrimonial alliance 
 , with the family of Mr. Wilbei-force. Having 
 acquired, while abroad, an intimate know- 
 ledge of colonial law, he now obtained a 
 large and lucrative share of practice as an 
 advocate in prize causes before the privy 
 council. As the violation of territory by 
 tlie masters of American vessels often came 
 under his notice, he published his senti- 
 ments in an anonymous pamphlet, entitled 
 " War in Disguise, or the Frauds of Neu- 
 tral Flags ;" when the talents and views 
 displayed by the writer attracted the atten- 
 tion of government, and he was soon after 
 introduced into parliament as a member 
 for Tralee. He suggested and arranged the 
 whole system of the continental blockade, 
 which for many years occasioned the greatest 
 embarrassment to Buonaparte ; and for his 
 services the minister appointed him a master 
 in chancery, which office he held during 
 20 years. He also distinguished himself, 
 both in the senate and by his pen, as the 
 constant friend of African emancipation ; 
 and was regarded by the West India planters 
 as their most formidable antagonist. Died, 
 1832. 
 
 STEPHENS, or ESTIENNE, the nome 
 of a French family which produced many 
 
 eminent printers Robeut, born in 150.3, 
 
 at Paris, devoted himself to learned studies. 
 He possessed a profound knowledge of I/atin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew, as the works edited by 
 him in those languages evince. He superin- 
 tended an edition of the New Testament, 
 which was more correct and of a more con- 
 venient form than any which had appeared ; 
 and he is honourably distinguished by his 
 excellent "Thesaurus Linguae Latinae." 
 
 Died, 1559. Henrv, bom at Paris, in 
 
 1528, was distinguished for his talents, and 
 devoted himself particularly to the study of 
 Greek. In consequence of his attachment to 
 the reformed doctrines, his peace was often 
 disturbed, and his labours interrupted. He 
 was a most learned and indefatigable scholar, 
 and stands pre-eminent for the services which 
 he rendered to the cause of ancient literature. 
 Died, 1598. 
 
 STEPHENS, Alexaxder, a miscella- 
 neous writer, was born in 1757, at Elgin, in 
 Scotland; studied at Aberdeen; was designed 
 for the law, but quitted it for literature, and 
 wrote, or contributed to, the following 
 works, "A History of the War of the 
 French Revolution," "Memoirs of Home 
 Tooke," "Public Characters," "The Annual 
 Obituary," the "Monthly Magazine," &c. 
 Died, 1821. 
 
 STEPHENS, Robert, an eminent English 
 antiquary, who collected and published a 
 complete edition of the letters of Lord Bacon, 
 in 1702, and was appointed historiographer 
 royal. Died, 1732. 
 
 STEPHENSON, Gkobge, whose name 
 
 will be for ever identified with the greatest 
 mechanical revolution eflfected since the 
 days of Watt — the application of steam to 
 railroads — was born near Newcastle in 1781. 
 His father was an engine-tenter at a colliery; 
 and he himself began life as a pit-engine 
 boy at 2il. a day's wages. A lucky accident 
 having given him anopportunity of showing 
 some skill, he was advanced to the office of 
 engineman. He was afterwards employed in 
 forming railway planes and engines under 
 ground, and all his leisure time was spent in 
 working out the great problem, which he at 
 last so happily solved. His first attempt to 
 carry out his design was at Hetton : he sub- 
 sequentlj; planned the line between Stockton 
 and Darlington : but his crowning achieve- 
 ment was the great Manchester and Liver- 
 pool line ; a project which, despite the sar- 
 casms and incredulity with which it was 
 assailed, we need not say succeeded beyond 
 even the projector's expectations. Mr. Ste- 
 phenson's subsequent career was as rapid and 
 smooth as the railway locomotion which he 
 had done so much to realise. He at once 
 took the lead in railway engineering, be- 
 came an extensive locomotive manufacturer 
 at Newcastle, a railway contractor, and a 
 great colliery and iron work owner ; but he 
 always retained the manly simplicity of 
 character which had marked hisearl^ career, 
 and his memory will long be cherished by 
 all who appreciate moral worth as well as 
 mental ability. Died, 1848. His son. Mr. 
 Robert Stephenson, has reaped ample laurels 
 in the same field of science. 
 
 STEPNEY, Geokok, an English poet, 
 statesman, and political yriter ; born, 1663 ; 
 died, 1707. 
 
 STERLING, John, an accomplished critic 
 and essayist, whose promising career was 
 broken by long-continued illness, and at 
 last prematurely closed, was born at Karnes 
 Castle in the isle of Bute, 1806, where his 
 parents happened to be residing. His father, 
 who was a distinguished political writer, 
 had him educated chiefly at home. In 1824 
 he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he had Archdeacon Hare for his 
 classical tutor ; and a year later he entered 
 Trinity Hall with the intention of graduat- 
 ing in law ; but he left Cambridge in 1827 
 without taking a degree, and during the 
 next few years he resided chiefly in London, 
 employing himself actively in literature, 
 contributing to the Athenaeum and other 
 literary journals, and preparing himself, in 
 familiar intercourse with Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, and many other distinguished persons, 
 for the peculiar career he had marked out 
 for his exertions. Soon after his marriage 
 in 1830, he was forced by threatening pul- 
 monary symptoms to seek a temporary home 
 in St. Vincent, where his family held some 
 property. He returned to Europe in 1832, 
 and after much thought and meditation he 
 was ordained a deacon of the English church 
 in 1834, and became Archdeacon Hare's 
 curate at Herstmonceux. But his constitu- 
 tion soon sunk under the severe pastoral 
 duties which he had prescribed for himself; 
 and the rest of his life was spent in travel- 
 ling from place to place in search of health, 
 varied by inquiries into the more recent 
 
ste] 
 
 ^ ^cto ^nibtv^aX SSiaQrapl^i). 
 
 [ste 
 
 philosophical and religious speculations of 
 Germany, towards which he began to show a 
 decided bias, and in contributing to Black- 
 wood's Magazine, the London and West- 
 minster Review, &c. varions stories and cri- 
 tiques, which speak no less for his ability 
 and originality as a thinker, than for his 
 love of truth and liis integrity as a man. 
 Died at Ventnor, 1844. His "Essays and 
 Tales " have been collected by Archdeacon 
 Hare, and published with an interesting 
 memoir ; and a " Sterling " club has been 
 formed to commemorate his many excellent 
 qualities both of head and heart. 
 
 STERXE, Richard, archbishop of York, 
 was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 
 ir.96. He was chaplain to Archbishop Eaud, 
 whom he attended on the scaffold ; suffered 
 many hardships till the Restoration ; but was 
 then made bishop of Carlisle, and translated 
 thence to York. He had a share in the Poly- 
 glott, and was concerned in the revisal of 
 the Book of Common Prayer. Died, 1{588. 
 
 STERNE, Laukexce, a divine and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, of a very singular and 
 original cast, was a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, and born in 1713, at Clonmel, in 
 Ireland, where his father, a lieutenant in 
 the army, was at that time stationed. He 
 was educated at a school near Halifax, and 
 at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took 
 liis degree of M.A. in 1740. Having entered 
 into orders, his uncle. Dr. Sterne, a wealthy 
 pluralist, presented him with the living of 
 Sutton, to which were afterwards added a 
 prebend at York, the rectory of Stillington, 
 and the curacy of Coxwold. For many years 
 he was little known beyond the vicinity of 
 his pastoral residences ; the only production 
 of his pen being his humorous satire upon 
 a greedy church dignitary of York, entitled 
 the " History of a Watch Coat." In 1759 
 appeared the first 2 vols, of his celebrated 
 " Tristram Shandy," whicli drew upon him 
 praise and censure of every kind, and became 
 so popular, that a bookseller engaged for its 
 completion on very lucrative terms. During 
 the intervals of the publication of " Ti istram 
 Shandy," he published 3 vols, of" Sermons," 
 with his own comic figure, from a painting 
 by Reynolds, at the head of them. He now 
 spent some years in travelling on the Con- 
 tinent, and in 1768 he composed his " Sen- 
 timental Journey," which, by a number of 
 pathetic incidents, and vivid strokes of na- 
 tional and characteristic delineation, is ren- 
 dered extremely entertaining, and acquired 
 a more general reputation than even its 
 predecessor. Having come to London to see 
 his " Sentimental Journey " through the 
 press, he was seized with a severe illness, 
 which proved fatal, March 18. 1768. That 
 Sterne possessed a fund of wit and humour, 
 none who have read his works can doubt ; 
 but his occasional indecencies are disgusting, 
 and, considering his clerical character, de- 
 serve the severest reprehension. 
 
 STERNHOLD, Thomas, a poet, was bom 
 in Hampshire, and educated at Oxford ; after 
 which he became groom of the robes to Henry 
 VIII. and Edward VI. He died in J.54i). 
 Stenihold versified 51 of the Psalms ; the 
 remainder were the productions of Hopkins, 
 Norton, and others. 
 
 802 
 
 STEVENS. Alexander, an able English 
 architect. The bridge over the Liffey, in 
 Dublin, the locks and docks on the grand 
 canal of Ireland, the aqueduct over the Lune 
 at Lancaster, &c., are anijjle proofs of his 
 professional skill. Died, 17dG. 
 
 STEVENS, Gkoroe Alexander, a whim- 
 sical and eccentric cliaracter, was born in 
 London, and brought up to a mechanical 
 business, which he quitted to become a 
 strolling player. He wrote a novel, called 
 " Tom Fool ;" " The Birth-day Folly" and 
 "Religion," &c. two poems; and subse- 
 quently invented his popular entertainment, 
 called a " Lecture on Heads," a prose satire 
 on the manners of the times, possessing no 
 small portion of drollery. Several of his 
 songs, including " The Storm," have also 
 been much admired. Died, 1784. 
 
 STEVENS, William Barshaw, a divine 
 and poet, was born at Abingdon, about 1755, 
 and died in 1800. Dr. Stevens was the 
 author of a poem, entitled "Retirement," 
 three volumes of sermons, &c. 
 
 STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, an 
 eminent musical composer, was born at 
 Dublin, in 1761. At 10 years of age he was 
 received into the choir school of Christchurcli, 
 where he attained the elements of a musical 
 education, and soon gave promise of those 
 abilities for which he was afterwards so de- 
 servedly celebrated. In connection with 
 Mr. T. Moore, he rescued the matchless airs 
 of their native land from oblivion, by adapt- 
 ing them to the words of the " Irish Melo- 
 dies," and enriching the accompaniments 
 with the elaborate graces of modern science. 
 He also produced a much-admired oratorio, 
 entitled " The Thanksgiving," and a great 
 variety of anthems, glees, &c., many of w hich 
 still retain their popularity. Died, 1833. 
 
 STEVENSON, John Hall, a humorous 
 poet and satirist, was born in Yorkshire, in 
 1718 ; educated at Jesus College, Cambridge ; 
 became intimate with Laurence Sterne, who 
 describes him as " Eugenius " in his Tristram 
 Shandy ; and appears, from the various ac- 
 counts that are given of him, to have been 
 the very kind of man that his friend pour- 
 trays. His works consist of " Crazy Tales," 
 " Fables for Grown Gentlemen," " I>yric 
 Epistles," and " Moral Tales." Died, 1785. 
 
 STEVIN, or STEVINUS, Simon, a I lem- 
 ish mathematician, who was master of mathe- 
 matics to Prince Maurice, of Nassau, and in- 
 spector of the dykes of Holland. Died, 1633. 
 
 STEWART DENHAM, Sir James, a wri- 
 ter on political economy, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1713, and was the only son of Sir 
 James Stewart, of Goosetrees, solicitor- 
 general of England under queen Anne and 
 George I. He was educated at the university 
 of Edinburgh, and became an advocate. In 
 1740 he married the daughter of the Earl of 
 Wemyss, and great expectations were enter- 
 tained of his rising in his profession ; but 
 these were disappointed by the part he took 
 in the Rebellion of 1745. In that last 
 struggle of the house of Stuart, Sir James 
 co-operated so zealously as to be obliged to 
 go into exile. In 1757 he published, at 
 Frankfort, his " Apologie du Sentiment de 
 Monsieur le Chevalier Newton, sur I'An- 
 cienne Chronologic des Grecs." Ten years 
 
8TE] 
 
 fl iSit^ HuiberiSal ^Btograjil^t). 
 
 [STO 
 
 after this he was restored to his native 
 country and the estate of his ancestors, 
 where he died in 178<). Ilis most valuable 
 work is entitled, " An Inquiry into tlie Prin- 
 ciples of Political Economy," which is, how- 
 ever, considerably obscured by the defects of 
 style. Died. 1780. 
 
 STEWART, Matthew, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, was born at Rothsay.in tlie isle 
 of Bute, in 1717. He studied mathematics 
 at Edinburgh, under Maclaurin, whom he 
 succeeded in his professorship ; on which 
 occasion he published his " General Theo- 
 rems." In 17(il appeared his " Tracts, 
 Physical and Mathematical," in which he 
 proposed to deduce a theory of the moon, 
 and to determine the sun's distance from 
 the earth. lie was also the author of a 
 " Treatise on the Sun's Distance," and one 
 entitled " Propositiones more Veterum de- 
 monstratse." He died in 1785. 
 
 STEWART, Dloali), au eminent philo- 
 sopher and metaphysician, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born, in 17.^, at Edinburgh j 
 received his education in the high school ; 
 and, in 1785, became professor of moral phi- 
 losophy at the university. It was not till 
 1792 that he came forward as an author : he 
 then published the first volume of the " Phi- 
 losophy of the Human Mind," which was 
 followed by " Outliues of Moral Philosophy," 
 " Philosophical Essays," " Memoirs of Adam 
 Smith, and Drs. Robinson and Reid," and 
 " Prefatory Dissertations to the Supplement 
 of the EncylcopiEdia Britannica." He en- 
 joyed the reputation of being one of the ablest 
 among modern philosophical writers, and an 
 amiable man. Died, 1828. 
 I STILES, Ezra, an American divine and 
 historian, born in 1727. He was president 
 of Yale College ; and, among other works, 
 publishefl a very curious " History of Three 
 of the Judges of King Charles I., Major- 
 general Whalley, Major-general Goffe, and 
 Colonel Dixwell, who, at the Restoration, 
 16C0, fled to America, and were secreted iu 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut for nearly 
 Thirty Years." Died, 1795. 
 
 STILICUO, a general in the service of 
 Theodosius the Great, whose niece, Serena, 
 he married. After quelling an invasion of 
 the Goths, and suppressing a revolt in 
 Africa, he marched against Alaric, whom 
 he signally defeated at Pollentia. He sub- 
 sequently, however, entered into a treaty 
 with him, which excited the suspicion of 
 Uonorius, and he was doomed to suifer the 
 death of a traitor. 
 
 STILL, JoH.v, bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 died in 1C07. He is the reputed author of 
 " Gammer Gurton's Needle," a dramatic 
 piece of low humour, very characteristic of 
 the manners of our ancestors in that day. 
 
 STILLING, Heisrich, a pseudonyme 
 adopted by lleinrich Jung in one of the most 
 remarkable autobiographies ever written, 
 was born at Florenburg, in Nassau, 1740. 
 His fat)\er was a tailor, and his son at first 
 followed the same trade ; but his great 
 natural abilities soon burst through the 
 trammels of his lowly position, and after 
 acquiring, by his own exertions, considerable 
 knowledge of Greek and of medicine, he found 
 means to proceed to the university of Stras- 
 
 burg, where he prosecuted his studies with 
 such ardour and success, that he was soon 
 appointed to a professor's chair, and raised 
 himself to eminence both by his ability as 
 a lecturer and as an operator. He wrote 
 several novels, the best of which are " Theo- 
 bald," " Herr von Morgenthau," " Das Heim- 
 weh," &c., besides several medical and mine- 
 ralogical treatises ; but his name is chiefly 
 connected with his autobiography, entitled 
 " Jugend-JUngling-jahre, Wanderschaft und 
 Alter von lleinrich Stilling," which, it may 
 safely be said, has never been surpassed in 
 interest and fidelity. Died, 1817. 
 
 STILLINGFLEET, Edward, bishop of 
 Worcester, a prelate of great learning and 
 piety, was born at Cranbourne, in Dorset- 
 shire, in IfiSo ; was educated at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge ; obtained various pre- 
 ferments, among which were the archdea- 
 conry of London and the deanery of St. 
 Paul's ; and was promoted to the see of 
 Worcester at the Revolution. His works, 
 which are erudite, pious, and philosophical, 
 comprehend the " Origines Sacrse," a ra- 
 tional account of natural and revealed reli- 
 gion, still held in high esteem for its powers 
 of argument and eloquence ; and " Origines 
 Britannicie." Died, lt>99. 
 
 STILLINGFIiEET, Benjamin, a grand- 
 son of the preceding, was born in-1702. He 
 obtained the appointment of barrack-master 
 at Kensington ; and was known as the au- 
 thor of "The Calendar of Flora," "Mis- 
 cellaneous Tracts in Natural History," and 
 a " Treatise on the Principles and Power of 
 Harmonv." Died, 1771. 
 
 STILPO, a stoic philosopher of Megara, 
 who lived about 300 b. c. He acquired so 
 great a reputation for his sagacity and virtue, 
 that, when Demetrius took Megara, he for- 
 bade any one to injure either his person or 
 property. He was one of the chiefs of the 
 stoic sect, and several states submitted their 
 disputes to his judgment. 
 
 STOB^US, Joux, a Greek writer who 
 lived in the 5th century. He made a large 
 collection of extracts from ancient poets and 
 philosophers, which " Excerpta " were first 
 printed at Venice in 1536. 
 
 STOCK. Simon, general of the order of 
 Carmelites, was by birth an Englishman, 
 and died in 126.5. He is celebrated as the 
 institutor of the Scapulary, which the zealous 
 Romanists believe he received from the 
 Virgin Mary, in a vision, with a promise 
 that all who wore it, or one consecrated like 
 it, should be sure of her protection in every 
 emergency. 
 
 STOFFLET, Nicholas, a French royalist 
 chief, who commanded in La Vendee, was 
 born in 1751, at Luneville. In 1793 he was 
 placed at the head of a division of royalists, 
 and distinguished himself in no less than 
 150 actions with the republicans. He was at 
 length made prisoner, and shot at Angers, in 
 179*5. 
 
 STOLBERG, Frederic Lhopold, Count, 
 a German, distinguished for his talents, was 
 born in 1750, at Bramstedt, in Holstein ; 
 was educated at Halle and Gottingen ; was 
 employed in various negotiations by the 
 Duke of Oldenburg and the prince regent of 
 Denmark j and died in 1819. Uis leisure 
 
STO] 
 
 ^ ^ebJ ^nibtx&Kl SSiosrapr)^. 
 
 [STO 
 
 was dedicated to studj' : he translated the 
 Iliad and the tragedies of iEschylus ; and 
 wrote a " History of the Christian Religion," 
 15 vols. ; the " History of Alfred the Great," 
 " Travels in Germany, Switzerland, and 
 Italy ;" odes, satires, dramas, &c. 
 
 STONE, EiJMUNn, an eminent matliema- 
 tician, was a native of Scotland, his father 
 being gardener to the Duke of Argyle. At 
 the age of 18 he was discovered by that 
 nobleman reading Newton's Principia ; upon 
 which he entered into conversation with him, 
 and learnt, with astonishment, that he had 
 been self-instructed in arithmetic, geometry, 
 Latin, and French. The duke, in conse- 
 quence, took him under his protection, and 
 placed him in a situation to pursue his 
 favourite studies. lie produced a " Mathe- 
 matical Dictionary," " Fluxions," a " Trea- 
 tise on Euclid, with a Life," " Bion on Ma- 
 thematical Instruments," &c. Died, 1768. 
 
 STONEHOUSE, Sir James, a physician 
 and divine, was born in Berkshire, in 1716. 
 After practising 20 years as a physician, he 
 entered into orders, and obtained the lec- 
 tureship of All Saints', Bristol. He was for 
 several years of his life an infidel, and even 
 wrote a pamphlet against revealed religion, 
 which readied three editions ; but, by read- 
 ing Dr. Doddridge's Rise and Progress of 
 Religion, he was converted. He succeeded to 
 the title of baronet in 1791, and died at 
 Bristol in 179.5. He wrote " The Sick Man's 
 Friend," and other religious pamphlets. 
 
 STORAGE, Steph.vno, a favourite mu- 
 sician and composer for the English theatre, 
 was born in London, in 1763 ; studied in 
 Italy, and, on his return, was appointed 
 composer to Drury Lane Theatre. His music 
 in "The Haunted Tower," "Siege of Bel- 
 grade," " No Song no Supper." &c., as well 
 as several pieces composed for the Italian 
 Opera, were well received by the public, and 
 are still in high repute ; his compositions 
 being remarkable for their spirit, melody, 
 
 and brilliancy. Died, 1796 His sister, 
 
 Anne Selina Storage, was an accomplished 
 singer and actress, and became a flrstrate 
 favourite in her profession. Died, 1814. 
 
 STORCH, Heinrich Frederic von, an 
 eminent political economist, was born at 
 Riga, 1766, studied at Jena and Heidelberg, 
 and on the advice of Count Roumantzof re- 
 paired to St. Petersburgh, where he entered 
 on a brilliant career as a statist and political 
 economist, which procured for him at once 
 the confidence of the czar, and the highest 
 literary honours in his gift. His chief works 
 are, his " Cours d'Economie Politique," 6 
 vols. 8vo., which was written at the request 
 of the emperor Alexander for the instruction 
 of his brothers, the Grand-dukes Nicolas 
 and Michel ; and his " Tableau Historique 
 et Statistique de I'Empire de Russie k la fin 
 du I8me Sifecle," 4 vols. 8vo. Died, 1835. 
 
 STORY, Joseph, a distinguished judge 
 and juridical writer, better known as Mr. 
 Justice Story, was born at ^larblehead in 
 Massachusetts, 1779 ; studied at Harvard 
 University, where he took his degree in 
 1798 ; was called to the bar in 1801, and 
 soon acquired a distinguished reputation 
 as a pleader. After representing Salem 
 in the state legislature for four years, he 
 
 8(H 
 
 was sent to Congress in 1809, where his 
 talents as a forensic debater were so well 
 appreciated, that in 1811 he was appointed 
 associate justice in the supreme court of 
 the United States. In this capacity he dis- 
 played a thorough knowledge of the most 
 intricate questions relating to international 
 law, and earned such distinction as a jurist, 
 that his name has been carried far beyond 
 the limits of his native land. His " Com- 
 mentaries on the Conflict of I..aws " is looked 
 upon as an authority in every state in 
 Europe. Died, 1845. 
 
 STOTHARD, Thomas, R.A., an eminent 
 English artist, was born in London in 1755 ; 
 received his education at a school in York- 
 shire ; and was apprenticed to a calico- 
 printer, in Spitalfields. During his appren- 
 ticeship he showed a decided taste for the 
 painter's art ; and, having been once in- 
 troduced, soon found ample employment 
 in making designs for the booksellers. So 
 fertile was he in resources, that it was a 
 matter of little moment to him what the 
 nature of the subject was that he might be 
 required to illustrate ; whether pastoral, 
 historic, humorous, pathetic, or sublime ; 
 but it is generally allowed that his fetes 
 champetres were among his most happy 
 productions ; there beauty, joy, serenity, in- 
 nocence, modesty, and loveliness of form are 
 all combined. It is said that the designs 
 made by Mr. Stothard exceed 5000 in num- 
 ber ; it is difficult, therefore, to select from 
 among so vast a stock ; but perhaps those 
 which particularly claim our attention are, 
 " The Pilgrimage to Canterbury," " The 
 Wellington Sliield," etched by the artist 
 himself ; " The Four Periods of a Sailor's 
 Life," and "The Flitch of Bacon." To 
 these may be added his illustrations of 
 Milton, Shakspeare, Spenser, Don Quixote, 
 the Pilgrim's Progress, Bell's British Poets, 
 Robinson Crusoe, Roger's Italy. &c. Though 
 during the latter period of his venerable 
 life, many powerful rivals in the pictorial 
 art had captivated the public by their mas- 
 terly productions, and thereby thrown a 
 passing shadow over his well-earned fame, 
 yet had he still " a world of sweet imagin- 
 ings within," and he reached an octogenarian 
 age without having sustained any very sen- 
 sible diminution of his long and lasting 
 reputation. He died in 1834. 
 
 STOTHARD, Charles Alfred, son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1787. He ex- 
 hibited at an early age a great fondness for 
 drawing, which ere long ripened into an 
 enthusiastic love for the art ; and he became 
 particularly celehrated for the faithful de- 
 lineation of ancient costume. In 1810 ap- 
 peared his admirable picture of the " Death 
 of Richard II.," and in the same year he 
 commenced the publication of his "Monu- 
 mental Effigies of Great Britain." He was 
 a member and historical draughtsman of the 
 Society of Antiquaries ; by whom he was 
 deputed to take drawings from the famous 
 tapestry at Bayeux, in Normandy ; and in 
 1819 he also made a series of drawings from 
 the paintings then recently discovered on 
 the walls of the paiijted chamber in the 
 House of Lords. His death was the effect of 
 an accident while engaged in his professional 
 
STO] 
 
 ^ jJe&j muCljenSal 38tOjirap!)i). 
 
 [STR 
 
 labours. As he was iu the act of tracing the 
 stained glass in a window over the altar of 
 tlie parisli church of Bere Ferrers in Devon- 
 shire, the ladder on wliich he was standing 
 gave way, and he was instantaneously killed, 
 May 28. 1821. 
 
 STOW, Joim, a celebrated antiquary, was 
 born in Comhill, about 1525. He was bred 
 a tailor, but began early to study the an- 
 tiquities of his country ; in which he was 
 encouraged by Archbishop Parker and the 
 Earl of Leicester. His first work was the 
 " Summary of the Chronicles of England ;" 
 which he enlarged in lUUO, and published 
 I under the title of " Flores Historiarum, or 
 I Annals of this Kingdom, from the time of 
 the Ancient Britons." In 1598 appeared the 
 first edition of his " Survey of 1/ondon." In 
 his old age he was reduced to such indi- 
 gence, as to solicit charity by means of a 
 brief. Died, 1005. 
 
 STO WELL, William Scott, Lord,— 
 son of W. Scott, a mercliant of Newcastle, 
 and elder brother of Lord Eldon, — was born 
 at Heworth, Durham, in 1745, the memorable 
 year of the rebellion in Scotland ; from 
 which a curious incident took place, not 
 altogether undeserving of notice here. New- 
 castle, like most other towns in the north, 
 was at that time in full expectation of re- 
 ceiving a visit from the rebels ; the town 
 walls were planted with cannon, and every 
 practicable measure adopted to withstand a 
 siege. Many families retired into the country; 
 and it was desirable that Mrs. Scott, who 
 was then far advanced in pregnancy, should 
 be removed ; but egress in any common way 
 was next to impossible : her residence being 
 in Love Lane, a narrow street adjoining to 
 the public quay, and the town wall at that 
 time ran along the quay, between Love Lane 
 and the river Tyne. In this emergency it 
 was contrived to let her down in a clothes- 
 basket, from the top of the wall to the quay, 
 where a boat was in readiness to receive her, 
 and by wliich she was conveyed down the 
 river to Heworth, a village about three miles 
 distant, where she soon gave birth to twins — 
 the subject of this article, and a daughter 
 named Barbara. Lord Stowell received the 
 first rudiments of his classical education, 
 with his brother, the Earl of Eldon, at the 
 Newcastle grammar-school, and completed 
 it at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He 
 afterwards removed to University College, 
 and in his 20th year was appointed one of 
 the tutors. About the year 1776, Mr. Scott 
 retired from the tutorship of the university, 
 and devoted himself to severe study in that 
 branch of the legal profession of which he 
 afterwards became so great an ornament. 
 In 1779 he took the degree of D.C.L., and 
 soon after commenced his career as an ad- 
 vocate in the civil law courts. Here he rose 
 to the highest eminence with unparalleled 
 rapidity. He was appointed king's advocate- 
 general in 1787 ; shortly after, judge of the 
 consistory court, vicar- general of the pro- 
 vince of Canterbury, and master of the 
 faculties. He was knighted in 1788, and 
 in 1798 became judge of the high court of 
 admiralty and a privy-councillor. In 1790 
 he entered parliament as the representative 
 of Downton, and in the following year had 
 
 bOS 
 
 the honour of being unanimously elected as 
 member for the university of Oxford ; which 
 he retained till the coronation of George IV., 
 when he was created a peer. " Devoting his 
 brilliant talents and extraordinary acumen 
 to the noblest branch of liis profession — the 
 study of international law — and living in 
 times when a general war called all this 
 knowledge into action, his decisions have 
 passed into precedents, equal, if not superior, 
 in authority, to those of the venerable fathers 
 of the science, Puffendorf, Grotius, Vattel, 
 &c." He was an accomplished scholar, a 
 profound reasoner, and an uncompromising 
 supporter of our most venerable institutions. 
 Died. Jan. 23. 1836. 
 
 STRABO, a celebrated Greek historian 
 and geographer, was born at Amasia, in 
 Cappadocia, about 19 a.d., and travelled 
 through Greece, Italy, Egypt, and Asia, 
 endeavouring to obtain the most accurate 
 information in regard to the geography, 
 statistics, and political conditions of the 
 countries which he visited. The time of his 
 death is unknown. His great geograiiliical 
 work, in seventeen books, contains a full 
 account of the manners and governments of 
 different people. 
 
 STKADA,Famiani'S, an Italian historian 
 and modern Latin poet, was born at Rome 
 in 1572. He joined the society of the Jesuits, 
 and l>ecame professor of rhetoric at the Ro- 
 man college, where he resided till his death, 
 in 1649. His most famous works are, a 
 " History of the Wars in the Netherlands " 
 and " Prolusioiies Academicae." 
 
 STRAFFORD, Thomas Wen'Twokth, 
 Earl of, an eminent statesman and minister, ', 
 was born in London, in 1593. After having 
 travelled on the Continent, he was knighted, 
 and made custos rotulorum of the west ri- 
 ding of Yorkshire. In 1G21 he was chosen 
 to represent the county ; and for some years 
 he was one of the most active friends of the 
 popular cause. He was, however, gained ' 
 over by the court in 1628 ; was made a 
 viscount ; and in 1632 he was sent over to j 
 Ireland as lord deputy. During his seven 
 years' government there he exercised great , 
 severity ; but on visiting England in 1639, ' 
 he was rewarded with the title of earl of 
 Strafford and the dignity of lord lieutenant. [ 
 But the counsels he gave to his royal mas- ' 
 ter were un suited to the times, and caused 
 his speedy downfall. He was impeached by i 
 tlie Commons, and brought to trial in March, 
 1641. He defended himself with eloquence 
 and dignity j and though no moral doubt 
 existed of his crime, the legal proof was 
 defective : his enemies, therefore, in order to | 
 secure their victim, resorted to a bill of at- I 
 tainder ; and the unhappy nobleman, no 
 longer supported by his sovereign, perished 
 on the scnffuld. May 12. 1641. I 
 
 STRANGE, Sir Robkut, an eminent en- \ 
 graver, was born in one of tlie Orkney 
 islands, in 1721. He first studied painting ; ' 
 but having entered into the army of the 
 Pretender in 1745, he for a time lived in 
 concealment, and afterwards went to Paris, 
 where he became a pupil of Le Bas, a ce- j 
 lebrated landscape engraver ; and, on set- I 
 tling in London, he applied himself to his- | 
 torical engraving, in which he arrived at 1 
 
str] 
 
 ^ |!ef» UnibtvSal 2Si0srap!)B. 
 
 [str 
 
 great excellence. In 1760 lie went to Italy, 
 where he was chosen a member of tlie aca- 
 demies of Rome, Florence, and Bologna ; he 
 was knighted in 1787, and died in 1792. 
 
 STRATO, a philosopher of Lampsacus, 
 whose tenets approached nearer to those of 
 the materialists of modern times than those 
 of any of the ancient sages. He flourished 
 in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 
 STRAUCHIUS, ^GiDius, an eminent 
 mathematician and controversialist, born at 
 Wittemberg, in 1032. He was a zealous 
 Lutheran, and wrote fiercely against the 
 Calvinists ; he is, however, better known as 
 a mathematician than a polemic ; and his 
 " Breviarum Chronologicum " is a very ex- 
 cellent work. Died, 1()82. 
 
 STREATER, Robekt, an English pain- 
 ter, excelling in history, architecture, and 
 landscape. At the Restoration, he was made 
 serjeant-paiuter to the king. Born, 1624 ; 
 died, 1680. 
 
 STRIGELIUS, ViCTORiNUS, a German 
 divine of the 16th century, who, in the con- 
 troversies at that time going on between the 
 different sects of reformers, attached himself 
 to Melanchthon and Luther, and displayed 
 great moderation and good sense. He was 
 the author of " Scholiae Ilistorieae," " Epi- 
 tome Doctrinae de primo Motu," &c. Born, 
 1524 ; died, lo69. 
 
 STROEMER, M.\rtin, an astronomer 
 and natural philosoplier, born in 1707, at 
 Upsal, where he succeeded Celsius. Died, 
 1770. 
 
 STROGONOFF, Count Alexander de, 
 a wealthy Russian nobleman. He was pre- 
 sident of the Academy of the Fine Arts at 
 St. Petersburgh, and employed his riches 
 in patronising the arts and its professors. 
 Died. 1811. 
 
 STROZZI, Philip, a celebrated Floren- 
 tine patriot, who after the death of pope 
 Clement VII. undertook the hazardous en- 
 terprise of restoring the liberties of his 
 country, and the expulsion of Alessandro 
 de' Medici. For this purpose he drew over 
 to his party Lorenzo de' Medici, called the 
 younger, who, on the 6th of January, 1537, 
 assassinated his relation, and then escaped 
 to Venice. The perpetration of this crime 
 did not answer the object of those who con- 
 trived it ; for Cosmo de' Medici succeeded to 
 the government, and the authority of that 
 family became fully established. Having 
 been taken prisoner, and apprehending he 
 should be put to the torture to force a dis- 
 closure of his accomplices, he resolved to 
 anticipate the trial by a voluntary death, 
 and finding a sword, which had been negli 
 gently left in the apartment by one of his 
 guards, he plunged it into his breast, and 
 immediately expired. This event took place I 
 in 1.5.'W. 
 
 STROZZI, Peter, son of the preceding, I 
 having with tlie rest of the family taken 
 refuge in France, rose to the rank of field t 
 marshal, and signalised himself by his ser- j 
 vices, both by land and sea. In 1.H8 he was j 
 sent to Scotland, with a body of Italians, I 
 to act against the English ; and in 1558 he 
 contributed to the capture of Calais ; but in 
 the same year he received a mortal wound 
 at the siege of Thiouville His son Philip 
 
 proved equally valorous as the rest of his 
 family, hut his end was unfortunote, for 
 when wounded in a figlit with the Spanish 
 fleet, off the island of St. Michael, he was 
 thrown overboard alive by order of the ad- 
 miral, and perished, in 1582. 
 
 STROZZI. Several poets of this name 
 may be mentioned. Titus and Hercules, 
 fatlier and son, natives of Ferrara, both of 
 wliom died at the beginning of the 6th cen- 
 tury. GiULio Strozzi, who distinguished 
 
 himself by a fine poem on the origin of the 
 city of Venice, entitled " Venetia aedificata." 
 
 Died, 1636 Also Nicholas Strozzi, who 
 
 died in 1654. He was the author of two 
 tragedies, " David of Trebizonde " and 
 " Conradus ;" also " Idylls," " Sonnets," &c. 
 
 STRUENSEE, John Frederic, a cele- 
 brated political character, was born at 
 Halle, in Saxonj', in 1737. He was brought 
 up to medicine, and became physician to the 
 king of Denmark, whom he accompanied on 
 his tour to Germany, France, and England. 
 Soon after the marriage of Christiern VII. 
 with the princess Matilda of England, 
 Struensee became a decided favourite of the 
 yoimg queen ; and after a long course of 
 conflicts and court intrigues, Count Bern- 
 storff and the other ministers of Christiern 
 were obliged to yield to him and his friend 
 Count Brandt. Taking advantage of the 
 extreme imbecility of the monarch, he gra- 
 dually contrived to direct the whole affairs 
 of government. This at length roused the 
 jealousy of the principal nobility, who, aided 
 by the young queen's mortal enemy, the 
 queen-dowager, entered into a conspiracy 
 to destroy him and his party, which they 
 effected in the following manner. On the 
 night of the 16tli of Jan. 1772, they suddenly 
 aroused the king iu his bed, and making 
 him believe that his life was in danger, ob- 
 tained his order for arresting the queen, 
 Struensee, Brandt, and all their adherents ; 
 and the result was, that they were tried and 
 convicted as traitors on the most prepos- 
 terous charges. Struensee and Brandt were 
 beheaded and quartered ; and the queen, 
 who was confined in the castle of Cronen- 
 burgh, would have probably shared a simi- 
 lar fate, had not a British fleet appeared in 
 the Baltic, and conveyed her to Zell, where 
 she died in 1776. 
 
 STRUTT, Joseph, an artist and anti- 
 quary, was born in 1749, at Springfield, in 
 Essex, and was a pupil of Ryland the en- 
 graver. Uniting the study of antiquities 
 with the practice of his art, he published, 
 in 1773, his work entitled the "Regal and 
 Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England," con- 
 taining representations of the English 
 monarchs, from Edward the Confessor to 
 Henry VIII. This was followed, among 
 other works, chiefly of an antiquarian cast, 
 by his " Biographical Dictionary of En- 
 gravers," in 2 volumes ; and his " Complete 
 View of the Dresses and Habits of tlie People 
 of England." In 1801 he published his last 
 and favourite work, entitled the "Sports 
 and Pastimes," &c., with numerous plates. 
 He was also the author of " Queen Hoo 
 Hall," "Ancient Times," and "The Test of 
 Guilt." Died, 1802. 
 
 STRUVE, George Adam, an eminent 
 
str] 
 
 a iJJetD BnittvM 25i'03rap!)». 
 
 [STU 
 
 German jurist, bom in 1C19, was first coun- 
 sellor of tlie city of Brunswick, was em- 
 ployed in several important affairs by the 
 princes of Saxony, and wrote some able 
 works on the feudal and civil law. Died, 
 1692. 
 
 STRUVE, BuRCiiARn Gotthelf, son of 
 the preceding, was a learned and indefa- 
 tigable German bibliographer. His talents 
 attracted much notice at Jena, where he 
 lectured on pliiiosopliy, antiquities, &c. His 
 works on history, law, and philosophy, are 
 numerous, and highly esteemed. Born, 1671 ; 
 died, 17!W. 
 
 8TRYPE, JoHX, an ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian and biographer, was born at Stepney, 
 In 1(543 • was educated at St. Paul's School, 
 and at Jesus College, Cambridge ; and en- 
 joyed the living of I^ow I^ayton in Essex, 
 60 years, although he was never inducted. 
 During his residence at this place, he ap- 
 plied diligently to the study of English his- 
 ! tory, and. by procuring access to numerous 
 ' collections of manuscripts, was enabled to 
 throw more light upon the period of the 
 Reformation than any writer who went Ije- 
 fore him. His chief works are, " Ecclesias- 
 tical Monuments " 3 vols, folio ; " Annals of 
 the Reformation," 4 vols, folio ; and an 
 augmented edition of Stow's Survey of Lon- 
 don, 2 vols, folio. He also wrote the lives of 
 the archbishops Cranmer, Parker, Grindall, 
 and Whitgift ; and those of Sir John Cheke, 
 Sir Thomas Smith, and Bishop Aj'lmer. 
 During the latter part of his life hie was 
 rector of Hackney, where he died in 1797, 
 aged 94. 
 
 STUART, Damel, an able political 
 writer, known for many years as the editor 
 and proprietor of the Morning Post and the 
 Courier, was born in Edinburgh, 17(i6 ; hut 
 removed to London when a mere lad, his 
 brothers, under whose care he was placed, 
 being established there in connection with 
 the press. Through their means he became 
 acfiuainted with the spirit and views of dif- 
 ferent parties ; and in 1795 he purchased 
 several shares in the Morning Post, of which 
 he ultimately became sole proprietor and 
 editor. His success was rapid and flattering. 
 His own ready pen, aided by that of his 
 brother-in-law, Mr. (afterwards Sir James) 
 Mackintosh, Coleridge, Southey.aud Words- 
 worth, raised the reputation of the paper 
 beyond that of any contemporary journal. 
 In 1803 he sold the Morning Post, and having 
 become joint proprietor of the Courier, he 
 increased the fame of this journal by the 
 same sagacity, industry, and talent, tliat had 
 raised the other. In 181() he retired into 
 private life, and for thirty years enjoyed in 
 easy competence tlie fruits of the labours of 
 an active life. Died, 184G. 
 
 STUART, GiLBEKT, an eminent historical 
 writer, was born at Edinburgli, in 1742, and 
 received his education in that university. 
 He studied jurisprudence, but became an 
 author by profession. In his 22iid year, he 
 published a " Dissertation concerning the 
 Antiquity of the British Constitution ;" for 
 which he was complimented with the degree 
 of LIj.D. His next work was a " View of 
 Society in Europe ;" but being disappointed 
 of the professorship of law at Edinburgh, lie 
 
 807 
 
 removed to London, and became a writer in 
 the Monthly Review. He however returned 
 in 1773, and commenced the Edinburgh 
 Magazine and Review, which was discon- 
 tinued in 1776. Besides the works before 
 mentioned, he wrote "The History of Scot- 
 land," a '-History of the Reformation of 
 Scotland," &c. Dropsy, brought on by a 
 life of intemperance, caused his death in 
 
 STUART, IlBNRV Benedict Maria Cle- 
 ment, cardinal of York, younger brother 
 of Charles Edward, the Pretender, and the 
 last deiicendant of the royal line of the 
 Stuarts, was bom at Rome, in 1725. When 
 the last grand effort for the restoration of 
 his family in 1745 proved abortive, he took 
 orders, and in 1747 pope Benedict XIV. 
 raised him to the purple. The extraordinary 
 •vents arising out of tlie French revolution 
 had the effect of making the cardinal depend- 
 ant on the bounty of the king of England ; 
 for having been obliged to flee to Venice when 
 the French invaded Italy, he was indebted 
 for his support to a pension from the English 
 court. Died, 1807. 
 
 STUART.James, commonly called Athe- 
 nian Stuakt, a celebrated traveller, an- 
 tiquary, and delineator of Athenian archi- 
 tecture, was born in London, in 1713. lie 
 originally gained his livelihood by painting 
 fans ; but having made himself master of 
 Greek, Latin, and the mathematics, he 
 travelled to Italy on foot, and afterwards 
 visited Athens, in company with Nicholas 
 Revett, a skilful architect, where they em- 
 ployed themselves in making drawings of 
 the architectural relics which have escaped 
 the ravages of time and violence. On his 
 return to England, he became eminent as 
 an architect, and was appointed surveyor 
 to Greenwich Hospital ; became F.R.S. and 
 F.S. A., and published the result of his foreign 
 labours in a valuable work, entitled " The 
 Antiquities of Athens," 4 vols, folio. Died, 
 1788. 
 
 STUART, James, of Duncara, whose 
 name will be long remembered in social and 
 political circles, was a scion of the noble 
 house of Moray, and was born 1 776. He was 
 bred to the legal profession, and became a 
 writer to the signet in 1798. But with great 
 aptitude for business, he became engrossed 
 in political engagements, and distinguished 
 himself by the vigour, the decision, and the 
 boldness with which he maintained Whig 
 principles in opposition to what was then 
 called the "dynasty of Dundas " in Scot- 
 land. In consequence of his prominent 
 position, he became exposed to unsparing 
 invective from his political opponents ; and 
 certain truculent pasquina<les reflecting 
 on his honour and courage having been 
 traced to Sir A. Boswell, the son of Dr. 
 Johnson's biographer, Mr. Stuart saw him- 
 self compelled to demand satisfaction. Sir 
 Alexander having refused all apology, the 
 parties met near Auchtertool, in Fife, March 
 26. 1822, accompanied respectively by the 
 Honourable John Douglas and the late 
 Earl of Rosslyn, when the baronet received 
 a shot in the neck, which next day caused 
 his death. Mr. Stuart afterwards stood his 
 trial for murder before the high court of 
 
STU] 
 
 ^ i^ehj ^afuibrr^al 3Stcgrai)f)y. 
 
 [STU 
 
 justiciary, and was honourably acquitted. 
 After his triumphant acquittal, he diversified 
 his professional pursuits witli experiments 
 in farming and commercial speculations, 
 which in the year 1825 proved so disastrous 
 as to compel him to embark for America. 
 There he resided for tliree years ; and on 
 his return to England he published an 
 account of his travels in the United States, 
 ■which enjoyed great success. Soon after the 
 publication of that work, he «indertook the 
 editorship of the Courier newspaiier, and 
 when Lord Melbourne became premier in 
 1835, he was rewarded for his devotion to the 
 Whig cause with the office of inspector of 
 factories, which lie held till his death. He 
 was also chairman of the United Kingdom 
 Assurance Company. In bearing and man- 
 ners, Mr. Stuart was a perfect gentleman. 
 He was distinguished for his taste for the 
 fine arts, and his eminent social qualities 
 procured him a hearty welcome wherever 
 he appeared. Died, 1849, preserving to the 
 last the character of a staunch partisan, a 
 warm friend, and an honourable man. 
 , STUART, Joux, A.M., F.R.S. A., an anti- 
 quarian writer, and professor of Greek in 
 Marisclial College, Aberdeen, was born at 
 Castleton, Kincardine, in 1751. He was the 
 youngest sou of John Stuart, of Inchbrick, 
 M. D., and lineally descended from Walter 
 Stuart of Morphie, in the Mearns, whose 
 grandfather Murdoch, duke of Albany, was 
 grandson of Robert the Second, by Elizabeth 
 JIure of Rowallan. lie was a profound 
 antiquarian, especially on all subjects con- 
 nected with Scottish history, and was tlie 
 friend and correspondent of Pinkerton, Clial- 
 mers, Jamieson, Generals Ilutton, Ray, &c. 
 He was the author of the " Account of Maris- 
 chal College and University," published in 
 Sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of 
 Scotland; " Sketch of the Life of Dr. Duncan 
 Liddel," Aberdeen, 1790 ; and antiquarian 
 essays communicated to the Royal Anti- 
 quarian Society of Scotland, consisting of 
 " Observations upon the various Accounts of 
 the Progress of the Roman Arms in Scot- 
 land," and " An Account of the Sculptured 
 Pillars in the Northern Counties of Scot- 
 land." Died, 1827. 
 
 STUBBS, Geoi!GE, a painter, was born 
 at Liverpool, in 1724 ; studied at Rome ; 
 and, on his return, settled in London, where 
 he distinguished himself as a painter of 
 animals, particularly horses. He was an 
 associate of the Royal Academy ; and pub- 
 lished " The Anatomy of the Horse," and 
 a " Comparative Anatomical Exposition of 
 the Structure of the Human Body, with that 
 of a Tiger and a Common Fowl." Died, 
 1806. 
 
 STUBBS, or STUBBE, Joufr, a spirited 
 lawyer and celebrated political writer, was 
 born about 1541, and educated at Corpus 
 Christi College, Cambridge, whence he re- 
 moved to Lincoln's lun. When the Duke 
 of Anjou became a suitor to queen Eliza- 
 beth, Stubbs, who had become a Puritan, 
 published a pamphlet against the alliance, 
 entitled " The Discovery of a gaping Gulph, 
 wherein England is likely to be swallowed 
 up by another French Marriage." For this 
 he waa condemned to have his right hand 
 
 cut off; and when the barbarous sentence 
 was executed, Stubbs, with amazing forti- 
 tude, took off his cap with liis left hand, and 
 cried " God save the queen." 
 
 STUKELEY, William, a celebrated 
 English antiquary, was born at Holbeach, 
 in Lincolnshire, in 1()87 ; was educated at 
 Bene't College, Cambridge, where he devoted 
 his time principally to medical studies, 
 and took the degree of M. B. He then 
 settled at Boston, but removed to London 
 in 1717, and in 1720 was admitted a fellow 
 of the College of Ph3'sicians. In 1726 he 
 went to reside at Grantham, where he ac- 
 quired great reputation as a medical prac- 
 titioner ; but repeated attacks of the gout 
 induced him to relinquish his profession and 
 enter into holy orders ; and he was pre- 
 sented to the living of All Saints, in Stam- 
 ford. In 1747 the Duke of Montague gave him 
 the rectory of St. George the Martyr, Queen 
 Square, where he died, 1765. Dr. Stukeley 
 pursued his antiquarian researches with an 
 unusual degree of spirit and enthusiasm, 
 and he made important accessions to our 
 knowledge of the earlj' monuments of human 
 art and industry belonging to our native 
 country. His principal works are, " Itinera- 
 rium Curiosum ; or an Account of the An- 
 tiquities and Curiosities of Great Britain," 
 2 vols, folio ; " Palaeographia Sacra ; or Dis- 
 courses on the Monuments of Antiquity, 
 that relate to Sacred History," 4to. ; "An 
 Account of Stonehenge," folio ; "Palaeogra- 
 phia Britannica," 4to. ; " The History of 
 Carausius," 2 vols. 4to. &c. 
 
 STURGEON, William, whose career pre- 
 sents a remarkable illustration of the suc- 
 cessful pursuit of knowledge under difficul- 
 ties, was born at Whittingtou, in Lancashire, 
 1783, and was apprenticed to a shoemaker. 
 In 1802 he entered the Westmoreland mi- 
 litia ; and two years later he enlisted in the 
 royal artillery, in which corps he remained 
 about 20 years. While in this corps he 
 devoted his leisure to scientific studies, and 
 appears to have made himself familiar with 
 all the great facts of electricity and magnet- 
 ism, which were then opening to the world. 
 His earliest essays on electro-magnetism 
 appeared in the Philosophical Magazine in 
 1823 and 1824. In 1825 he published, in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts, the 
 description of a complete set of novel electro- 
 magnetic apparatus ; and the Society of Arts 
 testified their sense of the importance of this 
 contribution by awarding to its author their 
 large silver medal, with a purse of 30 guineas. 
 He continued to furnish contributions to 
 the Philosophical Magazine from time to 
 time ; and in 1830 he published a pamphlet, 
 entitled "Experimental Researches in Elec- 
 tro-Magnetism, Galvanism,"&c., comprising 
 an extensive series of original experiments, 
 and exhibiting an improvement in the prepa- 
 ration of the positive plates of the galvanic 
 apparatus, which has not yet been superseded. 
 In 1836, Mr. Sturgeon communicated a paper 
 to the Royal Society, which contains the 
 description of a perfectly original magnetic 
 electrical machine, in which a most inge- 
 nious contrivance was adopted for uniting 
 the reciprocating electric currents, develope<l 
 so as to give them one uniform direction. 
 
 
8TD] 
 
 ^ ^rtt) BnibcrSal 33i0grajp!)i). 
 
 [sue 
 
 In the same year, the great industry of Mr. 
 Sturgeon was rewarded by two other im- 
 portant inventions. The first of these was 
 tliat of the electro-magnetic coil machine, 
 an instrument devised for the purpose of 
 giving a succession of electric shocks in 
 medical treatment, and which has been 
 generally preferred by medical men to all 
 others intended for similar purposes. The 
 other waa an electro- magnetic engine, for 
 giving motion to machinery. Besides these 
 works, Mr. Sturgeon edited the " Annals of 
 Electricity, Magnetism, and Chemistry ; " 
 and published a treatise on electricity and 
 galvanism ; and one of his last works was 
 the publication, in a collected form, of his 
 numerous philosophical memoirs, in one vol. 
 
 4to Soon after he left the army he was 
 
 appointed to the chair of experimental phi- 
 losophy in the Honourable East In<lia Com- 
 pany's Military Academy at Addiscombe, 
 which he filled for many years with great 
 credit. In 1842 he became superintendant 
 of the Victoria Gallery of practical science 
 at Manchester ; but this institution was soon 
 afterwarils discontinued ; and this able ex- 
 perimentalist saw himself, in the decline of 
 life, overwhelmed with difficulties, which, 
 however, were to a small extent mitigated 
 by a government pension of r>Ol. a year, 
 awarded to him in 1849. Died, 18-.0. 
 
 S TUKGES, John, a divine and tlieological 
 writer, chancellor of the diocese and jire- 
 bendary of Winchester ; of which cathedral 
 I chapter he was for nearly half a century, a 
 useful and distinguished member. He pub- 
 lished "Considerations on the present State 
 of the Church Establishment," "Discourses 
 on the Evidence of Natural and Revealed 
 Religion," &c. ; but lie acquired his chief 
 literary notoriety by his controversy with 
 the polemical historian of Winchester, Dr. 
 Milncr, who rei)lied to his objections in his 
 well-known "I^etters to a Prebendary." 
 Dr. Sturges died at Alverstoke, Hants, in 
 1807, and was buried iu Winchester ca- 
 thedral. 
 
 STURM, CUKISTOPHER CUKISTIAN, a 
 
 German divine, born at Augsburg., in 1740. 
 He is chiefly known as the author of " Re- 
 flections on the Works of God," which has 
 been frequently reprinted in England and 
 other countries, as well as in his own. He 
 also published " Morning Converse with 
 God, for every Day in the Year," &c. Died, 
 178(5. 
 
 STITRMIUS, JoHjr, whose learning ac- 
 qiiired him the name of the " German Ci- 
 cero," was born in 1507, at Sleidan, near 
 Cologne. His talents were not confined to 
 mere scholastic learning, but well adapted 
 to politics and the business of life, of which 
 he gave many striking proofs. He formed 
 an academy at Strasburg in 1537 ; and such 
 was his fame, that the emperor Maximilian 
 II. was induced to raise it to an university 
 in irAid, of which Sturmius was the first 
 rector. He was the author of several original 
 works and translations from classic authors. 
 
 Died, 1.589 There were several other 
 
 ingenious scholars of tliis name, among 
 whom should be noticed, John Ciiuistopiiek 
 8TPKMIII.S, author of "Mathesis Juvenilis," 
 2 vols. ; " Physicae Modernx Compendium," 
 
 " Prtelecliones Academicae," &c. He died 
 at Altdorf, in 1703, leaving a son, Lkonahd 
 Chkistopher STUK.Mirs, who was a cele- 
 brated engineer, and the author of a " Com- 
 plete Course of Architecture," 16 vols. Died, 
 1719. 
 
 STURT, John, an engraver, was bom in 
 Ivondon, in IG-W. He is principally cele- 
 brated for the extraordinary minuteness and 
 beauty of his letters. The most curious of 
 his works is the " Book of Common Prayer," 
 which he executed on silver plates. Each 
 page is headed with a vignette, and prefixed 
 to the book is a portrait of George I., the 
 lines of the face being expressed by writing 
 so small, as scarcely to be read with a mag- 
 nifying glass. This writing consists of the 
 Lord's prayer, the decalogue, the prayers 
 for the royal family, and the 21st psalm. 
 Died, 1730. 
 
 SUARD, JoHK Baptist AKTUomr, a 
 French writer, was born at Besan^on, in 
 1733. He acquired considerable reputation 
 as the editor of the Journal de Paris, and 
 other political publications. He also wrote 
 a "Life of Tasso," ond contributed largely 
 to the Biographic Universelle. Died, 1817. 
 
 SUAREZ, Francis, a Spanish Jesuit, was 
 born at Grenada, in 1.548 ; was appointed 
 professor at Coimbra, by Philip II. ; and 
 died at Lisbon, in 1617. His "Treatise on 
 Laws " has been highly esteemed ; but his 
 " Defensio Catholicae," written in obedience 
 to the papal command, against the English 
 reformation, was burnt at St. Paul's by 
 order of James I. 
 
 SUBTERMANS, Jcstu-s, a portrait and 
 historical pointer of Antwerp, who died in 
 1681. 
 
 SUCHET, Louis Gabkiel, duke of Al- 
 bufera, a brave and skilful French general, 
 was born at Lyons, in 1772, and entered the 
 army as a volunteer. He distinguished him- 
 self in Italy and Switzerland on numerous oc- 
 casions ; and, before the end of the year 1800, 
 he had attained the rank of major-general. 
 The battles of Marengo and Austerlitz added 
 to his fame ; and in 1808 he was appointed 
 to the command of the troops in the south- 
 east of Spain, which he retained till the 
 French were expelled from the Peninsula. 
 During that period he displayed great know- 
 ledge of the art of war, and his services were 
 rewarded with the rank of marshal and a 
 dukedom. On Napoleon's return from Elba, 
 the frontiers of Savoy were intrusted to his 
 defence. Died, 1826. 
 
 SUCKLING, Sir John, a poet and cour- 
 tier, was born at Whitton, in Middlesex, in | 
 1609. His father, who was comptroller of i 
 the royal household, sent him early on his 
 travels, and he served a campaign in the 
 army of Gustavus Adolphus. On his re- | 
 turn he acquired reputation as a wit and a j 
 dramatist ; and, at the beginning of the j 
 Scotch rebellion, he raised a troop of horse ' 
 for the king's service, but their conduct in I 
 the field disgraced both themselves and I 
 their commander. An abortive attempt to i 
 effect the escape of the Earl of Strafford, j 
 confined in the Tower under articles of im- 
 peachment from the Commons, implicated 
 Sir John so seriously, that he thought it 
 advisable to retire to France, where he died I 
 
sue] 
 
 ^ iJ^ciD UnibtY^al 23i0(p:ap^L'« 
 
 [SUL 
 
 in 1641. His writings consist of letters, 
 plays, and poems ; the last of wliicli have 
 obtained a place in standard collections. 
 
 SUETONIUS, Caius Tkanquillus, a 
 Latin historian, who lived in the Ist and 2nd 
 centuries of the Christian era. He distin- 
 guished himself as an advocate, obtained 
 the tribuneship through the iniluence of 
 Pliny tlie Younger, and was appointed se- 
 cretary to the emperor Adrian. His " Lives 
 of the Twelve Cajsars," and "Notices of 
 celebrated Grammarians, Rhetoricians, and 
 Poets," are extant, and still held iu high 
 esteem. 
 
 SUETONIUS PAUI.INUS, a celebrated 
 Roman general, who distinguished liimself 
 in the year 37, by reducing the revolted 
 Mauritanians. In 59 he was appointed to 
 the government of Britain, and was the ge- 
 neral who vanquished the troops of the 
 heroic Boadieea. 
 
 SUETT, Richard, a celebrated comic 
 actor, excelling in ludicrous comedj' and 
 broad farce. He was a native of London, 
 trod the boards of the Haymarket Theatre 
 while a mere youth ; and, after improving 
 himself at York and other places, made his 
 debat, in 1781, at Drury Lane, where he 
 became a general favourite. Died, 1805. 
 
 SUGER, the Abbt', a celebrated French 
 statesman, was born at Touri, in Beauce, 
 in 1082. He was, successively, minister of 
 state to Louis VII. and Louis le Gros ; and 
 in 1122 was made abbot of St. Denis, though 
 he still continued to act in his political cha- 
 racter. Died, 1152. 
 
 SUIDAS, a Greek writer, supposed to have 
 lived in the 10th century, was the compiler 
 of a lexicon, which is valuable for the frag- 
 ments it contains of many lost works, and 
 the information it gives respecting the 
 authors. 
 
 SULIVAN, Sir Richard Joseph, hart., 
 was born in Ireland, and sent out to India 
 early in life, through the patronage of his 
 relation, Laurence Sulivan, at that time 
 chairman of the East India Compaiiy. On 
 his return he made a tour through Ireland, 
 Scotland, and Wales ; of which he gave an 
 account in a series of letters, in 2 vols. He 
 also wrote an " Analysis of the Political 
 History of India," " Philosophical Rhap- 
 sodies, being Fragments of Ak her of Betlis," 
 &c. ; but his most important work was, " A 
 View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller 
 among the Alps," 6 vols. He was returned 
 M. P. for New Romney, in 1790, and for 
 Seaford, in 1802 ; was made a baronet in 1804, 
 and died in 180(5. 
 
 SULLIVAN, John, an American general, 
 who served with reputation in the repub- 
 lican army at the battles of Brandywine 
 and Germantown, in 1777 and 1778, and 
 subsequently against the Indians ; but was 
 deprived of his command, on a charge of 
 peculation, and lived in retirement till 1788, 
 when he became a member of the congress, 
 and was afterwards judge of New Hampshire. 
 Born. 1741 ; died, 1795. 
 
 SULLIVAN, James, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was successively justice, attorney- 
 general, and governor of the province of 
 Massachusetts. He was for many years 
 president of the liistorical society of Mas- 
 
 810 
 
 sachusetts ; and was the author of " Observ- 
 ations on the Government of the United 
 States of America," a " Dissertation on the 
 Constitutional Liberty of the Press," &c. 
 Died, 1808. 
 
 SULLY, Maximit.ian de Bethunk, Duke 
 of, a celebrated French statesman and war- 
 rior, was born at the castle of Rosny, in 1559, 
 and educated iu the Protestant faith. At 
 an early age he was placed about the person 
 of the king of Navarre, afterwards Henry 
 IV., to whom he e^r continued to be firmly 
 attached. While at Paris with the prince, 
 he narrowly escaped being one of the victims 
 of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, having 
 been preserved by the president of the col- 
 lege of Burgundy, who concealed him for 
 tiiree days. In tlie service of the young 
 king of Navarre, the Baron de Rosny, as he 
 was then styled, distinguished himself on 
 several occasions by a bravery approaching 
 to rashness. But his abilities as a diplo- 
 matist and financier were no less remark- 
 able. In 1586 he concluded a treaty with 
 the Swiss, for a supply of 20,000 troops for his 
 master's service ; in 1597 he was placed at 
 the head of the department of finance ; and, 
 two years afterwards, he was declared super- 
 intendant. About the same time he also 
 negotiated the marriage of Henry with Mary 
 de' Medici. In his embassy to England, 
 after the death of queen Elizabeth, he dis- 
 played great penetration and address, and 
 concluded a treaty with James I., advan- 
 tageous to the interests of both countries. 
 In addition to his other offices, he was ap- 
 pointed grand surveyor of France, grand 
 master of the artillery, governor of the 
 Bastile, and superintendant of fortifications 
 throughout the kingdom. His labours, as 
 minister of finance, were attended with the 
 happiest success ; and the revenues of the 
 government, which had been reduced to a 
 state of complete dilapidation, by the com- 
 bined effect of civil anarchy and open war- 
 fare, were by his care restored to order, re- 
 gularity, and affluence. With a revenue of I 
 35,000,000, he paid oft', in 10 years, a debt of 
 200,000,0(Xt, besides laying up 35,000,000. 
 Though frequently thwarted in his purposes 
 by the rapacity of the courtiers and mistresses 
 of the monarch, he nobly pursued his career, 
 ever distinguishing himself as the zealous 
 friend of his country, and not the tempo- 
 rising minister of his master. His industry 
 was unwearied. He rose every morning at 
 4 o'clock, and, after dedicating some time to 
 business, he gave audience to all who solicited 
 admission to him, without distinction of per- 
 sons. After his return from his mission to 
 England, he was made governor of Poitou, 
 and grand master of the ports and harbours 
 of Provence ; and tlie territory of Sully-sur- 
 Loire was erected into a duchy in his favour, 
 in 1G06. After the death of Henry IV., 
 Sully retired from public affairs, and he died 
 in 1041. His "Memoirs," which are highly 
 interesting, have been translated into Eng- 
 lish by Mrs. Charlotte Lennox, and form 
 8 vols. 
 
 SULPICIA, a Latin poetess, who was 
 the wif> of Calenus, a Roman knight, and i 
 flourished about A. d. 90. She obtained the 
 name of the Roman Sappho, and appears to i 
 
: 8ul] 
 
 91 ^etxj ^iiibcriSal 3St00raj}]^o. 
 
 [SDT 
 
 I have merited it, if we may take the opinion 
 
 i of Martial on her poem on " Conjugal Love." 
 
 SULPICIUS G ALLUS, one of the earliest 
 
 I of the lloraan agtronoiners. Being in the 
 
 I army of Paulus vEmilius, in Greece, during 
 
 j the year 1G8 B.C., hia skill enabled him to 
 
 discover that an eclipse of the moon would 
 
 happen on the night previous to the day 
 
 fixed for giving battle to Perseus, king of 
 
 ! Macedon, and thus preventing the panic by 
 
 ! which the soldiers would have otherwise 
 
 I been seized. Ue afterwards filled the oihce 
 
 I of consul. 
 
 1 SULPICIUS SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical 
 j historian of the 5th century. He wrote the 
 I " Life of St. Martin of Tours," and an 
 " Abridgment of Ecclesiastical History." 
 
 SULZER, an ingenious Swiss writer, was 
 born in the canton of Zurich, in 1720 ; and 
 became professor of mathematics at the royal 
 college of Berlin. He ^.is tlie author of 
 " Mural Contemplations of the Works of 
 Nature," an " Account of a Journey in the 
 Alps," and '* The Universal Theory, or Dic- 
 tionary of the Fine Arts," 2 vols. 
 
 SU.MOROKOF, Alexan»ki{, a Russian 
 poet and dramatist, tlie son of a general 
 officer, was born at Moscow in 1727. Ue 
 was educated in the seminary of cadets at 
 Petersburgh ; and, while a student, wrote a 
 tragedy, called " Koref," wliich was acted 
 by his school Ifelows, and afterwards i)er- 
 formed in the presence of the court, with 
 such applause, as encouraged the author to 
 proceed in his dramatic career. Besides 
 tragedies and comedies, he wrote odes, idyls, 
 fables, satires, and other poems ; together 
 with a few works on the history of Russia. 
 He was created a councillor of slate, and 
 honoured wiili other marks of distinction. 
 Died, 1777. 
 
 SUSSEX, H.R. H. Augustus Fredkhick 
 Duke of, was the sixth son of king George 
 the Third, and was born at Buckingham 
 Palace, Jan. 27. 1773. Having made some 
 progress in liis studies in England, he was 
 sent to Gfittingen to complete tliem ; thence 
 he went to Italy, and while there, and still 
 a minor, he married lady Augusta Murray, 
 second daughter of the Earl of Dunmore. 
 This marriage gave great otfeuce to the king, 
 as being in direct opposition, not only to his 
 own views lor his son's establishment, but 
 also to the enactments of the royal marriage 
 act ; and,, after the usual proceedings, the 
 prerogative court pronounced the marriage 
 to be null and void. The young couple, how- 
 ever, treated this sentence as a mere arbitrary 
 stretch of power, and continued to reside 
 together as man and wife. The lady died in 
 183"J, leaving two children, the elder of whom, 
 Sir Augustus d'Este (siuce dead), claimed to 
 be considered legitimate, and, consequently, 
 the inheritor of his royal father's state and 
 titles ; and lie had some high law authorities 
 on his side, though the simide question would 
 seem to be — " Was or was not the marriage 
 I Illegal, as being opposed to 12 Geo. 3. c. ll.V" 
 I If it was contracted in direct contravention 
 of that act, we confess that any further ar- 
 gument upon the subject seems to ua to be a 
 mere bandying of words. This marriage, 
 and his unnecessarily conspicuous connection 
 with the Whig party, completely alienated 
 
 the young prince from his father, and of 
 course from the court ; and he had arrived at 
 the age of 28 before he was created duke of 
 Sussex, with an income of 12,000/. per annum, 
 which was subsequently increased to 18,000/. 
 His royal highness was a steady friend to 
 art, science, and literature ; and his presence 
 as chairman at dinners or meetings for the 
 benefit of public charities might always be 
 reckoned on. But though we cheerfully 
 confess that thus far the duke did good ser- 
 vice to humanity, we are not prepared to 
 imitate or to quote the somewhat too em- 
 phatic laudation which certain ot his friends 
 have written and spoken upon the subject of 
 his peisonal liberality. We have reason to 
 believe that, with much goodness of heart, the 
 duke had also much hankering after that 
 sort of applause which is so easily obtained 
 by fluent speech and affable demeanour, 
 where these are displayed by a personage of 
 his rank. Leaving to others the task of 
 criticising the politics of tlie duke, we shall 
 only add, that though but moderately 
 learned, he knew how to value learning ; his 
 library was very extensive, and, perhaps, 
 the richest private collection in England in 
 bibles, in various tongues and of various edi- 
 tions ; and that, while doing much good by 
 the influence of his name, he was as simple 
 in manner and as regular iu conduct as any 
 private gentleman in the kingdom. By his 
 will he seemed to wish to be as much sepa- 
 rated from his family in his death as he had 
 been in his life, for he gave orders that he 
 should be buried at the cemetery at KensoU 
 Green, and not at Windsor ! Died, Ajiril 21. 
 
 1843, aged 70. His daughter, Mdlle. 
 
 d'Este, married Sir Thomas Wilde, who in 
 1850 became lord chancellor, and was raised 
 to the peerage with the title of Baron Truro. 
 
 SUTCLIFFE, Matthew, an English di- 
 vine, was born in Devonshire, and educated 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was ad- 
 mitted a civilian in l."82 ; but took orders, 
 and became dean of Exeter. He founded, 
 at Clielsea, a singular college, the fellows 
 of which were to be employed in writing 
 the annals of their times, and in combat- 
 ing tlie errors of popery and pelagianism. 
 Sutcliife was himself the first provost ; but 
 the establishment fell to decay, and l>ecame 
 at last an asylum for invalid soldiers, being 
 part of the present Chelsea Hospital. He 
 was an eminent controversialist, and wrote 
 numerous tracts against the Catholic pro- 
 pagandists. Died, 1629. 
 
 SUTTON, Thomas, the founder of the 
 Cliarter House, was a wealthy English mer- 
 chant of the age of Elizabeth. He was born 
 in 1532, at Knaith, in Liiicolnshire ; received 
 his education at Eton and Cambridge, and 
 afterwards studied at Lincoln's Inn. On 
 becoming secretary to the Earl of Warwick, 
 he was made master of the ordnance at 
 Berwick, where he signalised himself during 
 the rebellion raised by the Earls of Nor- 
 thumberland and VV^estmoieland. On ac- 
 count of his services at that period, lie ob- 
 tained a patent for the oflice of master general 
 of the ordnance in the north, for lite. In 
 1573 he commanded one of the batteries, 
 which compelled the castle of Edinburgh to 
 surrender to the English. While thus em- 
 
suw] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ^nihcvinX iSiograplbw* 
 
 [SWE 
 
 I ployed, he was singularly fortunate in a 
 j purchase which he made of two valuable 
 ] manors from the bishop of Durham, on 
 i which a vein of coal was subsequently dis- 
 j covered, and laid the foundation of the 
 I immense riclies which afterwards flowed in 
 I upon him. At the time of the Spanish ar- 
 I niada he completely equipped a ship of war 
 i at his own expense, called by his own name, 
 I and sent to join the fleet under Drake. His 
 personal exi)enditure was on a princely stvle, 
 ! till the death of his wife, in 1602, threw him 
 ! into adegree of melancholy, which occasioned 
 a total change in his mode of living ; and he 
 I then resolved to dedicate Ins vast wealth to 
 [ the benefit of his fellow-creatures. He nc- 
 I cordiiigly purchased from the Earl of Suffolk 
 j the dissolved monastery of tlie Chartreux, 
 I called Howard House, and there founded a 
 I munificent institution, under the name of 
 j the Charter House ; but the founder scarcely 
 ! lived to witness the completion of his noble 
 j establishment. He died in 1611, and his 
 ' remains, which at first were deposited in 
 I Christchurch, Newgate Street, were after- 
 wards removed to a vault prepared for them 
 in the chapel of the Charter House. 
 
 SUWARROW, or SUVARROFF, Peter 
 Alexis Wasiliowitscu (count Riminisky, 
 prince of Italisky), a celebrated Russian 
 field-marshal, was born in 1730, at Suskoi, 
 in the Ukraine, and educated at the cadet 
 school of St. Petersburgh. He entered the 
 army as a private soldier ; distinguished 
 himself during the seven years' war ; and, 
 after 20 years service, was raised to the com- 
 mand of a regiment. In 1768 he obtained 
 the rank of brigadier-general, and served 
 several campaigns in Poland, receiving, in 
 reward for his courage and conduct, the 
 crosses of three Russian orders of knight- 
 hood. In 1773 he was appointed to the 
 command of a division of troops under 
 Count RomanzoflF, and completely defeated 
 a portion of the Turkish army at Turtukey, 
 killing several of the enemy with his own 
 hand. Crossing the Danube, he afterwards, 
 in conjunction with the force under Ka- 
 menskoy, routed the army of the Turks 
 with great slaughter, and captured the whole 
 of their artillery. In 1783 he reduced the 
 Budziac Tartars under the Russian yoke. 
 AtOczakow andFockzami his daring valour 
 was equally displayed ; and, in September, 
 
 1789, the Austrian troops, under the Prince 
 of Saxe-Coburg, being surrovmded, on the 
 banks of the Rimnik, by 100,000 Turks, owed 
 their preservation to his timely arrival with 
 10,000 Russians, who not only rescued them 
 from a destruction that appeared inevitable, 
 but occasioned the utter overthrow of the 
 enemy. The next and most sanguinarj' of 
 his actions was the storming of Ismail. In 
 
 1790, this strongly fortified town had resisted 
 all attempts to reduce it for a period of seven 
 months, when Suwarrow received peremp- 
 tory orders from Prince Potemkin to take 
 it without delay, and pledged himself to 
 execute the task assigned him in three days. 
 Oi' the sacking of the place on the third, and 
 the indiscriminate massacre of 40,000 of its 
 inhabitants, of every age and sex, the ac- 
 counts of the period give the most revolting 
 reports. The announcement of his bloody 
 
 812 
 
 triumph was made by the general, who af- 
 fected a Spartan brevity in his despatches, 
 in the words " Glory to God ! Ismail is ours." 
 Peace being proclaimed, tlie empress had 
 leisure to mature her designs against the 
 devoted kingdom of Poland ; and Suwarrow 
 was selected as a fit instrument to carry 
 them into execution. He marched, accord- 
 ingly, at the head of his troops, to Warsaw, 
 destroying about 20,000 Poles in his way, 
 and ended a campaign of which the un- 
 principled partition of the country was the 
 result. On this occasion he i-cceived a field- 
 marshal's baton, and an estate in the do- 
 minions which he had contributed to annex 
 to the Russian crown. The last and most 
 celebrated of his actions was his campaign 
 in Italy in 1799, when his courage and genius 
 for a while repaired the disasters of the 
 allied forces. Paul gave him the command 
 of the Russian forces destined to net with 
 the Austrians, and the emperor of Germany 
 created him field-marshal and commander- 
 in chief of the Austrian troops in Italy. 
 After gaining several brilliant victories, arid 
 driving the French from all the towns and 
 fortresses of Upper Italy, the plan of oi)e- 
 rations was changed, and the expected re- 
 inforcements from Austria did not arrive. 
 The Russian hero, however, effected a mas- 
 terly retreat from, Switzerland, and, entering 
 Germany, marched to Russia by order of 
 his sovereign. For his service in this cam- 
 paign he was created a prince, by the title 
 of Italisky. But he was treated by Paul 
 with great ingratitude, which deeply affected 
 his spirits ; and he died of chagrin, in 1800. 
 
 SWAMMERDAM, John, a celebrated 
 naturalist and anatomist, was born at Am- 
 sterdam, in K337 ; took his medical degree 
 at Leyden, but apjilied himself chiefly to 
 anatomy and entomology, formed a very 
 valuable cabinet of natural history, and ex- 
 celled in the art of injecting the vessels of 
 disse>:ted bodies with wax, and in anatomis- 
 ing the mintitest parts of insects. He was 
 the author of a " General History of Insects," 
 a "History of the Ephemeron," and " De 
 Fabrica Uteri Muliebris." Rendered hyi>o- 
 chondriacal by intensity of study and other 
 causes, he became totally unfit for society, 
 in which state he received impressions from 
 the mysticism of Antoinette Bourignon, 
 whom "he followed to Holstein. He after- 
 wards returned to Amsterdam, where he 
 died, in 1680. 
 
 SNVEDENBORG, EmaiVUEL, a celebrated 
 philosopher of the 18th centurj', who was 
 greatly distinguished for his valuable con- 
 tributions to science, but is now more espe- 
 cially known as a theological writer. He 
 was born at Stockholm in 1688, and carefully 
 educated under the care of his father, 
 bishop of Skara, in West Gothland, in the 
 principles of the Lutheran Church. After 
 pursuing his studies, and taking the degree 
 of D.Ph. at Upsala, he went on his travels, 
 and visited the universities of England, 
 Holland, France, and Germany. On his 
 return, he was ai)pointed assessor extraor- 
 dinary to the College of Mines, and in 1719 
 was ennobled, upon which occasion his name 
 was changed from Swedberg to Swedeatwrg. 
 It would far exceed our limits to attempt to 
 
SWl] 
 
 91 ^eto Slm'bcr^aT JJioflrapl^n, 
 
 [swi 
 
 give a list of his numerous works. Suffice it 
 to say, that some recently translated into 
 English, have attracted great attention, and 
 are remarkable, as showing that, at least in 
 medical science, lie anticipated some of the 
 I greatest discoveries of modern times. He 
 continued his scientific studies with an 
 ardour that placed him in the first rank of 
 European pliilosopliers, until the year 1743, 
 I when, as lie himself affirms, a new era of his 
 life commenced, and he was permitted to 
 hold intercourse with tlie inhabitants uf the 
 invisible world. In 1747 lie resigned his 
 I office in the mining codege, retired from 
 public life, and, spending liis time alter- 
 nately in Sweden and England, devoted 
 himself to the publication of his theological 
 works. These are in themselves sufficiently 
 ; extensive to form a life's work, and present 
 throughout, evidences of the deepest religious 
 feeling. The style of composition marks 
 them us works of a master mind ; they are 
 I filled with illustrations from the scientific 
 and metaphysical lore of tlieir author, and 
 ' present, perhaps, as complete a combination 
 j of science and theology as is any where to 
 I be met with. Tliough it is frequently 
 I affirmed that Swedcnborg laboured under a 
 ; delusion, it is surpiisiiig that his writings 
 I show no symptoms of aberration ; the last, 
 I finished but a few months before his death, 
 I being singularly clear, logical, and free from 
 enthusiasm. lie was always regarded as a 
 I learned and pious man ; and it would appear 
 I that the story of his insanity rests for its 
 I support upon the word of a single enemy. 
 j Thougli it is not our place to give judgment 
 ^ upon his opinions, it is yet our duty as 
 biograpliers to say, that there is nothing in 
 his writings or his life which bears out the 
 } charge. The believers in his doctrines are 
 ! now become a numerous body, and are as 
 j intelligent, as pure in morals, and as in- 
 1 offensive, as any body into which the Chris- 
 t tian church is divided. He died in Loudon, 
 in 1772. 
 
