
<DR. RUDOLPH DIESEL 
 
 The Inventor of the Engine operating under "Constant Pressure", named after 
 
 its Originator, the <Diesel Engine. <Born 1858, (Disappeared September 
 
 30th, 1913 while crossing the ^British Channel from 
 
 Antwerp to Harwich, England. 
 
The ,:^:. 
 
 - 20th CENTURY GUIDE 
 
 FOR 
 
 DIESEL OPERATORS 
 
 A PRACTICAL BOOK FOR OPERATORS, SCHOOLS, 
 
 LIBRARIES AND THOSE INTERESTED 
 
 IN DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 By 
 JULIUS ROSBLOOM 
 
 Co-Atithor of 
 "The 20th Century Guide for Marine Engineers" 
 
 (Ramsey & Rosbloom) 
 "The 20th Century Guide for Automobile Operators," etc. 
 
 And 
 
 ORVILLE R. SAWLEY 
 Internal Combustion Engineer 
 
 Published by: 
 
 WESTERN TECHNICAL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 
 SEATTLE, WASHINGTON. 
 
_/ 
 library 
 
 Copyright 1922 by J. Rosbloom and O. R. Sawley. 
 (All Rights Reserved.) 
 
 Press of Peters Publishing Company, 
 Seattle, Washington. 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 IN the preparation of the "20th Century Guide for Diesel 
 Operators" all data has been carefully selected to suit 
 the person engaged in the profession dr for the use 
 in the study of Internal Combustion Engineering. 
 
 The primary object of this valuable addition to tech- 
 nical publications on the subject of Internal Combustion 
 machinery and such information as this book contains, is to 
 instruct those interested in this prime mover in practical 
 form. 
 
 The Authors are confident that this book will prove 
 beneficial to those aspiring to knowledge, and with this 
 end in view they feel that their work has not been in vain. 
 
 JANUARY, 1922. 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
 480031 
 
WE APPRECIATE THE SERVICES AND FURNISHING 
 OF DATA BY 
 
 Engineering Officers of the United States Navy, in particu- 
 lar, the late 'Commandant U. S. N. Captain Barthalow, 
 Ensign G. F. De Grave, U. 'S. N., Internal Combustion En- 
 gineers, Operating Engineers engaged in practical opera- 
 tion of Diesel power, Manufacturers of Internal Combustion 
 Machinery, etc., who so courteously assisted us in making 
 it possible to produce the "20th 'Century Guide for Diesel 
 Operators." 
 
 We also desire to acknowledge our gratitude to the 
 Hon. Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce, in so kindly 
 encouraging the publication of the "Rules for Obtaining 
 U. S. Licenses for Engineers on Motor-Driven Ships," and 
 Mr. Harry 'C. Lord, Federal Inspector United States Inspec- 
 tion Service, Port of Seattle, Washington for his valuable 
 suggestions. 
 
 The co-operation of Mr. L. B. Chapman, Professor of 
 Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Lehigh Uni- 
 versity, Bethlehem, Pa., is highly appreciated. 
 
 Our thanks is also extended to the editorial staffs of 
 the "Motorship," "Marine Engineering," "Pacific Shipping 
 Illustrated," "Railway .& Marine Review," etc., for their 
 courtesy in extending the authors of "The 20th Century 
 Guide for Diesel Operators" their liberal assistance. 
 
 The services of Mr. O. J. Hansen, M. E., in compilation 
 of the subject matter, is highly appreciated. 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
WE ARE INDEBTED TO FOLLOWING FIRMS IN THE 
 
 PREPARATION OF "THE 20th CENTURY 
 
 GUIDE FOR DIESEL OPERATORS" 
 
 Bethlehem Steel Corporation 
 
 General Electric Company 
 
 Wes'tinghouse Electric Manufacturing Company 
 
 Griscom-Russell Company 
 
 Dow Diesel & Pump Works 
 
 Allis-Chalmers Company 
 
 De Laval Company 
 
 Busch-Sulzer Diesel Engine Company 
 
 Worthington Pump & Engine Works 
 
 Nordberg Manufacturing Company 
 
 Sullivan Compressor Co. 
 
 Burmeister & Wain Company 
 
 Pacific Diesel Engine Company 
 
 Atlas Imperial Diesel Engine Co. 
 
 New London Ship & Engine Company 
 
 Vickers, Ltd. 
 
 Ingersoll-Rand Company 
 
 The Power Manufacturing Company 
 
 Seattle Machine Works 
 
 Ansaldo-Giorgio Company 
 
 Blohm & Voss Company 
 
 Mclntosh & Seymour Company 
 
 Winton Diesel Engine Company 
 
 Bolinder's Company 
 
 Fairbanks, Morse Company 
 
 Manzel Bros. Company 
 
 Edison Electric Company 
 
 Cutler-Hammer Corporation 
 
 Sperry Gyroscope Co. 
 
 Mietz Corporation 
 
 Standard Oil Company 
 
 Lombard-McCarthy Company 
 
 Western Miachinery Company 
 
 Fulton Diesel Engine Company 
 
 Paragon e Gear Works 
 
 'Carlysle-Johnson Machinery Company 
 
 C. H. Wheeler Company 
 
 Hoppe's Manufacturing Company 
 
 Burt Manufacturing Company 
 
 Gullowsen Grei Engine Company 
 
 The P'neumercator Company 
 
Allan-Clmningham. Company 
 
 Baltimore Oil Engine Company 
 
 The Taylor Instrument Company 
 
 The De La Vergne Oil Engine Company 
 
 The De Laval Separator Company 
 
 Schutte & Koerting Company 
 
 Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company 
 
 Ashton Valve Company 
 
 Aspinall Governor Company 
 
 The Hadfield-Penfield Steel Company 
 
 C. H. Wheeler Company 
 
 Craig Machinery Company 
 
 Lombard Governor Company 
 
 Kahlenberg Brothers 
 
 National Transit Pump & Machine Company 
 
 The Maxim Silencer Company 
 
 Elliott Company 
 
 Cumings Oil Engine Company 
 
 Etc., Etc. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 ONE has to marvel at the advance made in the improvements on the 
 Diesel engine in the last ten years, while it is to be regretted that 
 the literature on the subject, in comprehensive form, has been 
 noticeably lacking. The task of the 'authors has been to link up the won- 
 derful mechanical advance with reliable data for the engineer in the form 
 of a complete treatise and text on Diesel Operation brought u,p to date. 
 
 The importance of Diesel power cannot be overestimated. Even the 
 'most skeptically inclined engineers of a few years back, as well as others 
 interested in power generation who were temipted to treat the matter 
 lightly have been compelled by the course of events to look upon the 
 Diesel engine as a prime mover which is deserving of the highest con- 
 sideration. The fact that its results have been of such a tremendous 
 nature in minimizing waste, space and cost, etc., without impairing effi- 
 ciency explains the trend towards universal adoption in certain lines of 
 engineering. 
 
 The Diesel Engine is here to stay, and the progressive engineer 
 realizing that fact finds it his duty to extend his knowledge into the 
 Diesel field, and, as a consequence, demands more reliable and timely 
 data on the subject. The authors have tried to answer the engineer's 
 call by producing "The Twentieth Century Guide for Diesel Operators," 
 in fact,, they have gone farther, and tried to make this work satisfy the 
 needs of all who are seeking enlightenment in this branch of engineer- 
 ing, whether they be students or experts. Neither time nor expense has 
 been spared in an effort to make this! work a success, and by success is 
 meant "A world's standard book." The authors feel that in some ways 
 they have accomplished much they set out to do, as there is reliable data 
 both original and obtained which has never been within reach of the 
 engineering world before the completion of this publication, beyond alto- 
 gether the standard data expected in a text of this kind. The substance 
 is international in character and the scope covers both land and sea oper- 
 ation. The writers have done their utmost to assemble in compact form 
 all the world knows of Diesel machinery up to the present time, and 
 having done their utmost, they now invite constructive criticism with 
 the object of making future editions not only abreast of modern invention 
 but also to the complete satisfaction of the engineering profession. 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter 1. Technical Terms as Applied to Diesel Machinery. 
 
 Chapter 2. Theory. 
 
 Chapter 3. Miscellaneous Formulas. 
 
 Chapter 4. Principles of Diesel Operation. 
 
 Chapter 5. Liquid Substances. 
 
 Chapter 6. Questions and Answers on Diesel Operation, 
 
 Chapter 7. Fuel Feed and Ignition. 
 
 Chapter 8. Principles of 'Construction. 
 
 Chapter 9. Auxiliary Machinery and Accessories. 
 
 Chapter 10. Detailed Description of Diesel Engines. 
 
 Chapter 11. Diesel Electric Propulsion. 
 
 Chapter 12. Low Compression Oil Engines. 
 
 Chapter 13. Compressors. 
 
 Chapter 14. Pumps. 
 
 Chapter 15. Batteries. 
 
 Chapter 16. U. S. Rules for Licensing of Engineers on Motor- 
 ships, Lloyd's Rules, Extract from Rules American 
 Bureau of Shipping. 
 
 See General Index in Back of Book. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS, AS APPLIED TO DIESEL MACHINERY 
 
 Mechanical Efficiency: 
 
 The mechanical efficiency of the Diesel Engine is the net effective 
 power developed in the engine cylinder remaining after the power is ab- 
 sorbed by the moving parts of the engine and by frictional resistance de- 
 ducted. The mechanical efficiency is expressed as the ratio between the 
 effective power of the engine as measured by a brake on the engine shaft. 
 The mechanical efficiency of a Diesel engine is influenced by numerous 
 factors, 'such as the type and size of the engine, the quality of the ma- 
 terial and workmanship, the care given to details in erecting, the lubri- 
 cating system, including the quantity and the quality of the lubricating 
 oil used. If too much cooling water is used, frictional resistance, due 
 to cylinder contraction, may be greatly increased. As the internal power 
 and friction of an engine are nearly constant regardless of load, the me- 
 chanical efficiency decreases in the engine load. 
 
 The mechanical efficiency of engines having a two-stroke cycle is 
 lower than that of engines having a four-stroke cycle as, in addition to 
 the power required by the injection air compressor, there is that re- 
 quired by the scavenging pump. 
 
 The mechanical efficiencies of four-stroke engines at full load vary 
 from 75 to 80 per cent, 80 per cent being usual for high grade, low-speed 
 engines of medium and large powers. The engine efficiency, exclusive 
 of the air compressor, is 85 to 90 per cent. 
 
 The mechanical efficiency of engines, having a two-stroke cycle, 
 seldom exceeds 70 per cent and may be as low as 65 per cent in high 
 speed engines. The distribution of power losses in two-stroke and four- 
 stroke engines depends a great deal on the competency of the man in 
 charge. 
 
 Thermal Efficiency: 
 
 The thermal efficiency of a Diesel Engine is the ratio between the 
 equivalent in heat units of 1 horse-power and the number of heat units 
 actually consumed by the engine in developing 1 horse-power. If based 
 on the indicated horse-power, it is indicated horse-power efficiency, if 
 based on the brake horse-power, it is the effective thermal efficiency. 
 
 The thermal efficiency depends chiefly on 'the thermodynaimic cycle 
 of the Diesel Engine, and is affected by the compression ratio (ratio be- 
 tween total cylinder volume and clearance volume at the end of com- 
 pression) as well as the cut-off ratio (ratio between cylinder volume at 
 time fuel valve closes and volume at inner dead center of piston or 
 clearance volume). 
 
14 TECHNICAL TERMS 
 
 The indicated thermal efficiency increases with a decrease in the 
 cutoff ratio which contributes to 'the economy of the Diesel engine at 
 fractional loads, the iuel consumption per horse-power-hour remaining 
 nearly constant between full and three-fourths loads, and increasing 
 only slightly at one-half load. The ignition of the -fuel could be effected 
 at lower pressures, but high compression is essential to high engine 
 economy in Diesel Engines. 
 
 The mechanical efficiency of the engine naturally influences its fuel 
 economy (thermal efficiency) also, but to a minor degree. 
 
 The indicated thermal efficiency of the Diesel engine having a four- 
 stroke cycle, varies from 45 per cent at full load to 47 per cent at half 
 load, and the effective thermal efficiency from 37 per cent 'at full load 
 to 30 per cent at half load, which represents the best practice. As re- 
 gards to engines having a two j stroke cycle, the figures are 10 to 15 per 
 cent lower. 
 
 Volumetric Efficiencies: 
 
 The volumetric efficiency is the ratio between the weight of a cylin- 
 der full of air at the completion of the suction stroke and the weight of 
 a similar volume of standard temperature and pressure. It can be de- 
 termined by measuring the partial pressure of the air during the suc- 
 tion stroke and dividing it by the atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The construction of the engine, its piston speed, its valve gear, and 
 temperature are factors that influence the volumetric efficiency. 
 
 The volumetric efficiency of an engine having a four-stroke-cycle 
 differs from that of an engine having a two-stroke cycle. The volumetric 
 efficiency influences the specific duty of the Diesel engine. During the 
 suction stroke of the four-cycle engine, the air becomes somewhat rare- 
 fied, so that the lower the volumetric efficiency, the lower is the weight 
 of oxygen in a cylinder full of air. The maximum quantity of fuel 'that 
 can be turned by the air (oxygen) charges is also proportionately lower 
 with lower volumetric efficiency. 
 
 The volumetric efficiency of engines having a two-stroke cycle 1-s 
 generally below unity, notwithstanding the fact that the cylinders are 
 filled with slightly compressed air, as it is not possible to scavenge or 
 remove all the gases of combustion, which vitiate the burning power of 
 the air charge. To determine the volumetric efficiency of engines hav- 
 ing a two-stroke cycle, it is not sufficient to know the pressure of the 
 air that filled the cylinder (before compression begins) ; this value must 
 be multiplied by the percentage of pure air present in the total weight 
 of gas filling the cylinder. 
 
 For slow-speed four-stroke engines a volumetric efficiency of 90 per 
 cent can be reached, which decreases to 85 per cent for high-speed en- 
 gines and for extreme speeds may be lower. These values <pre-<suppose 
 high-grade engines with mechanically operated valves. 
 
 Scavenging Efficiencies: 
 
 The scavenging efficiency in a two-cycle engine is the ratio between 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS 15 
 
 the weight of the air contained in the cylinder at the comimencemen't 
 of the compression stroke and that of the mixture of air and burnt gas. 
 The efficiency of tihe charge is denned as the ratio between the 
 amount of pure air in the cylinder at the commencement of the com- 
 pression and the total cylinder volume, whilst the useful scavenging ef- 
 fect is the ratio between the same amount of pure air and the output 
 of the scavenging pump. 
 
 Ratio of Expansion: 
 
 The thermal efficiency at its maximum is due to the increased tem- 
 perature when the engine is at its highest production. The accomplished 
 results in creating the full energy out of the working mediums, and the 
 working substance. 
 
 Laws of Thermodynamics: 
 
 In the conversion of heat into mechanical energy, one unit of heat 
 is lost for every 778 foot-pounds of energy obtained; and conversely, in 
 the production of heat by mechanical means, one unit of heat is ob- 
 tained from every 778 pounds of energy expended. It is also known, that 
 it is impossible for a self-acting engine to convey heat from one body 
 to another at a higher temperature without the aid of external assist- 
 ance. 
 
 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: 
 
 The specific heat at constant pressure is the amount of heat ab- 
 sorbed by the unit mass of gas when its temperature is raised by one 
 degree on the thermometric scale, the pressure being kept constant, but 
 the volume being allowed to increase. 
 
 Specific H-eat at Constant Volume: 
 
 The specific heat at constant volume is the amount of heat absorbed 
 by the unit mass of gas when its temperature is increased by one degree 
 on the thermometric scale, its volume being kept constant, so that the 
 addition of heat results in an increase of pressure. 
 
 Since the combustive element when heated at constant pressure ne- 
 cessarily expands and does work, the specific heat at constant pressure 
 is naturally greater than that at constant volume by the amount of heat 
 used up in doing that work; therefore the specific heat at constant vol- 
 ume is commonly expressed as the true specific heat, but both values 
 require to be considered in connection with the problems of the internal 
 combustion machinery. 
 
 Isothermal Expansion: 
 
 In isothermal expansion the temperature of the combustible element 
 during the whole expansion remains unaltered, and hence the Internal 
 energy in the heat value remains unaltered, and the heat created is 
 equivalent to the power in proportion to work externally. 
 
 Adiabatic Expansion. 
 
 The adiabatic expansion means that the heat is maintained on an 
 equal base, or heat is neither gained nor lost during the expansion. The 
 
16 TECHNICAL TERMS 
 
 whole of the heat being employed in doing external work, and it is evi- 
 dent at once that this can hardly be realized in practice on Diesel work. 
 
 Sensible and Latent Heats: 
 
 Sensible and latent heats must be carefully distinguished in study- 
 ing the action of heat on matter. The term "sensible heat" is easily 
 understood, but we miay say, that sensible and latent heat represents 
 latent and sensible work; that the former is actual, kinetic, heat energy, 
 capable of transformation into mechanical energy, or vice versa, of 
 masses, and into mechanical work; while the latter form is not heat, 
 but is the equivalent of 'heat transformed to produce a visible effect in 
 the performance of molecular, or internal as well as external work, and 
 visible alteration of volume and other physical conditions. 
 
 It is seen that heat may become "latent" through any transforma- 
 tion which results in a denned physical change, produced by expansion 
 of any substance in consequence of such transmutation into internal 
 and external work; whether it be simple increase of volume or such in- 
 crease with change of physical state. 
 
 Latent Heat of Expansion: 
 
 The latent heat of expansion may be defined as that heat which is 
 demanded to produce an increase of volume, as distinguished from that 
 untransformed heat which is absorbed by the substance to produce ele- 
 vation of temperature. The latent heat of expansion may, by its ab- 
 sorption and transformation, and the resulting transforming of internal 
 and external work, cause no other effect than change of volume, as e. g. 
 when air is heated; or it may at the same time produce an alteration 
 of the solid to the fluid, or of the liquid to the vaporous state. The spe- 
 cific heat of constant volume, no molecular or other work being done, 
 measures the heat untransformed, and, as sensible he-at producing rise 
 in temperature. The specific heat of constant pressure measures the 
 sum of latent and sensible heats, when a gas is heated, and no alteration 
 of physical state can occur. It usually is assumed to include both in-* 
 ternal and external work, as well as sensible heat; but where used in 
 an unaccustomed sense the conditions of the case are always stated. 
 
 The Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporization: 
 
 The latent heats of fusion and vaporization measure the quantities 
 of heat transformed in these changes of physical state. In the first of 
 these two cases 'the work done is mainly internal; in the second the in- 
 ternal work performed is much greater, but is next so enormously in ex- 
 cess of the amount of external work done; and the higher the pressure 
 under which vaporization takes place, the larger proportionately the 
 measure of external work and of the heat demanded for its perform- 
 ance. 
 Conduction: 
 
 Conduction is the method of transfer of heat flow from part to part 
 in the same body, or from one to another of bodies in contact. These 
 phenomena are not precisely the same. The flow of heat from a hot to 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS 17 
 
 a cold body in contact depends not only on the conducting power of the 
 two substances, but also, and often mainly, on the condition of the 
 touching surfaces and the perfection of their contact. The rate of trans- 
 fer within any given material depends solely on the variation of temper- 
 ature along the line of flow, and on the character of the substance. 
 
 Calorific Values of Fuels: 
 
 The calorific value of fuel is the amount of heat, expressed in ther- 
 mal units, evolved by the complete combustion of a unit weight of the 
 fuel in the oxygen. These values are determined by the use of an appar- 
 atus known as the "Calorimeter". 
 
 . 
 
 Values of Liquid Fuels: 
 
 It is but natural that the value of fuel differs with the amount of 
 properties it contains. It should be understood that the fuel question 
 of the Diesel engine is easier solvable than any other type of machinery, 
 in particular the steam engine. It is a fact, which has been demon- 
 strated under the most expert observation of engineers in this country 
 as well as in Europe, under different climatical conditions, that the Die- 
 sel engine will consume the cheaper kind of oils with astonishing re- 
 sults. 
 
 In many cases compounded oils, such as lard oil, vegetable oils of 
 almost any known kind, in fact any oil with the flash-point of very low 
 degree, sometimes intermixed with coal tar, obtained of coal of poor 
 quality give the greatest results. In other words, the maximum results 
 are obtained with the minimum amount of fuel value, resulting in low ex- 
 penditure. To get a clear conception of the qualities of the usual known 
 kinds of solid liquids, it will be beneficial to study a few ordinary liquids. 
 The analysis, as expressed in the terms of the chemical language, is as 
 follows: 
 
 C Carbon 
 
 H Hydrogen 
 
 N Nitrogen 
 
 O Oxygen 
 
 S Sulphur 
 
 A Ash 
 
 Coal Tar: 
 
 The value of coal tar as a fuel is usually very much lower than its 
 value for other purposes, but as a fuel-medium for Diesel engines it is 
 very valuable. The yield of coal tar varies with the kind of coal ,nd 
 with the methods employed. From about 4}4 per cent to 6^ per cent of 
 the weight of coal. It is Lower in hydrogen and higher in carbon than 
 crude oil, and therefore of a lower calorific value. Tar made from stand- 
 ard gas coal would have an ultimate analysis about as follows: 
 
18 TECHNICAL TERMS 
 
 Carbon 89.21% 
 
 Hydrogen 4.95% 
 
 Nitrogen 0.11% 
 
 Oxygen 4.23% 
 
 Sulphur 0.56% 
 
 Ash Trace 
 
 It has specific gravity of about 1.25, a gallon weighing 10.3 pounds. 
 Coal tar may be burned if heated and strained, the same as other liquid 
 fuels. 
 
 Oil Tar: 
 
 Oil tar is produced in ordinary gas apparatus, has a specific gravity 
 of 1.15, is less sticky than coal tar, and can be transported, handled and 
 burned like other oils. Its analysis is about as follows: 
 
 Carbon 92.7 % 
 
 Hydrogen 6.13% 
 
 Nitrogen 0.11% 
 
 Oxygen 0.69% 
 
 Sulphur 0.37% 
 
 Ash Trace 
 
 It is important that the fuel oil burned in the Diesel engine should 
 be carefully examined and should be free from incombustible solids. 
 The oils should be mobile at degrees C., as it is heavy and rather 
 viscous, or contains considerable proportions of asphaltum or paraffine, 
 it will become sluggish and stiff at low temperatures and considerable 
 heat will have to be supplied to warm it before it can be run to the en- 
 gine. 
 
 If it is necessary to use very heavy or viscous oils the engine should 
 first be warmed by running on a lighter fuel oil, and the heavy oil intro- 
 duced after the engine is running well and warmed up. This process 
 should be reversed in shutting down, in order to wash the heavy oils out 
 of the fuel valves and small passages and pipes. 
 
 If tine heavy oil is fed into the cylinders without first being pre- 
 heated and while the engine is cool, it will tend to form a deposit on 
 the cylinder head, and also will give off petroleum vapor, which requires 
 a greater amount of oxygen for combustion than what is contained in 
 the volume of air in the cylinders. 
 
 For proper combustion the oil should be free from water, grit and 
 other solids. At least 80% of the oil should distill over at 350 degrees 
 C. Also the oil should not contain more than 4 % of material insoluble 
 in xylene! as a large proportion of insoluble material will tend to form 
 coke in the cylinders. 
 
 The presence of sulphur in small percentages (1%) especially if the 
 oil be free from water, is not injurious, but in larger content will cause 
 corrosion of the working iparts. The best results have been obtained 
 from California oils, if the lighter oils, such as gasoline and naptha, 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS 19 
 
 which are of a greater commercial value, have been drawn off by dis- 
 tilling, and the asphaltum contents reduced to about 20 or 25%. Of this 
 subject we will later dwell on, as the fuel question is of vital importance. 
 
 British Thermal Units: 
 
 A British Thermal Unit is the amount of heat required to raise the 
 temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, at or about 
 39.1 degrees Fahrenheit, and represents a mechanical energy of 778 foot 
 pounds. 
 
 Hydro-Carbons: 
 
 A chemical compound, or rather a chemical combination commonly 
 found in large percentage in petroleum and coal-tar as well as practi- 
 cally all our vegetable oils, composed of hydro-carbons or compounds 
 closely related thereto. 
 
 The Composition of Water: 
 
 , Water is a neutral compound, exhibiting, when pure, neither acid 
 nor alkaline reaction; but so freely does it dissolve substances with 
 which it is brought in contact, that it is rarely found in nature abso- 
 lutely free from either acidity or alkalinity. Its presence is essential 
 to nearly all the chemical operations of nature, as well <as in the arti- 
 ficial product of solid liquids. 
 
 The fluid may be decomposed in either of several ways, as by heat 
 alone, a process of "dissociation" of its elements taken place at between 
 2000 degrees and 4000 degrees Fahr. (1100 degrees to 2200 degrees C.) 
 or by voltaic current, and by the action of various metals or metalloids 
 at high temperatures, when the substance employed has a strong affinity 
 for the oxygen, as have carbon, iron, etc. 
 
 Water is found wherever hydrogen is burned, in air or oxygen, either 
 alone or in combination with other elements. It enters into combination 
 with many other substances and as water of crystalization, for example, 
 often influences the character of the compound to a very important de- 
 gree. 
 
 Composition of Sea Water: 
 
 Sea water is a mineral water, strongly saline, considerably chlori- 
 nated, and slightly alkaline. The composition of the water of the ocean 
 differs very slightly in different localities. It contains about 1/32 of its 
 own weight of salts, mainly common salt, with various other chlorides 
 and bromides, and some gases. Deposits from sea water and from any 
 other water containing solid matter either in solution or suspended, will 
 always occur on evaporating the water; and these deposits form the 
 incrustation and sediment which endanger the passageways, or com- 
 monly known as water-jacketing, on Diesel engines, and may lead to ser- 
 ious consequences when not properly attended to. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THEORY 
 
 GAS 
 
 A gas is a substance whose molecules are repellent to each other, 
 or in other words, has a tendency to separate. 
 
 When a quantity of gas has definite pressure and volume at a certain 
 temperature, it is said to be in a certain state. Now if any outside agent 
 should affect the gas in such a manner as to change the pressure, vol- 
 ume or temperature, it is said to undergo a change of state. 
 
 Suppose a cylinder is fitted with an air-tight piston, which is forced 
 down quickly, compressing the air, the work done by the piston in com- 
 pression is given off .to the gas in the form of heat, consequently the 
 temperature will rise in proportion to the pressure exerted on it, which 
 change of state is known as adiabatic compression. 
 
 Then adiabatic expansion and compression is when the tempera- 
 ture of gas changes as the volume increases or decreases. 
 
 If in the same cylinder the piston were pushed down very slowly al- 
 lowing the heat to pas's through the cylinder wall as soon as forced, the 
 temperature on the inside would be the same as that on the outside, and 
 would be known as isothermal expansion. 
 
 Then isothermal expansion or compression is the increase or de- 
 crease of a volume of gas by compression or expansion without produc- 
 ing a change in temperature. 
 
 In the accompanying diagram (figure a) let the axis of volume B 
 represent cubic feet of gas and axis of pressure A represent the pressure 
 per cubic foot; suppose you had 10 cubic feet of gas at a 
 pressure of 10 pounds absolute and compressed it to 8 cubic feet; the 
 product of the pressure and volume would be 10 x 10=100; as it is com- 
 pressed isothermially the product of the pressure and volume must re- 
 main unchanged, consequently 100 -=- 8 I2y 2 pounds. If we compress 
 the gas to 6 cubic feet we would have 10 X 10 = 100; 100 -=- 6 = 16% 
 pounds. 
 
 If compressed to 4 cubic feet we would have 10 X 10 -r- 4 = 25 pounds, 
 and if compressed to 2 cubic feet it would equal 10 X 10 -f- 2=50 pounds, 
 etc. If the 2 cubic feet of air was expanded back to the 10 cubic feet 
 and heat were added to the air to keep it at the same temperature, it 
 will pass through the same stages on the curved line as it did in com- 
 pression. 
 
THPJORY 
 
 21 
 
 Figure (a). 
 Demonstration of Isothermal Expansion 
 
 In practical work on Die- 
 sel engines, ammonia com- 
 pressors, etc., we have to 
 deal with adiabatic expansion 
 and our compression which 
 not only contains the in- 
 crease of pressure to the de- 
 crease of volume, but an ad- 
 ditional pressure caused by 
 the increase of temperature 
 which makes it a little more 
 difficult to figure. If no heat 
 were lost through cylinder 
 walls, leaks, etc., constant 
 1.405 could be uised, giving an 
 accurate pressure at any 
 stage of the compression, but 
 as engines differ considerably 
 in heat lost only an approx- 
 imate constant can be given, 
 
 which is 1.26. In nearly all experiments on gas and oil engines it has 
 given satisfactory results. 
 
 We will suppose we have 10 cubic feet of air in diagram (b) under 
 a 10 pound pressure, then we compress it to 8 cubic feet; now we have 
 pounds pressure plus an additional pressure caused by the heat 
 
 of compression, consequently log- 
 arithm must be used to find the 
 value of the constant, which is PV 
 1.26 (P=pressure V=volume) then 
 log P=l + 1.26=2. 26 log of press- 
 ure, then log 10=1; 1X2.26=2.26, 
 log of constant; constant is 182. 
 Then the 'product of volume of gas 
 and pressure must equal 182. Now 
 if the volume is compressed to 8 
 cubic feet and if V 1.26 equals 182; 
 PX8 1:26, then log 182=2.26007 
 1. 26 X. 90309=1.13789 or log of pres- 
 sure, then P=13.73 pounds. If the 
 volume is compressed to 6 cubic 
 feet we have constant 182 (6) 
 1.26 or log 182=2.260071.26 X 
 
 .77815=1.27961 log of pressure; 
 then P=18.6 pounds. If compressed 
 Figure (&). to 4 cubic feet it would be log 182 
 
 Demonstration of Adiabatic =2.260071.26 (log 4) or 2.26007 
 
 Expansion. 1.26 X .60216=1.50148 log of pres- 
 
 sure; then P=31.74 pounds. If compressed to 2 cubic feet the pressure 
 
22 
 
 THEORY 
 
 would be log 182=2.260071.26 x .30103=1.88078 log of pressure- then 
 P=75.96 pounds, etc. 
 
 8 2 
 
 The only way to find the action and pressure of gas in the cylinder 
 is to attach an instrument to it, called the indicator, and take an indica- 
 tor card, which records the pressure on the piston at all points in the 
 cylinder. 
 
THEORY 
 
 23 
 
 Suppose in figure (c) 'that ignition takes place when the pressure 
 reaches 100 pounds and rises to 200 pounds, as the piston passes dead 
 center on its working stroke the gas continues to burn until the piston 
 is half way to ordinate 2, at which point combustion has been com- 
 pleted and the pressure gradually decreases until it reaches the point A, 
 then the exhaust valve opens and the piston on its return stroke (see 
 exhaust line on diagram) forced the burnt gases out; as the piston 
 moves downward on the second revolution a new charge of gas is drawn 
 in (see suction line on diagram) forces the burned gases out; as the 
 piston moves downward on the second revolution a new charge of gas 
 is drawn in (see suction line on diagram) ; then on the return stroke 
 the fresh charge is compressed (see compression line on diagram) to 100 
 pounds at which place it is ignited again. 
 
 A little study of the above diagram will give the reader a good idea 
 of the relation that exists between the indicator card and the pressure 
 acting on the piston in the cylinder. 
 
 Suppose AB represents the axis of pressure and BC represents the 
 axis volume of cylinder, then any distance measured from AB in the 
 direction and parallel with BC is the abscissa of that point and all the 
 lines starting from axis BC and parallel with axis AB are known as the 
 ordinates. 
 
 To make it more clear consider distance P as clearance volume, to 
 the same scale as that of L, which represents cylinder volume. The 
 axis BC may either represent atmospheric pressure or line of no press- 
 ure, that is, absolute vacuum, usually iBC will represent atmospheric 
 pressure. 
 
 In figure (d) the ab- 
 scissa of the point is xl, 
 and the ordinate of the 
 point is 1" 1, then the or- 
 dinate and abscissa of 1 
 are 1" 1 and x 1 respect- 
 ively, of 2 are 2" 2 and x 
 2, etc. 
 
 The line yv represents 
 the expansion of the gas, 
 or in other words the 
 pressure per square inch 
 acting on the area of the 
 piston throughout the full 
 stroke (the diameter L). 
 
 When ignition takes place the pressure acting on piston is equal to tp 
 yw pounds; as the piston moves forward to line 1" 1 the pressure on 
 the area of the piston has decreased to x 1 pounds, etc., until piston 
 reaches end of stroke at v and exhaust escapes from cylinder, conse- 
 quently the amount of work performed is equal to the number of pounds 
 pressure acting on the area of piston throuigh. the full length of stroke. 
 In order to find the area of indicator card it is necessary to divide it 
 
 Figure (d). 
 
 Demonstrating Expansion of Gases 
 in Cylinder. 
 
THEORY 
 
 into a number of ordinates as shown in figure (d) which are 9, then add 
 the length of all of them together and divide by number of lines, this 
 will give the average heights of the diagram which is called mean ordi- 
 nates, then multiply the mean ordinate by the length of stroke (distance 
 L), this will give the mean effective pressure (abbreviated to M. E. P.) 
 acting on the working stroke, but as a small amount of the power given 
 off in the working stroke, will be consumed in compressing the new 
 charge of gas in the return stroke, therefore it will be necessary to sub- 
 tract the area of compression from the area of expansion, in order to 
 find the effective foot pounds of work performed in one cycle. The area 
 of compression is found by the same method as in expansion asi follows : 
 Ordinate y'w, 1' 1", 2' 2", etc., divide by the number of measurements 
 taken and multiply by x" 6 (length of compression), which will give 
 the power lost in compression. 
 
 In figure (d) we will suppose that ignition took place when the 
 pressure reached 450 pounds; (the piston would almost be on dead cen- 
 ter) the explosion causing the pressure to raise to a little more than 550 
 pounds before the piston started downward on the working stroke, as 
 the piston moved downward the decrease of pressure is recorded on the 
 indicator card until the exhaust valve is opened and the pressure inside 
 the cylinder equalizes with the atmospheric pressure on the outside. 
 Then we take the card and find the length of ordinates as described in 
 figure (d), which are 13 10-16 inches, changing 13 10-16 inches to 16th., 
 we would have 16 X 13 + 10 or 218 sixteenths, which is the length of 
 the 12 ordinates; then 218 -:- 12 = 18% sixteenth, or the average height 
 of 1 ordinate. 
 
 If 2 10-16 inches = 600 
 (the scale of pounds is 
 found by the number of 
 springs used) ; 1/16 = 600 
 -r- 42 or 14 2/3 pounds, 
 then 18% X 14% = 266 
 4/9 pounds to the square 
 inch acting on area of pis- 
 ton throughout the full 
 stroke, which is 12 inches 
 then 12 x 266 4/9 = 
 3197% inch pounds of 
 work performed; now we 
 measure the mean ordi- 
 nates of the compression, 
 Figure (e). which are 4 inches; then 
 Practical Demonstration of Indicator Card. 4 _,_ 8 __ y incn length 
 
 of mean ordinate; then y 2 X 16 or 8 sixteenths. 8 X 14% = 117% 
 pounds. Therefore the compression averages 117% pounds to the square 
 inch for 8 inches; then 8 X 117% 933% inch pounds of work per- 
 formed in compression. Then 3197% 9332% = 2263% inch pounds of 
 
 GOO 
 
 4C6 
 
 3*0 
 
 3*0 
 WO 
 
 1*0 
 
 \ 
 
THEORY 
 
 25 
 
 effective work performed in one cycle. In order to find the M. E. P. we 
 divide 2263% by the length of stroke in inches or 2263% -~ 12 = 188.63 
 pounds. 
 
 NOTE Some figures may be eliminated by subtracting the area of 
 compression from area of expansion and dividing by length of stroke, 
 which will give the measurement for the scale of pounds. 
 
 PROPER MANAGEMENT AND NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN 
 USING THE INDICATOR 
 
 (1) Before using the indicator give it a proper inspection. Ascer- 
 tain the condition of the indicator. Any defective valve or leaky mechan- 
 ical contrivance sihould be remedied before using the same. 
 
 (2) Add a small quantity of oil in drum spindle and piston. Use 
 only mineral oil. Oil of heavy viscosity should never be used. It causes 
 gumming and the result will be a retarding of the instrument with con- 
 sequently bad results. 
 
 (3) The advisability of properly rigging the instrument to the en- 
 gine cannot be overestimated. Previous to operating the engine obtain 
 the correct length of cord. 
 
 
 Practical Application of Indicator, 
 
26 THEORY 
 
 (4) While engine is being operated with attached cylinder never 
 alter any parts on indicator parts. It may result in improper termination 
 of Cards. . , 
 
 (5) The paper on the drum must be properly placed. See that the 
 paper clips are working perfectly. 
 
 (6) The pencil should be fairly sharp and brought to bear against 
 the card very lightly. 
 
 (7) Any assembling of saturation inside the instrument should be 
 avoided. 
 
 (8) When using Thompson Indicator be sure that the three-way cock 
 has the proper amount of opening. Any throttling of power may have the 
 result of imperfect recording. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF INDICATED HORSE-POWER WITH THE 
 
 INDICATOR 
 
 The indicated horse-power, or the rate at which an engine receives 
 mechanical energy, is measured by the mechanical energy imparted to 
 the piston per minute in foot-pounds, divided by 33,000. 
 
 The work done iper stroke of L feet by the pressure on a piston 
 whose area is A square inches is 
 
 p A L foot-pounds, 
 
 p being the mean effective pressure per square inch in pounds upon 
 the piston. 
 
 If N is the number of power strokes per minute, i. e., the number 
 of strokes of 'the piston when the driving pressure p is acting, then the 
 indicated horsepower = 
 
 I. H. P. P LAN 
 
 33,000 
 
 This may be applied to every cylinder when the engine is working 
 uniformly. 
 
 The quantity N in the above formula miay be obtained by some 
 form of tachometer or by >some form of a counter. 
 
 The area of the piston is best obtained by removing the cylinder 
 cover and measuring the diameter of the cylinder with a micrometer 
 gauge. 
 
 It is necessary to measure the diameter of the cylinder and piston 
 rod at a number of -positions, and take the mean of each of them, as 
 these often wear out of truth. 
 
 The length of the stroke can be obtained by marking the cross- 
 head guide at the extreme ends of the stroke. 
 
 The mean effective pressure is obtained from the indicator diagram. 
 A comparison of previously taken indicator cards of the engine will give 
 
THEORY 27 
 
 accurate performance of mechanism and determine faulty operation. In 
 other pages of this book a thorough explanation is given as to the meas- 
 urement requirement properly ascertaining the function of the engine. 
 
 DEFINITION OF "CARNOT" AND "OTTO" CYCLE 
 
 The definition of cycle may be used to indicate a period of time in 
 which a series of events repeat themselves; a, recurring series of events 
 or a series of operations terminating to its original state. 
 
 In the Cannot cycle its operation performed by perfect gas under 
 perfect mechanical efficiency proves that thermodynamic heat con- 
 verted into mechanical work efficiency of this engine is the 'highest 
 that can be obtained by the use of any substance or combinations of sub- 
 stances in any engine working in any other cycle between the identical 
 limits of existing temperature. 
 
 The practical engine as it improves approaches this efficiency, but 
 can never attain it. In other words, the nearer the efficiency of any 
 heat engine is to that of the Carnot cycle efficiency, the nearer it is to 
 its highest attainable limit of perfection. 
 
 As will be seen in the subject dealing with the isothermal and adi- 
 abatic expansion, the heat unust be lowered by an adiabatic expansion in 
 which the heat that disappears does so in doing its mechanical work. 
 We begin to realize that the compression temperature on a Diesel en- 
 gine acting adiabatically, in order that the heat received as heat may be 
 received at the highest possible temperature making it possible to ac- 
 complish the desired results. 
 
 In theory internal combustion engines work on either of the Otto 
 or the Carnot cycle. In defining this theory in the laws of thermodynam- 
 ics alluding to internal combustion engines, we must first understand 
 that all engines used for generation of power are heat engines. 
 
 To establish an ideal standard of comparison in different types fol- 
 lowing exclusive processes of operation the term cycle is applied. When 
 giving this subject a little thought we soon conclude that the cycle of 
 operation, as the indicator application wall convince us, is distinctly dif- 
 ferent from that of the Diesel. 
 
 The Diesel engine, which is a "constant pressure" engine, or to be 
 plain, in which all the heat is token to generate its power while the 
 pressure remains "constant" in the cylinder and its rejection occurs in 
 identical condition, follows an exclusive "Diesel" cycle peculiar to this 
 engine. 
 
 In contrast to this constant pressure cycle we have the "constant 
 volume" cycle, which we pleased to call the "Otto" cycle. In the study 
 of Diesel engineering we find that this constant volume only exists in 
 the gas or gasoline driven engine, where a constant volume establishes 
 the "volumetric efficiency" of the engine. This volumetric efficiency is 
 the fundamental principle of operation determining the results of power 
 production of the engine itself. 
 
28 THEORY 
 
 HEAT 
 
 All bodies are supposed to be composed of minute particles so 
 small that they can scarcely be seen by a high powered microscope, they 
 are called molecules. These molecules have weight and motion; in fact, 
 the energy that any body possesses is due to the rapidity thait these mole- 
 cules vibrate to and fro. The state of any substance whether gaseous, 
 liquid or solid, is determined by the attraction that these molecules have 
 for each other, as follows: 
 
 In a gas, the molecules are said to be repellent to each other, that 
 is, their adhesive qualities are entirely suspended, which causes them 
 to travel away from one another in the direction of least resistance, 
 thereby producing a state known as expansion there is no limit to the 
 expansion of an unconfined gas. 
 
 In a liquid body the adhesive qualities are only a slight degree 
 greater than the cohesive qualities, thereby creating a state that per- 
 mits the molecules to pass freely over or under one another in any di- 
 rection, which acting with the laws of gravity, causes them to seek the 
 lowest possible level. A liquid has no definite shape of its own, but as- 
 sumes the .shape of the object in which it resits. 
 
 In a solid the adhesive qualities are great enough to overcome the 
 cohesive qualities to the extent of causing the mass to assume a defi- 
 nite size and shape, thereby forcing the molecules to remain in a fixed 
 path of motion. A force of more or less degree is required to cause a 
 solid to change its shape. 
 
 The vibratory motion of these bodies determines how hot or how 
 cold the body is, for example: 
 
 When a liquid boils, it is the maximum stage of motion for the 
 molecules and they separate from the main body of liquid and pass off 
 into the air in the form of vapor or gas. 
 
 If you take a piece of iron and apply enough heat the molecules will 
 move so rapidly that they travel outside of their fixed path of motion, 
 losing their attraction for each other. Consequently the molecules will 
 seek the lowest level, at which state it is said to be melted. 
 
 On the other hand, if we should extract enough heat from a gas 
 the molecules would lose sufficient motion and condense into a liquid. 
 If we continued to extract heat it would finally become a solid, such as 
 ice, and as we abstracted heat the motion of the molecules would be- 
 come less until they came to a state of rest, which would be 460 degrees 
 below zero (Fahrenheit). So far this has been impossible, the lowest 
 known temperature on record being in the neighborhood of 400 degrees 
 below zero (Fahrenheit). 
 
 It can be readily seen that the temperature of any body is only a 
 measurement of motion of the molecule. These measurements are taken 
 by an instrument called a thermometer. 
 
THEORY 29 
 
 COMBUSTION 
 
 In the diagrams a, b, c, d, and e are pressures taken on a card by 
 an instrument used for finding the effects of different mixtures of gas 
 and air, when ignited in a cylinder at atmospheric pressure, that is, ig- 
 nition taken place at the lower left hand corner and the pressure raises 
 in proportion to the mixture of air and gas, which may be summed up 
 as follows: 
 
 Diagram (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 
 
 Volume of air to 1 volume of gas 13 11 9 7 5 
 
 Time of explosion: Second .28 .18 .13 .07 .05 
 
 Guage pressure. Pounds per sq. in 52 63 69 89 96 
 
 In the table as shown here it can be seen that a mixture 5 of air 
 to 1 of coal gas gives the best results. If we were to use 4 of air to 1 of 
 gas the pressure would be less as there would not be sufficient oxygen 
 to complete combustion, consequently the elements of gas control the 
 amount of air to be used. Experiments have proven that one volume of 
 
 Experiments of Coal Gas and Air. 
 
 air well saturated with gasoline mixed with 6 to 9 volumes of free air 
 (depending upon the grade of gasoline) gives the greatest mean effective 
 pressure. 
 
 All fuel oils and gases contain hydrogen and carbon, and are known 
 as hydrocarbons, which when mixed with oxygen and burned the hydro- 
 gen and carbon seperate and unite with the oxygen, forming water (H 2 O) 
 and carbon dioxide (CO ). If the carbon unites with only one part oxygen 
 it forms another substance known as carbon monoxide. 
 
 The products of combustion are oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, com- 
 bined with one part oxygen forms water. 
 
 The elements with their atomic weights usually found in fuel are 
 as follows: 
 
 Elements: 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen 
 Nitrogen 
 Carbon 
 Sulphur 
 
 H.. 
 0_ 
 
 N.. 
 C.. 
 
 s. 
 
 Atomic Weight 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 _ 32 
 
30 THEORY 
 
 In the above table we find that the atomic weight of carbon is 12 
 and the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, then in carbon dioxide (CO o ) 
 we have by weight 12 parts of carbon to 32 part of oxygen. In other 
 words it requires 32 -:-- 12 or 2% pounds of oxygen to one pound of car- 
 bon. As only 23% of the air, by weight, is oxygen, we have 2% -f- .23 
 or 16.6 pounds of air to supply the 2% pounds of oxygen, which may be 
 summed up as follows, 
 
 1 C + 11.6 air 12.6 pounds Mixture 
 
 T2.67 01 
 
 1 C + ^ ^ - 12.6 pounds Elements 
 
 \8.93 N 
 
 fl C 1 
 
 Carb. diox.^ I -f- 8.93 N 12.6 pounds Products of Combustion 
 
 \2.67 J 
 
 In the above table 1 pound of C requires 11.6 pounds of air for com- 
 bustion. The 2.67 pounds of O in the 11.6 pounds of air combines with 
 the 1 pound of carbon forming 3.67 pounds of CO o and the 8.93 pounds 
 of N pass off with the) CO o without taking any part in the combustion. 
 
 In hydrogen the product of combustion is H ( O, by weight it is com- 
 posed of 2 parts of H to 16 parts of O, then 1C -f- 2 = 8 pounds of oxy- 
 gen to unite with 2 pounds of hydrogen. As oxygen by weight equals 
 23% of the air, we have 8 -=- .23 or 34.8 pounds of air to burn 2 pounds 
 of hydrogen, which is summed up as follows: 
 
 2 H -f- 34.8 air = 36.8 pounds Mixture 
 
 2H-}-^ V 36.8 pounds Elements 
 
 ^26.8 N r 
 
 (\ TT "^ 
 
 L + 26.8 36.8 poundsProducts of 'Combustion 
 
 8 O J 
 
 Suppose there wasn't sufficient oxygen to unite with the carbon to 
 form complete combustion, then we have as stated before CO instead 
 of CO 2 , that is, by weight 12 parts of carbon to 16 parts of oxygen or 
 16 -f- 12 = 1% pounds of oxygen to 1 pound of carbon, which is summed 
 up as follows: 
 
 1 C -f 5.8 air = 6.8 pounds Mixture 
 
 fl.33 O 1 
 1C+ -< I = 6.8 pounds Elements 
 
 I 1 ' 330 1=6, 
 
 [4.47N J 
 
 {1C ~1 
 I + 4.47 6.8 pounds__Produc:ts of Combustion 
 1.33 O J 
 
 It is not customary to use the" weight of gas in calculating the pounds 
 of air required for combustion in gas engines, as gas is invariably meas- 
 
THEORY 31 
 
 ured in cubic feet, making it necessary ito figure air by cubic feet, which 
 may be explained as follows: 
 
 The combustible products of hydrocarbons are OO 2 and H o O. It 
 is evident that in each molecule of CO o it requires two atoms of oxygen 
 to complete the combustion of 1 atom of carbon and for every molecule 
 of H o O it would repuire y 2 atom of oxygen to complete combustion for 
 
 1 atom of hydrogen, which may be expressed in the formular of 
 
 H 
 
 2 C H = number of atoms of oxygen required to burn any hydrocarbon. 
 
 2 
 
 In chemical theory a gas requires y 2 as many volumes of oxygen 
 as there are atoms of oxygen in the compound. Then the volume of 
 oxygen required for complete combustion for any hydrocarbon may be 
 found in the following formula: 
 
 H H 
 
 2C+ -- =(CH ) 4.76 
 
 2 4 
 
 As only 21% of air by volume is oxygen, we would have 1 .21 or 
 4.76. The volume necessary for complete combustion of 1 volume of 
 hydrocarbon, consequently we have: Volume = (C + H) 4.76. 
 
 4 
 Example: 
 
 How many cubic feet of air would be required to burn one cubic foot 
 of Hexane (C H 14 )? 
 
 Solution: 
 
 H 14 
 
 V = (C + - ) 4.76 or V = (6 + - ) 4.76 
 4 4 
 
 then V = 9.5 X 4.76 or 45.2 cubic feet of air. 
 
 To find the volume of air required for a gas containing a mixture 
 of various hydrocarbons, use the above formula for each constituent of 
 the gas and multiply the results by the percent and add together. 
 
 Example: 
 
 How many cubic feet of air would be required to burn gas composed 
 of the following? 
 
 Constituents of Gas: 
 
 Propane C-H 15% 
 
 Methane C H* 75% 
 
 Butane C H 10% 
 
32 THEORY 
 
 Solution : 
 
 8 
 
 V = (3 + - ) 4.76 or V = 5 X 4.76 = 23.8 cu. ft. of air 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 V (1 + - ) 4.76 or V = 2 x 4.76 = 9.52 cu. ft. of air 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 V = (4 + - ) 4.76 or V 6.5 x 4.76 30.94 cu. ft. of air 
 4 
 
 Then 
 
 Propane = 23.8 X .15 = 3.57 cu. ft. of air 
 Methane = 9.52 X .75 = 7.14 cu. ft. of air 
 Butane = 30.94 X .10 = 3.09 cu. ft. of air 
 
 Total _ __13.8 cu. ft. of air. Answer. 
 
 RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF ELEMENTS 
 
 The usual weight definition of the atoms or the atomic weights of 
 the elements are expressed in terms of the weight of an atom of hydro- 
 gen. Thus H = 1, O = 16, N = 14, C = 12, and S 32. 
 
 Since equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules 
 it follows that the approximate weights of equal volumes of gases will 
 be the same as the relative weights of their molecules. 
 
 TABLE OF RELATIVE ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT 
 
 Hydrogen Atomic Weight Molecular Weight 
 
 Oxygen H 1 H. ( 1X2 =2 
 
 Nitrogen O = 16 O.~ = 16 X 2 =32 
 
 Carbon N = 14 N~o = 14 X 2 =28 
 
 Sulphur C = 12 
 
 Element or Compound S = 32 
 
 COMPOSITION OF AIR 
 
 For an approximate combustion calculation the composition of at- 
 mospheric air may be taken as follows: 
 
 Oxygen 23 per cent 21 per cent 
 
 Nitrogen 77 per cent ; 79 per cent 
 
THEORY 33 
 
 APPROXIMATE CALORIFIC VALUES OF THE COMMON 
 COMBUSTIBLES 
 
 Heat Evolved per 
 
 Combustible Product of Combustible Lb. of Combustible 
 
 B. T. U. 
 
 Carbon (C) Carbon Monoxide (CO) 4,450 
 
 Carbon (C) Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) 14,540 
 
 Hydrogen (H) Waiter (H 2 O) 62,030 
 
 Sulphur (S) Sulphur (S) ' 4,050 
 
 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon Dioxide (OO o ) 4,300 
 
 Ethylene (C o H 4 ) Carbon Dioxide (CO o ) and Water (H 2 O) 21,500 
 
 Methane (CH 4 ) Carbon Dioxide (CO.") and Water (H^O) 23,550 
 
 SOME FACTS ON COMBUSTIBLE SUBSTANCES 
 
 The principal components of liquid fuels are carbon, hydrogen, oxy- 
 gen and nitrogen. 
 
 Oxygen does not burn, but it is a supporter of combustion. 
 
 The pressure of liquid at any point is equal in all directions. 
 
 There is an equal number of molecules in equal volumes of all gases 
 at the same temperature and pressure. 
 
 Nitrogen will neither burn nor support combustion. 
 
 Water vapor, if present in large quantities, retards ignition and the 
 propagation of explosion. Before an explosion can occur, or combus- 
 tion, the vapor must be raised to the ignition temperature of the gas and 
 on account of the high specific heat of water, considerable heat is thus 
 absorbed. 
 
 The boiling point rises with increase of pressure and falls with de- 
 crease of pressure. 
 
 A cubic foot of dry air at 32 F. at sea level weighs 0.080728 Ib. 
 
 Absolute zero is 459.4; above this temperature everything scienti- 
 fically contains heat. 
 
 The density of a body depends both upon its mass and its volume. 
 
 Water is reduced only 0.00005 of its volume by a pressure of one 
 atmosphere. A gas is reduced to one-half its volume by the same 
 pressure. 
 
 Gases have no elastic limit. No amount of compression can per- 
 manently change their polume; they always return to their original vol- 
 ume when the distorting pressure is removed. 
 
 Velocity is the rate of motion. 
 
 Specific gravity is the given amount of water at 60 degree normal 
 temperature. Other substances might be selected, but the most suitable 
 standard is water, therefore it is used for the purpose of determining the 
 density of solids and liquids, 
 
34 THEORY 
 
 The British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.) is a unit to measure the quan- 
 tity of heat generated by the burning of substances. It is equivalent to 
 the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of water 
 1 degree of the Fahrenheit scale, or 1 B.T.U. is equivalent to 778 foot- 
 pounds. 
 
 When heat is added to a body, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, the 
 vibration of the molecules composing the body increases. 
 
 The centigrade scale differs from the Fahrenheit in making the 
 freezing point and the boiling point 100, the space between being 
 divided into 100 equal parts. This thermometer is the one in general 
 use among scientific men. 
 
 Pure dry air is chiefly a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon di- 
 oxide, containing nearly four volumes or parts of nitrogen to one part 
 of oxygen. Figures that are still more exact, and which are frequently 
 used iby the chemist when calculating the amount of oxygen in a given 
 volume of air, are as follows: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Carbon dioxide (CO.,) 0.23 
 
 Oxygen (O ) - 20.93 
 
 Nitrogen (N^) 79.04 
 
 Oxygen is slightly soluble in waiter, 25 volumes of water will absorb 
 one volume of oxygen. 
 
 The average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is 14.7 Ibs. per 
 square inch. This is called the pressure of 1 atmosphere. 
 
 The weight per cubic foot of any gas at different temperatures and 
 pressures can be found by the following formula: 
 
 Let W = weight in pounds; 
 
 V = volume in cubic feet; 
 B = barometric pressure; 
 S = specific gravity; 
 T = absolute temperature. 
 
 Hydrogen has no taste or color. The pure gas has no odor, though 
 hydrogen as ordinarily prepared has a disagreeable odor, due mainly 
 to impurities in the metals used. Hydrogen is the lightest known sub- 
 stance. Volume for volume, air is about 14.4 times and oxygen 16 times, 
 and water 11,000 times heavier than hydrogen. 
 
 By specific heat is meant the quantity of heat necessary to raise 
 the temperature of a substance one degree compared with the amount 
 of heat necessary to raise the temperature of an qual weight of water 
 one degree. 
 
 To measure the specific heat of a body the following will suffice as 
 explanation: The quantity of heat absorbed by the cool body in heating 
 ~ mass X change in temperature X specific heat. 
 
 The quantity of heat given out by the hot body in cooling = mass 
 X change in temperature X specific heat. 
 
THEORY 35 
 
 Thus : 
 
 M = mass; 
 
 t = temperature change; 
 s =. specific heat; 
 Mts MTs. 
 
 It will be noticed that the heat absorbed by the cool body in heat- 
 ing is exactly the amount given out by the hot body in cooling. 
 
 In internal combustion engines the pressure in the cylinder is due 
 to the action of the heat evolved during combustion. The capacity for 
 heat of the combustible mixtures in the cylinder is, however, small, 
 whilst the temperature of combustion is high. It follows, therefore, that 
 any loss of heat will necessarily seriously affect the temperature of the 
 products of combustion, with a consequent loss in efficiency. 
 
 The value of fuel depends upon the use that can be made of the 
 store of latent energy which it contains. 
 
 BOYLE'S LAW 
 
 Boyle's Law states that for a given mass of gas, at constant tempera- 
 ture, the pressure varies inversely as the volume; or, using the letters 
 P and V to represent pressure and volume respectively. 
 
 1 
 
 P = , that is, the product P X V = constant. 
 
 V 
 
 FOR AIR: If V is the volume of 1 Ib. of air in cu. feet and P is the 
 pressure in Ibs. per sq. foot, at the constant temiperature of freezing 
 water, 32 F., 
 
 Then we have: U. V. := 26220. 
 
 CHARLES' LAW 
 
 Charles' Law states that when a given mass of gas expands under 
 constant pressure, equal increments of temperature produce equal in- 
 crements of volume, and it also states that all gases exipand alike. 
 
 Thus^if V Q is the volume at zero temperature of a given quantity 
 of gas expanding at constant pressure, and if V is its volume at any 
 other temperature TJ. 
 
 Then V = V Q (1 + aT* ), where a is a constant. 
 
 Thus when TI is in Centigrade units a is very nearly 1/273, and 
 when T 1 is in Fahrenheit units a is very nearly 1/461. 
 
 JOULE'S LAW 
 
 Joule's Law states that heat and mechanical work are mutually con- 
 vertible, a unit of heat being equivalent to a certain amount of mechani- 
 cal work, called the Mechanical equivalent of heat. 
 
36 THEORY 
 
 This may be expressed in following: w = J. H. 
 
 where w = the amount mechanical work in work units, 
 and H = the quantity of heat in heat units, 
 
 J = the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat = 778 in Fahren- 
 heit units. 
 
 The fact established by Joule is: 
 
 That a gas expands without actually doing external work and without 
 taking in or giving out heat (i.e., without changing its internal energy), 
 its temperature remains constant. 
 
 We may express this result in following: 
 
 Heat supplied = work done + increase in internal energy, 
 or: H = W + (E E () ). 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 To Find Indicated Thrust of a Propeller: 
 
 H. P. X 33000 X per cent utilized 
 
 Lbs. Thrust equals - = H>B. thrust 
 
 Fitch X revol. X 100 of propeller 
 
 The resistance of the water varies as the square of the speed. The 
 power required to overcome this resistance equals the cube of the speed. 
 
 To Find the Power of the Screw: 
 
 P equals Power required 
 P equals Pitch of Screw 
 L equals length of handle 
 W equals weight lifted 
 
 weight X pitch 
 P - r= power required. 
 
 length X 2 X 3.1416 
 
 Displacement of Ship: 
 
 Tons X 35 X 12 
 
 A equals - = Sectional area of ship at water level 
 
 Inches sunk 
 
 Tons X 35 X 12 
 
 D equals - = Displacement in inches. 
 
 Area 
 
 A X inches to sink 
 
 T e(}lia i s - Tons required to sink ship by 
 
 35 x 12 amount of inches. 
 
 Ton cargo X 35 
 
 E equals = Co-efficient of displacement. 
 
 1 X b X d 
 
 Number of feet 
 
 = decimal part of 1 nautical mile. 
 
 6080 
 
38 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 Suppose, for example, we have 12 feet to consider and wish -to con- 
 vert the 12 feet in decimal terms of 1 mile. Thus: 
 
 6080 ft. 
 
 .00197 nautical mile. 
 12 ft. 
 
 The way this .Oi)197 would be used in the kind of a problem this is 
 referred to is as follows: 
 
 Suppose we have a propeller that has a pitch of 15 feet, and the loss 
 in slip is 20 per cent, which is 3 feet per revolution, then the actual 
 effective pitch is 12 feet, or, the propeller and vessel to which it is at- 
 tached, will advance 12 feet per revolution. 
 
 Let us say that the (propeller turns 60 times a minute and it is de- 
 sired to find how ifar the ship has advanced in 4 hours, we will say: 
 
 If the propeller turns 60 times per minute, then, in 4 hours it will 
 turn, 
 
 60X60X4=14,400 revolutions. 
 
 The constant we will use, as before explained, is .00197, and so, 
 14,400 X.00197=28.36+imiles (say 28.4 miles). 
 
 To prove the constant .00197 is sufficiently close for all practical 
 purposes, let us work out the same problem in the usual way, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Effective pitch of propeller 12 feet. 
 R. P. M.= 60. 
 Hours run=4. 
 
 Then : 
 
 12X60=720 feet per minute. 
 720X60=43,200 feet per hour. 
 43,200X4=172,800 feet in 4 hours. 
 
 As there are 6,080 feet in one nautical mile, then as many times as 
 C.080 is contained in 172,800 is the number of miles (nautical) that the 
 ship has advanced in the 4 hours: 
 
 172,800-j-6,080=28.42 miles. 
 
 The reason that, by the use of the constant, we get a slightly dif- 
 ferent answer, viz: 28.36 + , is that the decimal value .00197 can be 
 worked out further, hence the small difference as noted. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 39 
 
 THE CIRCLE: 
 
 The circumference of a circle is equal to the diameter multiplied 
 by 3.1416. 
 
 The area of a circle is equal to the square of the diameter multi- 
 plied by .7854. 
 
 To find the length of an Arc of a Circle: Multiply the diameter of 
 the circle by the number of degrees in the arc and this product by 
 .0087266. 
 
 To find the area of a Sector of a circle: Multiply the numbsr of 
 degrees in the arc of the sector by the square of the radius and by 
 .008727; or, multiply the arc of the sector by half its radius. 
 
 THE TRIANGLE: 
 
 Varieties. Right angled, having one right angle; obtuse angled, hav- 
 ing one obtuse angle; isosceles, having two equal angles and two equal 
 sides; equilateral, having three equal sides and equal angles. 
 
 The sum of the three angles of any triangle equals 180 degrees. 
 
 The two acute angles of a right angled triangle are complements 
 of each other. 
 
 Hypothenuse of a right angled triangle, the side opposite the right 
 
 angle, equals V sum of the squares of the other two sides. 
 
 To find the area of a Triangle: Multiply the base by half the 
 height. 
 
 The Area of a Triangle being given to find the Length of the Base: 
 Base equals twice the area divided by perpendicular height. 
 
 Area of a Triangle being given to find the Height: Height equals 
 twice area divided by base. 
 
 QUADRILATERAL FIGURE: 
 
 To find the Area: Divide the figure into two triangles; the sum of 
 the areas of the triangles ds the area. 
 
 THE ELLIPSE: 
 
 To find the Area: Multiply the two diameters together and the 
 product by .7854. 
 
 THE SPHERE: 
 
 To Compute the Surface: Multiply the diameter by the circum- 
 ference and the product will give the surface. 
 
 To Compute the Total Volume: Multiply the cube of the diam- 
 eter by .5236. 
 
40 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 THE CYLINDER: 
 
 To Compute the Surface: Multiply the length by the circumfer- 
 ence and add the product to the area of the two ends. 
 
 EQUIVALENT OF MEASURE 
 (VELOCITIES AND ACCELERATIONS) 
 
 1 kine 1 centimeter per second = 0.0328083 foot per second. 
 
 1 radian per second = 57.2958 degrees per second = 0.159155 revolutions 
 
 per second. 
 
 1 gravity = 980.5966 centimeters uer sec. = 32.1717 feet per sec. 
 1 foot pound = 13557300 ergs 18325.5 gram-centimeters. 
 
 EQUIVALENT OF MEASURE 
 (MILES, ETC.) 
 
 1 Yard, U. S. 1.0000029 yard British 
 
 1 Yard, British 0.9999971 yard U. S. 
 
 1 Chain, Gunter's 100 links 
 
 1 Link 7.92 inches 
 
 1 Cable Length, U. S. = 120 fathoms = 960 spans = 720 feet = 219.457 
 
 meters. 
 
 1 League, U. S. = 3 statute miles = 24 furlongs. 
 1 International Geographical Mile = - 1/15 at Equator = 7422 m = 
 
 4.611808 U .S. statute miles. 
 1 International Nautical Mile = 1/60 at meridian = 1852 m = 0.999326 
 
 U. S. nautical miles. 
 1 U. S. Nautical Mile = 1/60 of circumference of sphere whose surface 
 
 equals that of the earth = 6080.27 feet = 1.15155 statute miles = 
 
 1853.27 meters. 
 
 1 British Nautical Mile = 6080.00 feet = 1.15152 statute miles = 1853.19 
 meters. 
 
 TO FIND THE HORSE POWER REQUIRED TO DRIVE A SHIP 
 THROUGH THE WATER AT A GIVEN SPEED 
 
 Area of immersed midship section X knots per hr. 
 H. P. equals 
 
 600 
 
 Horse Power required. 
 
 Note: The resistance varies as the square of the speed, 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 41 
 
 Valve Formula: 
 
 Half the travel of the valve-lap equals the greatest opening. 
 Greatest opening X length of port equals Area of opening. 
 Lap plus lead plus exhaust lap equals exhaust opening 
 
 Twice the lap plus lead 2 x stroke equals Point of 
 cut-off from end of stroke. 
 
 Travel 
 
 Convenient Formulas: 
 
 GXP 
 
 S equals - = length of stroke. 
 
 P 
 
 S X P 
 
 C equals - = point of cut-off. 
 
 P 
 
 S X P 
 
 P equals - = absolute pressure. 
 
 C 
 
 P X C 
 
 p equals - = terminal pressure. 
 
 S 
 
 R equals S -f - C = ratio of expansion. 
 
 Pressure on Guide: 
 
 Area of piston X P X length of crank 
 
 P equals = pressure per sq. 
 
 Area of guide X length of connecting rod in. on guide. 
 
 Crank Pin: 
 
 Area of piston X pressure 
 
 P equals pressure per sq. inches on pin. 
 
 Diam. X length crank pin 
 
 Pressure: 
 
 P equals Pressure above atmospheric pressure when denoting burst- 
 ing or safe working pressure, gauge, or safety valve pressures of tank. 
 
 P equals Absolute pressure when denoting engine pressures, 
 strains on shafting, etc. 
 
42 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 1. Example: A propeller is 9' in diameter, 20" across the blades, 
 and the forward corner is OVa" in advance of the after one. What 
 is the pitch? 
 
 p piece of pitch; 
 
 G = piece of circumference; 
 
 p = whole pitch; 
 
 C = whole 'Circumference; 
 
 20 inches piece of thread; 
 
 9 5/10 piece of pitch. 
 
 400 minus 90.25 equals 309.75 
 
 9 X 12 equals 108" diameter of wheel, (12" = 1 foot) 
 3.1416 X 108" equals 339.2928 inches whole circumference, 
 339.2928 inches X 9.5 equals 3223.2816 inches. 
 3223.2816 inches divided by 12 equals 268.6068 ft. 
 268.6068 divided by 17.6 equals 15.26 plus ft.-^pitch. 
 
 C X p 
 P equals - or 
 
 as c = to C as p = to P 
 
 20" X 20 = 400" 400.00 
 
 9.5" X 9.5 = 90.25 90.25 
 
 309.75 = 17.6" part of circumference. 309.75 
 
 Answer: 15.26 plus ft. pitch. 
 
 
 2. Example: The pitch of a propeller is 18 ft. and makes 70 
 r. p. m. what is 'the speed of the ship in knots per hour allowing 
 20 per cent off for slip? 
 
 C = constant 6068 ft. 
 
 P = pitch of wheel; 
 
 R = revolutions per minute 
 
 S = percentage of slip; 
 
 K knots; (60 minutes in 1 hour) 
 
 6068 ft. equals 1 knot. 
 
 P X R X 60 X S 
 K equals 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 43 
 
 Efficiency: 
 
 A crude definition of efficiency is: 
 What you get 
 
 What you paid for it 
 
 The Mechanical Efficiency of the Engine is: 
 
 B. H. P. 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 Apparent Slip: 
 
 The definition of this term means following: 
 
 A ship which is driven at an abnormal speed of V knots per 
 hour by a propeller having a pitch of p feet, and making r revolutions 
 per minute, the apparent slip is the quantity computed by the equa- 
 tion 
 
 pr 101.3V 
 
 pi- 
 
 Real and Apparent Slip: 
 
 The slip of propeller may be defined in following: 
 
 pr 101.3 Va 
 
 s = 
 
 pr 
 
 Where V a is the speed of the ship in knots per hour, p is the 
 pitch in feet and r is the number of revolutions per minute. 
 
 Pitch Ratio and Slip: 
 
 The importance of determining the pitch ratio, where a change of 
 propellers necessitates the accuracy of the type desired may be ex- 
 plained in following: 
 
 For large ships the pitch ratio usually range from 1.0 to 1.5 and 
 the apparent slip from 0.10 to 0.20; both pitch-ratio and slip increas- 
 ing with the speed-length-ratio. The efficiency of the full-faced type 
 ranges from 0.45 to 0.75, increasing with the pitch ratio, and being 
 larger for narrow blades and for propellers with few blades (three or 
 two). The variation in this case for a given type of propeller is not 
 large and can be known approximately in advance. For a given 
 range of slip the efficiency changes but little, but there is an appre- 
 ciable falling off for large slips. These conditions vary somewhat for 
 the various pitch-ratios. 
 
44 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 Number of Propellers: 
 
 The efficiency establishment in difference of single or twin pro- 
 pulsion, depends a great deal on prevailing conditions. The differ- 
 ences are not large and any of aforementioned type may be of equal 
 efficiency. A single engine is, of course, simpler and cheaper than 
 two engines, taking in consideration the initial expenses. For moderate 
 powers and speeds a single screw will be chosen unless there are 
 distinct advantages otherwise, such as the elimination of a heavy weight 
 main engine to be substituted with twin engines, which are as easily op- 
 erated as the single engine, owing to the facility afforded in managing 
 Diesel power. 
 
 Thrust Computation: 
 
 To compute the thrust per square inch we may first find the 
 effective horsepower by multiplying the indicated horsepower by the 
 coefficient of propulsion from 0.5 to 0.65. The effective horse-power 
 may be multiplied by 33,000 to find the foot-pounds per minute, and this 
 quantity divided by the speed of the ship in feet per minute (101.3V) 
 will give the tow-rope resistance; this last quantity must be divided 
 by 1 - + to find the thrust of the propeller; so that 
 
 33000 E. H. P. 
 Thrust 
 
 101.3 V (1 t) 
 
 in which V is the speed of the ship in knots and t is the thrust deduction 
 (about 0.1). 
 
 Shaft Diameters: 
 
 FOUR CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE AT 120 R.P.M.: 
 
 6 Cylinders, 26" diameter X 42" stroke, 500 Ibs., initial pressure. 
 
 3 
 
 cyl. cliam.'~' x press. X stroke = 
 Diameter Shaft = constant 
 
 f (shaft stress) 
 
 262 x 500 X 42 
 
 .97 V =11.85' 
 
 7500 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 45 
 
 FOUR CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE AT 90 R.P.M.: 
 6 Cylinders, 30" X 48", 500 Ibs. initial pressure. 
 
 3 / 302 X 500 48 
 Diameter Shaft = .97 \ . 
 
 7500 
 
 TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE AT 115 R.P.M.: 
 6 Cylinder, 22" x 32", 500 Ibs. pressure. 
 
 3 / 222 X 500 X 32 
 
 Diameter Shaft = 1.04 \ == 10.48' 
 
 7500 
 
 TWO CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE AT 90 R.P.M.: 
 
 6 Cylinders, 24" X 38", 500 Ibs. initial pressure. 
 
 242 x 500 X 38 
 
 Diameter Shaft = 1.04 \l - = 11.75' 
 
 7500 
 
 2 4 Cycle Diesel Engines running in parallel at 150 R. P. M. 
 with single Reduction Gear <to one Main Shaft running at 85 R. P. M. 
 Ratio of gearing 1.75 .to 1, single impulses. 
 
 8 Cylinders, 17" X 27", 500 Ibs. initial pressure. 
 
 The two engines form pratically one 16 Cylinder Engine. The 
 twisting movement given under the root sign under 7 is to be multi- 
 plied by the gear ratio so that 
 
 3|- D-' x P X S X 1.75 
 
 Diameter Shaft = constant \ Constant for 16 
 
 7500 Cylinders. 
 
 Four Cycle is 1.1. 
 
 172 X 500 X 27 X 175 
 
 Diameter Shaft =\| -=10.6" 
 
 7500 
 
46 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 Engines with smaller cylinders running at higher revolutions 
 and having consequently a greater gear ratio will 'have line shafts in 
 diameter than the above- engine. 
 
 (Note: Aforementioned formulas are from "Compilations by 
 Joseph Heckimg, Technical Staff, American Bureau of Shipping). 
 
 Strength of Seams: 
 
 P equals pitch; 
 
 D equals diameter of rivets; 
 
 T equals thickness of plates in inches; 
 
 A equals area of rivets; 
 
 N equals No. of rows. 
 
 (a) P D >| ( 
 
 -- \ x 100 equals! Percen ^ of strength of rivets as 
 
 " compared with the solid plate. 
 
 Percentage of strength of rivets as 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 v m 
 
 X i 
 
 X 100 
 
 1 compared with the solid plate. 
 
 Engine Formula: (Slow-speed heavy duty types) 
 
 The 'stroke equals the mean diameter of cylinders. 
 D divided by 10 equals diameter of piston rod; 
 D divided by 14 equals diameter of piston rod at bottom of thread. 
 D divided by 20 equals diameter of connecting rod bolts (2). 
 
 D X stroke 
 - zz: diameter of crankshaft journals. 
 
 D x S 
 
 = diameter of tunnel shaft journal. 
 
 10 
 
 p = pressure in cylinder 
 
 L = length of stroke 
 
 A = area of cylinder 
 
 N = number of revolutions per minute 
 
 C = num'ber of cylinders 
 
 For single acting two-cycle type, which has one impulse for each 
 revolution, use the following formula: 
 
 PLAN 
 I. H. P. = - 
 
 33000 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 47 
 
 For four-cycle, which has an impulse on alternate strokes, use 
 the following formula: 
 
 PLAN 
 
 I. H. P. = 
 
 2 x 33000 
 
 Note: Above formulas give horse-power of one cylinder. To 
 ascertain the horse-power on multi-cylinder engines, multiply by number 
 of cylinders. 
 
 Formulas for Brake Horse-power: 
 
 CLAN 
 For two-stroke cycle engine B. H. P. = 
 
 750 
 CLAN 
 
 For four-stroke cycle engine B. H. P. = 
 
 1000 
 
 Or by following: (Four-cycle engine single acting) 
 
 P X s X n 
 
 N = 
 
 880 
 
 In the case of the two-cycle engine, single acting: 
 
 P X s X n 
 
 N = 
 
 500 
 Where 
 
 N = B. H. P. 
 
 n = revolutions per minute 
 P = piston area in sq. in. 
 s = piston <atroke in feet. 
 
 Estimated Indicated Horse Power Formula: 
 
 Values for the accuracy of the engine performance can be given 
 only when indicator cards are taken. Indicated Horse Power is equal 
 toPXLXAXN-r- 33,000, 
 
 where 
 
 P = mean effective pressure in pounds per square inch on 
 
 the piston; 
 
 L = length of piston stroke in feet; 
 A = area of piston in square inches; 
 N = number of working strokes /per minute; 
 33,000 = number of foot pounds of energy expended per 
 
 minute to make one horse power. 
 
48 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 Mean effective pressure should be measured on indicator cards by 
 an average planimeter. Mean effective pressure between exhaust and 
 suction strokes in a four-cycle engine means a thermo-dynamic loss 
 of energy from the piston. It should be deducted from the mean 
 effective pressure between compression and working strokes before 
 computing net power. 
 
 Ratio of Air Supplied to Air Used Formula: 
 Following formula may be applied: 
 
 N 
 R (ratio) = 
 
 N (3.8X0) 
 wherein 
 
 N = per cent of nitrogen in the exhaust gases: 
 O = per cent of oxygen in the* exhausit gases 
 3.8 = the approximate ratio of nitrogen to oxygen in 
 fresh air. 
 
 All these quantities refer to volumes of gases with all saturated 
 properties eliminated. The per cent of nitrogen is assumed equal 
 to the difference between 100% and the total carbon dioxide and exygen. 
 oxygen. 
 
 Thermal efficiency of Engine, Fuel to Piston Formula: 
 
 E (efficiency) = B. t. u. equivalent of net indicated power per 
 hour -r- B. t. u. supplied in fuel per hour. (The B. t. u. equivalent of 
 one-horse-power-hour is taken as 2545, which corresponds to 778 foot- 
 pounds as the equivalent of one British thermal unit.) 
 
 B. t. u. in Brake Horse Power per Hour Formula: 
 
 The B. t. u. in brake horse power per hour = brake horse power 
 X 2545. 
 
 B. t. u. in Jacket Cooling Water per Hour Formula: 
 
 The B. t. u. in jacket cooling water per hour = pounds of water 
 flowing per hour X temperature rise in degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 B. t. u. in Cylinder Water per Hour Formula: 
 
 The B. t. u. in cylinder waiter per hour = pounds of water fed 
 per hour y^ B. t. u. absorbed by one pound of water. B. t. u. per pound 
 of water is made up of three parts, assumed as follows: 
 
 One B. t. u. is absorbed for each degree (F.) rise up to 212 
 Fahrenheit. As the water is turned into heated condition from cold, 
 970 B. t. u. are absorbed. For each degree of heat above 212 F. 
 then added, up to temperature of exhaust gases, 0.48 B. t. u. is absorbed. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 49 
 
 This method is not scientifically accurate because of pressures 
 other than atmospheric imposed uipon heat in the exhaust and its 
 consequential vapor, however the difference is negligible in general cal- 
 culation. 
 
 To Find the Pitch of Propeller in Practical Way: 
 
 A simple way to find the pitch of a propeller is as follows: 
 At some place on the blades of every propeller (there will be a place 
 that is at an angle of 45 degrees to the center line of the shaft. 
 Secure a 45 degree (draftsman's) triangle and find the place on one of 
 the blades where it can be applied. Next measure the diameter of the 
 propeller at the place where you 'have applied the 45 degree triangle, 
 and, finally, multiply that diameter, measured in feet, by 3.1416 and 
 that gives, directly, the pitch in feet. For all practical purposes, 
 this is the average pitch of the propeller. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that you ihave a propeller that measures 
 over the tips of the blades, 8 feet; also, that .the place where the 
 angle of the blade is at 45 degrees with 'the center line of the shaft is, 
 we will say, at 4 feet diameter, or 2 feet from the center of the bore 
 of the propeller, which is the same thing. Then, following the rule 
 given above, we have: 
 
 3.1416 X 4 = 12.5664 feet, pitch, average of that propeller. 
 
 How to Find the Decimal Part of a Mile that a Propeller Will Advance 
 in One Revolution, or the Constant of a Propeller, that When Multi- 
 plied by the Number of Revolutions in a Given Time, Will Give the 
 Distance the Propeller Has Advanced (hence also the ship) in the 
 Same Time: 
 
 A nautical mile is said to be 6080 feet; or it may, for expla- 
 natory purposes, be stated thus: 
 
 1 mile (nautical) = 6080 feet. 
 
 Any number of feet less than 6,080 will first be stated like this, 
 when it is desired to convert into decimals of a mile: 
 
 Example: 
 
 Find the velocity of water in feet per second, in two discharge 
 pipes, one %" and the other 3"; also the difference in velocity. 
 Diameter of water end of jpump is 4 inches, stroke 12 inches, 60 
 strokes per minute and piston rod 1%" in diameter. 
 Solution: 
 
 4 X .7854 12.5664 sq. in., area of cylinder head; 
 
 \y 2 X .7854 = 1.7671 sq. in., area of piston rod; 
 
 12.5664 1.7671 2 = 11.6829 sq. in. to good, per stroke; 
 
 11.6829 X 12 X 60 = 8411.688 cu. in. water delivered per min. 
 
 4% X .7854 = 15.9043 sq. in., area of 4^ in. pipe; 
 
 8411.688 15.9043 X 60 X 12 = .734 ft. per second; 
 
50 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 3 X .7854 = 7.0686 sq. in., area of 3" pipe; 
 
 8411.688 7.0686 X 60 X 12 = 1.652 fit. per sec. in 3" pipe; 
 
 1.652 .734 = .918 ft. per second, difference in velocity. 
 
 Revolution Calculation: 
 
 At 10:00 A. M. the counter reads 956780, at 10:50 you set the 
 clock back 10 minutes, what will the counter read at 11:00 A. M. 
 if .the engines are making 332 R. P. M.? 
 
 Solution: From 10:00 A. M. to 11:00 A. M. is 60 minutes, to 
 which imust >be added the 10 minutes the clock was set back as the 
 engine has actually to run 70 minutes before 11:00 A. M. If the engine, 
 or engines, are making 332 R. P. M. for 70 minutes it will be 332 X 70 = 
 23240 R. P. M. 
 
 Then: 956780 H- 23240 980020 reading at 11:00 A. M. 
 
 STANDARD TESTS APPLIED TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION 
 MACHINERY 
 
 Brake Horse Power: 
 
 The determination of brake horse power is the same for internal 
 combustion engines as for steam driven engines. 
 
 Measurement of Heat-Units Consumed by Engine: 
 
 The number of heat units used is found by multiplying the number 
 of pounds of oil or the cubic feet of gas consumed by the total heat of 
 combustion of the fuel as determined by the calorimeter test. 
 
 In establishing the total heat of combustion no deduction is made 
 for the latent heat of the water vapor in the products of combustion. 
 
 Measurement of Jacket-Water to Cylinder or Cylinders: 
 
 In measuring the jacket-water the method of passing it through a 
 water meter, or to have it flowing from a measuring tank on its dis- 
 charge, is reliable. 
 
 Indicated Horse-Power: 
 
 Accurate tests made to establish the Indicated Horse-Power must be 
 in a manner that no possible reaction can occur to engine, by unneces- 
 sary bends in exhaust piping. All connection necessary should be, if 
 possible, to the cylinder head. The use of Steam Indicators in connec- 
 tion with test should be avoided and special types employed manufac- 
 tured for Internal Combustion Engines. 
 
 Standards for Economy and Efficiencies: 
 
 Comparison tests between steam and Internal Combustion Engines 
 require actual generating processes employed for either prime mover. 
 It is imperative to confine the actual losses incurred by either engine 
 through its respective method of heat energy produced. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 51 
 
 Thermal Efficiency: 
 
 In determining bhe thermal efficiency ratio per Indicated Horse- 
 Power or per brake horse-power for internal combustion engines, the 
 following formula may be used, expressed by fractions: 
 
 2545 
 
 B. T. U. per H. P. per hour 
 
 Dimensions: 
 
 It is recommended that following procedure be taken, in establish- 
 ing accurate tests of engine: Take the dimensions of the cylinder or 
 cylinders whether already known or not. The proper time to ascertain 
 this is while the cylinder or cylinders are hot and in working order. 
 In case where wear is shown, determine the average. Also measure the 
 compression space or clearance volume, which should be done, if prac- 
 ticable, by filling the spaces with water previously measured, the proper 
 correction being made for the temperature. 
 
 Fuel: 
 
 The fuel used for the test should be specified and the correct high- 
 est calorific value for fuel used known, to determine the maximum 
 efficiency of engine. 
 
 METRIC CONVERSION TABLE 
 (SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS) 
 
 Millimetre X .03937 = Inches. 
 Millimetres X 25.4 = Inches. 
 Centimetres X .3937 = Inches. 
 Centimetres -r- 2.54 Inches. 
 Metres X 39.37 = Inches. 
 Metres X 3.281 = Feet. 
 Metres X 1.094 = Yards. 
 Kilometres X .621 = Miles. 
 Kilometres -r- 1.6093 = Miles. 
 Kilometres X 3280.7 Feet. 
 Square Millimetres X .0155 Sq. Inches. 
 Square Millimetres -f- 645.1 = Sq. Inches. 
 Square Centimetres X .155 = Sq. Inches. 
 Square Centimetres -=- 6.451 = Sq. Inches. 
 Square Metres X 10.764 = Sq. Feet. 
 Square Kilometres X 247.1 = Acres. 
 Cubic Centimetres -f- 16.383 = Cu. Inches. 
 Cubic Centimeters -r- 3.69 = Fluid Drachms. 
 
52 MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 Cubic Centimetres -4- 29.57 = Fluid Ounces. 
 
 Hectare X 2.471 = Acres. 
 
 Cubic Metres X 35.315 = Cubic Feet. 
 
 Cubic Metres X 1.308 = Cubic Yards. 
 
 Cubic Metres X 264.2 Gallons (231 Cu. Ins.) 
 
 Litres X 61.022 = Cubic Inches. 
 
 Litres X 33.84 = Fluid Ounces. 
 
 Litres X .2642 = Gallons (231 Cu. Ins.) 
 
 Litres -=- 3.78 == Gallons (231 Cu. Ins.) 
 
 Litres -=- 28.316 = Cubic Feet. 
 
 Hectolitres X 3.531 = Cubic Feet. 
 
 Hectolitres X 2. 84 = Bushels (2150.42 Cu. Ins.) 
 
 Hectolitres X .131 = Cubic. Yards. 
 
 Hectolitres -f- 26.42 = Gallons (231 Cu. Ins.) 
 
 Grammes X 15.432 = Grains. 
 
 Grammes -4- 981 = Dynes. 
 
 Grammes (Water) -*- 29.57 = Fluid Ounces. 
 
 Grammes -=- 28.35 = Ounces Avoirdupois. 
 
 Grammes Per Cu. Cent, -i- 27.7 Lbs. Per Cu. Ins. 
 
 Joule X .7373 = Foot Pounds. 
 
 Kilogrammes X 2.2046 = Pounds. 
 
 Kilogrammes X 35.3 = Ounces Avoirdupois. 
 
 Kilogrammes -i- 1102.3 = Tons (2000 Lbs.) 
 
 Kilogrammes Per Sq. Cent. X 14.223 = Lbs. Per Sq. Inch. 
 
 Kilogrammes Metres X 7.233 = Foot Pounds. 
 
 Kilo Per Metre X .672 Lbs. Per Foot. 
 
 Kilo Per Cu. Metre X .026 Lbs. Per Cu. Foot. 
 
 Kilo Per Cheval X 2.235 = Lbs. Per H. P. 
 
 Kilo-Watts X 1.34 = Horse Power. 
 
 Watts -i- 746. = Horse (Power. 
 
 Watts -f- .7373 = Foot Lbs. Per Second. 
 
 Calorie X 3.968 = B. T. U. 
 
 Cheval Vapeur X 3.968 = Horse Power. 
 
 (Centigrade X 1.8) + 32 = Degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Gravity Paris = 980.94 Centimetres Per Sec. 
 
 POWER EQUIVALENTS. 
 One Horse Power Is Equal to: 
 
 1,980,000 foot pounds per hour 
 
 33,000 foot pounds per minute 
 
 550 .__foot pounds per second 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS 
 
 273,740 kilogram metres per hour 
 
 4.562.3 kilogram metres per minute 
 
 76.04 kilogram metres per second 
 
 2,552 British Thermal Unit per hour 
 
 42.53 British Thermal Unit per minute 
 
 0.709 British Thermal Unit per second 
 
 0.746 Kilowatt 
 
 746 Watts 
 
 One Kilowatt Is Equal to: 
 
 2,654,400 foot pounds per hour 
 
 44,239 foot pounds per minute 
 
 737.3 foot pounds per second 
 
 366,970 kilogram metres per hour 
 
 6,116.2 kilogram metres per minute 
 
 101.94 kilogram metres per second 
 
 3.438.4 British Thermal Unit per hour 
 
 57.30 British Thermal Unit per minute 
 
 0.955 British Thermal Unit per minute 
 
 1,000 Watts 
 
 1.34 horse power 
 
 One Watt Is Equal to: 
 
 2,654.4 foot pounds per hour 
 
 44.239 foot pounds per minute 
 
 0.737 foot pounds per second 
 
 366.97 kilogram meters per hour 
 
 6.12 kilogram metres per minute 
 
 0.102 kilogram metres per second 
 
 3.4384 British Thermal Unit per hour 
 
 0.0573 British Thermal Unit per minute 
 
 0.000955 ____British Thermal Unit per second 
 
 0.001 Kilowatt 
 
 0.001.340.6 Horse power 
 
 One Foot Pound Is Equal to: 
 
 0.0000003767 Kilowatt per hour 
 
 0.0000226 Kilowatt per minute 
 
 0.001356 Kilowatt per second 
 
 0.000000506 Horse Power per hour 
 
 0.0000303 Horse Power per minute 
 
 0.001818 Horse Power per second 
 
 0.0003767 Watt per hour 
 
 0.0226 Watt per minute 
 
 1.356 Watt per second 
 
 One Foot Pound Is Equal to: 
 
 1.3325 Kilogram metres 
 
 0.001288 .-British Thermal Uni f . 
 
 53 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 It must be admitted that great progress has been made of late 
 to standardize Diesel machinery on same basis as found to day among 
 steam driven engines. In fact, a similar plan will be adopted as time 
 advances. It is true, that mechanical contrivances covered by numer- 
 ous patents are held in many instances the most vital part in operation. 
 It is also true, that the same condition existed a number of years 
 ago when steam machinery was in its pioneer days. 
 
 By careful observation in pratical performance engineers were 
 enabled to find methods of better results in steam engineering. Even 
 the most insignificant defects were found to be worthy of consider- 
 ation. The result was the standardization of reciprocating steam 
 machinery. So it is to-day a fact, that in this respect a standard 
 in construction was made possible and very little difference exists 
 in this type of machine. 
 
 The same was accomplished with the Internal Explosion Engine, 
 or such machinery 'receiving their power stroke by impulse of explo- 
 sion such as the gasoline driven engine. As will be observed, the 
 prevailing principle is identical in every respect. In either the 
 two-stroke cycle or engines following the principle of four-stroke 
 cycle the relative identity in construction has been accomplished. 
 While manufacturers in some instant adhering to the overhead-valve, 
 T-head cylinder or L-head type, etc., nevertheless there is a prevail- 
 ing standard governing the system as a whole. It will be acknowledged, 
 that in this type of engine construction a great deal of improvement 
 will be accomplished, but the laws established will remain. 
 
 This, of course, would be impossible in the case of Diesels. 
 Problems of reversing of Diesel engines and fuel injection processes 
 might easily find solution. Valve arrangements necessary to reverse 
 the power plant depends a great deal on future development. The usual 
 procedure in accomplishing this is by cam operation. In most cases 
 there are levers by which cams are operated causing the opening of 
 its respective ports. 
 
 In most engines of marine and stationary types, horizontal 
 cam-action is extensively employed. In this case, where two sets of 
 cams performing the purpose of the alteration, cams are generally 
 directly in conjunction with shaft. Opening of valves is thereby 
 accomplished in the movement of the shaft in longitudinal direction. 
 In some cases independent cam arrangements are favored by builders. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 55 
 
 The methods of fuel injection is a subject which can be solved 
 and ultimately will have to be considered. Arguments in favor 
 of Solid Injection as opposed to Air Injection is merely a matter 
 of opinion. Both systems have proven satisfactory and the fuel con- 
 sumption may be considered nearly on an equal. The principal reason 
 advanced against the use of Air Injection, may be expressed through the 
 necessity of compressor equipment in the case of the latter system 
 
 Compressor installation is imperative. Even with the employ- 
 ment of solid injection provision must <be made to supply air for 
 starting purposes. There are commendable features in the use of solid 
 injection, but not important enough to make this method exclusive in 
 adoption. 
 
 Cross-sectional view of Nordberg Diesel Engine. 
 
 In this type, similar to the Busch-Sulzer Engine, 
 
 a true representation of two-cycle principle of 
 
 construction is to be found. 
 
56 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP DIESEL OPERATION 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 57 
 
 In the comparison between the two-cycle and four cycle type 
 the primary difference will be found in the arrangement of valves and 
 the requirement of the scavenging pump on the two-cycle engine. 
 
 Added mechanism, such as valves, etc., necessitates added ex- 
 penses on the four-cycle than on two-cycle construction. These again 
 are matters which after carefully going in detail are not seriously 
 acting against this type of construction. 
 
 The introduction of two-cycle double acting engines appears 
 not to meet with favor in .the United States. There is no question as 
 to the advantages of this class of machine. It may well be stated 
 that the two-cycle double acting engine is a machine of high merits 
 owing to its enormous developing of power. In economy it has no equal. 
 It differs inasmuch as each stroke is a working stroke. The distribu- 
 tion of power in its general arrangement of cylinders gives an exer- 
 tion of double action through construction of seperate cylinders re- 
 ceiving its imipulse through seperate inlet valves above and below. 
 
 The reason for lack of interest in this type of construction in 
 the United States, may be found in the fact that a tendency exists 
 in the adoption of large types of engines with the simplest mech- 
 anism. This theory is indisiputably the best. An engine built to 
 perform work should be constructed of good material and all neces- 
 sary complicated mechanism eliminated. 
 
 The cycle of operation governing Diesels is exceedingly simple, 
 being based on two natural laws ' 
 
 First Air compressed in a closed cylinder will develop heat 
 in proportion to the degree and character of compression. 
 
 Second Any product of petroleum designated in trade as crude 
 or fuels oils, if properly atomized, will ignite spontaneously when in- 
 jected in a cylinder of compressed air, whose temperature has been 
 raised above the fire test of the fuel. 
 
 The Diesel engine differs from a gas engine from the fact that 
 it is a constant pressure engine. That is, the injection of fuel into 
 the cylinder is timed and controlled to maintain constant pressure 
 during its introduction, while in a gas engine a constant volume of 
 mixture is taken into the cylinder and after compressing same to a 
 safe limit (about 70 Ibs.) the mixture is ignited by some auxiliary 
 mechanism and the pressure instantly rises in the nature of an explo- 
 sion to a degree depending on the volume of the mixture. 
 
 Now while the terminal pressures are about the same in both 
 types of engines, the efficiency of the Diesel is twice that of the 
 gas engine due to compressing a non-explosion fluid to a high tem- 
 perature before injecting the fuel, then controlling this injection 
 so that combustion continues for a pre-determined time, varying with 
 the load, before expansion begins. 
 
 This process enables the Diesel to maintain a much higher mean 
 effective pressure with a corresponding greater horse power for 
 the same cylinder dimensions, 
 
58 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 Four-cycle Type (Nelseco). 
 
PRINCIPLES OP DIESEL OPERATION 59 
 
 In, addition to the high thermal efficiency of the Diesel engine, 
 a great commercial advantage is obtained from, the fact that the 
 cycle or method of ignition permits the use of a cheap, low-grade 
 fuels of high heat value; and it has been demonstrated that all 
 petroleums products, either crude or refined, obtained anywhere, can 
 be burned with high economy and certainty in the same engine, by 
 merely changing some minor adjustment of the fuel injection mech- 
 anism. 
 
 The designation of the cycle implies that the work in the cylin- 
 der is accomplished in two-cycle engine in two strokes, or a power 
 stroke every full revolution and in the four-cycle engine the work 
 is accomplished in four strokes of 'the piston, or two revolutions 
 of the engine. 
 
 When defining the action of power development on a four-cycle 
 engine following procedure occurs: The first downward stroke draws 
 into the cylinder pure air only at atmospheric pressure and temperature. 
 
 The second stroke compresses this air to about 450 to 600 Ibs., 
 per square inch and increases its temperature to about from 1000 
 Fahrenheit up to 1150 F. depending upon the design. 
 
 On the third or second downward stroke, a pre-determined 
 amount of fuel, which has been delivered to the fuel valve by the 
 pumps on the air admission stroke of the engine, is forced into 
 the cylinder by means of air compressed to a higher pressure than 
 that of the air in the cylinders. The fuel is ignited by the heat 
 of the compressed cylinder charge and by expansion drives the piston 
 downward. 
 
 The fourth or second upward stroke drives the spent gases 
 out of the cylinders. 
 
 It will be noted that while the sequence of the strokes forming 
 this cycle is similar to that of the gas engine, the functions per- 
 formed during the cycle (except on the exhaust stroke) are entirely 
 different. 
 
 On the first stroke, by taking into the cylinder pure air only, 
 we are enabled to compress this charge sufficiently to secure a very 
 high temperature, which would be impossible with a charge of gas 
 mixture, because of liability to pre-ignition. 
 
 This high temperature secured allows the use of cheap, low- 
 grade fuels of high fire test, without risk of explosion, and increases 
 both the thermal and commercial efficiency of the engine. 
 
 On the third stroke the fuel can be introduced under absolute 
 control as to timing and quantity, maintaining a constant pressure in 
 the cylinder for a period depending on the work required from the 
 cylinder at that moment. The use of compressed air for injection, 
 where this system is used, thoroughly atomizes the fuel and prepares 
 it for instant firing as introduced. 
 
60 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 As stated above, this combustion is not in any sense an ex- 
 plosion, but takes place during a well-defined, pre-determined portion 
 of the power stroke and at constant pressure, and because of the 
 nature of its introduction into the cylinder and the large volume of 
 pure air into which it is forced, the combustion is perfect within 
 the range of cylinder power rating, hence the high thermal efficiency 
 of the Diesel cycle on low grade fuels. 
 
 The foregoing description of the engine and its cycle is, of course, 
 general in character intended to cover the principles around which 
 the physical construction is assembled. 
 
 The method of starting by compressed air is to cause air pressure 
 through the medium of independent compressors on larger engines 
 or in some instances direct connected compressors in smaller types, 
 to be exerted through the assistance of a starting valve on the 
 pistons. 
 
 The process in starting engines differs somewhat, depending 
 upon the general construction. The usual proceeding is to bring the 
 starting lever in its starting position. In doing so, the lever actuat- 
 ing the fuel valve is brought in a non-operating position. In this 
 state the fuel valve remains closed in its first operation. 
 
 Uniform operation depend* greatly on accurate func- 
 tioning of valve-arrangement actuated ~by cams. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 61 
 
 The starting valve in performing its function when opened, to 
 admit air to either cylinder, the engine begins to turn. When the 
 piston ^passes its dead center a charge of oil is allowed to enter into 
 the cylinder causing a volume of gas to be established in the com- 
 bustion chamber. 
 
 Illustration demonstrating "Interior Action" of Furl 
 being brought in contact with heat temperature. 
 
 It is advisable to allow the engine to turn over several revolu- 
 tions by air to cause a uniform heating to be created. This has 
 the effect of causing an almost immediate combustion to take place 
 when the starting handle is brought in the respective position, allowing 
 the fuel valve to operate by its own mechanism. 
 
 The starting reservoir having for its object the storing of 
 air for starting purposes should be filled to its full capacity before 
 starting of engine. The fuel valve, which is pumped up by hand before 
 
62 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 commencing the operation of the engine, and its pipe connections should 
 be protperly filled with oil. 
 
 At all times make sure that a full supply of air is on hand for 
 the operation of the fuel valve. 
 
 Proper operation of engine will be the result when following instruc- 
 tions are carefully considered: (1) Examine fuel tanks; (2) See that 
 the lubrication system is properly functioning; (3) Test the oil pump; 
 (4) Test the water pump; (5) See that all connections are tight; (6) 
 See that the compressor is in proper working condition; (7). Watch all 
 gauges; (8) See that seacock is open (on marine work); (9) Examine 
 all piping; (10) 'Go carefully over all parts of the mechanism and 
 examine all nuts; (11) Try all levers; (12) If on marine work, make 
 sure that the Annunciator is in proper operation. 
 
 , The functions of the cams may be explained 
 
 in brief as mechanical arrangements, having for 
 their object the regulation of exact time re- 
 quired in opening of valves, relative to the posi- 
 tion of the piston, causing a regular functioning 
 in general operation. 
 
 In the action of the four-cycle engine it is 
 understood that 'each valve is required to open 
 in two revolutions, it follows then that the cam 
 shaft must rotate at half the speed of the crank- 
 s-haft. 
 
 The cam operating the fuel valve performs its 
 function in corresponding period to the piston 
 stroke, depending upon established condition. The 
 exhaust valve cam in its relation to the working 
 stroke, allows the valve to stay open during the 
 entire stroke and again allows the exhaust valve 
 to close after the top dead center has been reached. 
 The admission of air is accomplished by the 
 valve being kept oipen admitting the air during 
 the downward stroke and again closes after the 
 crank passes the bottom dead center. 
 
 The action of the starting valve cam causes 
 
 ::.,'j^ 
 
 Starting Valve oj 
 
 Carels type used the valve to open before the top dead center has 
 on Nordberg been reached and closing the same before the 
 
 Diesels. 
 
 end "of the stroke. 
 
 INJECTION OF FUEL. 
 
 It will be noted, when studying the different methods of fuel-in- 
 jection, that considerable difference in design are to be found. While 
 the trend appears to be towards the solid injection system, nevertheless, 
 mechanical injection is prevalent. It must be acknowledged that there 
 are soone advantages in the use of solid injection. In particular the 
 elimination of air as the primary factor in forcing the oil into its 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 63 
 
 receptacle. It is true, that the> compressor is a part of the engine 
 room equipment, Imperative as an auxiliary machine. A Diesel plant 
 without the provisioncy of air for starting purposes must be dismissed. 
 Definition of Fuel Valves: Generally speaking, there are two 
 types of valves employed in the various Diesel engines, namely the 
 closed nozzle and the open nozzle valves. While on vertical tyipes of 
 Diesels the closed nozzle is principally used, owing to the structural 
 reasons, the open nozzle is prevalent on horizontal engines. 
 
 
 In the "Open Nozzle" Spray Valve, as adopted by the Snow Oil En- 
 gines, the charges are consumed with accurate delivery, 
 irrespective of load-variation. 
 
 Open Nozzle Fuel Valve: This particular type of valve, or pro- 
 perly speaking, nozzle, is designed to -act as a receptacle wherein a 
 needle valve controls the flow of air to the atomizer tip. This needle 
 valve automatically opens to allow the uniform distribution of oil to 
 exist, depending in its operation toy iproper actuation of either a cam 
 device or in some types on rocker arm arrangement. A small cavity 
 is interposed between the- valve and the cylinder, in some cases an 
 enlargement of the passage to the cylinder, allowing the fuel to be 
 deposited. 
 
 Inasmuch, as the fuel pump depends in its entirety on the proper 
 governing to conform with the desired quantity necessary to keep the 
 engine in regularity supplied, the needle valve performs its function 
 of opening and closing at regular intervals. When opening this valve 
 allows the air at the proper time from the compressor to enter, sweep- 
 ing the oil charge along and carrying it into the cylinder. As the oil 
 enters the extreme end of the nozzle, it is swirled by the force of air 
 through a set of perforated disks, serving to break up the oil into par- 
 ticles while entering the combustion chamber. 
 
 Interior Action of Fuel Coming in Contact With High Temper- 
 atures: The existing high temperature in the combustion chamber of 
 a normal value corresponding to 550 Ibs. compression pressure should 
 be at least 1000 deigree Fahrenheit x when the engine is on its com- 
 mencement. The usual temperature on a well designed engine when 
 in proper working order and during operation may be well above 1400 
 
6. PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 degrees Fahrenheit. Modern engines are well protected against leak- 
 ages, and rarely any loss of efficiency is due to this defect so fre- 
 quent on older types. With the proper timing of the fuel injection 
 valve very little trouble will be experienced, it should be realized, 
 that the change of oil, varying in specific gravities, necessitates a 
 icareful observation and often requires the retiming of valves. Again 
 trouble may be experienced by "air-pockets" in the fuel oil, caus- 
 ing the lack of proper flow, which incidentally causes serious neg- 
 lect in proper functioning of oil distribution into the cylinder. Water 
 in oil causes carbonizing and dangerously effects the efficiency of cyl- 
 inder performances. 
 
 Closed Nozzle Fuel Valve: This type has been used on earlier Die- 
 sels. The advantages in employing the closed valve is, if it may be con- 
 sidered an advantage, that it deposits the oil in a receptacle entirely 
 isolated from the influence of the hot compressed air in the cylinder. 
 While in this construction the oil in reality enters the cylinder ahead 
 
 Cross-sectional vieiv of Busch-Sulzcr characteristic Fuel-Injection Sys- 
 tem. Note air-distribution. 
 
 of the air, ignites and very often endangers the efficiency of cylinder 
 performances by entering without being thoroughly atomized. This is 
 principally due on account of the initial charge entering under some- 
 what lower pressure, preventing a thorough breaking up of the fuel oil. 
 To overcome this detrimental defective existency, the employment of 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 65 
 
 higher air pressure becomes imperative. The fuel valve, differing but 
 little from the open-nozzle type, with the exception that the needle 
 valve is located below the cavity in which the atomizing takes place 
 and as, in similarity to the open-nozzle valve in direct connection with 
 the air line. Owing to its construction, by which the fuel oil pump 
 direct delivers the oil towards the oil chamber, the pressure necessary 
 in the a.ir line is usually no less than 900 Ibs., per square inch. When 
 the compression pressure is in the cylinder somewhat around from 
 500 to 550 Ibs., per square inch the needle valve opens and allows the 
 charge to enter. All other performances, such as the breaking uip of the 
 oil are similar to the open-nozzle type. 
 
 Timing of Valves: Timing of valves is not very difficult as some 
 novices on Diesel machinery are apt to 'believe. We will first take up 
 the two-stroke cycle, which by nature of construction is the simplest 
 engine. 
 
 Valve Settings of Simple Port Scavenging Two-Cycle 
 Engine. 
 
 Timing Two-cycle Engine: The two-cycle engine exerts a "power- 
 stroke" every revolution. Unlike the four-cycle itype, using valves in its 
 entirety, the two-cycle engine eliminates the air inlet stroke and the 
 exhaust stroke and employs ports near the bottom of the cylinder lin- 
 er, through which the burnt gases are driven by a current of air. 
 
66 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 The entering of the air into the cylinders differs in the various 
 types of two-cycles. In some engines it enters by valves in the cylinder 
 head and others again by ports similar and opposite the exhaust ports, 
 and covered and uncovered by the piston. The fuel valve opens in 
 most cases at 5 degrees before the top center and closes at 42 degrees 
 over the top center. Expansion occurs until the crank reaches a point 
 about 40 degrees from the bottom center. At this period the piston 
 uncovers the exhaust ports near the bottom of the cylinder, allowing 
 the products of combustion to escape. About 10 degrees later the air 
 inlet valves, or scavenging valves, open, through which air is blown 
 into the cylinder, cleaning out the remaining burnt gases, and in con- 
 sequence leaving the cylinder full of pure air. At 40 degrees over the 
 bottom center the exhaust ports are closed by the piston on its up- 
 ward stroke, and about 20 degrees later the scavenging valves close. 
 At this period compression of air begins, receiving the fuel at 5 de- 
 grees before top center. 
 
 TIMING DIAGRAMS 
 
 Fig. A. 
 
 It will l)e noted that in Figure A, 
 pertaining to timing of four-cycle 
 engine, that the fuel admission (a 
 part of the cycle performance), cor- 
 responds with the actual require- 
 ment of engine performances, vary- 
 ing in load capacities. 
 
 Fig. B. 
 
 On the two-cycle diagram, Figure 
 B, the timing must correspond with 
 features demanded in two-cycle 
 operation, carrying with it scav- 
 enging performances, again depend- 
 ing mainly on load variations. 
 
 Timing Four-cycle Engine: While it is claimed that the four-cycle 
 Diesel engine operates on the Otto cycle, nevertheless the cycle per- 
 formances of the Diesel engine may well be considered a peculiar and 
 'most distinctive exclusive cycle of its own. The Diesel engine is a 
 "constant pressure" engine and entirely separate in this respect from 
 any other prime-mover. We will -go over the actual performances of 
 the four-cycle engine and follow its operation: All internal combus- 
 tion engines depending for their maintenance upon four basic prin- 
 ciples of performances, namely, (1) Admission, (2) Compression, (3) 
 Power or Working Stroke, and (4) Exhaust. It is true, that there 
 are two more when scavenging performances are to be considered. 
 
PRINCIPLES OP DIESEL OPERATION 67 
 
 And it is correct to add to ithose four basic principles, in particular on 
 two-cycle performances (5) Air intake for scavenging, and (6) scaveng- 
 ing performances. But we are primarily interested in the four standard 
 principles of operation. Let us carefully consider each (performance. 
 
 First: On the first downward stroke of the ycle air is drawn from 
 the outside source into the cylinder through the air-inlet valve. 
 
 Second: On its upward stroke the air being compressed to the uni- 
 versally known figure of about 500 pounds per square inch. This com- 
 pression pressure raises the temperature of the air to about 1000 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Shortly before the end of the stroke, fuel oil is injected into 
 the place, known as the combustion chamber. This place is identi- 
 cal with the clearance space of a steam cylinder, namely, the space be- 
 tween the piston face and the cylinder head. Piston (on the vertical) 
 being on its upward stroke, and on the horizontal on the outward stroke. 
 This oil, now coming in direct contact with the existing high temperature, 
 begins to burn causing the combustible substance which follows the 
 laws of least resistance, which, being exerted against the piston, causes 
 the reciprocation with the consequential results of revolution of the 
 engine. 
 
 Third: As previously explained, the number three stroke is the 
 most important, the power or working stroke. The fuel on the commence- 
 ment of this stroke is cut off at about 1/10 of the stroke, combustion 
 having taken place, with the expansion, which follows near the end 
 of the stroke, the exhaust valve opens. 
 
 Fourth: This stroke merely causes the burned gases to be ex- 
 pelled, after which the cycle of operations is repeated. 
 
 We will now follow the actual work taking place during the power 
 generation. Inasmuch as the four-cycle engine, gives two revolutions 
 of the crank, or four strokes to a cycle, the power exertion of founcyfcle 
 engines is a power stroke every second revolution. In most engines the 
 air inlet valve opens 20 degrees before the top center, and closes 16 
 degrees after bottom center, giving a total angular opening of 216 de- 
 grees of the crank. Immediately after the air inlet valve is closed, the 
 air is compressed until a point about 5 degrees before the top center 
 is reached. Admission of fuel now commences, continuing until the 
 crank is 40 degrees over top center, giving the fuel valve an angular 
 opening of 45 degrees. 
 
 As the gases expand, forcing the piston down until 34 degrees before 
 the bottom "enter, the exhaust valve opens and the products of com- 
 bustion are released and then expelled by the fourth stroke, or the up- 
 ward stroke, of the piston. The exhaust valve closing 11 degrees after 
 the top center. 
 
 Mechanical Timing of Valves: To accurately ascertain the mech- 
 anical timing arrangement of valves, it is best to time each cylinder in 
 rotation. Begin to time the exhaust and admission valve on front 
 cylinder and, when all marks have been properly made, corresponding 
 
68 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 to the flywheel, follow the exact measurement on eac'i corresponding 
 cylinder. 
 
 To establish the flywheel 'position, bringing it in the proportional 
 requirement corresponding to upper dead center of the crank should be the 
 first step. The valve cages can then be removed, and the distance from 
 the surface of the cylinder head to the piston, establishing the clear- 
 ance, can be properly determined. When this has 'been established 
 mark flywheel. If trammel is used, be careful in finding the retangular 
 advance of the crank on its upward stroke, by which the numerical 
 opening and closing of each valve gives an accurate idea. A steel 
 tape may be used to bring the opening of exhaust valve to a point of 
 correctness. Since the timing given is in degrees, the value must be 
 transformed into inches on the flywheel circle. 
 
 The exhaust cam rocker must be firmly brought in contact both with 
 the cam and with the valve stem. After the mark on the top dead cen- 
 ter of crank ha/5 been thoroughly established, turn engine over at least 
 12 degrees to make positive that the correct seating of valve has been 
 accomplished. If undue valve checking is experienced, the operator 
 should carefully examine the setting. If the irregularity does not ex- 
 ceed a few inches on trammel mark on flywheel, the clearance between the 
 valve rocker and the cam .may be adjusted bringing the setting back to 
 the stated values. To the man inexperienced it is best to allow a little 
 clearance, adjusting the cam on earlier or later cut off, after being thor- 
 oughly convinced that the exhaust charges show an excessive smoke. At 
 all times follow the exact routine in following manner: The exhaust 
 opening of number 1 will be set; the admission closing of a second 
 cylinder will be checked. It will be noted, that in case any irregularity 
 exists, the fault may be detected by a peculiar pounding in the cylinder 
 after engine is in motion. On marine engines, valves should be> pro- 
 perly adjusted and all care taken that the tightness of the same are 
 accomplished. 
 
 It is necessary in operation of Diesels that the injection air pres- 
 sure 'be altered to conform to load changes. It is clear that with load 
 changes the time during which the fuel is injected should also vary. 
 On low loads the amount of fuel oil is small and will be entirely blown into 
 the cylinder long before the valve closes. The balance of this period of 
 valve opening is taking up with the injection4iigh-<pressure air. All 
 these calculations are imperative in successful operation and requires 
 careful observation. 
 
 Cleaning Valves: To maintain efficiency and avoidance of break- 
 downs, the inspection of valves must be made a matter of routine work. 
 At least every month each valve and cage should be given a thorough 
 overhauling. Spare parts should be at hand and a reserve set of valves 
 should never be neglected. When the old valves are taken off the engine 
 and substituted by a reserve valve, it should be taken apart and in- 
 spected. Keeping foreign matter from settling, around the seats and 
 springs by giving them a bath in gasoline is imperative. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 Occasional grinding of valves becomes necessary. In particular in 
 cases where the fuel contains high percentages of asphalt or sulphur. 
 Corrosion and pitting are primary causes of leakage. Chemical action 
 of the exhaust gases rapidly deterriorates the material with increased 
 faulty action of the entire unit. Every part, no matter how insignifi- 
 cant is in harmony with the plant, and the neglect of even the smallest 
 parts of the engine, may cause serious breakdowns. 
 
 Valve Spindle. 
 
 Sprayer. 
 
 Timing of Fuel Valves: The timing of fuel valves depends a great 
 deal on the particular make. While different designs are forthcoming 
 as Diesel machinery progresses, nevertheless the common procedure is 
 as follows: Turn engine over until it passes the desired mark of fuel 
 valve opening. The air line valve is "cracked," at about 75 pounds air 
 pressure on the fuel valve. The engine now being turned over slowly 
 until the trammel cuts the mark on the flywheel signifying opening. 
 At this time the injection valve should start to open, which may be 
 evidenced by the sound of injection air blowing into the cylinder. The 
 decrease or increase of valve opening, may "be adjusted on the rocker 
 arm clearance, depending upon the desired position of the valve arrange- 
 ment. When the engine is brought to its proper position corresponding 
 
70 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 to fuel valve adjustment, it should be noticed by the ceasing of es- 
 caping air. To bring the adjustment in accurate desired valve operation, 
 it will be found necessary to turn the engine back after the -point of 
 "cut-off" has been determined. Bring the engine back ahead of the 
 valve opening mark and shift the cam nose to produce the required 
 opening with the roller clearance in correct position. To ascertain 
 the correct setting after the checking has been performed, it is re- 
 commended to give the engine several turns. It will be noticed that 
 the difference in adjustment of either early or late may be caused by 
 shifting the nose back or forth as the case may be, which will have an 
 effect on the roller clearance, tending to 'bring the valve to its desired 
 correctness. 
 
 The equipping of Fuel Valve Timing Control, adopted by Standard 
 firms, such as the Busch-Sulzer, Nordberg-Manufacturing Company, etc. 
 by which the alteration of injections automatically takes place, elimi- 
 nates a great deal of complications found on the usual types. 
 
 TENSILE STRENGTHS OF MATERIALS 
 Cast and Rolled Metals. 
 Pounds per Square Inch. 
 
 Aluminum, Cast 15,000 
 
 Aluminum, Bars 28,000 
 
 Brass, Cast, Yellow 27,000 
 
 Brass, Rod 55,000 
 
 1" and below.. __62,000 
 
 Brass, Rolled, Naval . 
 
 Above 1" to 2^" 60,000 
 
 Bronze, Cast, Steam 30.000-36,000 
 
 Bronze, Cast, Manganese 65,000 
 
 f 1" and below 72,000 
 
 Bronze, Rolled Manganese.- 
 
 L Above 1" 70,000 
 
 Bronze, Cast, Phosphor 30,000-40,000 
 
 (y 2 " and below 80,000 
 
 Bronze, Rolled, Phosphor J A'bove y 2 " to 1" 60,000 
 
 [Above 1" 55,000 
 
 TLighit castings 18,000 
 
 Iron, Cast, Grey J Medium castings 21,000 
 
 [Heavy eastings 24,000 
 
 Iron, Malleable 40,000 
 
 Iron, Wrought (Shapes.. 48,000 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 71 
 
 Lead, Cast 1,600- 2,400 
 
 Monel, Cast 65,000 
 
 fl" and below 84,000 
 
 Monel, Rolled _ ._J Above 1" to 2^" j 80,000 
 
 L Above 2^" 75,OOG 
 
 Nickel, Cast ; 85,000 
 
 Nickel, Rolled 96,000 
 
 ("Hard 80,000 
 
 Steel, Cast J Medium 70,000 
 
 [soft 60,000 
 
 Steel Forgings 75,000-90,000 
 
 Steel, 3.5% Nickel 100,000-105,000 
 
 Tin, Cast 4,000-5,000 
 
 Zinc, Cast _ 4,000- 6,000 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 
 
 (Stresses in Thousands of Pounds) 
 
 Metals and Alloya 
 
 Aluminum, cast 
 Copper, cast 
 Brass, 17% Zn 
 
 Brass, cast, common 18-24 
 
 Bronze, 8% Sn 
 
 Lead, cast 
 
 Tin, cast 3.5-4.6 
 
 Zinc, cast 
 Steel, cast, soft 
 Steel, cast, medium 
 Steel, cast, hard 
 
 Cast Iron, common 15-18 
 
 Nickel Steel, plate 85-100 
 
 Wrought Iron, plate 
 Gold, cast 
 Silver, cast _ 
 
 Tension 
 Ultimate 
 
 Elastic ( 
 Limit 
 
 Compression 
 Ultimate 
 
 Modulus of 
 Elasticity 
 Pounds 
 
 15 
 
 6.5 
 
 12 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 25 
 32.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.2 
 
 40 
 42 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 18-24 
 
 6.0 
 
 30 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 28.5 
 
 19.0 
 
 42 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 3.5-4.6 
 
 1.5-1.8 
 
 6 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4-6 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 60 
 
 27 
 
 tensile 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 70 
 
 31.5 
 
 tensile 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 80 
 
 36 
 
 tensile 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 15-18 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 85-100 
 
 50 
 
 tensile 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 48 
 20 
 
 26 
 4 
 
 tensile 
 
 28,000,000 
 8,000,000 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
72 PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 
 
 EXPANSION OF PIPES 
 
 The linear expansion and contraction of pipe, due to differences of 
 temperature of the fluid carried and the surrounding air, must be cared 
 for by isuitable expansion joints or bends. 
 
 In order to determine the amount of expansion or contraction in a 
 pipe line, following table demonstrates the increase in length of a pipe 
 100 feet long at various temperatures. 
 
 The expansion for any length of pipe may be found by taking the 
 diference in increased length at the minimum and maximum tempera- 
 tures, dividing by 100 and multiplying by the length of the line under 
 consideration. 
 
 Expansion of Pipe 
 
 Increase in Length Inches per 100 Feet. 
 
 Temperatures, Wrought Cast Brass and 
 
 Degrees F. Steel Iron Iron Copper 
 
 0000 
 
 20 .__ .15 .15 .10 .25 
 
 40 ___ .30 .30 .26 .45 
 
 60 _ ___ .45 .45 .40 .65 
 
 80 .60 .60 .55 .90 
 
 100 ___ .75 .80 .70 1.15 
 
 120 .90 .95 .85 1.40 
 
 140 ___ 1.10 1.15 1.00 1.65 
 
 160 1.25 1.35 1.15 1.90 
 
 180 1.45 1.50 1.30 2.15 
 
 200 ___ 1.60 1.65 1.50 2.40 
 
 220 _ 1.80 1.85 1.65 2.65 
 
 240 2.00 2.05 1.80 2.90 
 
 260 ___ 2.15 2.20 1.95 3.15 
 
 280 ___ 2.35 2.40 2.15 3.45 
 
 300 2.50 2.60 2.35 3.75 
 
 320 2.70 2.80 2.50 4.05 
 
 340 __.. 2.90 3.05 2.70 4.35 
 
 360 3.05 3.25 2.90 4.65 
 
 380 3.25 3.45 3.10 4.95 
 
 400 3.45 3.65 3.30 5.25 
 
 420 3.70 3.90 3.50 5.60 
 
 440 3.95 4.20 3.75 5.95 
 
 460 _ ___ 4.20 4.45 4.00 6.30 
 
 480 4.45 4.70 4.25 6.65 
 
 500 ___ 4.70 4.90" 4.45 7.05 
 
 520 '___ 4.95 5.15 4.70 7.45 
 
 540 ___ 5.20 5.40 4.95 7.85 
 
 560 - ___ 5.45 5.70 5.20 8.25 
 
 580 ___ 5.70 6.00 5.45 8.65 
 
 600 . _ 6.00 6.25 5.70 9.05 
 
PRINCIPLES OF DIESEL OPERATION 73 
 
 Temperatures, Wrought Cast Brass and 
 
 Degrees F. . Steel Iron Iron Copper 
 
 620 6.30 6.55 5.95 9.50 
 
 640 6.55 6.85 6.25 9.95 
 
 660 _ --- 6.90 7.20 6.55 10.40 
 
 680 7.20 7.50 6.85 10.95 
 
 700 7.50 7.85 7.15 11.40 
 
 720 7.80 8.20 7.45 11.90 
 
 740 ___ 8.20 8.55 7.80 12.40 
 
 760 ___ 8.55 8.90 8.15 12.95 
 
 780 ___ 8.95 9.30 8.50 13.50 
 
 800 . - 9.30 9.75 8.90 14.10 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 SPECIFIC HEAT 
 
 Bodies vary greatly in the capacity which they possess for absorb- 
 ing heat under equal changes in temperature. The relation which thus 
 exists between them is expressed by the "specific heat," which may be 
 defined ais the quantity of heat necessary to be imparted to a given body 
 in order to raise its temperature one degree relatively to the quantity 
 that is required to raise through one degree an equal weight of water 
 from its point of greater density at 39.1. Thus, for instance, one pound 
 of air at constant pressure may be raised through one degree by the 
 expenditure of only 0.2375 of the heat necessary to raise one pound of 
 water through one degree; or, what amounts to the same, the amount 
 of heat expended to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one 
 degree (would heat 1/0.2375 = 4.2105 pounds of air through the same 
 increment. 
 
 As; the specific heat of water is greater than that of any other 
 known substance, the specific heat of all other substances must of neces- 
 sity be expressed in decimals. 
 
 Water does not absorb heat exactly in proportion to its increase in 
 temperature; in other words, the specific heat of water varies with the 
 temperature, as is rendered evident in the following table. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 Water is universally adopted as the standard 'by which the relative 
 weight of all liquids and solids are determined, this relation being ex- 
 pressed iby\ the term of "sipecific gravity." The specific gravity of a 
 body, therefore, indicates its weight as compared with that of an equal 
 body in the form of volume of pure water, determinations of specific 
 gravity are generally referred to the weight of one cubic foot of water 
 at 62 degrees Fahrenheit. At the more important temperatures the 
 weight is as follows : 
 
 Weight of one cubic foot of pure water: 
 
 At 32 degrees F. (freezing point) 62.418 Ibs. 
 
 " 39.1 " " (maximum temperature) 62.425 " 
 
 " 62 " " (standard temperature) 62.355 " 
 
 " 212 " " (boiling point under atmospheric 
 
 pressure 59.760 " 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 75 
 
 For general purposes the weight of water is taken in round num- 
 bers as 62.5 pounds per cubic foot. In bulk, water is usually measured 
 by the gallon, the volume of which is 231 cubic inches (the British 
 gallon contains 277.274 cubic inches), or 0.134 cubic feet. A gallon of 
 water at 62 degrees, therefore, weighs slightly over 8 and 1/3 pounds, 
 and 7.48 gallons equal one cubic foot. 
 
 PRESSURE OF WATER 
 
 From the weight of water at the standard 'temperature of 62 de- 
 grees, its pressure upon any exposed surface may be readily determined 
 for any given depth or head. The weight of one cubic foot at the above 
 temperature being 62.355 Ibs., it is evident that for a head of one foot 
 
 62.355 
 
 the pressure must be 62.355 Ibs. per square foot, and = 0.433 Ibs. 
 
 144 
 
 per square inch; and, further, that a pressure of one pound per square 
 
 1 
 
 inch will be produced by a head of - = 2.309 feet. 
 
 0.433 
 
 OIL MEASUREMENTS 
 
 For the calculation of evaporative results, fuel used for power, heat 
 value, etc., units of weights are employed, i. e., the pound, kilo, etc. 
 (1 kilo = 2.204 'pounds avoirdupois); but for measurements of bunkers, 
 cargo tanks and in general sales contracts, the oil is figured by volume. 
 Thus, in the United States, the usual units are the United States gallon 
 (231 cubic inches = 3.785 litres) and the barrel of 42 gallons. 
 
 The litre and the Imperial gallon (4.54 litres) are used abroad, 
 where the barrel is figured at 41 Imperial gallons (50 United States 
 gallons). The Imperial gallon equals about 1.2 United States gallons. 
 Even some of American oil ifirms favor the Imperial barrel (50 United 
 States gallons) as a matter of convenience, -but 42 gallons is the ac- 
 cepted standard. 
 
 For .statistical purposes, the ton (2,240 pounds) and the "metric 
 ton" or 1,000 kilos (2,204 pounds) are frequently used. 
 
 Volumetric measurement of oil should always be based on a standard 
 temperature, the usual figures in this country being 62 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. The United States Navy Department specifies 60 degrees Fahren- 
 heit and a correction of 0.4 of 1% is made for each degree variation 
 from this standard. 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT 
 
 The mechanical unit of work is the "foot-pound," or the work re- 
 quired to raise one pound through the distance of one foot. The me- 
 
76 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 chanical theory of heat regards heat as a mode of motion, an investiga- 
 tion has shown that there exists a definite relation between these two 
 forms of energy, which is known as the "mechanical equivalent" of heat. 
 That is, if, as in the experiments of Joule, a certain known amount of 
 mechanical energy is expended (as by falling of a weight) to operate 
 paddles in a vessel of water, the increase in temperature of the water, 
 due to agitation by the paddles, will always 'be found to be proportional 
 to the work done. 
 
 This relation or proportion is universally expressed by the amount 
 of work necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water 
 through one degree Fahrenheit. The latest experimental determinations 
 of Rowland show it to be practically 778 foot-pounds. 
 
 % HEAT OF COMBUSTION: 
 
 As determined by the most recent and refined calorimetric tests, 
 the heat of combustion, as measured by the number of B. T. u.'s that 
 are given out upon the combustion of one pound of a given substance, 
 is for each of the following: 
 
 Carbon burned to CO-' 14,650 B. T. U. 
 
 Carbon burned to CO 4,400 B. T. U. 
 
 Hydrogen burned to CO 62,100 B. T. U. 
 
 Marsh Gas burned to CO 23,513 B. T. U. 
 
 Olefiant Gas burned to CO 21.343 B. T. U. 
 
 Carbonic Oxide burned to CO-' _ __4,393 B. T. U. 
 
 BEAUME HYDROMETER SCALES 
 
 Various arbitrary scales of equal parts have been proposed for 
 hydrometers. Of these scales those of Beaume are most extensively 
 used. Beaumes scale for heavy liquids is constructed by locating the 
 water mark (near the top of the stem) and the mark to which the in- 
 strument sinks in a 15% solution of salt. The apace between these 
 marks is divided into ten equal parts, and division of like sizes are 
 continued up the stem. 
 
 These divisions are numbered upwards from the salt solution mark. 
 A liquid is said to have a specific gravity of 17 degree Beaume "light", 
 when the hydrometer sinks in it to mark number seventeen on this 
 scale. 
 
 THE CALORIMETER 
 
 The apparatus employed in the measurment of the heat of vapo- 
 rization is a calorimeter, containing a hollow spiral and inner recept- 
 acle. Vapor is sent into the spiral, where it is condensed, and the 
 liquid thus produced gathers in the receiver, whence it is subse- 
 quently removed and weighed. The liquid heated in the vessel, whence 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 77 
 
 the vapor passes through the inner tube to the spiral. Here it con- 
 denses, warming the surrounding water of the calorimeter and is col- 
 lected in the receptacle. 
 
 VISCOSIMETRY 
 
 The term viscosity represents the internal friction of an oil; it 
 is the opposite of fluidity. It is usually determined by noting the time 
 in seconds required for a definite quantity of oil to flow through cylin- 
 drical or conical openings, approximately 0.50 to 0.75 in. in length and 
 0.01 in. in diameter. The name or type of instrument used and the tem- 
 perature should always be given in expressing viscosities numerically. 
 
 The viscosities of two oils can be roughly compared as follows: 
 Two sample bottles containing the oils are held side by side and in- 
 verted. The oil that drops from its bottle first has a lower v'scosity than 
 the other oil. Another crude method of comparing viscosities is to shake 
 the sample bottles of the oils and then to note the rise through the oils 
 of approximately equal size air bubble. The faster the movement of the 
 bubble, the lower the viscosity of the oil. 
 
 A rough quantitive comparison can be obtained by filling a clean 
 pipette with about 10 cu. cm. of the oil and counting the seconds re- 
 quired for the oil to flow from one mark on the upper stem of the pipette 
 to another mark on the lower stem. Thereupon the pipette is cleaned 
 with ether, dried, filled with the second oil and the experiment repeated. 
 If the time of flow in seconds for one oil is one-half that of the other, 
 the first oil has roughly one-half the viscosity, provided the temperatures 
 of both oils during the test are the same. In order to 'be sure that both 
 oils are at the same temperatures, they should be placed in beakers and 
 left to stand side by side on a table for about one hour before the test 
 is made. 
 
 For accurate results practical viscosimeters must 'be used. These 
 instruments combine ruggedness of construction with rapidity of opera- 
 tion and work on the principle of permitting a small quantity of the 
 liquid to flow through an orifice and noting the time of efflux. 
 
 Among the instruments in commercial use are the Engler Viscosi- 
 meter, which is specified for U. S. Navy fuel oil tests and is the stand- 
 ard instrument in Germany; the Sayboldt Universal Viscosimeter which 
 is in general use in the United States; and the Redwood Viscosimeter, 
 the standard instrument in England. These will now toe briefly des- 
 cribed. 
 
 Engler Viscosimeter: The Engler Viscosimeter consists of. a cylin- 
 drical oil chamber provided with a concave bottom in the center of 
 v/hich is a conical orifice, 20 mm. (0.78 in.) in length and 2.9 mm. (0.114 
 in.) in diameter at the top of the orifice. This diameter tapers to 2.8 mm. 
 (0.110 in.) at the bottom of the orifice. For standard work, the orifice 
 is made of platinum, but ordinarily brass is used. The oil chamber is 
 covered with an asbestos lagged lid. 
 
 A plug valve made of hard wood is used as stopper for the orifice. 
 
78 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 The oil chamber is made of brass and on the inside is provided with three 
 studs in a horizontal plane. These studs serve both to indicate the 
 proper oil level and to assist in leveling the instrument. 
 
 Surrounding the oil chamber is a water bath. Water is used for 
 temperatures up to about 120 Fahr. (about 50 C.) Above this tempera- 
 ture a heavy mineral oil is used instead of the water. The bath is heated 
 by means of a ring gas burner. 
 
 Immediately below the oil tube outlet is a measuring flask graduated 
 for 100 and 200 cu. cm, (6.1 and 12.2 cu. in. ). 
 
 The method of use is as follows: 200 cu. cm. of water at 68 Fahr. 
 (20 Gels.) are permitted to flow through the orifice and the time in 
 seconds is counted. In the standard instrument this is 50 to 53 seconds. 
 Thereupon the oil chamber is rinsed with alcohol, then ether, and finally 
 dried. 200 cu. cm. of oil are introduced and brought -to the proper tem- 
 perature. Before introducing the oil, it should, be strained in order to 
 remove foreign particles, dirt and water. The oil is then allowed to 
 flow through the orifice, and the time of flow noted. Suppose this is 
 360 seconds at 122 Fahr. (50 C.) and that the time of flow for 200 
 cu. cm. of water at 68 F. (20 C.) is 53 seconds, then: 
 
 Engler viscosity at 
 
 360 
 
 122 Fahr. (50 C.) = - - = 6.8 
 
 53 
 
 If the oil had been tested at 302 Fahr. (150 Gels.) and the time 
 noted as 90 sec., the viscosity would be: 
 
 Engler viscosity at 
 
 90 
 
 302 Fahr. (150 Gels.) = - - 1.7 
 
 53 
 
 In other words, with this instrument, a 'specific vicosity, which of 
 course is a purely arbitrary number, is obtained by dividing the time in 
 seconds required for 200 cu. con. of oil at any temperature to flow through 
 the orifice 'by the time in seconds required for 200 cu. cm. of water at 
 68 Fahr. (20 Gels.) to flow through the same orifice. 
 
 50 cu. cm. or 100 cu. cm. are frequently employed instead of 200 
 cu. cm. However, the times of flow must then be multiplied by 5 and 
 2.35 respectively in order to obtain results concordant with those deter- 
 mined in the ordinary way. 
 
 Redwood Viscosi meter: The 'Redwood Viscoslmeter consists of a 
 cylindrical oil chamber of 1 7/8 in. internal diameter and 3 1/2 in. depth. 
 The oil chamber is made of copper, silvered on the inside and has a 
 slightly concave bottom in the center of which is an agate jet or orifice 
 13 mm. (0.47 in.) in length and 1.7 mm. (0.067 in.) in diameter. 
 
 Surrounding the oil cylinder is the bath container made of copper 
 and usually filled with water for temperature up to 200 Fahr. F"or higher 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 79 
 
 temperatures, a heavy mineral oil is used. The bath is provided with a 
 copper heating tube set at a 45 angle and heated by a suitable gas burner. 
 Uniform temperature is maintained in the 'bath by means of agitators or 
 stirrers consisting of four light metal vanes fastened to a thin copper 
 tube revolving around the oil chamber. The upper /part of this copper 
 tube has a broad curved flange which prevents the bath liquid from 
 splashing into the oil chamber. The agitators are revolved by means of 
 a handle. 
 
 The temperatures of both the oil and bath are determined by means 
 of suitable thermometers suspended. The oil chamber stopper is a brass 
 sphere which fits nicely into a hemispherical cavity in the agate jet. 
 The brass ball is suspended by a wire. 
 
 A bracket gage or pointed stud determines the initial head of oil 
 in the oil chamber and can be adjusted slightly in order to correct for 
 variations in time of flow between different instruments due to unavoid- 
 able differences in the dimensions of the agate jets of Redwood Viscosi- 
 meters. A determination is made by bringing the oil and bath to the 
 proper temperature, raising the ball valve and noting the time in seconds 
 for 50 cu. cm. of the oil to pass through the jet. The viscosity is found 
 as follows: 
 
 Redwood viscosity at 
 
 T X D X 100 
 X P. = - 
 
 535 X 0.915 
 
 in which 
 
 T = the time in seconds required for 50 cu. cm. of oil at X F. to 
 flow through the orifice. 
 
 D = the specific gravity of the oil at X F. 
 
 535 = the time in seconds required for 50 cu. cm, of refined raipe- 
 seed oil at 60 Fahr. to flow through the orifice. 
 
 0.915 = the specific gravity of rape-seed oil at 60 Fahr. referred 
 to water at 60 Fahr. as unity. 
 
 For water, the rate of flow of 50 cu. cm. at 60 F. is about 25.5 
 seconds. Before being used in the instrument, the oil should be strained 
 through a fine wire gauze or piece of muslin. 
 
 Sayboldt Viscosimeter: With the exception of two glass windows 
 in the bath container and a glass tube in the pipette, the Sayboldt Vis- 
 cosimeter is made entirely of metal. The oil chamber or cylinder has 
 about 83 cu. cm. (5.05 cu. in.) capacity and the upper portion of the 
 cylinder is perforated by a ring of small holes through which excess oil 
 flows into a fixed gallery. 
 
 The jet in the bottom of the cylindrical oil chamber consists of an 
 outside metal tube within which is a glass tube. At the bottom of this 
 tube is the orifice, 9 mm. (0.354 in.) in length and 1.6 mm. (0.063 in.) 
 in internal diameter. On the outside of the metal tube is a flange which 
 
80 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 is secured by screws to a flange on a short tube soldered to the bottom 
 of the bath container. 
 
 Thermomters are provided for measuring the temperatures of the oil 
 and the 'bath. The viscosity is determined by noting the time in seconds 
 required for 60 cu. cm. of liquid to flow through the orifice. For water 
 at 70 Fahr. this is 30 sec. in a standard instrument. 
 
 'Sayboldt viscosity tests are generally made at the following tem- 
 peratures : 
 
 210 Fahrenheit for valve oils. 
 
 100 Fahrenheit for machine oils. 
 
 100 Fahrenheit for motor oils used in internal combustion engines. 
 
 Sayboldt viscosities may be converted into Engler and Redwood 
 viscosities, and also into readings of other instruments by means of the 
 factors given in following table: 
 
 FACTORS TO REDUCE SAYBOLDT TIMES TO READINGS IN OTHER 
 
 INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Viscosimeter 70 F. 100 F. 212 F. 338 F. 
 
 McMichael 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 
 
 Sayboldt "A" 0.50 1.00 
 
 Sayboldt "C" 0.46 0.72 
 
 Engler 0.035 0.030 0.028 0.027 
 
 Tagliabue 0.25 0.28 0.51 
 
 Penn. R. R. Pipett 0.30 0.47 0.51 0.94 
 
 Scott ', 0.13 0.13 
 
 Redwood 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.90 
 
 Magruder Plunger ___ 1.25 1.04 2.00 
 
 Ostwald 1.90 1.85 1.68 1.30 
 
 To proceed now, if the Sayboldt viscosity of an oil at 100 F. 
 is 100 sec., the Redwood viscosity is found by multiplying this by 0.85, 
 thereby giving 85 as the Redwood viscosity at 100 F. similarly, the 
 Kngler number is found by multiplying the Sayboldt viscosity by 0.03, giv- 
 ing 3.0 as the Engler number at 100 F. These conversion factors 
 are not exact, as they vary greatly with the actual viscosities, and are 
 merely given here to demonstrate the existing differences in actual re- 
 sults. 
 
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES 
 
 When a liquid and its vapor confined in a vessel are heated, 
 a portion of the liquid vaporizes, the pressure increases, the density of 
 the vapor increases, and the density of the liquid decreases. When a 
 certain temperature is reached, the -density of the liquid and of the vapor 
 become identical, and the vapor 1 and the liquid are physically identical. 
 This temperature is called "critical temperature" of the liquid. 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 81 
 
 The heat of vaporization of a liquid is less, the higher the tem- 
 perature (and pressure) at which the vaporisation takes place, and 
 becomes zero at 'the critical temperature. For example: 
 
 The heat of vaporization of water is 606.5 at degree, 539.9 at 
 100 degree, and 464.3 at 200 degree. 
 
 In the following tables the critical temperatures of certain sub- 
 stances are given: 
 
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS 
 
 Deg. C. Deg. C. 
 
 Alcohol (ethyl) 240 Methane (CH*) 81 
 
 Ammonia (NH3) 130 Nitrogen 146 
 
 Benzol 280 Nitrous oxide (N-'O) 35.4 
 
 Bromine 302 Oxygen 118 
 
 Carbon monoxide (CO) 141 Sulphuretted hydrogen (IPS) 100 
 
 Carbon dioxide (CO-') 31 Sulphur dioxide (SQ2) 156 
 
 Chlorine 141 Turpentine oil 376 
 
 Chloroform 260 Water 365 
 
 HEATING FUEL OIL 
 
 Fuel oil is generally preheated in order to reduce the viscosity and 
 therefore to assist the atomization of the oil in oil injection devices. 
 There is no practical gain in heating the oil above the temperature cor- 
 responding to a viscosity for which the atomizers produce efficient ato- 
 mization. This viscosity usually is 8 Engler. In the case of the more 
 viscous oils, care should be taken that the oil is not heated above the 
 flashpoint. Unless leaks in the oil lines are guarded against? excessive 
 preheating to reduce the viscosity would be dangerous expedient. A 
 temperature of 300 F. is frequently sufficient for fine atomization of the 
 heaviest oils and for their complete and perfect combustion in the engine. 
 
 For proper atomization, the oil should be preheated to the tem- 
 perature given in following table: 
 
 PREHEATING TEMPERATURE FOR FUEL OIL 
 
 Degree Baume Specific Gravity 60/60 p.* Temp. Degr. F. 
 12.0 0.9859 300 
 
 16.0 0.9589 250 
 
 20.0 0.9333 200 
 
 Note: * Indicates that the specific gravity of the oil at 60 Fahrenheit 
 is referred to water at 60 Fahrenheit as unity. 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 DENSITY AND VISCOSITY OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERA- 
 TURES 
 
 Experiments by Stanton on the flow of, air through pipes of 5 and 
 7.4 centimeters diameter show that for exact similarity of distribution of 
 velocity over the cross-section of the pipe the center velocities should 
 be inversely proportional to the pipe diameters, that is, that the ratio 
 of average velocity to center velocity will be the same in two pipes 
 of different diameters if this condition be satisfied. A comparison by 
 E. Buckingham of the experiments by Stanton and by Saph and Schroder 
 on flow through brass tubes indicates that to secure similar flow condi- 
 tions with fluids of different densities and viscosities the velocities and 
 diameters should be so selected as to satisfy the equation: 
 
 V a d 
 
 = a constant 
 
 in which V is the central velocity, a radius of the pipe, d the density 
 of the fluid, and m the coefficient of viscosity. The density and viscosity 
 of water at different temperatures are given in the following table: 
 
 Temp. 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 100 
 110 
 120 
 
 
 Coefficient 
 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Viscosity 
 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Dynes per 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Sq. Cm. 
 
 
 62.42 
 
 .0179 
 
 130 
 
 62.42 
 
 .0155 
 
 140 
 
 62.41 
 
 .0131 
 
 150 
 
 62.37 
 
 .0112 
 
 160 
 
 62.31 
 
 .0097 
 
 170 
 
 62.23 
 
 .0086 
 
 180 
 
 2.13 
 
 .0077 
 
 190 
 
 62.02 
 
 .0068 
 
 200 
 
 61.89 
 
 .0062 
 
 210 
 
 61.74 
 
 .0056 
 
 
 
 Coefficient 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Viscosity 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Dynes per 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Sq. Cm. 
 
 61.56 
 
 .0051 
 
 61.37 
 
 .0047 
 
 61.18 
 
 .0043 
 
 60.98 
 
 .0040 
 
 60.77 
 
 .0037 
 
 60.55 
 
 .0035 
 
 60.32 
 
 .0032 
 
 60.07 
 
 .0030 
 
 59.82 
 
 .0028 
 
 UNIT OF HEAT 
 
 The quantity measure of heat is the thermal unit. The British 
 thermal unit (as distinguished from the French thermal unit, or calorie) 
 is that quantity of heat which is required to raise the temperature 
 of one pound of pure water through one degree Fahrenheit, at or near 
 39.1 Fahrenheit, the temperature of maximum density of water. As 
 employed in general practice, the term is usually abbreviated to 
 "B. T. U." 
 
 The relation existing between the temperature of water in degrees 
 Fahrenheit and the number of thermal units contained therein, together 
 with the increase in the number of thermal units for each increment 
 of temperature of 5 degrees, is indicated in following table. 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 83 
 
 NUMBER OF THERMAL UNITS CONTAINED IN ONE POUND OF 
 
 WATER 
 
 Temp. 
 
 No of 
 
 
 Temp. 
 
 No of 
 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Thermal 
 
 Increase 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Thermal 
 
 Increase 
 
 P. 
 
 Units 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Units 
 
 
 as 
 
 35.000 
 
 
 
 215 
 
 215.939 
 
 5.065 
 
 40 
 
 40.001 
 
 5.001 
 
 220 
 
 221.007 
 
 5.068 
 
 45 
 
 45.002 
 
 5.001 
 
 225 
 
 226.078 
 
 5.071 
 
 50 
 
 60.003 
 
 5.001 
 
 230 
 
 231.153 
 
 5.075 
 
 55 
 
 55.006 
 
 5.003 
 
 235 
 
 236.232 
 
 5.079 
 
 60 
 
 60.009 
 
 5.003 
 
 240 
 
 241.313 
 
 5.081 
 
 65 
 
 65.014 
 
 5.005 
 
 245 
 
 246.398 
 
 5.085 
 
 70 
 
 70.020 
 
 5.006 
 
 250 
 
 251.487 
 
 5.089 
 
 75 
 
 75.027 
 
 5.007 
 
 255 
 
 256.579 
 
 5.092 
 
 80 
 
 80.036 
 
 5.009 
 
 260 
 
 261.674 
 
 5.095 
 
 85 
 
 85.045 
 
 5.009 
 
 265 
 
 266.774 
 
 5.100 
 
 90 
 
 <'90.055 
 
 5.010 
 
 270 
 
 271.878 
 
 5.104 
 
 95 
 
 95.067 
 
 5.012 
 
 275 
 
 276.985 
 
 5.107 
 
 100 . 
 
 100.080 
 
 5.013 
 
 280 
 
 282.095 
 
 5.110 
 
 105 
 
 105.095 
 
 5.015 
 
 285 
 
 287.210 
 
 5.115 
 
 110 
 
 110.110 
 
 5.015 
 
 290 
 
 292.329 
 
 5.119 
 
 115 
 
 115.129 
 
 5.019 
 
 295 
 
 297.452 
 
 5.123 
 
 120 
 
 120.149 
 
 5.020 
 
 300 
 
 302.580 
 
 5.128 
 
 125 
 
 125.169 
 
 5.020 
 
 305 
 
 307.712 
 
 5.132 
 
 130 
 
 130.192 
 
 5.023 
 
 310 
 
 312.848 
 
 5.136 
 
 135 
 
 135.217 
 
 5.025 
 
 315 
 
 317.988 
 
 5.140 
 
 140 
 
 140.245 
 
 5.028 
 
 320 
 
 323.134 
 
 5.146 
 
 145 
 
 145.175 
 
 5.030 
 
 325 
 
 328.284 
 
 5.150 
 
 150 
 
 0.50.305 
 
 5.030 
 
 330 
 
 333.438 
 
 5.154 
 
 155 
 
 155.339 
 
 5.034 
 
 335 
 
 338.596 
 
 5.158 
 
 160 
 
 160.374 
 
 5.035 
 
 340 
 
 343.750 
 
 5.163 
 
 165 
 
 165.413 
 
 5.039 
 
 345 
 
 348.927 
 
 5.168 
 
 170 
 
 170.453 
 
 5.040 
 
 350 
 
 354.101 
 
 5.174 
 
 175 
 
 175.497 
 
 5.044 
 
 355 
 
 359.280 
 
 5.179 
 
 180 
 
 180.542 
 
 5.045 
 
 360 
 
 364.464 
 
 5.184 
 
 185 
 
 185.591 
 
 5.049 
 
 365 
 
 369.653 
 
 5.189 
 
 190 
 
 190.643 
 
 5.052 
 
 370 
 
 374.846 
 
 5.193 
 
 195 
 
 195.697 
 
 5.054 
 
 375 
 
 380.044 
 
 5.198 
 
 200 
 
 200.753 
 
 5.056 
 
 380 
 
 385.247 
 
 5.203 
 
 205 
 
 205.813 
 
 5.060 
 
 385 
 
 390.456 
 
 5.209 
 
 210 
 
 210.874 
 
 5.061 
 
 390 
 
 395.672 
 
 5.216 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SEA WATER 
 
 Salt water is known to be a solvent of iron or steel, and when 
 brought to a stage of high heating temperature in the exhaust of Inter- 
 nal Combustion Engines, the magnesium chloride, about 250 grains of 
 which are contained in every gallon, becomes highly corrosive, 
 
84 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 TABLE OF SOLVING SUBSTANCES 
 
 Carbonate of lime 9.79 grains per gal. 
 
 Sulphate of lime 114.36 grains per gal. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesium 134.86 grains per gal. 
 
 Chloride of magnesium 244.46 grains per gal. 
 
 Chloride of sodium 1706.00 grains per gal. 
 
 Total solids 2209.47 grains per gal. 
 
 OFFICIAL TEMPERATURES AND CRITICAL PRESSURES 
 
 Critical Temperature Critical 
 
 - Pressures in 
 
 Substances C F Atmospheres 
 
 Alcohol 235 455 64 
 
 Ammonia (NH.^) 130 266 115 
 
 Corbon dioxide (COJ 31 88 73 
 
 Carbon disulphide CCS.,) 273 523 * 73 
 
 Ether I 195 383 36 
 
 Hydrogen 235 391 20 
 
 Nitrogen 146 231 33 
 
 Oxygen 118 180 50 
 
 Sulphur dioxide (SO.,) 155 311 79 
 
 Water 365 689 200 
 
 HYDROMETER SCALES 
 
 Barkometer Degrees = the first three figures of the decimal of the 
 corresponding sipecific gravity, thus: 
 
 1.008 specific gravity = 8 degrees Barkometer. 
 1.015 " " = 15 
 
 1.223 " " = 223 
 
 Twaddell Degrees = the first three figures of the decimal of the corre- 
 sponding specific gravity, divided by five, thus: 
 
 1.010 specific gravity 2 degrees Twaddell. 
 1.125 " " = 25 
 
 Densimetric Degrees = the first two figures of the decimal of the cor- 
 responding specific gravity, thus: 
 
 1.018 specific gravity = 1.8 degrees Densimetric. 
 1.234 " " = 23.4 
 
 Brix Degrees = sugar percentages = 1.8 Baume (about). 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 85 
 
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER 
 
 Specific Heat at 
 Temperature Given Temp. 
 
 Degrees F. Freezing Point 
 
 = 1 degree. 
 
 32 1.0000 
 
 50 . 1.0005 
 
 68 1.0012 
 
 86 1.0020 
 
 104 1.0030 
 
 122 1.0042 
 
 140 1.0056 
 
 158 . 1.0072 
 
 176 1.0089 
 
 194 _ 1.0109 
 
 212 . 1.0130 
 
 230 . 1.0153 
 
 Specific Heat at 
 Temperature Given Temp. 
 
 Degrees F. Freezing Point 
 
 = 1 -degree. 
 
 248 1.0177 
 
 266 1.0204 
 
 284 1.0252 
 
 302 1.0262 
 
 320 1.0294 
 
 338 1.0328 
 
 356 1.0364 
 
 374 . 1.0401 
 
 394 1.0440 
 
 410 . 1.0481 
 
 428 . 1.0524 
 
 446 . 1.0'568 
 
 (a) 
 
 (c) 
 
 "Tyco" Instruments (a) Draft Gauge, (&) High Pressure Thermometer. 
 (c) Vacuum Gauge, (d) Low Pressure Thermo Gauge. 
 
86 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 HOW A THERMOMETER IS GRADUATED 
 
 A mercurial tube is placed in melting ice, which is 'the temperature 
 at which water freezes or ice melts. Wheii the mercury has fallen to 
 its lowest point it is marked on the tube. Then it is placed in 'boiling 
 water under atmospheric pressure at sea level. When the mercurial 
 column reaches a certain height it remains there until taken out, this 
 point is marked. Now we have the freezing and boiling points and we 
 can graduate the thermometer either Centigrade (English Thermometer) 
 or Fahrenheit. 
 
 If we graduate it Fahrenheit, we will let the freeging point equal 32 
 and the boiling ipoint 212, then we have 212 32 = 180 between freez- 
 ing and boiling; then the space between 212 degrees and 32 degrees will 
 be equally divided into 180 parts, each part representing a degree. On 
 the Centigrade, we will let -equal the freezing point and 100 the boiling 
 point, then there is 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling point 
 on the Centigrade; then 1 degree of Fahrenheit is equal to 100 -r- 180, or 
 5/9 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit and Centigrade Thermometers 
 
 Everyone is familiar with the Fahrenheit Thermometer and its read- 
 ings, but comparatively few are familiar with the significance of the 
 Centigrade Scale. At the present time many of the heating instruments 
 are graduated to the Centigrade readings. To convert the readings from 
 one scale to the other, use 'the following rule: 
 
 Subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit, divide the remainder by 9 and 
 multiply by 5. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Convert 212 Fahrenheit to Centigrade equivalent. 
 Solution: 
 
 21232 = 180 
 180 -r- 9= 20 
 
 20 X 5 = 100 C., or the respective readings of the temparature 
 at which water boils. 
 
 To convert Centigrade to Fahrenheit readings, divide the Centigrade 
 readings by 5, multiply by 9 and add 32. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Convert 100 C. to Fahrenheit equivalent. 
 Solution: 
 
 100 -r- 5= 20 
 20 X 9 = 180 
 180 + 32 = 212 F. 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 87 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES IN DEGREES BEAUME: 
 LIQUIDS LIGHTER THAN WATER 
 
 Degree 
 Baume 
 
 10 ._ 
 
 11 __ 
 
 12 
 
 13 _ 
 
 Specific-, 
 Gravity 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.993 
 
 0.986 
 
 0.979 
 
 14 0.972 
 
 15 0.966 
 
 16 0.959 
 
 17 0.952 
 
 18 0.946 
 
 19 , 0.940 
 
 20 0.933 
 
 21 0.927 
 
 22 0.921 
 
 23 0.915 
 
 24 _ _ 0.909 
 
 Degree Specific 
 
 Baume Gravity 
 
 25 0.903 
 
 26 0.897 
 
 27 0.892 
 
 28 0.886 
 
 29 0.881 
 
 30 0.875 
 
 31 0.870 
 
 32 0.864 
 
 33 0.859 
 
 34 0.854 
 
 35 0.849 
 
 36 0.843 
 
 37 0.838 
 
 38 0.833 
 
 39 _ _ 0.828 
 
 Degree 
 Baume 
 
 40 _ 
 
 41 _. 
 
 42 _ 
 
 43 _ 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 . 0.824 
 0.819 
 . 0.814 
 . 0.805 
 
 46 0.796 
 
 48 0.787 
 
 50 , 0.778 
 
 52 0.769 
 
 54 0.761 
 
 56 0.753 
 
 58 0.745 
 
 60 0.737 
 
 65 0.718 
 
 70 0.700 
 
 75 _ _ 0.683 
 
 THE BEAUME SCALE: 
 
 The usual method of indicating the weight of crude oil for fuel ia 
 by the Beaume Scale. The numbers of this scale are given by the 
 formula : 
 
 140 
 
 Degree Beaume = - 130; where S. G. is the specific gravity, water 
 S.<G. being 1. 
 
 In the following table the specific gravity and weight iper gallon for 
 the different degrees on the Beaume scale are given: 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Specific 
 
 Beaume 
 
 UjS. Gallon 
 
 Gravity 
 
 10 
 
 8.336 
 
 1.000 
 
 11 
 
 8.277 
 
 .993 
 
 12 
 
 8.219 
 
 .986 
 
 13 
 
 8.161 
 
 .979 
 
 14 
 
 8.102 
 
 .972 
 
 15 
 
 8.052 
 
 .966 
 
 16 
 
 7.994 
 
 .959 
 
 17 
 
 7.935 
 
 .952 
 
 18 
 
 7.885 
 
 .946 
 
 19 
 
 7.835 
 
 .940 
 
 20 
 
 7.777 
 
 .933 
 
 21 
 
 7.727 
 
 .927 
 
 22 
 
 7.677 
 
 .921 
 
 23 
 
 7.627 
 
 .915 
 
 24 
 
 7.577 
 
 .909 
 
 25 
 
 7.527 
 
 .903 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Specific 
 
 Beaume 
 
 U,S. Gallon 
 
 Gravity 
 
 26 
 
 7.477 
 
 .897 
 
 27 
 
 7.435 
 
 .892 
 
 28 
 
 7.385 
 
 .886 
 
 29 
 
 7.344 
 
 .881 
 
 30 
 
 7.294 
 
 .875 
 
 31 
 
 7.252 
 
 .870 
 
 32 
 
 7.202 
 
 .864 
 
 33 
 
 7.160 
 
 .859 
 
 34 
 
 7.119 
 
 .854 
 
 35 
 
 7.069 
 
 .848 
 
 36 
 
 7.027 
 
 .843 
 
 37 
 
 6.985 
 
 .838 
 
 38 
 
 6.944 
 
 .833 
 
 39 
 
 6.902 
 
 .828 
 
 40 
 
 6.869 
 
 .824 
 
88 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES IN DEGREES BAUME AND TWADDLE. 
 LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER. 
 
 Hydrometer Reading 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Hydrometer 
 
 "Pl^vrv-M 
 
 Reading 
 ees 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 uegr 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 1.000 
 
 40 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.200 
 
 1 
 
 . .7 
 
 1.005 
 
 41 
 
 24.5 
 
 1.205 
 
 2 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.010 
 
 42 
 
 25.0 
 
 1.210 
 
 3 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.015 
 
 43 
 
 25.5 
 
 1.215 
 
 4 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.020 
 
 44 
 
 26.0 
 
 1.220 
 
 5 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.025 
 
 45 
 
 26.4 
 
 1.225 
 
 6 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.030 
 
 46 
 
 26.9 
 
 1.230 
 
 7 
 
 4.7 
 
 1.035 
 
 47 
 
 27.4 
 
 1.235 
 
 8 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.040 
 
 48 
 
 27.9 
 
 1.240 
 
 9 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.045 
 
 49 
 
 28.4 
 
 1.245 
 
 10 
 
 6.7 
 
 1.050 
 
 50 
 
 28.8 
 
 1.250 
 
 11 
 
 7.4 
 
 1.055 
 
 51 
 
 29.3 
 
 1.255 
 
 12 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.060 
 
 52 
 
 29.7 
 
 1.260 
 
 13 
 
 8.7 
 
 1.065 
 
 53 
 
 30.2 
 
 1.265 
 
 14 
 
 9.4 
 
 1.070 
 
 54 
 
 30.6 
 
 1.270 
 
 15 
 
 10.0 
 
 1.075 
 
 55 
 
 31.1 
 
 1.275 
 
 16 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.080 
 
 56 
 
 31.5 
 
 1.280 
 
 17 
 
 11.2 
 
 1.085 
 
 57 
 
 32.0 
 
 1.285 
 
 18 
 
 11.9 
 
 1.090 
 
 58 
 
 32.4 
 
 1.290 
 
 19 
 
 12.4 
 
 1.095 
 
 59 
 
 32.8 
 
 1.295 
 
 20 
 
 13.0 
 
 1.100 
 
 60 
 
 33.3 
 
 1.300 
 
 21 
 
 13.6 
 
 1.105 
 
 61 
 
 33.7 
 
 1.305 
 
 22 
 
 14.2 
 
 1.110 
 
 62 
 
 34.2 
 
 1.310 
 
 23 
 
 14.9 
 
 1.115 
 
 63 
 
 34.6 
 
 1.315 
 
 24 
 
 15.4 
 
 1.120 
 
 64 
 
 35.0 
 
 1.320 
 
 25 
 
 16.0 
 
 1.125 
 
 65 
 
 35.4 
 
 1.325 
 
 26 
 
 16.5 
 
 1.130 
 
 66 
 
 35.8 
 
 1.330 
 
 27 
 
 17.1 
 
 1.135 
 
 67 
 
 36.2 
 
 1.335 
 
 28 
 
 17.7 
 
 1.140 
 
 68 
 
 36.6 
 
 1.340 
 
 29 
 
 18.3 
 
 1.145 
 
 69 
 
 37.0 
 
 1.345 
 
 30 
 
 18.8 
 
 1.150 
 
 70 
 
 37.4 
 
 1.350 
 
 31 
 
 19.3 
 
 1.155 
 
 71 
 
 37.8 
 
 1.355 
 
 32 
 
 19.8 
 
 1.160 
 
 72 
 
 38.2 
 
 .360 
 
 33 
 
 20.3 
 
 1.165 
 
 73 
 
 38.6 
 
 .365 
 
 34 
 
 20.9 
 
 1.170 
 
 74 
 
 39.0 
 
 1.370 
 
 35 
 
 21.4 
 
 1.175 
 
 75 
 
 39.4 
 
 .375 
 
 36 
 
 22.0 
 
 1.180 
 
 76 
 
 39.8 
 
 .380 
 
 37 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.185 
 
 77 
 
 40.1 
 
 1.385 
 
 38 
 
 23.0 
 
 1.190 
 
 78 
 
 40.5 
 
 1.390 
 
 39 
 
 23.5 
 
 1.195 
 
 79 
 
 40.8 
 
 1.395 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES IN DEGREES BAUME AND TWADDLE. 
 LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER. 
 
 89 
 
 Hydromete 
 
 Dpcrr 
 
 r Reading 
 ces 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Hydrometer Reading 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 80 
 
 41.2 
 
 1.400 
 
 120 
 
 54.1 
 
 1.600 
 
 81 
 
 41.(> 
 
 1.405 
 
 121 
 
 54.4 
 
 1.605 
 
 82 
 
 42.0 
 
 1.410 
 
 122 
 
 54.7 
 
 1.610 
 
 83 
 
 42.3 
 
 1.415 
 
 123 
 
 55.0 
 
 1.615 
 
 84 
 
 42.7 
 
 1.420 
 
 124 
 
 55.2 
 
 1.620 
 
 85 
 
 43.1 
 
 1.425 
 
 125 
 
 55.5 
 
 1.625 
 
 86 
 
 43.4 
 
 1.430 
 
 126 
 
 558 
 
 1.630 
 
 87 
 
 43.8 
 
 1.435 
 
 127 
 
 56.0 
 
 1.635 
 
 88 
 
 44.1 
 
 1.440 
 
 128 
 
 56.3 
 
 1.640 
 
 89 
 
 44.4 
 
 1.445 
 
 129 
 
 56.6 
 
 1.645 
 
 90 
 
 448 
 
 1.450 
 
 130 
 
 56.9 
 
 1.650 
 
 91 
 
 45.1 
 
 1.455 
 
 131 
 
 57.1 
 
 1.655 
 
 92 
 
 45.4 
 
 1.460 
 
 132 
 
 57.4 
 
 1.660 
 
 93 
 
 45.8 
 
 . 1.465 
 
 133 
 
 57.7 
 
 1.665 
 
 94 
 
 46.1 
 
 1.470 
 
 134 
 
 57.9 
 
 1.670 
 
 95 
 
 46.4 
 
 1.475" 
 
 135 
 
 58.2 
 
 1.675 
 
 96 
 
 46.7 
 
 1.480 
 
 136 
 
 58.4 
 
 1.680 
 
 97- 
 
 47.1 
 
 1.485 
 
 137 
 
 58.7 
 
 1.685 
 
 98 
 
 47.4 
 
 1.490 
 
 138 
 
 58.9 
 
 1.690 
 
 99 
 
 47.8 
 
 1.495 
 
 139 
 
 59.2 
 
 1.695 
 
 100 
 
 48.1 
 
 1.500 
 
 140 
 
 59.5 
 
 1.700 
 
 101 
 
 48.4 
 
 1.505 
 
 141 
 
 59.7 
 
 1.705 
 
 102 
 
 48.7 
 
 1.510 
 
 142 
 
 60.0 
 
 1.710 
 
 103 
 
 49.0 
 
 1.515 
 
 143 
 
 60.2 
 
 1.715 
 
 104 
 
 49.4 
 
 1.520 
 
 144 
 
 60.4 
 
 1.720 
 
 105 
 
 49.7 
 
 1.525 
 
 145 
 
 60.6 
 
 1.725 
 
 106 
 
 50.0 
 
 1.530 
 
 146 
 
 60.9 
 
 1.730 
 
 107 
 
 50.3 
 
 1.535 
 
 147 
 
 61.1 
 
 1.735 
 
 108 
 
 50.6 
 
 1.540 
 
 148 
 
 61.4 
 
 1.740 
 
 109 
 
 50.9 
 
 1.545 
 
 149 
 
 61.6 
 
 1.745 
 
 110 
 
 51.2 
 
 1.550 
 
 150 
 
 61.8 
 
 1.750 
 
 111 
 
 51.5 
 
 1.555 
 
 151 
 
 62.1 
 
 1.755 
 
 112 
 
 51.8 
 
 1.560 
 
 152 
 
 62.3 
 
 1.760 
 
 113 
 
 52.1 
 
 1.565 
 
 153 
 
 62.5 
 
 1.765 
 
 114 
 
 52.4 
 
 1.570 
 
 154 
 
 62.8 
 
 1.770 
 
 115 
 
 52.7 
 
 1.575 
 
 155 
 
 63.0 
 
 1.775 
 
 116 
 
 53.0 
 
 1.580 
 
 156 
 
 63.2 
 
 1.780 
 
 117 
 
 53.3 
 
 1.585 
 
 157 
 
 63.5 
 
 1.78& 
 
 118 
 
 53 6 
 
 1.590 
 
 158 
 
 63.7 
 
 1.790 
 
 119 
 
 53.9 
 
 1.595 
 
 159 
 
 64.0 
 
 1.795 
 
90 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES IN DEGREES BAUME AND TWADDLE. 
 LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER. 
 
 Hydrometer Reading 
 
 Specific 
 
 Hydrometer Reading 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 Twaddle 
 
 Baume 
 
 
 160 
 
 64.2 
 
 1.800 
 
 165 
 
 65.2 
 
 1.825 
 
 161 
 
 64.4 
 
 1.805 
 
 166 
 
 65.5 
 
 1.830 
 
 162 
 
 64.6 
 
 1.810 
 
 167 
 
 65.7 
 
 1.835 
 
 163 
 
 64.8 
 
 1.815 
 
 168 
 
 65.9 
 
 1.840 
 
 164 
 
 65.0 
 
 1.820 
 
 169 
 
 66.1 
 
 1.845 
 
 
 
 
 170 
 
 66.3 
 
 1.850 
 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 66.5 
 
 1.855 
 
 TABLE OF EQUIVALENT FOR FUEL OIL 
 
 This chart shows the equivalents for fuel oils at various gravities 
 and is taken at 60 Fahrenheit. Naturally, a temperature adjustment 
 must be made to determine true specific gravity. This adjustment is 
 as follows: 
 
 For every degree above 60 F., subtract .0004 
 For every degree below 60 F., add .0004 
 
 Lbs. per 
 
 Lbs pei- 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Bbls. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Beaume 
 
 Amer. 
 
 English 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 English 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 1.0000 
 
 10. 
 
 8.331 
 
 10. 
 
 35.94 
 
 268.875 
 
 224. 
 
 6.40 
 
 .9956 
 
 10.6 
 
 8.302 
 
 9.995 
 
 36.09 
 
 269.81 
 
 224.75 
 
 6.42 
 
 .9930 
 
 11. 
 
 8.273 
 
 9.930 
 
 36.19 
 
 270.76 
 
 225.55 
 
 6.44 
 
 .9895 
 
 11.5 
 
 8.244 
 
 9.895 
 
 36.32 
 
 271.71 
 
 226.33 
 
 6.46 
 
 .9860 
 
 12. 
 
 8.214 
 
 9.860 
 
 36.45 
 
 272.67 
 
 227.13 
 
 6.49 
 
 .9825 
 
 12.5 
 
 8.185 
 
 9.825 
 
 35.57 
 
 273.66 
 
 227.96 
 
 6.51 
 
 .9790 
 
 13. 
 
 8.156 
 
 9.790 
 
 36.71 
 
 274.62 
 
 228.80 
 
 6.54 
 
 .9755 
 
 13.5 
 
 8.127 
 
 9.705 
 
 36.84 
 
 275.62 
 
 229.62 
 
 6.56 
 
 .9720 
 
 14. 
 
 8.098 
 
 9.702 
 
 36.97 
 
 276.67 
 
 230.49 
 
 6.58 
 
 .9685 
 
 14.5 
 
 8.069 
 
 9.685 
 
 37.10 
 
 277.47 
 
 231.16 
 
 6.60 
 
 .9655 
 
 15. 
 
 8.044 
 
 9.650 
 
 37.22 
 
 278.46 
 
 231.98 
 
 6.63 
 
 .9625 
 
 15.5 
 
 8.019 
 
 9.625 
 
 37.34 
 
 279.33 
 
 232.71 
 
 6.65 
 
 .9695 
 
 16. 
 
 7.994 
 
 9.595 
 
 37.46 
 
 280.19 
 
 233.42 
 
 6.66 
 
 .9560 
 
 16.5 
 
 7.964 
 
 9.560 
 
 37.59 
 
 281.26 
 
 234.31 
 
 6.69 
 
 .9530 
 
 17. 
 
 7.929 
 
 9.530 
 
 37.71 
 
 282.22 
 
 235.11 
 
 6.74 
 
 .9495 
 
 17.5 
 
 7.910 
 
 9.495 
 
 37.85 
 
 283.08 
 
 235.90 
 
 6.75 
 
 .9465 
 
 18. 
 
 7.885 
 
 9.465 
 
 37.97 
 
 284.08 
 
 236.66 
 
 6.76 
 
 .9430 
 
 18.5 
 
 7.856 
 
 9.430 
 
 38.11 
 
 285.13 
 
 257.52 
 
 6.76 
 
 .9400 
 
 19. 
 
 7.831 
 
 9.400 
 
 38.23 
 
 286.04 
 
 238.30 
 
 6.81 
 
 .9370 
 
 19.5 
 
 7.806 
 
 9.370 
 
 38.35 
 
 286.95 
 
 239.06 
 
 6.83 
 
 .9340 
 
 20. 
 
 7.781 
 
 9.340 
 
 38.47 
 
 287.88 
 
 239.82 
 
 6.85 
 
 ,9310 
 
 20.5 
 
 7.756 
 
 9.310 
 
 38.60 
 
 288.88 
 
 240.60 
 
 6.87 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 TABLE EQUIVALENT FOR FUEL OIL 
 
 1)1 
 
 Lbs. per 
 
 Lbs pei- 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Bbls. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Beaume 
 
 Amer. 
 
 English 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 English 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 per Ton 
 
 .9280 
 
 21. 
 
 7.730 
 
 9.280 
 
 38.73 
 
 289.74 
 
 241.34 
 
 6.89 
 
 .9250 
 
 21.5 
 
 7.706 
 
 9.250 
 
 38.85 
 
 290.68 
 
 242.16 
 
 6.89 
 
 .9220 
 
 22. 
 
 7.680 
 
 9.220 
 
 38.98 
 
 291.62 
 
 242.95 
 
 6.94 
 
 .9195 
 
 22.5 
 
 7.660 
 
 9.195 
 
 39.09 
 
 292.42 
 
 243.61 
 
 6.96 
 
 .9165 
 
 23. 
 
 7.635 
 
 9.165 
 
 39.21 
 
 293.25 
 
 244.40 
 
 6.98 
 
 .9135 
 
 23.5 
 
 7.615 
 
 9.135 
 
 39.34 
 
 294.15 
 
 245.21 
 
 7.00 
 
 .9105 
 
 24. 
 
 7.585 
 
 9.105 
 
 39.47 
 
 295.31 
 
 246.01 
 
 7.03 
 
 .9045 
 
 25. 
 
 7.536 
 
 . 9.040 
 
 39.73 
 
 297.24 
 
 247.64 
 
 7.07 
 
 .8990 
 
 26. 
 
 7.490 
 
 8.990 
 
 39.97 
 
 299.06 
 
 249.15 
 
 7.08 
 
 .8930 
 
 27. 
 
 7.440 
 
 8.930 
 
 40.24 
 
 301.07 
 
 250.84 
 
 7.12 
 
 .8870 
 
 28. 
 
 7.390 
 
 8.870 
 
 40.51 
 
 303.11 
 
 252.53 
 
 7.21 
 
 .8815 
 
 29. 
 
 7.344 
 
 8.815 
 
 40.77 
 
 305.01 
 
 254.00 
 
 7.26 
 
 .8755 
 
 30. 
 
 7.294 
 
 8.755 
 
 41.04 
 
 307.10 
 
 255.85 
 
 7.31 
 
 .8700 
 
 31. 
 
 7.248 
 
 8.700 
 
 41.31 
 
 309.19 
 
 257.47 
 
 7.36 
 
 .8650 
 
 32. 
 
 7.206 
 
 8.650 
 
 41.54 
 
 310.85 
 
 258.94 
 
 7.40 
 
 .8595 
 
 33. 
 
 7.160 
 
 8.595 
 
 41.81 
 
 312.84 
 
 260.61 
 
 7.44 
 
 .8545 
 
 34. 
 
 7.119 
 
 8.545 
 
 42.05 
 
 314.65 
 
 262.14 
 
 7.46 
 
 .8490 
 
 35. 
 
 7.070 
 
 8.490 
 
 42.32 
 
 316.83 
 
 263.83 
 
 7.54 
 
 .8440 
 
 36. 
 
 7.031 
 
 8.440 
 
 42.58 
 
 318.58 
 
 265.40 
 
 7.58 
 
 .8395 
 
 37. 
 
 6.994 
 
 8.395 
 
 42.81 
 
 320.27 
 
 266.82 
 
 7.62 
 
 .8345 
 
 38. 
 
 6.952 
 
 8.345 
 
 43.06 
 
 322.67 
 
 268.42 
 
 7.70 
 
 .8295 
 
 39. 
 
 6.911 
 
 8.295 
 
 43.32 
 
 324.12 
 
 270.04 
 
 7.71 
 
 .8250 
 
 40. 
 
 6.873 
 
 8.250 
 
 43.56 
 
 325.90 
 
 271.51 
 
 7.78 
 
 RELATIVE COST OF COAL AND OIL 
 
 The primary object in giving this table is -to draw an approximate 
 comparison in cost of coal as used in generation of steam in contrast to 
 oil used in Diesel Engines for fuels. It is understood, that the variation 
 of either coal, as well as oil, in prices, average about from 12 to 14%. 
 The following tables will give the average prevailing fuel cost of either 
 coal or oil. 
 
 Oil 
 
 Oil 
 
 Coal 
 
 Oil 
 
 Oil 
 
 Coal 
 
 cents per 
 
 dollars per 
 
 dollars per 
 
 cents per 
 
 dollars per 
 
 dollars per 
 
 gallon 
 
 barrel 
 
 ton 
 
 gallon 
 
 barrel 
 
 ton 
 
 2.00 
 
 $0.82 
 
 $3.92 
 
 3.25 
 
 $1.33 
 
 $6.37 
 
 2.25 
 
 0.92 
 
 4.41 
 
 3.50 
 
 1.43 
 
 6.86 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.02 
 
 4.90 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.64 
 
 7.84 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.13 
 
 5.39 
 
 4.50 
 
 1.84 
 
 8.82 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.23 
 
 5.88 
 
 5.00 
 
 2.05 
 
 9.80 
 
92 
 
 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 CONVERSION TABLE FOR DEGREES BAUME (LIGHTER THAN 
 WATER) TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND LBS. PER GALLON 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Pounds in 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Pounds in 
 
 Baume 
 
 Gravity 
 
 1 Gallon 
 
 Baume 
 
 Gravity 
 
 1 Gallon 
 
 
 
 (American) 
 
 
 
 (American) 
 
 10 
 
 1.0000 
 
 8.33 
 
 43 
 
 .8092 
 
 6.74 
 
 11 
 
 .9929 
 
 8.27 
 
 44 
 
 .8045 
 
 6.70 
 
 12 
 
 .9859 
 
 8.21 
 
 45 
 
 .8000 
 
 6.66 
 
 13 
 
 .9790 
 
 8.16 
 
 46 
 
 .7954 
 
 6.63 
 
 14 
 
 .9722 
 
 8.10 
 
 47 
 
 .7909 
 
 6.59 
 
 15 
 
 .9655 
 
 8.04 
 
 48 
 
 .7865 
 
 6.55 
 
 16 
 
 .9589 
 
 7.99 
 
 49 
 
 .7831 
 
 6.52 
 
 17 
 
 .9523 
 
 7.93 
 
 50 
 
 .7777 
 
 6.48 
 
 18 
 
 .9459 
 
 7.88 
 
 51 
 
 .7734 
 
 6.44 
 
 19 
 
 .9395 
 
 7.83 
 
 52 
 
 .7692 
 
 6.41 
 
 20 
 
 .9333 
 
 7.78 
 
 53 
 
 .7650 
 
 6.37 
 
 21 
 
 .9271 
 
 7.72 
 
 54 
 
 .7608 
 
 6.34 
 
 22 
 
 .9210 
 
 7.67 
 
 55 
 
 .7567 
 
 6.30 
 
 23 
 
 .9150 
 
 7.62 
 
 56 
 
 .7526 
 
 6.27 
 
 24 
 
 .9090 
 
 7.57 
 
 57 
 
 .7486 
 
 6.24 
 
 25 
 
 .9032 
 
 7.53 
 
 58 
 
 .7446 
 
 6.20 
 
 26 
 
 .8974 
 
 7.48 
 
 59 
 
 .7407 
 
 6.17 
 
 27 
 
 .8917 
 
 7.43 
 
 60 
 
 .7368 
 
 6.14 
 
 28 
 
 .8860 
 
 7.38 
 
 61 
 
 .7329 
 
 6.11 
 
 29 
 
 .8805 
 
 7.34 
 
 62 
 
 .7290 
 
 6.07 
 
 30 
 
 .8750 
 
 7.29 
 
 63 
 
 .7253 
 
 6.04 
 
 31 
 
 .8695 
 
 7.24 
 
 64 
 
 .7216 
 
 6.01 
 
 32 
 
 .8641 
 
 7.20 
 
 65 
 
 .7179 
 
 5.98 
 
 33 
 
 .8588 
 
 7.15 
 
 66 
 
 .7142 
 
 5.95 
 
 34 
 
 .8536 
 
 7.11 
 
 67 
 
 .7106 
 
 5.92 
 
 35 
 
 .8484 
 
 7.07 
 
 68 
 
 .7070 
 
 5.89 
 
 36 
 
 .8433 
 
 7.03 
 
 69 
 
 .7035 
 
 5.86 
 
 37 
 
 .8383 
 
 6.98 
 
 70 s 
 
 .7000 
 
 5.83 
 
 38 
 
 .8333 
 
 6.94 
 
 75 
 
 .6829 
 
 5.69 
 
 39 
 
 .8284 
 
 6.90 
 
 80 
 
 .6666 
 
 5.55 
 
 40 
 
 .8235 
 
 6.86 
 
 85 
 
 .6511 
 
 5.42 
 
 41 
 
 .8187 
 
 6.82 
 
 90 
 
 .6363 
 
 5.30 
 
 42 
 
 .8139 
 
 6.78 
 
 95 
 
 .6222 
 
 5.18 
 
 United States 
 New York __. 
 Imperial __. 
 
 TABLE OF GALLONS 
 
 Cubic In. 
 
 in a 
 
 Gallon 
 
 231 
 
 231.819 
 
 277.274 
 
 Weight of a 
 Gal. in Ibs. 
 Avoirdupois 
 8.33 
 8.00 
 10.00 
 
 Gallons in 
 a Cubic 
 Foot 
 7.480 
 7.901 
 6.232 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 93 
 
 CONVENIENT TABLE TO ESTABLISH POUNDS PER SQUARE 
 INCHES TO HEAD IN FEET 
 
 For Liquids at 62 Fahrenheit, Weighing 62.364 Ib. Per Qu- Ft. 
 
 84 194.0 
 
 85 196.3 
 
 86 198.6 
 
 87 200.9 
 
 88 203.2 
 
 89 205.5 
 
 90 207.8 
 
 91 210.2 
 
 92 212.5 
 
 93 214.8 
 
 94 217.1 
 
 95 219.4 
 
 96 221.7 
 
 97 224.0 
 
 98 226.3 
 
 99 228.6 
 
 100 230.9 
 
 105 242.4 
 
 110 254.0 
 
 115 265.5 
 
 120 277.1 
 
 125 288.6 
 
 130 300.2 
 
 135 311.7 
 
 140 323.3 
 
 145 334.8 
 
 150 346.4 
 
 155 357.9 
 
 160 ._ 369.5 
 
 165 381.0 
 
 170 392.6 
 
 175 ___ 404.1 
 
 190 438.8 
 
 195 450.3 
 
 200 461.9 - 
 
 210 485.0 
 
 220 508.1 
 
 230 531.2 
 
 240 554.3 
 
 250 577.4 
 
 260 __. 600.5 
 
 270 623.6 
 
 280 646.6 
 
 290 _ _ 669.7 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Head 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Head 
 
 per 
 
 in 
 
 per 
 
 in 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet 
 
 2 
 
 4.619 
 
 43 
 
 99.31 
 
 3 
 
 6928 
 
 44 
 
 101.6 
 
 4 
 
 __ 9.238 
 
 45 ___ _ 
 
 103.9 
 
 5 _ _ 
 
 __ 11.55 
 
 46 
 
 106.2 
 
 6 
 
 13.86 
 
 47 
 
 108.5 
 
 7 
 
 16 17 
 
 48 
 
 110.8 
 
 8 
 
 18.48 
 
 49 
 
 113.2 
 
 9 
 
 20.78 
 
 50 
 
 115.5 
 
 10 
 
 _ 23.09 
 
 51 
 
 117.8 
 
 11 
 
 25.40 
 
 52 .. 
 
 120.1 
 
 12 
 
 27.71 
 
 53 
 
 122.4 
 
 13 
 
 30.02 
 
 54 
 
 124.7 
 
 14 
 
 32.33 
 
 55 
 
 127.0 
 
 15 
 
 34.64 
 
 56 
 
 129.3 
 
 16 _ __ 
 
 36.95 
 
 57 
 
 131.6 
 
 17 
 
 __ 39.26 
 
 58 
 
 133.9 
 
 18 
 
 41.57 
 
 59 
 
 136.3 
 
 19 
 
 43.88 
 
 60 
 
 138.6 
 
 20 
 
 46.19 
 
 61 
 
 140.9 
 
 21 
 
 48.50 
 
 62 
 
 143.2 
 
 22 
 
 50.81 
 
 63 
 
 145.5 
 
 23 
 
 53.12 
 
 64 
 
 147.8 
 
 24 _ _ 
 
 55.43 
 
 65 
 
 150.1 
 
 25 
 
 57.74 
 
 66 ___ 
 
 152.4 
 
 26 _ _ 
 
 ._ 60.05 
 
 67 
 
 154.7 
 
 27 _ _ 
 
 ... 62.36 
 
 68 
 
 157.0 
 
 28 
 
 64.66 
 
 69 _ 
 
 159.3 
 
 29 _ _ 
 
 66.97 
 
 70 
 
 161.7 
 
 30 ___ 
 
 69.28 
 
 71 
 
 163.0 
 
 31 
 
 71.59 
 
 72 
 
 166.3 
 
 32 _ _ 
 
 73.90 
 
 73 __ __ 
 
 168.6 
 
 33 _ _ 
 
 76.21 
 
 74 _ 
 
 170.9 
 
 34 
 
 78 52 
 
 75 
 
 173.2 
 
 35 
 
 80.83 
 
 
 175.5 
 
 36 
 
 83.14 
 
 77 
 
 177.8 
 
 37 
 
 85.45 
 
 78 
 
 180.1 
 
 38 
 
 . . 87.76 
 
 79 
 
 182.4 
 
 39 
 
 90.07 
 
 80 
 
 184.8 
 
 40 _ . 
 
 92.38 
 
 81 
 
 187.1 
 
 41 
 
 94.69 
 
 82 
 
 189.4 
 
 42 
 
 97.00 
 
 83 
 
 191.7 
 
94 
 
 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Head 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Head 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Head 
 
 per 
 
 in 
 
 per 
 
 in 
 
 per 
 
 in 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Feet 
 
 300 
 
 692.8 
 
 370 
 
 854.5 
 
 440 
 
 1016. 
 
 310 
 
 715.9 
 
 380 
 
 877.6 
 
 450 
 
 1039 
 
 320 
 
 739.0 
 
 390 
 
 900.7 
 
 460 
 
 1062 
 
 330 
 
 762 1 
 
 400 
 
 923.8 
 
 470 
 
 1085 
 
 340 
 
 785.2 
 
 410 
 
 946.9 
 
 480 
 
 1108. 
 
 350 
 
 808.3 
 
 420 
 
 970.0 
 
 490 
 
 1132. 
 
 360 
 
 831.4 
 
 430 
 
 993.1 
 
 500 
 
 1155. 
 
 
 UNITED 
 
 STATES GALLONS IN ROUND TANKS 
 
 
 
 
 FOR ONE FOOT 
 
 IN DEPTH 
 
 Diam of 
 
 No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Diam of 
 
 No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 1 
 
 5.87 
 
 .785 
 
 3 5 
 
 68.58 
 
 9.168 
 
 1 1 
 
 6.89 
 
 .922 
 
 3 6 
 
 71.97 
 
 9.621 
 
 1 2 
 
 8.00 
 
 1.069 
 
 3 7 
 
 75.44 
 
 10.085 
 
 1 3 
 
 9.18 
 
 1.227 
 
 3 8 
 
 78.99 
 
 10.559 
 
 1 4 
 
 10.44 
 
 1.396 
 
 3 9 
 
 82.62 
 
 11.045 
 
 1 5 
 
 11.79 
 
 1.576 
 
 3 10 
 
 86.33 
 
 11.541 
 
 1 6 
 
 13.22 
 
 1.7(57 
 
 3 11 
 
 90.13 
 
 12.048 
 
 1 7 
 
 14.73 
 
 1.969 
 
 4 
 
 94.00 
 
 12.566 
 
 1 8 
 
 16.32 
 
 2.182 
 
 4 1 
 
 97.96 
 
 13.095 
 
 1 9 
 
 17.99 
 
 2.405 
 
 4 2 
 
 102.00 
 
 13.635 
 
 1 10 
 
 19.75 
 
 2.640 
 
 4 3 
 
 106.12 
 
 14.186 
 
 1 11 
 
 21.58 
 
 2.885 
 
 4 4 
 
 110.32 
 
 14.748 
 
 2 
 
 23.50 
 
 3.142 
 
 4 5 
 
 114.61 
 
 15.321 
 
 2 1 
 
 25.50 
 
 3.409 
 
 4 6 
 
 118.97 
 
 15.90 
 
 2 2 
 
 27.58 
 
 3.687 
 
 4 7 
 
 123.42 
 
 16.50 
 
 2 3 
 
 29.74 
 
 3.976 
 
 4 8 
 
 127.95 
 
 17.10 
 
 2 4 
 
 31.99 
 
 4.276 
 
 4 9 
 
 132.56 
 
 17.72 
 
 2 5 
 
 34.31 
 
 4.587 
 
 4 10 
 
 137.25 
 
 18.35 
 
 2 6 
 
 36.72 
 
 4.909 
 
 4 11 
 
 142.02 
 
 18.99 
 
 2 7 
 
 39.21 
 
 5.241 
 
 5 
 
 146.88 
 
 19.63 
 
 2. 8 
 
 41.78 
 
 5.585 
 
 5 1 
 
 151.82 
 
 20.29 
 
 2 9 
 
 44.38 
 
 5.940 
 
 5 2 
 
 156.83 
 
 20.97 
 
 2 10 
 
 47.16 
 
 6.305 
 
 5 3 
 
 161.93 
 
 21.65 
 
 2 11 
 
 49.98 
 
 6.581 
 
 5 4 
 
 167.12 
 
 22.34 
 
 3 
 
 52.88 
 
 7.069 
 
 5 5 
 
 172.38 
 
 23.04 
 
 3 1 
 
 55.86 
 
 7.467 
 
 6 6 
 
 177.72 
 
 23.76 
 
 3 2 
 
 58.92 
 
 7.876 
 
 5 7 
 
 183.15 
 
 24.48 
 
 3 3 
 
 62.06 
 
 8.296 
 
 5 8 
 
 188.66 
 
 25.22 
 
 3 4 
 
 65.28 
 
 8.727 
 
 5 9 
 
 194.25 
 
 25.97 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 95 
 
 Diam of 
 
 No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Diam 
 
 of 
 
 No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Ft, In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 5 10 
 
 199.92 
 
 26.73 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1648.40 
 
 220.35 
 
 5 11 
 
 205.67 
 
 27.49 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 1697.90 
 
 226.98 
 
 6 
 
 211.51 
 
 28.27 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 1748.20 
 
 233.71 
 
 6 3 
 
 229.50 
 
 30.68 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 1799.30 
 
 240.35 
 
 6 6 
 
 248.23 
 
 33.18 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 1851.10 
 
 247.45 
 
 6 9 
 
 267.69 
 
 35.78 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1903.60 
 
 254.47 
 
 7 
 
 287.88 
 
 38.48 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1956.80 
 
 261.59 
 
 7 3 
 
 308.81 
 
 41.28 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2010.80 
 
 268.80 
 
 7 6 
 
 330.48 
 
 44.18 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 2065.50 
 
 276.12 
 
 7 9 
 
 352.88 
 
 47.17 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 2120.90 
 
 283.53 
 
 8 
 
 376.01 
 
 50.27 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 2177.10 
 
 291.04 
 
 8 3 
 
 399.88 
 
 53.46 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 2234.00 
 
 298.65 
 
 8 6 
 
 424.48 
 
 56.75 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 2291.70 
 
 306.35 
 
 8 9 
 
 449.82 
 
 60.13 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 2350.10 
 
 314.16 
 
 9 
 
 475.89 
 
 63.62 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 2409.20 
 
 322.06 
 
 9 3 
 
 502.70 
 
 67.20 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 2469.10 
 
 330.06 
 
 9 6 
 
 530.24 
 
 70.88 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 2529.60 
 
 338.16 
 
 9 9 
 
 558.51 
 
 74.66 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 2591.00 
 
 346.36 
 
 10 
 
 587.52 
 
 78.54 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 2653.00 
 
 354.66 
 
 10 3 
 
 617.26 
 
 82.52 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 2715.80 
 
 363.05 
 
 10 6 
 
 640.74 
 
 86.59 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 2779.30 
 
 371.54 
 
 10 9 
 
 678.95 
 
 90.76 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 2843.60 
 
 380.13 
 
 11 
 
 710.90 
 
 95.03 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 2908.60 
 
 388.82 
 
 11 3 
 
 743.58 
 
 99.40 
 
 22 
 
 6. 
 
 2974.30 
 
 397.61 
 
 11 6 
 
 776.99 
 
 103.87 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 3040.80 
 
 406.49 
 
 11 9 
 
 811.14 
 
 108.43 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 3108.00 
 
 415.48 
 
 12 
 
 846.03 
 
 113.10 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 3175.90 
 
 424.56 
 
 12 3 
 
 881.65 
 
 117.86 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 3244.60 
 
 433.74 
 
 12 6 
 
 918.00 
 
 122.72 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 3314.00 
 
 443.01 
 
 12 9 
 
 955.09 
 
 127.68 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 3384.10 
 
 452.39 
 
 13 
 
 992.91 
 
 132.73 
 
 24 
 
 g 
 
 3455.00 
 
 461.86 
 
 13 3 
 
 1031.50 
 
 137.89 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 3526.60 
 
 471.44 
 
 13 6 
 
 1070.80 
 
 143.14 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 3598.90 
 
 481.11 
 
 13 9 
 
 1110.80 
 
 148.49 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 3672.00 
 
 490.87 
 
 14 
 
 1151.50 
 
 153.54 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 3745.80 
 
 500.74 
 
 14 3 
 
 1193.00 
 
 159.48 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 3820.30 
 
 510.71 
 
 14 6 
 
 1235.30 
 
 165.13 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 3895.60 
 
 520.77 
 
 14 9 
 
 1278.20 
 
 170.87 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 3971.60 
 
 530.93 
 
 15 
 
 1321.90 
 
 176.71 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 4048.40 
 
 541.19 
 
 15 3 
 
 1366.40 
 
 182.65 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 4125.90 
 
 551.55 
 
 15 6 
 
 1411.50 
 
 188.69 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 4204.10 
 
 562.00 
 
 15 9 
 
 1457.40 
 
 194.83 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 4283.00 
 
 572.66 
 
 16 
 
 1504.10 
 
 201.06 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 4362.70 
 
 583.21 
 
 16 3 
 
 1551.40 
 
 207.39 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 4443.10 
 
 593.96 
 
 16 6 
 
 1599.50 
 
 213.82 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 4524.30 
 
 604.81 
 
96 
 
 LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 Diam of 
 
 No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Diam of No. 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Tanks 
 
 U. S. 
 
 and area 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Gals. 
 
 in sq. ft. 
 
 28 
 
 4606.20 
 
 615.75 
 
 30 9 
 
 5555.40 
 
 742.64 
 
 28 3 
 
 4688.80 
 
 (326.80 
 
 31 
 
 5646.10 
 
 754.77 
 
 28 6 
 
 4772.10 
 
 637.94 
 
 31 3 
 
 5737.50 
 
 766.99 
 
 28 9 
 
 4856.20 
 
 649.18 
 
 31 6 
 
 5829.70 
 
 779.31 
 
 29 
 
 4941.00 
 
 660.52 
 
 31 9 
 
 5922.60 
 
 791.73 
 
 29 3 
 
 5026.60 
 
 671.96 
 
 32 
 
 6016.20 
 
 804.25 
 
 29 6 
 
 5112.90 
 
 683.49 
 
 32 3 
 
 6110.60 
 
 816.86 
 
 29 9 
 
 5199.90 
 
 695.13 
 
 32 6 
 
 6205.70 
 
 829.58 
 
 30 
 
 5287.70 
 
 706.86 
 
 32 9 
 
 6301.50 
 
 842.39 
 
 30 3 
 
 5376.20 
 
 718.69 
 
 31^ 
 
 gallons equal 
 
 1 barrel. 
 
 30 6 
 
 5465.40 
 
 730.62 
 
 
 
 
 NOTE: To find the capacity of tanks greater than the largest given 
 in the table, look in the table for a tank of one-half of the given size 
 and multiply its capacity by 4, or one of one-third its size and multiply 
 its capacity by 9, etc. 
 
 CO-' AND FUEL LOSSES. 
 CALCULATED ON FOLLOWING CONDITIONS: 
 
 Oil as used for fuel 18633 B. T. U., 84.73% carbon, 11.74% hydrogen, 
 1.06% sulphur, 5% nitrogen, .87% oxygen, .7% moisture and .4% sedi- 
 ment. 
 
 Atmospheric temperature 55% F., humidity 88, exhaust temperature 
 500 F., Kern Oil 16 B. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 15.6 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Excess 
 
 Air 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 70 
 
 93 
 
 120 
 
 152 
 
 198 
 
 273 
 
 396 
 
 635 
 
 B. T. U. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Loss 
 
 Preventable 
 
 
 Fuel Loss 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 75 
 
 .4 
 
 186 
 
 1. 
 
 317 
 
 1.7 
 
 447 
 
 2.4 
 
 633 
 
 3.4 
 
 856 
 
 4.6 
 
 1118 
 
 6. 
 
 1435 
 
 7.8 
 
 1900 
 
 10.2 
 
 2460 
 
 13.2 
 
 3205 
 
 17.2 
 
 4380 
 
 23.5 
 
 6340 
 
 34. 
 
 10150 
 
 54.5 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 
 
 97 
 
 METRIC CONVERSION TABLE (LIQUIDS) 
 Weight of Water 
 
 Weight of one cubic foot of pure water: 
 
 At 32 F. =62.418 Ibs. 
 
 At 39.1 F. (max. dens.) =62.425 Ibs. 
 At 62 F. =62.355 Ibs. 
 
 At 212 F. =59.75 Ibs. 
 