 SWIFT, Dr. JoNATHAX, dean of St. Pa- 
 trick's, a celebrated political, satirical, and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Dublin, 
 in l(j()7. Of a life so various, and so full of 
 business as Swift's, it is difficult to select 
 any part, consistent with the limits of this 
 work, that would not rather excite curiosity 
 than gratify it ; and tliis, indeed, in the 
 course of our present labours, we have fre- 
 quently had reason to regret before. Jona- 
 than Swift was the grandson of Thomas 
 Swift, vicar of Goodricli, in llcrefordsliire, 
 who married Elizabeth Dryden, aunt of the 
 poet, and by her had six sons. One of these 
 sons, named Jonathan, who was bred an 
 attorney, had married before he went to 
 reside in Ireland ; and, dying soon after, 
 left his widow pregnant. In this state she 
 went to live with her brother-in-law, God- 
 win Swift, an attorney at Dublin, where 
 sh6 gave birth to the subject of this article. 
 When Mrs. Swift returned to her friends in 
 liCicestershire, she left tliis child to the care 
 of his uncle, who sent him first to the school 
 of Kilkenny, and next to Trinity College, 
 Dublin, where, applying himself to history 
 and poetry, to the neglect of academical 
 I»ur8uit8, especially mathematics, he was at 
 
 the end of 4 years refused the degree of B. A. 
 and even at the end of 7 years he was only 
 admitted 82>eciali gratiA. In 1C»8 he lost 
 his uncle, and being left without support, he 
 came to England, where he waited on Sir 
 William Temple, who being related to 
 Swift's mother by marriage, received liim 
 with kindness, and made him his companion. 
 During his residence with that celebrated 
 statesman, he had frequent interviews with 
 king William, who ottered him a troop of 
 horse, which he declined, his thoughts being 
 directed to the church. After some time 
 he quarrelled with his patron, and went to 
 Ireland, where lie took orders, and obtained 
 a prelKjnd in the diocese of Connor. But he 
 soon returned to Sir William Temple, who, 
 sinking under age and infirmities, required 
 his company more than ever. During the 
 few remaining years of that statesman's life, 
 they therefore remained together ; and, on 
 his death. Swift found himself benefited by 
 a pecuniary legacy and the bequest of his 
 papers. He next accompanied Lord Berke- 
 ley, one of the lords justices, to Ireland, as 
 chaplain, and obtained from him the livings 
 of Laracor and Rathbiggan, on the former 
 of which he went to reside. During liis 
 residence there, he invited to Ireland Miss 
 Johnson, the lady whom he has rendered 
 celebrated by the name of Stella, and who 
 was the daughter of Sir William Temple's 
 steward. She was accompanied by a Mrs. 
 Dingley ; and the two ladies lived in the 
 neighbourhood when Swift was at home, 
 and at the parsonage-house during his ab- 
 sence ; which mysterious connection lasted 
 till her death. In 1701 he took his doctor's 
 degree, and entered on the arena of public 
 life as a political pamphleteer. He also 
 published, though anonymously, his eccen- 
 tric and humorous " Tale of a Tub," and 
 the " Battle of the Books." On the acces- 
 sion of queen Anne he visited England, 
 where he lived during a great part of that 
 reign, and distinguished himself as a power- 
 ful writer on the side of the Tories. Having 
 become intimate with Harley and Boling- 
 broke, he exerted himself strenuously in 
 behalf of their party, taking a leading share 
 in the famous Tory periodical, entitled the 
 Examiner, while with his battery of pamph- 
 lets and pasquinades, always replete with 
 bitter sarcasm or bold invective, he kept up 
 a constant and galling fire on their political 
 adversaries. But though immersed in poli- 
 tics, he did not neglect general literature. 
 In 1711 he published a " Proposal for correct- 
 ing, improving, and ascertaining the English 
 Tongue," in a letter to the Earl of Oxford, 
 the object of which was to establish an insti- 
 tution to secure the purity of the language. 
 A bishopric in England was the grand object 
 of his ambition ; but Archbishop Sharpe, on 
 the ground, it is said, of his "Tale of a Tub," 
 having infused into the mind of queen 
 Anne suspicions of his orthodoxy, the only 
 preferment his ministerial friends could give 
 him, was the Irish deanery of St. Patrick's, 
 to which he was presented in 1713. He ac- 
 cordingly, though by no means willingly, 
 returned to Dublin, where he attended to 
 his ecclesiastical functions, and made some 
 important reforms in the chapter of St. Pa- 
 
swi] 
 
 ^ ^tlu miubcrsfal ^Btaijiaplbl'* 
 
 [SYD 
 
 trick's. Ill 1716 he was privately married [ 
 to Miss Johnson ; but the ceremony was | 
 attended with no acknowledgment which 
 could gratify the feelings of the victim 
 of his pride and cruelty. The ascendancy 
 which he acquired over Miss Hester Van- 
 homrigh, another accomplished female, was 
 attended with circumstances still more cen- 
 surable. He became acquainted with this 
 lady in l^ondon, in 1712 ; and as she pos- 
 sessed, with a large fortune, a taste for lite- 
 rature. Swift took pleasure in affording her 
 instruction. The pupil became enamoured 
 of her tutor, and even proposed marriage to 
 him ; but being probably at that time en- 
 gaged to Stella, he avoided giving her a 
 decisive answer. This affair terminated fa- 
 tally ; for, ultimately discovering his secret 
 union with Stella, the unfortunate lady 
 never recovered the shock, and died in 14 
 months after, in 1723. It was about this 
 period that he made his first great efforts 
 to better the condition of Ireland. He pub- 
 lished a "Proposal for the universal Use of 
 Irish Manufactures," which rendered him 
 highly popular ; and when his celebrated 
 "Letters" appeared, in which he so ably 
 exposed the job of Wood's patent for a sup- 
 ply of copper coinage, he became the idol of 
 the Irish people. Soon after this, he wrote 
 that admirable compound of satiric humour, 
 " Gulliver's Travels ;" and the next event 
 worthy of record is the death of his much 
 injured Stella. And now the fate which he 
 had often apprehended overtook him ; the 
 faculties of his mind decayed before his 
 body, and a gradual abolition of reason set- 
 tled into absolute idiotcy. After three years 
 of mental suffering, he died in 174.5, aged 77; 
 having bequeathed the greatest part of his 
 fortune to a hospital for lunatics and idiots. 
 It would b* useless now to enumerate his 
 various writings ; the most important are, 
 "The Drapier's Letters," "The Tale of a 
 Tub," and "Gulliver's Travels." From 
 each and all of these, as well as from his 
 domestic history, a tolerably correct esti- 
 mate of his real character may be drawn, 
 difficult though it be to delineate a character 
 in which the best and worst of human pas- 
 sions are so strangely blended. 
 
 SWIFT, Deane, a relation of the preced- 
 ing, was descended, by the mother's side, 
 from Admiral Deane, a naval officer in the 
 time of Cromwell. He was the author of 
 " An Essay on the Life, Writings, and Cha- 
 racter of Dr. Jonathan Swift," and died in 
 1783. 
 
 SWINBURNE, a learned traveller, bom 
 of a respectable Catliolic family in North- 
 umberland. He was educated on the Conti- 
 nent ; and afterwards made a tour through- 
 out the greater part of the south of Europe, 
 the result of which he published as " Travels 
 in Spain " and " Travels in the Two Sicilias." 
 Died, 1803. 
 
 SWINDEN, JoHX Heitry van, professor 
 of philosophy, logic, and metaphysics at 
 Franeker, and afterwards of mathematics 
 and astronomy at Amsterdam, was born 
 at the Hague, in 1746. In 180! he was no- 
 minated a correspondent of the French 
 Institute : he was also a member of the 
 executive directory, under the Batavian re- 
 
 814 
 
 public, and counsellor of state in the service 
 of the king of the Netherlands. He was the 
 author of several scientific works, and died 
 in J 823. 
 
 SWINDEN, Tobias, an English divine, 
 who became rector of Cuxton, in Kent, 
 where he wrote an extraordinary book, en- 
 titled "An Enquiry into the Nature and 
 Place of Hell." Died, 1720. 
 
 S WINTON, JoH.v, a divine and antiquary, 
 was born in 1703, at Bexton in Cheshire ; 
 was educated at Wadham College, Oxford ; 
 became chaplain to the English factory at 
 Leghorn ; and, on his return, was elected 
 keei)er of the university records. He con- 
 tributed largely to the Universal History, 
 and published several dissertations on Phce- 
 nician and other antiquities. Died, 1777. 
 
 SYBRECHT, JoiiN,an eminent landscape 
 painter, born at Antwerp, in 1630 ; died in 
 London, where he had many j'ears resided, 
 in 1703. 
 
 SYDENHAM, Charles William Pou- 
 LETT, Lord, governor-general of Canada, 
 was the son of Mr. J. Poulett Thompson, a 
 London merchant, and bom in 1793. When 
 about 20, he became resident in St. Peters- 
 burgh as the correspondent of his father's 
 firm : and, until his accession to public office 
 in 1830, he continued to be connected with 
 the mercantile business. His political life 
 commenced in 1826, as member for Dover ; 
 but in 1830 being returned for both Dover 
 and Manchester, he gave preference to the 
 latter. On the formation of the reform 
 cabinet he was appointed vice-president of 
 the board of trade and treasurer of the 
 navy ; he became president of the board of 
 trade in 1834 ; and, in 1839, succeeded Lord 
 Durham as governor-general in Canada. He 
 arrived in Quebec in October, 1839, assumed 
 the reins of government, and in the follow- 
 ing year her majesty conferred on him the 
 peerage of the United Kingdom, by the title 
 of baron Sydenham of Toronto. Under his 
 administration the prosperity of Canada was 
 gradually recovering, but he did not live to 
 carry into execution many judicious mea- 
 sures for the colony which he had con- 
 templated. Whilst riding near Kingston, 
 Lord Sydenham met with an accident by 
 the falling of his horse, and died, Sept. 19. 
 1841. 
 
 SYDENHAM, Floyer, an eminent Greek 
 scholar, was born in 1710, and educated at ' 
 Wadham College, Oxford, where he took the ; 
 degree of M. A. in 1734. He translated some 
 of the works of Plato into English ; but the 
 want of patronage involved him in embar- i 
 rassments ; he was arrested and thrown into 
 prison for a trifling debt due for his frugal 1 
 meals, and there perished, in 1788. Such was 
 the sympathy which his sad fate excited, that 
 it gave rise to that excellent institution, the \ 
 Literarv Fund. I 
 
 SYDENHAM, Thomas, an eminent phy- | 
 sician, was bom in 1624, at Winford Eagle, j 
 in Dorsetshire, and was educated at Wad- 1 
 liam College, Oxford. After studying medi- 
 cine at Montpelier, he returned and settled I 
 in Westminster, where he commenced prac- | 
 tice, and attained a. high reputation. He I 
 died in 1689. Dr. Sydenham's improve- | 
 mtnts, esi^ecially in the treatment of febrile 
 
syk] 
 
 ^ fisfxi tSinibtvihl JSiosrapl^^. 
 
 [SZE 
 
 diseases, form an era in the history of medi- 
 cine ; and hia works are in the highest esti- 
 m.ition. 
 
 SYKES, Arthur Ashlev, an English 
 divine, was born in London about 1G»4, and 
 educated at St. Paul's School, and Corpus 
 Cliristi College, Cambridge. He held, suc- 
 cessively, the livings of Gwlmersham, Dry 
 Drayton, and Rayleigh ; became a preben- 
 dary and chancellor of Salisbury cathedral ; 
 and ultimately obtained the deanery of St. 
 Burien, in Cornwall, and a prebend at 
 Winchester. He died in 1750. Dr. Sykes 
 was distinguished as an able controversialist 
 in favour of the Iloadleyan or low church 
 principles ; and was also the author of " An 
 Essay on the Truth of the Christian Reli- 
 gion," &c. 
 
 SYLLA, Lixius Cornelius, a celebrated 
 Roman general and statesman, was de- 
 scended from a branch of the once illus- 
 trious family of the Cornelii ; passed his 
 youth in dissipation ; and having obtained 
 wealth by the bequests of a courtesan and 
 of his mother-in-law, he aspired to political 
 di:>tinction, and in 107 b. c. he was chosen 
 quaestor. He served with reputation under 
 Marius, in AfricA, Pontus, and on various 
 other occasions ; and he rose to the con- 
 sulship in tlie 40th year of his age. At 
 its expiration he set sail for tlie East ; and 
 having landed in Thessaly, and received the 
 submission of several Grecian cities, he be- 
 sieged and took Athens, and slaughtered 
 multitudes of its inhabitants. He tiicn 
 proceeded to Asia, and after repeatedly de- 
 feating Mithridates, he concluded a very 
 advantageous treaty with that powerful 
 enemy. During his three years' absence 
 from Italy, his enemies had regained the 
 superiority in Rome. Marius had been re- 
 called ; the blood of the friends of Sylla had 
 been shed in torrents ; he himself had been 
 proscribed, and his property conliscated. 
 Meanwhile Marius died ; and as soon as 
 Sylla returned with his victorious army, 
 they entered Rome, and began the dreadful 
 work of retaliation. At length, having 
 glutted his vengeance by the murder or 
 proscription of many thousand citizens, and 
 the desolation of several Italian cities, he 
 celebrated his bloody deeds by a triumph, 
 exceeding in splendour any that preceded 
 it, and caused himself to be named dictatt)r, 
 B.C. 81. He now ruled without restraint, 
 repealed and made laws, abolished the tri- 
 buneship, added 300 knights to the senate, 
 and admitted lO.fXX) slaves of persons pro- 
 scribed to the rights of citizenship. Having 
 governed the Roman world two years as 
 dictator, he voluntarily laid down his power, 
 and retired to private life. But resuming 
 his early habits of debauchery, he was at- 
 tacked with a disgusting disease, and he died, 
 B. c. 78. aged 60. 
 
 SYLVESTER Joshua, a quaint English 
 
 poet, known in his day as the "silver- 
 tongued Sylvester," was born in 1503 ; and 
 died in Holland in 1618. He translated into 
 English verse " Du Bartas's Divine Weeks 
 and U'orks ;" and, amongst other pieces, 
 was the author of a satire against tobacco, 
 entitled "Tobacco battered and the Pipes 
 shattered," &c. 
 
 SYMES, Michael, an English officer, 
 who was sent as ambassador to the Burmese 
 court, at Amerapoora, in 1705, and had the 
 satisfaction of concluding an advantageous 
 treaty of commerce with the Burmese em- 
 peror. On arriving in England, Major 
 Symes published the account of his "Em- 
 bassy to the kingdom of Ava." He died, 
 shortly after the disastrous retreat of Sir 
 John Moore's army, from fatigue, being then 
 colonel of the G6th regiment of infantry, Jau. 
 1809. 
 
 SYMMONS. Dr. Charles, was born in 
 1749, at Cardigan, which town his father re- 
 presented in three successive parliaments. 
 He was the author of "Inez" and " Con- 
 stantia," two dramatic poems ; a metrical 
 translation of the ^neid, and a " Life of 
 Milton." Dr. Symmons was a warm admirer 
 of literature, and a zealous supporter of 
 
 the Literary Fund Society. Died, 182() 
 
 Caroline Symmons, his daughter, was re- 
 markable for precocity of talent. Site was 
 born in 17H8 ; and after her death, which 
 took place in 1812, her father published a 
 collection of her poems. 
 
 SYNESIUS, of Cyrene, an ancient father 
 and bishop of the Christian church, who 
 flourished at the beginning of the 5th cen- 
 tury. The works of Synesius, consisting of 
 about 150 epistles on philosophical and po- 
 lemical subjects, are in high esteem with the 
 learned. 
 
 SYNCELLUS, Georoe, a monk of Con- 
 stantinople, who flourished a. d. 792. A 
 " Chronography " of his exists, which is 
 valuable as furnishing a knowledge of the 
 dynasties of Egypt. 
 
 SYNGE, Edward, a pious prelate, was 
 the son of Dr. Synge, bishop of Cork, and 
 born there in 1659. He became archbishop 
 of Tuam, and wrote several useful tracts on 
 practical religion. Died, 1741. 
 
 SZALKAI, Anthony von, a Hungarian 
 poet, who is regarded as the founder of the 
 dramatic literature of his country. His 
 " Pikko Hertzeg " is the first regular piece 
 composed in the Hungarian language : he 
 also wrote a travesty of the .aCneid. Died, 
 1804. 
 
 SZEGEDI, John Baptist, a learned 
 Jesuit, born at Eisenstadt, in 1699. lie be- 
 came, successively, rector, missionary, and 
 almoner-general ; and was distinguislied as 
 well by the purity of his life, as by his 
 talents. His works chiefly relate to the 
 laws and history of Hungary. He died in 
 1760. 
 
 8U 
 
TAC] 
 
 ^ i$!cfio HnilxcriSal 23i0srap!)2. 
 
 [tal 
 
 TACCA, Peter James, a celebrated Ita- 
 lian sculptor, was a pupil of John of Bologna. 
 Two of his greatest works are the statue of 
 Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 with four slaves chained at his feet, at Leg- 
 horn ; and the equestrian figure of Philip IV. , 
 at Madrid. Died, 1640. 
 
 TACHARD, Guy, a French Jesuit, who 
 accompanied tlie French ambassadors to 
 Siam, as a missionary. In 1G88 he returned 
 to Europe, after an absence of two years, but 
 went again to India, and died in Bengal 
 about 1694. His voyages, in 2 vols., were 
 published at Paris, in 1689. 
 
 TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a highly 
 celebrated Roman historian, was the son of 
 Cornelius Tacitus, procurator and governor 
 of one of the provinces in Belgic Gaul, 
 and born about a. d. 56. He early distin- 
 guished himself as a poet and an advocate, 
 and in liis twenty-first year married the 
 daughter of Julius Agricola. In the seventh 
 year of Domitian he became prajtor ; but 
 soon after he left Rome, and, during his 
 absence, Agricola died. In tlie short reign 
 of Nerva, he succeeded Virginius Rufus as 
 consul, A. D. 97, and delivered the funeral 
 oration in honour of his predecessor. Under 
 Trajan, Tacitus enjoj'ed great distinction, 
 and lived on terms of friendship witli the 
 younger Pliny, in conjunction with whom 
 he pleaded against Priscus, the proconsul of 
 Africa. It was at this period that he pub- 
 lished the " History of Rome, from Galba to 
 the Death of Domitian," part of which only 
 has escaped the ravages of time. This work 
 was followed by the "Annals." from the 
 year of Rome 767 to the death of Nero in 821. 
 He also wrote " The Life of Agricola," " The 
 Manners of the Germans," and a " Dialogue 
 on Oratory." No name stands higher for 
 historical reputation than that of Tacitus, 
 and his writings are regarded as a rich re- 
 pository of political and philosophical apho- 
 risms. The exact date of his death is not 
 known, but it is generally believed to have 
 taken place about a. d. 135. 
 
 TACITUS, Marcus Claudius, a patriotic 
 Roman emperor, elected to the imperial 
 olfice on the death of Aurelian, a. d. 275, 
 when in his 75th year. He was descended 
 from tlie great historian above described, 
 and had been twice consul ; but he reigned 
 as emperor only six months, in which short 
 space he displayed wisdom, vigour, and a 
 just moderation. 
 
 TACQUET, Andrew, an able mathema- 
 tician, born at Antwerp, in 1611. He pub- 
 lished several mathematical works, all of 
 which were collected in one folio volume, 
 and published after his death, in 1707. 
 
 TAFFI, Andrea, an Italian artist, bom 
 at Florence in 1213. He introduced into 
 Italy the art of designing in Mosaic, which 
 he learnt from some Greeks employed at 
 Venice. Died, 1294. 
 
 TAGLIACOZZI, or TALIACOTIUS, 
 Gaspau, an eminent Italian surgeon, ludi- 
 crously alluded to by the author of Hudi- 
 
 bras, was bom at Bologna, in 1546, where he 
 was for many years anatomical professor. 
 He applied himself chiefly to curing wounds 
 of the ears, lips, &c., but more particularly 
 the nose. Tliis, which has obtained the 
 name of the Taliacotian process, has both 
 been performed and written on by Mr. Carpue 
 and Mr. Travers. It appears, also, that the 
 operation has long been practised in India. 
 Died, 15!I9. 
 
 TALBERT, Francis Xavier, a French 
 ecclesiastic, and the autlior of various " Elo- 
 gies," was born at BesanQon, in 1725. He 
 obtained some preferment in tlie church, but 
 lost it in the revolution, removed to Poland, 
 and died in 1803. 
 
 TALBOT, John, Lord, a famous warrior, 
 was the second son of Sir Richard Talbot, of 
 Goodrich Castle, in Shropshire, and born in 
 1373. In the first year of Henry V., he was 
 appointed lieutenant of Ireland, where he 
 suppressed a rebellion, and brought the 
 chief, Donald Macmurrogh, to England. 
 In 1420 he attended Henry V. to France, 
 and was presetit with him at his two sieges 
 and triumphant entry into Paris. In the 
 next reign he laid siege to Orleans, where 
 his name struck terror into the French 
 soldiers ; but the appearance of Joan of Arc 
 turned the scale, and the English army re- 
 treated. The battle of Patai completed the 
 disaster, and Lord Talbot was made prisoner. 
 At the end of three years and a half, he was 
 exchanged, and again led the English to 
 victory. He took a number of strong places, 
 and carried his arms to the walls of Paris, 
 for which he was created earl of Shrew.-ibury, 
 and raised to the dignity of a marshal of 
 France. On his return from France he was 
 again sent to Ireland, and the earldom of 
 Wexford and Waterford were added to his 
 honours. He again sought fame on French 
 ground, was made lieutenant-general of 
 Aquitaine, reduced several towns to obe- 
 dience, and was marching to the relief of 
 Chatillon, when his usual good fortune for- 
 sook him, and he and his son fell on the 
 field of battle, July 20. 1453. The English 
 on this occasion were wholly routed, and 
 their expulsion from France soon followed. 
 
 TALBOT, Charles, Earl, afterwards 
 duke of Shrewsbury, was descended from 
 the above, and born in 1660. He was one of 
 the first promoters of the revolution, for 
 which he was created a duke, and made lord 
 chamberlain, viceroy of Ireland, and high 
 treasurer. Died, 1717. 
 
 TALBOT, Robert, an English antiquary 
 and divine, was born at Thorp, in North- 
 amptonshire ; was educated at Oxford ; ob- 
 tained a prebend in Wells cathedral, in 
 1541 ; and died, treasurer of Norwich cathe- 
 dral, in 1558. He paid great attention to 
 the antiquities of his native country, and 
 was the first English writer who illustrated 
 the Itinerary of Antoninus, by a commentary 
 and notes. 
 
 TALBOT, Charles, lord high chancellor 
 of England, was the son of William Talbot, 
 
 816 
 
tal] 
 
 91 iJJclM Hniijer^al 28taflrapT)i). 
 
 [tal 
 
 bishop of Durham, and was born in 1G84. 
 He was an excellent lawyer, and a man of 
 high virtue and public integrity. Died, 1737. 
 TALBOT, Cathakine, daughter of Ed- 
 ward Talbot, second son of the Bishop of 
 Durham, was born in 1720, and died in 1770. 
 This lady was no less distinguished by her 
 amiable life than by her talents ; and was 
 the author of " Iteflections on the Seven 
 Days of the Week," "Essays on various 
 Subjects." letters, dialogues, and poems. 
 
 TALIESIN, termed Ten BituDD, or the 
 Chief of the Bards, is regarded aa the most 
 eminent of the ancient British poets. He 
 lived in the middle of the sixth century ; and 
 his name has been handed down to iiosterity 
 in conjunction with the two Merlins, under 
 the appellation of the three principal Chris- 
 tian bards. 
 
 TALLAIID, Camilt.e d'IIostitx, Duke 
 de, a celebrated marshal of France, was bom 
 in 16r)2. After having distinguished himself 
 under Turenne, he was, in 1697, sent am- 
 bassador to England, to negotiate concerning 
 the succession to the crown of Spain on the 
 death of Charles II. War breaking out in 
 1702, he was honoured with a marshal's staff; 
 and after he had defeated the imperialists 
 before Landau, and the town had capitu- 
 lated, he announced his success to Louis 
 XIV. in the following terms : " I have taken 
 more standards than your majesty has lost 
 soldiers." He was afterwards opposed to the 
 Duke of Marlborough, and taken prisoner 
 at the battle of Ilochstet ; on which occasion 
 he said to the duke, " Your Grace has beaten 
 the finest troops in Europe." The duke re- 
 plied, " You will except. I hope, those who 
 defeated them." Marshal Tallard remained 
 in England till 1712, when he returned to 
 Paris, and was created a duke. In 1726 he 
 was made secretary of state, and died in 
 1728. 
 
 TALLEYRAND, Ciiari.es Maurice pe 
 Pkrigord, Prince de, was born at Paris in 
 17")4, and was descended from one of the 
 most illustrious houses of France. As he 
 was intended for tlie church, he entered the 
 seminary of St. Sulpiee ; and his ready wit, 
 insinuating manners, and a quick penetra- 
 tion into the real characters of men, caused 
 him, in 1780, to be named agent-general for 
 ecclesiastical affairs. The duties of his office 
 did not occupy all his attention ; and Mira- 
 beau, at the commencement of the revolu- 
 tion, pointed out the prelate of Autun (for 
 Talleyrand then occupied that bishopric) as 
 possessing talents equal to the occasion, and 
 as one capable of reading the intricate secrets 
 of cabinets — a prophecy which has been 
 fully verified. From the period of 1789, 
 when he was deputed by the clergy of his 
 diocese to represent them in the assembly of 
 the states general, he dictated laws which 
 rendered him a favourite with the people, at 
 the same time that he laboured to insinuate 
 himself into the diplomatic agency of the 
 reigning governments. Acting as the re- 
 presentative of the clergy, he proposed the 
 suppression of the payment of tithes, and 
 brought forward the decree which gave tlieir 
 property to aid the service of the state. Deaf 
 to every appeal made by tliat body, he ceased 
 not to enforce the law which obliged the 
 
 clergy to swear obedience to the civil power, 
 and officiated in his pontifical robes at the 
 newly erected altar in the Champ de Mars, 
 on the 14th of July, 1790, where he was the 
 first to take the civic religious oath, and 
 advise the priests to follow his example. He 
 subsequently consecrated the first constitu- 
 tional bishops, and for this was excommuni- 
 cated by pope Pius VI. He then gave up 
 his bishopric, and was elected a member of 
 the directory for the department of Paris. 
 He proposed to the directory the plan of a 
 great national school on philosophical prin- 
 ciples ; and in the discussion which followed 
 gave the first ideas for the Institution in aid 
 of the arts and sciences, which was estab- 
 lished in Paris five years afterwards. In 
 1792 Talleyrand was sent to England on a 
 secret mission ; but as he was suspected both 
 by the Jacobins and the emigrants, his pre- 
 sence was disapproved of, and the English 
 minister gave him and the French ambas- 
 sador, M. de Chauvelin, orders to quit the 
 English territories within 24 hours. He then 
 left France for the United States, and there 
 employed himself in commercial specula- 
 tions, until he was recalled in 179(5 by a 
 decree of the convention. On his return he 
 was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and 
 supported himself with the xitmost saitg-froid 
 imaginable against the numerous attacks he 
 received from men of different parties. He 
 knew the desire of General Buonaparte to be 
 at the head of the government ; and, with 
 Sicyes as his colleague, he became the main- 
 spring in directing the movements in the 
 cabinet of the first consul. He was the ne- 
 gotiator with Austria at Luneville, as well 
 as with England in the treaty of Amiens. 
 A brief, issued by pope Pius VII., having 
 released him from the obligation of celibacy, 
 he married Madame Grandt ; and on Napo- 
 leon becoming emperor, he made him grand 
 chamberlain, and in 180(5 created him prince 
 of Benevento, still retaining the foreign port- 
 folio. In March, 180(5, he opened negotia- 
 tions of peace with Mr. Fox, which failed 
 with the death of the latter great statesman. 
 In 1807 he was made vice-grand-elector ; 
 and superseded, as foreign secretary, by De 
 Champagny,in consequence of his opposition 
 to the project of making Joseph Buonaparte 
 the king of Spain. The first reverse of the 
 French arms increased Napoleon's irritation 
 against his clear-sighted advisers, and he was 
 excluded the cabinet and placed under sur- 
 veillance. To the secret intrigues of his re- 
 sentful and active mind, long at work, it is 
 generally understood that Buonaparte owed 
 his fall i coupled as they were with the dis- 
 asters of the last ill-fated campaigns in 
 Russia, Germany, and France. Buonaparte 
 saw his error when too late. He recalled 
 Talleyrand; but the seed had been long 
 sown, and was mature ; the web was not to 
 be unwound. No one can tell what influence 
 he exercised but himself ; and as by his will 
 he has strictly prohibited his heirs from 
 publishing his memoirs before the lapse of 
 30 years from the day of his death, many a 
 grand secret in diplomacy, and many state 
 mysteries, must till that period arrives be 
 impenetrable. He was elected president of 
 the provisional government, on Napoleon'* 
 
 817 
 
tal] 
 
 ^ ^elo Bniiicr^id 2StograpT)M. 
 
 [tal 
 
 abdication in 1814, and exercised that func- 
 tion till the restoration of the Bourbons; 
 when he was appointed foreign minister, 
 made a peer as Prince Talleyrand, and 
 finally sent ambassador to tlie congress of 
 Vienna. On Napoleon's return from Elba, 
 the latter attempted, vainly, to attach him 
 to his fortunes ; but his sagacious instinct 
 prevailed. He remained steady to the new 
 dynasty, and urged the personal declarations 
 against Napoleon of the 13th and 2oth of 
 Marcli, 1815. After the battle of Waterloo, 
 he returned to Paris with Louis XVHL, 
 and was re-appointed foreign minister ; but 
 he resigned rather than put his name to the 
 treaty for the occupation of France. He 
 from that time till the fall of Charles X. 
 placed himself at the head of the opposition 
 in the Chamber of Peers ; and on Louis 
 Philippe becoming king, in 1830, he was sent 
 ambassador to England, in which capacity 
 he remained till 1837. Tliroughout the 
 varying situations in which he was placed, 
 much as he may be charged with duplicity 
 and selfishness, one prevailing sentiment 
 may be remarked — a strong and unceasing 
 interest for his country's greatness. His 
 sincerity was always questionable ; but his 
 firmness of character, his diplomatic supe- 
 riority, his infinite resources, the clearness 
 of his views, the brilliancy of his wit, and 
 the elegance of his language, all combined 
 to form a being capable of influencing the 
 destinies of a nation. He died at Paris, in 
 the 84th year of his age, on the 17th of May, 
 1838. 
 
 TALLIEN, one of the most prominent 
 characters in the French revolution, was 
 born at Paris, in 17G9, and was the son of 
 the maitre-d'hotel to the Marquis de Bercj', 
 to whom he was indebted for his education. 
 Previously to the revolution he had been 
 clerk to an attorney ; but he commenced his 
 political career as secretary to the deputy 
 Broustaret, and neglected no means to bring 
 himself into notice as the violent opponent 
 of the king and hia ministers, and thereby 
 gradually acquired considerable influence. 
 He was deeply concerned in the terrible 
 commotions of the 10th of August, 1792 ; 
 and was at that time the constant advocate 
 for violent measures. He strongly urged 
 the immediate trial of Louis XVI., added 
 new charges to tlie accusation against him, 
 voted for his death, and on the day of his 
 execution he was president of the conven- 
 tion. At length, however, after taking a 
 part in most of the sanguinary proceedings 
 which occurred during the ascendancy of 
 Robespierre, he became more moderate, and 
 it was mainly to his courage and eloquence 
 that the downfall of the tyrant was effected. 
 He had formed an attachment for Madame 
 de Fontenai, a lady of great personal charms, 
 whose family name was Cabarus ; but the 
 connection had been broken off, and she was 
 thrown into a dungeon by Robespierre. The 
 tyrant, being afraid of Tallien, offered her 
 life and liberty if she would betray him. 
 But, though her lover had been faithless, she 
 rejected the proposal ; and sent privately 
 this note to Tallien ; " The minister of 
 police has announced to me that to-morrow 
 I am to appear at the tribunal, that is to 
 
 81S 
 
 say, that I am to ascend the scaffold. I 
 dreamt last night that Robespierre was no 
 more, and that my prison doors were 
 opened. A brave man might have realised 
 this dream ; but, thanks to your cowardice, 
 no one remains capable of its accomplish- 
 ment." Tallien answered, " Be as prudent 
 as I shall prove brave ; and, above all, be 
 tranquil." The next day he hurried to the 
 tribune, and, after an animated picture of 
 tlie atrocities which had taken place, and 
 which he ascribed to Robespierre, he sud- 
 denly turned to the bust of Brutus, and, in- 
 voking the genius of the Roman patriot, he 
 drew a dagger from his bosom, and swore 
 that he would bury it in the tyrant's heart, 
 if the representatives of the people had not 
 courage to order his immediate arrest. The 
 moment was critical ; the fate of Tallien 
 hung on a thread ; but the assembly joined 
 him, and the miscreant perished on the 
 scaffold. Tallien, wlio now married Ma- 
 dame de Fontenai, continued to be an active 
 member of the legislature till 1798, when he 
 accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, as one 
 of the literati attached to the expedition ; 
 but, after Buonaparte left that country, 
 Menou obliged him to return also ; and the 
 vessel in which he sailed being captured by 
 the English, he was taken to London. On 
 revisiting his native country, he was taken 
 but little notice of by Buonaparte ; but he 
 eventually obtained the office of French 
 consul at Alicant, Died. 1820. 
 
 TALLIS, Thomas, a celebrated English 
 musician of the Kith century. He filled the 
 situation of organist of the chapel royal 
 under Henry VIII., as well as under his 
 tliree immediate successors ; and parts of 
 his composition are still used in our cathe- 
 drals. Died, 1.585. 
 
 TALMA, Fraxcois Joseph, the most 
 eminent tragic actor France ever produced, 
 was born at Paris, in 17G3, but spent his 
 childhood in Flanders and iSngland, where 
 his father was a dentist. When 9 years of 
 age he was sent to Paris to be educated, be- 
 came passionately fond of the drama, and, 
 returning to England, formed one of an 
 amateur French company, which performed 
 at Hanover Square Rooms, and was at one 
 time on the point of appearing on the boards 
 of Drury Lane Theatre, to which he was 
 strongly urged by several distinguished per- 
 sons. Circumstances, however, led him to 
 Paris, where he entered the royal school for 
 declamation, and in 1787 made his debut 
 at the Theatre Fran?ais, in the character of 
 Seide, in Voltaire's " Mahomet." He was 
 received with applause, and from that mo- 
 ment devoted himself with zeal and perse- 
 verance to the study of his art. He sought 
 the society of distinguished literati and 
 artists ; studied history for the purpose of 
 becoming acquainted with the manners and 
 customs of nations, and the characters of 
 remarkable individuals ; and made himself 
 master of the attitudes, costumes, expres- 
 sion, and drapery of the ancient statues. For 
 many years he continued at the summit of 
 his profession, and acquired by it a hand- 
 some fortune. He died in 182(5. 
 
 TALMONT, DE LA Trimoille, Prince 
 de, a French royalist officer in the war of 
 
 
tam] 
 
 ^ i^ehj Unihtv^aX ^iastiq?ffVi' 
 
 [tas 
 
 La Vendt^e. He distinguished himself by 
 liis courage on many occasions, but was 
 ultimately taken prisoner, and executed in 
 frojit of his own castle of Laval, iu 171>3. 
 
 TAMBRONL Joseph, an Italian poet 
 and historian, bom at Bologna, in 1773. In 
 ISO!) he was appointed consul at Leghorn, 
 and afterwards at Rome. He «Tote " Com- 
 pendio delle Storie di Polonio," &c. Died, 
 
 1824 His sister, Clotilda, was noted for 
 
 her acquaintance with Greek literature, and 
 in 17!»4 the Greek professorsliip at Bologua 
 was bestowed on her. Died, 1817. 
 
 TAMERLANE, or TIMOUR, one of the 
 most celebrated of the Oriental conquerors, 
 was born in 133.^ at Kersch, in the territory 
 of the ancient Sogdiana, and early in life 
 displayed extraordinary courage and enter- 
 prise. Having gained a number of followers 
 of a similar disposition, he made himself 
 master of Balk, the cajiital of Khorasan ; 
 after which he made an easy conquest of 
 the province of Candahar. He next sub- 
 dued the whole of ancient Persia, and then 
 took Bagdad. Flushed with his success, he 
 marched into India, where he took Delhi, 
 the capital, and thus gained possession of 
 immense treasures. But while he was en- 
 gaged in this expedition, Bagdad revolted, 
 on which he hastened back, delivered the 
 city up to pillage, and put to death above 
 80,(KX) persons, lie also invaded Syria, and 
 took Damascus. In this splendid career 
 the Greek emperor and some inferior princes 
 implored his assistance against Bajazet, 
 emperor of the Turks, whom he marched 
 against, and after a battle of three days the 
 Turkish emperor was defeated and taken 
 prisoner. Tamerlane fixed the seat of his 
 vast empire at Samarcand, where he received 
 the homage of numerous sovereigns, and 
 among the rest the ambassadors of the em- 
 peror Manuel Paleologus and Henry III., 
 king of Castile. He died in 1405. Tamer- 
 lane conducted his government alone and 
 without favourites, but was in the highest 
 degree fierce and fanatical in his religion ; 
 and, although no conquests were ever at- 
 tended with greater cruelty, devastation, 
 and waste of human life, he affected the title 
 of benefactor to mankind. Happily, his am- 
 bition was too gigantic for its consequences 
 to last, and his dominions rapidly became 
 divided as before. 
 
 TANDY, James Napper, a native of 
 Ireland, who rendered himself obnoxious 
 to the government by his seditious prac- 
 tices, and, to avoid being arrested, took re- 
 fuge in France. The executive directory 
 gave him a commission, as general of bri- 
 gade in the expedition against Ireland, in 
 August, 1798, under General Rey. He was 
 afterwards taken at Hamburgh, and being 
 brought to Ireland, was tried and convicted 
 as a traitor. He was, however, allowed to 
 retire to France, and died at Bourdeaux, in 
 imi. 
 
 TANNAIIILI, Robert, a Scottish poet, 
 was born at Paisley, in 1774, and bred a 
 weaver. He read tlie works of Burns with 
 enthusiasm, and, like many more of his 
 countrymen, he burned to emulate him : 
 and though he fell immeasurably short of 
 his model, he produced some very delight- 
 
 818 
 
 ful songs, and other lyric effusioni. Died, 
 
 1810. 
 
 TANNER, Thomas, a learned prelate, 
 was bom at Market I^vington, in Wiltshire, 
 in 1674 ; was educated at Oxford ; and 
 ultimately reached the episcopal bench, as 
 bishop of St. Asaph. He wrote " Notitia 
 Monastica, or an Account of all tlie Religious 
 Houses in England and Wales," "Bibiiotheca 
 Britanuico-llibernica," and contributed to 
 the last edition of Wood's Athente Oxonicn- 
 sis. Died. 1735. 
 
 TANSILLO. Lcioi, an Italian poet, bom 
 about 1.510. Having composed some poems 
 of a licentious character, pope Paul V. 
 placed all his works in the Index Purga- 
 torius, or list of prohibited books ; upon 
 which the poet made the best reparation in 
 his power by writing a derout poem, and 
 this had the desired effect. He was also the 
 author of sonnets, songs, some comedies, and 
 '• The Nurse," which lias been translated 
 into English by Mr. Roscoe. He died, in 
 154)8, judge of Gaeta. 
 
 TARLETON, Richarp, a celebrated ac- 
 tor and jester, was born at Condover, in 
 Shropshire. He was the author of a dra- 
 matic performance, called " The Seven 
 Deadly Sins ;" and many of his witticisms 
 have been printed in different jest-books. 
 Died. 1.58P. 
 
 TARQUINIUS, Bumamed PRiscrs, or 
 TAKyiiN THK Elder, fifth king of Rome, 
 was the son of Greek parents, and born in 
 the town of Tarquinii, in Etruria. His 
 name was Lucumon Demaratus, whicth he 
 changed on going to Rome, by the advice of 
 his wife Tauaquil. lie had, in the course of 
 a long and prosperous reign, reached his 80th 
 year, when he was assassinated by the sons 
 of his predecessor, b. c. 578. 
 
 TARQUINIUS, surnamed SltErbus, or 
 TAR(ji'ii'f THE Proud, king of Rome, was a 
 tyrant and usurper, who rendered himself 
 odious to the Romans by his pride and 
 cruelty. His son, Sextus Tarquinius, hav- 
 ing ravished Lucretia, occasioned that well- 
 known revolution which put an end to the 
 monarchy, and established the republic of 
 Rome. 
 
 TARTINI, Giuseppe, an excellent Italian 
 musician and composer, was born in 1092, at 
 Pirano, in Istria. He was sent to study the 
 law at Padua ; but having married without 
 the consent of his parents, they discarded 
 him, and he became a player on the violin. 
 A singular story is told respecting one of his 
 most celebrated compositions. One niglit 
 he dreamed that he had made a compact 
 with the devil, and bound himself to his 
 service. To ascertain the musical abilities 
 of his associate, he gave him his violin, and 
 desired him to play a solo, which Satan exe- 
 cuted in so masterly a manner, that Tartini, 
 awaking in the ecstasy which it produced, 
 and seizing his instrument, endeavoured to 
 recal the delicious sounds. His efforts were 
 so far effectual as to produce the piece gene- 
 rally admired under the name of the 
 " Devil's Sonata." He held the situation of 
 leader of the orchestra at the cathedral of 
 St. Anthony at Padua ; and died in 1770. 
 Besides his numerous musical compositions, 
 Tartini wrote several treatises on the science. 
 
 4Aa 
 
TAS] 
 
 ^ ^cto ?am'l)eri?aT 33t0srajp^i?. 
 
 [tay 
 
 TASKER, William, an English divine 
 and poet, was born in ])evonshire, and died 
 in 1800. His principal works are, " Odes of 
 Pindar and Horace, translated into English 
 Verse," 3 vols. 8vo. ; "Ode to the Warlike 
 Genius of Britain," and " Letters on Phy- 
 siognomy." 
 
 TAS.MAN, Abel Jaxssen, a Dutch navi- 
 gator and geographical discoverer in the 
 17th century, was employed on exploratory 
 voyages by Van Dieman, the Dutch gover- 
 nor-general in the East, and made many 
 important discoveries in Australia and the 
 surrounding islands. 
 
 TASSIE, James, an ingenious modeller, 
 was born near Glasgow, and brought up as 
 a stonemason, but having acquired from 
 Dr. Quin, a physician in Dublin, the art of 
 imitating gems in coloured pastes, he came 
 to London, where, by dint of talent and 
 perseverance, he obtained both fame and 
 fortune. Died, 1799. 
 
 TASSO, Beu.vakdo, an Italian poet, born 
 at Bergamo, in 149."?. He was of a good 
 family, and was successively in the service 
 of the Prince of Salerno and the Dukes of 
 ITrbino and Mantua. His chief poem is 
 " Amadis de Gaul," in 100 cantos. Died, 
 15(59. 
 
 TASSO, ToRQUATO, son of the preceding, 
 one of the most celebrated poets that Italy 
 ever produced, was born at Sorrento, in 
 1544. His works show him to have been a 
 philosopher, an orator, a logician, a critic, 
 and a poet excelling in every kind of com- 
 position. His chief works are " Rinaldo," 
 " Aminta," and " Gerusalemme Liberata," 
 an epic poem in 24 books, which has been 
 considered by able critics to be the richest 
 and most finished poem since the age of 
 j Augustus. While he was at the court of 
 Alphonso, duke of Ferrara, he incurred 
 that prince's anger by his passion for the 
 Princess Leonora, of Este, his patron's 
 sister ; and being somewhat disordered in 
 his intellects, he was ungenerously shut up 
 in a madhouse for seven years, where he 
 underwent the most illiberal treatment. 
 The remonstrances of several Italian princes 
 at length procured his release ; and wlien 
 Cardinal Aldobrandini ascended the papal 
 chair by the name of Clement VIII., he 
 invited him to Rome, resolving to confer 
 upon him the laureate crown in the capitol. 
 While, however, the preparations were going 
 on for this ceremony, the poet was taken ill, 
 and died in 1595. 
 
 TASSONI, Alexander, an Italian poet, 
 born at Modena, in 1505. His writings dis- 
 play a fund of genuine humour ; and some 
 of them, especially the mock heroic poem, 
 entitled " SecchiaRapita," or the " Rape of 
 the Bucket," are most highly esteemed by 
 his countrymen. Died, l(iH5. 
 
 TATE, Francis, an English lawyer in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, who acquired' great 
 reputation as a Saxon scholar and antjquary. 
 He was made a Welsh judge in the reign of 
 James I. 
 
 TATE, Naiium, a poet, was born in Dub- 
 lin, in 1C52, and was educated in the college 
 of his native city. On coming to London he 
 assisted Dryden in some of his works ; and 
 succeeded Shadwell as poet laureate. He 
 
 820 
 
 altered Shakspeare's play of Lear, and wrote 
 several poems ; but he is best known by the 
 Version of the Psalms, which he executed in 
 conjunction with Brady. 
 
 TATIUS, king of the Sabines, who made 
 war against the Romans, and by treachery 
 gained possession of the capitol. He was 
 murdered at Lavinium, B. c. 742. 
 
 TAUSEN, JoHN^, styled the Danish Lu- 
 ther, was born in 1499. He had embraced 
 the monastic life, but quitted the convent, 
 and zealously promoted the doctrines of the 
 Reformation. He ultimately became bishop 
 ofRibe. Died, 1.5C1. 
 
 TAVERNIER, Jeax Baptiste, a tra- 
 veller, was born at Paris, in 1605. He went 
 through Turkey, Persia, and the East Indies, 
 six times, and died at Moscow, in 1G89. His 
 " Collection of Travels," in 6 vols., is greatly 
 esteemed, and has been translated into 
 English. 
 
 TAYLOR, Brook, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician and philosopher, was born at Ed- 
 monton, in Middlesex, in 1(385. He pub- 
 lished a variety of scientific treatises, and 
 died in 1731. 
 
 TAYLOR, Lieut.-gen. Sir Hkrbert, en- 
 tered the army in 1793, and served in the 
 campaigns of that and the following year. 
 He was present at the sieges of Valenciennes 
 and Dunkirk, and at numerous otlier affairs 
 of minor importance, and in 1795 he returned 
 to England, having the appointment of aide- 
 de-camp to the commander-in-chief. He 
 subsequently was appointed private secretary 
 to the Duke of York, in which capacity he 
 continued, until appointed to the same office 
 to George III. As military secretary. Sir 
 Herbert did very much towards bringing the 
 army into its present state of excellent dis- 
 cipline, and a state of comfort little thought 
 of in former years ; and as private secretary 
 to the Duke of York, George III., and Queen 
 Charlotte, it is sufficient to say that he was 
 executor to the will of the first, trustee to the 
 private property of the second, and warmly 
 patronised by the third, who made him 
 master of St. Katherine's Hospital in the 
 Regent's Park. In addition to his military 
 services. Sir Herbert on several occasions was 
 intrusted witli political missions, in which 
 he displayed considerable tact, and gave 
 great satisfaction at home. Born, 1775; 
 died, 1839. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jane, the daughter of an artist 
 in London, was born in 1783, and very early 
 in life gave evident indications of poetic 
 talent. Her first publication, " The Beggar 
 Boy," appeared in 1804 ; and from that 
 time forward she continued to publish, oc- 
 casionally, miscellaneous pieces in verse. 
 The principal of these are, " Original Poems 
 for Infant Minds " and " Essays in Rhyme 
 on Morals and Manners," She also wrote a 
 prose tale, entitled " Display," which met 
 with much success. Died, 1823. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jkremy, an eminently learned 
 and pious prelate, was born in 1613, at 
 Cambridge ; and having entered into orders, 
 attracted the notice of Archbishop Laud, 
 who made him his chaplain, and obtained 
 for him the rectory of Uppingham. In 1042 
 he was created doctor of divinity at Oxford, 
 at which time he was chaplain in ordinary 
 
tat] 
 
 ^ iim BmhtxiKl 38t0grapl)i». 
 
 [tay 
 
 to Charles I., whom he attended in some of 
 his campaigns, and aided l>y several writings 
 in defence of tlie church of England. After 
 the parliament proved victorious, his living 
 being sequestrated, he retired into Wales, 
 where he was kindly received by the Earl of 
 Carbery, under whose protection he was 
 allowed to exercise his ministry, and keep a 
 school. In this obscure situation he wrote 
 those copious and fervent discourses, whose 
 fertility of composition, eloquence of ex- 
 pression, and comprehensiveness of thought, 
 have rendered him one of the first writers in 
 the English language. He was twice im- 
 prisoned by the republican government ; but 
 at the Restoration lie was made bishop of 
 Down and Conuor, and vice-chancellor of 
 Trinity College, Dublin. Among his nu- 
 merous works are, the "Golden Grove, or 
 Manual of Daily Prayers," " Treatises on 
 Holy Living and Dying," " Ductor Dubi- 
 tantium, or Rule of Conscience," and " Li- 
 berty of Prophesying," a work on behalf of 
 toleration. He died in 1C()7. 
 
 TAYLOR, JoHX, usually called the Water 
 Poet, from his being a waterman, was bom 
 in Gloucestershire, about iri80. In l.Wt! he 
 served in the fleet under the Earl of Essex, 
 and was i)rescnt at the attack upon Cadiz. 
 After his return Jie plied on the Thames, 
 and was for many years collector for the 
 lieutenant of the Tower, of his fees on the 
 wines imported into London. lie also styled 
 himself the king's water poet, and the queen's 
 waterman. When the civil wars began he 
 retired to Oxford, where he kept a public 
 house, as he afterwards did near Long Acre. 
 At this place he manifested hirf loyalty by 
 assuming for a sign, the " Crown in Mourn- 
 ing," which proving oftensivc, he substituted 
 his own portrait. In those days, when pun- 
 sters were less plentiful than at present, his 
 "right merrie conceits" were doubtless very 
 attractive, though they cut but a sorry figure 
 when contrasted with tl»e witty effusions of 
 the Magnus Apollo of our own limes. Died, 
 16M. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jonx, an eminent Unitarian 
 divine, was born in Lancashire, in 1C04. He 
 was educated at Whitehaven ; and, after of- 
 ficiating some years to a congregation at 
 Norwich, he accepted the office of divinity 
 tutor at the newly founded academy of 
 Warrington. His most important works 
 are, the " Scripture Doctrine of Original 
 Sin," the "Scripture Doctrine of Atone- 
 ment," a " Hebrew Concordance," and a 
 " Sketch of Moral Philosophy." Died, 1 761. 
 
 TAYLOR, JoHX, a divine and civilian, 
 was born at Shrewsbury, in 1704. He was 
 educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 where he obtained a fellowship, and pro- 
 ceeded to the degree of liL.D. In 1742 he 
 became a member of Doctors' Commons, 
 and two years afterwards was appointed 
 chancellor of Lincoln ; but in 17,51 he en- 
 tered into orders, was presented to the rec- 
 tory of Lawford, in Essex, and became a 
 canon residentiary of St. Paul's. Died, 1766. 
 
 TAYLOR, Silas, an English antiquary, 
 was born at Harley, in Shropshire, in 1624. 
 On leaving Oxford university, he entered 
 into the parliamentary army ; and after- 
 wards became sequestrator of the estates of 
 
 831 
 
 the loyalists in Herefordshire, but con- 
 ducted himself with mo<leration. At the 
 Restoration he was made keeper of the stores 
 at Harwich. Died, 1678. 
 
 TAYLOR, Thomas, a learned Grecian, 
 commonly termed the Platoiiist, was born 
 in 1758, and placed, at nine years of age, 
 at St. Paul's Scliool, with a view to orders ; 
 but he changed liis mind wlien 15, and went 
 to a relation, an officer at the port of Sheer- 
 ness. There a celebrated dissenter instructed 
 him in the rudiments of Latin and Greek, 
 and he applied himself wiih indefatigable 
 ardour to the study of Greek, csi)ecially 
 the works of the Platonic sophist. Having 
 contracted an early love marriage, he was 
 compelled to become under-usher in a school, 
 and, subsequently, clerk to a banker, for sub- 
 sistence ; but he still found time to pursue 
 his early studies. He afterwards gave public 
 lectures in Greek and on the Platonic 
 writers, which introduced him to the favour 
 of the Duke of Norfolk, who furnished the 
 funds for his great work, the excellent trans- 
 lation of Plato. To a mind constituted like 
 that of Mr. Taylor's, no diction could be 
 too obscure, no theory too speculative, no 
 doctrine too recondite ; his whole course of 
 reading nourished his inherent love of 
 mysticism and metaphj'sical subtlety. The 
 pure philosophy of the academic schools and 
 the wild reveries of cabalistic sects, each in 
 their turn engaged his attention, and re- 
 ceived his tribute of admiration. Popular 
 tastes and feelings, he altogether disre- 
 garded ; but lived, as it were, among the 
 sages of antiquity, and propagated their 
 tenets with all the ardour of a sincere vo- 
 tary. His translations are very voluminous i 
 the most important are the works of Aris- 
 totle, Plato, and Pausanias. Died in 1835. 
 
 TAYI>OR, Willi AM, adistinguishcd critic, 
 translator, and Utlih-ateur, was the only 
 son of an eminent merchant of Norwich, 
 where he was born, 1765. He was originally 
 destined for his father's business ; but his 
 early bias for literary pursuits proved so 
 strong, that his father gave way to his incli- 
 nations, and after one or two somewhat 
 lengthened sojourns in France and Germany, 
 he gave himself up almost entirely to the 
 *' cultivation of the Muses" and of politics. 
 He first became known by a vigorous trans- 
 lation of Burger's " Lenore ; " and stimu- 
 lated by the success whicli followed his first 
 attempt, he made various other translations 
 from the same author, and from time to 
 time contributed specimens of other German 
 poets to different magazines and periodicals. 
 In 1798 he formed an acquaintance with 
 Southey, which soon ripened into the 
 warmest friendship ; and in 1802 he became 
 the editor of the Norwich Iris, which he 
 made the organ of liis peculiar political 
 and religious opinions ; but he soon aban- 
 doned this speculation, and henceforth 
 engaged in the business of " reviewing," for 
 which he found a main vent in the Monthly 
 Review, then under the editorship of Dr. 
 Griffihs. Mr. Taylor wrote few separate 
 works. Among these, however, should be 
 mentioned his " English Synonymes ; " and 
 in 1830 he published a "Survey of German 
 Poetry," consisting chiefly of his collected 
 
 4 AS 
 
tay] 
 
 ^ i^cio ?Sntl)friSaI SSto^rapIji?. 
 
 [tet 
 
 translations, with explanatory notes. Died, 
 183(5. A " Memoir of his Life and Writings" 
 M-as publislied by Mr. llobberds in 1843. 
 
 TAYLOR, William Cooke, LL.D., an 
 eminent writer on miscellaneous subjects, 
 was born at Youghal, 1800. After prose- 
 cuting his studies at tlie university of Dublin 
 with great distinction, he repaired to the 
 metropolis, and entered upon a literary 
 career, which, for constancy of application, 
 and variety of subject, lias had few equals 
 in modern times. Being literally a writer 
 for his daily bread, little profound tliought 
 or originality of speculation was to be looked 
 for in his writings ; but the care and dili- 
 gence which he bestowed on every subject lie 
 undertook, amply atoned for the absence of 
 these higher qualities, and he has left a 
 name in the literary liistory of his country 
 which will not soon be forgotten. In his 
 zeal for the promotion of education, he had 
 acquired such vast information, that his 
 opinion was eagerly souglit. He was em- 
 ployed in 184C,by the British government, to 
 inquire into tlie" system of education on the 
 Continent ; and he was just on the eve of 
 being placed in a position on the establish- 
 ment of the lord- lieutenant of Ireland, to 
 carry out his views, when he was cut off by 
 the pestilence that ravaged Great Britain 
 and Ireland in 1849. Among his chief works 
 are, his " Manuals of Ancient and Modern 
 History," "Life and Times of Sir Robert 
 Peel," " History of Mohammedanism," " Re- 
 volutions and Remarkable Conspiracies of 
 Europe ;" and his last, and perhaps his most 
 important, work, "Tlie History of the House 
 of Orleans," published only a few weeks 
 before his death. Died, 1849. 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachaky, president of tlie 
 United States, was born in Virginia, 1786. 
 His father, who had fought at the side of 
 Washington during all the war of independ- 
 ence, at its conclusion settled in Kentucky, 
 and conducted his family to their forest- 
 home, where his son, amid the perils of 
 savnge life, had ample opportunities of de- 
 veloping tliose military qualities of which he 
 afterwards gave so signal a proof. At the 
 outbreak of the war witli Englaud in 1807, 
 he hastened to join the army, and was ap- 
 pointed to guard the banks of the Wabash. 
 In 1812, while in command of the garrison of 
 Fort Henderson, consisting only of 62 men, 
 he was suddenly attacked at midnight by 
 a hostile party, who succeeded in setting 
 Are to the fort. But Taylor, with his hand- 
 ful of men, extinguished the flames, and 
 forced the enemy to retreat. For this ex- 
 ploit he was raised to the rank of major. 
 In the war against the Indians, both in 
 Florida .ind Arkansas, he jiassed successively 
 through all the grades of his profession, till 
 he reached the rank of general. Nominated 
 in 1846 to the command of a corps of obser- 
 vation on the frontiers of Mexico, an attack 
 of the Mexicans gave him an opportunity of 
 crossing the Rio Grande, and of gaining his 
 first battle at Palo- Alto. The victorj^ of 
 llescca, Palma, Monterej', and Buena-^sta 
 jnoved him ut once a valiant soldier, and an 
 able general, and marked him out to the 
 sutfrages of his countrymen for the presi- 
 dency. Chosen in Nov. 1848, he entered on 
 
 his high office in March, 1849 ; but he had 
 only filled the chair of Washington and 
 Jefferson for sixteen months, when he was 
 suddenly attacked by cholera, and died, to 
 the great regret of liis countrymen, July, 
 1850. 
 
 TCHING TCHING KONG, a noted Chi- 
 nese admiral in the 17th century, known 
 in Europe by the name of Koxinga. His 
 father having fallen into the hands of the 
 Mantchou Tartars, Tching Kong swore im- 
 placable vengeance against the insidious 
 invaders ; and after attacking their coasts, 
 and committing great cruelties on the pri- 
 soners whom he took in battle, he esta- 
 blished himself on the island of Formosa, 
 and made a treaty with the English, with a 
 view to their aid against the Mantchous. 
 He died in 1670, and Formosa was recon- 
 quered in 1683. 
 
 TEGNER, EsAiAS, an eminent Swedish 
 poet and divine, was born, 1782 ; appointed 
 to the chair of Greek literature in the uni- 
 versity of Lund in 1812, and in 1824 created 
 bishop of Wexiae. Ilis poetry is chiefly 
 founded on the romantic legends of the 
 North, which he has succeeded in making 
 popular far beyond the limits of his native 
 land. Died, 1847. 
 
 TEIGNMOUTH, John Shore, Lord, was 
 born in Devonshire, 1751. Himself the son 
 of a supercargo, and the grandson of a cap- 
 tain in the East India Company's marine, 
 he was destined from his youth to the service 
 of the same employers. Having finished his 
 education at Harrow and Hackney, he went 
 to Bengal in 1769 as a cadet ; in 1773 he was 
 appointed Persian translator and secretary 
 to the provincial council of Moorshedabad ; 
 and his diligence and abilities being now 
 duly appreciated, he was nominated a mem- 
 bef of the general committee of revenue, an 
 oflfice which brought him into friendly rela- 
 tions with Warren Hastings, whom he ac- 
 companied to England in 1785. In 1786 he 
 returned to Calcutta as a member of the 
 supreme council, and so distinguished him- 
 self by the numerous reforms, financial and 
 judicial, which he introduced, that in 1793 he 
 was appointed governor-general of India, 
 having in the preceding year been created a 
 baronet. In 1797 he quitted his high office, 
 and returned to England with the title of 
 Lord Teignmouth, where he entered on a 
 career of practical philanthropy which com- 
 pletely eclipsed even the splendours of his 
 early life. He became a member of what is 
 known as " The Clapham Sect," which num- 
 bered among its adherents Wilberforce, 
 Claikson, Z. Macaulay, I. Milner, and Gran- 
 ville Sharpe; and closed a long life, passed in 
 works of charity and mercy, Feb. 14th, 1834. 
 He was the first president of the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society, established in 1804 ; 
 he was also president of the Asiatic Society ; 
 and though he never acquired great celebrity 
 as an author, he published an edition of the 
 works of Sir W. Jones, together with a 
 memoir, besides various-ipamphlets on reli- 
 gious questions. A memoir of his life and 
 coirespondeuce was published b\' his son in 
 184.-.. 
 
 TEISSIER, Antoixe, a learned French 
 advocate, born at Montiielier, iu 1632. 
 
OF 
 
 tek] 
 
 ^ fim mnibtriKl 28t00rap1^i). 
 
 [tem 
 
 Being a Protestant, he was forced, by the 
 revocation of tlje edict of Nantes, to emi- 
 
 frate ; and became liistoriograplier to the 
 'russian court. lie wrote some very valu- 
 able works, viz. " The Lives of Illustrious 
 Princes," " On the Social Duties of Man," 
 " Instructions, Moral and Political," &c. 
 Died, 1715. 
 
 TEKELI, Eaieeic, Count de, a Hunga- 
 rian nobleman, was born in IGoS, and took 
 the command of his countrymen in their 
 struggle to throw off the yoke of Austria. 
 He defeated the Imperialists in several 
 battles ; but, after many vicissitudes, he 
 was compelled to seek an asylum in Turkey, 
 and died at Constantinople, in 1705. 
 
 TELL, William, a renowned champion 
 in the cause of Swiss liberty, was a native 
 of Burglen, in the canton of Uri. He was 
 distinguished by his skill in archery, liis 
 strength, and courage. The tyrannical des- 
 potism of the Austrian governor of Switzer- 
 land, Herman Gesler, was intolerable ; he 
 pushed his insolence so far, as to require 
 the Swiss to uncover their heads before his 
 hat (as an emblem of his sovereignty) ; 
 and condemned Tell, who refused to com- 
 ply with this mandate, to shoot an apple 
 from the head of his own son. Tell was 
 successful in his attempt, but confessed 
 that a second arrow, whicli he bore about 
 his person, was intended, in case he had 
 failed, for the punishment of the tyrant, 
 and was therefore retained prisoner. 'iVhile 
 he was crossing the lake of the Four Can- 
 tons, or lake of Lucerne, in the same boat 
 with Gesler, a violent storm threatened the 
 destruction of the skiff. Tell, as the most 
 vigorous and skilful helmsman, was set 
 free ; and he conducted the boat success- 
 fully to the shore, but seized tlie oppor- 
 tunity to spring upon a rock, pushing off 
 the barque. He had fortunately taken his 
 bow with him ; and when tlie governor 
 finally escaped the storm, and reached the 
 shore. Tell shot him dead on the road to 
 Kussnacht. This event was the signal for 
 a general rising, and a most obstinate war 
 between the Swiss and Austrians, which 
 was not brought to a close until 1499. Tell 
 is supposed to have lost his life during an 
 inundation in 1350. This is the story which 
 has been handed down, but some have 
 disputed it. However, it is certain that 
 Tell contributed to emancipate his country ; 
 and there are many local customs referring 
 to the events here related, which render 
 
 the tradition probable The memorable 
 
 event above described is said to have hap- 
 pened on the 7th November, 1307 ; and 
 the citizens having chosen for their leaders 
 three gentlemen of approved courage and 
 abilities, namely, Werner of Schwitz, Wal- 
 ter Furst of Uri, and Arnold Melchthal of 
 Underwalden, they secretly agreed together 
 that they should surprise and demolish 
 the castles in which the imperial governors 
 resided. This resolution being effected, these 
 three places joined again in a league for 
 ten years, which gave birth to the Helvetian 
 confederacy. 
 
 TELLIER, Michael, a distinguished 
 Jesuit, was born in Normandy in 1643. He 
 became confessor to Louis XIV., and pro- 
 
 cured from the pope the celebrated consti- 
 tution called Unigenitus ; but in the next 
 reign he was banished to La Fleche, where 
 he died in 1719. He was a violent bigot, 
 though a man of regular morals ; and much 
 of the odium wliich fell on the society of 
 St. Ignatius may be attributed to his im- 
 prudent zeal. 
 
 TEMPELHOF, George FnEnEnic, a 
 German officer, author of " The Prussian i 
 Bombardier," "The Elements of Military I 
 Tactics," the " History of the Seven Years' | 
 War," &c. In the beginning of the revo- i 
 lutionary war with France, he had the com- i 
 mand of all the Prussian artillery ; and, in 
 1802, he received the order of the red eagle 
 from Frederick William III., who nominated ' 
 him lieutenant-general and military tutor I 
 to the young princes, his brothers. Died, ' 
 1807. I 
 
 TEMPESTA, Antonio, a painter, was j 
 born at Florence, in 1.555. He was a discti)le ; 
 of Strada, and excelled in landscaiies, ani- I 
 mals, and battles. Died, 1630. 1 
 
 TEMPESTA, Peter, whose real name [ 
 was MoLVN, but who received the soubriquet 
 of Tempesta from his frequent delineation , 
 of storms and shipwrecks, was a native of , 
 Haerlem. He went to Rome, and on chang- \ 
 ing his religion was made a chevalier ; but ; 
 was condemned to be hanged for the murder j 
 of his wife, which sentence was changed to \ 
 perpetual imprisonment. After remaining 
 in conrinement 10 years, he effected his escape. ' 
 Died, 1701. j 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir William, provost of Trinity 
 C()lle{je, Dublin, had been secretary to Sir 
 PhilipSidney, who died in his arms. Hewas ! 
 afterwards knighted, and made a master of i 
 chancery. Died, 1626. j 
 
 TEMPI>E, Sir JouN, son of the preceding, - 
 was bom in London, and eductated under | 
 his father at Dublin. He studied the law, j 
 and became master of the rolls and a privy i 
 councillor in Ireland in the reign of Charles 
 II. Sir John wrote, from his own observa- 
 tions, " A History of the Irish Rebellion iu 
 1641." 
 
 TEMPLE, Sir William, an eminent 
 statesman, the son of Sir John Temple, was I 
 born in London, in 1628. He was instructed ! 
 by the learned Dr. Hammond, his maternal I 
 uncle, and completed his studies at Emanuel [ 
 College, Cambridge. In his 25th year he i 
 commenced his travels, and passed six years 
 in France, Holland, Flanders, and Germany, j 
 In 1665 he went on a secret mission to 
 Munster, after which he was employed in I 
 forming the triple alliance between England, 
 Sweden, and Holland. He next became the 
 resident minister at the Hague, and in that 
 capacity promoted the marriage of the Prince 
 of Orange with Marp^, eldest daughter of the 
 Duke of York, which union took place in 
 1677. A change of politics at home led to the 
 recal of Temple in 1669, who, refusing to 
 assist in the intended breach with Holland, i 
 retired from public business to Sheen, and i 
 employed himself in writing his " Observa- j 
 tioiis on the United Provinces," and part of 
 his "Miscellanies." In 1674, Sir William 
 Temple was again ambassador to the states- 
 general, in order to negotiate a general paci- 
 fication. In 1679 he was appointed secretary 
 
tem] 
 
 ^ S^fiu ?amljn-i^al 23tnjiraj)^i). 
 
 [ten 
 
 of state ; but the next year he resigned that 
 
 situation, and retired to liis country seat 
 
 in Surrey, where he was often visited by 
 
 Charles il., James II., and William III. 
 
 Died. 17(X>. 
 
 I TEMPLEMAN, Peter, a physician, bom 
 
 I at Dorchester, in 1711 ; was educated at the 
 
 ; Charter House, and at Trinity College, Cam- 
 
 j bridge ; and took his degree at Leyden. He 
 
 ' practised in London ; but a fondness for 
 
 I literature and the company of literary men 
 
 ! diverted his attention from his profession ; 
 
 and having, in 17;">3, obtained a situation in 
 
 ! the British Museum, as keeper of the reading- 
 
 i room, he from that time devoted his whole 
 
 1 attention to pursuits more congenial to his 
 
 disposition. He wrote some medical works, 
 
 I and translated Norden's Travels in Egypt. 
 
 ! Died, 1709. 
 
 i TENIERS, David, the Elder, a celebrated 
 ' painter of the Flemish school, was born at 
 I Antwerp, in 1582 ; studied under Rubens, 
 ' and afterwards at Rome. On his return to 
 t his native country, he occupied himself 
 , principally in the delineation of fairs, rustic 
 I sports, and carousals, &c., which he exhibited 
 i with such truth, humour, and originality, 
 ! that he may be considered the founder of a 
 : style of painting, which his son afterwards 
 j brought to perfection. His pictures are 
 usually of a small size, and are considered 
 very valuable. Died, 1649. 
 ! TENIERS, DAVin, the Younger, a son of 
 the preceding, was born at Brussels, in ICIO. 
 In his youth such was his facility of imi- 
 tating the styles of various masters, that l»e 
 was called the Proteus and the Ape of 
 painting. He confined himself principally 
 to the same kind of subjects as his father, 
 but excelled him in correctness and finish. 
 Died, 1694. The younger Teniers rose to the 
 highest reputation in his profession, and was 
 patronised by Christina of Sweden, the king 
 of Spain, and other illustrious personages. 
 
 TENISON, Thomas, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, a learned and pious prelate, was 
 ' born at Cottenham, in Cambridgeshire, in 
 I 1636, and graduated at Coriius Christi 
 ! College ; obtained the living of St. Peter 
 I Mancroft, Norwich ; and was afterwards 
 I presented to the vicarage of St. Martin's- 
 J in-the Fields, where he founded a paroiOiial 
 ' school and library. He distinguished him- 
 I self so much by his zeal in favour of Pro- 
 ' testantism, both before and after the revo- 
 ! lution, that in 1()91 he was consecrated 
 bishop of Lincoln, from whence he was 
 i raised to the see of Canterbury in 1694, and 
 I held the primacy with moderation, firmness, 
 i and ability, till his death, in 1715. He pub- 
 lished "The Creed of Hol)l)e3 examined," 
 " Baconiana, or Remains of Sir F. Bacon," 
 " Sir Thomas Browne's Tracts," and various 
 sermons. 
 
 TENNANT, Smithson, F.R.S., an emi- 
 nent chemist, was born at Selby, in York- 
 shire, in 1761 ; studied medicine at Edin- 
 1 burgh, and took his degree at Cambridge, in 
 1790. He was chosen professor of chemistry 
 at Cambridge, in 1813 ; and was killed by a 
 fall from his horse, at Boulogne, in February, 
 1815. His discoveries api>e*r in tlic Transac- 
 tions of the Philosophical Society, and are 
 higiily useful. 
 
 TENNANT, William, an eminent poet 
 and philologist, was a native of Anstruther, 
 in Fifeshire ; the town where Dr. Chalmers 
 first saw the light. Lame in both limbs from 
 his childhood, he early entered on the path 
 of study ; and gradually amassed those vast 
 stores of literary wealth, which ultimately 
 raised him to public honour. After filling 
 the office of parochial schoolmaster in various 
 places in Scotland, he was in 1810 elected 
 classical teaciier of the Dollar Academy ; 
 and in 1837 was presented to the chair of 
 oriental languages in the university of St. 
 Andrew's, whicli he filled with credit till his 
 death. As apoct,ProfessorTennant rose into 
 eminence by his " AnsterFair," published in 
 1812. and since often reprinted ; and this was 
 followed by his tragedy of "Cardinal Bea- 
 ton," and various smaller poems, marked by 
 much originality and poetic power. Died, 
 1843. 
 
 TENTERDEN, Charles Abbott, Lord, 
 the son of a hairdresser, was born at Canter- 
 bury in 1762, and received his education at 
 the King's School of that city. In 1778 he 
 was elected to a scholarship in Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford, where he was soon alike 
 distinguished for scholastic attainments and 
 for purity of moral conduct ; and, having the 
 good fortune to be appointed tutor to the 
 son of Judge BuUer, this gentleman took 
 great interest in his welfare, and with his 
 characteristic acuteness of observation, ad- 
 vised Abbott to turn his attention to the 
 law, and not to the church, for which he 
 had hitherto designed liimself. Acting on 
 this advice, he spent some time in the office 
 of Sandys and Co., and then placed himself 
 under the tuition of a special pleader, Mr. 
 (afterwards Baron) Wood. After practising 
 some time as a special pleader he was called 
 to the bar, being then in the 33d j-ear of his 
 age, and went the Oxford circuit. His prac- 
 tice soon became extensive, and for twenty 
 years he steadily pursued his way, acquiring 
 both fortune and reputation, and making 
 himself known to the profession not merely 
 as a skilful pleader, but also as a learned 
 and accurate writer. His "Treatise of the 
 Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen," pub- 
 lished in 1802, is still considered the standard 
 work upon maritime law. In 1815 his in- 
 cessant and arduous labour had begun to 
 have a serious effect npon his health and 
 spirits. His sight, too, was impaired, and it 
 is said that but for the dissuasion of his friends 
 he would have wholly retired from the pro- 
 I fession. He had as far back as 1808 refused 
 j a seat on the bench, his professional emolu- 
 I ments at that time being far greater than 
 those of ajudge. But when, in 1816, he was 
 again offered promotion, his health had lie- 
 come so unequal to the toils of practice, that 
 he closed with the offer, and was made a 
 puisne judge in the common pleas. This 
 took place in February, and in the following 
 May he was removed to the king's bench, 
 on the death of Mr. Justice Le Blanc. In 
 1818, on the retirement of Lord Ellenborough, 
 he became lord chief justice of the king's 
 I bench ; and though his inflexible Toryism 
 j rendered him unpopular with a portion of 
 I the public, it was admitted by men of all 
 ranks and parties, that a more impartial 
 
ter] 
 
 ^ j2cij) Hnibevi^al JSiofiraplbi?. 
 
 [the 
 
 chief justice had never presided in that court. 
 During the premiership of Mr. Canning lie 
 was raised to the peerage, but did not long 
 enjoy his title ; and it is a curious fact that 
 his last words were, " Gentlemen of the jury, 
 you mav retire." Died, ]H;^2. 
 
 TERENCE, or PUBT.IUS TERENTIUS, 
 a celebrated Latin writer of comedies, was 
 born at Carthage, about A. D. 194. He was 
 brought a slave to Rome in his youth, but 
 falling into the hands of a generous master 
 named Terentius Luennus, he gave him a 
 ffood education, and afterwards his liberty. 
 His poetical talents procured him tliefriend- 
 Bhip of Scipio and I.wlins; and for one of 
 his plays, " The Eunuch," he received 8000 
 sesterces. Terence was a great admirer of 
 Menander, and went to Greece to collect 
 his works, but died on his passage home, 
 cither at sea. or at Stymphalis, in Arcadia. 
 
 TERPANDER, a Lesbi.an poet, who flou- 
 rished in the seventh century, B.C. He is 
 said to have been the inventor of an addi- 
 tional string to the lyre. 
 
 TERRASSON. Of this name there were 
 several ingenious French writers in the 17th 
 and 18th centuries ; the most eminent of 
 
 whom were Jeax and Antoine The 
 
 former was Iwm nt Lyons, in 1(570 ; and had 
 the reputation of being one of the best prac- 
 tical philosophers of the age. Died, 17')0. 
 
 Antoine was born at Paris, in 1705. 
 
 He composed, by order of the chancellor 
 D'Agiiesseau, the " History of Roman Juris- 
 prudence ;" for which he was named censor 
 royal and professor in the royal college. 
 Died. 1782. 
 
 TERRY, Daniei., a comedian of con- 
 siderable ability, was born at Bath, about 
 1780. and was articled to Mr. Wyatt, the 
 I architect, with whom he remained five years, 
 I and then turned his attention to the drama. 
 His first attempts were not very encouraging ; 
 but when, in 1806, he appeared on the Liver- 
 pool stage, he found favour with the public ; 
 as he did also afterwards at Edinburgh, 
 where he became a leading actor. Through 
 the interest of Sir Walter Scott he obtained 
 an engagement at the Haymarket Theatre, 
 in 1812 ; and, after remaining there two 
 seasons, he appeared, first at Covent Garden, 
 but soon after at Drury Lane, where he 
 j continued till 1825, generally playing in the 
 summer at the Haymarket. He then entered 
 into partnership with Mr. Yates in the pro- 
 prietorsliip of tfie Adelphi Theatre ; but 
 being indebted to Sir Walter Scott for the 
 capital embarked in it, and the baronet's 
 affairs being at that time in an embarrassed 
 state through the failure of Constable and 
 Co. of Edinburgli, he found it necessary to 
 sell his share. He then went over to the 
 Continent, but mental anxiety destroyed his 
 health, and he died in June. 1828. 
 
 TERRY, EnwARD, an English traveller, 
 born about 1590. He accompanied Sir 
 Thomas Roe, ambassaflor to the Great Mo- 
 gul, in lfil5 ; and on his return published 
 an account of the observations he had made 
 during his two vears' residence abroad. 
 
 TERTULLIAN, Qiiintus Skptimitjs 
 Fi.onENs, a celebrated father and defender 
 of the primitive Christian church, who flou'- 
 rished under the reigns of the emperors 
 
 Severus and Caracalla. He died about 245. 
 Among his works arc, "An Apology for 
 the Christians," a "Treatise against the 
 Jews," and the five books of Marcion. 
 
 TESSIER. M., an eminent Frenclx writer 
 on agriculture, to which he had devoted a 
 long life, died at Paris, in December, 1837, 
 aged 94. During the period of revolutionary 
 anarchy, this gentleman lived in retirement 
 in Normandy, still however actively engaged 
 in his favourite pursuit. He was the editor 
 of the " Annals of French Agriculture," a 
 voluminous periodical work. He was also 
 the early patron of Cuvier, being the first to 
 discover his talents, and introduce him to the 
 scientific world. 
 
 TESSIN, NicoDEMrs,a senator of Sweden, 
 principally celebrated for his architectural 
 works, was born at Nikoping, in 1(554. He 
 held several high appointments in the go- 
 vernment, and numerous public edifices 
 were erected from his designs. Died, 1718. 
 
 TESSIN, Charles Gustavus, Count de, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Stockholm, 
 in 1695 ; and on entering the arena of public 
 life, became a man of extensive influence, 
 assisted at the most secret deliberations of 
 the states, and was nominated president of 
 the assembly of nobilitj' in the diet of 1738. 
 He was subsequently ambassador to various 
 foreign courts, had the direction of foreign 
 affairs as president of the chancery ; and at 
 the same time he was appointed governor of 
 tlie prince royal, afterwards Gustavus III., I 
 to whom he addressed a series of letters re- 
 lative to morals, politics, &c. In 1700 he re- j 
 signed all his employments, and died in 1770. ' 
 
 TESTI, Fi'LVio, an eminent lyric poet, 
 and accounted the Horace of modern Italy. J 
 He was born at Ferrara, in 1.593, of a noble ; 
 family ; was thrown into prison in conse- i 
 queiice of having entered into a corre- | 
 spondence with Cardinal Mazarin ; and is \ 
 supposed to have been there put to deatlj, ; 
 in 104(5. 
 
 TETZEL, John-, a Dominican monk of 
 the 16th century, was bom at Piern upon \ 
 the Elbe. Being appointed, in 1517, to vend ! 
 the indulgences issued by pope Leo X. for 
 the completion of St. Peter's church at I 
 Rome, he represented them as possessing 
 the virtue of pardoning all sins, past, pre- 
 sent, and future. This first roused the in- 
 dignation of Luther, and may truly be said 
 to have been the primary cause of the Re- 
 formation. The papal government, seeing 
 the mischief likely to accrue from the indis- 
 creet zeal and bigotry of Tetzel, so severely 
 rebuked him, that he is said to have died of i 
 a broken heart, in 1519. i 
 
 THALES, the chief of the seven sages of . 
 Greece, born at Miletus, b. c. 640, founded 
 the Ionic sect of philosophers, and died b. c. 
 545. He was an excellent geometrician and 
 astronomer, fixed the revolution of the sun 
 at 3(55 days, and was the first Greek who 
 predicted "a solar eclipse. He also united 
 moral and political wisdom to the researches 
 of science, and exemplified his knowledge 
 of mankind by numerous pithy aphorisms. 
 
 THELLUSSON, Peteu Isaac, a native 
 of Geneva, who settled as a merchant in 
 London, where he acquired a prodigious 
 fortune, and died in 1798. He left about 
 
the] 
 
 ^ j^efitJ Hm'bcrsial aSurgrap!;!?. 
 
 [the 
 
 100,000/. to his family ; and the remainder 
 of his property, considerably above half a 
 million, is to accumulate during the lives of 
 his three eons and the lives of their sons ; 
 when, if there are none of his descendants 
 and name existing, the whole is to be added 
 to the sinking fund. This singular will 
 being contested by the heirs at law, was 
 established by a decision of the House of 
 Lords in 1805 ; it, however, occasioned the 
 passing of an act, restraining the power of 
 devising property for the purpose of accu- 
 mulation to 21 years after the death of the 
 
 testator. His eldest son was raised to the 
 
 peerage bv the title of baron Rendlesham. 
 