 CONVERTING SPECIFIC GRAVITY INTO DEGREES BAUME AND 
 
 VICE VERSA 
 
 For liquids lighter than water; 
 
 140 
 'Baume 
 
 = 130 
 
 sp. gr. 60/60 F. 
 Sp. gr. 60/60 F. = 140 
 
 For liquids heavier than water: 
 Baume = 145 
 
 130 + Baume 
 
 145 
 
 Sp. gr. 60/60 F. 
 Sp. gr. 60/60F.= 145 
 
 145 Baume 
 
 ORIGIN, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC., OF OILS 
 
 Name Type 
 
 Cylinder "A"__ Mineral 
 
 Cylinder "Cold Test"_ Mineral 
 
 Castor Oil Vegetable 
 
 Lard Oil Animal 
 
 Neatsfoot Animal 
 
 Olive Oil Vegetable 
 
 Pale Oil Mineral 
 
 Sperm Oil Fish 
 
 Valve Oil (light) Mineral 
 
 Valve Oil (dark) Mineral 
 
 Colza Vegetable 
 
 Stearine__ .. Animal 
 
 Spec. Grav. 
 
 Viscosity 
 
 Color 
 
 894 
 
 146-f 
 
 Brown black 
 
 886 
 
 116-f 
 
 Reddish green 
 
 963 
 
 
 
 White 
 
 915 
 
 
 
 913 
 
 
 
 916 
 
 
 
 865 
 
 50 
 
 
 875 
 
 
 White 
 
 887 
 
 149 + 
 
 Light yellow 
 
 887 
 
 152+ 
 
 Greenish brown 
 
 914 
 
 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 White gray 
 
98 LIQUID SUBSTANCE'S 
 
 MEASUREMENT BASED ON U. S. GALLONS 
 
 1 U. S. Gallon = 231 cubic inches 
 
 = 0.133 cubic feet, 
 
 = 8.3356 pounds at 62 F. 
 1 cubic ft. 7.48 U. S. Gallons. 
 1 Imperial Gal. = 1.2 U. S. Gallon. 
 
 Weight of a Cubic Foot of Water, English Standard, 62.321 pounds 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 LIQUID MEASUREMENT 
 
 1 cubic foot of water ___ = 62.3791 Ibs. 
 
 1 cubic inch of water .03612 Ibs. 
 
 1 gallon of water ___ = 8.338 Ibs. 
 
 1 gallon of water =. 231. cubic in. 
 
 1 cubic foot of water =. 7.481 gallons. 
 
 1 pound of water = 27.7 cubic in. 
 
 1 cubi<c meter = 264 gallons. 
 
 1 Imperial gallon = 1.2 gallons (U. S.) 
 
 1 acre foot _ = 326,000 gallons. 
 
 1 pound .12 gallons. 
 
 1 pound pressure = 2.31 ft. head. 
 
 1 atmosphere = 34 ft. head 
 
 1 inch of mercury 1.134 ft. head 
 
 1 meter = 3.281 ft. head. 
 
 1 cubic foot per second = 449 G. P. M. 
 
 1,000,000 gallons per day = 695 G. P. M. 
 
 1 miner's inch (California and Arizona) = 11.2 G. P. M. 
 
 1 miner's inch (Utah, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, 
 
 New Mexico, Oregon and Washington) = 9 G. P. M. 
 
 1 miner's inch (Colorado) _ 11.7 G. P. M. 
 
 1 cubic meter per hour = 4.22 G. P. M. 
 
 100 liters per hour ..411 G. P. M. 
 
 1 liter per second 15.852 G. P. M. 
 
 1000 per hour = 2 G. P. M. 
 
 TABLE EQUIVALENT FOR FUEL OIL 
 SPECIFIED DIESEL ENGINE FUEL OIL 
 
 When procuring Fuel Oil for Diesel Engines, an oil for fuel purposes 
 should possess the following specifications: 
 
 Gravity 23 to 25 Baume 
 
 Specific Gravity .917 to .905 
 
 Flash, Closed .200 minimum 
 
 Viscosity 70 degrees Fahr. 650 sec. max. 
 
 Sulphur y 2 maximum 
 
 When "light distillate oil" is desired, the Gravity should be at its 
 maximum 30.0 to 35.0 and 150 degree Fahr. min. Flash, 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 99 
 
 TABLE OF SOLID LIQUIDS, SHOWING TEMPERATURES 
 
 Temp. Per Specific Flash 
 
 (Fahr.) Distillate Cent Gravity Point 
 
 Degrees (Fahr.) 
 
 Commercial Gasoline 
 
 250-350 Kerosene, light 10 .73 50 
 
 160-250 Benzine, naphtha 10 .70 14 
 
 140-160 Gasoline, normal 2 .65 10 
 
 400 Kerosene, heavy 10 .89 270 
 
 350 Kerosene, medium 35 .80 150 
 
 482 Lubricating Oil 10 .905 315 
 
 * 
 
 NOTE: While there is a great variation, depending on values ob- 
 tainable among the different petroleum products, nevertheless figures 
 given on this table are the average. 
 
 DENSITY OF OIL 
 
 The following table gives the specific gravity and weight of oil 
 corresponding to readings on Baume Scale: 
 
 Degree Specific Pounds Degree Specific Pounds 
 
 Baume Gravity Per Gal. Baume Gravity Per Gal. 
 
 12 .986 8.22 24 .913 7.61 
 
 14 .973 8.11 26 .901 7.51 
 
 16 .960 8.00 28 .890 7.42 
 
 18 .948 7.90 30 .880 7.33 
 
 20 .936 7.80 32 .869 7.24 . 
 22 .924 7.70 
 
 HEAT OF VAPORIZATION 
 
 In the following table, the heat of vaporization is given of various 
 liquids (at atmospheric pressure, except when otherwise specified) : 
 
 Alcohol (ethyl) 208.92 cal. 
 
 Ammonia (NH^) 294.21, (at 7.8) 
 
 Benzol .__ 93.45 
 
 Bromine 45.60 
 
 Carbon dioxide 56.25 (at 0) 
 
 Carbon disulphide 86.67 
 
 Chloroform 58.49 
 
 Ether (COIio) 91.11 
 
 Iodine 23.95 
 
 Mercury 62.00 
 
 Sulphur dioxide . 91.7 (at 0) 
 
 Water __535.9 
 
100 LIQUID SUBSTANCE'S 
 
 CORRESPONDING VALUES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, DEGREES 
 BAUME AND WEIGHT 
 
 
 Nearest 
 
 
 
 Nearest 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degree on 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degree on 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Gravity 
 
 the Baume 
 
 Gallon 
 
 Gravity 
 
 the Baume 
 
 Gallon 
 
 
 Scale 
 
 
 
 Scale 
 
 
 0.70 
 
 70 
 
 5.84 
 
 0.86 
 
 33 
 
 7.17 
 
 0.71 
 
 67 
 
 5.92 
 
 0.87 
 
 31 
 
 7.25 
 
 0.72 
 
 65 
 
 6.00 
 
 0.88 
 
 29 
 
 7.34 
 
 0.73 
 
 62 
 
 6.09 
 
 0.89 
 
 27 
 
 7.42 
 
 0.74 
 
 59 
 
 6.17 
 
 0.90 
 
 26 
 
 7.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 57 
 
 6.25 
 
 0.91 
 
 24 
 
 7.58 
 
 0.76 
 
 54 
 
 6.34 
 
 0.92 
 
 22 
 
 7.67 
 
 0.77 
 
 52 
 
 6.42 
 
 0.93 
 
 21 
 
 7.75 
 
 0.78 
 
 50 
 
 6.50 
 
 0.94 
 
 19 
 
 7.84 
 
 0.79 
 
 47 
 
 6.59 
 
 0.95 
 
 17 
 
 7.92 
 
 0.80 
 
 45 
 
 6.67 
 
 0.96 
 
 16 
 
 8.00 
 
 0.81 
 
 43 
 
 6.75 
 
 0.97 
 
 14 
 
 8.08 
 
 0.82 
 
 41 
 
 6.84 
 
 0.98 
 
 13 
 
 8.17 
 
 0.83 
 
 39 
 
 6.92 
 
 0.99 
 
 11 
 
 8.25 
 
 0.84 
 
 37 
 
 7.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 10 
 
 8.34 
 
 0.85 
 
 35 
 
 7.09 
 
 
 
 
 CALORIFIC VAULES OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 
 (LIQUID SUBSTANCES) 
 
 Volumetric Expansion 
 Liquids Centigrade Fahrenheit 
 
 Acid, nitric .110 .061 
 
 Acid, sulphuric .063 .035 
 
 Alcohol .104 .058 
 
 Mercury .018 .010 
 
 Oil, turpentine . .090 .050 
 
 DIFFERENCE IN FUEL CONSUMPTION ON HIGH ALTITUDES: 
 
 As the elevation above sea level increases, the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere and consequently the weight of the air drawn into the cyl- 
 inder decreases. This in turn reduces the amount of fuel which can be 
 consumed and thereby the power of the engine. 
 
 The reduction is about three and one-half per cent for each thousand 
 feet (305 meters) elevation above sea level and occurs with all internal 
 combustion engines. For example: 
 
 For an engine to operate at an elevation of 6,000 feet, the reduc- 
 tion would be .035 X 6, or .21. Thus an engine rated at 100 H. P. at sea 
 level would be rated at 79 H. P. at 6,000 feet elevation. For altitudes 
 under one thousand feet (305 meters), no reduction in the rating of the 
 engine is made. 
 
LIQUID 
 
 101 
 
 PETROLEUM SUBSTANCE. 
 
 The only natural liquid fuel is crude petroleum oil. This is distinctly 
 a hydro-carbon liquid, and is found in abundance in certain localities in 
 America and Europe, as well as some sections of Asia. 
 
 The principal sources of supply are, however, in the Ohio Valley 
 of -the United States, on the borders of the Caspian Sea in Eastern 
 Europe, and Western Asia. It is found principally in porous sandstones, 
 but also in natural cavities beneath the earth's surface, whence it is 
 either pumped, or flows to the surface after the manner of operation of 
 an artesian well. 
 
 Crude petroleum is dark brown in color, with a perceptible greenish 
 tinge, and has a specific gravity which averages about 0.8. It is composed 
 of a great number of liquid hydro-carbons, varying widely in specific 
 gravity and chemical composition, and each seperable from the others 
 by fractional distillation. The ultimate analysis of an average sample in- 
 dicates about the following composition: 
 
 Carbon 84 per cent 
 
 Hydrogen 14 " " 
 
 Oxygen.. 2 " 
 
 100 per cent 
 
 Allowing for the combination of the inherent oxygen, with its equiva- 
 lent of hydrogen to form water, the practical composition becomes: 
 
 Carbon 84 per cent 
 
 Hydrogen 13.75 " 
 
 Water _ 2.25 " 
 
 100 per cent 
 
 The heat value of a pound of petroleum of the above composition is, 
 therefore: 
 
 Carbon 0.84X14.650=12.306 B. T. U. 
 
 Hydrogen _ __0.1375X 62,100 8.539 B. T. U. 
 
 20.845 B. T. U. 
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL 
 
 Classification of oils according to their density is very commonly 
 used to denote other characteristics. When alluding to "heavy" oils, we 
 term it "viscous" and sluggish with a high percentage of asphalt and 
 comparatively low heat value, while a light oil is supposed to be very 
 "fluid" at ordinary temperatures, very volatile and rich in the lighter 
 hydro-carbons and high in heat value. While in general, these character- 
 istics hold true enough to explain the prevalent associations of ideas, 
 there are so many exceptions and variations that it is essential to clearly 
 specify the various properties of a particular oil in order to identify it. 
 
102 
 
 LIQUID SUBSTANCE'S 
 
 EXPANSION OF WATER, MAXIMUM DENSITY = 1 
 
 C Volume 
 
 __________ __- 1.000126 
 
 4 ________________ 1.000000 
 
 10 _ .__ 1.000257 
 20 ________________ 1.001732 
 
 30 __ . 1.004234 
 
 40 _ 
 
 1.007627 
 
 C Volume 
 
 50 1.011877 
 
 60 1.016954 
 
 70 ___ 1.022384 
 
 80 . .__ 1.029003 
 
 90 __- 1.035829 
 
 100 _ - 1.043116 
 
 COAL TARS AND COMPOSITION: 
 
 Water Should not exceed 1 per cent. 
 
 Sulphur iShould be about .5 to 1 per cent. 
 
 Ash Should not exceed 1 per cent. (Ingredients in un- 
 
 burnt quantities are harmless). 
 
 Pitch Tar oils which contain a high percentage of residue 
 
 beginning to vaporize at 400 ., the same results 
 can be expected as with tar; in this instance the re- 
 sult will be the settling of considerable foreign mat- 
 ter in the engine with the consequential requirement 
 of cleaning and grinding of exhaust valves. 
 
 Specific Gravity Usually between 1.0 and 1.1. 
 
 Color While tar oils generally show dark black color, nev- 
 ertheless with the intermix of lighter ingredients 
 a dark brown color is often found. Black residue 
 signifies a large percentage of carbon or other 
 heavy solving substances making up the composition 
 of tar. 
 
 Flashpoint Usually between 10 F. and 130 F. 
 
 Viscosity On an average 2 Engler. 
 
 HEAT VALUES OF VARIOUS OILS 
 
 Specific Per Ib. Authority 
 
 Gravity B. T. IT. 
 
 California Coalinga Field 0.927 17.177 Bashore 
 
 Bakersfield 0.992 18.257 Wade 
 
 Kern River 0.950 18.854 Bashore 
 
 Los Angeles 0.977 18.280 Bashore 
 
 Monte Christo 0.966 18.878 Bashore 
 
 Whittin 0.936 18.240 Wade 
 
 Texas Beaumont 0.924 19.060 U. S. Navy 
 
 Beaumont 0.903 19.349 Bashore 
 
 Sabine 0.937 18.662 Bashore 
 
 Pennsylvania 0.886 19.210 Booth 
 
 Mexico 0.921 18.840 Bashore 
 
 Mexico__ 0.981 17.551 Bashore 
 
LIQUID SUBSTANCES 103 
 
 CALORIFIC VALUES OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 
 OF FUELS: 
 
 The table below gives the calorific values of the principal const it> 
 uents of fuels for Diesels. The values noted "at constant pressure" are 
 alluding to such types of machinery where constant pressure is the factor 
 to be considered. The values in this table are based on those determined 
 by Berthelot, Thomson, and others. 
 
 Table of Calorific Values of the Principal Constituents of Fuels: 
 
 At constant pressure At constant volume 
 
 Combustible C. H. U. B. T. U. C. H. U. B. T. U. 
 
 Hydrogen 34500 62100 34095 61371 
 
 Carbon burned to CO o 8100 14580 8100 14580 
 
 Carbon burned to C0__ 2416 4349 2416 4349 
 
 Carbon monoxide (CO)_ 2436 4385 2426 4367 
 
 Methane (CH 4 ) 13344 24019 13276 23897 
 
 Ethylene (G g H 4 ) 12182 21928 12143 21857 
 
 Sulphur . 2300 4140 2300 4140 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION: 
 
 1. Give a Brief Definition of a Diesel Engine: 
 
 The Diesel engine is a machine which generates its motive power 
 by the process of combustion. Its Ignition system is compressed air. 
 The burning of solid liquid sprayed in the cylinder creates a constant 
 pressure, etc. etc. 
 
 2. How is the Diesel Engine Classified in Regards to Construction? 
 The two stroke cycle, commonly known ais the two-cycle and the 
 
 four-<stroke cycle, known as the four-cycle. 
 
 3. Define the Meaning of Mechanical Efficiency of the Engine: 
 
 This applies to the ratio between the brake-horse power and 
 actual power 'developed in the cylinder. 
 
 4. What is the Indicated Brake Thermal Efficiency? 
 
 The percentages of the heat units of the fuel that -the engine is 
 capable of transferring into indicated or effective work; or the ratio 
 between the equivalent of the horse power in heat units and the number 
 oif heat units which the engine requires to develope one I. H. P. or one 
 B. H. P. 
 
 5. Define the Volumetric Efficiency in a Four-cycle Engine: 
 
 The ratio between the weight of the air contained in the cylinder 
 at the commencement of compression stroke and that required to fill the 
 same Volume with air at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 6. What is Meant by the Scavenging Efficiency in a Cycle? 
 
 The ratio between the weight o<f air in the cylinder at the com- 
 mencement of the compression stroke and that of the mixture of air 
 and burned gases. 
 
 7. What is Necessary to Maintain a Diesel Engine? 
 Fuel, Ignition, Water-Cooling and Lubrication. 
 
 8. Explain the Working Principle of a Four-cycle Diesel Engine. 
 During the first downward stroke the piston draws air through the 
 
 suction valve; during the return stroke the suction valve and every 
 other communication with the atmosphere is closed and the air in the 
 cylinder is compressed. Toward the end of the stroke the fuel pump 
 injects into the cylinder the quantity of oil necessary for the combus- 
 tion stroke, so, that when the piston arrives on the dead center the 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 105 
 
 fuel burns rapidly, raising the temperature and the pressure in the 
 cylinder. During the next downward stroke of the piston the burned 
 gases are expanded, producing useful work. During the fourth stroke 
 the piston sweeps out the burnt gases into 'the atmosphere through 
 the open valve, after wlhich the cycle recommences. 
 
 V 9. How Much Pressure is Necessary in Supplying Cylinders with 
 Fuel Oil? 
 
 The pressure necessary for fuel injection varies with the load 
 andi the type of the engine, but is seldom lower than 540 pounds to the 
 square inch, nor higher than 1005 pounds per square inch. 
 
 10. State the Process of Injecting Fuel in the Cylinders. 
 
 The pumping /method is exclusively adopted. This owing to the 
 fact, that a force^feed system is necessary exerting a pressure in ex- 
 cesis with the existing pressure in the cylinder. 
 
 11. Explain the Function of the Fue^-injection Valve. 
 
 The fuel-injection valve is one of the characteristic parts of the 
 Diesel engine. Its if unctions are \two-lold: first, that of a valve to intro- 
 duce the fuel oil into the cylinder at the correct moment; and, second, 
 that of a sprayer to divide the fuel into minute particles. 
 
 12. What are the Duties of a Compressor on a Diesel Engine? 
 
 The duties of ithe Compressor on Diesel Engines are to supply 
 high pressure necessary ifor the injection of the fuel oil into the 
 working cylinders during the running of the engine, and to supply air 
 for storage purposes into cylindrical steel reservoirs. 
 
 13. What are Reservoirs of Cylindrical Form Called and What are 
 They Intended For? 
 
 They are called the starting bottles and act as a storage reserve 
 power connected to cylinders through a system of yalyes and pipes. 
 
 14. How Much Air is Usually Required to Start Engine? 
 Depending on the size and respective type of engine. 
 
 15. How is a Compressor Constructed? 
 
 In two or three stages, between each af which the air is cooled 
 by passing throuigih a reservoir of water. 
 
 16. What advantages are there by Using Multiple Stage Compressors? 
 The multiplication of the stages of compression improves the 
 
 volumetric efficiency of the compressor and diminishes the amount 
 of -work absorbed besides allowing of better cooling of the air. 
 
 17. What is a Scavenging Pump? 
 
 The function of the scavenging . pump is to compress air to 
 a low pressure to free the working cylinders of two-cycle engines of 
 the exhaust gases, to be charged afresh with jpure air for the next 
 combustion stroke. 
 
106 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 18. Can Scavenging be Effected Without Valves? 
 
 Yes, there is nothing to prevent the scavenging being effected with- 
 out valves, as described for explosion engines, and applied in some 
 Diesel engines, more especially for low powers. Scavenging with 
 valves is more complete in its effect, and the weight of air which re- 
 mains in ithe cylinders is greater. When the scavenging is carried 
 out by means of single ports, the latter are closed 'before those of 
 the exhaust, and iso the pressure in the cylinder is no greater -than that 
 of the atmosphere. On the other hand, with valve scavenging the 
 valves are closed after the piston has covered the exhaust ports, and 
 so the pressure of the air in the cylinder before the compression 
 stroke commence'S is that given by the scavenging pump, between 3 
 and 7 pounds per square inch. 
 
 19. Why is the Diesel Engine Classified as Constant Pressure Engine? 
 Mechanical means are adopted for obtaining pulverization or 
 
 spraying by assistance of an injection device, the heavy fuel-oil into 
 the cylinder by means of a current of air at a pressure considerable 
 higher than that present in the cylinder itself; thus the fuel is sub- 
 divided into minute particles and forms a kind of mist. If the air 
 in ithe Cylinder /at ithe instant when the injection takes place is at 
 a sufficiently high temperature, the mist of oil spontaneously ignites, 
 and the combustion lasts the whole time during which the oil con- 
 tinues to enter, assuming the character of gradual combustion as oppos- 
 ed ito explosion. In this way the combustion takes place in "Constant 
 Pressure" or -Diesel Engines. 
 
 20. Why are Heavy Oil Engines Classified as Internal Combustion 
 Engines? 
 
 Heavy oil engines convert the heat energy of the fuel into the 
 engine cylinder itself. The heavy oil, injected into the cylinder in a 
 suitable 'condition, ignites, burning with the oxygen of the air therein, 
 and so evolves heat. 
 
 21. Why are a Great Many Engines Equipped With Only One or Two 
 Air Starters? 
 
 As a rule, only one or two cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine 
 are provided with -starting valves, thus reducing the cost of the engine 
 In some engines automatic means are provided for keeping the exhausi 
 valves open during starting, compression being avoided until the engine 
 is well up to or past its normal speed to s'ave compressed air in start- 
 ing. Some engines have a blow-off cock in the head of tne cylinder, 
 which is kept open for a time in starting; this is also used to blow 
 off inimical 'substances. 
 
 22. Explain the Working of "Air-operated Piston Valves." 
 
 In some construction "mechanically operated" starting valves 
 are eliminated, independent air-operated piston valves being substi- 
 tuted. These receive the starting air ithrough a rotary distributor 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 107 
 
 operated by the cam-shaft. The rotary distributor can be connected 
 or disconnected when the engine is running or is at rest. The fuel 
 valve likewise is thrown in iby a central control. This 'Construction 
 eliminates the cam and the fulcrumed lever for each starting valve 
 used with the other tyipes. 
 
 23. Explain the Functioning of "Actuating Valves." 
 
 The time of opening and closing of the different valves of Diesel 
 engines musit be accurately controlled; they are therefore not self- 
 acting but are operated mechanically. 
 
 24. Explain the System of "Rocking Levers and Cam." 
 
 The usual method of actuating the valves on Diesel engines 
 is through a system of rocker lever and cams; the latter are mounted 
 on a horizontal shaft near the top of the cylinders. The cam shaft 
 is driven through a set of helical gears, running in oil. by a vertical 
 shaift which in turn is driven through another set of helical gears from 
 the engine shaift. The vertical shaft has the same speed as the main 
 shaft; the <cam shaft runs at half the speed of the main shaft in 
 engines having a four-stroke cycle and at the same speed as the main 
 shaft in engines having a itwo-stroke cycle. The (governor, usually of 
 the through-shaft type, is mounted on the vertical shaft, as this has 
 the 'higher speed. This arrangement permits the use of a smaller 
 governor of the standard type. 
 
 25. How Are Pistons on Diesel Engines Water-cooled? 
 
 The water (for piston cooling may be circulated through teles- 
 copic pipes, with the stuffing box a moving part of the piston, or the 
 stuffing box may be attached to the frame and the water be supplied to 
 the piston through hollow walking arms through which the water flows 
 through the pipes leading to the piston. A pump may be actuated from 
 the crosshead and the water be carried to the piston through the 
 hollow piston rod. In another cooling system water is sprayed by air 
 against the heated piston surface, not enough water being used to fill 
 the water <space of the ipiston. The excess water drains off through a 
 pipe surrounding the spray pipe, no stuffing box being used. 
 
 26. Is the Trunk-piston Preferrable to the Cross-head? 
 
 The trunk piston is more easily provided with a greater bearing 
 surface than a cro&s-head ; thus insuring less wear. The lubrication 
 under pressure of a cylindrical guiding surface is more effective tihan 
 with open guides. The piston moves over perfectly cooled walls, where- 
 as the cross-heads tend to heat more readily and when once hot is 
 not easily cooled; moreover, water-cooled cross-heads complicate con- 
 struction. For large engines this construction is used, as it affords 
 greater accessibility and ease of adjustment, the cross-head guides in 
 such engines 'being water-cooled. 
 
108 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 27. What Are the Usual Methods in Lubricating Cylinders on Diesel 
 Engines? 
 
 The 'cylinders are lubricated by providing each cylinder with 
 a force-feed pump operated by a reducing motion from the end of the 
 piston or with a multiple-plunger pump driven by an eccentric device 
 direct from the cam shaft, one plunger being provided for each work- 
 ing cylinder and one for each air-compressor cylinder. In some en- 
 gines two plungers per cylinder are provided, one for each pair of 
 the four oil feeds grouped around the cylinder. Two-stroke Diesel 
 engines usually have separate oil feed above and below the exhaust 
 ports to prevent any excess of lubricating oil from being swept through 
 the exhaust ports. 
 
 28. Explain the Retarding Method of Injecting Air and Fuel. 
 
 In the cylinder of large engines the .fuel needle can be so governed 
 that the entrance of ithe injection air and fuel into the combustion 
 space is retarded and gradual, preventing excessive use of injection 
 air cooling of the atmosphere at the point when the ignition must 
 be maintained. By these means tar oil can be ignited without the use 
 of ignition oil. To remove the fuel needle from the valve it is neces- 
 sary in some constructions to remove the nut holding the spring bonnet 
 and cap into place, as well as the two nuts that fix the position of the 
 rocker arm through which the needle valve is actuated. 
 
 Construction that facilitates the removal of the fuel needle is of 
 decided advantage, 'as the valve needle has to be removed when it 
 has to -be ground and frequent grinding is necessary. Fuel needles 
 have to be ground weekly or monthly, depending on the quality of the 
 fuel oil. The use of oils with high ash contents necessitates more 
 frequent grinding of the needle. The needle is turned back and forth 
 in its seat, a small quantity of emery dust and oil should be used. 
 
 29. Explain the Construction of Valve Attachment. 
 
 Connections of the copper seamless steel tubing used for carrying 
 the air and fuel under high pressure are made with joining the ends of 
 the pipes to a copper shank terminating in a cone which fits into a 
 tapered seat machined out of the body. A steel gland nut slipped over 
 the 'copper ishank is pressed against the cone to seal the seated con- 
 nection. To seal the air chamber of the fuel valve and prevent leak- 
 age of air around the valve needle, lead or babbit metal shavings 
 mixed with flaked graphite are used as packing material, secured by 
 appropriate glands, a series of labyrinth grooves on the valve needle 
 constitutes an added precaution against serious leaks. 
 
 30. At What Degree does Timing Usually Occur? 
 
 The time at which the different valves are opened or closed 
 differs widely with different makes of engines. The air valve opens 
 15 degrees to 20 degrees before the piston reaches the top dead cen- 
 ter, and closes 15 to 20 degrees past the bottom center, being open 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 109 
 
 a total period of 210 to 220 degrees. The fuel valves open 2 degrees 
 to 8 degrees before the piston reaches -the top center, and closes 18 
 to 36 degrees after the piston has passed the top center, being open 
 20 degrees to 44 degrees. The exhaust valves open 25 to 45 degrees 
 before the piston reaches the bottom center, and closes 8 to 14 degrees 
 after the piston has passed the top center. 
 
 It should be taken in consideration, that the type of fuel valve 
 and the properties of the liquid fuel burned, greatly influences the 
 timing of the (fuel valves. 
 
 CAUSES AND EFFECTS IN THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF 
 DIESEL ENGINES AND REMEDIES. 
 
 1. What is the Maximum Piston Travel iPer Minute and R. P. M. 
 Similar to the Steam Reciprocating Engine, the Diesel Engine 
 
 is rated in piston travel to 1500 feet per minute. Its revolutions per 
 minute are rated with rare exceptions up to 400 R. P. M. 
 
 2. How Should Valves Be Set on Diesel Engines? 
 
 To set the spray, intake and exhaust valve, first know that shafts 
 are in their proper position. Adjust cam roller clearances; giving 
 the exhaust about .30 degree, intake about .025 degree and spray about 
 .018 degree. 
 
 Jack engine ahead until the pointer on the after end of the 
 housing is in line with some graduation on the fly-wheel that is 
 marked for the opening of some valve. When the engine is in the po- 
 sition where some valve should open, the cam roller for that valve 
 should be just starting on the cam; and if not, adjust the roller by 
 screwing in or out on adjusting screw in upper end of rocker arm. 
 Proceed on all other valves the same as the first. After setting of 
 all valves go over roller clearance once more. After final adjustment 
 no roller should be left on the cam or close enough that the expansion 
 of the valve stem will cause the roller to ride the cam. This applies 
 specially to the exhaust, because that valve gets more heat than any 
 of the others. All relief valves are set by connecting them to a hy- 
 draulic testing machine and adjusted to open at their required pres- 
 sure. 
 
 (Note: Above rule for setting valves is identical with almost every 
 type of Diesel Engine, differing in minor details). 
 
 3. What May Cause the Engine to Slow Down? 
 
 Water in fuel, piston seizure, hot bearings, propeller (on marine) 
 fouled, low compression, 'always, if mechanical defects are not sus- 
 pected, test fuel oil, /and if the fuel is up to standard requirement the 
 engine should 'be stopped and again throughly examined. 
 
J10 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 4. What Precaution Should be Taken With Circulating Water and 
 Spray Air System? 
 
 'Strainers should be kept clean. All valves kept in good repairs. 
 All leaks should be stopped immediately after they are located. 
 
 5. What Causes Non-circulating of Water Through Engine? How Detect? 
 
 How overcome? 
 
 Air pockets in water-space or foreign matter blocking up pass- 
 ages. If there 'are air-pockets, they can be ^detected by hot spots in 
 cylinders. Usually the air-pockets shift from space to space and can 
 be eliminated by opening air-cocks on cylinders. 
 
 6. What May Cause the Air Compressor to Furnish Insufficient Air? 
 How is it Indicated? How Locate Trouble? What to Do? 
 
 Leaky valves, leaky rings, too much clearance on top of pistons. 
 If suction valves are leaking, the suction line will heat and gauge pres- 
 sure on proceeding stage will run high. If discharge valves are leaking, 
 gauge pressure on proceeding stage will run low. Leaky rings will 
 cause the first stage to build up; if it is the second or third stage, or if 
 the first stage, air will blow into crank case. 
 
 If volume clearance is too -much, all pressure will run high 
 except the third stage. If valves are leaking, they must be re-ground. 
 If rings are leaking, they must be re-newed. If clearance is too great 
 piston must be raised. 
 
 7. What Causes Cylinder and Cylinder-heads to Crack? How to Detect? 
 
 One of the principal causes is over-heating. In the case one 
 cracked, it will be observed by lack of firing, causing stopping. To 
 detect, shut off ifuel and open try-cock, when water will be noticed 
 flooding cylinder. 
 
 8. If No. 5 Cylinder Head is Cracked so that the Circulating Water 
 Runs into the Cylinder; r. is Important that the Engine Continue 
 Running. What to Do. 
 
 Cut a strip of tin that is wide enough to cover water port in 
 the head and narrow enough to pass between the studs that secures 
 the flange to the head. Loosen off nuts on studs and force the tin be- 
 tween the flange and the gasket, leaving the 'gasket between the tin 
 and -the flange on the connection to the header. Secure the nuts and 
 close off the valve that connects water line to the bottom of that cylind- 
 er. Free inside of cylinder of water. Drain water out of the head. 
 Cut out that cylinder, so that it cannot fire and run again. 
 
 9. The Exhaust Rocker Arm Breaks On No. 7 Cylinder of Starboard 
 Engine, (when twin) there are no Spare Rocker Arms Aboard. 
 What to Do, to Keep Engine Running. 
 
 Remove broken parts. Take the intake rocker arm and put it in 
 place of broken rocker. The intake valve will open with the suction 
 created by the piston on its suction stroke. If the valve spring is too 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 111 
 
 strong, same may be ground off of each end. This cylinder will not get 
 enough air for full power but will do very well for normal running. 
 
 10. How Would You Adjust the Compression on the Working Cylinders? 
 
 First, take compression cards on all working cylinders; which 
 is done in 'following manner: 
 
 Connect Indicator gear to the cylinder. Start circulating pump. 
 Build up pressure. 
 
 Turn the engine over (with motor, when equipped with same) and 
 build up speed to about normal running speed. Then open the cock 
 allowing the pencil of indicator -to make <four or five strokes on the 
 card. Then close off cock and shut down the engine. Take a card 
 in this way on each cylinder of engine. When taking cards the fol- 
 lowing should be noted: There should be no valve leaks. Roller clear- 
 ances should be adjusted and then the engines should be run at the 
 same speed for each cylinder when taking cards. 
 
 After cards are taken, the cards must be carefully (measured to 
 find out how much compression there is in each cylinder ; then the 
 compression can be raised or lowered as the case may require in the 
 following manner: 
 
 Jack the engine over, so piston reaches top center of cylinder 
 to be worked first. Remove the nuts from the crank pin 'bolts, leaving 
 bolts and brasses in place . The bolts can be locked in place. Put pin 
 through bottom cylinder wall beneath the piston to take the weight 
 of piston. 
 
 Again jack the engine slowly by hand until crank has traveled 
 far enough on its own down stroke, to allow the piston to come down on 
 the pin through the cylinder. The pin will hold the piston and allow 
 the crank brass to leave the connecting rod. When doing this, the 
 crank pin bolts must be carefully watched, so that they will not catch 
 in the holes in the foot of the rod. After the brass is far enough from, 
 the rod, the compressor liners can be attended to also; minimizing or 
 adding as the case may require. 
 
 After the right amount of liners are between the top of the 
 brass and bottom of the rod, jack the engine back to top, secure the 
 bearing and remove the pin which is through the bottom of the cylindei 
 
 When working on the cylinder is completed, compression must 
 be taken again and cards measured as before. Each cylinder should 
 have very near the same compression, which is usually about 480 
 pounds per square inch, although cylinders will fire with much less 
 compression. 
 
 It is advisable, to not allow over 10 pounds difference between 
 the highest and lowest compression to exist. 
 
 When adjusting compression after installing a new piston or 
 new rings, on one piston it should be set about 10 pounds lower than 
 the other cylinders, because as the rings wearing in, the compression 
 
112 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 will increase until the rings are worn smooth, then compression should 
 be readjusted. It will usually be found too high. 
 
 11. How is the Governor Adjusted? 
 
 Usually on Diesel governors, the place where the governor cuts 
 oft' the fuel, is controlled by the tension on the top spring in the 
 governor. The tension of the spring is regulated by a threaded 
 bushing at the lower end of the spring. The bushing is secured with a 
 lock nut. The greater the tension on the spring the greater speed the 
 engine will reach before governor cuts off the fuel. The adjusting 
 bushing is screwed in a certain distance, thereby bringing a certain 
 tension to ibear on the spring. 
 
 'The engine is then run to ascertain where the governor cuts 
 off the fuel. The tension may then be properly regulated according 
 to the required revolution. The lower spring only takes up all lost 
 motion, keeping the stem from oscillating. 
 
 12. If Engine Should Lose Compression, Where Would You Find the. 
 Trouble? 
 
 (1) Sticky inlet valve; (2) Fitted or corroded exhaust valve; 
 (3) Improper seating of either valve; (4) A loose or open compression 
 tap; (5) Defected piston rings; (6) Leaky gaskets; (7) Lack of lubri- 
 cation around cylinder walls, etc. 
 
 13. How Would You Detect a Leaky Spray Valve? 
 
 There will .be a loud thump in the cylinder, caused by premature 
 firing. 
 
 14. How Would You Detect a Leaky Fuel Check? 
 
 Cylinder will fire light and some times miss, especially when 
 running slow or when carrying high spray air. To test: Open fuel by- 
 pass. If air blows through the drain line, it is a sure sign of leaky 
 check. 
 
 15. How Would You Detect Too Low Spray Pressure? 
 
 iSpray valve will heat; caused by fuel burning in the valve body. 
 (This is liable to cause sticking of valve) If the spray pressure is high 
 enough to prevent oil burning before it enters the cylinder and jet 
 not high enough to give a proper mixture, there will be black exhaust, 
 caused by incomplete combustion. 
 
 16. How Would You Detect Excessive Lubrication? 
 
 White smoke, often is caused by too much lubricating oil burning 
 in the cylinder. 
 
 17. How Would You Detect Improper Combustion? 
 Black smoke denote improper combustion. 
 
 18. How Would You Detect a Leaky Exhaust Valve? 
 
 A leaky exhaust valve will usually heat up and sometimes stick. 
 The temperature of the exhaust gases will be too high. 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 113 
 
 19. How Would You Detect One Cylinder Missing? 
 
 The engine will slow down, and if floating the motor, (where motors 
 are in use for starting purpose) the Ampere-meter will register 
 an irregular load, and by opening try cocks. 
 
 20. How Would You Detect Too Low Compression? 
 
 Cylinders are liable to miss, especially if running slow. Use 
 indicator and take compression card by cutting off spray air and opening 
 on fuel, so there will be no expansion and no raise in pressure caused 
 by injection air. 
 
 21. How Would 1 You Detect Leaky Air Cooler? 
 
 The discharge pipe from cooler to next stage suction will heat up; 
 caused by air blowing the water from around the coil. This will fre- 
 quently happen, if the next stage suction is leaking, but if the valve is 
 leaking, the end of the pipe next to compressor will be hottest. The 
 gauges wlill also show if the valve is leaking. 
 
 22. How Would You Discover if the Third Stage Coil Is Leaking? 
 
 If the third stage coil is leaking, the spray air line will heat up 
 and very often the entire engine \will heat or the cylinder next to the 
 leaky coil; or if the engine has a relief valve on the circulating water 
 it may raise. 
 
 23. How Would You Detect a Leaky Oil Cooler? 
 
 This can be discovered, if the water pressure is greater than the 
 oil pressure, accomvanied by filling up sump tank, and if tested with 
 nytrate of silver it will show wsalt. If the oil pressure carried is greater 
 than the water pressure, the pump will run down too fast with a conse- 
 quential greasy circulating water discharge. 
 
 24. How Would You Detect a Leaky Air Starting Valve? 
 
 This can be discovered by extreme heating of pipe leading to 
 wards starter. 
 
 25. How Would You Detect a Sticky Spray Valve? 
 
 iSticky spray valves will cause a loud thump in the cylinder and 
 sometimes raise the cylinder relief valve. 
 
 26. How Would You Detect Cam Rollers Being Heated? 
 
 This may toe caused by the exipansion of valve stem, causing the 
 roller to be in contact with the cam all the time. They may also hold 
 the valve off its seat. 
 
 27. If the Third Stage Air Compressor Discharge Valve was Acting 
 Slow, Where Would You Find the Cause? 
 
 This may be caused by broken spring or carbon on valve. Thi.s 
 will cause the second stage (pressure to run too high. 
 
114 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 28. What Causes Heating of Clutch Collar? 
 
 This is due to spider not being pulled past center of the shoes. The 
 collar should run free at all times. 
 
 29. What Causes Slipping of Clutch? 
 
 This is indicated by engine racing, also the clutch band on the 
 fly wheel will heat up. 
 
 30. If Repeated Breakage of Crankshaft Should Occur, How Would You 
 Account For It? 
 
 Repeated breakage of crank shaft of Diesel engine is likely 
 *due to unequal working in cylinders, causing shocks and undue impacts. 
 A crank shaft usually breaks after the material has become crystallized, 
 and when a break has occurred it may toe "taken for granted, that more 
 or less crystallization has taken place throughout the whole crank shaft 
 material. The original can be nearly recovered by heat treatment, and 
 the whole crankshaft should be so treated occasionally, at least when 
 ever part is repaired by welding. 
 
 31. What Effect Has An Undue Amount of Water in Fuel Oil of Engine? 
 Water lowers the heating value of the oil, as its evaporation con- 
 sumes fuel; it also lowers the temperatures of the combustion space. A 
 purchaser should not pay for water and the cost of transporting it when 
 lie is buying oil. Fuel oil should not carry more than 0.5 per cent of 
 water. Mechanically entrained water, which will separate from the 
 oil and accumulate in the bottom of thei fuel tank, will cause failure of 
 ignition, and if it displaces the oil in the fuel valves long enough, the 
 engine will stop. 
 
 32. What is the Burning Point of Oil? 
 
 The "'Burning Point" of an oil is the temperature at which it ignites 
 and continues to iburn in an open cup. The burning point is no criterion 
 of the usefulness of an oil for use in Diesel engine, save that it is a 
 further index of the fire hazard. The nearer the burning point to the 
 flash point, if the flash point is low, the greater is the fire hazard. 
 A low flash point and a high burning point indicate the presence of high 
 volatile oils mixed with heavy oils. The burning point is 10 degree 
 to 50 degree C. and rarely 100 degree C. higher than the flash point. 
 Extreme differences usually indicate crude oils that have not been 
 "topped," or mixtures of volatile and heavy residual oils. If the flash 
 point is sufficiently high to preclude fire hazards, determination of 
 the (burning point is superfluous. 
 
 33. What Effect Will "Ash" Deposites of Fuel Oil Have on the Engine? 
 
 Ash is the most detrimental remnant of the burning of fuel oils 
 for Diesel engines, as it causes excessive wear of cylinders and exhaust 
 valves. The ash is usually composed of mineral particles of great 
 hardness, such as quartz and sillicates, or oxides or iron aluminum, 
 which, becoming mixed with the film or lubricating oils, adhere to the 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 115 
 
 piston and cylinder walls, accumulate, and causes excessive wear. An 
 ash content in excess of 0.05 per cent will render an otherwise ex- 
 cellent fuel unsuitable for use in a Diesel engine. 
 
 34. What Importance Has Parafine Content in Fuel Oil? 
 
 The parafme content of an oil is important merely in its physical 
 effect on th e oil. Oil with an appreciable parafme content may soli- 
 dify or become highly viscous at low temperatures (0 degree to 15 de- 
 gree C.) Moderate heating of oils will obviate any difficulty from 
 the sluggishness at low temperature due to parafine content. 
 
 35. What Effect Has "Asphalt" Content in Fuel Oil on Diesel Engines? 
 
 High asphalt content points to high content of constituents that will 
 produce a coke residue. If the coke residue of an oil is satisfactory, its 
 asiphalt content may be disregarded as being of no importance. High 
 asphaltum content makes an oil objectionable for use in engines with 
 fuel-valves that are closed by fuel needles. It tends to gum the needle 
 and causes it to stick. By heating the oil sufficiently to make it more 
 liquid, this objection is greatly removed. Such oil is as a rule highly 
 viscous and they have to be heated to cause the necessary fluidity. 
 
 36. If Engines Are Running and Bilges Are Afire What Should Be Don'e? 
 Stop engines immediately, give fire alarm and shut down blowers or 
 
 any other machinery that causes circulating of air. 
 
 Start fighting fire with apparatus with which boat is provided. If fire 
 has started from electrical appliances, all switches must be pulled. If fire 
 cannot be stopped any other way, it may be smothered by getting all 
 hands out of the engine room and close water-tight doors and prevent all 
 fresh air from entering engine room. 
 
 MACHINERY MATERIAL 
 1. Define the Meaning of Strain: 
 
 Whenever a force is applied to any member of a machine or structure 
 the shape is altered. The change in any linear dimension is called the 
 strain and the change per unit of linear dimension is called the unit 
 strain. 
 
 2 Define Stress: 
 
 If a machine part is acted on by forces, there exists a tendency 
 within a body to resist the external force to tear apart or to crush the 
 body. The unit stresses and unit strains correspond respectively to loads 
 applied to machine. 
 
 3. Ultimate Strength: 
 
 In tension tests of machine material there is usually a corresponding 
 figure dealing with defined load of maximum proportion before rupture 
 
116 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 should occur. The unit stress corresponding to this load is called the 
 ultimate strength, or, more briefly, the ultimate for the material. 
 
 4. What Are the Principal Ingredients in Steel? 
 
 Carbon and iron are the principal ingredients in steel, but special 
 steels of great strengths and toughness are made by alloying carbon and 
 iron with other elements. Commonly alloy steels are: Nickel steel, 
 Tungsten steel, Vanadium steel and Manganese steel. 
 
 5. Name the Uses for Following Metals on Machinery: 
 
 (a) Lead, Tin, Zinc: These metals are used in special cases in which 
 strength is not requisite, and in which resistance to chemical action is 
 necessary. They are used in alloys for bearings on machinery. 
 
 (b) Brass: This is an alloy for zinc and copper. It is used for small 
 machine parts, in which resistance to corrosion is of importance. It is 
 also used as a bearing metal. 
 
 (c) Bronze: This is an alloy of copper and tin. It is used where 
 resistance to corrosion is necessary, and where strength is also required. 
 It is used as a bearing metal in the highest grade of bearings. It is very 
 expensive as compared with other metals of similar use. 
 
 6 What is the Approximate Composition of Babbit Metal? 
 
 The approrimate composition of babbitt is tin, 89 parts copper, 4 
 parts; antimony, 7 parts. 
 
 7. What materials Are Machine Frames Made Of? 
 
 For engines, where little vibration exists, cast iron is the material 
 generally used on account of its low cost. 
 
 8. What Material Is Used for the Manufacture of Cylinders? 
 
 Cylinders are almost exclusively made of cast iron, while in lighter 
 machines aluminum is used in particular for high speed engines. Usually 
 the thickness is determined not by consideration of strength, but by com- 
 sideration of foundry practice. It is impossible to cast a very thin cyl- 
 inder. Cast iron makes a much better bearing metal for the rubbing of 
 the piston than does steel. 
 
 9. What Material Is Used for the Manufacture of Shafting? 
 
 Cold rolled steel is very widely used on account of the ease and 
 cheapness with which it can be rolled true to shape and size. 
 
 10. Where Is Nickel Steel Preferable to Common Steel? 
 
 Nickel steel is widely used where high strength is necessary, as on 
 valves on Internal Combustion Engines. A Nickel content of 3.5 per cent 
 makes steel stronger and resistant to shocks. Nickel strengthens steel 
 without reducing its ductillity to any great ertent, hence Nickel steel 
 is tough. 
 
 11. What Effect Has the Adding of Vanadium to Steel? 
 
 Vanadium in the form of ferrovanadium adds great strength to steel, 
 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 117 
 
 and seems to be especially valuable in adding resisting power against re- 
 peated application of stress. Vanadium seems to benefit cast iron, prob- 
 ably on account of its tendency to remove oxygen from the iron. 
 
 12. What Effect Has the Adding of Tungsten and Molybdenum in Steel? 
 The presence of Tungsten and Molybdenum in steel so affects the 
 
 critical temperature, at which steel changes from a very hard material 
 to a much softer material, that with proper heat treatment Tungsten and 
 Molybednum steels retain their hardness at a red heat. 
 
 13. What Effect Will Titanium Have on Steel? 
 
 Titanium is used as an ingredient for steel, and renders the steel 
 more uniform in quality throughout. 
 
 14. What Effect Will Manganese Have on Steel? 
 
 A Manganese content of greater than 7 per cent makes steel very 
 strong and tough, but so hard -as to be practically unworkable. Man- 
 ganese steel usually contains about 12 per cent of Manganese, and while 
 by the exercise of great care it may be forged or rolled, it is usually cast 
 directly into the desired shape of the finished product. 
 
 15. What Effect Will Chromium Have on Steel? 
 
 Chromium makes possible a steel of great hardness and strength. 
 Very often it is used in connection with nickel in making special grades 
 of steel. 
 
 16. What Effect Will Copper Have on Steel? 
 
 The adding of about 1 per cent of copper has no marked effect on 
 the strength or ductility of steel, but greatly diminishes the tendency 
 to corrosion. 
 
 17. What Effect Will Silicon Have on Steel? 
 
 A Silicon content of about 4 per cent increases the magnetic perme- 
 ability of steel and also its electrical resistance. This combination maikes 
 an excellent steel for the magnetic circuits of electrical machinery. Sili- 
 con always tends to give steel an acid reaction, and hence a low Silicon 
 content is always found in basic steel. 
 
 18. What Effect Will Carbon Have on Ste-el? 
 
 Carbon up to 1.25 per cent increases the strength of iron, and the 
 increase is approximately proportional to the carbon content. 
 
 19. What Is Semi-Steel? 
 
 The melting of 20 to 50 per cent of steel scrap with pig iron pro- 
 duces semi-steel. The product is a cast iron of high strength and low 
 carbon content; it is not steel. In the manufacture of iron castings in 
 which strength is important, Semi-Steel is used. ' 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 There is no doubt that maximum fuel economy is attained in a Diesel 
 engine at a certain load when air and fuel are used in a certain propor- 
 tion. But this point may be prevented by overheating, pounding, car- 
 bonization, or undue strain on the machinery. Engines designed for 
 high compression are also designed for considerable excess of air at 
 rated full load. Reducing this excess by injecting more fuel might shock 
 certain mechanical parts beyond endurance. Too much air rt-sults in a 
 lower temperature of ignition and, apparently, a slower rate of burning. 
 Either conditions lowers efficiency for reasons pointed out in following 
 lines, considering basic principles of Diesels. 
 
 The theoretical thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine is 
 given by .the expression (T o T I ) = T o . 
 
 T o is the absolute temperature at the beginning of the working stroke 
 and T I is the absolute temperature at the end of the same stroke. Abso- 
 lute zero is 461 degrees below zero on the Fahrenheit scale. A tempera- 
 ture of 70 F., for instance, means 531 referred to absolute zero. From 
 the above efficiency formula it is evident that a high temperature of 
 combustion at dead center and expansion to low temperature are the 
 theoretical as well as some of the practical requisites of fuel economy. 
 High temperature at, dead center is secured by high compression in a 
 small clearance space and by complete combustion of just the right fuel 
 proportion before the piston has begun the working stroke. If only part 
 of the normal charge is compressed in a fixed clearance, or if the excess 
 of air is too great, or if combustion continues during the working stroke, 
 maximum efficiency cannot be obtained. No one engine in practical 
 operation overcomes all these "ifs" under light load condition. 
 
 One theoretical way of securing the ideal condition would be (1) 
 to vary the quantity of mixture containing constant proportions of fuel 
 and air, and (2) to vary the clearance volume in accordance with the 
 quantity of fuel mixture so as to maintain the same degree of com- 
 pression at all loads. The first requirement is practically reached by 
 the carburetion engine, but a fixed unvariable clearance volume exists in 
 all types of engines treated herein. 'Consequently the carburetion charge 
 does* not receive maximum compression during light load. Since the 
 air intake is not throttled down in semi-Diesel and Diesel cylinders 
 at light loads, compression remains more nearly constant. But the 
 proportion of fuel is cut down and combustion is supposed to be slower, 
 both of which conditions reduce the maximum temperature. In one 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 119 
 
 respect the Diesel cycle is a cross between carburetion and semi-Diesel 
 principles. Compression pressure is nearly constant as in the semi- 
 Diesel cylinder but the total supply of air can be partly reduced with 
 less fuel at light load (as in the carburetion cylinder) by governing the 
 supply of injected air through hand regulation of compressor valves. 
 
 Prolongation of Diesel fuel injection avoids abortive pressures but 
 prevents full utilization of heat from the beginning of the working 
 stroke. Injection of water with fuel has a similar effect in other engines. 
 
 One valuable but only partial compensation, in the case of low 
 compression in any type of engine, is the fact that a greater degree of 
 expansion is secured at light load. Theoretically, appreciable fuel econ- 
 omy would be added toy increasing the ratio of expansion beyond that 
 existing in practical engines. A longer stroke relative to clearance 
 would be necessary. The atmospheric volume of air would then have 
 to be reduced for the beginning of compression to avoid injurious pressure 
 at the end of this stroke. Design of expansion in practical machines 
 is a compromise between fuel economy on one hand and commercial 
 and mechanical limitations on the other hand. In general, the higher 
 the compression in a given type, the lower is the ratio of expansion 
 required to attain equal efficiency. 
 
 In the case of the semi-Diesel engine the supply of air for each 
 working stroke at different loads remains nearly the same. This 
 means a great excess of air at light load when the fuel supply is 
 cut down. Compression pressure remains about the same, but explosion 
 temperature is reduced. Because of the short time available for the 
 fuel and air to mix in this type, it is probable that a larger excess 
 of air is required. Also an efficient device is necessary to divide 
 the oil into fine particles, especially when a heavy grade is burned. 
 If the oil is not properly divided and distributed, it is liable to "crack" 
 or decompose into parts from hydro-carbon gases down to pure carbon. 
 This latter is the cause of much grief. In most semi-Diesel engines, 
 oil is forced through one or more fine openings in the fuel nozzle. 
 Its mechanical motion in contact with the hot ignitor surface help to 
 mix it with the air. Some combustion chambers have practically no ob- 
 struction of openings into the cylinder. As will 'be seen in the article 
 on the Fairbanks-Morse "Y" engine, which uses no injection water, 
 represents the other extreme. Oil is injected against a hot tube fixed 
 inside a spherical chamber. The bulb connects with the cylinder through 
 a round opening. 
 
 Oil is broken up mechanically, in the Diesel cylinder, by the com- 
 pressed air which accompanies it past the nose of the fuel needle. 
 Excess of air is governed partly toy its supply pressure, which in turn 
 iL controlled by hand valves on the compressor. The excess runs some- 
 what the same as with semi-Diesel operation. Combustion takes place 
 directly behind the piston, but does not result in so sudden an explo- 
 sion and shock, on account of the gradual admittance of fuel. The high 
 
120 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 heat of compression effects positive ignition upon comparatively heavy 
 oils. 
 
 Generally speaking, the higher the degree of compression just be- 
 fore ignition the greater is the efficiency. This is an example of the 
 law applied to heat engines which states that the per cent of heat 
 converted into work varies with the range in temperature during ex- 
 pansion. High compression in a small clearance volume results in a high 
 temperature and pressure during combustion becoming available during 
 expansion to lower temperatures and pressures. 
 
 Semi-Diesel and Diesel engines are allowed higher compression 
 because fuel is not admitted until the piston is ready for the combustion 
 impulse. Diesel type engines are of course built to withstand the high- 
 est pressures of all. Fuel is introduced by a further supply of com- 
 pressed air during the first part of the working stroke, an arrangement 
 which allows more gradual combustion instead of instantaneous ex- 
 plosion. The average period of time opening of the fuel valve may be 
 considered from 12% to 15% of the stroke. 
 
 Experiments in efficiency tests of Diesels have proven, that the 
 conversion of energy is well near to 35 '/ from the fuel into outside 
 mechanical work. From this maximum with various engines and loads, 
 the 'percentage ranges down to zero, in which latter case just enough 
 fuel is admitted to run the engine without load. 
 
 FUEL INJECTION VALVES 
 
 Of the numerous mechanical contrivances and different accessor- 
 ies necessary, none is more important than the device causing the fuel 
 to be brought in direct communication with the existing heat in the cylin- 
 der, caused -by compression, than the Fuel Injection Valve. 
 
 The functions the fuel injection valve has to perform are two-fold: 
 In the first place, that of a valve to introduce the fuel oil into >the cylin- 
 der with equal regularity; and the second, that of a sprayer, to divide 
 the fuel into minute particles, causing a "constant volume." 
 
 The operation of this valve may be explained in following: The 
 valve arrangement is formed by a needle, ending in a cone, held accurate 
 on a conical seating by the valve spring. A lever actuated by a cam, 
 raises the needle at the required moment, establishing communication 
 between the fuel injection valve casing and the cylinder. 
 
 The spraying is effected by means of a number of washers, pro- 
 vided with small holes, and by a cone grooved along its gentrating lines, 
 threaded by a tube usually made of bronze. In placing the washers, great 
 care should be taken in properly "lining of holes on washers," the same 
 never to be placed hole to hole, but rather so that the hole of the next 
 following washer is irregular placed. 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 121 
 
 The washers may be minimized when a change of fuel takes place. 
 That applies to difference in gravities, with consequental results in 
 lower or higher viscosity, as the case may be. 
 
 A small hole, running through the center of the steel diaphragm 
 directs the air, assisting the action of the valve in the proper distri- 
 bution of its fuel. 
 
 Demonstration of actuating valves through cams 
 
 Very often, the clogging of the channel hole in the check valve 
 causes complication and when taking the valve apart, the trouble may 
 be discovered. 
 
 It is necessary to clean interior parts of fuel injection valve from 
 foreign matters, and impurities assembling in the channel must be elim- 
 inated. 
 
 The oil delivered under pressure from the fuel injection pump, is 
 directed into the fuel injection valve just above the perforated washers, 
 and assisting the high pressure compressed air from the fuel injection 
 bottles fills the sphere around the sleeve. At the moment the valve 
 spindle raises, the air at 50 to 70 atmospheres 700 to 1,000 pounds per 
 square inch rushes into the cylinder, in which the pressure is now 30 to 
 35 atmospheres 430 to 500 pounds per square inch drawing with it the 
 fuel, which, in passing through the holes of the washers, is divided in a 
 fine mist. 
 
 The fuel oil in this state of "fog" enters the combustion chamber, 
 containing the heat of ignition, to use the expression, at the end of the 
 compression strokes it spontaneously ignites. The combustion takes 
 place practically at constant pressure throughout this period of the 
 stroke, during which the oil continues to be forced into the cylinder. 
 
 It is vital that the valve actuating gear in functioning its lifting 
 
122 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 and opening of valve should not be influenced by variation of load of 
 engine. The pressure per ratio between the interior of the fuel injec- 
 tion valve casing and the cylinder should remain constant. In this 
 
 Diagram of Valve Settings of Crankshaft on Four-cycle Engine 
 
 way no variation of velocity efflux and the quantity of air issued with 
 each working stroke occurs, immaterial of existing horse power of en- 
 gine. 
 
 While the supply and the demand, regulated, corresponding to the 
 load capacity of the engine, is taken care of through the fuel injec- 
 tion pump and its governor arrangement, it is seen that the desired 
 amount of fuel necessary to keep up the momentum of impulse is in this 
 way properly maintained. 
 
 An oil injection nozzle used on the 
 Giant Oil Engine is seen in the illustra- 
 tion. This is a distinctly exclusive fea- 
 ture patented by the Chicago Pneumatic 
 Tool Company. 
 
 It is screwed directly into the center 
 of the combustion chamber head. It con- 
 tains a ball check valve and is a novel 
 departure from the usual spring type and 
 numerous similar injection nozzles used, 
 working identical in working operation. 
 
 As the inspiration and compression 
 strokes are common to all types of en- 
 gines and the method of injection is the 
 
 Oil 
 
 Injection Nozzle of 
 Ball-Check Type 
 
 the 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 123 
 
 main feature under discussion, a detailed description of the injection 
 and combustion period will be gone into. 
 
 During the inspiration stroke, a measured quantity of fuel is de- 
 livered near the bottom of the fuel injector just above the needle valve 
 on engines using the method of established types generally used. 
 The injection air, which in all cases is well above the compression 
 pressure, is forced against the fuel, atomizes it and forces it into 
 the cylinder. One point worthy of note is the fact that the action of 
 the injection air thoroughly atomizes the fuel prior to injection, and 
 upon this atomization depends the combustion efficiency of the cycle. 
 The amount of fuel, as before stated, is regulated >by the fuel pump and 
 governor. The duration of the injection or combustion is also regulated 
 according to the load on the engine. For light loads the injection 
 valve remains open a shorter period than for heavy loads. Aside from 
 the advantage of thorough atomization there is one great objection to this 
 method of injection, namely refrigeration during injection. 
 
 Valve Settings of Double-Port-Scavenging Two-cycle Engine 
 
 As the compressor pressure is about 500 pounds and the injec- 
 tion pressure between 700 and 1000 pounds, there will ibe a very rapid 
 expansion of the injection air from the maximum to the compression 
 pressure. This rapid expansion causes a great reduction in the tempera- 
 ture of the injection air and fuel, just as rapid compression causes 
 
124 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 an increase in the temperature. The effect of this sudden reduction of 
 temperature causes a time lag in the combustion because cold fuel is 
 difficult to ignite as well as the collection of small particles of fuel 
 on the piston, at which point local iburning occurs. The result of this 
 is an invariable sag of the piston head due to excessive local tempera- 
 ture. Were it possible to use highly heated air for injection, this re- 
 frigeration would to a great extent be overcome. However, with the 
 Diesel method of injection, combustion would take place to the injection 
 valve prior to the injection period. It is well to note, that in the 
 Diesel engine the fuel injection is in mechanically timed relation to 
 the piston position, 'but as the injection and compression pressure are 
 always constant, the rate of injection is also constant. 
 
 In accompanying illustration a Car- 
 els type of fuel inlet valve is shown. 
 It follows the principle of valves used 
 on most engines. The amount of oil 
 desired to enter is automatically re- 
 gulated (by the action of the governor 
 on the pump, depending on the require- 
 ment. 
 
 In accomplishing the pulverizing the 
 oil is forced through its entire passage 
 into the spraying arrangement, con- 
 sisting of four metal rings with usual- 
 ly about 20 holes drilled into them of 
 the size of 1/10 to 1/16 of an inch in 
 diameter. The holes in the washers, 
 or rings, are placed in staggering po- 
 sition to accomplish proper spraying 
 results. Beneath the washers is a 
 conical shaped piece, acting as a 
 guide to allow the oil to pass into 
 small passage ways, in similarity to 
 nozzles. 
 
 It enters then direct into the cylin- 
 der by the expanding orifice, made of 
 steel, the guides of the needle valve 
 usually cast of iron. With the high 
 pressure of the injection air, in the 
 period when the lifting of the needle 
 
 valve takes place, the fuel is forced through the pulverizer by the air 
 in minute particles of fine spray into the combustion chamber where it 
 is ignited coming in contact with the compression temperature. 
 
 Ignition Failures: There are numerous causes of ignition failures 
 on Diesels. If, when attempting to start the engine, ignition fails to 
 occur, it may be attributed to one or more of the following causes: Low 
 Compression; Cylinders too cold; Insufficient fuel; Fuel injection too 
 late; failure of spray-air supply. If the engine cannot be brought in 
 
 Carelfi Type of Fuel Inlet 
 
 Valve used on Norclbrry 
 
 Diesels 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 125 
 
 motion after repeated attempt, an investigation should be made and 
 causes determined and the same be remedied. 
 
 The compression in the cylinders should in first place be given due 
 attention. If the compression is not sufficiently high, the desired tempera- 
 ture necessary to ignite the oil is too low. In many instances this is 
 due to leaky cylinder head or valve cage gaskets. If leaky relief valve, 
 this defect will be noticeable by the noise of escaping air. 
 
 Lack of sufficient fuel or total failure of supply to cylinder may 
 be caused by an empty fuel service tank or through stoppage of fuel 
 in the fuel line between measuring pump and tank. Examine all valves. 
 
 On some types of fuel-measuring pumps the air-starting gear and 
 pump mechanism are not interlocked in such a way that the pumps 
 are automatically put into operation when the engine begins to turn 
 by air. In this case it may happen that the pump levers are not properly 
 brought in the operating position before starting. 
 
 i 
 
 Settings of Valve-Scavenging Two-cycle Engine 
 
 Because of the small quantity of oil handled per stroke by the fuel 
 measuring pump and the high pressure pumped against, this pump 
 is very sensitive to air that may 'be present in oil. A fundamental 
 requirement in good pump design is that no pockets may be permitted 
 in the oil passages in pump or valve chamber, where air might collect 
 but many pumps have 'been and are still toeing built that do contain such 
 pockets. Most pumps are provided with vent valves so that the collected 
 
126 FUEL PEED AND IGNITION 
 
 air may be blown out. Sometimes the fuel may be prevented from reach- 
 ing the pump by an air pocket in the pipe between the pump and the tank. 
 
 A very common cause of failure of fuel supply is leakage of air 
 past the check valves. In all closed nozzle-type spray valves the 
 mixing chamber in the valve body, where the spray air and oil mix be- 
 fore entering the cylinder, is always in direct communication with the 
 spray-air system and consequently is filled with air at injection pres- 
 sure. In order for the fuel pump to force the oil into this chamber 
 against the air pressure, it is essential that the oil pipe be full of oil 
 right up to the inlet to the valve chamber, so that when the pump 
 forces a small amount of oil into the pump end of the pipe, an equal 
 amount will be forced out of the other end into the valve chamber. 
 
 It is obvious that if this pipe is partly filled with air, the oil column, 
 when acted upon by the charge of oil being forced into the pipe by the 
 pump, will simply compress the air and no oil will be discharged into 
 the valve. If the discharge valve of the fuel pump is perfectly tight, 
 no air from the spray-valve chamber can force its way into the oil 
 pipe after the pipe is completely filled with oil, but the fine grit present 
 in nearly all fuel oil makes it very difficult to keep this valve perfectly 
 tight very long. For this reason practically all Diesel engine builders 
 install a check valve in the oil line to each spray valve, as close as 
 possible to the point of entry of oil into the spray-valve body. This 
 valve closes against the air pressure in the spray-valve body so that 
 the oil column in the pipe is subjected to pressure only during the time 
 the pump is discharging into the line at one end and forcing the oil 
 through the check-valve at the other. With this arrangement a pump 
 will work quite satisfactorily even though the discharge valve is not 
 perfectly tight, as long as the check-valve remains tight. 
 
 The spray-valve should be tested occasionally. This valve can be 
 tested while the engine is stopped, by turning spray air from the bot- 
 tles into the air line to the spray valve and then opening the by-pass in 
 the fuel-oil line near the check valve. If the valve leaks, the air will 
 blow out of the by-pass. If there is no by-pass in the line, the oil 
 pipe may be disconnected at the pump and the air will blow out there. 
 
 Before making this test, the engine must be jacked around until 
 the spray valve, to which is attached the line being tested, is in the 
 closed position, so that the spray air will not iblow into the cylinder. 
 In order to provide additional insurance against spray air leakage into 
 the fuel lines, some builders provide two check valves in each oil line 
 and two discharge valves in each pump. 
 
 Leaky suction valves in the fuel pumps, or valves stuck open, 
 may be responsible for the failure of the oil to reach the cylinders. 
 Examination of the valve and seats will usually indicate a leaky condi- 
 tion. 
 
 When the fuel contains considerable water, the water may settle 
 to the bottom of the supply tank, while the engine is stopped, in suffi- 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 127 
 
 cient quantity to fill the pump, so that water instead of oil will be in- 
 jected into the cylinders. The obvious remedy for this is to drain all the 
 water out of the system before attempting to start the engine. 
 
 If the fuel is not injected into the cylinders until after the com- 
 pressed air has started re-expanding as the pistons move away from the 
 heads and increase the cylinder volume, the temperature of the air 
 may have fallen so low that it will not ignite the oil, and the effect 
 produced is the same as in the case of low compression. This late 
 injection may be caused by the adjustable nose on the spray-valve oper- 
 ating cams slipping. The clearance between cams and rollers may be 
 too great or the valves may be clogged so that the fuel does not flow 
 rapidly enough. The cams should be examined to see if they have slipped 
 on the shaft; if they have not, then the cam toes may need advancing 
 by means of the adjusting screws. The rollers should be examined to 
 'see if any are badly worn or broken. Each valve should be checked with 
 the dial plate or the valve-setting marks on the flywheel. 
 
 Top view of E. G. Cylinderhcad (Nordberg Engine) 
 
 If the spray-valves are clogged so that the fuel is retarded in its 
 passage through the valves, an abnormal rise in spray-air pressure 
 will be noted if the compressor suction is open wide when the engine is 
 turning on starting air. 
 
 The capacity of the spray-air bottles is often so small that if the 
 spray-air compressor does not begin charging immediately upon start- 
 ing the engine, the result will either be complete ignition failure or 
 ignition will occur for a few revolutions, then fail as the pressure 
 in the bottles falls. When this occurs, no further attempts to start 
 should be made until the compressor trouble is located and remedied. 
 
 The most common cause of loss of compressor capacity is broken 
 or leaky valves. The location of the defective valve may be determined 
 by observing the gage pressures in the different stages while the engine 
 is turning over. An abnormal rise in pressure in the first 01: second 
 stage indicates that air is leaking back through the discharge valve in 
 
128 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 129 
 
 that stage. Rise of pressure in the high stage may indicate a closed 
 stop valve in the discharge line to the engine, clogged strainers or 
 clogged spray valves. 
 
 If an excessive amount of lubricating oil is used in the compressor, 
 a jelly-like emulsion will be formed, which will lodge in the strainers 
 and interfere with air flow. If the compressor shows loss of capacity, 
 with pressure below normal in all stages, it may be due to obstruc- 
 tion of the suction of the first stage. In the case of compressors 
 that are regulated by throttling, this suction loss of capacity may be 
 found to be due to the suction valve being closed. 
 
 Another cause for rapid loss of jspray-air pressure is sticking 
 of spray valves. If a spray-valve stem jams in its guide so that the valve 
 is not forced back to its seat by its spring, the spray air will blow 
 into the cylinder during the whole cycle and so much air will be blown 
 away that the pressure in the system will fail. A condition of this kind 
 will make itself known by very severe explosions in the affected cylinder, 
 due to pre-ignition of fuel that has been blown into the cylinder too 
 early in the cycle. 
 
 If the jacket-water circulating pump is started before the engine, 
 it may happen that the cylinder walls and cylinder heads may be 
 chilled to the point where ignition is interfered with, this condition 
 being most likely in cold climates, during the winter months when the 
 cooling-water temperature is very low. This cooling affects the ignition 
 in two ways; it reduces the temperature of the compressed air in the 
 engine cylinders and it also increases the viscosity of the fuel oil after 
 it is deposited in the spray-valve cavity, so that atomization of the 
 oil is more difficult and its passage through the valves is retarded. 
 In cases, where this trou'ble is experienced, it is best not to start the 
 cooling-water circulating pump until after the engine is started. When 
 steam is available, it is advisable to make a connection to the water 
 system so that the circulating water may be heated and the cylinders 
 warmed up before starting the engine. 
 
 FUNCTION OF FUEL INJECTION PUMP 
 
 Inasmuch, as the fuel delivered to the Combustion Chamber must 
 be in excess of the pressure (from 45 to 75 atmosphere i. e., 640 to 
 1,100 pounds per square inch) in the valve casing, due to the fuel in- 
 jection air, the pump in itself has to be exceedingly strong and above 
 all mechanically well proportioned. 
 
 Properly speaking, the pump regulates the running of the engine, 
 delivering the exact amount of fuel necessary on the combustion stroke 
 corresponding to the load capacity of the engine. 
 
 It will be seen, from the detailed description of the different 
 makes of engines explained in this book, that the design of the pump 
 differs but very little. 
 
130 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 The piston is always of the plunger type, made of steel; the 
 valve of bronze material, cast iron or steel, with conical seatings, 
 one suction and one, or two in series, for delivery, loaded with light 
 springs, and accessible for immediate examination or where the require- 
 ments of cleaning or grinding calls for it. The joints of the copper 
 delivery pipes are usually made with conical connections. 
 
 Almost every pump is of a very massive design, manufactured 
 of cast iron body; the plunger and other moving parts withstanding 
 pressure have carefully packed glands. 
 
 The pump, which acts under control of the governor according to 
 the load on the engine requires' careful attention. In particular, this 
 is true when the engine runs under low power, lightly, endeavoring to 
 supply the dense, and viscous fuels employed. A very small bubble of 
 air in the pump chamber sometimes is the cause of stopping the action 
 of the pump. The plunger in its slow motion merely compresses and ex- 
 pands the pocket of air without causing the valve to raise. 
 
 It appears to be difficult to design a pump overcoming reaction 
 of the engine governor caused by variation of the speed requirement of 
 the engine. These difficulties usually are overcome by the method of 
 variation of plunger pump stroke. 
 
 While in many cases the regulation is not obtained by an altera- 
 tion of the plunger stroke, but a quantity of oil corresponding to the 
 whole pump cylinder volume passing the suction valve each suction 
 stroke. 
 
 This explains the reason why the "fuel injection pumps of Diesel 
 engines draw an excess quantity of oil than actually required, a part 
 of this goes to the fuel injection valve, the surplus passing back through 
 the suction valve during part of the period of the delivery stroke. 
 
 An oil pump, as 
 used on the 
 Giant Engine, is 
 shown in the il- 
 lustration, this 
 pump is operated 
 by means of the 
 eccentric, rocker, 
 cam, and the 
 pump rod. 
 
 The quantity of 
 oil injected into 
 the cylinder at 
 each stroke of 
 the piston is de- 
 termined by the 
 length of the 
 stroke of the 
 pump plunger. 
 The length of 
 
 OUTLET 
 
 INLET- 
 
 Oil Injection Pump of the Giant Oil Engine 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 131 
 
 to O 
 
 to to 
 
 , 
 
 5 & 
 
 5 
 
 e 
 
132 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 
 
 this stroke is, in turn, determined by the position of the plunger cam, 
 which in turn, is determined by the speed of the engine governor. 
 
 Before attempting to start the engine, the pump should be thoroughly 
 cleaned. This is best done by unscrewing the plugs at the top and bot- 
 tom of the pump body, removing the steel ball valves, and washing 
 out thoroughly with gasoline or kerosene. 
 
 In most engines a special reservoir is provided, which usually 
 is first filled by means of a hand lever. Before starting, make sure 
 that all the oil pipes and connections are clean, and then assure the 
 tightening of all joints eliminating all possibilities of assembling of 
 inside-air, which as previously explained, may cause air pockets. 
 
 The importance of perfect tight joints, owing to high compression 
 pressure must be emphasized. Leaky valves or connections are fre- 
 quent occurrences, in particular where they are in contact with high 
 pressure. 
 
 Satisfactory operation of pumps and all mechanical contrivances 
 depends in most every case on the operator and the safest method 
 of assurance in proper operation of the plant is to be alert at all times. 
 The cleaning of valves is a necessary matter which should never be 
 neglected, in particular where fuel oils are used with ash ingredients. 
 
 FUEL PUMP AND CONTROL END OF WORTHINGTON 2-CYCLE 
 
 DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 Referring to illustration, showing outline cut of fuel pump and 
 control end of four-cylinder engine, speed regulation is obtained by open- 
 ing a by-pass and not by variation of the length of the fuel pump stroke. 
 
 The amount of fuel supplied to the cylinder depends on the time of 
 opening of the by-pass valve. This in turn depends on the angular posi- 
 tion of the eccentric shaft, which is controlled by the governor. 
 
 The governor, which is located on the end of the engine crank shaft, 
 is connected to the eccentric shaft by suitable links. Any increase in 
 the engine speed from normal will cause the governor to turn eccentric 
 shaft through a small angle which at the same time will lift end of by-pass 
 lover. When the fuel pump plunger raises the by-pass lever and by-ipass 
 plunger, by-pass valve will be opened earlier. As a result. of this ear- 
 lier opening of the by^pass valve, more fuel is by-passed back to the fuel 
 supply reservoir, thus reducing the amount supplied to the cylinder and 
 promptly bringing the speed back to normal, withont changing the time 
 when injection starts. 
 
 Eccentrics keyed on the engine crankshaft drive the fuel 'pump 
 plungers through tappets, as shown. The upper ends of the eccentric 
 straps are provided with hardened steel contact rollers and are guided 
 by links, replacing the crosshead and guide construction previously used. 
 The pump plunger tappets pass through a partition, which prevents fuel 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 133 
 
 oil leaking down into the control housing and mixing with the lubrica- 
 ting oil. All running parts are splash lubricated by oil from end main 
 bearing, overflowing back to the crank case pump so as to keep a high 
 level in the control housing. 
 
 A hand adjusting screw at the end of the by-pass lever makes it 
 easy to equalize the oil delivery from all plungers on multi-cylinder en- 
 gines. Pump plungers take oil from a constantly full suction tank with a 
 strainer, through which fuel oil is circulated by the fuel oil supply pump. 
 
 COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND SPRAY VALVE, WORTHINGTON 2- 
 CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 Referring to illustration of cylinder head and spray valve, the opera- 
 tion of the spray valve is extremely simple. The check valve back of the 
 spray orifice disc is held on its seat by a light spring and lifted very 
 slightly by the oil flow pressure at each delivery stroke of the pump. 
 The oil is distributed; to ten small holes arranged in a circle and one 
 at the center. These produce ten slightly diverging high velocity jets 
 that break into spray near the injection orifice merging one into the 
 
 Section of Cylinder and Head of Worthington Diesel Engine Two-cycle,. 
 
 Solid Injection) 
 
134 
 
 FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
 other and with the center jet. The amount of fuel injected is controlled 
 at the fuel pump by a by-pass valve which opens' at a variable point of 
 the stroke to stop delivery of oil. The oil pump is operated by an ec- 
 centric on the end of the crank shaft. Oil delivery always starts at the 
 same time,, i. e., when the fuel pump tappet strikes the pump plunger. 
 This occurs at a time when the motion is rapid, so as to secure a quick, 
 sharp injection. Fuel in a finely divided state, is sprayed directly into 
 the injection chamber when the compression is high enough for the 
 air to ignite the fuel. This chamber! is completely water jacketed. 
 
 Exposed view of spraying arrangement as used on Worthington latest 
 Two-cycle Solid Injection Engines. It should be noted here that en- 
 gines of the Worthington type can be manufactured from one H. P. up. 
 
 The small amount of air In the injection chamber receiving the 
 full fuel charge, permits only part of it to burn, gasifying the rest, 
 and without any shock pressures. The form of fuel oil spray is such as 
 to use only part of the injection chamber air during injection. The un- 
 burned fuel and unused air pass through an ejection orifice to the com- 
 bustion chamber when the pressure in thePinjection chamber is greater 
 than in the cylinder, and complete burning takes place during the first 
 part of the downward stroke of the piston. The rate of circulation in the 
 cylinder is mainly controlled by the movement of the piston itself. 
 
 The compression pressure, and the maximum combustion pressure do 
 not normally exceed 450 and 500 Ibs. per square inch, respectively and the 
 latter may even be no higher than the former. 
 
 The non-explosive combustion, without any possibility of -explosive 
 shock pressure, makes the expansion as smooth as possible under any con- 
 dition. The engine being two-cycle, every outstroke is the same, and this 
 combined with the compression on every instroke adds greatly to the per- 
 fect operation of this engine. 
 
FUEL FEED AND IGNITION 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 TWO-CYCLE vs. FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINES. 
 
 The relative superority of two or four-cycle internal combustion 
 engines for marine purposes is one of the most debated questions at 
 the present moment from a theoretical as well as from a practical stand- 
 point; thus it forms daily the subject of discussion, lectures and articles 
 in technical review. The chief purpose of this article is to co-ordinate 
 the arguments which have been alleged for and against both types in their 
 best form of construction, and to endeavor to draw a conclusion after 
 careful consideration of all points of the question. 
 
 The advantages which are usually attributed to the two-cycle engine 
 as compared with the four-cycle type may be briefly stated as follows: 
 
 (A) The two-cycle engine developes a greater power than the 
 four-cycle with the same number and size of cylinders and the same num- 
 ber of revolutions. This advantage of the two-cycle types is due to the 
 fact that the four-cycle type gives an impulse for each cylinder every 
 two revolutions, while the two-cycle type gives an impulse each revo- 
 lution, theoretically the two-cycle type should therefore develope, under 
 the same conditions, a power double that of the four-cycle type. In 
 practice, however, the said theoretical limit has never been reached, tout 
 at present it may toe said that the power developed toy a two-cycle en- 
 gine is 175 per cent, to 190 per cent of that of the four-cycle engine, 
 and it may be added that while the mean effective pressure in the four- 
 cycle type is about 5 kg. per cm. 2( 71 ib. per sq. in.) that of the two- 
 cycle is practically of 4.4 kg. to 4.75 kg. per cm. 2( 62 to 67 Ib. per sq. in.). 
 
 The essential advantage of the two-cycle type brings as a con- 
 sequence a remarkable reduction of space and weight, which may be 
 approximately calculated in the following manner: As there is no reason 
 that a four-cycle cylinder with its framing and driving gear (assuming 
 the same Intensity of stress of the materials) should weigh less than 
 a two-cycle cylinder of the same size, and as the weight can be 
 practically considered to be proportional to the volume swept by the 
 piston, therefore, for the same power and number of revolutions, the 
 ' cylinder of the two-cycle engine (175 per cent being taken as the power 
 ratio of the two-cycle to the four-cycle type) has a weight which is 
 57 per cent of that of the four-cycle engine. 
 
 This average is somewhat reduced toy the fact that the two-cycle 
 engine needs scavenging pumps, and as, according to circumstances 
 and to the different design of the pumps, their weight can be considered 
 as being 8 per cent to 12 per cent of the weight of the cylinders, it 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 137 
 
138 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 results that the weight of the two-cycle type will be 62 per cent of 
 65 per cent as compared with the weight of the four-cycle. The above 
 figures seem also practically confirmed, though there is always some 
 difficulty in comparing numbers quoted by different constructors, for 
 they do not always state which parts of the equipment of the plant are 
 included or excluded from the figures published. But besides the saving 
 of weight there is also the saving of space. 
 
 It must be noted that the saving of space by the two-cycle types 
 has also as a consequence a considerable saving in the cost and weight 
 of the engine seat as well as in the dimensions of the engine-room, 
 facilitating the supervision and control of the machines. 
 
 (B) The turning-moment in the two-cycle engine is far more reg- 
 ular (for the same number of cylinders) than in the four-cycle type; 
 the results of even the four cylinder two-cycle type are far more regular 
 than those of the six-cylinder four-cycle engine. 
 
 This advantage of the two-cycle engine is not merely theoretical, 
 but in practice results in a minor intensity of the vibrations of the 
 stern end of the ship, 'besides a reduction in size and weight of the line 
 of shafting and consequently of its fittings, such as supports, stern 
 tube, etc. According to Lloyds Register the section of the shafting 
 of a six-cylinder four-cycle engine (for the same power and the same 
 number of revolutions) ought to be 45 per cent, greater than that 
 of the six-cylinder two-cycle engine. Furthermore, the reduced size 
 of the flywheel in the two-cycle engine and the reduced space permits 
 of placing the engine nearer the stern, not only saving in the length 
 of the line of shafting, but also increasing the space available on 
 board for the cargo. 
 
 (C) The two-cycle engine offers greater facility in reversing as 
 compared to the four-cycle type, which is due to the fact that in the 
 former the exhaust of the burnt gases takes place thru ports in the 
 cylinder wall, so that in order to reverse the running of the start- 
 ing valves, the alternation in the timing of the scavenging valves is 
 very readily made by rotating the cam-shaft relatively to the crankshaft, 
 while the alteration in the timing of the fuel and starting valves (these 
 valves having but a small lift) can be readily effected by employing 
 double cams sliding on the shaft. 
 
 In the four-cycle type on the contrary, besides the alteration in 
 the timing of the fuel and starting valves, it is necessary separately 
 to reverse the inlet and exhaust valves; and as the latter operation re- 
 quires a different rotation on the cam-shaft, it is not possible to em- 
 ploy the simple device of the two-cycle type, but much more complicated 
 mechanism becomes necessary. 
 
 Referring further, to the starting and reversing devices, it may be 
 added that the necessity of being able to start the engine whatever 
 be the position in which the cam-shaft has stopped, that phase of the 
 starting air does not permit of a reduction in the number of cylinders 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 139 
 
 to less than six in the four-cycle type, while the two-cycle came can be 
 constructed with but four, and be kept in its perfect manoeuverability. 
 
 (D) With the two-cycle engine the inertial of the reciprocating 
 parts such as connecting rods, pistons, etc., is balanced at top-dead 
 center by the pressure on the piston, which cannot be realized in 
 the four-cycle for the exhaust and suction strokes; as a consequence, 
 in the four-cycle type in order to avoid the possibility of their break- 
 ing and the great damage this would cause. 
 
 (E) The two-cycle engine does not require any exhaust valve for 
 the burnt gases, and in the engine provided with port scavenging there 
 is no need of any valve subjected to the action of the burning gases; 
 in the four-cycle type the exhaust valves are the source of well known 
 troubles and even in the case their tightness and durability is increased 
 by using more or less complicated cooling devices, the danger of 
 their falling into the cylinder, with all its serious consequences, can 
 never be fully eliminate. 
 
 It should be noted that the exhaust valves of the four-cycle engine 
 are the parts which are the most sensitive to the quality of fuel and 
 are especially liable to suffer by the asphaltum and sulphur sometimes 
 present in heavy oils of certain origins. For a two-cycle engine without 
 exhaust valves there may consequently be used certain kinds of fuel 
 which are not suitable for a four-cycle engine. 
 
 Against the advantages above referred to as to the two-cycle type, 
 the advocates of the four-cycle engine oppose some objections which 
 partially apply to all two-cycle engines; and partially apply to special 
 types or to constructive details of them. These objections may be 
 briefly stated as follows: 
 
 (a) In favor of the four-cycle type it has been said that the ex- 
 perience of the gas engine has lead back again, (after a period of pre- 
 ference for the two-cycle engine, so that it is convenient to select again 
 the four-cycle type). 
 
 Against this objection we may note that the example of the gas 
 engine, as compared with the four-cycle, shows the disadvantage of 
 a greater consumption and of the inefficient regulation at light loads; 
 the greater consumption being due to the fact that a certain amount of 
 gas is always mixed with the scavenging air because the two fluids 
 cannot remain wholly separated, and so unburnt gas escapes with the air 
 thru the exhaust ports without producing any useful work. The bad 
 regulation is due to the difficulty of having the right mixture in case 
 of light loads, because in the two-cycle engine it is impossible to 
 regulate the power without diluting the explosive mixture. Neither of 
 the said inconveniences exist in the Diesel engines, the scavenging being 
 made with pure air and the regulation being obtained in exactly the same 
 manner in both the two-cycle and in four-cycle types. Moreover, it 
 may be stated that notwithstanding the said inconveniences, which can- 
 not be neglected, the gas two-cycle engines are still constructed, and 
 
140 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 in work for many hundred-thousands of horse-power, from which we may 
 draw the conclusion that the two-cycle engines offer other real advan- 
 tages. 
 
 More suitable than the example of the gas engine for comparison 
 is that of the hot-bulb engines where the two-cycle type is preeminent, 
 for the Bolinder, Skandia, Fairbanks-Morse, Petter, Torbinia types, 
 a. s. o., have almost completely eliminated the competition of the four- 
 cycle type, especially for high power. 
 
 Referring now to some failures of the two-cycle Diesel engine, 
 it may be said they are mainly due to constructive defects; numerous in- 
 conveniences have been experienced in the engine with stepped pistons, 
 and it would therefore be wrong to attribute these failures to the type 
 of the engine in itself, instead of to defects in design. 
 
 The supporters of the four-cycle type allege that the two-cycle 
 engines are far more complicated, not only on account ofi the scaveng- 
 ing pumps, the piping and the receivers relating thereto, but also on 
 account of the greater complexity of the valve gear. 
 
 Against this assertion it may be objected that the air pumps 
 which undoubtedly constitute an added organ, by no means interfere with 
 the reliability of the working of the engine, as they are always working 
 at very low pressures and temperatures, like the low-pressure cylinders 
 of steam engines; and constructively it is certainly more rational to 
 employ a suitable air pump instead of using, for half the time, for 
 displacing the air, enormous pistons which have been designed and fitted 
 with rings for at least a hundred times higher pressure. 
 
 Referring now to the valve gear, the complexity pertains exclusively 
 to that two-cycle type of engine having scavenging valves in the cylinder 
 heads, whilst in the recent type with port scavenging, besides the 
 fuel and the starting valve (like that of the four-cycle type), there 
 is only the scavenging valve to control. This is light and easily dis- 
 placed, as it is not subjected to the highest pressures and temperatures 
 of the cycle, and it does not require to be perfectly tight. This valve 
 can easily be replaced by a rotary valve. In the cylinder of the four- 
 cycle engine, instead of one scavenging valve there are two at least to 
 be controlled, and very often two inlet and two exhaust valves, which, 
 being placed in the combustion chamber, require to be perfectly tight and 
 need an precise and reliable operating gear in order to withstand the ef- 
 fort of the powerful closing springs. 
 
 In favor of the four-cycle type it has been furthermore affirmed 
 that its fuel consumption is far lower than that of the two-cycle engine. 
 Now even, if it must be admitted, that this objection is correct in re- 
 lation to the first two-cycle engines which were constructed, and is 
 also applicable to some present motors of defective construction, it has, 
 nevertheless, lost much of its importance when comparing the four-cycle 
 engine with the best known modern two-cycle engines. 
 
 't is true, that some excessively low figures have been singly re- 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 141 
 
 ported for the consumption of four-cycle engines, but they can toe safely 
 overlooked upon consideration of the circumstances of the test or of the 
 uncommonly high consumption of the lubricating oil, which, has obviously 
 partially burnt as fuel, so that the above stated results can be quoted 
 as corresponding to the best up-to-date constructions. Though they still 
 show a slight advantage for the four-cycle engine, this is no greater 
 than 3 per cent, or 5 per cent, and if we consider the other element re- 
 quired for calculating the real working 1 , expenses, this difference is not 
 of great importance. It must, indeed, be noted that the installation of 
 two-cycle instead of four-cycle engines for a given type of ship, results 
 in a saving in weight and space, and therefore a reduction of displace- 
 ment and the possibility of increasing the run of the stern (this leading 
 to a reduction in the power for propelling the weight and the space 
 taken by the propelling plant) have the greatest influence. Furthermore, 
 it may be added that, even if the question of the weight and space should 
 be regarded as a secondary one, sftill the two-cycle engines show the ad- 
 vantage that the particulars being the same, it can develope the same 
 power as the four-cycle one at a much lower speed revolution, with the 
 consequence of rational and systematic experiments, in a few years, from 
 250 grams or 260 grams per brake horse power, to the present values, it 
 will still improve until it reaches and even surpasses the low consump- 
 tion of the four-cycle type. Theoretically, there is no reason why this 
 should not happen, for the thermal efficiency is the same in both types, 
 and the power required by the two-cycle engine cannot be greater than the 
 power expended in driving the main pistons of the four-cycle engine to 
 work half the time as pumps themselves. 
 
 Finally, besides the fuel consumption, that of the lubricating oil, 
 which is much more expensive, ought to be considered. It is obvious 
 that the two-cycle engine should require a less quantity of oil than the 
 four-cycle, the load on the piston of the four-cycle engine being 50 per 
 cent greater (with the same number of cylinders and the same ratio be- 
 tween diameter and stroke) than that of the two-cycle, the pressure 
 exerted on the bearings, and on the guides being proportionately increased 
 so that the surafec to be lubricated is accordingly larger. In practice, 
 however, as the two-cycle engine may be constructed with fewer cylin- 
 ders the saving in the lubricating oil is still more evident. At present the 
 figure of 3 grammes to 4 grammes (0.00614 Ib. to 0.008818 Ib.) per brake 
 horse-power as the total amount of oil consumption is usually reached in 
 high speed engines (480 revolutions). 
 
 As another advantage of the four-cycle type, it is affirmed that the 
 cylinder wall never reaches such high temperature as in the two-cycle 
 type, so that the latter are subjected to higher internal strains and 
 thus to the danger of cracks. Now, while it is true that the ratio 
 between the quantity of fuel burnt in the four-cycle type and the surface 
 of the combustion chamber is hardly superior to one-half the same ratio 
 in the two-cycle engine, other important circumstances have been over- 
 looked which have certainly a great influence on the mean temperatures. 
 
142 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The action of the hot gases on the cylinder walls lasts certainly 
 a shorter time in the two-cycle than in the four-cycle type. While in the 
 latter the cylinder walls undergo the action of the hot gases during 
 the whole expansion and exhaust strokes, that is, practically for more 
 than half the time, in the two-cycle engine the action of the hot gases 
 lasts only for a little more than two-thirds of the working stroke, 
 
 In the two-cycle engines in which the exhaust occurs thru ports, 
 the latter open much more rapidly than the exhaust valves of the four- 
 cycle engines, and consequently there is a much more rapid diminution 
 in the temperature due to expansion. 
 
 While the exhaust temperature in the four-cycle engines is seldom be- 
 low 350 degrees D. and in the high speed engines is easily reached 450 deg. 
 or 500 deg. C., in two-cycle engines, if well constructed, this tempera- 
 ture usually remains under 250 deg. C., and sometimes it only reaches 
 200 deg. or 210 deg. C. 
 
 Not one of the hypotheses above referred to is in the favor of the 
 two-cycle engine; the hypothesis of the same initial compression tem- 
 perature in both types is unfavorable for the two-cycle type, as all 
 experiments which have been made with gas engines confirm that in the 
 two-cycle engines a much higher compression ratio can be employed than 
 in the four-cycle engine, without the danger of pre-ignition, and that 
 the mixture in the beginning of the compression is therefore cooler in 
 the two-cycle type. By measuring the diagrams with a plainmeter, how- 
 ever, the conclusion was reached that the- mean temperature of the two- 
 cycle is practically the same. 
 
 Taking account of all these elements it is fair to say the two- 
 cycle engine, from the standpoint of temperature, is in better condi- 
 tion than the four-cycle. The two-cycle engine, in which the inner 
 walls of the cylinder, after the very short action of the flame, are im- 
 mediately colled by the scavenging air current (which is supplied in 
 such quantity as to allow, besides the filling up of the cylinder, the 
 escape of the warmest portion which entered at first) is thermally 
 superior to the four-cycle engine, in which all heat must be abstracted 
 thru the walls of the cylinders with the consequent fall of the tempera- 
 ture in the walls and resultant internal stresses. 
 
 The opponents of the two-cycle engine allege that the engines of 
 this type some portion of the combustion gases remains in the cylinders, 
 especially in the upper part of them, so that the cylinder head becomes 
 excessively hot. Against this argument it must be first remarked that 
 in the foor-cycle engine at least 8 per cent of the burnt gases remain 
 to fill the compression chamber when the piston has completed the 
 exhaust stroke, and it is obvious that this remaining portion cannot but 
 contaminate the air which is drawn in during the subsequent stroke. As 
 regards to the two-cycle engine the assertion that some residue of the 
 'burnt gases still remain in the cylinder after the scavenging operation 
 is merely a gratuitous hypothesis, which is contradicted by the facts 
 above referred to, according to which the quantity of heat absorbed by 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 143 
 
 the walls is less than in the two-cycle engine, and that in the two-cycle 
 type the compression ratio can assume a greater value in the four-cycle 
 engines. 
 
 Against the four-cycle engine it has been said that the four-cycle 
 type can run with greater regularity than the two-cycle when work- 
 ing at low speed of revolutions, owing to the fact that in the two-cycle 
 engine the compression at low speed falls rapidly with the diminish- 
 ing of the scavenging air pressure. It must, however, be noted that this 
 observation is correct merely when it refers to two-cycle engines of 
 bad design, in which, owing to inefficient construction, the scavenging 
 air pressure rises, at the normal speed, to excessively high value, while 
 in the two-cycle engines, which have been carefully designed even at full 
 speed the pressure of the scavenging air remains within very small limits. 
 By the speed reduction the pressure is also somewhat reduced, but not so 
 as to cause failure of the ignition especially when the engine is hot. 
 Practically, in both the two and four-cycle types, the lowest limit of 
 speed is dependent upon the two-cycle engines is more than efficient for 
 perfect manoeuvering. Moreover, it must be remarked that the turning 
 moment of two-cycle engines being more regular, and it being possible 
 to run with half the number of cylinders and to obtain sufficiently good 
 regularity, the two-cycle engine shows in this particular point an ad- 
 vantage compared with the four-cycle type. 
 
 Authors Note: In above article it should be noted that compari- 
 son of the two-stroke-cycle vs. four-stroke-cycle type of Diesel engines 
 depends a great deal on the view of manufacturers. Each builder 
 naturally stands for the type of his particular make of engine. Both 
 types, as will be seen, have their advantages and also disadvantages, 
 depending on the class of work they are performing. While the viewpoint 
 expressed in this article represents the stand Mr. Giovanni Chiesa of the 
 Ansaldo San Giorgio Works of Turin, Italy, the stand taken by Mr. 
 Franco Tosi of Legnano, Italy, again entirely claims the superiority 
 of the four-cycle construction for Diesel Machinery, as will toe seen 
 in the article dealing with the advantage of the four-cycle over the 
 two-cycle type. 
 
 POINTS OF ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF TWO-CYCLE 
 IN COMPARISON TO THE FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE. 
 
 In this section dealing with the advantages claimed on engines built 
 on four-cycle principle, some conclusion may be gained when comparing 
 the arguments advanced by adherents to the two-stroke cycle as set forth 
 in previous pages. 
 
 The controversy as brought before the readers of this book, should 
 bring out many points in favor of either engine. For instance, it is 
 claimed by those preferring the four-stroke type, that if the same life is 
 to be obtained from the two-stroke cycle engine in comparison to its rival, 
 
144 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
PRINCIPLES OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
 145 
 
146 PRINCIPLES OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
 any advantage of reduced space and weight which it may possess disap- 
 pears. Advocates of the two-stroke cycle engine give, as one of the prin- 
 cipal reasons in favor of this type of engine, the greater power that can 
 be developed in a given size of cylinder; but this advantage is only ob- 
 tainable at the expense of the greatly increased temperature of the cylin- 
 der, piston heads, etc., which arises from the combustion of the larger 
 quantity of fuel necessary for the increased power per cylinder. 
 
 The ratio of increase in consumption of fuel per cylinder of equal 
 size, is, in fact, greater than the ratio of increase of the power obtained 
 from the cylinder, the consumption of fuel per horse-power .hour being 
 somewhat greater in the two-cycle engine than in the four-cycle. This 
 greater quantity of heat developed in each cylinder in a given time and 
 the resulting higher temperature is confirmed by the color of the surfaces 
 of the part exposed to it, and is responsible for the trouble that have been 
 experienced in the two-stroke engine. 
 