 THEMISTIUS, an ancient Greek orator, 
 peripatetic philosopher, and critic, who died 
 A.D. 38G. More than 30 orations of The- 
 mistius are still extant. 
 
 THEMISTOCI.es. an illustrious Athe- 
 nian, equallv celebrated as a warrior and a 
 statesman, was born about S-TO B. c. He was 
 licentious in his youth, but was reclaimed 
 from his follies by the love of glory. He 
 persuaded his countrymen to make war upon 
 jEglna, and by his management raised 
 Athens to a great naval power. He gained 
 the famotis battle of Maratlion, and 10 years 
 afterwards defeated the fleet of Xerxes off 
 Salamis. He rebuilt the walls of Athens, 
 fortified the Piraeus, and prevented the Spar- 
 tans from gaining an ascendancy in the 
 Amphictyonic council. Notwithstanding his 
 great serxices, however, the popular favour 
 was withdrawn from him, and he was 
 banished for 5 years. He sought an asylum 
 at the court of Artaxerxes, where he was 
 hospitablv received ; and died, b. c. 470. 
 
 THEOBALD, Louis, a dramatic critic 
 and poet, known as the commentator on 
 Shakspeare, and as the original hero in 
 Pope's " Dunciad." where its splenetic author 
 placed him, more for having published an 
 edition of Shakspeare immediately after the 
 appearance of his own, thap for the sin of 
 dnlness, which he makes the ostensible cause. 
 He was a native of Sittingboume, Kent ; and 
 died in 1744. 
 
 THEOCRITUS, a Greek pastoral poet, 
 who flourished at Syracuse, b. c. 282. Of his 
 various works we have only the " Idyls " 
 and " Epigrams ;" the former of which are 
 i remarkable for their pleasing simplicity and 
 sweetness. 
 
 THEODORET, an ecclesiastical historian 
 and a father of the church, was born at 
 Antioch about the year 3S6. In 420 he was 
 made bishop of Cyrus, in Syria, where he 
 laboured assiduously in converting a rude 
 people, and opposing the errors of Nestorius. 
 Died, 4.57. 
 
 THEODORIC, sumamed the Great, king 
 of the Ostrogoths, was born near Vienna, in 
 458. He made great accessions to his do- 
 minions, and governed with extraordinary 
 viaour and ability. Died, t)26. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, sumamed the Great, the 
 last Roman emperor, was a convert to Chris- 
 tianity, and a renowned general and legis- 
 lator ; born, 335 ; died, 395. His sons, Ar- 
 cadius and Honorius, made a division of the 
 empire into East and West ; Arcadius being 
 the first emperor of the East, and Honorius 
 of the West. 
 
 ssa 
 
 THEODOSIITS II., son of Arcadius, whom 
 I he succeeded in the empire of the East. He 
 was famous for a code of laws, styled after 
 him the " Theodosian Code." Died, 4.50. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, a mathematician of Tri- 
 poli, who lived in the first century ; and is 
 supposed by Suirias to be tlie same with 
 Tlieodosius of Bythinia, of whom Strabo 
 speaks as being a skilful astronomer and 
 mathemati<'ian. 
 
 THEOGNIS, a Greek poet, was a native 
 of Megara, and born about 5.50 b. c. He 
 wrote a series of moral precepts in verse. 
 
 THEON, of Alexandria, a philosopher and 
 mathematician in the time of Tlieodosius 
 the Great, was father of the celebrated 
 Hypatia. 
 
 THEOPHANES, GEonoE, a Greek his- 
 torian, was born at Constantinople, of a 
 noble family. Leo, the Arminian, exiled 
 him to Samothrace, where he died in 818. 
 
 THEOPHANES, PitOKOPOViTCH, a Rus- 
 sian historian, was born in lf<81. He was 
 archbishop of Novogorod, and died in 1786. 
 He wrote the " Life of Peter the Great," and 
 some theological treatises. 
 
 THEOPHILE DE VIAUD, a French 
 poet, born in 1,")90, at Clerac in the Agenois. 
 His satires and epigrams are spirited and 
 witty, but several of his pieces are offensive 
 to decency and relipon ; and on that score 
 he suftered two years' imprisonment. Died, 
 1C20. 
 
 TIIEOPHn.irS, a celebrated bishop of 
 Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd century. 
 He was the first who used the term Trinity 
 to express tlie three persons in the Godhead, 
 the third of whom he denominates " Wis- 
 dom." 
 
 THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Greek 
 philosopher, was bom in Eresius, in Lesbos, 
 B.C. 371. He was a disciple of Plato, and 
 afterwards of Aristotle, tlie latter of whom 
 he succeeded as master of the peripatetic 
 school, where he had 2000 scholars. He is 
 said to have delivered his country twice 
 from the oppression of tyrants ; and died at 
 the age of 85, lamenting the brevity of human 
 life. Several of his works are extant ; the 
 principal of which are, the *' History of 
 Plants," the " Treatise on Stones," and the 
 "Moral Characters of Men." 
 
 THERAMENE8, an illustrious Athenian, 
 was one of the 30 tyrants, but so zealously 
 opposed his colleagues in their barbarities, 
 as to excite their hatred. Accordingly, 
 Critias denounced him to the senate, and 
 when he perceived a disposition on the part 
 of the judges to acquit the accused, he sur- 
 rounded the tribunal with his creatures, and 
 denounced sentence of death against The- 
 ramenes by his own authority. Socrates 
 endeavoured to save the life of his friend, 
 but in vain ; and Theramenes, finding him- 
 self overpowered by his enemies, drank off 
 the fatal draught prepared for him, to the 
 health of Critias. This occurred, B. C. 408. 
 
 THESPIS, a Greek poet, bom at Icaria, 
 in Attica. He is considered the inventor of 
 tragedy, from his having introduced actors 
 in addition to the chorus, and was the author 
 of several tragedies. 
 
 TIIEVENOT, Melchiskdec, an eminent 
 traveller, was born at Paris, in 1631. He 
 
travelled in various parU of Europe ; and ticated in the family. On the death of this 
 on his return devoted himself entirely to lady, the widower, after a due interval, 
 study, and to the promotion of the interests offered her his hand, which she accepted 
 
 of literature, by collecting books and manu- 
 scripts, and by carrying on a correspondence 
 with the learned, in all parts of the world. 
 He was appointed royal librarian, published 
 i liis " Voyages and Travels," and died in 
 10!>2. 
 
 and during a union of 3() years, till his death 
 in 1792, she accompanied him on various 
 journeys to different parts of the Continent. 
 The French revolution had now commenced; 
 and Mrs. Thicknesse, in company with seve- 
 ral other Englisli ladies, was imprisoned, but 
 
 TIIEVENOT, Joiiy de, nephew of the fortunately escaped the guillotine through 
 preceding, was bom at Paris, in ltj;5.3. Being the death of Robespierre, who had sent an 
 enabled to gratify his love of travelling, he order for their execution. She ended her 
 visited several parts of Europe, and after- long and exemplary life at her house in the 
 wards explored many countries in the East. Edgeware Road, London, in 1824. Slie was > 
 On his second oriental tour, as he was re- personally intimate with the leading wits of 1 
 turning from Ilindostan, through Persia, he her own time, and spoke several languages , 
 died near Tauris, in 1(>«>7. j with fluency and elegance. Her principal 
 
 THIBAUT, Antok Justus Friederich, works are, "Biographical Sketches ofLite- 
 a celebrated German jurist, was born at ; rary Females of the French Nations," 3 vols. 
 Hameln, in Hanover, 1702 ; studied succes- and a novel, entitled "The School of 
 sively at Gottingen, KOnigsberg, and Kiel ; i Fashion," 2 vols. | 
 
 and afterdisplaying great ability as a private j THIERS, Johk Baptist, a French ec- 
 teacher of law of Jena, was appointed to the clesiastic, was born at Chartres, in 1636, and ] 
 chair of civil law at Heidelljerg in 1805, died at Mans, in 1703. He wrote several 
 
 where he remained till his death in 1810. 
 A list of his various works would be too long 
 for our columns ; but his chief title to fame 
 rests on his " System des Pandekten-rechts, 
 
 books, particularly " A History of Perukes,' 
 
 being an invective against those ecclesiastics 
 
 who adopted that ornament. His l)est per- I 
 
 formance is " Traiti? des Superstitions qui j 
 
 which has passed through numerouseditions, I rejrardent les Sacramens," 4 vols, 
 
 and is regarded as an authority by most 
 German law vers. 
 
 THICKNESSE. Philip, the son of a 
 clergyman, and brother to the master of 
 St. Paul's School, was born in 1720. He 
 entered the army when young, and went 
 to Georgia, with governor Oglethorpe ; after 
 which he served in the West Indies, and, on 
 his return to England, obtained a captain's 
 commission. He first married a French 
 
 THIRLBY, Styax, a learned critic, born 
 at Leicester, in 1602. He was a man of in- 
 temperate habits ; and though he studied 
 divinity, physic, and civil law, he never 
 applied himself to either as a profession. 
 Through the interest of Sir Edward Walpole, 
 he obtained a small sinecure pla(;e in the 
 custom-house ; and died in 1753. His edition 
 of Justin Martyr, with notes and emenda- 
 tions, is esteemed a valuable performance. 
 
 lady ; and, on becoming a widower, he ob- THISTLEWOOD, Aktiiuk, memorable 
 tained the hand of Lady Elizabeth Touchet, ! as the leader of the " Cato Street " conspi- 
 rators in 1820, was the son of a respectable 
 
 heiress of the ancient barony of Audley ; 
 and her fortune enabled him to purchase 
 the office of lieutenant-governor to Land- 
 guard Fort. By this lady he had one son, 
 with whom, on his succeeding to the title 
 and estate of his mother's family, he had 
 some very unpleasant disputes. About 17C1, 
 Mr. Thicknesse lost his second consort, and 
 shortly after married Miss Anne Ford, by 
 whom he had a numerous family. After 
 travelling through France, Italy, and Spain, 
 he settled in Wales, and next at Bath ; but 
 at the commencement of the French re- 
 volution he went abroad again, and died 
 near Boulogne, in 1792. He published se- 
 veral works, the most curious of which is 
 an account of his own life, with the follow- 
 I ing title, " Memoirs and Anecdotes of Philip 
 ' Thicknesse, late Lieutenant-governor of 
 Landguard Fort, and unfortunately Father 
 to George Touchet, Baron Audley," 2 vols. 
 
 THICKNESSE, Annk, a lady of great 
 beauty and acquirements, the daughter of 
 John Ford, an eminent solicitor and clerk 
 of the arraigns, was born in 1737. She 
 eloped from her father's house, in order to 
 avoid a disagreeable marriage ; and her 
 talents and personal attractions having early 
 introduced her into the world of fashion, she 
 took advantage of that circumstance to give 
 three concerts at tlie Opera House, by whi' h 
 she realised 15(X)i., and acquiring the patron- 
 age of Lady Thicknesse, she became dome«- 
 
 827 
 
 farmer near Lincoln, and was born in 1772. 
 He obtained a lieutenant's commission in 
 the supplementary militia, in 1797, and 
 shortly after married a young lady with a 
 considerable fortune, but who died about 18 
 months after their union. After squandering 
 his property in habits of dissipation and 
 gambling, he left Lincoln for London, and 
 from thence made occasional voyages to 
 America and France, where he probably 
 contracted that spirit of discontent which in- 
 fluenced his future conduct. He married 
 again, and thereby improved his circum- 
 Btanees ; but he had now become a gambler 
 by profession, and had also connected himself 
 with disaffected characters, which drew on 
 liim the notice of government. When the 
 riots in Spa Fields took place, he was arrested 
 as one of the ringleaders ; but after being 
 kei)t some time in confinement, he was libe- 
 rated, there being no proof of Iiis guilt. 
 Shortly after, he sent a challenge to the 
 home secretary. Lord Sidmouth, as the 
 author of the bad treatment he had received 
 during his confinement ; which occasioned 
 his subsequent detention in prison for a con- 
 siderable time. Burning witli rage, he 
 madly became the principal agent in the 
 Cato Street conspiracy, the object of which 
 was to murder several members of the ad- 
 ministration, while at a cabinet-dinner at 
 Lord Ilarrowby's, and excite an insurrection 
 
, THO] 
 
 11 -BtiM HnitJfrM 3St0ffrapIjn. 
 
 [tho 
 
 in the metropolis. Information, however, 
 having been given to tlie ministers by a spy 
 employed for the purpose, a party of police 
 ofiicers, with a company of tlie gnards ready 
 at liand, if wanted, proceeded to the place of 
 meeting— a room over some stables in Cato 
 1 Street — where the wretched conspirators 
 were, at the time, preparing for their dia- 
 bolical enterprise. As soon as the officers 
 had effected an entrance, Tliistlewood seized 
 a sword, and killed the foremost of them, 
 named Smithers, on tlie spot. But he and 
 his coadjutors (who were all ignorant per- 
 sons, of the lowest grade in society) were 
 quickly secured ; and being brought to trial, 
 were condemned, and suffered as traitors. 
 May 1. 1820. 
 
 THOMAS, Anthoxv Leonard, an emi- 
 nent French writer, was born in 1732, at 
 Clermont, in Auvergne. He was a professor 
 in the college of Beauvais, at Paris ; and 
 afterwards secretary to the Duke of Orleans. 
 Died, 1785. Among his works are, " Rt-- 
 flexions Historiques et Litteraires sur le 
 Poeme de la Religion Naturelle de Vol- 
 taire," and " Essai sur le Caractere, les 
 MoDurs, et I'Esprit des Femmes." 
 
 THOMAS, Elizabeth, a female writer, 
 to whom Dryden gave the appellation of 
 Corinna, but whom Pope placed in the 
 Dunciad, was born in 1675, and died in 17.30. 
 Her poems and letters were printed after lier 
 death, with a memoir written by herself, 
 and well seasoned with romantic incidents. 
 
 THOMAS, John, a learned and liberal 
 prelate, was bom at Carlisle, in 1712. He 
 studied at Queen's College, Oxford ; and, 
 on leaving the university, he lived in the 
 family of Sir William Clayton, as tutor to 
 his son. Having been ordained, he became 
 rector of Bletchingley, in Surrey, and mar- 
 ried the daughter of his patron. He was, 
 successively, chaplain to the king, preben- 
 dary of Westminster, and vicar of St. Bride's, 
 Fleet Street, In 17G8 he succeeded Bishop 
 Pearce in the deanery of Westminster, and, 
 in 1774, was consecrated bishop of Rochester. 
 Died, 1793. 
 
 THOMAS, Robert, M. D., a physician, 
 resident at Salisbury : author of " The 
 Modern Practice of Physic," and other 
 esteemed medical works. Died, Sept. 1835, 
 aged 82. 
 
 THOMAS, WiLLTAM, a native of Wales, 
 who was educated at Oxford ; after which 
 lie became clerk of the council to Edward 
 VI., who gave him, though a layman, some 
 ecclesiastical preferments, of which he was 
 deprived in the next reign ; and being ac- 
 cused of treasonable practices, was executed 
 at Tyburn, in 15.53. He was the author of 
 "The History of Italy," and some other 
 works of minor importance. 
 
 THOM, Walter, an historical and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born at Ber^^e, in the 
 county of Kincardine, 14th April, 1770. He 
 commenced business as a manufacturer in 
 his native town, but not succeeding, he came 
 to Aberdeen, and adopted literature as a 
 profession. During his residence in Aber- 
 deen, he published " The History of Aber- 
 deen," in 2 vols. 12mo. Aberdeen, 1811 ; and 
 the "Annals of Pedestrianism," 1 vol. 8vo. 
 1813. He afterwards went to Dublin, where 
 
 he was engaged as editor of the Dublin Cor- 
 respondent, which he conducted for some 
 years. He was the author of several articles 
 in Brewster's Encyclopaedia, and contributed 
 portions of the Statistical Account and Ge- 
 neral Report of Scotland, for Sir John Sin- 
 clair, and also to Mr. Shaw Masson's Agri- 
 cultural and Statistical Account of Ireland, 
 and various other works. He died at his 
 house in Dublin, 16th June, 1824, aged 54. 
 
 THOMAS, William, an eminent prelate, 
 was born at Bristol, in 1613. He suffered 
 much during tlie rebellion, but afterwards 
 became precentor of St. David's ; he was 
 also chaplain to the Duke of York, and pre- 
 ceptor to his daughter, afterwards Queen 
 Anne. In 1665 he was made dean of Wor- 
 cester, whence he was removed to the see of 
 St. David's, and died, bishop of Worcester, 
 in 1689. 
 
 THOMAS, William, a grandson of the 
 preceding, was born in 1670, and educated 
 at Westminster Scliool, and Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. He obtained the living of Exal, 
 in Warwickshire ; and in 1723 was presented 
 to the rectory of St. Nicliolas, in Worcester. 
 Died, 1738. He published among other 
 works " An enlarged edition of Dugdale's 
 Warwicksliire," 2 vols. ; and a " Survey of 
 Worcester Catliedral." He had made col- 
 lections for a history of Worcestershire, 
 wliich fell into the hands of Dr. Treadway 
 Nash, and served as the foundation of his 
 work. 
 
 THOMASSIN, Louis, a French ecclesi- 
 astic, was born in 1619, at Aix, in Provence. 
 He became a member of the congregation 
 of the Oratory, and professor of divinity at 
 Saumur, whence he was called to Paris, 
 where he taught in the seminary of St. 
 Magloire, with great reputation. He wrote 
 many works ; but the most important are, 
 " De la Discipline Ecclesiastique " and 
 " Dogmata Theologica." The former of 
 these was so much esteemed at Rome, that 
 pope Innocent XI. invited him to the papal 
 court, with the promise of a cardinal's liat, 
 but Louis XIV. refused his sanction. Died, 
 1695. 
 
 THOMSON, Ale.yaxdee, a poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer ; author of " Tlie British 
 Parnassus at the Close of the Eighteenth 
 Century," a poem in four cantos; "The 
 Paradise of Taste," a poem ; '' Pictures 
 of Poetry, Historical, Biographical, and 
 Critical," &c. Died, at Edinburgh, 1803, 
 aged 41. 
 
 THOMSON, Dr. Andrew, an eminent 
 modern divine and leader in the national 
 church courts of Scotland, was born at 
 Sanquhar, in Dumfriesshire, in 1779. He 
 was ordained minister of the parish of 
 Sprouston, in 1802 ; removed to the East 
 Church of Perth, in 1808, where he laboured 
 assiduously and successively till 1810, when 
 he received a presentation from the magis- 
 trates and council of Edinburgli to the 
 New Grey Friars' church in that city. Elo- 
 quent, indefatigable, and zealous, he came 
 prepared to the discussion of every subject, 
 making an impression on the public mind 
 which has but few parallels in the history 
 of ministerial labours. In 1814 he was ap- 
 pointed to St. George's church, where, labour- 
 
THO] 
 
 ^ ^fiD ^iiifanM iStngrapl^jj' 
 
 [tho 
 
 ing in his vocation with surpassing energy, 
 lie rapidly extended his reputation, and ac- 
 quired extraordinary influence. Died, 1831. 
 
 THOMSON, Anthohy Todd, M.D., a dis- 
 tinguished medical writer and practitioner, 
 was born at Edinburgh. 1778, where his father 
 had settled, after having long held au im- 
 portant office in America. He was educated 
 at the high school and university of his 
 native city ; and while prosecuting his me- 
 dical studies, he became a member of the 
 speculative society, where he formed the 
 acquaintance of I.ord Brougham, and many 
 other eminent i)ersons, wliosc friendship he 
 enjoyed till his death. In 1800 he settled 
 as a general practitioner in Chelsea, and 
 practised there for 25 years with great suc- 
 cess, laying the basis of his future reputa- 
 tion by the most indefatigable study, and 
 publishing his "Conspectus," a work of 
 Euroiiean fame, and his " London Dispen- 
 satory, " no lesa distinguished ; editing, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Burrowes, the Me- 
 dical Repository ; and gaining "golden 
 opinions" by the amiability of his charac- 
 ter, no less than by his professional skill. 
 In 1826 he became one of the first professors 
 ■Sf the University of London, and held the 
 chairs of materia medica and medical juris- 
 prudence till his death. About this period, 
 also, he commenced practice as a physician ; 
 aud he took advantage of the greater leisure 
 thus procured, to write his lectures on " Ma- 
 teria Medica," which were afterwards pub- 
 lished in 2 vols., and to plan various otlier 
 works which he afterwards gave to the world, 
 besides contributing many articles and re- 
 views to different medical journals. Dr. 
 Thomson was a votary of literature no less 
 than of science ; and his last works were, a 
 translation of Sal varte's Philosophy of Magic, 
 Omens, and apparent Miracles, and an edi- 
 tion of Thomson's Seasons, with numerous 
 explanatory notes. Died, July 3rd, 1849. 
 Uis " Treatise on Diseases of the Skin " was 
 a posthumous publicatiou. 
 
 THOMSON, James, a distinguished and 
 highly popular poet, the son of a Scotch 
 clergyman, was born at Ednam, in Rox- 
 burghshire, in 17tK) ; and was educated at 
 Jedburgh and at Edinburgh. Relinquish- 
 ing his views in the church, he went to 
 London, where, in 1726, he published his 
 "Winter." In 1727 appeared his "Sum- 
 mer," which he addressed to Bubb Dodding- 
 ton. This was followed the year after by 
 "Spring," and in 1730 by " Autumn." In 
 the course of these publications Thomson 
 produced " Sophonisba," a tragedy ; and a 
 "Poem on Sir Isaac Newton." Not long 
 after this he was selected as the travelling 
 associate of Mr. Talbot, and was thus occu- 
 pied for 3 years, in the course of which he 
 visited most of the European courts. On 
 his return lie was rewarded with the post 
 of secretary of briefs by the Lord Chancellor 
 Talbot, which was nearly a sinecure. About 
 this time he published his poem of "Liberty," 
 with the cool reception of which he was 
 much disappointed. Soon after, by the death 
 of Lord Chancellor Talbot, Thomson's office 
 was vacated, and Lord Ilardwick, who suc- 
 ceeded to the seals, gave it to another ; but 
 he was indemnified by the office of surveyor- 
 
 general of the Leeward Islands, and a pen- 
 sion from the Prince of Wales. In 1738 he 
 produced a second tragedy, entitled " Aga- 
 memnon," which was followed by " Edward 
 aud Eleanora," " Tancred and Sigismunda," 
 and " Coriolanus ;" the masque of " Alfred," 
 in conjunction with Mallet ; and the poems 
 of "Liberty" and "The Castle of Indo- 
 lence." He died at Richmond, in 1748. 
 
 THOMSON, Rev. John, a distinguished 
 landscape painter, was bom at Dailly, in 
 Ayrshire, 1778 ; succeeded his father as mi- 
 nister of that parish in 18t)0, and was trans- 
 lated to Duddingstone, near Edinburgh, in 
 180.5, where he remained till his death. 
 From his boyhood he evinced a strong pre- 
 dilection for art, which increased with his 
 years ; and having early become an honorary 
 member of the Royal Scottish Academy, he 
 produced an infinite variety of landscapes, 
 which have placed him on a level with the 
 best artists of his native land. Died, 1840. 
 
 THOMSON, William, a poet and di- 
 vine, was born at Brougli, in Westmore- 
 land ; graduated, A. M., at Queen's College, 
 Oxford, in 1738 ; became dean of Raplioe, 
 in Ireland ; and died in 1766. He published 
 two volumes of poems, among which those 
 entitled " Sickness," and the " Hymn to 
 May," have received the meed of public 
 approbation. 
 
 THOMSON, William, an industrious 
 writer and compiler, was born in 1746, at 
 Burnside, in Perthshire ; was educated for 
 the church, became minister of Monivad, and 
 ultimately settled in London as an author 
 by profession. His compilations were ex- 
 tremely numerous, and he prei>ared for the 
 press many works of other authors ; he was 
 also the editor of several periodical pub- 
 lications, as the English Review, the Political 
 Magazine, the Whitehall Evening Post, and 
 the Annual Register. Among his original 
 works are, " The Man in the Moon," a novel; 
 " Memoirs of the War in Asia," 2 vols. Died, 
 1817. 
 
 TIIORESBY, Ralph, an eminent anti- 
 quary and topographer, was born at Leeds, 
 in 1058. He was educated at the school of 
 his native place, after which he went to ' 
 Rotterdam to learn the Dutch and French 
 languages, to fit him for mercantile pur- 
 suits. On the death of his father he suc- 
 ceeded to a large concern, but he found 
 leisure to cultivate his taste for antiquarian 
 pursuits, and produced the " Topography of 
 Leeds," " Vicaria Leodiensis," &c. Died, 
 1725. 
 
 THORNHILL, Sir James, an eminent 
 English painter, was born in 1C7C, at Wey- 
 mouth, in Dorsetshire ; and, after studying 
 in this country, greatly improved himself on 
 the Continent. On his return, he was much 
 engaged in the decoration of palaces and 
 public buildings. Among his principal 
 works are, the dome of St. Paul's, the refec- 
 tory and saloon at Greenwich Hospital, the 
 hall at Blenheim, and some of the apart- 
 ments at Hampton Court. He displayed 
 great judgment in treating allegorical com- 
 pbsitions, and he was by no means an in- 
 different architect. Died, 1734. 
 
 THORNTON, Bonn el, a humorous writer 
 and poet, was bom in London, in 1724 ; 
 
 4 a 
 
THO] 
 
 ^ ^flu Wiiiihn'Sal MiOQV^^liV. 
 
 [thu 
 
 and -was educated at Westminster School, 
 and Christchurch, Oxford. He made lite- 
 rature his profession, and was on terms of 
 intimacy with many of the wits of the age, 
 united with the elder Colman in the Con- 
 noisseur, and was a fertile contributor to 
 the periodicals of the day. He also pro- 
 jected an exhibition of sign paintings ; and 
 brought out a burlesque "Ode for St. Ce- 
 cilia's Day," which afforded much amuse- 
 ment. In 176(5 he published a translation of 
 Plautus ; and the year following a poem, en- 
 titled " The Battle of the Wigs," in ridicule 
 of the dispute between the licentiates and 
 fellows of the College of Physicians. Died, 
 1768. 
 
 THORNTON, Samuei,, of Clapham Park, 
 Surrey, was a director of the Bank of Eng- 
 land for the long period of 53 years, and an 
 active M. P. nearly 40 j'ears. From 1784 to 
 1800 he represented the town of Kingtiton- 
 ; upon-Hull, and from 1807 to 1818 the county 
 of Surrey. His sagacious counsels had always 
 i great influence at the Bank of England, and 
 { when the memorable stoppage of cash pay- 
 j ments occurred in 1797, he was the governor. 
 ! In the various duties he had to perform, 
 whether as a bank director, a member of 
 parliament, a governor of Greenwich Hos- 
 pital, or as the head of a mercantile firm, he 
 was able, zealous, and indefatigable. Died, 
 July 3. 1838, aged 83. 
 
 THORNTON, Thomas, lieutenant colonel 
 of the West York militia, a noted sportsman 
 and writer on field sports. He was the author 
 of " A Sporting Tour through France," 2 
 vols. 4to., and "A Sporting Tour through the 
 North of England and the Highlands of 
 Scotland." Died, 1823. 
 
 THORNTON, John Robert, a celebrated 
 botanist, the younger son of the preceding, 
 was born about 1758, and was educated at 
 Cambridge. Shortly after this, having ac- 
 quired an important accession of fortune 
 by the death of his brother, he resolved to 
 make medicine his profession, and became 
 a member of Guy's Hospital. After study- 
 ing three years in London, he visited the 
 Continent ; and, returning to the metropolis, 
 commenced practice with considerable suc- 
 cess. In 1798 he published a work in support 
 of the Brunonian system, entitled " The 
 Philosophy of Medicine, or Medical Extracts 
 on the Nature of Health and Disease," in 5 
 vols. Soon after, he brought out a work, 
 called " The Philosophy of Politics," &c. 3 
 vols. ; but he derives his chief fame from his 
 magnificent " Temple of Flora, or Garden of 
 the Botanist, Poet, Painter, and Philoso- 
 pher." Died, 1837. 
 
 THORPE, JoH»f, a physician and anti- 
 quary, was born at Penshurst, in Kent, in 
 1682, and settled at Rochester, of which 
 city he published some curious ancient 
 
 illustrations. Died, 1750 His son, Joha- 
 
 Thorpe, born in 1713, devoted great part of 
 his life to the study of antiquities, and was 
 the author of " Registrum Rofiensi " and 
 other works relating to Rochester. Died, 
 1792. • 
 
 THORWALDSEN, Albert, the great 
 Danish sculptor, was the son of a carver on 
 wood, but though the circumstances of the 
 parent were narrow, the boy, having early 
 
 mo 
 
 shown great talent for drawing, was gra- 
 tuitously and well educated at tlie Copen- 
 hagen Academy of Arts. Here he studied 
 so effectually that he obtained two gold 
 medals and a travelling studentship, which 
 entitles the fortunate competitor to a salary 
 for 3 years. Thus far fortunate, Thorwald- 
 sen proceeded to Rome, where he worked 
 with zeal and energy, but where he is said 
 to have been for some time bo overwhelmed 
 by the magnificence of ancient art, by which 
 he saw himself surrounded, as to have broken 
 up not a few of his earlier works as soon as 
 they were completed. Though modesty and 
 a difficulty of giving self-satisfaction are 
 proverbially characteristic of great and true 
 genius, yet modesty may be carried to a 
 fatal excess ; and such was very nearly the 
 case in the present instance. The now ex- 
 ulting, now despairing, young sculptor was 
 preparing to return home, his three years' 
 allowance being completely exhausted, when 
 most happily the clay model of his Jason 
 was seen by that princely patron of art, the 
 late Heniy Philip Hope, who ordered the 
 marble statue of him at a price which utterly 
 set aside all his thoughts of returning home. 
 The Jason once completed, and by Mr. 
 Hope's means made known, Thorwaldsen's 
 fortune was virtually made ; orders at vast 
 prices poured in upon him from all parts ; 
 and the splendid works completed by him 
 from the commencement of 1800 to the close 
 of 1837, place him in the first rank of modern 
 sculptors. His countrymen were justly proud 
 of him, and honoured him with a public 
 funeral. Died, March 24. 1844, aged 73. 
 
 THOU, James Augitstus de, or THUA- 
 NUS, a celebrated historian, was the son of 
 Christopher de Thou, first president of the 
 parliament of Paris ; was born in that city, 
 in 1553 ; and died in 1017. The " History 
 of his own Times," from 1545 to 1007, is 
 written in pure Latin, and with gieat 
 fidelity. 
 
 THOU, Frajtcis Augustus de, son of the 
 preceding, inherited the virtues and intelli- 
 gence of his father ; but having been privy 
 to the secret correspondence carried on be- 
 tween Cinqmars and the court of Spain, he 
 was beheaded, at Lyons, in 1042. 
 
 THROSBY, John, a writer of local topo- 
 graphy, was born in 1740, and was for many 
 years parish-clerk of St. Martin's, Leicester. 
 He wrote several works relative to the " His- 
 tory and Topograpliy of Leicester " audits 
 vicinity. Died, 1803. 
 
 THRASYBULUS, a renowned Athenian 
 general and patriot, the deliverer of his 
 country from the yoke of the thirty tyrants, 
 flourished 294 r.. c. 
 
 THUCYDIDES, a Greek historian, waa 
 born at Athens, 409 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. He was of noble birth, and on 
 arriving at maturity entered into the army ; 
 but failing in an expedition with which he 
 had been intrusted, he was banished ; and 
 in his exile he wrote the " History of his 
 Times ;" a work which far excels that of 
 Herodotus in sweetness of style, grace, and 
 elegance of expression. He was afterwards 
 recalled, and died at Athens, b. c. 391. 
 
 THTJNBERG, Charles Peter, a Swedish 
 physician and traveller, who was employed. 
 
THU] 
 
 ^ ^ctD ?antl)friinl 2Stosrapl)j?, 
 
 [tie 
 
 in 1775, by the Dutch East India Company, 
 to proceed in a medical capacity to Japan. 
 While there he was allowed to explore tlie 
 curiosities of tliat interesting country : 
 thence he proceeded to Ceylon ; and, on 
 his return to Sweden, he succeeded Linnaeus, 
 whose pupil he had originally been, in the 
 professorship of botany at Upsal. lie was 
 also a member of many philosophical so- 
 cieties in Europe and America, and died in 
 1828. 
 
 TIIUIIIX)E, JoHX, a statesman and poli- 
 tical writer, was a native of Essex, and born 
 in 1016. He was secretary of state during 
 the protectorate ; and though immediately 
 after tlie Kestoration he was arrested on a 
 charge of high treason, yet such was Charles 
 the Second's opinion of liis talent and in- 
 tegrity, that he afterwards often invited him 
 to take part in his administration, which he 
 thought proper to decline. Died, 1668. llis 
 state papers iiave been published, and form 
 a very valuable collection. 
 
 TllURLOVV, Edwako, lord high chan- 
 cellor of Great Britain, was born in 1732, 
 : and was called to the bar in 1758. He lilled 
 j the offices of solicitor-general and attorney- 
 ! general, was chosen M. P. for Tamwortli, 
 I and became a warm and powerful supporter 
 ! of the ministry in the House of Commons. 
 He retired from office in 1783, but resumed 
 it again on the dissolution of the coalition 
 ministry, and continued to hold the seals 
 under the premiership of Mr. Pitt till 1792. 
 Died, 18()«. 
 
 THUROT, Fkancis, a French naval 
 officer, born in 1727. Having rendered him- 
 self conspicuous by his courage and success 
 while in command of a privateer, he was 
 invited to enter into tlie royal navy, and 
 intrusted with the command of Ave frigates 
 and a corvette, destined to make a descent 
 on the British coasts. He sailed on this 
 expedition, Oct. 15. 1759, and arriving at 
 j Carrickfergus Bay, in Ireland, Jan. 10. fol- 
 1 lowing, the troops were lauded, and the 
 j place surrendered in a few days. Thurot 
 ' thought proper, however, to re-embark his 
 I troops ; and, on his return to France, his 
 I vessels were attacked by an English squa- 
 dron, and he fell in the engagement, Jan. 
 20. 1760. 
 
 THYNNE, Francis, a herald and anti- 
 quary of the 16th century, was the son of 
 William Thynne, the editor of Chaucer, and 
 steward of the household to Henry VIII. 
 He was educated at Tunbridge School, and 
 Magdalen College, Oxford ; became a mem- 
 ber of Lincoln's Inn, and in 1602 was made 
 Lancaster herald. Hearne published " A 
 Discourse of the Duty and Office of an 
 Herald of Arms," written by Thynne, who 
 also continued Holinshed's Chronicle j and 
 wrote a " History of Dover Castle and the 
 Cinque Ports," which, with many other pro- 
 ductions, remain in MS. Died, 1611. 
 
 TIARKS, JouN Lewis, F. R. S.,an astro- 
 nomer, was born at Jever, in 1789 ; studied 
 at Gottingen ; and, coming to London in 
 1810, became assistant librarian to Sir Joseph 
 Banks. In 1816 hi? visited Germany, and 
 on his return received the appointment of 
 British astronomer to the American bound- 
 ary line commission, in carrying out which 
 
 the greater part of his life was spent. He 
 died in 1837. 
 
 TIBERIUS, Ci.Ainiius Nero, emperor 
 of Rome, was born, b. c. 42, and succeeded 
 Augustus. He displayed his real character 
 in his cruelty to his mother Livia and his 
 wife Julia, and iu the murder of many of 
 the senators. He also caused Germanicus 
 to be poisoned, and committed numerous 
 excesses. In the midst, however, of all his 
 tyranny, he often exhibited gleams of strong 
 sense, and of a judicious attention to the 
 public welfare. But his crimes infinitely 
 exceeded his virtues, and he died at Mise- 
 num, A. D. 37, universally execrated. 
 
 TIBERIUS, CoxsTANTiNE, raised by his 
 merit to the throne of the Eastern empire, 
 became the father of his people, and is 
 equally extolled for Ids valour, his love of 
 justice, and his clemency. He died, 582. 
 
 TIBULLUS, AuLUS Alijius, a celebrated 
 Latin elegiac poet and critic, born, 43 b. c. ; 
 died, A. D 17. This author has usually been 
 printed in the same volume with Catullus 
 and Propertius. 
 
 TICKELL, Thomas, a poet and essayist, 
 was born in 1686, at Bridekirk, in Cumber- 
 land ; and became fellow of Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford. Through the friendship of 
 Addison, he was made under-secrctary of 
 state, and was afterwards appointed secre- 
 tary to the lords justices of Ireland. Some 
 of his pieces are in the Spectator ; besides 
 which, he wrote "The Prospect of Peace," 
 " The Royal Progress," and other poems ; 
 and translated the first book of the Iliad. 
 Died, 1740. 
 
 TICKELL, Richard, a poet and political 
 writer, who died in 1793. His principal 
 piece was a pamphlet called " Anticipation." 
 
 TIEDEMANN, Dieteich, an eminent 
 writer, was bom in 1748, at Bremervorde, in 
 the duchy of Bremen, and died iu 1803. 
 His principal works are, " An Essay on the 
 Origin of Languages," " System of the Stoic 
 Philosophy," an "Investigation of Man," 
 " The first Philosophers of Greece," and 
 " The Spirit of Speculative Philosophy." 
 
 TIEDGE, Chkistupuek Augu.stus, a 
 German elegiac poet, born in 1752 ; his chief 
 works are, " Urania," " The Echo, or Alexis 
 and Ida," "Denkmale der Zeit," &c. His 
 latter years were passed at Diesden. Died, 
 1841. 
 
 TIERNEY, Geoeoe, a distinguished 
 statesman and political writer, was bom in 
 London, in 1756 ; received his education at 
 Cambridge, and was designed for the bar. 
 At the commencement of his public life, 
 Mr. Tierney attached himself to the Whigs, 
 and in 1796 he was elected M. P. for South- 
 waik. He soon proved himself an able 
 debater, and was one of the most formi- 
 dable opponents of Mr. Pitt. In 1806 he 
 lost his seat as member for Southwark, and 
 afterwards successively represented Ath- 
 lone, Bandonbridge, Appleby, and Knares- 
 borough. During a debate in the year 1798, 
 some words spoken in the house were the 
 cause of a duel between him and Mr. Pitt, in 
 which, however, neither party was wounded. 
 When Mr. Addington became minister, in 
 1802, he made Mr. Tiemey treasurer of the 
 navy. In 180G, under the Grenville admi- 
 
 4 B 
 
til] 
 
 ^ iJSftu mxihtt^Kl 3Ut09Tapf)i). 
 
 [tim 
 
 nistration, he became president of the board 
 of control, but went out of office early in the 
 following year, on the resignation of the 
 ministry. On the formation of the Canning 
 ministry, he was appointed to the master- 
 ship of the mint ; from which he retired, 
 with Lord Goderich, in 1828, and died in 
 1830. 
 
 TILLEMANS, Peter, a celebrated pain- 
 ter, was a native of Antwerp ; he came to 
 England in 1708, and was employed by 
 several noblemen in taking views of their 
 seats, huntings, races, and horses. Died, 
 1734. 
 
 TILLEMONT, Sebastian lb Nain de, 
 a French historian and critic, was born at 
 Paris, in 1637. His "History of the Em- 
 perors" and "Ecclesiastical History" are 
 written with great fidelity and clearness. 
 Died, 1698. 
 
 TILLI, Michael Angelo, botanist and 
 physician, was born at Florence, in 1655. 
 His greatest worJi is the " Catalogus Horti 
 Pisani," printed at Florence, 1723. Died, 
 1740. 
 
 TILLOCH, Alexander, was bom at 
 Glasgow, in 1759. His father was a tobac- 
 conist, and it was his intention to bring up 
 his son to the same trade ; but his mind was 
 bent on mechanical improvements, and at 
 length, though totally uiiinstructed, he 
 formed the idea of printing with stereo- 
 typed plates. He began his experiments in 
 1781 ; and having succeeded in them, Mr. 
 Foulis, a printer, of Glasgow, joined him, 
 and a patent was taken out in their names. 
 Circumstances, however, induced them to 
 lay it aside for a time, and it was never af- 
 terwards renewed by them as a speculation. 
 In 1787, Mr. Tilloch quitted Scotland for 
 London, and soon after purchased the Star, 
 an evening paper, of which he became the 
 editor, and carried it on till within four 
 years of his death. In 1797 he projected 
 and established the Philosophical Magazine, 
 which he carried on for a number of years 
 with great credit ; and, only 15 days before 
 his death, he had obtained a patent for an 
 improvement on the steam-engine. Yet 
 amidst these avocations he found time for 
 theological studies, and published some pa- 
 pers on the Prophecies. In 1823 he printed 
 an octavo volume, entitled " Dissertations 
 on the Apocalypse;" and he was latterly 
 engaged in superintending " The Mechanic's 
 Oracle." Some years before his death the 
 university of Glasgow conferred on him the 
 degree of LL. D. ; and he preached occa- 
 sionally to a dissenting congregation in Gos- 
 well Street Road. Died, 1825. 
 
 TILLOTSON, a distinguished English 
 prelate, was the son of a clothier at Sowerby, 
 near Halifax, and born in 1630. His father, 
 who was a strict Calvinist, brought him up 
 in the same principles, and sent him to 
 Clare Hall, Cambridge. At the Restoration 
 he conformed to tlie established church, 
 was made king's chaplain, and presented to 
 a prebend of Canterbury. When Charles II., 
 in 16/2, issued a declaration for liberty of 
 conscience, for the purpose of favouring the 
 Roman Catholics, he preached strongly 
 against it, but was, nevertheless, advanced 
 to the deanery of Canterbury, and obtained 
 
 a prebend in St. Paul's, He warmly pro- 
 moted the exclusion bill against the Duke of 
 York , and refused to sign the address of the 
 London clergy to the king, on his declaration 
 that he would not consent to it. At the 
 execution of Lord William Russell he at- 
 tended him with Dr. Burnet ; and, though 
 afterwards decided friends to the Revolu- 
 tion, both these divines urged that nobleman 
 to acknowledge the unlawfulness of resist- 
 ance. After the Revolution, he was ap- 
 pointed clerk of the closet ; and, on the 
 deprivation of Sancroft, in 1691, he was 
 raised to the see of Canterbury. Died, 1694. 
 His sermons rank amongst the most popular 
 in the English language, and were at one 
 time regarded as a elandard of finished 
 oratory. 
 
 TILLY, Jonir Tzerklas, Count of, one 
 of the most celebrated generals of the 17th 
 century, was a native of Brabant, and born 
 in 1559. He rose by degrees to the com- 
 mand of the army of the league, and in the 
 seven years' war was appointed generalis- 
 simo of the imperial troops. His character 
 for military talents and bravery was of the 
 highest kind, but he stained his laurels by 
 uncalled-for cruelty. After gaining 36 bat- 
 tles, he was entirely defeated by Gustavus 
 Adolphus, at Brettenfield, Sept. 7. 1631 ; and 
 being wounded by a cannon-ball in a subse- 
 quent engagement, he died in 1632. 
 
 TILLY, Alexander de. Count, was de- 
 scended from an ancient family in Nor- 
 mandy, and born in 1754. He entered young 
 into tlie army, and was a zealous royalist 
 from the commencement of the French re- 
 volution. In 1792 he exerted his best abili- 
 ties in defence of Louis XVI., subsequently 
 emigrated, returned with the Bourbons in 
 1814, was compelled to leave France again 
 on Buonaparte's escape from Elba, and put 
 an end to his own existence at Brussels, in 
 1816. He was the author of some spirited 
 political essays, " (Euvres melees," "De la 
 Revolution Fran^aise en 1794," &c. 
 
 TILLY, Lieutenant-general the Count de, 
 was also a native of Normandy, but of a 
 different family from the preceding. Be- 
 coming a partisan of the revolution, he was 
 made a colonel of cavalry in 1792 ; was sent, 
 in 1793, to oppose the Vendeans, over whom 
 he gained some advantages ; subsequently 
 commanded the army of the Sambre and 
 Meuse ; and was governor of Brussels, in 
 1796. He served in Austria, Prussia, Poland, 
 and Spain, under the imperial government ; 
 and having accepted an appointment during 
 the hundred days, was not employed after 
 the second restoration of the Bourbons. 
 Died, 1822. 
 
 TIM^US, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 was a native of Locris, in Greece, and is 
 styled by Plato "a most diligent inquirer 
 
 into all the works of nature." .TiMJius, 
 
 a Greek historian, banished from Sicily by 
 Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse. He wrote a 
 " History of the Wars of Pyrrhus," a " Gene- 
 ral History of Sicily," &c. — - Tim^eus, the 
 Sophist, author of a " Dictionary of Platonic 
 Phrases," who is supposed to have flourished 
 about A. D. 400. 
 
 TIMOLEON, an illustrious Greek, was 
 bom at Corinth, about four centuries before 
 
tim] 
 
 ^ ^eti) BniUviKl Mia^npf)^, 
 
 [tip 
 
 the Cluistian era. He early exhibited marks 
 of intrepid courage and a hatred of tyranny; 
 which he carried to such a pitch, that, ac- 
 cording to Plutarch, he stood by while his 
 brother Timophunes, who would not resign 
 his usurped autliority, was assassinated. 
 Wiien tlie Syracusans solicited the aid of 
 the Corinthians against an invasion of the 
 Carthaginians, he was appointed to command 
 the auxiliary forces, and, by a happy mixture 
 of valour and prudence, succeeded not only 
 In restoring Syracuse to liljerty, but he 
 brought tlie whole island of Sicily into a 
 more prosjierous and tranquil state than it 
 had been in for many years. He fixed his 
 abode at Syracuse, and lived as a private 
 
 citizen, distinguished only by his influence 
 " ■ ■ ■ to his ■ ■ ""■ ' 
 
 B. c. ;W5. 
 
 and the respect paid 
 
 virtues. Died, 
 
 TIMON, a Greek poet and philosopher of 
 Peloponnesus, was the disciple of Pyrrho, 
 and lived in the third century n. c. He 
 wrote a number of comedies, tragedies, and 
 satiric dramas ; besides his satires, called 
 " Sillse," which are still in part extant. 
 
 TIMON, the Misantlirope, was born near 
 Athens, b. c. 420. It is related of him that 
 he took a great pleasure in Alcibiades ; and 
 being asked the reason, said, " because I 
 foresee that he will one day be the ruin of 
 the Athenians." 
 
 TIMOTEO, DA UnBiNo, an eminent 
 painter, was bora at Urbiuo, in 1470, and 
 died in 1524. 
 
 TIMOTHEUS, the most celebrated lyric 
 poet and musician of antiquity, was a native 
 of Miletus, in Caria, and flourished at the 
 court of Philip and his son Alexander. To 
 him is attributed the completion of the lyre 
 by four additional strings. 
 
 TINDAL, Matthew, a controversial 
 writer, was born at Beer-ferris, in Devon- 
 shire. He received his education at Oxford, 
 and was induced to turn Romanist in the 
 reign of James II., but returned to the wor- 
 ship of the church of England, and took the 
 oaths at the Revolution. Died, 1733. His 
 works are, "The Rights of the Christian 
 Church " and " Christianity as Old as the 
 Creation." 
 
 TINDAL, Nicholas, nephew to the fore- 
 going, a divine, miscellaneous writer, and 
 translator and continuator of Rapin's His- 
 tory of England. Born, 1687 ; died, 1774. 
 
 TINDAL, Sir Nicholas Conynoham, 
 lord chief justice of the court of common 
 pleas, was born in 1777, educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and having become a 
 student of Lincoln's Inn, he commenced 
 practice as a special pleader, and in 1809 was 
 called to the bar. He entered parliament 
 in 1824, as member for the Wigton district 
 of burghs ; and in 1826 he was made solicitor- 
 general, and knighted. When Sir John 
 Copley, who had represented the university 
 of Cambridge, was raised to the office of 
 lord chancellor, in 1827, Sir Nicholas Tindal 
 contested with Mr. Bankes the honour of 
 representing his alma mater, and was re- 
 turned by a considerable majority. Two 
 years afterwards he was promoted to the 
 chief justiceship, which position he occupied 
 till his death. Died, July 6. 1846, in the 70th 
 year of his age. 
 
 aia 
 
 TINDAL or TYNDALE, Wu.liam, one 
 of the reformers, was born in 1500 ; studied 
 at Oxford ; but was obliged to leave that 
 university on account of having imbibed the 
 doctrines of Luther. He then withdrew to 
 Cambridge, where he took a degree, and 
 soon after went to reside as a tutor in the 
 family of Sir John Welch, near Bristol. 
 While in this capacity, he translated Eras- 
 mus's ** Enchiridion Militis Christiani," into 
 English ; but, in consequence of his opinions, 
 articles were preferred against him before 
 the chancellor of the diocese, and he received 
 a reprimand. Upon this he withdrew to 
 London, and next to Antwerp, where he 
 translated the New Testament into English. 
 This version was printed in 1526, and the 
 greater part being sent to England, the pre- 
 lates Warham and Tunstall bought up all 
 the copies they could procure, and caused 
 them to be burnt. By means of the money 
 thus received, Tyndale was enabled to print 
 a new edition in 1534 ; after which he began 
 a translation of the Old Testament, in which 
 he was assisted by Miles Coverdale ; but they 
 proceeded no farther than the Pentateucli. 
 Through the interference of the English 
 government, Tyndale was apprehended at 
 Antwerp, and, in 1.536, being brought to trial 
 at Augsburg, he was condemned to the stake, 
 whicli sentence he quietly endured, being 
 first strangled and then burnt. His last 
 words were, " Lord, open the king of Eng- 
 land's eyes ! " 
 
 TINTORETTO, a celebrated painter, 
 whose real name was Giacomo Robusti, 
 was born at Venice, in 1512. He studied 
 under Titian, the style of whose colouring 
 he endeavoured to unite with the compo- 
 sition of Michael Angelo ; and though he 
 was far inferior to either of those great 
 masters, he rose to high reputation, and 
 
 was much employed. Died, 1594 His 
 
 daughter Maria, who died in 1.590, was dis- 
 tinguished as a portrait painter. 
 
 TIPPOO 8AIB, sultan of Mysore, the son 
 of Hyder Allj', was born in 1749, and suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in 1782. He continued 
 the war in which his father was engaged 
 with the English, until the peace of Paris 
 (1783), which deprived him of the assistance 
 of the French ; and the alliance of the 
 Mahrattas with the British induced him to 
 sign the treaty of Mangalore, in 1784, on ad- 
 vantageous terms. He, however, never ceased 
 to cherish the hope of expelling the British 
 from Hindostan, and carried on repeated 
 wars with our native allies. At length the 
 Marquis Cornwallis, in 1792, compelled him 
 to sue for a peace, which was granted on his 
 paying a large sum of money, ceding part of 
 his territories, and giving up his two sons to 
 the English as hostages. Still implacable, 
 he continued his plots against the English. 
 The result was a second and final war, which 
 terminated in 1799, by his death at the 
 storming of Seringapatam. 
 
 TIPTOFT, JoHx, earl of Worcester, a 
 patron of learning in the 15th century, was 
 appointed lord-deputy of Ireland by Henry 
 VI., and afterwards became lord hijjh con- 
 stable and lord hi^h treasurer. After this 
 lie went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
 on his return presented many valuable 
 
tik] 
 
 ^ |2clD ^nihtr^aX 3SiograpIji;. 
 
 [tom 
 
 manuscripts to the university of Oxford. 
 On the temporary reverse of fortune ex- 
 perienced by Edward IV. and the house of 
 York, he was accused of cruelty in liis I.ish 
 administration, particularly towards two 
 infant sons of the Earl of Desmond, and 
 condemned to lose his head on Tower Hill, 
 which sentence was executed, Oct. 18. 1470. 
 He wrote many works, and was the great 
 1 patron of Caxton the printer. 
 I TIRABOSCHI, GiROLAMO, an eminent 
 Italian author, was bom at Bergamo, in 
 1731 ; entered into the society of the Jesuits ; 
 was librarian and counsellor to the Duke of 
 Modena, who knighted him ; and died in 
 1794. His chief production is, " The His- 
 torv of Italian Literature," 16 vols. 4to. 
 
 TISCHBEIN, the name of several German 
 artists, of tlie 18th century, all possessing 
 considerable merit, but none of them suffi- 
 ciently eminent to demand a separate notice 
 here. 
 
 TISSOT, SiMOx An-drew, an eminent 
 physician and medical writer, was born at 
 Grancy, in the Pays de Vaud, in 1728. He 
 was chiefly distinguished by his successful 
 treatment of the confluent small-pox. He 
 wrote several excellent professional works, 
 was three years medical professor at Pavia, 
 and refused advantageous oiFers made him 
 by the kings of England and Poland to quit 
 Lausanne, where he died in 1797. His works 
 were collected by himself, and form 10 vols. 
 
 TITIAN, or TIZIANO VECELLI, an 
 unrivalled portrait and landscape painter, 
 was born in 1480, at Capo del Cadore, in 
 Friuli i was a pupil of Zucchati and Bellini, 
 and improved his original style by studying 
 the works of Giorgione. He was patronised 
 and highly honoured by Charles V., who on 
 one occasion, when the painter dropped his 
 pencil, took it up, and said, "Titian merits 
 to be served by Casar." He lived to the age 
 of 96, his powers continuing undiminished 
 almost to the last ; his works are conse- 
 quently numerous, but they still retain their 
 rank among the highest efforts of tl\e art. 
 He chiefly resided at Venice, where he died 
 of the plague, in 1576. 
 
 TITUS VESPASIANUS, a Roman em- 
 peror, was bom a. d. 40 ; and though his 
 youth was tainted with the vice of dissipa- 
 tion, he happily disappointed the gloomy 
 predictions of the people when he came to 
 the throne, a. d. 79, by the wisdom and 
 beneficence of his government. The Ro- 
 mans did not, however, long enjoy the 
 blessings of his administration, Titus having 
 been seized with a violent fever, which 
 carried him off in the 41st year of his age, 
 after a reign of little more than two years, 
 A.D. 81. 
 
 TOBIN, John', a dramatic writer, was 
 born at Salisbury, in 1770, and bred to the 
 law ; but the stage had more attractions 
 for him than the attorney's desk. He was 
 the author of "The Honey Moon" and 
 » Curfew." Died, 1804. 
 
 TOD, James, a lieutenant-colonel in the 
 service of the East India Company ; author 
 of "Annals of Rajast'han" and "Travels 
 in Western India," the latter of which was 
 scarcely completed when he died, Nov. 1835. 
 Colonel Tod surveyed Rajpootana, and com- 
 
 pleted his magnificent map in 1815 ; and it 
 was by him" that the name of Central India 
 was originally given to that important and 
 interesting tract of country. He was a sound 
 scholar, indefatigable in researcli and en- 
 thusiastic in his zeal to benefit the people 
 for whom he laboured. 
 
 TOFINO DE SAN MIGUEL, a Spanish 
 astronomer, was born at Carthagena, in 
 1740 ; entered the naval service, and became 
 brigadier-general of the marine forces. 
 During the American war he was employed 
 in surveying the Spanish coasts, and died in 
 1806. He is the author of "Astronomical 
 Observations made at Cadiz," and other 
 works. 
 
 TOLAND, JoHx, a deistical writer, was 
 born in 1669, at Londonderry, in Ireland. 
 He was originally a Roman Catholic, but 
 became a dissenter, and lastly a sceptic. 
 In 1696 he published " Christianity not 
 Mysterious ; " a work which excited much 
 notice, and gave rise to an almost intermi- 
 nable controversy. This was followed by 
 various other publications, political, po- 
 lemical, and philosophical ; besides "Na- 
 zarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan 
 Christianity," " Pantheisticon," " Tetra- 
 dymus," "Amyntor, " and a "Life of 
 Milton." Toland was employed on secret 
 missions to various German courts, and 
 received many valuable presents, particu- 
 larly from Prince Eugene. Died, 1722. 
 
 TOLER, JoHX, Earl of Norbuky, chief 
 justice of the court of common pleas in Ire- 
 land, was bom in 1745, at Beechwood, in the 
 county of Tipperary. He was called to the 
 bar in 1770 ; appointed king's counsel in 
 1781, solicitor-general in 1789, attorney- 
 general in 1798, during which year he wa» 
 actively engaged in the prosecution of the 
 Irish rebels ; and was advanced to the chief 
 justiceship of the common pleas in 1800, 
 with the title of lord Norbury. This high 
 office he retained till 1827, when, on his re- 
 tirement, he obtained a pension of 3046?., and 
 was advanced to the title of viscount Glan- 
 dine and earl of Norbury. He died in 1831. 
 He was an able judge ; but he was chiefly 
 known from his reputation for wit and 
 drollery, and was consequently compelled 
 to appear as the parent of many an illegiti- 
 mate pun in the newspapers. It is perfectly 
 true, however, that " Lord Norbury's jokes " 
 were sprinkled very thickly with his law, 
 and the Dublin court of common pleas was 
 often thronged with idlers attracted by the 
 amusement which was to be found in the 
 sallies of wit and repartee so freely bandied 
 about from judge, counsel, and witnesses. 
 
 TOLIilUS, James, a physician, was bom 
 near Utrecht, in 1030. He became profes- 
 sor of eloquence and Greek at Branden- 
 burg, and died in 1696. Among his works 
 are, "Epistolse Itiuerariaj " and "Fortuita 
 Sacra." In this last he evinced an extra- 
 ordinary degree of credulity, by supposing 
 that the secret of the philosopher's stone 
 was concealed xmder the mythology of 
 paganism. 
 
 TOMLINE, George, an eminent English 
 prelate, whose family name was Prettyman, 
 was born at Bury St. Edmund's, in Suffolk, 
 in 1750. He was senior wrangler at Cam- 
 
tom] 
 
 a fim Wmberi^al 38t0jirajpljy. 
 
 [tor 
 
 bridge, in 1772 ; and having been chosen a 
 fellow of Pembroke College in 1781, he served 
 the office of moderator. He had been the 
 academical tutor of Mr. Pitt, who, on becom- 
 ing chancellor of the exchequer, made him 
 his private secretary, gave him the living of 
 Sudbury, and a prebend of Westminster, 
 and, in 1787, raised him to the see of Ijincoln ; 
 from which, in 1820, he was translated to 
 that of Winchester. In 1799 he published a 
 work, entitled " Elements of Christian The- 
 ology," 2 vols. ; and in 1812 appeared his 
 •' Refutation of the Charge of Calvinism 
 against the Church of England." He also 
 published the "Life of the Right Hon. Wil- 
 liam Pitt." He took the name of Tomline, 
 in consequence of a person, to whom he was 
 almost unknown, having bequeathed him a 
 very considerable fortune on that special 
 condition. 
 
 TOMLINS, Elizabeth Sophia, a poetess, 
 novelist, and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 in Loudon, in 1768. She wrote " The Victim 
 of Fancy," and other novels ; " Tributes of 
 Affection," and much fugitive poetry in vari- 
 ous periodicals. She also translated the first 
 history of Napoleon Buonaparte that ever 
 appeared in this country, and part of An- 
 quetil's Universal History. Died, 1828. 
 
 TONE, Theobald Wolfe, an Irish re- 
 volutionary politician, and founder of the 
 " Society of United Irishmen," was born in 
 Dublin, in 17(53, and was bred to the bar. 
 In 1790 he published a pamphlet, the object 
 of which was to expose the mismanagement 
 of the English government regarding Ire- 
 land ; and, in 1793, he established the society 
 above mentioned. He afterwards became 
 involved in a treasonable correspondence 
 with France, but made a sort of compromise 
 with the British government, and was al- 
 lowed to withdraw himself. He accordingly 
 went to America in 179o, from whence he 
 proceeded to France in the following year. 
 By his persuasions, the French directory 
 fitted out an expedition, consisting of 17 sail 
 of the line, 13 frigates, &c.. with 14,000 troops 
 on board, and upwards of 40,000 stand of arms, 
 besides artillery and warlike stores. Tone 
 was appointed chef de brigade, under Ge- 
 neral Hoche, the commander-in-chief. They 
 set sail Dec. 15. 1796 ; but, before they had 
 all reached their destination (Bantry Bay), 
 a hurricane arose, in consequence of which 
 three ships of the line and a frigate only re- 
 mained together. This bold attempt being 
 thus frustrated by the elements, the scattered 
 ships made the best of their way back to 
 France, and Tone was foiled in all his future 
 endeavoiurs to persuade the French govern- 
 ment to undertake another expedition on a 
 large scale. But he still persevered in those 
 plans which he conceived would lead to a 
 separation of Ireland from Great Britain ; 
 and he at length embarked in one of those 
 petty armaments, the inefficiency of which, 
 he thought, perhaps, might be remedied by 
 his own courage and experience. He was 
 taken prisoner in the Hoche, after fighting 
 bravely in a desperate action, was tried by 
 a military commission, and sentenced to be 
 hanged. The execution of his sentence, 
 however, he avoided, by cutting liis own 
 throat in prison, Nov. 19. 1798. 
 
 TOOKE, John Horne, a politician and 
 philologist, who for many years was known 
 by his family name of Home, was born in 
 Westminster, in 1736 ; was educated at West- 
 minster and Eton Schools, and St. John's 
 College, Cambridge ; and in 1 760 was inducted 
 to the cliapelry of New Brentford. The 
 clerical profession being little suited to his 
 habits and feelings, he took an active part in 
 politics, and became the partisan of Wilkes ; 
 till, on founding the " Society for supporting 
 the Bill of Rights," a quarrel arose between 
 them, each charging the other with venality 
 and hypocrisy. In 1771 he was fiercely 
 attacked by Junius ; but he defended him- 
 self with spirit and success against that 
 formidable writer. Resigning his living 
 at Brentford, he studied the law at the Tem- 
 ple, but his ecclesiastical character proved 
 an obstacle to his being admitted to the 
 bar. He was a warm opponent of the Ame- 
 rican war ; and, in 1775, was prosecuted, 
 and sentenced to a year's imprisonment 
 and a fine, on the charge of having libelled 
 the king's troops in America. He defended 
 himself with his characteristic spirit and 
 acuteness ; and out of this circumstance 
 arose his " Letter to Dunning." which 
 formed the basis of his subsequent philo- 
 logical work, " The Diversions of Purley," 
 published in 1786. In 1790 he stood, in- 
 effectually, as candidate for Westminster, as 
 he did again in 1796. In the year 1794 he 
 was committed to the Tower on the charge 
 of high treason, founded on the presumed 
 objects of the corresponding societies to over- 
 throw the constitution ; but had the good 
 fortune, along with the other persons accused 
 at the same time, to be acquitted ; and he 
 appears to have been much more cautious 
 afterwards in the choice of his companions. 
 In 1801 he was returned to parliament for 
 Old Sarum, but he sat only during that 
 session, a bill being passed to render clerical 
 persons ineligible as members of the House 
 of Commons for the future. His latter days 
 were cheered by easy circumstances, and he 
 died at Wimbledon, in 1812, aged 76. 
 
 TOOKE, Rev. William, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in 1744, at Islington. He was 
 originally a printer ; but, in 1771, he obtained 
 episcopal ordination, and was appointed 
 minister of the church at Cronstadt. In 1774 
 he became chaplain to the factory at St. 
 Petersburgh ; and, after residing there many 
 years, he returned to his own country, and 
 died in 1820. His principal works are, " Va- 
 rieties in Literature," 2 vols. ; " The Life of 
 Catharine II.," " A View of the Russian 
 Empire," " A General History of Russia," 
 and translations of Lucian and Zollikoffer's 
 Sermons and Prayers. 
 
 TOPLADY, Augustus Montague, a zea- 
 lous advocate for the Calvinism of the church 
 of England, was born at Famham, in Surrey, 
 in 1740; was educated at Westminster School, 
 and at Trinity College, Dublin ; and died, 
 vicar of Broad Henbury, in Devonshire, in 
 1778. Toplady was a strenuous opponent of 
 Wesley, and brought a large share of meta- 
 physical acuteness into the Calvinistic con- 
 troversy. His works form 6 vols. 
 
 TORDENSKIOLD, Petek, whose family 
 name was Wkssel, was a celebrated Danish 
 
admiral, born in 1691, at Drontheim, in Nor- 
 way ; anfl was killed in a duel, in 1720. For 
 his gallant exploits his sovereign gave him 
 the nameof Tordenskiold, compounded from 
 words signifying thunder and sliield. Among 
 his achievements were the capturing of a 
 Swedish squadron in the port of Dynekiln, 
 and the taking of the town of Marstrand and 
 the citadel of Carlstein. 
 I TORELLI, GirsEi-PE, an Italian writer, 
 I was bom at Verona, in 1721. Besides the 
 Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, he 
 was well acquainted with French, Spanish, 
 and English ; and lie had also an extensive 
 knowledge of antiquities ; but hia favourite 
 study was the mathematics, of his profi- 
 ciency in which a proof has been given in 
 his edition of the works of Archimedes, 
 printed in folio, at Oxford. He died in 
 1781. Torelli translated ^sop's Fables into 
 Latin, and the first two books of the ^neid 
 into Italian. 
 
 TORENO, Count Jose de, known also as 
 the Vicomte de Mattarosa, a distinguished 
 Spanish statesman and historian, was horn 
 at Oviedo, 1786 ; bore a share in all the 
 troubles of his country in the early part of 
 this century ; and was repeatedly proscribed 
 I by the despotic advisers of Ferdinand VII. 
 But on the accession of the queen he once 
 more returned to Madrid, where he was 
 nominated minister of finance, and soon 
 afterwards of foreign affairs, which he held 
 till 1835. His latter years were spent at 
 Paris, where he published his interesting 
 " Histoire de Soul&vement d'Espagne." 
 
 TORF^US, THERMoniis, a Danish his- 
 torian, was born in Iceland, in 1640 ; edu- 
 cated at Copenhagen, and was afterwards ap- 
 pointed historiographer for Norway. Among 
 his works are, " Historia Rerum Norvegi- 
 arum," 2 vols. ; " Series Dynastarum et 
 Begum Daniaj," and "Historia Vinlandia3 
 AutiqufE." 
 
 TORQUEMADA, Thomas de, the first 
 inquisitor-general of Spain, whose memory 
 is rendered infamous for barbarity, was born 
 in 1420. He was a monk of the order of 
 St. Dominic, became inquisitor-general in 
 1483, and died in 1498. During the exercise 
 of his power, in the course of 16 years, it is 
 said that no less than 8800 victims were 
 committed to the flames, 90,000 were con- 
 demned to perpetual imprisonment and other 
 severe punishments, and above 800,000 Jews 
 were banished from Spain. 
 
 TORRE, FiLipro del, an Italian prelate 
 and antiquary, who was bom at Ciudad de 
 Friuli, in 1657. He became bishop of Adria, 
 where he died in 1717. His principal writings 
 are, " Monumenta veteris Antii," "Tauro- 
 bolium Antiquum," and " De Annis Imperii 
 M. Antonii Aurelii Heliogabali." 
 
 TORRE, Giovanni Maria dklla, an 
 eminent natural philosopher, was born at 
 Rome ; studied at the Clementine College ; 
 became professor of philosophy and the 
 mattiematics at Ciudad de Friuli ; and after- 
 wards, settling at Naples, was appointed 
 librarian to the king, superintendant of the 
 royal printing office, and keeper of tlie 
 museum. He made great improvements in 
 the magnifying power of microscopes, and 
 published works on " Natural Philosophy," 
 
 " Microscopical Observations," &c. Died, 
 1782. 
 
 TORRENS, Sir Henhy, adjutant-general, 
 was born at Londonderry, in 1779 : received 
 his education in the military academj' at 
 Dublin ; entered as an ensign in the 52nd 
 regiment of foot ; and, going to the West 
 Indies, was early distinguished for bravery 
 in actual service, and for courage in en- 
 during hardships. He afterwards served 
 in Holland, where he was wounded ; next 
 proceeded to join tlie army in Egypt ; thence 
 embarked at a port of the Red Sea for 
 Bombay ; but being seized with a coup-de- 
 soleil, he was obliged to take his passage to 
 England. The ship touched at St. Helena, 
 where, recovering his health and spirits, he 
 married Miss Patton, the governor's daughter. 
 He was present at the attack on Buenos 
 Ayres, and gave his testimony on the trial of 
 General Whitelock in a manner that evinced 
 his judgment and integrity. He was ap- 
 pointed secretary to Sir Arthur Wellesley, 
 .and accompanied him to Portugal. In 
 Marcli, 1820, Sir Henry was made adjutant- 
 general, in which situation he revised the 
 army regulations, and introduced many 
 essential improvements. Died, 1828. 
 
 TORRICELLI, Evangklista, a cele- 
 brated Italian mathematician, was bom in 
 1608, at Facnza ; began his education under 
 the Jesuits there, and completed it at Rome ; 
 was invited to Florence by Galileo, and 
 succeeded that eminent man as professor of 
 mathematics. The grand-duke also ap- 
 pointed him his mathematician. He wrote 
 several geometrical works, and to him 
 science is indebted for the invention of the 
 barometer. 
 
 TORRIGIANO, Pietro, a Florentine 
 sculptor, of great eminence, was born in 
 1472. Being a fellow student with the fa- 
 mous Michel Angelo Buonarotti, a dispute 
 arising from a jealousy with respect to 
 their comparative proficiency, terminated in 
 blows ; one of which, from the hand of 
 Torrigiano, broke the bridge of his anta- 
 gonist's nose. While in the zenith of his 
 reputation he went to England, which he 
 afterwards quitted for Spain, and there fell 
 into the hands of the Inquisition, being de- 
 nounced as guilty of impiety and sacrilege 
 in breaking to pieces a statue of the Virgin, 
 which he had himself executed for a noble- 
 man, who afterwards refused to pay him an 
 adequate price. He was condemned to the 
 stake, but avoided the torture of a public 
 execution by starving himself in prison, 
 previously to the celebration of the auto da 
 f&, in 1522. The beautiful tomb of Henry 
 VII., in Westminster Abbey, is the work of 
 Torrigiano. 
 
 TORRIJOS, Don Jose Maria, a Spanish 
 patriot, who served against the French 
 during the war of independence, and, gra- 
 dually passing through the inferior posts, 
 obtained the rank of colonel on the field of 
 battle. He was in dissrace after the return 
 of Ferdinand VII. ; biit, in 1820, the Cortes 
 made him field-marshal, and chief com- 
 mandant of Navarre and the Basque pro- 
 vinces. When the French invaded Spain, 
 Torrijos held out to the last : he signed the 
 capitulation of Carthagena after Cadiz had 
 
: tor] 
 
 ^ ^cto ^ntberiSal 3Bi03TapTby' 
 
 [tow 
 
 surrendered, and gave up hia arms to General 
 Mina ; but having subsequently resolved 
 to renew hia efforts for the liberation of 
 Spain, he quitted his asylum at Gibraltar, 
 and on repairing to Malaga, he and his 
 companions were made prisoners, tried by a 
 court-martial, and shot. 
 
 TORRINGTON, Geokoe Byno, Viscount, 
 was the son of Jolm, the fifth Viscount 
 Torrington, and was born in London, in 
 1768. He was entered a midshipman on 
 board the Thunderer at 10 years of age, and 
 was present in the action between Admiral 
 Keppel and the Count d'Orvilliers, on the 
 27th July, 1778. He joined the flag-ship of 
 Sir Edward Hughes, in the East Indies, and 
 was in the actions with M. Souffcrin. In 
 June, 1795, lie was made post-captain ; in 
 1797 he had the command of the Galatea 
 frigate, in which he captured a French cor- 
 vette, and some armed vessels ; but ill health 
 compelled him to resign the command in 
 1802. In December, 1812, his uncle, tlie 
 fourth viscount, died, to whose title his 
 father succeeded ; but he dying 14 days after, 
 Captain Byng became Viscount Torrington. 
 He at that time commanded the Warrior, in 
 which ship he conveyed the Prince of Orange 
 from the Downs, in Nov. 1813, and landed 
 him at Schwelling. After that service, he 
 convoyed a fleet of merchant ships to the 
 West Indies. During that period a pro- 
 motion took place, which made him rear- 
 admiral of tlie blue, and he was made vice- 
 admiral in 1821. He died in 1831. 
 
 TORSTENSON, Leonardo, Count, a 
 celebrated Swedish general, was born in 
 1595 ; commenced his career as page to 
 Gustavus Adolphus, and was rapidly pro- 
 moted for his military talent by that mon- 
 arch, and distinguished himself on numerous 
 occasions during the tliirty years' war. 
 Died, 1054. 
 
 TOSCANELLA, Paul, an astronomer of 
 the 15th century. He erected in the cathe- 
 dral of Florence the famous gnomon, of 
 which father Ximenes published a curious 
 description. Died, 1490. 
 
 TOTILA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 succeeded to the throne in 541. He overran 
 Italy, and took possession of Rome. At 
 length the emperor Justinian, resolving to 
 free Italy, recalled Belisarius from the Per- 
 sian war, and dispatched a powerful army 
 to its relief, under the able and valiant 
 Narses, with which he advanced directly 
 towards Rome. The opposing forces met, 
 and a furious battle took place ; the army of 
 Totila was totally vanquished, and being 
 overtaken in his flight by a party of Gepidse, 
 their commander, Asbad, ran him through 
 the body with a lance ; and with him ex- 
 pired the revived glory of the Goths in Italy, 
 A. D. 552. 
 
 TOTT, Francis, Baron de, a French 
 negotiator and officer, was born, in 1733, at 
 Chamigny, and after having served in the 
 army, was employed in the French embassy 
 at Constantinople. In 1767 he was appointed 
 consul in the Crimea. He subsequently 
 went back to Constantinople, and was 
 charged by the grand seignor to carry into 
 effect various important reforms in the mili- 
 tary department. He was promoted on hia 
 
 return to France, but emigrated in 1790, and 
 died 1793. 
 
 TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, an 
 eminent botanist, was bom in 1()56, at Aix, 
 in Provence. He manifested very early in 
 life a love of botany ; studied medicine and 
 anatomy at Montpelier ; travelled in various 
 parts of Europe and Asia ; was professor of 
 physic in the royal college, and of botany in 
 the king's garden at Paris, and died in 1708. 
 The method established by Tournefort was 
 founded upon the varieties of the petals of 
 flowers, taken in conjunction with the fruit ; 
 and it soon became highly popular from its 
 facility. Among his works are, "Voyages 
 in the Levant," " Elements of Botany, ' and 
 a " History of Plants in the neighbourhood 
 of Paris." 
 
 TOUSSAINT L'OTJVERTURE, a cele- 
 brated negro chieftain, of great courage, 
 intelligence, and activity, was born in 1745, 
 at St. Domingo. His early years were spent 
 in slavery on the estate of Count Noe, where 
 his excellent conduct attracted the attention 
 of M. Bayon de Libertas, the agent of the 
 estate, who taught him reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic. When the general rising of the 
 blacks took place, the abilities and courage 
 of Toussaint soon raised him to the highest 
 rank among them. By his wise and vigorous 
 measures, he succeeded in expelling the Eng- 
 lish, reducing the Spanish part of the island, 
 and restoring peace and order in the colony; 
 for which the central assembly of St. lio- 
 mingo voted him the dignity of president for 
 life. The first care of Toussaint was to form 
 a system of civil policy suited to the state of 
 tlie colony ; for which purpose he introduccid 
 many useful regulations, tending to improve 
 the moral state of the blacks, and to induce 
 habits of industry among them. By these 
 means the colony began to revive, and was 
 rapidly advancing in prosperity under the 
 administration of this negro chief, when sud ■ 
 denly the whole state of affairs was changed. 
 Anxious to recover so valuable a colony, 
 Buonaparte, in 1801, despatched General 
 Leclerc with a fleet and army : a desperate 
 contest ensued ; and, after a short but brave 
 resistance, Toussaint was overcome. He 
 was sent a prisoner to France, and died in 
 the fortress of Joux, in 1803. 
 
 TOWERS, Joseph, a political and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born, in 1737, in 
 Southwark, where his father was a dealer in 
 second-hand books. He was, successively, a 
 printer, a bookseller, and a preacher among 
 the Unitarians ; received the degree of LL.D. 
 from the university of Edinburgh, and died 
 in 1799. Among his works are, " British 
 Biography," a "Life of Frederic, King of 
 Prussia," "A Vindication of the Political 
 Opinions of Mr. Locke," " Observations on 
 the Rights and Duties of Juries," and many 
 political and other tracts. He also con- 
 tributed to Dr. Kippis's edition of the Bio- 
 graphia Britannica. 
 
 TOWGOOD, Matthew, a dissenting 
 minister, bom in 1750, at Axminster, in 
 Devonshire, where his father was a physi- 
 cian. He was the author of " The Dissen- 
 ter's Apology," " High-flown Episcopal and 
 Priestly Claims freely examined," &c. In 
 1701 he became the head of an academy at 
 
tow] 
 
 ^ JJcfio Winibtr^Kl SStOfirajj^M?. 
 
 [tre 
 
 Exeter, for the education of dissenting 
 ministers ; and died, aged 92, in 1792. 
 
 TOWNLEY, Chaules, an English an- 
 tiquary and collector, was born of an ancient 
 family at Townley Hall, in Lancashire. He 
 resided many years at Rome, where he em- 
 ployed himself in collecting the remains of 
 ancient art ; and having formed a museum, 
 replete with valuable manuscripts, medals, 
 vases, urns, &c., he purchased two houses in 
 Park Street, Westminster, for their recep- 
 tion. The Townley marbles are now in the 
 British Museum, of which Mr. Townley was 
 
 a trustee. Died, 180.5 His uncle, Joun 
 
 Townley, was an officer in the French ser- 
 vice, and honoured with the order of St. 
 Louis. He translated Hudibras into French, 
 and died in 1782. 
 
 TOWNSEND, JoHtf, founder of the deaf 
 and dumb asylum, was bom in London, in 
 1757. He settled as a minister to an inde- 
 pendent congregation at Kingston, in Sur- 
 rey, whence, in 1784, he removed to Ber- 
 mondsey, where he continued to reside 
 during the remainder of his life. With the 
 assistance of the Rev. H. C. Mason, paro- 
 chial minister of Bermondsey, he, in 1792, 
 founded tlie institution for the deaf and 
 dumb children of indigent parents ; which 
 excellent charity obtained such efficient 
 patronage, that, in 1807, an edifice, since 
 much enlarged, was erected under the aus- 
 pices of the late Duke of Gloucester. Mr. 
 Townsend also actively assisted in the for- 
 mation of the Missionary Society, the Fe- 
 male Penitentiary, and other religious and 
 charitable associations ; besides instituting 
 a congregational school, for the gratuitous 
 I education of the children of necessitous dis- 
 senting ministers. He was a coadjutor with 
 the Rev. Mr. Mason in his " Family Bible," 
 and was the author of " Hints on Sunday 
 Schools and Itinerant Preaching," "Nine 
 Discourses on Prayer," &c. Died, 182(5. 
 
 TOWNSEND, Joseph, a physician, di- 
 vine, and writer, was bom about 1740 ; was 
 educated at Caius College, Cambridge ; 
 studied physic under Dr. CuUen, at Edin- 
 burgh, but became chaplain to Lady Hun- 
 tingdon, and obtained the living of Pewsey, 
 Wilts. He was eminent as a scholar, mine- 
 ralogist, and conchologist ; and was the 
 author of " Travels in Spain," " The Phy- 
 sician's Vade Mecum," "A Guide to Health," 
 " Sermons," and " The Character of Moses 
 as an Historian established." Died, 1816. 
 
 TOWNSON, Dr. Thomas, a distinguished 
 clergyman of the established church, was a 
 native of Essex, and born in 1715. Through 
 the influence of Dr. Porteus, bishop of I^on- 
 don, he obtained some valuable church pre- 
 ferment, of which the livings of Hatfield, 
 Peverill, and Mai pas were a part. He 
 published several devotional tracts of great 
 merit, a series of sermons on the Gospels, 
 and a posthumous treatise on evangelical 
 history. Died, 1792. 
 