 It follows, therefore, that the two-stroke cycle engine, if designed 
 with the same size of cylinder, will have a shorter life and may require 
 more frequent overhauling than an engine of the four-cycle type. This 
 is a fact of great importance not only with heavy oil engines for cargo 
 boat propulsion, which must run uninterruptedly at long periods at full 
 load, but also for the lighter type of engine used for submarines which, 
 although not required to run fully loaded for such long periods, are sub- 
 jected to high stresses. Considerable progress has doubtless been made 
 with the two-cycle engine, and many improvements introduced into the 
 design, material, cooling of the cylinder and piston, to overcome the dif- 
 ficulties experienced. The modern two-cycle engine is thus undoubtedly 
 more reliable than the older types, but such engines have been in service 
 for too short a time for a definite judgment on them to be arrived at. On 
 the other hand, rapid progress has also been made in the design of the 
 four-stroke cycle engine, whilst many years of highly satisfactory service 
 at full load have already been recorded. Regarded in another way, if an 
 equal life is required from both types of engine which is called for in 
 both land and marine service an equal quantity of fuel should in both 
 types be consumed in a cylinder of a given size, in order to secure equal 
 temperatures. If this condition is adhered to the result will be that the 
 same power will be developed by both types with an approximately equal 
 weight and space. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DOUBLE-ACTING PISTON DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 While the single-acting piston Diesel engine has been universally 
 adopted, principally on account of its superiority in regards to simplicity, 
 nevertheless there are factors of numerous advantages in favor of the 
 double-acting piston type. From the earlier experiments carried out in 
 Germany by von Oechelhauser and Junkers, up to the present day, this 
 type has been brought to a highly commendable stage of perfection. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 147 
 
 The constructive principles on double-acting Diesel engines prove that 
 there are features which cause a high attaining of power with consider- 
 able less fuel expenditure than on engines of single-acting types. On this 
 
 wellknown Junkers engine. A German product which has many 
 advantages as a double-acting-piston engine over her rival the single- 
 acting-piston 
 
 account alone an important point is gained, balancing any questionable 
 performance in contrast to the single-acting engine. While experiments 
 with gas-engines, working on the opposed-piston principle, have proven 
 
148 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION . 149 
 
 highly satisfactory, it should be considered that problems on Diesel en- 
 gine operation, or constant pressure application, require problems to be 
 solved inherent to this class of engine. 
 
 In following explanation it will be observed that there are factors of 
 advantage in favor of the opposed type of Diesel engine. 
 
 (1) The subdivision of the aggregate stroke by using two pistons 
 achieves a large ratio of stroke to diameter of cylinder simultaneous with 
 a high rate of revolution, and thus induces favorable conditions in re- 
 gard to general economic and due to the favorable combustion chamber 
 heat economic circumstances. 
 
 (2) The use of two pistons and the exhibited solution of the mechan- 
 ism, connecting them, with the crankshaft, enable far reaching balance of 
 reciprocating parts; a far reaching relief of the main bearings; taking 
 up the forces exerted by the pistons in the mechanism itself. 
 
 (3)- The engine, constructed on the two-cycle principle with its eco- 
 nomic advantages, provides good scavenging by the aid of pistons. These, 
 with their large diameter and stroke, represent absolutely ideal govern- 
 ing elements as well as exhaust and the admittance of scavenging air. 
 
 (4) The main parts of the engine only experience undue strains and 
 stresses as are created by useful external forces, and are free from uncon- 
 trollable and, therefore, causing reliability of operation, heat and internal- 
 strains due to casting. 
 
 (5) Higher thermal efficiency with its consequential results of a high 
 utilization of the fuel. Uniform maintainance of heat temperature adding 
 towards regularity. Larger cylinder volume per power-unit convertible 
 into useful work. 
 
 The method of tandem-arrangement in opposed-piston practice, has 
 also proven highly satisfactory. In this particular system the two outer 
 pistons act directly, and by medium of the power-transmitting mechanism 
 on the center crank. The two inner pistons are connected by transverse- 
 piece and the side-rods on the side-cranks. These are set 180 with refer- 
 ence to the middle crank. As the particular type under discussion works 
 on the two-cycle, the general arrangement produces double action, i. e., 
 every stroke is a working stroke. While the pair of pistons in the one 
 cylinder are executing an outward movement, i. e., a power stroke, the 
 pair of pistons in the other cylinder approach each other, i. e., to accom- 
 plish a compression stroke, and vice versa. When the pistons of the one 
 cylinder have reached their inner dead center, the pistons of the other 
 cylinder have attained their outer dead-center position. 
 
 The scavenging process is accomplished in following manner: 
 
 At first the one row of ports is opened by the one piston and the spent 
 gases take their exit, seeking an equalization of pressure with that of the 
 atmosphere. Hereupon the other ring of slots is laid bare by the second 
 piston and a quantity of air delivered by the scavenging pumps at low 
 pressure, is admitted to the cylinder. This expels the products of com- 
 
150 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 bustion, driving them away in front of itself, leaving the cylinder as free 
 from residue as possible. Thus in this scavenging process the function of 
 governing the ports in the circumference of the cylinder devolves on the 
 pistons. The working-process during one revolution is identical to all 
 two-cycle engines, i. e., (a) admission, (b) compression, (c) power-stroke, 
 and (d) exhaust. 
 
 Every cylinder is provided with a fuel-injection valve. The forward 
 cylinder receives in addition a compressed-air starting valve. At both 
 sides of the rear cylinder the double-acting scavenging-pumps are ar- 
 ranged. These are actuated by the middle-traverse piece. In the same 
 line to the rear each of two-stages of the four-stage or three-stage air- 
 compressors are fitted. The valve-gear of the engine is actuated by cams. 
 The driving-shaft runs through under the engine. For each cylinder it 
 drives two short cam shafts carried by rocking frames, for ahead and re- 
 versing, respectively. By rotating the rocking supports about the center 
 line of the driving-shaft from the controlling-platform the ahead and re- 
 versing cams may be brought into contact with the valve-lever roller, res- 
 pectively. On each of the cam shafts a starting-cam is situated between 
 two injection cams. The lower fuel-valve on each cylinder is actuated 
 directly by a lever. The other valve is worked by a circuit of rods lead- 
 ing to the top of the cylinder. The moving of the starting valve is effected 
 by medium of an interposed lever. The three rollers for each cylinder are 
 placed axially relatively to one another. The interposed lever for actuat- 
 ing the starting-valve is mounted on an eccentric journal, so that it can 
 be put out of action by the levers leading to. the controlling-platform. For 
 reversing it is only necessary to swing the rocking-frames over and keep 
 the starting-valves in action till the engine is rotating in the contrary 
 sense. 
 
 EFFECTS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STRESSES 
 
 The importance of designing Diesel engines eliminating all possibility 
 of undue stresses of either internal or external forces is imperative. Not- 
 withstanding the possibility of restricting the stresses set up in materials 
 of other prime movers to external forces, when the cylinder-walls and cor- 
 responding parts are suitably proportioned; it is utterly impossible to ob- 
 viate stresses produced by internal forces, where there is a permanent 
 heat-flux and a consequent temperature-difference to be dealt with. Such 
 is the case with the cylinder-walls in the internal combustion engine. 
 
 The large difference in the heat-transfer per unit of surface at the 
 single sections of the shell must be considered. Under the influence of the 
 temperature-difference the hot cylinder sections tend to expand more than 
 the colder ones. Thus, the shell experiences a strain due to tensile or 
 compressive-stresses. This is again balanced by expansion due to an 
 equalization of heating, an augmented flow of heat is natuarlly to be an- 
 ticipated. This is to be accounted for by the piston conducting the heat 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 151 
 
 taken up at its bottom to the external and internal cylinder parts, distrib- 
 uting the heat from the hotter cylinder-sections to the cooler ones, laying 
 more remote from the combustion space. 
 
 In a case where the shell contains a hole, the fibre in the vicinity ot 
 the boundary of the perforation experience a stronger strain, causing a 
 consequential danger of cracking of material. The reducing of heat- 
 stresses, inevitable in the internal combustion engine, and, increasing 
 tremendously with the sizea of modern engines of large capacities, to tol- 
 erable values, by appropriate measures, is a problem which requires con- 
 sideration. Combustion chambers should be provided with plain walls, 
 possible to withstand the severest heat-impulses. 
 
 Engine Frame of Standard Engine (Vertical Type) 
 
 Correct designs of cooling-arrangements obviating as far as possible 
 existing high-temperatures difference is also a factor which deserves men- 
 tion. Provisions in designing two-cycle engines, creating a governing 
 element for scavenging, which with great simplicity and reliability of op- 
 eration would perfectly satisfy the important conditions to be enforced, 
 are of material importance. These consist in opening and closing exhaust 
 and scavenging-areas as rapidly as possible. 
 
 It has been found that the design of the cylinder, to correspond with 
 thermal considerations, is, to make them of small diameter and long 
 stroke, so that the heat-efflux during compression, especially in the last 
 part of the same, is curbed as far as possible, insuring positive ignition 
 even at low rates of revolution. 
 
 The increased volume-pressure attending the combustion and expan- 
 
152 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
 sion with increased output, and the thus augmented heat-transfer, in spite 
 of the temperature remaining the same, calls for observation in the 
 evolvement of Diesel construction. The method of increasing the output 
 is not so much of importance as the process of increasing the pressure. 
 The pressures growing proportionally with increased work and gain in 
 power must be well endurable by the cylinder walls and other sections 
 of the engine, minimizing all stresses. 
 
 Cylinder construction to resist tension in addition to bursting strain, 
 is a factor exceedingly vital 
 
 Pressures due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts, growing pro- 
 portional to the square of the number of revolutions, is in itself a prob- 
 lem which requires intimate knowledge. As the working pressures; have 
 gained in the same measure, the resulting piston-forces and the tangen-' 
 tial-forces as well as the surplus work-areas determining the coefficient 
 for the fluctuation of speed, resulting in increased external strains. As 
 the compression terminal-pressure and the pressure of combustion grow 
 proportional with the increase of output, a higher rate of revolution is 
 to be expected, as far as this is not restricted by the inertia-forces. To 
 judge the conditions of importance in Diesel-operation, the bearing-loads 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 153 
 
 resulting from the acting piston-forces and the inertia-loads resulting 
 from the inertia-forces; the unbalanced forces and tilting-moments in 
 engines of either the two-cycle or four-cycle type, requires practical 
 
 Ii 
 * 
 
 s 
 
 P- co 
 
 2! 
 
 5. 
 
 knowledge combined with theory. The measurements for the mechanism 
 and other vital sections should be computed on the assumption of equal 
 stresses with respect to strength and equal specific uniform-pressures. 
 
154 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 SCAVENGING ARRANGEMENTS 
 
 The necessity of providing scavenging pumps on two-cycle engines 
 and such problems arising in conjunction with this vital arrangement, 
 in particular on larger types, is a factor which enters in this subject 
 under discussion. 
 
 The principal requirement of two-cycle operation demands thorough 
 scavenging of its cylinders of all burned substances. Remainder of 
 these gases will have a tendency to decrease the capacity of the ma- 
 chine. Designers of BusclnSulzer large two-cycle engines have laid par- 
 ticular stress on this matter of intrinsic importance as will be observed 
 in the description of this respective type. 
 
 r 
 
 Cylinder of "Standard" Horizontal Type of Diesel Engine. 
 A result of careful investigation. 
 
 Scavenging comprises two functions the clearing of the cylinder 
 of the products of the previous combustion, or burnt gases, by means of 
 a current of air, and the supply of the air charge necessary for the next 
 combustion. 
 
 A very distinctive feature is the Sulzer Patented Scavenging and 
 Charging System. 
 
 Two general methods are employed head scavenging and port- 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 155 
 
 scavenging- and one or the other of these, in its older form, is still used 
 on all types of two-cycle Diesel engines, excepting Sulzer's of European 
 construction and the American Busch-Sulzer's. 
 
 Head-scavenging in which the scavenging air enters the cylinder 
 through valve-controlled openings in the cylinder head, and the burnt 
 gases are blown out through piston-controlled ports in the cylinder wall 
 necessitates the use of one or more comparatively large valves in the 
 cylinder head, rendering the head particularly susceptible to fracture 
 due to heat stresses. This fault has proved so serious, and so entirely un- 
 avoidable that there is now a general tendency among builders of two- 
 cycle Diesel engines to discard head-scavenging altogether. 
 
 Port-scavenging in which the scavenging air enters the cylinder 
 through piston-controlled ports in the cylinder wall, and the burnt gases 
 are blown out through similar ports while it overcomes the cracking 
 of the cylinder head, possesses, in its ordinary form, characteristics 
 which affect the engine detrimentally. It is obvious that the scavenging 
 ports must not t>e uncovered by the piston until the pressure of the hot 
 gases in the cylinder has fallen below the pressure of the scavenging 
 air; serious scavenging-air receiver explosions have resulted from insuffi- 
 cient attention to this precaution. At full load, the terminal pressure 
 in a Diesel cylinder is about 40 pounds; the scavenging-air pressure 
 rarely exceeds 6 pounds. It is necessary, therefore, that the exhaust 
 ports be uncovered in advance of the scavenging ports, and the amount 
 of this earlier opening is usually about 8 per cent of the piston stroke. 
 
 Uncovering the scavenging 1 ports after the exhaust ports, naturally 
 involves covering the exhaust ports after the scavenging ports; the re- 
 sult of which is that, at the time the upwards-traveling piston covers 
 the exhaust ports namely at about 20 per cent of the stroke the cylinder 
 is filled with air at very little above atmospheric pressure, which is com- 
 pressed during the remainder of the stroke. Thus the weight of air 
 compressed, by this system, does not exceed 85 per cent of the weight 
 of a cylinder full at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Moreover, the scavenging by this method is imperfect, and there is 
 an opportunity for burnt gases to blow back into the cylinder before the 
 exhaust ports are closed; the cylinder, therefore, contains somewhat 
 impure air. In very small engines the scavenging may be improved by 
 providing the top of the piston with a projection to guide the stream of 
 scavenging air upwards; but in Diesel engines of even very moderate 
 size a piston of this form would not last many days. 
 
 The net result of the foregoing is the inability to perfectly consume, 
 in an engine of this type, the full quantity of fuel which could be con- 
 sumed if the cylinder contained pure air in an amount equal to the 
 cylinder full at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The Sulzer scavenging system avoids the above described faults in a 
 safe and simple manner. It utilizes port-scavenging; but employs two 
 tiers, instead of only one tier of ports. The piston uncovers the upper 
 
156 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
 jJBwi 
 
 tier of scavenging ports before, and the lower tier after, it uncovers 
 the exhaust ports, but the communication between the interior of the 
 cylinder and the scavenging-air supply or receiver, through the upper 
 ports, is controlled by a timed and mechanically operated valve, which 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 157 
 
 remains closed until the exhaust ports have been uncovered long enough 
 to reduce the pressure of the gases in the cylinder to nearly atmospheric; 
 after which tihis valve is opened, while the piston uncovers the lower 
 scavenging ports; a rapid and thorough purging is then effected with 
 complete safety against a blow-back into the scavenging receiver. 
 
 Upon its return stroke, the piston first covers the lower scavenging 
 ports and then the exhaust ports; the upper scavenging ports and their 
 valve remains open, enabling the scavenging air to fill the cylinder at full 
 scavenging pressure before the communication is shut off by the piston. 
 Obviously a blow-back of exhaust gases into the cylinder cannot occur; 
 furthermore, the double tier arrangement and proper form of the scav- 
 enging ports insure a clearing out of such thoroughness that substan- 
 tially no burnt gases remain in the cylinder analyses have shown that 
 this residue does not exceed 3 per cent. The weight of air compressed is 
 thus substantially 100 per cent of the weight of a cylinder full at atmo- 
 spheric pressure, and it is possible to perfectly consume the full quantity 
 of fuel. 
 
 Incidentally, the effectively directed streams of scavenging air cool 
 the cylinder more evenly than is possible with ordinary port-scavenging. 
 
 In accompanying illustration of cross-sectional view of the Carels type 
 of scavenging valve it will be noted that in this case it may be com- 
 pared to valves of similar construction on four- 
 cycle engines used for exhaust purpose. The 
 method of location of these valves on Nord- 
 berg engines in the cylinder head is a feature 
 which has been found satisfactory on this type 
 of construction. The advantage gained may be 
 summarized in, first, added strength to the 
 'head itself and, second, establishing more uni- 
 form cooling. 
 
 The importance of establishing a satisfac- 
 tory scavenging method has caused manufac- 
 turers to adopt a double system of scavenging. 
 In the case of double-acting two-cycle engines 
 in some types a scavenging pump for each 
 cylinder was found necessary. 
 
 In most marine types of engines the valves 
 are actuated by levers, the cams operated by 
 contact from the cam shaft. The arrangements 
 of providing a double set of scavenging valves, 
 one on each side of the fuel inlet valve, is a 
 feature adopted by some firms. 
 
 The principle of the port system, as in the 
 Cross-sectional view of case of the Busch-Sulzer, for its larger types 
 Carels type of scavenging of engines owing to the amount of air neces- 
 valve, used on Nordberg sary in performing the function of scavenging 
 engine. appears to be the future method. 
 
158 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN REVERSING MARINE DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Unlike the Diesel engine for stationary purpose, operating in con- 
 tinual one way direction, the problem of reversing marine engines has 
 been given a great deal of consideration by designers. On late types 
 many new methods have been adopted to accomplish the reversing of 
 engines, which must accurately answer the immediate requirement of 
 giving its motion in either direction for maneuvering. 
 
 Unlike a steam engine, following uniform laws of old-established 
 principles, the setting of valves require the most intimate knowledge 
 of problems to be confronted in general operation of Diesel machinery. 
 
 Mechanical contrivances imperative to establish automatic operation 
 must be thoroughly understood. Again the varying methods on different 
 machines as will be observed when carefully going over the processes 
 of operation on the different types of engines dealt with in this book, 
 will be found beneficial in studying this prime mover. 
 
 In the following illustration a valve-setting diagram for ahead and 
 astern running of a reversible two-cycle engine is shown. 
 
 Valve Setting Diagram /or reversing of Two-cycle Engine. 
 (Starboard to Port) 
 
 As a matter of fact, in the operation of Internal Combustion Engines, 
 in particular the high compression type, the following proceedings have to 
 be carried out, when reversing is to be accomplished, on most marine 
 engines : 
 
 (1) The valve levers have to be lifted off the cams on the camshaft. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 159 
 
 (2) The camshaft has to be moved fore and aft to bring the astern 
 cams underneath the rollers of the valve levers, after which the levers 
 must be dropped down again fen to the cams. 
 
 (3) Compressed air has to be admitted to all cylinders, after this, 
 where perhaps the engine is composed of six cylinders, two have to be 
 placed on fuel and four on air; next, two on air and four on fuel, and 
 finally all on fuel. 
 
 If the engine is running when the order is given for it to stop, the 
 fuel supply must be immediately lowered. This is usually accomplished 
 by mechanical arrangement of a hand-wheel turned to the stop position, 
 as indicated on the dial. This causes a partial rotation of a spindle, 
 which raises or lowers the rods. These are attached to sleeves, on 
 which the levers operating the fuel valves are eccentrically mounted. 
 The other end of the lever on the fuel valve cam is, therefore, raised 
 from the cam by this operation and is only brought down on to the 
 cam at the right moment by the movement of the starting wheel. In 
 other words, when the engine is in the stop position the fuel valves 
 and starting air valves are automatically out of operation until the 
 hand wheel is moved. 
 
 Assuming the engine is stopped after having been running ahead, 
 and the order is received to go astern, the reversing lever is moved from 
 the back position to the front. This puts compressed air on the motor 
 (some times as in the case of the Vickers types, Servo motors), which 
 by means of a rack motion, first partially rotates the horizontal shaft 
 which lifts the exhaust and inlet valve levers off their cams through 
 the link, then causes the lever to move fore and aft, giving thei corre- 
 sponding motion to the camshaft, after which, by the continued rotation 
 of the shaft and the movement of the link, the valve levers are once 
 more brought down to the cams. Only 'when this complete movement 
 has been effected is it possible to move the starting wheel. 
 
 Immediately the cams are in the astern position this starting wheel 
 is rotated by hand until the indicator on the dial shows that air is being 
 supplied to all cylinders through the distributing valves. The engine 
 then starts up on air, after which, the starting wheel is turned to the 
 next position indicated on the dial, namely, two cylinders on fuel and 
 four on air. This is accomplished by the rotation of the spindle as pre- 
 viously mentioned, allowing the fuel valve levers to come down on their 
 cams. Further rotation of the starting wheel cuts out the air supply 
 and allows four of the six cylinders (taking this method to be on six 
 cylinder engines) , and finally all of them, to operate on fuel. 
 
 It should be mentioned that the valve levers are lifted off their 
 cams by the movement of the manoeuvering shaft, owing to the fact 
 that these levers are usually mounted eccentrically upon the shaf. 
 
 The reason that the fuel valve levers are brought down on to their 
 cams in pairs as described, is that there are cams in this particular 
 
160 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 case on the shaft which lift the levers at the time required for putting 
 into action the respective valves, according to the position of the start- 
 ing wheel. 
 
 In many engines hand-pumps are used, operated by levers, in case 
 it is desired to carry out the reversal by hand instead of by com- 
 pressed air. 
 
 In most engines individual cylinders can be cut out by means of 
 hand-levers if the requirement necessitates the same. 
 
 \W/- 
 
 Valve Setting Diagram for Reversing of Two-cycle Engine. 
 (Port to Starboard) 
 
 It is the opinion of the writers that the large marine Diesel engines 
 will more and more resemble each other and that certain standards in 
 design will be adopted by all builders, as since long has been the case 
 with the reciprocating steam engine. 
 
 The tendency shows already in the general designs of most modern 
 engines. It will be noticed that with the increased demand for larger 
 types of Diesel engines the gradual uniformity in build and general 
 design are identical. It is true, that the tendency of manufacturers ad- 
 hering to either the two-cycle or the four-cycle type leaves a gap not 
 to be found in steam engine construction, 'but as both engines of late 
 have been brought to a high stage of perfection, manufacturers in the 
 United 'States as well as in Europe will find it convenient to establish 
 standards to be adopted governing existing problems in Diesel engine 
 construction. 
 
 In most engines of large horse power capacity, the reversing mo- 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 161 
 
 tions are carried out by the valve-rockers, and like all eccentric move- 
 ments the action is very peculiar, yet exceedingly simple. In the Werk- 
 spoor engine, there are four rockers per cylinder, for the inlet, exhaust, 
 air-starting and fuel valves respectively. Each rocker is mounted on a 
 diagonal-eccentric, the eccentric being secured to the shaft and is free 
 to move in the hub of the rocker. To shift the rocker-rollers from one 
 cam to another it is merely necessary to rotate the rocker-shaft 180 
 degrees. In the neutral position at 90 degrees the rollers are clear of 
 the cams. The turning of this rocker-shaft requires very little effort, 
 and actually can be done by hand. But, to facilitate the operation, a 
 little double-acting air engine with an oil cushion is provided and this 
 reciprocates a ratchet that is in connection to a ratchet-wheel on the 
 rocker-shaft. 
 
 It will be realized, that when the valve-rocker moves from the ahead- 
 cam to the astern-cam the position of its valve-tappet also changes, and 
 this is arranged for by the provision of a double head, or tappet, with an 
 adjusting screw on each. The setting of the rocker-rollers is so ar- 
 ranged that when running "ahead" the roller-face is square on the cam, 
 but in the "astern" position the face of the roller is not absolutely square 
 on the cam, is resting at a slight angle, which is of no consequence 
 because the wear of the astern position is exceedingly slight, partly 
 owing to the very limited periods during which the engine runs astern 
 and partly because of the large size of the roller. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GOVERNOR AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF 
 
 CONNECTIONS OF ASPINALL'S GOVERNOR FOR 
 
 DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 The Governor is fitted to a reciprocating lever worked by engine 
 crosshead, or suitable motion, having for preference an angular move- 
 ment of about 45 degrees, and making about 80 double strokes per 
 minute. The Governor "A" is adjusted to act about 5 per cent, above 
 the running speed of the engines. When the pre-determined speed is 
 reached, the large weight of Governor is left behind on the downward 
 stroke of the special Lever "L" the bottom pawl on Governor carries 
 Engaging Lever "B" into its upper position, which lifts the Suction 
 Valve on Oil Pump off its seat through Rod "J" and Levers "D" and 
 "E." When this action takes place the bulk of the fuel oil, instead of 
 passing through the Delivery Valve to the Cylinder, is returned to the 
 Suction Chamber, and the engines are then slowed down. The amount 
 to which the Suction Valve is lifted off its seat by the Governor is reg- 
 ulated by the Screw "R," which is set so that a small quantity of Oil 
 Fuel will pass through the Delivery Valve to the Cylinder. When the 
 speed of the engines has moderated, the large weight of Governor drops 
 into its lower position, and top pawl depresses Lever "B," which allows 
 the Suction Valve for Fuel Pump to come on its seat; the full supply of 
 
162 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 
 
 ASPINAUS WC,ttT,MAfttNg TYPE &0VR.NOR 
 
 rRNAt COMBUSTION Oft 
 
 Fig. A. Aspinalls Marine Governor applied to Internal Combustion 
 
 Engines. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 163 
 
 Oil Fuel is then discharged through the Delivery Valve to the Cylinder, 
 and the engines regain their normal speed. The Lever "F," connected 
 with the Hand Gear, is fitted with a Fork End which works outside the 
 Lever "E" of Governor Gear. With this arrangement the Governor 
 Gear, or Hand Gear, work independently of each other. (Note: The 
 arrangement of connections may be varied in numerous ways, providing 
 the principle of the action of the Governor is duly considered. 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF GOVERNOR 
 
 The Governor consists of a hinged Weight "W," operating two Pawls 
 "PP," carried on a frame, which is bolted to a Lever "L," having a 
 suitable reciprocating motion. When the revolutions of the engines are 
 increased by about 5 per cent above the normal running speed the Weight 
 "W" is left behind on the downward stroke of the Lever "L," and reverses 
 the position of the Pawls "PP," causing bottom one to engage with Lever 
 "B," lifting it throughout the upward stroke of Lever "L," and thereby 
 Shuts Off the fuel supply to the engines. On the next downward stroke 
 of the Lever "L" the Detend "Q" is lifted by coming into contact with 
 Lever "B," liberating the Weight "W," and when the revolutions of the 
 engines have moderated, thei W T eight "W" drops into its lower position 
 and again reverses the position of the Pawls "PP" the top one now 
 engages with the Lever "B," depressing it throughout the next down- 
 ward stroke of the Lever "L," and thereby Opens Up the Oil Fuel supply 
 to the engines again. 
 
 The Emergency Gear only comes into operation in the event of the 
 engines approaching v an excessive speed, such as would occur in the 
 event of loss of propeller or the breaking of a shaft, in which case 
 the Weight "U" is left behind on the downward stroke of the Lever "L" 
 and locks the Weight "W" in the Shutting-Off position, thereby effect- 
 ually Shutting Off the Fuel supply to the engines. To release the 
 Emergency Gear from locking position press the Weight "W" upwards 
 from the underside, when the Weight "U" will fall out of gear. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIXING GOVERNOR 
 
 Bolt the Governor on the side of the Lever^ "L" at a given distance 
 "F" from Fulcrum to Face the Weight "W." Place Lever "L" at Top of 
 its stroke, as shown in dotted lines on Fig. 2, lift the Weight "W" into 
 its upper position, which brings the Bottom Pawl out. Then file out 
 metal from end of Slot in Lever "B" until the engaging end of Lever 
 "B" is %-inch above Pawl, with end of Slot hard up against Stop Pin 
 "S." Then connect up gear between Lever "B" and control gear at fuel 
 pump, which should be in the Shutting-Off position with the gear adjusted 
 so that engaging end of Lever "B" rests on Bottom Pawl. Next discon- 
 nect gear between Lever "B" and control gear at fuel pump and place 
 Lever "L" at Bottom of its stroke; lift Detent "Q," which will allow 
 
164 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 165 
 
 Weight "W" to drop into its lower position and bring out Top Pawl. 
 Then, file out of other end of Slot in Lever "B" until engaging end of 
 Lever "B" is %-inch below Top Pawl with end of Slot hard up against 
 Stop Pin "S." Again connect up the gear between Lever "B," and con- 
 trol gear at fuel pump, with Top Pawl resting on engaging end of Lever 
 "B" when the control gear, if correctly adjusted, should be in the Open- 
 ing-Up position. 
 
 The distance "F" is fixed by the makers of the Governor after receiv- 
 ing particulars of the engines. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR REGULATING GOVERNOR 
 
 To make the Governor more sensitive, i. e., to Shut Off at a less 
 number of revolutions, the Regulating Screw "R" on Spring Buffer Ad- 
 justment "V" must be screwed outwards. To make the Governor less 
 sensitive, i. e., to Shut Off at a greater number of revolutions, the Reg- 
 ulating Screw "R" on Spring Buffer Adjustment "V" must be screwed 
 inwards. 
 
 To make the Emergency Weight "U" later in its action, take out the 
 Plug "X" and insert a suitable washer inside the Box behind the spiral 
 spring. 
 
 HINTS FOR KEEPING GOVERNOR IN WORKING ORDER. 
 
 All parts of the Governor should be kept thoroughly clean; a piece 
 of rag and paraffine being used for cleaning purposes. Cotton waste 
 should on no account be used, as particles of same are liable to get into 
 working parts and retard the free working of the Governor. A little 
 mineral or sperm oil should be used for lubricating purposes; oils of a 
 clogging nature -to be avoided. 
 
 If the Governor is fixed under platform gratings, a piece of canvas 
 or sheet iron should be attached to underside of grating to prevent dirt 
 falling on the Governor. The Weight "W" should be tipped upwards by 
 hand once a day to ensure the Governor and Gear being kept free and in 
 working order. 
 
 MARINE DIESEL ENGINES FOR TWIN-SCREW SHIPS. 
 
 The method of twin-screw propulsion appears to be momentarily far 
 more favored than the single screw process. Firms, foremost in the con- 
 struction of Diesel machinery claim advantageis in favor of the twin- 
 screw propulsion as against the single-screw operation, so commonly 
 found on steam-driven ships. Following reasons are given by the Bur- 
 meister & Wain Co. 
 
 (1) The engines, shaftings and propellers are lighter than those of 
 the corresponding engine of a single-screw vessel. 
 
166 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 167 
 
 (2) The engines require less space length-wise, thus the engine room 
 becomes shorter, and in spite of this there is ample room for placing the 
 auxiliary machinery, partly along sides of the ship and partly between 
 the two main engines. 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 Ii 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 o 
 
 g.8 
 
 ^, 
 
 i? 
 II 
 
 (3) The dimensions of the different parts of the Diesel engines being 
 reduced, they are more easy to handle, and as the whole unit is adapted 
 for forced lubrication, by which all inspection of the working parts, while 
 the engine is running, is rendered unnecessary, if only the pressure of 
 the lubricating oil is kept constant, the attention of the increased number 
 of details will cause no difficulties and no additional labor will be re- 
 quired. 
 
168 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Descriptive View of Worthington Solid Injection Two-Cycle Diesel 
 Engine ( Exposed ) . 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 169 
 
 (4) The two engines working independently of each other assure a 
 greater reliability, and the efficiency of the two propellers on higher revo- 
 lutions will be greater than that of a single-screw running at lower revo- 
 lutions. 
 
 The point last mentioned is one of the most essential advantages -and 
 has enabled motor vessels to carry through their voyages at such a good 
 mean speed even in bad weather. This is accounted for firstly by the fact 
 that the propelling power is distributed over two propellers thereby at- 
 taining a larger thrust pressure. The propellers are placed well clear of 
 the ship's sides, thus assuring a good and free flow to the propellers. 
 
 In bad weather these small propellers do not readily get above the 
 surface of the water. Should this happen a better propulsion is never- 
 theless maintained in comparison with a propeller worked by a steam en- 
 gine, on account of the following: 
 
 The Diesel engine is furnished with a governor, which as soon as the 
 propellers rise above the surface of the water and the revolutions of the 
 engine thereby are increased by afoout 10% above the normal, operates 
 and cuts off the oil supply to the cylinders and keeps the engine at about 
 normal revolutions. At the moment the propellers again enter the water 
 and the revolutions are somewhat reduced, the governor acts immedi- 
 ately, adjusting the supply of fuel oil to the normal quantity, so that all 
 the cylinders give full power at once. This is not the case with an ordi- 
 nary marine steam engine. Even if here the governor cuts off at once 
 for the admission of steam, as soon as the propeller leaves the water, the 
 revolutions of the steam engine will nevertheless be increased owing to 
 the large quantities of steam still remaining in the receivers. When the 
 propeller again enters the water, the governor will at once admit the 
 steam to the high pressure cylinder, but the engine will not be able to 
 attain its normal power, until the receivers again are filled, frequently 
 the steam engine will be practically stopped and the propeller enters 
 the water. In heavy weather the propulsion is therefore better of Diesel- 
 engined vessels than of steamers. 
 
 DIESEL HIGH SPEED ENGINES 
 
 The problem of high-speed engines for auxiliary purposes enters as 
 one of vital importance in modern Diesel power plants. In many cases 
 the gasoline engine has been found to perform this function on genera- 
 tors, pumps, compressors, etc., in a most satisfactory manner. 
 
 Of late high-speed Diesel engines have been built exceeding 400 revo- 
 lutions per minute. As a matter of fact, on this type of machinery the 
 fuel consumption has been found so low that its competitor in high-speed 
 engines will in future be substituted by high-speed full Diesel machinery. 
 
 In marine engineering, where it will be not alone a matter of con- 
 venience using crude oil for fuel oil solely, in operating the entire unit, 
 but also the importance of space allowance must be considered. In saving 
 
170 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 171 
 
 of engine room space the advantage is with high-speed Diesel machinery. 
 In weight comparison it may safely be said that Diesel driven engines of 
 high speed types are of equal proportion. 
 
 The general upkeep of either the two-cycle high-speed or these fol- 
 lowing the four-cycle principle is a factor which may be worthy of men- 
 tion. A machine of this kind developed by the Busch-Selzer Company 
 of St. Louis of four-cycle construction shows wonderful results. In this 
 case force-feed lubrication has been adopted throughout. The vertical 
 three-stage compressor, mounted on the end of the engine, is driven off 
 the crankshaft direct from the engine. 
 
 A Small Type of Nelesco, Equipped With Paragon Reverse Gear. This 
 Type Is Ideal for Yachting, Fishing Crafts, Etc. 
 
 Firms like Krupp, Augsburg-Nurnberg, Steinbecker, Vickers, Werks- 
 poor, Burmeister-Wain, Nordberg Manufacturing Co., have produced en- 
 gines which are highly commendable for use in auxiliary operation on 
 marine as well as stationary power plants. 
 
 It is but natural that the consumption of lubricating oil is higher on 
 high-speed than on low-speed machinery. The amount is such that it not 
 seriously effects operating expenses. It is on a par with the average high- 
 speed gas engine and slightly above steam-driven machines of equal ca- 
 pacities. It may be figured to about .012 to .02 per B. H. P. .hour as 
 against .01 to 0.12 Ib. fuel oil consumption is in this case about from 
 3 l / 2 to 7 per cent higher, depending upon the design. 
 
 ECONOMY IN RIVER-FREIGHTER OPERATION. 
 
 Not alone is the Diesel engine a dangerous competitor to vessels op- 
 erated by steam power, but it outclasses any other prime-mover in econ- 
 omy and efficiency. In the following comparison of Diesel vs. distillate 
 engine on the river freighter "iSuison City" of Oakland, California, the 
 impartial result on a trial trip is herewith given: 
 
 In this trial trip on the (Sacramento River after two 65 h. p. twin- 
 cylinder 12 in. Atlas distillate-engines had been removed and two 55 h. p. 
 
172 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 173 
 
 three-cylinder 8 in. by 10 y 2 in. Atlas-Imperial Diesel engines had been 
 installed in their place, following was the result: 
 
 Length over all 84 ft. 5 in. 
 
 Breadth _ 23 ft. 5 in. 
 
 Depth _ _ 6 ft. 5 in. 
 
 Tons, gross 142 tons 
 
 Tons, net 73 tons 
 
 The following data on the performance of the boat before and after 
 having this change of machinery made is exceedingly interesting as 
 showing in black and white why the Diesel engine, even in small units, 
 must furnish the power in our harbor and coastwise fleets. 
 
 Propeller with distillate engines, 48 in. diameter, 44 in. in pitch, 
 232 R. P. M. 
 
 Propeller with Diesel engines, 44 in. diameter, 38 in. in pitch, 340 
 R. P. M. 
 
 Speed of boat with distillate engines, 8 miles per hour. 
 
 Speed of boat with Diesel engines, 9.2 miles per hour. 
 
 Fuel cost with distillate engines per hour, $3.22. 
 
 Fuel cost with Diesel engines per hour, $0.30. 
 
 Actual fuel consumption with Diesel engines is 414 gals, per hour 
 with two engines and 2% gals, per hour with one engine. Fuel used costs 
 6 cents per gallon. 
 
 This is but one of many conversions from distillate to Diesel en- 
 gines which 'the non-availability of distillate fuel and the added economy 
 of the latter type engine has made necessary on vessels of smaller types, 
 as mentioned herein. 
 
 (From Motorship, December 1921.) 
 
 The Comparison in Space Between Sketch-Drawing of Vessel Equipped 
 With Steam-Power. (Fig. A.) 
 
 Sketch Drawing of Vessel Equipped With Diesel Power (Fig. B) Re- 
 quires no Explanation. 
 
174 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF POWER 
 
 PLANTS 
 
 HEAT UNITS IN FUEL CONSUMED PER BRAKE HORSEPOWER 
 
 HOUR. 
 
 Simple Non-Condensing 
 Corliss Engines 
 
 Compound Condensing 
 Corliss Engines 
 
 
 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 200 I.H.P. 
 
 800 I.H.P. 
 
 
 100 I.H.P. 
 
 400 I.H.P. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 Load Per Cent 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 125 Ibs. 
 
 180 Ibs. 
 
 of Rated 
 
 100 Ibs. 
 
 150 Ibs. 
 
 Vacuum 2."i In. 
 
 Vacuum 27 In. 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Steam per I.H.P. 
 
 Steam Per I.H.P. 
 
 Steam per 
 
 Steam per 
 
 
 Hour, 28 Ibs. 
 
 Hour, 24 Ibs. 
 
 I.H.P. Hour, 
 
 I.H.P. Hour, 
 
 
 
 
 n ibs. 
 
 13 Ibs. 
 
 100 
 
 52,500 
 
 41,500 
 
 25,500 
 
 21,000 
 
 75 
 
 60,000 
 
 47,500 
 
 29,000 
 
 23,500 
 
 50 
 
 79,000 
 
 59,500 
 
 36,500 
 
 29,000 
 
 25 
 
 138,000 
 
 99,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 Triple Expansion Steam 
 
 Steam Turbines 
 
 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 
 Rating 5,000 
 
 
 Engine Rating 
 
 1,000 I.H.P. 
 
 Rating 500 
 
 K. W. 
 
 
 400 I.H.P. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 K. W. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 200 Ibs. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 
 200 Ibs. 
 
 Load Per Cent 
 
 150 Ibs. 
 
 Superheat 100 
 
 150 Ibs. 
 
 Superheat 150 
 
 of Rated 
 
 Vacuum 27 In. 
 
 degrees Fahr. 
 
 Vacuum 26 In. 
 
 degrees Fahr. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Steam per 
 
 Vacuum 27.5 In. 
 
 Steam per 
 
 Vacuum 28 In. 
 
 
 I.H.P. Hour, 
 
 Steam per 
 
 K.W. Hour, 
 
 Steam per 
 
 
 12.5 Ibs. 
 
 I.H.P. Hour 
 
 21 Ibs. 
 
 K.W. Hour, 
 
 
 
 10.5 Ibs. 
 
 
 14 Ibs. 
 
 100 
 
 20,000 
 
 17,500 
 
 21,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 75 
 
 22,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 23,500 
 
 17,500 
 
 50 
 
 28,000 
 
 24,500 
 
 27,000 
 
 20,500 
 
 25 
 
 43,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Load Per Cent Engine Rating Engine Rating Engine Rating 
 
 of Rated H.P. 165 B.H.P. 520 B.H.P. 2,200 B.H.P. 
 
 100 9,000 8,400 8,000 
 
 75 9,500 8,900 8,500 
 
 50 10,800 9,800 9,000 
 
 25 15,400 13,000 12,000 
 
 For steam plants add allowance for stand-by, according to character 
 of load. 
 
 To obtain equivalent pounds of coal divide B. T. U. by 12,500. 
 
 To obtain equivalent pounds of fuel oil divide B. T. U. by 18,800. 
 
 To obtain equivalent gallons of fuel oil divide B. T. U. by 143,000. 
 
 Data furnished by courtesy of Bush-Sulzer Diesel Engine Co., St. 
 Louis, Mo. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 175 
 
 COMPARISON IN AVERAGE FUEL COST OF 100 H. P. 
 Engines driven by Gasoline, Distillate and Engines classified as Diesels. 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 Per hour 2.50 
 
 Per day 25.00 
 
 Per week ___ 150.00 
 
 Per month 600.00 
 
 Per year 7200.00 
 
 Note: In the use of steam it may safely be stated, that a fuel con- 
 sumption of 300% more than on such machinery where Diesel power is 
 the prime mover, will be required. 
 
 Distillate 
 
 Diesel 
 
 1.70 
 
 .42 
 
 17.00 
 
 4.20 
 
 102.00 
 
 25.20 
 
 408.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 4896.00 
 
 1209.60 
 
 RECIPROCATING 
 STEAM 
 
 Comparison Sketch Between Reciprocating (Steam), Turbine (Steam), 
 
 and Diesel Power. Upper, left, Turbine; Upper, right, Diesel; 
 
 Lower cut, Reciprocating Steam. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 OIL PURIFICATION ARRANGEMENTS 
 
 A very important point which should be given careful attention by 
 operating engineers in the operation of Diesel machinery, is the proper 
 maintenance of its oiling and lubrication system. 
 
 The tendency of manufacturers, in the design of bearings, has been 
 towards the employment of lubricating oils at much higher temperatures. 
 Such conditions necessitates the use of oils which are suitaMe for the in- 
 dividual requirements and which must be given such attention and treat- 
 ment as will minimize trouble in the practical operation of the unit. Ex- 
 perience indicates that the lubricating properties of oil deteriorate under 
 the influence of heat, and when brought into intimate contact with water 
 and air, as occurs under working conditions. These various actions bring 
 about a gradual breaking down of the waxy content into a coagulate or 
 sludge of a brownish color, insoluble at ordinary temperatures in the re- 
 maining hydro-carbons, which are the vehicles of the waxy or lubricating 
 agents in solution in the oil. This sludge, with its precipitates, if not 
 removed, adheres to the piping of the oiling system and often obstructs 
 the flow of oil. 
 
 The quality of the water which accidentally comes in contact with 
 the oil, due to leakage or sweating of the pipes, affects very materially 
 the formation of sludge. Acids accelerate this action, and alkalies aid 
 in emulsifying the oil. The design of modern Diesels provide for a stor- 
 age of oil directly in conjunction with the main engine, with pumping, 
 circulating and cooling systems which are independent in operation. Such 
 arrangements ordinarily provide for relatively limited capacities of the 
 oiling system so that it is forced through a rapid; cycle of operation. This, 
 in connection with high bearing pressures abnormal temperatures, tends 
 very rapidly to deteriorate the oil, which is not given sufficient time to 
 settle, clarify and purify. The operating practice today consists of re^ 
 moving all the oil after a certain time in service and replacing it with a 
 new batch, the used oil being passed through various types of purifying 
 and filtering equipment, and then stored for future use. 
 
 Oil should be selected with careful regard to requirements and con- 
 ditions of "service. Viscosity should be referred not to the conventional 
 standard of 100 degrees Fahrenheit but to the actual temperature at 
 which it will be used, as there is an appreciable variation in the viscosity 
 of all oils, depending on their base and blending, with changes of temp- 
 erature. The specific gravity of the oil, its emulsifying tendency when 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 177 
 
 mixed with water, or frothing when churned with air these actions vary- 
 ing with the temperature of the oil and, also, to a certain extent, the 
 flash point, are all factors which have an important bearing on the life 
 and service qualities of the oil. They are items which should be regarded 
 as of prime importance in the selection of the proper grade of oil in the 
 case. The oil in service should be tested at frequent intervals because its 
 viscosity and specific gravity and other physical 'properties change very 
 materially with use and age. 
 
 Exposed View of Burt Oil Filter 
 
 The proximity of the oil tank to the engine arrangements thereto are 
 matters which require serious consideration. The oil tank and connec- 
 tions should be so designed as to prevent, as far as possible, the trans- 
 mission of any heat from the engine to the oil. 
 
 The purification of the oil is, in general, carried out by one of two 
 methods the continuous system and the batch system. In the first 
 
178 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 method the relief valve on the oil system of the engine is made use of to 
 by-pass a portion of the oil continuously into a tank from which it is fed 
 by gravity into the oil purifying equipment and then back into the en- 
 gine. This acts as a loop in the oil system and keeps the oil constantly 
 in good operating condition. 
 
 In the batch system the engine reservoir is completely drained at 
 regular intervals into a tank and a fresh supply of oil is replaced. The 
 used oil is then purified and stored for future service. 
 
 In operating large sized Diesels, it is important to cool the lubricat- 
 ing oil used in bearings, reduction gears, etc., in order that a given quan- 
 tity of oil can be used over and over again and that the oil supplied to 
 the bearings will be of correct temperature to maintain an oil film of 
 proper viscosity between the bearing surfaces. The Multiwhirl Cooler, 
 manufactured by the Griscom-Russell Company, most efficiently performs 
 this service. The oil is pumped through the shell and the cooling water 
 through the tubes. 
 
 Burt Oil Filter, Full View 
 
 The Multiwhirl Cooler is designed to accomplish the heat exchange 
 between any two liquids, one or both of which may be water; the con- 
 densing and subcooling of any vapor or any similar service. In actual 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 179 
 
 practice it has proven to be an indispensable equipment in such plants 
 where Diesel power is used. The advantages of this oil cooler may be 
 summarized in following: 
 
 Multiwhirl Oil Cooler Exposed View 
 
 1. Helical baffle long smooth oil path minimum pressure drop. 
 
 2. Tube bundle removable, facilitating inspection and cleaning. 
 
 3. Tubes expanded into tube plates; no sweated joints. 
 
 4. Floating head construction; no expansion strains on tube joints. 
 
 5. Outside packed head; this construction eliminates any possible 
 leakage of water into oil through faulty packing. 
 
 6. Compactness of unit; this is permitted by the high rate of heat 
 transfer secured in the Multiwhirl Cooler. 
 
 7. Installation in any position; the Multiwhirl Cooler may be in- 
 stalled in any position with equal efficiency if liquids (not vapor) are 
 being handled. 
 
 Griscom-RustelVs "G-R*' Instantaneous Heater 
 
180 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 To insure proper operation of valves, such as fuel-inlet valve, etc., it 
 is imperative that certain grades of oil, in particular those of low viscos- 
 ity, be heated. In accompanying illustration of the Reilly Oil heater a 
 good view is allowed on its interior construction. The oil is circulated 
 through the coils and is heated by high pressure of steam application 
 passing on the interior of the shell. 
 
 Internal joints or flanges are to be avoided in oil heater construction 
 to prevent leakage of oil into steam space of heater. Such oil would event- 
 ually reach the engine and owing to the fact that water in oil has a ten- 
 dency to restrict the efficiency in power production it would give addi- 
 tional loss in generating. 
 
 Water in lubricating oil should be eliminated as much as possible. 
 It will create heat and will be found detrimental in general purpose of 
 cooling. 
 
 To engineers of steam plants, where oil is used on boilers, the neces- 
 sity for equipment in oil purification, pre-heating of oil or cooling on tur- 
 bine-driven machinery is imperative. In following illustrations a few 
 apparatus are shown adapted today in plants where Diesel power is used. 
 
 OVERHEAD OIL 
 STORAGE 
 
 OVE-RFLOVX/ FROM ENGINE 
 
 The Equipment of De Laval's Oil Separators Assures an Excellent 
 Method of Oil Purification 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 181 
 
 In figure (a) the illustration shows the Wheeler type of pre-heating 
 of oil. It will be noticed that this arrangement consists of essentially an 
 enclosed cylindrical vessel. iSmall tubes directing steam through it which 
 causes the heating of oil to be accomplished by coming in contact with 
 the surrounding oil. 
 
 frtn 
 
 .0. 
 
 Figure (b) shows the type of the Elliott Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., 
 known as the Welderon Receiver Separator. Its function is to separate 
 impurities which may cause the clogging up of fuel valves and the piping 
 
182 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 system. The Welderon Receivers are of standard construction. The oil 
 and entralnment are prevented from passing into the outlet by baffles 
 consisting of a double row of V-shaped plates. The separator is fitted 
 with a manhole through which a workman can enter the separator and 
 clean the baffles in place. 
 
 To be efficient in the removal of sediment from oil it is essential that 
 the baffle plates in an oil separator be cleaned at frequent intervals to 
 prevent their becoming gummed. The flanges are threaded, then welded 
 to the ends of the through-pipe by a special process and form the nozzles 
 of the separators. The body of the receiver is also welded to the through- 
 pipe, which makes an absolutely tight joint. All other joints and seams 
 are riveted, but inasmuch as the through-pipe relieves the receiver of all 
 strains, due to vibration in the pipe line or to contraction and expansion 
 due to change in temperature, the riveted construction can safely be used. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 (&). Welderon Receiver 
 Separator 
 
 Reilly Oil Heater- 
 Exposed View 
 
 The illustration in figure (d) represents the "Bundy" Oil Separator, 
 manufactured by the Griscom-Russell Company, Massilon, Ohio. 
 
 Instead of a single separating plate the Bundy Separator has a num- 
 ber of such plates, thereby insuring that any oil which passes by the first 
 or second plate will be caught by the plates which follow. These plates 
 are of the grid type, the grids being so constructed that the columns of 
 adjacent grids are staggered. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 183 
 
 The surfaces of baffle plates used in oil separators are usually left 
 unfinished as the oil will cling to this rough surface more readily than 
 to a finished surface. If a separator actually separates, some portion of 
 the constant stream of oil passing over the separating surfaces will ad- 
 here and bake on, thus gradually coating the surfaces and impairing the 
 efficiency of the separator. This result accompanies real separation in 
 any type of separator. Cleaning is therefore necessary if the efficiency 
 of the separator is to be maintained. In order to permit the cleaning of 
 the Bundy plates, a door in either the side or top of the main casting per- 
 mits their easy removal as each of these plates is a separate casting and 
 they are not attached in any way to each other or to the main separator 
 casting. 
 
 Fig. (C) 
 
 Stratton Oil Separator 
 Horizontal Type (Exposed) 
 
 Fig. (D) 
 Griscom-RusseWs 
 "Bundy" Oil Separator 
 
 The separator plates should be thoroughly boiled for about 6 to 12 
 hours in a strong solution of potash, or soda and water. Their cleanliness 
 will be detected by rust appearing on the surface when dry. After clean- 
 ing, the plates can be replaced in the separator with their rough cast 
 
184 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Hoppes Mfg. Co.'s Class "R" Oil Heaters, Showing Multi-Trough 
 Shape I Pan 
 
 Class ".R" Oil Heater Front End Exposed 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 185 
 
 iron separating surface restored to their original condition. The best way 
 to determine just when the cleaning should be done is by trial and obser- 
 vation. On old work, where the piping has become foul and coated through, 
 long usage, it is reasonable to suppose that the Bundy separator will re- 
 quire closer watching than where new piping is used. 
 
 Fig. (e). A "(7L" Oil Separator 
 
 In the illustration (f) of the multiscreen Filter, a re-design of the 
 well-known Reilley Multiscreen Filter and Grease Extractor is shown. 
 This installation is adapted for ships on over-seas voyages. In particular 
 where steam is used in conjunction with Diesel power. 
 
 Fig- (/) Griscom Russell's "G-R" Multiscreen Filter 
 
186 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 HELPFUL HINTS ON LUBRICATION AND LUBRICATING OIL 
 
 If the oil supplied to a bearing is relatively cold, the turbulence is 
 not vigorous, and consequently a particle of oil that is in contact with 
 the bearing and that has absorbed its share of the heat, does not move 
 away fast enough and therefore is not rapidly replaced by another 
 colder particle of oil. The result is that the greater part of the cir- 
 culating oil during its travel through the bearing does not come into 
 contact with the, metal surfaces but passes along without absorbing 
 any heat Under these conditions, the bearing becomes heated to a 
 point where the temperature difference between it and the oil film in 
 direct contact is great enough to transfer the heat by conduction from 
 the bearing to the oil film. This comparatively small portion of hot 
 oil intermixes with the remaining larger quantity of cold oil, estab- 
 lishing at the outlet of the bearing a low oil temperature which by 
 no means indicates the temperature of the bearing itself. 
 
 Oil Cooling and Lubricating System for Internal Combustion Engines by 
 Scfiutte & Koerting's Method 
 
 The temperature of the oil may be surprisingly low, whereas the 
 temperature of the bearing itself may have reached the allowable maxi- 
 mum. The bearing is kept cool, not by establishing a low outlet oil tem- 
 perature, but by bringing into contact with the surfaces of the bearing 
 as many particles of oil per unit of time as possible. The best practice 
 is to circulate the oil energetically and to recool it to a temperature below 
 the normal operating temperature of the bearing. According to tests 
 conducted by the General Electric Company, this bearing temperature 
 is about 160 Fahrenheit. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 187 
 
 In the illustration of the Schutte & Koerting Oil Circuit an ideal 
 System of proper cooling is shown. It is a mistake to refer the outlet 
 temperature of the oil to the outlet temperature of the cooling 1 water. 
 The particular oil temperature at which the Diesel engine operates most 
 efficiently should be maintained irrespective of cooling water tempera- 
 ture. The latter can be regulated at will by controlling the amount of 
 water passing through the cooler. 
 
 In a test on a standard No. 7 cooler, in which 60 gallons of heavy 
 Texaco Ursa oil were to be cooled per minute with 160 gallons of cooling 
 water per minute, the results given in the following table were obtained. 
 
 Water Outlet 
 
 Oil Inlet 
 
 Oil Outlet 
 To Bearings 
 
 Water Inlet 
 
 TABLE OF TEST OF No. 7 SHUTTE 
 KOERTING COOLER 
 
 fas' 
 
 I ,- 
 
 85 
 70 
 60 
 50 
 40 
 
 156 
 140 
 128 
 116 
 104 
 
 l*fc 
 
 118 
 
 103 
 
 93 
 
 83 
 
 73 
 
 Bid 
 
 Q-S 
 *- 
 
 fl 
 
 Q _, cd 
 
 g'gfo 
 
 38 
 37 
 35 
 33 
 31 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Oil Cooler of 
 the Schutte & Koerting type, for 
 Re-cooling Lubricating Oil and Cool- 
 ing Oil from Diesel Engine Pistons 
 and Bearings. 
 
 In all instances, the difference between the water-inlet and oil- 
 outlet temperatures was 33 F. Furthermore, the temperature drop of 
 the oil decreased with a decrease in the initial oil temperature. This 
 is primarily due to the fact that as the temperature of the oil dimin- 
 ishes, the oil becomes thicker and more viscous, and its movement along 
 the cooling surfaces sluggish. A more or less stagnant layer or film 
 of oil that forms also retards the cooling materially. 
 
 A large quantity of oil circulating at a small temperature drop 
 has been found to give better results than a small amount of oil at a 
 large temperature drop. The oil should not be passed through the bear- 
 ings at too low a temperature, since cold oil, because of its greater vis- 
 
188 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 cosity does not absorb the heat of a bearing as well as oil at a higher 
 temperature. The Schutte & Koerting Company recommends for sta- 
 tionary service an oil temperature drop of 30 P., namely, from 150 to 
 120 F., since from the experience of most engine builders, this range 
 gives the best operating results. Under these conditions a high rate 
 of oil flow in the (bearings is provided, as well as a thin oil film that in- 
 sures a vigorous movement and rapid efficient absorption of heat in 
 the bearings. 
 
 Table, Showing Variation of Specific Heat of Texaco 
 
 Temp-e nature. 
 
 Ursa Oil With 
 
 Temperature of Oil Degree 
 Fahrenheit. 
 100 
 120 
 140 
 160 
 180 
 200 
 220 
 240 
 260 
 
 Specific Heat of Oil B. T. U. 
 per Ib. per Degree Fahr. 
 0.437 
 0.450 
 0.462 
 0.474 
 0.486 
 0.497 
 0.508 
 0.518 
 0.527 
 
 -Oil Inlet 
 
 Dram- 
 Oil Ouflet 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Lubricating Oil Filter for Diesel Engines 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 189 
 
 If the temperature of the oil entering the cooler is comparatively 
 low, the cooler will necessarily be of larger dimensions to accommodate 
 the larger quantity .of water necessary to absorb the same amount of 
 heat. 
 
 The oil best suited for Diesel engine lubrication is one that will 
 withstand contamination with impurities under the conditions of most 
 severe service, high surface speed, rapid circulation of oil, presence 
 of water, etc. With poor grades of oil, the lubrication is inefficient, 
 and due to the heat generated, bearing temperatures are high, the oil 
 is oxidized, and its life limited a few months. 
 
 Excessive oil temperatures are sometimes due to the proximity of the 
 oil drain tank to the close distance of engine. Frequently the lubricat- 
 ing oil contains entrained particles of air in the form of bubbles. When 
 the circulation is rapid, these bubbles burst and scatter the oil in fine 
 sprays or vapor. 
 
 o 
 Schutte & Koerting's Duplex Oil Strainer 
 
 This vapor must be removed from the bearing housing since it is 
 likely, where in case of engine being used for electrical generation 
 purposes, to creep into the electric generator, where it can cause trouble 
 For this purpose the oil pipe is made sufficiently large; otherwise an 
 additional pipe is used, venting the oil reservoir of the bearings at a 
 higher level than the original return pipe from the bearing housing. 
 Foaming occurs whenever large quantities of fresh oil are added ,to 
 the lubricating system. This, however, will disappear after a few 
 hours operation. Should it persist, air is probably 'being sucked into the 
 system through the oil pump. All air leaks should be eliminated as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
190 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Solid impurities, such as particles of dust and dirt, iron oxide, 
 etc., contaminate, and break down some grades of oil quickly. Such 
 oil becomes dark in color, its viscosity is high, and it forms a sludge that 
 is deposited in the system, usually in the oil cooler. If, furthermore, 
 a slight trace of water is present, the oil will emulsify considerably. 
 
 In instances where a new engine is started up for the first time, 
 there will always be in the lubricating oil particles of core sand, cotton 
 waste, scale, etc. Therefore, after the engine has been in operation for 
 two or three weeks, the oil should be removed, put into a settling tank, 
 where the foreign substances will deposite at the bottom, and then the 
 good oil separated off from the top. This oil can be subsequently used as 
 make-up oil. 
 
 If it is found that the percentage of impurities is large, the oil 
 should first be heated, separated as before, and then run through a filter 
 before being introduced into the lubricating system. A more definite 
 and positive means of removing solid impurities and foreign substances 
 from the oil is provided by the Duplex Oil strainer of which accompany- 
 ing illustration gives a view. 
 
 The Duplex Oil Strainer removes, dirt, sediment, and any foreign 
 material that has accidentally gotten into the oil. It is of sufficient 
 capacity so that one side may be cut out for cleaning purposes with- 
 out interrupting the flow of oil through the other side, that is, one side 
 of the strainer can be cleaned while the apparatus is running under full 
 power. It is operated with a single lever. It has a free area through 
 the straining screens that permits of long usuage without causing the 
 system to become choked and clogged. Sometimes the strainer is by- 
 passed, the by-pass being provided with a relief valve so adjusted that 
 it opens when a fixed differential pressure occurs across the strainer. 
 In this way the oil flow is not interrupted; but an alarm must be pro- 
 vided to indicate when the valve opens, otherwise the clogged strainer will 
 go unnoticed. 
 
 When water is present, the result is an emulsification of the oil, 
 With large quantities of water, the mixture assumes a dark yellow color. 
 If a sample of the mixture is removed, and heated in a test tube, it 
 will separate out into oil at the top, milky water in the center, and a 
 slimy sludge at the bottom of the tube. The oil is\ darker in color, and 
 somewhat heavier than the original oil. It also has a strong character- 
 istic odor. 
 
 Water is the cause of considerable trouble, since in appreciable 
 quantities, it forms a sludge that clogs up the passages of the closed 
 lubricating system, and causes the temperature of the circulating water 
 to rise. This condition is usually an indication that insufficient oil 
 is 'brought to the -bearings for cooling purposes. Frequently the engine 
 must be shut down in order to cleanse the system thoroughly. 
 
 When water leakage is unavoidable, it is good practice to put a 
 water drain into the bottom of the drain tank. This water drain should 
 be opened once in every 24 hours, so that any water accumulating in the 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 191 
 
 system can be withdrawn. The drain cock should be left open until clear 
 oil appears. It is also advisable to open the drain cock before starting 
 the engine. The suction of the oil pump in the drain tank should be at 
 least two to four inches above the bottom of the tank, so that any water 
 which may have separated out will not be mixed with the oil, and passed 
 into the lubricating system. In some engine rooms the usual procedure is 
 to remove each day from the bottom of the oil tank three to six gallons 
 of oil. This is heated in a separating tank, and later filtered. 
 
 It is advantageous to have a large quantity of oil in circulation, 
 with large oil tanks in which the oil has time to rest and to separate 
 from the air, water, dirt and other impurities collected in the system. 
 There is always more or less air in the circulating oil. At about 180 F., 
 the air oxidizes the oil, causing it to assume a dark color. Carbon is de- 
 posited and frequently chokes up the oil inlet to the bearings, and causes 
 the oil in the governing gear to stick. In an efficient oiling system in 
 which there is no waste or leakage of the oil, and little or no water, the 
 amount of make-up to be added every week is very small. 
 
 Where poor grades of oil are used, the addition of new oil throws 
 down a dark deposit throughout the entire system. This is particularly 
 true with thei heavier grades of oil. It always pays to use the proper 
 high grade oils, since these separate quickly from impurities. They re- 
 duce friction to a minimum, prevent high bearing temperatures, and in- 
 sure correct lubrication and efficient operation. 
 
 RECOOLING JACKET WATER OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 On board ships or in plants where the supply of fresh water for cool- 
 ing the jackets of internal combustion engines is insufficient, it is neces- 
 sary to use the same clean jacket water over and over again, and for this 
 reason, to recool water. 
 
 This can be done to advantage in the water cooler, wherein the same 
 principles of construction are employed as in the oil cooler, as shown in 
 the illustration of the same, and the same exceptionally high heat trans- 
 fer, low weight and small space requirements are obtained. 
 
 Since there is no necessity of replenishing the jacket water, the same 
 water is used over and over again. Thus, due to the continual circula- 
 tion, the possibility that any sediment in the water will settle in the 
 passes of the cooling packet is reduced to a minimum, and cleaning of the 
 jackets is unnecessary. All clogging of the passes is avoided, as are 
 strains and cracked cylinders caused by uneven distribution of heat. 
 
 By using a recooler, the cost of fresh water is reduced or entirely 
 eliminated. Furthermore, the heat coming from the heater can be used 
 to advantage in many ways, increasing materially the economy of the en- 
 gine plant. The cooling water in the cooler must be capable of carrying 
 off from an ordinary commercial or even a naval type of Diesel engine an 
 amount of heat (including that abstratced from the lubricating oil), equal 
 to about 35 per cent of the total heat in the fuel consumed. 
 
192 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 For example: An engine consuming per B. H. P. hr. (horsepower 
 hour actually delivered at the coupling end of the crank shaft), 0.40 Ib. 
 of fuel oil of 18,000 B. T. U. per Ib. or 7200 B. T. U. per B. H. P. hr., will 
 require sufficient cooling water to carry off 2520 B. T. U. per B. H. P. 
 hour. 
 
 If the water has a temperature of 70 Fahrenheit, and the discharge 
 temperature is limited to 100 Fahr., the quantity of cooling water re- 
 quired will be 84 Ibs. or about 10 gallons per hour per B. H. P. Under 
 these conditions the water pressure will be less than 30 Ibs. per square 
 inch. 
 
 If the total heat of the engine amounts to about 775,000 B. T. U. per 
 hour, about 260,000 B. T. U. per hour would be transformed into mechan- 
 ical work. This means a heat loss (total heat loss = total heat available 
 - heat transformed into mechanical work) of 775,000 260,000, or 515,- 
 000 B. T. U. Of this amount, about one-half must be absorbed by the 
 jacket water. One half equals 257,000 B. T. U. per hour, the amount of 
 heat to be absorbed by the jacket water, and to be surrendered to the 
 water in the cooler. 
 
 If 250 B. T. U. are to be transferred per hr. per sq. ft. of heating sur- 
 face per 1 Fahr. mean temperature difference between the hot and cold 
 water, and if the hot water is circulated around the tubes at a velocity 
 of 18 in. per second, then the velocity of the cooling water through the 
 tubes must be about 19 in. per second. For a heat transfer of 275 B. T. U. 
 this velocity must be 23 in. per second. 
 
 RECOOLING JACKET WATER BY MEANS OF AIR 
 
 The Water Cooler, used for recooling the jacket water of internal 
 combustion engines by means of air, consists of a bundle of straight oval 
 or round tubes. The ends are cast into the tube sheets. The jacket water 
 to be cooled passes through the tubes, and air is blown across the tube 
 surfaces by means of a blower. 
 
 The small weight and space occupied by the apparatus make it 
 indispensable for this purpose. Oval or round tubes are in staggered 
 formation. Thus the air is split into numerous fine streams and comes 
 into thorough contact with the tube surfaces. The frictional resistance 
 through the cooler is small. The use of oval tubes insures high heat 
 transmission, since the water column flowing through the tube is of 
 oval cross section and every particle of water is close enough to the in- 
 terior tube surface to be able to surrender its 1 heat effectively and com- 
 pletely. There is no dead central core of water as in round tubes of 
 the same capacity. 
 
 The design of the recooling plant must be based on the maximum 
 heat that is to be absorbed from the engine by the jacket water, and 
 surrendered to the air in the cooler. Furthermore, the power required 
 by the 'blower should remain within reasonable limits, at the utmost 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 193 
 
 not more than 5 per cent of the engine capacity, the air should be 
 drawn through the cooler in the correct manner. 
 
 In a general way, it may be stated that there must be a temperature 
 difference between the surrounding air and the water leaving the 
 cooler of at least 30 Fahr., if the cooling plant is not to be abnormally 
 large and expensive. For example, if a recooling plant is to be operated 
 with air at 80 Fahr., the water would not be cooled below 115 Fahr. 
 or 110 Fahr. at the lowest. 
 
 Schutte & Koerting Water Coolers are built in sizes adapted for 
 engine capacities of 5 H. P. up to large units of 200 H. P. For still larger 
 units several coolers are used in combination. 
 
 INTER AND AFTER-COOLERS FOR AIR COMPRESSORS. 
 
 The air cooler is extensively used in connection with air compressors 
 for cooling the compressed air. The apparatus is made to withstand 
 any pressure required, and is designed so as always to retain the ad- 
 vantages of a very compact arrangement. Round tubes are employed 
 and the tube bundles are inserted in cast iron or sheet iron casings. 
 
 Both oil and water eliminaters are provided, thus practically all 
 of the entrained moisture and oil is removed. This is essential, parti- 
 cularly when the air is subsequently used in air agitators around machin- 
 ery where the inter and after-cooling methods are imperative. Also by 
 insuring the removal of all entrained moisture, the possibility of free- 
 zing in winter is entirely eliminated. 
 
 The air is carried around the outside of the tubes, and the cooling 
 water through the tubes. As it is a simple matter to clean the insides 
 of the tubes, very dirty water can be used. Notwithstanding the small 
 dimensions of the apparatus, the resistance to flow is low, and large 
 quantities of air can therefore be handled with small frictional losses. 
 
 The operation of a two-cylinder double-acting two-stage air com- 
 pressor with an inter-cooler and an after-cooler is as follows: 
 
 Air enters the cylinder through the open inlet valve, which, at 
 the end of the suction stroke, closes; as the motion of the piston com- 
 presses the air filling the cylinder, the discharge valve opens automa- 
 tically, and allows the compressed air to pass the inter-cooler, where it 
 is cooled, and thence discharged to the second cylinder or to the subse- 
 quent stage. 
 
 During its passage through the inter-cooler, the air surrenders to 
 the water practically all the heat of compression, although ,some of this 
 heat has already been absorbed by the water in the compressor water 
 jacket. 
 
 After the air leaves the last stage, it is usually conducted to an 
 after-cooler, where the heat generated in the final stage of compression 
 is removed in exactly the same manner as in the inter-cooler. 
 
 The cooled high pressure air then passes to the receiver, where it 
 is stored, until drawn off for use as required. 
 
194 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 SPRAY AIR COOLER 
 
 A sectional elevation of the Schutte & Koerting Spray Air Cooler 
 is shown in accompanying illustration. This apparatus is of highest 
 value in successful operation of Diesel engines. The cooling water en- 
 velopes and circulates around the tubes. The compressed air enters the 
 top header, flows through the tubes into the bottom header, thence 
 passes into an oil and water eliminator. This is a circular chamber or 
 tangential groove in the form of a spiral. 
 
 Spiral Cumber 
 
 Oil And WV 
 Dra>n 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Spray Air Cooler for Diesel Engines 
 
 As the cooled air with its entrained oil and moisture is passed 
 through the spiral chamber, the oil and water are -thrown to the outside 
 and forced through suitable openings in the eliminator. The oil and 
 water collect in the bottom of the cooler whence they are removed 
 through the drain shown. 
 
 If the oil and water are not removed from the spray air, but are 
 carried with the air into the engine, they frequently form a gritty de- 
 posit on valves, etc., which in many instances eventually causes a serious 
 explosion. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 COMPRESSED AIR PREHEATER 
 
 195 
 
 When heavy oils are burned in Diesel engines, it is frequently ne- 
 cessary to preheat the compressed air so that the final temperature of 
 compression will be high enough to vaporize and ignite the heavy oil 
 injected into the cylinder. 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Air Spray Preheater. 
 
 A sectional elevation of the preheater is shown in the accompany- 
 ing illustration. Primarily the apparatus consists of a cylindrical tu- 
 bular heater in which the exhaust gases from the engine are passed 
 through tubes enveloped by the compressed air to be heated. The 
 flow of heated air into the Diesel engine is regulated by means of a 
 suitable valve. 
 
 Preheating the air decreases its density and therefore the work 
 that can be developed by a given volume. This is of particular im- 
 portance at full load. Under these conditions the amount of preheating 
 is decreased by introducing into the compressed air a definite amount 
 of cool free atmospheric air. The quantity admitted is closely controlled 
 by means of a suitable valve. 
 
196 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 SCHUTTE & KOERTING'S LATEST IMPROVED PUMP FOR 
 GATING OIL, THE "NEIDIG OIL PUMP" 
 
 LUBRf. 
 
 The importance of the oil-pump on Diesel engines is best demonstrated 
 when following the principles upon which this prime mover depends. The 
 construction of the pump demands careful investigation of each part, cor- 
 responding with the required work to be expected of this highly important 
 apparatus. Many defects in operation of the main unit are directly trace- 
 able to improper design and lack of sufficient knowledge on the part of 
 builders \vith respect to the oil pump. 
 
 The "Niedig Oil Pump", Specially Adapted on Diesel Machinery 
 
 The pump used for the purpose of supplying an average stream of 
 liquid in power plant equipments is an entirely different machine from the 
 type used for high pressure oil-supply purpose of a high-compression 
 Diesel engine, or for such purposes where lubricants are supplied. 
 
 Neidig Oil Pump Interior Arrangement 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 197 
 
 In figure (a) a Schutte-Koerting "Neidig Oil Pump" illustration is 
 given. As will be noticed from the illustrations, the pump follows along 
 the lines of the well known gear-pump, often found in plants where 
 heavy viscous liquids require a pump of highest grade. 
 
 A special feature of this pump is the provision of stationary guide 
 ring, or distance ring, this is fixed concentric with the revolving gears, 
 and, owing to the design, enables the conversion ofi velocity into pressure 
 head to be very effectively accomplished, thus increasing not only the 
 possible height of lift, but also the working efficiency of the pump from 
 the standpoint of the desired pressure. 
 
 Neidig Oil Pump Gear Arrangement 
 
 This pump possesses many advantages. Conspicuous amongst these 
 being the small number of working parts, compactness, low first cost, and 
 minimum wear and tear. 
 
 In calculations relating to these pumps the following formula will be 
 helpful: 
 
 Let .S speed of periphery of wheel in feet per second. 
 
 Let H = height in feet to which liquid is to be delivered. 
 
 Let D = diameter of wheel in feet. 
 
 Let G == gallons of liquid delivered per minute. 
 
 Let R = revolutions per minute. 
 
 The horsepower of driving medium required will be found by multi- 
 plying the height in feet by the quantity of liquid in pounds pe*r minute, 
 and by the efficiency of the pump and main unit, and dividing by 33,000. 
 The efficiency of the pump may be anything from 0.55 to 0.65, and the* 
 efficiency of the driving power, say, 0.85, the combined efficiencies being 
 thus equal to from 70 to 75 per cent. 
 
 Its action depends upon centrifugal principle. Until quite recently 
 a great deal of objection was found to be prevalent to the use of centri- 
 fugal types of pumps on Diesel machinery. The principal reason of ob- 
 jection was a low efficiency in comparison to plunger types. These ob- 
 
198 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 jections were never based upon sound reason, inasmuch as pumps driven 
 by centrifugal force have many advantages, such as lessening of parts, 
 easy maintenance, lack of complicated mechanism, etc. 
 
 In order to emphasize the necessity to provide for strainers on appar- 
 atus where the purpose is to supply oil for the engine, the sectional view 
 of Schutte-Koerting's Duplex Oil Strainer is shown. The Duplex Oil 
 Strainer removes dirt, sediment, and any foreign material that has acci- 
 dentally gotten into the oil. 
 
 Sfrainer- 
 
 ba 
 
 Sectional View of Duplex Oil Sir, .in, r 
 
 It is of sufficient capacity so that one side may be cut out for clean- 
 ing purposes without interrupting the flow of oil through the other side, 
 that is, one side of the strainer can be cleansed while the apparatus is 
 running under full power. 
 
 It is operated with a single lever. It has a free area through tht> 
 straining screens that permits of long usage without causing system to 
 become choked and clogged. 
 
 Sometimes the strainer is by-passed, the by-pass being provided with 
 a relief valve so adjusted that it opens when a fixed differential pressure 
 occurs across the strainer. In this way the oil flow is not interrupted; 
 but an alarm must be provided to indicate when the valve opens, other- 
 wise the clogged strainer will go unnoticed. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 199 
 
 FORCE FEED OILERS 
 
 The successful operation of any internal combustion engine depends 
 largely upon its lubrication and no matter how perfect the design, the en- 
 gine will not, and cannot, run satisfactorily without particular attention 
 to this feature. (Satisfactory lubrication is more than the matter of oil. 
 It is the question of the oil reaching the right place at the right time and 
 the right quantity. An excessive amount of oil will cause the engine 
 cylinders and valves to carbonize, resulting; in leaky valves and loss of 
 power. It will decrease the efficiency of the engine. The results of in- 
 sufficient oil, such as burned-out bearings, scored cylinders, etc., are 
 
 ''Direct Acting" Manzel Force-Feed Oiler Fig. (1) 
 
 too well known to require discussion here. While in larger types of 
 Diesels, special oil force-feed systems have been provided for, neverthe- 
 less the type made by the Manzel Co. are exceedingly satisfactory on 
 smaller capacities of Diesel engines. 
 
 The arrangement of this type is exceedingly simple. By the use 
 of the so-called "sight-feed" oilers, trouble will be overcome by watch- 
 ing the sight at the top of the lubricator. Before starting the engine, give 
 the handle a dozen turns so as to get the oil to the bearing before the 
 engine has started. If the engine has been left to stand, the bear- 
 ing surfaces are subject to become heated, provided lubricant has not 
 been furnished. This type of oiling system enables the operator to 
 know not guess how much oil is being supplied to the cylinder bear- 
 ing. The oil is always supplied in accordance to the speed of the engine, 
 whether the engine stops, islows down, starts, the oiler corresponds to 
 the engine's actions. It always supplies the exact amount of oil for 
 every part of the engine, depending upon the requirements. 
 
 To regulate the Force-Feed Oiler move the stroke lever at the left 
 in or out to shorten the stroke or lengthen it as the requirements may 
 call for. To regulate the feed of the oil to the bearing surfaces of the 
 cylinder, take a screw-driver and turn the feed regulator to the right or 
 left for increase or decrease of oil to be shown at the sight. In case 
 the oil pipes from the lubricator to the bearing surface should become 
 clogged in any way, disconnect the pipe line at both ends, and if air is 
 available, insert the pipe line at the end of the hose and turn on the air. 
 
200 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Be sure that the pipe is clean before attempting to assemble. Never 
 let the lubricator become dry, but keep an even supply of oil in the res- 
 ervoir. 
 
 Oiling by means of gravity oil cups or pressure lubricators is more 
 or less a matter of guess work. This method is wasteful, because the 
 feed cannot be adjusted accurately, and the oil supply is seldom pro- 
 portional to the speed of the engine. Changes in temperatures affect the 
 
 OIL INLET 
 
 Sectional View of Manzel Force-Feed Lubricator Fig. 
 
 flow of the oil, with the result that the engine gets too much or too 
 little, and to keep it adjusted correctly requires constant attention. Even 
 then it is not always dependable. 
 
 MECHANICAL OIL PUMPS 
 
 Where mechanical oil pumps are employed, the timing requires 
 accurate attention. In this case it will cause the oil to be injected through 
 a nozzle, as the piston is below the central point of its travel. The 
 spraying of the oil takes, place at this period, covering a considerable 
 area, even though the clearance between the piston and cylinder walls 
 is small. The piston, as it moves upward, swabs this oil over the cyl- 
 inder walls, 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 201 
 
 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 To establish an accuracy of operation in Diesel engineering, it is 
 imperative that a plant should be equipped with instruments by which 
 posisiible defects are shown. With this object in view, up-to-date plants 
 depending upon the reliability of machinery and the engineer in charge, 
 are placed in position to establish efficiency. 
 
 It is through the use of instruments that operators are enabled to 
 ascertain the highest temperature in the cycle, either by cause of com- 
 bustion or compression of air. 
 
 The overheating of bearings may be avoided by having instruments 
 installed in proper places, warning the operator of approaching danger. 
 
 The storage of fuel-oils demands cautious observation, eliminating 
 possible explosion. Instruments, showing the existing temperature 
 should be installed. 
 
 While it is true, that engine-rooms of Diesel plants are seldom 
 above normal heat temperature, nevertheless recording instruments 
 should be considered a necessary equipment, in particular where Re- 
 frigeration machinery is in conjunction with the plant. 
 
 The temperature of sea water should be taken on marine work, 
 especially on ships going on oversea voyages. This is absolutely neces- 
 sary and should be recorded every 24 hours in the engine room log. 
 
 Instruments to establish the specific gravity of fuel oils should be 
 on hand. It leaves no argument in regard to receiving the proper 
 quality of fuel for the engine. There is very little value in water, and 
 oils containing low specific gravity should be avoided. 
 
 Receivers of Compressors should be equipped with accurately tested 
 gauges, Safety valves, Relief valves and Bottom- blows. The latter 
 valve is a vital equipment on compresised air-receivers. They should 
 be placed as low as possible, to make it possible, to drain all existing 
 water which accumulates on the bottom of the tank. Water in air is 
 injurious to valves and piping. The acid in the water will eventually 
 act as a detrimental factor on metal. 
 
 Pressure gauges should be tested occasionally to establish their cor- 
 rectness. To place reliability on mechanical contrivances, such as safety 
 valves, relief valves, etc., should be discouraged, as it may lead to acci- 
 dents of serious consequences. 
 
 The Ashton Improved Dead-Weight Pressure Gage Tester, as shown 
 in the illustration, offers in convenient form an improved method for 
 accurately testing pressure gauges by means of weights, and is a recog- 
 nized standard extensively adopted for this important service. It is 
 equal in accuracy to that of a mercury column, and has the advantage of 
 being more compact, portable and much lower in cost. These testers are 
 also much more preferred over the ordinary styles of similar designs 
 because of their special distinctive construction with double area piston. 
 This exclusive feature makes it possible to make tests within their 
 designated range of pressure with only one-fourth the usual number of 
 
202 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 weights, which is a matter of considerable convenience, as well as 
 economy of time. In following instructions it will be observed that 
 accuracy can be obtained when properly applied. 
 
 For low range pressure testing the tester should be adjusted so as to 
 make use of the combined large and small area of the piston, which 
 is done by closing the left-hand cock on the vertical pressure cylinder 
 and opening the right-hand one. When the maximum pressure with this 
 adjustment is obtained, and it is desired to test at higher pressures, 
 
 Ashton Improved Dead-Weight Pressure Gauge Tester 
 
 the reverse adjustment of the cylinder cocks is made with the left 
 opened and the right one closed. This makes the machine operate on 
 the small area of the piston only, and the pressure then exerted will be 
 four times greater than before, which applies to the weight holder as well 
 as to each of the weights. These changes of regulation can be made 
 while the machine is in use and without taking it apart. It is necessary, 
 however, to remove all pressure in the tester by unscrewing the hand- 
 wheel before making such re-adjustments. 
 
 The tester should always be placed in a level position so that the 
 weight piston will stand exactly vertical. To insure accuracy of read- 
 ings, the piston should be revolved slowly to reduce any friction there 
 might be in the cylinder. 
 
 As the weights force the piston to the bottom of the cylinder, the 
 hand-wheel should be screwed in more, thus raising the piston and pre- 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 203 
 
 venting it from striking the bottom. All interior parts should be kept 
 clean, and best results are obtained by using sperm oil or similar light 
 grade. 
 
 In preparing the tester for use, the three-way cock on the gage 
 connection arm should be closed by turning the lever handle to a vertical 
 position. The hand-wheel screw should be screwed into the oil reservoir 
 as far as it will go. Then remove cap on top of vertical cylinder and 
 slowly fill cylinder with oil, during which operation the hand-wheel should 
 be gradually unscrewed until the instrument is completely filled. The 
 gage to be tested should next be applied, and the three-way co'ck opened 
 by turning lever handle horizontally to the right. The weight pistons 
 with tray may then be inserted in the cylinder, making the tester com- 
 plete and ready for use with the application of the weights. 
 
 Ashton Inspector's Testing and Proving Outfit 
 
 The piston with weight holder, as well as each of the weights, is 
 plainly marked with the pounds pressure they will exert on the gage, 
 with double area adjustment. When the single area adjustment is being 
 used the pressure as above stated is four times greater. 
 
 In accompanying illustration the Ashton Inspector's Testing and Prov- 
 ing Outfit is shown. This outfit is 1 particularly adapted to the require- 
 ments of operators on ships going on long voyages and around plants 
 where large Diesels are in operation. 
 
 In the illustration of the Ashton Improved Pressure Recording Gage 
 it will be seen that the chart is graduated with pressure lines and in 
 fractions of an hour, and is rotated by an eight-day clock movement. 
 The chart is ordinarily made to rotate once in 24 hours. 
 
204 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 With the use of this gage in the engine room, there is always a 
 tendency to carefully watch the entire operation of the engine. The 
 record of the chart shows the actual existing pressure on the air line 
 and with the equipment of a gauge of this kind any irregularity which 
 may cause serious breakdowns is immediately recorded. 
 
 Ashton Improved Pressure Recording Gage 
 
 Tycos Recording and Index Thermometer 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 205 
 
 In the following illustration we have a Recording Instrument, which 
 automatically writes in ink on a revolving paper chart a continuous 
 record of the temperature to which its bulb is subjected. The self-con- 
 tained recorder has the bulb, or sensitive member, inside the case, 
 whereas with the cavillary-form instrument the bulb may be located at 
 a distance. 
 
 Ash ton Pressure Gauge Double Spring Arrangement 
 
 An Index Thermometer is an indicating instrument having a bulb 
 or sensitive member which may be located at a distance from the case, 
 so that the latter can be located at a point easily accessible for reading 
 the temperature. 
 
 It may generally be stated that the mercury type is best adapted to 
 applications which require accurate readings over a wide temperature 
 scale, and where the length of flexible connecting tubing does not exceed 
 20 or 25 feet. 
 
 Ashton Pressure Gauge Single Spring Arrangement 
 
206 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Fig.l 
 
 Pneumercator Gauge 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 207 
 
 Instruments of this kind are made in temperature ranges within the 
 limits of 40 below and 1000 above zero, Fahrenheit. The vapor ten- 
 sion type is particularly recommended in Diesel operation, where the 
 temperatures are within the limits of 100 and 600 Fahrenheit, and 
 particularly where long lengths of flexible connecting tubing are neces- 
 sary, leading to fuel bunkers or parts of the ship or plant where a pre- 
 determined temperature is imperative. 
 
 In Figure 1, a Pneumercator Ship's Draft and Tank Gauge is shown. 
 The application and advantages of Pneumercator Tank Gauges as ap- 
 plied to oil cargo, fuel oil settling, Ballast/ or water tanks, or bilges, is 
 recognized in marine service. They indicate the depth, volume or weight 
 of the tank contents. 
 
 They provide an accurate and simple means of checking invoices, 
 fillings and withdrawals, and will record the amount of fuel consumed 
 per hour or per day. They furnish a perpetual inventory of tank con- 
 tents. By their use there is no danger of overfilling or flooding decks. 
 
 It will be observed in Figure 1 that the installation is exceedingly 
 simple. It indicates for and aft drafts of the vessel, registers mean 
 draft and corresponding tons dead weight displacement. It weighs bulk 
 cargoes loaded or discharged, with close accuracy, and is of invaluable 
 assistance in trimming the vessel. 
 
 The operation of the Pneumercator Gauge is dependent solely upon 
 the maintenance of the true static balance between the head of liquid 
 to be measured and, the column of mercury or other indicating medium 
 in the gauge. The pressure of the liquid is transmitted to the gauge by 
 air confined in a small connecting tube between the liquid (at the datum 
 line above which the head is measured) and the gauge. 
 
 To establish the datum line a hemispheric vessel, or balance cham- 
 ber, is located at a predetermined level below the surface of the liquid. 
 An orifice in the lower portion of this balance chamber admits the liquid 
 to the interior. In taking a reading, air is forced into this balance 
 chamber, thus expelling the liquid from the balance chamber and es- 
 tablishing the datum level. Excess air merely passes out as bubbles, 
 hence the pressure on the confined air remains constant and equal to the 
 head of liquid standing above the datum line. 
 
 When, by manipulating a control valve, this air is admitted to the 
 gauge, the mercury column rises to balance the pressure of the liquid 
 head and establishes a precise reading on the gauge scale. 
 
 The elements required are therefore: (1) A balance chamber; (2) 
 A mercury or other gauge; (3,) A hand-pump or source of compressed 
 air, and (5) A control valve attached to the gauge and connected by 
 small piping to the balance chamber and to the source of compressed 
 air. (See Fig.. 1). 
 
 The instrument may be installed at any desired point, regardless 
 of the location of the balance chamber. Indirect leads and any number 
 oi bends in the air line in no wise affect the working system. As the 
 air is merely trapped in the balance chamber and piping, the pressure 
 
208 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 which it transmits is unaffected by varying temperatures through which 
 the latter may pass, and the instrument is of unvarying accuracy. This 
 instrument will operate with equal accuracy on tanks open to atmosphere, 
 or under pressure. Their precision is not affected by temperature 
 changes. 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER VALVES 
 
 In selecting valves for Air-line connections or around the main or 
 auxiliary engines, is a matter which should be given careful study. Un- 
 like the steam engine, where a leakage of steam does not impair the 
 operation of the plant to a great extent, the opposite may occur in Diesel 
 operation. 
 
 In packing glands around valves, the same should be done exceed- 
 ingly skillfully. Steam packing will not do around Diesel machinery, 
 neither will steam valves be satisfactory in a plant operated by Internal 
 Combustion engines. 
 
 INLET 
 
 Ideal Valve for Use Around Internal Combustion Machinery 
 
 It is but natural that leakages should be avoided. It will be seen 
 in the illustration showing the Lunkenheimer Balanced Valve, that 
 the manufacturers have made a special type answering the purpose of 
 proper valve equipment. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 209 
 
 All Lunkenheimer Balanced Valves should be connected so that the 
 inlet pressure will be above the disc. The method of operation^ assum- 
 ing that the valve is closed and under pressure, is as follows: 
 
 Air will pass through the drain in the disc cylinder, just above the 
 main disc and thence through the ports E into the balancing cylinder F. 
 The full inlet pressure will then be on top of the disc and materially 
 assist in maintaining a tight valve. 
 
 When it is desired to open the valve, the hand-wheel L is turned 
 about one-quarter of a revolution. The stem will then be in a position 
 shown in the illustration with the opening to the by-pass disc I un- 
 covered. Air will immediately pass through the by-pass disc and out 
 ports in the main disc guide stem N, equalizing the pressure in the bal- 
 ancing cylinder and below the main disc. 
 
 Further turning of the hand-wheel will open the main valve, and 
 because of its balanced condition, this operation may be accomplished 
 with negligible effort. 
 
 Ashton's Spring Lever Pop Valve Exposed 
 
 It will be observed that the by-pass construction of this valve not 
 only permits the ready establishment of equalized pressure, but affords 
 an unusually safe and accurate restriction of the volume of air tranj- 
 mitted to the main unit during the "warming up" process. 
 
 The small drain hole in the side of the disc cylinder also serves 
 to relieve accumulation of water, which would otherwise leak in the 
 
210 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 valve-arrangement on the engine when the valve is connected in a ver- 
 tical position. 
 
 The disc cylinder piston ring is of sufficiently loose fit to provide 
 adequate drainage when the valve is placed horizontally. 
 
 The removal of moisture, always present in air, is essential to 
 safety and continuity of service. The varied requirements of piping in- 
 stallations make it impracticable to provide an arbitrarily located "drip" 
 connection on the Balanced Valve, but each layout must provide ade- 
 quate drainage of all points at which such accumulation would other- 
 wise occur. 
 
 In accompanying illustration of the Outside Spring Safety Pop 
 Valve, an excellent view is allowed, giving vital parts of this necessary 
 equipment on Air-Tanks. 
 
 The purpose of the safety valve is to prevent the pressure of air- 
 storage tanks from rising above a certain definite point, dependent on 
 the construction of the tank and the condition under which it is to 
 operate. The function must be performed automatically and under op- 
 erating conditions that may arise. 
 
 There are obviously two essential requirements that must be com- 
 plied with in any safety valve in order to guarantee its satisfactory 
 performance: 1st, Mechanical Reliability, and 2nd, 
 Adequate Relieving Capacity. 
 
 Safety valves should be connected directly to the 
 storage tank, and in case it is found necessary that 
 it should be connected to any outlet connection, un- 
 der no circumstances should the area of such con- 
 nection be less than that of the valve inlet. A close 
 nipple should be used in case a threaded connection 
 is necessary. 
 
 In no case should a stop valve or other fitting 
 Ibe placed between a Pop- Valve and the air-outlet nor 
 pn the discharge outlet between safety valve and the 
 'atmosphere. 
 
 If the laws governing the installation permit 
 adjustment of pressure-settings, the following direc- 
 tions should be observed in effecting adjustment of 
 Lunkenheimer Pop Safety Valve: 
 
 A change in the relieving pressure may readily 
 be made by removing the cap at the top of the valve 
 and adjusting screw turning the latter down for 
 higher pressure and up for a lower pressure. 
 
 Ashton's Relief Valve 
 
 The amount of pressure should carefully be determined and the 
 setting of pre-determined pressure necessary to assure the safe carrying 
 capacity of storage tanks or reservoirs should at all times correspond 
 with the pressure-gauge. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 SILENCERS 
 
 211 
 
 In the following illustration a Silencer is shown. These Silencers 
 reduce the noise of the exhaust of an engine. In many cases these 
 Silencers are installed both upon the inlet and exhaust, as it has fre- 
 
 Illustration of "Maxim" Silencer. 
 
 quently been found that the suction or inlet of oil engines and the 
 section of air-compressors is the cause of nearly as much noise> as the 
 exhaust. They offer such a low back pressure that the most sensitive 
 engines can be equipped to operate properly and quietly. 
 
212 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 THE SPERRY MAGNETIC CLUTCH COUPLING 
 
 The Sperry type of Magnetic Coupling or Clutch has been used 
 successfully on submersible crafts for a number of years. It may well 
 be considered a clutch arrangement of exceptional reliability, in par- 
 ticular on marine machinery where power-transmission has to be depended 
 upon assuring immediate control of the engine. 
 
 This type of clutch was developed as a by-product of several years' 
 experimentation and development of an Electric Transmission. It has 
 'been built in large range of sizes and powers and has been found par- 
 ticularly adapted to certain conditions where an extreme flexibility com- 
 bined with self-aligning characteristics is desired, together with speed 
 and quick response in management of the power unit. 
 
 Floating Steel 
 Teefh 
 
 Dn vinq Rotor - ^ 
 Teeth 
 
 F/LJ wheel 
 /'Driving Element 
 
 Driven Element 
 
 Non-Magnetic 
 
 of Magnetic Conductor 
 
 Approx. Relation of 
 Teeth at Max Torque 
 
 Fig. /. Section Through Electromagnetic Clutch 
 
 In this form of Clutch Coupling torsional resistance is developed, due 
 to the bending or distortion of the magnetic flux stream passing from 
 the teeth of one polar projection through floating steel teeth embedded 
 in non-magnetic material and into the teeth on the opposite polar pro- 
 jection. (See figure 1.) The component parts of the Coupling are so 
 arranged as to enable the distortion of the flux stream to be made in 
 the plane of revolution and a perfect torsional cushion is thus provided. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 213 
 
 Simple and Rugged Construction: The component parts of the 
 coupling are of an extremely simple form as may be noted from figure 3, 
 all parts being substantial and rugged form. As there is no mechanical 
 contact in the plane of revolution, the component parts are not subjected 
 to shock of any kind and there is no liability of parts becoming loosened, 
 worn, or broken, due to the severest condition. 
 
 The half coupling carrying the floating teeth is normally centered by 
 a sleeve or ball bearing projecting from the opposite half of the coupling. 
 This centering projection maintains a normal condition of the air gap and 
 prevents exterior forces due to shaft misalignment or other conditions 
 disturbing the proper relation of the coupling parts. The air gaps main- 
 tained in the coupling are relatively large and the floating magnetic teeth 
 are cast solidly in a non-magnetic ring which is made by a process in- 
 suring permanent retention of the teeth and safety against all of the work- 
 ing and handling conditions which may be encountered in assembling 
 and other unforeseen occasions aboard ship. 
 
 Fig. 2. General Arrangement of Sperry Gyroscope Co.'s Electromagnetic 
 
 Clutch. 
 
 The energizing coil of these couplings consists of a single circular 
 coil of relatively large size wire which is wound in a form and impreg- 
 nated with Bakelite. It is insulated to withstand the worst conditions 
 of temperature, dampness and operation. The amount of current required 
 for energizing is extremely small for the power transmitted, as but a few 
 watts are necessary and only a fraction of a kilowatt is required for a 
 coupling of large capacity. The exiting current is led into the coil through 
 a simple form of brush holder bearing on collector rings which are 
 mounted on and form part of one of the coupling elements. The standard 
 couplings are designed to be operated at a potential of 110 volts D. C., 
 although exiting coils may be wound for any voltage up to 500. These 
 
214 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 couplings are adapted only for operation on direct current circuits ana 
 will not operate on alternating current systems of any voltage. 
 
 4000 
 
 1600 
 
 800] 
 
 Pull-Out 
 
 =p 
 
 Ra+ect Torque 
 
 Z 4- 6 6 10 IZ 14 16 16 ZO ZZ Z4 Z6 Z6 30 
 
 Relative Speed Difference in Revolutions per Second 
 
 Fig. 3. Speed-Torque Curve of Electromagnetic Clutch. 
 
 TABiLE OF COMMERCIAL RATINGS OF SPERRY ELECTRO 
 MAGNETIC CLUTCH 
 
 
 
 Normal rat- 
 
 
 
 
 Clutch 
 
 Max. pull- 
 
 ing constant 
 
 
 Max. 
 
 Max. start- 
 
 Coupling 
 
 out-torque 
 
 torque 
 
 H. P. per 
 
 speed 
 
 ing torque 
 
 Number 
 
 Ib. ft. 
 
 Ib. ft. 
 
 100 rev. 
 
 R.P.M. 
 
 Ib. ft. 
 
 * 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 5 
 
 300 
 
 175 
 
 3.25 
 
 3000 
 
 75 
 
 9 
 
 900 
 
 500 
 
 9.0 
 
 2500 
 
 225 
 
 14 
 
 2500 
 
 1200 
 
 24 
 
 2000 
 
 625 
 
 18 
 
 4500 
 
 2200 
 
 42 
 
 1600 
 
 1250 
 
 24 
 
 10000 
 
 4500 
 
 85 
 
 1200 
 
 2500 
 
 32 
 
 20000 
 
 9000 
 
 170 
 
 900 
 
 5000 
 
 40 
 
 40000 
 
 16000 
 
 305 
 
 750 
 
 10000 
 
 *Larger sizes may be designed for special requirements. 
 
 JValues given are for a speed difference of 1000 ft. per minute between 
 
 halves of coupling. Lower speed differences give somewhat less 
 
 starting torque. 
 
 fConstant torque ratings are based on such prime movers carrying smooth 
 loads. For pulsating loads a factor should be introduced varying 
 from iy 2 to 3, depending on specific characteristics of the drive. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 215 
 
 The clutch is energized by the simple pressing of a button and the 
 driven part is gradually speeded up and brought into synchronism with 
 driving part. After clutch is synchronized no slipping takes place unless 
 a load is thrown on clutch greatly exceeding its rated capacity. This 
 characteristic may be utilized in many applications as a guard against 
 overloading some particular part of the system. No detrimental effect 
 is caused by starting continuously even under load. 
 