 TRADESCANT, Johx, a Dutch natu- 
 ralist, traveller, and antiquary, who, after 
 visiting various parts of Europe, settled in 
 England, established at Lambeth a garden 
 of exotics, and was appointed gardener to 
 Charles I. He died about 16.52. His son 
 John, who died in 1CG2, published, with the 
 
 833 
 
 title of "Museum Tradescantium," a de- 
 scription of his father's collection of curio- 
 sities, which have since formed the nucleus 
 of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. 
 
 TRAILL, RoBEUT, a presbyterian divine, 
 was born at Ely, in the county of Fife, in 
 1642. He was educated at Edinburgh, but 
 afterwards went to Holland, whence he re- 
 turned in the reign of Charles II., and suf- 
 fered imprisonment under the conventicle 
 act. On gaining his liberty, he removed 
 to London, and became minister to a con- 
 gregation of dissenters. He was a rigid 
 Calvinist, and his works are very popular 
 
 among persons of that persuasion Dr. 
 
 James Tkaill, his grandson, conformed to 
 the established church, and became bishop 
 of Down and Connor. Died, 1783. 
 
 TRAJAN, a Roman emperor, celebrated 
 in history for his mild and equitable govern- 
 ment, and for his valour in the field. He 
 was born a. d. 52, and died in 117. During 
 his reign the Roman empire was at its 
 greatest extent. 
 
 TRAPP, Joseph, a divine and poet, was 
 born in 1679, at Cherington, in Gloucester- 
 shire ; was educated at Wadham College, 
 Oxford, at which university he was profes- 
 sor of poetry ; became evening lecturer at 
 St. Martin's church, London ; rector of llar- 
 lington, Middlesex ; and died in 1747. His 
 principal works are, a blank verse trans- 
 lation of Virgil's uEneid, " Prselectiones 
 Poeticas, " " Sermons, " " Mi cellaneous 
 Poems," "Abramule, " a tragedy; and a 
 Latin translation of jfilton's Paradise Lost. 
 He was strongly attached to high church 
 principles, was an eloquent preacher, and, 
 besides the works before mentioned, was the 
 author of several polemical treatises. 
 
 TRAVIS, GEOiiGE, an English divine, 
 who dfttinguished himself by some acute 
 letters to Mr. Gibbon, in which he strenu- 
 ously maintained the genuineness of the 
 controverted passage in 1 John, chap. v. 7. 
 Died, 1797. 
 
 TREBY, Sir Geokge, an able judge and 
 lawyer, was born at Plympton, in Devon- 
 shire, in 1644 ; became a commoner of 
 Exeter College, Oxford ; studied in the 
 Inner Temple, and was called to the bar. 
 He also sat in parliament for his native 
 place ; and, in 1681, was appointed recorder 
 of London, and knighted. Of this office he 
 was deprived in 1685, but recovered it at the 
 revolution, and successively became solicitor 
 and attorney-general, and chief justice of 
 the common pleas. Died, 1702. 
 
 TR-EilBIJEY, AiiRAiiAM, an eminent 
 naturalist, was born in 1700, at Geneva. 
 After having been tutor to the families of 
 Lord Bentinck and the Duke of Richmond, 
 he returned in 1757 to his native city, where 
 he became one of the members of the great 
 council. He first acquired notice as a na- 
 turalist by his "Memoirs on Fresh Water 
 Polypes," and was admitted into the Royal 
 Society, and other learned bodies. He also 
 wrote " Instructions from a Father to his 
 Children on Nature and Religion," " In- 
 structions on Natural and Revealed Reli- 
 gion," and "Inquiries into the Principles of 
 Virtue and Happiness." Died, 1784. 
 
 TRENCIIAllD, John, a political writer 
 
tre] 
 
 ^ llclu Sluifafr^al MiaQrnn\)\j, 
 
 [tro 
 
 of tlie Whig party, son of a seci-etary of state 
 to William III., was bom in 1669, in Somer- 
 setshire ; quitted the bar, and was appointed 
 commissioner of forfeited estates in Ireland ; 
 and died in 1723. lie wrote " The Natural 
 History of Superstition " and various politi- 
 cal tracts and pamphlets ; and, in conjunc- 
 tion with Gordon, was the translator of 
 Tacitus and Cato's Letters. 
 
 TRENCK, FKEnERic, Baron von, a Prus- 
 sian oflSeer, celebrated for his adventures 
 and misfortunes, was born in 172(>, at Ko- 
 nigsberg, and made such rapid progress in 
 liis studies, that, at the age of 17, he was 
 presented to the king as a student who was 
 well worthy the royal patronage. Frederic 
 rapidly advanced him in the army, and 
 manifested much regard for him ; but the 
 accomplishments of Trenck having won the 
 heart of the Princess Amelia, the king's 
 sister, he resolved to punisli him. He was 
 imprisoned in the fortress of Galtz, but con- 
 trived to effect his escape. He then visited 
 the north of Europe, Austria, and Italy. In 
 1758 he was seized at Dantzie, and was 
 conveyed to Magdeburg, where, loaded with 
 irons, he was for years incarcerated. On 
 procuring his liberation, in 1763, he withdrew 
 to Vienna ; after which he went to Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, where literature, politics, and com- 
 merce alternately engaged his attention. 
 He next went to reside at his castle of 
 Zwerbeck, Iti Hungary, and while there he 
 published his own " Memoirs." In 1791 he 
 settled in France ; and in 1794, having been 
 charged with being a secret emissary of the 
 king of Prussia, he closed liis eventful career 
 under the axe of the guillotine. 
 
 TRESHAM, Henry, a painter and poet, 
 was born in Ireland, and was a pupil of 
 West, of Dublin. He resided in Italy 14 
 years, durin» which he greatly improved 
 himself in the art, and made a valuable 
 collection of articles of virtCl, and on his 
 return to England he became a royal aca- 
 demician. He was the author of three 
 poems, " The Sea-sick Minstrel," " Rome at 
 the close of the Eigliteenth Century," and 
 " Britannicus to Buonaparte." 
 
 TRESSAN, Louis Elizabeth de la 
 Veugxe, Count de, a distinguislied French 
 officer and writer, was born in 1705, at 
 Mons ; entered the army in 1723 ; was con- 
 spicuous for his valour during several cam- 
 paigns, particularly at the battle of Fonte- 
 noy ; was appointed grand marshal of the 
 court of Stanislaus at Lorraine in 1750 ; 
 was admitted into the French academy in 
 1781, and died in 1783. His works, published 
 in 12 vols., contain his miscellaneous pieces, 
 and his translations of Amadis de Gaul, the 
 Orlando Furioso, and several old French 
 romances. He did not, however, wliolly 
 confine himself to subjects of mere amuse- 
 ment, but produced a "Treatise on Elec- 
 tricity," and some other works pf science. 
 
 TRIBONIAN, a celebrated Roman law- 
 yer, was born about the beginning of the 
 6th century, at Sida, in Pamphylia ; obtained 
 reputation at the bar ; and rose, through a 
 succession of state offices, to those of a prae- 
 torian prefect, and ccnisul. The emperor 
 Justinian intrusted to him the superintend- 
 ence of his new code of laws, the result of 
 
 which was the celebrated Digest and Pan- 
 dects, which would have transmitted his 
 name with honour to posterity, had not his 
 rapacity and venality been at least e<iual to 
 his talents. Died, 547. 
 
 TRIMMER, Sarah, a literary lady, of an 
 active and intelligent mind, the daughter of 
 Joshua Kirby, who wrote on perspective, 
 was bom in 1741, at Ipswich, and was early 
 initiated in classical as well as in English 
 literature. She wrote a variety of useful 
 works, well calculated to promote the dif- 
 fusion of education, and died in 1810. 
 
 TRISSINO, Giovanni Giorgio, an Ita- 
 lian poet, was born in 1478, at Vicenza ; was 
 educated at Rome and Milan ; was employed 
 by Leo X. and his successor, Clement, on 
 various diplomatic missions, and died in 
 1558. Among his works are, " Tlie Deliver- 
 ance of Italy from the Goths," an epic 
 poem ; a treatise on the " Art of Poetry," 
 and the tragedy of " Sophonisba." 
 
 TRISTAN L'HERMITE, Francis, a 
 French dramatic poet, was born at Souliers, 
 in La Marche, in 1601, and died in 1649. 
 
 TRIVET, Nicholas, an English Domi- 
 nican, was the son of Sir Thomas Trivet, 
 chief justice of the king's bench. He was 
 educated at Oxford, and was the author of 
 " Annales Regum Angliie." Died, 1328. 
 
 TROGUS POMPEiUS, a Roman histo- 
 rian, was born in Gallia Narbonensis, and 
 lived in the reign of Augustus, in whose 
 court his father was an officer. Trogus 
 wrote a " Universal History," of which there 
 is an abridgment by Justin. 
 
 TROLLOPE, Anthony, a barrister-at- 
 law, the husband of the celebrated Mrs. 
 Trollope, whose sketches and novels have 
 attained so much popularity. Died at Bruges, 
 1835. 
 
 TROMP, Martin Harpertzoon tan, a 
 celebrated Dutch admiral, was born in 1.597, 
 at Brill ; began his naval career at an early 
 age, and was taken prisoner in a combat 
 with an English privateer, on board which 
 he continued two years. He subsequently 
 entered the service of the states-general, and 
 became admiral of Holland. He defeated 
 the Spaniards in 1637 and 1639 ; fought with 
 great gallantry against the English, during 
 the war which began in 1652 ; and was killed 
 
 in the engagement in 1653 Cornelius 
 
 TnoMP, son of the preceding, who was bora 
 in 1629, and died in 1691, emulated the fame 
 of his father, particularly in the fourth day's 
 action in the Downs, in June, 1666. After 
 the conclusion of peace, in 1675, Tromp 
 made a visit to Loudon, where he was 
 honourably received by Charles II., who 
 created him a baronet. 
 
 TRONCHIN, Theodore, an eminent 
 physician, was bora in 1709, at Geneva ; and 
 being maternally related to Lord Boling- 
 broke, he was sent to England, to be edu- 
 cated at Cambridge. He studied medicine 
 under Boerhaave, at Leyden ; and having 
 taken the degree of M. D., he first settled at 
 Amsterdam, and afterwards at his native 
 •city ; but subsequently removed to Paris, on 
 being appointed physician to the Duke of 
 Orleans. Tronchin was a man of consum- 
 mate skill in his profession, and of great 
 benevolence. He was the friend of Voltaire, 
 
TRO] 
 
 ^ ^tto UnihtrUKl ma^vupf)^. 
 
 [tuc 
 
 Rousseau, and many other celebrated cha- 
 racters, who have eulogised his talents and 
 his virtues in their writings. Died, 1781. 
 
 TROTTER, Thomas, M.D., an eminent 
 medical writer, was a native of Roxburgh- 
 shire, and educated at the university of 
 Edinburgh. After being duly qualified, he 
 was appointed a surgeon in the navy, in 
 1782 ; obtained his doctor's degree at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1788 ; was appointed physician 
 to the royal hospital at Portsmouth, in 1793, 
 and, in the following year, physician to the 
 fleet. He introduced many improvements 
 into the medical discipline of tlie navy ; was 
 indefatigable in his endeavours to mitigate 
 the pernicious effects of the scurvy ; and was 
 completely successful in repressing a putrid 
 fever which broke out among the French 
 prisoners taken on the 1st of June, 1794. On 
 his retirement from the public service, he 
 settled at Newcastle as a physician ; and 
 died there in 1832. lie wrote many useful 
 works, of which the following are the prin- 
 cipal : " Medical and Chemical Essays," 
 "Medica Nautica, or an Essay on the 
 Diseases of Seamen," a " Practical Treatise 
 on Nervous, Bilious, Stomach, and Liver 
 Complaints," an "Essay on Drunkenness," 
 a " Review of the Medical Department of the 
 British Navy," "The Noble Foundling," a 
 tragedy ; a volume of poems, &c. 
 
 TROY, Francis de, a French painter, 
 was born at Toulouse, in 1645 ; and died, 
 at Paris, in 1730. His principal perform- 
 ances are in the Hotel de Ville, of Paris, and 
 the church of St. Genevifeve, in the same 
 city. 
 
 TRUCHET, John, a French mathema- 
 tician, was born in 1657, at Lyons. On 
 entering into the order of Carmelites, he 
 obtained the name of father Sebastian ; but, 
 notwithstanding his monastic life, he de- 
 voted a considerable part of his time to 
 scientific and mechanical pursuits, particu- 
 larly hydraulics, which occasioned liis being 
 consulted in the making of the grand canal 
 of France. He also contributed, by his dis- 
 coveries, to the improvement of various 
 manufactures. 
 
 TRUEBA, Don Telesforo de, a Spa- 
 niard, who, on the overthrow of the consti- 
 tutional party, came, with his mother, to 
 England, where he was educated. He was 
 a man of very considerable talent, as may 
 be seen by his having written dramas in 
 Spanish, French, and English, which were 
 produced at the different national theatres 
 with success. Amongst his English dramatic 
 pieces were the popular farces of " Call 
 again To-morrow " and " Mr. and Mrs. 
 Pringle ;" besides some comedies, which were 
 not equally successful. He also wrote " The 
 Castilian," " The Incognito," " Paris and 
 London," " Salvador the Guerilla," and 
 other novels ; and was a frequent contributor 
 to many of the periodicals. In 1834 he re- 
 turned to Spain, with many of his more dis- 
 tinguished countrymen, and was soon after 
 elected a member of the Chamber of Procu- 
 radores, and secretary to one of the com- 
 mittees. Died, aged 31, 1835. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Sir William, an eminent 
 statesman, was born at East Hempstead, in 
 Berkshire, in 1638. He studied at Oxford, 
 
 840 
 
 and having taken the degree of doctor of laws, 
 was admitted a civilian in the Commons. 
 After this he was employed in state affairs, 
 and in 1C84 received the honour of knight- 
 hood. He went on diplomatic missions to 
 France and Constantinople ; was subse- 
 quently made a lord of the treasury and 
 secretary of state ; and died in 171C. Sir 
 William was the friend of Dryden and the 
 patron of Pope, in whose correspondence are 
 many of his letters. 
 
 TRUSLER, Dr. JoHx, was born in Lon- 
 don, in 1735 ; was brought up as an apothe- 
 cary, but got into orders, and for a time 
 officiated as a curate. He published abridg- 
 ments of popular sermons, printed in imita- 
 tion of manuscript, for the use of the pulpit : 
 this turned out a profitable speculation, and 
 led to his commencing business as a book- 
 seller, by which, and the numerous compi- 
 lations he produced, he realised a good for- 
 tune. Died, 1820. 
 
 TRYPHIODORUS, a poet, who, accord- 
 ing to Suidas, was a native of Egypt, and is 
 supposed to have lived during the 5th cen- 
 tury. He is called the Grammarian ; and 
 wrote a poem, in Greek, on the destruction 
 of Troy. 
 
 TSCHIRNER, Henry Theophilus, an 
 eminent German theologian and pulpit 
 orator, was born, in 1778, near Chemnitz ; 
 was professor of theology at Wittemberg ; 
 and died in 1828. He wrote " The Fall of 
 Paganism," " Christian Apologetics," " A. 
 Treatise on Catholicism and Protestantism, 
 considered in a Political Point of View," &c. 
 
 TSCHIRNHAUSEN, Ehrenfked Wal- 
 THEK VON, a German geometrician and 
 experimental philosopher, was born in 1651, 
 in Lusatia, and was lord of Killengswald 
 and Stolzenberg, in that country. He 
 studied at Leyden ; and, after having 
 served in the army, and travelled, he de- 
 voted himself to scientific pursuits. He 
 established several glass houses to improve 
 the glass used for optical instruments, con- 
 structed an enormous burning mirror, gave 
 rise to the manufacture of Saxon porcelain, 
 and discovered a particular kind of curve, 
 endowed with very remarkable properties, 
 called, after him, Tschirnhausen's Caustics. 
 He wrote "De Medioina Mentis et Cor- 
 poris," and some plulosophical papers. Died, 
 1708. 
 
 TUCKER, Abraham, a metaphysical 
 writer, was born in 1705, in London ; and 
 was educated at Merton College, Oxford ; 
 tlien studied at the Inner Temple, but was 
 not called to the bar. His great work is 
 " The Light of Nature pursued," 7 vols., of 
 which the first half was published by him- 
 self, under the fictitious name of Edward 
 Search, esq., and the remaining volumes : 
 were printed after tlie death of the author, 
 which occurred in 1774. 
 
 TUCKER, JosiAH, a shrewd writer on | 
 political economy, was born in 1712, at 
 Langham, in Caermarthenshire ; was edu- 
 cated at St. John's College. Oxford ; and 
 was successively curate of All Saints and 
 rector of St. Stephen's, Bristol, minor canon 
 and prebendary in the cathedral, and dean 
 of Gloucester. During the American war he 
 published many pamphlets, and strenuously 
 
TUC] 
 
 ^ ^fU) ^KuilJcriSfal MiaQvn^^yi, 
 
 [TDK 
 
 recommended the separation of the colonies 
 from Great Britain, as conducive to their 
 mutual interest. He died in 1799. Among 
 his works are, " A Treatise on Civil Govern- 
 ment," " Sermons," " Elements of Com- 
 merce," and " An Apology for the Church of 
 England." 
 
 TUCKER, St. Geokoe, an American 
 lawyer and statesman, distinguished in his 
 own country by the title of " The American 
 Blackstone," was a zealous promoter of the 
 independence of the United States, and bore 
 a part in its accomplishment, not oxily with 
 his pen, but his sword. Died, 1828. 
 
 TUCKEY, JAMii:s Hinostox, a nautical 
 writer, was born in 1778, at Greeuhill, in the 
 county of Cork ; entered the navy at an early 
 age, went to India in 1794, was employed in 
 surveying the coast of New South Wales, 
 was taken prisoner by tlie French in 1805, 
 and remained in captivity till 1814. He was 
 then selected to command the expedition for 
 exploring the river Congo, where he died, in 
 1816. He was the author of " Maritime Geo- 
 graphy," 4 vols. 
 
 TULL, Jethro, an agricultural writer, 
 was a native of Oxfordshire, and born about 
 1680. He studied at the Temple, and was 
 admitted a barrister ; but, returning from 
 his travels, he settled on his paternal estate, 
 and devoted himself to agriculture. TuU is 
 the inventor of the horse-hoeing system of 
 husbandry, on which he wrote a valuable 
 volume. This was reprinted by Mr. Cobbett, 
 and warmly espoused by him. 
 
 TULHUS HOSTILIUS, the third king 
 of the Romans, who succeeded Numa Pom- 
 pilius, and died, b. c. 640. 
 
 TULLY, Geoeoe, a learned divine ; 
 author of a " Discourse on the Government 
 of the Thoughts," and several sermons and 
 tracts against popery. Died, 1697. 
 
 TULLY, TuoiiAS, a learned divine and 
 controversial writer, was born at Carlisle, in 
 1620, and died in 1676. Dr. TuUy wrote 
 " Logica Apodeictica," " Prsecipuorum The- 
 ologia," and several controversial pieces 
 against Dr. Bull and Mr. Baxter, on the 
 subject of justification. 
 
 TULP, Nicholas, an eminent physician 
 and distinguished patriot, was born at Am- 
 sterdam, in 1593. He not only rose to emi- 
 nence in his profession, but being elected 
 burgomaster of Holland at a very advanced 
 age, he so strenuously encouraged his coun- 
 trymen in their resistance to the unprin- 
 cipled invasion of Holland by Louis XIV., 
 in 1672, that a silver medal was struck to his 
 honour, with the motto, " Vires ultra eor- 
 temque senectaj." 
 
 TUNSTALL, or TONSTAL, Cuthbert, 
 an eminent English prelate, was born at 
 Hatchford, in Yorkshire, about 1474. He 
 held various appointments, legal and eccle- 
 siastical ; in 1516 he was made master of the 
 rolls, and the same year was sent ambassador, 
 with Sir Thomas More, to the emperor 
 Charles V. then at Brussels. In 1522 he was 
 made bishop of London, in the following 
 year appointed keeper of the privy seal, and 
 in 1530 he was translated to the see of Dur- 
 ham. Under Edward VI. he was sent to 
 the Tower, where he remained till the acces- 
 sion of ilary, when he obtained his release, 
 
 841 
 
 and was restored to his bishopric. He con- 
 ducted himself with great moderation during 
 this sanguinary reign, and would not suiter 
 any Protestants to be molested in his diocese. 
 On the accession of Elizabeth he was again 
 deprived, and committed to the custody of 
 Archbishop Parker, at Lambeth, where he 
 died in 1559. 
 
 TUNSTALL, Jame.s, a learned divine, 
 was born about 1710, and died in 1772. Dr. 
 Tunstall wrote " Discourses upon Natural | 
 and Revealed Religion," and other works. j 
 
 TURBERVILE, Gkouge, an English j 
 poet, was born at Whitchurch, in Dorset- i 
 shire, about 1530. After being educated at . 
 Winchester and New College, Oxford, he 
 went as secretary to Sir Thomas Randolph, 
 ambassador at the court of Russia, of which 
 country he wrote a description, in three 
 poetical epistles. He published " Songs and [ 
 Sonnets," translations of the " Heroical 
 Epistles of Ovid," and "Tragical Tales." 
 Died about 1600. 
 
 TURENNE, Henry de la Touk d'Au- 
 VERONE, Viscount de, an illustrious French 
 commander, born in 1611, at Sedan, was the 
 second son of the Duke of Bouillon, and of 
 Elizabeth, daughter of William I., prince of 
 Orange. He studied the art of war under 
 his uncle, Prince Maurice of Nassau, and, in 
 1634, received the command of a French 
 regiment. Having, by repeated services, 
 obtained a marshal's baton with the chief 
 command of the army in Germany, he 
 crossed the Rhine, and after a train of 
 skilful operations and brilliant victories, 
 concluded the peace of the Pyrenees. In 
 1667, Turenne renounced the Protestant re- 
 ligion, which measure is rather supposed to 
 have proceeded from ambitious than pious 
 motives. On the renewal of the war with 
 Holland, in 1672, he took forty towns in less 
 than a month, drove the Elector of Branden- 
 burg to Berlin, and compelled the imperial j 
 army to recross the Rhine. He sullied his j 
 glory, however, by his barbarous conduct in I 
 the Palatinate, which country he utterly j 
 devastated by lire and sword. In 1675 he j 
 was opposed to Montecuculi, and they were j 
 about to come to an engagement at Sassbach, | 
 in Baden, when Turenne, while reconnoitring 1 
 for the purpose of finding a place for the 
 erection of a battery, was killed by a cannon- 
 ball, July 27. 1675. 
 
 TURGOT, Axne Robert Jacques, an 
 eminent French statesman, was born at 
 Paris in 1727. He studied at the Sorbonne, 
 and was intended for the church, but relin- 
 quished the clerical profession, and in 1761 
 was appointed iutendant of Limoges, which 
 office he held for twelve years. In 1774 he 
 was made comptroller general of the finances, 
 and did much to free commerce from its 
 many fetters, and to encourage industry ; 
 but his benevolent views were thwarted by 
 intrigues, and he was removed in 1776. Died, 
 1781. 
 
 TURNER, Dr. Edward, M. D., F. R. S., 
 professor of chemistry at University Col- 
 lege, London, was born at Jamaica, in 1797 ; 
 was educated in England, graduated as 
 doctor of medicine in Edinburgh, and after- 
 wards spent two years at Gottingen, under 
 Professor Stromeyer, in close application 
 
tub] 
 
 ^ 0sbi 2anil)n*^al ISiosrHpT)!). 
 
 [twe 
 
 to the kindled sciences of chemistry and ! 
 mineralogy. He was appointed professor of 
 chemistry in the London University on its 
 foundation in 1828 ; and from his talents and 
 indefatigable exertions, his moral qualities 
 and amenity of temper, he was admirably 
 calculated for the situation he so ably filled. 
 As a writer he will long be known by his 
 '• Elements of Chemistry." Died, 1837. 
 
 TURNER, Fkancis, bishop of Ely, was 
 one of the seven bishops prosecuted for re- 
 j sisting the royal authority in ecclesiastical 
 ! affairs under James II. ; yet he refused to 
 j take the oath of allegiance to William III., 
 and was consequently deprived of his bene- 
 fice. Died, 1700. He wrote " Animadver- 
 ! sions on Naked Truth," and was answered 
 ] by Marvell, who gave him the title of " The 
 I Divine in Mode." The bishop was also the 
 author of a " Vindication of Archbishop 
 Bancroft and the rest of the deprived 
 Bishops." 
 
 TURNER, Samuel, a traveller and diplo- 
 matist, was born in Gloucestershire, about 
 1749. He entered the military service of the 
 East India Company, and having attracted 
 the favourable notice of Governor Hastings, 
 was sent on an embassy to congratulate the 
 new potentate of Thibet, in 1783. In the 
 war with Tippoo Saib, this officer distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Seringapatam; 
 and being afterwards sent ambassador to the 
 sovereign of Mysore, acquitted himself so 
 much to the satisfaction of the Company, 
 that they rewarded lum with a handsome 
 present. He returned to England, and pub- 
 lished his "Account of an Embassy to the 
 Court of the Teshoo Lama in Thibet," &c. 
 Died, 1802. 
 
 TURNER, SirAUOx, the well-known his- 
 torian of the Anglo-Saxons, was born in 
 London, 1768. He was principally educated 
 at Pentonville, and having chosen the law 
 for his profession, he was articled to an at- 
 torney in tlie Temple at the age of 1.5. The 
 death of his master before his articles of 
 clerkship were expired left him free to decide 
 on his future career ; but at the suggestion of 
 an old client, who promised him support, he 
 took up the business, and notwithstanding 
 the great amount of time occupied by his 
 literary pursuits, he continued to conduct a 
 large professional business, which he trans- 
 mitted to his family. His chief works, or 
 rather series of works (for they were pub- 
 lished separately"), are, the " History of Eng- 
 land from the earliest Period to the Death of 
 Elizabeth," and the " Sacred History of the 
 World;" they have been repeatedly reprinted, 
 and may be now said to form part of the 
 standard literature of the country. Shortly 
 before his death he published a poem, en- 
 titled " Richard III." Died, 1847. 
 
 TURNER, William, an English natu- 
 ralist and divine of the 16th century, was 
 born at Morpeth, in Northumberland ; was 
 educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge ; be- 
 came dean of Wells, and died in 1568. He 
 wrote, among other things, a " History of 
 Plants," wliich is the earliest English herbal. 
 TURPIN, FitA.NCis Henry, a French 
 historian, was bom at Caen, in Normandy, 
 in 1709. He wrote " La France illustre, ou 
 le Plutarque Fran^ais," 4 vols. ; and other 
 
 works on biography and history. Died, 
 1799. 
 
 TUSSAUD, Madame, the well-known pro- 
 prietress of the wax-work collection in the 
 metropolis, was born in Berne, 1760. Adopted 
 by her uncle, M. Curtius, an artist in Paris, 
 she repaired thither early in life, and soon 
 became, under his care, so proficient in the 
 fine arts, that she received the appointment 
 of drawing-mistress to the family of Louis 
 XVI., whose sufferings she witnessed, and 
 in some measure participated. In 1802 she 
 came to England, and commenced her exhi- 
 bition, travelling with it from town to town ; 
 but in 1812, while crossing over to Ireland, 
 the vessel in which she had embarked, was 
 wrecked, and her goodly collection fell a 
 prey to the waves. Nothing daunted by this 
 disaster, the enterprising artiste began the 
 world anew, with what success, all who have 
 beheld her interesting exhibition, which is 
 justly considered one of " the sights" of the 
 metropolis, can testify. Died, April 16. 1850. 
 
 TUSSER, Thomas, an early georgical 
 poet, was born about 1515, at Rivenhall, in 
 Essex. After having been a chorister at 
 St. Paul's, he was educated at Eton, and 
 at King's College, Cambridge ; spent 10 
 years at court under the patronage of Lord 
 Paget, and then became a farmer in Suffolk, 
 where he composed a book on husbandry, 
 and dedicated it to his patron. His work is 
 in homely verse, and is entitled "Five Hun- 
 dred Points of Good Husbandry." Died, 
 about 1580. 
 
 TUTCHEN, JOHX. a political writer, dis- 
 tinguisiied for his boldness and virulence. 
 At the time of Monmouth's rebellion, he 
 published a pamphlet in his favour, for 
 which he was tried, and sentenced by Judge 
 Jeffries to be whipped through all the prin- 
 cipal market towns in the west of England. 
 He petitioned the king that his sentence 
 might be commuted to hanging, and he was 
 at length pardoned. Yet, so forgetful was 
 he of tlie favour he had been shown, that, on 
 the death of James II., he wrote an invec- 
 tive against the unfortunate monarch. Died, 
 1707. 
 
 TUTHILL, Sir George, was a physician 
 of some eminence, whose practice latterly 
 had been chiefly confined to diseases of the 
 brain, though at one time he was a popular 
 lecturer on the practice of physic. At the 
 time of Buonaparte's c!etention of the English 
 during the short peace of 1801, Dr. Tuthill 
 and his lady were among the number ; but 
 after several years' captivity they obtained 
 their liberty, the lady having purposely 
 encountered the chief consul and his suite 
 on their return from hunting, and presented 
 a memorial which had been prepared for the 
 occasion. Died, 1835. 
 
 TWEDDE, John, a highly accomplished 
 scholar, was born in 1709, at Threepwood, 
 near Hexham ; was educated first at Hart- 
 forth School, Yorkshire ; next under Dr. 
 Parr ; and, lastly, at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge ; gained several prizes at the uni- 
 versity, became a student of the Middle 
 Temple, began his travels in 1795, witli a 
 view to accomplish himself as a diplomatist; 
 and, after remaining abroad four years, died 
 suddenly at Athens. It was known that 
 
 842 
 
TWi] 
 
 ^ ^ctjj Mntljcr^al JJt0ffrap!)fi. 
 
 [xys 
 
 he had amassed large materials with a view 
 to publication ; but the manuscripts of the 
 observations which lie made in his journey 
 were unfortunately lost. 
 
 T WISS, Horace, whose name will long be 
 remembered in social, literary, and political 
 circles, was the eldest son of Francis Twiss, 
 esq., author of a verbal index to Shakspeare, 
 and of Frances, second daughter of Roger 
 Kemble, the father of the illustrious family 
 of the Kembles and the Siddonses. Called 
 to the bar in 1811, he travelled the Oxford 
 circuit for some years, and became one of its 
 most distinguished leaders ; but he sub- 
 sequently attached himself to the equity 
 courts, and Jiad he continued to devote him- 
 self exclusively to his profession, there can 
 be no doubt that he would have attained to 
 forensic, or even judicial, eminence. His 
 political life commenced in 1820 as member 
 for Wootton Bassett. lie represented this 
 borough for ten years, during which he 
 reaped great distinction for his business 
 talents, and his speeches in favour of Catho- 
 lic emancipation and law reform. On the 
 formation of the Duke of Wellington's admi- 
 nistration in 1828, he was appointed under- 
 secretary to the colonies, having previously 
 been counsel to the admiralty and judge 
 advocate during Lord Liverpool's admi- 
 nistration. In 1830 he sat for Newport ; but 
 the reform bill, which he earnestly opposed, 
 may be said to have cut short his parlia- 
 mentary career, for though he represented 
 Bridport from 1835 to 1837, he could not 
 establish a durable hold on the constituency, 
 and all his subsequent attempts to obtain a 
 seat in parliament proved abortive. From 
 this period he devoted his talents to the 
 press. He occasionally contributed leading 
 articles to the Times j and to him is owing 
 the plan now generally adopted by the daily 
 press, of giving a summary of the speeches in 
 the Houses of Parliament in addition to the 
 reports. In 1844 he received the appoint- 
 ment of vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lan- 
 caster. From an early age, Mr, Twiss had 
 been devoted to literary pursuits. When a 
 young man, he gained great distinction by 
 slight dramatic productions, poetry, and 
 jeux-d'esprit of every description ; and these 
 were followed at intervals by various other 
 publications, chiefly on constitutional sub- 
 jects ; but his literary fame rests on his ela- 
 borate "Life of Lord Eldon," which will 
 long be consulted, not merely as one of the 
 best biographies ever written, but as a reper- 
 tory of the most remarkable political trans- 
 actions of the era to which it refers. In 
 private life, Mr. Twiss was no less esteemed 
 than in the world of literature and politics. 
 In feeling he was a perfect gentleman. His 
 amiable manners aud convivial talents made 
 him every where a welcome guest ; while his 
 own hospitality was unboundedly shared by 
 a wide circle of friends, among whom were 
 many of the most distinguished persons in 
 the country. Died, 1849. 
 
 TWISS. RiCHAUi), an English traveller, 
 bom in 1747, was a man of fortune, and 
 spent several years in visiting various parts 
 of the Continent. He died in 1821. Among 
 his works are, " Travels through Spain and 
 Tortugal," " A Tour in Ireland," " A Trip 
 
 843 
 
 to Paris in 1792," "Anecdolea of Chess," 
 and " Miscellanies." 
 
 TWY8DEN, SirRooER, the second ba- 
 ronet of the family, was born at East Peck- 
 ham, in Kent, in 1597. His father. Sir Wil- 
 liam, accompanied James I. to England, 
 and was created a baronet. Sir Roger, who 
 was an excellent antiquary, suffered severely 
 from his attachment to the royal cause. 
 Besides contributing to Philpot's Survey of 
 Kent, and the publication of the " Decern 
 Scriptores," he was the author of " The His- 
 torical Defence of the Church of England." 
 Died, 1672. 
 
 TYCHSEN, Glaus Gerharp, a celebrated 
 Danish scholar, was born in 1734, at Ton- 
 dern ; and became professor of oriental 
 languages, and librarian, at Rostock. lie 
 wrote several able works on the Hebrew, 
 Arabic, and Syriac tongues. Died, 1815. 
 
 TYRREL, James, an historian and poli- 
 tical writer, was born in 1642, in London ; 
 was educated at Queen's College, Oxford ; 
 studied in the Inner Temple, and was called 
 to the bar, but never practised i)r()fes8ion" 
 ally. He is the author of a " General His- 
 tory of England," and other works. Died, 
 1718. 
 
 TYRT^US, an ancient Greek poet, cele- 
 brated for his martial strains, who flourished 
 about B. c. C80, is said to have been a native 
 of Miletus, and to have settled at Athens. 
 He was lame, and blind of one eye. In the 
 war between the Lacedaemonians and Mes- 
 seniana, the Spartans applied to the Athe- 
 nians for a general ; and the latter, it is 
 supposed, in derision, sent them Tyrtajus. 
 The bard, however, so inspired the Si)artans 
 by his warlike songs, that they reduced the 
 Messenians to subjection. He was accord- 
 ingly treated with great respect, and granted 
 the rights of citizenship ; and the martial 
 airs of Tjrtseus were constantly played in 
 the Lacedaemonian army as long as that 
 republic existed. 
 
 TYRWHITT, Thomas, an eminent scho- 
 lar and critic, was born at Westminster, in 
 1730, and was educated at Eton, and at 
 Queen's College, Oxford. In 175G he was 
 under-secretary in the war department ; 
 and, in 1762, clerk to the House of Com- 
 mons ; but he resigned his situation in 1768, 
 in order to devote himself to literature. 
 He was a fellow of the Royal and Anti- 
 quarian Societies, and one of the curators of 
 the British Museum. Among his works 
 are, editions of "Chaucer's Canterbury 
 Tales," 5 vols., and "Rowley's Poems," 
 the latter of which he proves to be the com- 
 position of Chatterton ; also "Dissertatio dc 
 Babrio," " Notes on Euripides," &c. Died, 
 1786. 
 
 TYSON, Edward, a physician, was born 
 at Bristol, in 1649 ; and educated at Mag- 
 dalen Hall, Oxford. He became a member 
 of the College of Physicians and the Royal 
 Society ; and he was physician to Bedlam 
 and Bridewell Hospitals. Dr. Tyson was a 
 very skilful anatomist and an able writer : 
 he published " The Anatomy of a Porpoise," 
 " Tiie Anatomy of a Pigmy, compared with 
 that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man, with 
 a Philosophical Discourse concerning the 
 Pigmies of the Ancients;" and several clever 
 
TYS] 
 
 ^ i^etD ^uibcrM MiaQtK^l)v. 
 
 [dda 
 
 essays in the Philosophical Transactions. 
 Died. 1708. 
 
 TYSSENS, Peter, a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 162.5. In historical com- 
 position, it is said, he was very little in- 
 ferior to Rubens. Died, ]()92 There were 
 
 also two other painters of some note, of the 
 name of Tyssens, but less eminent than the 
 preceding. 
 
 TYTLER, James, an eccentric, laborious, 
 and able writer, was bom at Brechin, in 
 Scotland, in 1747. His first work, entitled 
 " Essays on the most important Subjects of 
 Natural and Revealed Religion," was printed 
 by the author himself, without any manu- 
 script or notes whatever, but just as the ideas 
 arose in his mind. His other principal 
 works are, " A System of Geograph}'," a 
 " Geographical, Historical, and Commercial 
 Grammar," a " History of Edinburgh," and 
 a poetical translation of Virgil's Eclogues. 
 He also edited several periodical works, viz. 
 the Historical Register, the Gentleman 
 and Lady's Magazine, the Weekly Review, 
 &c., and contributed largely to the En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica. Having joined the 
 society of the " Friends of the People," at 
 the close of the last century, he was outlawed, 
 and died in America in 1805. 
 
 TYTLER, William, an historical and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1711 ; was educated at the uni- 
 versity of his native city ; followed the 
 profession of writer to the signet ; and died 
 in 1792. His principal work is, " An Histo- 
 rical and Critical Inquiry into the Evidence 
 produced against Mary,' Queen of Scots." 
 He was also a contributor to the Transac- 
 tions of the Edinburgh Antiquarian Society, 
 of which he was one of the vice-presidents. 
 
 TYTLER, Alexander Fraser, lord 
 Woodhouselee, son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1747, at Edinburgh, in which city he 
 was educated. After having been professor 
 of universal history at the university, and 
 judge advocate for Scotland, he was raised to 
 the bench, and took his seat as Lord Wood- 
 houselee, in 1802 ; and on the elevation of 
 Lord Hope to the president's chair in 1811, ! 
 he was appointed a commissioner of jus- ' 
 ticiary. Among his works are, "Decisions 
 of the Court of Session," a treatise on I 
 " Martial Law," " Outlines of a Course of 
 Lectures on Universal History," " Elements 
 of General History," " An Essay on the [ 
 Principles of Translation," " An Historical j 
 
 and Critical Essay on the Life of Petrarch," 
 and "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of 
 Lord Kaimes." Died, 1813. 
 
 TYTLER, Patrick Fraser, an eminent 
 historian, son of the preceding, was born, 
 1790. After the usual curriculum of a Scotch 
 education, he was enrolled a member of the 
 faculty of advocates in 1813. But he soon 
 turned from the law to the pursuit of let- 
 ters, his first adventure being a volume 
 of travels in France in 1814 or 1815. But 
 the work which first gave him a place of 
 note in the world of letters, was his " Life of 
 the Admirable Crichton " — an erudite, 
 pleasing, and ingenious book, which reached 
 a second edition in 1823. The same year 
 saw the publication of another volume of 
 the same stamp — "An Account of the Life 
 and Writings of Sir Thomas Craig, of Ric- 
 carton, including Biographical Sketches of 
 the most eminent Legal Characters," &c. 
 But the work by which his name has become 
 most widely known, and by which it will go 
 down to after generations, is his " History of 
 Scotland," the first volume of which ap- 
 peared in 1828, and the ninth and last in 1843. 
 During the composition of his great work, he 
 found leisure to give several others to the 
 world. He contributed to Mr. Murray's 
 Family Library one of the most delightful 
 of all his writings, 3 vols, of "Lives of 
 Scottish Worthies" (1832-3). For the Edin- 
 burgh Cabinet Library, he wrote an " Histori- 
 cal View of the Progress of Discovery on the 
 more Northern Coasts of America" (1832), 
 the " Life of Sir Walter Raleigh" (1832), and 
 the " Life of Henry VIII." (1837) ; besides 
 editing various otlier works, the materials 
 for which he had collected in the state 
 paper office. A pension of 200?. a year was 
 conferred upon him a few years ago, during 
 the administration of Sir Robert Peel. Mr. 
 Tytler's constitution was never robust, and 
 it gradually gave way under the exhausting 
 labours of a literary life. During a linger- 
 ing illness of mind and body, he wandered 
 over the Continent in search of health, and 
 returned to England, only to die in the land 
 for the illustration of whose annals he had 
 done much and contemplated more. Died 
 at Great Malvern, 1849. 
 
 TZETZES, John, a Greek poet and critic 
 of the 12th century. He wrote " Allegories 
 on Homer," " Miscellaneous Histories," &c., 
 and was celebrated in his time for his pro- 
 digious memory and great acquirements. 
 
 u. 
 
 XJBALDINT, Petruccio, a celebrated 
 illuminator on vellum, in the Kjth century, 
 was a native of Florence, and came to Eng • 
 land in the reign of Elizabeth. His " Vita 
 di Carlo Magno," which appeared in 1581, 
 is said to be the first Italian book printed in 
 this country. He also wrote a " Description 
 of Scotland" and " The Lives of Illustrious 
 Females in England and Scotland." 
 
 TIDAL, Nicholas, bom in Hampshire, 
 in 150G ; became headmaster of Westmin- 
 ster School, and was notorious as a discipli- 
 narian. He wrote several school books, and 
 some comedies in Latin, but none of the 
 latter are extant. 
 
 UDAL, John, a learned orientalist, au- 
 thor of" A Key to the Holy Tongue," being 
 the first Hebrew Grammar printed in Eng- 
 
UDl] 
 
 ^ ^eU) Winilittial ^iasvn^l^yi* 
 
 [UEQ 
 
 land. He was a rigid puritan, suffered much 
 
 persecution, and died in prison in l.'>y2 
 
 His son Ephraim, who held the living of 
 St. Augustine's, Watling Street, till deprived 
 of it at the rebellion, was a zealous episco- 
 palian ; and was alike remarkable for the 
 extent of his learning and the rectitude of 
 his life. He was the author of a " Treatise 
 on Sacrilege," and died in 1()47. 
 
 UDINA, Giovanni da, an Italian painter, 
 bom in 1489, was a pupil of Giorgione and 
 Raphael, and excelled in the grotesque. 
 Died. 1502. 
 
 UILKENS, James Albert, a Dutch na- 
 turalist, was born near Groningen, in 1772. 
 Among his numerous works are, an "Ele- 
 mentary Treatise on Physics," a " Discourse 
 on the Perfections of the Creator considered 
 in the Creature," 4 vols. ; and a " Manual of 
 Technology." In 1815 he was appointed to 
 the chair of rural economy at Groningen, 
 and died in 1825. 
 
 ULLOA, Don Antonia, a Spanish ma- 
 thematician, and commander of the order of 
 St. Jago, was born at Seville, in 171(5, and 
 I died in 1795. He was one of the mathema- 
 I ticians employed in measuring a degree of 
 i the meridian in Peru, in 1735 ; and remained 
 j there 10 years. On his return, he was taken 
 ; prisoner by the English, but was soon re- 
 I leased. He published his " Travels," and a 
 ! phvsico-historical work on South America. 
 i Died, 1795. 
 
 ULLOA Y PEREIRA, Lnuis de, a Spa- 
 nish poet, who gained great reputation by 
 1 his sonnets in the reign of Philip IV. Died, 
 16G0. 
 
 ULPHILAS, or WULFILAS, a Gothic 
 bishop of the 4th century. He was deputed 
 by the Goths, in 377, to obtain leave from 
 the emperor Valens to settle in one of the 
 Roman provinces. He translated tlie Evan- 
 gelists, and some other parts of Scripture, 
 into the Gothic language. 
 
 ULPIAN, DoMiTius, an eminent Roman 
 civilian, the tutor, friend, and minister of 
 the emperor Alexander Severus, who made 
 him his secretary and afterwards praetorian 
 prefect. Having offended the soldiery by 
 his reforms, they broke out into open mutiny, 
 and Ulpian was murdered by them, in 226. 
 Ulpian has obtained the praise of all llie 
 heathens ; but the Christians accuse him of 
 a determined enmity to them, which he 
 carried so far as to collect all the edicts and 
 decrees of the preceding sovereigns against 
 them. 
 
 ULUGH-BEIGH. or OLEG BEK, a 
 Tartar prince of the 15th century, celebrated 
 for his astronomical knowledge, was grand- 
 son of Tamerlane, and was born in 1393. 
 His real name was Mohammed Taragai. 
 He formed a seminary, chiefly for the study 
 of mathematics and astronomy, constructed 
 an observatory at Samarcand, and was a 
 patron of learning. After a reign of 40 
 years he was put to death, in 1449, by one 
 of his sons who had rebelled against him. 
 Science is indebted to him for a series of 
 observations on the fixed stars ; and his 
 works on chronology, geography, and as- 
 tronomy were published in l>atin by Greaves. 
 UNDERWOOD, T. K., an artist and geo- 
 logist. He was the author of a " Narrative 
 
 of Memorable Events in Paris during the 
 Capitulation in 1814," and " Anecdotes of j 
 Buonaparte's Journey to, and Return from, I 
 Elba." Died, near Paris, 1835. j 
 
 UNZER, John Augustus, a German ! 
 physician, and an able writer on medicine 
 and physiology, was born at Halle, in 1727. 
 After engaging in practice at his native 
 place and at Hamburgh, he established him- 
 self at Altona, and arrived at the height of 
 professional reputation. Among his works 
 are, " A New Doctrine concerning the Move- 
 ments of the Soul and of the Imagination," 
 " Thoxights on Sleep and Dreams," " On the 
 Sensitive Faculties of Animated Bodies," a 
 " Manual of Medicine," and " The Physi- 
 ology of Animal Nature." Died, 1799. 
 
 UPTON, James, a learned divine, was 
 born in Cheshire, in 1070, and died in 1749. 
 He published an excellent edition of " As- 
 cham's Schoolmaster," with notes ; also 
 " Aristotle's Art of Poetry," and "Dionysius 
 
 of Halicarnassus on Rhetoric." His son, 
 
 James, was born at Taunton, and educated 
 at Exeter College, Oxford ; after which he 
 became rector of Risington, in Gloucester- 
 shire, and prebendary of Rochester. His 
 works are, an edition of " Epictetus ; " an- 
 other of "Spenser's Faerie Queene" and 
 "Observations on Shakspeare." Died, 1700. 
 
 URBAN VIII., a celebrated pope, whose 
 family name was Maffei BAiiBKKiNi, was 
 born at Florence, in 1508. He studied the 
 law at Pisa ; after which he entered into 
 orders, and, in 1006, attained the rank of 
 cardinal. In 1023 he was elected to the 
 papal chair ; and proved himself a zealous 
 advocate for the interests, spiritual and tem- 
 poral, of the Roman church. He was also 
 a patron of learning, and founded the college 
 " De Propaganda Fide." No less than 74 
 cardinals were created by this pontiff. Died, 
 1044. 
 
 URBAN, Ferdinand de St., an eminent 
 artist, born at Nancy, in 1054. He became 
 first architect and director of medals to pope 
 Innocent XL, for whom and for his two 
 immediate successors, he executed a great 
 number of moulds or matrices of exquisite 
 beauty. Died, 1738. 
 
 URFE', IIoNoiiE r>\ a French romance 
 writer, was born in 1657, at Marseilles. He 
 distinguished himself as a soldier during the 
 wars of ihe league, and as a negotiator at 
 Turin and Venice. He is the author of the 
 romance of Astrrea, which was o-ice exceed- 
 ingly popular in France. Died, 1C25. 
 
 URQUHART, Sir Thomas, of Cromarty, 
 in Scotland, was a philologist and mathe- [ 
 matician. He was a cavalier officer among 1 
 the followers of Charles II., and was present | 
 at the battle of Worcester ; relative to which ', 
 he published a piece, entitled " The Disco- j 
 very of a most rare Jewel, found in the I 
 Kennel of Worcester Streets," &c. He was ■ 
 also the author of a work on trigonometry ; 
 but the performance which he regarded as . 
 his most admirable invention was called j 
 " Logopandecteision, or an Introduction to [ 
 the Universal Language." \ 
 
 URQUIJO, Mariano Louis, Chevalier 
 de, a Spanish statesman, born in Old Castile, i 
 in 1708. He passed some of his early years ■ 
 in England, and is supposed to have there ac- , 
 
 4C 3 
 
URS] 
 
 ^ f^elu Bnihtv^al aStnjjrapTjg. 
 
 [VAD 
 
 qnired those liberal notions in politics, which 
 he afterwards displayed. During the minis- 
 try of Godoy, he became secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs ; but having at length offended 
 the royal favourite, he was disgraced in 1800, 
 and for several years closely confined in the 
 citadel of Pampeluna. On the accession of 
 Ferdinand in 1808, he was set at liberty ; 
 followed the royal family to Bayonne, was 
 afterwards minister of state, and died in 
 1817. 
 
 URSINUS, Zachart, one of the early 
 reformers, was born at Breslaw, in Silesia, 
 in 1534. He studied at Wittemberg, where 
 he acquired the friendship of Melanchthon, 
 whom he accompanied to the conference at 
 Worms. lie afterwards became master of 
 the school at Breslau ; then went to Heidel- 
 berg, wliere he obtained a professorship ; 
 and died, professor of divinity, at Newstadt, 
 
 in 1577 Tliere were several other divines 
 
 of the name of Ursinus ; among whom may 
 be mentioned Joux Henry, author of the 
 " Rise and Progress of the Cliurches of Ger- 
 many," &c., who died at Ratisbon, in 16G7. 
 
 His son, George Henry, was eminent 
 
 as a philologist, and published some able 
 works on etymology, &c. Died, 1707. 
 
 URSUS, Nicholas Ratmarus, a Danish 
 mathematician, who died in 1600. He in- 
 vented an astronomical system so like that 
 of Tycho Brahe as to bring him into a dis- 
 pute with that astronomer respecting the 
 right of discovery. 
 
 USHER, James, a celebrated prelate and 
 historian, was born at Dublin, in 1580 ; was 
 educated at Trinity College, and took orders 
 in 1601. Soon after, he visited England to 
 purchase books and MSS. for Trinity College 
 library ; and, during his stay in London, 
 Oxford, and Cambridge, he became ac- 
 quainted with Sir T. Bodley, Sir Robert 
 Cotton, Camden, Selden, and other learned 
 men. In 1620 he was made bishop of Meath, 
 and in 1624 was raised to the archbishopric 
 of Armagh. The rebellion drove him from 
 his see, and deprived him of every thing but 
 his library and his liberty. To the cause of 
 Charles I. he was warmly attached, and fre- 
 quently preached before that monarch at 
 Oxford. He died in 1656, at Ryegate, in 
 Surrey. Archbishop Uslier is the author of 
 many learned works ; among which may be 
 mentioned, " De Ecclesiarum Christianarum 
 Successione et Statu," " Britannicarum Ec- 
 clesiarum Antiqxiitates," " Annals of the 
 Old and New Testament," and " Chronologia 
 Sacra." 
 
 USTARIZ, Jerome, a Spanisli writer on 
 
 political economy, who died about the middle 
 of the 18th century. His "Theory and 
 Practice of Commerce and Navigation " has 
 been translated both into the French and 
 English languages, and is regarded as a 
 valuable work. 
 
 USTERI, Leonard, a Swiss writer on 
 education, was born at Zurich, in 1741. The 
 reform in the schools and gymnasiums, ef- 
 fected in 1773, were chiefly owing to his ex- 
 ertions. He was keeper of the public library, 
 and member of the philosophical society at 
 Zurich. Died, 1789. 
 
 UTENIIOVIUS, Charles, a polemical 
 
 and political divine, bom at Ghent, about 
 
 i 1536. On the death of queen Mary he vi- 
 
 j sited England, and wrote in defence of the 
 
 j reformed religion, and of Elizabeth's right 
 
 I to the throne, which raised him high in her 
 
 favour. He died at Cologne, towards the 
 
 end of the 16th century. 
 
 UVEDALE, Ror.ERT, LL.D., an eminent 
 botanist, was born in London, in 1642 ; and 
 was educated at Westminster School, and 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. He was a good 
 classical scholar, and became master of the 
 Foundation School, at Enfield, where his 
 botanical garden was cultivated with great 
 care, and contained a number of choice ex- 
 otics. Dr. Uvedale assisted Dryden and his 
 associates in translating Plutarch's Lives. 
 The date of his death is not known. 
 
 UWINS, David, M. D., an eminent phy- 
 sician and medical writer, was bom in Lon- 
 don, in 1780. After going through a regular 
 course of hospital instruction, and completing 
 his studies at Edinburgh, he commenced 
 practice as assistant-physician to the Fins- 
 bury Dispensary ; subsequently settled at 
 Aylesbury ; and, returning to London shortly 
 after he had married, was elected physician 
 to tlie City Dispensary in 1815. He parti- 
 cularly directed his attention to mental dis- 
 eases ; and an essay on " Insanity and Mad- 
 houses," in the Quarterly Review for July 
 1816, established liis power as a medical 
 writer. He also wrote "Reports" in the 
 Monthly Magazine, and afterwards became 
 editor of the Medical Repository. In 1828 
 he was appointed physician to the lunatic 
 asylum at Peckham, and published a work 
 on " Insanity," which was eagerly read. But 
 his last production, a pamphlet on " Homoeo- 
 pathy," is supposed to have injured his pro- 
 fessional reputation. He died in September, 
 1837. 
 
 UZ, John Peter, an eminent lyric poet 
 of Germany, who held the office of assessor 
 of the tribunal at Nuremberg. Died, 1796. 
 
 VACCA, Flaminio, an Italian sculptor 
 of the 16th century, who was employed by 
 Sixtus v. in restoring and beautifying the 
 public edifices of Rome, of the antiquities of 
 which city he wrote a memoir. 
 
 VADE, John Joseph, a French farce and 
 song writer, was a native of Ham, in Picardy. 
 
 He was the first who introduced, on the 
 French stage, the coarse but expressive lan- 
 guage of the Parisian mob ; and his comic 
 operas, &c. exhibit all the low humour and 
 vivacity of that class, whose manners he de- 
 lighted in representing. He died, aged 37, in 
 1757. 
 
vah] 
 
 ^ llctD Bnihtr^Kl SSiOffrap^w. 
 
 [VAL 
 
 VAHL, MAETiif, a Norwegian botanist, 
 was born at Bergen, in 1749 ; studied natural 
 history and botany under Linnxus ; and 
 travelled over various parts of Europe and 
 Africa. On his return, he became professor 
 of botany, and inspector of the botanic 
 garden at Copenhagen ; and died in 1804. 
 He wrote "Symbolaa Botanicas," "Eclogas 
 Americante," " Enumeratio Plantarum," 
 and was the continuator of the "Flora 
 Danica." 
 
 VAILLANT, JoHx Foi, a celebrated 
 Frencli medallist, was bom at Beauvais, in 
 1632. He first studied medicine, and took the 
 degree of doctor of physic, but quitted that 
 profession for the study of antiquities, and 
 was employed by Colbert to travel in quest 
 of medals for the royal cabinet. In 1674 he 
 sailed from Marseilles for Italy, but was 
 taken by the Algerines, and kept in slavery 
 about five months, when he obtained his 
 liberty, and twenty medals which had been 
 taken from him. On his voyage home, the 
 ship was chased by another corsair, and 
 the dread of being again captured induced 
 him to swallow his medals, which fortu- 
 nately did him no serious injury. He after- 
 wards travelled into Persia and Egypt, in 
 I quest of medals and antiquities, greatly 
 augmented the treasures of the king's cabinet, 
 and published some excellent works on nu- 
 mismatology. Died, 1706 Joujf Francis 
 
 I Foi, his son, followed the pursuits of his 
 I father. Died, 1708. 
 
 j VAILLANT, Sebastian, who distin- 
 guished himself as an able botanist, was 
 born in 16G9, at Vigny, near Pontoise. He 
 j was first a musician, next a surgeon, and 
 I afterwards secretary to Fagon, physician to 
 Louis XIV. By the interest of his patron he 
 I became director of the royal gardens, where 
 I he was made professor and demonstrator of 
 t plants. His great work is the " Botannicon 
 j Parisiense." Died, 1722. 
 
 VALAZE, CiiAKLEs Eleoxork du Fkiche 
 I DE, a native of Alengon, bom in 1751 ; one 
 I of the Girondists in the French National 
 j Convention, who, opposing the sanguinary 
 violence of Robespierre, were suppressed anil 
 I destroyed by him. When arrested on tlie 
 31st of May, 1793, with his colleagues, he 
 was offered means of escape, but refused. 
 At the moment that Herman, the president 
 of the revolutionary tribunal pronounced 
 I sentence of death on him and his friends, on 
 j the charge of federalism, he poniarded him- 
 self. His body, at the instance of the exe- 
 crable Fouquier Tinville, was carried to the 
 scaffold, and beheaded. The convention 
 granted a pension to his widow and children, 
 on the fall of Robespierre. 
 I VAL CARCEL, Don Pio Antonio, count 
 ' de Lunares, a learned Spanish antiquarian, 
 , was bom in 1740, and died in 1800. lie left 
 I some erudite dissertations on the inscrip- 
 tions of Saguntum, and those of Carthagena 
 j and Almazarron, in the Moorish kingdom of 
 Murcia. 
 
 VALCKENAER, Louis Caspar, an able 
 philologist and critic, was born at Leeu- 
 warden, in Friesland, in 1715 ; and became 
 professor of natural history, Greek, and 
 antiquities, at the university of Leyden, 
 where he died in 1785. His works arc nu- 
 
 847 
 
 merous and erudite. — His son, Johx Valck- 
 ENAER, who was profcssor of jurisprudence 
 at Franeker, having joined the party against 
 the house of Orange, was obliged to take 
 refuge in France, but returned to Holland 
 at the invasion of that country by the French, 
 in 1795, and took a very active part in politics. 
 He was subsequently employed in diplomatic 
 missions to Prussia, Spain, and Paris. Died, 
 1820. 
 
 VALDES, or VALDESSO, John, a Spa- 
 nish military ofiBcer, who served under 
 Charles V. and was knighted ; but he quitted 
 the army and retired to Naples, where he 
 formed a religious sect, and died in 1540. 
 He wrote "Considerations on a religious 
 Life." 
 
 VALDEZ, Juan Melendez, a Spanish 
 poet, was born at Ribera, in Estremadura. 
 He wrote many pieces of Anacreontic poetry, 
 and filled high offices in the legal adminis- 
 tration of his country. Died, 1817. 
 
 VALDO, Peter, founder of the sect 
 called the Vaudois, or Waldenses, in the 
 12th century, was born at Vaux, in Dau- 
 phiny, and acquired a fortune as a merchant 
 of Lyons. The sudden death of a friend 
 had such an effect on his mind, as to induce 
 him to sell his property, give the produce 
 of it to the poor, and devote the remainder 
 of his life to acts of piety. Like the Quakers, 
 he taught that the luity might conduct the 
 ofiBces of religion without the intervention 
 of priests ; but a heresy so obnoxious to the 
 ecclesiastics soon met with the direst per- 
 secution ; Valdo and his followers fled to 
 the mountains of Dauphiny and Piedmont ; 
 and the Waldenses were everywhere exter- 
 minated, except in the three valleys of 
 Piedmont, where a remnant of them still 
 exists. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, a Roman emperor, 
 bom in Pannonia, about a. d. 328, and ad- 
 mitted to a share in the imperial authority 
 by his brother Valentinian, in 364, when he 
 took the "government of the East. He 
 perished in a revolt of the Persians and 
 Goths, whom he had previously subdued, 
 A. D. 378. 
 
 VALENTIN, Moses, an eminent painter, 
 was born at Colomiers, in Brie, in 1600. His 
 pieces are highly esteemed. Died, 1032. 
 
 VALENTINE, Basil, an alchemist and 
 chemical author in the 16th century. He 
 published " Currus triumphalis Antimonii," , 
 and similar works. 
 
 VALENTINIAN L, Flavius, a Roman 
 emperor, the elder brother of Valens, born 
 in 321, in Pannonia ; succeeded Jovian in | 
 364, defeated the Alemanni and the Quadi, | 
 
 and died in 375 Valentinian II., his 
 
 son, succeeded to the empire with his brother 
 Gratian, in 375 ; and had Italy as his share. 
 He was dispossessed by Maximus, but was 
 afterwards restored; and died, as is sup- 
 posed, by strangulation, in 392 Valen- 
 tinian III., Flavius Placidius, emperor of 
 the West, was bom in 419, at Ravenna. 
 Having intrigued with the wife of the pa- 
 trician Maximus, he was assassinated, in 
 revenge for the dishonour, in 455. 
 
 VALERIAN,PuBLiusLiciNius,aRoman, 
 who was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers 
 in Rha^tia, in 254. He was defeated and 
 
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 ^ ^tla HniberiSal Mia^vKpl)^, 
 
 [van 
 
 taken prisoner near Edessa, by Sapor, king 
 of Persia, wlio ordered him to be flayed 
 alive. 
 
 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman histo- 
 rian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius. 
 After having served in Asia, under Sextus 
 Pompey, he devoted his leisure to the com - 
 Ijosition of his " Dicta et Facta Memorabilia," 
 a collection of anecdotes and observations. 
 On the revival of literature, it was one of 
 the earliest books which issued from the 
 press after the invention of printing. 
 
 VALETTE, JoH> Parisot de la, grand- 
 master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 was born in 1494, and succeeded to the 
 grand-mastership in 1.557. He and his 
 knights gallantly repulsed Solyman, tlie 
 Turkish sultan, in his attempt to take Malta, 
 in 15Co, compelling the besiegers to retire 
 with a loss of 30,00(J men. Died, 1568. 
 
 VALLA, Laurexce, one of the revivers 
 of literature in the 15th century, was born at 
 Rome, in 1406 ; became eminent as a pro- 
 fessor at several universities, and engaged in 
 many literary controversies with Poggio and 
 others. Of his numerous writings, his trea- 
 tise " De Elegantiaj I-atini Scrmonis " still 
 maintains its reputation. Died, 1457. 
 
 VALLANCY. or VALLANCE, a writer 
 on the antiquities of Ireland, was born in 
 1721. During his residence in Ireland, as 
 an officer in a corps of engineers, he assi- 
 duously devoted himself to the study of the 
 language, topography, and antiquities of 
 that country ; made a survey of the island, 
 for which he received lOOO;. ; and wrote a 
 " Grammar and Dictionary of the Irish 
 Language," "Collectanea de Rebus Iliber- 
 nicis," &c. He attained the rank of a ge- 
 neral, was a member of several scientific 
 institutions, and died, aged 90, in 1812. 
 
 VALLE, PiETEO DELLA, a celebrated tra- 
 veller of the 17th century, was born at Rome, 
 in 1586, of a noble family. His travels, 
 though not free from credulity and a love 
 of the marvellous, are highly interesting. 
 He visited Turkey, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, 
 and India, passing upwards of 11 years in 
 these countries, and studying the languages 
 and manners of the inhabitants. At Bagdad 
 he married a beautiful Georgian, wlio ac- 
 companied him on his travels until her 
 death, at Mina, in Caramania, in 1022. Her 
 death so affected him, that he caused her 
 body to be embalmed, and took it about 
 with him until his return to Rome, where 
 he buried it with great magnificence, and 
 pronounced the funeral oration himself. 
 Died, 1652. 
 
 VALLI, EusEBius, an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Pistoia, in 1762. He tra- 
 velled to Smyrna and Constantinople, in 
 order to make his observations on the plague; 
 and tried the bold experiment on himself, to 
 determine the efficacy of vaccination as a 
 preservative from that dreadful malady. 
 At length he fell a victim to his imprudence ; 
 for in September, 1816, having gone to the 
 Havannah, to add to his observations on the 
 yellow fever, he purposely exposed himself 
 to the influence of the contagion, and caught 
 the disease, of which lie died. His works on 
 the subjects he so closely investigated are 
 considered valuable. 
 
 VALPERGA DI CALUSO, Thomas des, 
 a Piedmontese mathematician and astrono- 
 mer, was born at Turin, in 1730. He first 
 served in the navy, but quitted the pro- 
 fession of arms 'for that of an ecclesiastic, 
 and devoted much of liis attention to science. 
 He was member of the grand council and 
 director of the observatory of the university 
 of Turin, a member of the legion of honour, 
 &c. Died, 1815. 
 
 VALPY, Dr. Richard, F. A. S., an emi- 
 nent classical scholar, was a native of Jersey, 
 and born in 1754. At 10 years of age he was 
 sent to the college of Valognes, in Normandy, 
 where he remained five years ; thence to the 
 grammar school at Southampton ; and com- 
 pleted his studies at Oxford, liaving been 
 appointed to one of the scholarships founded 
 in Pembroke College for tlie natives of Jersey 
 and Guernsey. From Oxford he removed 
 first to Bury St. Edmund's, and afterwards 
 (1781) to Reading, where he had been unani- 
 mously elected headmaster of the school 
 founded by Henry VII. His unwearied in- 
 dustry in discharging tlie duties of a public 
 instructor was not confined to the school- 
 room ; all the hours he could spare were 
 spent in his study, and numerous elementary 
 works of acknowledged excellence were the 
 result of his praiseworthy exertions. About 
 six years before his death he retired from 
 his scholastic labours, when his youngest 
 son, the Rev. F. Valpy, was elected as his 
 successor. Died, 1836. 
 
 VALPY, Edward, an eminent scholar, 
 brother of the preceding, was educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge ; and, after hav- 
 ing been assistant several years in the school 
 at Reading, obtained the mastership of the 
 grammar school at Norwich. He was rector 
 of All Saints, Thwaite, and vicar of St. 
 Mary, Walsham, Norfolk. He published 
 " Elegantise Latinse " and other classical 
 works. Died, 18.32. 
 
 VANBRUGH, Sir John', a dramatist and 
 architect, descended from a Flemish family 
 resident in England, was born in 1672, and 
 entered into the army. In 1697, his comedy 
 of "The Relapse" was represented; and, 
 in the following year, he produced "The 
 Provoked Wife" and " ^sop," afterwards 
 altered by Garrick. When Betterton and 
 Congreve obtained a patent for erecting a 
 theatre in the Haymarket, Vanbrugh wrote 
 the " Confederacy," the most witty and li- 
 centious of his productions. As an archi- 
 tect, Vanbrugh was selected to build Blen- 
 heim House ; and that structure, as well as 
 Castle Howard, affords proof of skill and 
 genius. He obtained the office of claren- 
 cieux king-at-arms ; and, in 1714, received 
 the honour of knighthood. He was also 
 appointed comptroller of the board of works 
 and surveyor of Greenwich Hospital. Died, 
 1723. 
 
 VANCE, George, an eminent surgeon, 
 who during the latter period of his life re- 
 sided in Sackville Street, Piccadilly, was 
 distinguished for his abilities in difficult 
 cases, particularly in diseases of the stomach 
 and liver. He acquired great reputation for 
 his skill early in life, and was one of the 
 resident surgeons of Haslar Hospital, near 
 Gosport, for 17 years. His death occurred j 
 
van] 
 
 ^ i^eto ^Sniber^al ISiograp^B. 
 
 [van 
 
 in consequence of an accident which hap- 
 pened to him while in attendance on one 
 of his patients, a Mr. Broadley, residing in 
 Lower Grosvenor Street. Mr. Vance had on 
 a previous visit to this gentleman found him 
 in a state of such excitement as to recom- 
 mend his being placed under the charge of a 
 competent attendant, which had accordingly 
 been done ; but at his next visit, while in the 
 act of walking up the stairs, Mr. Broadley 
 suddenly rushed from his room, and coming 
 in violent collision with him, he was preci- 
 pitated to the bottom. He survived this 
 melancholy event only six days ; " thus ter- 
 minating," as his friend Dr. Willis truly 
 observed, " a life of ardent devotion to the 
 duties of his profession, and of exemplary 
 conduct in all the social relations of life," 
 March 27. 18.37. 
 
 VANCOUVER, George, a circumnavi- 
 gator, and captain in the British navy. He 
 served as a midshipman under Captain 
 Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascer- 
 tain the existence of any navigable com- 
 munication between the North Pacific and 
 North Atlantic oceans being determined 
 on, he was appointed to command it. " Van- 
 couver's Voyage" was afterwards published 
 by him. Died, 1798. 
 
 VANDALE, Anthony, a Dutch theolo- 
 gian, was bom in 1638. Among his various 
 works are, dissertations " On the Progress 
 and Origin of Idolatry," " On True and 
 False Prophecy," &c. Died, 1708. 
 
 VANDAMME, Dosiinique, a French ge- 
 neral, born in 1771. He entered the military 
 service very young, and was made general 
 of division in 1799, after distinguishing him- 
 self in the revolutionary campaigns of the 
 Rhine. He served in most of Napoleon's 
 campaigns with Austria in 1806-7-9 ; but was 
 not in the Russian campaign of 1813, having 
 been disgraced in consequence of some dis- 
 pute with Jerome Buonaparte. But he had 
 the command of the 32d division in 1813. 
 With that corps he fell into an ambuscade 
 at Kulm, his forces were nearly all cut to 
 pieces, and himself, being made prisoner, 
 was sent to Kasan, near Siberia. He was 
 restored to freedom by the peace of 1814, 
 but ordered to quit Paris in 24 hours. He 
 joined Buonaparte during the hundred 
 days, and served in Grouchy's division at 
 the time of the battle of Waterloo. He 
 made a skilful retreat, and offered the pro- 
 visional government to defend Paris with 
 the 80,000 troops he had saved and collected ; 
 but was compelled by the negotiations to 
 retire behind the Loire. In 1810 he was 
 banished by ordonnance to Ghent, and af- 
 terwards fixed his residence in the United 
 States. By a subsequent ordonnance he 
 was permitted to re-enter France, and put 
 on half-pay in 1824. He died in 1830. 
 
 VANDERVELDE, William, called the 
 Old, a celebrated painter, was born atLeyden, 
 in 1610. He excelled in marine subjects, 
 and with his son, whose pursuits in art were 
 similar to his own, he came to London, and 
 received a pension from Charles II. At the 
 great naval flght between tlie Duke of York 
 and the Dutch admiral Opdam, Vander- 
 velde sailed between the hostile fleets in a 
 light skiff to mark their positions and observe 
 
 849 
 
 their operations ; and in this manner he is 
 said to have been also a spectator of the 
 memorable three days' engagement between 
 Monk and De Ruyter. Died, 1693. His 
 son, known as young Vandcrvelde, died in 
 1707. 
 
 VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, the most emi- 
 nent of all portrait painters, was bom at 
 Antwerp, in 1598. He received his first in- 
 structions from Van Balen, but afterwards 
 became the favourite pupil of Rubens, who 
 advised him to apply wholly to portrait 
 painting, and to visit Italy. Accordingly he 
 set out for that country, where he studied the 
 colouring of Titian with such success as to 
 excel Rubens in his tints, and almost to 
 become the rival of the great master whose 
 art he imitated. In the early part of the 
 reign of Charles I. he came to England, 
 obtained a pension, and was knighted. He 
 lived in a splendid style, kept the first com- 
 pany, and was himself a liberal patron of the 
 arts. 
 
 VAN DYK, Hahry Stoe, a poetical and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born in London, 
 in 1798. He was the author of " Theatrical 
 Portraits," " The Gondola," a series of tales, 
 and " Songs," set to music. He also contri- 
 buted to Dr. Bowring's Batavian Anthology. 
 Died, 1828. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, the son of a baronet 
 who was secretary of state, and treasurer 
 of the royal household, was born in 1612 ; 
 received his education at Westminster 
 School, and at Magdalen College, Oxford ; 
 after which he resided for a time at Geneva, 
 and returned a republican and puritan. He 
 then emigrated to America, and was elected 
 governor of Massachusetts ; but becoming 
 involved in religious disputes, he returned 
 to England, and was appointed joint trea- 
 surer of the navy. In 1640 he was elected 
 member of parliament for Hull, and took 
 an active part against the royalists. He I 
 was the principal mover of the solemn j 
 league and covenant, and also of the self- 
 denying ordinance ; but he did not sit on 
 the king's trial ; and he resisted Cromwell I 
 to such a degree, that the usurper sent 
 him to Carisbrook Castle. He afterwards 
 strenuously exerted himself to establish a 
 republican government, until the Resto- 
 ration put an end to all further contest. 
 On this event he had considered himself in 
 no danger, but he was arrested and com- 
 mitted to the Tower. Although accused 
 only for transactions that occurred after 
 the king's death, he was found guilty, and 
 beheaded on Tower Hill, in 1662. After de- 
 scribing his execution, Mr. Forster says of 
 him, " one of the greatest and purest of men 
 that ever walked the earth, to adorn and 
 elevate his kind, liad left the world which 
 was not worthy of him." 
 
 VANINI, LuciLio, a Neapolitan, whose 
 writings were deemed atlieistical, was born 
 in 1585. After travelling through Germany, 
 Holland, and England, he went to Toulouse, 
 where he was arrested, and condemned by 
 the parliament to be burnt alive. He wrote 
 " Amphitheatrum Sterna! Providentise " 
 and " De Admirandis Naturae Arcanis," for 
 which latter work he suffered in 1619. 
 
 VANliOO, John Baptist, an eminent 
 
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 ^ ^eln WinibtviKl l5i03vapT;jj, 
 
 [VAU 
 
 painter, was bom at Aix, in Provence, in 
 1(584. He became painter to the king of 
 Sardinia, and realised a good fortune, which 
 he lost in tlie Mississippi scheme. He then 
 came to England, and was the fashionable 
 
 portrait painter of tlie day. Died, 1740 
 
 His brother, Charles Andkkw, whose per- 
 formances are to be found in the churches of 
 Paris, was also a celebrated painter. Died, 
 176.5. 
 
 VAN MANDER, Charles, a painter, 
 poet, and biographer, was born in Holland, 
 in 1548 ; wrote several dramatic productions 
 and " Lives of the Painters," and excelled 
 both in liistorical and landscape painting. 
 Died, ir>0.5. 
 
 VAN MILDERT, Dr. William, bishop 
 of Durham, a learned and pious prelate, was 
 born in London, in 1705 ; received his edu- 
 cation at Merchant Tailors' School, and at 
 Queen's College, Oxford, and entered into 
 holy orders in 1788, as curate of Sherbourn 
 and Lewknor, Oxfordshire. He was after- 
 wards curate of Witham, in Essex, and in 
 1796 obtained the rectory of St. Mary-le- 
 Bow, London. His abilities as a preacher 
 soon attracted public notice, and the atten- 
 tion of learned men was particularly called 
 to his " Boyle's Lectures," which, in tracing 
 the rise and progress of infidelity, and in 
 refuting its principles, display an extent of 
 reading and a force of judgment never ex- 
 celled. He was soon after presented with 
 the vicarage of Farningham, Kent, by Arch- 
 bishop Sutton, and he subsequently became 
 preacher of Lincoln's Inn and regius pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Oxford. In 1819 he 
 was made bishop of Llandaff, and dean of 
 St. Paul's in the following year. He then 
 resigned his station at Oxford, which he 
 had filled in the most efficient manner ; and 
 on the death of Dr. Shute Barrington, in 
 1826, he was raised to the see of Durham. 
 As a theological writer. Dr. Van Mildert 
 stands in the first class ; his " Life of Water- 
 land" is a luminous and comprehensive 
 performance, filling up a chasm in our eccle- 
 siastical history ; and many of his sermons 
 are perfect specimens of pulpit eloquence 
 and logical reasoning. While defending in 
 his place in parliament those institutions by 
 wliich the church and state are connected, 
 he was invariably listened to with profound 
 attention ; but the grand excellences of his 
 character were manifested in his unbounded 
 charity, and in his deep, habitual, and per- 
 vading sense of religion. Died, Feb. 21. 1836. 
 
 VANNI, Carlos, a Neapolitan, born in 
 1778, who, apostatising from the liberal 
 principles of the junta of which he was a 
 member, sold himself to their opponents, 
 and became a spy of the ultra royalists in 
 1775. In this capacity he betrayed the sons 
 of some distinguished families to the scaf- 
 fold, under pretence of holding a lodge of 
 political freemasons, at a place where he 
 seduced and betrayed them. This wretch 
 destroyed himself at Sorrento, in 1799, leav- 
 ing a paper expressive of his remorse. 
 
 VANSOMER, Paul, a portrait painter, 
 was born at Antwerp, in 1576 ; and died in 
 1621. He resided in England many years, 
 and was greatly encouraged by the nobility 
 and gentry. 
 
 VAN SWIETEN, Gerard, an eminent 
 physician, was born at Leyden, in 1700. He 
 went to reside at Vienna, and there laid the 
 foundation of a medical school, established 
 chemical lectures in one of the hospitals, 
 enlarged the botanical garden, and prevailed 
 upon the government to rebuild the univer- 
 sity. His principal work is a " Commentary 
 on the Aphorisms of Boerhaave," 5 vols. 4to. 
 Died, 1772. 
 
 VARGAS, Louis de, a Spanish painter, 
 born at Seville, in 1502. Some of his per- 
 formances, particularly his portraits, are 
 allowed to possess very great merit. Died, 
 1.568. 
 
 VARIGNON, Pierre, an eminent French 
 mathematician, was bom at Caen, in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1654. He became geometrician 
 in the academy, and professor in the college 
 of Mazarin, where he died in 1722. Among 
 his works are, " Projet d'une nouvelle Me- 
 chaiiique," " Des nouvelles Conjectures sur 
 la Pesanteur," "Nouvelle Mt'clianique en 
 Statique," 2 vols., " Un TraitiJ du Mouve- 
 ment et de la Mesure des Eaux Courantes," 
 "De Cahiers de Mathtmatiques," &c. 
 
 VARIUS, a Latin poet, who was the in- 
 timate friend of Virgil and Horace. Some 
 of his fragments are in the Corpus Poe- 
 tarum . 
 
 VARRO, Marcus Terentius, a Roman 
 writer, was born, b. c. 118 ; and died, B. C. 29. 
 He dedicated to Cicero a treatise on the 
 Latin language, and he wrote another, " De 
 Re Rustica," which are extant, with some 
 fragments of his Menippean Satires. 
 
 VASARI, George, an Italian painter 
 and architect, was born at Arezzo, in 1514 ; 
 and died at Florence, in 1578. He wrote the 
 "Lives of Celebrated Painters, Sculptors, 
 and Architects." 
 
 VAT TEL, Emmerich, a celebrated writer 
 on international law, was born atNeufchatel, 
 in 1714. His principal work is a " Treatise 
 on the Law of Nations, or the Principles of 
 Natural Law applied to tlie Conduct of 
 States and Sovereigns," 2 vols. 4to. This 
 work was particularly admired, from the 
 predilection of the author for English au- 
 thorities, while several of the maxims of 
 Puffendorf and Grotius are ably refuted. 
 Died, 1767. 
 
 VAUBAN, Sebastien le Prestre, Seig- 
 neur de, a marshal of France, and the most 
 celebrated engineer that country has pro- 
 duced, was born in 1633. He went into the 
 army at an early age, and rose to the high- 
 est honours of his profession. In 1668 he 
 was appointed governor of Lisle ; ten years 
 afterwards commissioner-general of fortifi- 
 cations, and, in 1703, a marshal. He carried 
 the art of fortifying, attacking, and defend- 
 ing towns to a degree of perfection unknown 
 before his time. He fortified above three hun- 
 dred citadels, erected thirty-three new ones, 
 had the management of fifty-three sieges, 
 and was present in one hundred and forty 
 battles. His works have a high character, 
 but some have been published with his 
 name, the genuineness of which are doubted. 
 Died, 1731. 
 