 As will be seen in the illustration (figure 3), by carefully studying 
 this card, that the strain in consequence of use of this type of magnetic 
 clutch is far less than that of the different mechanical equipments ge^ 
 erally in use on engines depending upon reverse-gear. No doubt this type 
 of clutch has many advantages, in particular when installed on crafts 
 where quick maneuvering must be accomplished. 
 
 REVERSE GEARS FOR MARINE ENGINES 
 
 Of vital importance is the reverse gear on marine engines depending 
 upon this equipment. A gear must conform with the requirements ex- 
 pected of it. The maneuvering of the ship, and, in fact, the safety itself, 
 depends on the reliability displayed in the reverse-gear. It must be built 
 strong and rigid, withstanding all rough usages it is confronted with. 
 
 The Paragon Reverse Gear, which is shown in accompanying illustra- 
 tion, was designed for engines where the bed is extended to accomodate 
 it, in conjunction with the unit power plant. It is also used in connection 
 with any motor where a firm foundation or angle iron support is pro- 
 vided. 
 
 On account of its unusual compactness, it takes up a very small 
 amount of room. The forward end of the gear is bored out to directly 
 accommodate the crank shaft of the motor. The propeller shaft can be 
 fitted directly into the rear end of the gear, which is bored out to the 
 propeller shaft size. Ingenious stop links lock the gears securely in either 
 position. This type permits the operating lever to be placed on either 
 port or starboard side. 
 
 In following detailed explanation pertaining to the adjusting of the 
 gear, by carefully using the illustration shown here it will be found in- 
 structive. 
 
 How To Adjust the Gear: It is necessary that the gear should 
 be properly adjusted before it is permitted to operate. The forward drive 
 of the Paragon gear is obtained by means of the disc clutch which locks 
 to the case. Thus the whole gear revolves as a solid coupling. The lock- 
 ing, or clamping, of these discs is brought about by the pressure produced 
 by the leverage obtained through the combination of the operating lever 
 and the expansion of the fingers. Unless this pressure on the discs is 
 great enough, the clutch will slip and heat. Consequently, the discs will 
 be cut up and their carrying power destroyed, thus necessitating the pur- 
 chase of new parts. 
 
216 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Remember, that every time the clutch slips the plates become thinner 
 and further adjustment is necessary to take up the wear. It is, there- 
 fore, necessary that this adjustment should be obtained before the clutch 
 is allowed to run at all. 
 
 Yoke Operating Type of Paragon Reverse Gears 
 
 If the gear heats on. the forward drive it indicates the gear is 
 ping and should be adjusted at once. 
 
 If the gear slips on the forward drive, back the set screw (76) out 
 of its notch in the brass check collar (40). Turn the screw collar (28) 
 to the right until the set screw (76) projects into the next slot in this 
 brass check collar (40). Then tighten the set screw. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 217 
 
218 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 If the gear still slips, back out the set screw again and turn the 
 screw, collar (28) to the right so that the set screw projects into another 
 notch. If it still slips, repeat the process until the gear does not slip. 
 
 In case, however, the adjustment is too tight after taking it up one 
 of these notches, an arrangement is made for taking up this adjustment 
 a half notch. To do this, back the set screw completely out of the hole 
 in which it is placed and insert it in the other hole on opposite side of 
 the screw collar (28). Then turn the collar to the right until it projects 
 into the next notch on the brass check collar (40). 
 
 In all cases be sure the set screw goes back into one of the notches 
 on the brass check collar. 
 
 The neutral position is obtained when the operating lever is vertical. 
 The reverse position is obtained by means of the brake band which 
 clamps around the case and keeps it from revolving. The brake band is 
 operated by throwing the lever back as far as possible. 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Friction Assembly for Forward Drive 
 
 If the gear slips on the reverse, that is, if the case (1) revolves when 
 the lever is in reverse position, make adjustment as follows, while the 
 motor is running slowly; remove the cotter pin from the nut (51) at the 
 top of the brake band and tighten this nut until the case ceases to re- 
 volve, keeping the lever thrown back as far as possible. When this is 
 done replace the cotter pin. 
 
 Directions for Lubrication: In some motors the matter of reverse 
 gear lubrication is taken care of automatically by the same lubricating 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINER/ AND ACCESSORIES 219 
 
 system which lubricates the motor. In such cases, hand lubrication is, 
 of course, unnecessary. 
 
 When the reverse gear is placed in an oil tight compartment, and a 
 splash system of lubrication is in use, be sure that this compartment is 
 kept at least half full of a good grade of lubricating oil. 
 
 If neither of the above lubricating systems are used in connection 
 with the motor, it will be necessary to lubricate the gear by hand in ac- 
 cordance with following instruction: 
 
 Before running the gear remove the brass plug (15) in the case and 
 put in non-fluid oil. This is really a grease instead of an oil and is about 
 the same consistency, or thickness, as vaseline. In gears of larger sizes 
 brass plug (15) will be found on front cover. 
 
 After this has been done, remove the brass screw which is located 
 in the case on the other side of the brake band. For lubrication here 
 pour in the equivalent of two or three teaspoonfuls of cylinder oil which 
 is for lubricating the discs. While this is being done the lever should be 
 in reverse position so that the plates will be freed from each other. Keep 
 turning the engine over by hand, or run the engine slowly while injecting 
 this oil. Oil the brass collar and the disc (40) at the place stenciled "oil". 
 Keep all grease cups filled and screw them down as frequenty as neces- 
 sity requires it. 
 
 Gear Assembly for Reverse Motion 
 
 The tremendous explosion impulses of a slow turning oil motor de- 
 mands a gear of unusual holding power. In following illustrations types 
 of gears are shown adaptable for Diesel-powered marine engines. 
 
220 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 In the clutch assembly of Model "H" illustrated here, consisting of 
 five cast-iron friction discs which are ground for smoothness. The In- 
 ternal teeth of these discs mesh with the external teeth of the propeller 
 gear hub as shown here. There are also six bronze friction discs which 
 are held in place to the case by twelve studs. These studs are distributed 
 along the circumferences of these discs and are supported at both ends. 
 
 Extra Heavy Duty Type of Paragon Reverse Gear 
 
 These eleven friction discs and their adjacent surfaces, comprising a 
 total of 24 friction surfaces, furnish a total friction area of over 2500 
 square inches. This is one of the reasons why this type of Paragon has 
 met with such a pronounced success in connection with powerful oil- 
 burning motors. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 221 
 
 As may be seen from the illustrations, the engine gear of this model 
 is built specially large and strong. The power is transmitted from the 
 engine gear to the propeller gear through a single train of twelve pinion 
 gears, thus distributing the load over an unusually large number of in- 
 termediary pinions all in one place. 
 
 The operating mechanism is of the double incline lever type and per- 
 mits of the operating lever being placed on either the port or the star- 
 board side. 
 
 Itemized Parts of Paragon Reverse Gear 
 
222 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 In maneuvering of engine it is imperative that reversing should be 
 accomplished in the quickest time possible. Power transmission depend- 
 ing upon the strong pulling capacity and reliability in service, calls for 
 strong and rigid built gears. 
 
 The motor's power in Paragon gears is transmitted from the engine 
 gear direct to the propeller gear through four pinions, each equi-distant 
 from the center and distributing the load evenly. This makes a direct 
 short line for the power to travel. 
 
 In some motors the matter of reverse gear lubrication is taken care 
 of automatically by the same lubricating system which lubricates the 
 motor. In such cases, hand lubrication is, of course, unnecessary. 
 
 When the reverse gear is placed in an oil tight compartment, and a 
 splash system of lubrication is in use, be sure that this compartment is 
 kept at least half full of good grade of lubricating oil. 
 
 If neither of the above lubricating systems are used in connection 
 with your motor, it will be necessary to lubricate gear by hand in accord- 
 ance with following instruction: Before running your gear remove the 
 brass plug in the case and put in non-fluid oil. This is really a grease 
 instead of an oil and is of about the same consistency, or thickness, as 
 vaseline. The brass plug will be found on the front cover. 
 
 DEFINITION OF PARTS OF PARAGON REVERSE GEAR 
 
 1. Case assembled with Friction 
 
 Disc Pins No. 9 and Oil Plugs 
 No. 15. 
 
 2. Cover assembled with Cover 
 
 Bushing No. 6 and Pinion 
 Studs No. 8. 
 
 3. Propeller Gear. 
 
 45. Propeller Gear Hub. 
 
 4. Engine Gear. 
 
 5. Pinion Gear assembled with 
 
 Pinion Bushing No. 7. 
 
 10. Friction Disc. 
 
 11. Finger Disc. 
 21. Fingers. 
 
 61. Toggle Link. 
 16. Finger Pin. 
 63. Toggle Link Pin. 
 94. Cone Stops. 
 18. Toggle Collar. 
 19-20. Brake Band. 
 
 23. Pinion Support. 
 
 24. Lever. 
 
 187. Lever Set Screw. 
 
 56. Woodruff Key for Lever. 
 
 26. Locking Link. 
 28-76. Screw Collar. 
 
 76. Screw Collar Cap Screw. 
 29. Finger Collar. 
 
 37. Friction Disc. 
 40. Check Collar. 
 44. Check Collar Dogs. 
 
 50. Locking Link Bracket Screw 
 
 51. Castellated Nut. 
 53. Hexagon Nut. 
 55. Grease Cup. 
 
 60. Toggle Sleeve. 
 
 62. Toggle iSleeve Pin. 
 
 70. Cover Cap Screw. 
 
 77. Engine Gear Set Screw. 
 80. Spring Cotter. 
 
 87. Adjusting Belt. 
 111. Yoke assembled. 
 180. Yoke Shaft Brackets. 
 30-32. Rear Bearing. 
 31. Thrust Bearing. 
 
 33. Thrust Collar. 
 
 34. Thrust Collar Set Screw. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 223 
 
 In following illustrations, showing detailed parts of the Johnson- 
 Carlyle type of friction clutch, a clear idea will be obtained as to the dis- 
 tinctive feature of this reverse gear. The illustration, figure a., shows 
 in perspective a nest of spur gearing, incorporated within a clutch body 
 or gear cage, on each end of which are mounted clutch members of the 
 Johnson type of clutch. These gears run on four hardened shafts, each 
 end of which are supported in the ends of the gear cage. The gears are 
 always in mesh with the engine and propeller shaft pinions, as shown, 
 and the former .extends to the right and the latter to the left, each being 
 supported! in babbitt bearings in the ends of the gear cage and extending 
 through far enough to be coupled onto. 
 
 Fig. (a). Double Clutch Gear Cage Perspective 
 
 The gearing and shafting are small in diameter, in order to keep the 
 construction compact,, but are made of alloy steel, heat treated and hard- 
 ened, thus giving these parts the strength of a cast-iron or machine steel 
 gear several times as large. 
 
 The expanding friction rings, figure b., are shown one on each of 
 the gear cage, with a set of toggle levers in each, diametrically opposite, 
 for use in expanding same. In the friction cups in which these rings ex- 
 pand, surrounding the rings are placed in such position to take up all 
 leverage required of the same. 
 
 Fig. (&). Double Clutch, Gear Cage 
 
 Spaced midway on the clutch body is the shipper sleeve with two 
 hardened curve-shaped wedges riveted in it. These wedges force the lev- 
 ers apart, thus expanding the rings, bringing their outer surfaces into 
 frictional contact with the inner surface of the friction cups. 
 
224 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 The leverage is so compounded that it requires but little pressure 
 to operate the clutches. The adjustment is very simple, as one screw 
 which moves two taper blocks ,set into the base of the toggle levers ad- 
 justs the contact of each ring and cup to any tension. This screw is 
 easily reached with a screw driver through a hole in the reverse gear 
 cover and friction cup. 
 
 Propeller End 
 
 Fig. (c). Exterior View 
 
 Engine End 
 
 In the double-clutch construction the hub on the friction cup is 
 clamped on its outside diameter within the cases and contains a combined 
 radial and double thrust ball bearing, through which the propeller shaft 
 runs. The hub of the other friction cup is free to revolve in the casing, 
 within a radial ball bearing, while the engine shaft of the gear extends 
 through it and is keyed therein. 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 225 
 
 Adjustment: The forward drive clutch can 'be adjusted independent 
 of the reverse drive clutch. If either forward or reverse clutch shows 
 any tendency to slip, it should be adjusted -at once. 
 
 As there are only two points of adjustment in; this gear, the opera- 
 tor will have the minimum amount of trouble if the clutches are kept 
 adjusted to a tension where they will not slip, provided the gear is being 
 used for power within its rating. 
 
 To adjust the engine and clutch, remove the thumb nut nearest to the 
 engine, on the top of the reverse gear case, turn the engine and shaft 
 until the hole in the friction cup comes into view, then turn propeller 
 end shaft until adjusting screw appears under hole in friction cup. With 
 a screwdriver with a fine point turn the screw a fraction of a turn, or 
 more if necessary, to the right to tighten, to the left to loosen. To ad- 
 just the propeller end clutch, remove the other thumb nut, and turn the 
 propeller shaft until the adjusting screw appears through 'hole in fric- 
 tion cup, this latter being stationary on this end of gear. Adjust as 
 above. 
 
 Lubrication: The lubrication automatically takes care of itself 
 if the gear case is supplied several times during the season. (Fill about 
 one-half full). 
 
 Do not run; the gear without sufficient lubricant in the case. A grav- 
 ity system of lubrication leads to all bearings in the gear. 
 
 To fill the case, remove the two thumb nuts on the top cover and oil 
 or grease can be put in at these points. Do not use a 'hard, heavy grease, 
 as the design of these gears is such as to require a medium heavy oil or 
 grease. The oil shedders on the inside of each end of the gear case pre- 
 vent the lubricant from working out. 
 
 ELECTRICAL AUXILIARIES 
 
 As a result of the us of electric motors on Diesel engine-driven ves- 
 sels and their longer and extensive use in the navy, the marked advan- 
 tages of motor-driven auxiliaries are now recognized as never before. 
 
 The adoption of electric drive for auxiliary machinery is bound to in- 
 crease on vessels propelled by internal combustion engines, in particular 
 larger types intended for long voyages. In the many large Diesel-pro- 
 pelled ships, where electric steering gears have been in use as well as 
 winches, it has proven an exceeding reliable and above all economizing 
 factor. There are numerous other advantages in using electrical equip- 
 ment in conjunction with Diesel power, which we will undertake here 
 to summarize as a few worthy of mention: 
 
 (1). Comparative little expenses in maintainance. 
 
 (2). More reliable speed control is obtained. 
 
 (3). Better methods of control. 
 
 (4). Electric power consumption can be accurately measured. 
 
 (5). Electric power use is cleaner and quieter than other powers, 
 
226 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Reasons given here could be followed up with numerous others, but 
 they are sufficiently convincing to show to the most skeptic that with 
 the introduction of electrical units a great many advantages may be ob- 
 tained. Motors require much less labor expense than engines. One man 
 can usually look after many motors, but cannot properly handle more 
 than one engine under the same conditions. 
 
 Modern marine electrical equipment is designed for the most part, 
 for 230-volt service. Several years ago the U. S. Navy Department adopted 
 this voltage for practically all capital ships. The use of this higher volt- 
 age has decreased the size of generating equipment, motors, and wiring, 
 as compared, with that which was required with the low voltage systems 
 used in the early days. The higher voltage has, at the same time, been 
 found just as satisfactory from an operating standpoint. 
 
 A view of the engine room switch board on the motorship, "Solitaire," 
 showing the circuit breakers and several of the G-H Mag- 
 netic Contactors, by means of which the en- 
 gine room auxiliaries arc controlled. 
 
 Marine control equipment for motor-driven auxiliaries must be 
 adapted for the conditions found on board ship in order to insure satis- 
 factory operation. As a rule, the characteristics of marine controllers 
 differ from similar equipment used on land. Early failures of electric 
 drive in marine service were traceable to equipment that was manufac- 
 tured primarily for use on land or that was designed by those who were 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 227 
 
 unfamiliar with the actual requirements of marine service. Illustrations 
 shown here are products of the Cutler-Hammer Company of Milwaukee, 
 which firm has added many late features commendable for Diesel-pow- 
 ered ships where electrical equipment is called) for. 
 
 Marine control equipment should, generally speaking, be constructed 
 along more rugged lines and should have a larger factor of safety than is 
 necessary for similar equipment used in other industries. Repairs are 
 not as easily made in the marine service as on land. Consequently, marine 
 controllers must be capable of withstanding rough handling by inexper- 
 ienced men with a minimum of maintainance expense. 
 
 C-H Water-tight Rheostat (same as shown at left) with upper and lower 
 covers open for ventilation. The front cover also has been re- 
 moved to show the resistor units. This cover is not removed 
 after installation except for occasional inspection. 
 
 All marine controllers should be made as simple as possible to facili- 
 tate maintainance work and the prompt location of trouble. All parts 
 must. be carefully protected from salt air and moisture conditions, and 
 controllers used on deck or where subject to possible water pressure must 
 be made water-tight. For certain navy uses and fon use on the merchant 
 marine where inflammable liquids or gases may be present, gas-tight con- 
 
228 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 trollers are made specially for this service. Controllers used with cer- 
 tain auxiliaries are so constructed that unauthorized manipulations are 
 impossible. 
 
 Automatic controllers used on board ship are provided with con- 
 tactors which cannot close accidentally due to the rolling of the ship or 
 open because of violent shock. All contactors must usually operate sat- 
 isfactorily when inclined at an angle of 30 degrees from the vertical in 
 any direction. All contactors used in marine service are subject to more 
 or less vibration and should be protected from the loosening of parts by 
 suitable locking pins or nuts. 
 
 % 
 
 C-H Master Switch of the type used for operating small steering gear 
 controllers like the one shown above. Cover removed. 
 
 Resisters used with marine controllers must be carefully protected 
 from corrosion and from damage by shock or vibration. Some resistors 
 are used where the ventilation is restricted and in such cases correct 
 design is very essential. Resistors used on deck where they may be sub- 
 jected to immersion are protected by water-tight enclosures so arranged 
 that they may be opened for ventilation when in actual operation. Re- 
 sistors used in marine service are usually built up in such a way that 
 single resistance units may be replaced readily, if damaged. 
 
 Other requirements, which are peculiar to marine control equipment 
 and which are necessary to the successful operation of motor-driven aux- 
 iliaries, might be mentioned. Those already outlined in previous pages 
 will serve to indicate the necessity for studying the actual conditions on 
 board ship before designing marine controllers and such apparatus im- 
 perative in general operation. 
 
 Illustrations shown here of the motorship ".Solitaire", a steel tanker 
 of 6730 tons displacement, launched in 1920 at Bath, Maine, is an excel- 
 lent example of the new American merchant marine. The auxiliaries are 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 229 
 
 all motor-driven. Engine room auxiliaries are controlled from a cen- 
 tralized point. The electrician on watch is responsible for starting the 
 various pumps, etc., when signalled by bell and pilot light from the unit 
 to be started. The signal is given by pressing a push button afc the aux- 
 iliary; it continues until the electrician closes the line circuit breakers. 
 The auxiliary motor may be stopped automatically by pushing the stop 
 button located nearby. 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 1 8 
 
 *s? 
 
 ^ ** r2 
 
 S" O 
 
 | 
 ' ? I 
 
 ^-* r^ 
 
 'o 
 
 -^ ** 
 
 c> 
 
 After the line circuit breakers are closed, the motor is accelerated 
 automatically through magnetic lockout contactors which quickly bring 
 the auxiliary up to speed. The motors are thus protected from injury 
 due to improper handling and manipulation by inexperienced operators. 
 
230 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 The deck auxiliaries on the motorship "Solitaire" are handled through 
 manually-operated controllers from stations convenient to auxiliaries. The 
 capstan motor is controlled by means of a drum controller located on a 
 bulkhead below deck. The drum controller is fitted with a shaft which 
 extends up through the deck and on the to>p of which is an operating han- 
 dle. This handle is located adjacent to the capstan barrel so that the 
 operator has an unobstructed view of what is goimg on. The deck winch 
 is controlled by a water-tight drum controller located where the opera 
 tor has a clear view of the winch. 
 
 C-H Automatic Steering Gear Controller of the type used on merchant 
 
 vessels. This controller is installed below deck and is operated 
 
 from a master switch similar to the one illustrated below. 
 
 In addition to the electrical control equipment found on the "Soli- 
 taire", electric heaters are used for heating the quarters of the officers 
 and crew. Electric heating eliminates all other provisions necessary to 
 heat the living quarters of the ship in colder climates. Three heats 
 low,, medium and high are provided, thus insuring comfortable quarters 
 under all weather conditions. 
 
 Electric current, being easily transmitted, is not subjected to losses 
 as in the case where Diesel-powered ships have steam auxiliaries in con- 
 junction and through condensation and latent losses extravagance is 
 bound to occur. A saving in space and weight is made; greater flexibility 
 and ease of control are effected. Where once the operating engineers have 
 sufficient training in electrical matters (which is a requirement not to 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 231 
 
 be overlooked) repairs, adjustments and maintainance, can be cared for 
 more easily than similar work in connection with other powers. 
 
 It is a well known fact to all familiar with the running of ships, that 
 sometimes more care is necessary and more trouble caused in keeping 
 the auxiliary machinery than the main engines of a vessel in working 
 condition. The consumption of power for running the auxiliaries is also 
 very large because, as a rule, these auxiliaries are driven by direct-con- 
 nected engines of a simple and poor construction! working at tfull admis- 
 sion; besides, a considerable loss of power is due to the extensive net of 
 piping. 
 
 Of late, endeavors have been made to remedy this 'trouble by introduc- 
 ing in first-class modern vessels, winches and steering gear worked by 
 electricity. 
 
 Motor-driven Cargo Winch equipped with a C-H Drum Controller. The 
 drum and resistor are, mounted in the water-tight base, the front 
 cover of which has been removed to show the drum. The arc 
 shields have also been swung back. The resistor is installed 
 in the far end of the base where hand wheels, shown 
 on the lower right hand side of the illustration, 
 permit the opening of base covers for ventila- 
 tion while the motor is operating. 
 
 The designing of all auxiliary machinery of Diesel vessels for elec- 
 trical power is very desirable and this method is being brought in prac- 
 tice by many builders of Diesel machinery. 
 
232 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 233 
 
 The power is supplied by auxiliary Diesel engines, installed along 
 the side of the engine room and directly coupled to continuous dynamos 
 from which the current is conducted -to a switchboard and thence to all 
 the auxiliaries of the vessel. The auxiliary Diesel engine system is car- 
 ried out in quite a special manner dimensioned to suit the requirements 
 on board, so that under all conditions full certainty is attained of having 
 at any time at disposal the necessary current, which affords the absolute 
 reliability required. The fact is that the absolute certainty of current 
 always being at hand is a condition necessary for the system operating 
 in a perfectly satisfactory manner, seeing that the working of an auxili- 
 ary of such importance as the steering gear depends thereon. The aux- 
 iliary engines are thus dimensioned that they are partly able to generate 
 the current required for working all the loading and discharging winches 
 in port, and partly for generating the smaller amount of current required 
 for keeping the auxiliary engines of the vessel running. 
 
 The main engines of the vessel are self-contained, the pumps being 
 worked independently. 
 
 Electrical driven machinery run by dynamos and worked by auxiliary 
 Diesel engines affords a high degree of economy, as the consumption of 
 fuel oil for running all the auxiliaries of the vessel at sea amounts only 
 to a few per cent of the consumption of fuel oil for running the main 
 engines, and the electrical power required for running the loading 
 and discharging winches in port is performed with a consumption of only 
 one-tenth part of that necessary for steam-driven winches. 
 
 The electric cables are easily and suitably laid from one end of the 
 vessel to the other and do not require the space or attendance required 
 by the pipes. 
 
 On land electric transmission of power has, by degrees, superseded 
 all other systems of transmission; it is therefore quite natural that also 
 on board ship electric transmission will displace all other systems of 
 transmission, the electric machinery must of course be designed specially 
 
 Diagramatical View of Worthington Diesel Engines, Suitable for 
 Auxiliary Purposes 
 
234 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 for marine purpose, heavy and strong, with motors, controllers, etc., of 
 the water-tight enclosed type; the motors supplied for this purpose must 
 be of the best material suitable for this service. 
 
 Steam-driven and distillate-driven auxiliaries have been found to have 
 certain disadvantages on board the full-powered Diesel mortorships. The 
 boilers used in connection with the steam-driven auxiliaries have given 
 no end of trouble and annoyance, and when small distillate engines are 
 used, the necessity of carrying two kinds of fuel (crude oil for the main 
 engines and distillate for the auxiliaries) when storage space is at a 
 premium, is a decided drawback. 
 
 In accompanying illustration, the diagram shows a general arrange- 
 ment of system adopted by the Dow Diesel Engine Company in the plants 
 constructed by this firm. These specially constructed Diesel engines are 
 direct-connected to electric generators, which in turn supply the power 
 for all loading and unloading purposes, light, etc. 
 
 As will be seen in this diagram, the Dow Full Diesel Type Crude Oil 
 Engines direct-connected to electric generator is a compact, self-contained 
 unit. 
 
 Plan View of Dow Diesel Engines, Direct Connected to Electric Motors 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 235 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows a Allan-Cunningham Hydrau- 
 lic Electric Steering Gear. This machine has been specially developed for 
 use on marine service of Diesel-powered ships. The machine is equipped 
 with hydraulic telemotor control, directly operated from the Wheel House. 
 
 In this machine a constant speed, continuously running electric motor 
 furnishes the power to operate a spring quadrant mounted on the rudder 
 stock, and this is applied through a hydraulic variable speed gear, whose 
 speed and direction are controlled by means of the hydraulic telemotor 
 
236 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 system from the wheel house. Follow up gear is provided so that the rud- 
 der movement follows closely the direction and amount of movement of 
 the wheel by the man steering. Its reliability is primarily due to the 
 accurate close mesh gears which quickly correspond to the movements of 
 the ship. 
 
 The Allan-Cunningham type of electric Anchor-Windlass is shown in 
 the accompanying illustration. The anchor windlass is a piece of equip- 
 ment that is not often put to use on board ship, but when it is called upon 
 for service, needs to perform some very severe duties for a short time, 
 or withstand some very heavy labor. For this reason ruggedness and 
 strength of all the parts should be its principal characteristic, as shown 
 in the illustration, where a marine type series motor is geared through 
 spur gears, worm and worm gear to an intermediate shaft on which are 
 mounted the gypsy heads for use in warping ship. The intermediate shaft 
 carries two sliding pinions for meshing with the main gears on each 
 
 Allan-Cunningham Electrically Operated Anchor-Windlass Specially 
 Constructed for Diesel-powered Ships 
 
 wildcat. A clutch-shifting device provides for throwing the wildcats in or 
 out of gear, and band brakes can be used to hold them in any position 
 desired. 
 
 A machine of this type is very rugged and capable of exerting an 
 enormous pull, cases being known where a 25 H. P. windlass like this 
 has pulled a 2-inch steel anchor chain in two without damage to itself. 
 Straight rheostatic control with overload protective devices is nearly 
 always used, and in this case is all installed in the hollow base and cast 
 iron box, making the machine a complete self-contained unit. 
 
 Allan-Cunningham's Cargo Winches, as illustrated in cut, are carefully 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINERY AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 237 
 
 designed to correspond with the extra heavy work required of a machine 
 of this kind. The service requirements of the cargo winch are very severe, 
 as they not only have to stand up to severe labor when loading or un- 
 loading ship, but must withstand all sorts of weather conditions, from 
 excessive heat to deluges of salt water. For moderate sizes, the hollow 
 base type shown is a great favorite, consisting of a series motor with 
 magnetic disc brake spur igeared through pinion, intermediate shaft to 
 main gear bolted to the drum, with dynamic lowering controller and re- 
 sistors mounted in tihe base. The base is made thoroughly watertight and 
 ventilating doors are provided for use when the winch is operating. 
 
 Typical Allan-Cunningham Cargo Winch 
 
238 
 
 2 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 BUSCH-SULZER MARINE DIESELS 
 
 The Bulsch-Sulzer Engine Company of St. Louis, Mo. was the 
 original, and from 1898 to 1911 the only American Manufacturer of Diesel 
 Engines. Their 23 years of Diesel building and their partnership af- 
 filiation with the well known iSwiss firm, Sulzer iFreres of Winterthur. 
 Switzerland, places them first among the best known American Builders 
 01 Diesel Engines. 
 
 In following explanation of this well known engine a clear con- 
 ception will be gained on maintenance and operation of Diesels, in 
 particular the two-cycle constructed. 
 
 The engine utilizes, directly in its cylinders, any heavy liquid fuel 
 ranging from kerosene to coal tar. 
 
 Pure air, with which the engine cylinder is filled, is compressed 
 by the upward-traveling piston to a pressure of 450 to 500 pounds. 
 Its temperature Increases, due to this compression, to approximately 
 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. At or near the upper dead-center of the 
 piston the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder, gradually and in a finely 
 nebulized condition. The fuel is gasified and ignited by the heat of the 
 compressed air, without any supplementary means; it burns during the 
 first part of the piston down--stroke, after which the hot gases in the 
 cylinder continue to expand and perform work on the piston, until they 
 are exhausted from the cylinder. 
 
 The rate at which the fuel is injected into the cylinder is so ad- 
 justed that its ignition and combustion takes place without explosive 
 violence, and with substantially no change of pressure; for which 
 reason this type of engine is sometimes referred to as "Constant 
 pressure" tyipe, to distinguish it from the "Constant volume" type, such 
 as gas, gasoline, and hot bulb engines, and engines improperly desig- 
 nated "Semi-Diesel," in which combustion takes place substantially with- 
 out increase in volume, and therefore with an explosive-like increase in 
 pressure. 
 
 Diesel engines are built to operate on either the four-stroke cycle 
 (briefly, "four-cycle"), or the two-stroke cycle (briefly "two-cycle") 
 system. 
 
 In a four-cycle engine, four strokes of the piston, or two revolutions 
 of the crankshaft, are required to complete the cycle of operations. 
 These operations are illustrated in Figures I (a) to (d), each of which 
 is accompanied by a description. 
 
240 
 
 RIPTIOX OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Figure f. 
 
 (a) First stroke (.ad- 
 mission stroke). Pis- 
 ton travels down; ad- 
 mission valve open; 
 cylinder is being Ailed 
 with pure air. 
 
 (fr) Second stroke 
 {compression stroke). 
 Piston travels up; all 
 valves closed; air in 
 cylinder is being com- 
 pressed. 
 
 (c) Third stroke 
 (power stroke). Pis- 
 ton travels down; fuel 
 valve open at top 
 dead-center, but closed 
 at fraction of stroke; 
 gases expand. 
 
 (</) Piston travel 
 ing up; piston cov- 
 ers exhaust ports; 
 scavenging v al v e 
 closed; air in cyl- 
 inder is being com- 
 pressed. 
 
 I 
 
 Figure 2. 
 
 Figure 2 shows a typical indicator diagram from a four-cycle 
 Diesel Engine, on which diagram the lines representing the various 
 operations are lettered to agree with Figure 2. The constant pres- 
 sure combustion, which is unique in the Diesel engine, is obvious from 
 this diagram. 
 
 In a two-cycle engine, two strokes of the piston, or one revolution 
 of the crankshaft, are required to complete the cycle of operation. 
 These operations are illustrated in Figures 3 (a) to (d), each of which 
 is accompanied by a description.. 
 
 In the selection of engines for the propulsion of ships, there are 
 practical points which must be considered, namely Reliability and Sim- 
 plicity, Economy in Operation, Ease of Operation, Accessibility and Eas<4 
 of Repair, Space Requirements, and Weight. 
 
 The most important elements which effect the Reliability of a 
 Diesel engine are the combustion space in the working cylinder, and the 
 parts which surround this space. Very high temperatures occur in 
 this space, necessitating that the surrounding parts be so constructed 
 that excessive heat stresses will be avoided. This is a compratively 
 simple problem in the case of such parts as the cylinder liner and piston 
 as these are of symmetrical circular form which expand uniformly; but 
 it is much more difficult in the case of the cylinder heads which must 
 contain valve ports or openings. A head with more than one open- 
 ing is not symmetrical and the increase of the quantity of such open- 
 ings increases the difficulty of casting the head without shrinkage 
 stress. Increasing the number of the openings also increases the 
 difficulty of cooling, resulting in failure of uneven expansion. 
 
RIPTIOX OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Piston treapeKng 
 
 fmtl in- exhaust ports; burnt stitt uncovered; scaaf- 
 jected and burnt dur- gases escape through emging valves open; 
 ing firs* part of exhaust ports, redmc- air under Kght pres- 
 stroke; gases expand, ing their pressure to smre enters through 
 
 scavenging vetoes, and 
 bloms gases out of 
 cylinder. 
 
 ~ . -.-'-, ::-... 
 ifjrh*mst stroke). 
 Pistam travels />; 
 ejchaxst rfr* op- 
 m; burnt gases are 
 ejcpflled from cyl- 
 
 Fiffmrc 4 shoirs a typical indicator diagram from an ordinary two-cycie 
 
 Diesel Engine. 
 
 shows & sectional plan and elevation of the Busch-Sulzer 
 two-cycle cylinder head and the same views of an equivalent four-cycle 
 cylinder head of modern design. It is obvious from this diagram that 
 the two-cycle cylinder head can safely withstand higher temperatures 
 and the engine may therefore, without sacrifice of reliability, operate 
 continuous with higher mean pressure than any engine having numerous 
 valves in its head. 
 
 The principal elements effecting Economy in the operation of a 
 Diesel engine are: the cost of the fuel, the quantity of fuel consumed, 
 and the cost of maintaining the engine in operation. 
 
 In the case of stationary engines of small and medium capacities, 
 which can be built on the four-cycle system without incurring ser- 
 ious risks of breakdown, it is cheaper to use a good grade of fuel which 
 can readily be obtained in the small quantities required by such en- 
 gines, than to incur the greater labor expenses of removing the de- 
 posits formed by cheaper, low-grade fuels, and correcting the other 
 detrimental effects of such fuels. 
 
 In the case of large engines for marine uses, it not only is cheaper 
 but may also be absolutely necessary to operate with low-grade fuels, 
 the first cost of which is lower than that of higher grades where both 
 are obtainable, while they can be obtained in the required quantity in 
 
242 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 localities in which it would be difficult or impossible 'to get the higher 
 grade at any price. For such engines the ability to use a low-grade fuel 
 is, therefore, of primary importance, and in this respect the advantage 
 of the two-cycle engine cannot be questioned. 
 
 The absence of exhaust valves, which would be gummed up by as- 
 phaltum, and destroyed by 'sulphur, make it possible to successfully 
 operate the two-cycle Diesel engines with poor grades of oil fuel obtain- 
 able in almost any quarter of the globe and at low prices. 
 
 Although Ease of Operation is important under all circumstances, 
 it applies with special force to marine engines, in which it is essential 
 that starting and reversing be accomplished with ease, rapidity, and 
 absolute certainty. 
 
 The starting of a marine engine must be possible and sure with 
 any and all positions of 'the cranks. To accomplish .this at all a four- 
 
 Flgure 5. 
 
 Two-Cycle 
 
 (Busch-Sulzer Diesel) 
 Cylinder Head 
 
 Four-Cycle 
 
 ( Standard Construction) , 
 Cylinder Head 
 
 cycle engine must have at least six cylinders; while a four cylinder 
 two-cycle engine has a starting facility equal to that of an eight cylinder 
 four-cycle. 
 
 To reverse the two-cycle requires the maneuvering of only the light 
 starting and fuel valve and gears; while the four-cycle requires, in ad- 
 dition to this the maneuvering of the relatively massive and heavily 
 spring-loaded admission and exhaust valves and gears. All moving 
 parts pistons, connecting rods, crankshafts, flywheel, and line-shafting 
 which must be brought to rest, restarted, and accelerated, are much 
 lighter in the two-cycle. 
 
 The more favorable conditions of crank angle, weight to be handled, 
 and resistance to be overcome, of the two-cycle minimize the dangers 
 of false starts in either direction, and of slowness in the handling of 
 the ship. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 243 
 
 In ability to carry overloads, also, the two-cycle has the advantage 
 over the four-cycle. Overloads are emergency requirements, purchased 
 at the price of imperfect fuel combustion, and the consequent deposit 
 of carbon in the combustion spaces. Such deposits cause more trouble 
 with the exhaust valves of a four-cycle, than with any other part of 
 either system of engine. 
 
 Unfortunately, every machine is liable to mishaps, and it is im- 
 portant that parts injured by such mishaps may be quickly repaired 
 or replaced. Correct methods of manufacture insure interchangeability, 
 and correct designs Accesibility ; the other factors which effect replace- 
 ments are simplicity and ease of demounting and reassembling. 
 
 Comparing a four-cycle engine with the two-cycle, it will be found 
 that the cylinder head of the four-cycle has fuel, starting admission, and 
 exhaust valves and their cages mounted on it, and bulky admission and 
 exhaust headers attached ,to it, in addition to the small fuel, starting air, 
 and water piping; whereas the cylinder head of the Busch-Sulzer two- 
 cycle type has only the fuel and starting valves and their combine cage 
 mounted on it, and the fuel, starting air, spray air, and water piping at- 
 tached to it. 
 
 Figure 6. Busch-Sulzer Cylinder. Showing Two-Cycle Scavenging 
 Sulzer System. 
 
 Space requirements in the engine room is a more important consid- 
 eration. For the same power and speed, whatever practical number of 
 cylinders is selected, the two-cycle engine for similar service occupies 
 less space than the four-cycle. 
 
 Engines may be built of almost any weight per unit of power. Slow- 
 speed stationery Diesel engines weigh as much as 350 to 400 pounds per 
 B. H. P., while high-speed Diesel engines for propelling submarine boats 
 weigh as little as 45 to 50 pounds per B. 1 H. P. In comparing the weights 
 of engines, therefore, the first consideration must be their respective 
 speeds and purposes. 
 
244 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Engines of the same speed and power, and for the same service, vary 
 within wide limits in weights, according to their design, but if of sub- 
 stantially equal ruggedness, the two-cycle Diesel weighs from 20 to 30 
 per cent less than the four-cycle. Any reduction in weight which is ob- 
 tained by a reduction of rigidity and safety, should be scrupulously 
 avoided. 
 
 (Scavenging comprises two functions: the clearing of the previous 
 combustion, or burnt gases, by means of a current of air, and the sup- 
 ply of the air charges necessary for the next combustion. The Sulzer 
 scavenging system used on the Busch-Sulzer Diesel comprises a safe and 
 simple method of thorough scavenging. It utilizes port-scavenging, but 
 employs two tiers, instead of only one tier of ports. The piston uncovers 
 the upper tier of scavenging of ports before, and the lower tier after, it 
 uncovers the exhaust ports, but the communication between the interior of 
 the cylinder and the scavenging-air supply or receiver, through the upper 
 ports, is controlled by a timed and mechanically operated valve, which 
 remains closed until the exhaust ports have been uncovered long enough 
 to reduce the pressure of the gases in the cylinder to nearly atmospheric; 
 after which this valve is opened, while the piston uncovers the lower 
 scavenging ports; a rapid and thorough purging is then effected with com- 
 plete safety against a blowback into the scavenging receiver. 
 
 Upon its return stroke, the piston first covers the lower scavenging 
 ports, and then the exhaust ports; the upper scavenging ports and their 
 valve remain open, enabling the scavenging air to fill the cylinder at full 
 scavenging pressure before the communication is shut off by the piston. 
 Obviously a blow-back of exhaust gases into the cylinder cannot occur; 
 furthermore, the double tier arrangement and proper form of scavenging 
 ports insure a clearing out of such thoroughness that substantially no 
 burnt gases remain in the cylinder analyses have shown that this 
 residue does not exceed 3 per cent. The weight of air compressed is thus 
 substantially 100 per cent of the weight of a cylinder full at atmospheric 
 pressure, and it is possible to perfectly consume the full quantity of fuel. 
 
 The effectively directed streams of scavenging air cool the cylinder 
 more evenly than is possible with ordinary port-scavenging. The com- 
 plete cycle of the Sulzer scavenging and charging system is shown in 
 fiigure 7 (a) to (h). 
 
 In general, the Busch-Sulzer two-cycle marine Diesel may be des- 
 cribed as follows: The engines are vertical, four or six cylinders, single- 
 acting, crosshead type, two-cycle; giving one power stroke per cylinder per 
 revolution of the crankshaft. The injection air compressor is directly 
 driven from a crank on an extension of the main crankshaft. The scav- 
 enging air pump is directly driven in the same manner as the compressor 
 except for the larger twin units for which turbo-Mowers are employed 
 to supply the scavenging air. The engines are designed for heavy duty 
 service with all parts readily accessible for inspection and adjustment. 
 Workmanship is of the highest class, jigs and fixtures are used in machin- 
 ing processes, so that all parts of the same kind and size are inter- 
 changeable. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 245 
 
 m 
 
 *TB^r 
 
 :C1 
 
 I '^ 
 
 S * 
 
 "S-^'H'H II si = i 
 
 ? ||li^^|l.s- 
 
 
 = =iiii'in: 
 
246 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Iron casting are of grades which experience has shown to be especially 
 adapted to withstand stresses, heat, or wear as demanded by the service 
 for which each is intended. Abrupt changes of section and excessive ac- 
 cumulation of mass are avoided. The steel castings possess carefully de- 
 termined properties, and are thoroughly annealed. Forgings are of grades 
 of steel which comply with rigid specifications. 
 
 Bed Plate and Crank Case: The bed plat is built up of sections, of 
 strong, medium-soft cast iron. It is provided with ample flanges, planed 
 on their undersides, for rigid bolting to the foundation. It comprises 
 an oil-collecting trough with bridges between each two cylinders, which 
 bridges contain bored seats for the main bearing shells. 
 
 The crank case is oil and gas tight, and of the enclosed type; it is 
 built up of sections, of the same quality of cast iron as the bedplate. It is 
 rigidly bolted to the top of the bed plate and provided with large covers, 
 readily removable for inspection and adjustments, making all parts in- 
 side the crank case easily accessible. The covers carry hinged inspec- 
 tion doors, for convenience in making inspections, while the engine is in 
 operation, without throwing oil. 
 
 The crank case carries the crosshead guides, and the cylinder jackets 
 are bolted directly to its top. 
 
 Working Cylinders: Each working cylinder consists of two main 
 pieces an outer jacket which carries all axial stresses; and a liner, 
 \vhich constitutes the running barrel. 
 
 The lower end of the outer jacket is bolted directly to the crankcase; 
 the upper end is provided with studs to hold the cylinder head. Openings 
 at the front and back provide for the scavenging air and exhaust con 
 nections. 
 
 The jacket is of the same quality of cast iron as the bed plate and 
 crank case, and is furnished with hand holes for the inspection and clean- 
 ing of the cooling water spaces. 
 
 The liner is of special hard, close-grained cast iron, particularly 
 adapted to its service. It is provided with slots or ports in its wall, for 
 the admission of the scavenging air and the discharge of the exhaust 
 gases. The upper end seats on a shoulder in the jacket, making an ab- 
 solutely water-tight joint. 
 
 The center belt, or the portion of the liner at the scavenging and 
 exhaust ports, is turned to fit a bored seat in the jacket, and is provided 
 with packings to make water and gas-tight joints above and below ports. 
 
 The lower end of the liner carries the oil-wiper rings, and passes 
 through the bottom flange of the cylinder jacket, where a stuffing box 
 is provided to make a water-tight joint between the outside of the liner 
 and the lower end of the cylinder jacket. 
 
 The entire construction allows free expansion of both parts. The 
 space between the liner and the jacket constitutes the water jacket. 
 
 The upper face of the liner is provided with a groove, into which the 
 tongue of the cylinder head registers, making an absolute ^as-tight joint. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 247 
 
 Cylinder Heads: The cylinder heads are of special medium hard 
 cast iron. They are of simple, symmetrical design, the head containing 
 only central opening of relatively small diameter, to receive the combined 
 fuel valve and starting valve cage, thus insuring freedom from casting 
 and heat stresses, and greatest resistance to all working stresses. The 
 heads do not contain any scavenging or exhaust valves. Ample and un- 
 obstructed water-jacketing is provided. In this design of head the ring 
 of relatively cool metal surrounding the hot central portion common to 
 all other designs has been eliminated. 
 
 The cylinder head is rigidly bolted to the top of the cylinder jacket, 
 with a registered fit on the cylinder liner. The underside, or combustion 
 space side, of the head is concave, forming, in conjunction with the con- 
 cave top face of the piston, a symmetrical combustion space of ideal 
 shape. 
 
 The cylinder heads are provided with hand holes for the inspection 
 and cleaning of the cooling water spaces. 
 
 Valves and Valve Gear: Scavenging air enters and the exhaust gases 
 are discharged through the ports in the cylinder wall, which ports are 
 opened and closed to the cylinder by the piston uncovering the ports on 
 the down-stroke and covering them on the up-stroke, near the lower end 
 of its stroke. 
 
 On the scavenging side of the cylinder there are two tiers of ports. 
 The upper tier is controlled by a timed rotary scavenging valve, driven 
 from the vertical shaft of the engine; the lower tier has a free opening 
 into the scavenging air receiver. This patented arrangement insures 
 perfect scavenging and the complete charging of the cylinder with pure 
 air, while the scavenging valve is out of range of the hot gases. 
 
 The fuel valve and starting valve are carried in a common water- 
 cooled cage, located in the central opening in the cylinder head, so that 
 the valves work in a vertical position. 
 
 The camshaft, carrying the cams for operating the valves, extend in 
 front and along the tops of the cylinders, in an entirely enclosed casing, 
 and is driven from the crankshaft, at engine speed, through a pair of 
 helical gears at the lower end of the vertical shaft and a pair of 
 bevel gears at the upper end. This drive is located at the flywheel end 
 of the engine, and taken off the main crankshaft on the flywheel side of 
 the first journal, where it is least subjected to torsional irregularities 
 which might effect the operation of the gears and the governing of the 
 engine. 
 
 The toothed gears work in oil, and are enclosed in oil-tight housings. 
 
 Reversing Gear: The engines are provided with double sets of start- 
 ing and fuel cams, and the necessary levers and gear to permit the direc- 
 tion of rotation of their crankshafts to be promptly reversed. The gear 
 is air-operated and suitable interlocking devices are provided to safe- 
 guard the engine against being started or reversed with the gear in im- 
 proper position. 
 
248 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Safety Overspeed Governor: The engines are fitted with suitable 
 overspeed governors, which prevent racing, by cutting off the supply of 
 fuel to the cylinders when the speed exceeeds a pre-determined limit, for 
 which the governors may be adjusted. The supply of fuel is automatically 
 re-established as soon as the speed of the engine falls to normal. 
 
 Fuel Pump: The fuel pump is of the multiple plunger type (one 
 plunger for each cylinder), operated from the vertical shaft. The func- 
 tion of this pump is to deliver to each cylinder the quantity of fuel neces- 
 sary to maintain the desired speed and develop the required power. The 
 amount of fuel delivered is determined by the seating point of the fuel 
 pump suction valves, which point is controlled automatically by the 
 governor of the stationary engine, and by hand from the control levers 
 of the marine engine. 
 
 The fuel piping is provided with visible overflow valves to free the 
 lines from any accumulated air, which would interfere with prompt 
 starting. 
 
 Figure 8. Busch-Sulzer Piston Cooling. 
 
 Pistons: The piston proper is short, merely long enough to accom- 
 modate the piston rings, as all guiding) is performed by the cross-heads. 
 It is provided with a water jacket immediately under its upper face. The 
 piston rod is attached to the lower flange of this piston, by means of 
 studs. The piston is of special, hard, close grained cast iron, best suited 
 to resist the heat and working conditions to which it is subjected. The 
 piston rings are single-piece rings, of a grade of cast iron which will 
 retain its springing qualities until it is worn out. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 249 
 
 The piston is water-cooled by a patented arrangement. The water is 
 injected into the cooling chamber in the piston head, and conducted away 
 from same, by a system of telescopic tubes arranged on a principle which 
 avoids swing joints, while preventing oil and water leakage. 
 
 Immediately below the piston is fitted a skirt, the sole function of 
 which is to cover the scavenging and exhaust ports in the cylinder wall. 
 The skirt is of hard, close-grained cast iron. 
 
 Piston Rods: The piston rod is of forged open-hearth steel. The 
 upper end is provided with an integral flange, for attachment to the 
 piston; the lower end is forked, to connect to the crosshead pin . 
 
 Crosshead Pins: The crosshead pin is a high-carbon, open-hearth 
 steel forging. The central 'part of the pin forms the bearing for the con- 
 necting rod. To each side of this bearing is bolted the forked end of the 
 piston rod. The ends of the pins carry the crossheads. Shims are pro- 
 vided between the crosshead pin and the end of the piston rod, to permit 
 the adjustment of the compression in the cylinder. 
 
 Crossheads: The crossheads are of cast iron, with babbitted bearing 
 faces. They are of the double, central guide type. No loose or adjust- 
 able pieces are attached to them; adjustment being provided by shims 
 under the stationary guides, bolted to the crank case. 
 
 Connecting Rods: The connecting rods are of forged open-hearth 
 steel, with marine type crosshead and crank ends. The end bolts are of 
 special soft steel, designed to avoid localized stresses and to resist crys- 
 tallization. 
 
 The crosshead pin boxes and crank pin boxes are of cast steel, bab- 
 bitt lined, adjustable by means of shims. Dovetailed grooves are machined 
 for anchoring the babbitt in these boxes, and tinned before pouring the 
 babbitt, thus making an absolute bond between babbitt and box. 
 
 Crankshaft: The crankshaft is in three sections, each section made 
 from a single open-hearth heat-treated steel forging. Each main section 
 carries two cranks for a four-cylinder engine, or three cranks for a six- 
 cylinder engine, and is provided with integrally forged flanges at both 
 ends. The two main sections are interchangeable with one another. The 
 third section carries the cranks for driving the scavenging pump and air 
 compressor, and is provided with an integral flange to bolt to the main 
 section. All corners are carefully filleted. The shaft is bored to permit 
 examination of the material, and to afford passage for the lubricating oil. 
 
 The shaft is made to specifications especially covering the class of 
 steel and manufacture required for this service. Material, dimensions, 
 and construction of the crankshaft are approved by Lloyd's Register of 
 Shipping. 
 
 Main B'earings: The main bearings are cast iron cylindrical shells, 
 in halves, lined with babbitt anchored in machined and tinne^ dovetail 
 grooves. The bottom half-shells are fitted and scraped into the board 
 seats in the bed plate; the top half-shells are fitted into bored seats in 
 the bearing caps. Between the two halves shims are provided for ad- 
 
250 DESCRIPTION OF DIESE,L ENGINES 
 
 justment. The shells are securely held in place by the main bearing 
 caps, which are fitted and rigidly bolted to the bed plates. 
 
 The seats for the bottom half-shells are absolutely lined up before 
 the shells are put in. After the shells are placed in the seats, they are 
 scraped to the crankshaft, to exact alignment. 
 
 Flywheel and Extension Shaft: The flywheel is carried on an exten- 
 sion shaft, connected to the crankshaft by means of a solid-forged coup- 
 ling flange. The flywheel rim is provided with teeth for barring over the 
 engine. The extension shaft is arranged to couple the thrust. 
 
 Scavenging Pump and Receivers: The scavenging pump for provid- 
 ing low-pressure scavenging and charging air for the working cylinders, 
 is mounted vertically on the crankcase, at the opposite end from the fly- 
 wheel, next to the forward working cylinder and in line with same. It is 
 directly driven from the crank on the extension to the main crankshaft, 
 and is provided with crosshead and guides similar to those of the work- 
 ing cylinders. 
 
 The suction and discharge valves are of a patented, simple, auto- 
 matic "shutter" type mounted in cages. These valves are identical in 
 size and design, and are interchangeable. No springs or plates subject 
 to flexure are used. 
 
 The intake side of the pump is provided with a valve chest, arranged 
 so that the scavenging air may, if desired, be brought from outside of 
 the engine room. The discharge side is provided with a valve chest, 
 with connections to the scavenging-air receiver, which, in turn, provides 
 the connection to the working cylinders. 
 
 The scavenging^air receiver is of cast iron. It extends along the 
 front of the engine and is bolted to faces on the working cylinder jackets. 
 It provides a firm support for the valve gears, cam-shaft bearings, and 
 casings. A pressure relief is 'fitted to the receiver. 
 
 The suction and discharge valve chests are fitted with large covers, 
 for access to the valves. The scavenging-air receiver is provided with 
 covers for access to the rotary scavenging valves. 
 
 Air Compressor: The air compressor, for providing compressed air 
 for fuel injection and starting, is mounted vertically on the crankcase, 
 at the forward end of the engine, in line with working cylinders. It is 
 directly driven from a crank on the extension to the main crankshaft,, 
 The compressor is three-stage, water- jacketed, and provided with adequate 
 intercoolers and aftercoolers, to keep the air at a low temperature. The 
 piston is of standard differential trunk type, with patented removable 
 piston pin housing. The compressor valves are without springs and are 
 easily removable for quick inspection and cleaning. The second and third 
 stage valves and seats are of a specially heat-treated alloy steel, found by 
 experiment the best to resist wear and breakage. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 251 
 
 Each stage of the compressor is protected 
 against excessive pressure by a safety valve of 
 special design and ample capacity. A regulating 
 device is provided, to adjust the injection air pres- 
 sure to suit the operating conditions. 
 
 The air coolers are constructed to afford 
 ready access for inspection and cleaning, and are 
 provided with sufficient oil and water separators 
 and drains. 
 
 Air Starting System: The engine is started 
 by means of compressed air, furnished by the 
 injection air compressor. The engines are pro- 
 vided with air starting on all cylinders, and one- 
 half of the cylinders are started, followed by the 
 other half. 
 
 Air Tank and Piping: The injection and 
 starting air piping is extra heavy, annealed and 
 tested seamless drawn steel tubing, provided with 
 special high-pressure fittings. 
 
 Adequate injection air and starting air storage 
 tanks are furnished. Each tank is provided with 
 a special shut-off valve and proper drainage. The 
 starting air tanks are so connected up that they 
 can be charged from the compressor without in 
 any way interfering with the operation of the en- 
 gine. 
 
 The air tanks are of seamless drawn steel; 
 manufactured, tested, inspected, and stamped in 
 accordance with L. C. C. Shipping Container 
 Specifications No. 3-A, and comply with the re- 
 quirements of Lloyd's Register of .Shipping. Each 
 tank is provided with a fusible safety plug, to re- 
 lieve the pressure in case of fire. 
 
 Water Cooled System: The air compressor, cylinder heads, cylin- 
 ders, pistons, fuel and starting valve cages, exhaust manifolds, and the 
 oil-coolers, are provided with arrangements for efficient water cooling. 
 There are no hidden water overflow and by-pass connections. 
 
 All cooling water is discharged into accessible open funnels, and 
 individual outlet pipes are provided for each cylinder, so that the tem- 
 perature of the discharges from the various engine parts may readily 
 be observed. 
 
 Lubrication: The general lubrication is a pressure system providing 
 all main bearings, crank pins and cross-head pin bearings, cross-heads, 
 vertical shaft thrust bearing, and lower helical gears with a continuous 
 supply of cool, clean oil under pressure. 
 
 The oil, after passing thru the bearings, is collected in the bed 
 plate, and flows thru a twin filter to a displacement type pump, wnioh 
 
 Fig. 10 Cross 
 
 Section Through 
 
 Compressor* 
 
252 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 forces it thru a cooler, from which it is again delivered to the bearings, 
 at a pressure of 10 to 20 pounds. A. safety valve is provided on the oil 
 pressure pipe; also bypass connections, for the regulation of the pres- 
 sure. 
 
 All camshaft bearings are provided with oiling rings. The cylinders, 
 including the cylinders of each stage of the compressor, are oiled by a 
 multi-feed pressure type oil pump. Oil cups are provided, where neces- 
 sary.; 
 
 Barring Gear: A suitable barring gear is provided for turning the 
 engine over; although the four-cylinder engines of this type do not re- 
 quire barring into a starting position, as they readily start at any crank 
 position. 
 
 Platform, Stairs, Railing: The necessary platforms, stairs, and rail- 
 ings to give access to all parts requiring attendance for operation, are 
 provided. 
 
 Fuel Oil Service Tank and Filters: A suitable and adequate fuel ser- 
 vice tank is furnished, to contain a supply of fuel for the engine. 
 
 A twin fuel filter is provided, to remove foreign matter from the 
 fuel before it reaches the engine. 
 
 Accessories: Pressure gauges are provided for the air compressor, 
 air storage tanks, lubricating oil, and piston cooling water. 
 
 Thermometers are provided in the lubricating oil lines, at points 
 before and after the cooler. 
 
 Figure IG. 
 Curve Showing Fuel Consumption 1,250 B.H.P. Sulzer Two-Cycle 
 
 Under test conditions, and at equal loads, tlie four-cycle engine may con- 
 sume 6 to 8% less fuel than the two-cycle. In actual practice this advan- 
 tage is, however, apparently smaller, due to the fact that the large two-cycle 
 engine may be more safely operated continuously at full load and best ef- 
 ficiency than may the large four-cycle, and also due to the fact that more 
 complete combustion is obtained in the two-cycle at fractional loads, due 
 to the higher temperature in the cylinder. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 253 
 
 THE DOW DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 The Dow Full Diesel Type Marine Oil Engine is of the vertical multi- 
 cylinder design, built in sizes from 320 B. H. F. to 1000 B. H. P. It 
 follows the four-cycle principle. The engine is direct-reversible and em- 
 bodies features of improved methods in Diesel operation. 
 
 Figure (a) Full View of Dow Direct-Reversible Marine Diesel Engine. 
 
 As every respective engine has a special feature characteristic in 
 Diesel manufacture, or a design by which it in many cases tends to be 
 classified in a type of its own, still following the laws as laid down in 
 Diesel prime movers, so has the Dow engine distinctive departures from 
 the usual types of Diesels. 
 
 In particular, the designers have laid stress on the importance of 
 equal distribution of fuel. As will be noticed in Figure (a), each set of 
 three cylinders are supplied in common with one fuel pump instead of 
 individual pumps for each cylinder, which permits of an accurate and 
 even distribution of oil for each cylinder. 
 
254 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 The output of the fuel pump is controlled by the usual system of 
 governor control, the governor being of the centrifugal type. In simi- 
 larity to the general principle prevailing on Diesels, the governor, which 
 operates directly on the fuel pump, regulates the supply of fuel oil to 
 the injection valves in proportion to the load on the engine, at all times 
 maintaining the pre-determined speed in revolutions per minute of the 
 propeller. 
 
 fi 
 
 The governor is entirely enclosed and mounted on the vertical driv- 
 ing shaft directly geared to the engine crankshaft. It is provided with 
 hand-regulating attachment so that the speed of the engine may be 
 varied by hand while the engine is in operation. 
 
 This novel arrangement adds greatly to the accurate performance of 
 the engine, in particular on long voyages where heavy seas are experi- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF D1ESE.L ENGINES 
 
 255 
 
 enced and racing of engine are the results, very often causing complica- 
 tions with consequential injury to the engine. 
 
 The cylinder heads are of box section and water-jacketed. Air, fuel, 
 exhaust and starting valves are all contained in the cylinder head, their 
 operating levers being securely supported by bearings mounted on and 
 bolted to the heads. 
 
 Special care has been given to the construction of all valves and 
 valve seats, which are of the removable type, allowing them to be readily 
 withdrawn from the cylinder head for inspection and re-grinding when 
 required. All the valves are opened by the action of steel levers rolling 
 on hardened cams. The cams are accurately set and keyed in place, in- 
 suring positive action. The valve gear is of the cam type throughout, the 
 cam-shaft being driven by machine-cut spiral gears. All levers for oper- 
 
256 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 ating cams are provided with case-hardened rollers and pins. Special 
 care is taken in the design of the exhaust valve lever, so that the exhaust 
 valve and seat may be removed without disturbing the valve gear. 
 
 Reversing Mechanism: Briefly described, the reversing of the engine 
 consists in the changing over from one set of cams to another; the work 
 being performed by an air-driven ram. The operator simply moves a 
 small hand lever to accomplish the reversal position. This -operation is 
 immediately followed by the movement of the main control lever to start- 
 ing air position, where it is allowed to remain during one or two im- 
 pulses. At the completion of this operation this same lever is moved to 
 running 'position. The whole above-described maneuver is accomplished 
 in five seconds from full speed ahead to full speed astern position. 
 
 The air-driven cams referred to above automatically lifts the cam 
 rollers clear of all cams, then slides the cam shaft to the desired posi- 
 tion and returns the cam rollers to the cams. The control lever is 
 securely interlocked with shifting mechanism, preventing any false move 
 on the part of the operator. 
 
 The thrust block is of the standard marine horseshoe type, is equip- 
 ped for water cooling. It is -securely bolted and doweled to the main 
 engine bed-plate, insuring perfect alignment. 
 
 In illustration (c) an ideal engine is shown for tugboat service or 
 yachts, or such smaller types of vessels employed on coast-wise trade. 
 As will be seen, this engine is equipped with reverse-gear. This type of 
 engine stands up to heavy duty such engines are very often subjected to. 
 
 The Dow Diesel Engine follows the "A" frame construction. The 
 bed-plate, which extends the full width and length) of the engine, is of 
 box girder section throughout, reinforced with transverse and longitud- 
 inal ribs. The. bed-plate carries the main bearing journals and seating 
 for the "A" frame. 
 
 Forced lubrication is provided for all cylinders and piston pins, while 
 all main journals and outboard bearings. are furnished with ring oilers. 
 All crank pins are lubricated by gravity and centrifugal oilers. (Note. 
 For Compressor, see Section on Compressors.) 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 257 
 
 THE FULTON DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 The Fulton Iron Works Company, in developing the Fulton Diesel 
 Engine, as patterned and designed by Franco Tosi, one of Europe's fore- 
 most engineers of Diesel Engines, has produced one of the most effi- 
 cient and dependable prime movers obtainable. 
 
 The Fulton Diesel Oil Engines not only possess all the advantages 
 of the typical European oil engine, but has been developed by many re- 
 finements and improvements for American service by the engineers of 
 the Fulton Iron Works Company. With following explanation it will be 
 
258 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 seen that the improvements embodied in this engine brings it on an 
 equal standing with modern types, in particular as an engine adapted 
 for stationary service. 
 
 As will be seen in other pages of this book, the Tosi Diesel engine 
 has been brought to the highest stage of perfection and is used today on 
 exceedingly large ships in merchant service. 
 
 Like the Junkers type and many German patents, it has been a pro- 
 duct created by years of experiments and brought up to the highest stage 
 of perfection. It is an oil engine operating on fuels of low gravity and 
 in consequence its maintenance is very inexpensive. 
 
 The most distinctive features of this engine are found in the strength 
 of their heavy "A" frame construction, the accessibility of all bearings, 
 and the fact that the cylinder liners can be readily removed without dis- 
 mantling the engine. 
 
 The cam shaft is on a level with the cylinder head, and the arrange- 
 ment of all parts is so simple that adjustments can be made easily and 
 economically, even while the engine is in operation. 
 
 Diagram Showing Full Illustration of Engine with Compressor, Pumps, 
 Lubrication System, Etc. 
 
 As the Fulton Oil Engine is of the four-cycle, vertical, "A" frame 
 type, it is not subjected to the strains that are usually found in internal 
 combustion engines of the horizonal types. This design practically elim- 
 inates vibration which is an additional factor for long life in the engine. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 259 
 
 This engine is equipped with a three-stage compressor. It is directly 
 connected to the crankshaft end and provides the large storage tank with 
 highly compressed air for both starting and for the purpose of fuel in- 
 jection. 
 
 The Fulton fuel pump is of the variable plunger stroke type, with 
 positive control from the governor. The needle valves are under control 
 from operator's stand. The exceptional strong construction of the force- 
 feed pump is of similar design as will be seen in the usual types of 
 Diesel Engine. The necessity in providing proper lubrication method is 
 taken care of in this engine by sight-feed gravity oilers, which supply all 
 bearings with copious quantities of oil. 
 
 Diagram of Fulton Diesel Engine, Looking from Compressor In. 
 
 View of Engine 
 
 End 
 
 By means of the Fulton patent starting mechanism the air is de- 
 livered to the starting cylinders and at the same time positively locks 
 all fuel oil from the cylinders. 
 
 The Fulton design is, such as allows of quick, easy and inexpensive 
 replacement of all wearing parts by means of bushing, brasses, etc. 
 
260 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 A very advantageous feature in adding to the economy of the engine 
 is the system of oil filtering. All the oil that is introduced into the 
 engine is handled by a three-plunger pump at the compressor end of the 
 crankshaft. The center plunger pumps fuel oil from the storage tank to 
 a gravity tank. The outside plungers pump clean lubricating oil to a 
 gravity tank and the dirty oil from the pump to the filter. All the lubri- 
 cating oil that flows into the pump is run into a settling tank, then 
 through an oil filter where the oil is filtered through bone black. This 
 permits the lubricating oil to be reclaimed in a large measure and none 
 but clean oil to return to the engine. By the use of bone black for 
 filtering, the oil is completely revivified. By the above means of lubri- 
 cation great economy has been obtained. By actual operating figures 
 obtained from a 500 B.H.P. 3-cylinder engine, driving a 350-kw. alter- 
 nator, it is found that: 
 
 1 gallon cylinder oil serves 8,283.3 kw. hr. 
 
 1 gallon bearing oil serves 7,455 kw.hr. 
 
 1 gallon compressor oil serves 74,550 kw. hr. 
 
 Diagram of Fulton Diesel Engine. Good View 
 
 The governing of the Fulton, Diesel oil engine is accomplished by a 
 Jahn's type governor, driven from the vertical shaft. This governor acts 
 directly on the fuel pump of the engine so that any change in the load 
 is almost instantly compensated by a quick response from the engine. 
 There is no lagging or "hunting." 
 
 The old method of driving the governor by the vertical shaft was to 
 place the governor directly on that shaft. This necessitated using a 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 261 
 
 large governor, running the same speed as the shaft. It was found that 
 every vibration imparted to the cam shaft by the action of the cam was 
 transmitted directly to the vertical shaft and hence to the governor, caus- 
 ing undue wear. To eliminate this undue wear on the Fulton engine, the 
 governor was offset from the vertical shaft, and driven by flexible gears. 
 It was also found that by this; method a smaller governor could be used 
 and run at higher speed, thus giving a better regulation and smooth 
 operation with any of the undesirable vibrations. 
 
 The cylinders are lubricated in a simple manner. The cylinder' oil 
 flows by gravity to a Richardson Phoenix sight feed oiler and from there 
 individual brass piping conducts the oil to four points in each cylinder 
 wall. These points are located a little below the center of the piston 
 when it is at the top of its stroke. Thus oil is not carried to the firing 
 chamber by the piston rings nor carried to the pump by the wiper ring. 
 
 The piston pin lubrication is one of the special positive feed systems 
 on the Fulton engine. The oil line leading to the sight feed oilers for 
 the main bearings is tapped just below the shut-off valve. From that 
 point a smaller pipe with a single sight feed adjusting valve runs down 
 to a point inside the "A" frame just below the bottom edge of the cyl- 
 inder liner. At this point, fastened to the "A" frame by bracket, is the 
 lower half of the piston pin oiler. This oiler is a special apparatus, 
 having a small cylinder containing a plunger that has a hole bored 
 through its center. The plunger is held by a spring from beneath. The 
 operation of this mechanism is such that any oil introduced into the 
 lower end of the cylinder is forced through the hole in the center of the 
 plunger by any downward action of that plunger. This downward action 
 is accomplished by the upper half of the piston pin oiler (consisting of 
 a check valve), which is rigidly attached to the inside of the engine's 
 piston skirt at its bottom edge, striking the oiler's cylinder plunger at 
 the end of each downward stroke of the piston. By an adjusting screw 
 on the oiler, the stroke of the oiler's plunger can be regulated from 
 about one-fourth of an inch to any small fraction of an inch, depending 
 upon the amount of oil desired to reach the piston pin. The upper half 
 of this oiler (the part attached to the engine's piston) is screwed to the- 
 end of a pipe that runs up the inside of the piston and direct to the 
 piston pin. Thus the oil flows by gravity to the lower half of the piston 
 pin oiler and from there is forced direct to the piston pin by a positive 
 feed, controlled by regulating the stroke of the oiler's plunger and by 
 the amount of oil the operator allows to flow to the oiler. 
 
 The reliability, continuity of operation, maintenance, etc., of the 
 Fulton Diesel Oil Engines, are on a parity with those of a high grade 
 steam plants of corresponding capacity. In fact, the results achieved 
 show that the maintenance is even very much less than that of a steam 
 plant of corresponding capacity, with the added advantage of low labor 
 and fuel costs. The investment charges are approximately the same 
 on this market as for a fully and modernly equipped steam plant, 
 which, of course, takes into consideration the entire property, including 
 building. 
 
262 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 THE NORDBERG-CARELS DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 The Nordberg-Carels Diesel Engine is an improved development of 
 the well known Carels engine of Belgium, the Nordberg Manufacturing 
 Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, having secured rights to build this 
 engine from Carels Brothers, of Ghent, Belgium. The engines are of the 
 two-cycle type. 
 
 The engines range in size from 750 to 3000 B.H.P., and in units of 
 from three to six cylinders. The larger engines have cylinders of 500 
 B.H.P. each, being the largest size built in America. "The engines are of 
 the vertical, heavy duty type, with crossheads and open frame. All 
 engines operate at relatively slow speeds, a feature which promotes long 
 life of the engine and a minimum of time lost in shut-downs for repairs 
 or overhauling. This is of special importance in marine installations, 
 reducing expensive, delays in port and serious breakdowns at sea. 
 
 All the above engines have cam actuated scavenging valves in .the 
 cylinder heads. A smaller engine has been developed by the Nordberg 
 Manufacturing Company, of the port scavenging type; that is, air is in- 
 troduced into the cylinder 'by the movement of the piston, uncovering a 
 series of ports in communication with the scavenging pump. 
 
 Inasmuch as the Carels engine follows the two-cycle construction, 
 the method of scavenging follows similar systems adopted on modern 
 engines of this respective construction. The older system of providing 
 scavenging valves in the cylinder head appears to be abolished in most 
 two-cycle Diesels, ports being provided at the bottom of the cylinder, 
 uncovered >by the piston in arrangement with auxiliary valve-controlled 
 air ports usually joist above the main ports. 
 
 Following is a tabulation of the several sizes and types built by the 
 Nordberg Manufacturing Company: 
 
 Type 
 3 V.E. 
 
 B. H. P. 
 
 Sea Level 
 Rating 
 330 
 
 Type 
 Scavenging 
 
 Port 
 
 Speed 
 Stationary 
 Units 
 225 
 
 4 V.E. 
 
 440 
 
 Port 
 
 225 
 
 5 VE 
 
 550 
 
 Port 
 
 225 
 
 6 V.E. 
 
 660 
 
 Port 
 
 225 
 
 3 E.G. 
 
 750 
 
 Valves 
 
 180 
 
 4 E.G. 
 
 1000 
 
 Valves 
 
 180 
 
 5 E.G. 
 
 1250 
 
 Valves 
 
 180 
 
 3 F.H. 
 
 1500 
 
 Valves 
 
 120 
 
 4 F.H. 
 
 2000 
 
 Valves 
 
 120 
 
 5 F.H. 
 
 2500 
 
 Valves 
 
 120 
 
 6 F.H. 
 
 . 3000 
 
 Valves 
 
 120 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 263 
 
 In the case of marine engines direct connected to the propeller shaft, 
 the above engine speeds are reduced to suit lower propeller speeds, the 
 stroke being lengthened to compensate. In electric marine drives the 
 above standard ispeeds are maintained. 
 
 Two-cycle engines are particularly well adapted for continuous oper- 
 ation with low grade fuels. This is, because there are no exhaust valve 
 seats subjected to intense heat or to become pitted or corroded with 
 heavy oil residue, necessitating frequent shutdowns for cleaning and re- 
 fitting of valves. 
 
 The following is the fuel consumption based on oil of 18500 B.T.U. 
 per lb., using any quantity of fuel free from water: 
 
 Load 
 Lbs. Oil per B.H.P. per hr.. 
 
 Full 
 0.45 
 
 H 
 
 0.47 
 
 72 
 
 0.51 
 
 One B.H.P. is secured from about 8,000 B.T.U., which corresponds to 
 over 750 B.H.P. hours per barrel. Lubricating oil consumption ranges 
 from .001 lb. per B.H.P. hr. for large units to .0015 Ibs. for smaller units. 
 
 Following is a tabulation of cooling water required. 
 
 Inlet 
 Temp. 
 50 
 
 95 
 7.2 
 
 100 
 6.5 
 7.2 
 8.1 
 9.2 
 10.8 
 13.0 
 16.2 
 21.6 
 32.4 
 
 Discharge 
 105 110 
 5.9 5.4 
 6.5 5.9 
 7.2 6.5 
 8.1 7.2 
 9.2 8.1 
 10.8 9.2 
 13.0 10.8 
 16.2 13.0 
 21.6 16.2 
 32.4 21.6 
 
 Temperature 
 115 120 
 5.0 4.6 
 5.4 5. 
 5.9 5.4 
 6.5 5.9 
 7.2 6.5 
 8.1 7.2 
 9.2 8.1 
 10.8 9.2 
 13.0 10.9 
 16.2 13.0 
 
 125 
 4.3 
 4.6 
 5. 
 5.4 
 5.9 
 6.5 
 7.2 
 8.1 
 9.2 
 10.8 
 
 130 
 4.1 
 4.3 
 4.6 
 5. 
 5.4 
 5.9 
 6.5 
 7.2 
 8.1 
 9.2 
 
 55 
 
 8.1 
 
 60 
 
 __ 9.2 
 
 65 _ 
 
 10.8 
 
 70 
 
 13.0 
 
 75 
 
 16.2 
 
 80 
 
 21.6 
 
 85 
 
 32.4 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 Nordberg Diesel engines include direct connected generator units for 
 central municipal and industrial power stations, also direct connection 
 to Nordberg two-stage air compressors, centrifugal pumps, belt drive to 
 ammonia compressors, gear drive to plunger pumps, etc. 
 
 Details of Construction: The illustrations show the general design 
 of the Nordberg engine. It will be noted that open frame construction 
 has been adopted on this type of Diesel. This renders the running gear 
 easily accessible for inspection. However, the openings between frames 
 are closed by means of light weight, oil tight, removable guards. 
 
 Bedplates are of the closed pit tyipe for collection of lubricating oil. 
 Cylinder barrels consist of removable liners, at the middle of which are 
 
264 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 located the exhaust ports. Cylinders, heads, pistons, exhaust pipes, cross- 
 head pins and cross-head guides are water cooled. The absence of ex- 
 haust valves in two cycle engines simplifies the construction of the cyl- 
 inder head and renders the cooling of it more uniform, thus eliminating 
 danger of cracking. This is often the case when the construction of 
 Diesels is such that sudden heat temperatures or lack of cooling seriously 
 effects the plant, causing damage. 
 
 Cross-Sectional Vieic Through Nordberg Engine. Note Coolers, Air Suc- 
 tion Regulating Valve, Water Circulating System, Crosshead Guides, 
 Scavenging Values, etc. 
 
 Locating the scavenging valves in the cylinder head considerably 
 strengthens the head and placing scavenging valves as found on the 
 Nordiberg-Carels engine makes very effective and uniform cooling. 
 
 The use of crosshead allows a larger clearance between cylinder ana 
 piston, eliminating all danger of the piston seizing in the cylinder. In 
 particular should this be beneficial when the engine is working under 
 heavy load or prepared to be shut down. The importance of this detail 
 can hardly be over-estimated, as serious accidents have occurred in the 
 so-called "trunk-piston" design. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 265 
 
 A special feature of the Nordberg engine is the crankshaft, which is 
 of the "built up" type. The crank pin and crank webs are made from 
 one solid forging and the shaft sections pressed in and keyed. 
 
 This construction is highly commendable and adds to the perma- 
 nency of this engine. 
 
 Fuel atomizing, scavenging, and air starting valves are shown in 
 cross-sectional illustration. The fuel valve is of the closed type, the 
 needle of which is closed by means of an outside spring and opened by 
 a cam. This needle is easily removable for inspection without taking 
 the balance of the valve apart. The fuel valve is adapted to handle fuels 
 varying from a very light oil down to high asphaltum such as Mexican 
 fuel oil, and those of similarity on ithe Pacific Coast of 12 Baume. 
 
 Each cylinder is provided with its own fuel pump, which is of the 
 plunger type, eccentric driven from the cam shaft. Any pump can be 
 cut out independently of the others and inspected while the engine is in 
 operation. Means for priming are provided. 
 
 Close and accurate regulation is obtained by the use of a (Sensitive, 
 rigidly constructed type of governor, driven 'by the cam shaft by means of 
 an elastic drive, making the rotation of the governor uniform and ithus 
 increasing its accuracy. The regulation of the engine speed is accom- 
 plished by varying the quantity of the fuel oil introduced to the fuel 
 valve. The governor acts upon the fuel pump by passing the fuel in 
 greater or less quantities, according to the power demand. 
 
 Air for starting and fuel atomizing is supplied by a three stage 
 single acting compressor, direct connected to the engine and provided 
 with inter-coolers. Compressor valves are of circular plate type, no 
 valve gear being required. 
 
 The engines are provided with an automatic oiling system complete 
 with filter, pumps, etc. Cylinders are lubricated 'by independent mechan- 
 ically operated oil pumps. In, addition to having feeds from the oiling 
 system, the main bearings are of the ring oiling type. A cooling coil is 
 provided in the overhead tank to insure proper cooling of lubricating oil. 
 
 A fuel oil filter and fuel heating arrangement is included. Fuel oil 
 passes from the filter to the fuel pumps through a heated header. 
 
266 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 MclNTOSH & SEYMOUR DIESELS 
 
 In the illustration of the Mclntosh & Seymour 390 indicated horse- 
 power engine, a type of light but strong construction is .shown. In par- 
 ticular the accessibility to vital parts during operation will be noticed. 
 Both frame and base are well ribbed to insure the proper stiffness and 
 strength. On this size, the cylinders and frame are cast in one piece, the 
 cylinders being arranged in sets of three. (Chapter VIII, page 166). 
 
 1Z440 
 
 Diagram of Kingsoury Thrustbearing Extensively Used on Medium Sized 
 Mclntosh & Seymour Diesel Engines With Great Results 
 
 The control consists of only two levers, one to control the fuel and 
 starting air, and the other the maneuvering. The first half of the move- 
 ment of the fuel lever on the quadrant controls the stroke of the fuel 
 pumps, which regulates the amount of fuel delivered to the cylinders and 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 267 
 
 consequently the speed of the engine; the second half of the movement 
 is used in starting. This opens the relay valve and admits the starting 
 air to the cylinders. The reversing is accomplished by turning 'the re- 
 versing wheel. This can be done in a short time, as from three to five 
 seconds. 
 
 The attached compressor is driven from the forward end of the crank- 
 shaft. This ooinipress'or is 'three stage and the air is thoroughly cooled 
 between the stages and after the high stage, by inter-and after-coolers. 
 
 A Kingsbury thrust bearing is attached directly to the base of the 
 engine. This thrust bearing is of the late type and is noted for its relia- 
 bility and efficiency. 
 
 In the illustration of the 1200 I.H.P., such as installed on the Motor 
 Ship "Kennecott", it represents the cross-head type of Marine Engine. 
 
 The bases have the same arrangement of bearing girder that the 
 smaller engines have, which gives the base great stiffness, so imperative 
 in marine engineering. The engine is arranged with individual frames, 
 each frame being of the same general arrangement as the corresponding 
 section of the box frame on the smaller engines. 
 
 These individual frames are held tight together on the front by the 
 guide plate, which is attached at the top and bottom with fitted bolts and 
 on the back by a tie plate also tolted by fitted bolts; this tie plate being 
 arranged to carry the cooling water pipes for the pistons. All of these 
 crosshead type engines are arranged for water-cooled pistons, as when 
 cross-heads are used, the piston >cooling 'piping can be so arranged that 
 there will 1 be no chance for any cooling water to get into the lubricating 
 oil. A diaphragm is fitted below the cylinder with a packing ring 
 around the piston rod so that no water can get into the working parts, 
 and this also prevents any excess lubricating oil from getting on the 
 cylinders, so that pressure lubrication can be used on the working parts 
 if it is so desired. 
 
 Wtith the cross-head type engine, the maneuvering is accomplished by 
 means of air cylinders or an electric motor in designated/ construction. 
 The ifuel being shut off, the maneuvering gear first removes the cam 
 rollers from the cams, then moves the cam shaft endways in similarity 
 to the smaller types, placing the other set of cams under the roller; then 
 it puts the rollers back on the cams; the gear being so arranged that 
 when this is accomplished the fuel lever can be operated and the engine 
 started. 
 
 It will be interesting here to give some minor details on the accom- 
 plishment of the Mclntosh & Seymour engines on the "Kennecott." The 
 ship was built by the Todd Drydock & Construction Company, in 1921, 
 for the Alaska Steamship Company. It has a length of 345 feet, a beam 
 of 49 feet 6 inches, and a loaded draft of 22 feet. This vessel is equipped 
 with two Mclntosh & Seymour Heavy Duty cross-head type Diesel marine 
 engines of 1,200 indicated horsepower each, with a nominal full load 
 speed of 140 R.P.M. 
 
268 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 269 
 
 All the 'auxiliaries on this vessel are electrically driven, in simi- 
 larity to the M. S. Solitaire, illustrated in other pages, there being no 
 boiler on the vessel. Electricity is furnished by two Mclntosh t & Sey- 
 mour 100 B.H.P. Diesel electric generating sets, one of these being in 
 operation at sea, which drives all the auxiliaries as well as taking care 
 of such heating as there may be. Two of these engines are used in port 
 for operating the winches. This vessel has a deadweight tonnage of 
 6 y 560, and it averages a little over Wy 2 knots at sea, fully loaded, and 
 has a fuel consumption of about lQ*/ 2 tons per day of regular 16 gravity 
 boiler fuel oil. 
 
 It has been found with the electric winches on the "Kennecott," that 
 she can handle cargo 50 per cent faster than with steam equipment and 
 with a fuel consumption when in port of four barrels per day. 
 
 Commercially, the "Kennecott" is of interest from the fact that it 
 can make money at rates where a steam vessel has to be operated at a 
 loss. 
 
 The illustration of the Mclntosh & Seymour Diesel engine gives an 
 excellent view of the modern type of this respective make. While in 
 smaller sizes the trunk piston is preferred, nevertheless in larger classi- 
 fication the cross-head type seems to find greater favor. The general 
 construction of Mclntosh & Seymour's engines are exceedingly rigid. 
 The base is made very stiff by arranging the bolting between the frame 
 and the base so as to give a very short, effective length of the bearing 
 girder, giving great strength and stiffness with a minimum depth of base. 
 
 The frame is of the box type, with large openings for each crank, 
 and the ribs which form the sides of these openings extend clear across 
 the frame with an arch over the bearing cap, which gives a frame of 
 great stiffness and rigidity with a minimum weight. 
 
 On the small sizes, the cylinder jackets are cast in one piece with 
 this box frame, and on the larger sizes the cylinders are cast separately 
 and bolted to the frame. 
 
 The. air compressor is of the three stage type and is driven from an 
 overhung crank on the forward end of the crankshaft. The trunk piston 
 types of engine have forced feed lubrication for the cylinders, piston 
 pins and the compressor, and have gravity pressure lubrication for the 
 main bearings and crank pins so as to avoid any excess lubricating oil 
 getting in the cylinders. 
 
 The smaller sizes of trunk piston type of engines are maneuvered by 
 hand. The fuel being >shut off, the first turn of maneuvering hand wheel 
 removes the camrollers from the cams, the next two turns of the wheel 
 moves the cam shaft endways, placing another set of cams under the 
 rollers, and the fourth turn puts the cam rollers back on the cams; the 
 gear being so arranged that until this operation is complete, the fuel 
 lever cannot be moved. 
 
 To demonstrate the ease of maneuvering the Mclntosh & Seymour 
 engines of the trunk type, we will refer back to this subject. The con- 
 trol consists of only two levers, one to control the fuel and starting air, 
 
270 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 and the other the maneuvering. The first half of the movement of the 
 full lever on the quadrant controls the stroke of the fuel pumps, which 
 regulates the amount of fuel delivered to the cylinder and consequently 
 the speed of the engine; the second half of the movement is used in 
 starting. This opens the relay valve and admits the starting air to the 
 cylinders. The reversing is accomplished by turning the reversing wheel. 
 Three turns of the wheel is all that is necessary to completely reverse 
 the engine. This can be done in ias short a time as from three to five 
 seconds. A Kingsbury thrust bearing is attached directly to the base of 
 the engine. This thrust bearing is of the latest type and is noted for its 
 reliability and efficiency. 
 
 COMPARISON TABLE OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY, OVER ALL 
 
 Of Diesel Station and Three Types of Steam Stations, all Operated Under 
 
 the Same Management. 
 
 (Mclntosh & Seymour Diesel) 
 
 Plant A Plant B Plant C Plant D 
 
 Rating of plant 1050 kw. 1300 kw. 1050 1055 
 
 Type of plant Diesel Steam Tur. Steam Eng. Gas Engine 
 
 Number of units 333 4 
 
 Fuel used-- Oil Oil and Coal Gas and Coal Gas 
 
 Average station 
 
 factor, per cent: 
 
 96.6 11,734 
 
 71.8 11,822 
 
 49.0 __. 
 
 46.3 .__ 13,556 
 
 34.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 23.6 _ . 18,203 
 
 B. T. U. per KW. Hour 
 
 27,000 
 
 43.200 
 
 26.100 
 
 REPORT OF TEST ON MclNTOSH & SEYMOUR DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 (500 B.H.P.) IN A MODERN POWER PLANT OPERATING 
 
 MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 Percentage of rated load ___ 25.6 51.0 
 
 Revolutions per minute _ 168 167 
 
 Brake horse power 128.2 255 
 
 Time of test (in hours) % Vz 
 
 Fuel consump. per B.H.P.-Hr. (Ibs.) 584 .432 
 
 Injection pressure (Ibs.) 750 775 
 
 Exhaust gas appearance Clear Clear 
 
 Inlet temp, of cooling water (P.) 69 69 
 
 Outlet temp, of cooling water (F.) 150 150 
 
 Temperature in testing room (F.) 73 73 
 
 75.8 99.6 114.8 
 
 166 163 168 
 
 379 498 574 
 
 % 1 1 
 
 .396 .393 .388 
 
 800 800 900 
 
 Clear Clear Clear 
 
 69 69 69 
 
 158 158 158 
 
 72 78 79 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 271 
 
272 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF NELSECO MARINE AND STATIONARY 
 
 DIESEL ENGINES. 
 
 As will be observed in accompanying illustrations of the 600 B.H.P. 
 Nelseco engine, the six working cylinders of the engine are in line with 
 the single three stage air compressor at the forward end. Forward of 
 the air compressor is the fuel pump and governor. The bedplate and 
 housing are of exceptionally rigid design and construction, the housing 
 being carried right up to the tops of the cylinders and the cylinder-liners 
 forced into the housing with a space between which forms the water- 
 jacket. Detachable cylinder-heads are bolted directly to the top of the 
 housing. All of the valves in the cylinder head are arranged horizontally, 
 and are operated from the camshaft, which is carried in brackets on the 
 side of the housing by means of vertical rocker arms. 
 
 Section Through Working Cylinder of Nelseco 600 B.H.P. Engine. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 273 
 
 With this design there is a space of about six inches between the 
 injection valve nozzle and the piston top, which aids good combustion and 
 prevents burning and cracking of the pistons. 
 
 It has been suggested that undue wear of the lower side of the 
 valve-stems may be caused by the weight of the valve being constantly 
 borne at one point, but in actual practice this has not transpired, nor is 
 any detrimental effect anticipated by the designers. 
 
 The camshaft and, much of the valve gear, are enclosed in a casing 
 and driven by a train of spur-gears from the crankshaft, located in the 
 middle of the engine between working cylinder numbers three and four. 
 
 We will mention that the bearings at both ends of the connecting 
 rod, as well as every other important bearing on the engine, are adjust- 
 able, which is an important feature in the case of a marine-engine, where 
 shims occasionally have to be taken out. Large openings are provided 
 in the sides of the housing to permit a free access to the crankcase. 
 
 Section Through A. C. Cylinder o/ 600 B.H.P. Nelseco Diesel Engine. 
 
274 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 
 "b o 
 
 o w 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 275 
 
 As already stated, the air compressor is of the three stage type. In 
 this case the piston is driven from the crankshaft by means of a con> 
 necting rod and cross head. Advantage is taken of. this opportunity to 
 separate the compressor cylinders entirely from the crankcase, provid- 
 ing an accessible machine as well as avoidance of all trouble due 'to 
 lubricating oil in the cylinders, which was a fault found too frequently 
 in early Marine Diesel engines, and occasionally met with even today. 
 
 For fuel injection, fuel pumps provide a separate plunger for each 
 working cylinder, and is driven directly from the crankshaft by means 
 of a vertical shaft and suitable gearing. On this vertical shaft is mounted 
 the governor, which is of the constant-speed type for engines designed 
 to drive generators, and of the limit-speed type for direct-connected 
 marine engines. All controls and also the- reversing gear for the directly 
 
 Nelseco 600 B.H.P., 200 R.P.M. Diesel Engine, looking astern. 
 Note the valve actuating arrangement. 
 
276 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 reversible marine engines are located at the forward end of the engine 
 and on the upper platform, that is, at the fuel pump and air compressor 
 end, and here, of course, the operator's station is located. In the case of 
 generator engines, only three cylinders are fitted with air starting valves, 
 but for direct reversible engines it is necessary to fit all of the working 
 cylinders with air starting valves. Starting air for this purpose is taken 
 from storage tanks, and a maximum of 350 pounds pressure is used. 
 
 Independently driven circulating water and lubricating oil pumps 
 are provided, as the Nelseco designers consider this the most satisfactory 
 method, but provision is made for fitting direct connected pumps at the 
 forward end of the engine in such special cases as it may seem advisable 
 or necessary. Provision is made for ample water jackets on all parts of 
 the engine which require cooling, and the arrangements of connection 
 areas are such that there is a free flow of circulating water from the 
 inlet to the overboard discharge from the exhaust headed jacket. 
 
 Section Through Cam Shaft Gear Compartment o/ Nelseco 600 B. H. P. 
 200 R.P.M. Diesel Engine. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 277 
 
 For the lubricating of the engine, the system used can best be de- 
 scribed by calling it a gravity forced-feed. With this system the lubri- 
 cating oil flows from the gravity tank, which is at a sufficient height 
 above the engine crankshaft to give the proper pressure to the main 
 bearings, then through holes in the crankshaft to the crankpins, and up 
 the inside of the connecting rods to the wrist pins. The crankcase is 
 enclosed and all surplus oil drains to a suitable formed trough in the 
 bottom of the bedplate from whence it is pumped back through suitable 
 strainers to the gravity tank. All of the important bearings are thus 
 under forced lubrication and a free flow of oil is circulating through 
 them at all times. 
 
 Oil Pump Arrangement of Ntlseco 600 B. H. P. 200 R. P. M. 
 Diesel Engine. 
 
278 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 The camshaft parts are oiled by splash from oil carried in the bottom 
 of the trough of the camshaft casing. All cylinders and exhaust valves 
 stems are taken care of by mechanical oilers, and the minor valve gear 
 bearings are fitted with oil cups for hand oiling. 
 
 For large freighters, passenger vessels and tankers up to about 12,000 
 tons D.W.C., and 4,000 H.P., this engine is made non-reversible and used 
 in conjunction with electric transmission. In these cases several engines 
 make up the total power required, although any one <unit would be suffi- 
 cient to bring the vessel home at reduced speed in case of accident to 
 the others. At the same time it must be pointed out that a totally dis- 
 abled modern direct driven Diesel ocean motorship is practically un- 
 heard of today. 
 
 For Diesel electric drive of a cargo ship requiring 2,000 shaft H.P. 
 (about 2,600 l.H.P.) four of these 600-700 B.H.P. units, each connected 
 to a 400 K.W. electric generator, may be installed in the engine room 
 and these are capable to provide the current for a single electric pro- 
 pelling motor. Control of the latter can be placed on the navigation 
 bridge, or at lany other part of the ship independent from the engine room, 
 thus eliminating delays or misunderstandings when maneuvering. 
 
 For detailed description on this arrangement the readers are advised 
 to study the chapter dealing with "Electric Propulsion," pertaining* to 
 the trawler "Mariner," which is propelled by twin-240 B.H.P. Nelseco 
 Diesel engines. 
 
 This engine has been built under Lloyd's survey, and is designed to 
 meet Lloyd's and American Bureau of Shipping requirements in every 
 way. In the following table iti is intended to show actual performance 
 of this type of Nelseco engine in runs at constant speed and various 
 powers, illustrating its fuel consumption: 
 
 FUEL CONSUMPTION CONSTANT SPEED 
 (In pounds per B. H. P. hour) 
 
 25 per cent over-load .42 
 
 Full load .42 
 
 Three-fourths load , .45 
 
 One-half load .51 
 
 One^fourth load .67 
 
 This table shows the flat fuel consumption curve, which is charac- 
 teristic of the Diesel engine. To give an idea of the overload capacity 
 of this engine, it can be stated that it carried for a short time a load of 
 875 B.H.P. with only a very slight amount of smoke showing in the ex- 
 haust. This shows the conservativeness of the 600 B.H.P. rating. In 
 fact, the engine is fully capable of developing 10 per cent overload 
 almost continuously. Another run was made with the revolutions vary- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 279 
 
 I 
 
 a; 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 "? 
 
 5 II 
 
 &' 
 
280 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 ing as they did when direct connected to a propeller aboard ship, and it 
 was found that with the speed reduced to about two-thirds when the 
 toad would foe approximately only one-quarter that of full power, the 
 consumption of fuel was only about .52 Ibs. per horsepower. The marine 
 fuel consumption curves are thus much flatter than the fuel consumption 
 curve when operating on a generator. The mechanical efficiency of the 
 engine proved to be very excellent indeed, and at full power it was just 
 under 80 per cent. Governor trials were also held and it was found that 
 from full load to no load there was only about a Zy 2 per cent variation 
 in revolutions. When the load was thrown on or off suddenly there was 
 practically no momentary jump in revolutions except when full load was 
 thrown on or off, and then the first surge amounted to only a few revo- 
 lutions more than the speed at which the engine finally settled. In fact, 
 the governor performance appeared to be given the service in every way. 
 
281 
 
 
 End View of Burmeister & Wain Diesel. Note Gear, Valve Arrangement, 
 Engine Control Lever, Etc. 
 
282 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 BURMEISTER & WAIN'S DIESEL ENGINES 
 (Marine Type) 
 
 Burmeister & Wain's Diesel engines are a convincing factor of mod- 
 ern development in Diesel construction. Engines of this type may be 
 found in all respective classes of ships of Europe's Merchant Marine as 
 well as of America's. The engines follow the four-cycle construction. 
 
 To gain some idea on advanced methods of Burmeister & Wain's 
 engines, a brief description is> herewith given of late -adopted styles of 
 engines for cargo-carriers of 5,000 to 6,000 tons displacement. 
 
 In this type of vessel the average daily fuel consumption is about 25 
 tons of oil. The average speed is calculated on 11 knots per hour. The 
 engine and propeller speed, 80 R.P.M. Engine room crew of 15 men. 
 
 The dimensions are I.H.P. 1,750; shaft H,P. cylinder diameter 24.803 
 in.; stroke 51.181 in.; revolutions 100; length from aft coupling to front 
 of compressor 10,500 mm.; height from center of crankshaft to top of 
 valves 6,600 mm. 
 
 The most interesting features of this new type of engine are the 
 cylinder head and cylinder liner. The heads are nearly square and are 
 supported by distance pieces which stand on the "A" frames. The heads 
 
 Diagram of Burmeister & Wain Marine Diesel Engine, Showing Front 
 View of Force-feed Fuel Pressure Pump. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 283 
 
 are bolted together, three and three. Long bolts pass from the main 
 frame, thru the "A" frames and distance pieces, and between the heads, 
 each nut pressing down on two heads. The long bolts also have nuts at 
 the .top of the "A" frames. The liners are bolted directly to the head, 
 without any packing, iron to Iron. Outside the liner, bolted to the head 
 with a gasket is the water jacket, which packs off against the liner near 
 the lower end with a rubber 1 ring. This allows the liner perfect freedom 
 to expand. The inner shell of the cylinder head is well braced by four 
 stays. The cooling water enters at the lower end of the jacket and most 
 
 Diagram of Burmeister & Wain Diesel Engine. 
 
 looking astern. 
 
 Cross-Sectional View 
 
284 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 of it is made to pass into the cylinder head at the opposite side by a 
 baffle-ring inside the jacket. The water space in the head is very large, 
 insuring effective cooling around all valves. 
 
 In order that the removal of the piston downward instead of by re- 
 moving the head, may not be too complicated, it has been made oil-cooled 
 instead of water-cooled, as in previous builds. 
 
 To remove the piston, it is brought almost to top center, the cross- 
 head shoe is blocked up, the cross-head bearings taken apart, and the 
 connecting rod lowered by turning the crank almost to bottom center 
 while lowering the upper end of the connecting rod with a chiain hoist, 
 so that it rests on the outboard side of the main frame. The outlet and 
 inlet valves are removed, eye-bolts screwed into the piston head, and 
 the piston is lowered through the top plate so that the cross-head pin 
 rests on beams placed across the main frame. It can then be inspected 
 or even removed. The top plate differs from the ordinary construction 
 in thiat it has a hole large enough to permit passage of the piston, this 
 hole being closed by two semi-circular plates, which contain a scrape- 
 ring for the piston rod. 
 