 VAUBLANC-VIENNOT, Vixcext Ma- 
 rie, Count de, was born in 1756. In 1791 
 he was appointed deputy to the legislative 
 
I VAU] 
 
 ^ ^cfa) Bniiitx^id aBiajprapfji?, 
 
 [VEN 
 
 assembly, where he became a distinguished 
 advocate of the royal cause. The^)owers 
 assumed by the popular clubs were arraigned 
 by him, and he obtained a decree of accu- 
 sation against Marat. He was not elected a 
 member of the convention, and, tliough pro- 
 scribed, he had the gowl fortune to escape 
 the guillotine. In 1805 he was raised to the 
 dignity of count, and commandant of the 
 legion of honour, and was appointed prefect 
 of the Moselle. On tlie restoration, he was 
 named minister of the interior, and dis- 
 played extraordinary talents and activity. 
 
 VAUGELAS, Claude Favre de, an ele- 
 gant French writer, was bom at Chanberry, 
 in 1585, and held a situation in the house- 
 hold of the Duke of Orleans. His character 
 as a philologist was so high, that Cardinal 
 Richelieu, in his favourite design of forming 
 a complete dictionary of the French tongue, 
 thought it advisable to put the whole under 
 his superintendence. He was so fastidious 
 in regard to style, as to spend 30 years in a 
 translation of Quintus Curtius. His principal 
 work is entitled " Remarquea sur la Langue 
 Fran^oise." 
 
 VAUGHAN, Henky, a poet, bom in 1621, 
 at Newton, in Brecknockshire. He adopted 
 the appellation of the Silurist, wrote a va- 
 riety of poems, chiefly devotional, and died 
 
 in 1695 His brother, Thomas Vaughax, 
 
 was an alchemist, on wliich occult subject 
 he wrote some extravagant books, under the 
 name of Eiigenius Philalethes. Died, 1666. 
 
 VAUGHAN, Sir John, a celebrated law- 
 yer, was born in Cardiganshire, in 1608. 
 From Christchurch College, Oxford, he re- 
 moved to the Inner Temple, where he con- 
 tracted an intimacy with Selden, who made 
 him one of his executors. During the civil 
 war he lived in retirement, but, in 1G68, he 
 was made chief justice of the common pleas. 
 Died, 1674. 
 
 VAUGHAN, Sir Joun, D. C. Tv., one of 
 the judges of the court of common pleas. 
 He was called to the bar in his twenty- 
 fourth j'car, and in seven years more had so 
 greatly distinguished himself that he was 
 made a serjeaut. He gained this rank at 
 this unusually early age, it must be remem- 
 bered, while Shepperd, Best, and Lens were 
 in the zenith of their powers and reputation; 
 and he maintained his position subsequently 
 with such opponents as Copley (afterwards 
 Lord Lyndhurst), Wilde, and Denman. He 
 was made a baron of the exchequer in 1827, 
 and in 1834 he became a judge of the com- 
 mon pleas and a privy councillor. In pri- 
 vate he was as amiable as in public he was 
 able. Born. 1772 ; died, 1839. 
 
 VAUGILVN, William, an ingenious 
 Welsh poet, was born in Carmarthenshire, 
 in 1577 ; and was the author of a variety of 
 miscellaneous poems, the principal of which 
 are, " De Sphserarum Ordine," " The Golden 
 Grove Moralised," "The Golden Fleece," 
 &c. Died, 1640. 
 
 VAUX, the name of a noble English 
 
 family, originally of French extraction . 
 
 Nicholas, the first Lord Vaux, was a gallant 
 officer, and ranked deservedly high in the 
 favour of Henry VIII., and was present 
 with him and the French monarch in the 
 "field of the cloth of gold," Died, 1530. 
 
 851 
 
 His son, Thomas, inherited his father's 
 
 valour, and was besides a poet. He attended 
 Henry VIII. to Calais and Boulogne, was 
 made governor of Jersey, and died in 1522. 
 
 VEGA, Loi-EZ DE LA, or LOPE FELIX 
 DE VEGA CARPIO, a celebrated Spanish 
 poet, was born at Madrid, in 1562. After 
 studying at Alcala, he entered into the ser- 
 vice of the Duke of Alva, at whose instance 
 he wrote the heroic pastoral of " Arcadia." 
 Soon after this he married ; but, on the loss 
 of his wife, he embarked in the Armada, 
 prepared for the invasion of England. In 
 tills voyage he wrote a poem, called " Her- 
 mosura de Angelica," to which, when pub- 
 lished, he added the "Dragontea," an in- 
 vective against Drake and Queen Elizabeth. 
 In 1590 Lope married a second lime, and 
 again became a widower, on which he en- 
 tered into the order of St. Francis. He still, 
 however, cultivated poetry, and scarcely a 
 week passed without seeing a drama from 
 his prolific muse. Honours and wealth 
 flowed in upon him, and he was absolutely 
 idolized by the whole nation. At his death, 
 which happened in 1635, the highest honours 
 were paid to his remains, and all the poets 
 of the age vied in encomiastic tributes to 
 his memory. 
 
 VELASQUEZ, DiEoo Velasquez de 
 SiLVA, an eminent Spanish painter, was 
 born at Seville, in l.'i94. His earliest sub- 
 jects were taverns, conversations, and en- 
 tertainments ; but he afterwards made Ca- 
 ravaggio his model. By the recommenda- 
 tion of Rubens he went to Italy, and, while 
 there, so greatly improved himself in the 
 grand essentials of the art, that, on his re- 
 turn, he was placed at the head of his pro- 
 fession. Died, KMiO. 
 
 VENDOME, Louis Joseph, Duke of, a 
 celebrated French general, great grandson 
 to Henry IV. He was born in 1654, served 
 in the wars of Louis XIV. in Holland, took 
 Barcelona in 1697, was very successful 
 against the imperialists in Italy, contribuied 
 greatly to the establishment of Pliilip II. 
 on the Spanish throne, by the victory of 
 Villaviciosa, in 1710 ; and was admitted to 
 the honours of a prince of the blood-royal. 
 Died, 1712. 
 
 VENERONI, JoHX, a grammarian of 
 the 18th century, whose real name was Vig- 
 neron, which he Italianised in order to pass 
 for a native of Florence, though he was 
 born at Verdun. He taught Italian, with 
 reputation, at Paris, where he published a 
 grammar and dictionary of that language. 
 
 VENIUS, or VAN VEEN, Oxno, a Dutch 
 painter, was born at Leyden, in 1556. He 
 studied under Zucchero, and was the first 
 who explained to tlie Flemish artists the 
 principles of light and shadow, which his 
 pupil, Rubens, afterwards carried to perfec- 
 tion. Died, 1633. 
 
 VENN, Henry, an English divine of Cal- 
 vinistic principles, was born at Barnes, in 
 Surrey, in 1725 ; and died at Clapham, in 
 1796. He was the author of" The Complete 
 Duty of Man," "Mistakes in Religion ex- 
 posed," and " Sermons." 
 
 VENTENAT, Stephen Peter, an emi- 
 nent French botanist, born at Limoges, in 
 1757. He became chief librarian of the 
 
VEN 
 
 ^ ^etj ?auit)cr^al SSinfirapTjg. 
 
 [VER 
 
 Pantheon, and a member of the Institute. 
 In 1799 he publiahed "Tableau du R6gne 
 Vegetal," 4 vols. ; and other works on the 
 science. Died, 1808. 
 
 VENTIMIGLIA, Giuseppe, prince of 
 Belmont, born in 1761, a Sicilian liberal 
 nobleman, of great taste and munificence, 
 and the great supporter of the Sicilian con- 
 stitution established under English auspices 
 in 1812. Died, 1814. 
 
 VERB, Edwahd, earl of Oxford, a 
 courtier poet in Elizabeth's time, was edu- 
 cated at St. John's College, Cambridge. In 
 1588 he held the office of lord higli chamber- 
 lain, and as such sat upon the trial of Mary- 
 queen of Scots ; he had also a command in 
 the fleet serving against the Spanish armada. 
 There is a specimen of his versification in 
 Percy's Reliques of Antient Poetry, and 
 another in England's Parnassus. 
 
 VERE, Sir Fisancis, a renowned English 
 general in the reign of queen Elizabeth, was 
 born in 1554. He fought witli great gallantry 
 on many occasions, in various parts of the 
 Continent ; but we can only find room for 
 the mention of his last great exploit. He 
 defended Ostend for the Dutch with 1700 men 
 against the Spanish army of 12,0(M), com- 
 manded by Albert, archduke of Austria, 
 whom he obliged to raise tlie siege in March, 
 1602, after having been 8 mouths before the 
 place. Died, 1008. 
 
 VERE, Sir Houace, baron of Tilbury, 
 younger brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1565. He served with his brother in the 
 Netherlands, and had a considerable share 
 in the victory near Nieuport, and in the de- 
 fence of Ostend. In the reign of James I. 
 he commanded the forces sent to the assist- 
 ance of the elector palatine ; on which occa- 
 sion he effected a memorable retreat from 
 Spinola, the Spanish general. He was the 
 first person raised to the peerage by Charles I. 
 Died, 16a5. 
 
 VERELST, Simon, an eminent Flemish 
 painter, who excelled in flowers and fruits. 
 He visited England, and died in 1710. 
 
 VERGIL or VIRGIL, Polydore, an 
 eminent historical writer in the 10th century, 
 was born at Urbino, in Italy. He was an 
 ecclesiastic, and was the last person sent by 
 the popes to this country to collect the tribute 
 called Peter's pence. At the request of 
 Henry VIII. he wrote a " History of Eng- 
 land," which, considered as the production 
 of a foreigner, is highly creditable to him. 
 He was also the author of " De Rerum In- 
 ventoribus," &c. Died, 1555. 
 
 VERGNIAUD, P. V., born in 1758 ; one 
 of the chiefs of the Girondist party in the 
 French revolution, remarkable for the bril- 
 liant energy of his oratory ; who, with 
 Gensonne and Gaudet, opposed the sangui- 
 nary measures of Robespierre ; and being 
 beaten in the struggle with him, were accused 
 before the revolutionary tribunal, and sent 
 to the guillotine. Verguiaud, like many of 
 his colleagues, refused to escape ; he had 
 prepared a subtle poison for himself, but 
 as there was not enough for all his fellow 
 victims, he generously resolved to suffer with 
 them. 
 
 VERHEYEN, Peter, an eminent Dutch 
 physician and anatomist, author of "Cor- 
 
 poris Humani Anatomia." Born, 1648 ; 
 died, mo. 
 
 VERNES, Jacob, a Genevese divine, bom 
 in 1728. He was tlie author of " Lettres sur 
 le Christianisme de J. J. Rousseau," " Choix 
 IJtteraire," 24 vols. ; " Conference Philoso- 
 phique," 2 vols. ; and " Sermons," 2 vols. 
 Died, 1791. 
 
 VERNET, Claude Joseph, a French 
 painter, was born at Avignon, in 1712. He 
 was highly esteemed, and became the first 
 marine painter in Europe. Died, 1789. 
 
 VERNON, Edward, a brave English 
 admiral, bom in Westminster, in 1084, was a 
 son of the secretary of state to William III. 
 After a variety of service under different 
 commanders, he was made vice-admiral of 
 the blue in 17"9, and sent with a squadron to 
 Spanish America, where he took Porto Bello, 
 and destroyed the fortifications ; but in 1741 
 he proved unsuccessful in an attack upon 
 Carthagena. Died, 1757. 
 
 VERNON, Robert, a distinguished patron 
 of the fine arts, was born, 1774. Originally 
 a dealer in horses, he, by his integrity, 
 prudence, and assiduity, amassed a large 
 fortune, which he liberally expended in 
 assisting struggling talent and in befriend- 
 ing men of genius. His munificent gift to 
 the nation of the " Vernon Gallery," a col- 
 lection of pictures, the works of modern 
 British artists, on which he is said to have 
 laid out 150,OOOZ., has gained for him a lasting 
 name. Died, 22nd May, 1849. 
 
 VERSCHURING, Henry, a celebrated 
 Dutch painter, born at Gorcum, in 1G27. 
 He principally excelled in battle pieces ; 
 and, in order to insure accuracy, he actually 
 made a campaign in 1672. Accidentally 
 drowned. 1690. 
 
 VERSTEGAN, Richard, an ingenious 
 writer on English antiquities, was bom in 
 London, of Dutch parents, and resided at 
 Antwerp. He was the author of " Restitu- 
 tion of decayed Intelligence concerning the 
 Antiquities of the noble and renowned Eng- 
 lish Nation," " Antiquitates Belgic®," and 
 an essay " On the Regal Government of 
 England." Died, 1635. 
 
 VERTOT D'AUBGEUF, Bex^ Auberi 
 de, a French historian, was bom at Ben- 
 netot, in Normandy, in 1655. He entered 
 into the order of Capuchins ; but the aus- 
 terities of that society not agreeing with 
 his health, he was induced to exchange it 
 for the Premonstratenses, in which he be- 
 came prior of the monastery ; but this he 
 also quitted, and settled at Paris as a secular 
 ecclesiastic. His talents soon procured him 
 distinction, and he was appointed secretary 
 to the duke and duchess of Orleans, his- 
 toriographer of the order of Malta, and 
 commander of Santery. His chief works 
 relate to the revolutions of Portugal, Sweden, 
 and Rome ; but though they are lively, 
 elegant, and interesting, he wanted the ne- 
 cessary industry and research to render them 
 valuable as historical documents. 
 
 "STSRTUE, George, an eminent engraver 
 and antiquary, was born in London, in 1684. 
 Having acquired the patronage of Sir God- 
 frey Kneller and the Earl of Oxford, he soon 
 rose into note, and was employed by most of 
 the nobility wh6 patronised the arts. The 
 
 I 
 
VES] 
 
 ^ ^cto Bniber^Kl 3StflgrapTji). 
 
 [VIL 
 
 works of Vertue are extremely numerous ; 
 and they are valuable on account of their 
 accuracy, though deficient in spirit. He 
 made many journeys through England, in 
 the course of which he took drawings of 
 churches, monuments, and ruins ; employing 
 himself al«o in collecting " Anecdotes of 
 Painting in England," which were subse- 
 quently published by Lord Orford in 5 vols. 
 4to. He died in 175G. 
 
 VESALIUS, Andrew, a celebrated ana- 
 tomist, was bom at Brussels, iu 1514. Wlien 
 only 18, he composed his treatise, " De Cor- 
 poris Human! Fabrica ; " and subsequently, 
 by his lectures and demonstrations at Pans, 
 Pisa, Bologna, &c., he acquired great repu- 
 tation. He at length became physician to 
 Charles V. and Philip II. of Spain ; but, 
 when in the height of his fame, he suddenly 
 engaged in a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. This 
 journey, it is said, had been imposed on lum 
 by way of penance for having caused the 
 death, by opening the body, of a young 
 nobleman whom he had attended and sup- 
 posed to be dead ; but having made an 
 incision, he discovered his error when too 
 late. As he was returning from Jerusalem, 
 to occupy the chair of medicine at Padua, 
 left vacant by tlie death of Fallopius, in 
 15G3, he was shipwrecked on tlie island of 
 Zaute, and there died, from the eflfects of 
 hunger and hardship, in the following year. 
 
 VESLINO, Joux, an eminent writer on 
 natural history and anatomy, born at Min- 
 den, in Germany, in 1598. He studied at 
 Vienna, and afterwards took a journey to 
 Palestine, where he employed himself in 
 botanical researches. Returning to Europe, 
 he obtained the professorship of anatomy at 
 Padua ; but he quitted that office to become 
 keeper of the botanic garden. He after- 
 wards visited Egypt, but died soon after his 
 return, in 1649. He was the author of several 
 works on the subject of his botanical re- 
 searches in the East. 
 
 VESPASIAN, T1T0S Flavius, emperor of 
 Rome, ascended the throne a.d. 70, and died 
 in 79. He displayed throughout his reign a 
 love of justice and moderation, publicly dis- 
 countenanced vice and immorality, and was 
 a patron of learned men. 
 
 VESTRIS, Gaetano Apoline Baltha- 
 zar, a celebrated professor of the art of 
 dancing, born at Florence, in 1729 ; made 
 his debftt at the Parisian opera in 1748 ; 
 and for many years was at the head of his 
 profession in that gay capital. He retired 
 with a pension in 1781, and died in 1808. 
 
 VESTRIS, Marie Rose Goukgaud Du- 
 GAZON, a distinguished French actress in 
 tragic characters, and in the higher walks of 
 comedy. Died, 1804. 
 
 VICCARS, John, a fanatical writer during 
 the Commonwealth, was bom in London, in 
 1582, and educated at Oxford. His tirades 
 against church and king have the following j 
 quaint titles : " God's Ark overtopping the 
 World's Waves," " The Burning Bush not 
 consumed," and " God in the Mount," which 
 were afterwards published togetlier, under 
 the general title of tlie "Parliamentary 
 Chronicle." His violent rhapsodies were 
 satirically alluded to by the author of 
 Hudibras. 
 
 VICENTE, Gil, the earliest and most 
 celebrated of the Portuguese comic poets. 
 Born. 1480 ; died, 1657. 
 
 VICTOR, SeATUS Aurelius, a Roman 
 historian, who lived in the 4th century. He 
 was prefect of Pannonia in 3(51, and consul 
 with Valentinian in 309. His works are, 
 " Origo Gentis Romans:," "De Viris Illus- 
 tribus Urbis Romaj," " De Caisaribus llis- 
 toria;," and " De Vita et Moribus Impera- 
 torum Romanorum excerpta." 
 
 VICTORIUS, or VETTORI, Peter, an 
 eminent Italian scholar, was born at Flo- 
 rence, in 1499. When the revolution took 
 place in his native city, lie went to Rome, 
 and resided there till Cosmo de' Medici 
 invited him home, and appointed him to 
 the Greek and Latin professorship. He 
 wrote commentaries on Aristotle, Terence, 
 Sallust, and otlier ancient authors ; " Varise 
 Ixictiones," and Latin poems and orations. 
 Died, 1585. 
 
 VIDA, Marcus Hiergnvmus, a modem 
 Latin poet, was born at Ci-emona, about 
 1480. After studying in his own country 
 lie went to Rome, where his poem, entitled 
 "ScuccliioB Ludus," or the game of chess, 
 procured him the patronage of Leo X., who 
 suggested to him his celebrated " Christiad." 
 Clement VIII. made Vida apostolical sec- 
 retary, and afterwards bishop of Alba, in 
 which capacity he attended tlie Council of 
 Trent. Died, 1507. 
 
 VIETA, Francis, a celebrated mathe- 
 matician, was born at Fontenay, in Poitou, 
 in 1540, and died in 1C03. He was the first 
 who used letters iu algebra to designate 
 known quantities. 
 
 VIGEE, L. G. B., a French Jiomme de 
 lettres, born in 1755. At the revolution he 
 espoused its cause, and published an " Ode 
 to Liberty ; " was deprived of his own under 
 the reign of terror ; sung the praises of 
 Maria Louisa and the king of Rome under 
 Napoleon, and the glories of tlie Bourbon 
 lily under Louis XVIII. and Cliarles X. 
 
 VIGNOLA, or GIACOMO BAROZZIO, 
 a celebrated Italian architect, was born in 
 1507, at Vignola. While studying at Rome, 
 he formed an acquaintance with Primaticcio, 
 who took him to Paris, where he made the 
 bronze casts at Fontainebleau. Returning 
 to Italy, he designed the church of Petro- 
 nius, at Bologna, and built some elegant 
 palaces in that city. Settling afterwards at 
 Rome, he was appointed architect to the 
 pope, and succeeded Michel Angelo as 
 superintendant of St. Peter's. Died, 1573. 
 He was the author of a work " On the Five 
 Orders of Architecture," &c. 
 
 VILLA-FRANCA, Prince Joseph, a Sici- 
 lian, born in 1764. In 1811 he was a member 
 of the baronial chamber, which prepared 
 the Sicilian constitution of 1812, in which he 
 was president of tlie chamber of peers ; in 
 1813, foreign secretary ; and, on the fall of 
 the constitution in 1814, he retired to Tus- 
 cany. On the Neapolitan constitution being 
 proclaimed in 1820, he was president of the 
 junta. When it was subverted by Austria, 
 he again withdrew into private life. 
 
 VILLALPANDI, John Baptist, a learned 
 Spanish Jesuit, was born at Cordova, in 
 1552 ; he applied his mathematical know- 
 
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 ^ flcJu ^Hfm'bcriSaT BtograpT;!). 
 
 [VIR 
 
 ledge to the elucidation of the scriptural 
 history, and a description of Solomon's 
 temple. Calmet's Dictionary contains some 
 account of tliis curious inquiry, with several 
 engravings in illustration of it. Died, 
 1608. 
 
 VILLARS, Louis Hkctor. Duke dc, mar- 
 shal of France, was born at Moulins, in 1(553. 
 After gaining great reputation by a variety 
 of services, he was, in 1704. sent to Languedoc 
 against the insurgents of the Cevennes, and 
 on his return 1o Paris he was made a duke. 
 He contended against Marlborough, in the 
 celebrated battle of Malplaquet, in 1712 ; 
 defeated tlie Austrians at Denain, forced 
 Eugene to raise the siege of Landrecy, and 
 took several fortresses. On the death of 
 Louis XIV., Villars was made member of 
 the regency (171.5), and minister of state, and 
 was also admitted into the French academy. 
 He died in 17*4. 
 
 VILLARS, MoxTFACCOX de, a French 
 abb<?, who attracted much attention at Paris, 
 both by his talents as a preacher and by his 
 lively conversation. He was the author of a 
 book entitled " Le Compte de Gabilis," for 
 which he was ultimately forbidden the 
 pulpit, and his book prohibited. It was 
 from this work that Pope took the ma- 
 chinery of his Rape of the Lock. The abb^ 
 was killed by a band of robbers, in 1775. 
 
 VILLENEUVE, N., a French admiral, 
 born in 1771. He had the command of the 
 combined French fleet at Cadiz, which was 
 defeated by Lord Nelson at Trafalgar. He 
 was taken prisoner by the British conqueror 
 on that occasion, and brought to England. 
 Napoleon was dissatisfied witli his alleged 
 disobedience of orders ; and on his return to 
 France, being ordered to remain at Rennes, 
 he destroyed himself, according to Napo- 
 leon's statement to Barry O'JIeara (" Voice 
 from St. Helena"), by running a long pin 
 into his heart : he had first purchased some 
 anatomical engravings of that organ, in 
 order to effect the purpose with more in- 
 stantaneous certainty. 
 
 VILLOISON, Jeax Baptiste Gaspard 
 d'Axse de, a celebrated French scholar, was 
 bom at Corbeille-sur-Seine, in 1750. He de- 
 voted his time in bringing to light valuable 
 but forgotten Greek manuscripts ; for which 
 purpose he visited the principal libraries in 
 Europe, and travelled to the East. He pub- 
 lished the "Greek Lexicon to Homer by 
 ApoUonius," from a manuscript in the li- 
 brary of St. Germain-des-Prds ; also " Anec- 
 dota Graeca," " Epistolae Vinarienses," part 
 of the Old Testament, from a translation 
 made by a Jew in tlie 5)tli century, &c. ; but 
 his most important discovery was a copy of 
 Homer, of the lOtli century. He suffered 
 considerably in his property during tlie re- 
 volution ; but on the restoration of order he 
 resumed his literary career, and was ap- 
 pointed by Buonaparte professor of ancient 
 Greek. Died, 1805. 
 
 VINCE, Samuel, F.R.S., an eminent ma- 
 thematician and astronomer, was a native 
 of Fressingfleld, in Suffolk. His parents 
 were in a humble station of life ; but by the 
 generositj' of Mr. Tilney, of Harlestou, who 
 had seen proofs of his abilities, he was edu- 
 cated at Caius College, Cambridge, where he 
 
 8.-A 
 
 soon distinguished himself by his superior 
 acquirements ; and he eventually became 
 Plumian professor of astronomy and experi- 
 mental philosophy. His works on astronomy 
 and the mathematical sciences generally, 
 are numerous and important ; the principal 
 are, " A complete System of Astronomy," 
 .3 vols. 4to. ; " Elements of Conic Sections," 
 treatises on Fluxions, Hydrostatics, "Trigo- 
 nometry, &c. ; " The Credibility of Chris- 
 tianity vindicated," " A Confutation of 
 Atheism from tlie Laws of the Heavenly 
 Bodies," &c. He obtained preferment in 
 the church, and at tlie time of his decease 
 was rector of Kirkby Bedon, vicar of South 
 Creak, and archdeacon of Bedford. Died, 
 1821. 
 
 VINCENT, Thomas, a pious Noncon- 
 formist minister, who, during the great 
 plague in London, in 1665, distinguislied 
 himself by his zeal in attending persons at- 
 tacked with that maladv. He wrote " God's 
 Terrible Voice in the City by Plague and 
 Fire," an " Explanation of the Catechism," 
 and other religious books. Died, 1671. 
 
 VINCI, Leoxakdo da, an illustrious 
 Italian painter, was born in 1452, and is 
 allowed to have been one of the greatest 
 geniuses of his country. He possessed cor- 
 rectness of design, taste, and great powers of 
 expression ; and composed a great number 
 of discourses upon several curious subjects, 
 none of which, however, were published, but 
 a " Treatise on the Art of Painting." He 
 died in 1520, at Fontainebleau, in the arms of 
 Francis I. 
 
 VINCI, Leonardo da, an eminent mu- 
 sical composer, born at Naples, in 1690. He 
 was poisoned by the relation of a Roman lady 
 of rank, of whose favours he had boasted. 
 
 VINER, Charles, an able English law- 
 yer, was born in 1680, at Aldersliot, Hants. 
 He was the founder of the Vinerian profes- j 
 sorship at Oxford, and the compiler of a '■ 
 " General Abridgment of the Laws of Eng- 
 land," originally printed in 24 vols, folio. 
 Died, 1756. 
 
 VIOTTI, GiovAXM Battista, a cele- 
 brated violinist, was born near Crescentino, 
 in Piedmont, in 17.55 ; and, in his 21st year, 
 was made first violinist at the royal chapel 
 in Turin. He afterwards visited Berlin and 
 Paris. On the breaking out of the revo- 
 lution, he took refuge in England ; and, 
 from the year 1794 till 1798, was leader in 
 the orchestra of the Italian Opera. Ha\-ing 
 received an order from the alien office to 
 quit the country, he retired to Holland, and 
 thence to Hamburgh. In 1801 he returned 
 to London, engaged in the wine' trade, and 
 lost the whole of his property. After the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVIII. 
 invited him to preside over the Academic 
 Royale de Musique, at Paris. In 1822 he set- 
 tled finally in London, and there remained 
 till his death, in 1824. He was author of a 
 great variety of music for the violin, and 
 the first performer of his age. 
 
 VIRGIL, or PUBLIUS VIRGILIUS 
 MARO, the prince of Latin poets, was bom 
 at Andes, near Mantua, about 70 years b. c. 
 His first years were spent at Cremona ; he 
 next studied at Milan, and lastly at Naples, 
 where he learnt Greek under Farthenius, 
 
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 ^ jlcto fSnihtviaX Miosrap^^. 
 
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 and philosophy from Syio the Ei>icurean. [ 
 Physic and mathematics constituted liis j 
 favourite objects, and he embraced the doc- j 
 trine of Plato. He removed to Home when 
 his country was partitioned out among the 
 soldiers after the battle of Philippi. There, [ 
 by means of his friend Maecenas, he was 
 introduced to Augustus, wlio restored to him 
 his estate. On this occasion he wrote his 
 first " Eclogue ;" and, on completing tlie | 
 "Bucolics," he undertook the " Georgics." 
 After these were tinished, and had been read 
 by Augustus, he began the " JEneid," at the 
 request of tlie emperor. This great poem 
 lias left the palm of superiority undecided 
 between Homer and Virgil. The poet was 
 engaged 11 years upon this immortal work, 
 but died, without revising it, at Bruudusium, 
 B. c. 19, aged 51. He left the greatest part of 
 his property to Maecenas, Tusca, and Au- 
 gustus. His remains were interred on the 
 road leading from Naples to Puteoli. 
 
 VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion 
 L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, to obtain 
 possession of her person, bribed a man to 
 claim her as the daughter of his slave, when 
 Appius, as judge, ordered her to be delivered 
 into his hands. Virginius, who was at the 
 camp, being informed of this infamous out- 
 rage, hastened to Rome, and, in the presence 
 of Appius and the Roman people, plunged a 
 knife into his daughter's bosom. He then 
 returned to the camp, where he harangued 
 the soldiers, who instantly marched to Rome. 
 Api)iiis destroyed liimself in prison, and the 
 ottiee of decemvir was abolished b. c. 449. 
 
 VIBIATIIUS, an illustrious Lusitanian 
 chief, who, in his patriotic endeavours to 
 throw off the yoke of Rome, repeatedly de- 
 feated the Roman armies, and for 14 years 
 successfully defended his country and a part 
 of Spain. He was at last murdered by his 
 servants, who had been bribed by Csepio, the 
 Roman general, b. c. 40. 
 
 VISCONTI, John Baptist Anthony, an 
 Italian antiquary, was born at Vernazza, in 
 1722, and educated at Rome. He succeeded 
 Winckelmann as commissary of antiquities, 
 in 1768 ; had the chief management in form- 
 ing the museum, under popes Clement XIV. 
 and Pius VI. ; and died in 1784. 
 
 VISCONTI, Eknius Quikinus, eldest 
 son of the preceding, was born at Rome, in 
 1751, and was intended by his father for the 
 cljurch ; but having formed an attachment 
 to a lady whom he wished to marry, he re- 
 fused to enter into orders. His knowledge 
 of archaeology was superior to that of his 
 father, and his general talents were of the 
 highest order. He was aiipointed conservator 
 of the Pio -Clementine museum ; and when 
 the French took possession of Rome, and 
 established a provisional government in 1797, 
 he was nominated minister of tlie interior. 
 He afterwards retired to France, became a 
 member of the Institute, professor of archis- 
 ology, and surveyor of the museum of anti- 
 quities. Among his works ure, " Grecian 
 Iconography," " Roman Iconography," and 
 the " Description of the Pio-Clementiue 
 Museum." Died, 1818. 
 
 VITRUVIUS, Maucus Pollio, a cele- 
 brated writer on architecture, who flourished 
 in the reigns of Julius Caesar and Augustus, 
 
 and is supposed to have been bom at Formin, 
 in Campania. His excellent work, " De 
 Architecturu," has been often published. 
 
 VIVES, JoH.v Loi'is, one of the revivers 
 of literature, was born at Valencia, in Spain, 
 in 1492. He studied at Paris and Louvain, 
 after which he visited England, and in 1517 
 was chosen one of the first fellows of Corpus 
 Christi College, Oxford. He was also em- 
 ployed in tlie education of the Princess Mary, 
 for whose use he composed his " De Ratione 
 Studii puerilis " and " De Institutione Foe- 
 minae Christianae ; " but venturing to argue 
 and write against Henry tlie Eighth's divorce 
 from Catharine, he was disgraced and impri- 
 soned. On regaining his liberty he repaired 
 to Brussels, where he married, and remained 
 for the rest of his life, occupied as a teacher 
 of the belles lettres. He died in 1.541. 
 
 VIVIAN, RicuAKD HussEV, Lord, was 
 born in 1775, the eldest son of John Vivian, 
 esq., of Truro, Cornwall, warden of the 
 Stanneries. In 1793, at the early age of 18, 
 he commenced his glorious military career 
 as ensign in the 20th infantry. His active 
 service commenced within three months of 
 his joining his regiment, which formed part 
 of Lord Moira's army on the coast of France; 
 and for the following two years he was 
 present at various battles and affairs of out- 
 posts, in which his zeal, courage, and conduct 
 were especially conspicuous, in Holland and 
 in the West Indies. In 1808 he sailed in 
 command of the 7th dragoons for Corunna, 
 which he reached in November of that year, 
 and had the perilous and difficult honour of 
 covering the but too well-known retreat of 
 Sir John Moore in January, 1809, the 7tli 
 dragoons having been left at I/Ugofor several 
 hours after the march of tlie main army. 
 Unlike his unfortunate chief, he reached 
 England in safety, received the brevet of 
 colonel in 1812, and in 1813 embarked with 
 his regiment for the Peninsula. From this 
 time to the battle of Waterloo, in which he 
 commanded the sixth brigade of cavalry, 
 consisting of the 1st dragoons and 10th and 
 18th hussars, he was continually iu active 
 and efficient service. In the advance upon 
 Toulouse, on the 8th of April, 1814, he was 
 severely wounded in the right arm while 
 making, as the Duke of Wellington's de- 
 spatch remarked, " a most gallant attack 
 upon a superior body of the enemy's cavalry, 
 which was driven through the village of 
 Crais d'Orade." In June, 1814, he returned 
 to England, received the rank of major- 
 general, was appointed to the staff at 
 Brighton, and had a splendid piece of plate 
 presented to him by the officers of the 7th 
 hussars. In 1830 he was made lieut.-general, 
 and in 1837 colonel of the 1st dragoons. 
 Subsequently to the battle of Waterloo, 
 which turned the swords of so many warriors 
 into ploughshares, the gallant subject of this 
 article, who was created a baronet in 1828, 
 when he also had a grant of arms alluding 
 to his services, took an active part in politics, 
 both as a debater in the house and in his 
 character of master-general of the ordnance, 
 to wliich oflice he was appointed in 1835. He 
 was called to the house of peers by patent, 
 dated August, 1841. Died, October 1842, 
 aged 67. 
 
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 ^ ^tby Bnibzr^sil 23tO(rrapTjy. 
 
 [vol 
 
 VIVIANI, ViNCENTio, a celebrated Ita- 
 lian mathematician, was born at riorence, 
 in 1621. He was the disciple of Galileo, 
 after wliose deatJi he was much employed 
 in public works by the Grand-duke of Tus- 
 cany, who appointed him his first mathema- 
 tician and chief engineer. He restored a 
 part of the lost works of AristsEUs and Apol- 
 lonius, and wrote several valuable treatises 
 on geometry, &c. Died, 1703. 
 
 VOET, or VOETIUS, Gisbert, a Dutch 
 theologian, was born at Heusden, in 1593. 
 Having studied at Leyden, he first settled 
 as a minister at his native place, where he 
 remained till 1634. He afterwards went to 
 tltreclit, where he was professor of divinity 
 and the oriental languages. He distin- 
 guished himself by his attacks on the Arme- 
 nians ; and when tlie Cartesian philosophy 
 was engaging the public attention, he wrote 
 against Descartes witli much asperity and 
 illiberality. His principal works are, " Se- 
 lectEB Disputationes Theologies," 5 vols. 4to.; 
 and "Politica Ecclesiastica," 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 Died, 1677 Paul Voet, his son, who also 
 
 died in 1677, was, successively, professor of 
 logic, metaphysics, and civil law, at Utrecht; 
 was the author of several learned works on 
 
 theology and jurisprudence Johx Voet, 
 
 son of Paul, professor of law at Leyden, was 
 the author of a valuable " Commentary on 
 the Pandects." Died, 1714. 
 
 VOISENON, Claude IlExnY Fusee de, 
 a French dramatist and poet, was born near 
 Melun, in 1708 ; was educated for the eccle- 
 siastical profession, and became grand-vicar 
 of Boulogne. He was of a lively, humorous 
 disposition, and conscientiously refused the 
 bishopric of Boulogne, from a sense of his 
 unfitness for the episcopal oflice ; but chose 
 to pursue those studies for which by nature 
 he was qualified. In 17()3 he was admitted 
 a member of the French academy, and he 
 spent his life in literary pursuits, too freely 
 mingled with licentiousness. Like Piron. he 
 had his days of dissoluteness and his mo- 
 ments of devotion. He wrote "Literary 
 Anecdotes," comedies, and fugitive poetry ; 
 and died in 1775. 
 
 VOITURE, VixcENT, a celebrated French 
 wit and poet, born at Amiens in 1598. His 
 manners were highly agreeable, and he be- 
 came master of the ceremonies to Gaston, 
 duke of Orleans. In 1634 he was admitted 
 into the French academy, and was subse- 
 quently sent on a mission to Spain, where 
 he was much caressed, and where he com- 
 posed some verses in such pxire and natural 
 Spanish, that they were universally ascribed 
 to Lopez de Vega. Under the administra- 
 tion of Cardinal Mazarin, Voiture was in 
 the zenith of his reputation, and enjoyed 
 large pensions ; but gambling, and other 
 vicious habits, kept him poor. He wrote 
 verses in French, Spanish, and Italian ; but 
 liis letters were the chief basis of his literary 
 reputation, and in their day were extrava- 
 gantly admired. He died in 1648. 
 
 VOLKOFF, Theodore, a Russian dra- 
 matist, was born at Gostroma, in 1729. He 
 wrote several plays, and erected a theatre 
 Rt Jaroslav, where his success was sucli, 
 that the empress Elizabeth sent for him to 
 St. Petcrsburgh, and appointed hira first 
 
 850 
 
 actor of the Russian theatre. In 1759 he 
 was sent to establish a national theatre at 
 Moscow ; and Catharine II. bestowed on 
 him an estate, with a patent of nobility. 
 He died in 1763, and his funeral obsequies 
 were celebrated with great magnificence. 
 
 VOLNEY, Constaxti.ve Francis 
 Chassebceuf, Count de, peer of France, a 
 celebrated French writer, was bom at Craon, 
 in Brittany, in 1755. He was educated at 
 Angers, and studied medicine at Paris ; but 
 coming into possession of a small estate, he 
 was enabled to gratify his ardent love of 
 travel. He spent nearly three years in 
 Egypt and Syria ; and on his return to 
 France, in 1787, published his " Voyage en 
 Syrie et en Egypte," 2 vols., which was 
 translated into tlie English and other lan- 
 guages, and procured him an extensive re- 
 putation. He was elected a member of the 
 states-general; was confined nearly a twelve- 
 month during the reign of terror ; was ap- 
 pointed professor of history at the normal 
 school in 1794 ; went to America in the 
 following year, and resided there till 1798 ; 
 was created a senator and count, during 
 Napoleon's consulship ; and, on the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons, he was designated a 
 member of the chamber of peers. In all 
 situations, however, he was the defender of 
 liberal principles. Among his principal 
 works are his " Ruins, or Meditations on the 
 Revolutions of Empires," " Lectures on His- 
 tory," and " New Researches on Ancient 
 History." Died, 1820. 
 
 VOLPATO, GiovAJTSi, an eminent Italian 
 engraver, born at Bassano, in 1733. He was 
 a self-taught artist, and acquired a degree of 
 excellence in his profession rarely equalled. 
 He was engaged to make engravings from 
 the paintings of Raphael at the Vatican. 
 Died, 1802. Volpato wrote the " Principles 
 of Design," and Raphael Morgan was his 
 pupil and son-in-law. 
 
 VOLTA, Alessandro, a celebrated ex- 
 perimental philosopher, was born at Como, 
 in 1745. He laid the foundation of his fame 
 by two treatises, which described a new 
 electrical machine ; was for 30 years pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy at Pavia, was 
 made an Italian count and senator by Na- 
 poleon, and died in 1826. Volta directed 
 his attention particularly to the subject of 
 galvanism, or animal electricity, in which 
 science he made many discoveries and im- 
 provements ; but the great invention which 
 immortalises his name is the Voltaic pile, 
 or electrical column. His works form 5 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 VOLTAIRE, Feaxcis Marie Arouet 
 DE, the most celebrated literary character 
 of his age, was born at Chatenay, near Paris, 
 in 1694, and received his education in the 
 Jesuit's college of Louis XIV. Here he dis- 
 played talents which warranted the liighest 
 expectations ; and having recited from me- 
 mory, a poem of Rousseau, before the cele- 
 brated Ninon de I'Enclos, she was so pleased 
 with the talent of the boy, tliat she left him 
 a legacy of 2000 livres to purchase a library. 
 His father intended him for the law, but he 
 declined to follow the profession, and assi- 
 duously cultivated his taste for literary 
 pursuits. In 1716 he was imprisoned in the 
 
vol] 
 
 ^ l^clu Bnihnial 38{0firajpf)i.i. 
 
 [votT 
 
 Bastile, on an unfounded suspicion of Imving 
 written a libel on the government ; and, 
 wliile there, he formed the plan of the 
 " Ilenriude," and completed the tragedy of 
 "CEdipus," which was represented in 1718 
 with singular success. A second unjust con- 
 finement in the Bastile induced him to take 
 up his residence in England for three years, 
 where he was favourably received, and ob- 
 tained a most liberal subscription for his 
 "Henriade." On his return to France in 
 1730, he published his " Brutus," which was 
 followed by "Zara," the most affecting of 
 his tragedies. His next work, the " Lettres 
 Philosophiqucs," gave such offence by its 
 profaneness, that tlie parliament of Paris 
 condemned the book to be burnt, and war- 
 rants were issued for apprehending the 
 author, lie therefore passed some years in 
 concealment at Cirey, near Vassi, in Cl\am- 
 pagne, where he was treated with the greatest 
 kindness by the mistress of the estate, the 
 Marchioness du Chatelet, and wrote his 
 "Elt'mens de la Philosophic de Newton," 
 to make his countrymen acquainted with 
 the great discoveries of the English philo- 
 sopher. He also produced the plays of 
 "Alzira" and " Mahomet," which last was 
 censured as immoral and irreligious ; but 
 his " Meropc," brought out in 1743, was 
 received with such applause, that the poet 
 became a favourite at court, and was ap- 
 pointed gentleman of the bedchamlier and 
 historiographer of France. In 174tj he ob- 
 tained admission into the Academy of Sci- 
 ences, on which occasion he broke through 
 the old custom of panegyrising Cardinal 
 Richelieu j but this innovation created him 
 BO many enemies, that he retired to Lune- 
 Tille, and did not return to Paris till 1749. 
 The year following he went to Berlin, at 
 the invitation of the king of Prussia, who 
 made him one of his chamberlains, and 
 gave him a pension. The greatest intimacy 
 for a time subsisted between them ; but he 
 I at length drew upon himself Frederic's dis- 
 \ pleasure, and quitted Prussia, carrying with 
 ' him the poetical works of the king, who 
 I caused him to be arrested on the road, till 
 ' the fugitive manuscrijit was restored. Vol- 
 : taire then went to Colmar, whence he re- 
 ', moved to Geneva, and afterwards settled 
 I at Femey, a village in the Pays de Gex, 
 where he resided during the remainder of 
 I his life, with his niece, Madame Denis. He 
 also induced many ingenious artizans to 
 I settle there, whose works he sent to Russia, 
 Germany, Spain, Italy, and Holland. At 
 the beginning of the year 1778 he went to 
 Paris, where he was received with many 
 flattering marks of distinction ; but his in- 
 cessant literary labours, and the cliange 
 from his accustomed manner of life, affected 
 his health so much, that he observed, "I 
 have come to Paris to find my glory and 
 my grave." Having taken a large dose of 
 opium, without the advice of his physician, 
 it is thought to have hastened his death, 
 which took place May 30. 1778. Besides his 
 poetical works, he wrote an " Essay on Ge- 
 neral History," the "Age of Louis XIV.," 
 "Life of Charles XII. of Sweden," " History 
 of the Czar Peter the Great," the romances 
 of " Candide," " Zadig," and some others. 
 
 His collected works form 70 vols. Svo. He 
 had stupendous talents, but there were 
 many parts of his character by no mtaus 
 great or estimable. 
 
 VOLTERRA, Daniel de, an Italian 
 painter and sculptor, who was employed, 
 under the jjontiticate of Paul IV., to cover 
 the nudities of some of tlie figures in the 
 Last Judgment of Micliel Angelo, which 
 obtained for liim the ludicrous title of Brag- 
 ghettone. Died, 1.566. 
 
 VOPISCUS, Flavius, a native of Syra- 
 cuse, who flourished A. D. 304. He wrote 
 the history of Aurellan, Tacitus, Florianus, 
 Probus, Firmius, Cams, &c. 
 
 VORSTIUS, CoMKAD, a theological writer, 
 was born at Cologne, in 156'J. James I. of 
 England caused his book, " Tractatus Theo- 
 logicus de Deo," to be burnt, and complained 
 to the states against the author, who waa 
 banislied from Holland, and died at Tonin- 
 gen, in 1622. 
 
 VOS, Mahtin dk, a painter, was bom at 
 Antwerp, about 1.534, and died there in 1604. 
 He painted history, portraits, and land- 
 scapes, in a very fine style Simon de 
 
 Vos, another artist of Antwerp, was born 
 in 1603, and died about 1670. He painted 
 historical subjects and portraits, but ex- 
 celled in hunting pieces. 
 
 VOSS, John Henky, one of the chief 
 modern philologists, was bom at Mecklen- 
 burg, in 17.51 ; studied under Heyne, at Got- 
 tiugen, with great distinction ; and, after 
 holding various appointments in different 
 parts of Germany, obtained the chair of phi- 
 lology in Heidelberg in 1809, which he held 
 till his death. His translations of Homer, 
 Virgil, Hesiod, and Theocritus are regarded 
 by many as real substitutes for tlie originals ; 
 that of Sliakspeare, though full of spirit, is 
 on the wjiole not so successful. The sim- 
 plicity and natural charms of his own 
 idyllic poems, more especially his " Luise," 
 have never been surpassed by any German 
 poet. Died, 1826. 
 
 VOSSIUS, Gerard John, an eminent 
 critic and philologist, was professor of cliro- 
 nology and eloquence at Leyden, and of 
 history at Amsterdam. His works are fre- 
 quently referred to as authorities, particu- 
 larly the following : " De HLstoricis Grae- 
 cis," " De Historicis Latinis," and " Ars 
 Historica." Bom, 1.577 ; died, 1649. 
 
 VOSSIUS, Isaac, son of the preceding, 
 was born at l^eyden, in 1618, and, possessing 
 great natural talents, very early acquired 
 a high reputation among the learned. In 
 1670 he came to England, and obtained from 
 Charles II. a canonry of Windsor, and the 
 degree of doctor of laws from the university 
 of Oxford. He died in 1688. His works are 
 numerous and erudite. He was rude in his 
 manners, and sceptical in his religions no- 
 tions, but so credulous in other matters, 
 that Charles II. said, " he is a strange man 
 fur a divine, for there is nothing which he 
 refuses to believe, except the Bible." 
 
 VOUET, Simon, an eminent French 
 painter, was born at Paris, in 1,582 ; and, 
 after a residence of 14 years in Italy, was 
 sent for by I^ouisXIII. to assist in the deco- 
 rations of the Louvre and the Luxembourg. 
 Died, 1649. 
 
VRO] 
 
 ^ ^tio ^iTtbcrsal SStosrajplbS* 
 
 [WAH 
 
 VROON, Henry Cokkelius, a Dutch 
 painter, bom at Haerlem, in 1566. He was 
 famous ill sea pieces, and drew the designs 
 for the tapestry in the House of Lords, re- 
 presenting the details of the defeat of the 
 Spanisli armada. 
 
 VULSON, Maec de, sieur de la Colom- 
 
 bifere, a writer on heraldry. Having, while 
 lie resided at Grenoble, in 1681, surprised 
 liis wife with a gallant, and killed them 
 both on the spot, he rode post to Paris to 
 solicit a pardon, which he obtained. Died, 
 1658. His works on the heraldic science 
 are much esteemed. 
 
 w. 
 
 WAGE, Robert, an Anglo-Norman poet 
 of the 12th century. He was a native of 
 Jersey, and became chaplain to Henry II., 
 king of England, who gave him a canonry 
 in the cathedral of Bayeux. He wrote, in 
 Norman-French verse, a history of England, 
 an account of the Norman conquest, and 
 some romances. 
 
 WADING, or WADDING, Luboe, an 
 Irish ecclesiastic, born at Waterford, in 
 1588. He held a divinity professorship in 
 the university of Salamanca ; but having 
 accompanied the Bishop of Carthagena to 
 Rome, he continued to reside there during 
 the remainder of his life. He refused a 
 cardinal's hat, and founded the college of 
 St. Isidore for Irish students of the Fran- 
 ciscan order ; but he is said to have greatly 
 encouraged the Irish rebellion in 1641. He 
 wrote a " History of the Order of St. Fran- 
 cis," and edited the works of Duns Scotus, 
 Calaisio's Concordance, &c. Died, 1657. 
 
 WADING, Petkr, a learned Irish Jesuit, 
 was born at Waterford ; became chancellor 
 of the university of Gratz, in Styria ; was 
 the author of numerous metrical and other 
 works in the Latin language, and died in 
 1644. 
 
 WADHAM, Nicholas, the founder of 
 Wadham College, Oxford, was born in 1536, 
 in Somersetslure, and was educated at 
 Christchurch College. He died in 1610, and 
 the seminary which bears his name was com- 
 pleted in 1613. 
 
 WADSTROM, Chakles Bern, a Swedish 
 traveller and philanthropist, was born at 
 Stockholm, in 1746. Having visited Africa, 
 with a view to acquire information that 
 might lead to the abolition of the slave trade, 
 he was, on his return to Europe, examined 
 at the bar of the English House of Commons 
 upon that subject ; and he afterwards pub- 
 lished his "Observations on the Slave Trade," 
 &c. Died, 1799. 
 
 WAFER, Lionel, an English voyager, 
 was originally a surgeon in the navy. Hav- 
 ing accompanied Dampier, the circumnavi- 
 gator, and quarrelled with him, he was left 
 on shore on the isthmus of Darien ; but, 
 owing to his medical skill, the Indians treated 
 him kindly, and gave him his liberty when 
 an English vessel arrived on the coast. On 
 his return, in 1690, he published an interest- 
 ing account of his adventures. 
 
 WAGENAAR, John, a Dutch historian, 
 was born at Amsterdam, in 1709. He was 
 the author of the " History of Holland," 21 
 I vols., for which he was appointed historio- 
 
 grapher to his native city. He also wrote 
 " The present State of the United Provinces," 
 12 vols. &c. Died, 1773. 
 
 WAGENSEIL, John Christopher, an 
 eminent German scholar and polemic, was 
 born at Nuremberg, in 1633. He was edu- 
 cated at Altorf; where, in 1667, he was 
 made professor of history and jurisprudence. 
 His " Tela Ignea Sathanas," a controversial 
 treatise, in refutation of the Jewish writers 
 on the Christian religion, is a work of great 
 ability. Died, 1705. 
 
 WAG HORN, Lieut. Thomas, R.N., whose 
 name will be for ever associated with the 
 great achievement of steam communication 
 between England and India, was born at 
 Chatham, 1800. At 12 years of age he was 
 appointed a midshipman, and before he had 
 completed his 17th year he passed in navi- 
 gation for lieutenant. After a short cruise 
 he volunteered for the Arraean war, and 
 having received the command of the East 
 India Company's cutter. Matchless, and 
 seen much service by land and sea, he re- 
 turned to Calcutta in 1827. From this period 
 lie turned his attention to the great project 
 he had had long secretly at heart — a steam 
 communication between England and India; 
 and the ardour, perseverance, and firmness 
 with which he worked it to completion, have 
 gained him a name among the benefactors 
 of his race. But we regret to say that fame 
 was all that he achieved by his arduous and 
 long-continued exertions ; for the gigantic 
 operations in which he had been engaged 
 exhausted his resources, and he met with 
 but scanty assistance from those whom every 
 consideration of humanity and liberality 
 should have induced to lend him a helping 
 hand. Died, 1850. 
 
 WAGSTAFF, William, F.R.S., a hu- 
 morous writer, was born at Cublington, in 
 Buckinghamshire, in 1685. He practised 
 medicine in London, and became physician 
 to Bartholomew's Hospital. Died, 1725. 
 
 WAGSTAFFE, Thomas, a learned divine, 
 was born in Warwickshire, in 1645. He 
 practised physic for some time, and in 1693 
 was consecrated a nonjuring bishop. He 
 published several sermons, and an able 
 " Vindication of King Charles I., proving 
 him the Author of the Icon Basilik^." Died, 
 1712. 
 
 WAHLENBERG, George, an eminent 
 botanist, was born in the province of War- 
 meland, in 1784. He visited the remote 
 parts of the Scandinavian peninsula, and 
 most of the northern countries of Europe, 
 
 858 
 
WAl] 
 
 ^ iBe&j ^ffm'fteriiat 3SiO0rajpf)j.K 
 
 [WAL 
 
 I for the purpose of making botanical and 
 
 I geological researches ; and on his return 
 
 j to Upsal, where he was superintendant of 
 
 the museum of science, he published his 
 
 "Flora Lapponica," " Flora Carpethorum," 
 
 " Flora Upsaliensis," and " Flora Suecica," 
 
 besides some geological treatises. Died, 
 
 1814. 
 
 ! WAILLY, CiiAnLEs pe, nn eminent 
 
 French architect, was bom in 1729, at Paris ; 
 
 studied at Rome ; was a member of the 
 
 Institute, and a founder of the Society 
 
 of the Friends of the Arts. He died in 1798. 
 
 Among the buildings which he designed are, 
 
 the Spinola palace at Genoa, the mansion 
 
 I of Ormes In Touraine, and the Od^ou at 
 
 : Paris. 
 
 I WATTHMAN, a well-known alderman 
 and M.P. for London, was bom near Wrex- 
 j ham, in Denbighshire, in 1765 ; served his 
 I apprenticeship to his uncle, a linendrapcr 
 ' at Bath ; and for many years carried on 
 ! that business in Fleet Street, London. He 
 I obtained much notoriety as a city orator, 
 I and by strenuously advocating popular 
 i rights on all occasions, was regarded, by a 
 1 large class of the citizens as a champion 
 ! of freedom. He consequently not only ob- 
 ' tained a civic gown, but filled the office of 
 I lord mayor, and was elected four times to 
 I represent the city of I»ondon in parliament. 
 I He died in 1833, and his friends erected an 
 ' obelisk to his memory, opposite to that raised 
 in honour of Mr. Wilkes, at the foot of Lud- 
 gate Hill. 
 
 WAKE, Sir Isaac, an able diplomatist 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Billing, 
 in Northamptonshire, in 1575. He became 
 fellow of Merton College, Oxford ; and, in 
 16()4, was chosen public orator of that uni- 
 versity. He was afterwards employed as 
 ambassador to several foreign courts ; and, 
 in 1619, received the honour of knighthood. 
 He wrote several works, the principal of 
 which was lus " Rex Platonicus." Died, 
 16.'52. 
 
 WAKE, William, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, a learned and exemplary prelate, was 
 born at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, in 1657, 
 and educated at Oxford. Having entered 
 into orders, he soon distinguished himself 
 by the zeal with which he espoused the 
 Protestant cause, though in opposition to 
 the wishes of tiie court ; and he was accord- 
 ingly well received by William III. on his 
 accession to the throne. He was, succes- 
 sively, king's chaplain, rector of St. James's, 
 Westminster, and dean of Exeter. In 1705 
 he was advanced to the bishopric of Lincoln ; 
 and, in 1716, he was raised to the see of 
 Canterbury ; in which station he distin- 
 guished liimself by his moderation, firmness, 
 and liberality. He endeavoured to promote 
 a union of the English and Galilean churches, 
 for which he was grossly calumniated, 
 though the measure was well meant, and, 
 had it taken eifect, the papal power would 
 have been greatly weakened. He published 
 a translation of the " Epistles of the Apos- 
 tolical Fathers," an " Exposition of the 
 Church Catechisms," and three volumes of 
 " Sermons." Died, 1737. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, an eminent 
 scholar and critic, was born at Nottingham, 
 
 bTyl) 
 
 in 17.56. He took his degree of B.A. at 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1776, and at 
 the same time was elected to a fellowship. 
 On entering into orders, he served a curacy 
 at Stockport, in Cheshire, and next at Liver- 
 pool ; but he grew dissatisfied witli the doc- 
 trines of the church of England, and left it 
 to become classical teacher in the academy 
 at Warrington. In 1790 he removed to the 
 dissenting college at Hackney, his con- 
 nection with which ended in about a year. 
 Soon after this he published a pamphlet 
 against Public Worship, which startled 
 many of his most ardent admirers, and was 
 answered chiefly by dissenters. He wrote 
 some pamphlets against government, of 
 wliich no notice was taken, until his letter 
 to the Bishop of Llandaflf appeared, when 
 the attorney-general instituted a prosecution 
 against him and the publisher. Mr. Wake- 
 field was sentenced to be imprisoned two 
 years in Dorchester gaol, from which he was 
 liberated in May, 1801, but died of a fever in 
 September following. The principal of hia 
 works are, a " Translation of tlie New Testa- 
 ment," 2 vols. ; " Tragediarum Graecarum 
 Delectus," 2 vols.; an edition of "Lucretius," 
 3 vols. ; an "Inquiry into the Opinions of 
 the Christian Writers of the Three first Cen- 
 turies, concerning the Person of Jesus 
 Christ," 4 vols. ; and the " Silva Critica." 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Pbiscilla, well known 
 by the many ingenious works which she 
 wrote to promote juvenile improvement. 
 She was the original promoter of banks for 
 the savings of the poor, which are now be- 
 come so general. She resided for many 
 years at Tottenham, in Middlesex ; but died 
 at Ipswich, in Suffolk, in 1832, aged 82. 
 
 WALBAUM, John Julius, a German 
 physician and naturalist, was born at Wol- 
 fenbuttcl, in 1724. He settled at Lubeck, 
 where he attained great reputation, pub- 
 lished several valuable works, and died in 
 1799. 
 
 WALDENSIS, Thomas, an English Car- 
 melite, whose real name was Netter, was 
 born at Walden, in Essex, about 1367. He 
 studied at Oxford ; and, in 1409, was sent by 
 Henry IV. to the council of Pisa. Henry V. 
 reposed entire confidence in him ; and he 
 became no less a favourite with the young 
 monarch, whom he attended to France, and 
 died there in 1430. 
 
 WALES, William, a mathematician and 
 astronomer, was bom about 1734 ; went to 
 Hudson's Bay, in 1769, to observe the transit 
 of Venus ; accompanied Captain Cook in two 
 voyages round the world ; became mathe- 
 matical master at Christ's Hospital, and 
 secretary to the Board of Longitude ; and 
 died in 1798. Among his works are, " As- 
 tronomical Observations on the Southern 
 Hemisphere,' ' a treatise on the " Discovery 
 of the Longitude by means of Timepieces," 
 and an " Inquiry into the Population of 
 England and Wales." 
 
 WALKER, Adam, a lecturer on astro- 
 nomy and a miscellaneous writer, was a 
 native of Westmoreland, and bom in 1731. 
 His father was a woollen manufacturer, in 
 which business he was placed at an early 
 age, and his turn for mechanics very soon 
 developed itself in the construction of models 
 
wal] 
 
 ^ iStlu WinibtvSKl 33i0grap]^y. 
 
 [WAL 
 
 of corn mills, paper mills, &c. After showing 
 great perseverance in obtaining knowledge 
 from books, under the most disadvantageous 
 circumstances, and being successively an 
 nsher and a schoolmaster, he became a lec- 
 turer on experimental philosophy, visiting 
 most of the principal cities and towns in the 
 kingdom in that capacity. At length, in 
 1778, he fixed his abode in the metropolis, 
 and continued to read a course of lectures 
 every winter, at his house in George Street, 
 Hanover Square. He wrote an " Analysis 
 of his Lectures," a " System of Familiar 
 Philosophy in Licctures," a " Treatise on 
 Geography," " Remarks on a Tour through 
 Germany, France, and Italy," " A Tour to 
 the Lakes," &c. His mechanical skill was 
 apparent in his Eidouranion, or transparent 
 orrery, and the revolving lights on the rocks 
 
 of Scilly. Died, 1821 His son, William, 
 
 M'as also a public lecturer on astronomy. 
 Born, 17(56 ; died, 1816. 
 
 WALKER, Clemeitt, a political writer 
 of the 17th century, was born at Cliffe, in 
 Dorsetshire ; was educated at Christchurch, 
 Oxford ; and became M.P. for Wells. Being 
 a zealous Presbyterian, he was violently 
 hostile to the Independents, against whom 
 he published, in 1648, " A History of Inde- 
 pendency." He also attacked the Protector 
 in a treatise called " Cromwell's Slaughter 
 House." He was committed to the Tower, 
 and died there in 1651. 
 
 WALKER, Sir Edward, an historian and 
 herald, was born at Netherstowey,in Somer- 
 setshire. He was made clerk of the privy 
 council in 1644, and received the honour of 
 knighthood ; attended Charles II. in his 
 exile, and was appointed by him garter-king- 
 at-arms. Died, 1677. He wrote " Iter Caro- 
 linum, or an Account of the Marches, &c. of 
 King Charles I.," " Military Discoveries," 
 "Historical Discourses," &c. 
 
 WALKER, GeokcxK. was born of English 
 parents, at Tyrone, in Ireland ; and is cele- 
 brated for his stubborn defence of Ix)ndon- 
 derry against James II. He enjoyed much 
 favour with William III., whom he accom- 
 panied throughout his Irish campaigns, and 
 fell at the battle of the Boyne, in 1690. 
 
 WALKER, Jon.N^, a lexicographer, was 
 born in 1732, at Frieru Barnet, in Hertford- 
 shire. He was at one time master of an 
 academy at Kensington, and subsequently a 
 lecturer on elocution, which art he had 
 originally studied with a view to the stage. 
 His principal works are, a " Pronouncing 
 Dictionary," a " Rhyming Dictionary," 
 " Elements of Elocution," and a " Rhetorical 
 Grammar." Died, 1807. 
 
 WALKER, John, a physician and geo- 
 graphical writer, was born in 1750, at Cock- 
 ermouth, in Cumberland. After passing 
 through various occupations, he rose to some 
 eminence as a medical practitioner ; and, at 
 the time of his decease, he w^as at the head 
 of the London Vaccine Institution. He 
 published "Elements of Geography," a 
 "Universal Gazetteer," and some medical 
 treatises. Died, 1830. 
 
 WALKER, Thomas, a dramatic per- 
 former of some note in the time of Garrick, 
 was born in London, in 1698. He had all 
 the physical requisites for a good actor ; ex- 
 
 celled in Macheath, Hotspur, Falconbridge, 
 &c., and was in high favour with the public. 
 Died, 1743. 
 
 WALKER, THOJrAS, a barrister and po- 
 lice magistrate, was bom in 1784. Having 
 a natural turn for humorous anecdotes, and 
 mixing much in society, this gentleman 
 hoarded up the smart sayings and witty 
 conversations which fell from his clever com- 
 panions in their hours of relaxation ; and at 
 length he resolved to make the world ac- 
 quainted with the "fond conceits" with 
 which his brain was stored. Hence arose 
 the weekly periodical, called " Tlie Ori- 
 ginal," of which 26 numbers only made their 
 appearance. In consequence of indisposition 
 he went over to the Continent, and while at 
 Brussels was attacked rather suddenly, and 
 died Jan. 20. 1836. 
 
 WALKER, William, a learned divine of 
 the 17th century, was bom in Lincolnshire ; 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; be- 
 came master of the free school at Louth, and 
 next of that at Grantham ; and had the credit 
 of instructing Sir Isaac Newton. Among 
 his works are, " A Treatise of English Parti- 
 cles," " Tropschematologia Rhetoricae," "Ex- 
 planation of Lilly's Grammar," and " Idio- 
 matologia Anglo-Latina." Died, 1684. 
 
 WALL, John, an eminent physician, was 
 born in 1708, at Powick, in Worcestershire ; 
 was educated at Worcester Grammar-school, 
 and at Merton College, Oxford ; and, settling 
 at Worcester as a medical practitioner, he 
 first made known the virtues of the Malvern 
 waters, and contributed to establish the 
 porcelain manufactory. Died, 1776. 
 
 WALL, Martin, son of the preceding, 
 and who was also an eminent physician, 
 was born in 1744, and was educated at New 
 College, Oxford. On the death of Dr. Par- 
 sons, in 1785, he was elected clinical pro- 
 fessor of that university, and spent the re- 
 mainder of his life at Oxford, where he 
 enjoyed a high reputation for medical skill, 
 and was. much esteemed for his social qua- 
 lities. Died, 1824. 
 
 WALL, William, who for upwards of 
 half a century was the incumbent of Shore- 
 ham, in Sussex, was the author of a valuable 
 work, entitled the " History of Infant Bap- 
 tism." He also wrote " Critical Notes on 
 the Old Testament," 2 vols. &c. Died, 1728. 
 WALLACE, Sir William, a celebrated 
 Scotch patriot and hero, was the younger 
 son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Ellerslie, 
 in Renfrewshire, and born in 1276. He pos- 
 sessed great strength and undaunted cou- 
 rage ; and being indignant at seeing his 
 country enslaved by Edward I., he resolved 
 to undertake its liberation. His success at 
 the head of a small band of followers in- 
 duced many of the barons to join him; and 
 he gained a splendid victory over Earl 
 Warenne, at Cambuskenneth, on the banks 
 of the Forth. He was appointed regent ; 
 but his elevation having excited jealousy 
 among the nobles, he resigned the regency. 
 Edward having been informed of his suc- 
 cesses, hastened home from Flanders, and 
 with a large army defeated the Scots at 
 Falkirk, which compelled Wallace to retreat 
 to the mountains, and resort to his original 
 system of predatory warfare. For seven 
 
wal] 
 
 ^ ^ebi mixihtv^aX MiaQVHp\m, 
 
 [wal 
 
 ! years he continued to harass the English ; 
 I but, in 1305, he wa3 betrayed into the hands 
 [ of Edward, by Sir John Moateith, who sent 
 him in chains to London, wliere he was 
 I executed as a traitor. The lieroic deeds of 
 I Wallace have been the frequent theme of 
 j the poet and the historian, and his memory 
 is still cherished in Scotland with affection. 
 WALLENSTEIN or WALSTEIN, Al- 
 bert WiNCESLAUS, duke of Friedland, a 
 celebrated German general, was born in 
 Bohemia, in 158*. He obtained an immense 
 fortune by marriage, which he applied to 
 the raising of a formidable army for the 
 service of the emperor. These were paid 
 partly from his own resources and partly 
 from plunder ; and for several years he 
 distinguished himself by his successes in the 
 north of Germany ; for which he was re- 
 warded with the dukedoms of Mecklen- 
 burg and Friedland. In 1632, Wallenstein 
 was declared head of the Catholic army, 
 with power to act independently of the 
 council. He was at first successful against 
 Gustavus, but was ultimately defeated at 
 the celebrated battle of Lutzen, where the 
 ' death of the Swedish monarch dearly pur- 
 ' chased tlie victory. He was at length ac- 
 cused of treason, and perished by the trca- 
 ! chery of some of his own officers. Wallen- 
 stein possessed much prudence, knowledge 
 of mankind, and cunning, especially the art 
 of fathoming the intentions of others and 
 concealing his own. Towards those who 
 were dependent on him he was severe, and 
 not unfrequently cruel ; but he was lavish 
 to those whom he wished to gain over to 
 his purposes. 
 
 WALLER, Edmund, an English poet, 
 was bom at Coleshill, in Warwickshire, and 
 was educated at Eton, and at King's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. He was elected a mem- 
 ber of parliament when in his 17th year ; 
 and at the age of 23 he married a rich heiress, 
 who died soon after, and left him an infant 
 daughter. Waller then paid his addresses 
 to Lady Dorothea Sidney, daughter of the 
 Earl of Leicester, whom he has immortalised 
 under the poetical name of Sacharissa ; but 
 though die admired his verses, she slighted 
 his offers, and married the Earl of Sunder- 
 land. He then espoused a lady of the name of 
 Bresse, by whom he had 13 children. In the 
 long parliament he represented Agmon- 
 desham, and was appointed one of the com- 
 missioners to treat with the king ; but in 
 1643 he was taken up for a plot, when, to 
 save his life, he made a confession, and 
 after a year's imprisonment, and paying a 
 fine of 10,00(M., obtained his liberty. He 
 then went to France, and resided there till 
 he found himself getting to the end of his 
 resources, when he applied to Cromwell, 
 who gave him leave to return, and restored 
 his estate. Waller repaid the favour by a 
 panegyric on the Protector ; but he was 
 equally lavish of his praise on Charles II., 
 with whom he was a favourite ; as he also 
 was with James II. ; and he appears to 
 have taken advantage of his intimacy with 
 that monarch to give him very sound ad- 
 vice. He now turned his thoughts to devo- 
 tion, and composed "Divine Poems." He 
 died at Beaconsfleld, in 1687, aged 82. His 
 
 intellectual powers were of a superior order ; 
 he was at once a prompt, elegant, and 
 graceful speaker, while the wit and pleasant- 
 ness of liis conversation made him a favourite, 
 even with those whom his abject pliancy 
 must have disgusted. English versification 
 is much indebted to him ; and for ease, 
 gaiety, brilliancy, and wit, lus amatory 
 poetry has not been surpassed. 
 
 WALLER, Sir William, an eminent 
 general of the parliamentary army in the 
 reign of Charles I., was born in 1597, in 
 Kent, and was educated at Magdalen Col- 
 lege and Hart Hall, Oxford. On his re- 
 turning from Germany, where he had served 
 as a volunteer against the emperor, he was 
 elected for Andover as a member of the long 
 parliament. He opposed the court, and, on 
 the breaking out of the war, was made second 
 in command under the Earl of Essex. The 
 west of England was the scene of his prin- 
 cipal exploits ; and in the early part of his 
 career, he fought with signal success, but 
 was ultimately defeated. The self-denying 
 ordinance removed him from service, and he 
 became so much an object of suspicion to the 
 republicans, that he was twice imprisoned. 
 He died in 10G8. He wrote " Divine Medi- 
 tations" and a " Vindication of liis Character 
 and Conduct." 
 
 WALLERIUS, John Gottscualk, an 
 eminent Swedish chemist and mineralogist, 
 author of " Systema Mineralogicum," " Che- 
 mia Physica," and other excellent works on 
 those sciences. Died, 1785. 
 
 WALLI8, JoHx, an eminent English 
 mathematician and divine, was born in 1616, 
 at Ashford, in Kent, and educated at Ema- 
 nuel College, Cambridge. He was chosen, in 
 1640, Savilian professor of geometry at Ox- 
 ford, and made keeper of the archives there, 
 in 1658 ; was one of the earliest members of 
 the Royal Society ; and, after a long life de- 
 voted to science and his clerical duties, died 
 in 1703. His mathematical works are in- 
 cluded in three volumes, and his " Sermons " 
 form a fourth. 
 
 WALMESLEY, Charles, a Roman Ca- 
 tholic divine, and an eminent mathema- 
 tician, was a doctor of the Sorbonne, a monk 
 of the Benedictine order, and vicar apostolic 
 of the western district of England. He died 
 at Bath, in 1707, aged 76. He was a member 
 of the Royal Society, and the author of 
 several mathematical treatises. 
 
 WALPOLE, Sir Robert, earl of Orford, a 
 celebrated statesman, was born in 1676, at 
 Houghton, his father's seat in Norfolk, and 
 was educated at Eton, and King's College, 
 Cambridge. He entered parliament in 1701 , 
 as member for Castle Rising, which borough 
 his father had represented ; but in the fol- 
 lowing year he was elected for Lynn. In 
 1708 he was appointed secretary of war ; in 
 1700, treasurerof the navy ; and, in 1710, one 
 of the managers of Saeheverell's trial ; but, 
 on the dissolution of tlie Whig ministry, he 
 was dismissed from all his offices, expelled 
 the house, and committed to the Tower, on 
 the charge of breacli of trust and notorious 
 corriiption. This was looked upon as a 
 mere party proceeding by a majority of the 
 people, and, on the accession of George L, 
 the ^Vhig8 being again in the ascendant, he 
 
wal] 
 
 ^ i^etD Unibtx^Kl Btogtapl^s. 
 
 [wal 
 
 =! 
 
 I was made paymaster of the forces, and, sub- 
 
 I sequently, prime minister. In consequence 
 
 I of disputes with his colleagues, however, he 
 
 I was induced to resign in 1717, and he re- 
 
 1 mained in opposition till 1720, when he once 
 
 1 more became paymaster of the forces. His 
 
 j reputation as a financier induced all eyes to 
 
 ' be directed towards him on the occurrence 
 
 of the unprecedented disasters arising from 
 
 I the bursting of the South Sea bubble ; and 
 
 j Lord Sunderland being obliged to retire, 
 
 j Walpole was again raised to the high situ- 
 
 I ation of premier, which he retained for two- 
 
 and twenty years, in spite of incessant attacks 
 
 I from political enemies of the most splendid 
 
 I talents. In 1742 he resigned, and was created 
 
 ! Earl of Orford. He was an able financier, a 
 
 good tactician in debate, a most serviceable 
 
 minister to the house of Brunswick, and a 
 
 zealous friend of the Protestant succession. 
 
 He died in 1745. 
 
 WALPOLE, Horatio, Lord, brother of 
 the preceding, was born in 1678, held various 
 offices under the government, and was an 
 able diplomatist, was created a peer in 1756, 
 I and died in 1757. He wrote an answer to 
 Bolingbroke's Letters on History, and some 
 political pamphlets. 
 
 WALPOLE, Horace, earl of Orford, the 
 youngest son of Sir Robert, was born in 
 1718, and was educated at Eton, and at 
 King's College, Cambridge. In 1741, Jie 
 entered parliament, successively represent- 
 ing Callington, Castle Rising, and Lynn. 
 But it was soon apparent that he took no 
 delight in senatorial proceedings, and in 
 1768 he retired wholly from public business. 
 Literature and the fine arts were the great 
 Bources of his delight, and much of his ex- 
 istence was pleasingly dedicated to the em- 
 bellishment of his villa at Strawberry Hill, 
 near Twickenham, and to the formation of 
 a splendid collection of the relics of an- 
 tiquity. He also established a private press, 
 and printed several works there. In 1791 
 he succeeded to the earldom, but never took 
 his seat in the House of Lords. His princi- 
 pal works are, "The Castle of Otranto," 
 " Historic Doubts of the Life and Reign of 
 Richard III.," " The Mysterious Mother," a 
 tragedy ; " Catalogue of Royal and Noble 
 Authors," and " The Anecdotes of Painting 
 in England." Died, 1797. 
 
 WALSH, Edward, an eminent physician, 
 was born at Waterford, in Ireland, and 
 graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh. He com- 
 menced his professional career as physician 
 in a West India packet, and had much ex- 
 perience in the treatment of the yellow 
 fever, which at that time was raging in 
 Jamaica. He afterwards served as an army 
 surgeon in Ireland during the rebellion, and 
 in the expeditious to Holland and Copen- 
 hagen. With the 49th regiment he pro- 
 ceeded to Canada, was afterwards attached 
 to the 6th dragoons, and sent to Spain ; and, 
 having accompanied the Walcheren expe- 
 dition, he was promoted to the stalf, went to 
 the Continent as physician to the forces, and 
 ended his medico-medical career at the 
 battle of Waterloo. Dr. Walsh published 
 " A Narrative of the Expedition to Holland," 
 and "Bagatelles, or Poetical Sketches." 
 Died, 1832. 
 
 862 
 
 WALSH, William, a minor English poet 
 of the 17th century. He was the friend of 
 Dryden and the patron of Pope, held a situ- 
 ation in the household of queen Anne, and 
 died in 1708. His poems are chiefly of an 
 amatorv character. 
 
 WALSINGHAM, Sir Eraxcis, an emi- 
 nent statesman in the reign of Elizabeth, was 
 born at Chislehurst, in Kent. After receiv- 
 ing his education at King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he acquired an excellent know- 
 ledge of languages, he was several times 
 employed on missions to France ; and, in 
 1573, he was appointed one of the secretaries 
 of state, and knighted. In 1583 lie went on 
 an embassy to James, king of Scotland ; and 
 three years afterwards sat as one of the com- 
 missioners on the trial of the unfortunate 
 queen Mary. He was a man of subtle policy, 
 sparing neither time, trouble, nor expense in 
 carrying such measures as he thought likely 
 to serve the cause of the queen and embarrass 
 her enemies. It has been said, that "he 
 outdid the Jesuits in their own bow, and 
 over-reached them in their equivocation," 
 and that he kept 53 agents and 18 spies in 
 foreign courts. He died in 1590, aged 89. 
 
 WALSINGHAM, Thomas, an English 
 chronicler of the 15th century, was a native 
 of Norfolk, and a Benedictine of St. Alban's. 
 He was appointed historiographer royal 
 about 1440, and wrote " A History of Eng- 
 land, from 1273 to the death of Henry V." 
 
 WALTER, JoHfT, whose name is inse- 
 parably connected with the gigantic achieve- 
 ments of the press in modern times, was 
 the son of Mr. John Walter, printer to 
 the customs, and for many years chief 
 proprietor of the Times newspaper. He 
 was born in 1773, and having, on the 
 completion of his education, made himself 
 acquainted with all the technicalities and 
 routine of a large printing establishment, 
 he, in 1803, became a joint proprietor and 
 exclusive manager of the Times ; and from 
 this period, during the long course of 44 
 years, he devoted himself to the moral and 
 material improvement of what has been so 
 justly termed " the fourth estate " of the 
 realm. Besides being among the first to 
 impart to the daily press its vast range and 
 celerity of information, its authentic accu- 
 racy, and its universal correspondence, he 
 was the first to bring the steam-engine to 
 its assistance. This took place Nov. 29th, 
 1814 ; and familiar as the discovery is now, 
 it was not made without an amount of risk, 
 labour, and anxiety, which few men could 
 have undergone. Mr. Walter's success in 
 the establishment of the Times as the "lead- 
 ing journal " was attained not so much by 
 his own brilliant abilities, as by the discern- 
 ment with which he sought out, and the 
 munificence with which he rewarded, talent, 
 wherever it could be found, and by the in- 
 tuitive sagacity with which he, from time 
 to time, felt the pulse of the nation and pre- 
 scribed accordingly. In adopting this course 
 he necessarily exposed himself to the charge 
 of inconsistency, and incurred the hostility 
 of all party politicians and class interests; 
 but for these sacrifices he was amply com- 
 pensated, in witnessing the growing success 
 of that great organ of public opinion, which 
 
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 ^ lirtD Slnibcr^al 33iogiapr)t). 
 
 [war 
 
 it had been his glory to found, and his chief 
 pleasure to assist and advise. Mr. Walter 
 sat in parliament from 1832 to 1837 for Berk- 
 shire, where his estate, Bearwood, was situ- 
 ated ; in 1840 he contested Southwark un- 
 successfully ; in April, 1841, he was returned 
 for Nottingham ; and it is a curious circum- 
 stance that Mr. Walter's vote in parliament 
 may be said to liave sealed the fate of the 
 Xlelbuurne administration, which he had 
 long been combating in the press (the motion 
 of want of conttdence, which led to its over- 
 throw, being carried only by a majority of 
 one). Died, 1847. 
 
 WALTHER, BERtfAUD, an eminent as- 
 tronomer of Nuremberg, in the 15th century. 
 He studied under and assisted Regiomonta- 
 nus, and is regarded as the first discoverer 
 of the regular effect of atmospheric refrac- 
 tion. Died, 15(>4. 
 
 WALTON, Brian, a learned prelate, was 
 born at Cleveland, in Yorkshire, in IGOO. He 
 suffered considerably at the breaking out of 
 the civil war, on which he fled to Oxford, 
 where he formed the plan of a "Polyglot 
 Bible," which was published in C vols, folio., 
 and to which he principally owes his literary 
 reputation. In IGfJO he was preferred to the 
 Bee of Chester, but died in London the year 
 following. 
 
 WALTON, IzAAK, of piscatory fame, was 
 born in 1593, at Stafford, and kept a lineu- 
 drai)er'8 shop in London, first in the Royal 
 Exchange, and afterwards at the comer of 
 Chancery Lane, Fleet Street ; but about 1C32 
 he married the sister of Bishop Ken, and 
 in the beginning of the civil wars quitted 
 the metropolis, and went to reside at Win- 
 chester, where he died in l(iA3. His " Com- 
 plete Angler" has long afforded delight not 
 only to those who are fond of that " inno- 
 cent recreation," but to general readers, and 
 has passed through numerous editions. He 
 was also a biographer ; and his Lives of 
 Hooker, Bishop Sanderson, Wotton, Donne, 
 and Herbert exhibit him as such in a highly 
 favourable light. 
 
 WANLEY, Natuaniel, an English cler- 
 gyman, residing at Coventry ; author of 
 " The Wonders of the Little World, or the 
 History of Man." Died, about 1090. 
 
 WANLEY, Humphry, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Coventry, in 1C72, and 
 educated at Edmund Hall, Oxford ; on leav- 
 ing which university lie became secretary 
 to the Society for Promoting Chriatian 
 Knowledge, and afterwards librarian to 
 the Earl of Oxford, in whose service he 
 died in 1726. Mr. Wanley formed a cata- 
 logue of Saixon manuscripts for Dr. Ilickes's 
 Tliesaurus, and made numerous collections 
 relative to archaeology and bibliography. 
 
 WARBECK, Peter, or Perkin, an indi- 
 vidual whose real history has been the sub- 
 ject of much speculation, made his appear- 
 ance in England, in the reign of Henry VII., 
 and assumed the character and title of 
 Richard duke of York, the younger son of 
 Edward IV., supposed to have been mur- 
 dered in the Tower, together with his bro- 
 ther, by order of Richard III. Having been 
 acknowledged by Margaret, duchess of 
 Burgundy, as her nephew, he proceeded to 
 claim the crown of England, and, landing 
 
 in Cornwall, was joined by some thousands 
 of insurgents. He laid siege to Exeter ; 
 but, on the approach of the royal army, he 
 fled to Beaulieu Abbey, in Hampshire, which 
 sanctuary he was induced to quit, under the 
 promise of a pardon, and he was sent in 
 custody to the Tower of London. He was 
 there treated as an impostor, and eventually, 
 in 1499, was hanged, drawn, and quartered. 
 Henry VII. published an alleged confession 
 of the captive, purporting that he was the 
 son of one Warbeck or Osbeck, a converted 
 Jew of Tournay ; but many have asserted 
 that he was an illegitimate son of Edward IV. 
 
 WARBURTON, Jou.v, an English an- 
 tiquary and herald ; author of " Vallum 
 Romanum." Born, 1082 ; died, IIK). 
 
 WARBURTON, William, bishop of 
 Gloucester, a very eminent theological 
 writer, critic, and controversialist, was born 
 at Newark-upon-Trent, in 1098. His works 
 are very numerous ; but those for which he 
 is most celebrated are, " A Critical and 
 Philosophical Inquiry into the Causes of 
 Prodigies and Miracles, as related by His- 
 torians," " The Alliance between Church and 
 State," "The Divine Legation of Moses," 
 " Vindication of Mr. Pope s Essay on Man," 
 and editions of Shakspeare, Pope, &c. Dr. 
 Warburton was a man of vigorous faculties, 
 a mind fervid and vehement, supplied by in- 
 cessant and unlimited inquiry, with wonder- 
 ful extent and variety of knowledge ; but he 
 was so proud of his literary powers, that he 
 treated all who opposed him with contemptu- 
 ous superiority and haughty disdain. He 
 commenced his clerical career in 1726, as 
 vicar of Griesley, in Nottinghamshire ; was 
 api>ointed, in 1740, preacher to the society of 
 I^incoln's Inn ; and rapidly advanced in his 
 profession, becoming bishop of Gloucester in 
 17.W. He died in June, 1779. 
 
 WARD, Edward, a burlesque poet, and 
 miscellaneous writer at the end of the 17th 
 century, wJio wrote " The London Spy," and 
 turned Don Quixote into Iludibrastic verse. 
 
 WARD, John, professor of rhetoric at 
 Gresham College, was born in London in 
 1679, and died in 1758. He wrote the "Lives 
 of the Gresham Professors," " Lectures on 
 Oratory," 2 vols. &c. 
 
 WARD, Robert Plumer, the well known 
 author of " Tremaine," was born in London, 
 1705. His father was a Spanish merchant 
 resident at Gibraltar, where his son Robert 
 passed his early years. When about eight 
 years of age, he was sent to England. He 
 received his education at Walthamstow, 
 where he had the late Mr. Justice Park for a 
 schoolfellow ; thence he was transferred to 
 Christchurch, Oxford ; and, after a short 
 period of continental travel, was called to the 
 bar by the Hon. Society of the Inner Tem- 
 ple, in 1790. For some years he went the 
 western circuit, spending his long vacations 
 at the house of his elder and only surviving 
 brother in tlie Isle of Wight ; and here he 
 wrote his " Inquiry into the Foundation and 
 History of the Law of Nations in Europe." 
 &c., wliich was published in 1795, and proved 
 successful both as a work of literature and 
 as a professional speculation. He was now 
 frequently employed in cases before the 
 privy council ; and the works relating to 
 
 803 
 
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 ^ ilchj ^ixihtiiKl ^StaQTajp^B. 
 
 [WAK 
 
 international and maritime law, which he 
 produced from time to time, secured him the 
 friendship of Lord Grenville, Sir W. Scott, 
 and Lord Eldon, who offered him a judgeship 
 in the admiralty court of Nova Scotia. This 
 offer, however, he declined ; and in 1802, 
 through tlie influence of Pitt and Lord Mul- 
 grave, to whom he was related by marriage, 
 he was elected to parliament for Cocker- 
 mouth, aided the premier both by his 
 speeches and his pen, and had just been 
 nominated to a Welsh judgeship, in 1805, 
 when he relinquished it for the under- 
 secretaryship of foreign affairs, Lord Mul- 
 grave being his chief. On the death of Mr. 
 Pitt, 1806, he retired into the country, and 
 occupied himself in rural pursuits ; but on 
 the formation of tlie Portland ministry, in 
 1807, he was made one of the lords of tlie 
 admiralty, exclianging tliis office in 1811 for 
 the clerkship of the ordnance, which he held 
 till 1823. He then retired from parliament 
 and from public life. But now that his 
 political life was over, and he found himself 
 without any other occupation than the 
 auditorship of the civil list — a sinecure 
 appointment, — he once more resumed the 
 pen, and wrote " Tremaine," which, though 
 published anonymously, produced a great 
 sensation in literary circles, and became 
 exceedingly popular. This was followed, in 
 1827, by " De Vere," which was hardly less 
 successful ; and after some years spent in re- 
 tirement and on the Continent, he returned 
 to his literary labours, and published succes- 
 sively his "Illustrations of Human Life," 
 " Pictures of the World," " Historical Essay 
 on the Revolution of 1688," and "De Clif- 
 ford," a novel in 4 vols. Mr. Ward was thrice 
 married. His second wife was Mrs. Plumer 
 Lewis, of Gilston Park, in Herts ; and shortly 
 after his marriage he assumed the name of 
 Plumer before that of Ward. Died at Oke- 
 overHall, Stafford, 1846, aged 81. His "Me- 
 moirs and Literary Remains" have been 
 published by the Hon. E. Phipps. 
 
 WARD, Setii, bishop of Salisbury, a 
 learned prelate, chiefly distinguished for his 
 skill in mathematics and astronomy. He 
 was public spirited and munificent, con- 
 tributing to several liberal undertakings, 
 besides founding and endowing a college of 
 matrons for 10 clergymen's widows. Born, 
 1617 ; died, 1689. 
 
 WARE, Sir James, an eminent antiquary 
 and historian, was born at Dublin, in 1594, 
 and died in 1666. He wrote " De Frsesulibus 
 Hibernioe," the " History and Antiquities of 
 Ireland," and several other works. 
 
 WARE, James, an eminent surgeon and 
 oculist, was born, about 1756, at Portsmouth. 
 After having been demonstrator of anatomy 
 at Cambridge, he formed a partnership in 
 the metropolis with Mr. Wathen, which 
 continued till 1791 ; after whicli he practised 
 on his own account, and attained a first-rate 
 reputation. Among his works are, " Ob- 
 servations on Ophthalmia," " Remarks on 
 Fistula Lachrymalis," and " Chirurgical 
 Observations." Died, 1815. 
 
 WARDLAW, Henry, bishop of St. An- 
 drew's, and founder of the university there, 
 was preferred to tliat see by pope Benedict 
 XIII. in 1404. Though a man of strict 
 
 864 
 
 morals and great simplicity of character, he 
 was a still greater enemy to what he believed 
 to be heresy than to' immorality ; and he 
 accordingly condemned to the stake those 
 who, unhappily for their temporal peace, 
 questioned the doctrines of the Romish 
 church. Died, 1440. 
 
 WARHAM, William, an English prelate 
 and statesman, was born in Hampshire, and 
 educated at Winchester School, and New 
 College, Oxford. He successively became 
 master of the rolls, lord chancellor, bishop of 
 London, and archbishop of Canterbury. In 
 1515 he resigned the great seal on account of 
 the differences between him and Wolsey, 
 and died in 1532. He was the friend of 
 Erasmus, and a great patron of literature. 
 
 WARING, Dr. Edward, an eminent 
 English mathematician. He wrote "Mis- 
 cellanea Analytica," " Meditationes Alge- 
 brnicse," "Meditationes Analyticae," "An 
 Essay on the Principles of Human Know- 
 ledge," and other works. Born, 1735 ; died, 
 1798. 
 
 WARNER, Dr. Fkrdistando, an English 
 divine, and a theological, biographical, his- 
 torical, and medical writer. Born, 1703 j 
 died, 1768. His principal publications are 
 " A System of Divinity," 5 vols.; an "Eccle- 
 siastical History of England," 2 vols. ; "The 
 Life of Sir Thomas More," and " The His- 
 tory of Ireland.". His son, John Wakner, 
 
 published a translation of the " History of 
 Friar Gerund," from the Spanish, 2 vols. ; 
 and a work on prosody, entitled "Metro- 
 nariston." 
 
 WARNER, John, a learned prelate, bom 
 at AVestmiuster, in 1585. He was successively 
 prebendary of Canterbury, dean of Lichfield, 
 and bishop of Rochester ; suffered much for 
 his loyalty in the rebellion, but recovered 
 his episcopal seat at the Restoration ; and 
 died in 1666. He was the founder of the 
 college at Bromley, Kent, for the widows of 
 clergymen. 
 
 WARNER, Richard, a botanist, born in 
 London, in 1711 ; died, 1775. He wrote 
 " Plantse Woodfordienses," &c. ; and at hia 
 death, bequeathed his library to Wadham 
 College, Oxford, where he had received his 
 education. 
 
 WARNER, William, an English poet of 
 the 16th century ; author of " Albion's Eng- 
 land," a poem written in an elegant style. 
 Born, 1558 ; died, 1609. 
 
 WARREN, Charles, an eminent en- 
 graver, was a native of London, and for 
 many years held a distinguished rank in his 
 profession. He was the first who effectually 
 removed the difficulties of engraving on steel. 
 Died, 1823. 
 
 WARREN, Sir John Borl ase, an eminent 
 naval officer, was born in 1754. in Cornwall ; 
 was educated at Winchester School, and at 
 an earlj' age entered the navy. During the 
 American war he performed several gallant 
 actions, and rose to the rank of post-captain. 
 On the breaking out of the French revo- 
 lutionary war, he equally distinguished him- 
 self ; particularly in capturing, off the coast 
 of Ireland, the Hoche man-of-war, and six 
 frigates laden with troops for the conquest of 
 that island. After the peace of Amiens, he 
 was appointed ambassador to Russia, in 
 
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 ^ i9ebj ainibfri^al Biosrapfjj). 
 
 [WAT j I 
 
 which post he remained until 1805. lie 
 attained the rank of admiral in 1810, and 
 died in 1822. 
 
 WARREN, Sir Peter, an able English 
 admiral, entered the navy when very yonng, 
 and gradually rose to the rank of commodore. 
 In 1745 lie commanded a squadron, witli 
 which he attacked and took possession of 
 Louisbourg ; and in 1747 he fell in with a 
 French squadron, which he completely de- 
 feated, capturing several of tlieir men-of-war. 
 This last exploit rendered him very popular, 
 and he was returned MJ*. for Westminster. 
 Died, 17.'.2. 
 
 WARTON, Dr. Joseph, son of the Rev. 
 Thomas Warton, professor of poetry at 
 Oxford, was born in 1722, at Dunsfold, in 
 Surrey ; was educated at Winchester School, 
 and Oriel College, Ojtford ; became curate of 
 Chelsea, and rector of Tamworth ; and, in 
 1760, was advanced to the station of head- 
 master at Winchester, where he presided 
 with high rejmtalion nearly SO years. In 
 1788 lie obtained a stall in the cathedral of 
 Winchester, and tlie rectory of Fasten, which 
 he exchanged for Upham. In 1793 he re- 
 tired from the school to his rectory of Wick- 
 ham, in Hampshire, where he died in 1800. 
 His chief works are, an " Essay on the Writ- 
 ings and Genius of Pope " and translations 
 from Virgil. 
 
 WARTON, Thomas, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1728 ; received his edu- 
 cation at Winchester School and Trinity 
 College, Oxford ; and in his 20lli year he 
 distinguished himself by his "Triiimph 
 of Isis," a poetical vindication of Oxford 
 against the reflections of Mason. His " Ob- 
 servations on Spenser's Fairy Queen," pub- 
 lished in 1754, made him advantageously 
 known as a critic, and prepared the way 
 for his election, in 1757, to the professorship 
 of poetry at Oxford, which he filled for 10 
 yearX with great ability. The first volume 
 of hi^ " History of English Poetry " was 
 published in 1774, and the second and tliird, 
 respectively, in 1778 and 1781. His plan was 
 extensive, including the period from the 
 11th to the 18th century ; but when he 
 had gone as far as the Elizabethan writers, 
 he suspended, and ultimately abandoned, 
 the undertaking. He succeeded Whitehead 
 as poet-laureate, and died in 1790. Besides 
 the works above noticed, he wrote some 
 elegant poems, and ijerformed various other 
 literary labours. 
 
 WARWICK, Sir Philip, a political and 
 historical writer, was born in Westniinster, 
 in 1008 ; was educated at Eton and Geneva ; 
 became a member of the long parliament, 
 but was expelled the house for joining the 
 king, to whom he was secretary ; took up 
 arms in the royal cause, was knighted by 
 Charles II., and died in 1082. He was the 
 autlior of a " Dibcourse on Government " 
 and some interesting "Memoirs of King 
 Charles I." 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, the first presi- 
 dent of the United States of America, was 
 born in 17.'i2, in Westmoreland county, 
 Virginia. His father died when he was 
 only 10 years of age ; but his elder brother 
 having married a connection of Lord Fairfax, 
 proprietor of the northern part of Virginia, 
 
 George was introduced to the acquaintance 
 of that nobleman, who gave him, when in 
 In his 18th year, an appointment as surveyor 
 of a certain portion of the before-mentioned 
 territory. At the nge of 20 he was a major 
 in the colonial militia, and in 1755 he served 
 under the unfortunate General Bruddock, 
 on whose fall he conducted the retreat in a 
 masterly manner. He held the command of 
 the Virginian troops till 1758, when he gave 
 in his resignation on account of ill health. 
 He now served his country as a senator, and 
 was elected a member of the assembly for 
 Frederick county, and afterwards for that 
 of Fairfax. When the breach between 
 Great Britain and her colonies was widened 
 by mutual animosity, the eyes of his coun- 
 trymen were fixed upon Mr. Washington ; 
 and accordingly, in June, 1775, lie took the 
 command of the army of America, at Cam- 
 bridge, in New England. Of the particulara 
 of tliat gicat revolution it is impossible here 
 to give a detail ; sufiice it to observe, that 
 to his intrepidity, prudence, and modera- 
 tion, the Anierieaus were almost wholly 
 indebted for that independence wliich was 
 secured to them by the treaty of peace con- 
 cluded in 1783. Soon after this event, Wash- 
 ington resigned his comniis.sion to congress, 
 and retired to his seat of Mount Vernon ; 
 a retreat from the toils of public life, wliich 
 he afterwards quitted with sincere regret. 
 In 1789 he was elected president of the 
 United States, and was received at Phila- 
 delphia with tiie applause which he so well 
 merited. He delivered his inaugural ad- 
 dress on the 30th of April, and throughout 
 his administration lie acted up to the prin- 
 ciples and promises therein contained. As 
 before, in his military capacity, so now in 
 his civil, he declined receiving anything be- 
 yond his actual exjienditure in his oflicial 
 character. He well knew that he was 
 chosen as the man of the nation, the guar- 
 dian of the universal weal, and in no in- 
 stance did he act or appear otherwise. His 
 incessant application to business impaired 
 his robust constitution, and in 179(5 he re- 
 signed his office ; on which occasion he 
 published a valedictory address to his coun- 
 trymen, replete with the most excellent 
 advice for their future conduct, and with the 
 soundest views of their political state. He 
 died, Dec. 14. 17i>9, in the G8th year of his 
 age ; and left, for the admiration of posterity, 
 a character unexcelled for disinterested 
 patriotism, uudeviatiug consistency, and 
 firmness of purpose, temjered with un- 
 afi'ected humanity. 
 
 WATELET, Claude Henry, a cele- 
 brated French writer on the fine arts and 
 belles lettres. He held the office of re- 
 ceiver-general of the finances, and died in 
 1780. 
 
 W^ATERIIOUSE, Enw.inn, a miscella- 
 neous writer; born in 1019 ; died, 1070. He 
 wrote an " Apology for I^earning and 
 Leariie<l Alen," " Defence of Arms and Ar- 
 moury." &c. 
 
 WATERLAND,Da.viel, a learned divine 
 and controversialist, was born in 1683, at 
 Wasely in Lincolnshire, and was educated 
 at Magdalen College, Cambridge, of which 
 he became master. At his death in 1740, he 
 
 86.5 
 
was chancellor of York, archdeacon of 
 Middlesex, canon of Windsor, and vicar of 
 { Twickenham. Among his works are, " A 
 i History of the Athanasian Creed," " Scrip- 
 I ture vindicated," " A Defence of Christ's 
 : Divinity," and " A Review of the Doctrine 
 I of the Eucharist." 
 
 I WATERLOO, AxTiioxY, an eminent 
 I Dutch painter, who lived in the early part 
 I of the 17th century, and excelled in land- 
 I scaoes. 
 
 I WATSON, David, a leamed editor, best 
 known as a translator of Horace, was born in 
 ' Scotland, in 1710. He led an irregular life, 
 and died in great poverty, in 175(3. 
 
 WATSON, Hexky, Colonel, a mathema- 
 tician and engineer, was born at Holbeach, 
 in Lincolnshire, in 173.). He greatly dis- 
 tinguislied liimself at the taking of tlie Ha- 
 vaunah, and afterwards went to India as 
 chief engineer. Died, 1780. 
 
 WATSON, Richakd, a celebrated English 
 prelate, was born in 1737, at Heversham, in 
 Westmoreland ; became a sizar, and after- 
 wards a fellow, of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge ; was chosen, in 17(54, professor of 
 clieniistry ; an<l in 1771 he succeeded to that 
 of divinity. He early distinguished himself 
 by a display of his political opinions, in a 
 sermon preached before the university, which 
 I was printed under the title of the "Prin- 
 ciples of the Revolution vindicated," and 
 I excited an unusual degree of public attention, 
 i In 177<! he printed " An Apology for Chris- 
 ' tianity," wliich he addressed to Gibbon. In 
 I 1782 he was advanced to the bisliopric of 
 LlandalT, with permission to hold the arch- 
 I deaconry of El^', lus professorship, and otlier 
 ecclesiastical preferments. On tlus promo- 
 i tion, he published a letter to the Archbishop 
 I of Canterbury, containing a plan for eqnal- 
 I ising chnrcli revenues. In 179G the bishop 
 1 appeared a second time as the defender of 
 1 revealed religicm, in his " Apology for the 
 Bible," designed as an answer to Paine's 
 ! Age of Reason. He was also the antlior of 
 I "Chemical Essays," 5 vols.; "Sermons," 
 : and " Theological Essays." Died, 181(i. 
 j WATSON, RoBKRT, an historian, was 
 born at St. Andrew's in Scotland, in 17.50. 
 He obtained the professorship of logic, rhe- 
 toric, and belies lettres at St. Andrew's, 
 I where he also became principal of the uni- 
 j versity, and died in 1780. Dr. Watson wrote 
 [ "The History of Philip 11.;" and commenced 
 that of Philip III., which was completed and 
 I published, for the benettt of his family, by 
 j Dr. Thomson. 
 
 WATSON, Sir William, a physician, 
 
 born in London, in 1715, was distinguished 
 
 I for his knowledge of natural philosophy 
 
 and his discoveries in electricity. Died, 
 
 1787. 
 
 WATT, James, a celebrated natural phi- 
 losopher and civil engineer, was born at 
 Greenock, in Scotland, in 173{), and began 
 life as a mathematical instrument maker ; 
 in which capacity he was employed by the 
 university of Glasgow, and he subsequently 
 established himself in that city. But he 
 soon turned his attention to the steam-en- 
 gine, in which he made the most important 
 improvements, He subsequently entered 
 almost wholly upon the business of a civil 
 
 engineer, particularly in planning and sur- 
 veying canals ; to aid him in which, he in- 
 vented a new micrometer, and a machine 
 for drawing in perspective. In 1774 he re- 
 moved from Glasgow to Soho, near Bir- 
 mingham, where he entered into partner- 
 ship with Mr. Boulton, in the business of 
 constructing steam-engines, which they car- 
 ried to the height of perfection. After having 
 given ample proofs of great mental endow- 
 ments, Mr. Watt retired from business with 
 a handsome fortune, which enabled him to 
 enjoy the evening of a well-spent life with [ 
 ease and comfort, in the bosom of his family. 
 Died, 1819. 
 
 WATT, Robert, a physician and biblio- 
 grapher, was born in 1774, in Ayrshire ; be- 
 came president of the faculty of physicians ' 
 and surgeons at Glasgow, and died there, in 
 1819. He compiled the "Bibliotheca Bri- 
 tannica," and some medical treatises. | 
 
 WATTE AU, ANTOijr«, an eminent French I 
 painter, was born in 1C84, at Valenciennes, j 
 He commenced as a scene painter at Paris, 
 but his admirable genius soon raised him 
 above that humble occupation ; and having 
 produced a picture which gained the prize 
 at the academy, his ardour for the art in- 
 creased, and he speedily rose to fame. Died, 
 1721. 
 
 WATTS, Dr. Isaac, a celebrated dissent- 
 ing divine of the independent persuasion, 
 eminently distinguished for his learning and 
 piety, was bom at Southampton, in 1674, 
 and educated at the free school there, and 
 next at an academy near London, He suc- 
 ceeded Dr. Chauncey as minister of a con- 
 gregation in the metropolis ; but nearly the j 
 last 40 years of his life was spent in the i 
 family of his friend. Sir Thomas Abney, at ! 
 Stoke Newington. Among his works, most | 
 of which still maintain their original popu- \ 
 larity, are "Psalms and Hymns," a treatise \ 
 on " Logic," and his " Improvement of the | 
 Mind." Died, 1748. 
 
 WAYNFLETE, William, a munificent 
 prelate of the loth century, whose real name j 
 was Piitteii, was born at Wainfleet, in Lin- 
 colnshire ; and was educated at Winchester ! 
 School, and at Oxford. He was made pro- | 
 vost of Eton, in 1442 ; bishop of Winchester, 
 in 1447 ; and lord chancellor, in 14.5(5. Died, | 
 1480. He was the founder of Magdalen Col- I 
 lege, Oxford, and of a free school at his | 
 native place. | 
 
 WEBIJ, Philip Carteret, a very distin- 
 guished English antiquary and law-writer, j 
 Born, 170« ; died, 1770. | 
 
 WEBBE, Samukl, an eminent English mu- | 
 sician, particularly celebrated for his glees, j 
 was born in 1740, and was apprenticed to a i 
 cabinet maker, but he abandoned his trade, 
 and gained a subsistence by copying music. ' 
 By study and perseverance he became an 
 excellent composer, and also acquired several 
 languages. Died, 1810. His glees and part i 
 songs lorm three volumes, and are much 
 admired. 
 
 WEBBER, JoHjr, an artist, born in Lon- 
 don, in 1751, who in Cook's last voyage was 
 appointed draughtsman to the expedition. 
 Died, 1703. 
 
 WEBER, Cakl Maria vox, one of the 
 most eminent of modern composers, was 
 
webJ 
 
 ^ iietu Huiljertfal SBwampf)!). 
 
 [WEL 
 
 bom in 17SC), at Eutin, in Holstein, and was 
 liberally educated. He made professional 
 tours throngli various parts of Germany, 
 and was successively chapel-master at Bres- 
 lau and at Carlsrulie, and comluctor of the 
 opera at Prague. In 1816 he accepted an 
 invitation to form a German opera at Dres- 
 den, and was appointed direct«>r of niusic to 
 the court. llis " Der Freischutz" was 
 brought out in 1821 at Berlin, and rapidly 
 attained a high degree of popularity through- 
 out Europe. He visited I^ondon in 182i}, 
 and produced the opera of "Oberon »" but 
 Itis healtii was greatly impaired, and he 
 died on the .")th of June, 
 r WEBER, Hknry Wii.mam, an archao- 
 logist and miscellaneous writer, was bom in 
 1783, at St. Petersburgh, of German parents ; 
 studied medicine at Edinburgh and at Jena ; 
 settled in Scotland, where he devoted himself 
 to literary pursuits, and died in 1818. Among 
 his publications are, " Metrical Romances of 
 the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth 
 Centuries," " The Battle of Flodden Field," 
 a poem, &c. 
 
 WEBSTER, Noah, LL.I>., a very emi- 
 nent and useful American author, was born 
 in West Hartford, United States. His an- 
 cestor, John Webster, was one of the earliest 
 English settlers in Hartford, and was sub- 
 sequently governor of Connecticut. Noah, 
 his father, and two more Websters, were in 
 the army on tlie occasion of Burgoyne's 
 expedition to Canada. Restored to more 
 peaceful pursuits, he continue<l his studies, 
 and in 1781 was called to the bar. Though 
 he had considerable professional employ- 
 ment, his active mind could not be sathsfled 
 without diffusing some portion of its ener- 
 gies through the medium of the press, and 
 ne published the "First Part of a Gram- 
 matical Institute," " Sketches of American 
 I Policy," and several other works, and also 
 I established and conducted a daily paper in 
 New York. But all these labours are com- 
 paratively insignificant when contrasted 
 with his elaborate English Dictionary, which, 
 notwithstanding it contains some very se- 
 rious mistakes on the subjects of etymology 
 and the analogy of languages, is a stupen- 
 dous monument of ability and industry. 
 Died, Mav 28. 184.S ; aged 85. 
 
 WEBSTER, Thomas, professor of geology 
 in the London University, was a native of 
 the Orkneys, and educated as an architect. 
 Having become acquainted with Count 
 Ilumford, whom he assisted in his researches 
 into the principles of domestic economy, 
 he abandoned his original profession, and 
 engaged in philosophical pursuits. His 
 favourite study was geology ; and a paper 
 on the " Freshwater Beds" in the Isle of 
 Wight, which appeared in the Transac- 
 tions of the Geological Society, in 1814, 
 not only brought him into notice in that 
 department of science, but obtained for 
 him, in the first instance, the offices of 
 keeper of the society's museum and drafts- 
 man, and, subsequently, house-secretary 
 and curator. His last literary occupation 
 was the " Encyclopaidia of Domestic Eco- 
 nomy " (published by Longman and Co.). 
 Died, Dec. 2«!. 1844, aged 71. 
 WEDGWOOD, JosiAU, an ingenious 
 
 improver of the English pottery manufac- 
 ture, was born near Newcastle-under-Line, 
 in 1730, and died in 1705. He not only 
 exercised his ingenuity very beneficially 
 in his particular trade, but he was versed 
 in several branches of natural philosophy, 
 invented the pyrometer, and was the pro- 
 jector of the Grand Trunk Canal. He 
 was public-spirited, enterprising, and bene- 
 volent. 
 
 WEEVER, Joiix, an English antiquary, 
 was a native of Lancashire, and educated at 
 Cambridge. He published a work of great 
 curiosity and value, entitled "Funeral Mo- 
 numents," and died about 16.32. 
 
 WEIGEL, Chimstiax EnREXFniED, a 
 German physician of the 18th century, dis- 
 tinguished for his chemical and botanical 
 knowledge. He wrote " Observationes Bo- 
 tanicaj," "Flora Pomerano-Rugica," &c. 
 
 WEIGEL, EnKAKD, an eminent mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, of the 17th cen- 
 tupsr. Died. 1690. 
 
 WEIMAR, Anne Amelia, Duchess of, 
 daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, was '< 
 born in 1700, and was distinguished by her ! 
 talents, and the patronage she afforded to 
 literature and the arts. The ruin of her I 
 family and other miseries, produced by the ' 
 French invasion of Germany, clouded her | 
 latter davs. Siie died in 1807'. 
 
 WEINBRENNER, Fredkric, an emi- | 
 Bent German architect, born at Carlsrulie, i 
 in 1766. After studying in Italy, and tra- 
 A'clling over the Continent for the purpose 
 of examining works of art, he returned to his 
 native country, and founded an institution 
 for the study of painting, modelling, poetry, i 
 the fine arts, and archaeology ; and from ' 
 this school issued many distinguished artists. 
 He erected several splendid edifices at Carls- 
 rulie, Leipsic, and other places, and wrote 
 treatises on diilercnt branches of science. ( 
 Died. 182R. | 
 
 WEISSE, Christian Feli.y, a German 
 poet and dramatist, born at Annaberg, in 
 Saxony, in 1726. He wrote the "Children's 
 Friend," and many other poi)iilar works for , 
 the amusement and instruction of youth ; 
 besides songs, dramas, and poems. Died, j 
 1804. I 
 
 WELD, Thomas, an English cardinal, 
 was born in 1773, at Lulworth Castle, Dor- I 
 8et:5hire, and was the eldest son of Thomas | 
 Weld, esq., founder of the Roman Catholic 
 College at Stoneyhurst, in l,ancasliire. He : 
 succeeded to his ancestral estates in 1810 ; ! 
 but, on the death of his wife, in 1815, he 
 took orders, and was some years afterwards j 
 consecrated coadjutor bishop of Canada. > 
 Being in Italv with his daughter. Lady de 
 Clifford, in 1829, pope Pius VIII. elevated 
 him to the dignity of a cardinal. For many 
 years previous he had devoted the whole of 
 his time, and a great part of his fortune, to j 
 pious and charitable purposes ; and he now i 
 relinquished his estates to his brother, I 
 Joseph Weld, esq., who, in 1830, received i 
 Charles X. of France, and his family, as | 
 guests at Lulworth Castle, previous to tlieir ! 
 removal to Holyrood House. He died, April j 
 10. 1837. 
 
 WELLESLEY, Richard Colley, Mar- ! 
 quis, a distinguished nobleman, who for I 
 
wel] 
 
 ^ ^ftu mntbnM 3St0srajp]^M. 
 
 [wel 
 
 more than half a century ranked among 
 the very first of British statesmen and di- 
 plomatists, was the eldest child of the first 
 Earl of Mornington, and a native of Ire- 
 land, being bom in Dublin, in Jnne, 1760. 
 At an early age lie was placed at Eton, 
 and in due time transferred to Oxford ; and 
 it appears that at both those great seats of 
 learning his superior classical attainments 
 not only attracted the notice of his contem- 
 poraries, but far excelled the generality of 
 even the most eminent amongst that learned 
 body. Ilis father dying just before he at- 
 tained his majority in 1781, the yonng 
 I Earl of Mominjrton took his seat in the 
 Irish House of Peers ; but it was not till 
 ! after his entrance into the British House of 
 j Commons (first as member for Beeralston, 
 and subsequently for New Windsor) that his 
 I statesman -like qualities could find ample 
 : room for their development. He was created 
 a Britisli privy councillor in 1793 ; and in 
 1797 he succeeded Lord Cornwallis in the 
 government of India, having been, at the 
 same time, raised to the British peerage by 
 the title of Baron Wellesley, in right of 
 which he continued to sit in the House of 
 I Lords. Accompanied by his illustrious 
 brother. Colonel Wellesley, afterwards Duke 
 of Wellington, he arrived at a most critical 
 j period for the safety of our Eastern empire, 
 i to take the supreme command. Buona- 
 parte had accomplished the conquest of 
 Egypt, and was supposed to meditate an 
 attack upon our Indian possessions. The 
 spirit of Tippoo Saib, sovereign of the 
 Mysore, rankled under his losses ; and 
 emissaries from the French government 
 ! encouraged him in his secret plans for the 
 j recovery of the district of Coimbatoor and 
 the hill fortresses which he had been com- 
 ! pelled to surrender. The first step taken 
 [ by his lordship was to secure and fortify the 
 I island of Perim, which commands the en- 
 i trance to the Straits of Babelmandeb ; the 
 next was to negotiate with Tippoo for the 
 ; purpose of inducing liim to abstain from 
 I intercourse with the French. The sultan, 
 1 however, entertained a strong conviction 
 ! that his true interests would be promoted 
 by an alliance with the Directory of France. 
 This being evident to the governor-general, 
 he determined to strike an immediate blow, 
 and the army, under General (afterwards 
 Lord) Harris, was ordered to invest Serin- 
 gapatam. Tlie siege lasted a month, the 
 ] town was taken by assault, the sultan slain, 
 i and his dominions partitioned. The gover- 
 nor-general was immediately raised a step 
 in the Irisli peerage, when he received the 
 title of Marquis Wellesley. Following up 
 the energetic measures he had so success- 
 fully commenced, we soon find the noble 
 marquis engaged in making a viceregal 
 progress through the northern provinces 
 of India, visiting the native princes, re- 
 dressing grievances, and laying upon a 
 broad basis the foundations of that vast 
 and mighty empire which has ever since 
 been the admiration and envy of the world. 
 We, of course, pass over the various 
 j achievements by which, under the gover- 
 ' nor-general's direction, his illustrious bro- 
 ther and other British commanders suc- 
 
 ceeded in bringing to a successful termina- 
 tion the desperate wars in wliich they were 
 engaged. At length, in 1805, he was, at 
 his own request, recalled from the govern- 
 ment in India ; the East Ihdia Company 
 having, in the course of his wise admini- 
 stration, and by the policy of his financial 
 plans, raised their revenue from seven mil- 
 lions to upwards of fifteen millions annually. 
 On his return the ministers of the crown, as 
 well as the East India Company, expressed 
 the deep sense they entertained of his splen- 
 did services ; but as there were many who 
 thought his administration had been need- 
 lessly expensive, and that his conduct was, 
 in some instances, unjust to the native 
 princes, articles of impeachment were pre- 
 sented against him by Mr. Paull, a member 
 of the House of Commons : they were, how- 
 ever, soon withdrawn, and a vote obtained 
 in his favour. In 1809 his lordsliip was 
 appointed ambassador to the supreme central 
 jimta of Spain ; but dissensions in the British 
 cabinet, and the fact that on the Peninsula 
 military services were more required than 
 diplomatic negotiations, caused his speedy 
 return. On the death of the Duke of Port- 
 land, the Perceval government was formed, 
 and the Marquis Wellesley was prevailed 
 upon to accept the office of secretary of state 
 for foreign affairs. This he held from Dec. 
 1809, till Jan. 1812 ; but diff'ering from his 
 colleagues on the Roman Catholic claims, 
 and on other material points, he withdrew 
 from the government. On the formation of 
 Lord I-iverpool's administration, after Mr. 
 Perceval had been assassinated., his lordship 
 remained in opposition ; during which time 
 he repeatedly called the attention of parlia- j 
 merit to the situation in which his illustrious 
 brother was placed in the Peninsula. He 1 
 described the conduct of the Spanish go- \ 
 vernment as feeble, irrcgtilar, and ill-di- j 
 reeled ; while he depicted the system adop- j 
 ed by the British ministers as " timid with- | 
 out prudence, and narrow without economy 
 — profuse without the fruits of expenditure, 
 and slow without the benefits of caution." j 
 In December, 1821, Lord Wellesley was ' 
 appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Sir 
 Robert Peel being the home secretary, j 
 This, while it raised the hopes of the ' 
 Roman Catholics, naturally disappointed the 
 Protestants ; and his arrival was converted 
 into a signal for the renewed jealousy and 
 rancour of both parties. His duties were, I 
 consequently, most arduous ; and it is but 
 bare justice to say, that throughout his vice- i 
 regal career he e\'inced great wisdom, discre- ! 
 tion, and impartiality. His brother the 
 duke having come into power, the noble 
 marquis, in 1828, resigned his post, and con- ; 
 tinned oiit of office till Lord Grey took the \ 
 head of the government, when a second | 
 time, in 1833, he was appointed to the lord- I 
 lieutenancy of Ireland, having for a short , 
 time previously filled the office of lord- 
 steward. During the administration of Sir 
 Robert Peel, 1834-.?, Lord Wellesley held no 
 official appointment ; but on the formation 
 of the second Melbourne ministry, in April 
 183.5, he accepted the appointment of lord- 
 chamberlain. His lordship, however, re- 
 signed it in the course of the same year and , 
 
wel] 
 
 Sr ^tln Bnibtr^Kl 38iogrfltiTji». 
 
 [WES 
 
 never afterwards filled any public employ- 
 ment. He had at that period attained the 
 very advanced age of 77, his health began 
 to decline, and he thought the time had at 
 length arrived for that season of repose 
 which it is so desirable should intervene 
 between the cessation of active pursuits and 
 the close of human existence. His death 
 took 1)1 ace on tlie 2(!th of September, 1842, his 
 lordship being in the 83rd year of his age. 
 He had been the subject of five successive 
 sovereigns — namclv, George II., George 
 III., George IV., William IV., and Victoria. 
 His father, as before observed, died in 1781, 
 but his motlier survived her husband during 
 the long period of half a centuiy. Slie died 
 in 18.'il, at the advanced age of 89 jears. 
 She lived to see four of her sons attain to 
 seats in the House of Lords by means of 
 their own unaided merits, and in reward of 
 public services never surpassed by any set of 
 men, and certainly never equalled by the 
 members of an individual family. 
 
 WEIiLS, EuwAitD, a learned divine, was 
 born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about 1G.5.'>, 
 and died in 1730. lie published a valuable 
 work on the "Geography of the Old and 
 I New Testament," 2 vols. ; a " Course of 
 Mathematics for Young Gentlemen," 3 vols.; 
 and some other works. 
 
 WELSTED, LEONArn, an English poet, 
 dramatist, and miscellaneous writer. Born, 
 1689 ; died, 1749. 
 
 WELLWOOD, Sir Uexry Moxcreiff, 
 bart., D. D., an eminent Scotch divine, was 
 born at Blackford, near Stirling, in 1750. 
 He was inducted at St. Cuthbert's, Edin- 
 burgh, in 1775, and took an a«tive part in 
 the government of the Scottish churcli, of 
 which he was an able and zealous pastor. 
 Died. 1827. 
 
 WELL WOOD, Thomas, a Scotch phy- 
 sician, was born near Edinburgh, in 1652, 
 and died in 1716. He was the author of 
 "Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 to 
 the Revolution." 
 
 WERKMEISTER, Andrews, an emi- 
 nent German composer, and writer on 
 music ; author of "Mnsicaa Matliematicae," 
 " Ilarmonologia Musica," &c. Born, 1645 ; 
 died. 1706. 
 
 WERNER, AuRAnAM Gottmeb, a cele- 
 brated German mineralogist, born in Upper 
 Lusatia, in 1750. His treatise, " On the ex- 
 ternal Characteristics of Fossils," procured 
 him tlie professorship of mineralogy at 
 Freyburg, where his lectures on geology and 
 mineralogy were attended by students from 
 various parts of Europe. He was also keeper 
 of the cabinet of natural history, and coun- 
 sellor of the mines in Saxony. His cabinet 
 of minerals, consisting of 100,000 specimens, 
 and which was unrivalled for completeness 
 and arrangement, he sold for 40,000 crowns, 
 reserving tlie interest of 33,000 to revert, at 
 the death of his sister, to the Mineralogical 
 Academy of Freyburg. To him the science 
 is highly indebted for its systematic arrange- 
 ment ; and he may, in fact, be considered 
 the Linnaaus of mineralogy. Died, 1817. 
 
 WERNER, Fkedekic Ludwio Zacha- 
 RiAS, a German dramatist, born at Konigs- 
 berg, in 1708, and studied philosophy under 
 Kant, In 1801 he published, at Berlin, " The 
 
 869 
 
 Sons of the Valley," which was followed by 
 "The Templars in Cyprus" and "The 
 Brethren of the Cross." He was very ec- 
 centric in his thoughts and habits, and 
 occupied himself with many romantic pro- 
 jects. At length, in 1811, he embraced tlie 
 Catholic faith, studied theology, and was 
 ordained a priest. He wrote several tra- 
 gedies and religious pieces, and died in 1823. 
 
 WERNER, Jostrn, an eminent Swiss 
 painter, especially excelling in miniature. 
 Born, ICW; died, 1710. 
 
 \\ERNER, Paul de, a celebrated Prui- 
 sian general, bom in 1707. He displayed 
 great bravery at the head of his troops at 
 the battles of Prague, Kollin, Breslau, &c., 
 and, in 1759, he drove General de Ville out 
 of Silesia, and raised the siege of Colberg. 
 He was alterwards taken prisoner by the 
 Russians, and the most advantageous offers 
 were made him by the czar Peter III. to 
 induce him to enter into his service, but he 
 rejected them, and, returning to Prussia, 
 was again successfully emi)loy ed in liis coun- 
 try's service ; and died in 1785. 
 
 WESLEY, Samiel, an English divine, 
 was born in 16()2, at Whitchurch, in Dorset- 
 shire ; was admitted a servitor of Exeter 
 College, Oxford ; and, on taking orders, 
 obtained the living of South Ormesby, in 
 Lincolnshire, and afterwards the rectories 
 of Epworth and Wroote. He wrote a vo- 
 lume of poems, entitled "Maggots," "The 
 Life of Christ," an heroic poem ; "The 
 History of the Old and New Testament, in 
 verse," 3 vols. &c. Died, 1735. 
 
 WESLEY, Samuel, eldest son of tlie 
 preceding, was born at Epworth, about 
 1692 : was educated at Westminster and 
 Christchurch, Oxford ; became usher in 
 Westminster School, and in 1732 was ap- 
 pointed master of the grammar-school at 
 Tiverton, where he died in 1739. He was a 
 rigid high-churchman, and wholly disap- 
 proved of the conduct of his brothers John 
 and Charles. He was the author of "The 
 Battle of the Sexes,'' and other poems. 
 
 WESLEY, John, son of Samuel Wesley 
 the elder, was born at Epworth, in 1703. 
 In 1730, while at Oxford, he and his bro- 
 ther, with a few other students, formed 
 themselves into a small society for the pur- 
 pose of mutual edification in religious ex- 
 ercises. So singular an association excited 
 considerable noticCf and, among other names 
 bestowed upon the members, that of Me- 
 thodists was ai)plied to them. Mr. Wesiey, 
 with some others, went to Georgia, in 
 America, in 1735, with a view of con- 
 verting the Indians. After a stay there of 
 two years, he returned to England, com- 
 menced itinerant preacher, and gathered 
 many followers. The churches being shut 
 against him, he built spacious meeting- 
 houses in London, Bristol, and other places. 
 For some time he was united with Mr. 
 Whitfield ; but ditferences arising, on ac- 
 count of the doctrine of election, they se- 
 parated, and the Methodists were denomi- 
 nated according to their respective leaders. 
 Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his la- 
 bours, and almost continually engaged in 
 travelling over England, Wales, Scotland, 
 and Ireland. His society, though consist- 
 
WES] 
 
 ^ |5cSm ^aitiljcr^al 3Bt0sraj)Ijii. 
 
 [WES 
 
 ing of many thousands, was well organised, 
 and he preserved liis influence over it to 
 the last. He published some volumes of 
 hymns, numerous sermons, political tracts, 
 and controversial treatises. In Wesley's 
 countenance, mildness and gravity were 
 pleasingly blended, and in old age he ap- 
 peared extremely venerable : in manners, 
 he was social, polite, and conversible : in 
 the pulpit, he was fluent, clear, and argu- 
 mentative. The approach of old age did 
 not in the least abate his zeal and diligence : 
 he was almost perpetually travelling ; and 
 his religious services, setting aside his lite- 
 I rary and controversial labours, were almost 
 beyond calculation. He died, March 2. 1791, 
 in the 89th year of his age. 
 
 WESLEY, Chari.es, younger brother of 
 the preceding, a minister also among the 
 Methodists, and of respectable talents as a 
 scholar and a poet ; born 1708 ; died, 1788. 
 
 WESLEY, Samuel, an eminent musician, 
 was the younger son of the preceding 
 Charles Wesley, and, consequently, nei)hew 
 to the celebrated John Wesley, the founder 
 of his sect. The musical precocity of 
 Samuel Wesley was astonishing. When 
 only three years old he could play and ex- 
 temporise freely on the organ ; and he be- 
 came, by the time he had arrived at man- 
 hood, not only one of the most astonishing 
 extemporaneous players in Europe, but a 
 fine composer and an excellent classical 
 scholar. In 1787, from an accidental fall, 
 which had nearly proved fatal, Mr. AVes- 
 ley so seriously injured his head, that for 
 seven years after he remained in a low de- 
 sponding state, and during the remainder 
 of his life was subject to periodical attacks 
 of nervous irritability. During his intervals 
 of health he prosecuted the science of music 
 with the utmost ardour ; he composed many 
 pieces, and was much engaged in public 
 performances on the organ. His compo- 
 sitions are grave and masterly ; his melodies 
 sweet, varied, and novel. He possessed re- 
 markable energy of mind, with a simplicity 
 of character rarely united. Died, Oct. 11. 
 1837, a?ed71. 
 
 WEST, Bexjamix, a celebrated painter, 
 was bom in 1738, near Springfield, in 
 Pennsylvania, of Quaker parents. After 
 exercising his pencil in diflferent parts of 
 America, he went to Italy in 17<iO, and 
 came to England in 1763. One of his ear- 
 liest friends was Dr. Drummond, archbi- 
 shop of York, who introduced the young 
 American artist to George III., by whose 
 order he executed his picture of " The 
 Departure of Regulus from Rome," and 
 Whose patronage he enjoyed above 40 years. 
 On the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in 
 1791, Mr. West was elected president of the 
 Royal Academy, which chair he enjoyed, 
 with the exception of a short interval, till 
 his death, in 1820. His " Death of General 
 Wolfe" was among the first of his produc- 
 tions that attracted public notice ; and 
 among his last and best were, " Djeath on the 
 Pale Horse" and " Christ healing the Sick." 
 
 WEST, Gilbert, a poet and miscella- 
 neous writer, born in 170i), was educated 
 at Christchurch, Oxford. He obtained the 
 offices of clerk to the privy council, and 
 
 870 
 
 treasurer of Chelsea College ; was the au- 
 thor of " Poems" and " Observations on 
 the Resurrection ; " and translated some of 
 the Odes of Pindar. Died, 1756. 
 
 WEST, Thomas, a topographical writer, 
 was born at Ulverston, in Lancashire, where 
 he died, in 1779. He wrote " The History of 
 Fumess" and " A Guide to the Lakes." 
 
 WESTALL, RicJiAnD, an eminent 
 draughtsman and designer, born in 1765, 
 was apprenticed to an engraver in heraldry 
 on silver, &c.; but his genius soared higher 
 than this humble department of the arts, 
 and having studied at the Royal Academy, 
 in 1786 he commenced his splendid career, 
 imparting to his water-colour paintings a 
 brilliance and vigour before unknown. 
 About this time he formed a friendly inter- 
 course with Mr. (afterwards Sir Thomas) 
 Lawrence, which continued through life. 
 Mr. Westall produced many excellent his- 
 torical paintings ; but he is best known as 
 the designer of Boydell's superb editions of 
 Milton and Shakspeare, and as the illus- 
 trator of numerous other works. From the 
 great facility with which his ready talent 
 enabled him to produce book designs, he 
 was led into a greater degree of mannerism 
 than any of his contemporaries -, but still he 
 produced many beautiful specimens of his 
 superior taste and judgment. Like his 
 friend Sir Thomas Lawrence, he was fa- 
 voured by royal patronage, his last occupa- 
 tion being, in giving her present majesty 
 (then Princess Victoria) lessons in drawing 
 and painting. He died, aged 71, Dec. 4. 
 1836. 
 
 WESTALL, William, a younger brother 
 of the preceding, and like him an eminent 
 artist, was born in 1782. In early life he 
 accompanied Captain Flinders in his voyage 
 round the world, on his return from which 
 he illustrated Captain Flinders' work, and 
 opened an exhibition in Brook Street, con- 
 sisting of representations of the chief objects 
 he had witnessed when abroad. In 1813 he was 
 elected an associate of the Royal Academy. 
 " Though little celebrated," says a contempo- 
 rary, "for his oil pictures, he had a pleasant 
 feeling for landscajje nature, lake scenery | 
 more especially." He worked largely for i 
 booksellers ; and many volumes, for which I 
 he supplied matter of fact illustrations from 1 
 his own drawings, as well as from the slight ] 
 sketches of artists and amateurs, evince his j 
 skill, and the taste and readiness with which I 
 he worked. Among other works which he ' 
 published may be mentioned, " A Series of 
 Views of Picturesque and Romantic Scenery 
 in Madeira, the Cape of Good Hope," &c. 
 fol. 1811-14; "Views of the Caves near 
 Ingleton, &c. in Yorkshire," fol. 1818 ; | 
 "Britannia delineata," "Views in London 
 and its Environs," 1825 ; " Picturesque Tour 
 of the Thames," &e. Died, Jan. 22. 1850. I 
 
 WESTON, Stephen, an eminent classical j 
 scholar and orientalist, was born at Exeter, j 
 in 1747 ; educated at Eton, and Exeter Col- i 
 lege, Oxford ; obtained the living of Man- j 
 head, Devon, in 1777 ; but resigned his eccle- | 
 siastical preferment in 1790, and thenceforth 
 devoted himself wholly to literary pursuits. | 
 We can here find space for the enumeration j 
 of only a few of his works ; among which 
 
may be mentioned, " A Specimen of the 
 Conformity of tlie European Languages, par- 
 ticularly the English with the Oriental Lan- 
 guages,^' " Letters from Pari?," 2 vols., " Spe- 
 cimen of a Chinese Dictionary," besides 
 various translations from the Chinese and 
 Persian, in prose and poetry ; sermons, 
 tales, and works relative to philology, 
 divinity, and antiquities. Died, 1830. 
 
 WESTON, Thomas, an eminent comic 
 actor, who performed at the Ilaymarket and 
 Covent (iarden Theatres. In " Jerry Sneak," 
 " Abel Drugger," and characters of a similar 
 stamp, he was very successful ; but he ruined 
 his health and prospects by dissipation, and 
 died in distress, in ]77(). 
 
 WESTON, William, rector of Campden, 
 in Gloucestershire, where he died in 17G0, 
 was the author of two very learned works, 
 one entitled, " An Enquiry into the Rejec- 
 tion of the Christian Miracles by the 
 Heathens ;" the other, " Dissertations on 
 some of the most remarkable Wonders of 
 Antiquity." 
 
 WETSTEIN, John James, a learned the- 
 ologian, was born in 1693, at Basle (where 
 several others of his family also distin- 
 guished themselves by their acquirements). 
 He devoted himself, with great ardour and 
 perseverance, to the restoration of the purity 
 of the text of the New Testament ; and, 
 after collating the various Greek manu- 
 scripts wliich lie met with in his travels and 
 researches, came to the conclusion, " that a 
 variety of readings were no objection to the 
 general authenticity of the text." In sup- 
 port of this opinion, he publishe<l his " Pro- 
 legomena ad Nov. Test. Grseci editionem ac- 
 curatissimam & vetustissimis Codd. MSS. 
 denuo procurandam." Died, 1754. 
 
 WETHERELL, Sir Charles, a distin- 
 guished chancery lawyer, was the son of the 
 learned Dean of Hereford, who for more 
 than half a century was master of Univer- 
 sity College, Oxford. He was born in 1770, 
 received his education at Magdalen College, 
 and in 1794 was called to the bar. For 
 many years he practised, though but with 
 moderate success, at the common law bar ; 
 i and he resolved on quitting the courts of 
 king's bench and common pleas soon after 
 Lord Eldon received the great seal. In 1818 
 Mr. Wetherell obtained a seat in parliament 
 as member for Shaftesbury ; and though lie 
 displayed much talent and energy in debate, 
 i " his slovenly attire, uncoutii gestures, patch- 
 work phraseology, fanciful illustrations, 
 ' odd theories, recondite allusions, and old 
 I fashioned jokes, tempted men to call him a 
 j buffoon when they ought to have admired 
 his ingenuity, reverenced his learning, and 
 honoured his consistency." From 1820 to 
 I 182*) Sir Charles represented the city of 
 Oxford ; subsequently he sat for Plympton ; 
 i and in 1830 he was elected for Boroughbridge, 
 which was disfranchised by the reform act. 
 In 1824 his just ambition was gratified in 
 j being appointed solicitor-general, and re- 
 ! ceiving the honour of knighthood. Three 
 years afterwards he succeeded Sir John 
 Copley as attorney-general, but on Mr. Can- 
 j ning assuming the reins of government he 
 resigned. He again, however, came into 
 I oflSce in 1828, under the Duke of Wellington, 
 
 871 
 
 but remained only 1.") months, being inve- | 
 terately opposed to Catholic emancipation, ! 
 and determined, as he expressed himself, to j 
 have no connection with " the scarlet indi- 
 vidual whose seat is on the seven hills." To t 
 the latest moment of his parliamentary j 
 career his zeal for Protestantism and his I 
 opposition to reform — either whig or radi- j 
 cal — knew no abatement; and amidst a ; 
 torrent of eloquence, learning, drollery, and 
 enthusiasm, he closed his senatorial life, ex- 
 claiming, "This is the last dying speech and 
 confession of the member for Boroughbridge." 
 Sir Charles held the office of recorder of 
 Bristol ; and it was expected that his great 
 unpopularity, as the marked opponent of the 
 reform bill, would render him particularly ! 
 obnoxious in that city, when he appeared | 
 there to hold the Michaelmas sessions for 
 1831. This was intimated to him, but he was 
 unwilling to shrink from the discharge of a j 
 public duty, and (after consulting Lord Mel- 
 bourne, the premier) he resolved to proceed i 
 to Bristol as usual. When Sir Charles en- 
 tered the city, his carriage was surrounded by ] 
 an infuriated mob, who hooted at and pelted '< 
 him with stones ; a^d it was with the utmost 
 difficulty that he and the other corporate 
 authorities who accomi)anicd him escaped 
 without sustaining mortal injury. Of the 
 disgraceful riots and burnings that took j 
 place on the following day and night, it is 
 sufficient here to observe, that the subject 
 of this memoir escaped the deadly peril that | 
 was designed for him, and continued to fulfil 
 the duties of his office until his death in 184(}, 
 aged 7(>. 
 
 WEWITZER, Ralph, a comic actor, dis- 
 tinguished for his wit and powers of repartee, 
 was a native of London, and originally a 
 jeweller ; but the admirable manner in 
 which he personated Jews, Frenchmen, &c., 
 proved that. In venturing on the stage, he 
 had not mistaken his forte. He died, a 
 pensioner on the Theatrical Fund, in 1824, 
 aged 76. 
 
 WEYSE, Christopher Ernest Frede- 
 rick, a dramatic and lyric composer of great 
 eminence, was born at Altona, in 1774. From 
 his relations who were musical, he received 
 instructions from his very infancy ; and his 
 fine natural capacity was thus so much im- 
 proved, that in 1799, when he was barely 25 
 years old, the Allgemeine Musikalische Zei- 
 tung, a very high musical authority, said of 
 him, " He is one of the first performers on 
 the pianoforte now living ; in his fantasias 
 he unites the science of Bach and the inex- 
 haustible genius of Mozart ; if he can succeed 
 in reaching the taste of the latter, the art 
 cannot be carried to greater perfection." 
 Though to his musical studies he added a 
 very diligent and extensive cultivation of 
 philosophy, astronomy, medicine, and lan- 
 guages, his compositions were very numerous 
 and various. lie composed "Floribella" 
 and " Kenilworth," two admirable operas; 
 "An Adventure in the Garden of Rosen- 
 berg," a very spirited comic operetta ; almost 
 innumerable songs, so popular, that they are 
 every where sung by the peasantry of Swe- 
 den, where he found constant patronage. 
 But it was chiefly in oratorios and other 
 sacred music that he excelled j of which his 
 
WHA 
 
 ^ ^fix) Winibtv^aX ^Siotjiajpljn. 
 
 [WHI 
 
 "Ambi-osian Chaunt," "Pentecost," "The 
 Sacrifice of Jesus," &c. are excellent speci- 
 mens. Died, 1842 ; aged 68. 
 
 WHALLEY, Peter, a native of Rugby, 
 in Warwickshire, was born in 1722, was 
 educated at St. John's College, Oxford, be- 
 came head-master of the grammar-school 
 I attached to Clirist's Hospital, and was rector 
 i of St. Margaret Pattens, London. He was 
 I the author of an " Essay on writing History," 
 I an " Inquiry into the Learning of Sliak- 
 j speare," &c. Died, 1791. 
 I WHAPtTON, Hexkv, an English divine, 
 I antiquary, and historian, was born in 1604, 
 at Worsted, in Norfolk. He was author of 
 "Anglia Sacra," 2 vols., and various other 
 works. 
 
 WHARTON, Thomas, Marquis of, was 
 
 born in 1640, sat in several parliaments 
 
 j during the reigns of Charles and James IL, 
 
 ! in which he strenuously opposed the court, 
 
 j and at the Revolution he was made a privy 
 
 j councillor. Being a zealous Whig, and a 
 
 I firm supporter of the Hanoverian succession, 
 
 he was raised to the rank of a marquis by 
 
 George I. Died, 1715. 
 
 WHARTON, Philip, Duke of, son of the 
 
 preceding, was born in 1669, and very early 
 
 ! gave signs of those talents which he after- 
 
 j wards displayed in a manner that more dis- 
 
 ! graced than honoured their possessor. After 
 
 j having, during his travels, accepted the title 
 
 of duke from the Pretender, lie returned to 
 
 England, and evinced the versatility of his 
 
 political principles by becoming a warm 
 
 championof the existing government. Hav- 
 
 I ing impoverished himself by extravagance, 
 
 he again changed his politics, and, retiring 
 
 to tlie Continent, intrigued with tlie Stuarts. 
 
 He died in indigence, in Spain, 1731. His 
 
 poems, letters, and miscellaneous pieces 
 
 form 2 vols. 
 
 WHEATEEY, Chakles, a divine of the 
 church of England, and author of a " Ra- 
 tional Illustration of the Common Prayer." 
 Died, 1742. 
 
 AVHE ATLE Y, Francis, a painter of some 
 eminence, born in London, in 1747 ; died, 
 1801. He was a self-instructed artist, at- 
 tained celebrity as a portrait painter, and 
 excelled in the representation of rural 
 scenes. 
 
 WHELER, or WHEELER, Sir George, 
 
 a divine and traveller, was born in 1650, at 
 
 Charing, in Kent ; was educated at Lincoln 
 
 Hall, Oxford, travelled into Greece and Asia 
 
 Minor, became a prebendary of Durham, 
 
 j vicar of Basingstoke, and rector of Houghton- 
 
 j le-Spring, and died in 1723-4. Besides his 
 
 j " Journey into Greece," a valuable and au- 
 
 ] thentic work, he wrote " The Protestant 
 
 Monastery " and " An Account of the 
 
 Churches of the Primitive Christians." He 
 
 I built a chapel on his estate in Spitalfields, 
 
 which still bears his name. 
 
 WHISTON, William, a learned divine 
 and mathematician, was bom at Norton, in 
 Leicestershire, in 1667. He studied at Clare 
 Hall, Cambridge, was chosen a fellow of his 
 college, and entered into holy orders. In 
 1703 he succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as pro- 
 fessor of mathematics, but having conceived 
 douDts concerning the doctrine of the Tri- 
 j nity, and, at length, adopted Arian opinions, 
 
 672 
 
 he was expelled from the iniiversity in 1710, 
 and deprived of his office. He then removed 
 to the metropolis, and gave lectures on as- 
 tronomy ; but was prosecuted as a heretic, 
 though the proceedings were ultimately ter- 
 minated by a,n act of grace in 1715. Being 
 refused admission to the sacrament at his 
 parish church, he opened his own house for 
 public w^orship, using a liturgy of his own 
 composition ; and towards the close of his 
 life he became a baptist. Having subse- 
 quently distinguished himself by an abor- 
 tive attempt to discover the longitude, and 
 by his professed opinions relative to an ap- 
 proaching millennium and the restoration 
 of the Jews, he died in 1752. His principal 
 works are, "A New Theory of the Earth, 
 from its Original to the Consummation of 
 all Things," " Praelectiones Astronomicse," 
 " Prailectiones Pliysico - Mathematicae, " 
 "The Works of Josephus, " 4 vols; and 
 " Memoirs of his own Life," 3 vols. 
 
 WIIITAKER, Edward, ".was bom in 
 1750; studied at Christchurch College, Ox- 
 ford ; obtained the livings of St. Mildred's, 
 and All Saints, Canterbury ; afterwards kept 
 an academy at Egham, in Snrrcy ; and, not 
 long before liis death, he was very instru- 
 mental in establishing that useful institu- 
 tion, the Refuge for the Destitute. His 
 principal works are, "A general and con- 
 nected View of the Prophecies," " Family 
 Sermons," 3 vols. ; and " An Abridgment of 
 Universal History," 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 WIIITAKER," John-, an eminent divine 
 and historian, was born at Manchester, in 
 1735 ; and died, rector of Ruan Lanyliorne, 
 Cornwall, in 1808. Among his numerous 
 works are, "A History of Mancliester," 
 a " Vindication of Mary, Queen of Scots," 
 3 vols. ; " The Course of Hannibal over the 
 Alps," 2 vols. ; and " The Origin of Govern- 
 ment." 
 
 WHITBREAD, Samuel, a distinguished 
 member of the House of Commons, was 
 the son of the eminent brewer in Chiswell 
 Street, London, and born in 1758. He re- 
 presented Bedford in parliament many 
 years, and was one of the most vigorous 
 opponents of Mr. Pitt. He also conducted 
 the impeachment of Lord Melville, and was 
 uniformly in opposition to the govern- 
 ment. In a fit of insanity, supposed to be 
 occasioned by liis overianxious attention to 
 business, and particularly to the intricate 
 concerns of Drury Lane Tlieatre, with which 
 he was connected, he destroyed himself in 
 1815. 
 
 WHITE, Gilbert, a divine and natu- 
 ralist, was born at Selborne, in Hampshire, 
 in 1720. He resided on his paternal estate 
 in his native village, devoting his leisure to 
 literature and the study of nature ; and the 
 fruit of his researches appeared in his popu- 
 lar work, " The Natural History and Anti- 
 quities of Selborne." Died, 1703. 
 
 WHITE, Henry Kikke, a youthful poet 
 of great promise, was born at Nottingham, 
 in 1785, and from his infancy manifested an 
 extraordinary love of learning. He was first 
 placed with a stocking-weaver, from which 
 business he was removed to the office of an 
 attorney, where he devoted all his spare 
 time to the acquirement of Latin and Greek j 
 
wni] 
 
 ^ i^ctD Bnibtv^Hl 3SiDgrapI)M. 
 
 [tvhi 
 
 and at length, throngh the generosity of 
 Mr. Wilberforce, he was admitted a student 
 of St. John's College, Cambridge. There 
 he applied himself to his studies with such 
 unremitting labour, that his constitution 
 sunk under the effort, and he died in 18')6. 
 The " Remains of Ilcury Kirke White," con- 
 sisting of poems, letters, and fragments, have 
 been edited by Southey. 
 
 WHITE, the Rev. IIe.vky, a clergyman 
 of the church of England, long known as 
 one of the most eminent literary characters 
 of Lichfiehl, and who in his younger days 
 was the acquaintance and friend of Miss 
 Seward and Dr. Johnson. Died, 1836. 
 
 WHITE, Jamks, a miscellaneous writer, 
 ■was a native of Iieland, and was educated 
 at the university of Dublin, lie was the 
 author of " Conway Castle, and other 
 Poems ; " " Earl StronglK)w," a roman(;e ; 
 "Adventures of John of Gaunt," 3 vols. ; 
 " Richard Cccur de Lion," 3 vols. &c. Died, 
 1799. 
 
 WHITE, Jekemy, a Nonconformist mi- 
 nister, who wrote a remarkable hook on the 
 "Restoration of all Things," in which he 
 maintained the doctrine of universal re 
 dcmption. Died, 1707. 
 
 WHITE, or WIIYTE, Jonx, bishop of 
 
 Winchester, born at Faniham, in Surrey, 
 
 in 1511. In the reign of Edward VI. he was 
 
 sent to the Tower for opposing the Reform- 
 
 I ation, but Queen Mary released him, and 
 
 ' made him a bishop. Died, 1,500. 
 
 I WHITE, John, usually styled the " Pa- 
 
 ' trlarch of Dorchester," was highly esteemed 
 
 \ for his preaching and sauclity. Born, 1574 ; 
 
 I died, lfi48. 
 
 I WHITE, Joseph, an eminent divine and 
 orientalist, was born at Stroud, in Glouces- 
 tershire, in 1746 ; was educated at Wadham 
 College, Oxford ; and was elected Laudian 
 , professor of Arabic, in 177.5. Having, in 
 j 1781, as Bampton lecturer, delivered a set of 
 I sermons on the evidences of Christianity, 
 I which were highly approved of, he was pre- 
 ' sented to a prebend at Gloucester, and took 
 [ the degree of D. D. ; though it afterwards 
 j appeared he was much indebted to Mr. Bad- 
 cock and Dr. Parr in the composition of 
 them. In 18(X) he published his "Diates- 
 saron," or a Harmony of the Gospels in 
 ' Latin, which was followed by his " ^gyp- 
 ' tiaea, or Observations on certain Antiquities 
 i of Egvpt;" " Griesbach's Greek Testa- 
 i ment," &c. Died. 1814. 
 
 WHITE, Sir Thomas, founder of St. 
 
 I John's College, Oxford, was born at Read- 
 
 I ing, in 1492 ; became an opulent London 
 
 tradesman ; and, in i5r>S, he served the office 
 
 of lord mayor, and received the honour of 
 
 knighthood for preserving the peace of the 
 
 city during Wyatt's rebellion. He died in 
 
 15()f). 
 
 I WHITE, Thomas, an English philosopher 
 
 ] of the ]7th century, chiefly known as the 
 
 friend and correspondent of Hobbes and 
 
 Descartes. Died, 169B. 
 
 WHITEHEAD, George, a Qiiaker, bom 
 at Orton, in Westmoreland, in 1B36. He 
 endured with patience much persecution 
 for his zealous attempts at proselytism ; but 
 he continued to persevere, and, after the 
 Revolution, he procured for the members of 
 
 873 
 
 his sect the legal allowance of an affirmation 
 instead of an oath» Died, 172.5. 
 
 WnilTEHEAD, John, a physician and 
 methodist preacher, who attended Mr. John 
 Wesley in his last illness, preached his 
 funeral sermon, and published "Memoirs of 
 his Life," 2 vols. Died, 1804. 
 
 WHITEHEAD, Paul, author of the sa- 
 tires entitled "The State Dunces," "The 
 tiymnasiad," and " Manners." He was 
 deputy-treasurer of the exchequer chamber. 
 Died, 1774. 
 
 WHITEHEAD, W'ili.iam, a poet, was 
 bom at Cambridge, in 1715, was educated 
 at Winchester School and Clare Hall, and 
 succeeded Cibber as poet laureate. He wrote 
 the tragedies of " The Roman Father " and 
 "Creusa," the comedy of "The School for 
 Lovers," several elegant poems, &c. Died, 
 178.5. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, or WHITFIELD, Geo., 
 founder of the Calvinistic Methodists, was 
 born in 1714, at Gloucester, where his father 
 kept the Bell Inn. While at Pembroke 
 College, Oxford, he joined the Wesleys and 
 their associates, and on being ordained dea- 
 con, he soon became a popular preacher. In 
 17;}8 he went to Georgia, where his conduct 
 gave great satisfaction to the colonists, and 
 he returned to England to procure subscrip- 
 tions for building an orphan house in that 
 settlement. On obtaining priest's orders, 
 and repairing to London, the churches in 
 which he preached were incapable of holding 
 the assembled crowds ; he therefore adoi)ted 
 the design of preaching in the open air, 
 which he did to vast assemblages of people, 
 who came from all parts to hear him. In 
 1739 he again embarked for America, and 
 made a tour through several of the provinces, 
 where he jM-eached to immense audiences, 
 and returned to England in 1741. After 
 visiting many parts of England, Wales, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, and displaying a de- 
 gree of intrepidity and zeal that overcame 
 all difficulties, he made a seventh voyage to 
 America, and died at Newbury Port, in New 
 England, Sept. .W. 1770. 
 
 WHITEIIURST, John, an ingenious me- 
 chanic, born at Congleton, in Cheshire, in 
 1713 ; was distinguished by his superior 
 construction of hydraulic machines, ther- 
 mometers, barometers, &c. Died, 1788. 
 
 WHITELOCK, Bn.sTFODE, an eminent 
 lawyer and statesman, born in 1605. He 
 was chairman of the committee for drawing 
 up the charges against the Earl of Strafford; 
 but though he adhered stedfastly to the re- 
 publicans, he rendered various services to 
 learning and religion during that dreadful 
 period, and took no part in the proceedings 
 against Charles I. Died, ]G7«. 
 
 WHITGIFT, John, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, was born at Great Grimsby, in 
 Lincolnshire, in 15.53, and having been gra- 
 dually advanced to the primacy, as successor , 
 to Grindal in 1,583, he filled the situation 
 with orthodox firmness, and was regarded 
 both by Catholics and Puritans as a perse- 
 cutor. Died, 1603. 
 
 WHITLOCK, Elizabeth, a sister of the 
 Messrs. Kemble and Mrs. Siddons, was born j 
 in 1761 . Allured by the success of her sister, | 
 she chose the histrionic art, and after a little . 
 
WHi] 
 
 ^ |lel» ^nitin'^al 28i0jarap]55« 
 
 [WIL 
 
 practice in the country, made her first ap- 
 pearance at Drury Lane Theatre in 1783, 
 the same year that John and Stephen made 
 their debuts in London. In 1785 she mar- 
 ried Mr. Whitlock, manager of the Newcastle 
 Theatre, and in 1792 she accompanied her 
 husband to America, where, in 1799, he died. 
 Though far excelled by her sister, whom slie 
 greatly resembled in person, she was a good 
 tragic actress, and realised a fortune by her 
 profession. Died, 18;5f5. 
 
 WHITTINGHAM, Sir Samuel Ford, 
 a lieutenant-general in the British service, 
 passed through tlie various gradations as a 
 cavalry officer, and was appointed deputy as- 
 sistant quarter-master-general in the army 
 under the Duke of Wellington in 1809. lie 
 afterwards served with the Portuguese army, 
 and was subsequently emploj'ed in America. 
 But the chief scene of his services was with 
 the Spanish troops during the Peninsular war, 
 having been aide-de-camp to General Cas- 
 tanos, and afterwards serving under the Duke 
 of Albuquerque. He consequently shared in 
 the battles of Baylen, Barossa, andTalavera, 
 in the latter of whicli lie was severely 
 wounded. In 1812, after having raised and 
 disciplined a large corps of Spanish troops, 
 he was appoijited to the command of them, 
 as major-general ; and, in junction with tlie 
 British army at Alicant, he was success- 
 fully opposed to tlie French under Marshal 
 Suchet ; after which he served with distinc- 
 tion in command of a division of infantry, 
 under Sir John Murray, and subsequently 
 under Lord W. Bentinck. As a reward for 
 his services, the prince regent appointed 
 him one of his aides-de-camp, and he re- 
 ceived tlie honour of kniglithood. He was 
 also invested with the grand cross of the 
 order of San Ferdinando by the king of 
 Spain, who, on Napoleon's escape from Elba, 
 in 1815, sent expressly for Sir William. In 
 1819 he was appointed governor of Do- 
 minica ; but in 1822 his services were trans- 
 ferred to India, as qnarter-master-general 
 of the king's troops, and subsequently as a 
 major-general. On returning from India in 
 1835, he was appointed to the command of 
 the forces in the Windward and Leeward 
 Islands ; but he was permitted to resign this 
 post in 1839, in order to take the command 
 in chief at Madras, where he arrived in 
 August, 1840, and died in January, 1841. 
 
 WHITTINGHAM, William, a divine, 
 who in the reign of Elizabeth was dean of 
 Durham, in which cathedral he committed 
 sad outrages, by mutilating or removing the 
 statues, monuments^ and other ancient re- 
 mains, under an idea that they savoured of 
 popery. Died, 1579. 
 
 AVHITTINGTON, Sir Richakd, a citizen 
 and mercer, and " thrice lord mayor of 
 London," was an extensive benefactor to the 
 metropolis, though the marvellous stories 
 connected with his name are groundless 
 fictions. His almshouses for 13 poor men 
 form an interesting object on Highgate Hill, 
 and near them stands the famous stone 
 which commemorates his return to London 
 at the time the church bells so invitingly 
 recalled him, in tones which he was fain to 
 believe assured him of future civic honours. 
 His last mayoralty was in 1419. 
 
 WHITWOP.TH, Charles, Earl, an able 
 diplomatist, was bom in 1754, at Seabnrne 
 Grange, in Kent, and was educated at Tun- 
 bridge School. He was ambassador to Po- 
 land in 178<5. and to Russia in 1788, at which 
 court he resided 12 years. In 1801 he nego- 
 tiated a treaty with Denmark, was sent as 
 j)lenipotentiiiry to Paris in 1802, went to 
 Ireland as viceroy in 1814, and died in 1825. 
 
 WICKIJJ F, or WYCLIFFE, John, an 
 English divine of the 14th century, who has 
 received the appellation of the " Morning 
 Star of the Reformation," was born about 
 1324, at a parish in Yorkshire, whence he 
 takes his name. He studied at Oxford, and 
 was the first who opposed the authority of 
 the pope, the jurisdiction of the bisliops, and 
 the temporalities of the church. AVickliff 
 also translated the Scriptures, and in 1381 
 he ventured to attack the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, in a piece entitled " De Blas- 
 phemia," which being condemned at Oxford, 
 lie went tliitherand made a declaration of his 
 faitli, professing his resolution to defend it 
 witli liis blood. Died, 1384. 
 
 WIELAND, Chiustophkr Martin, an 
 eminent German novelist and essayist, was 
 born in 1733, at Biberach, in Suabia. Like 
 Goethe and Schiller, lie resided chiefly at 
 Weimar. His works form 42 vols., and are 
 too multifarious to enumerate ; they include 
 histories, tales, poems, essays, and numerous 
 translations ; among the latter are the works 
 of Sliakspeare. His chief poetical production 
 is his epic romance " Oberon," in 12 cantos, 
 published in 1780. Died, 1813. 
 
 WIFFEN, Jeremiah Holme, a celebrated 
 Quaker poet, was born in 1792, and brought 
 up to the profession of a schoolmaster, in 
 which he was for some years engaged. The 
 work on which his poetical fame mainly 
 rests is a translation of Tasso, in which he 
 adopted the Spenserian stanza ; but he wrote 
 many other works, and was a contributor of 
 poetry to some of the most popular Annuals. 
 Among his productions we must name 
 " Aonian Hours, and other Poems ;" also, a 
 translation of poems from the Spanish of 
 De la Vega ; a series of stanzas illustrative 
 of the portraits at Woburn Abbey, entitled 
 "Tlie Russells," and his able prose work, 
 •' The History of the Russell Family," which 
 he traces up to the heathen chiefs three 
 centuries before the time of the conquering 
 Rollo. With a liberality befitting his wealth 
 and station, the Duke of Bedford appointed 
 him to the situation of private secretary and 
 librarian ; and, under the patronage of his 
 grace, surrounded as he was by rare books, 
 paintings, sculpture, and objects of vertu, lie 
 spent his hours in an enviable state of mental 
 luxury ; for lie was not a mere book worm, 
 but had a taste for the fine arts generally ; 
 and, while he was an admirer of all that is 
 good in morals, he well appreciated whatever 
 was beautiful in creation. He died in 1836. 
 His sister is the wife of Mr. Alarie Watts, 
 both poets, and well known in the literary 
 world. 
 
 WILBERFORCE, William, a distin- 
 guished philanthropist, was born in 1759, 
 at Hull. He completed his education at 
 Cambridge, and there obtained the friend- 
 ship of Mr. Pitt. He was elected M.P. for 
 
 874 
 
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 ^ i^m UnibniKl 38i0ffrapTjn. 
 
 [wil 
 
 Hull directly he was of age. The next 
 year (1787), he distinguished himself by his 
 exertions for tlie abolition of the slave trade, 
 which, after a long warfare and many strug- 
 gles, was finally decreed by the British legis- 
 lature in 1807. Mr. Wilberforce approved 
 the principles of the French revolution, as 
 they exhibited themselves at its commence- 
 ment ; and, on the motion of M. Brissot, in 
 Augtist, 1792, was voted the right of French 
 citizenship. But, in ISOI, he denounced 
 the designs of Buonaparte, and supported 
 all the ministerial measures of vigorous op- 
 position to France. In his exertions to 
 emancipate the hapless African from the 
 chains of slavery, Mr. Wilberforce never 
 relaxed ; and he lived to see the second read- 
 ing of the "Emancipation Act" carried by 
 the House of Commons. He published a 
 " Practical View of the prevailing Religious 
 Systems of Professed Christians," and an 
 " Apology for the Christian Sabbath." Died, 
 aged VS, in 18.'«. 
 
 WILCOCKS, Joseph, a philanthropist 
 and ingenious writer, was the son of the 
 Bishop of Rocliester, and born in 172.'$. He 
 was the author of " Roman Conversations " 
 and " Sacred Exercises." Died, 1791. 
 
 WILD, Henry, a tailor of Norwich, who 
 made himself master of the Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and other Oriental languages ; and was in- 
 debted to Dr. Prideaux for a place in the 
 Bodleian library. He translated from the 
 Arabic, Mahomet's Journey to Heaven. 
 Born, 1684 ; died, 1735. 
 
 WILDBORE, Charles, an ingenious 
 mathematician, who was entirely eelf-taught 
 both in his favourite science and in the lan- 
 guages. Died, ]80;5. 
 
 WILFORl), Fraxcis, an eminent orien- 
 talist, was a native of Hanover, and went to 
 India in 1781, as an officer witli tlie foreign 
 troops sent there by the British government. 
 He became one of the first members of the 
 Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and published 
 many valuable memoirs on tlie history and 
 antiquities of Hindostan, in the Asiatic Re- 
 searches. Died, 1822. 
 
 WILKES, Jou.v, an alderman of London, 
 distinguished for tlie violence of liis political 
 conduct, was born in the metropolis, in 
 1727. He received a liberal education ; and, 
 after travelling on the Continent, married 
 a lady of fortune, and became a colonel 
 of the Buckinghamshire militia. In 17(51 
 he was elected M.P. for Aylesbury ; but on 
 publishing an offensive libel in No. 45. of his 
 periodical paper, the North Briton, a general 
 warrant was issued by the secretary of state 
 to seize liim and his papers, and he was 
 committed to the Tower. In a few days 
 after, however, he was brought, by writ of 
 habeas corpus, before Chief-justice Pratt of 
 the common pleas, who decided that general 
 warrants were illegal, and he was conse- 
 quently discharged, amidst the general re- 
 joicings of the populace. In the meantime 
 Wilkes incurred another prosecution for 
 printing an obscene poem, called an "Essay 
 on Woman ;" and, for not appearing to re- 
 ceive judgment, was outlawed. He then 
 went to France, where he resided till 1708, 
 when lie was elected for Middlesex ; but was 
 prevented from taking his seat, and com- 
 
 mitted to the king's bench prison, which 
 occasioned dreadful riots in St. George's 
 Fields. He had now attained the height of 
 his popularity ; a large subscription was 
 entered into to pay his debts ; and in 1774, 
 the year of his mayoralty, he was again 
 elected for Middlesex, and permitted to take 
 his seat without further opposition. He died 
 in 1797. 
 