 The frame for the gear-train stands in the center but is separate 
 from the "A" frames. The three fore and the three aft cylinder heads are 
 bolted together with horizontal bolts. This construction allows the en- 
 gine to weave slightly, too great rigidity having been found detrimental. 
 
 The main frame and "A" frame are largely of "I" section. The air 
 compressor is of the latest Burmeister /t Wain three stage design, di- 
 rectly connected to the crankshaft at its forward end, having its own 
 base frame bolted to the main frame, though its "A" frame and cylinders 
 stand free. Other parts of the motor are in general Burmeister & Wain 
 standard, with such small refinements as experience has made desirable. 
 
 One new feature of this engine which deserves mention takes the 
 form of a metric scale and hand-control wheel regulating the clearance 
 or varying the lift of the fuel valves, enabling the engine to run at very 
 slow speed. 
 
 At the after end of the engine room are the lubricating oil pumps, 
 supplying lubricating oil to the engine, while a fuel pump is stationed 
 near the bulk-head for the purpose of pumping the oil from the tanks to 
 the daily service -tanks. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the Burmeister & Wain engineers strict- 
 ly adhere to the four-cycle principle, and following reasons are advanced, 
 which impartially we are 'giving here. 
 
 In the Diesel engine, combustion and process of work take place in 
 the same unit, and thereby differs from the steam engine, where the 
 combustion .takes place in the furnace. The heat is transferred to the 
 water in the boiler, whilst the work is developed in the engine. It is 
 therefore a well known fact, that if the boiler is forced, furnace and 
 tubes will be affected by the fire and the economy of the plant be anni- 
 hilated, seeing that a considerable loss of heat is caused by the 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 285 
 
 products of combustion leaving the funnel without having been cooled 
 down. 
 
 The same is the case with the Diesel engines. If too great a quan- 
 tity of fuel per hour is combustioned in these, the surfaces are too in- 
 tensely heated, and will become scorched and destroyed, as the heat can- 
 not penetrate the walls to the surrounding cooling water. Also a con- 
 siderable economical loss is caused, through the -temperature of the 
 exhaust gases being too high. 
 
 Diagram, Showing Cross-Sectional View of Burmeister & Wain Marine 
 
 Diesel Engine. 
 
 However, in comparing steam-plants with Diesel plants a thorough 
 difference will be found, because in a boiler the useful heat passes to the 
 water through the heating surface, whereas in a Diesel engine, the lost 
 
286 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 heat passes through the surface of the cylinder to the cooling water. 
 A standard for the strain of the boiler is how many kilograms of coal 
 are burned per hour in proportion to the (principal dimensions; likewise 
 the standard strain of the Diesel engine is how many kilograms of oil are 
 burned per hour in proportion to its 'principal dimensions. It is imma- 
 terial, whether this takes place in a four-stroke cycle or in a two-stroke 
 cycle system. On the other hand the economy with which , the combus- 
 tion takes place is of the mo,st eminent significance, because the heat, 
 which is not transformed into useful work, i. e., the heat lost, will partly 
 be passed through the cylinder walls to the cooling waiter, partly dis- 
 appears in the heat of the exhaust. It is the lost heat that strains the 
 most important parts of the engine. 
 
 Burmeister & Wains engineers contend that the four-stroke cycle 
 engine is the most economical as its consumption is 15 to 20 per cent 
 less than that of the two-stroke cycle; consequently the four-stroke cycle 
 is the type that causes the least strain on the material; the four cycle 
 system is therefore absolutely in their opinion to be adaptable. 
 
 Upon entering more fully into the details of the two motor types, 
 the four cycle shows, compared to the two-cycle, in every respect advan- 
 tages which in concentrated form are the following: 
 
 (1) The time the inner surfaces of the cylinder and cover are ex- 
 posed to the high temperature o combustion, is in the four-cycle motor 
 only half the corresponding time of that in the two-cycle, the cooling of 
 the inner surfaces during the suction stroke is more effective in the four- 
 cycle motor, consequently the four-cycle works as a whole far cooler 
 than the two-cycle at the same development of power. 
 
 (2) In the four-cycle the piston speed allowable is higher, and as 
 the mean temperature is lower, the work can be performed with a higher 
 mean pressure. Therefore a four-cycle of the same weight and outer 
 dimensions develops the same horsepower, or more. 
 
 (3) The four-cycle engine having no scavenging air pump with 
 appurtenant air receivers nor any larger scavenging air channels, the 
 construction of the engine becomes more simple and easy. Dimensions 
 are reduced, and the engine works more noiselessly. 
 
 (4) The four-cycle engine can work more regularly at low revolu- 
 tions, and is able to go perfectly "dead slow" as well as any marine 
 steam engine. This is not the case with the two-cycle, because the pres- 
 sure of compression is smaller owing to the pressure of the scavenging 
 air being reduced, when the engine is running slow. 
 
 (5) The whole valve gear of the four-cycle works with half the 
 number of revolutions of that of the 'two-cycle, this gives a softer and 
 more silent running and less wear and tear on the different parts. 
 
 (6) For the reason above mentioned not only the additional quan- 
 tity of oil used in a two-cycle engine to develop one H.P. is lost, but the 
 heat thus produced strains the engine excessively, shortens its life and 
 increases ithe overhauling costs, so that the additional consumption of 
 fuel oil is in more than one sense lost. This is the case particularly in 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 287 
 
 large engines of high, horsepower, by reason of the large cylinder dimen- 
 sions requiring proportionately heavier castings and consequently, it 
 is very important not to conduct greater quantities of heat than neces- 
 sary through the cylinder walls in order not to strain the material. 
 
 The deitails of the marine Diesel engine are designed with the par- 
 ticular requirements of each single part in veiw, and as these are different 
 from those of a marine steam engine, the structure and appearance of a 
 marine Diesel engine are quite diverging from that of an ordinary ma- 
 rine engine. 
 
 The Burmeister & Wain Diesel engines follow closely the de- 
 sign of their steam marine engines. This particularly applies to crank- 
 shafts, main bearings, connecting rods, crossheads and guide shoes. 
 
 The air compressor, by which the air for the fuel injection is com- 
 pressed up to a pressure of 60 atmospheres, forms a most important part 
 of a Diesel engine. For this purpose the type used is of their own de- 
 sign, combined with the engine. 
 
 The engine is direct reversible and may be built in capacities ranging 
 from 200 to 8,000 H.P. 
 
 In large types of ships the installation is of the twin-screw system. 
 The two engines work independently. A Diesel ship of large capacity is 
 usually equipped with double bottom tanks, to have sufficient fuel oil to 
 carry it along for 31,000 miles, while the steamer's bunker of ordinary 
 size can only carry enough bunker coal or oil to carry it along for an 
 average of 4,800 miles. 
 
 Engines formerly used, built by the Burmeister & Wain Company, 
 were of the two-cycle system, after experimenting with the four-cycle 
 type, the company succeeded in developing a four-cycle engine, which, 
 on the same revolution, accomplished the same effective horsepower, 
 had the same length, the same breadth, but smaller height and weighed 
 \y 2 tons less than the two-cycle of a corresponding horsepower. The 
 total weight of the engine in question, was 9 tons; that of the two- 
 cycle 10y 2 tons. Moreover, the 'consumption of fuel oil in the four- 
 cycle engine was 17 per cemt less. Seven of 'these engines have been 
 supplied to the Danish Navy. 
 
 These engines develop 450 E.H.P. at 500 revolutions per minute, 
 and owing to their lighter weight and elegant construction they are 
 especially suitable for fast running motor boats and yachts. 
 
 The engine can be made to other dimensions if required. 
 
 Of similar special engines we mention a 600 E.H.P. direct re- 
 versible marine engine of 280 revolutions per minute built for the 
 Societe Anonyme John Cockerill, Seraing, Belgium, for river service 
 on the Upper Kongo. This engine is a type somewhat heavier than 
 that aforementioned, but considering the small draft of these vessels 
 and the consequential small diameter of the propellers they are naturally 
 rather fast running. 
 
288 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 A new designed type of engine with an extra long stroke and having 
 a corresponding low number of revolutions especially suitable for single- 
 screw cargo ships, are now building. These engines are intended for 
 slow going cargo ships and can, owing to the low number of revolutions, 
 be fitted with large propellers, thereby giving the vessel a particularly 
 good speed in bad weather, as well as a great maneuvering capacity; 
 likewise a good control of the vessel is obtained, which is important when 
 sailing in marrow waters or maneuvering in or out of port. 
 
 Owing to their low number of revolutions these engines are of course, 
 a little more expensive to build per H.P. They present on the other hand, 
 such advantages that will quickly pay to u&e this somewhat more costly 
 engine for the purpose mentioned. 
 
 The company has adopted a standard size varying from 300 to 550 H.P. 
 They are particularly well suited for replacing smaller steam plants of 
 old vessels. 
 
 This smaller type are direct reversible. The reversing gear is based 
 on special patents and is of a different design from that adapted for the 
 cross-head main engines, previously described, being specially suitable 
 for the smaller trunk engines. 
 
 The smaller, reversible type of engines are always of the 6 cylinder 
 construction; this number of cylinders gives the engine perfect balance 
 so necessary in marine work in particular. These engines are particu- 
 larly suitable fosf installation in the stern of the vessel, thus obtaining 
 the advantage of a clear and unobstructed hold. 
 
 The engines can be used for single-screw as well as for twin-screw 
 vessels. 
 
 With this new design of marine Diesel engines there can under all 
 circumstances be attained an excellent propulsion, but it is also neces- 
 sary to build a special type, as the marine Diesel engines designed for 
 twin-screw vessels will not yield good results in a single screw vessel, 
 which is quite analogous with experience gained with steamers. 
 
 STANDARD MARINE DIESEL ENGINES FOR SINGLE-SCREW SHIPS 
 (Burmeister & Wain Types) 
 
 Number of 
 
 Type Cylinders 
 
 for Engine 
 
 6 x 125 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 150 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 200 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 250 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 275 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 300 
 
 6 
 
 6 x 400 . 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Corresponding 
 
 Revolutions 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 Per Min. 
 
 Normal 
 
 for Steamers 
 
 84 
 
 750 
 
 680 
 
 84 
 
 950 
 
 850 
 
 82 
 
 1150 
 
 1030 
 
 77 
 
 1350 
 
 1210 
 
 75 
 
 1600 
 
 1400 
 
 72 
 
 1900 
 
 1650 
 
 70 
 
 2300 
 
 2000 
 
 Long Stroke Cross Head Engines for Ocean Going Single-Screw Cargo 
 Ships Adapted to a Speed of 9 to 12 Knots. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 289 
 
 THE WINTON MARINE DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 The principal features of the Winton Diesels are: The use of an 
 enclosed crankcase, trunk pistons instead of the usual cross-head arrange- 
 ment, and crankshaft bolted up to its bearings, which are mounted in the 
 upper half of the crankcase. 
 
 The engines, which are of the four-cycle construction, are 'produced 
 in the following three sizes: 
 
 Six cylinder, 11x14 inches, known as Model W35; 
 Six cylinder, 13x18 inches, known ia-s Model W24A; 
 Eight cylinder, 13x18 inches, known as Model W40. 
 
 Air Compressor: The fuel is forced into the cylinder, against the 
 compression, by a pressure averaging about 850 to 900 pounds per square 
 inch. The compressor furnishing the air is located on the forward end 
 of the engine. It is of the three istage construction. The compressor 
 piston is of the trunk type and is operated by a connecting rod, which 
 is a duplicate of the connecting rod in the power cylinders and a single- 
 throw, counter-weighted crankshaft which is bolted to the main shaft, 
 the throw being somewhat less than that of the power shaft. Following 
 each stage of compression the air is water-cooled, so that on delivery it is 
 at normal temperature. 
 
 The capacity of the air compressor is considerably in excess of that 
 required for the injection of the fuel and provides for the initial charging 
 and maintenance of pressure in the storage tanks, or air bottles, which 
 are used for starting the engine. 
 
 There are two .sets of these air bottles, one carrying the air at about 
 600 pounds pressure per square inch, which is admitted to the cylinders 
 in turn, to force the pistons down, starting the engine rotating. The 
 second set of air bottles carries air at 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per square 
 inch. This is used to inject the fuel into the cylinders. As soon as fuel 
 is injected, combustion takes place, performing the cycle of operation. 
 
 Injection Operation: The valve timing conforms to costumary prac- 
 tice. The governor is of the fly-<ball type, and acts upon the fuel cut-off 
 valve which meters out the exact amount of fuel to the fuel pump that 
 is required by the load the engine is carrying. 
 
 Ait the time the injection valve is opened, the amount of fuel that 
 has been delivered by the fuel pump is blasted into the cylinder by the 
 high pressure air. 
 
 Valve Arrangements: The cam shaft is supported in a long, box- 
 shaped casting, open at the top, which in turn is supported on brackets 
 from cylinders. This trough is partly filled with oil, insuring ample lubri- 
 cation to the cams. Driving gears and cam shaft bearings are fed directly 
 with oil under pressure from pump. 
 
290 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 |s 
 
 1.4 
 
 Si 
 
 e ^ 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 291 
 
 The cam shaft is driven by bevel gears from a vertical shaft near 
 the center of the engine, which in turn is driven from a lay shaft and a 
 train of spur gears at front end. 
 
 The oam shaft is provided with two complete sets of cams, for for- 
 ward and reverse motion. Shifting the .shaft endways by means of a 
 hand wheel and suitable mechanism, brings either /set of cams into oper- 
 ation. The shifit from full speed ahead to full speed stern is frequently 
 accomplished in 5 to 6 seconds. Considering the weights of parts which 
 must be brought to resit and started in motion in the opposite direction, 
 this is an exceptional performance. 
 
 Each pair of inlett and exhaust valves is operated from tthe cam shaft 
 by a single rocker arm, the valves being connected 'by T-head slide on 
 which the end of the rocker rests. 'Slide is carried in contact with the 
 rocker at all times by a coil spring in center of its hollow stem. Each 
 end of the slide carries an adjusting screw and lock-nut, 'by which the 
 clearance between the ends of the valve stem and slide can be adjusted. 
 This clearance is 0.015 inches for both main inlet and exhaust valves. 
 This pair of valves are used instead of single large valves, because small 
 valves are much less apt to warp. 
 
 The fuel injection valve is located in the center of head and is also 
 operated by a rocker from the cam shaft. The adjusting screw for this 
 valve is set to leave 0.010 in. clearance when the Valve is closed. All 
 these clearances are for a cold engine, and will be somewhat more as the 
 engine warms up. 
 
 OVERALL DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF WINTON DIESELS 
 
 Model 
 
 Weight Length Width Height base 
 
 
 Ibs. ft. in. ft. 
 
 in. ft. in. ft. in. 
 
 52 
 
 11,000 90 3 
 
 8 5 2V6 ' 1 2 V A 
 
 53 
 
 16,000 10 44 3 
 
 / o / 4 
 
 8 5 2 1/6 1 2 1 /4 
 
 54 
 
 22,000 13 4 l / 2 3 
 
 \j u *i /Q j- u 74 
 
 8 5 2y 8 i 214 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 30,000 13 9% 5 
 
 1 66 2.4 
 
 W35 
 
 44,000 18 2 5 
 
 1 66 24 
 
 W24A 
 
 66,000 24 1 5 
 
 103/ 7 03/ 2 9 1/ 
 
 W40 
 
 90 000 28 10 5 
 
 "/4 /4 74 
 
 1034 7 034 2 914 
 
 
 
 Model 
 
 Bore Stroke Power 
 
 No. Cylinders 
 
 
 Inches Inches 
 
 
 52 
 
 7V 2 11 50 H.P. 
 
 3 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 53 
 
 7% 11 75 H.P. 
 
 4 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 54 
 
 7V 2 11 115 H.P. 
 
 6 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 58 
 
 11 14 150 H.P. 
 
 4 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 Wg5 
 
 11 14 225 H.P. 
 
 6 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 W24A 
 
 12i& 18 300 H.P. 
 
 6 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
 W40 
 
 1211 18 450 H.P. 
 
 8 Cylinders Reverse Gear 
 
292 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 NOBEL DIESEL MARINE ENGINES 
 
 In following de-tail information of the Nobel Diesel of the latest de- 
 sign, outstanding feats and features may be summed up as follows: 
 
 Rating, Speed and Weight: With a raited capacity of 1,600 brake 
 horsepower y or 2,000 indicated horsepower at a speed of 106 revolutions 
 per minute, the engine weighs, including a 13-ton flywheel, scavenging 
 pumps, air compressors, etc., but 170 tons, or 236 Ibs, per B.H.P. 
 
 Overall Dimensions: The total length of the engine is 7.8 meters or 
 25 ft. 7 in. ; its height above the center of the shaft to the top of the fuel 
 valve is 5.9 m., or 19 ft. 4 in. 
 
 Fuel Consumption: At full load the fuel consumption of the engine 
 is 0.395 Ib. of oil per (B.H.P. hour with a, heatiing value of 9,960 calories 
 per kg., or 17,900 B.T.U. per Ib. Comparing well in this figure with the 
 highest record 'established by four-cycle engines. At lighter loads the 
 fuel consumption of this engine is considerably less than that of any 
 four-cycle engine of equal proportion. 
 
 Mean Indicated Pressure: At the rated load, the M.I.P. is 6.48 at 
 92 Ibs. 
 
 Mechanical Efficiency: At full load the mechanical efficiency is 81 
 per cent. At 10 per cent overload the mechanical efficiency is 82.3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Overload Capacity: The heaviest overload so far carried is 22 per 
 cent, the engine developing 1,958 B.H.P. at 108 R.P.M. continuously during 
 a period of three-fourths of an hour, without any serious complication. 
 
 General Information: The engine follows the two-cycle principle. 
 The arrangement of its scavenging ports in the cylinder walls and its 
 scavenging pumps, are valv controlled, with the exception of the scav- 
 enging air. Inasmuch as the scavenging ports possess a greater height 
 than the exhaust ports, a greater efficiency in supercharging is accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The engine is of the open "A" frame type, bolted to the bedplate 
 as well as to the cylinders. Commendable features are the one-sided 
 cross-head -slippers, the links and rocker arms which serve to actuate the 
 scavenging pumps, the air compressors and circulating pumps, built to 
 follow the general prevailing marine practice. 
 
 The engine has four working cylinders, each resting upon the two 
 cast iron columns composing one "A" frame. Rocker arms, connected to 
 the cross-heads, drivei in the following order, the combined low and high 
 pressure stages of the injection air compressor, the two scavenging pumps 
 and the intermediate stage of the air compressor. All this machinery 
 is supported by brackets fastened to the bedplate directly opposite to 
 the frames. This arrangement has the advantage by which it utilizes 
 the available space in the best manner, particulalry in the longitudinal 
 direction of the ship, which is of the greatest value, assisting in estab- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 293 
 
 lishing accessibility and a more satisfactory arrangement in pump opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The scavenging air is pumped into the hollow frames of the engine 
 which serve as air ireceiver. The frames are connected to each other by 
 means of distance pieces of sufficiently laBge cross section. 
 
 The operating platform is arranged near the top of the engine, where 
 all; the vital parts for operating and maneuvering are within easy reach 
 of the operator. If it should be preferred to have the operators stand on 
 the main floor, no doubt this could be accomplished, but would require 
 some additional and more or less complicated gearing. 
 
 Cylinders and Port Arrangement: The inner liner of 'the cylinder is 
 made of close-grained cast iron and with a mild shrink-fit inserted into 
 the outer jacket. The parts of the cylinder surrounding the exhaust ports 
 are provided with drilled vertical holes in order to secure a most effective 
 water cooling. The exhaust pipe, connecting all four cylinders, is also 
 water cooled. An extension to the cylinder oni the opposite side carries 
 the piston valve which prevents the exhaust gases entering here and 
 which, controls the scavenging air. This valve isi actuated by a push-rod 
 from a cam on the layshaft above. The scavenging air enters from below, 
 leaving the hollow frame casting which has previously been mentioned, 
 serves as air receiver. 
 
 In the center of the cylinder head is the fuel valve of standard de- 
 sign, on one side the air^starting valve is arranged; on the other side is 
 the compression relief valve, Which is combined with the safety-valve, 
 and which relieves the compression in order to facilitate starting. The 
 air which during starting is compressed in the working cylinders, is not 
 permitted to go to waste, but escapes into the air receiver and inter- 
 mingles with the scavenging air. 
 
 It may 'be mentioned here that this arrangement in adding to the 
 scavenging air, is very valuable, especially since it takes place in the 
 beginning of the operation, before the scavenging pumps have been able 
 to fill the receiver with air of the required pressure. It eliminates any 
 trouble which may occur in starting the engine. 
 
 The pressure of the scavenging air is kept exceedingly low; at full 
 load and full speed it only amounts to 1.6 Ibs. per square inch. All these 
 factors contribute to reduce the work expended for the scavenging pumps 
 to a minimum. At full load and normal speed it amounts to about 3.5 
 per cent of the total indicated horsepower of the engine. The advantage 
 of low pressure, in dispensing with artificial cooling, is easily under- 
 stood. By accurate test it was found that the rise of temperature at full 
 load only amounted to 10-12 C. or 18-21 Fahr. 
 
 The compression in the cylinder is at slow speed 38.5 Ibs., and the 
 pressure in the scavenging air receiver but 0.21 Ib. The injection air 
 pressure at this speed is 430 1'bs., in fact, only slightly higher than the 
 compression in the cylinder. It is here mentioned that even at normal 
 speed the compression is 430 Ibs., the scavenging pressure 1.6 Ibs., and 
 the injection air pressure 860 Ibs. 
 
294 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Operating and Reversing Features: In maneuvering we may sum- 
 mlarize the operating performance in following: In bringing the eccentric 
 shafts in neutral position, the fuel valves are put out of motion and the 
 puel pumps are cut out, thereby the engine is brought to a standstill 
 after a few revolutions. 
 
 By turning the reversing lever, by means of a gear segment and a 
 rack, the camshifting rod is moved, which in its turn brings the cams 
 for the reverse rotation into their power position. 'Simultaneously, by 
 a system of levers and rods, the 'scavenging air controlling valves are 
 brought into their correct position for the reverse, whereupon the start- 
 ing can be effected in the usual way. 
 
 The various levers are mechanically interlocked, so that it is im- 
 possible to move the reversing lever and shifting rod, unless both eccen- 
 tric turning levers are in their neutral position and on the other hand 
 none of these levers can be moved, unless the reversing levers and with 
 it the other parts, cams and valves are in their proper position either 
 for forward or astern running. 
 
 In starting the engine a careful investigation should be made that 
 all piping is properly filled with fuel and the required amount of air is 
 in the compressed air tank. 
 
 The rollers of the starting valve and of the relief valve are brought 
 into contact with their corresponding cams and at least one of the 
 starting valves will immediately open and will admit air to its cylinder. 
 The air pressure sets the engine into motion, and after one or two revo- 
 lutions, as soon as the engine has received sufficient momentum, the 
 engineer throws the turning levers into the normal running position, 
 which sets the starting and the relief valve idle and puts the fuel valve 
 into service. 
 
 Main Dimensions 
 Working Cylinders: , 
 
 Diameter 26.574 in. 
 
 Stroke : 36.200 in. 
 
 Scavenging Air Pumps, Double Acting: 
 
 Diameter 36^4 in - 
 
 Stroke .. 26^ in. 
 
 Diameter of Plunger Guide : 7% in. 
 
 Air Compressor: 
 
 Diameter for the three stages, 22^ in., 9y 8 in., 4 1 5 e in. 
 
 Stroke for all three stages 22^ in. 
 
 Water Pumps, Single Acting: 
 
 2 Pumps for cooling cylinders, etc. 
 
 Diameter x Stroke 5 in. x 14 in. 
 
 2 Pumps for general service, bilge, etc. 
 
 Diameter x Stroke 5 in. x 14 in. 
 
 Circulating Pump for pistons 
 
 Diameter x Stroke 5 in. x 6% in. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 295 
 
 Crank Pin: 
 
 Diameter x Length 15% in. x 19 in. 
 
 Main Bearings: 
 
 Diameter x Length of Journal 15% in. x 27^4 i n - 
 
 THE VICKERS DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 There is no doubt that in the past many failures in Marine Diesel 
 Engines have been due to the lack of sea-going marine knowledge among 
 those responsible for the design and manufacture of the machinery. Dif- 
 ficulties which had been overcome in the best reciprocating steam engine 
 were often unwittingly resurrected in the early Diesel design, and new 
 mechanical troubles were invited. In surmounting these the engine-room 
 staffs were compelled to spend much of the time they would otherwise 
 have devoted to mastering the purely Diesel features of the engines. 
 
 Heavy oil engine work is not a new line with Vickers. They, prac- 
 tically alone of British makers, have evolved an engine of their own, 
 which since 1909 has been accepted as the British Standard for their sub- 
 marine service, for which it was designed. In the few cases in which 
 foreign designs have been tried against it in similar circumstances, Vick- 
 ers engines have proven their equal. 
 
 The engine referred to is of the high duty express type, of which 
 over 380,000 B.H.P. are made or in hand, and the experience gained with 
 this class of engine renders it a comparatively easy task to develop the 
 slow running type of marine engine required for mercantile work. In 
 addition, they have made two pairs of 750 B.H.P. engines running at 150 
 R.P.M. which have given satisfactory service. 
 
 A brief summary ofi the Vickers engine now specially designed for 
 mercantile use is given in the following pages: 
 
 The engine is of the four-stroke cycle, this type having been adopted 
 by the Vickers Company. The first point of departure from all other 
 Diesels is in the adoption of a fuel injection system in which the air 
 compressor is entirely done away with. For some years now this system 
 has been adopted by Vickers on all their engines to the entire exclusion 
 of the air injection system, notwithstanding that Vickers are manufac- 
 turers of air compressors and are therefore fully alive to the improve- 
 ments in modern machinery. Nevertheless their opinion, which will 
 probably be shared by most experienced seagoing Diesel engineers, is 
 that in the compressed air system lies the main source of trouble and 
 danger in the modern marine Diesel engine. For this reason, although 
 saving of weight and space is not so important in merchant ships as in 
 submarines, for instance, they recommend solid injection for mercantile 
 work. Another reason is that the system is very foolproof and lends it- 
 self to successful operation by a comparatively unskilled personnel and 
 in case of necessity can be kept running when an air injection engine, 
 
296 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 owing to variations of adjustment, would be dangerous to start. There 
 is nothing mysterious in the system, in fact, its simplicity is a revelation 
 to many. A proof of its efficiency is found in the fact that the Vickers 
 air spraying Diesels supplied prior to the development of the Vickers 
 injection -system were subsequently converted at the owners request. 
 Contrary to uninformed comment from some quarters, this system gives 
 full consumption results better than many spraying systems, consump- 
 tions per hour down to 0.378 Ibs. per B.H.'P. having been obtained in the 
 official tests of Vickers engines. This would correspond to about 0.28 Ib. 
 per indicated horsepower in an ordinary air injection engine. 
 
 The disposition and number of the auxiliary pumps on the main 
 engine depends on the arrangement of the engine room. The standard 
 design permits of iswaybeamis being fitted to the two end cross-heads 
 from w.hich the required pumps may be driven. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
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298 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Details of "Vickers" Solid Injection Engines 
 
 One of the problems in connection with the development of the 
 marine oil engine in motorships which ia attracting the greatest atten- 
 tion among engineers concerned with this branch of engineering is the 
 efficacy of the solid injection system, as compared with the ordinary blast 
 or pressure injection principle which has hitherto been mainly adopted 
 for motors for mercantile service. For this reason, if for no other, the 
 latest types of Vickers engine deserves (mention. 
 
 As perhaps the fuel system is of the greatest interest from the en- 
 gineering standpoint, we will first deal with the arrangement ado.pted. 
 which is novel in many respects. The principle lies in forcing fuel oil at 
 about 4,000 Ibs. per square inch direct into the cylinder through a special 
 type of valve in the cylinder cover a system which has been used by 
 Vickers for many years past on all their 'submarine, monitor and tanker 
 engines, and has proved its reliability under arduous conditions. 
 
 The fuel is supplied under this pressure by means of a small battery 
 of four pumps of the ordinary plunger type. The plungeirs are driven 
 from four eccentrics operated from the horizontal shaft, which itself is 
 driven by spur gearing from the crankshaft. The fuel from these pumps 
 is taken through a small box to the main pipe line and thence a pipe is 
 tapped off to each cylinder in connection with a small shut-off cock in 
 each case. It would be difficult to devise any simpler arrangement, and 
 the choice of four pumips is merely a matter of convenience, having no 
 direct relationship to the number of cylinders. There is a hand pump 
 close to the main fuel pumps for ipriming the pipes, with a delivery to 
 the .fuel box. The control of pressure of oil fuel is effected through a 
 small lever acting on the suction valve of the pumps in the usual manner 
 through a spindle. This pressure, wMch can easily be .maintained at 
 practically 4,000 Ibs. per square inch, can also be varied within smaller 
 limits by another small 'hand wheel. Its effect is the same as that of 
 the lever. 
 
 We will now deal with the valve gear and method of control, which, 
 owing to the singular method employed should be carefully studied. 
 
 The camshaft ibeing driven by gearing by means of a sloping shaft, 
 which is itself driven from the crankshaft through bevel gearing, sup- 
 plied by forced lubrication from the main bearing oil lubricating system 
 at a pressure of about 20 Ibs. per square inch. On this camshaft are itwo 
 side-fcy-side cams for the operating of each valve exhaust, fuel, inlet, 
 and starting. These cams are enclosed. No mechanically operated start- 
 ing valve is needed in the cylinder cover, where there is only a non- 
 return valve a simplification with some advantages. The exhaust valve, 
 inlet valve, and fuel valve are operated by levers; the levers being 
 mounted on the maneuvering shaft and actuated from the cams on the 
 camshaft. 
 
 The method of reversing can now easily be followed, since it is clear 
 that (the following operations have to be carried out: 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 299 
 
 1. The valve levers have to be lifted off the cams on the camshaft. 
 
 2. The camshaft has to be moved fore and aft to bring the astern 
 cams underneath the rollers of the valve levers, after which the levers 
 must be dropped down again on the cams. 
 
 3. Compressed air has to be admitted to all six cylinders, then two 
 have to be placed on fuel and four on air; next, two on air and four on 
 fuel, and finally all on fuel. 
 
 If the engine is running when the order is given to stop, 'the hand 
 wheel is turned to stop position as indicated on the dial. This causes 
 a partial rotation of the spindle, which raises or lowers the rods. These 
 are attached to sleeves, on which the levers operating the fuel valves 
 are eccentrically mounted. The other end of the lever on the fuel valve 
 cam is, therefore, raised from the cam by this operation and is only 
 brought down on to the cam at the right moment by the movement of 
 the starting wheel. In other words, when the engine is in the stop .posi- 
 tion the fuel valves and starting air valves are automatically out of 
 operation until the hand wheel is moved. 
 
 Assuming the engine is stopped after having been running ahead, 
 and the order is received to go astern, the reversing lever is moved from 
 the back position to the front. This putsi compressed air on the Servo 
 motor, which by means of a rack motion, first partially rotates the hori- 
 zontal shaft which lifts the exhaust and inlet valve levers off their cams 
 through the link, then causes the lever to move fore and aft, giving the 
 corresponding motion to the camshaft, after which, by the continued 
 rotation of the shaft and the movement of the link, the valve levers are 
 once more brought down on to the cams. Only when this complete 
 movement has been effected is it possible to move the starting wheel. 
 
 Immediately the cams are in the astern iposition this starting wheel 
 is rotated by hand until ithe indicator on the dial shows that air being 
 supplied to all six cylinders through the distributing valves behind this 
 wheel. There are three of these valves with three main pipes, each 
 leading to two of 'the starting valves. The engine then starts uip on 
 air, after which, with an almost imperceptible pause, the starting wheel 
 is turned to the next position indicated on the dial, namely two cylinders 
 on fuel and four on air. This is accomplished by the rotation of the 
 spindle as previously mentioned, allowing two of the fuel valve levers to 
 come down on their cams. Further rotation of the starting wheel <cuts 
 off the air supply and allows four of the six cylinders, and finally all of 
 them to operate on fuel. 
 
 It should be mentioned that the valve levers are lifted off their cams 
 by <tlhe movement of the maneuvering shaft, owing to the fact that these 
 levers are mounted eccentrically upon the shaft. The reason that the 
 fuel valve levers are brought down on to their 'cams in pairs as described 
 is that there are cams on the shaft which lift ithe levers at the time re- 
 quired for putting into action the respective valves, according to the 
 position of the starting wheels. 
 
300 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 It may be noticed that there is a hand pump, operated by a lever, in 
 case it is desired to carry out the reversal by hand instead of by com- 
 pressed air, in which case the small lever is pulled over to the forward 
 or hand position. 
 
 We are not debating in this article the advisability of either four- 
 stroke cycle or two-stroke cycle as found preferable by the Bush-Sulzer 
 Engineers, Nordberg's, etc., but it is but fair to add here that the Vickers 
 Ltd., claims a matterof-fact figure on economy in fuel consumption in 
 their adopted four-stroke cycle engines, which by official test of British 
 officials is reduced to 0.378 Ib. per B.H.P., corresponding to 0.278 Ib. per 
 I.H.P., in an ordinary air injection engine. TMs they claim is principally 
 accounted for through their method of injection system. 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF "WESTERN" DIESEL 
 
 ENGINES 
 
 "Western" Diesel Engines now are manufactured in standard size of 
 25 B.H.P. per working cylinder, in multiples up to six cylinders. With 
 following data obtainable, sizes, weights and dimensions are as follows: 
 
 No. Shipping Shipping 
 
 Cylinders Brake H.P. R. P. M. Weight Weight 
 
 Domestic Export 
 
 1 25 325 10,000 1-bs. 12,000 Ibs. 
 
 2 50 325 14,000 Ibs. 15,750 Ibs. 
 
 3 75 325 17,500 Ibs. 19,250 Ibs. 
 
 4 100 325 20,000 Ibs. 24,000 Ibs. 
 6 150 325 28,000 Ibs. 32,500 Ibs. 
 
 'Shipping weights- given are for standard commercial engines. 
 
 In the "Western" Diesel engine the atomized fuel is injected into 
 the highly compressed air in the cylinder, igniting on its own compres- 
 sion similar to all Diesel process. 
 
 In the open type nozzle fuel injection the fuel first enters in a pass- 
 age-way which opens into the main combustion chamber of the engine, 
 and, immediately the oil has been deposited in this passage-way, a blast 
 of highly compressed air from an outside source drives it through small 
 openings with such force that it enters the main combustion chamber 
 in such a highly atomized state that complete combustion takes place as 
 soon as it mixes wifch the compressed air contained therein. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINEiS 301 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE 600 B.H.P. MARINE WERKSPOOR ENGINES 
 
 INSTALLED IN THE TWIN-SCREW MOTOR TANKER 
 
 "CHARLIE WATSON" (STANDARD OIL) 
 
 Total Brake Horsepower 1200. 
 
 The engines are of the four-cycle, single-acting marine crosshead 
 type, and each develops 800 indicated horsepower, or 600 brake horse- 
 power at 165 revolutions per minute. The cylinder blocks, connected by 
 an intermediate piece over the maneuvering station, carry each, a set 
 of three cylinders. The cylinder block at the same time forms a water 
 jacket around the cylinders, and is <sup>ported by cast-iron frames on the 
 crosshead guide block and by the opposite guide block columns which 
 are bolted to same. The cylinder block and the .guide block are again 
 supported by lower columns, which rest on and are bolted to the bed- 
 plate. Heavy steel tie rods run from the top of the cylinder block through 
 the bottom of the bedplate, with nuts on each end. 
 
 With this design, each set of three cylinders has one -combined cross- 
 head guide block, which is supported by lower column's. After lifting 
 four tie-rods on one side of the engine, these small columns are taken 
 out and the crankshaft can then be removed. 
 
 The built-up crankshaft is 10% inches in diameter. The main bear- 
 ings are of the square box type, the square boxes carrying the bottom 
 brasses, which are made iso that they can be rotated and come clear. 
 
 The piston rods pass through stuffing boxes of the drip pans which 
 collect carbon and used oil from the cylinders and prevent same leaking 
 into the lower oil-tight part of the engine, which is provided with forced 
 lubrication. The lubricating oil enters through the binder of each main 
 bearing and is forced through the crankshaft to the crankpin and through 
 the hollow connecting rod to the crosshead. A drip pan bolted under 
 and to the bedplate collects the return oil, which is again pumped by an 
 electrically driven pumip through strainers back to the main bearings. 
 
 The cylinder and cylinderhead are cast in one piece. It provides an 
 efficient water-cooling around the cylinder top, and furthermore increases 
 the cooling water circulation between the valve housings. 
 
 In casting the cylinder and head in one piece, allowance has been 
 made for easy examination or removal of the piston from below. 
 
 This is done by placing the crank on the bottom center and dropping 
 the cylinder extension or skirt onto the drip pan, which then exposes the 
 full length and top of the piston and allows for easy removal of the 
 rings. By the loosening of four bolts on the end of piston rod, the piston 
 can be lifted down. 
 
 The piston is air cooled and provided with eight rings. 
 
 The intake and exhaust valves are of cast iron, with steel steins. 
 
 The fuel needle can be easily removed and ground in place while the 
 engine is running. 
 
302 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 303 
 
 This also applies to the safety valve, which at the same time is used 
 as relief valve, its spring being relieved while the engine is reversed. 
 
 All valve springs are outside the valve cage, in order to keep them 
 cool and free for inspection. 
 
 The engine is fitted with the new Werkspoor reversing gear. The 
 rockers are mounted on skew eccentrics, keyed to the reversing shaft, 
 which, when turned over 180 degrees, lift and transfer the rocker rollers 
 from the ahead to the astern cams, and vice versa. 
 
 The camshaft is actuated 'by four connecting rods from the half- 
 time shaft below, which is driven by a spur gear from the main crank- 
 shaft. The gear wheel on the lower-half-time shaft contains the governor, 
 which acts on the fuel pump when the engine speeds up over 165 revo- 
 lutions per minute. 
 
 The lower half-time shaft carries two eccentrics, each operating a 
 set of three plungers of the fuel pump, which is bolted on the bedplate 
 at the maneuvering stand. The fuel pump has to take care of an equal 
 fuel distribution to all fuel needles, and therefore has a separate plunger 
 for each cylinder. 
 
 Each plunger delivers fuel only when its suction valve is closed. The 
 suction valves are lifted by two rockers which are actuated by the 
 crossheads of the pump and which pivot "around an accentric. The pivot- 
 ing points of these rockers are lowered or raised by turning the eccentric 
 through either the hand levers on the maneuvering stand or through the 
 action of the governor. When lowered, the suction valves close earlier 
 and the pump delivers more fuel; when raised, the suction valves close 
 later and the pump delivers less fuel. Three adjusting screws in each of 
 said rockers, one under each suction valve, allow an accurate adjustment 
 of the amount of fuel to each cylinder. A pyrometer in each exhaust 
 enables the engineer to check the amount of fuel fed to each cylinder in 
 comparison with the others. 
 
 The fuel from the fuel pump passes through a manifold which is 
 placed on top of the frame between the two cylinder blocks. This mani- 
 fold contains a second delivery valve for each fuel plunger, and is called 
 the cut-out block, as it carries two cut-out valves for the injection air, 
 one to each set of three cylinders. These two valves are operated by 
 the (hand levers from the maneuvering station. 
 
 There are also six spindle valves for the purpose of cutting out, 'by 
 hand, the injection air to each cylinder separately if ever found neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The air compressor is provided with crossheads and is driven by a 
 crankshaft which is ibolted to the forward end of the main crankshaft. 
 
 The compressor piston rods run through stuffing tboxes of a dia- 
 phragm drip-pan. The cylinder liners and the three corresponding coolers 
 are set in one oast-iron block, which forms at the same time a water 
 jacket. This arrangement allows the pistons and coolers to be easily 
 removed from the top. 
 
304 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Besides delivering air to the injection air-bottle, the air compressor 
 charges the starting air bottles from the intermediate pressure cooler. 
 The air inlet to the low pressure cylinder can be regulated by hand. All 
 valves are of the plain disc type. 
 
 The engine is reversed from the maneuvering station by an air ram, 
 cushioned by an oil cylinder and connected to a vertical shaft fitted 
 with a gear rack w.hich rotates the camshaft 180 degrees to the ahead 
 or astern position. 
 
 At the maneuvering station are two hand levers, each of which con- 
 trols at the same time the starting air and fuel supply to the engine. 
 
 On the right of the maneuvering station are the forced feed lubri- 
 cators for the (main- cylinders and those of the air compressor, while 
 directly on the left are pressure gauges for lubricating oil, low pressure 
 air, intermediate pressure air, starting air, and injection air. On the 
 bedplate at the maneuvering station are mounted the high pressure fuel 
 pump and a fuel hand pump, all placed at ia central point from which 
 the engineer can watch the action of the engines. 
 
 While the Werkspoor engine has 'been patterned after their original 
 design, nevertheless for use in the United States considerable depar- 
 tures from European mechanical arrangements are considered advisable 
 by American manufacturers. .As is universal with four-cycle marine 
 engines, the valves are actuated by cams on the horizontal camshaft. 
 
 Inasmuch as the Werkspoor engines are adhering to cross-head con- 
 struction, thence the piston rod is short, the cylinders are supported by 
 vertical steel cylindrical columns. The inclined cast-iron columns being 
 mainly for the purpose of taking the thrust due to the connecting rod. 
 
 Following the usual procedure of four-cycle engines, the arrange- 
 ments of the valves are in similarity to the Burmeister & Wain, Mclntosh 
 & Seymour, etc., there being four in the cover of each cylinder. The 
 fuel inlet valve, being located in the center is notable for its difference 
 from valves of this kind of other types of machinery in Diesel construc- 
 tion. Where springs are used to hold the same in its seat, a lever attach- 
 ment serves to hold the same securely in its place, the valve in this case 
 being held down by a spring on one side exerting its pressure at one 
 end and acting against the force of the cam, the lever assisting in its 
 functioning. A valve of this kind may easily be replaced and at all 
 times can be quickly examined. 
 
 The reversing method of the Werkspoor is exceedingly simple. Sim- 
 ilar to the four-cycle large types of engines its procedure is carried out. 
 The maneuvering levers are raised clear of the cams, the consequential 
 shifting of the cam sihafts back and forward accomplishing the reversing, 
 which is followed after this with bringing the levers back in desired 
 position. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
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DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 NATIONAL TRANSIT DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 307 
 
 The National Transit engines have novel departures from the types 
 of older construction. Features, such as advanced pump equipments, 
 modern valve arrangement of exclusive National Transit design, latest 
 compressor construction, etc., are well deserving of highest comment. 
 
 As will be observed by the accompanying illustrations of the National 
 Transit types of twin engines, as well as double engines, the machines 
 are suitable as factors where the requirements call for stationary power 
 producers. The company has made a study of Diesel engine design cor- 
 responding with modern features of exclusive American principle. Satis- 
 
 Plan View showing detail arrangement of J5Vz X 24 Twin Oil Engine. 
 
308 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 309 
 
 factory results dealing with economy establishments have been noted, 
 principally by adhering to established uniform construction of original 
 designs with added late Improvements. 
 
 The illustration of the National Transit Twin Oil Engine, of size 
 15^x24 inches, shows the constructive advantages of this particular 
 classification. Both cylinders and the bedplate are one casting, a signifi- 
 cant feature eliminating undue stresses and assuring rigid construction. 
 Each cylinder is provided with a liner. 
 
 Three main frame bearings and an outboard bearing are shown sup- 
 porting the flywheel and the crankshaft. Sufficient space is left between 
 the flywheel and main frame to allow the installation of a belt pulley. 
 The lay shaft is driven from the crankshaft by means of out spiral gears. 
 It serves to drive the valve gear, governor, sprayer, air starter and lubri- 
 cating and fuel oil pumps. In this respect it should be noted, that the 
 general arrangement allows accessibility to all parts for inspection or 
 adjustment when the requirement calls for the same. 
 
 As will be observed from the illustration that the main fuel pumps 
 and governor are mounted together in a single assembly on the right 
 hand side of the main frame. Each fuel pump is driven by an eccentric 
 on the lay shaft, and each side of the engine has a separate fuel pump. 
 The pump plungers are of the differential type, the upper or large part 
 beins hollow and having a cut-off valve seated at its upper end. Each 
 cut-off valve is under direct control of a Jahn's .governor. Each plunger 
 has a full positive stroke with each revolution of the lay shaft. Govern- 
 ing is effected by allowing the cut-off valve to seat at a pre-determined 
 point in the upper-stroke of the plunger, thus delivering to the sprayer 
 a quantity of oil correctly proportioned to the load which the engine is 
 carrying. The governor, as previously stated, is driven by spiral gears 
 from the lay shaft. 
 
 Spraying is effected by the open nozzle type, and located in (the ex- 
 treme out end. of the combustion chambers. Fuel oil from each fuel 
 pump is deposited in the open channel of each sprayer body. As soon 
 as the valve controlling the compressed injection air opens, this oil is 
 injected into the combustion chamber thoroughly atomized, and is ignited 
 by the process of heat temperature. 
 
 The problem of suitable material for cylinder heads has been con- 
 sidered on this engine. All cylinder heads are made from specially 
 selected cast iron with large cored water passages. The large water 
 jacket arrangement in no way endangers the thermal efficiency of the 
 engine, but rather acts in harmony with temperature normalizing neces- 
 sary in reliable operation of internal combustion machinery. 
 
 The intake and exhaust valves operate in cages, either of which is 
 easily withdrawn by removing two nuts. The valves are operated by 
 cams through rocker arms. The cams are mounted on a shaft, in front 
 of and below the cylinder head. This -shaft is driven from the lay shaft 
 by bevel gears. 
 
310 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 311 
 
 A single two-stage compressor for spraying the liquid fuel into the 
 power cylinders is bolted to the engine. This compressor is driven by a 
 connecting rod from the main crankshaft of the engine. The piston is 
 of the differential type. The cylinders and also the valves are amply 
 water-jacketed. An inter-receiver, which is virtually an inter-cooler, is 
 provided between the high and low stage air compressor cylinders. The 
 high stage air is discharged at about 1000 Ibs. pressure into a seamless 
 steel discharge pipe which acts as a receiver and which conveys it to 
 the sprayer. 
 
 THE NORTH BRITISH DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 This type of engine is of the four-cycle construction. Its eight cyl- 
 inders cast en bloc are of 26 1/3 inches diameter, with 47 inches piston 
 stroke. 
 
 The shaft horsepower of the engine is rated at 2,000 B.H.P., or 250 
 B.H.P. per cylinder, and the piston speed at 96 R.P.M. is 817 feet per 
 minute. 
 
 The engine develops normally at 96 R.P.M., 2,380 indicated horse- 
 power, or 292 I.H.P. per cylinder, equivalent to steam driven machinery 
 where twin engine motor power is installed, to 4,500 I.H.P. 
 
 In connection with this it should be noted that the engine is rated 
 at the very moderate mean-effective pressure (on B.H.P. basis) of ap 
 proximately 80 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 In considering the foregoing figures it should also be remembered 
 that the fuel injection air compressors are not driven from the main 
 engines, but are in twin sets in duplicate driven by auxiliary Diesel 
 engines of the same type as the main engines, but with trunk pistons 
 and run at 250 R.P.M., whereas the main engines are of the single acting 
 cross j head type. 
 
 All pistons on main engines are internally water cooled, a telescopic 
 pipe and jet system being employed. 
 
 Its reversing is accomplished by a system of camshaft and eccentric, 
 assisted by levers causing the camshaft to fall and raise in its respective 
 operating position. 
 
 THE STEINBECKER DIESEL ENGINE 
 
 (Note. This engine is a late development of exclusive German de- 
 sign. Its remarkable adaptability to utilize Tar-Oil for fuel purposes, with 
 its consequential special design to accomplish the burning of the same, 
 is herewith set forth.) 
 
 The engine of the future probably must be able to operate continu- 
 ously on coal tar-oils as well as asphaltic oils. While the problems to 
 
312 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 be solved in the design, manufacture and operation of such engines are 
 now greater than those connected with engines utilizing lighter fuel oils, 
 experience will solve them; the world's supply of the more volatile oil 
 fuels is not inexhaustible and sooner or later the heavier fuels must be 
 quite commonly used. 
 
 One of the German firms devoting much attention to the develop- 
 ment of engines burning very heavy oils, such as tar-oils, is Priedrich 
 Krupp, Germaniawerft, Kiel-Garden, Germany, who in addition to building 
 their own cross-head and trunk-piston types of Diesel engines, have a 
 license for the manufacture of the Steinbecker engine. The first 100 
 H.P. two-cylinder engine has been developed under the personal super- 
 vision of the inventor, Mr. Steinbecker. 
 
 The Steinbecker engine has no compressor and might be called a 
 combination of the surface-ignition and full-Diesel principle. 
 
 Principle of Operation: The principle of operation is as follows: 
 Towards the end of the compression stroke the fuel pump forces a small 
 quantity of oil through the horizontal-channel into the vertical-channel, 
 the top end of which is fitted with a bulb with, a number of spray holes, 
 the bottom end being open to the cylinder. As the air rushes from the 
 cylinder into the bulb it atomizes the oil in the same manner as water is 
 atomized in a flower-spray as used by florists, and the mixture of air 
 and oil is carried into the bulb. When the piston reaches the top of the 
 stroke this mixture of oil and air is ignited by the heat produced by com- 
 pression, resulting in great increase in pressure and a back-rush of the 
 burnt ,gases which carry into the cylinder the oil fuel which the pump 
 has meanwhile pumped into the vertical channel. In the cylinder the 
 mixture burns and expands in the same manner as in other Diesel engines. 
 
 Special Features: It will thus be seen that this Steinbecker engine 
 is a Diesel engine without a compressor, which atomizes the fuel-oil by 
 blowing it with great velocity into the combustion chamber by means 
 of gases which are formed by exploding a small amount of fuel-oil in a 
 hot retort. 
 
 This engine is claimed to >be less complicated and therefore cheaper 
 to build than the usual full^iesel type; the fuel-needle-valve, injection 
 air-bottle, air compressor, and high-pressure air piping are eliminated. 
 For starting the engine from cold a small auxiliary sprayer is provided, 
 which may be put out of action when the engine is running. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 313 
 
 THE WORTHINGTON SOLID INJECTION DIESEL ENGINE 
 An Advanced Method, Burning Fuel Oil in Small and Medium Sizes. 
 
 The Worthington Solid Injection Engine has a new form of combus- 
 tion chamber, inherently controlling the combustion time and rate, inde- 
 pendent of time of pump injection. This new Worthington solid injection 
 Diesel engine has no operative limitations of size, is capable of burning 
 all fuel oils of the air injection engines, and -lias all of the elements of 
 simplicity and reliability so necessary in practical operation. 
 
 Worthington Divided Combustion Chamber, Injection Chamber, Ejec- 
 tion Orifice and Cylinder: The special fuel burning 1 and combustion con- 
 trol feature, is a divided combustion chamber, wholly water jacketed as 
 in Standard Diesel engines, but differing from them in having two parts 
 connected by a fuel ejection orifice. One part of the combustion cham- 
 ber, that between the cylinder head and the top of the piston, holds about 
 three quarters of the air. The other part, which is the injection chamber, 
 holds about one-quarter of the air at the end of compression. Combus- 
 tion takes place in two stages, and starts with injection, the first oil 
 entering being ignited by the hot air. 
 
 Injection Chamber Combustion Limited: Fuel is injected by the 
 pump as a spray directly into the injection chamber, where the full 
 charge of oil could not meet more than one-quarter of the air, even if all 
 the air in the injection chamber came into contact with all the oil. Partly 
 by design of the spray nozzle to give a suitable form to the spray, and 
 partly by the shape of the injection chamber, the oil is prevented from 
 coming into contact with more than a part of the injection chamber air, 
 so that even less than one-quarter of the total is active in burning oil 
 during injection. As a consequence the pressure cannot rise very much 
 during injection, no matter how fast the Injection nor how much too 
 early the pump may be timed, within, reasonable limits. If only half of 
 the injection chamber air is active, then not more than one-eighth of the 
 oil could burn during 1 injection; if onenquarter of the air came in contact 
 with the oil, not more than onensixteenth of the oil charge could burn 
 and the pressure could rise only one-isixteenth as much as if the oil were 
 suddenly sprayed into the whole air charge of an air injection Diesel 
 engine combustion chamber. 
 
 Main Cylinder Combustion Automatically Graduated by Pressures on 
 Ejection Orifices: After injection of the oil into the injection chamber 
 with limited air contact, and partial or pre-combustion, the unburned oil 
 has been gasified by the partial combustion, and this oil gas is suspended 
 out of contact with the cold walls in the bottom of the injection chamber, 
 and close to the ejection orifice. It is ready for ejection into the main 
 air charge in the cylinder. The gasified unburned oil, which includes the 
 bulk of the charge delivered by* the pump will be forcibly ejected into 
 the cylinder through the ejection orifice at the right time by the outward 
 movement of the piston, which causes the pressure to fall in the cylinder, 
 aided by the slight rise of pressure in the injection chamber, due to the 
 
314 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 limited pre-combustkm. As it emerges from the injection chamber, the 
 hot gasified oil, accompanied by some unused air from the injection cham- 
 ber and followed by the rest of it, burns in the main air charge in the 
 cylinder as fast as it flows. By the high flow velocity of the gases pass- 
 ing through the orifice, a violent mixing action is set up by the jet enter- 
 ing the cylinder, that contributes to good combustion. 
 
 Transverse Sectional Assembly, Outside Air Passages, Worthington Diesel 
 Engine, Two-Cycle, Solid Injection. 
 
 Two-Cycle Cross-head Construction: The air charging of the cylinder 
 is done by the two-cycle method as the best arrangement for the ranges 
 of sizes adopted. In this respect the standard practice in surface ignition 
 engines has been followed, but in the details of carrying out this plan 
 the trunk piston with crankcase scavenging chamber has not been ac- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 315 
 
 cepted. Instead, the cross-head construction of the large Diesel motor- 
 ship engine has been adopted, with the crank end of the cylinder used as 
 a scavenging pump. This arrangement keeps all] scavenging air out of 
 the crankcase, permitting the use of circulating forced feed lubrication 
 of all bearings without loss of oil, and by the stuffing box separating 
 cylinder from crankcase, also preventing contamination of main lubricat- 
 ing oil by foul cylinder oil. 
 
 Difficulty in Design of Solid Injection Diesel Engine: Nothing would 
 seem to be easier than to attach the solid injection pump and spray nozzle 
 of the surface ignition engine to a Diesel engine, to make a solid injec- 
 tion Diesel engine. This has been tried 'by many and! each learned the 
 same lesson. The combination is hopelessly bad, worse by far than either 
 of the originals. The combustion is bad with heavy smoke and much 
 internal carbon, and fuel consumption is high. Explosive shocks and 
 thumps, or loss of power, or both, are also present if, the combination 
 works at all, with (possible loss of control by the governor, and in most 
 cases imperativeness of the injection pumps. Shocks and detonations 
 are due to difficulty of controlling the timing of injection and rate of 
 combustion, which if too early or too fast, always produces this effect, 
 and doubly so if both too early and too fast. Delaying injection will 
 eliminate detonations and explosive shocks, but then combustion will 
 surely be too slow and last too long, resulting in excessive high fuel 
 consumption. Smoke and internal carbon are due to improper sprays, or 
 rather too improper relation of the form and shape of spray to the form 
 of combustion chamber, aggravated 'by the use of heavier fuel oil than 
 before. Pump and governor control difficulties are due primarily to in- 
 crease of delivery pressure, but they are increased by the substitution 
 of Diesel grades of fuel oil for the lighter, more fluid grades for which 
 the mechanism of the surface ignition engine was designed. 
 
 Development of Solid Injection Principle of Worthington System: 
 Having discovered that the fuel system of pump, governor control and 
 spray valve of the solid injection surface ignition engine, applied to a 
 Diesel engine will not work, the most obvious step is to change the former 
 to fit the latter. This will attain at least one ideal, the elimination of 
 surface ignition hot metal and! adherence to the completely water jack- 
 eted combustion chamber of the Diesel engine, with high enough com- 
 pression to ignite fuel by the hot air alone. 
 
 Another ideal of greater importance, but also of greater difficulty in 
 attainment, is the prevention of explosive shocks and detonations, .by 
 arranging for the non-explosive combustion of the Diesel engine in such 
 a way as to make explosive combustion impossible, and not merely a 
 matter of - pump injection timing, which if deranged defeats the aim. 
 Complete commercial success in the solution of this problem was never 
 attained until the numerous experiences through the, effort of the Worth- 
 ington Company have added towards the solution. 
 
 Early Solid Injection Diesel Engines Their Limitations: These two 
 early solid injection Diesel engines are different from each other, and 
 
316 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 each has such a limited scope and characteristics as to justify the con- 
 clusions that the Worthington solution of the problem, the latest de- 
 velopment in the solid injection oil engines, is a real contribution to the 
 small engine field that has so long needed the solution of this problem. 
 
 One of these early solid injection Diesel engines is the result of re- 
 design of sipray nozzle, fuel oil pump, and controls, for direct solid injec- 
 tion into the ordinary Diesel engine combustion chamber without any 
 change in the latter as to shape or compression carried. Fairly good 
 combustion of fuel oils has been secured in engines of considerable size, 
 but not in small ones commercially, and not without extreme sensitive- 
 ness as to adjustment, which must be almost of micrometer exactness 
 to avoid explosive detonation shocks or smoky combustion, or both. In 
 itself this system is so far no more than a demonstration that a Diesel 
 engine can <be operated with solid injection spraying, instead of air 
 spraying, and with about the same efficiency. It also proves, however, 
 that there is a need in such cases for some special reliable means of in- 
 suring proper accuracy of adjustment of fuel feed and combustion rate, 
 or preferaibly, of securing automatically the proper control without accu- 
 rate adjustment. 
 
 Small Solid Injection Diesel Engines Without Pump Injection, Fuel 
 Feed Cups: The second of the early solid injection Diesel engines pre- 
 ceding the final solution, is an invention which again uses the standard 
 Diesel combustion chamber, but with a new method of fuel feed, without 
 a timed injection pump. This method of fuel injection successfully pre- 
 vents the development of explosive shocks toy automatic means operated 
 by cylinder pressures that make it impossible for the fuel to enter too 
 soon or too fast. In these engines .fuel feed is a two stage operation. 
 During the first stage fuel flows by gravity from a constant level chamber 
 similar to that forming part of any carburetor, past a metering needle 
 valve into a cup projecting into the combustion chamber, and communi- 
 cation with it by very small holes in the side of the cup near the bottom. 
 The cup receives its oil charge before compression starts and the fuel is 
 prevented from flowing into the cylinder by the smallness of the holes 
 at first, and later during compression, the oil is held in the cup by the 
 compressing air that flows through the hole from the cylinder into the 
 cup. No oil can flow out of the cup until the cup pressure is higher than 
 the cylinder .pressure, or what is the same thing, until the cylinder pres- 
 sure falls below the cup pressure, which will surely happen during the 
 first part of the expansion stroke. At. this time the oil will escape into 
 the cylinder, accompanied and followed by air from the up which sprays 
 the oil into the main air that 'has ibeen compressed to be hot enough to 
 ignite the fuel. This fuel feed cup type of engine, which is a commer- 
 cial success, again demonstrate the practicability of operating a solid 
 injection Diesel engine, and the importance in so doing of preventing too 
 early or too fast an injection of oil by simple means that does not require 
 sensitive adjustment. 
 
 This means of fuel feed control is effective in very small engines, of 
 sizes beginning with one horsepower, competing directly with carburetor 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 317 
 
 gasolene-kerosene engines, at but little increase in cost and at least equal 
 simplicity and reliability, but it has not been successful in the intermed- 
 iate sizes up to the smaller air injection Diesel engines, the range of 
 sizes mainly occupied by the surface ignition engines. While it may .suc- 
 cessfully burn fuel oil, it is ordinarily operated on kerosene to avoid 
 difficulties of flow with various oils. It contributes something toward the 
 solution of this problem, but is, not itself a -solution any more than the 
 former step noted. Its size limitation is due to the necessity for small 
 holes in the cup to prevent premature escape of fuel into the cylinder, 
 and the difficulty in larger sizes of dividing the oil 'between many holes, 
 each of which is small enough. Its greatest lesson is the proof that 
 automatic proper control of time and rate of combustion is possible, if 
 special means be devised for the purpose, even though the means used is 
 not of universal application, and that the combustion rate control means 
 may be wholly or partly independent of pump or spray valve timing. 
 
 FUEL PUMP AND CONTROL END OF WORTHINGTON 
 TWO-CYCLE ENGINE 
 
 Speed regulation is obtained by opening a by-pass and not by varia- 
 tion of the length of the fuel pump stroke. 
 
 The amount of fuel supplied to the cylinder depends on the time of 
 opening of, the by-pass valve. This in turn depends on the angular posi- 
 tion of the eccentric shaft, which is controlled by the governor. 
 
 The governor, which is. located on the end of the engine crankshaft, 
 is connected to the eccentric shaft by suitable links. Any increase In 
 the engine speed from normal will cause the governor to turn eccentric 
 shaft thru a small angle which at the same time will lift end of by-pass 
 lever. When the fuel pump plunger raises the) 'by-pass lever and by-pass 
 plunger, by-pass valve will be opened earlier. As a result of this earlier 
 opening of the by-pass valve, more fuel is by-passed back to the fuel 
 supply reservoir, thus reducing the amount supplied to the cylinder and 
 promptly bringing the speed back to normal, without changing the time 
 when injection starts. 
 
 Eccentrics keyed on the engine crankshaft drive the fuel pump plun- 
 gers through the tappets. The upper ends of the eccentric straps are 
 provided with hardened steel contact rollers and are guided by links, 
 replacing the crosshead and guide construction previously used on older 
 types. The pump plunger tappets pass through a partition which pre- 
 vents fuel oil leaking down into the control housing and mixing with the 
 lubricating oil. All running parts are splash lubricated by oil from end 
 main bearing, overflowing back to the crankcase sump so as to keep a 
 high level in the control housing. 
 
 A hand adjusting screw at the end of the by-pass lever makes it 
 easy to equalize the oil delivery from all plungers on multi-cylinder 
 engines. 
 
318 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 WORTHINGTON SNOW OIL ENGINE 
 
 The Snow Oil Engine described in following pages, is of 'the repre- 
 sentative type of late advanced development in internal combustion ma- 
 chinery. In it is embodied the best and latest American engineering 
 practice, together with such features of European design as have become 
 standard for this class of machinery. 
 
 Unlike the Marine Engine, where the vertical construction is uni- 
 versally adopted and as a matter of fact is advantageous in many re- 
 spects, the stationary engine appears to be adhering to the horizontal 
 construction. 
 
 ^ >-> 
 
 *> 
 
 . 
 
 1! 
 
 *s 
 
 For stationary purpose, by the manufacturers of oil engines follow- 
 ing the horizontal design, the following advantages are claimed in the 
 horizontal construction in contrast to the vertical method: 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 319 
 
 (1) There is a better distribution of stresses on the crank shaft and 
 main bearings. (2) Better lubrication of piston. (3) Easier cleaning 
 and repair work, especially to pistons, which] can be taken out without 
 removing the cylinder-head or valve gear. (4) Inspection is easier and 
 attendance more convenient. (5) Less height is required in the engine 
 room. 
 
 A claim has been often advanced, that in horizontal engines there is 
 a greater wear on the cylinder walls, on account of their carrying the 
 weight of the piston. However, as vertical engines are almost entirely 
 
 OJ 
 
 I 
 
 of the trunk piston type, the height required making the use of a cross- 
 head impracticable. The cylinder walls are required to take the thrust 
 due to the angularity of the connecting rod, the magnitude of the thrust 
 increasing with a decrease in the connecting rod length. 
 
 An analysis of the varying forces throughout the cycle shows that 
 this thrust pressure is several times greater than the pressure, due to 
 
320 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 the weight of a piston carried horizontally. With usual design, increas- 
 ing the connecting rod one crank length will decrease the thrust by an 
 amount about equal to the weight of one piston. From the foregoing it 
 is apparent that it is of slight importance, whether the piston is carried 
 vertically or horizontally. 
 
 The greatest advantage of the horizontal engine lies in its greater 
 accessibility. This applies particularly to engines like the Snow Oil 
 engine, which are built with cross-head. In the case of a vertical trunk 
 piston engine it is necessary to practically dismantle the engine in 
 order to get at the piston or wrist pin bearing. This means that the 
 valve gear and cylinder head must be removed, the connecting rod dis- 
 connected at the crank pin box and the piston and connecting rod then 
 lifted out through the upper end of *he cylinder. Compare this with the 
 procedure in the case of a horizontal engine. The sheet steel crank 
 splasher is removed, the connecting rod disconnected at the wrist pin 
 end, and the piston then removed through 'the open end of the cylinder. 
 The actual required time for removal of the piston and cross-head of 
 engine as illustrated in Figure 2 is twenty minutes. The piston and 
 crossroad can be replaced and the engine made ready for operation in 
 thirty minutes more, making the total shut down fifty minutes. The 
 same procedure on a vertical engine requires an average ot about ten 
 hours. 
 
 The lubrication of the power cylinders in much more easily and 
 effectively accomplished on a horizontal engine. In a vertical engine it is 
 necessary to inject oil into the piston at several points in the circum- 
 ference of the cylinder bore, while a horizontal cylinder can be thoroughly 
 lubricated by a single feed on the upper side, the oil being distributed by 
 gravity. Further, in all internal combustion engines some of the lubri- 
 cating oil is carbonized. In the vertical engine this carbon works past 
 the piston rings and falls into the crank pit, where it mixes with the 
 bearing oil. In an engine of horizontal construction, much of this carbon 
 is pushed into the counter bore of the cylinder, from where it is removed 
 by a drain valve. Such of the carbon as does pass by the cross-head of 
 the piston is caught in the frame and prevented from mixing with the 
 bearing oil. 
 
 We will give now some of the features adding to economy. The 
 high efficiency of the Diesel type of engine, unequalled by any other 
 method of power production for either marine or stationary purpose, is 
 primarily due to the high compression. It also varies with the degree 
 of thoroughness with which the fuel and air is mixed, so thait the economy 
 actually obtained is to a considerable extent dependent upon the design 
 of the parts by which the mixing is effected. 
 
 Another feature of considerable importance and peculiar to the Diesel 
 type, is the slight variation in fuel economy through a considerable range 
 of load. This feature is of particular advantage in installations consist- 
 ing of one unit, and which are required to operate at low load factors 
 for a considerable portion of the time. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 321 
 
 It will be interesting here to show established facts of fuel consump- 
 tion for the Snow Oil Engine: 
 
 0.48 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour at full load. 
 
 0.50 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour at three-fourths load. 
 
 0.57 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour at one-half load. 
 
 The guarantees are based on oil having a heat value of 18.500 
 B.T.U.'s per pound. In operation the fuel consumption is considerably 
 below the guarantees, as shown in Figure 3, which gives the result of a 
 test through wide range of load under ordinary working conditions. This 
 
 LBS. PER BRAKE HORSE POWER HOUR 
 
 o 
 
 1 1 
 
 (D 
 
 g'w 
 
 II 
 
 - o 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 F 
 c 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 C 
 
 i 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iu* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 30% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 110% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 curve shows ithe fuel economy which can be attained in actual service 
 and also the very slight increase in fuel consumption for a considerable 
 decrease in load factor from full load. 
 
 The construction of the compressor, as used on the Snow Oil engine, 
 is shown in the longitudinal sectional view of Figure 4. This compressor 
 is a three-stage type. The cut shows the valves, suction and discharge 
 
322 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 for the three stages, both assembled and with the guard and valve strips 
 removed. 
 
 As will be observed from the sectional view of the compressor, that 
 it is thoroughly water-jacketed and provided with inter-coolers formed 
 in the jackets for low and intermediate stages. The after-cooler for the 
 high stage air is a pipe-coil placed in the water chamber adjacent to the 
 high pressure cylinder. In addition the discharge valve for all stages are 
 provided with a water jacket of special design, which keeps the valve 
 
 parts at a low temperature, (preventing carbonization of the lubricating 
 oil, and assisting the action of the inter-coolers. The efficiency of these 
 cooling arrangements is so great, that the air in the discharge pipe from 
 the high-stage cylinder is cooled sufficiently to allow the hand to be 
 placed on the pipe without discomfort when the engine is in full opera- 
 tion. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 323 
 
 Of the different types of spray valves used on Diesel machinery, the 
 Snow Oil engine employs one of a most .simple nature. This spray valve 
 is of the open nozzle tyipe, the fuel being deposited in a pocket, which is 
 in communication with the clearance space in the cylinder. When the 
 air valve is opened, the oil is driven by the spraying air through the 
 atomizer from which it issues into the cylinder in a finely divided spray. 
 
 The open nozzle construction has the advantage that pure, clean air 
 only and not a mixture of oil and air, passes the spray valve, with the 
 result that it is much easier to maintain a perfect valve seat and ac- 
 cordingly to hold the spray air pressure without annoying leakage 
 through valve. 
 
324 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 325 
 
 The spray air valve and the fuel oil check valve, which prevents the 
 oil charge from flowing back to the pumps, are contained in a single 
 casing located in the exact center of the cylinder head, thus insuring an 
 even dispersion of the spray throughout the clearance space in the 
 cylinder. 
 
 The spray valve and casing can be taken out intact by removing two 
 nuts, or if desired, the spray valve only can ibe removed for inspection 
 without disturbing the valve casing. 
 
 As previously explained, the open fuel injection nozzle is the most 
 important advance toward continuity of service and adaptability for 
 various oils that has been made in the Diesel type of, engines. 
 
 It consists essentially of an oil receptacle with separate inlets for 
 the oil and, air at one end, and connected to the combustion chamber at 
 the other end by a stationary atomizing device. The oil is pumped into 
 the receptacle through check valves during the suction stroke of the 
 engine, and the injection air is admitted through a separate mechanically 
 operated timing valve. Like most modern engines, the Allis-Chalmer 
 arrangement of injection is of the open fuel injection nozzle type. 
 
 Diagram of Oil Pipe Connection 
 
 There is no valve after the oil and air are mixed, thus avoiding cut 
 valve seats. There are no perforated or notched discs with restricted 
 areas and sharp changes in direction to clog with dirt, asphalt or car- 
 bonized oil. It does not depend upon the water jackets to prevent car- 
 bonizing. 
 
 This atomizing is effected by a simple device that does not require a 
 close relation between the size of openings and the amount of oil; so 
 that the maximum power of the engine is limited simply by the amount 
 of oxygen available for combustion and not by the capacity of the nozzle. 
 This gives a remarkable flexibility with swinging loads. 
 
 The freedom from clogging permits the use of the lowest grades of 
 fuel without the interruptions of service for cleaning or grinding the 
 valve so frequent with the closed nozzle. 
 
 The open nozzle and the mostly adopted scavenging feature of the 
 horizontal type of stationary engines, permits the successful use of any 
 fuel oil that can be pumped, including oils that require pre-heating to 
 make them flow readily through the ipiping. 
 
326 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Oils such as Texas, Mexican and California natural crudes, some of 
 which cannot be used satisfactorily on steam boilers, -are easily handled 
 in the Allis-halmers Oil Engine, due to the above stated features. The 
 choice between the fuel oils available is therefore determined solely by 
 the relative cost, heat value, and convenience in handling. 
 
 As will be seen by the illustration, the construction is of horizontal 
 design, which permits a .simple valve gear arrangement. The motion 
 is transmitted from a single eccentric to the inlet and exhaust valves by 
 rolling contact levers, which has proven toy gas engine practice to be 
 the quietest and most durable valve gear known. The use of vertical 
 valves, which are always central with the control seats, insures tight 
 valves and avoids the frequent grinding necessary with horizontal valves, 
 
 
 
 Valve Gear Diagram, Allis-Chalmers Oil flnoine 
 
 due to side wear on the stems and the consequent change in valve posi- 
 tion in relation to the seat. 
 
 The exhaust valve is pliaced in the bottom of the cylinder head, be- 
 tween the injection nozzle and the cylinder, so that any dirt in the fuel 
 oil will drop out through the exhaust without reaching the lubricated 
 cylinder walls. This location is also favorable for scavenging any dirt 
 out of the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. 
 
 The injection air is furnished by a multi-stage compressor, mounted 
 on the side of the main frame and driven directly from a crank on the 
 end of the main shaft. The compressor is equipped with coils for inter- 
 cooling the air in conjunction with the usual water-stage cooling. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 327 
 
 The engine is eliminated from all high pressure bottles in use on 
 most Diesel engines, receiving its starting air direct from the compressor. 
 This separate system of air starting permits the use of pressure from 
 225 to 250 pounds. The engine is started by opening a throttle valve 
 which admits the starting air 1 from storage tank, to mechanically oper- 
 ated distributing valves, which are entirely separate from the main valve 
 gear. It is not necessary to make any change in the compression or 
 operation of the valve gear in starting. 
 
 By referring back to the Snow Oil Engine, we find a similarity exist- 
 ing to that employed on the Allis-Chalmers type. The arrangements for 
 starting the engine are as follows: 
 
 An air storage tank of ample capacity is provided and is supplied 
 with air at from 150 to 200 pounds from the spraying compressor on the 
 engine. Each cylinder is fitted with an air-starting valve located in the 
 cylinder head directly below the spray valve, and driven by a cam on 
 same shaft with the inlet and exhaust valve cams. A single lever and 
 quadrant serves to control the air-starting valve, compression relief, and 
 spray valves. With the lever in central and neutral position, both the 
 air-starting valve is engaged and an auxiliary cam is shifted into con- 
 tact with the exhaust valve lever, by means of Which the exhaust valve 
 is held open for a longer period of time and the cylinder compression 
 lowered, reducing the resistance of the engine to rotation. Five or six 
 revolutions of the engine on air is sufficient to increase the air pressure 
 in the pipe between the air compressor and the spray valve to that re- 
 quired for spraying the oil. The governor fuel pump lever is then 
 shifted to place the pump in operation and the main operating lever 
 moved from the inner to the outer position. The movement disengages 
 the air-starting valve and the compression relief cam, and puts the spray- 
 valve in operation, when the engine immediately begins to operate on 
 the fuel and is ready to take the load. The air storage tank can then 
 be recharged by the compressor on the engine. 
 
 As will be observed on either Allis-Chalmers as well as the Snow Oil 
 Engine, high pressure bottles for the air storage is unnecessary. For 
 the initial start and for emergency purposes afterward, a small inde- 
 pendent compressor is used on the Snow Oil Engine, driven by a kero- 
 sene or gasoline engine, may be furnished. This is only for use in making 
 the first start and afterward in the event of the air. pressure in the stor- 
 age tank being lost through carelessness or otherwise. 
 
 Cooling Water: The amount of cooling water required varies in- 
 versely with the difference in temperature of the water as it enters and 
 leaves the cooling jackets. It also varies with the load on the engine. 
 Assuming a 40 degree Fahrenheit rise from suction to discharge temper- 
 atures, from 6 to 7 gallons per horsepower hour are required. When 
 fairly pure water is 'available the discharge temperature may be main- 
 tained at 140 degrees Fahrenheit. If, however, the water has a tendency 
 to deposit scale in the jackets, the discharge temperature should not be 
 over 120 degrees Fahrenheit, For this reason, and particularly for hot 
 
328 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 climates, where the temperature of the inlet water is high, it is desir- 
 able to provide for a cooling water supply of from 10 to 12 gallons per 
 horsepower hour. 
 
 For engines without water-cooled pistons, a pressure of from 8 to 10 
 pounds per square inch is sufficient. For supplying water-cooled pistons 
 the pressure should be from 12 to 15 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 Where the water supply is limited, cooling iponds or towers may be 
 used and the same water circulated continuously through the system, so 
 that only a small amount of fresh water will be required to make up the 
 loss due to evaporation. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 329 
 
330 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 THE STANDARD FUEL OIL ENGINE 
 
 For mechanical simplicity probably the two-cycle crankcase com- 
 pression engine leads all other types of internal combustion engines. 
 Due, however, to the relatively small amount of scavenging air which 
 can be handled by this system, it being possible to displace not over 
 60 per cent of the main cylinder volume, and to the restrictions imposed on 
 accessibility by the necessity of 'a tight crankcase of minimum volume, 
 this type is barred, except for the smaller sizes. 
 
 Next in line for mechanical simplicity stands, we believe, the stepped 
 piston two-cycle type employing port scavenging. Moreover, with this 
 type, the restrictions on scavenging air do not exist. In the Standard 
 engine pure air of more than one and one-half times the volume of the 
 main cylinder is forced into it each working stroke. Also, again rather 
 than loss of accessibility is effected, as has already been pointed out. 
 
 Exhaust Side of Two-Cylinder Vertical Standard Engine 
 
 The adoption of the two-cycle port scavenging principle of operation 
 not only eliminates the complication of inlet and exhaust valves and 
 gear and the time required for inspection and grinding, but also permits 
 the cylinder head to be much smaller and more simple casting. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL, ENGINES 331 
 
 The fuel pump of the Standard engine is of the variable stroke type 
 and requires 'for its control no wedges, lever, etc., as it is driven direct 
 by a Rites type of inertia governor, the same as is commonly employed 
 for operating the valve of a simple steam engine. 
 
 Also the injection air compressor is a very simple mechanical struc- 
 ture, although meeting all the requirements of a good compressor design. 
 Due to the suction and discharge valves 'being combined in one unit and 
 in the case of the high stage cylinder, this unit being located in the end 
 of the cylinder bore, there results a cylinder casting with but one valve 
 pocket. Placing of the inter and after cooler coils in the water jacket 
 space of the cylinder eliminates several high pressure joints and also 
 results in a compressor with no hot pipes with which the operator can 
 come in contact, and from which the high pressure air is discharged at 
 but a few degrees above the temperature of the incoming cooling water. 
 
 It will be readily admitted that other things being equal, a simple 
 mechanism will naturally be more reliable in operation than one of 
 greater complications. Other features of the Standard Engine which de- 
 serve mention here are: 
 
 (a) The very ample size of all bearings and other working parts. 
 For instance, with a working cylinder of only 10^ inches diameter, a 
 main bearing of 6^4 inches diameter is employed. 
 
 (b) The conservative manner in which the engine is rated. At full 
 rated load less than 80 pounds M.E.P. is required, as against average 
 Diesel practice of about 100 pounds. This makes for low maximum tem- 
 peratures and when employed with the large excess of cool scavenging 
 air blown into the cylinder, each stroke results in low mean tempera- 
 tures during the complete cycle. With normal inlet air temperatures, the 
 exhaust at full load is less than 400 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 The desirability of low mean effectives in order to secure low mean 
 temperatures is, we believe, sufficient reason for barring devices for 
 obtaining what is known as super compression, even if the extra com- 
 plications of such devices were not considered. 
 
 (c) The employment of the stepped piston which serves not only 
 to furnish a liberal supply of air for cleaning and filling the main cylin- 
 der, but which also acts as a cross-head, thus insuring longer life to the 
 main cylinder, since it receives no connection rod thrust. Also the main 
 piston being relieved of the pin and heavy bosses for carrying same 
 becomes an absolutely symmetrical member much better fitted to resist 
 the pressures and temperatures to which it is subjected. 
 
 The use of the stepped piston also tends materially to improve crank 
 case conditions and to lower crankcase temperatures as any blow past 
 the main piston will be caught in the scavenging cylinder. The use of a 
 two-piece main piston also serves to the same end by preventing radia- 
 tion from the hot piston head to the interior of the crankcase. Under all 
 conditions of operation the crankoase will be found clean, cool and free 
 from oil vapor. 
 
332 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Detail Description Vertical Type 
 
 Box Frame: As previously explained, the Standard engine is of the 
 vertical single acting two-cycle valveless type of Diesel power. A single 
 box frame forms a common support for both the main working cylinders 
 and the injection air compressor cylinder. On account of the through 
 bolts used between cylinder flanges and base plate, this frame is not 
 subjected to heavy tension strains and very liberal openings may there- 
 fore be provided for inspection and adjustment of bearings. 
 
 Transverse Section Through Main and Scavenging Cylinder 
 
 In addition to the large cover plates at front and rear, smaller in- 
 spection plates are also provided through which the operator can con- 
 veniently ascertain the temperature of the various bearings. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 333 
 
 
334 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Air Compressor: The high pressure air required for injecting the fuel 
 into the combustion space is furnished by a two stage compressor which 
 is mounted on one end of the box frame and is driven directly from the 
 crankshaft. A stepped piston is used to obtain the necessary displace- 
 ments for the different stages. The connecting rod and its bearings are 
 of very liberal proportions. They conform in design to the similar parts 
 for the main working cylinder. 
 
 Both the low stage suction and discharge valve are located in a single 
 pocket at the side of the cylinder. This pocket is so positioned as to 
 make it impossible for a valve to get into the cylinder due to either a 
 broken valve spring or stem, and yet the clearance volume is less than 
 two per cent of the cylinder displacement. 
 
 Section Through Air Compressor Cylinder 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 335 
 
 The valve cage for the high stage valves is located in the upper end 
 of the cylinder bore anc^ with its cover forms the cylinder head. This 
 cage is also arranged so that there is no possibility of a valve getting 
 into the cylinder and wrecking the machine. 
 
 After being compressed in the first cylinder and before going to the 
 second, also after the second compression the air is thoroughly cooled. 
 The inter and after coolers consist of coils of copper tubing and are en- 
 closed in the water jacket space of the compressor cylinder through 
 which all the cooling water passes before going to the main cylinders. 
 With this arrangement there are no hot pipes for the accumulation of 
 carbon deposits and the high pressure air as it leaves the compressor is 
 at practically the temperature of the inlet cooling water. Also after 
 each compression provision is made for separating any entrained oil 
 vapor or moisture from the air. 
 
 Scavenging Air Compressor: The air pressure for scavenging the 
 mam wonting cylinder is generated in -the annular space above the cross- 
 iiead and scavenging piston and around the main piston barrel. Because 
 or its small clearance, the volumetric efficiency of this pump is well over 
 bu per cent, and as the area of this annular space is considerably greater 
 tnan the area of the main cylinder, an ample quantity of pure air for 
 cleaning and filling the working cylinder is insured. 
 
 The valves for both suctions and discharge are of the plate type and 
 operate under very slight differences of pressure. AS the areas through 
 the valves and through all ports and passages are very liberal, the scav- 
 enging air is handled with the minimum amount of work, and as a result 
 the overall mechanical efficiency of the engine is high, comparing very 
 tavorabiy with the best four-cycle engine practice. 
 
 Scavenging Manifold: The scavenging manifold which extends across 
 the front of the engine contains the pockets in which are located the 
 suction and discharge valvesi of the scavenging pumps, also the passage 
 through which the air is distributed to the working cylinders. This pas- 
 sage is of ample area so as to cause the minimum of air friction. A large 
 plate directly over each valve pocket permits of easy access to the valves, 
 'io the bottom of scavenging manifold is fixed the suction pipe through 
 which the air is drawn to the scavenging pump. The sound of the air 
 suction can be quite effectively muffled by means of a screen at the end 
 of tne pipe or if desired the pipe can be continued to the outside of the 
 building. 
 
 Exhaust Manifold: The exhaust manifold is thoroughly water jack- 
 eted for its entire length, thus preventing heating up the engine room 
 in warm weather. The passage for exhaust gases is of very liberal area 
 so as to cause no harmful back pressure on the engine. 
 
 Fuel Pump: The fuel measuring pump is of the variable stroke type, 
 a separate plunger is provided for each cylinder. The plunger stroke is 
 controlled automatically by the governor. This governor is ordinarily 
 set to give a total speed variation of 4 per cent between full and no 
 
336 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 load, but is capable of considerable closer regulation if conditions neces- 
 sitates the adjusting of the same. 
 
 Fuel Injection Valve: The fuel valve is of closed nozzle design. The 
 proportions of the various parts have been determined by careful experi- 
 ment so as to have the fuel not only thoroughly broken up into small 
 particles, but also to have it well mixed with the injection air. That 
 this result has been attained is evidenced by the low fuel consumption 
 and clear exhaust at the various loads and with fuel and crude oils of 
 widely varying characteristics. The needle valve is made from Tungsten 
 steel carefully hardened and ground. It is thus well suited to resist both 
 the chemical action of impurities in the oils, and mechanical wear of 
 the packing. 
 
 Camshaft and Gears: The camshaft is mounted in brackets support- 
 ed from the cylinder jackets. It is so located that the fuel valve can be 
 operated directly through a single bell crank, but it is so positioned that 
 it does not have to be disturbed in any way when removing a cylinder 
 head or piston. It is driven from a vertical shaft by a set of mechanical 
 miter gears which are cut from steel forgings. The vertical shaft gets 
 its motion from the main shaft through a set of spiral gears. 
 
 Air Starting: For starting, compressed air is admitted to each work- 
 ing cylinder through an automatic check valve in the cylinder head. The 
 air is properly timed by individual starting valves located just below the 
 camshaft and each in front of the cylinder which it supplies. These 
 valves are put in operation toy the starting air pressure and automatically 
 go out of operation as soon as the starting air is shut off at the main 
 control valve. The engine can be started on an air pressure as low as 
 one hundred and fifty pounds. 
 
 Lubrication: The lubrication of the Standard engine is accomplished 
 by a force feed oil pump. The feeds to the various parts are from cen- 
 trally located sight feeds, where the operator may ait all times be en- 
 abled to observe proper functioning of the system. 
 
 EFFICIENCY PERFORMANCES OF STANDARD DIESELS 
 
 The first two charts in figure (a) show average Diesel engine prac- 
 tices for both the two and four-stroke-cycle types, and the third shows 
 the distribution of work; in the Standard engine when operated on 250 
 R.P.M. and rated 50 B.H.P. per cylinder. The low percentage of work 
 for operating the scavenging pumps is, as already mentioned, largely due 
 to the employment of an exceptionally low scavenging air pressure. 
 While the reduction in work required for driving the injection air com- 
 pressor is attributed to a design of atomizer in which not only is the 
 pressure required very moderate, owing to a minimum number of re- 
 stricted passages, but also the volume of injection air required is con- 
 siderably reduced. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 337 
 
 The slightly lower mechanical losses are explained by the ideal con- 
 ditions, both as to temperature and lubrication, under which all bearings 
 and rubbing surfaces operate. 
 
 In Figure (b) are reproductions of indicator diagrams) taken at va- 
 rious loads with the engine operating at 250 R.P.M. The curves in Figure 
 (i) show the results of fuel consumption tests on the 100 H.P. two-cyl- 
 inder- machine when operated at different loads and speeds. As would 
 be expected, owing to the longer time allowed for combustion and the 
 
 Mechanical /osses 
 14 % 
 
 Air compressor 
 10 % 
 
 Mechanical /osses 
 12 % 
 
 Air compressor 
 
 Scavenging our 
 pump 10 % 
 
 Mechanical /osses 
 10.4 % 
 
 Air compressor 
 64% 
 
 A B 
 
 Figure (a) Comparison of Mechanical Efficiencies. A Usual Four-Cycle 
 Diesel; B Two-stroke-cycle Diesel; C Standard Two-stroke-cycle 
 Diesel 
 
 slightly ihigher mechanical efficiency, somewhat better results are shown 
 at the lower speeds. However, that the difference is as slight as shown, 
 speaks very well indeed for the perfection of the design as to these two 
 features. 
 
 When comparing these fuel consumption figures with others pub- 
 lished, it should be borne in mind that they are for a cylinder of but 
 10 3/4 -inches bore. For a cylinder of twice this diameter, which comes 
 nearer the sizes on which figures are usually found, the results should 
 be nearly 10 per cent lower. 
 
 In disapproval of the statement sometimes made that owing to the 
 more frequent power impulses, the two-stroke-cycle engine operates with 
 exceedingly high temperatures, the following figures as to exhaust tem- 
 perature of the Standard engine are cited. With the engine in each 
 case developing 100 H.P., the exhaust temperatures were as follows: 
 At 225 R.P.M. , 345 degrees Fahrenheit; at 250 R.P.M., 325 degrees Fahr- 
 
338 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 enheit; at 275 R.P.M., 315 degrees Fahrenheit; at 300 R.P.M., 305 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. While the temperatures are exceedingly low at all speeds, 
 it is found that for the same delivered horsepower the lowest tempera- 
 ture result from the more frequent and light power impulses rather 
 than the reverse. This, the builders of the Standard engine state, is in 
 accordance with theory and should be the case for a properly designed 
 machine. For not only does the theoretical efficiency of the Diesel cycle 
 improve as the size of fuel charge is reduced, but there is also a larger 
 
 Figure (&) Indicator Diagrams at Various Loads 
 
 volume of cool air passing through the cylinder per unit of time. For 
 the reasons cited they emphasize very strongly the desirability of em- 
 ploying lighter fuel charges and have adopted ratingj requiring mean 
 effective pressures of about 75 Ibs., as against the usual Diesel practice 
 of 80 to 100 .pounds. 
 
 This, it is contended, is the logical manner for utilizing the admitted 
 advantages of the two-cycle principle and of obtaining a machine which 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 339 
 
 with high thermal efficiency shall also combine the even more important 
 requisite of unfailing reliability. 
 
 In the following description of the horizontal type of the product 
 of the Hadfield-Penfield Steel Co., of Bucyrus, Ohio, a clear detailed in- 
 formation will be given of the Standard Horizontal Diesel Engine. 
 
 This particular type of engine follows the two-cycle principle, and is 
 found satisfactory on horizontal construction. In summing up the advan- 
 tages gained in two-cycle construction, following is claimed: For a given 
 size cylinder the horsepower output would be nearly double and at the 
 same time this result would be obtained with fewer working parts. 
 
 The .frame ds of center crank type with heavy box section walls. This 
 casting also includes the scavenging air cylinder in" which a differential 
 or stepped piston operates, furnishing the air for cleaning and filling the 
 main cylinder. Since the main or working cylinder extends into this 
 larger cylinder for about one-half its length, the machine is practically 
 all contained within this one casting, making a very massive and rigid 
 construction. 
 
 The cylinder head is comparatively small and very simple casting 
 of symmetrical design. There is but one opening, which extends through 
 both walls; this is for the fuel spray valve and is located at the exact 
 center. In addition to its symmetrical shape the casting is properly 
 
 IOO IIO 120 130 
 
 50 75 
 
 Horsepower 
 
 Fig. (c) Curves Showing Fuel Consumption at Different Loads 
 and Speeds 
 
 water jacketed so that the danger of cracks developing is reduced to 
 the minimum. 
 
 The combustion space which is formed by the inner wall is practi- 
 cally a half Siphere, which is an ideal form, as it insures the most rapid 
 mingling of the fuel spray with the air for burning, and hence early and 
 complete combustion. 
 
 Close fitted piston and rings are features highly commendable. To 
 make permissible these close fits, the pistons are water-cooled in all 
 
340 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEiL ENGINES 
 
 except the very small sizes of cylinders. An overheated piston may de- 
 velop cracks, may expand sufficiently to bind and score the cylinder, or 
 may even stick fast, wrenching off connecting bolts or rod bolts and 
 wrecking the whole machine. Water cooling eliminates the possibility 
 of such troubles and at the same time makes the proper lubrication of 
 piston much, easier, and reduces the amount of oil required. As the pis- 
 ton pin is located in the larger air pumping piston, the main piston is 
 relieved of all connecting rod thrust, and therefore the wear in the main 
 cylinder is slight. 
 
 Identical two-stage compressor arrangement are on the horizontal as 
 on the vertical types of Standard Diesels. The high pressure air re- 
 quired for injecting the fuel into the combustion space is furnished by 
 a two-stage pump mounted on the side of the frame casting, and driven 
 by a small crank on the end of the main shaft. The air from the first 
 stage of this pump is delivered into tanks at about 150 pounds pressure, 
 and is available for starting the engine. From these tanks the air is 
 admitted to the second stage of the air pump and thence direct to the 
 fuel valve without intermediate receiver. As the first stage of the pump 
 takes its air from the scavenging air cylinder at about five pounds pres- 
 sure rather than from the atmosphere, we have in reality a three-stage 
 compression. This air pump is well proportioned for these tyipes of 
 engines and will furnish air, even if not properly kept up. The front 
 end of the first stage piston has an extension in the form of a piston 
 valve. This extension acts both as a crosshead for the air pump and 
 also controls the suction and discharge of air from the large scavenging 
 cylinder. 
 
 The fuel nozzle is of the open type; that is, the fuel is pumped into 
 a small receptacle which is at all times in open communication with the 
 combustion chamber. This fuel receptacle is placed just ahead of the 
 mechanically operated timing valve which controls the admission of in- 
 jection air. When the timing valve opens the fuel is picked up by the 
 injection air and blown past the stationary atomizer into the combustion 
 chamber. The open nozzle construction has the following advantages: 
 
 (1) The fuel pump has only to work against low pressures as it is 
 timed to operate when the main piston is at the opposite end of the cyl- 
 inder; the pump thus becomes in reality only a measuring device. The 
 plunger can be packed very loosely and better regulation can be secured 
 on account of the light load on the governor. 
 
 (2) As only pure air passes the timing valve, the seat will remain 
 tight much longer than where air and fuel both are injected through the 
 valve. 
 
 (3) Better atomizing is secured, as the heated air which is driven 
 back in contact with the oil tends to vaporize it, and we do not there- 
 fore have to depend entirely upon mechanical action in breaking up the 
 fuel. The valve cage, atomizer, etc., are made from nickel steel, as this 
 material best resists the chemical action of the impurities frequently 
 found in the crude oils. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 341 
 
 These engines are guaranteed continuously without undue heating 
 their full rated horsepower. The ratings given hold for an elevation of 
 not to exceed 1,000 feet above sea level. For higher altittides the capac- 
 ities will somewhat decrease. 
 
 The Standard engine is offered subject to the guarantee that its 
 fuel consumption shall not exceed following quantities of crude or cheap 
 fuel oils. 
 
 At full load .50 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour. 
 
 At three-fourths load .52 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour. 
 
 At one-half load .58 Ibs. per B.H.P. hour. 
 
 This consumption is based on a sea level rating and a fuel of at least 
 18.000 B.T.U. (low heating value) per pound. 
 
342 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 LOMBARD ENGINES 
 
 The cross-section views of the Lombard engines disclose the type 
 of engine built with the object in view to act as a power producer where 
 reliability is of highest importance. These engine's are of the vertical, 
 .multi-cylinder, heavy duty type, with pistons, rings, connecting rods, 
 bearings and crankshaft all easily accessible through the front housing 
 doors of the enclosed crank case. 
 
 Cross-Sectional View of Lombard Engine. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 343 
 
 Illustration demonstrating the accessibility of Lombard's Vertical 
 Multi-cylinder Diesel Engines. 
 
 This unusual accessibility results from the design of the cylinders 
 with removable skirt section bolted to the bottom of each. With the 
 crank on 'bottom center and skirt detached from cylinder casting, any 
 piston with its connecting rod, can be swung forward through the crank 
 case door opening, without removing cylinder head, disconnecting crank 
 pin box, dismounting valve gear or otherwise disturbing adjustments 
 which it is desirable to preserve. 
 
 Other advantages of this construction are that it (1) avoids the 
 objectionable joint in the combustion chamber exposed to high tempera- 
 
344 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 tures and pressures, the joint between cylinder and skirt sections being 
 subjected only to exhaust temperatures and pressures; (2) eliminates 
 the mass of metal necessary for a cylinder-and-head joint, thereby se- 
 curing a much freer movement of the cylinder wall to take care of ex- 
 pansion and contraction and providing ample and unrestricted space 
 for circulation of cooling water; (3) permits the accessible, overhead 
 location of cam shaft with cams running in oil and with valves operated 
 by simple rocker arms; and (4) results in an engine of pleasing, sym- 
 metrical appearance, with simplified controls for starting and handling 
 a powerful, efficient unit, which saves weight, head room, installation 
 and operating expense, upkeep, fuel and lubricating oil. 
 
 The engine, which is of multi-cylinder construction, are equipped 
 with integral air compressor of balanced duplex design for supplying the 
 starting and injection air. 
 
 The frame sections which substantially enclose the crank case merely 
 support weight. The four heavy steel tie rods, which extend from each 
 cylinder to the main bearing pads within the bed plate, carry the work- 
 ing load and relieve the frame of all tensile stresses. Removal of frame 
 housing doors and tie rods along the front or air intake side, permits 
 rolling the main crank shaft out in the space directly alongside of the 
 engine, without dismounting cylinders or disturbing valve gear. 
 
 All cylinders and bearing surfaces are positively and copiously 
 lubricated from a pressure system which includes filters and coolers for 
 the repeated and economical use of lubricating oil. 
 
 Lombard engines are built in sizes ranging from 60 to 500 B. H. P. 
 Engines are built for either marine or stationary purpose. 
 
 ATLAS-IMPERIAL SOLID INJECTION DIESEL ENGINES FOUR- 
 CYCLE MARINE TYPE 
 
 The rapid increase of small sized Diesel engines between 50 B. H. P. 
 and 200 B. H. P. is primary due to the record accomplishments of this re- 
 spective class of power producers. (Specially adapted for coastwise ser- 
 vice aboard ship as auxiliary driving mediums and on crafts mainly de- 
 pending upon sails. 
 
 Their recognized ability as a dependable and economic machine, 
 and above all the surprising simplicity in design and construction, not 
 to mention the limited space a machine of this horsepower capacity oc- 
 cupies, makes this generator of Diesel power a favored type. 
 