 WILKIE, Sir David, a painter of dis- 
 tinguished merit, was born near Cupar in 
 Fifeshire, in 1785, his father being a minister 
 of the Scotch church. In 1805 he came 
 to London, and soon attracted notice by 
 the excellence of his earliest efforts ; his 
 career of fame commencing with his " Vil- 
 lage Politicians," " Blind Fiddler," " Rent 
 D.ay," &c. His reputation was now esta- 
 blished, and in 1811 he was made a royal 
 academician, 'from which period he regu- 
 larly produced, and as regularly sold at 
 increasing prices, his most celebrated pic- 
 tures, of which we shall merely mention 
 a few; as "Distraining for Rent," "The 
 Penny Wedding," "Blind Man's Buff," 
 " The Village Festival " (now <in the Na- 
 tional Gallery), " The Reading of the Will," 
 and "Chelsea Pensioners reading the Ga- 
 zette of the Battle of Waterloo" (painted 
 for the Duke of Wellington, in 1823, for 
 1200Z. ). In consequence of ill-health, brought 
 on by close ai)plication and some serious 
 pecuniary losses, a continental tour was 
 recommended by his physicians ; and he 
 accordingly visited Italy and Spain, where 
 he remained till 1828. But his love of art 
 and his habitual industry could neither 
 be restrained by the injunctions of phy- 
 sicians nor the entreaties of friends ; and, 
 accordingly, several finished pictures, alto- 
 gether different from his former style of 
 execution, soon appeared. Upon this " total 
 change " of style and choice of subjects it 
 has been remarked, that, in departing from 
 the principle of the Flemish and Dutch 
 scliools, and adopting that of the Spanish, 
 "he determined on the hazardous experi- 
 ment of resting his future fame on a style 
 utterly opposite to that in which he then 
 stood unrivalled amidst European artists." 
 In January, 183<), on the death of Sir Tho- 
 mas Lawrence, he was appointed principal 
 painter in ordinary to (ieorge IV., whose 
 portrait in the Highland costume, and 
 " His Majesty's Reception at Holyrood 
 House," he was at that time occupied in 
 painting. On the accession of William IV. 
 the royal favour was continued to him, and 
 he was knighted in 1836. Queen Victoria 
 honoured him with sittings for his splendid 
 picture of her majesty's "First Council;" 
 and by the queen's command he went to the 
 Turkish capital to paint the portrait of the 
 sultan. This was his last and fatal mission. 
 On his return on board tlie Oriental steamer, 
 after having touched at Malta and Gibraltar, 
 he was taken suddenly ill, and died in Gib- 
 raltar Bay, aged 5(), June 1. 1841 ; the last 
 sad offices of committing his body to the 
 deep being rendered necessary by the strict 
 orders of the governor, who could not allow 
 it to be brought on shore. Among the 
 principal pictures painted by Sir David, in 
 his second or Spanish style, may be named 
 
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 ^ |2cto Winibtv^nl "MiaQmi^l)]}. 
 
 " The Maid of Saragossa," " The Guerilla's 
 Departure" and "Keturn," "John Knox 
 preaching," " Columbus," " Peep-o'-day- 
 Boy's Cabin," " Mary Queen of Scots escap- 
 ing from Lochleven Castle," " The Cotter's 
 Saturday Night," " The Empress Josephine 
 and the Fortune-teller," and " The Dis- 
 covery of the Body of Tippoo Saib " (painted 
 for the widow of Sir David Baird, at 1300/.). 
 He also produced many celebrated portraits. 
 As a man, Sir David VVilkie had the cha- 
 racter of being mild and unassuming ; as an 
 artist no difficulties could daunt him, nor 
 could any labour be too great for him to 
 undertake with a view to the attainment of 
 excellence. 
 
 VVILKIE, WiLLiA.\r, a Scotch poet ; au- 
 thor of " The Epigoniad." Born, 1721 ; died, 
 1772. 
 
 WILKINS, Sir Cuarles, F.R.S., &c., an 
 eminent oriental scholar, was a native of 
 Somersetshire. He went to Bengal, in the 
 civil service, in 1770. While thus employed, 
 he directed his attention to the study of the 
 Sanscrit language, and followed it up with 
 such perseverance, that he translated the 
 Bhagavad Gita into English, which Warren 
 Hastings, then governor-general, presented 
 to the court of directors, and prefixed to it 
 an elegant dissertation. Mr. Wilkins also 
 possessed great mechanical ingenuitj', and 
 prepared with his own hands the first Bengali 
 and Persian types employed in Bengal. 
 After residing 15 years in India he returned, 
 but continued to pursue his oriental studies, 
 and published a translation of the Hitopa- 
 desa, or the Fables of Vishnoo Sarma ; and 
 in 1800 he was made librarian of the valuable 
 1 collection of MSS. which the court of direc- 
 I tors possessed through the conquest of Se- 
 1 ringapatam. lie was also appointed visitor 
 in the oriental department for the com- 
 pany's colleges at Haileybury and Addis- 
 combe. In 1808 Sir Charles produced his 
 excellent " Sanscrit Grammar ;" he also 
 edited and enlarged Richardson's Dictionary 
 of the Persian and Arabic languages, in 2 
 vols. 4to. He was a member of the French 
 Institute, admitted to the honorary degree 
 of D.C.L. in the university of Oxford, and 
 was a knight of the Guclphic order. Born, 
 1751 : died, 1836. 
 
 WILKINS, David, a learned divine, 
 born in 1685, who became archdeacon of 
 Suffolk, and published "Leges Saxonies," 
 "Concilia Magnaj Britanuiaj," 4 vols. &c. 
 Died, 1745. 
 
 WILKINS, John, bishop of Chester in 
 the 17tli century, was born in 1614, at Faws- 
 ley, in Northamptonshire, and educated at 
 Oxford. He married Oliver Cromwell's 
 sister, and was appointed warden of Wad- 
 ham College, and master of Trinity College ; 
 and though he was deprived of these prefer- 
 ments at the Restoration, he afterwards 
 found favour in the siglit of Charles II., 
 and, in 1668, was raised to the bishopric of 
 Chester, He was the founder of that asso- 
 ciation which afterwards became the Royal 
 Society, produced several mathematical and 
 theological works, and died in 1672. 
 
 WILKINS, William, an eminent archi- 
 tect. His chief buildings are St. George's 
 Hospital, the London University, the Uni- 
 
 versity Club House, and the National Gal- 
 lery, which last has probably provoked more 
 caustic criticism than has been bestowed up- 
 on the works of any previous architect. His 
 additions to some collegiate buildings, both 
 in England and Ireland, show great taste and 
 learning. Though popular opinion was in 
 unison with the general expressed condem- 
 nation of tlie National Gallery, Mr. Wilkins 
 had, on other occasions, given convincing 
 proof of his abilities as an architect. His 
 very numerous and extensive engagements ! 
 in his profession did not prevent him from , 
 being an author of some voluniinousness. i 
 Born, 1778 ; died, 1839. 
 
 WILLDENOW, Charles Louis, a cele- j 
 brated botanist, born at Berlin, in 1765. 
 After having filled the professorial chair, he ' 
 was made director of the botanic garden at 
 Berlin, which he vastly improved, and also 
 presented to the museum, a zoological cabinet ' 
 of his formation. In 1811 he was invited to 
 Paris by Humboldt, to classify and describe 
 the multitude of new plants brought by that 
 traveller from America. Among his prin- | 
 cipal works are, " Prodromus Florte Beroli- 
 nensis," "Ek'mens de Botanique," and 
 " Species Plantarum," which was not quite 
 completed when he died, in 1812. 
 
 WILLIAM I., king of England, sur- 
 named the Conqueror, was the natural son 
 of Robert I., duke of Normandy, and of 
 Arlotta, the daughter of a tanner at Falaise, 
 where he was born in 1024. He reigned as 
 duke of Normandy till the death of Edward 
 the^ Confessor, when, pretending that the 
 crown had been bequeathed to him by that 
 monarch, he fitted out a large expedition, 
 and landed on the coast of Sussex. As soon 
 as the troops were disembarked, he burnt 
 the vessels exclaiming, " See your country." 
 Harold opposed him, but was defeated and 
 slain at Hastings ; after which William 
 marched to London, and was crowned at 
 Westminster, on Christmas Day, 1066. His 
 first measures were mild and judicious ; but 
 during his absence in Normandy, the English 
 being treated like a conquered people, showed 
 a disposition to rebel ; upon which he adopted 
 the feudal system with all its injustice and 
 severity ; dividing the land into baronies, 
 expelling the rightful owners from their 
 possessions, and giving them and the church 
 dignities to foreigners. He also introduced 
 the Norman language, and ordered tliat all 
 law pleadings and statutes should be in that 
 tongue ; and, in order to prevent nightly 
 meetings and conspiracies, he instituted the 
 curfew, or " cover fire bell." To gratify his 
 passion for the chase, he laid waste the New 
 Forest in Hampshire, where he demolished 
 villages, churclies, and convents, and ex- 
 pelled the inhabitants for 30 miles round. 
 In 1078 he finished the Tower of London. 
 In 1087 he invaded France, where he com- 
 mitted great ravages, and was about to 
 march to Paris, but died in consequence of a 
 fall from his horse, and was buried in the 
 abbey of St. Gervais, near Rouen. 
 
 WILLIAM II., surnamed Rt'iTS, from 
 his red hair, was the second son of the Con- 
 queror, and was born in 1060. He succeeded 
 to the English throne on the death of his 
 father in 1087 ; bought the dukedom of Nor- 
 
mandy of liia brother Robert, who joined the 
 
 crusaders ; and, after au unquiet reign of 
 
 nearly 13 years, Jie was accidentally killed 
 
 while hunting in the New Forest ; au arrow 
 
 shot by a French gentlerean, nam«d Walter 
 
 Tyrrel, having glanced from a tree, and 
 
 I pierced his heart. This event took place, 
 
 I August 2. ] 100. He is described as having 
 
 been cruel, perfidious, and rapacious in a 
 
 high degree. The Tower of London, London 
 
 I Bridge, and Westminster Hall were built in 
 
 his reign. 
 I WILLIAM III., of Nassau, prince of 
 I Orange, and king of England, was born at 
 the Hague, in 1650. He was the son of 
 I William, prince of Orange, and of Hen- 
 I rietta Maria, daughter of Charles I. He 
 I married tlie princess Mary, daughter of 
 I James I., duke of York ; and succeeded to 
 the stadtholdership in 1(572. In 1G88, tlie 
 arbitrary measures of James II. induced 
 many disaffected nobles and others to invite 
 over the Prince of Orange ; who gladly em- 
 braced the occasion, and landed, without 
 opposition, in Torbay, Nov. 5. the same year, 
 and was crowned April 11. lt)89. The year 
 following William went to Ireland, where 
 he defeated James at the battle of the Boyne. 
 In 1091 he headed the confederated army in 
 the Netherlands ; took Namur in 1695 ; and 
 in 1697 he was acknowledged king of Eng- 
 land by the treaty of Ryswick. On the 
 death of Mary, in 1693, the parliament con- 
 firmed to him the royal title. His death, 
 which occurred March 8. 1703, was accele- 
 rated by an injury he had sustained in a 
 fall from his horse. 
 
 WILLIAM IV., king of England, known 
 before his accession to the throne as William 
 Henry, duke of Clarence, was the third son 
 of George III., and was born August the 
 21st, 1765. At 14 years of age he entered 
 the navy as a midshipman on board the 
 Prince George, a 98-guu ship, commanded 
 by Admiral Digby ; and, at the king's es- 
 pecial desire, he was placed on the same 
 footing, in every respect, with other youths 
 of the same rank in the eervice. Within 12 
 months of his having been at sea, Pnnce 
 William Henry had the good fortune to be 
 present with Admiral Rodney at the capture 
 of the Caraccas fleet, commanded by Don 
 Juan Langara. When the Spanish admiral 
 was brought on board the Prince George as 
 a prisoner, and was told that one of the 
 midshipmen, whom he saw actively engaged 
 in his duty, was an English prince of the 
 blood, he exclaimed, " Well may England 
 be mistress of the sea, when the son of her 
 king is thus employed in her service I " 
 The prince served nearly all the residue of 
 his time as a midshipman in tlie West Indies, 
 and off the coasts of Nova Scotia and Canada; 
 and many characteristic anecdotes, honour- 
 able to hid bravery and humanity, are re- 
 lated of him during the period of his naval 
 career. He was afterwards removed to the 
 Warwick of 50 guns, commanded by Lord 
 Keith, and was present wlien that oflficer 
 captured the frigates I/Aigle and La Sopliie, 
 and the Terror sloop-of-wtir, oft" the Dela- 
 ware, in 17t>2. He then joined Lord Hood, 
 who was in quest of the i'rench fleet under 
 Vaudreuil, aud first became acquainted with 
 
 877 
 
 Nelson on board the Barfleur. In June, 
 1783, Lord Hood's squadron returned to 
 England ; and in the summer of 1785, the 
 prince, having served the regular time as a 
 midshipman, was appointed third lieutenant 
 of the Hebe frigate. In 1786, as captain 
 of the Pegasus of 28 guns, he sailed for Nova I 
 Scotia ; whence he proceeded to the Leeward I 
 Islands station, aud remained for some 
 months under the orders of Nelson, then 
 captain of the Boreas frigate ; when a strong | 
 and lasting friendship (iiouourablc to both) 
 sprang up between them. In December, 
 1787, the prince returned to England, and 
 was appointed to command the Andromeda 
 frigate, in which he again sailed for the 
 West Indies. On his arrival at Port Royal 
 he received the congratulations of the house 
 of assembly, who voted 1000 guineas for a 
 diamond star to be presented to him, as a 
 mark of the high sense they entertained of 
 his conduct while formerly on that station. 
 In 1789 he was created duke of Clarence, 
 and earl of Munster in Ireland, took his 
 seat in the House of Lords, and was made 
 rear-admiral of the blue in 1790. From the 
 time, however, he received his flag, the Duke 
 of Clarence saw no more active service 
 afloat, though he repeatedly expressed his 
 most anxious wishes to be employed. In 
 1811 he succeeded Sir Peter Parker as admiral 
 of the fleet. In that capacity he hoisted his 
 flag for the last time, for the purpose of 
 escorting Louis XVIII. to France ; and on 
 board the Impregnable he received the em- 
 peror of Russia and the king of Prussia, 
 with their splendid cortege. For many years 
 the duke lived the life of a private English 
 gentleman, residing at Bushy Park, of which 
 he had been appointed ranger, on the death 
 of the Countess of Guildford, in 1797. [His 
 connection with Mrs. Jordan has been given 
 at sufficient length in our biographical me- 
 moir of that lady.] After the death of the I 
 Princess Charlotte of Wales, in 1817, a new i 
 era took place in the position and prospects [ 
 of the Duke of Clarence ; and on the 11th ^ 
 of July, 1818, he married the Princess Ade- ! 
 laide Louisa Theresa Caroline Amelia, the ' 
 eldest daughter of the Duke of Saxe Mein- 
 ingen. Two female children, the eldest of 
 which died on the day of her birth, and the ' 
 youngest when only three months old, were ; 
 their only offspring. Having become heir- ! 
 presumptive to tlie throne, in 1827, by the i 
 death of the Duke of York, his royal high- \ 
 ness received an additional parliamentary ! 
 grant, which raised his income to 40,000/. 
 a year. He was also appointed lord high I 
 admiral of England, a post revived for the 
 occasion, after having been in abeyance just i 
 100 years, in which important station he was 
 highly popular ; but owing to some objec- I 
 tions made by the Duke of Wellington (wlio, 1 
 with his colleagues, came into oflSce soon after i 
 the death of Mr. Canning) to the expenses of , 
 his royal highness's progresses, he resigned ' 
 the office. On the 26th of June, 1830, the Duke | 
 of Clarence succeeded his brother, George IV., i 
 as king of England, and was crowned, with j 
 his royal consort, in Westminster Abbey, 
 September the 8th, 1831. A marked differ- ! 
 ence was soon observable in the conduct of 
 William IV. and his predecessor. The se- | 
 
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 ^ ^^IB Winibtv^KX MiOQvn^f^yi* 
 
 [wil 
 
 eluded habits and fastidious retirement that 
 had distinguished tlie last jears of his bro- 
 ther's life, gave place to an obvious desire of 
 popularity on the part of the new mouarch ; 
 while the Wellington administration was 
 succeeded by that of Earl Grey, under whom 
 the reform of parliament was eifected. Po- 
 litical animosities were at their height ; but 
 still the king was on the popular side, and 
 the court offered, in every respect, an example 
 worthy of imitation. In May, 1837, his ma- 
 jesty was taken ill, and in four weeks from 
 tliat time. June 29. 1837, " he died in a gentle 
 sleep." Sincere and honourable were the 
 encomiums pronounced upon him at his 
 death by men of all parties ; and perhaps 
 we could not paint his true character more 
 justly than in the brief and expressive lan- 
 guage of Lord Grey: — "A man more sin- 
 cerely devoted to the interests of his country, 
 and better understanding what was necessary 
 for the attainment of that object, there never 
 did exist ; and if ever there was a sovereign 
 entitled to the character, his majesty may 
 truly be styled a rATiuox king ! " 
 
 [The following are the names, &c. of the 
 Fitz-Clarence family: — 1. Sophia, lady 
 T>K LiSLEY and Dudley ; married, Aug. 13. 
 
 1825; died, April 10. 1837 2. George, 
 
 earl of Munstek, viscount Fitz-Clarence,&c. ; 
 born, Jan. 16. 1794 ; married Mary Wind- 
 ham, daughter of the late Earl of Egremont, 
 Oct. 18. 1819 3. Captain Henry Fitz- 
 Clarence ; died in India, in 1817 4. 
 
 Lady Mary Fox ; born, Dec. 19. 1798 ; mar- 
 ried, June 19. 1824 .'5. Lord Frederick 
 
 Fitz-Clarence ; born, Dec. 9. 1799 ; married 
 
 Lady Augusta Boyle, May 19. 1821 
 
 6. Elizabeth, countess of Errol; born, Jan. 
 
 18. 1801 ; married, Dec. 4. 1820 7. Lord 
 
 Adolphus Fitz-Clarence ; born, Feb. 18. 
 
 1802 8. Lady Augusta GoRDo?f ; born, 
 
 Nov. 20. 1803; married, July 5. 1827 9. 
 
 The Rev. Lord Augustus Fitz-Clarence ; 
 born, March 1. 1805 10. Amelia, vis- 
 countess Falkland ; born, Nov. 5. 1803 ; 
 married, Dec. 27. 1830.] 
 
 WILLIAM FREDERICK, king of the 
 Netherlands and count of Nassau. After 
 studying at Leyden, and travelling for a 
 few years, this illustrious prince entered 
 upon a military career, in which he greatly 
 distinguished himself by his gallant though 
 unsuccessful opposition to the arms of re- 
 volutionised France. At Wagram and at 
 Jena he was conspicuous for both skill and 
 courage, and he made a most noble defence 
 when the last French revolution of 1830 
 caused Belgium to be severed from Holland. 
 Attentive to encouraging the commerce and 
 promoting the welfare of his subjects, he 
 necessarily was very popular, till he proposed 
 in 1839 to marry the Countess d'Outrement. 
 That lady being both a Belgian and a Ca- 
 tholic, the proposed union was so unpopular, 
 that his majesty, resolute not to have his 
 will disputed upon a point so purely personal, 
 abdicated, married the lady, and settled at 
 Berlin. Even while on the throne, the ex- 
 king had been among the most extensive and 
 sagacious of all the commercial men of his 
 nation, as will be inferred from the fact that 
 he has left property to the amount of above 
 13,000,000 sterling. Died, Dec. 1843, aged 72. 
 
 WILLIAM II., king of Holland, better 
 known in England as the prince of Orange, 
 son of William I., was born in 1792, at the 
 very moment when revolutionary France 
 invaded the Netherlands, and thus com- 
 pelled the young prince to be brought to 
 England, where he passed the first period of 
 his life. Educated under the care of Dr. 
 Howley, late archbishop of Canterbury, he 
 at 19 j'ears of age joined Lord Wellington in 
 Spain as extra aide-de-camp, and in this 
 capacity he followed the fortunes of the 
 British army from 1811 to 1814, and gained 
 great distinction at the sieges of Ciudad 
 Rodrigo and Badajoz, as well as in the battles 
 of Salamanca and Vittoria, the Pyrenees, 
 and the Nivelle. After the expulsion of 
 the Fiench from Holland in 1813, the young 
 prince was designated as the husband of the 
 Princess Charlotte of AVales ; but she evinced 
 the most decided objection to the imion ; 
 and many years subsequently, when Prince 
 Leopold, who afterwards became lier hus- 
 band, was elected to the throne of Belgium, 
 the coincidence was remarked that he should 
 have been successful against his princely 
 competitor in obtaining from him both a 
 kingdom and a wife. During the whole of 
 the campaign of 1815 he commanded the 
 army of the Netherlands, and distinguished 
 himself at Waterloo, where he was severely 
 wounded. After this event he chiefly re- 
 sided in Brussels, till the revolution of 1830, 
 separating Belgium from Holland, compelled 
 his departure for the Hague. The abdication 
 of his father (see above) in 1840, raised him 
 prematurely to the throne, and he continued 
 to govern with great prudence and modera- 
 tion, till his death in March, 1848, a few- 
 days after the outbreak of the third revolu- 
 tion of that country, wliich it had been his 
 fate to witness. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Anxa, a poet and miscel- 
 laneous writer, who having lost her sight by 
 a cataract, was received under the hospitable 
 roof of Dr. Johnson, where she died in 1783, 
 aged 77. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Sir Charles Hanbuey, an 
 English stateman and poet, was born in 
 1709 ; represented the borough of Monmouth 
 in several parliaments ; was ambassador to 
 Berlin in 1744, and afterwards to St. Peters- j 
 burgh ; and wrote various poems, which 
 are more remarkable for their ease and viva- 
 citv, than for their moral tendency. Died, 
 1759. 
 
 AVILLIAMS, Daniel, a Presbyterian mi- 
 nister, was born at Wrexham, in Denbigh- 
 shire, in 1G44, and died in 1716. He founded 
 the library in Redcross Street for dissenting 
 ministers. 
 
 WILLIAMS, David, a miscellaneous 
 writer, was born in 1738, in Cardiganshire ; 
 became a dissenting minister ; but, adopting 
 the deist's creed, he opened a chapel, near 
 Cavendish Square, for the ditfusion of his 
 new opinions. In a short time, however, 
 this temple of infidelity was deserted ; and 
 the preacher had recourse to private teaching 
 and literary speculations. It is worthy of 
 record, that Mr. Williams was the founder 
 of the Literary Fund Society, and that, at 
 the close of his life, he was himself an object 
 of the bounty of that excellent institution. 
 
wil] 
 
 ^ l^cto Uni\itriKl 23i0flraplji». 
 
 [wil 
 
 His chief works are, " Lectures, on Edu- 
 cation," 3 vols- ! " Lectures on Political 
 Principles," a " History of Monmouthshire," 
 2 vols. 4to. ; and " Lectures on the Principles 
 and Duties of Religion and Morality." Died, 
 1816. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Griffith, bishop of Ossorj', 
 was borr. in Wales, in 158i) ; became chaplain 
 to the king, prebendary of Westminster, and 
 then dean of Bangor. lu 1G41 he was ad- 
 vanced to the see of Ossory, but the rebellion 
 breaking out the same year, lie was obliged 
 to fly to England. He suffered much for his 
 loyalty ; but at the Restoration recovered 
 his bishopric, and died at Kilkenny, in 1C72. 
 He wrote " Seven Golden Candlesticks, hold- 
 ing the Seven Lights of the Christian Reli- 
 gion," and other works of a similar character. 
 
 WILLIAMS, IIki.ex Mauia, a modern 
 writer on history, politics, and general lite- 
 rature, was born in the north of England, 
 in 17C2, and was introduced to the public 
 notice by Dr. Kippis. In 1790 she settled 
 at Paris ; and soon after appeared her " Let- 
 ters from France," the object of which was 
 to recommend the doctrines of the Giron- 
 dists ; and consequently on their fall she 
 was arrested, imprisoned, and nearly shared 
 tiieJr fate. Besides her poems and many 
 works of minor importance, she engaged 
 in an English translation of the "Personal 
 Narrative of the Travels of Humboldt and 
 Bonpland in America," G vols. ; she also 
 wrote a " Narrative of Events in France in 
 1815," &c. Died, 1827. * 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, archbishop of York, 
 and lord keeper under James I. ; an eminent 
 tlieological writer. Born, 1582 ; died, 165(). 
 
 WILLIAMS, John, an English prelate, 
 born in 1634 ; became chaplain to William 
 and Mary, who gave him a prebend at 
 Canterbury, and in 1696 promoted him to 
 the bishopric of Chichester. He died in 1709. 
 
 WILLIAMSON, Sir Joshph, a statesman, 
 was born about 1630, at Bridekirk, in Cum- 
 berland. In 1674 he became principal secre- 
 tary of state ; but, in 1768, he was sent to 
 the Tower, for granting commissions to 
 popish recusants. The king, however, re- 
 leased him the same day, and Sir Joseph 
 resigned his place soon after. He died in 
 1701, leaving a valuable collection of manu 
 scripts, with 6000Z., to the college where he 
 had been educated : he also founded a ma- 
 thematical school at Rochester. 
 
 WILLIAMSON, Hugh, an American 
 physician, was born in Pennsylvania, in 
 1735, and received his education at the col- 
 lege of Philadelphia ; but relinquished the 
 clerical profession, for which he had been 
 intended, and turned his attention first to 
 mathematics, and subsequently to medicine. 
 After visiting Edinburgh and Leyden, at 
 which latter university he obtained the 
 degree of M.D., he returned and practised 
 in Philadelphia. He was one of the com- 
 mittee appointed by the American Philoso- 
 phical Society, 1769, to observe the transit of 
 Venus over the solar disc ; and he attracted 
 considerable attention by his observations on 
 the remarkable comet whicli then made its 
 appearance, as he came to the conclusion 
 that comets, instead of being ignited masses, 
 are inhabited planets, a. He was appointed 
 
 to the medical staff of the revolutionary 
 army ; and, at the restoration of peace, he 
 became a member of congress. Among his 
 chief works are, "The History of North 
 Carolina," 2 vols. ; and " Observations on the 
 Climate of America." Died, 1819. 
 
 WILLIS, Dr. Bkowne, an English anti- 
 quary, who made and published a " Survey 
 of the Cathedrals of England," and wrote 
 other works. He was born at Blandford, in 
 Dorsetshire, in 1682 ; died, 1760. 
 
 WILLIS, Francis, a celebrated physi- 
 cian, distinguished for his skill in the treat- 
 ment of mental disorders, was a native of 
 Lincolnshire, and received his education in 
 Brazenose College, Oxford, of which lie 
 became a fellow. He took the degree of 
 M. A. in 1740, entered into holy orders, and 
 obtained the living of St. John's, Wapping. 
 He then studied medicine, and, devoting his 
 attention to maniacal diseases, established 
 a private asylum for lunatics at Greatford, 
 in Lincolnshire. The anomaly of a clergy- 
 man keeping a madhouse being sharply 
 animadverted upon by the faculty, he pro- 
 ceeded to take his degrees, and properly 
 qualified himself as a physician. When 
 George III. was seized with the malady 
 which for a time suspended the royal func- 
 tions. Dr. Willis was called in, and, in op- 
 position to the other physicians, pronounced 
 it as his decided opinion, that his majesty 
 would recover. The doctor was, in conse- 
 quence, intrusted with the principal care of 
 the royal person ; and the result confirmed 
 the accuracy of his judgment. His success 
 was rewarded with a handsome gratuity 
 from parliament, and a vast accession of 
 professional practice very naturally flowed 
 in upon him. He died in 1807. 
 
 WILLIS, Thomas, one of the most cele- 
 brated physicians of his time, was born at 
 Great Bedwin, Wilts, in 1621, and died in 
 Westminster, in 1675. His medical and 
 philosophical works have been printed in 
 2 vols. 
 
 WILLUGHBY, Fraxcis, a celebrated 
 naturalist, born in 1635. He paid particular 
 attention to ornithology and ichthyology, 
 and formed a rich museum of animal and 
 fossil productions. He was the friend of 
 Ray, who arranged and published his works 
 after his decease. Died, 1672. 
 
 WILMOT, John Eardley, a learned 
 judge, was born at Derby, in 1709 ; and, 
 passing through the ordinary legal promo- 
 tions, became chief justice of the common 
 pleas in 1776. Died, 1792. His " Notes of 
 
 Opinions" were published in 1802 His 
 
 son, John Wii>mot Eardley, born at Derby, 
 in 1748, was an eminent chancery lawyer, 
 and died in 1815. He wrote " A Treatise on 
 the Laws and Customs of England," " Me- 
 moirs of his Father," " Life and Letters of 
 Bishop Hough," &c. 
 
 WILSON, AivEXANr)F.R,'a celebrated orni- 
 thologist, was born at Paisley, in 176(J. lie 
 was brought up as a weaver, but his poetical 
 disposition, and relish for the quiet and se- 
 questered beauties of nature beginning to 
 assume almost the character of a passion, he 
 gave utterance to his feelings in verse ; and 
 he longed for an opportunity to disenthral 
 himself from the bondage of trade. After 
 
having been prosecuted and imprisoned 
 for libelling the master-weavers of Paisley, 
 during a violent dispute which had broken 
 out between them and the journeyman, 
 Wilson emigrated to America, where he 
 landed in July, 1794, with his fowling-piece 
 in his hand, and only a few shillings in his 
 pocket, without a friend or letter of intro- 
 I duction, or any definite idea in what manner 
 he was to earn his future livelihood. In the 
 varied occupations of a weaver, pedlar, and 
 I schoolmaster, he toiled on for upwards of 
 ; 8 years, during which time he tasked his 
 powers to the very utmost in his efforts at 
 t eelf-improvement ; and among the acquire- 
 ments he thus obtained were the arts of 
 drawing, colouring, and etching, which 
 afterwards proved of such incalculable use 
 I to him when bringing out his " Ornitho- 
 logy." In October, 1804, he set out upon 
 ; an expedition to the Falls of Niagara ; and, 
 i wading on through the mud and snow, en- 
 ! cumbered with his gun and fowling-bag, 
 the latter of which was of course always in- 
 creasing in bulk, he arrived safely at home, 
 after an absence of 59 days, during which 
 he had walked 1260 miles. From this time 
 forward, Wilson applied his whole energies 
 to his ornithological work, drawing, etching, 
 I and colouring all the plates himself; and 
 Mr. Bradford, a bookseller of Philadelphia, 
 having agreed to run all the risk of publica- 
 tion, in 1808 the first volume of his " Ame- 
 1 rican Ornithology" made its appearance. 
 Another and another volume followed, and 
 ! their indefatigable author travelled from 
 one end of the American continent to the 
 other, for the purpose of obtaining sub- 
 scribers to his work, as well as to increase his 
 stores of ornithological curiosities. In 1811 
 he thus writes to his brother ; " the ambition 
 of being distinguished in the literary world 
 j has required sacrifices and exertions from 
 j me with winch you are unacquainted ; and 
 i a wish to reach the glorious rock of inde- 
 ! pendence, that I migiit from thence assist 
 my relations, who are struggling with and 
 i buffeting the billows of adversity, has en- 
 ! gaged me in an undertaking more laborious 
 and extensive than you are aware of, and 
 I has occupied every moment of my time for 
 ; several years. Since February, 1810, 1 have 
 1 slept for several weeks in the wilderness 
 alone, in an Indian country, with mj' gun 
 and my pistols in my bosom ; and have 
 I found myself so reduced by sickness as to 
 I be scarcely able to stand, when not within 
 , 800 miles of a white settlement, and under 
 ! the burning latitude of 2.5 degrees. I have, 
 by resolution, surmounted all these and 
 j other obstacles, in my way to my object, 
 I and now begin to see the blue sky of inde- 
 pendence open around me." Honours as 
 well as profit soon after began to pour in 
 upon him ; he was a member of several 
 learned societies, and there was not a 
 crowned head in Europe but had then be- 
 come a subscriber to the " American Orni- 
 thology." But his end was fast approaching. 
 He was attacked with a fatal dysentery in 
 August, 1813, which carried him off in a few 
 days. 
 
 WILSON, AnxnuR, an historian, was 
 secretary to Robert, earl of Eosex, and after- 
 
 wards steward to the Earl of Warwick. He 
 wrote a pedantic and partial history of the 
 " Life and Reign of James I." Died, 1642. 
 
 WILSON, Florenx'E, a Scotch writer, 
 was born at Elgin, in Scotland, in 1500, and 
 was educated at King's College, Aberdeen. 
 He went to Paris, and taught philosophy in 
 the college of Navarre, but returned to his 
 native country, where he died in 1557. 
 He wrote a treatise, "De Trauquillitate 
 Anima;." 
 
 WILSON, RicHART), an eminent English 
 landscape painter, was born in 1714, in 
 Montgomeryshire. He began his career as 
 a portrait painter, which line he quitted, by 
 the advice of Zuccarelli, and went to Italy, 
 where he studied landscape painting with 
 a success that obtained for him the apel- 
 lation of the English Claude. The first 
 picture he exhibited was Niobe, and in 1765 
 he produced a view of Rome. Although 
 whatever came from his easel bore the stamp 
 of elegance and truth, yet, during the latter 
 part of his life, he was doomed to undergo 
 neglect, and he was reduced to solicit the 
 office of librarian to the Royal Academy, 
 of which at its establishment he had been 
 chosen one of the first members. Died, 1782. 
 
 WILSON, Sir Robert, a distinguished 
 general oflBcer, who played also a conspicuous 
 part in the party politics of his time, was 
 born in London, 1777. Educated at West- 
 minster and Winchester, he went into a 
 solicitor's offlce, with a view to qualify him- 
 self for the law ; but an accidental intro- 
 duction to the Duke of York induced him to 
 exchange the desk for the field, and in 1793 
 he went to Flanders as a volunteer, and 
 bore a distinguished part in all the cavalry 
 actions of that campaign. During the re- 
 bellion in Ireland he served on the staff; in 
 1799 he made the campaign in Holland, and 
 the following year he took part in Aber- 
 crombie's expedition to Egypt. He after- 
 wards published an accoimt of this expedi- 
 tion, which derived especial popularity from 
 its charges of cruelty against Buonaparte 
 towards the prisoners at Jaffa. In 1805 he 
 accompanied Sir D. Baird to the Brazils, 
 and was present at the capture of the Cape 
 of Good Hope. On his return he accom- 
 panied Lord Hutchinson to the Continent j 
 on a secret mission. He was attached to the ! 
 combined armies, and present in all the j 
 operations, battles, and actions, from Pultusk 
 to Friedland. We next find this active I 
 officer in Lisbon, where, in 1808, he super- j 
 intended the levy of the Portuguese refugees ; j 
 and he subsequently commanded a legion in ' 
 Spain, and wound up a career of great gal- 
 lantry and peril in the Peninsula by a suc- 
 cessful engagement with the French at 
 Bainos. His reputation for courage and 
 ability was still further increased by the 
 German and Russian campaigns of 1812, 
 1813, and 1814 ; and the emperor Alexander 
 testified his admiration of his exploits by 
 hanging the cross of St. George round his 
 neck in the presence of the assembled army. 
 After the peace in 1815 he visited Paris, 
 where he drew upon himself great notoriety 
 by aiding in the escape of I^avalette, as 
 detailed in our sketch of that remarkable 
 personage. In consequence of this act he i 
 
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 ^ jfictD Bnibtx^Rl 3St0firajpTj|?. 
 
 [win 
 
 increased the displeasure of the prince re- 
 gent, and his conduct at the funeral of 
 queen Caroline having completed his disgrace 
 at headquarters, he was dismissed from the 
 army in 1821, and all the foreign orders he 
 had received were resumed by their respec- 
 tive sovereigns. But a public subscription 
 was made to indemnify him, and after the 
 lapse of a few years he was restored to his 
 rank. Sir R. Wilson sat from 1818 to 1831 in 
 parliament for Southwark ; in 1841 he at- 
 tained the full rank of genernl, and in 1842 
 he was appointed governor of Gibraltar, and 
 had just returned from that post after seven 
 years of command, when he died, suddenly, 
 May 9. 184y. 
 
 WILSON, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and 
 Man, an excellent prelate, and eminent 
 writer in theology ; bom, 1603 ; died, 1755. 
 His works consist of " Religious Tracts " 
 and " Sermons," with a short " History of 
 the Isle of Man." 
 
 WILSON, Thomas, son of the bishop, 
 born in 1703 ; was rector of St. Stephen's, 
 Walbrook, 46 years; and published a work 
 entitled " The Ornaments of Churches con- 
 sidered." Died, 1784. His warm patronage 
 of, and ridiculous attachment to, the cele- 
 brated female historian, Catherine Macauley, 
 to whom, while living, he erected a statue in 
 his church, is well known. 
 
 WILSON, William Rae, I^L.D., chiefly 
 known by his " Travels in the Holy Land," 
 was bom in 1774. At an early age lie be- 
 came acquainted with the late Duke of Kent, 
 who remained his steady patron through life, 
 and who furnished him with every species 
 of recommendation likely to facilitate his 
 travels in the East. He w.is one of the first 
 of a class of travellers, since become nume- 
 rous, whose object has been to illustrate the 
 statements of holy writ by observations on 
 the scenery and manners of those parts of 
 the world in which its events transpired. In 
 all his works he preserved a religious tone 
 of sentiment, with a strong bias against the 
 Roman Catholic Clmrch ; but, on the whole, 
 his writings display an unusual freedom 
 from false colouring and affectation. Died, 
 June 2nd., 1849. 
 
 WIMPEN, Felix de, a French military 
 officer, born in 1745. He served with the 
 French troops during the war between 
 Great Britain and the United States ; be- 
 came a member of the tiers 6tat, and i)ro- 
 f)Osed the establishment in France of what 
 le termed a royal democracy ; defended 
 the fortress of Thionville, in 1792, against 
 the Austrian and emigrant armies ; was de- 
 feated at Vernon by the royalists ; retired 
 to Bayeux, where he remained in obscurity 
 till 1799, when the first consul gave him a 
 pension. 
 
 WINCKELMANN, Joinv Justus, a Ger- 
 man historian, was born at Gnessen, in 1620, 
 and died in 1697. 
 
 WINCKELMANN, Johk Joachim, a 
 celebrated German antiquary, born in 1718. 
 He had a great taste for the arts, and wrote 
 many works on subjects connected with 
 sculpture, painting, &c. Having embraced 
 the Catholic faith, he took a journey to 
 Italy, to survey the treasures of art at the 
 Vatican, and the relics discovered at Her- 
 
 culaneum. He was made keeper of the 
 pope's cabinet of antiquities ; and while 
 returning from Germany, which country he 
 had visited in 1768, he was basely assassin- 
 ated by a wretch named Archungeli, with 
 whom he had fallen in company at Trieste. 
 His murderer was soon after taken, and 
 executed on the wheel. 
 
 WINDHAM, Joseph, an eminent anti- 
 quary, was bom at Twickenham, in 1739 ; 
 was educated at Eton, and Christ's College, 
 Cambridge ; went to Rome, and there took 
 xlrawings of the monuments of antiquity ; 
 composed the principal part of the " Ionian 
 Antiquities," published by the Dilettanti 
 Society, and assisted Stuart in his work on 
 Athens. Died, 1810. 
 
 WINDHAM, William, an eminent se- 
 nator, was born in 1750, and entered par- 
 liament in 1782. Till the French revolution 
 he acted with the opposition ; but in 1794 he 
 joined Mr. Pitt, and was appointed secre- 
 tary at war, which office he held till 1801, 
 when he vigorously opposed the ephemeral 
 peace of Amiens. On the death of Mr. Pitt, 
 Mr. Windham became secretary of state for 
 the war department, but went out of place 
 again the following year. Died, 1810. 
 
 WING, Vincent, an astrological writer. 
 He was the author of the " Celestial Har- 
 mony of the Visible World," an " Ephemeris 
 for 30 Years," " Computatio Catholica," and 
 " Astronomia Britannica." He died in 1668. 
 
 WINGATE, Edmund, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, was born in l.TOS, in York- 
 shire ; studied at Queen's College, Oxford, 
 and at Gray's Inn ; went to France, to in- 
 struct Henrietta Maria in the English lan- 
 guage ; espoused the popular side in the 
 civil war ; was an M. P. ; and died in 165G. 
 Among his works are, " A Natural and Ar- 
 tificial Arithmetic," " The Exact Surveyor," 
 " Ludus Mathematicus," " Maxims of Rea- 
 son," and an " Abridgment of the Statutes." 
 
 WINSLOW, James Eenignus, a cele- 
 brated Danish anatomist, was born in 1669, 
 at Odensee ; settled in France ; and, in 
 1743, succeeded M. Munald as professor of 
 anatomy and physiology, at the Royal Bo- 
 tanic Garden. His principal work, which 
 still preserves its reputation undiminished, 
 is " An Anatomical Exposition of the Struc- 
 ture of the Human Body." Died, 1760. 
 
 WINSOR, Fkedekic Albekt, an enter- 
 prising projector, to whom the public is 
 indebted for the beautiful gas lights which 
 now illuminate our streets, &c. ; made his 
 first public experiments at the Lyceum, 
 in the Strand, in 1803. He afterwards 
 lighted with gas the walls of Carlton Palace 
 Gardens, on the king's birthday in 1807 ; 
 and, during 1809 and 1810, he lighted one side 
 of Pall Mall, from the house which he then 
 occupied in that street. He followed up his 
 object with great perseverance, and at length 
 obtained a charter of incorporation for a 
 gas-light and coke company. In conse- 
 quence, however, of some misunderstand- 
 ing with the parties with whom he was 
 associated he did not obtain his expected 
 remuneration. In 1815 he went to Paris, 
 where he also erected gas-works, and es- 
 tablished a company. Died, 1830. 
 
 WINSTANLEY, William, a literary 
 
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 4 F3 
 
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 [WOL 
 
 barber, who wrote the " Lives of the Poets," 
 "Select Lives of England's Worthies," 
 " Historical Karities," &c. He died about 
 1690. 
 
 WINTER, Jonx Wilt.iam be, a Dutch 
 admiral, was born in 1750. Having been 
 an active partWan in the revolution which 
 broke out in 1787, he was obliged to take 
 refuge in France, when the party of the 
 stadtholder prevailed. In France he entered 
 the army, served under Dumouriez and 
 Pichegru, and in a short time rose to the 
 rank of general of brigade. In 1795, when 
 Pichegru invaded Holland, De Winter re- 
 turned to his country, where the states- 
 general made him vice-admiral and com- 
 mander of tlie naval forces at Texel. Here, 
 with 29 vessels, of which 16 were ships of the 
 line, he was completely defeated by Duncan, 
 Oct. 7. 1797. Died, 1812. 
 
 WINTER, Peter vox. an eminent Ger- 
 man musician, bom at Manheim, in 17.54, 
 and, at the age of 10 years, was appointed a 
 member of tlie orchestra of the elector. He 
 composed a variety of operas, oratorios, and 
 other pieces of vocal and instrumental music, 
 many of wliich possess very considerable 
 merit. Died, 1825. 
 
 WINWOOD, Sir RAi.rn, a statesman, 
 was born about 1.5C5, at Aynhoe, in North- 
 amptonshire. He was twice envoy to Hol- 
 land, and was secretary of state in 1G14, 
 till his decease in Kil". He wrote " Me- 
 morials of Affairs of State in the Reigns of 
 Queen Elizabeth and King James I.," 3 vols. 
 folio. 
 
 WISE, Fkaxcis, a learned antiquary, 
 born at Oxford, in 1695. He was the author 
 of mauy ingenious works, principally on 
 subjects connected with the antiquities of 
 tliis country. Died, 1762. 
 
 WISHART, Geokge, a Scotch Protestant 
 martyr, was born at the commencement of 
 the 16th century. He embraced the Pro- 
 testant faith while travelling in Germany, 
 and resided for some years at Cambridge, 
 where he taught at Bene't College. In 1544 
 he returned to his native land, and exerted 
 himself zealously in preaching tire doctrines 
 of the Reformation ; for which, in 1546, he 
 was condemned to the flames. 
 
 WITHER, George, a poet, whose works 
 have lately been brought into repute by Sir 
 Egerton Brydges and others, was born in 
 1588, at Bentworth, in Hampshire, and was 
 educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. In 
 1613 he was committed to prison for his 
 satires, called " Abuses Stript and Whipt." 
 In the civil war he espoused the popular 
 cause, and rose to the rank of major'-general ; 
 but having published a piece, called "Vox 
 Vulgi," he was again incarcerated after the 
 Restoration. Died, 1667. 
 
 WITHERING, WiLLTAM, a physician 
 and writer on botany, was born in 1741, at 
 Wellington, in Shropshire ; studied at Edin- 
 burgh ; practised at Stafford, and afterwards 
 at Birmingham ; and died in 1790. His chief 
 work is, " A Systematic Arrangement of 
 British Plants ;" but he wrote several others, 
 and the native carbonate of barytes was 
 discovered and first described by him. 
 
 WODHULL, Michael, a poet, born at 
 Thenford, in Northamptonshire. He lived 
 
 on his paternal estate, and amused his leisure 
 hours with literature ; he wrote some mis- 
 cellaneous poems, and translated the tra- 
 gedies of Euripides. 
 
 WODROW, Robert, a Scottish historian, 
 was born in 1679, at Glasgow ; studied at the 
 university of that city, of which he after- 
 wards became librarian ; and attained great 
 popularity as a preacher. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Sufferings of the Church of Scot- 
 land." Died, 1734. 
 
 WOFFINGTON, Margaret, a celebrated 
 actress, was born at Dublin, in 1718. Her 
 first appearance in London was at Covent 
 Garden Theatre, in 1738, in the character of 
 Sir Harry Wildair, in which she was emi- 
 nently successful, as she generall3' was, in 
 fact, in whatever parts she assumed. Her 
 attractions in private life were also uni- 
 versally acknowledged, and lier society 
 sought by persons of rank and talents. Died, 
 1760. 
 
 WOLCOT, Jotix, a humourist and satiric 
 poet, known by the name of Peter Pindar, 
 Was born in 1738, at Dodbrook, in Devon- 
 shire, and was apprenticed to his uncle, an 
 apothecary at Truro, who ultimately left 
 him the bulk of his property. Having taken 
 the degree of M.D., he accompanied Sir 
 William Trelawney to the government of j 
 Jamaica, as physician. While residing at 
 that island lie took orders, and was presented ' 
 with a living. On his return to England j 
 he settled at Truro, whence he removed to I 
 Helston ; and it was while he resided in i 
 Cornwall that he drew from obscurity the ' 
 painter Opie, with whom, in 1780, he came to 
 London. After his arrival in the metropolis 
 he soon rendered himself conspicuous by his 
 satires, which rapidly succeeded each oth»r, 
 and were highly popular. Among his most 
 finished works are, " Lyric Odes to the Royal 
 Academicians " and " The Lousiad." In 
 the decline of life he became blind, and died 
 In 1819. His works have lost much of their 
 interest, owing to the temporary and per- 
 sonal nature of the subjects ; but they ex- 
 hibit a racy humour and freshness, often 
 imitated, but rarely equalled. 
 
 WOLF, Frederich Augustit.s, one of the 
 greatest of modern German scholars, was 
 born near Nordhausen, in 17.59 ; studied at 
 GOttingen, and was successively professor of 
 philology at Halle and Berlin. His com- 
 mentaries on the classic authors are models 
 of learning and critical sagacity ; but he is 
 chiefly known in England for his attempts 
 to prove that the Iliad and Odyssey did not 
 proceed from one hand, but were the works 
 of several rhapsodists, subsequently put 
 together and made up into the two epics 
 bearing the name of Homer. He was a great 
 antagonist of Heme. Died, 1824. 
 
 WOLF, or WOLFIUS, Cukistiax, an 
 eminent German mathematician and philo- 
 sopher, who filled the professor's chair in 
 the university of Halle, and was eventually 
 created a baron of the empire. His principal 
 works are," Elementa Matheseos UniverssB," 
 5 vols., " A System of Philosophy," 23 vols,, 
 and a " Treatise on the Law of Nature and 
 
 Nations," 3 vols There were several 
 
 other learned Germans of the name of 
 WoLFii^s JoHX CiiRiSTorHEK, a diviuc 
 
wol] 
 
 ^ ^riD BxiihtvM 3iiaQta^f}ij* 
 
 [woo 
 
 and philologist, born in 1683. He was author 
 of many works on Hebrew and Greek litera- 
 ture, and bequeathed a vast collection of 
 rabbinical and oriental books to the rnblic 
 library at Hamburgh, where he died, in 
 
 1739 Jerome, an eminent critic and 
 
 classical scholar, who died at Augsburg, in 
 1680 Joiix, an historical and miscella- 
 neous writer, who was employed as a diplo- 
 matist, and at his death, in IGOO, was go- 
 vernor of Mindelsheim. 
 
 WOLFE, CnAi!i-E.s,an Irish divine and 
 a poet of great promise, was born in 1701, 
 at Dublin : was educated at Iligli Abbey 
 School, Winchester, and at Trinity College, 
 Dublin ; obtained the curacy of Ballyclog, 
 which he exchanged for that of Castle Caul- 
 field ; and died, of consumption, in 1823. 
 Among other pieces possessing very con- 
 siderable merit, he wrote the well-known 
 " Ode on the Death of Sir Jolin Moore," com- 
 mencing, " Not a drum was heard ;" which 
 acquired much posthumous celebrity, and 
 was pronounced by Lord Byron, "'Ihe most 
 perfect ode in the language." 
 
 WOLFE, Jamks, the son of Lieutenant- 
 general Edward AVolfe, was bom at Wester- 
 ham, in Kent, in 1726. He entered early into 
 the army, and distinguished himself by his 
 bravery and the decision of his character on 
 many occasions during the German war. 
 On his return from the Continent, he was 
 appointed to the command of the expedition 
 against Quebec. The enterprise was great 
 and hazardous; but General Wolfe, adhering 
 to his own plan of operations, surmounted 
 all obstacles, and on the heights of Abraham 
 encountered the enemy ; when, in tlie mo- 
 ment of victory, he received a ball in the 
 wrist and another in the body, which obliged 
 him to be carried into the rear. There, 
 while in the agonies of death, being roused 
 by the sound of " They run !" lie eagerly 
 asked, " Who nm ?" and being told the 
 French, he exclaimed, " I thank God, and 
 die contented." Died, 1759. A monument 
 was erected to his memory in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 WOLLASTON, Wilmam, an ethical and 
 theological writer, was born in 16.59, at 
 Cotton Clanford, in Staffordshire ; was edu- 
 cated at Sidney College, Cambridge ; took 
 orders ; but having come into possession of 
 considerable property, he relinquished the 
 clerical profession, and devoted his time to 
 literary researches. His principal work is, 
 " The Religion of Nature delineated." 
 Died, 1724. 
 
 WOLLASTON, Wilt.tam Hide, a phy- 
 sician and experimental philosopher, was 
 great-grandson of the foregoing, and born in 
 17()6. His want of patronage as a physician 
 induced him to give up his profession in 
 disgust, and devote himself to scientific 
 pursuits, the result of which was, that he 
 became one of the most eminent cliemists 
 and experimentalists of modern times. 
 Among his discoveries in mineralogy are 
 the two metals, palladium and rliodium, 
 and the method of rendering platina malle- 
 able, by the last of which he is said to have 
 gained SOfiOOl. He invented a sliding scale 
 of chemical equivalents, a goniometer, and 
 the camera lucida. His papers in the Philo- 
 
 sophical Transactions are namerous. Died. 
 1828. 
 
 WOLSEY, Thomas, a celebrated cardinal 
 and minister of state under Henry VlII., 
 was the son of a butcher at Ipswich, in 
 Suffolk, and born there in 1471. After 
 finishing his education at Oxford, he became 
 tutor to the sons of the Marquis of Dorset ; 
 was subsequently domestic chaplain to the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury ; and, on going to 
 court, he gained the favour of Ilenry VII., 
 who sent him on an embassy to the emperor, 
 and on his return made him dean of Lincoln. 
 Henry VIII, gave him the living of Tor- 
 rington, in Devon, and afterwards appointed 
 him register of the garter and canon of 
 Windsor. He next obtained the deanery of 
 York, and, attending the king to Tournay, 
 in France, was made bishop of that city. 
 In 1514 he was advanced to the see of Lin- 
 coln, and the year following to the arch- 
 bishopric of York. Insatiable in the pursuit 
 of emolument, he obtained the administra- 
 tion of the see of Bath and Wells, and the 
 temporalities of the abbey of St. Alban's, 
 soon after which he enjoyed in succession 
 the rich bishoprics of Durham and Winches- 
 ter. By these means, his revenues nearly 
 equalled those of the crown, part of which 
 he expended in pomp and ostentation, and 
 part in laudable munificence for the ad- 
 vancement of learning. He founded several 
 Icctnies at Oxford, where he also creeled the 
 college of Christchurch, and built a palace 
 at Hampton Court, which he presented to 
 the king. He was at this time in the zenith 
 of power, and had a complete ascendancy 
 over the mind of Henry, who' made him 
 lord chancellor, and obtained for him a 
 cardinalship. He was also nominated the 
 pope's legate ; but having given offence to 
 the king, by not promoting his divorce, he 
 fell into disgrace, and his property was con- 
 fiscated. In 1530 he was apprehended at 
 York, but was taken ill, and died on his way 
 to London, exclaiming, " Had I but served 
 my God as faithfully as I have served my 
 king, he would not have given me over in 
 my grey hairs." 
 
 WOOD, Anthoxt, an eminent English 
 biographer and antiquary, was born in 1632, 
 at Oxford, and was educated at Merton Col- 
 lege. His " History and Antiquities of Ox- 
 ford," which was translated into Latin by 
 Dr. Fell, appeared in 1674, and his " Athenas 
 Oxonienses" was published in 1691. An 
 attack upon Lord Clarendon, in the last of 
 these works, subjected him to a sentence of 
 expulsion from the university, and his pre- 
 judices in favour of Jacobitisra rendered him 
 an object of hatred to the other party. Died, 
 1695. 
 
 WOOD, James, proprietor of the Old 
 Gloucester Bank, — a miUionaire, whose 
 riches and parsimonious eccentricities en- 
 title him to a place among the " remarkable 
 characters " of the age, — was born at 
 Gloucester in 1756, and succeeded to the 
 bank, which had been there established, in 
 1716, by his grandfather. In conjunction 
 with the bank, he kept a shop to tlie day of 
 his death, and dealt in almost every article 
 that could be asked for ; nothing was too 
 trifling for "Jemmy Wood" by which a 
 
 SS-i 
 
woo] 
 
 ^ 0t^ ^ixihtriKl ^t03ntpi^i). 
 
 [woo 
 
 penny could be turned, and nothing too 
 extensive for him to supply — a farthing 
 rushlight, or a merchant's shipping order. 
 He was a bachelor, and spent the whole 
 week in his banking-shop, or rather his 
 shop-bank (for it is worthy of remark, that 
 the business of the "Old Gloucester Bank " 
 was transacted at one end of liis multifa- 
 rious chandlery store) ; he entertained no 
 company, visited none, took his country 
 walk of a Sunday in order to enjoy a frugal 
 meal in the open air, and ever made it his 
 especial care not to diminish his wealth by 
 attending to the calls of humanity. He died 
 April 20. 1S3G, leaving Iiis vast property 
 to be divided between his four executors, 
 viz. Mr. (afterwards Sir) Matthew Wood, of 
 London (but wlio is not related to him); Mr. 
 John Chadborne, of Gloucester (his attor- 
 ney) ; Mr. Jacob Osborne, and Mr. John 
 Surnam of Gloucester (his two clerks). In 
 preparation for the probate of this will, the 
 personal property of the deceased was sworn 
 under 900,0l)0Z.; but Mr. James Wood, of 
 Islington, who is stated to be one of nine 
 cousins of the deceased, entered a caveat 
 against the probate. A codicil was after- 
 wards discovered, by which various legacies 
 are bequeathed to his kindred, besides a very 
 large sum to the corporation of Gloucester ; 
 this codicil, however, was not satisfactorily 
 authenticated. 
 
 WOOD, Alderman Sir Matthew, bart., 
 M.P., was the son of a serge manufacturer 
 at Tiverton, and had but a limited scholastic 
 education, as at the early age of 11 years he 
 was employed in his father's business, and 
 at 14 was apprenticed to Mr. Newton of 
 Exeter, his cousin, who carried on a very 
 extensive business as a chemist and druggist. 
 After serving his time, and being for a few 
 3'ear3 employed as a traveller in the drug 
 trade, he commenced business on his own 
 account in London, at first as a chemist, and 
 subsequently as a hop merchant, in which 
 latter trade he acquired a very handsome 
 fortune. After serving some minor offices 
 in the city, Mr. Wood was, in rotation, 
 elevated to the mayoralty in 1815, and gave 
 such great and universal satisfaction in that 
 high office that he was re-elected in 1816 ; a 
 departure from the ordinary course that was 
 unprecedented during several previous cen- 
 turies. During his second mayoralty he 
 gained a still higher position in public favour 
 by his humane conduct in saving the lives 
 of three poor Irishmen who were sentenced 
 to be hanged, on the perjured testimony of 
 three police officers, named Brock, Vaughan, 
 and Pelham. So great was the public ad- 
 miration of Mr. Wood's conduct on this 
 occasion, that the livery actually sent his 
 name up a third time for the mayoralty ; 
 but the court of aldermen deeming this too 
 irregular, passed his name over. During 
 his second mayoralty he was elected M.P. 
 for London, and from that time till his 
 death he was invariably returned, and on 
 all occasions save one at the head of the poll. 
 Of Mr. Wood's conduct as a magistrate it is 
 not possible to speak too highly; but we can 
 by no means give the like unqualified praise 
 to his course as a senator, for, in his place 
 in parliament, he displayed more obstinacy 
 
 than candour, more zeal than wisdom. He 
 gained great notoriety for the zeal with 
 which he attached himself to the fate and 
 fortunes of the ill-starred queen Caroline. 
 His political course obtained him the friend- 
 ship of a maiden lady, sister of the wealthy 
 Mr. James Wood, banker, of Gloucester. At 
 her death she bequeathed him a handsome 
 property, and her brother subsequently left 
 him a fourth of his vast fortune, which, in- 
 dependent of land, and, after being much 
 diminished by litigation, produced the for- 
 tunate alderman nearly a quarter of a mil- 
 lion of money. He was created a baronet 
 during the Melbourne administration, in 
 1837. Died, Sept. 25. 1843, aged 7G. 
 
 WOOD, Robert, an accomplished scho- 
 lar, was born in 17 Ki, at Riverstown, county 
 of Meath ; made the tour of Greece, Egypt, 
 and Palestine, in 1751 ; and was appointed 
 nnder-secretary of state in 1759. He wrote 
 a " Description of the Ruins of Balbec," the 
 " Ruins of Palmyra," &c. Died, 1771. 
 
 WOODD, Basil, a clergyman of the church 
 of England, distinguished as a most active 
 member of bible and missionary societies, 
 and other religious associations. He was 
 born at Richmond, in Surrey, in 17G0 ; was 
 educated at Trinity College, Oxford ; be- 
 came rector of St. Peter's, Cornhill, and 
 morning preacher at Bentinck chapel ; and 
 died in 1831. His" Advice to Youth," "Th^ 
 Duties of the Marriage State," &c. are well 
 known. 
 
 WOODDESON, Richard, an eminent 
 civilian, was born in 1745, at Kingston, in 
 Surrey ; was educated at Pembroke and 
 Magdalen Colleges, Oxford ; and chosen 
 Vinerian professor, on the resignation of Sir 
 Robert Chambers. He wrote " Elements of 
 Jurisprudence," " A Systematic View of the 
 Laws of England," and "A Brief Vindica- 
 tion of the Rights of the British Legislature." 
 Died, 1822. 
 
 WOODFALL, William, a printer and 
 parliamentary reporter, who became in some 
 measure a public character from his being 
 exposed to a prosecution as publisher of the 
 famous " Letters of Junius." Being gifted 
 with a wonderfully retentive memory, he re- 
 ported the debates in parliament with great 
 ability and precision, and was the first who 
 introduced them to the public after their 
 present fashion. Died, 1803. 
 
 WOODHOUSE, Robeht, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, was educated at Cambridge. 
 He was elected Lucasian professor in 1820, 
 Plumian professor in 1822, and keeper of the 
 observatory in 1824. He wrote " The Prin- 
 ciples of Analytical Calculation," "A Trea- 
 tise on Trigonometry," another ou "Plane 
 Astronomv," &c. Died, 1827. 
 
 WOODVILLE, Elizabeth, widow of Sir 
 John Grey, who was slain in the battle of 
 Bernard's Heath. After his death she applied 
 to Edward IV. for the restoration of his 
 estate, wlien that monarch fell in love with, 
 and married her. The princess Elizabeth 
 was the fruit of this marriage, who married 
 Henry VII., and thus united the houses of 
 York and Lancaster. 
 
 WOODVILLE, William, an eminent 
 physician, was bom in 1752,at Cockermouth; 
 studied at Edinburgh; and settled in London, 
 
•woo] 
 
 ^ IJffitj HiuberiJaT 28i0():rai)T)in 
 
 [WOR 
 
 where he became physician to the Middlesex, 
 Dispensary and the Smallpox Hospital, lie 
 was tlie author of " Medical Botany " and 
 the "History of the Smallpox Inoculation." 
 Died, 1805. 
 
 WOODWARD, nEJfisy, a celebrated co- 
 median, was born in Loudon, in 1717, and 
 was unrivalled in such parts as Marplot, Sir 
 Andrew Aguecheek, &c. As a composer of 
 pantomimes also he had great merit, and he 
 was the author of some few dramatic pieces. 
 Died, 1777. 
 
 WOODWARD, Jony, a physician and 
 naturalist, was born in Eterhyshire, in ICCi. 
 In 1C92 he became professor of physic at 
 Gresham College ; and in 1090 published an 
 " Essay towards a Natural History of tlie 
 Earth." Died, 1728. 
 
 WOOIiSTON, Thomas, a deistical writer, 
 was born in 1&>9, at Northampton, and be- 
 came a fellow of Sidney College, Cambridge. 
 His first work, " The Old Apology for tlie 
 Truth of the Christian Religion revived," 
 was meant to prove that tlie actions of Moses 
 were typical of Christ and the church ; but 
 he gradually became a deist, and his " Six 
 Discourses on Miracles " subjected him to a 
 prosecution, and he was fined and imprisoned. 
 Died, 1732. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, William, one of the 
 greatest poets of our age and country, was 
 born at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, April 
 7th, 1770. He received the rudiments of liis 
 mental culture at Hawkshcad School, and 
 in the year 1787 was entered at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge. Having completed his 
 studies and taken his academical degree, he 
 made the tour of France and Switzerland, 
 at a period when the revolution in France 
 had attained its grand crisis ; and its influ- 
 ence upon the fiery imagination and sensi- 
 tive mind of Wordsworth was no less for- 
 cible than that produced upon those of his 
 friends and frequent companions, Coleridge, 
 Southey, and Lloyd. The earnest thoughts 
 that had been generated by his continued 
 meditations upon this theme found an 
 utterance in his " Descriptive Sketches " and 
 " Evening Walk," both of which made their 
 appearance in 1793. In 1797 he had con- 
 ceived a plan for the regeneration of English 
 poetry. In 1798 he published, in conjunc- 
 tion with Coleridge, a collection of" Lyrical 
 Ballads." The majority of these productions 
 were from his own pen. This book so far 
 from making converts to Wordsworth's pe- 
 culiar way of thinking, met everywhere 
 with the bitterest contempt and ridicule. 
 The Edinburgh Review denounced his 
 theory as puerile, and stigmatised his verses 
 as a species of second-rate nursery rhymes. 
 There can be no doubt that Wordsworth in 
 his zeal to redeem the English muse from 
 a corrupted and inane pliraseology, like 
 other re-actionists of a sterner character, 
 pushed his favourite theory too far. Still 
 many of his readers sympathised with liis 
 views ; and through their encouragement he 
 was induced to publish other two volumes of 
 poetry in 1807. In 1814 appeared his great 
 work, " The Excursion," which, according 
 to a contemporary critic, is "brimful of 
 splendid thoughts clothed in splendid lan- 
 guage, while it breathes a spirit of en- 
 
 lightened benevolence and charity, which 
 seem wondrous, grand, and beautiful in their 
 drapery of glowing eloquence when tested by 
 the poet's own theory." About the period 
 of tiie publication of the " Excursion," 
 Wordsworth obtained the situation of dis- 
 tributor of stamps, which oflSce he retained 
 during the lapse of 28 years, retiring in 1842 
 upon a pension of 300/., while his son filled 
 the vacancy thus occasioned. Several works 
 followed the " Excursion," among which 
 may be mentioned the " White Doe of Ryl- 
 stone ;" and in 1842 appeared a volume con- 
 taining several poems written in the poet's 
 early youth, accompanied by others written 
 in his old age. In 1843 he succeeded his 
 friend Southey as poet-laureate. It would 
 be almost impassible to exaggerate or over- 
 estimate the importance of the influence 
 whicli Wordsworth, in conjunction with 
 Coleridge, has exercised in the formation of 
 the intellectual characteristics of the pre- 
 sent age. Many of our greatest thinkers 
 have sat at the feet of Coleridge, that 
 " old man eloquent ; " while the whole of 
 the poetry that has issued from the English 
 press for years has been tinctured and co- 
 loured by the genius of Wordsworth. " Dur- 
 ing the last 30 years," says a contemporary 
 critic, " the regenerative power of his genius 
 has so operated upon the public taste, that the 
 pure, the simple, and the good are now the 
 more regardecl elements of poetrj', while the 
 Laras, Giaours, and the other distempered 
 objects of a feverish imagination are ceasing 
 to be among the attractive imagery of song. 
 Perhaps the most remarkable triumpli of his 
 genius is its conquest over that very Review 
 which scorned and sneered at him in the 
 beginning of his career ; for his spirit now 
 undoubtedly pervades this very organ which 
 scoffed at him so bitterly, and even rejected 
 his language as too puerile for the nursery. 
 For many years, Wordsworth enjoyed the 
 inestimable privilege of receiving that guer- 
 don of love and admiration while living, 
 which are too frequently brought into opera- 
 tion for no other purpose than that of scat- 
 tering garlands upon the tomb of genius. 
 Thousands of his admirers made a pilgrimage 
 to the poet's sanctuary, Rydal Mount ; and 
 not a few crossed over from other lands to 
 catch a glimpse of tliat great man who has 
 filled the world with his fame. Died, 1*50. 
 Ilis noble autobiographical poem, " The 
 Prelude on the Growth of a Poet's Mind," 
 was a posthumous publication. 
 
 AVORLRIDGE, Thomas, a portrait 
 painter and engraver, whose etchings after 
 Rembrandt are peculiarly excellent. He 
 published a book of gems from the antique. 
 Died, 17()fl. 
 
 WORMIUS, Olaus, an able Dutch phy- 
 sician and antiquary, was born in 1588 ; was 
 made a canon of the cathedral of Lunden by 
 Christian IV. as a reward for his medical ser- 
 vices ; and died in 1054. His principal works 
 relate to Danish and Norwegian history and 
 antiquities. 
 
 WORSDALE, James, a painter and dra- 
 matic writer. He was pupil to Sir Godfrey 
 Kneller, whose niece he married. His dra- 
 matic performances obtained much tempo- 
 rary notoriety. Died, 1767. 
 
wor] 
 
 ^ ^ctu Sffniijer^al Ui0srajpl)n, 
 
 [WRE 
 
 WORSLEY, Sir Riciiaijd, bart., was born 
 in 1751, in the Isle of Wight ; and became 
 governor of the island, comptroller of his 
 majesty's household, and member of parlia- 
 ment for Newport. He resided in Italy many 
 years, and made a large collection of an- 
 tiquities, of which a catalogue was published, 
 imder the title of " Miisajum Worsleianum." 
 Sir Richard also wrote the " Ilistory of the 
 Isle of Wight." Died, 1805. 
 
 WORTIIINGTON, William, a learned 
 divine, was born in Merionethshire, in 1703 ; 
 M-as educated at Jesus College, Oxford ; 
 and obtained prebends in the cathedrals 
 of Asaph and York. His principal works 
 are, an "Essay on tlie Scheme of Redemp- 
 tion," "On the Historical Sense of the 
 Mosaic Account of the Fall of JIan," and 
 " Tlie Scripture Theory of the Earth." Died, 
 1778. 
 
 WOTTON, Sir Hejtry, a diplomatist and 
 political writer, was born in 15()8, at Bough- 
 ton Hall, in Kent ; was educated at Win- 
 chester and Oxford ; became secretary to 
 the Earl of Essex, whom lie accompanied 
 on his expedition against the Spaniards, 
 and into Ireland ; and, on the fall of that 
 nobleman, he went to reside at Florence. 
 James I. employed him on various missions 
 to Italy and Germany. He was made provost 
 at Eton College in 1024, and died in ICSO. 
 He wrote " Elements of Arcliitccture," " The 
 State of Cliristendom," and " Reliquiae "\Vot- 
 tonianae." 
 
 WOTTON, William, an English divine, 
 critic, historian, and miscelluneous writer, 
 of great learning ; born, 1060 ; died, 1720. 
 His chief works are, " Reflections ui)on An- 
 cient and Modern Learning " and " The His- 
 tory of Rome from tlie Death of Antoninus 
 Pius to the Deatli of Severus Alexander." 
 
 WOUVERMANS, PuiLir, an eminent 
 painter, was born at Haerlem, in 1(!20. His 
 hunting pieces, landscapes, and battle scenes, 
 are admirable. Died, 1088. 
 
 WRAXALL, Sir Natiiaxiel William, 
 bart., an eminent traveller and historical 
 writer, was born at Bristol, in 17.51. He 
 entered into the civil service of the East 
 India Company, and in 1771 acted as judge- 
 advocate and paymaster of the forces for 
 the presidency of Bombay. Next year he 
 returned to England, and then travelled on 
 the Continent, visiting almost every country 
 from Naples to Lapland. He published se- 
 veral tours, the " History of the House of 
 Valois," " Memoirs of tlie Courts of Berlin, 
 Dresden, Warsaw, and Vienna," " The His- 
 tory of France," 6 vols. 8vo. &c. In 1813 he 
 was created a baronet, and, in 1815, he pub- 
 lished his last work, " Historical Memoirs of 
 his Own Time," 2 vols. Svo. In these me- 
 moirs, which contain a fund of anecdote, 
 was a libel on Count Woronzow, the Russian 
 ambassador ; for which Sir Nathaniel was 
 sentenced to a fine and six months' imprison- 
 ment. He died at Dover, while on his way 
 to Naples, in 1831, aged 80. 
 
 WREDE, Field-marshal Prince, an emi- 
 nent Bavarian soldier and statesman, whose 
 fate it was to be a most formidable foe to 
 the gigantic military genius under whom he 
 had obtained the earliest distinction due to 
 his gallantry and skill. In 1805 lie served 
 
 886 
 
 as a Bavarian lieutenant-colonel against 
 Austria and as the ally of France, and dis- 
 tinguished himself so much, that Napoleon 
 personally conferred upon him the then 
 much coveted grand cross of the legion of 
 honour. In the subsequent actions of that 
 war he still further distinguished himself, 
 and Mas created a field-marshal when dan- 
 gerously wounded at the decisive battle of 
 Wagram. In tlie memorable campaign 
 against Russia, too, the contingent army 
 furnished by Bavaria to France was com- 
 manded by him ; and covered the retreat of 
 the French with such dogged determination, 
 as to lose nearly the wliole of its cavalry. 
 In 1813, tlie political state of things in 
 Europe made it impossible for Bavaria to 
 remain attached to the emperor's cause, but 
 to share liis inevitable ruin ; and Marshal 
 Wrede, as Bavarian plenipotentiary, signed 
 the treaty by which Bavaria declared herself 
 separated from the confederation of the j 
 Rhine, and also from the cause of the em- 
 peror. Shortly afterwards, Wrede, at the 
 head of a combined Bavarian and Austrian 
 army, made a gallant and skilful, though 
 unsuccessful attempt, to intercept Napoleon 
 at Hanau, after the battle of Leipzig. In 
 1814 he was activelj' engaged in France, and 
 with his usual gallantry ; and, at the con- 
 clusion of the war, he was elevated to the 
 rank of a prince, and, shortly afterwards, 
 nominated an honorary knight grand cross 
 of the English order of the Bath. The ter- 
 mination of the war did not terminate his 
 services to his country. As minister of state, 
 and inspector general of the army, he ren- 
 dered most important benefits. Born, 1707 ; 
 died, 183!). 
 
 WREN, Sir Christopher, a celebrated 
 architect and mathematician, was born at 
 East Knoyle, in Wiltshire, in 1632 ; studied 
 at Wadham College, Oxford; was cliosen a 
 fellow of All Souls, in 1653; was appointed 
 professor of astronomy at Gresliam College, 
 in 1057 ; and, in 1601, was nominated to the 
 Savilian professorship, and created LL.D. 
 His fame as an arcliitect had by this time 
 widely spread ; and he received a commis- 
 sion, in 1003, to produce designs for the re- 
 storation of St. Paul's cathedral, then one of i 
 the most remarkable Gothic edifices in the I 
 kingdom. To prepare himself for the ex- j 
 ecution of this great undertaking, he made 
 a visit to France, in 1005, and then finished j 
 the designs ; but while they were under con- ] 
 sideration, the cathedral was destroyed by 
 the fire of 1600. Wren had now an oppor- i 
 tunity for signalising his talents by the erec- ■ 
 tion of an entirely new structure. The con- j 
 temporaneous destruction of fifty parochial \ 
 churches and many public buildings also i 
 furnished an ample field for his genius ; and j 
 he would have had the honour of founding, i 
 as it were, a new citj', if the design which he 
 laid before the king and parliament could 
 have been adopted ; but private interests 
 prevented its acceptance. On the death of j 
 Sir John Denham, he succeeded to the office 
 of surveyor of the works ; and, in 1674, 
 received the lionour of knighthood. His 
 greatest performances were the Monument, 
 Greenwich Hospital, Hampton Court, St. 
 Mary-le-Bow ; St. JCichael, Cornhill ; St. 
 
wre] 
 
 ^ llffio Bnibtv^Kl Btograplbe* 
 
 [WTC 
 
 Dun&tan in the East; St. Magnus, London 
 Bridge; St. Stephen, Walbrook ; and, above 
 i all, St. Pttiirs cathedral, which he lived 
 I to 8ee completed. In 1(>80 he was chosen 
 president of the Royal Society ; was after- 
 wards appointed architect and commissioner 
 of Chelsea Hospital, and comptroller of the 
 ! works at Windsor. He was elected M. P. 
 '■ for the borough of Plympton, in IGSo, and 
 i for Weymouth, in 17(X). After having long 
 been the highest ornament of his profession, 
 he was, in 1718, to the disgrace of the admi- 
 nistration, deprived of the survey orship of 
 the royal works, merely from political mo- 
 tives ; he was then in the 85th year of his 
 age. He died, Feb. 25. 1723. aged 90, aud 
 was buried in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 WREN, CuRisTOPnEK, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was a learned antiquary, and col- 
 ; lected memoirs of his family, which in 1750 
 were published by Dr. Stephen Wren, his 
 son, under the title of" Parentalia." 
 
 WREN, Matthew, a learned prelate, 
 
 successively bishop of Hereford, Norwich, 
 
 and Ely. During the civil war he was im- 
 
 } peached by the Commons, and sent to the 
 
 ; Tower, where he lay 18 years, without any 
 
 j trial. At the Restoration, he visited his dio- 
 
 I cese, and built a new chapel in Pembroke 
 
 Hall, Cambridge. Died, 1G67. 
 
 WRIGHT, Edward, a mathematician, 
 born at Garveston, in Norfolk ; to whom is 
 attributed the discovery of the true method 
 of dividing the meridian line. Died, Itilo. 
 I WRIGHT, Joseph, a celebrated painter, 
 ; usually styled " Wright of Derby," was born 
 in that town in 1784. He was first placed 
 I under Hudson, the portrait painter ; after- 
 I wards visited Italy, where he made great 
 I advances in his profession; returned to Eng- 
 land in 1755, and was elected an associate of 
 the Royal Academy. He settled at Derby, 
 painted many admirable landscapes, &c., 
 and died in 1797. 
 
 WRIGHT, Walter Rodwell, author 
 of " HoroB lonicoe," descriptive of the Isles 
 of Greece, wliich Lord Byron has warmly 
 eulogised. He died in 182i>, at Malta, where 
 he held the situation of president of the 
 court of appeal. 
 
 WURMSER, Daoobeht Sioismoxd, 
 Count, an Austrian tield-marshal, who dis- 
 played great bravery and skill in the wars 
 with France. He drove the republican 
 troops out of Alsace in 1798, took Manheim 
 in 1794, and contended successfully against 
 the French in Italy in 179Q, but was at length 
 obliged to submit to the superior numbers 
 of the enemy, at Mantua, after an obstinate 
 defence and the loss of 24,000 men. He died 
 in 1797, aged 80. 
 
 WYAT, Sir Thomas, a distinguished 
 courtier, statesman, and poet, was born in 
 1503, at Allington, in Kent; was educated 
 at Cambridge and Oxford, became a fa- 
 vourite of Henry VIII., and was employed 
 by him on various missions, and died in 
 1541. His poetical works consist of odes, 
 love elegies, &c., and possess a considerable 
 degree of elegance. 
 
 WYATT, .J\mes, an eminent architect, 
 was born at Burton, in Staffordshire, about 
 1748, and studied architecture and painting 
 at Rome. On his return to England, he 
 
 erected the Pantheon in Oxford Street, and 
 he succeeded Sir William Chambers as sur- 
 veyor-general to the board of works. He also 
 became a member of the Royal Academy, 
 and for some time sat as president of that 
 institution. Fonthill Abbey, Kew Palace, 
 and many other edifices, owe whatever merit 
 they possess to his skill as an architect. He 
 died in 1813. 
 
 WYATT, R. J., an accomplished sculptor, 
 was born on the 3rd of May, 1795, in Oxford 
 Street, London, where his father, Edward 
 Wyatt. was then settled. At an early age he 
 was articled to Charles Rossi, R. A., for the 
 term of seven years ; and during that term 
 his services at the Royal Academy were so 
 successfully prosecuted, as to entitle him to 
 the award of two medals upon ditferent 
 occasions. At the time Wyalt was under 
 the tuition of Rossi, he executed a monument 
 in the church of Esher, in memory of Mrs. 
 Hughes, and another in the chapel at St. 
 John's Wood. When Canova visited this 
 country, he became so far interested in 
 Wyatt, as at once to promise him his pro- 
 tection and the permission to work in his 
 studio at Rome. Thither he proceeded in 
 the early part of the year 1821, after having 
 spent some time in Paris under the cele- 
 brated Italian sculptor Bozio ; and so de- 
 votedly did he prosecute the labours of his 
 profession, that only once in tliis lengthened 
 term of nearly 30 years did he revisit his 
 native country, and that occasion was in the 
 year 1841. It was during Wyatt's visit to 
 England, in 1841, that he was honoured by 
 the queen with a commission for his statue of 
 Penelope, which in Rome was considered the 
 best of his works. His group of " Ino and 
 the Infant Bacchus," a statue of" Glycera," 
 " Musidora, " a statue ; two statues of 
 Nymphs, and "Penelope," a charming 
 statue, the property of her majesty, are all 
 works of high merit. The industry of Wyatt 
 was singularly constant. In summer, long 
 before five in the morning, he was to be seen 
 on his way to the Caffe Greco, wliere artists 
 of all nations assemble ; and in winter, long 
 before daylight, he was to he seen at the 
 same place reading the papers by the light 
 of a taper wiiich he always carried with 
 him for that purpose. At daylight he was 
 in a studio, and not only thus early, but 
 he also remained at work sometimes until 
 midnight. Died suddenly at Rome, May 
 29. 1850. 
 