 Firms, such as the Worthington Corporation, Western Machine Co., 
 Dow Pump & Diesel Engine Co., Enterprise Diesel Engine Co., Lombard 
 Governor Co., Atlas-Imperial Engine Co., and in fact the .many manufactur- 
 ers throughout the United States as well as Europe have made it possi- 
 ble to convince the shipowner that Diesel power is as profitable for 
 small sized vessels as for ships of large carrying capacities. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 345 
 
346 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 It will be acknowledged that only a few years ago numerous ob- 
 jectionable features were reacting to the detriment of adopting Diesel 
 machinery in smaller crafts. The principal reaison bringing the Diesel 
 engine as an unfavorable machine for use on coastwise marine service or 
 aboard ship as an auxiliary operating engine was the lack of skilled 
 operators sufficiently acquainted with the principles and mechanism of 
 Diesel power. That this very fact contributed greatly in retarding the 
 adoption of this prime mover is true to a certain extent. /Some of the 
 earlier types of Diesel engines were rather crude and possessed of en- 
 tirely too many contrivances, such as valves, piping, etc., which were 
 often the cause of 'breakdowns with its consequential expensive loss of 
 time to the owner. In many cases a special kind of fuel for the engine 
 was necessary, which in itself proved disadvantageous. From a mechani- 
 cal standpoint they were often inefficient and must be acknowledged 
 that the existing difference of the modern types of Diesel engines in 
 comparison to those of only a few years ago show the enormous strides 
 Which have taken place to bring the Diesel engine to its high stage of 
 present day perfection. 
 
 As will be observed in the specially selected types of Diesel mach- 
 inery in this work, that the simplicity in mechanical arrangements 
 have -been brought to a stage that the person with limited mechanical 
 knowledge around Diesel power can be entrusted iwith the operation of a 
 machine, providing however, that his knowledge comprises the necessary 
 ability upon which the fundamental laws of Internal Combustion mach- 
 inery exists. 
 
 Often, troubles which arise around Diesel machinery have been 
 unjustly blamed upon the machine and its manufacturer, designer, etc., 
 when as a matter of fact the engine has stood an unmerciful test before 
 being installed. After some investigation it usually results in the es- 
 tablishment of the fact that the operator was in an entire wrong place 
 and in justice to the many experienced operators ought to retire from 
 his chosen profession or occupation. 
 
 Much could be said on .this subject dealing with the incompetency 
 of the man in charge, but, it will be admitted, that with the introduction 
 of literature on the subject of Diesel operation and the greater oppor- 
 tunity afforded to day to receive a better training in this branch of en- 
 gineering, will contribute towards the creation of better class of men. 
 
 When carefully giving the Atlas-Imperial Diesel engine some study 
 we find that there are points which deserve of highest comment. The 
 writers of "The 20th Century Guide for Diesel Operators" show an en- 
 tirely impartial conduct, and it is to be hoped that the reader will not 
 labor under an illusion that any special favors are granted the numerous 
 firms which are giving space in this work. As previously stated, every 
 firm illustrated in this book are selected by their merits and are known 
 the world over as reliable manufacturers. 
 
 The Atlas-Imperial Diesel engine is of the four-cylinder, four-cycle 
 vertical type, having enclosed crankcase, valves in the head, fitted with 
 heavy duty reversing gear, and force feed lubricating-system, 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 347 
 
348 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 To the operator experienced with gasoline-driven engines, the 
 "valve-in-head" arrangement will sound familiar. It will be of interest 
 here to give a little explanation of the advantages claimed by builders 
 of valve-in-head motors in contrast to L-head or T-head types of con- 
 struction. 
 
 Unfortunately it is impossible for a Diesel engine to utilize all the 
 heat created, or 'rather generated for power. If some means were not 
 adopted to cool the motor the heat would become so great that it would 
 be destructive to the motor. 
 
 So in making the cylinder castings, water passages are cast around 
 the cylinders in such a manner as to allow the excess heat to escape 
 through the cylinder walls, into the water, which in turn is cooled by 
 the circulation method of the engine. It is quite evident, therefore, 
 that the less water jacketing space there is in a motor, the greater 
 the thermal (heat) efficiency there will be because of smaller area of the 
 cylinder walls and combustion chamber will be exposed to the cooling 
 influence of the water. 
 
 This brings us to the biggest reason for the Valve^in-Head design, 
 because the arrangement of the valves permits of a smaller, more 
 compact combustion chamber than is possible in either the L-Head or the 
 T-Head type of engine. To make this statement still clearer, it .should be 
 understood that in all cases, both inlet and exhaust valves form a part 
 of the combustion chamber, where the heat is the greatest, and in conse- 
 quence it is necessary to provide ample water jacketing space to the 
 heads and sides of the cylinders. In this engine this is accomplished 
 by means of passover pipes causing the circulation of water. 
 
 Now, if we regard our fuel^oil asi so many heat units, it is quite 
 apparent that the loss of these heat units thait are wasted through the 
 water jacketed surfaces, the more of them will be left in the form of 
 actual, usable power directed against the piston. 
 
 Then, because of the larger valves this type of construction per- 
 mits and can be located in a straight line above the pistons, the dead 
 exhaust gases are quickly and easily expelled through them at the con- 
 clusion of the working .stroke, instead of being forced around corners and 
 downward through a much larger chamber, as in the L-Head and T-iHead 
 types. And the combustion during each working stroke is much more 
 perfect in this type of design because the incoming charges are purer. 
 
 The exhaust and inlet valves are mechanically operated. The valve 
 head is made of cast iron with steel stem. The inlet and exhaust valve 
 springs are interchangeable. The valves are operated by steel valve 
 lifters provided with large anti-friction rollers, these rollers are made 
 of special alloy steel, hardened and ground. The cams are fastened 
 to the camsJraft with keys. The cam shaft gear is 16" diameter and 
 2V 2 " face. 
 
 The engine is fitted with a flyball governor which is of the throttling 
 type. The governor is driven by spur gears direct from the cam gear- 
 ing without belts or frictions and is fitted with a speeding attachment 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 349 
 
 whereby the speed of the engine may be changed as desired at any time 
 while the engine is in motion. The governor acts directly on the spray 
 valve lifters and controls the amount of fuel delivered to the spray 
 valves in direct proportion to the power developed. These governors are 
 very sensitive and quick of action. 
 
 The engine is provided with a force feed lubricating system which 
 delivers oil at about 5 Ibs. pressure to all the main working parts. The 
 oil is delivered from the pressure pump to the main crankshaft bear- 
 ings, from which it passes through the hollow crankshaft to the crank- 
 pin bearing, and from there it passes up the hollow connecting rods to 
 the piston pin bearing. The oil is then returned by means of a sump 
 pump to a strainer from which it again passes through the pressure putnp. 
 In addition to this system the engine is provided with a multiple force 
 feed lubricator connected with copper tubes to the cylinders, etc. 
 
 The mechanical injection fuel pumps, which are made of steel, are 
 fitted to the engine. These ipumps deliver the fuel under pressure to 
 the spray valves in the center of each cylinder head. 
 
350 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 THE CUMMINS OIL ENGINE 
 (Di-esel Type) 
 
 Note: The Cummins Oil Engine is operated under the four-stroke- 
 cycle system. While the engine resembles in its method of power gen- 
 eration the Diesel principle, nevertheless, when carefully studying this 
 machine, it will be found that it has exclusive features, which makes this 
 engine a distinctive type of its own. 
 
 Principle of Operation: (1) The principle of operation is briefly 
 as follows: 
 
 On the first stroke as the piston descends a charge of pure air is 
 drawn through intake valve directly from the outside; at the same time 
 the same mechanism pushes open small fuel valve in fuel injector body 
 and permits a charge of oil to ipass into cup. This amount of charge 
 
 Sectional View Through Cylinder Head of Cummins Four-Cycle, Valve- 
 in-Head, 8 to 32 H.P. Diesel Engines. 
 
 which determines the speed, is controlled by the hand throttle operating 
 on needle valve. 
 
 (2) At the end of this first stroke the intake valve closes and the 
 piston comes up, compressing the charge of pure air to the pressure ol 
 approximately 450 pounds per square inch. 
 
 (3) This pressure causes the air to instantly become heated to a 
 temperature of approximately 1000 degrees F., or in other words, prac- 
 tically red hot. 
 
 (4) As the temperature and pressure in fuel cup is the same as that 
 in the cylinder, the fuel becomes highly heated and the small amount 
 of gas which is in the fuel charge ignites, raising the pressure in the 
 cup to a point considerable higher than that outside in the cylinder. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 351 
 
 (5) This difference in pressure causes the heavy oil left in cup to be 
 blown out into the cylinder in a fine gaseous spray which ignites in- 
 stantly and! causes the expansion or working stroke of piston. 
 
 (6) On the fourth and last cycle, the exhaust valve opens and the 
 burned gases are expelled -through exhaust valve into the atmosphere. 
 
 A study of the sectional view of the illustration of the Cummins 
 Oil engine should clarify this mode of generation. 
 
 (7) The fuel enters the fuel valve body at a point marked "Fuel 
 Connection," passes down around needle valve, which has three flat 
 sides, permitting free flow of fuel. In the lower end of this needle 
 valve a long hardened and ground taper seat fits into the seat in fuel 
 valve body. At the top of fuel valve a brass cage carries fuel valve lever 
 and throttle lever. The throttle lever works a double thread screw 
 which permits spring to lift needle valve off seat according to opening 
 of throttle lever. 
 
 (8) At the beginning of the suction stroke the air-inlet valve is 
 opened by the push rod, which causes the small lever pinned to the 
 rocker arm to in turn open the fuel-admission valve; this permits the 
 proper amount of fuel, which is determined by fuel-control valve, to be 
 drawn into fuel cup, where it lies until the heat of compression on com- 
 pression stroke ignites it. 
 
 A study of the cut will show that the fuel cup is only exposed to the 
 heat of combustion chamber for a very small margin around spray holes. 
 This is a vital feature exclusive of this type of engine. 
 
 Starting: An eccentrically operated compression release is fitted to 
 valve rocker shaft. By throwing uip small lever, eccentric inside rocker 
 arm is lowered, holding exhaust valve open. This permits engine to be 
 revolved by starting crank on end of crank shaft with no resistance ex- 
 cept small amount of friction in engine. After spinning engine ovet 
 rapidly several times, the lever is dropped, which causes exhaust valve to 
 seat properly, and the heavy flywheel carries engine over its first com- 
 pression. This fires the fuel charge which was admitted through the 
 valve and the engine starts firing. 
 
352 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 353 
 
 SPERRY'S MARINE TYPE HEAVY DUTY COMPOUND DIESEL 
 
 ENGINE 
 
 The principle on which this engine operates differs. 1 vastly from any 
 motor now on the market. It is very ingenious in design, and experi- 
 ences with the first engines in coastwise service has demonstrated its 
 suitability and economy equal to the best of Diesels of same horsepower 
 capacity. 
 
 The illustration shows a small marine type with high-pressure cyl- 
 inders 7 inches by 11 inches, running at 400 R.P.M. The fuel ipumps are 
 also shown here and the connection to the governor. The camshaft is 
 
 Sperry Compound Engine, Cross-Sectional View. Letters Indicating Con- 
 structive Features of Transfer-Valve, Port Arrangement, Pistons, etc. 
 
 on a shelf at the top of the engine to one side and is driven by skew- 
 gears. The electric generator forming the full load of this engine is 
 shown in the background and one of the transfer valves with its bonnet 
 cover stands on the floor in front of the engine. The comparatively 
 small size of the engine should meet with the approval aboard such 
 vessels where small space allowance is of essential importance. The 
 construction is shown very complete in this illustration, especially the 
 accessibility and similarity to ordinary types of engines in regards to 
 construction. 
 
354 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Construction and Mechanical Efficiency: It remains to be seen, if 
 the highly commendable efforts of Mr. Elmer A. Sperry, M. E., has by 
 the creation of this latest addition of improved Diesel type solved the 
 question of eliminating excessive weighty Diesels and substituting in its 
 place the much lighter "compound" type. If this has been accomplished 
 an added interest will be paid to the future development of this new type 
 in larger construction. 
 
 Its factors of established high mechanical efficiency in compounding 
 Diesels we will undertake to briefly explain. 
 
 We. are brought face to face with steam engine practice as prevail- 
 ing in compound engines. Compound engines are a type where the high- 
 pressure is taking up before entering the low pressure cylinder. 
 Inasmuch as the Diesel engine is a "constant pressure" engine, where 
 the larger volume of power gases in the combustion chamber of 'the com- 
 pound at once solves a number of important problems, makes the light 
 engine easy of accomplishment, and overcomes a number of difficulties 
 at the same time. In this engine we have two high pressure or combus- 
 tion pistons at the ends and a low pressure in the center. A balancing 
 cylinder sustains a permanent connection with the low pressure cylinder. 
 The solid fuel injection valve and nozzle are placed approximately over 
 the center of gravity of the large masses of air in the so-called clear- 
 ance dome. 
 
 It is understood that the two high-pressure cylinders are operating 
 four-cycle, one 360 degree back of the other, discharging alternately into 
 the low pressure, which therefore works two-cycle and delivers power 
 on each down stroke. 
 
 H.P Cylinder 
 ' Expansion 
 
 'Prt-Compressor 
 
 Comparison in Compound Indicator Card in contrast to Diesel 
 standard type. 
 
 The dome, unlike the usual type of Diesels is rather large and forms 
 an upward extension of the 'Combustion cylinder, extending also to the 
 right in a large sweep surrounding a so-called "transfer" valve which 
 seals the transfer port. A sleeve-like induction valve, seated on top of 
 the transfer valve, is controlled by a cam-operated fork. The transfer 
 valve and sleeve are lifted by. a, fork, located in a thimble near the top 
 of the stem. The first-stage annular compression pump surrounding the 
 trunk piston below the low-pressure piston proper, delivers its air to a 
 small receiver, which in turn discharges to the cored port surrounding 
 the induction sleeve. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 355 
 
 The cooling is effected by following method: In forcing the high- 
 pressure piston down air must pass some port in entering. The air-cool- 
 ing port is in line with the transfer port and the induction valve itself 
 rides on the back of the transfer valve in the form of a hollow sleeve 
 seated directly on the top of the transfer valve. The back of the transfer 
 valve is provided with greatly enlarged radiating and cooling surfaces 
 presented to this cooling air and powerful convection currents are con- 
 stantly acting when sealed. Moreover, this air when entering is at 
 high velocity and gushes down through and bathes the deeply serrated 
 surfaces of the hack of the transfer valve, licking up the heat very com- 
 pletely in its inward rush. 
 
 THE STILL ENGINE 
 
 (Author's Note. This article is a contribution through courtesy of 
 the distinguished Professor of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineer- 
 ing at the Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., Mr. L. B. 'Chapman.) 
 
 As will be observed byi the detailed description of the Still engine 
 that it is a combination Diesel and steam engine, devised to increase 
 the thermal efficiency over that of the Diesel engine. The heat ordi- 
 narily rejected in the jacket water and to the exhaust is used to produce 
 steam and about 8 per cent of this heat is converted into useful work, 
 increasing the brake horsepower of the engine about 30 /per cent. 
 
 Whatever the future of this engine may be, it must be considered 
 from the standpoint of technical observation a factor of highest con- 
 sideration. When giving this engine some study, it will be found that 
 there are advantages, in particular in lessening fuel expenditure, which 
 are deserving of comment. 
 
 From the diagram of the Still engine shown in Fig. 1 it will be seen 
 that in its present form the engine is double-acting with the Diesel cycle 
 working on top of the piston. The water jacket is connected in a circuit 
 with the boiler and an exhaust generator as shown in the diagram. The 
 cooling water enters and leaves the jacket at a constant temperature 
 corresponding to the pressure of the steam in the boiler. The heat 
 absorbed by the jacket water surrounding the combustion cylinder is 
 used to convert the water into steam at constant temperature. In other 
 words, the heat of combustion that radiates through the walls is trans- 
 ferred into latent heat of steam. The steain thus generated passes to 
 the boiler. The function, of the boiler is to produce steam for warming 
 up and starting the engine and to augment the supply generated in the 
 jackets, if the jacket supply is not sufficient for the steam end of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 The boiler feed water is circulated through the jacket as shown in 
 Fig. 1. The feed water is taken from the feed tank by the feed pump 
 as in all steam plants and is delivered at about 100 degrees to a feed 
 heater or exhaust generator where it absorbs the heat in the exhaust 
 
356 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 gases. The temperature of the feed water is thus raised from 100 degrees 
 Fahr. to between 350 and 450 degrees Fahr., and the exhaust gases are 
 reduced from 900 to 150 degrees Fahr. The feed water then enters the 
 jacket, where it is converted into steam by the heat of combustion. 
 
 The steam from the boiler enters the lower part of the cylinder and 
 acts on the piston in practically the same manner as in a steam engine 
 and is then exhausted to the condenser. Cylinder condensation, which Is 
 a large loss with the ordinary steam engine, is practically eliminated 
 in the Still engine because of the heat received from the combustion of 
 the gases in the Diesel end. 
 
 Stop Valve 
 
 Fig. I 
 
 Final Combustion Exhaust 
 Temp. I50"F. 
 
 During compression of the air on the Diesel side of the piston the 
 air charge absorbs heat from the cylinder walls because of the high 
 temperature in the jacket. With the straight Diesel engine the transfer 
 is in the opposite direction, due to the cold circulating water. One 
 result of this is that the required compression pressure is less in the 
 Still engine than in ordinary Diesel engines. 
 
 Advantages of Combined Cycles: The advantages due 'to the inter- 
 ,action of the combustion and steam cycles are summarized by Mr. F. E. 
 D. Acland in a paper before the Royal Society of Arts as follows: 
 
 (1) The mean temperature of the cylinder walls is higher than in 
 ordinary engines; the cooler parts being maintained at a higher, the 
 hotter parts at a lower temperature. 
 
 (2) The piston is cooler, owing to the expansion of the steam be- 
 hind it. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 357 
 
 (3) The heat efficiency of the combustion cycle is augmented owing 
 to the walls being at a higher and constant temperature, and is in pro- 
 portion to the rise in temperature of the jacket water. 
 
 (4) Frictional losses are reduced by the higher temperature, and 
 by the steam overcoming the inertia of the reciprocating masses at the 
 lower dead center. 
 
 Fig. 2 Still Engine on Test in Shop 
 
 (5) The mechanical efficiency of the whole engine is higher than 
 that obtainable in a normal engine of similar type. 
 
 (6) The steam, expanding as it does in a cylinder hotter than it- 
 self, gives an indicator diagram larger than that theoretically obtainable 
 under ideal conditions in an ordinary steam engine. 
 
358 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 (7) Twenty-nine per cent of additional brake horsepower is added 
 to the shaft of the engine without increase in the fuel consumption. 
 (Steam not condensed.) 
 
 (8) Forty per cent is added when condenser is used. (Air pump 
 separately driven.) 
 
 (9) The indicated horsepower due to steam appears as brake horse- 
 power added to the shaft, all the mechanical losses having already been 
 accounted for in measuring the combustion brake horsepower. 
 
 Besides the merits listed above the two-cycle 'Still engine has the 
 following advantages: 
 
 (1) Fuel consumption 10 to 20 per cent lower than the Diesel 
 engine. , 
 
 (2) Absence of cold circulating water causing large temperature 
 difference and trouble with cylinder and head castings. 
 
 (4) Lower compression pressure. 
 
 (5) Absence of air-starting, circulating and piston-cooling system. 
 
 (6) Absence of exhaust valves and gear. 
 
 (7) Increased horsepower for a given bore and stroke. 
 
 (8) Possibility of overload by forcing steam boiler. 
 
 (9) Maneuvering at low revolution per minute is possible. 
 
 (10) High temperature range 2000 to 150 degrees F. (Carnot ef- 
 ficiency). 
 
 Trials with a single cylinder two-cycle Still engine were carried out 
 during 1921 by Scott's Shipbuilding & Engineering Company, Greenock, 
 Scotland. Owing to the fact that the experimental engine had only one 
 cylinder, it was necessary to provide a small auxiliary high pressure 
 steam cylinder, the lower end of the main Still cylinder serving as a 
 low pressure steam cylinder. In an actual installation where several 
 cylinders are used the lower part of one can be used >as a high pressure 
 cylinder, and the lower part of another as a low pressure cylinder, thus 
 obviating the use of an auxiliary cylinder. All the auxiliaries, except the 
 scavenging air pump, were driven off the main engine in these trials. 
 
 A photograph of this engine is shown in Fig. 2, and a digrammatic 
 view showing all the auxiliaries in Fig. 3. 
 
 The result of the trials of this engine are given in the following 
 table: 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 359 
 
 ' TRIALS OF 22-INCH BY 36-INCH STILL OIL ENGINE'. 
 
 Main Still cylinder Stroke, 36 inches. Bore, 22 inches. Piston rod, 
 6^4 inches. 
 
 Auxiliary higlnpressure cylinder Stroke, 14 inches. Bore, 22 inches. 
 
 Over- Full Half 
 load load load 
 
 1. Average combustion M.E.P., Ibs. per sq. in.__ 88.9 81.2 54.2 
 
 2. Average steam M.E.P. referred to H.P.__ 4.43 3.80 1.26 
 
 3. Average steam M.E.P. referred to L.P 7.36 6.23 3.60 
 
 4. Total M. E. P 100.69 91.25 59.06 
 
 5. R. P. M 128.1 124.3 103 
 
 6. Steam boiler pressure, Ibs. per sq. in. gauge__112 100 108 
 
 7. H.P. receiver pressure, Ibs. per sq. in. gauge 75 57 23.5 
 
 8. L.P. receiver pressure, Ibs. per sq. in. gauge__ 11 5.5 0.4 
 
 9. Vacuum, inches Hg 28 27.5 26.6 
 
 10. Water evaporated per hour, Ibs 950 807 388 
 
 11. Scavenging pressure, inches water 49 46 40 
 
 12. H.P. for scavenging 15.4 14.1 12.0 
 
 13. Combustion I.H.P. 394 349 5 192.5 
 
 14. Total I.H.P. 446 392 210 
 
 15. Engine B.H.P. 384 343 174.5 
 
 16. Net B.H.P. (line 15 line 12) 368.6 329 162.5 
 
 17. Oil per hour, Ibs 146.6 123.4 64.0 
 
 18. Oil per net B.H.P. per hour .398 .375 .394 
 
 19. Efficiency on net B.H.P., per cent 35.5 37.7 35.8 . 
 
 It will be observed that the fuel consumption at full load is 0.376 
 pounds per brake horsepower, which is about 10 per cent lower than the 
 best four-cycle Diesel practice and nearly 20 per cent better than the 
 general run of two-cycle Diesel engines. 
 
 Claims are put forward that the Still engine weighs less and occupies 
 less space than the Diesel engine. The gain in economy of between 10 
 and 15 per cent for this single cylinder engine is highly encouraging 
 and no doubt this can be improved upon when several cylinders are 
 used. At first thought the engine appears complicated, but it must be 
 borne in mind that the air-starting, circulating and piston-cooling sys- 
 tems are eliminated and the small boiler employed with the Still engine 
 would generally be required on a Diesel ship. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Cross-Section of Still Engine 
 
 DEFINITION OF PARTS: 
 
 1. Combustion Cylinder. 
 
 2. Reinforcing Steel Hoop. 
 
 3. Scavenging 'Blower. 
 
 4. Combustion Exhaust Pipe Jacketed by Boiler Water. 
 
 5. Exhaust Generator. 
 
 6. Feed Water Heater. 
 
 7. Final Combustion Exhaust to Atmosphere. 
 
 8. Boiler. 
 
 9. Main Steam Pipe. 
 
 10. Steam Inlet and Exhaust Valves, 
 
 11, Steam Cylinder, 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 361 
 
 12. Steam Exhaust to Condenser. 
 
 13. Condenser. 
 
 14. Suction Pipe to Air Pump. 
 
 15. Air Pump. 
 
 16. Feed Pump. 
 
 17. Delivery Pipe to Feed Heater. 
 
 18. Circulating Water, Boiler to Exhaust Generator. 
 
 19. Circulating Water, Exhaust Generator to Cylinder Jacket. 
 
 20. Circulating Water and Steam; Jacket to Boiler. 
 
 21. Auxiliary Oil Burner. 
 
 22. Condenser Circulating Pump. 
 
 23. Oil Fuel Injection Pump. 
 
 24. Oil Fuel Delivery to Injection Valve. 
 
 25. Injection Valve. 
 
 THE WASHINGTON-ESTEP MARINE DIESEL ENGINE. 
 Four-cycle Construction. Airless Injection. (Solid Injection). 
 
 The Washington-Estep Diesel Engine is a modern type of Diesel, fol- 
 lowing the design of medium sized power-producers particularly adapted 
 for smaller crafts or for use as auxiliary machinery aboard ship. While 
 this engine being built for marine purpose, the numerous novel features 
 which this design embodies makes it an elegant factor for stationary 
 work. We will define the special features of this latest type of Diesel 
 engine. 
 
 The engine illustrated in figure (a) is of three-cylinder, four-cycle 
 construction. Its horsepower rating ranges from 65 to 140 B. H. P., ac- 
 cording to the specified size desired. The engine has a normal load of 
 100 B. H. P. at 280 R. P. M., when running with a continued M. E. P. of 
 85 Ibs. per square inch. From tests at hand it performs power at 125 
 B. H. P. with ease and up to 140 B. H. P. as a maximum. 
 
 There are two fuel-injection valves of special design in each cylinder 
 head, and an individual fuel pump supplies each pair of injectors with 
 fuel for every cylinder. A governor controls the fuel at all speeds. 
 
 The designers have found it advisable to depart from the usual de- 
 sign of cylinders, having the same equipped with removable liners or 
 bushings. Ample water jacket space is provided causing the thermal 
 efficiency of the engine to be brought to a high standard. It will be re- 
 alized, in comparing this engine with similar types of equal horsepower 
 capacities, that the revolution performances is rather high, being from 
 210 to 350 revolutions per minute. 
 
 For marine service, where the average speed is generally up to 120 
 R. P. M., rarely exceeding 200 R. P. M., an engine of this nature must be 
 capable to withstand the high thermal increase. All provisioncy to guard 
 against this excess heat temperature have been made by the designer of 
 tbjis engine to insure ample lubrication. A double system, i.e., forced- 
 
362 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 teed circulating system through manifold and crankshaft to all bearings 
 and crosshead pins ,have been found imperative. A sump pump takes the 
 return oil from the crank pits through strainer to auxiliary filtering and 
 cooling tank, automatic governed pressure pump has 'been provided from 
 this tank to bearings. A 10-feed mechanical oiler of the Manzel type 
 furnishes fresh oil for cylinder lubrication. 
 
 The engine is fitted with bronze centrifugal circulating pumps and 
 stand-toy bronze plunger pump running half speed from cam shaft, which 
 can be used for bilge and deck service. A water cooled air pump to sup- 
 ply starting air at 150 Ib'S. pressure is also provided. The fuel oil service 
 pump is mounted on forward end of the frame. 
 
 W ashing ton-E step Engine, Port Side View 
 
 As eos-tumary on small and medium sized engines, the piston is of 
 the trunk type, convex head, strongly ribbed to support large hardened 
 steel piston pin. The piston is equipped with six piston rings of special 
 type for this service. 
 
 A commendable feature is the large cam shaft which is mounted in 
 adjustable removable bearings, fitted with hardened steel accurately 
 machined cams, all enclosed running in oil, driven with simple bpur gears 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 363 
 
 of large diameter and ample face. The idler gear is bronze and running 
 in oil. Compression release for hand turning is also provided. 
 
 The reverse gear is of a patented design by the builders of this 
 engine. It is of heavy duty type, positive, simple, accessible and can be 
 backed for hours without heating. The clutch is the latest multiple disc 
 type enclosed, all gears are heavy simple spur type cut from high car- 
 bon forgings. The entire assembly can be quickly removed from engine 
 by letting go the shaft coupling at each end. 
 
 The starting can be accomplished from cold, a simple water-cooled 
 air compressor being mounted at the after end of the engine for the pur- 
 pose of charging starting-air tanks at 150' Ibs. pressure. The compression 
 of the engine is limited to 350 Ibs., being of similar figure to most 'solid 
 injection types of engines of this capacity. 
 
 Washington-Estep Engine, Starboard Side View 
 
 It will be mentioned here that instead of the high pump pressure 
 usually adopted with, airless injection, or direct or sometimes called solid 
 injection, the designer has found it feasible to use a comparatively low 
 pressure of 1,500 Ibs. 
 
 The thrust bearing is of the removable type and is totally enclosed, 
 water-cooled, and provided with a mechanical oiling system. All bear- 
 ings are removable. 
 
 The high-economy establishment of this engine, brings it within 
 reach of very limited operating expenditure. The engine will consume 
 
364 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Washington-Estep Engine, Showing Engine-frame and Cylinder Construction 
 
 Estep Design of Cylinders and Liners 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 365 
 
 5 l /2 gallons of average calorific value of fuels at a co<st of 63 cents per 
 gallon, in addition to 1/10 gallon of lubricating oil at 40 cents per gallon. 
 The total expenditure of operating the engine is 37 cents per hour, which 
 compares with considerable over $2.00 per hour for engines operated by 
 distillate or other high volatile fuels. 
 
 WASHINGTON-ESTEP MARINE DIESEL ENGINES 
 Four-Cycle, Full Diesel Direct Injection, 350 Ibs. Compression. 
 
 8-}4"Xl2" at 350 R.P.M. = 23.9 B.H.P. per Cylinder. 
 
 107% Stroke ratio 700 feet Piston Speed. 
 
 Approximate weight 200 Ibs. per H.P. 
 
 2 Cylinder 45 B. H. P., Weight 9,000 Ibs. 
 
 3 Cylinder 70 B. H. P., Weight 13,400 Ibs. 
 
 4 Cylinder 90 <B. H. P., Weight 18,000 Ibs. 
 6 Cylinder 135 B. H. P., Weight 27,000 Ibs. 
 
 5-inch Crankshaft. 
 
 10.)4"X16" at 280 R. P. M. 38.5 B. H. P. per Cylinder. 
 
 145% Stroke ratio, 746 feet Piston Speed. 
 
 Approximate Weight 230 Ibs. per H.P. 
 
 3 Cylinder 110 B. H. P., Weight 25,200 Ibs. 
 
 4 Cylinder 150 B. H. P., Weight 34,500 Ibs. 
 *6 Cylinder 230 B. H. P., Weight 53,000 Ibs. 
 
 6% -inch Crankshaft. 
 
 (*Dlrect Reversible Type.) 
 
 16V 2 "X24" at 210 R. P. M. = 102 B. H. P. per Cylinder. 
 
 149% Stroke ratio, 840 Piston Speed. 
 
 Approximate Weight 230 l>bs. per B.H.P. 
 
 *3 Cylinler 300 B. H. P., Weight 69,000 Ibs. 
 
 *4 Cylinder 400 B. H. P., Weight 92,000 Ibs. 
 
 *6 Cylinder 600 B. H. P., Weight 138,000 Ibs. 
 
 Crankshaft, 
 
 (* Direct Reversible Type.) 
 
366 DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 DIESEL ENGINES FOR SUBMERSIBLE CRAFTS. 
 
 That the Diesel engine has been found to answer the requirements 
 necessary as a prime mover suitable for naval duties on submersible 
 crafts has been fully proven. For many years the gasoline driven engine 
 was the best at our disposal, but as gasoline is a bad thing to handle 
 in the -confined space of a submarine, the Diesel engine rapidly sub- 
 stituted the gasoline engine as soon as the advantages were known to 
 governments throughout the world. The development of these engines 
 was quite advanced in Germany before any such marine engines were 
 built in this country. In order that we might advance as rapidly as 
 possible, all known engines of this type were examined by our engineers, 
 and the conclusion reached that the engine built in Nuremburg was 
 the best then developed. Steps were immediately taken to acquire the 
 rights for this country, and we were thus able to get for our submarines 
 the best engine then developed. Many of these engines were built and 
 are now in operation in. our submarines. In the building and operation 
 of these engines many things were found unsuitable for service in the 
 United States, the principal reason was their complication of mechanism. 
 In consequence a new engine was designed illustrated in Fig. 1. -Other 
 models also were soon brought before the Bureau of Navigation, and it 
 must be acknowledged that the United States Government has much 
 stimulated and encouraged the development of Diesel machinery. En- 
 gines built for submarine service must be rigid in construction, excellent 
 in workmanship, reliable in action, capable to stand every known abuse, 
 and above all, accessible for inspection. The change from gasoline to 
 heavy oil has brought out one very interesting characteristic, that is, 
 that with a given quantity of heavy oil, twice the number of horsepower- 
 hours may be obtained as from a like quantity of gasoline. Thus, with 
 a boat having a given full tank capacity, double the! radius of action is 
 obtained when the change from gasoline to oil is made. Another point is 
 that heavy oil costs about one-fifth as much per gallon as gasoMne; 
 thus for a given number of horsepower-hours the fuel of the Diesel 
 engine costs about one-tenth that for the gasoline engine. 
 
 Figure 2 gives a good idea of the mass of equipment of a submarine, 
 every part of the space being utilized. The picture is taken from amid- 
 ship looking forward. In the center of the picture is shown the hand 
 steering wheel. In general the steering is done by electric motor, shown 
 at the top of the picture. On the left is the air manifold, with valves 
 for control of the high-pressure air. These valves connect the air to all 
 the different tanks. By opening the valves to the main ballast tanks 
 the water may be blown out in a short period of time. On the right 
 is shown the water manifold which connects the different tanks to the 
 adjusting pumps, also the levers of the large Kingston valves. Figure 3 
 gives a view looking aft from amidships and showing the main motors 
 and engines. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 367 
 
368 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 It becomes necessary here to mention the Automatic Blow Valve. 
 This valve connects the high-pressure air line with the main ballast 
 tanks, and the control of the valve is by diaphragm in connection with 
 the outside sea water. Thus, if the pressure reaches too high a figure, 
 the high-pressure air is automatically turned into the main ballast tanks. 
 These tanks tare entirely filled with water, whenever any is there, and 
 therefore, at such times the main Kingston valves are left open. The 
 turning of the high-pressure air into these tanks is all the operation 
 required to empty the tanks. In the test the automatic blow valve is 
 set to some depth, say 50 ft., and the boat allowed slowly to sink. 
 When this depth is reached the pressure outside operates the valve 
 and some 75 tons of water are quickly blown out of the tanks. The 
 boat immediately starts to rise, and in less than one minute will reach 
 the surface, nearly jumping out of the water from the rapid rise. The 
 automatic blow valve may be set for any depth that may be desired. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 SCO 
 
370 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP DIESEL ENGINES 
 
DESCRIPTION OF DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 371 
 
 fe! 
 
m 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION. 
 
 *DETAILED INFORMATION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTION OF 
 
 WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC MFGR. CO.'S 
 
 DIESEL-ELECTRIC SYSTEM. 
 
 Diesel Electric System for Ship Propulsion: Although the Diesel 
 electric system, of ship propulsion is relatively new, the constituent parts 
 making up the system are well established. A Diesel electric system 
 preferably consists of two or more Diesel engine driven generators 
 furnishing power to a motor driven propeller. The ship may be of the 
 single, twin or multiple 'screw type. By using two or more generating 
 units for a propeller, definite advantages in the way of weight, flexibility, 
 control, reliability, etc., as discussed below, are readily obtained. The 
 simplicity of the Diesel electric system is obvious when it is realized 
 that the (principal component parts comprise only four pieces of ap- 
 paratus, such as Diesel engines, generators, motors and control, two of 
 which are quite similar. 
 
 Selection of Power: In selecting the power for a Diesel electric 
 system, we have a choice between alternating current and direct cur- 
 rent. For the reason that direct current obviates operating difficulties 
 ensuing from alternating current parallel operation; eliminates changes 
 in engine speed; adds enormously to the simplicity, refinement and 
 economy of control; and provides greater power in case of casualty to 
 a generating unit, the direct current system is obviously the proper sys- 
 tem to use. In cases where a single generator supplies power to a 
 single motor, alternating current could be used without encountering 
 difficulties ensuing from parallel operation, but such a system would be 
 far Inferior to the direct current system in flexibility, reserve power 
 and control. Furthermore, a multiplicity of generating units, as are 
 used inj the case of D. C. systems, adds considerably to the ultimate re- 
 liability. Therefore, in the large majority of cases, Diesel electric sys- 
 tems will utilize direct current. 
 
 In the case of direct current systems, there are two general ar- 
 rangements of machine connections that suggest themselves. One ar- 
 rangement is to operate the generators in parallel, and control the motor 
 speed and maneuvering by armature rheostatic means. This system, 
 
 *Specially Prepared by W. E. Thau, Marine Engineer. 
 Copyright by Westinghouse Electric & Mfgr. Co. 
 
374 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 however, is rather cumbersome, wasteful during maneuvers and speed' 
 changes, and necessitates a complicated controller. The other employs 
 what is known as the voltage control? or Ward Leonard control system. 
 With this system, -pure shunt machines are used and both motors and 
 generators are separately excited, preferably from the same source. 
 The motor fields are excited at constant potential, and always in the 
 same direction. The excitation of the generator fields is varied to suit 
 the motor speed and direction of rotation desired. By varying the volt- 
 age applied to the armature terminals of a shunt motor, having a con- 
 stant field excitation, the motor speed can be varied in direct proportion, 
 both as regards speed value and speed direction; and since the voltage 
 generated by a constant speed, separately excited, shunt wound gener- 
 ator is directly proportional to its field excitation (neglecting saturation), 
 the motor speed is, in turn, .proportional to the generator excitation. 
 With such an arrangement, therefore, it is only required to vary the gen- 
 erator fields from full excitation in one direction to full excitation in 
 the opposite direction, to cause the motor to maneuver from full speed 
 ahead to full speed astern. To further simplify this method of control, 
 all machines are connected in series. With the series connection, it is 
 unnecessary to maintain like speeds on all the engines. Provided the 
 generators are excited equal amounts and have identical performance, 
 the only effect of difference in engine speeds is a proportional difference 
 in the loads carried by the generators, and their driving engines. From 
 an operating standpoint, therefore, the series system is ideal, and per- 
 mits/by far the simplest system. Parallel operation of generators with 
 the Ward-Leonard system would be very difficult, in fact, almost im- 
 practical. 
 
 Since it is only necessary to handle the generator field excitation 
 currents for maneuvering the ship from full speed ahead to full speed 
 astern, or holding any particular desired speed, the economy of the 
 Ward-Leonard system is obviously superior to that of the armature 
 rheostatic system during any other than lull speed operation, for the 
 reason that the generator field excitation power does not exceed \ l / 2 % 
 of the total output of the generator. Dealing with these small currents, 
 the control is extremely simple and inexpensive. This simplicity has a 
 further direct effect on the maintenance of the equipment. 
 
 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF UNITS: 
 
 Engines: The engine used with Diesel electric propulsion may be 
 any reliable make of Diesel engine, which operates at a reasonably high 
 rotative speed. The term "rotative speed" is used instead of "speed" 
 to distinguish from high piston speeds. Many people associate the en- 
 gines used with Diesel electric propulsion with those used for sub- 
 marine propulsion. Diesel engines which are properly designed for use 
 with Diesel electric propulsion need not exceed established safe piston 
 speeds for continuous operating engines. By using many cylinders of 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 375 
 
 short stroke and small bore, the heat stresses common to large cylinder, 
 slow speed engines are minimized, and the result should be an engine 
 requiring less maintenance, and an engine of simpler construction. 
 
 By resorting to higher rotative speed engines, it is well known that 
 the weight per brake horsepower can be brought down very rapidly. 
 This characteristic is an important one in connection with Diesel elec- 
 tric drive, as the amount of weight thus saved in the engine is consid- 
 erably more than that added by the electrical machinery, and hence re- 
 sults in a total machinery installation which is lighter than that of any 
 other type. It is confidently anticipated that the weight of a Diesel 
 electric propulsive installation using properly designed engines, should 
 be approximately ^ that of a twin screw direct connected Diesel pro- 
 pulsive system, and in the neighborhood of 75% of the weight of an 
 economical, geared-turbine 'propulsive equipment. 
 
 Generators: The generators used with the preferable form of Diesel 
 electric propulsion are simple, direct current, shunt machines, the con- 
 struction and performance of which are easily comprehended by any 
 person having a mechanical turn of mind. These machines consist es- 
 sentially of two parts, the field or stationary element, and the armature 
 or rotating element. 
 
 The field is made up of a cylindrical steel ring, split at the horizontal 
 center line for convenience, and having an elliptical section. Electrically, 
 this frame serves to carry the field flux, and mechanically to support the 
 field poles. The frame is machined on the inside diameter in order to 
 form a true seat for the field ipoles which are bolted to it and symmetri- 
 cally spaced. The main field poles are composed of a number of die- 
 punched laminations of sheet iron, which are riveted together to form a 
 solid pole. The commutating field poles are built of solid steel and lo- 
 cated between the main poles. 
 
 The main field coils which produce the field flux consist of a, large 
 number of turns of insulated copper wire having a relatively small sec- 
 tion. The coil is wound on a form, slipped on the field poles before they 
 are bolted to the frame, and rigidly supported from these field poles by 
 insulated supports. These coils are known as shunt coils, and are con- 
 nected in series. 
 
 The winding for the commutating field pole consists of a relatively 
 small number of turns of bare copper strap secured by insulated sup- 
 ports. This winding is connected in series with the armature, and car- 
 ries the line current. The purpose of the commutating pole winding is to 
 provide a magnetic field to neutralize the effect of the current reversal 
 in the armature coils undergoing commutation, .and thus to effect spark' 
 less commutation. Since the commutating field winding is in series with 
 the armature, and carries the same current, the correct amount of com- 
 mutating pole flux is automatically provided under all conditions of load 
 within the capacity of the machine. 
 
 The armature consists essentially of a cylindrical core built up of 
 steel laminations which are dovetailed and secured to a cast spider, the 
 
376 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 spider in turn being pressed and keyed on to the shaft. The steel lam- 
 inations are provided with teeth punched in their periphery, and into 
 which the armature coils are placed. 
 
 The commutator to which the armature coils are connected is made 
 up of a series of hard drawn copper bars securely Insulated from one 
 another by means of mica insulation. These commutator bars are built 
 up on a separate spider and securely fastened thereto by means of "V" 
 rings fitting into insulated machined recesses in the bars, or by some 
 other suitable means. The commutator spider is then pressed on an ex- 
 tension of the armature spider, or directly on the shaft and keyed 
 thereto. 
 
 The armature coils are form wound and completely insulated and 
 treated so as to be moisture resistant, before they are placed in the slots, 
 and connected to their respective commutator bars. The armature coils 
 for any given machine are identical. 
 
 The armature is usually carried on a forged steel shaft having an 
 integral flange at one end which is bolted directly to the flywheel of the 
 engine, the other end being carried by a pedestal type bearing. 
 
 The brush rigging which properly constitutes a part of the stationary 
 member, serves to collect the current from the commutator, and is sup- 
 ported from the field frame. There are the same number of brush arms 
 as main field poles. Brush arms are symmetrically placed and so located 
 that the brushes rest on commutator bars which connect to armature 
 coils, which lie in the commutating zone, which in a commutating pole 
 machine is midway between the main field poles. 
 
 The brush arms carry a series of brush holders, each of which is 
 provided with a carbon brush connected to the brush holder by means of 
 a copper shunt (sometimes called a pig-tail). To insure an equal dis- 
 tribution of current in the brushes, an adjustable spring is provided on 
 each brush holder which maintains the pressure of the carbon brush on 
 the commutator at a given predetermined correct value. 
 
 Motors: The corresponding description of the motor is identically 
 the same as that of the generator, and therefore, will not be given. In 
 order to minimize the total weight, it is preferable to provide the motor 
 without a bedplate, and simply to provide feet on the field frames and 
 bearing pedestals suitable for mounting on a built-up structural steel 
 bedplate in the ship. The structure supporting the motor should be 
 rigid so as to avoid distortion^ 
 
 The bearings of the generators are usually supplied with lubrication 
 from the engine lubricating system. In the case of the motors, it is usual 
 to provide oil ring lubrication. In some cases, however, forced or flood 
 lubrication is provided, the oil being supplied by a gear pump actuated 
 from the motor shaft. 
 
 Exciter Arrangements: The exciters for the generator and motor 
 fields may either be driven by the main engines, or by separate engines. 
 In either case, they may furnish power to the auxiliaries in addition to 
 that for excitation. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 377 
 
 If driven by the main engines, the exciters should be direct con- 
 nected to the main generator either by means of a coupling, or by 
 mounting on an extension of the generator shaft. In the latter arrange- 
 ment, the exciter armature may be overhung if the mechanical factors 
 permit. Driving the exciters from the main generator shafts by means 
 of chains, belts or gears, effects a slight saving in weight and overall 
 length of the set, however, it is not nearly as satisfactory mechanically 
 as direct drive. 
 
 Whether it is best to use direct driven, or separately driven exciters, 
 depends upon such factors as sea load, desired flexibility, capacity of 
 main generators as related to port demands, available space, etc., and 
 each case must be considered on its merits. When the arrangement is 
 convenient, it is usually preferable, however, to drive the exciters by the 
 main engines, as it results in a self-contained propulsive plant. 
 
 Control: The control consists of a suitable switchboard containing 
 the necessary switches for the several machines involved, the instru- 
 ments, protective relays, circuit breaker, etc.; a special reversing field 
 rheostat for the generator field circuits; and a manually operated, re- 
 mote control mechaniam, preferably mounted on a pedestal for operat- 
 ing the field rheostat. 
 
 There are two general methods of operating the field rheostat. One 
 method employs a handle which operates in the fore and! aft direction, 
 and is thus similar to present steam engine control. This handle operates 
 the rheostat through a system of rods and bevel gears. The other sys- 
 tem employs a worm and wheel instead of the handle, and is preferable 
 to the handle for the reason that it provides an inherent time element 
 in that it requires a certain definite time to actuate it from full ahead to 
 stop, and full astern positions. This time element is essential, as too 
 rapid change in the field strength, would cause serious overloads on the 
 machinery. It has been found from actual service that the minimum 
 time which would be consumed in bringing the propellers from full 
 speed ahead to the stopped condition is approximately 5 seconds, and 
 by designing the worm and wheel so that it would require 5 seconds 
 to make the number of turns necessary for full speed to stop position, 
 this required time element is automatically provided. With the lever 
 operation, it is possible to move the control instantly to the off position, 
 and thereby cause a large rush of current. 
 
 The switches for the machines are so arranged that any particular 
 generator or motor unit may be taken out of service by simply throwing 
 its switch from one position to another. This operation is usually ef- 
 fected without interrupting the service to the propeller motor. 
 
 A more detailed description of the control is given below in the case 
 of a specific example, 
 
378 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 ADVANTAGES: 
 
 The advantages of Diesel electric propulsion as compared with any 
 form of steam drive are very pronounced. 
 
 Fuel Economy: The most important advantage is that resulting 
 from the difference of fuel economy. A properly designed Diesel electric 
 propulsive equipment requires about 0.55 Ibs. of oil per shaft horsepower 
 hour for all purposes, whereas the average high grade steam installation 
 requires about twice this amount, or more. The saving in fuel is of two- 
 fold importance First, the actual difference in fuel cost, and second, the 
 additional cargo that can be carried due to the decreased weight of fuel, 
 or the greater cruising radius for a given amount of fuel oil. 
 
 Weight: A proper Diesel electric propulsive equipment being lighter 
 than the geared turbine equipment of high grade performance, enables 
 additional cargo to be carried in the amount of the weight difference. 
 The importance of this feature is apparent as it affects the ultimate 
 earning ability of the ship. 
 
 As compared with a direct connected twin screw Diesel drive, the 
 Diesel electric is about on a parity in regard to fuel consumption, but 
 considerably lighter in weight. 
 
 The direct drive Diesel has demonstrated its superior economy in 
 the earning power of the ship as compared with the steam drive. The 
 result was accomplished in, spite of the excess machinery weight of the 
 former as compared with the latter. Similarly, as the Diesel electric is 
 considerably lighter than the direct drive Diesel, the Diesel electric will 
 show superior earning power as compared with the direct drive Diesel, 
 particularly on long runs. 
 
 Reliability and Reserve Power: By providing a number of small 
 generating units, the reliability of the Diesel electric drive is superior 
 to that of the direct connected Diesel drive, both from the standpoint of 
 individual engines, and the drive collectively, in the case of casualty. 
 This superiority of the Diesel electric also obtains when compared with 
 the steam drive. 
 
 Reserve power in case of casualty to any of the generating units is 
 important. Having a number of generating units, the reliability in case 
 of casualty is infinitely greater than in the case of a single screw steam- 
 ship. Although with a cross compound geared turbine, the failure of one 
 element would still enable operation at about 50% power from the re- 
 maining element, it would be at a sacrifice of considerable speed and 
 economy. A similar analysis applies in the case of the twin screw direct 
 connected Diesel. To provide a motor of small diameter it is customary 
 to use what is known as a double unit motor which, incidentally, results 
 in greater reserve power flexibility. The double unit motor essentially 
 consists of two electrically independent motors mounted on the same 
 shaft. With such an arrangement, the reliability and reserve power of 
 the Diesel electric in case of casualty, is infinitely superior to that of 
 the single turbine and single direct drive Diesel single-screw ship. 
 
DIKSE'L ELECTRIC PROPULSION 379 
 
 With the Ward-Leonard system, using the series arrangement of 
 machines, more reserve power is available in case of casualty to a prime 
 mover than is the ease with any other system of ship propulsion. Tak- 
 ing, for example, a 3-generator, single-screw arrangement, the failure of 
 one generating unit would enable 88% speed to be obtained with the re- 
 maining two sets, and in the case of the failure of two generating sets, 
 the single remaining set would furnish sufficient power to propel the 
 ship at 70% speed. This analysis is 'based on the driving power varying 
 as the cube of the speed. This system is in fact the only system that 
 permits full power to 'be derived from remaining units without overload- 
 ing them, or increasing the original size and weight. 
 
 To obtain the full capacity of the remaining units under conditions 
 stated in the foregoing paragraph, it is merely necessary to set each 
 generator for its full rated voltage, and then to decrease the motor field 
 current until full load armature current flows through the system. In 
 the example cited, full load current with two generators in operation 
 would supply two-thirds of the total power, and with one generator in 
 operation, would supply one-third full power. It is necessary to weaken 
 the motor field to obtain the required speed for the remaining power, as 
 otherwise the motor would operate at a speed directly proportional to 
 the total remaining generator voltage. If the motor is of the single 
 armature type, its field flux would be reduced to 76% to obtain 88% 
 speed with two generators in operation; and 47^% with one generator 
 in operation. If the motor is of, the double unit type with its armatures 
 normally operated in series, 70% speed can 'be obtained with one gen- 
 erator, and one motor unit, and in this case this motor field flux is re- 
 duced to about 95% of full value. 
 
 In the case of a twin or multiple screw ship having Diesel electric 
 propulsion, a casualty to a prime mover does not prevent supplying bal- 
 anced power to all screws. The switching is so arranged that the gen- 
 erators may be connected to any of the motors. This is of further ad- 
 vantage in that the remaining prime movers are operated under normal 
 power conditions and consequently normal efficiency. 
 
 Recalling the reliability which was discussed above, it is incon- 
 ceivable to imagine a reasonable condition of casualty in the case of 
 Diesel electric propulsion that would prevent the ship from reaching 
 port at a reasonable speed. 
 
 Simplicity: The characteristics of the engine for Diesel electric 
 drive are constant speed and reasonably close regulation from no load 
 to full load. iSince the engines operate at constant speed and always in 
 one direction, it is unnecessary to point out the elimination of the re- 
 versing gear, as well as the air for reversing. The result of the elimina- 
 tion of these two features means a simpler and probably a more reliable 
 engine. It at least reduces the air problems to their simplest terms. 
 Air is used only for the initial start in port. In fact, the plant can be 
 arranged so that only one engine need be started by air and subsequent 
 engines started electrically by utilizing their generators as motors. 
 
380 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Furthermore, as an extreme arrangement, starting air may be eliminated 
 entirely by providing a .small gasoline or kerosene engine generator set 
 to do the starting of the main engines electrically. 
 
 Stand-by Conditions: Since the Diesel engine consumes fuel only 
 when running, a further economy is effected by the elimination of stand- 
 by losses. Also, it is unnecessary to warm up various pieces of machin- 
 ery, such as boilers, turbines, etc., for a long period prior to "getting 
 under way." The Diesel electric system can be made ready for sailing 
 on short notice. 
 
 Conclusion: From the foregoing discussion, it will be obvious that 
 the Diesel electric system of ship propulsion using series connected 
 D. C. machines operating on the Ward-Leonard principle, is considerably 
 more than a mere electric coupling or gear. It is a system containing 
 very pronounced features which are of direct advantage to the improved 
 performance of the ship. The fact that the electrical machines constitute 
 a reliable 'and flexible substitution for gears and magnetic couplings is 
 merely incidental. 
 
 LIMITS OF CAPACITY: 
 
 Based on present-day available Diesel engines, which are suitable 
 for Diesel electric drive, the capacity limit of a single Diesel electric 
 drive, is approximately 7500 H. P. This figure could be increased by 
 using an unreasonably large number of engines. Some ultra-enthusiastic 
 advocates of Diesel electric propulsion have entertained the idea of using 
 as many as 18 engines. However, the more conservative advocates would 
 limit the number of engines for a single installation to eight, and this 
 only as an extreme measure. The preferable number of engines for a 
 single-screw drive is three or four. 
 
 Engines of 1000 H. P. per cylinder are now being seriously consid- 
 ered, and in fact, developments of such engines are already under way. 
 Using six or eight cylinder engines, having this capacity of cylinder, it 
 is easily conceivable that single installations of 50,000 H. P. are on the 
 horizon. 
 
 With possible future developments in Diesel engines, the limit may 
 be within the greatest demand for a single drive. As Kipling said, 
 "Came the power with the need." 
 
 PERFORMANCE: 
 
 Stopping and R-eversing: Because of the inherent functioning of a 
 Ward-Leonard system of Diesel electric propulsion it is necessary to give 
 some thought to the inherent characteristics of propeller performance, 
 particularly quick istopping when under full headway. Turning warrants 
 consideration only in the case of multiple screw ships, and only then in 
 particular types of drive, such as turbine-electric using alternating cur- 
 rent machinery. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 381 
 
 During quick stopping, however, it is necessary to overcome the 
 propeller torque in order to bring the ipropeller to rest. This propeller 
 torque is developed by reason of the motion of the ship through the 
 water, which causes the propeller to be driven as a water motor. Al- 
 though strict analysis of this performance is not pertinent to the pres- 
 ent discussion, it is well to recognize the results. In the case of a pure 
 Ward-Leonard system of Diesel electric propulsion, the principal means 
 of absorbing the energy returned through the screw is the friction of the 
 engines. If more energy is returned than can be dissipated by the fric- 
 tion losses in the engines, and the losses of transmission, external means 
 such as dynamic braking resistors must be provided. If all the energy 
 returned by the screw is not dissipated by the f Fictional losses of the 
 engines, or otherwise, it will be expended in increasing the speed of the 
 engines. Whether or not the increased speed would be detrimental to 
 the engines can only be conjectured. However, it is confidently be- 
 lieved that in the large majority of cases, and particularly those of the 
 ordinary cargo ship, that this energy will not be in excess of that which 
 can be obsorbed by the frictional losses of the engine. Specific tests of 
 this performance were made in the case of some Diesel electric yachts 
 when stopping from full speed, and it was found that there were no 
 increases in the engine speeds due to this cause. 
 
 A conservative analysis shows that the maximum horsepower re- 
 turned to the engines when bringing the propellers to rest from full 
 speed, is approximately 33%, and that this peak value will last for a 
 very brief instant only. The average horsepower returned is approxi- 
 mately 18%. The values take into account the torque produced by the 
 propeller and the inertia forces of the motor armatures and the pro- 
 peller, based on a stop of five seconds. Since the average four-cycle 
 engine with attached auxiliaries) is approximately 75% efficient, and the 
 average two-cycle engine with attached auxiliaries is approximately 72% 
 efficient, based on brake horsepower, it is apparent that the frictional 
 losses in either case amount to at least 33% of the engine output. There 
 is a slight margin in these figures, as no allowance was made for the 
 propeller shaft bearing friction. Due to this returned energy when mak- 
 ing quick stops, or reversals, it is necessary to design the engine gov- 
 ernors to throttle to practically zero oil flow, in order that the friction 
 losses of the engine may provide a load for absorbing the returned 
 energy. 
 
 In cases where the compressors, etc., are separately driven, and in 
 cases where the returned energy otherwise is in excess of what the 
 engines can absorb, it is necessary to connect resistance in the circuit 
 during quick stops, for absorbing the excess. This is very easily ar- 
 ranged, and its insertion is done automatically by an auxiliary circuit 
 actuated by virtue of relative position or motion of the control device. 
 
 Turning: When turning ait full power, there is an increase in the 
 load on the propellers. This increase is particularly pronounced in the 
 case of multiple screw ships, as the power builds up enormously, especial- 
 ly on the inboard side of the turn if means are not taken to guard 
 
382 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 against it. This characteristic causes some concern in the case of al- 
 ternating current drives, and necessitates special control devices. Eveii 
 though the input to the prime mover toe limited to normal running value, 
 there is a drop in its speed and an increase in torque of approximately 
 25% to 30%. Since a normal Diesel engine has very little overload 
 capacity, any building up of torque will cause a reduction in its speed, 
 and therefore, its output is automatically limited. The inherent char^ 
 acteristics of the D. C. motors and generators >are such that they will 
 carry the increase in torque without the least danger of becoming un- 
 stable, and hence no special precautions need be taken. There is always 
 a stable couple between the generators and the motors. 
 
 Bridge Control: Since the engines operate at practically constant 
 speed, and in the same direction at all times, and are under the control 
 o-f a constant speed governor, they require no attention during maneuver- 
 ing. This combined, with the absence of such factors as steam pressure, 
 boiler fires, priming, etc., make control of the propeller machinery from 
 a remote location entirely feasible. In other words, the ship is controlled 
 just as easily from the bridge as from the engine room. The importance 
 of such performance is obvious in the case of ships requiring very ac- 
 curate maneuvering in restricted places, as it eliminates both delay in re- 
 sponse to signals, and risk as a consequence of mistaken signals, The 
 Diesel electric system is, in fact, the only system of ship propulsion 
 that affords bridge control without resorting to complications which are 
 questionable at best. 
 
 Torque at Low Sp-eed: In regard to low speed torque, the Diesel 
 electric system here described is very similar to the turbine, in that it 
 is capable of developing large overload torque at reduced speed: Theo- 
 retically, the torque at the motor shaft may be increased in inverse ratio 
 to the speed without overloading the engines. However, safe commuta- 
 tion of the electrical machines of ordinary design places a practical 
 limit on the torque that can be developed under these conditions. For 
 the purpose of ship drive, however, the ordinary direct current machine 
 will develop sufficient torque to meet any emergency. 
 
 Special Provisions: A few special precautions are) necessary. Over- 
 load protection is necessary to prevent serious injury to the electrical 
 machinery. This protection is provided in the form of a circuit breaker 
 whose function it is to open the circuit on excessive overloads. Owing 
 to the desirability of maintaining continual control of the screw under 
 all conditions, the adjustment of the circuit breaker is such that it will 
 not open under any normal operating conditions of the ship. The idea 
 in providing the circuit breaker is merely to provide protection to the 
 machinery in the case of an equivalent of a short-circuit. 
 
 Assuming that the circuit breaker has tripped while the ship is 
 under way, and it is desirable to immediately regain control of the 
 screw, it is necessary to first establish proper voltage conditions on both 
 sides of the circuit breaker before the circuit breaker can be closed. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 383 
 
 The motor will generate a counter voltage due to the fact that it is toe- 
 ing rotated by the action of the propeller. To close the circuit breaker 
 without jarring the machinery or producing a large rush of current, It 
 is necessary that the generator voltage be somewhere near that of the 
 motor voltage. To effect the closing of the circuit breaker ait the proper 
 instant, voltage balance relays are provided, the function of which is to 
 prevent the automatic circuit breaker from closing until the voltages on 
 both sides of its contacts are approximately the same. This device is 
 automatic and is described below in the case of a specific example. 
 
 In the case of a number of generators connected in series, the fail- 
 ure of power on one of the engines would result in that generator 
 stopping, reversing and speeding up in the opposite direction as a motor, 
 being supplied with power from the remaining generating sets. The 
 speed which this generator would obtain depends upon the itotal amount 
 of voltage it would absorb from the system, and if the number of gen- 
 erators on the system is sufficient, the speed might be excessive, and 
 would likely result in casualty to the engine. To prevent this, some 
 device which will automatically trip the field of the inactive generator, 
 or perform an equivalent service, must be provided. There are several 
 ways of accomplishing this result. 
 
 In the case of double-ended ferry boats using the Ward-Leonard 
 system of control, it is very likely that the energy returned during quick 
 stopping or reversal from full speed would be more than could 'be taken 
 care of by the lossesi in the engines, due to the fact that there are two 
 screws returning energy instead of one. To prevent the return of en- 
 ergy from both screws, it is necessary to either provide a dynamic 
 braking resistance to absorb the excess over what the engines can take 
 care of, or to make one motor inactive during ithis period. To make one 
 motor ineffective, a system has 'been devised which utilizes a current 
 relay. During the stopping period, this relay regulates the current in 
 one of the motor circuits ito a very small value, and thus prevents that 
 particular motor from returning energy. 
 
 APPLICATIONS: 
 
 Because of the advantages in fuel economy, weight, control, re- 
 liability, flexibility, etc., of the Diesel electric system of propulsion, it is 
 largely applicable to cargo ships, coastwise vessels, liners, certain Naval 
 craft, fishing boats, yachts, ferry boats, barges, lake 'boats, river boats, 
 cable ships, fire boats; in fact, any ship where economy, refinement of 
 control, good maneuvering characteristics, etc., are of any importance. 
 
 The following table indicates those advantages offered by Diesel 
 electric drive which are of particular importance in the various types 
 of ships: 
 
384 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 PRINCIPAL APPLICATION ADVANTAGES 
 Main Machinery Only 
 
 II 
 
 t 
 
 tUD 
 .S W 
 
 3 
 JH o3 
 
 OK 
 
 Cargo ships _. .XX XX 
 
 Coastwise vessels X XX 
 
 Liners X XX 
 
 Certain Naval craft. _ X X X X X X 
 
 Fishing boats __X X X 
 
 Yachts X XXX 
 
 Ferry boats X X X X X 
 
 Barges X X X X X X 
 
 Lake boats XX XXX 
 
 River boats X X X X X X 
 
 Light ships XX Xf 
 
 Cable ships X X X X X 
 
 Fire boats X X X X X 
 
 Self-propelled dredges X X X X X 
 
 * This refers principally to stand-by losses, 
 t Consumption while on duty. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 A 2500 S. H. P. DIESEL ELECTRIC DRIVE. 
 
 G'eneral Description and Arrangement: To convey a clear idea of 
 Diesel electric drive, it is thought best to describe a specific case. The 
 example selected is a 2500 S. H. P., single screw drive, having four 500 
 KW., Diesel driven, 250 volt, generators supplying power to a 2500 H. P., 
 double unit, 90 R. P. M. motor. Two 75 KW Diesel engine auxiliary 
 generating sets are provided for supplying the excitation and auxiliary 
 load while at sea. The following is the list of apparatus constituting 
 the drive: 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 385 
 
 12500 H. P., 90 R. P. M., double unit, direct current, 500 volt, shunt 
 motor. The two armatures are mounted on a forged, flanged shaft car- 
 ried by two pedestal bearings. The motor frames and the bearing 
 housings and bearings are split along the horizontal center line to pro- 
 vide easy access. Fig. 1 shows a view of a motor of /this type on test. 
 Figure 2 shows the field of a similar motor. Fig. 3 shows a view of a 
 small D. C. propeller motor with thrust bearing and bedplate arranged 
 for mounting on a wooden foundation. 
 
 Fig. I Typical Double Unit Direct Current Shunt Propeller Motor 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 2 Field of Typical Direct Current Shunt Motor or Generator 
 
 4500 KW., 250 volt, direct current, shunt generators, direct coupled 
 to four Diesel engines. The generator armature is mounted on a forged, 
 flanged shaft supported at the commutator end by a pedestal bearing 
 
386 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 and coupled to the engine flywheel at the rear end. As in the case of 
 the motors, the frame and bearings are split. Fig. 4 shows a view of a 
 Diesel engine generator set, the arrangement of which corresponds to 
 that described. 
 
 2 75 K.W., 250 volt, compound wound, direct current, Diesel engine 
 driven, auxiliary generators. The mechanical arrangement is the same 
 as that of the main generators. One of these sets serves as a spare. 
 
 1 Complement of motor driven, engine room, auxiliaries, such as 
 oil pumps, circulating pumps, auxiliary air compressor, sanitary, fresh 
 water, fire and bilge pumps, etc. 
 
 Fig. 3. Double Unit Propeller Motor with Bedplate and Self -Contained 
 
 Thrust Bearing 
 
 1 Switchboard and control for the above machinery. 
 
 As the description of Diesel engines is well covered on other pages 
 of this book, and as the electrical machines are briefly described pre- 
 viously in this chapter, no further description is given here. For a 
 comprehensive treatise of the design, construction and characteristics of 
 electrical apparatus, the reader is referred to any of the many reliable 
 electrical text books found in libraries and book establishments. The 
 control, its arrangement and operation are, however, briefly described 
 below. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the plan view of the machinery and its arrangement 
 in the engine room. The four main Diesel generating sets are located 
 forward; and the motor, auxiliary Diesel generating sets, vice bench, 
 switchboard and control station are located aft. The oil supply tanks 
 and other accessories are located on the upper grating (not shown). 
 The location of the control station is such that the operator has full 
 view of the propelling machinery, and hence the operator can observe 
 the performance at all times. The engines are arranged right and left 
 hand, so that their controls and gauge boards may be conveniently 
 handled and observed. The entire arrangement provides accessibility 
 and convenience for operation and inspection, and at the same time is 
 not wasteful of space. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 387 
 
36* 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 389 
 
 I 
 
 * s 
 Jl 
 
 
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 i fife 
 
 HtalUHJl 
 
 M 
 
 II 
 
 i 
 
 ^ g' < N K H. H < 4 ^ * 
 
390 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 SWITCHBOARD AND CONTROL: 
 
 Diagram: The control diagram is shown in Fig. 6. The small dia- 
 gram in the lower left hand corner shows the scheme of connections, 
 and the main diagram shows the full details of connections, including 
 all necessary switches, circuit breaker, relays, etc. A glance at the dia- 
 gram will show that all main machines are connected in series, and 
 furthermore, that the motor and generator armatures are interspersed 
 so that the current passes through the circuit in the following order: 
 Generator No. 1, Generator No. 2, Motor No. 2, Generator No. 3, Gen- 
 erator No. 4, Motor No. 1, and back to Generator No. 1, thus constituting 
 a series circuit. 
 
 Since the total voltage of a chain of series connected generators is 
 the sum of the voltages of the individual machines, the total effective 
 voltage in this case is 4 X 250 or 1000 volts. However, by interspersing 
 the motor armatures in the manner stated, the ground voltage, or the 
 maximum voltage between any two points in ithe system is only 500 
 volts. Such an arrangement is advantageous in that the circuit is really 
 a 1000-volt system from a current standpoint, but only a 500-volt system 
 from a voltage or insulation standpoint. In other words, it necessitates 
 only one-half the copper that would be required in a 500-volt system 
 of this same capacity, and at the same time does not exceed the 500-volt 
 insulation strain. 
 
 Switches, Relays, etc.: The principal switches, relays, etc., are 
 designated by letters, and all switches performing the same function bear 
 the same letter. For instance, all generator cutout switches are desig- 
 nated by the letter "A." 
 
 "A" Two pole, manually operated, transfer, knife cutout switch 
 for generators. When closed in the upper position, these switches con- 
 nect their respective generators in the propulsion circuit; and when 
 thrown to their full lower position, their blades connect to a solid bar, 
 thus cutting the generator out of the propulsion circuit and establishing 
 the series propulsion circuit through the bar between the lower contact 
 jaws. The upper and lower portions of the blades are at an angle, so 
 that the switch makes contact on the first set of lower jaws before 
 breaking contact on the upper jaws, and vice versa. In the lower throw, 
 the right hand lower blade engages two jaws in sequence. The first 
 jaw inserts a resistance which prevents a rush of current, due to the 
 residual field of the generator. Further closing breaks the connection 
 to the generator armature on the upper jaws, and engages the bar on 
 the lower jaws. This switch is electrically locked against being thrown 
 to the lower position until (the generator field has been opened. 
 
 N "B" Two pole, double throw, motor cutout, manually operated 
 knife switch. This switch has no special features as it is not operated 
 when the circuit is alive. The upper position connects the motor in the 
 propulsion circuit, and the lower position cuts out the motor and es- 
 tablishes the propulsion circuit through the bar between the lower jaws. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 391 
 
 "C" Three pole, single throw, main generator auxiliary bus switches. 
 These switches are provided in order to utilize the main generators when 
 in port for supplying auxiliary power. It will be noted that this switch 
 is three pole to permit parallel operation (equalizer connection), and 
 that a series field is connected in the circuit to give the generator the 
 desired compound characteristics. 
 
 Switches "A" and "C" are interlocked so that only one or the other 
 can be closed in the upper position at the same time. This prevents using 
 the generator for two purposes. 
 
 "D" Generator field switches. 
 
 "E" Motor field switches. 
 
 "F" Engine failure trip, field circuit breaker. These are provided 
 to automatically make the generator ineffective and to prevent its motor- 
 izing in the event of failure of its engine. This breaker is connected in 
 the separate excitation circuit only as such protection is unnecessary 
 when the generators are operating on the auxiliary bus. The means for 
 opening this field circuit breaker is actuated by a mechanical attachment 
 on 'the engine, or by a voltage differential relay; the latter, however, is 
 rather complicated. 
 
 "G" Voltage balance relay for insuring that the motor counter volt- 
 age and the generator voltage are approximately at the same value be- 
 fore the automatic main circuit breaker can be closed. This lock-out 
 feature is necessary in case the main circuit breaker trips while the 
 ship is under way, as explained above. 
 
 The device consists essentially of a spring-closed relay contact in the 
 auxiliary circuit of the closing coil of the main automatic circuit breaker, 
 and a polarized magnet, one pole of which is excited by the generator 
 voltage and the other pole of which is excited by the motor voltage. 
 When the two voltages are equal, the flux produced in the magnet core 
 by the two windings is neutralized and there is no pull on the relay arm, 
 and the auxiliary circuit to the main circuit breaker coil remains intact. 
 If the generator voltage is appreciably different than the motor voltage, 
 a pull is exerted on the relay arm by the polarized magnet, and the relay 
 contact is opened, thereby preventing the main circuit breaker from 
 closing. 
 
 "H" Automatic reclosing circuit breaker located in the propulsion 
 circuit. As stated above, the function of this device is to protect the 
 machinery against practically short-circuit conditions. The breaker is 
 provided with an inverse time element overload relay. In the event of 
 very severe or sustained dangerous overloads, this relay, whose magnet 
 is excited by the main current, will open the circuit of the circuit breaker 
 closing coil through the auxiliary relay, and disrupt the main circuit. To 
 again close the circuit breaker, it is necessary to adjust the generator 
 voltage by means of the main control handle, to the value of the motor 
 counter voltage. To re-establish the proper generator voltage, it is merely 
 necessary to move the control handle slowly to the "increase" or "de- 
 
392 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 crease" position, as the case may be, and when the proper position is 
 reached, the breaker will close automatically. 
 
 "I" Auxiliary relay through which 'the operating coil of the main 
 circuit breaker is excited. This auxiliary relay is provided for the reason 
 that the polarized relay contacts are of insufficient capacity to handle 
 the current of the main circuit breaker closing coil. 
 
 "J" Field discharge switch for the reversing rheostat. 
 
 "K" Reversing field rheostat for main generator field excitation 
 when generators are connected to ithe propulsion circuit. 
 
 (Note. When the main generators are used for auxiliary power, they 
 are self-excited and operate as normal compound wound generators.) 
 
 The simple diagrammatic scheme of the type of field rheostat used 
 for the control of the propulsive machinery is shown in the lower left 
 hand corner of the main diagram in Fig. 6. The rheostat is constantly 
 energized from the excitation circuit. The leads to the field slide sym- 
 metrically over buttons on the rheostat face plate which are connected 
 to the resistance at regular intervals. The arrangement is such that 
 the lead contacts of the field circuit effectually cross each other at the 
 middle point of the rheostat in going from full excitation in one direc- 
 tion to full excitation in the other, and hence not even a field circuit is 
 opened in going from ahead to astern. 
 
 "L" Overload inverse time limit relay. This is described under "H." 
 
 "M" Switch for making overload relay inoperative. The purpose of 
 this is to provide a means for making the circuit 'breaker non-automatic 
 in the event that maneuvers in dangerous or restricted waters make it 
 imperative to maintain a positive couple 'between the motors and gener- 
 ators. To make the relay inoperative, it is merely necessary for the 
 operator to press a button, or close a small switch which bridges the 
 overload relay contacts. 
 
 "N" Three pole, single throw, knife switches for connecting the 
 auxiliary generators to the main bus. Three pole switches are provided 
 to permit parallel operation. 
 
 "O" Overload time limit circuit 'breakers for all generators when 
 connected to the auxiliary bus. 
 
 "P" Two pole, transfer switch for excitation circuits. This switch 
 is very similar to "A," except that both throws are like the lower throw 
 of "A" and have the preventative resistance. 
 
 The purpose of the switch is to provide a ready means for quickly 
 transferring the excitation circuits from one auxiliary generator to the 
 other, and also to provide an excitation connection to the auxiliary gen- 
 erators which is unprotected by circuit disrupting devices. 
 
 Figure 7 shows a front view of a switchboard and control panel for 
 a small Diesel electric drive, consisting of two generator units and one 
 double unit motor operating on the principle herein described. It will 
 be noted that the generator field control handle is mounted directly on 
 this switchboard and is shown in the center near the top. The switches 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 393 
 
 for cutting in and out the various generators -and motor units are shown 
 on the center panel. In this particular case, however, the switches are 
 not of the transfer type, and switching must be done on dead circuit. 
 
 7_ Switchboard and Control for a Single Screw, Diesel Electric Drive 
 
 Fig. 8 Front View of Switchboard for a Double Ended Ferry Boat, 
 Diesel Electric Drive 
 
394 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Figure 8 shows the front view of a switchboard for a double-ended 
 ferry boat Diesel electric drive. The control pedestal for operating the 
 field rheostat is located in the pilot house. 
 
 Figure 9 This view shows the rear of the board, the front view of 
 which is shown in Figure 8. 
 
 Figure 10 This view shows a double face plate rheostat of the type 
 ustHl in the main generator circuit for controlling the propeller motor 
 aptwls. The rheostat is actuated manually from any remote point. 
 
 Fi<j. 9 Rear View of the Switchboard Shown in Fig 8 
 
 Fig. 10 Double Face Plate, Main Control Rheostat 
 
 Figure 11 This photograph shows a view of the generator field con* 
 trol pedestal for a drive having two motors independently controlled. All 
 maneuvers of the ship are effected by motion of the small levers shown 
 at the top of the pedestal. 
 
 Figure 12 shows a view of a control pedestal for a single screw ship 
 such as is described. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 395 
 
 Fig. II Control Pedestal for 
 Twin Screw Diesel Electric Drive 
 
 Fig. 12 Control Pedestal for a 
 Single Screw Diesel Electric Drive 
 
 Operation 
 
 Preparing to Get Under Way: Upon receipt of notice to prepare for 
 getting under way at full power, the first operation is to see that all 
 switches are in the proper position. Close switches "A" and "B" in 
 upper position; close switch "D" to the right; close field circuit breakers 
 "F"; close excitation switch "P" to the exciter which is in operation; see 
 that generator field control handle is in the "off" position, and start the 
 engines. 
 
 G-etting Under Way Ahead: Upon signal to get under way, close the 
 field switches "E" and "J". (The closing of "J" establishes power to the 
 circuit breaker closing coil.) Move control handle ahead in answer to 
 the signal and adjust the speed to the required value. 
 
 Getting Under Way Astern: Proceed as under way "ahead," as de- 
 scribed above, except move the control handle to the astern direction. 
 
 Stopping: If it is merely desired to stop the ship without regard to 
 time, move the control handle slowly to the "off" position. 
 
 If it is required to stop the ship quickly as in the case of an emer- 
 gency, move the control handle toward the "off" position at such a rate 
 as will maintain the current at 100 per cent to 150 per cent of full load 
 
396 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 value. In this operation, the current will reverse as soon as the gener- 
 ator voltage is reduced below the motor counter voltage, and will stay 
 reversed until astern operation ceases. 
 
 Special Set Ups: If the machinery is idle when changing set ups, 
 the switches may be thrown without any special precautions. If, how- 
 ever, the ship is under way at the time of changing set ups, reduce the 
 voltage by means of the individual field rheostat to approximately zero, 
 and' trip the field circuit breaker of the generator which is to be taken 
 out of service. Then throw switch "A" to its extreme lower position 
 after the electric lock described above has released the switch lever. 
 Then shut down the engine. 
 
 To put a generator back into service while the ship is under way, 
 reverse the above operations. 
 
 Since the probability of having to take a motor unit out of service 
 while the ship is under way, is extremely remote, no provision is made 
 for disconnecting it without interrupting the circuit. To take a moitor 
 unit out of circuit, move the main generator field control slowly to the 
 "off" position; open the generator field rheostat switch "J" and the 
 proper motor field switch "E"; then throw the proper switch "B" to the 
 lower position. To re-establish the power, close the switch "J" and 
 operate the control handle in the normal manner. When operating 
 with one motor, it is unnecessary to use more than two of the generators. 
 
 Other set ups must be performed in a similar manner. 
 
 Securing Electrical Machinery While in Port: When the ship has 
 docked, close all generator switches "A" in the full lower position, open 
 motor switches "B," open generator field switches "D" and generator 
 field breakers "F," open generator field rheostat switch "J" and open 
 motor field switches "E." 
 
 If the machines are to be idle for more than 24 to 48 hours, and it is 
 expected that they will be subject to appreciable changes in temperature, 
 or to cool noticeable 'below the ambient air ,their fields should be ex- 
 cited at a low value to prevent sweating (condensation of miosture on 
 the windings). A separate circuit (not shown in the diagram,) is usually 
 provided for this purpose. Although the insulation is made as moisture 
 resistant as practice permits, the windings should not be allowed to 
 sweat or become wet. 
 
 Port Operation: 
 
 (A) To use the main generators in port, for cargo winches and 
 auxiliary power purposes, the following operations are necessary: 
 
 1. Start the engines which are to be used. 
 
 2. Close field switch "D" to the left for self-excitation. 
 
 3. Close circuit breaker "O." 
 
 4. Build up voltage to normal by cutting out resistance of field rheo- 
 stat. (If the voltage builds up in the wrong direction, open switch "D," 
 and close it to the right, close switch "J" and build voltage up in proper 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 397 
 
 direction to about half value, by moving the main control handle.) Open 
 "J" and close "D" to the left, and repeat as above. 
 
 5. Close switch "C," thus connecting the generator on auxiliary bus. 
 Adjust voltage. 
 
 (B) To parallel a second main generator: 
 1, 2, 3, 4. Same as above. 
 
 5. Be sure that the machine voltage is the same as the bus voltage, 
 and then close switch "C." 
 
 6. Adjust voltage so that the machines divide the load as indicated 
 on the ammeters. 
 
 (C) Subsequent machines are paralleled in the same manner as 
 described under "B." 
 
 (D) If one of the auxiliary sets is in operation when the first main 
 generator is connected ito the auxiliary bus, it must be paralleled as 
 in "B." 
 
 (E) The auxiliary sets are paralleled with each other and with the 
 main generators on the auxiliary bus as described in "B." 
 
 CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR CARGO SHIP WITH FOUR 500-KW 
 
 250-VOLT GENERATORS AND ONE 2,500-H.P. DOUBLE 
 
 ARMATURE PROPELLING MOTOR 
 
 (General Electric System) 
 
 The equipment to control the operation of the electrical propelling 
 machinery consists of the apparatus necessary to start, stop, reverse and 
 vary the speed of the propelling motor and to cut out of circuit, any ol 
 the generators or either of the two motor armatures. Exciter panels are 
 provided to enable the operator to adjust the voltage of the exciters and 
 connect them so as to furnish excitation for the motor and generator or 
 to furnish auxiliary power. 
 
 The following pieces of apparatus make up the control equipment 
 
 One Controller 
 
 One Generator Field Rheostat 
 
 One Main Control Panel 
 
 Two Exciter Panels 
 
 One Propeller Speed Magneto. 
 
 Controller: The controller consists of a cast iron frame with a 
 sheet metal cover in which are mounted the main control drum and the 
 motor field drum. The construction of the frame and cover is ?uch as to 
 make the controller practically water-tight; the cover clamping against 
 felt in a groove in the frame. The control wiring is taken out of the 
 controller at the bottom through the base. There are two operating levers, 
 one for rotating the main control drum and the other for operating the 
 
398 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 DJ8-HOB Equipment of Control Group Back End View. Demonstrating 
 
 Neutral Position. 
 
 Control Group, Back View. (General Electric Diesel-Electric System) 
 Showing Interlocking Levers for Hand Control. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 399 
 
 motor field drum. The motor field lever has two positions, off and on, 
 and is interlocked with the main lever so that the main lever cannot be 
 operated unless the field lever is in the on position, and also so that the 
 field lever cannot foe turned off unless the main lever Is in the off posi- 
 cuit, sufficient resistance to limit the generator voltage. 
 
 The main lever when turned from the off position, closes the field 
 circuit of the generators and as the lever is turned on the resistance in 
 series with the generator fields is cut out of circuit. To reverse the 
 motor, the main lever is turned off thru the off position to the astern 
 points. In passing through the off position the generator fields are re- 
 versed and the generator voltage is increased as the resistance is cut 
 out of circuit. 
 
 Generator Fi'eld Rheostat: The generator field rheostat is composer* 
 of ribbon wound on resistor units mounted in boxes with taps brought 
 out which are connected to the fingers of the controller. The boxes in 
 which the units are mounted are made up of perforated sheet metal with 
 an insulated base on which the terminals are mounted. 
 
 Control Parcel: On the control panel are mounted instruments neces- 
 sary to indicate the generated voltage and current and the propeller 
 speed. Also the switches required to connect the generators and motor 
 armatures in series and to cut out of circuit, any of the generators or 
 either motor armature. In addition to the apparatus just listed, field 
 contactors for the motor fields are supplied with their discharge resist- 
 ances, an overload relay and generator field contactor with resistance 
 so arranged that in case of over-load the relay will trip and cut into cir- 
 cuit, sufficient resistance to limit the greater voltage. 
 
 Connected to the panel, there is mounted a line contactor so ar- 
 ranged that during reversal the line current is limited to a pre deter- 
 mined value by the opening of this contactor which inserts resistance 
 into the line. 
 
 Exciter Panels: On the exciter panels are mounted instruments for 
 indicating the exciter voltage and current; the field rheostats for adjust- 
 ing the voltage as well as the overload circuit breakers with necessary 
 switches for connecting exciters either to the bus which provides cur- 
 rent for exciting the generator and motor fields or the bus which supplies 
 power for the auxiliaries. 
 
 Propeller Speed Magn'eto: The propeller speed is indicated by the 
 speed indicator on the control panel which is connected to a small mag- 
 neto driven by gears from the propeller shaft. The instrument is cali- 
 brated so as to read directly in R.P.M., since the voltage delivered by 
 the magneto varies directly as the speed. 
 
 Operation of Control Equipment: With the apparatus correctly wired 
 up and the engines running the voltage on the exciters is first adjusted 
 and the switch closed so as to provide excitation for the generators and 
 motor. The main switches on the control panel should then be closed 
 so as to connect generators which are to be run in series with the motor. 
 
 When the signal is received for either ahead or astern the field 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 401 
 
 lever on the controller must first be placed in the on position. This 
 operation energizes the motor field contactors which close and energize 
 the moitor fields. With the field lever "on" the main lever can be moved 
 either ahead or astern and the voltage of the generators adjusted so as 
 to give the desired motor speed. For high speeds, the rated motor cur- 
 rent should not be exceeded. The operator should move the main lever 
 to that point which gives full load current. 
 
 In case of overload, the generator voltage is reduced through the 
 action of the overload relay which causes the generator field contactor 
 on the control panel to open and insert a limiting resistance in the gen- 
 erator field circuit. When the overload is removed the relay is returned 
 to its operating position and the contactor closes, cutting out the re- 
 sistance. 
 
 In reversing, when the main lever is returned to the first point the 
 line contactor is opened and a limiting resistance inserted into the line. 
 This resistance is in circuit when the main handle is in the first position 
 ahead, off position, and first position astern. 
 
 DIESEL ENGINE ELECTRIC DRIVE 
 The "Mariner" The First Electrically Operated Trawler. 
 
 . The adoption of electric propulsion for the beam trawler "Mariner" 
 was the logical result of the efficient and economical operation secured 
 with this system in numerous crafts of various kinds, both in America 
 and Europe during the past twelve years. 
 
 In designing the equipment for the "Mariner" the inherent flexibility 
 of the electrical method of power application made it possible to obtain 
 high economy in fuel consumption, especially under cruising conditions, 
 sustained uniform rate of rotation for the engines, positive control of 
 the propeller speed at all times, a high factor of safety by means of 
 three separate control stations, practically instantaneous reversal of the 
 propeller, and the use of electric motors for driving auxiliaries such as 
 pumps, compressors, hoists and ventilating blowers. 
 
 Hull: The craft is of wooden construction, and is rated at 500 tons, 
 with dimensions as follows: Length over all, 150 ft.; beam, 24 ft. 3 in.; 
 mean draft, 11 ft. 9 in. Her cruising radius at 10 knots is 6,000 miles, 
 and at three-quarter speed 9,000 miles. 
 
 Propelling Equipment: The propelling equipment comprises two 
 eight cylinder, four-cycle, 350 R.P.M. Diesel engines, each direct-connected 
 to a 165-kw., 125-volt, direct-current generator. The two self-excited gen- 
 erators are normally connected in series and supply current to a 400 
 H.P., 250-volt, 200 R.P.M. motor, which is direct-coupled to the propeller 
 shaft, 
 
 Two control stations are located in the engine room one provided 
 with remote control, and one arranged for emergency manual operation; 
 a remote-control outfit is also located in the pilot house. 
 
402 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 403 
 
 Both the generators and the motor are designed specifically for sea 
 duty, and are provided with non-corrodlble fittings and heat-resisting 
 insulation throughout. The bearings are a combination of waste-packed 
 and oil-ring type, with special provision against the leakage of oil along 
 the shafts, when the machines are out of their normal positions, due to 
 the rolling and pitching of the ship. Finally, armatures and fields are 
 water-proofed, and the machines are so designed as to prevent flashing 
 in the presence of moisture, due to either atmospherical conditions or 
 flooding of the engine room in rough seas. 
 
 In order to insure ample mechanical strength for the electrical ma- 
 chinery, steel castings were used for all rotating parts which would be 
 subjected to unusual strains, or to shocks incident to operation during 
 stormy weather. 
 
 The 400 H.P. propeller motor is located forward of the generating 
 sets and has a normal full-load speed range of from 160 to 200 R.P.M. 
 It is a compound wound machine and, when taking current from both 
 generators, it operates at 250 volts; but, for slow cruising, one engine 
 can be shut down and the motor then receives current at 125 volts. 
 Under these conditions it has a speed range of from 70 to 160 R.F.M. 
 
 Propeller: The propeller is 94 in. in diameter by 68 in. pitch and, at 
 full-load rotation of 200 R.P.M., gives a speed of between 7 and 10^ knots, 
 depending upon weather conditions. When hauling the net the full 
 horsepower of the motor is developed at a propeller speed of 160 R.P.M. 
 
 Control Equipment: Engine room control of all electrical circuits is 
 secured by means of a main panel board, on which are mounted the 
 engine-room meters, generator field switches and resistors, switches and 
 fuses for the propelling and auxiliary motors, and an overload relay 
 for the main hoist motor. The meters are mounted at the top of the 
 panel and are special instruments designed for shipboard work, being 
 equipped with moisture-proof, non-corrodible parts. The dials are black 
 with white markings, with radium paint on the needles and dial mark- 
 ings. A duplicate set of these instruments is installed in the pilot house. 
 
 The starting resistor resistance consists of five boxes of grids, which 
 are mounted on the starboard side of the engine room. Just forwards of 
 these grids, the control contactors are located. This group consists of 
 the necessary curren-carrying contactors for starting, stopping and re- 
 versing the motor, an overload relay and motor-shunt field discharge re- 
 sistance, and is normally operated by means of one of two master con- 
 trollers one located in the engine room and the other in the pilot house. 
 
 During operation from either of these master controllers, the con- 
 tactors are closed magnetically; but, if for any reason they cannot be 
 operated magnetically, handles attached to camshafts are provided which 
 may be operated manually to close the contactors in the desired sequence. 
 The overload relay, in case of overload, opens the circuit through the 
 reversing contactor coils, causing them to open the line circuit. The 
 handles for manual operation are so interlocked that the reversing handle 
 must be operated before the accelerating handle; therefore, the acceler- 
 
404 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 405 
 
 ating handle must be turned off before the reversing handle can be 
 moved. This arrangement insures absolute safety for the control system 
 of the ship, even in the very improbable event of failure of, or injury 
 to, the two remote control equipments. 
 
 One of the important advantages of electric propulsion is that of 
 remote control, which permits the actual maneuvering of the ship, to be 
 accomplished directly in the pilot house, if desired, without the necessity 
 for signals to the engine room. At sea, this remote control system is 
 normally only a convenience, as compared with the ordinary combina- 
 tion pilot house and engine room control; but, in entering and leaving 
 slips, in congested harbors, in narrow and swift current waterways, and 
 for quick reversal or change of speed in emergencies, its great practical 
 value is obvio-us. 
 
 This type of master controller installed on the "Mariner" consists of 
 a cast-iron frame, with a sheet-metal cover, in which are mounted a main 
 control cylinder and a reversing cylinder. The construction of the frame 
 and cover is such as to make the controller practically waiter-tight the 
 cover lamping against felt in a groove in the frame. The control wiring 
 is taken out of the controller at the bottom through the base. 
 
 There are two handles on the controller one main and one revers- 
 ing. The main handle rotates the main cylinder, which gives 17 operat- 
 ing positions one off position and one overload relay reset position. 
 The reversing handle rotates the reversing cylinder and has three posi- 
 tions; ahead, off and astern. 
 
 These two handles are so interlocked that the main handle cannot 
 be moved beyond the overload relay <reset position unless the reversing 
 handle is in either the ahead or astern position, and so that the revers- 
 ing handle cannot be moved unless the main handle is in either the off 
 or reset position. 
 
 The rapidity with which the motor-driven propeller can be reversed 
 was demonstrated during the first trial trip when, with the propeller 
 rotating at from 193 to 196 revolutions per minute, it was reversed from 
 full speed ahead to full speed astern in 13 seconds; the actual reversal 
 of current in the motor being accomplished in two seconds. 
 
 Pilot-house control was used throughout the test run, operating either 
 one or both generators with equal facility. 
 
 Ship's Thrust Bearing: Instead of the usual rigid multi-collar type 
 of thrustibearing, a self-oiling spring thrust bearing of the single collar, 
 self-aligning type is used, located aft the driving motor and sustaining 
 a thrust of 7,500 Ibs., with the propeller revolving at 200 R.P.M. 
 
 Electric Auxiliaries: In addition to operating the propelling equip- 
 ment, electrical energy is used for lighting and all auxiliary power pur- 
 poses and, when the main engines are shut down, current is supplied 
 by means of an independent 15-kw., 125-volt, oil engine driven generator, 
 installed in the forward end of the main engine room on the port side. 
 
 The emergency air compressor outfit is driven by a direct-geared 
 motor and is provided as an insurance against the improbable loss of 
 
406 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 407 
 
 starting air for the engines. Under these conditions it will be utilized 
 to fill the air-starting bottles, as the auxiliary generating set can be 
 started by hand. 
 
 The bilge and water-supply pumps are small centrifugal units, each 
 driven by a direct-coupled motor, and near the main generators and pro- 
 peller motor a small motor-driven ventilating set is utilized to prevent 
 excessively high temperature in the engine room. 
 
 The fishing operations are carried on toy means of a 65 H,P., motor 
 driven, main double-drum hoist, ins-tailed on the main deck forward of 
 the engine room, which handles the haulage cables and ropes of the 
 net as they pass through the hoist brackets fore and aft on either side. 
 The unloading of the fish at the dock is accomplished by means of a 
 5 H.P. motor-driven whip located near the forward mast. 
 
 The boat has proven a success and marks a new epoch in motor- 
 driven ships. She was built by Arthur D. Story, of Essex, Mass. The 
 engines were built and installed by the New London iShip & Engine Co., 
 of Groton, Connecticut. All other equipment was supplied by the Gen- 
 eral Electric Company of Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR THE ELECTRICALLY PROPELLED 
 
 M. S. "FORDONIAN" 
 (General Electric System) 
 
 The main control equipment, provided to control the operation of 
 two Diesel engine-driven generators and the propulsion motors consists 
 of a control panel on which are installed the various switches, field rheo- 
 stats, and instruments; a master controller for operating the contactors 
 of the control group in the proper sequence; a control group for start- 
 ing and reversing the motors; a starting resistor in connection with the 
 control group used when starting the motors; and a resistor in the fields 
 of the motors used to obtain speeds of the motors of about 60 to 90 
 R.P.M. when operating with only one generator. 
 
 The switches and wiring are so arranged that either one or both 
 generators can be used to supply line current to the propulsion motors. 
 Constant normal voltage is held on the generator, which is chosen to 
 supply excitation current to the fields of the generators and motors, 
 and current to the blower motor, auxiliary panel and control circuit, while 
 the voltage of the other generator can be varied to obtain different speeds 
 of the propulsion motor. By this flexibility of operation, emergency con- 
 ditions can readily be taken care of. 
 
 This control equipment is installed in the engine room and consists 
 of the following: 
 
 One Control Panel One Starting Resistor 
 
 One Master Controller One Motor Field Resistor 
 
 One Control Group 
 
408 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Master Controller: The master controller consists of a cast iron 
 frame in which are mounted a main control cylinder and a reversing 
 cylinder. A .sheet metal cover is clamped securely against felt in a 
 groove in the side of the frame so as to make the controller splash-proof. 
 The control wiring is taken out through the base of the controller. 
 
 There are (2) handles on the controller, one main and one reversing 
 handle. The main handle rotates the main cylinder through an arc of 
 330 degrees, thereby covering an "off" position, an overload relay "reset" 
 position and (5) contactor positions and (12) motor field resistor posi- 
 
 M aster-Controller, Type C-S 1 43 A, Specially Designed /or Marine Use. 
 Controller Used in Pilot House and Engine Room. 
 
 tions. The reversing handle rotates the reversing cylinder and has three 
 (3) positions: "ahead," "off" and "astern." 
 
 These (2) handles are so interlocked that the main control handle 
 cannot be moved beyond the overload relay reset position unless the 
 reversing handle is in either the "ahead" oir the "astern" position, and 
 so also that the reversing lever cannot be moved unless the main handle 
 is in either the "off" or "reset" position. 
 
 In ordinary operation, the main handle will be thrown only to the 
 "reset" position and not to the "off" position except when the motor Is 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 40i) 
 
 .o be stopped for some time or the switch positions are to be changed. 
 To throw from the "reset" to the "off" position, a latch in the handle 
 must be released. This latch is provided to prevent going into the "off" 
 position, and thus opening the motor shunt lield every time the motor 
 is stopped or reversed, since the motor shunt field contactors are always 
 Closed except when the controller handle is in the "off" position. 
 
 Control Group: The control group is designed for mounting from 
 above, and contains four (4) main contactors for completing the motor 
 line, two being used for ahead and two for astern operations; four (4) 
 contactors to reduce and cut the starting resistance out of the circuit; 
 one (1) overload relay to trip out the main contactors when the load 
 is excessive; two (2) motor field contactors and the motor shunt field 
 discharge resistance. 
 
 The main line and starting resistor contactors are designed to carry 
 the full load current of 1400 amperes and during normal operation are 
 closed magnetically by means of solenoids energized from circuits through 
 operation of the master controller. If for any reason the contactors can- 
 not be operated magnetically, handles are attached to cam shafts by 
 means of which the contactors can be closed manually in the proper 
 sequence. 
 
 The overload relay is composed of one series coil with armature and 
 one shunt coil with a plunger carrying two disk interlocks. When the 
 relay is in the tripped position the lower disk closes a circuit through 
 the shunt coil of the relay which circuit is completed through the master 
 controller in the reset position. The completion of this circuit picks 
 up the plunger of the relay so that it is latched up, thereby closing the 
 other disk interlock which is in the solenoid circuit of the four line 
 contactors. This solenoid circuit is completed in the controller in all 
 positions of the main cylinder except the "off" and "reset" positions. 
 
 In case of overload the excessive current through the series coil picks 
 up the armature and thereby releases the plunger carrying the interlocks, 
 thus causing the solenoid circuit to be opened and opening the two line 
 contactors which are in use. 
 
 When the contactors are operated manually they are held closed by> 
 cams. Interruption of the solenoid circuit by tripping of the overload re- 
 lay therefore does not cause the contactors to open, and for this reason 
 extrerrve care must be used when the contactors are closed by hand so 
 that the load on the motors will not exceed the normal current value. 
 
 The two (2) field contactors, close the two motor shunt field circuits 
 magnetically on the "reset" point of the master controller and close the 
 field circuits mechanically when operated manually. 
 
 The discharge resistance is connected permanently across the shunt 
 fields of the propelling motors to limit the inductive kick when the field 
 contactors open. 
 
 The two (2) handles for manual operation of the control group are 
 so interlocked that the reversing handle must be operated before the 
 
410 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 accelerating handle and so that the accelerating handle must be turned 
 off before the reversing handle can be moved. 
 
 Control Panel: On this control panel are mounted the engine room 
 instruments; the generator cut-out switches, field switches, and rheostats; 
 the combined line and field switches for the main propelling motors; the 
 switches for the blower motor, auxiliaries and the excitation supply to 
 the controller. There are also mounted the necessary shunts and gener- 
 ator field discharge resistors. 
 