 WYCHERLEY, Wir.LiAM, a dramatic 
 writer, and man of fashion in the time of 
 Charles II., was born in 1G40, at Cleve, in 
 Shropshire ; studied the law ; but having a 
 taste for poetry and the drama, he came 
 into notice as the author of "Love in a 
 Wood," a comedy, and obtained through I 
 it the patronage of the Duchess of Cleve- 
 land, the profligate Duke of Buckingham, 
 and the monarch himself. He at length 
 lost tlie king's favour by clandestinely 
 marrying the Countess of Drogheda, a 
 young, rich, and beautiful widow ; and al- 
 though at her death she settled her fortune ! 
 on him, yet his title being disputed, the ! 
 law expenses produced embarrassment and 
 arrest, and he remained in confinement 7 
 years. He was at last released from prison : 
 
wyd] 
 
 ^ ^f&) Wini^tY^Rl 3St05riqi5y. 
 
 [WYT 
 
 by James II., who gave him a pension of 
 200Z. per annum. He was the author of tlie 
 Comedies of the " Plain Dealer," the "Gen- 
 tleman Dancing Master," and the " Country 
 Wife ; " besides poems, &c. Died, 1715. 
 
 WYDEVILLE, or WOODVILLE, Ax- 
 THONV, Earl Rivkrs, an accomplished no- 
 bleman of the 15th century, was horn in 
 1442. In consequence of his sister having 
 been married to Edward IV., he shared in 
 all the vicissitudes which befel that warlike 
 and luxurious monarch, and became go- 
 vernor of Calais and captain-general of 
 the king's forces. He was also made go- 
 vernor of Prince Edward, and chief butler 
 of England. On the death of the king, the 
 earl assembled a body of troops, with the 
 intention of crowning his nephew ; but his 
 design was defeated by the machinations of 
 the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard 
 III., who caused the gallant nobleman to 
 be beheaded, without trial, in the castle of 
 Pontefract, June 13. 1483. 
 
 WYKEUAM, William of, bishop of 
 Winchester, and lord high chancellor of 
 England, was born in 1324, at Wickham, in 
 Hampshire, of respectable parents, but poor, 
 and was indebted for his education to Ni- 
 cholas ITvedale, governor of Winchester 
 castle. On the completion of his studies, 
 lie became private secretary to his patron, 
 and was by him eventually recommended to 
 the notice of Edward III. The talents, di- 
 ligence, and integrity he displayed in the 
 service of the king raised him gradually 
 to a distinguished place in the royal favour ; 
 and being appointed surveyor of his works 
 at Windsor, under his directions that splen- 
 1 did structure was completed. He now gra- 
 dually, but rapidly, rose to the highest 
 dignities both in church and state. In 1.357. 
 , lie was presented to the rectory of Pulham, 
 I in Norfolk, to which was added a prebend 
 j in the church of Lichfield ; and in 1300 he 
 was made dean of the collegiate church of 
 I St. Martin le Grand, London. He was also 
 successively appointed keeper of the privy 
 seal, secretary to the king, and governor of 
 the great council. In VMiH he was advanced 
 ; to the bishopric of Winchester, and in the 
 I following year was made chancellor of 
 England. These high dignities he sustained 
 with honour and ability, dedicating a large 
 portion of his temporalities to the improve- 
 \ ment of his cathedral. Owing to the in- 
 fluence of a party, headed by John of 
 Gaunt, who were strongly opposed to the 
 increasing wealth and influence of the 
 clergy, he was compelled to resign the seals 
 in 1371 ; but the esteem in which he was 
 held by the people generally, compensated 
 for the loss ; and on the accession of Ri- 
 chard II. he was restored to his dignities 
 and emoluments. In 1386 he completed his 
 munificent foundation of New College, Ox- 
 ford ; in the chapel of which is still to be 
 seen his crozier, or pastoral staff, supposed 
 to be the only one in England. He also 
 built and endowed St. Mary's College, at 
 Winchester; and having, in 1301, a second 
 time resigned the chancellorship, he de- 
 voted the remainder of his life to the su- 
 perintendence of his nobler establishments, 
 and the exercise of Christian benevolence. 
 
 He died, Sept. 24. 1404, and was buried in 
 Winchester cathedral, where a splendid j 
 monument is erected to the memory of its 
 wortliy and munificent benefactor. 
 
 WYNANTZ, JoHX, an eminent Dutch 
 landscape painter, born at Haerlem, in 
 10(50. He was the instructor of Philip Wou- 
 vermans, and is famous for the boldness of 
 his designs and the delicacy of his tints. 
 Died, 1670. 
 
 WYNDHAAf, Sir William, a celebrated 
 statesman, was a native of Somersetshire, 
 and born in 1687. Having been elected 
 M. P. for the county, he soon became con- 
 spicuous as one of the ablest senators in the 
 house. He was appointed secretary of 
 war, and afterwards chancellor of tlie ex- 
 chequer ; but being displaced on the death 
 of queen Anne, he took a leading part in 
 opposition, and signalised himself by his 
 defence of the Duke of Ormond and the 
 Earls of Oxford and Strafford, when im- 
 peached by the Commons. He was com- 
 mitted to the Tower in 1715, on the charge 
 of being concerned in the rebellion of the ] 
 Earl of Mar, but was never brought to 
 
 trial. Died, 1740 His eldest son, Charles 
 
 Wyndham, became Earl of Egremout, I 
 and died in 1763. j 
 
 AVYNN, Right Hon. Charles Watkins 
 Williams, M.P. for Montgomeryshire, a dis- 
 tinguished M.P., and, at the time of l>is death, 
 the oldest member of the House of Commons, ' 
 having sat for Montgomeryshire since 1797, | 
 and about a year previously for Old Sarum. j 
 He held the olflces of secretary-at-war (in ( 
 the Grey administration) and chancellor of | 
 the duchj- of Lancaster from December, 1834, ■ 
 to April, 18.35. Next to Sir Robert Peel, 
 perhap?, there was no parliamentary cha- ! 
 racter more prominent than Mr. Wynn, 
 whose age and experience made him an ■ 
 oracle upon questions of privilege and ; 
 doubtful points of precedent and order, even \ 
 amid the infirmities of accumulated years. I 
 At one period he was nearly chosen to fill 
 the speaker's chair. He was the fast friend 
 of the poet Southey, attached to literature, 
 an able exponent of political measures, and 
 altogether a man to be respected and es- 
 teemed during a lengthened career, in which | 
 every thing praiseworthy and honourable : 
 attached to his name. Died, 1850. I 
 
 WYNNE JoHX HuDDLESTOX, a miscel- | 
 laneous writer, was born in Wales, in 1743 ; ! 
 followed the business of a printer in London 
 for a time, then obtained a commission in 
 the army, and eventually sat down as an 
 author by profession. His principal works 
 are, " A General History of the British 
 Empire in America," 2 vols.; "A General 
 History of Ireland," 2 vols.; and "Fables 
 for the Female Sex." He died in 1788. 
 
 WYTTENBACH, Daxiel, a learned phi- 
 lologist, was born at Berne, in 1746 ; studied 
 at Marpurg and Gcittingen, obtained the 
 professorsliip of philosophy and literature 
 at the Remonstrants' College at Amster- 
 dam ; and was siibsequently appointed phi- 
 losophical professor at the Athenaeum in 
 that city. His chief works are, " Epistola- 
 Critica," " Precepta Philosophise Logicae," 
 and an edition of the "Moral Works of 
 Plutarch." Died, 1820. 
 
xan] 
 
 ^ ^ebi aTnifafrtfal SBiOfivapl^e. 
 
 [yat 
 
 XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general, 
 who defeated the Romans under Regulus. 
 
 XAVIER, St. Francis, styled " Tlie 
 Apostle of the Indies," a celebrated Spanish 
 missionary, was born at the castle of Xavier, 
 in Navarre, in loOC ; studied at Paris ; and 
 became one of the most zealous disciples of 
 Ignatius Loyola, with whom he formed an 
 intimate friendship. He was sent by John 
 III., king of Portugal, to the East Indies, to 
 preach the gospel ; arrived at Goa in }r>42, 
 and propagated the Christian faith, not only 
 in that city, but in Japan and the neigh- 
 bouring islands. He was proceeding to China 
 as a Christian missionary when he died, iu 
 
 I 1552. 
 
 XENOCRATES, a Greek philosopher, 
 remarkable for the severity of his manners, 
 
 I and his incorruptible integrity, was born at 
 Chalcedon, B.C. 4()0. lie was sent on an 
 embassy to Philip, king of Macedon, and 
 
 I afterwards to Antipater, neither of whom 
 
 j could corrupt him by presents. Notwith- 
 standing this, the Athenians were so un- 
 grateful, that they caused him to be sold as 
 a slave, because he was too poor to pay the 
 taxes. Demetrius Phalerens, however, dis- 
 charged the debt, and gave him his freedom. 
 Died, B. c. 314. 
 
 XENOPHANES, a Greek philosopher, 
 born at Colophon, was founder of the Eleatic 
 sect, and became a preceptor in the Pytha- 
 gorean school ; but added many new opinions 
 of his own to that philosophy, particularly 
 on the immutability of matter. Died, b. c. 
 456. 
 
 XENOPHON, an illustrious Athenian 
 philosopher, soldier, and historian, was born 
 B. c. 450. He was the disciple of Socrates, 
 whose doctrines he imbibed, and whom he 
 accompanied to the Peloponnesian war. He 
 afterwards went to the court of Cyrus, with 
 whom he was in great favour ; but when 
 that prince was killed at the battle of Cu- 
 naxa, Xenophon and 10,000 Greeks eifected 
 their march home, in spite of all opposition. 
 After this he went into Asia with Agesilaus, 
 king of the Lacedaemonians ; and, in his 
 absence, tlie Atlienians passed a decree of 
 banishment against him ; on which he with- 
 drew to a retreat iu Elis, near Olympia, 
 
 i where he employed himself in composing 
 1 works on history and philosophy, and in 
 rural occupations and amusements, until his 
 death, b. c. StiO. The principal of Xeno- 
 phon's works which are extant are, the " Cy- 
 1 ropaedia," or the life, discipline, and actions 
 of the elder Cyrus ; seven books of the " Ex- 
 t pedition of the Younger Cyrus into Persia, 
 I and of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand 
 Greeks;" four books of [the "Memorabilia 
 I of Socrates," and the " Hellenica, or Grecian 
 History." His style has always been ad- 
 mired for sweetness, Attic purity, and sin- 
 I gular clearness. 
 
 j XERXES, the fifth king of Persia, and 
 second son of Darius Hystaspes. He con- 
 quered Egypt, and then turned his arms 
 ! against Greece, with an army of 800,000 
 [ men, and lOO ships. He was slain by Ar- 
 tabanus, the captain of his guards, B. c. 4ii5. 
 XIMENES DE CISNEROS, Fkancisco, 
 ! a celebrated Spanish prelate and statesman, 
 I was born at Torrelaguna, in Old Castile, in 
 1437, and died in 1517. After having filled 
 I various benefices, he became a monk of the 
 Franciscan order, and attained great reputa- 
 tion as a preacher. When he was raised to 
 the archbishopric of Toledo, he continued to 
 preserve the austere habits of the cloister. 
 He subsequently became prime minister and 
 a cardinal, and few men have displayed 
 j more ability or firmness. He founded the 
 1 university of Alcala. 
 
 j XIMENES, Fhancis, one of the 12 friars 
 who first preached Christianity to the Mexi- 
 cans. During his residence in Mexico, he 
 [ collected a great deal of information relative 
 j to the plants and animals of that country, 
 I and published a treatise on the subject, 
 I which is allowed to possess considerable 
 i merit. 
 
 XIMENES, RoDERic. archbishop of To- 
 ledo in the 13th century ; author of a " His- 
 tory of Spain." 
 
 XYPHILIN, Jonjf, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople in the 11th century, was a man 
 of great erudition and exemplary manners. 
 
 Died, 1075 His nephew, of the same 
 
 name, was the author of a Greek abridg- 
 ment of Dion Cassius, and is often con- 
 founded with his uncle. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YALDEN, Thomas, a divine and poet, 
 was born at Exeter, in 1(571, and educated at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, where he formed 
 an intimacy with Addison and Sacheverel, 
 which lasted through life. He obtained the 
 rectories of Charlton and Cleanville, in 
 Herefordshire ; and, in 1713, was appointed 
 preacher to Bridewell Hospital, on the re- 
 signation of Dr. Atterbury. Among his 
 
 poetical pieces are, " The Temple of Fame," 
 " The Conquest of Namur,"&c. Died, 1736. 
 YATES, Fhedkkick Henry, a popular 
 and versatile actor, first made his appear- 
 ance on the stage in a piece called " The 
 Actor of All Work," in 1817. In the fol- 
 lowing year he was engaged at Covent 
 Garden, subsequently may be said to have 
 performed in every line of character from 
 
tat] 
 
 ^ ^eia SanilJCijSaT 3Sio0rap]^H« 
 
 [you 
 
 Shakspeare's tragedy to the broadest farce, 
 and it was not easy to decide whether his 
 pathos or his iiumour were most admirable. 
 As manager of the Adelphi Theatre his taste 
 and skill were also universally allowed. 
 Died, June 21. 1842, aged 45. 
 
 YATES, Richard, a comic actor, who for 
 many years was a public favourite in " Fon- 
 dlewife," in the Old Bachelor, and similar 
 
 characters. Died, 1796 His wife, Anna 
 
 Makia, was a tragic actres of great ability ; 
 and on the deatii of Mrs. Gibber, in 17(5.5, she 
 for a time became the unrivalled heroine of 
 the stage. Died, 1787. 
 
 YEARSLEY, Anne, a poetical and dra- 
 matic writer, was born about 17.56, at Bris- 
 tol. She was originally a milk-woman ; 
 but, under the auspices of Hannah More, a 
 volume of her productions was published by 
 subscription in 178.5, the jiroflts of which 
 enabled her to open a circulating library at 
 the Hot Wells. Her principal publications 
 are, " Poems on various Subjects," Earl 
 Godwin," a tragedy, and "The Royal Cap- 
 tives," a romance. 
 
 YEATES, Thomas, a celebrated oriental 
 scholar ; author of excellent grammars of 
 the Hebrew and Syriac, and a most laborious 
 editor and translator of portions of tlie Scrip- 
 ture, as well as a variety of biblical labours 
 of considerable ingenuity, industry, and 
 value. In early life he was a member and 
 secretary of the Society for promoting Con- 
 stitutional Information, but for many years 
 previous to his death he took no part in 
 politics. Born, 17(58 ; died, 1839. 
 
 YEATS, Thomas Pattinson, an eminent 
 entomologist ; author of " Institutions of 
 Entomology," &c. He was a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and died in 1782. 
 
 YELVERTON, Sir Henky, an eminent 
 English judge, born in 1,5(5(5. He successively 
 filled the offices of solicitor-general, attorney- 
 
 feneral, and judge ; published "Reports of 
 pecial Cases," and died in 1630. 
 YORK, Fredekick, Duke of, second son of 
 George III., was born August 16. 176.'?, and 
 in the February following he was elected 
 prince-bishop of Osnaburg, in Germany. 
 In 1780 he was appointed a brevet-colonel in 
 the British army, and went to the Continent 
 in order to study military tactics in tlie 
 school of the great Frederick at Berlin. In 
 1784 he was created Duke of York and Al- 
 bany ; returned from the Continent in 1787 ; 
 took his seat in the House of Lords in the 
 same year ; and, in 1789, fought a duel, 
 which had nearly proved fatal to him, with 
 Colonel Lennox, afterwards Duke of Rich- 
 mond. In 1791 he married the eldest 
 daughter of the king of Prussia ; was placed 
 at the head of tlie British army in Flanders, 
 in 1793 ; and, after alternate success, was 
 expelled from that country by tlie French. 
 Nor was he more fortunate in 1799, when he 
 was employed in Holland, being under the 
 necessity of signing a disadvantageous con- 
 vention. In 1809 a series of charges were 
 preferred against him in the House of Com- 
 mons by Colonel Wardle, for having suffered 
 a female favourite, named Mary Anne 
 Clarke, to influence him in the disposal of 
 commissions in the army ; but as nothing 
 occurred to implicate the duke in the corriipt 
 
 transactions between Mrs. Clarke and the 
 persons to whom she sold her services, he 
 was acquitted. Ilis royal highness, how- 
 ever, thought proper to resign his post of 
 commander-in-chief, but he was reinstated 
 about two years after by the prince regent ; 
 and from that time he exercised the most 
 rigid impartiality in the distribution of pro- 
 motion, wliile he attended to the rights and 
 comforts of the soldier, and enforced at the 
 same time the necessity of strict discipline 
 and subordination. He was humane, frank, 
 affable, and benevolent ; but a passion for 
 high play was fatal to his own repose, and 
 threw a shade over his manly and generous 
 character. Died, January 5. 1827. 
 
 YORKE, Admiral Sir Joseph Sidney, 
 K.C.B., entered the navy as midshipman in 
 1780, and was in the actions with Lord Rod- 
 ney of the 9th and 12th of April, 1782. He 
 was made lieutenant in 1789, and appointed 
 master and commander to the Rattlesnake ; 
 promoted to the rank of post-captain in 
 1793 ; continued in active employ on various 
 services; and, in 1805, he received tlie honour 
 of knighthood. In 1810, Sir Joseph was ap- 
 pointed to a seat at the admiralty board, 
 was made vice-admiral in 1814, and became 
 admiral of the blue in 1830. During his 
 parliamentary career he was distinguished 
 by his honest zeal for the interests of his 
 profession, and by his irresistible good 
 humour, whicli often proved successful in 
 appeasing the angry feelings of debate. He 
 had been with Captains Bradley and Young 
 to Spithead, and, on their return, the vessel 
 was upset in Stokes Bav, and all perished, 
 May .5. lasi. 
 
 YOUNG, Sir Aretas Willtam, Colonel. 
 This officer entered the army in 1795, as 
 ensign ; and became a captain in the 13th 
 foot tlie following year, l;y purchase. His 
 first active duty was in Ireland, during the 
 rebellion ; his next in Egypt. 1801 ; and, 
 for several j'ears after, in Sicily and at Gib- 
 raltar, he acted as aide-de-camp to General 
 Fox. In 1807 he obtained the rank of major 
 in the 47th, and was present at the battles 
 of Vimiera, Talavera, Busaco, Badajoz, &c. 
 In 1813 he was promoted to a lieut.-colonelcy 
 in the 3rd West India regiment, stationed 
 at Trinidad ; and, in 181.5, he was sent to 
 join the expedition against Guadaloupe, and 
 received one of the badges of the order of 
 Merit, presented by Louis XVIII. He was 
 next selected to command the troops in 
 Grenada, where his conduct gave the highest 
 satisfaction ; and on his being ordered back 
 to Trinidad, the council of assembly pre- 
 sented him with a sword, value 100 guineas. 
 From this time to the final disbandment of 
 the 3rd West India regiment, in 1825, he 
 administered the government at various 
 times during the absence of Sir Ralph 
 Woodford, and was rewarded for the " can- 
 dour, intcgritj', and impartiality which had 
 marked his administration," by 150 guineas 
 for a sword, and a piece of plate, value 250Z. 
 In 182G, Lieut.-colonel Young was appointed 
 to the office of protector of slaves in Deme- 
 rara ; in 1831 he was made lieut. -governor 
 of Prince Edward's Island ; and, in 1834, he 
 received the honour of knighthood. Died, 
 1835. 
 
you] 
 
 ^ iitio ^nibtviKl ISt05iajp^3?. 
 
 [tsa 
 
 YOUNG, Arthur, an eminent writer 
 I on agriculture, was born in 1741, at Brad- 
 ; field, in Suffolk. With a desire to improve 
 British husbandry, he made innumerable 
 j experiments at home, and also travelled 
 I over the greatest part of Great Britain, Ire- 
 ; land, France, Spain, and Italy. In 1770 he 
 published his " Farmer's Calendar," which 
 i became a popular work ; and also a period- 
 i leal, entitled the " Annals of Agriculture." 
 I On the establishment of the Board of Agri- 
 1 culture he was appointed secretary, which 
 office he held till his deccaae, in 1820. Be- 
 sides the works already mentioned, he pub- 
 lished hia " Tour in England, Ireland, and 
 France." 
 
 YOUNG, Edward, a poet and miscella* 
 neous writer, was born in 1679, at Upham, 
 Hants, and was educated at Winchester 
 School, and New College, Oxford. Though 
 designed for th« law, he chose the clerical 
 profession, and, in 1718, was appointed 
 chaplain to the king. Ills poetical repu- 
 tation he had already established by the 
 poems of " The Last Day," " Tlie Force of 
 Religion," and the "Love of Fame," and 
 the tragedies of " The Revenge " and " Bu- 
 siris." His " Night Thoughts," which abound 
 in sublime passages, though sometimes rather 
 obscure, are supposed to liave been prompted 
 by the death of his wife, whom he lost in 
 1741. As a prose writer, he is chiefly known 
 by his " Centaur not Fabulous " and " Con- 
 jectures on original Composition." His fame, 
 however, rests altogetlier on his poetry, par- 
 ticularly his "Night Thoughts." Died, 
 1765, aged 83. 
 
 YOUNG, Matthew, an Irish mathema- 
 tician and divine, was bom in 1750, in the 
 county of Roscommon ; was educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, where, in 1786, he 
 became professor of philosophy ; was raised 
 to the see of Clonfert, by Marquis Corn- 
 wallis, and died in 1800. He was the author 
 of " An Analysis of the Principles of Natural 
 Philosophy" and "The Method of Prime 
 and Ultimate Ratios." 
 
 YOUNG, Dr. Thomas, F.R.S., and F.L.S,, 
 a celebrated physician and natural philo- 
 sopher, was born at Milverton, in Somer- 
 setshire, in 1774 ; was educated at Gottin- 
 gen and Edinburgh ; became physician to 
 St. George's Hospital, and foreign secretary 
 of the Royal Society ; and distinguished 
 himself as a man of great literary and sci- 
 entific acquirements. His chief works are, 
 " A Course of Lectures on Natural Philoso- 
 phy," an " Introduction to Medical Litera- 
 ture," a " Practical and Historical Ti>eatise 
 on Consumptive Diseases," and " Element- 
 ary Illustrations of the Celestial Mechanics 
 of La Place." Dr. Young contributed to 
 Hodgkin's Caligraphia Graeca, Dalzell's 
 Collectanea Majora, and the Supplement 
 to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He also 
 interested himself greatly in the discoveries 
 made by Belzoni in Egypt, and engaged in 
 researches concerning Egyptian hierogly- 
 phics ; upon which, and various other 
 learned subjects, he published his observa- 
 tions. Died, 1829. 
 
 YOUNG, Sir William, a political and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born in 17.50, at 
 Charltou House, near Canterbury ; studied 
 
 891 
 
 at Eton, Cambridge, and Oxford ; was an 
 M.P. for St. Mawes. in 1783 ; and died in 
 1815, governor of Tobago. His principal 
 works are, " The History of Athens," " The 
 West India Common-place Book," and 
 " The Rights of Placemen." He also edited 
 the " Contemplatio Philosophica " of his 
 maternal grandfather, Dr. Brook Taylor. 
 
 YPSILANTI, Prince Ale.yandkk, the 
 first active agent in the Greek revolution, 
 son of Demetrius, hospodar of Wallachia, 
 was born at Constantinople, in 1792. About 
 the year 1805, Ypsilanti's fother received a 
 summons from the grand seignior to repair 
 to Constantinople, and judging that obe- 
 dience to the command might cost him his 
 life, he determined on retirmg into Russia. 
 The son, adopting the military profession, 
 entered into the Russian army ; was a cap- 
 tain of hussars, when a ball, at the battle 
 of Dresden, carried away his right hand ; 
 attained the rank of major-generul, and was 
 made aide-de-camp to the emperor. In 1820 
 he became acquainted with the Hetaireia, 
 of which association he eventually became 
 tlie leader. When he saw that the breaking 
 out of the insurrection in Greece could no 
 longer be delayed, he resolved to plant in 
 Moldavia the standard of revolt. He crossed 
 the Pruth with a few attendants, and in 
 March, 1821, he issued a proclamation, an- 
 nouncing that Greece had kindled the torch 
 of freedom, and thrown off the yoke of ty- 
 ranny. The emperor Alexander, to express 
 publicly his disapprobation of the undertak- 
 ing of the Hetairists, summoned Ypsilanti 
 to make his defence ; and, as he did not 
 obey, he caused his name to be struck from 
 the rolls of the Russian army. After sus- 
 taining repeated defeats, Ypsilanti gave up 
 the cause of Greece. Having crossed the 
 frontiers, he was arrested in "Transylvania, 
 and long held captive, as a prisoner of state, 
 in the fortress of Mungatseh. He died at 
 Vienna in 1828, aged 36. Ypsilanti un- 
 doubtedly possessed the necessary courage, 
 but his ridiculous pride and tenaeiousness 
 of ceremony due to his rank rendered him 
 wholly unfit for the duties of a patriot 
 chieftain. 
 
 YRIARTE, Don Juan de, a learned 
 archasologist, was a native of Teneriffe, 
 and, on going to Spain, he obtained the 
 post of royal librarian at Madrid. He 
 published " Palajographia Graeca," &c. Died, 
 1771. 
 
 YRIARTE, Don Thomas de, an eminent 
 Spanish poet, was born in 1750, studied at 
 Madrid, held an official situation under the 
 government, and was editor of the Madrid 
 Mercury. His chief works are, " Comedies," 
 "LaMusica," a poem; "Literary Fables," 
 and " Moral Epistles." Died, 1798. 
 
 YSABEAU, or ISABEAU, Alexander, 
 a French revolutionary statesman, was a 
 deputy from the department of Indre and 
 Loire to the National Convention ; voted for 
 the death of Louis XVI. ; was sent, in 1793, 
 with Tallien, as an agent to Bourdeaux ; 
 was appointed, in 1798, commissionary sub- 
 stitute of the Directory in the administration 
 of the post-office of Brussels, which he lost 
 in 1814 ; and died, in obscurity and poverty, 
 at Paris, in 1823. 
 
ysa] 
 
 ^ ^t^ Bnihti'Sal SStofftapl^i)' 
 
 [ZAM 
 
 YSAURE, or ISAURE, Clemence, a 
 lady of Toulouse, wlio in the 14th century 
 instituted the Floral gameSj wJiich were 
 annually solemnised there in the month of 
 May ; for which she also provided a fund 
 for prizes to be given to the successful can- 
 didates for poetical fame. 
 
 YVES, CiiAULES St. an eminent French 
 oculist, born near Rocroy, in 1667. He was 
 a monk in the abbey of St. Lazarus, but 
 
 becoming distinguished for his medical skilU 
 he left the convent, and settled in Paris, 
 where he practised with great success. Died, 
 17;«. 
 
 YVETEAUX, Nicholas Vauqueun, a 
 native of Normandy, who was tutor to Louis 
 XIII. He afterwards led a life of literary 
 retirement, and wrote several poems, and a 
 treetise in verse, entitled " Institution d'un 
 Prince." Born, 1559 ; died, 1649. 
 
 ZABAGLIA, Nicholas, an Italian archi- 
 tect, was born at Rome, in 1674, and dis- 
 played such mechanical abilities while em- 
 ployed as a carpenter at the Vatican, that he 
 •was appointed arcliitect of St. Peter's. Died, 
 1750. He invented the method of transfer- 
 ring fresco paintings from the plaster. 
 
 ZABAREI,LA, Francesco, a distin- 
 guished Italian ecclesiastic, was born at Pa- 
 dua, in 1339. He was an eminent professor 
 of the canon law ; and arrived, successively, 
 at the dignities of bishop of Padua, arch- 
 bishop of Florence, and a cardinal. He took 
 a prominent part in the council of Constance, 
 and w^as the author of a variety of learned 
 and elaborate treatises on matters connected 
 with ecclesiastical policy. Died, 1417. 
 
 ZABARELLA, James, an astrologer, was 
 of the same family as the cardinal, and born 
 at Padua, in 1533. He wrote " Commentaries 
 on Aristotle," &c. Died, 1589. 
 
 ZACCARIA, Francesco Antonio, a 
 learned Jesuit, born at Venice, in 1714. He 
 wrote " The Literary History of Italy," 
 14 vols. ; " Literary Annals of Italy," 3 vols. ; 
 " The Lapidary, and Numismatic Institu- 
 tion," 2 vols. ; " Library of Ancient and 
 Modem Literary History," 6 vols. &c. Died, 
 1795. 
 
 ZACCHIAS, Paolo, a medical writer of 
 the 17th century, was born at Rome, in 1584, 
 became physician to pope Innocent X., and 
 •wrote several professional treatises. Died, 
 1659. 
 
 ZACHARIA, Justus Frederic William, 
 a German poet, was born at Frankenhausen, 
 in Thuringia, in 1726 ; studied at I>eipsic ; 
 and was appointed professor of poetry in the 
 Caroline College at Brunswick. His poetical 
 works are distinguished by a lively satiric 
 turn, and form 6 vols. 8vo. Died, 1777. 
 
 ZACUTUS LUSITANUS, a Portuguese 
 physician, born in 1575. He was educated 
 as a Christian, though bom of Jewish parents ; 
 but after having practised 20 years at Lisbon 
 with great reputation, he became alarmed 
 at the decree of exile issued by Philip II. 
 against the Jews, in 1625, and fled to Am- 
 sterdam, where he embraced the faith of his 
 ancestors. He wrote several medical works, 
 and died in 1642. 
 
 ZAIONCZEK, Joseph, a Polish general, 
 was born in 1752, at Kaminieck. In the 
 diets from 1788 to 1792, he espoused the cause 
 of his country's freedom, and was among the 
 foremost who fought for it in 1792 and 1794. 
 
 892 
 
 I He commanded at Praga, when the suburb 
 
 of Warsaw was taken by assault. Being I 
 I made prisoner, and sent to the fortress of 
 ! Josephstadt, he remained there till after the 
 I death of the empress Catharine ; when, on 
 ; being liberated, he entered into the French 
 j army, and was in active service from 1797 till 
 I 1S12, in the various campaigns of Italy, 
 1 Egypt, Prussia, Poland, and Russia. When 
 I the congress of Vienna assigned Poland to 
 I Russia, the emperor Alexander conferred on 
 him the office of viceroy, with the title of 
 prince. With these favours the patriotism 
 of Zaionczek vanished, and he became the 
 devoted slave of the sovereign who had ex- 
 alted him. He died in 1826. 
 
 ZAKRZEWSKI, N., a deputy of Posen, 
 born about 1767 ; a brave and liberal Pole, 
 who, in 1792 and 1794, distinguished himself 
 among his popular countrymen in their 
 efforts to shake off the yoke of Russia. On 
 the Russians being driven out of Warsaw in 
 1794, he •was appointed president of the 
 national council : but when that city fell 
 into tlie hands of Suwarrow, the implacable 
 Catharine caused him to be arrested, and 
 imprisoned with Mostowski, Potocki, and 
 otlier patriots, at St. Petersburgh, wJiere he 
 remained till the accession of the emperor 
 Paul set him at liberty. 
 
 ZALEUCUS, a renowned legislator of the 
 
 Locrians, who flourished about 500 B.C. 
 
 Having made a law to punish adulterers 
 
 1 with the loss of sight, lie refused to exonerate 
 
 ! his own son when convicted of the crime, 
 
 I but proved the strength of his paternal feel- 
 
 i ings by submitting to the loss of one of his 
 
 own eyes, instead of exacting the penalty of 
 
 both from the offender. 
 
 ZAMBECCARI, Count Francesco, a ce- 
 lebrated Italian aeronaut, born at Bologna, 
 in 1756. His experiments and researches 
 were chiefly directed to the means of guiding 
 balloons in the air, by availing himself of 
 currents at different heights, by employing 
 oars, and by the occasional diminution and 
 augmentation of the gas. He perished in 
 making one of these experiments in 1812, the 
 balloon which conveyed him having en- 
 tangled itself in a tree, and caught fire. 
 
 ZAMBECCARI, Joseph, a learned Flo- 
 rentine physician, of the 17th century, whose 
 researches -were principally devoted to the 
 anatomy and physiology of the brute cre- 
 ation. 
 ZAMOSKI, John, a distinguished Po- 
 
zan] 
 
 ^ ^fto Bni^trinX 38iO0rapIj». 
 
 [ZEN 
 
 lander in the 16th century. After studying 
 at Paris and Padua, and becoming rector of 
 the university at tlie latter city, he returned 
 to Poland, in 17.W, and was one of tlie am- 
 bassadors sent to Paris to olFcr the Polish 
 crown to the Duke of Anjou, afterwards 
 Henry III. of France. When Stephen Bat- 
 tori came to the throne, he gave liis niece in 
 marriage to Zamoski, whom he also made 
 chancellor of the realm and general of his 
 armies. He di.stinguished himself as a war- 
 rior, and rescued from the Muscovite yoke 
 many of the Polish provinces. He also 
 founded colleges, and jjatronised the arts ; 
 and at his death, in 1005, he was honoured 
 with the title of defender of his country and 
 the protector of the sciences. 
 
 ZANCHIUS, Bash,, a learned ecclesiastic, 
 was born at Bergamo, in 1501. He became 
 a canon regular, and was made keeper of 
 the Vatican library ; but ended his days in 
 prison, on a charge of heresy, in 1560. 
 
 ZANCHIUS, Jerome, was born at Al- 
 zano, in 151C ; and having formed a close 
 intimacy with the celebrated Peter Martyr, 
 while they were canons regular of St. Gio- 
 vanni di . Laterano, the conversation and 
 example of this distinguished convert to the 
 reformed church ultimately produced such 
 an effect on the mind of Zanchius, as induced 
 him to throw off the monastic habit and 
 abjure the Romish faith. He was accord- 
 ingly under the necessity of quitting Italy, 
 and, after seeking a refuge first at Geneva, 
 and next at Strasburg and Chiayenna, he 
 accepted the divinity professorship at Hei- 
 delberg, in 15fi8 ; where he settled under the 
 immediate patronage of Frederic III., elector 
 palatine, at whose instigation he composed 
 his great treatise against Antinomianism. 
 The death of this prince, in 1578, occasioned 
 his resignation, and he removed to Newstadt ; 
 but he returned to Heidelberg in 1585, and 
 died there in 1590. His treatise "On the 
 Doctrine of Predestination " has been trans- 
 lated into English by Dr. Toplady. 
 
 ZANICHEIiLI, John Jerome, a celebra- 
 ted Italian physician and natural pliiloso- 
 pher, was born at Modena, in 1662. He 
 pursued his scientific researches with great 
 assiduity, undertaking many journeys, mak- 
 ing collections of curious fossils, shells, &c., 
 and publishing various works. Died, 1729. 
 
 ZANOTTI, Francisco Maria, a mathe- 
 matician, was born at Bologna, in 1692, and 
 became librarian, secretary, and president of 
 the academy of his native city. He was at 
 first a Cartesian, but afterwards became a 
 zealous defender of Newton's system. He 
 was a good Latin and Italian poet. Died, 
 1777. 
 
 ZAPPI, GiAMBATiSTA FELICE, an Italian 
 lawyer and poet, was born in 1067, and 
 died in 1719. His sonnets have been greatly 
 admired. The poetical talents of his wife 
 Fattstin A, who was the daughter of the cele- 
 brated Carlo Maratti, rivalled those of her 
 husband. 
 
 ZARCO, John Gonzales, a Portuguese 
 navigator of the 15th century. He disco- 
 vered the islands of Porto Santo and Ma- 
 deira ; and was made governor of a part 
 of the latter island, where lie founded 
 Funchal. 
 
 ZAZIUS, Ulric, a learned professor of 
 law at Friburg in the IGth century. Among 
 his principal works are, " Iiitellectus Legum 
 singulares," " De Origine Juris," " Traetatus 
 de Judaeorum Infantibus Baptizandis," and 
 " Epitome in Usus Feudales." Died, 1535. 
 
 ZEA, Don Fkaxcisco Antonio, one of 
 the founders and vice-presidents of the 
 republic of Columbia, was born in 1772, 
 at Antioquia, in New Grenada. In 1820 
 he arrived in England on a diplomatic mis- 
 sion, and remained here as the agent of the 
 Columbian government till his death, in 
 1822. 
 
 ZENDRINI, Bernard, an eminent Ita- 
 lian mathematician, particularly excelling 
 in the knowledge of hydraulics, was born at 
 Saviore, in 1679, and settled at Venice as a 
 physician. His profound knowledge of hy- 
 draulics obtained for him the appointment 
 of chief engineer to the Venetian reiiublic, 
 with the superintendence of all the rivers, 
 ports, &c. He was also employed by the 
 Austrian government, and the rei>ublic of 
 Lucca ; and many works of great importance 
 were executed by him. Died, 1747. 
 
 ZENO, of Elea, a Greek philosopher, was 
 born B. c. 403, at Elea, in Magna Graecia, 
 and was a disciple of Parmenides. The in- 
 vention, or at least the development, of 
 dialectics, is ascribed to him. His native 
 city having fallen under the dominion of a 
 despot, he endeavoured to deliver it, but 
 failed ; and, being put to the torture, he ia 
 said to have bitten off his tongue, in order 
 to prevent himself from betraying his com- 
 panions. 
 
 ZENO, founder of the Stoic sect, was 
 born about b. c. 302, at Citium, in the isle of 
 Cyprus, and quitted mercantile pursuits to 
 become a philosopher. After having received 
 the lessons of Crates, Stilpo, Xenocrates, and 
 Polemon, he himself opened a school of phi- 
 losophy in the Stoa, or porch, whence his 
 followers acquired the name of Stoics. His 
 integrity was so great, that the Athenians 
 intrusted him with the keys of the citadel, 
 and honoured him with a crown of gold and 
 a statue of brass. He taught for nearly 50 
 years, lived to the age of 98, and then 
 strangled himself, B.C. 264. 
 
 ZENO, Apostolo, the father of the Ita- 
 lian opera, was born at Venice, in 1669. He 
 established the academy of the Animosi at 
 his native city, in 1696, and commenced, in 
 1710, the celebrated periodical work called 
 " II Giornale di Letterati." He wrote " Ob- 
 servations on the Italian Historians," 2 vols. 
 4to ; and his dramatic works were printed 
 in 1744, in 11 vols. Died, 1750. 
 
 ZENO, Nicholas and Anthony, two 
 celebrated Venetian navigators of the 14tli 
 century, to whom the discovery of America, 
 prior to the voyage of Columbus, has been 
 attributed. Washington Irving, however, 
 considers that they merely visited Green- 
 land, and that the rest of their story is a 
 fabrication. 
 
 ZENOBIA, queen of Palmyra, one of the 
 most illustrious women ever invested with 
 royalty, was instructed by the celebrated 
 Longinus, and spoke the Latin, Greek, and 
 Syrian languages with fluency. She was 
 married to Odenatus, king of Palmyra, in 
 
ZEU] 
 
 ^ ^cto mnibcrifaX SStograpIji). 
 
 [ZOP 
 
 whose labours of war and government she 
 liad participated, and after whose death she 
 assumed the sovereignty. But, on the ac- 
 cession of Aurelian, that warlike prince 
 marched against her, and laid siege to Pal- 
 myra, which she defended to the utmost ex- 
 tremity; but, in attempting lo escape, was 
 taken, and carried to Rome to grace his 
 triumpli; and died there, in private life, about 
 the year 3()0. 
 
 ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of an- 
 tiquity, was a native of lleraclea, believed to 
 have been born about b. c. 407, and died b. c. 
 400. He brouglit to perfection the manage- 
 ment of light and sliade, and is allowed to 
 have excelled in colouring. He gained such 
 immense wealth by his pictures, that at last 
 he ostentatiously gave them away, on the 
 ground that no attainable price was equal to 
 their real value. 
 
 ZIEGENBALG, Bahtholomew, a cele- 
 brated Protestant missionary, who was sent 
 to India in 1706, visited the territories of 
 the Great Mogul, and returned to Copen- 
 hagen in 181.5. After completing a dic- 
 1 tionary of the Malabar language he visited 
 1 England, was handsomely received by 
 i George I., and embarked for India, under 
 I the direct countenance of the East India 
 ; Company, in 1816. While he was actively 
 engaged in his pious labours, he was attacked 
 with a fatal disease, and died in 1819. 
 
 ZIETEN, John Joacium vok, a Prussian 
 general, who distinguished himself greatly 
 in the seven years' war, particularly at 
 the battle of Prague, and the storming of 
 the heights of Torgau. Born, 1C99 ; died, 
 1785. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Joiix George, a cele- 
 brated physician, was born at Brugg, in the 
 canton of Berne, in 1728. His writings re- 
 commended him to the friendship of the 
 king of Prussia, and he was appointed, by 
 the regency of Hanover, physician to his 
 Britannic majesty. On the breaking out of 
 the French revolution, Zimmermann wrote 
 zealously against the Illuminati, and took 
 pains to form societies for the purpose of 
 counteracting them. The principal of his 
 works, the " Treatise on Solitude " and 
 " Essav on Natural Pride," have been trans- 
 lated into English. Wliile his mind was 
 in a state of agitation from these causes, the 
 approach of the French towards Hanover in 
 1794 almost subverted his reason. He could 
 think of nothing but the pillage of his house 
 and ruin of his fortune, and, under tlie morbid 
 irritation, literally wasted away, and died in 
 1795. 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Eberiiahd Ahoustus 
 William vox, a German naturalist, was 
 born at Weltzen ; in 1743 ; studied at Got- 
 tingen and Leyden ; and obtained the pro- 
 fessorship of natural philosophy at the Caro- 
 line College at Brunswick. His first work 
 i was a treatise on the " Analysis of Curves ;" 
 I and in 1777 he published " Specimen Zoo- 
 1 logiaj," the outline of his " Geographical 
 I History of Man and Quadrupeds," 3 vols. 
 He visited England three times, and printed 
 here, in 1787, his " Political Survey of the 
 Present State of Europe ;" and he subse- 
 quently employed his pen in opposing the 
 revolutionary statesmen of France ; for 
 
 S04 
 
 which he was ennobled by the emperor 
 Leopold II. After this he published several 
 geographical works ; one of the l>est of 
 which was a " General Survey of France 
 and of the United States of America," 2 vols. 
 Died, 1815. 
 
 ZINCKE, CnEisTiAX Frederic, a cele- 
 brated painter in enamel, was born at 
 Dresden, abojit 1684. He came to England 
 in 1706, studied under Boit, whom he far 
 surpassed ; and was patronised by the royal 
 family. Died, 1767. 
 
 ZINZENDORFF, Nicholas Loris, Count, 
 a German chief of the sect of Ilernhutters, 
 which he intrcd iced into England by the 
 title of Moravians, where several congrega- 
 tions of them still remain. He was born at 
 Dresden, in 1700 ; and died in London, in 
 1760. 
 
 ZISCA, John, a famous Bohemian patriot, 
 who defended his country against the em- 
 peror Sigismund, and performed prodigies of 
 valour after he had lost both his eyes. He 
 headed the sect of tlie Hussites after the 
 death of John Huss, and died in 1424. 
 
 ZOEGA, George, an eminent Danish 
 archaeologist, who resided for many years at 
 Rome as consul for Denmark, and was 
 much esteemed by Pius VI. Among his 
 works are, a treatise " De Origine et Usu 
 01)eliscorum," "Nummi ^gyptii," and tlie 
 " Ancient Basso Relievos of Rome." Born, 
 1753 ; died, 1809. 
 
 ZOILUS, a Thracian rhetorician, who 
 lived in the 3rd century before the Christian 
 
 i era, and whose hypercriticisms on the works 
 of Homer, Aristotle, Plato, and others, have 
 given him a very unenviable distinction. So 
 severe and indiscriminate, indeed, were his 
 censures, that his name has become a by- 
 word, designative of illiberal and captious 
 pretenders to criticism. 
 
 ZOLLIKOFER, George Joachim, an 
 eminent Swiss divine, born at St. Gall, in 
 1730. He was educated at Bremen and i 
 Utrecht ; after which he became, succes- 
 sively, pastor to congregations at Murten, 
 Monstein in the Grisons, Isenburg, and j 
 Leipsic ; distinguishing himself at each ' 
 place by great purity of character, elo- 
 quence, and general abilities. His "Devo- 
 tional Exercises " and " Sermons". have been 
 translated into English. 
 
 ZONARAS, John, a Greek historian, who 
 compiled a "Chronicle, or Annals from the 
 Creation to A. d. 1118." He was also the 
 author of " Commentaries on the Apostolic 
 Canons." 
 
 ZONCA, "Victor, an able mathematician 
 of Italy, in the 17th century, who published 
 a collection of curious inventions in me- 
 chanics, entitled " Novo Teatro di Machini 
 ed Ediflci." 
 
 ZOPPO, Mark, an historical and portrait 
 painter, was born at Bologna, in 1451. He 
 was the disciple of Andrew Mantegna, whose 
 style he imitated. Died, 1517. | 
 
 ZOPYRUS, one of the courtiers of Darius, 
 the son of Hystaspes. It is asserted that 
 he cut off his nose and ears at the siege of 
 Babylon, and went over to the Babylonians, 
 pretending that the Persians had thus in- 
 humanly treated him. Thinking he would 
 be stimulated by revenge, they gave him the 
 
zor] 
 
 ^ ]J2eto Bnibtvi^X 33i0i3TapIjM. 
 
 [zwi 
 
 command of their army, which he treache- 
 rously betraveil to Darius. 
 
 ZOROASTEll, a celebrated eastern plii- 
 losopher. Tlie history of Zoroaster is in- 
 yolved in much obscurity ; some asserting 
 that there was but one of that name, the 
 Zerdusht of the Persians, while others speak 
 of several, and carry the name back to the 
 patriarchal ages. The most credible suppo- 
 sition is, that there was a Zoroaster, a Perso- 
 Median, in the time of Darius Hystaspes, 
 and also another who lived at a more remote 
 period, and who taught the Babylonians 
 astronomy. Zoroaster, or Zerdusht, was the 
 reputed founder, but more trnly reformer, of 
 the Magian religion, aud lived under the 
 reign of Darius Ilystaspes. He is said to 
 have predicted tlie coming of the Messiah in 
 plain and express words ; and that the wise 
 men of the East, who came to worship our 
 Saviour on account of his star, were liis 
 disciples. 
 
 ZOUCH, Richard, an eminent civilian, 
 born at Anstey, in Wiltshire, about 1.590. 
 He was educated at \^■inclle8ter and New 
 College, Oxford i became principal of St. 
 Alban's Hall, warden of the cinque ports, 
 and judge of the admiralty ; wrote nume- 
 rous works, in Latin, on civil, military, and 
 maritime jurisprudence ; and died in 1(M50. 
 
 ZOUCn, Dr. Thomas, a divine and bio- 
 grapher, was born at Sandal, in Yorkshire, 
 in 1737 ; received his education at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ; became rector of Scray- 
 ingham and prebendary of Durham ; refused 
 the bishopric of Carlisle, in 1808, on account 
 of his advanced age ; and died in 1816. 
 Among liis works are, "The Crucifixion," a 
 Seatonian prize poem; "An Inquiry into 
 the Prophetic Character of the Romans," 
 Memoirs of Sir Philip Sidney, Dean Sudbury, 
 Sir George Wheler, &c. 
 
 ZRINYI, Nicholas, a Hungarian poet, 
 of the 17th century ; author of an epic poem, 
 in 15 books, called the " Zrins'as, or the 
 Syren of the Adriatic ;" which, though rude 
 and monotonous, has bocn praised for its 
 religious feeling and patriotic spirit. 
 
 ZSCHOKKE, Hexkv, whose name oc- 
 cupies en important place in the annals of 
 German literature and Swiss history, was 
 born at Magdeburg, 1771. He commenced 
 life as a strolling player, but afterwards 
 found means to study philosojihy and di- 
 vinity at Frankfort-on-thc-Oder ; and, after 
 many years of travels and varied adven- 
 tures, he devoted himself to the education 
 of youth, and fixed his residence in Swit- 
 zerland in 1792. Here he rendered great 
 political services to his adopted country ; 
 and for more than 40 years sent forth, at in- 
 tervals, from his peaceful retreat at Aarau, 
 various works of philosophy, history, criti- 
 cism, and fiction ; displaying at once the 
 versatility of his acquirements, his fertile 
 imagination, and a power and felicity of 
 expression attained by few. His chequered 
 life had given him a deep insight into the 
 springs of human action ; and few writers 
 have more largely contributed to entertain 
 and improve their fellow-men. His chief 
 productions are, " Miscellen ftlr die neueste 
 Weltkunde," "History of Switzerland," 
 "Bilder aus der Schweitz," "Das Gold- 
 
 macherdorf," "Stunden der Andacht," &c. 
 His works have been collected in 40 vols., in- 
 cluding his autobiography, which has been 
 translated into English. Died, 1848. 
 
 ZUCCARELLI, Francis, a celebrated 
 Italian painter, born at Florence, in 1710. 
 He came to England about 17."i2, and met 
 with such encouragement, that he saved a, 
 handsome independence, and returned to his 
 own country, where lie died in 1788. 
 
 ZUCCHERO, Taddeo, an eminent Italian 
 painter, bom at Urbino, in 1529, who at- 
 tained to great proficiency in the art, and 
 died in his 27th year His younger bro- 
 ther, FKKnKRico, born in 15 W, resided several 
 years in England, wheie he grew into liigh 
 repute, and painted the portrait of queen 
 Elizabeth. Previous to his coming to this 
 country he had given great offence to pope 
 Gregory XIII. by caricaturing several dis- 
 tinguished persons connected with the papal 
 court ; but his friends in England succeeded 
 in restoring him to favour at Rome ; and, 
 on his return, he established an academy of 
 painting in that city, which he continued to 
 superintend till his death in 1(!09. 
 
 ZUMALACARREGUI. Tuomas, Don, a 
 distinguished Spanish military commander, 
 first entered the army as a guerilla ofl3cer, 
 under Mina, when the French invaded 
 Spain; but being opposed in politics to the 
 new constitutional government, he took an 
 early opportunity of joining the army of 
 the Faith under Quesada ; and, on the rising 
 of the Navarrese, became gcneral-in-chief 
 of the trooi>8 and partisans attached to the 
 cause of Don Carlos. In this service he dis- 
 played the greatest skill and bravery, per- 
 forming the most brilliant exjdoits, and 
 keeping in check the regular army of Donna 
 Maria, which, under various generals, was 
 sent to oppose him. Bom at a village near 
 Villafranca, 1789; died, from a wound he 
 received in battle, IS.'Jo. 
 
 ZUMBQ, Gaetano Jilio, a celebrated 
 modeller in wax, was born at Syracuse, in 
 Sicily, in 1()5(). His profound knowledge of 
 anatomy, combined with his skill in execut- 
 ing his works in coloured wax, obtained the 
 admiration of connoisseurs. Some of his 
 specimens represent, with astonishing accu- 
 racy, the different stages of decomposition 
 which take place in the human body. He 
 died at Paris, in 1701. 
 
 ZURITA, Jerome, a Spanish historian, 
 was a native of Saragossa. After having 
 been employed in various offices at home, 
 and on a mission to Germany, he was ap- 
 pciinted historiographer of Arragon. Born, 
 1512 ; died. 1.-.81. 
 
 ZIIRLAUBEN, Beat FinEi.E Axtoixe 
 Jeax DojiixiQiE, baron de la Tour Cliaiil- 
 lon de, a Swiss officer and author. lie was 
 born at Zug, in 1750 ; rose to the rank of 
 lieuteuant-gencral, spent the latter part of 
 his life in literary pursuits, and <lied in 1793. 
 He wrote a " History of the Swiiis and their 
 Allies," a "Military History of the Swiss in 
 the French Service," and a " Picturesque 
 Tour in the Thirteen Cantons." 
 
 ZWINGLI, or ZUINGLIUS, Ulric, one 
 of the most enlightened and tolerant of the 
 Protestant reformers, was born at Wilder- 
 hausen, in Switzerland, in 1484. In 1513 
 
zwi] 
 
 ^ ^^tu Winihtt^aX Biagrapfin. 
 
 [zwi 
 
 he was made preacher at Einsidieln, and 
 in 1518 he became rector of Zurich. He 
 opposed Indulgences in Switzerland at the 
 same time that Luther did in Saxony, but 
 he went farther in the work of reform iition, 
 particularly in simplifying the mode of 
 worship, and explaining the doctrine of the | 
 eucharist. He showed a spirit far in ad- ! 
 vance of the age, raising his voice against I 
 the corruptions and abuses that had crept 
 into the church, and declaring himself for [ 
 
 the use of the Scriptures in their genuine 
 form, without regard to the prescribed texts 
 and lessons. In 1524 he had the gratifica- 
 tion of seeing his doctrines adopted by the 
 great council of Zurich, and his influence 
 among the Swiss Protestants continued to 
 be powerful during the remainder of his life. 
 Open war having broke out between tlie 
 Catholic and Protestant cantons, a battle 
 ensued, in which Zuinglius was among the 
 slain, Oct. 5. 1531. 
 
 Or THT 
 
 UNIYERSIfY 
 
 or 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Spottiswoodks and SiiAl^, 
 New-street- Square. 
 
 89G 
 
m 
 
 AN ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE 
 
 NEW WORKS 
 
 In general and MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Agrriculture and Rural 
 Affairs. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Bayldonoii ValiilngRents, etc. - - 6 
 
 Crocker's Land Surveying - - • 8 
 
 Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia . - 16 
 
 Loudon's Kncyclopiediii of Agriculture - 18 
 
 ,, Self-Jnstruction for Farmers, etc. 17 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Lady'sCoutitry Companion 17 
 
 Low's Elements of Agriculture - - 18 
 
 ^, On Landed Property - - - 18 
 
 Arts, XKanufactures, and 
 Architecture. 
 
 Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine g 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. - 6 
 
 Budge's Miner's Guide - • • - 6 
 
 Cresy's Encycl. of Civil Engineering - g 
 
 D'Agincourt's History of Art - - - 23 
 
 Dresden Gallery _ - - - . 9 
 
 Eastlake on Oil Painting - - • 10 
 
 Evans's Sugar Planter's Manual - - 10 
 
 Gwilt's EucyclopicdiB of Architecture - 11 
 
 Humphreys' Illuminated Books - - 1.5 
 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art - 15 
 
 Loudon's Rural Architecture - - - 18 
 
 Moseley's Engineering and Architecture 22 
 
 Scoflfern on Sugar Manufacture - - 26 
 
 Steam Engine (The) , by the Artisan Club 5 
 Tate on Strength of Materials - - -29 
 
 Twining on Painting - • - - 31 
 
 lire's Dictionary of Arts, etc. - - 31 
 
 BiogTapby. 
 
 Foss'g Judges of England - - - 10 
 
 Grant (Mrs.) Memoir and Correspondence 11 
 
 Head's Memoirs of Cardinal Pacca - 13 
 
 Humphreys's Black Prince - • - 14 
 
 Kindersley's De Bayard - - - - 16 
 
 Maunder'sBiographicalTreasury - - 21 
 
 Soulhey's Life of Wesley - - - - 29 
 
 ,, Life and Correspondence - 28 
 
 Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography - 29 
 
 Taylor's Loyola - - - - - 30 
 
 Townsend's Twelve eminent Judges - 31 
 
 Waterton's Autobiography and Essays - 31 
 
 Books of General Utility. 
 
 Acton's (Eliza) Cookery Book - - 6 
 
 Black's "Treatise on Brewing • . . 6 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer (The) - - - _ 7 
 
 Foster's Hand-book of Literature - - 11 
 
 Pages 
 
 Hints on Etiquette 13 
 
 Hudson's E.\ecutor's Guide - - •14 
 
 „ On Making Wills ... 14 
 
 Loudon's Self Instruction . . ■ 17 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener - I7 
 
 Mauuder's Treasury of Knowledge . . 20 
 
 ,, Scientilicand LitcraryTreasury 20 
 
 „ Treasury of History - - 20 
 
 ,, Biographical Treasury . - 21 
 
 ,, Natural History • • - 20 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - - - .12 
 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading . 24 
 
 Reece's Medical Guide - ... 26 
 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 25 
 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries and L«zicou 25 
 
 Rowton's Debater ----- 26 
 
 Short Whist 26 
 
 Stud (The) for Practical Purposes - 12 
 
 Thomas's Interest Tables - - - 30 
 
 Tbomsou'sManagement of Sick Room - 30 
 ,, Interest Tables - • .30 
 
 Webster's Encycl. of Domestic Economy 32 
 
 Botany and Gardening-. 
 
 Callcott's Scripture Herbal 
 Conversations on Botany 
 Evans's Sugar Planter's Manual 
 Hoare On the Grape Vine on Open Walls 
 Hooker's British Flora 
 
 ,, Guide to Kew Gardens 
 Lindley's Introduction to Botany - 
 Loudon's HortusBritannicus - 
 
 ,, Encyclopaedia ofTrees& Shrubs 
 »» It Gardening- 
 
 „ Eneyclopnedia of Plants - 
 ,, Self-Instruction for Gardeners 
 „ (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener 
 Rivers's Rose Amateur's Guide 
 Schleiden's Botany, by Lankester . 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 Allen on the Rise of the Royal Prero- 
 gative, etc. - .... 5 
 Blair's Chronological Tables - . . g 
 Bunsen's Ancient Egypt - - _ 7 
 Haydn's Book of Dignities - - - 12 
 
 Commerce and Mercantile 
 Affairs. 
 
 Banfield and Weld's Statistics * • 6 
 
 Gilbart's Treatise on Banking - .11 
 
 Gray's Tables of Life Contingencies - 11 
 
 Lorimer's Letters to a Master Mariner • I7 
 
 London: Friuted by M. Maso.n, Ivy Lane, ratesaogter Bow. 
 
M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce - 19 
 
 Steel's Shipmaster's Assistant - - 29 
 
 Symoiis' Merchant Seamen's Law - - 29 
 
 Thomas's Interest Tables - - - 3(1 
 
 Thomsou'sTables of Interest - • • 'M 
 
 Criticism, History, and 
 IVIemoirs. 
 
 Blair's Chron. and Historical Tables 
 Bunseu's Ancient Egypt . - - 
 
 Coad's Memorandum - - * 
 Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul - 
 Dandolo's Italian Volunteers - 
 Deunistoun's Dukes of Urbino 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction 
 Eastlake's History of Oil Painting 
 Foss's Judges of England . - - 
 
 Foster's European Literature - - - 
 Gibbon's Roman Empire ■ " " " 
 Grant (Mrs.) Memoir andCorespoiidence 
 Hamilton's (Sir William) Essays - 
 Harrison On the English Language 
 Head's Memoirs of i;ardinal Paccu - 
 Holland's (Lord) Foreign Reminis- 
 cences - - - 
 Humphreys's Black Prince - . - 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions 
 Kemble's Anglo-Saxons in England 
 Macaulay's Essays - - - - - 
 
 „ History of England 
 
 Mackintosh's Miscellaneous VVorks 
 M'CuUoch's Dictionary, Historical, Geo- 
 graphical, and Statistical - - . 
 Mauuder's Treasury of History 
 Merivale's History of Rome - - - 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History - 
 Mure's Ancient Greece . . _ 
 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries 
 Rogers's Essays from the Edinburgh Rev. 
 Schmitz's History of Greece - 
 Smith's (S.) Lectures on Moral Philosophy 
 Southey's The Doctor etc. - - - 
 Stephen's Essays . . - - , 
 Sydney Smith's Works - - - - 
 "Taylor's I,oyola - - - - - 
 Thirlwall's History of Greece • • . 
 Tooke's Histories of Prices - - - 
 Towusend's State Trials - . . - 
 Twining's Philosophy of Painting - 
 Twiss on the Pope's Letters - - . 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar ■ - - . 
 
 Geograpby and Atlases. 
 
 Butler's Ancient and Modern Geography 7 
 
 ,, Atlas of General Geography - 7 
 
 Erman's Travels through Siberia - - 10 
 
 Hall's Large Library Atlas - - - 12 
 
 ,, Railway Map of England - - 12 
 
 Johnston's General Gazetteer - - 16 
 
 M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary - 19 
 
 Murray's Encyclopijedia of Geography - 22 
 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer - . - 26 
 
 Juvenile Books. 
 
 Amy Herbert -.---. 27 
 Corner's Children's Sunday Book - - 8 
 Earl's Daughter (The) - - - - 27 
 Gertrude ...----27 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena - - U 
 Howitt's Bov's Country Book - - -14 
 „ Children's Year - - - 14 
 
 Laneton Parsonage ----- 27 
 
 Mrs. Marcet's Conversations - - '9> "2 
 
 Margaret Percival ----- 27 
 
 Marryat'sMasterman Ready • - - 20 
 
 ,, Privateer's-Mau - - - 20 
 
 ,, Settlers in Canada - - - 20 
 
 „ Mission; or, Scenes in Africa 20 
 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading - 24 
 
 Twelve Years Ago : a Tale - - . ai 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers ... 6 
 
 „ Management of Children - . 7 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine - . 8 
 
 Latham On Diseases of the Heart - - 17 
 
 Moore On Health, Disease, and Remedy 21 
 
 Pereira On Food and Diet - - - 24 
 
 Beece's Medical Guide - • - - 25 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 and Creneral Iiiterature. 
 
 Allen on Royal Prerogative - . - 5 
 Coad's Memorandum ... - 7 
 Dresden Gallery ----- 9 
 Dunlop'sHistory of Fiction . - - 9 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena - - 11 
 
 Graham's English - - - - 11 
 
 Grant's Letters from the Mountains - 11 
 Haydn's Beatson's Index . - -12 
 
 Hooker's Kew Guide • - - - 13 
 Howitt's Rural Life of England - - 14 
 
 ,, Visits to Remarkable Places - 14 
 Jardine's Treatise of Equivocation - .15 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - - 16 
 Kay on Education, etc. in Europe - - 16 
 Loudon's(Mrs.) Lady'sCountry Companion 17 
 Macaulay's Critical and Historical Essays 18 
 Mackintosh's (Sir J.) Miscellaneous Works 19 
 Maitland's Church in the Catacombs - 19 
 Pascal's Works, by Pearce - - - 24 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading - 24 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 25 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries and Lexicon 25 
 Rowtoiv's Debater ----- 26 
 Seaward's Narrativeof his Shipwreck - 26 
 Sir Roger De Coverley - - - 27 
 
 Southey's Common-Place Books - - 2S 
 
 „ The Doctor etc. - - - 28 
 S tow's Training System - - - - 29 
 Sydney Smith's VVorks - - - 27 
 
 Townsend's State Trials - - - - 31 
 Willoughby's (Lady) Diary - - - 32 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - - - 32 
 
 natural History in 
 General. 
 
 Callow's Popular Conchology - 
 Doubleday's Butterflies and Moths 
 Ephemera and Young on the Salmon 
 Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 
 Gray and Mitchell's Ormtholog)- 
 Kirby and Spence's Entomology 
 Lee's Taxidermy . . . . 
 ,, Elements of Natural History - 
 Maunder's Treasury of Natural History 
 Tarton's Shells of the British Islands 
 VVaterton's Essays on Natural History 
 Westwood's Classification of Insects 
 Youatt's The Dog - - - . 
 ,, The Horse - _ _ 
 
TO Messrs. LONGMAN and Co.'s CATALOGUE. 
 
 3 
 
 ITovels and VTorks of 
 Fiction. 
 
 Pagres 
 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction . - - 9 
 
 Head's Metamorphoses of Apnleins - 12 
 
 Lady Willoujfhbv's Diary - - - 32 
 
 Macdnnald's Villa Verocchio - - -19 
 
 Marryat's Masterman Heady - - 2() 
 
 „ Privateer'g-Maii - - - 20 
 
 „ Settlers in Canada - - - 20 
 
 ,, Mission; or, Scenes in Africa - 20 
 
 Mount St. Lawrence - - - -22 
 
 Sir Roijer de Coverley • - - - 27 
 
 Southey's The Doctor etc. - - - 28 
 
 Twelve Years Aj{0: a Tale ... 31 
 
 One Vol. Encyclopsedias 
 and Dictionaries. 
 
 Blaine's, of Rural Sports - - - - B 
 
 Brande's, of Science, Literature, and Art 6 
 
 Copland's, of Medicine - - - - 8 
 
 Cresy's, of Civil Enifinceriug - - - 8 
 
 Gwilt's, of Architecture - - - - 11 
 
 Johnson's Farmer ----- 16 
 
 Johnston's Geographical Dictionary - 16 
 
 Loudon's, of Treesand Shrubs - - 13 
 
 ,, ofGardening- . . - - 18 
 
 I, of Au;riculture - - . - 18 
 
 „ of Plants 18 
 
 ,, of Rural Architectnre - - 18 
 
 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary - 19 
 
 ,, Dictionary of Commerce - 19 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography - 22 
 
 Ure's Arts, Alanufactures, and Mine's • 31 
 
 Webster's Domestic Economy - - 32 
 
 Poetry and tbe Drama. 
 
 Aikin's (Dr.) British Poets ... 5 
 
 BailUe's (Joanna) Poetical Works - - 5 
 
 Flowers and their Kindred Thouifhts - 23 
 
 Fruits from the Garden and Field - - 23 
 
 Goldsmiths Poems, illustrated - - 11 
 
 Gray's Elegv, illuminated - - - 23 
 
 Key's Moral of Flowers - - - . 13 
 
 „ Sylvan Musings - - - - 13 
 
 L.E.L.'s Poetical Works - - - 16 
 
 Linwood's Anthologia Uzonieusis - - 17 
 
 Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome - - 19 
 
 Moutgoraerv's Poetical Works • - 21 
 
 Moore's Irisli Melodies - - - - 21 
 
 ,, LallaRookh - . _ . 22 
 
 ,, Poetical Works - - - -21 
 
 „ Songs and Ballads - - - 21 
 
 Shakspeare, by Bowdler - ... 26 
 
 ,• 's Sentiments and Similes - H 
 
 Southey's Poetical Works . - - 29 
 
 ,, British Poets - • . -29 
 
 Swain's English Melodies - - - 29 
 
 Taylor's Virgin Widow - - _ - 30 
 
 Thomson's Seasons, illustrated - - 30 
 
 ., with Notes, by Dr. A. T. Thomson 30 
 
 Watts's Lyrics of the Heart - - - 32 
 
 Winged Thoughts ----- 22 
 
 Political Economy and 
 Statistics. 
 
 Banfiold and Weld's Statistics . . 6 
 
 Gilbart's Treatise on Banking - - - 11 
 Gray's Tables of Life Contingencies - 11 
 
 Pages 
 Kay on the Social Condition, etc.of Europe 16 
 Lainf's Notes of a Traveller - - - J7 
 M'Culloch'sGeographical.Statistical.and 
 
 Historical Dictionary - . - 19 
 
 M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce - 19 
 
 „ On Taxation and Funding - 19 
 
 ,, Statistics of the British Empire 19 
 
 Marcet's Conversations on Polit. Economy 19 
 
 Tooke's Histories of Prices - - - 31 
 
 Keligrions and Moral 
 IVorkSf etc. 
 
 Amy Herbert -.---- 27 
 
 Bloomfieid's Greek Testament - - 6 
 
 „ Annotations on ditto - - 6 
 
 ,, College and School ditto - 6 
 
 ,, Lexicon to Greek Testament g 
 
 Book of Ruth (illuminated) - - - J5 
 
 Callcott's Scripture Herbal ' ' ' 7 
 
 Convbeare and Howsoa's St. Paul . - g 
 
 Cook's Edition of the Acts - - - 8 
 
 Cooper's Sermons - - " " - 8 
 
 Comer's Sunday Book - • * - 8 
 
 Dale's Domestic Liturgy - ■ • 8 
 
 Discipline -..-.- g 
 
 Earl's Daughter (The) - - - - 27 
 
 Ecclesiastes (illuminated) - - - 23 
 
 Elmes's Thought Book - - - - lo 
 
 Englishman's Hebrew Concordance - 10 
 
 „ Greek Concordance - 10 
 
 Gertrude ------- 27 
 
 Hook's (Dr.) Lectures on Passion Week 13 
 
 Home's Introduction to the Scriptures - 13 
 
 „ Compendium of ditto > - 13 
 
 Howson's Sunday Evening - - - 14 
 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art - 15 
 
 „ Monastic Legends - - - 15 
 
 ,, Legends of the Madonna - 15 
 
 Jeremy Taylor's Works - - - - 16 
 
 Lanetou Parsonage ----- 27 
 
 Letters to my Unknown Friends - * 17 
 
 ,, on Happiness - - - - 17 
 
 Maitiand's Church in the Catacombs - 19 
 
 Margaret Percival ----- 27 
 
 Marriage Service (illuminated) - - 23 
 
 Maxims, etc. of the Saviour - - - 15 
 
 Miraclesof Our Saviour - - - 1.5 
 
 Moore on the Power of the Soul - - 21 
 
 „ on the Use of the Body - - 21 
 
 ,, on .Man and his Motives - - 21 
 
 Morell's Philosophy of Religion . - 22 
 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History - - 22 
 
 Mount St. Lawrence - . . - 22 
 
 Neale's Closing Scene - - • - 22 
 
 ,, Resting Places of the Just- - 22 
 
 Newman's (J, H.) Discourses - - 22 
 Paley's Evidences, etc., by Potts - .22 
 
 Parables of Our Lord - - - • IS 
 
 Pascal's Works, by Pearce - . - 24 
 
 Readings for Lent ----- ig 
 
 Robinson's Lexicon of the Greek Testa- 
 ment ------- 25 
 
 Sermon on the Mount (The) - - - 23 
 
 Sinclair's Journey of Life - - - 27 
 
 ,, Business of Life - - - 27 
 
 Sketches (The) 27 
 
 Smith's (G.) Perilous Times - - - 28 
 
 „ Religion of Am lent Britain - 28 
 
 1, Sacred Annals - - - 27 
 
 „ Doctrine of the Cherubim - 27 
 
 „ (J.) St. Paul's Shipwreck - - 28 
 
 ,, (S.) Lectures on Moral Philosophy 27 
 
 Solomon's Song (illuminated) - - - 23 
 
 Southey's Life of Wesley - . - 29 
 
 Stephen's (Sir J.) Essays - - . - 29 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Sydney Smith's Sermons 
 Tayler's (Rev. C. B.) Margaret 
 
 ,, ,, Lady Mary . 
 
 Taylor's (J.) Thumb Bible 
 
 ,, (Isaac) Loyola 
 Toraline's Introduction to the Bible 
 Turner's Sacred History 
 Twelve Years Ago - - - - 
 Twiss on the Pope's Letters - 
 Wilberforce's View of Christianity 
 Willoughby's (Lady) IJiary 
 Wisdom of Johnson's Rambler, etc. 
 
 Xtnral Sports< 
 
 Blaine'sDictionarvof Sports 
 The Cricket Field '- 
 
 Pages 
 - 27 
 
 Ephemera on Angling - - . 
 
 ,, 's Book of the Salmon 
 Hawker's Instructions to Sportsmen 
 The Hunting Field 
 
 Loudon's (Mrs.) Lady'sCottDtryCompanion I7 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - • - - 12 
 
 Practical Horsemanship - - - - 12 
 
 Pulman's Fir-Fishing ... - 24 
 
 Ronalds's FlV-Fisher - ... 25 
 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk - - - 12 
 
 The Stud, for Practical Men - - - 12 
 
 Wheatley's Rod and Line - - - 32 
 
 The Sciences in General 
 and nXatlieniatics. 
 
 Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine 6 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. - 6 
 
 Conversations on Mineralogy - - 7 
 DelaBecheontheGeologyot'Cornwall,etc. 9 
 
 „ 's Geological'Observer - - 8 
 
 De la Rive's Electricity .... 9 
 
 Dixon's Fossils of Sussex - - ■ 9 
 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena - - 11 
 
 Pages 
 Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy - - 13 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature - - 14 
 
 „ Cosmos .... 14 
 
 Hunt's Researches on Light - • - 15 
 Marcet's Conversations - - - 19, 20 
 Memoirs of the Geological Survey - - 21 
 Moseley's Practical Mechanics - - 22 
 
 ,, Engineering and Architecture 22 
 Owen's Comparative Anatomy - - - 23 
 Peschel's Physics ... - - 24 
 Phillips's PalaeoaoicFossilsof Cornwall, etc.24 
 
 ,, Mineralogy, by Miller & Brooke 24 
 Portlock's Geologv of Londonderry - 24 
 Schleiden's Scientific Botany- - • 26 
 Smee's Electro-Bletallurgy - - - 27 
 Steam Enjfine (Ure), by the Artisan Club 5 
 Tate on Strength of Materials - - 29 
 
 Thomson's School Chemistry - - 30 
 
 Veterinary Medicine. 
 
 The Hunting Field - 
 The Pocket and the Stud 
 Practical Horsemanship - 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk - 
 The Stud for Practical Purposes 
 Youatt's The Dog - - . - 
 „ The Horse 
 
 Voyagres and Travels. 
 
 Chesney's Euphrates and Tigris 
 Erman's Travels through Siberia - 
 Forbes's Datromey - - - - - 
 Forester and Biddulph's Norway 
 Head's Tour in Rome - - - . 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 
 Laing's Notes of a Traveller - . . 
 Power's New Zealand Sketches 
 Richardson's Overland Journey 
 Rovings in the Pacific - - - _ 
 Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck - 
 Snow's Arctic Voyage - - . . 
 
AN ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE 
 
 OP 
 
 NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS. 
 
 MISS ACTON, MODERN COOKERY-BOOK. 
 
 Modern Cookery in all its Branches, reduced to a System of Easy Practice. For the use of 
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 and are fjiven with the most minute exactness. ByEliza Acton. New Edition ; with Directions 
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 AIKIN.— SELECT WORKS OF THE BRITISH POETS: 
 
 From Ben Jonsou to Coleridge. With Bio^aphical and Critical Prefaces by Dr. Aikin. 
 A New Edition ; with addition^ Selections, from more recent Poets, by Lucy Aikin. Medium 
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 ALLEN ON THE ROYAL PREROGATIVE.— INQUIRY INTO 
 
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 preceded by M. B^renger's Rapport on the Work read before the Institute of France; 
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 ARTISAN CLUB (THE).— A TREATISE ON THE STEAM- 
 
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 about 350 Wood Engravings. 4to. 27». cloth. 
 
 JOANNA BAILLIE'S DRAMATIC AND POETICAL WORKS. 
 
 Now first collected ; complete in One Volume; and comprising the Plays of the Passions, 
 Miscellaneous Dramas, Metrical Legends, Fugitive Pieces (including several now first pub- 
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 HEAD.— HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF CARDINAL PACCA, 
 
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 HINTS ON ETIQUETTE AND THE USAGES OF SOCIETY: 
 
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 LORD HOLLAND'S FOREIGN REMINISCENCES.— FOREIGN 
 
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 HOOK (DR. W. F.)— THE LAST DAYS OF OUR LORD'S 
 
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 HORNE (THE REV. T. H.)— AN INTRODUCTION TO- THE 
 
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14 NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 HOWITT— THE CHILDREN'S YEAR. 
 
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 HOWITT.— THE BOY'S COUNTRY BOOK; 
 
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 HOWSON— SUNDAY EVENING: 
 
 Twelve Short Sermons for Family Reading. 1. The Presence of Christ; 2. Inward and 
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 6. The Duty of Amiability; 7. Honesty and Candour; 8. St. Peter and Cornelius ; 9. The 
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 HOWSON AND CONYBEARE.— THE LIFE AND EPISTLES 
 
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 HUDSON— THE EXECUTOR'S GUIDE. 
 
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 HUDSON.— PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING WILLS 
 
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 HUMBOLDT— ASPECTS OF NATURE, 
 
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PUBLISHED BT MESS&S. LONGMAN AND Co. 15 
 
 HUMPHREYS.— THE BOOK OF RUTH. 
 
 From the Uoly Scriptures. Embellished with brilliant coloured Borders, selected from 
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 IIUMPHREYS.-MAXIMS AND PRECEPTS OF THE SAVIOUR: 
 
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 HUMPHREYS— THE MIRACLES OF OUR SAVIOUR. 
 
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 HUMPHREYS.— PARABLES OF OUR LORD. 
 
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 HUNT.— RESEARCHES ON. LIGHT: 
 
 An Examination of all the Phenomena connected with the Chemical and Molecular Changes 
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 JARDINE.— A TREATISE OF EQUIVOCATION. 
 
 Wherein is largely discussed the question Whether a Catholicke or any other Person before 
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 (notwithstanding his perfect knowledge to the contrary) without Perjury, and securely in 
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16 NEW AVOllKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 JEFFREY (LORD).— CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE EDINBURGH 
 
 RRVIEW. By Francis Jeffrey, late One of the Judges in the Court of Session in Scotland. 
 Second Edition. 3vols.8vo. 42». cloth. 
 
 BISHOP JEREMY TAYLOR'S ENTIRE WORKS: 
 
 With the Life by Bishop Heber. Revised and corrected by the Rev. Charles Page Eden, 
 
 Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Vols. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII .and VIII. 8vo.l0*.6rf. each, 
 
 cloth. 
 
 *,* In coitrte of publication in 10 vols, price hnlf-a-gtiinea each. Vol. I. (the last in order 
 
 of publicationj will contain Bishop Heber'* Life of Jeremy\Taylor, extended by the Editor. 
 
 \_Fol. IX. is in the press. 
 
 READINGS FOR EVERY DAY IN LENT. 
 
 Compiled from the Writings of Bishop Jeremy Taylor. By the Author of "Amy Herbert," 
 "The Child's First History of Rome," etc. Fcap. 8vo. o». cloth. 
 
 JOHNSON.— THE WISDOM OF THE RAMBLER, ADVEN- 
 
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 JOHNSON.— THE FARMER'S ENCYCLOPJiDIA, 
 
 And DICTIONARY of RURAL AFFAIRS : embracing all the recent Discoveries in Agri- 
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 JOHNSTON.— A NEW DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
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 KAY.— THE SOCIAL CONDITION AND EDUCATION OF 
 
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 KINDERSLEY. — THE VERY JOYOUS, PLEASANT AND 
 
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 KIRBY AND SPENCE.— AN INTRODUCTION TO ENTO- 
 
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 L. E. L.— THE POETICAL WORKS OF LETITIA ELIZABETH 
 
 LANDON: Comprising the IMPROVISATRICE, the VENETIAN BRACELET, the 
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PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. LONGMAN AND Co. 17 
 
 LAING.— OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOCIAL AND POLL 
 
 LATHAM.— ON DISEASES OF THE HEART. 
 
 Lectures on Subjects coiiiiected with Cliiiiial Medicine ; comprising Diseases of the Heart. 
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 LEE.— TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Or, the Art or Collecting, Preparing, and MountingObJectsofNaturalHistory. Forthe use 
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 LEE.— ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY; OR, FIRST 
 
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 LETTERS ON HAPPINESS, ADDRESSED TO A FRIEND. 
 
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 LETTERS TO MY UNKNOWN FRIENDS. 
 
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 Additions, a vols. 8vo. with Six Platesand numerous Woodcuts, 24«. cloth. 
 
 LINWOOD (W.)— ANTHOLOGIA OXONIENSIS; 
 
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 LOUDON.— THE AMATEUR GARDENER'S CALENDAR: 
 
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 LOUDON— THE LADY'S COUNTRY COMPANION; 
 
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 LOUDON'S SELF-INSTRUCTION FOR YOUNG GARDENERS, 
 
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18 NEW WOKKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TREES AND SHRUBS: 
 
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 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AGRICULTURE: 
 
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 LOUDON'S HORTUS BRITANNICUS; 
 
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 SUPPLEMENT TO LOUDON'S HORTUS BRITANNICUS; 
 
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 MACAULAY.— CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL ESSAYS Con- 
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^ — — 
 
 PUBLISHED BY MESSES. LOXGMAN AND Co. 19 
 
 MACAULAY.— THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 From the Accession of James II. By Thomas Babington Macaulay. NtwEdition. Vols. I. 
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 MACAULAY.— LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME. 
 
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26 
 
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 ROWTON (F.)— THE DEBATER: 
 
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 [March ■&], 1851. 
 
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