 The instruments are mounted at -the top of the panel and are de- 
 signed for marine use, being equipped with non-corrosive parts. The dials 
 are white with black markings. Each generator line is equipped with a 
 voltmeter having a to 300 scale, and also with a to 2500 scale am- 
 meter mounted. A millivoltmeter with a 150-0-150 R.P.M. scale for pro- 
 peller speed indication either ahead or astern and an ammeter with a 
 to 100 scale for measuring the field current of the motors are mounted 
 directly beneath the generator ammeters. 
 
 The two generator field rheostats, made up of form R, size U wire 
 and ribbon wound resistance units are supported by the panel frame 
 above the instruments. They are operated by the rheostat handles 
 through means of chains and sprockets. The total resistance of each 
 rheostat is approximately 50 ohms, which when inserted reduces the 
 generator field current to about 4 amperes. 
 
 The generator field rheostat handles and field switches are mounted 
 below the instruments so that the operator in adjusting the generator 
 fields can readily watch the meters. 
 
 There are two single pole, double throw 1600 ampere switches to 
 connect either or both generators across the propelling motors. Between 
 these two switches is located a double pole, singel throw switch and 
 fuses for the blower motor. 
 
 At the lower portion of the panel and near the center line are mount- 
 ed two (2) double pole, double throw switches with fuses, in each throw. 
 The switch to the right, facing the panel, is used to transfer the field 
 excitation of the generators and motors and the blower motor and con- 
 trol current from one generator to the other. The switch to the left 
 transfers the current supply to the auxiliary panel from one generator to 
 the other. These double pole, double throw switches should not be 
 opened until the generator field switches have been opened, and in the 
 case of the switch supplying the auxiliary panel all switching on this 
 auxiliary panel 'should be properly made before transferring the circuit. 
 
 On either side of the above switches are mounted two double pole, 
 double throw switches for cutting out either of the motor armatures 
 and fields in case of an emergency. One side of the switch is in the 
 motor line while the other is in the motor field so that it is impossible to 
 close the motor line switch without also closing the motor field switch. 
 These switches should not be opened unless the main handle of the con- 
 troller and the reverse handle of the control group are both in the "off" 
 position, accomplished by moving the master controller handle to the 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 411 
 
 'oft'" position. Suitable barriers are placed between the motor switches 
 and the excitation and auxiliary switches. Straps are placed on the back 
 of the panel near the generator and motor cut-out switches and motor field 
 switches and in their respective circuits to be disconnected as explained 
 later for emergency operation. 
 
 No work must be done on the generators or motors except when the 
 machines are thoroughly isolated by disconnecting all leads at the termi- 
 nals of the machine in question. The leads should be properly taped and 
 tied to prevent them from swinging about. 
 
 Starting Resistor: The resistor used in starting the motors is made 
 up in four (4) sections connected, and is composed of five (5) boxes of 
 IG grids. 
 
 The first section of the resistance has a resistance of .36 ohms and 
 is made up of 36 No. 61 IG grids in series. 
 
 The second section is cut in on the 2nd point of the master con- 
 troller, in parallel with the first, and has a resistance of .18 ohms. It is 
 composed of 18 No. 61 IG grids connected in series. The total resulting 
 resistance of the resistor on the second point is .12 ohms. 
 
 The third section of resistance is made up of 24 No. 61 IG grids, two 
 in parallel, and has a resistance of .06 ohm-s. This section is cut in on 
 the 3rd resistance point of the controller and is in parallel with the first 
 two sections, giving a resulting resistance of the resistor of .04 ohms. 
 
 The fourth section is composed of 12 No. 62 IG grids connected three 
 in parallel, and has a resistance of .02 ohms and is cut in on the 4th point 
 in parallel with the other three sections, the resulting resistance -being 
 .0133 ohms. 
 
 On the next or 5th point of the controller, all the resistance is short- 
 circuited. 
 
 Each of the 5 boxes contains 18 grids, and is made up in a frame. The 
 box is designed for mounting with the grids carefully spaced in a vertical 
 position, thereby giving the best ventilation. 
 
 When operating with only one generator supplying current to the 
 motors, it is possible, though not advisable, to operate continuously on 
 any step of the rheostat, but when both generators are being used in 
 series with the motors, the length of time which the controller handle 
 can be safely held on any of the first four points is as follows: 
 
 Point No. 1 20 seconds should not be exceeded. 
 Point No. 2 45 seconds should not be exceeded. 
 Point No. 3 60 seconds should not be exceeded. 
 Point No. 4 2 minutes should not be exceeded. 
 
 The above limitations are derived from data available before instal- 
 lation. Actual operating conditions might permit an extension of the 
 limits given above, but if these limits are exceeded, the grids of the 
 starting resistor should be carefully watched for overheating. 
 
412 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Tivo Marine Direct-Current Generators (for M/8. "Fordonian") Rated 
 
 MPC-8 Pole 350 KW 200 R.P.M. Volts Compound-Wound 
 
 on the Testing Stand. 
 
 Marine Direct Current Double Armature Motor (For M/8 "Fordonian") 
 
 Rated 850 H.P., 120 R.P.M. , 500 Volts, Consisting of Two MPC-10 Pole 
 
 425 H.P., 120 R.P.M., 250 Volt Shunt Wound Motors mounted on 
 
 one shaft. Port Looking Forward. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 413 
 
 Resistor for the Felds of the Motors: The resistor for the two motor 
 fields in parallel is composed of 8 units mounted in a box frame, 
 with 13 taps brought out, that is, there are 12 sections of resistance. This 
 resistance is required when the motor is running on 250 volts to increase 
 the speed to approximately 90 R.P.M. 
 
 The resistance of the 8 units in the order in which they are cut into 
 the circuit, is as follows: 0.52 ohms; 0.52 ohms; 0.52 ohms; 0.85 ohms; 
 0.85 ohms; 1.7 ohms; 1.7 ohms; 1.7 ohms; making a total resistance of 
 8.36 ohms. The resistor is designed to vary the field current for the two 
 fields in parallel from 35 amperes at full field, to 17 amperes at the 90 
 R.P.M. speed on 250 volts. 
 
 The terminals of this resistor are connected by a cable to the master 
 controller terminals. The resistance is cut into the field circuits as the 
 main handle of the controller is advanced beyond the fifth point. 
 
 Operation of the Control Equipment: In preparing to get under way 
 with the apparatus wired up, either or both Diesel engines are brought 
 up to speed, depending on whether the propelling motor is to be run on 
 250 or 500 volts. If both generators or 500 volts are to be used, the ex- 
 citation switch and both generator field switches should -be closed and 
 the voltage adjusted with the generator field rheostats to give 250 volts on 
 each generator. With the excitation switch thrown down, generator 
 No. 1 supplies current for the fields of the generators and motors <and 
 the blower and control circuit, but when in the "up" position, generator 
 No. 2 is the source of supply. Both generator line switches and bo'th 
 motor line and field switches should next be thrown to the "up" posi- 
 tion. This places the generators and motors in series. When the gen- 
 erators are thus connected to operate in series, the series field switches 
 located on the generators should be opened if it is desired to obtain the 
 full propeller speed of 120 R.P.M. 
 
 Start the blower motor for ventilating the propulsion motors and 
 keep it running as Ing as there is any current on the propelling motors. 
 Even though the motors might temporarily be at rest a condition exists 
 when the controller handle is on the "reset" position, where full field is 
 j-till maintained on the motors and it is very essential that ventilation be 1 
 continued under this condition as well as wtven the motors are running. 
 
 The motors are now ready for starting by means of the master con- 
 troller. The reversing lever is set ahead or astern as desired and the 
 main handle moved from the "off" to the "reset" position. The operator 
 should notice the reading on the motor field ammeter to *see that he has 
 full field of about 35 amperes, which is the total current of both motor 
 fields. 
 
 With this condition fulfilled, the main handle of the controller is then 
 moved successively to points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, hesitating on each point for 
 only a very short time, as explained under the heading, Starting Resistor. 
 On point 1, if the ahead direction has been chosen, contactors 1 and 3 
 in the control group are closed. If the astern direction were chosen, 
 contactors 2 and 4 would close. In either case the motors are connected 
 
414 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
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DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 415 
 
 across the two generators in series with the first step of resistance. 
 Points 2, 3 and 4 of the controller close contactors 8, 7 and 6 in the order 
 named, cutting in sections 2, 3 and 4 of the starting resistance in parallel 
 with the first section. The 5th step of the master controller closes con- 
 tactor 5, shorting out the whole 'Starting resistor. This places the pro- 
 pelling motors across the two generators in series and under these con- 
 ditions and with the ship moving at full 'speed, the motors will run at 
 normal speed of 120 R.P.M., and will draw approximately full load cur- 
 rent from the generators, depending upon the draft and other condi- 
 tions. As explained later, the exact motor speed or current when running 
 on both generators, is adjusted by changing the voltage of one of the 
 generators. 
 
 The full load current of the motors and generators is approximately 
 1400 amperes, and this value should never be exceeded during continuous 
 running conditions. Turning the controller handle beyond the 5th point 
 weakens the fields of the motors and with both generators running at 
 250 volts the motors will probably draw considerably over full load cur- 
 rent. For this reason, the operator should always watch the generator 
 ammeters to see that the full load current is never exceeded. It will 
 rarely be necessary to cut in any of the motor field resistance when both 
 generators are supplying current, except wihen the ship is light loaded 
 and more than normal speed is desired, in which case the controller 
 handle is advanced over the motor field resistor points to obtain normal 
 current and increased speed. 
 
 When operating under normal speed conditions, i. e., each generator 
 supplying current at 250 volts, the load on each generator should be 
 equalized as nearly as possible by taking excitation current off one gen- 
 erator and current for the auxiliary panel off the other generator. 
 
 To Operate With One Generator: If only one generator is to be 
 used, the other generator is cut out of the circuit by throwing its' corre- 
 sponding single pole, double throw switch diown to the "cut-out" position. 
 The doublt pole, double throw excitation switch is then thrown down, 
 if generator No. 1 has been selected, or up, if generator No. 2 has been 
 chosen for excitation purposes. The field switch of the generator selected 
 is then closed and the field rheostat adjusted to give 250 volts. The 
 switches of the motors being closed in the "up" position, the master 
 controller is set for ahead or astern and the main controller handle moved 
 successively through the reset and first 5 points, thus placing the motors 
 directly in series with the generator. The motors under these condi- 
 tions run with full field at approximately 60 R.P.M. To further increase 
 the speed of the motors the controller handle is moved over the remain- 
 ing points, thus weakening the fields of the motors until full load cur- 
 rent of approximately 1400 amiperes is drawn by the motors, whose speed 
 will then be about 90 R.P.M. 
 
 To Reverse the Motors: To reverse the motors the main handle of the 
 controller must be thrown to the reset position. The reverse lever may 
 then be thrown, after which the main handle may be advanced. This will 
 bring the motors up to speed in the reverse direction. 
 
416 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
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DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 417 
 
 To Operate With Both Generators at Speeds Between 90 and 120 
 R.P.M.: In order jto obtain speeds between 90 and 120 R.P.M. the same 
 procedure is followed as when operating with both generators and motors 
 at a motor speed of 120 R.P.M. , the only exception being that it is neces- 
 sary to weaken the field of the generator not supplying current for ex- 
 citation and auxiliary purposes by cuttiug-in the field rheostat for speeds 
 from 120 'R.P.M. down to 105 R.P.M. To obtain a speed range of 90 to 
 105 R.P.M. it is necessary to close the series field switch on this gener- 
 ator in addition to cutting in the field rheostat as mentioned above. 
 
 Emergency Operation 
 
 To Operate With Both Generators With One Motor Armature Cut Out: 
 In case one of the motors has been disabled it can be cut out of the circuit 
 by throwing its corresponding switch to the "down" position. In this case 
 only one generator is used to supply line current to the motor armature 
 while the other generator is used to supply excitation and control current 
 to the motor and generator fields and the master controller and current 
 to the auxiliary panel. 
 
 If generator No. 1 has been chosen for excitation purposes, the excita- 
 tion switch and also No. 1 generator cutout switch must be thrown to the 
 "down" position. At the -same time No. 2 generator series field switch 
 must be closed and its cutout switch thrown to the "up" position in 
 order to supply line current to the motor still operative and whose 
 switch should be closed in the "up" position. 
 
 If generator No. 2 is used for excitation purposes, its cutout 'switch 
 should be thrown to the "down" position, and the excitation switch and 
 No. 1 generator cut-out switch, to the "up" position and the series field 
 switch of generator No. 1 closed. Both generator field switches should 
 be closed. 
 
 The field rheostat of the generator supplying current to the arma- 
 ture of the motor should be cut in to obtain about 175 volts before start- 
 ing and then cut out gradually so as to obtain the maximum possible 
 speed of the ship without exceeding the maximum allowable current 
 through the motor. 
 
 250 volts should be maintained on the generator supplying excita- 
 tion current, as this is the normal voltage for operating the control 
 group and for giving full motor field current. 
 
 To Operate With One Generator Only and With One Motor Armature 
 Cut Out: In this case, the procedure will be the same as that given 
 above, with the exception that excitation current must be supplied from 
 an external source, which in this installation is the auxiliary generator. 
 The proper connections should be made on the auxiliary panel to connect 
 with the line to the auxiliary switch on the control panel. Disconnect 
 the strap on the back of the panel and in the line of the generator not 
 being used, Both the auxiliary and excitation switches can then he 
 
418 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
UIIOSEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 419 
 
 thrown either up or down, depending on which generator is to be used. 
 If generator No. 1 is to be used the auxiliary and excitation switches 
 should be thrown up or- on the side marked generator No. 2. This con- 
 nects the supply from the auxiliary panel to the excitation circuits and 
 also places the voltmeter of generator No. 2 across this supply. The 
 cutout switch of generator No. 1 should be closed in the "up" position 
 and that of generator No. 2 in the "down" position. Tims the voltage of 
 the supply current to the motor armature will be registered on generator 
 No. 1 voltmeter, while the voltage of the auxiliary generator for excita- 
 tion purposes will be indicated on the voltmeter of generator No. 2. The 
 field switch of generator No. 1 should be closed, while that of generator 
 No. 2 should be left open. 
 
 If generator No. 2 be used ,in place of generator No. 1 the operation 
 should be reversed, making certain that the strap in tire line of generator 
 No. 1 has been opened and that of generator No. 2 closed. 
 
 The auxiliary and excitation switches should both be thrown down 
 or on the side marked generator No. 1. The cut-out switch of generator 
 No. 2 should be closed in the "up" position and thait of generator No. 1 
 in the "down" position. The field switch of generator No. 2 should be 
 closed while that of No. 1 should be open. The voltage of the motor 
 armature current will be registered on the voltmeter of generator No. 2, 
 while the voltage of the auxiliary generator will be indicated on the volt- 
 meter for generator No. 1. 
 
 Since the auxiliary generator is rated at 15 kw., and since the power 
 required for excitation of one generator and one motor field is about 7.5 
 kw., and that required for the blower motor about 5.5 kw., there is only 
 2 kw. remaining for the auxiliary pumps and lights. It will, therefore, 
 be necessary to devise some method whereby the necessary auxiliaries 
 may be kept in operation. If it is decided to shut down the blower 
 motor intermittently to relieve the auxiliary generator, the temperature 
 of the motor should be carefully watched for overheating. 
 
 Operating Cautions 
 
 In the course of operation the following cautions should be observed: 
 
 1. Never open the generator or motor line switches until the con- 
 troller handle has been placed in the "off" position and the main line 
 and motor field contactors thus opened. 
 
 2. Before opening the generator shunt field switches, cut in the re- 
 sistance of the corresponding field rheostat. 
 
 3. Before changing the .position of the control and excitation switch 
 always open the shunt field switches as explained in paragraph 2. 
 
 4. If one motor alone is used, only one generator should be used to 
 supply line current to 'this motor. 
 
 5. Do not run on the first four points of the controller to obtain 
 speed changes for any length of time greater than that specified under 
 
420 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 the heading, "Starting Resistor," as this will overheat the grids with a 
 tendency to burn them out. 
 
 6. When operating under normal conditions with both generators 
 running in series with both motors, the oil engine driving the generator 
 not supplying excitation current should not be shut down until the con- 
 troller is moved to the "off" position, and its respective generator switch 
 thrown down to the "cu't-out" position, otherwise the unit shut down will 
 tend to run as a motor in the opposite direction from current supplied hv 
 the other generator. 
 
 If -the oil engine which drives the generator supplying excitation cur- 
 rent is shut down, the line current will fall off due to lack of excitation, 
 and the motors will stop. 
 
 It is therefore evident from the above conditions that the controllor 
 handle should always be moved to the "off" position before taking a 
 generating unit off the line. 
 
 Maintenance of the Control Equipment 
 
 The frequency and thoroughness of inspection necessary to keeo the 
 control equipment in the best of operation depends largely on the oper- 
 ating conditions. While casual inspections necessarily follow from one's 
 interest in the machinery it is very essential for consistent operation 
 that a thorough inspection be made before each trip. 
 
 The inspection of the various parts can best be made by operating 
 the machinery and then noting any faults. 
 
 Operating Test 
 
 At each inspection, the control group should be operated by means 
 of the master controller. To do this the single pole double throw line 
 switches of the generator should be open and the generator field switches 
 closed and rheostats adjusted to give 250 volts on each generator so that 
 the master controller may be operated first with one generator and then 
 the other supplying the control current. 
 
 The controller handle should be turned from point to point and on 
 the reset position it should be noticed that the overload relay resets and 
 that on the next position or first (point, that the ahead or astern con- 
 tactors as selected, close properly. On points 2, 3, 4 and 5 the resist- 
 ance contactors should close in the proper sequence and they should 
 operate at about the same speed. 
 
 Inspection 
 
 At each inspection all parts of apparatus should be examined, 
 cleaned, adjusted, or repaired if necessary, and the following points 
 should be observed as follows: 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 421 
 
 Master Controller: (a) Inspect for weak fingers, imperfect contact, 
 and loose connections. 
 
 (b) When dirty, clean the contacts and apply a small quantity of 
 lubricating oil to the contacts with a piece of cheese cloth. 
 
 Engine Room Panel: (a) Inspect for loose connections. 
 
 (b) Examine the knife edges of the switches and see that good 
 contact is maintained. 
 
 Control Group: The cable connections to the contactors and over- 
 load relay should be examined to insure that they are tight. 
 
 The contactors and relay of the control group should be inspected and 
 properly maintained by observing the following: 
 
 (a) Examine the contact tips and tighten the screws holding them 
 if loose. 
 
 (b) Renew contact tips when worn half way through. 
 
 (c) When renewing a contact tip, if the surface against which it rests 
 has become rough or pitted, due to poor contact from a loose screw or 
 similar cause, it should be made smooth. 
 
 (d) The contact tips close with a butting and rolling movement 
 which tends to remove any roughness caused by arcing. If for any rea- 
 son the tips become extremely rough, they should be filed smooth. 
 
 (e) The screws holding the contactors in place should be examined 
 to see that they are tight. 
 
 (f) The pigtail shunts should be examined for wear and breakage. 
 
 (g) Examine the arc chute sides. When they are one-half burned 
 through, they should be replaced by new ones. 
 
 (h) Inspect for loose or missing nuts and screws, broken or not split 
 cotter pins, and broken wipe springs. 
 
 Overload Relay: (a) Keep the contact points clean. 
 
 (b) Trip the relay occasionally and see that the armature moves 
 freely. 
 
 RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE FOR DRYING OUT AND TESTING 
 
 THE INSULATION RESISTANCE OF THE GENERATOR 
 
 AND MOTOR WINDINGS 
 
 Insulation Resistance 
 
 Although the generators and motors are provided with waterproof 
 insulation, this insulation should be kept dry, and after standing for a 
 long time, either during the period of installation or during interruption 
 of service after installation, the insulation and also other parts are 
 Tkely to become covered with moisture to a certain extent, and possibly 
 the terminals or other exposed parts may become dirty, which will tend 
 to reduce the insulation resistance and make it unsafe to operate at the 
 
422 DIhJSEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 full potential. In order to determine the condition of the insulation, its 
 resistance should be taken. 
 
 The insulation resistance can be readily measured by the use of a 
 megger, which give;* resistance in megohms. When this is not available 
 the insulation resistance may be measured by means of a high resist- 
 ance direct current voltmeter. The deflection of 'the meter is directly 
 proportional to the current flowing through it and inversely proportional 
 to the resistance of the circuit with constant potential across it. 
 
 In this installation the auxiliary generator can be used to supply 
 a 250-volt circuit to measure the Insulation resistance of the main gen- 
 erators and the motors. 
 
 To tesit for insulation resistance, attach the voltmeter directly across 
 the terminals of the supply line and note the reading. Never use a volt- 
 meter whose scale registers lower than the voltage supplied. The re- 
 sistance to be measured is next connected in series with the voltmeter 
 and a second reading taken and noted. 
 
 The resistance "X" is then given by the formula: 
 
 Rm Dm VRm 
 
 - whence Rm -=- X = 
 Rm^X V Dm 
 
 Where Rm = the Resistance of the voltmeter used 
 
 Dm = the deflection of the voltmeter with the resistance in 
 
 series 
 
 V the voltage supply when taking the reading Dm 
 X = the insulation resistance sought. 
 
 In making this test first determine whether either side of the circuit 
 is grounded or has a low insulation resistance by connecting the volt- 
 meter between each side of the supply circuit and ground. Next connect 
 the line of lower insulation resistance to the frame of the motor or gen- 
 erator to be tested through a fuse of 5 or 10 amperes capacity or a re- 
 sistor of from 100 to 500 ohms such as an incandescent lamp. Failure to 
 observe this precaution may result in personal injury. One terminal of 
 the voltmeter should now be connected to the other line, and the re- 
 maining terminal of the voltmeter connected first to the frame of the 
 machine to be tested to determine the voltage of the line V and then 
 transferred to the winding whose insulation is to be tested. The resist- 
 ance of the insulation will then be in series with the resistance of the 
 voltmeter and the reading obtained when so connected will be small 
 when the resistance of the insulation is high. 
 
 As a conservative value the insulation resistance in megohms should 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 423 
 
 To Dry Out the Windings 
 
 When the insulation resistance is found ito be below the amount 
 previously specified, the windings should be dried out after determining 
 that all exposed terminals and connections are thoroughly cleaned, as 
 leakage may be due to dirty connections as well as to moist insulation. 
 
 The following procedure is recommended to dry out the windings 
 electrically: 
 
 1. Tie the boat securely to the dock. 
 
 2. Prepare to operate with one generator and both motors and with 
 excitation supplied from the auxiliary exciter. The operations covering 
 the above conditions are shown 'by the last four columns of operation 
 chart No. 2 with the exception that both motor cut-out switches are 
 closed in the up position. 
 
 3. Select the generator to be dried out first and turn its shunt field 
 rheostat all the way in before closing the shunt field switch. 
 
 4. If generator No. 1 is to be used, refer to either the fifth or sixth 
 columns of chart No. 2, making 1 the proper motor switch connections as 
 stated in paragraph (2). If generator No. 2 is to be used refer to either 
 the seventh or eighth column and throw both motor switches "up" as 
 stated above. 
 
 5. Note the generator voltage which should not exceed approxi- 
 mately 25 per cent normal. It may be necessary to reduce the excitation 
 voltage of the auxiliary exciter sufficient to obtain this condition, but the 
 voltage should not be dropped below a point sufficient to operate or keep 
 the contactors closed. 
 
 6. Move the reverse 'handle of the controller ahead or astern, de- 
 pending on the position of the boat in the dock. 
 
 7. Follow the sequence of operation as shown in chart No. 2 and 
 note carefully the line and field amperes recorded on each of the five 
 starting resistor points so as not to exceed full load current. Note also 
 the ipropeller speed so as not to exceed a value which might break away 
 the moorings. 
 
 8. Adjust the generator field and exciter field if necessary, so as to 
 obtain the maximum line' current consistent with the above conditions. 
 
 9. The temperature of the windings sihould not attain 85 degrees C. 
 (185 degrees F.) in less than two hours, and should never exceed this 
 temperature during the drying out process. 
 
 10. Continue this drying out process until the insulation resistance 
 is equal to or greater than the amount previously given. 
 
 11. After one generator is dried out, repeat the operation with the 
 other generator, following the same method as given above. 
 
 12. While various method's of drying out might be possible with 
 this apparatus, no method should be used in which the armature is not 
 allowed to revolve, since local heating at the brushes might cause warp- 
 ing of the commutator. 
 
424 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
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DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 427 
 
 CAUSES AND REMEDY OF FAULTS IN DYNAMOS 
 
 Fail-lire to Built Up: A number of causes may prevent the field mag- 
 nets from attaining their full strength, which is commonly the reason 
 of failure to built up. A primary cause is absence of residual magnetism 
 which is shown by a ipiece of iron not 'being attracted when brought near 
 the pole-pieces when the dynamo is noit running. This may be remedied 
 by exciting the field coils from an outside source o-, if the demagnetiza- 
 tion is due to the influence of, an adjacent machine one of the machines 
 should be turned half way around or the magnetism of the poles re- 
 versed. 
 
 If the field coil's are connected so as to oppose each other, there will 
 be no resultant magnetism and, therefore, the dynamo cannot generate 
 its full E.M.F. Nearly all machines have successive poles of opposite 
 polarity, hence a fault of this nature can be detected 'by testing the 
 polarity by means of a corn-pass needle. If the same end of the needle is 
 attracted by successive poles it shows that they oppose each other. In 
 such a case the connections of the field coils requiring a reversal of 
 polarity should be changed. 
 
 An open circuit in the machine will, of course, prevent the flow of 
 current and, therefore, the field magnetism will remain weak. This 
 fault may be located by a careful inspection of the machine or by test- 
 ing the parts separately by the fall of the potential method. A short 
 circuit in the machine will also prevent it from attaining Its full E.M.F. 
 Such a fault may toe located in the same way as an open circuit. 
 
 If the connections are such that the current generated by the arma- 
 ture and flowing through the field coils opposes the residual magnetism, 
 the latter will be destroyed and no E.M.F. generated. A reversal of 
 residual magnetism will not remedy the fault, as the direction of the 
 current generated by the armature will also be changed and destroy the 
 magnetism as before. This trouble may be overcome by changing the 
 direction of the armature, or by reversing either the armature or field 
 connections. An incorrect position of the brushes may prevent a dynamo 
 from attaining its full E.M.F. In the case of a shunt dynamo, building 
 up may be prevented by a short circuit in the external circuit or by hav- 
 ing too great a load in starting. In the case of a series dynamo, building 
 up may be prevented by the resistance of the external circuit being too 
 great. 
 
 Sparking: This is a common trouible and, owing to the large number 
 of causes to which it may be due, it is one of the most difficult to locate. 
 
 An incorrect position of the brushes will cause sparking, but this 
 is readily overcome by shifting them to their proper position. It may also 
 be due to the brushes not being an equal distance apart along the cir- 
 cumference of the commutator segments between the forward edges of 
 successive sets of the brushes, which number should be the same in 
 every case. 
 
428 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 A cause of sparking which is evident upon inspection is a rough or 
 uneven commutator, or poor 'brush contact. A small amount of roughness 
 in the commutator may toe eliminated by use of a fine file or sandpaper. 
 Emery cloth should never 'be used for 'this purpose, as the emery par- 
 ticles remain in the metal and cut both commutator and brushes. If the 
 commutator is very rough, uneven, or eccentric, it should be carefully 
 turned down in a lathe and -smoothed off. Small particles of copper 
 which may have become lodged in (the mica insulation during the process 
 should be picked out. Poor brush contact may also be due to an uneven 
 brush or the presence of dirt. A carbon -brush can be beveled to fit the 
 commutator by placing it in its position and inserting a strip of sand 
 paper between it and the commutator and drawing it back and forth, 
 face against the brush. The brush, then receives the same curvature as 
 the commutator. 
 
 Sparking will result from an excessive flow of current, whether this 
 excess is either continuous or intermittent. Overloading of a machine 
 or a line short-circuit may cause continuous sparking. This cause will 
 be evident by the excessive heating of the whole armature. A short cir- 
 cuit, or a grounded circuit in the armature will cause an excessive cur- 
 rent and, consequently, sparking. These faults may be located by the fall 
 of potential method. In order to have a complete short-circuit within 
 the machine, two grounds are necessary. 
 
 If the field magnetism is weak the armature will cause more than its 
 normal amount of distortion of field, and sparking will result. A condi- 
 tion of this nature may be brought about by a short-circuit, open circuit, 
 or grounds in the field coils, as well as by an incorrect connecting up of 
 the coils. 
 
 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF SHUNT MOTORS 
 
 The great advantage of shunt motors is that their speed is prac- 
 tically constant. 
 
 The disadvantages are as follows: 
 
 1. The torque increases only in proportion to the armature current 
 since the field strength is constant. 
 
 2. There is a high potential between the terminals of the field 
 winding. 
 
 3. Opening the field circuit suddenly causes a large spark and a 
 high potential due to self induction. 
 
 4. The many turns of fine wire of the field coils involve extra ex- 
 pense since fine wire costs more per pound than coarse, the labor of 
 winding is considerable, and a large amount of insulation is necessary. 
 
 5. Where shunt motors are run intermittently it is customary to 
 keep the field coils constantly charged, the motor being started and stop- 
 ped by closing and opening the armature circuit through the resistance. 
 Keeping the fields charged when the motor is not in use is, of course, a 
 loss of energy. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 429 
 
 Uses of Shunt Motors: A constant speed is of the greatest import- 
 ance in some classes of work, and this advantage makes the use of 
 shunt motors very extended. 
 
 Shunt motors are used in machine shops, factories, and to run print- 
 ing presses, pumps, elevators, etc., or in general where good speed regu- 
 lation is required. 
 
 CAPACITY OF MOTOR FOR PULLING 
 
 As a guide for determining the maximoim depth of well at which a 
 motor of a given rating can safely be installed for pulling work, the fol- 
 lowing formula is of much service. It is based on the maximum torque 
 of the motor, but has been found sufficiently conservative so that the 
 motor heating will normally not be excessive under the usual operating 
 conditions. 
 
 R X E X L X K 
 
 Maximum depth of well - 
 
 w X d 
 in which 
 
 R = radio of motor speed to corresponding bull-wheel speed 
 
 E = mechanical efficiency of rig (usually varying from 0.5 to 0.7) 
 
 L = number of load lines used in the tackle for pulling the tubes. 
 
 w = weight of tubing in Ib. per foot. 
 
 d = diameter of bull-wheel shaft in inches. 
 
 K = a constant, depending upon the motor used. 
 
 The constant K is determined as follows: 
 
 1260 X H.P. X T 
 
 K = 
 
 in which, R. P. M. 
 
 H.P. = horsepower rating of motor on high speed. 
 
 T. = max. torque of motor in per cent of full load torque. 
 R.P.M. = full load high speed of motor. 
 
 The extreme condition whiah may be encountered is pulling rods 
 and tubing together with the tubing full of oil. This may be taken into 
 account by determining the total weight per foot of this load and using 
 this figure for "w" in the formula. 
 
 ELECTRICAL DATA: 
 
 Volt: The practical unit of electrical pressure analogous to head 
 or pressure in hydraulics. 
 
 Ampere: The practical unit of electrical strength or rate of flow of 
 current. Analogous to rate of flow of water through a pipe in gallons 
 per second. 
 
430 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Ohm: The unit of resistance. Analogous to the loss of head due to 
 the flow of water in a pipe. 
 
 Coulomb: Unit of quantity = one ampere per second. 
 
 Volt = Ampere times Ohms. 
 Ampere = volts divided by Ohms. 
 Ohm = Volts divided by Amperes. 
 
 WORK AND POWER: 
 
 Work, or energy, is expended in a circuit or conductor when a cur- 
 rent of electricity flows through it. The unit of electrical work or en- 
 ergy is called the Joule, after an eminent English scientist. If E is th 
 electromotive force, or difference of potential, in volts that causes Q 
 coulombs of electricity to flow through a circuit, the work expended in 
 joules is J = E X Q. 
 
 If an electromotive force, or difference of potential, of E volts causes 
 a current of I amperes to flow for t seconds through a resistance of R 
 ohms, then 
 
 J = EU 
 J = E*t 
 
 R 
 J = !2Rt 
 
 The joule may be defined as the work done when I ampere flows 
 for I second through a resistance of I ohm. 
 
 The watt-hour is an extensively used unit of work. Watt-hours 
 equal the product of 'the average number of watts and the number of 
 hours during which they are expended. One kilowatt-hour 1,000 watt- 
 hours, or 'the product of the average number of kilowatts and the num- 
 ber of hours. 
 
 Power (P) which is the rate at which work is done, is equal to the 
 work divided by the time, and may be calculated by one of the following 
 formulas: 
 
 E2 J 
 
 P = IE = 12R - 
 
 R t 
 
 If I is in amperes, R in ohms, E in volts, J in joules, and t in sec- 
 onds, P is in watts. 
 
 The watt, or unit of electric power, is equal to 1 joule per second. 
 It is the rate at which work is expended when 1 ampere flows through 
 a resistance of 1 ohm. The watt is too small a unit for convenient use 
 in many cases, so that the kilowatt (KW.) or 1,000 watts is frequently 
 used. 1 H.P. equals 746 watts; therefore 
 
 P (in watts) P (in kilowatts) 
 H.P. = or, H.P. = 
 
 746 .746 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 431 
 
 COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR EXPANSION. 
 
 Material 
 
 For 1 Fahr. For 1 Cent. 
 
 Aluminum .0000128 .0000230 
 
 Brass .0000055 .0000099 
 
 Brick, Fire .0000049 .0000088 
 
 Bronze .0000100 .0000180 
 
 Copper .0000093 .0000167 
 
 Glass _, .0000049 .0000088 
 
 Gold .0000080 .0000144 
 
 Iron, Cast, Gray .0000059 .0000106 
 
 Iron, Wrought .0000063 .0000113 
 
 Lead .0000162 .0000292 
 
 Mercury .0000333 .0000600 
 
 Monel .0000076 .0000137 
 
 Nickel .0000071 .0000127 
 
 Platinum .0000049 .0000088 
 
 Porcelain .0000020 .0000036 
 
 Silver .0000107 .0000193 
 
 Slate ___ .0000058 .0000104 
 
 Steel, Cast .0000064 .0000115 
 
 Steel, Rolled .0000056 .0000101 
 
 Tin .0000124 .0000223 
 
 Zinc .0000162 .0000292 
 
 MELTING POINTS. 
 
 Material Fahr. Cent. 
 
 Degrees Degrees 
 
 Aluminum 1217 658 
 
 Brass 1643 895 
 
 Bronze 1823 995 
 
 Copper 1981 1083 
 
 Gold 1945 1063 
 
 Iron, Cast, Gray 2200-2300 1204-1260 
 
 Iron, Cast, White 2000-2100 1093-1149 
 
 Iron, Wrought 2732 1500 
 
 Lead 621 327 
 
 Mercury 37.9 38.8 
 
 Monel 2408 1360 
 
 Nickel 2646 1452 
 
 Platinum 3191 1755 
 
 Silver 1762 961 
 
 .Steel, Mild 2687 1475 
 
 Steel, Hard 2588 1420 
 
 Tin 450 232 
 
 Zinc _ 786 419 
 
432 
 
 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 DIMENSIONS, RESISTANCES AND SAFE C 
 OF COPPER WIRES: 
 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 
 
 B.&.S. 
 
 Mils., or 
 
 Area in 
 
 Ohms 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Thousandths 
 
 Circular 
 
 per 
 
 No. 
 
 of an inch 
 
 Mils. 
 
 1,000 ft. 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 .01038 
 
 
 
 894 
 
 800,000 
 
 .01297 
 
 
 
 775 
 
 600,000 
 
 .0173 
 
 
 
 707 
 
 500,000 
 
 .02076 
 
 
 
 632 
 
 400,000 
 
 .02596 
 
 
 
 548 
 
 300,000 
 
 .0346 
 
 0000 
 
 460 
 
 211,600 
 
 .04906 
 
 000 
 
 410 
 
 167,805 
 
 .06186 
 
 00 
 
 365 
 
 133,079 
 
 .07801 
 
 
 
 325 
 
 105,592 
 
 .0983 
 
 1 
 
 289 
 
 83,694 
 
 .1240 
 
 2 
 
 258 
 
 66,373 
 
 .1564 
 
 3 
 
 229 
 
 52,633 
 
 .1972 
 
 4 
 
 204 
 
 41,742 
 
 .2487 
 
 5 
 
 182 
 
 33,102 
 
 .3136 
 
 6 
 
 162 
 
 26,250 
 
 .3955 
 
 8 
 
 128 
 
 16,509 
 
 .6288 
 
 10 
 
 102 
 
 10,381 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 81 
 
 6,530 
 
 1.590 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 4,107 
 
 2.591 
 
 16 
 
 51 
 
 2,583 
 
 4.019 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 1,624 
 
 6.391 
 
 Safe 
 
 Amperes 
 
 Rubber- 
 
 Weather- 
 
 covered proof 
 
 650 
 
 1000 
 
 550 
 
 840 
 
 450 
 
 680 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 325 
 
 500 
 
 275 
 
 400 
 
 225 
 
 325 
 
 175 
 
 275 
 
 150 
 
 225 
 
 125 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 90 
 
 125 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 55 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 H.P., K.W., AND K.V.A. 
 
 The output or work done by an engine is mechanical power and is 
 measured in horsepower (H.P.). 
 
 The output of an alternating current generator is electric current 
 and it is measured in kilovolt amperes (K.V.A.) . 
 
 The useful output of a power plant is electric power and it is meas- 
 ured in kilowatts (K.W.). 
 
 The K.W. output of standard plants is reduced somewhat at ex- 
 tremely high altitudes because the capacity of the engine is reduced on 
 account of the rarefied air. 
 
 The K.V.A. output of an alternator or power plant can be figured 
 as follows: 
 
 Single Phase: 
 
 Volts X Amperes 
 
 = K.V.A. (Kilovolt-amperes) 
 
 1000 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 Two Phas'e: 
 
 (Volts X Amperes) + (Volts X Amperes) 
 
 Phase 1 Phase 2 
 K.V.A. 
 
 1000 
 
 Three Phase: 
 
 (Volts X Amperes) + (Volts X Amperes) + (Volts X Amperes) 
 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 
 
 ^- - K.V.A. 
 
 1732 
 
 In an alternating current circuit, watts or kilowatts (K.W.) can be 
 measured only by a wattmeter. They cannot be found by multiplying 
 volts by amperes as in a direct current circuit. 
 
 Under some conditions, K. V. A. as found from volts and amperes 
 by the above rules, and kilowatts as measured by a wattmeter on the 
 same circuit, may be the same. Usually, however, the watts will be less 
 than the K.V.A. If we find the watts are 80 per cent of the K.V.A. we 
 say the "Power Factor" is 80 per cent, because only 80 per cent of the 
 current indicated by the ampere meters is transmitting power. The part 
 of the current that does not transmit power is called "Wattless Cur- 
 rent," and but little ipower is consumed in producing it, so when the 
 power factor is low there may be a large output in volts and amperes 
 indicated by the switchboard instruments with a comparatively small 
 horsepower load on the engine. 
 
 The reason for this is that the voltage of an alternating current is 
 continually changing. It runs up to a high value and then down to zero 
 and up to a high value again in the opposite direction. This happens 
 60 times a second if it is a sixty-cycle current. On account of a mag- 
 netic action called inductance, there is usually some current flowing in 
 the circuit at the instant when the voltage is zero, and that part of the 
 current does not transmit any power because for that moment volts 
 times amperes are zero and there are no watts. 
 
 The power factor may be high at one time and low at another. It 
 depends on the load and the amount consumed. 
 
 E W E E2 W 
 
 Amperes = 1 Ohms = R l = R = 
 
 RE 1 W 1 2 
 
 W E2 
 
 Volts = E Watts = W E = IR = W = El = = Rls 
 
 I R 
 
434 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 To Determine the Size of Copper Wire for Any Given Service: 
 
 Let C. M. = Cir. Mils. 
 
 Let D. = Distance. 
 
 Let C. = Current. 
 
 Let L. = Loss in Volts. 
 
 21.5 is a "Const-ant" or figure always used. 
 
 C. X D. X 21.5 
 
 Then - - Cir. Mils. 
 
 L. 
 
 Example: It is required that 100 amperes be carried 350 feet on a 
 110-vo'lt circuit, with a loss of 2 per cent in voltage. What is the cir. 
 mils, required? 
 
 First, ascertain the loss in volts, or 2 per cent of 110 = 2.2 volts. 
 100 X 350 X 21.5 
 
 337,500 cir. mils, or two No. 000 wires. 
 
 2.2 
 
 Where a wiring table is not at hand and it is desired to ascertain 
 the weight of any bare copper conductor, it can be roughly determined in 
 accordance with the following: 
 
 One thousand feet of wire, having an area of 1000 circular mils, 
 weighs approximately 3 pounds, and the weight of any bare conductor 
 can, therefore, be determined by multiplying its area in circular mils 
 by .003. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 435 
 
 QUESTIONS A DIESEL ENGINE OPERATOR SHOULD BE ABLE 
 
 TO ANSWER. 
 
 GENERAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 (1) Define the principle of operation of a Diesel engine. 
 
 (2) Define the TwonStroke Cycle operation. 
 
 (3) Define the Four-Stroke Cycle operation. 
 
 (4) Explain the Four Events in a cycle. 
 
 (5) Why is a Diesel engine classified as a "constant pressure" en- 
 gine? 
 
 (6) Explain the meaning of "adiabatic expansion." 
 
 (7) Explain the meaning of "isothermal expansion." 
 
 (8) What is meant by "thermal efficiency"? 
 
 (9) What is meant by "volumetric efficiency"? 
 
 (10) What is meant by "mean effective" of the engine? 
 
 (11) What is meant by "mean-indicated" pressure? 
 
 (12) What is meant by "mechanical efficiency" of the engine? 
 
 (13) What is meant by "thermo-dynamic law"? 
 
 (14) What is cavitation and how is it caused? 
 
 (15) What is a hydrokineter and for what purpose is it used? 
 
 (16) What is a dynamometer and for what purpose is it used? 
 
 (17) How is the horsepower of a Diesel engine ascertained? 
 
 (18) What is Brake Horsepower? 
 
 (19) What is Indicated Horsepower? 
 
 (20) What superiority has a Diesel engine over a steam engine for 
 marine propulsion? 
 
 (21) For what is a clinometer used on shipboard? 
 
 (22) What is a planimeteor? 
 
 (23) What is a fair fuel consumption per horsepower of a Diesel 
 engine of 600 H.P.? 
 
 (24) How much heat temperature F. does 500 Ibs. per square inch 
 create? 
 
 (25) What is the principle on which an ordinary pyrometer works? 
 
 (26) What should a perfect vacuum be? 
 
 (27) Define atmospheric pressure and how much is it calculated 
 per cubic foot? 
 
 (28) What is a pneumercator, and what is its purpose? 
 
 (29) What is the mechanical equivalent of a heat unit? 
 
 Note: The answers to following questions may be obtained by 
 studying the subject matter in the different chapters of this book. 
 
436 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 (30) What is meant by British Thermal Unit and how do you de- 
 termine this measurement? 
 
 (31) What is meant by calorific value of fuel? 
 
 (32) Define the meaning of specific gravity. 
 
 (33) Define the meaning of viscosity. 
 
 (34) What is meant by coefficient? 
 
 (35) What is CO.,? 
 
 (36) What is the'ideal percentage of CO., for efficient combustion? 
 
 (37) What are the principle constituents of fuel oil? 
 
 (38) What sihould be the ideal flashpoint for ordinary fuel oil? 
 
 (39) What is the meaning of Beaume or Twaddle degree measure- 
 ment? 
 
 (40.) What is the usual cause of spontaneous combustion in bunk- 
 ers? 
 
 (41) What elements should be considered in certifying to the 
 amount of fuel oil received, if the contract is by barrel, and payments 
 are to 'be made >by the ton? 
 
 (42) How many gallons are there to a barrel and how many barrels 
 to a ton? 
 
 (43) What precautions should be taken before sending a man into 
 a tank which has contained fuel oil? 
 
 (44) How are pressure gauges tested for accuracy? 
 
 (45) What is meant by scavenging efficiency in a cycle? 
 
 (46) What are the four maintenance principles upon which a Diesel 
 engine operates? 
 
 (47) How is the fuel injected into the cylinder? 
 
 (48) Why is water-cooling necessary? 
 
 (49) How much pressure is necessary to supply the cylinders with 
 fuel oil? 
 
 (50) What are the functions of injection devices? 
 
 (51) Name the necessary valves on Diesel engines. 
 
 (52) What are the functions the compressor performs? 
 
 (53) What are reservoirs of cylindrical forms called and what are 
 they intended for? 
 
 (54) How is a compressor constructed? 
 
 (55) What is meant 'by stages on compressors, what advantages are 
 secured ? 
 
 (56) What is the object of a scavenging pump? 
 
 (57) What advantages, if any, are claimed for engines operating 
 by the opposed piston principle? 
 
 (58) What necessitates high pressure in Diesel cylinders? 
 
 (59) Can scavenging be effected without valves? 
 
 (60) Explain the process of combustion in "heavy oil" engines. 
 
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 437 
 
 (61) Explain the difference between the "trunk" type and cross- 
 head piston. 
 
 (62) What advantages are claimed for "step" piston? 
 
 (63) Explain the working of "air-operated" piston valves. 
 
 (64) What is the method of actuating the valves? 
 
 (65) Explain how engines are timed. 
 
 (67) What are the usual methods of lubrication on Diesel engines? 
 
 (68) How are pistons on Diesel engines waiter cooled? 
 
 (69) How are injection air and fuel retarded? 
 
 (70) What is the usual method of removing the needle valve on 
 fuel valve? 
 
 (71) Explain the construction of the usual types of valve attach- 
 ments. 
 
 (72) What materials should be used for suction pipes in bilges? 
 
 (73) How many cubic inches are there in a gallon of oil? 
 
 (74) What is the average percentage of losses on a Diesel direct 
 propelled ship, single, and how much on a twin propelled ship? 
 
 (75) What is the average percentage of electrical loss between 
 generator and motor in an electrically driven Diesel ship? 
 
 (76) Why should not alternating current be used for the propulsion 
 motors in an electrically driven Diesel ship? 
 
 (77) Explain the system of electrical propulsion on Diesel powered 
 ships. 
 
 (78) Define the usual features to be found on fuel oil pumps. 
 
 (79) What is the theoretical lift of a pump? 
 
 (80) What is a Spray Preheater, for what purpose are they in- 
 stalled? 
 
 (81) Define a Spray Air Cooler. 
 
 (82) Define the different methods of oil filtering systems. 
 
 (83) Define an apparatus for re-cooling lubricating oil on Diesel 
 plants. 
 
 (84) What material is mostly used to line stern bearings? 
 
 (85) What are the four qualifications a good lubricant should pos- 
 
 (86) What are the necessary constituents tar-oil should possess 
 when used for fuel purpose on Diesel engines? 
 
 (87) What are oils classified as hydro-carbons? 
 
 (88) What effect will asphalt percentage to a large extent have on 
 engine? 
 
 (89) What effect will sulphur percentage in fuel have on engine? 
 
 (90) What effect will an excessive amount of water in fuel have on 
 engine? 
 
438 DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION 
 
 (91) What importance has "paraffine content" in fuel? 
 
 (92) What effect will an undue amount of "ash" have in fuel? 
 
 (93) What is the "critical" point of an oil? 
 
 (94) What is the "deadweight" tonnage of a ship? 
 
 (95) What is the slip of a propeller? 
 
 (96) What is the pitch of a propeller? 
 
 (97) Explain the object of the thrust bearing. 
 
 (98) Explain the principle of "semi-Diesel" engines. 
 
 (99) What are closed and Wihat are open nozzle fuel injection de- 
 vices ? 
 
 (100) Explain the principle of the "Sperry Compound Engine". 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES. 
 
 HEAVY DUTY OIL ENGINES, MARINE AND STATIONARY 
 LOW COMPRESSION 
 
 The low compression engine, generally termed the semi-Diesel en- 
 gine, has the distinction that it operates under pressures up ito about 
 250 Ibs. per square inch. In construction it is far simpler and requires 
 less knowledge than the high compression or usually known as the "full 
 Diesel" engine. It follows in principle of construction the two-stroke 
 cycle system. While there are manufacturers w:ho are adhering to the 
 four-stroke cycle, low compression engine, it must be agreed that the 
 two-cycle in this respect is universally considered the ideal construction. 
 
 Low Compression Engine Pioneer of All Internal Combustion En- 
 gines: The statement made that the lo^w compression engines are all 
 modifications of the Hornsby-Akroyd engine must be disputed. The mod- 
 ern gas engine as well as the Diesel types are in reality an outcome of 
 experiments made in the early sixties with the surface ignition system. 
 Patents have been granted in the United States as well as foreign coun- 
 tries to inventors creating devices for power production through the 
 methods of surface ignition. It was only after the electrical age began 
 to be felt, that the modern gasoline driven engine was brought to the 
 front. Thanks to the great German inventor, Dr. Rudolph Diesel, the 
 Diesel received its marked attention. 
 
 Theory of Combustion: Oils of heavy viscosity will not ignite in 
 the presence of air not sufficiently high in temperature. On the other 
 hand, if the oil strikes a hot surface it will break up into hydro-carbons 
 of minute particles, and, when assisted by an existing high temperature 
 in the cylinder, it will materially be brought into useful form. The in- 
 itial step in starting the engine is in modern types performed with the 
 assistance of electrical starters receiving current of electricity from a 
 battery, or, in some cases the hot bulb, hot pin, etc., is used. While the 
 fuel, coming in contact on its entering the combustion chamber, with the 
 hot tube or hot plate, or as previously stated, electrical device, the 
 "kracking" of the fuel is accomplished before the piston reaches its 
 dead center. 
 
 It was customary in years gone by to use a lighter grade of oils for 
 the use of semi-Diesel engines, but of late the engines having been 
 brought to a higher stage of perfection, and, as a matter of fact, any 
 kind of fuel oil may be used in most standard types. Some manufactur- 
 
440 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 ers of semi-Diesel engines are entirely ignoring the use of higher gravi- 
 ties of oils and are recommending the lower grades. 
 
 Semi-Diesel Engine A Factor of Importance on Land As Well As 
 Marine: When considering the fact that the semi-Diesel engine has 
 been recognized by the agricultural population, industrial and marine 
 service as a factor of necessity in the welfare of the nation, the enormity 
 of numbers in use will substantiate this statement. Not alone from the 
 standpoint of economy, but also from the indisputable fact that the en- 
 gine is the simplest mechanism among power generators, the adoption 
 of this type has been exceedingly rapid. In earlier years much trouble 
 was experienced with semi-Diesel engines, >such as cracking of cylinders, 
 pre-ignition, etc., which has been universally solved by the experiments 
 made to create the highest type possible. In particular, pre-ignition, 
 which, in some instances, was overcome by the use of water injection. 
 With modern designs all serious troubles are entirely eliminated 
 and the vertical as well as the horizontal semi-Diesel engine are highly 
 satisfactory. 
 
 VITAL POINTS IN OIL ENGINE DESIGNS 
 
 In the designing of oil engines, of either the vertical or the hori- 
 zontal types, many factors have to be considered. Where the engine 
 follows the principle of high compression, a provisioncy must be made 
 assuring the compact design of the pump delivering the oil against exist- 
 ing pressure in the cylinder, a moderate system of accomplishing the in- 
 jection in the combustion chamber, ample water-cooling, and such means 
 of lubrication as tend to minimize high temperatures, thereby avoiding 
 carbonization of the lubricating oil and escaping the attendant complica- 
 tions. 
 
 As will be seen, when studying the different types of engines illus- 
 trated in this book, different methods are employed in most every respec- 
 tive make. To exemplify this, we will give a procedure to be found on 
 the Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company's Giant Oil Engine. 
 
 This engine differs from all others in one or more of three broad 
 features of design: The horizontal type of the engines, the use of a 
 crosshead, and the use of a hot liner in the combustion chamber as a 
 means of igniting the fuel, instead of a hot ball, hot bulb or electric 
 ignition. 
 
 Horizontal vs. Vertical Construction: As previously explained, the 
 mechanism of a vertical engine is rather a disadvantage in so far as 
 accessibility is concerned; for all parts in the crank case must be reached 
 through small openings. We do not mean to imply that there are not 
 features in the vertical engine of very desirable nature, but rather to 
 draw the attention of certain matters dealing with the practical features 
 in general use. If it becomes necessary to remove the piston, the con- 
 necting rod must toe diconnected from the crank pin, the cylinder head 
 removed, and the piston drawn out of the cylinder by means of a chain 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 441 
 
442 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 block or some form of hoist. To remove the crankshaft, one or both 
 flywheels must foe taken off, the flanges which support the main bearings 
 removed, and the shaft taken out of the frame endwise; all of which 
 requires considerable extra floor space, especially in the case of engines 
 direct connected to electric generators. 
 
 In horizontal engines matters already explained as causing extra 
 time are minimized and other, rather undesirable features for stationary 
 purposes overcome. The horizontal engine is more desirable for station- 
 ary power production, while the vertical engine is far preferable for 
 marine work. 
 
 Crossh'ead vs. No Crosshead: In any two-stroke cycle engine not 
 flitted with a crosshead, the crankoase must be as nearly air-tight as 
 possible. The air for scavenging the cylinder must be compressed in the 
 crankcase, and if it is not tight, will leak out and impair the scavenging, 
 preventing efficient operation of the engine. This is so important that 
 some builders put stuffing 'boxes on the outer ends of the main bearings. 
 All the crank case covers are necessarily small and are 'bolted down on 
 gaskets. This makes the parts within the case very inaccessible. 
 
 The design of Giant Engines enables the air for scavenging to be 
 compressed in the crank end of the cylinder, and an air-tight crankcase 
 is therefore unnecessary. 
 
 When a crosshead Is not used, the plsiton must act as a crosshead 
 and the cylinder as a guide. The piston must be made longer than other- 
 wise necessary, in order to have room for the piston pin and to prevent 
 as much of the inevitable excessive wear on both piston and cylinder as 
 possible. This wear is caused by the piston being forced hard against 
 the top and bottom of the cylinder by the angular thrust of the connect- 
 ing rod. 
 
 This uneven cylinder wear can never be entirely prevented without 
 the use of a crosshead. As the wear increases, it permits the oil of heavy 
 base to work back and under the piston rings, hardening there, and caus- 
 ing additional wear. The advantages do not stop here. The extra fric- 
 tion caused by lengthening the cylinder and piston is greater than the 
 friction of a crosshead. Engines which do not have crossheads soon 
 become very hard to .start on account of the loss of compression due to 
 worn piston and cylinder. 
 
 Crosshead construction adds great stability to a machine. It has 
 been definitely established that the addition of this one feature doubles 
 the working life of an engine. 
 
 Hot Liner vs. Hot Ball or Electric Ignition: Electric ignition has not 
 been successfully applied to the firing of low grade fuels. Engines utilis- 
 ing this system are suitable only for burning kerosene and the more 
 volatile fuels. 
 
 Ignition is secured in Giant Engines by injecting the fuel into a hot 
 liner. This hot liner is not subjected to bursting pressures nor is it sub- 
 ject to breakage from contraction and expansion, as are hot balls some- 
 times used for ignition purposes in this type of engine. Hot balls collect 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 WATER INLET ' PURE A '* ANSFER 
 
 443 
 
 Position of Piston at Time of Combustion. 
 
 carbons. Especially is this true in engines in which water injection is 
 not used. 
 
 In any engine using hot ball ignition the oil, upon its injection into 
 the cylinder, comes in contact with very little heated iron as compared 
 with the hot liner method used in Giant Engines. As a result it takes 
 
 WATER INLET 
 
 Position of Piston at Time of Scavenging and Exhaust. 
 
444 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 445 
 
 Much longer to gasify the oil which consequently must be injected into 
 the cylinder much earlier in the stroke than when using the hot liner. 
 The earlier the oil is Injected into the cylinder of an oil engine, the more 
 danger there is of pre-ignition and excessive initial pressure. 
 
 Further, any engine which relies for ignition on a bright red heat and 
 which is subject to bursting pressure, is dangerous. In this connection 
 the following table taken from the "Engineering" is interesting since it 
 shows the decrease in tensile strength of oast iron and mild steel at 
 various temperatures and was based on observations of hot bulb semi- 
 Diesel Engine: 
 
 Tensile Tensile 
 
 Load Color Temp. -p. . S 'S-to!," d 
 
 per Sy. In. per Sq. In. 
 
 Light Load _____ Just showing color 
 
 in the dark _________ 750 12.0 24.0 
 
 Normal Load ___ Between dull and 
 
 cherry red ___________ 1100 7.5 12.0 
 
 Over Load ______ Bright cherry _________ 1400 3.5 2.5 
 
 The oil upon being forced into the combustion chamber in this 
 engine, passes through, and strikes the head of the cylindrically shaped 
 liner with which the combustion chamber is fitted. The shape of this 
 liner is such that the oil is instantly distributed over its surface, gasified, 
 and ignited. The resulting rapidity of ignition permits the injection of 
 fuel into the cylinder late in the stroke, thereby avoiding the abnormal 
 pressures incident to fpre-ignition. 
 
 Giant engines are running on any petroleum distillate from 28 degrees 
 Baume scale up to and including kerosene that does not contain any 
 more than 1 per cent sulphur or 25 per cent asphalt. It is not recom- 
 mended that any of the lighter distillates burned in gasoline engines be 
 used. There are a nunrber of oils considerably below 28 per cent Baume 
 scale on which Giant engines will operate satisfactorily, but as this de- 
 pends upon the character of the particular oil, a general guarantee can- 
 not te given, as to the performance of satisfactory results, although rec- 
 ommendations to that effect are often given by operators. There are 
 also many crude oils which can te used in these engines, but it is danger- 
 ous practice as they are likely to contain sand, grit or sulphur. The 
 sa'est and most satisfactory oils are those furnished by the oil refineries. 
 The average cost in operating a 50 H.P. engine should be from 20 to 25 
 cents per hour. 
 
 Water Injection With Fuel: Increased economy is secured by the 
 use of water with the oil. The water enters the cylinders through a 
 check valve at a point just above the pure air transfer port, and is drawn 
 into the cylinder with the pure air. The water retards the combustion 
 of the oil and thus keeps the initial pressure down to slightly more than 
 compression pressure. It also keeps the cylinder free from carbon, keeps 
 the piston rings from sticking, and aids lubrication, by helping to keep the 
 piston and cylinder walls cool. 
 
446 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 \ 
 
 .2 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 447 
 
 Air Starter: On the Duplex Types of Giant Engines automatic air 
 starters are provided. The compressor equipment for the system con- 
 sists of a small vertical air-cooled single acting air compressor, driven by 
 a gasoline engine of adequate horsepower. An air receiver of ample 
 capacity, is provided, together with a pressure gauge, pop safety valve, 
 and drain cock. 
 
 The automatic air starter consists of simple plunger valves bolted 
 to the su'b-'base and operated by cams on the crankshaft. These valves 
 allow a portion of the high pressure air to act on small piston valves, 
 
 H.P. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 D 
 
 P 
 
 R 
 
 0. 
 
 <t 
 
 > 
 
 ',j 
 
 3- 
 
 7 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO-JO 
 
 ' 
 
 '' 
 
 *4 
 
 3 
 
 7i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60-60 
 
 a' 
 
 >*' 
 
 i' 
 
 3 
 
 'i' 
 
 3 0' 
 
 *'-tf~ 
 
 ** 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 f-f 
 
 10 
 
 rv 
 
 "< 
 
 '" 
 
 ^' 
 
 Muffler Pit for Single Engine. 
 
 one of which is attached to each cylinder head. These in turn admit 
 high pressure air to the engine cylinders. The entire arrangement is 
 remarkably simple. 
 
 Exhaust Piping: Some suggestion is given here in regards to prop- 
 erly fitting of exhaust piping from the engine. In illustrations (f) and 
 (g) a typical plan of installation of muffler pit is seen. When follow- 
 ing the general instruction it will be noticed that particular attention is 
 given to eliminate all undesirable noises caused by engine exhaust. 
 
 Bolt the exhaust flange to the under side of the cylinder and run the 
 exhaust pipe from it to any point desired, taking care to see that the 
 pipe does not come in contact with anything inflammable. If it is very 
 
448 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 long or crooked, it should be increased in size. It should be put together 
 in such a way that it can easily be taken apart for cleaning. 
 
 It is recommended that where practicable, the water jacket outlet 
 pipe be connected to the exhaust. The introduction of the cooling water 
 reduces the temperature, and deadens the noise of the exhaust. If this 
 connection is made to an exhaust line in which a muffler is used, the 
 drain at the bottom of the muffler must be left open. 
 
 When an exhaust pot is used, it should be placed as close to the 
 engine as possible, and must be connected by the size of pipe called for 
 by the openings in the exhaust 'pot and engine. W T hen the line connecting 
 the exhaust pot and exhaust outlet is long or if very many bends are 
 made, it is recommended to use a size larger than that called for by 
 the exhaust ipot opening. 
 
 Muffler Pit for Double Engine. 
 
 For installations where it is necessary that noise and smoke be 
 eliminated, it is recommended that a muffler pit of the type shown in 
 Figs, (f) and (g) be used. Figure (f) shows the design of muffler pits 
 capab'e of taking care of single engines up to 80 H.P., while the design 
 given in Fig. (g) will take care of Duplex engines ranging from 100 H.P. 
 to 160 H.P. When a muffler pit of the type illustrated is used, it is 
 absolutely necessary that an overflow of the size recommended be used, 
 and also that a sufficient quantity of running water be used to carry 
 off any residue or waste matter that may come from the exhaust. With 
 the use of one of these muffler pits, only a barely perceptible puff of 
 light smoke will issue from the discharge pipe. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 449 
 
 INGERSOLL-RAND OIL ENGINES 
 
 Oil engines have been classified in a number of ways; yet those built 
 prior to the present time can be divided into two general classes: the so- 
 called Semi-Diesel, consuming 0.7 pounds of fuel per brake horsepower, 
 which employs a hot bulb, hot cap or other hot surface to vaporize and as- 
 sist in igniting the fuel; and the full Diesel type, consuming slightly over 
 half the fuel, which employs a full water-cooled head, but high cylinder 
 compression, still more highly compressed air to atomize and inject the 
 fuel and mechanically operated spray valves to accurately control the 
 fuel injection. 
 
450 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 In the accompanying illustration we see the Ingersoll-Rand Oil En- 
 gine, which as a matter of fact falls in neither classification. It has just 
 as high an over-all economy and is as fully water-cooled as the Diesel 
 type, yet it demands no higher compression and no more complicated 
 fuel injection system than the Semi-Diesel type. By an ingenious method 
 of direct fuel injection, so perfect is the fuel atomization that 200 1'bs. 
 per square inch is quite sufficient to automatically ignite the fuel. It is 
 not a surface-ignition engine. The Ingerso'lKRand oil engine is a dis- 
 tinct type; it is a low compression engine, direct injection, automatic 
 ignition engine. 
 
 The engine uses the four-stroke cycle with low compression (about 
 200 Ibs. per square inch), direct injection of fuel and has no other means 
 of ignition than the temperature of compression. 
 
 The advantages of solid injection are obvious, when we consider 
 the two or three stage compressor necessary with the Diesel engine to 
 inject the fuel into the cylinder under a pressure of nece&sary require- 
 ment including mechanical equipment necessary on high compression 
 engines, whereas in this low compression engine, two fifths of that of 
 the Diesel engine the same results are accomplished, eliminating all 
 complicated mechanical contrivances. 
 
 In glancing over the efficiency card some idea as to the resultant 
 economy of this engine will be demonstrated. It will be observed here, 
 that after a .pressure of 200 pounds to the square inch has been reached, 
 combustion occurs at constant volume, creating a pressure of about 400 
 pounds, from which the expansion is almost a perfect adiabatic. Com- 
 pare this with the high compression cycle, also shown in this chart, where 
 the compression is carried to more than 500 pounds and the fuel is then 
 admitted gradually so as to produce combustion at constant pressure 
 until the piston has traveled a portion of the stroke, when it also changes 
 to adiabatic expansion. There are three points of advantage in the low- 
 compression cycle which should be noted: 
 
 1. The mean effective pressure which is proportional to the net 
 work developed in the cylinder for the same brake horsepower of engine, 
 need to be only 85 >per cent of that of the high compression cycle. This 
 is due to the higher mechanical efficiency. There are no air compressors 
 to be driven with the Ingersoll-iRand Oil Engine, and the friction losses 
 are in consequence lower. 
 
 2. The mean pressure of compression, which is proportional to the 
 work done in the engine cylinder during the compression stroke, is 
 approximately half that of the high-compression cycle. While it is true 
 that most of this work is not lost, but being returned to the piston during 
 its expansion stroke, nevertheless the performing of the extra work of 
 compression by the piston and the return to the piston of an equal amount 
 of excess work during the expansion stroke, represents more wear on 
 piston, cylinder and bearings. 
 
 For the Same brake horsepower the low compression cycle subjects 
 the engine to approximately 30 per cent less wear. With parts of equal 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 451 
 
452 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 dimensions they will wear considerably longer they will require less 
 attention. 
 
 3. The maximum pressure and temperatures in the cylinder are 
 considerably lower, so that all the parts that are designed for strength, 
 stiffness or temperature stresses may be constructed much more con- 
 servatively. 
 
 As the cycle process has features different from the average low 
 compression as well as the usual type of high compression engine, it 
 will be interesting to follow the accurate performance: 
 
 Description of the Cycle 
 
 Suction Stroke: The intake valve is opened mechanically and the 
 piston moves 'downward on the suction stroke, drawing in a full charge 
 of pure air. 
 
 Compression Stroke: The intake valve is closed by the valve spring 
 and the piston returns, compressing the air from the cylinder into the 
 combustion chamber to a pressure of approximately 200 pounds per square 
 inch. Injection of the fuel starts near the end of the stroke and is com- 
 pleted before the piston has reached the end of its travel. The system 
 of fuel injection is such that ignition is automatic arid perfect combustion 
 occurs. 
 
 Working Stroke: Combustion at constant volume occurs almost 
 exactly at dead center and the pressure rises from 200 to approximately 
 400 pounds and the piston moves downwards on the working stroke. 
 
 Exhaust Stroke: Near the end of the working stroke, the exhaust 
 valve is opened mechanically, the pressure drops, and the piston returns 
 expelling the burned charge. 
 
 The statement is often made that since the fuel cost of an oil engine 
 is so low, a gain in economy is a small factor, that dependability is of 
 prime importance. We fail to realize, that dependability is intimately 
 related to high economy. Every heat unit in the fuel that is not trans- 
 formed into useful work must be carried away through the walls of the 
 combustion chamber or through the cylinder walls to the water jacket or 
 must be carried ipast the exhaust valve and exhaust valve seat during 
 exhaust, or must disappear as friction in bearings or cylinder at expense 
 and upkeep and durability of the engine. In an inefficient engine, not 
 only is a large percentage of the fuel wasted, but in getting rid of the 
 waste heat, serious deterioration of the engine results. The waste oil 
 must be paid for in the fuel bill, paid for in additional lubrication oil 
 to preserve the oil film on the overheated piston and cylinder walls, paid 
 for in additional cooling water to dissipate the waste heat, and paid for 
 in engine upkeep. High fuel economy means low fuel cost, low lubrica- 
 tion cost, low cost of cooling water, low cost of repairs and long life of 
 engine. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 453 
 
 Valves on this engine are of the mechanically operated poppet type 
 and located in the heads and surrounded by water jacketing. The valve 
 motion is of the roller path type, operated by eccentrics' mounted on the 
 side shafts. This makes for quietness and smooth operation. The tim- 
 ing of the valves and the injection of the fuel is obtained from the side 
 shaft through |he medium of one pair of spur gears, driven by the crank- 
 shaft. 
 
 The roller path motion mentioned, consists of a floating lever, one 
 end of which rests on the valve stem and the other is attached to the 
 eccentric rod, which receives its motion from the eccentric on the side 
 shaft. The end of the floating lever therefore moves up and down in 
 relative motion. The upper surface of the floating lever is curved and 
 
454 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 rests against a stationary block of slightly smaller radius of curvature. 
 The point of contact between the two pieces changes as the valve opens 
 and shuts; 'having the effect of uniformly accelerating the motion of the 
 valve. It will be noted that at the moment of opening of the valve, con- 
 siderable leverage is obtained on account of the point of contact being 
 so close to the valve stem. This means that a minimum of stress is 
 exerted on the push rods and side shaft when opening the valves against 
 the terminal pressure. When the valve is opened slightly this pressure 
 is destroyed, and the point of contact then recedes, so as to increase the 
 speed of opening of the Valve. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 455 
 
 The fuel injection pumps, one for each cylinder, which spray the 
 fuel into the combustion chamber, are mounted on the housing adjacent 
 to the cylinders. They are operated by cams from the side shaft. A 
 centrifugal two-ball governor driven off the side shaft takes control of the 
 fuel supply when the engine exceeds a pre-determined speed. It is an 
 over-speed governor. An oil filter is provided from which the oil flows 
 by gravity to the oil pumps. A pump, driven from the engine, elevates 
 the oil to the filter from the main supply. 
 
456 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 In starting, electric igniters are employed for the first few revolu- 
 tions of the engine, while compressed air under 150 to 200 pounds pres- 
 sure is admitted to each cylinder in succession by the aid of the starting 
 valves, to turn the engine over. As the engine is turned over, fuel is 
 injected and after a few revolutions the air is shut off and the engine 
 continues to ignite entirely by compression. The engine may be stopped 
 for about 10 minutes, and started again without the use of igniters. 
 
 Part View of Primm Friction Clutch Coupling. 
 
 In the accompanying illustrations the Primm Heavy Duty Oil Engine 
 is shown. As will be observed this engine is of very simple design. It is 
 of Semi-Diesel classification and is similar to the ordinary type in general 
 method of running operation. The fuel consumption is no more than 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 457 
 
 six-tenths of a pound of fuel oil of a gravity of 24 Baume or better, con- 
 taining at least nineteen thousand B.T.U.'s per pound, and containing not 
 more than one-half of one per cent of moisture, the fluidity of which allow 
 it to flow through the pipes leading to fuel pumps. This horsepower test 
 and fuel consumption on three-fourths to full load is based on tests 
 made at an altitude of approximately 1,000 feet above sea level. 
 
 It will be noted in the illustration of the engine, that the peculiarity 
 of the ignition device is very distinct. Also the method of taking the air 
 in the scavenging chamber, the cross-head taking all the angular thrust 
 of the connecting rod; the enclosed crankcase and the splash lubricat- 
 ing system. 
 
 The use of the proper amount of water in the cylinder of an oil 
 engine serves to maintain a proper interior temperature, upon which de- 
 pends perfect combustion; this has been taken care of in this modern 
 type of oil engine, by which the water injection into 'the scavenging 
 charge by automatically measuring the amount of water needed with the 
 same governor which controls the fuel injection, is adhered to. 
 
 In the illustrations pertaining to the Primm Clutch and Reversing 
 gear, the ingenious method of providing the carrying of heavy loads by 
 automatic governed mechanical gear arrangement, any load even under 
 the most difficult conditions are amply taken care of and through this 
 method no irregularities on the engine Itself are experienced. 
 
 DE LA VERGNE OIL ENGINES 
 Medium Compression. Pump Injection System. Horizontal Construction 
 
 Of the numerous types of oil engines manufactured by the De La 
 Vergne Machine Co., the two best known engines, Type "DH" and Type 
 "SI" will be explained here. 
 
 Historical: 
 
 The Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine, better known as the De La Vergne 
 Type "HA" Engine, was introduced by the De La Vergne Co. in. 1893 
 for use in small power plants requiring up to 125 horsepower. The many 
 admirable features of this type of prime mover soon won for it a posi- 
 tion of great popularity. This engine employs a low compression ot 
 about 50 pounds per square inch, and will operate on kerosene and light 
 distillate oils. It has a comparatively high fuel consumption but great 
 dependability. Many of these original engines are still operating after 
 twenty-five years of service and examples may be found in various gov- 
 ernment lighthouses and fortifications. 
 
 To meet the demand for an engine of larger size which would suc- 
 cessfully burn the heavy grades of American and Mexican crude oils, 
 the Type "FH" Oil Engine was designed and offered in 1910, in sizes 
 from 100 to 600 horsepower -per unit. This type has a medium com- 
 pression of 280 pounds per square inch and a compressed air fuel injec- 
 
458 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 tion system. Its economy is greater than that of the Type "HA" 
 and it operates on a wide range of oils, from heavy crude to kerosene. 
 These engines quickly became popular for installations where the load 
 
 demanded the larger unit and the improved fuel consumption. One pipe 
 line company operates nearly 150 De La Vergne Type "FTH" Oil Engines. 
 In response to tne demand for a small engine that, like the Type 
 "FH", would be able to operate with high economy on the heavier and 
 cheaper oils, the De La Vergne Machine Company developed and offered 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 469 
 
 the Type "DH" Oil Engine, in sizes from 40 to 130 horsepower per unit. 
 These engines embodied the simple mechanism of the Type "HA" and 
 some of the important features of the Type "FH" Engine. These Type 
 "DH" Engines during the next few years showed such remarkable re- 
 sult's in the way of dependability and low operating costs, that a de- 
 mand naturally followed for an engine of this simplified design adapted 
 to larger horsepowers. In response to this demand the De La Vergne 
 Diesel Oil Engine (Type "SI") was brought out. 
 
 Cycle of Operation: 
 
 The Type "SI" Engine being a single acting four-stroke cycle en- 
 gine, four strokes of the piston and two revolutions of the crankshaft 
 are required to complete the cycle. The sequence of events follows: 
 
 Suction Stroke: 
 
 'The intake valve is opened mechanically and piston is moved for- 
 ward on suction stroke, drawing in a charge of pure air. 
 
 Compression Stroke: 
 
 Intake valve is closed. Returning piston compresses the air in com- 
 bustion chamber to a pressure of approximately 330 Ibs. per sq. inch. 
 This compression pressure is ample to cause ignition because on account 
 of the excellent atomization of fuel the entire combustion space is filled 
 with a uniformly distributed oil mist. 
 
 Working Stroke: 
 
 Fuel is injected slightly in advance of inner dead center. Combus- 
 tion occurs and pressure rises from compression pressure to a pressure 
 of about 500 Ibs. per sq. inch. Piston starts out on working stroke. 
 
 Exhaust Stroke: 
 
 The exhaust valve is mechanically opened, pressure drops and piston 
 returns expelling the exhaust gases. 
 
 As previously stated, the Type "SI" engine is a single-acting, hori- 
 zontal, four-stroke cycle engine, operating with a medium compression 
 of about 330 pounds per square inch and a maximum pressure of about 
 500 pounds. 
 
 The engine is started automatically by admission of air from air 
 storage tanks. To start, crankshaft is placed in starting position. Ex- 
 hause valve roller under relief cam is shifted to reduce compression 
 when starting. Starting air is then turned on. A cam on camshaft suc- 
 cessively opens and closes starting valve, admitting air under pressure of 
 about 150 Ibs. at proper intervals. When engine picks up speed starting 
 air is shut off. 
 
 To stop engine, simply pull out handle on fuel pump and lock it in 
 position thus shutting off oil supply to cylinder and engine stops immed- 
 iately. 
 
460 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 Fig. 2. Governor and Fuel Pump Arrangement 
 
 Figure 2 shows fuel pump and regulation. This is possibly the most 
 important part of the "SI" engine. The pump is mounted on governor 
 bracket and operated by a hardened cam on layshaft. Hardened steel 
 pins and large working surfaces are used on all fuel pump parts. Pump 
 plunger and plunger barrel are accurately fitted together and provided 
 with labyrinth packing grooves, eliminating the necessity for the usual 
 plunger packing. Suction and discharge valves with hardened and re- 
 movable seats assure absolute tightness. Fuel is preferably stored in an 
 underground tank outside the building from which point it is raised to 
 a small filter standpipe by a plunger pump mounted on the engine. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 461 
 
 When heavy viscous oils are used, standpipe is provided with a hot 
 water jacket. Action of pump maintains constant flow of oil to stand- 
 pipe, any excess fuel overflowing and returning to storage tank. Prom 
 standpipe oil is withdrawn by engine fuel pump and delivered to spray 
 valves. 
 
 The governor is of the centrifugal type operated hy spiral gears 
 
 from layshaft. The governor acts on an overflow valve on the pump 
 
462 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 through a simple linkage so arranged that the quantity of fuel permitted 
 to pass to the spray valve is readily controlled, thus regulating engine 
 standpipe. 
 
 Cooling Water: 
 
 The Type "I" Engine requires approximately seven gallons of cool- 
 ing water per horsepower hour at full load. This water may be dis- 
 charged at a temperature of 140 Fahrenheit. In locations where the 
 water is costly or difficult to obtain 'a device of simple and inexpensive 
 type will allow circulating water to be used again and again with the 
 addition of only five per cent make-up water. Where water has objec- 
 tionable scale forming properties a closed circulating system can be 
 used which filled ait the start with soft water, uses the same water 
 repeatedly with practically no loss whatever. 
 
 Fig. 4. Cylinder Head and Valve Gear 
 
 As will be observed in figure 4, the cylinder head is provided with 
 an air starting arrangement. The camshaft side of the head is provided 
 with openings for air starting valve and air and exhaust valve casings. 
 The latter are made interchangeable and are mechanically operated 
 from the camshaft. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 463 
 
 There are two spray valves located on the opposite sides of the 
 head connecting to combustion chamber which is cast on the inside of 
 the cylinder face of the head. This arrangement insures complete com- 
 bustion of fuel. The head is water cooled and provided with large 
 hand holes for inspection and cleaning of water space. 
 
 //v Las, 
 
 i? i* it ii 
 
 Piston: 
 
 The piston is of the trunk type and is made of a special heat re- 
 sisting close grained gray iron. The casting is carefully annealed be- 
 fore machining and is afterward ground to exact diameter. The liberal 
 length of piston enables the engine to reduce the pressure due to angu- 
 lar thrust of connecting rod to about 10 Ibs. per sq. inch and pressure 
 due to piston weight is le&s than one pound per sq. inch. 
 
464 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 In this case the long trunk piston assures a large contact area be- 
 tween piston and cylinder liner, thus heat absorbed by the section of 
 the piston head exposed to combustion chamber is rapidly conducted 
 through piston and cylinder liner to cooling water. The piston therefore 
 works under most favorable lubricating conditions, and water cooling of 
 piston head with attendant complications is avoided. The highly pol- 
 ished head end of the piston is of cone shaped design, which is better 
 able to follow expansion or contraction resulting from the working and 
 exhaust strokes, thus relieving this important part of the engine of all 
 internal stresses. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 465 
 
 Rated Capacities: 
 
 The Type "SI" Engine is manufactured in the following standard 
 
 sizes: 
 
 300 H.P. Twin 'Cylinder 
 360 H.P. Twin Cylinder 
 540 H.P. Three Cylinder 
 
 100 H.P. Single Cylinder 
 150 H.P. Single Cylinder 
 180 H.P, Single Cylinder 
 200 H.P. Integral Twin Cylinder 
 
 720 H.P. Four Cylinder 
 
 Fig. 7. Gross-Section Through Vaporizer 
 
 /*'/</. 8. 
 
 The reliability of an engine is merely a question 'of its weight and 
 speed. As the weight is reduced, the reliability is correspondingly low- 
 ered. The Type "DH" engines weigh over 400 Ibs. per horsepower, and 
 are of massive construction compared to two-cycle units. Besides this, 
 
466 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 the speeds of the "DH" engines are comparatively slow, which is con- 
 ducive to longer life. 
 
 Operating at slower speeds and with all its working parts open to 
 air, the "DH" engine is much cooler than many other high speed two- 
 cycle units with its closed crankcase. The "DH" engine, introducing as 
 it does a large volume of oxygen for combustion, injecting the fuel only 
 at the end of compression stroke, employing a separate stroke for ex- 
 pelling the burnt charge, making use of exhaust induction to complete 
 the scavenging and employing a separate stroke for drawing in the 
 
 Fig. 9. Fuel Economy Curve of "DH'' Type of De La Vergne 
 
 fresh charge of air, can ibe appreciated as a machine of high develop- 
 ment among power producers of modern types. 
 
 The "DH" engines are equipped for automatic air starting. A suit- 
 able air receiver is provided. To start, the vaporizer is heated and the 
 fuel pump is operated to inject the charge of oil into the vaporizer. 
 
 The air valve connecting to the tank is opened. This engages the 
 automatic starting valve which is then successfully opened and closed 
 by a cam on the layshaft. Compressed air from the starting tank is 
 admitted to the cylinder and forces the piston outward. When the en- 
 gine gathers speed the air is shut off and the engine then operates 
 under its own power. 
 
 To completely burn heavy and tar constituent fuels and employ mod- 
 erate compression the fuel must be thoroughly atomized and intimately 
 mixed with the air in which it is to 'burn. The hot vaporizer walls facili- 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 467 
 
 tate ignition and subsequent combustion, in this way moderate pressures 
 are employed, and the high efficiency of the Otto cycle attained. 
 
 The vaporizer, with its large heated area, makes nigh pressure in 
 the combustion chamber unnecessary. The compression pressure need 
 
 HINOW H3d savnoa 
 
 not exceed about 300 Ibs. per square inch. Use of the uncooled vapor- 
 izer enables the De La Vergne engine to obtain as good results as those 
 obtained with a pressure of only half as great as that used on high com- 
 pression engines. 
 
468 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 THE WYGODSKY SYSTEM OF OIL ENGINES 
 
 The Wygodsky Self-Starting Crude Oil Engine is manufactured by 
 the Baltimore Oil Engine Company, Baltimore, Md., in several types, two 
 of which are described hereinafter. One is a horizontal, four-cycle, 
 heavy-duty, type for medium powers, and the other is a two-cycle type for 
 large powers. 
 
 Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine. Horizontal Type of Engine Showing 
 Arrangement of Parts. 
 
 The horizontal four-cycle engine is illustrated in figures B and D. 
 
 The principal feature of the engine is the airless atomizer, J.5, which 
 in conjunction with the ignition element, J.I, the special fuel oil torch, 
 OT, the air-foot-pump, AP, and the special flywheel locking device, K, 
 makes the engine selfnstarting, without storing of compressed air, and 
 without the use of electrical devices. These elements are described 
 below. 
 
 The airless atomizer produces the atomization of the fuel by 
 hydraulic pressure which is developed by means of fuel pump L (figure 
 G.A.12) which is under direct action and control of the governor, M. The 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 469 
 
 I 
 
470 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 principal part of the 'atomizer is the spray cone, J.10, the conical surface 
 of which is covered with 'spiral grooves of diminishing sections, and is 
 placed against a similar conical surface in nozzle, J.15. The throat of 
 this nozzle is closed >by a needle valve, J.16, which is movable in con- 
 junction with plunger, J.14. This plunger has a very snug fit in sleeve, 
 J.18, and is loaded by means of spring, J.7. The pressure of the oil 
 within the atomizer due to the action of the fuel pump, L, will move the 
 plunger, J.14, against the 'spring and will carry along the needle valve, 
 J.16, thus opening the nozzle. Oil will then circulate through the spiral 
 grooves of the spray cone, J.10, with accelerating motion due to the de- 
 creasing sections of the spiral grooves, and will, set up in the throat of 
 the nozzle a small column of oil in high rotary motion. This column 
 when released from the nozzle, breaks up into a very fine mist due to 
 centrifugal action. As soon as the fuel pump plunger stops advancing, 
 
 Governor and Oil Pump of the Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine. 
 
 the pressure in the sprayer drops instantly and the spring, J.7, shuts the 
 nozzle rapidly and prevents dribbling. This arrangement permits the 
 breaking up of the smallest quantities of oil into very fine mist without 
 any dribbling. To give any idea of the effectiveness of the spray, it may 
 be mentioned that the column of oil in the throat of the nozzle produces 
 about 1,100,000 R.P.M., and the initial velocity of the particles of oil 
 which issue from the nozzle is about 270 feet per second. Any fuel, even 
 with a high flash point, easily ignites when cold if atomized by means of 
 this sprayer. 
 
 The engine works with a moderate compression pressure of 300 Ibs. 
 per square inch, and to obtain the starting ignition while the engine is 
 cold, a temporary ignition device, J.I, figure G.A.10, is used. This ignition 
 device is a hollow ring and is totally enclosed within the water cooled 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 471 
 
472 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 combustion chamber. No hot surfaces are exposed to the outside of the 
 engine, but the heated surfaces are entirely inside tlie combustion cham- 
 ber, so it is evident that this is not a hot bulb engine. This device has 
 two apertures which connect the inside of this hollow ring with two 
 channels in the waiter jacketed cover projecting through the cylinder 
 head. One channel is for the introduction of the oil torch, G.A.13, and 
 the other channel serves for the escape of the products of combustion. 
 
 General Arrangement of Air Pump of Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine. 
 
 This torch, G.A. 13, connected to the foot-air-pump G.A. 15, which 
 furnishes air to it, is of an interesting construction. The torch can 
 burn the same fuel as the engine and the reservoir can be refilled 
 while the torch is burning, as there is no pressure on the oil whatever. 
 The torch does not require any fpre-heating for it starts to! .burn as soon 
 as the foot pump develops 25 Ibs. pressure in a reservoir of about 3% 
 gallons capacity. 
 
 The next element of self-starting is the locking device, K, Figure B. 
 This locking device consists of a toggle mechanism, K6, 7, 8 and 9. It is 
 
 Sectional View of Sprayer of the Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 473 
 
 pivoted in two points, K17 and K18. It is loaded toy means of spring K19. 
 The position of tis mechanism as shown in figure OB, is that when the 
 engine is ready for starting. The dog, K9, is then inserted in the slot 
 of the flywheel. This keeps the flywheel in starting position, in which 
 position the crankshaft is about 60 degrees above its inner dead center 
 on the firing stroke. Sectional view, Fig. D, shows piston and crank- 
 shaft in starting position. 
 
 The process of self-starting is as follows: 
 
 The foot-pump, AF, is given several strokes and the .torch, OT, is 
 ignited by a lighted match, the pumping being continued for about two 
 minutes, in the course of which time the ignition tube -becomes hot 
 enough to ignite the spray. After the ignition device has been made hot 
 enough, some of the air from the foot-pump is admitted into the combus- 
 tion chamber with the double purpose of making sure that the combus- 
 tion chamber is filled with pure air and also to have the air pressure 
 raised to atoout 40 Ibs. The spring of the above mentioned locking de- 
 vice is made strong enough to hold the flywheel in the starting position 
 so that the flywheel will not toe released until there is enough pressure 
 behind the piston to start the engine running. This pressure is produced 
 by manually operating the fuel pump. This action produces a spray 
 through the atomizer into the comtoustion chamber. This spray being 
 produced in the proximity of the ignition tube and in an atmosphere of 
 40 Ibs. pressure, an explosion follows which is strong enough to turn the 
 dog of the locking device. This locking device then collapses as shown 
 by the dotted lines in figure B, and the engine begins to work normally. 
 The torch then goes out by itself, and the lubrication starts automatically 
 so that no valves have to be operated. The starting cycle gives a 
 M.E.P. atoove 100 pounds per square inch, so that the engine starts with 
 a load of approximately 50 per cent of its rated capacity. The engine 
 is also provided with special means for self-cleaning. By means of a 
 special device the engine ejects automatically any solid or liquid deposit 
 that may find its way into the combustion chamber. The same feature 
 is utilized for stopping the engine approximately in its starting position. 
 The M.E.P. ototainable in this engine is 116 pounds per square inch. 
 
 After the starting of the engine has been explained, the operation of 
 same is easily understood toy anyone familiar with a four-cycle oil engine. 
 The governor which is explained below acts directly on the plunger of the 
 fuel pump and injects the oil slightly 'before the end of the compression 
 stroke. 
 
 The governor of an oil engine is one of the most important elements. 
 Many a good oil engine proved to be a failure on account of poor govern- 
 ing. The method of governing in this Wygodsky oil engine is the variable 
 stroke method; with timing of the beginning of injection, constant; and 
 the end of injection, variatole, i. e., sooner or later, according to the load 
 on the engine. The governor of this engine comprises a governor proper, 
 as well as the governing mechanism, all enclosed in one casing. The 
 governor is also free of reaction from the governed mechanism and 
 
474 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 therefore it permits running the governor at comparatively slow speeds, 
 viz., the -speed of the crankshaft. The governor and pump are repre- 
 sented in figure G.A.12, in which L.38 is the plunger, iL.48 is the suction 
 valve, and L.15 the delivery valves. The governing mechanism consists 
 of the cam lever M.23, which is pivoted eccentrically in the governor 
 casing. This lever is provided with a cam face which acts directly on 
 roller, L.12, of the fuel pump. This cam face is an arc of a circle de- 
 scribed from its pivot center. The position of this cam lever is deter- 
 mined by means of a finger, M.9, which finger is attached to a swinging 
 lever, M.ll, which is pivoted at M.12. This finger acts between a special 
 inner face of the governor case and a curved face of the cam lever; the 
 inner face of the case is an arc of a circle described from M.12 as a centre 
 and the curve of the cam lever is figured out so, that the tangents of 
 
 Four-Cycle Single Cylinder Heavy uuiy Wygodsky Self-Starting 
 Crude Oil Engine. 
 
 these two curves and finger, M.9, form an angle which is less than the 
 angle of friction corresponding to the, materials used. The idea is that 
 when the governor runs in a counter-clockwise direction the reaction 
 from roller L.12 on the cam lever, M.23, tends to jam the finger, M.9, 
 without pushing same in either direction. It should be mentioned that 
 the link M.ll, by means of link, M.8, is connected to one of the governor 
 weights, M.2. There is also another governor weight, M.3, which is 
 situated in a diametrically opposite direction of M.2, and is connected to 
 same by means of a connecting link, M.13, in such a manner as to give 
 both weights a similar motion. These two weights furnish a centrifugal 
 force of the governor when same is rotating. The centrifugal force is 
 furnished by spring M.20, which is arranged to permit an adjustment of 
 its length, as well as an adjustment of its tension. As mentioned before, 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 475 
 
 finger M.9 being situated in an angle which is less than the friction 
 angle will not transmit any reaction to the weights of the governor. The 
 cam face of the governor lever, 'being an arc of a circle, will have the 
 same point of intersection with the. outer periphery of the governor cas- 
 ing irrespective of the position of the cam lever. This naturally will give 
 a constant point for the beginning of the injection of the fuel. 
 
 The whole engine is built on the interchangeable principle, and for 
 easy operation, so that no expert labor is required. This feature makes 
 it a suitable engine for any part of the country, as well 'as for export 
 purposes. 
 
 Two-Cycle Wygodsky Self-Starting Crude Oil Engine. The economy per- 
 formances compare well with the best. 
 
 Two Cycle Type 
 
 The principle of the Wygodsky Self-starting Crude Oil Engine is also 
 utilized in a two cycle type engine. 
 
 This two cycle Diamond Type engine has been designed for engines 
 of higher horsepower, and also for an engine which is much simpler in 
 the design and manufacture than any other engine known. 
 
 The transfer of gases is accomplished through ports, which arc con- 
 trolled by the working pistons. It is a modified opposed piston engine, 
 which, while preserving all the advantages of such a system, at the tvarne 
 time eliminates its disadvantages, such as multiplicity of crankpins, 
 connecting rods, large dimensions, etc. 
 
476 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 477 
 
 This engine works with the previously described patented hydraulic 
 sprayer, without compressed air, and has a low operating pressure. It 
 is easily started from the cold in about three minutes, and uses very 
 little compressed air, when starting with compressed air, ' and still less 
 when starting with the self-starting mechanism, which has been de- 
 scribed in connection with the stationary engine. The camshafts are 
 eliminated, besides valves, levers, brackets, rollers, etc. The who]? en- 
 gine is just a mass of reciprocating pistons and revolving crankpins. 
 
 It 'has been recognized of late that an oil engine, to give a large 
 output of power, must necessarily 'be of the two-cycle type. Although 
 the opposed piston principle has been used many years ago in gas and 
 gasoline engines, its adaptation for oil engines has been perfected only 
 recently. This system primarily permits perfect scavenging, eliminates 
 air and exhaust valves, as well as mechanism for oiperating same, and 
 also eliminates the cylinder head, which is a very weak part in any oil 
 engine. 
 
 The two pistons, which operate in a common combustion chamber, 
 permit the development of double the power with the same mechanism 
 for the introduction of fuel. This has very many attractive features, al 
 though the way it has been carried out up to this time,/ has many great 
 mechanical drawbacks. For instance, to operate the two pistons it is 
 necessary to have three crankpins and three connecting rods, besides all 
 the appurtenances that go with same. Moreover, it is practicable to put 
 only two bearings between said crankpins, and therefore the crankshaft 
 has to be made of very heavy sections, and naturally the crankshaft is 
 expensive. Furthermore, the width and length of such an engine is very 
 great, and therefore very costly to produce. It will be seen in the en- 
 gine described below that only one crankpin is required for two pistons 
 instead of three; furthermore, a group of four pistons requiring two 
 crankpins are located in one plane and are operated by two crankpins 
 located in two separate crankshafts. The regular opposed piston system 
 requires 6 crank pins for four pistons. From the above the compactness 
 and small dimensions of the Wygodsky engine is easily seen. This 
 method readily permits the concentration of larg'e powers in a small 
 space. 
 
 Figure 3 shows a sectional view of the engine. As intimated before, 
 this engine is provided with two crankshafts; one upper crankshaft, 1, 
 and lower crankshaft, 1A. They are connected toy means of a special link 
 motion so that they operate in synchronism and in opposite sense. Each 
 cranfcpin is operated toy two connecting rods: one left-hand connecting 
 rod, 2, which is forked, and the other right-hand, 2A, operates within 
 the fork of the former. The pistons, 3, are operated by said connecting 
 rods, so that each upper and lower piston work symmetrically. The cyl- 
 inder structure is made in a V shape and this permits accommodating 
 two such structures, one on each side of the crankshafts plarie. These 
 two cylinder structures give the section of the engine a "diamond shape." 
 
 In figure 3, four (4), indicates the spray box to which is attached the 
 
478 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 starting ignition ring, 5, and the atomizer is introduced through aperture 
 6; both essentially the same as in the stationary four-cycle engine. 
 
 The cylinder proper, 7, is a water jacketed "elbow," the lower leg 
 of which is slightly shorter than the upper leg. The reason for this 
 will be explained later. This cylinder is designed to withstand the full 
 pressure of the working cycle. To the upper, as well as the lower flanges 
 of said cylinders, 7, are attached guide cylinders, 8, which receive the 
 pistons after the ports have been uncovered. These guide cylinders are 
 provided wiith port belts, 9, which extend all around the piston, and the 
 contour of which is made to conform to that of the bottom of the piston. 
 This belt, 9, is in communication with passages, 10, and 10A; the former 
 serving as air manifolds, and the latter being exhaust manifolds. Thus 
 we have two air manifolds, and two exhaust manifolds. These manifolds 
 are provided with special flanges and when such cylinders are assembled 
 
 Fuel Pump Bracket of Two-Cycle Wyyodxky Keif-Starting Crude Oil Engine. 
 
 in the engine they register with each other and form continuous pass- 
 ages for either air or exhaust. They are kept air tight by means of a 
 special packing device. Thus no special air or exhaust manifolds are 
 required. 
 
 It will be noticed that the bottoms of the pistons are provided with 
 flats which are mutually parallel in each cylinder structure and thus ipro- 
 vide a combustion space which is much different than the wafer shape 
 which we see in the regular opposed piston engines or even in the regular 
 Diesel engines. 
 
 Figure 5 is a plan view, and figure 6 is a front elevation of the engine. 
 On the left hand side of isaid figures, 11, and 11A indicate the two double 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 479 
 
 acting scavenging pumps, which by means of tubular member, 12, are 
 connected to the two air manifolds, 10, into which these two pumps dis- 
 charge the air. The four pistons of said pumps are operated by means 
 of four crankpins, two of which are located in each of the two crank- 
 shafts respectively. The same crankpins are utilized for the link mechan- 
 ism which connects both crankshafts so as to make them, operate in 
 opposite directions; thus the crankpins serve a double purpose, i. e., oper- 
 
 General Arrangement of Baltimore Oil Engine. Vertical Type. 
 
 ating the four pistons of the scavenging pumps as well as the connect- 
 ing mechanism between the two' crankshafts. Owing to automatic air 
 valve of a special construction these same scavenging pumps also serve 
 for starting and reversing the engine by means of compressed air. The 
 different parts of the pumip are connected by means of pipes to the air 
 distributing mechanism, 14, which is actuated by means of hand lever, 
 
480 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 15. This hand lever when pushed forward starts the engine in a forward 
 direction; when pushed 'backward it starts the engine in a backward or 
 reverse direction. When left alone the lever automatically returns to 
 its neutral position and automatically cuts off the air supply from the 
 tank. 
 
 The movement of said lever, 15, has the effect of automatically con- 
 verting the scavenging pumps into working cylinders directing the air 
 into the necessary chambers to effect the movement of the pistons in the 
 desired direction and finally exhausting expanded air into any of the 
 working cylinders, scavenging same through the usual ports. After that 
 the air escapes through the regular exhaust pipe. This system of utilizing 
 the compressed air has the advantage of securing pure air for the com- 
 bustion and also does away with the necessity of providing extra mufflers 
 to take care of the air exhaust. Needless to say that the complicated 
 controls which are met with in the starting mechanism of the Diesel 
 engine are completely done away with. It also must be mentioned that 
 this engine besides ease of starting and reversing, uses very little air 
 to) effect these actions. It is necessary just to give about one-third of a 
 revolution to start the engine spinning in any desired direction; this is 
 due to the above described patented ignition device. 
 
 As mentioned before, the engine has no camshafts. The whole oper- 
 ating mechanism is assembled on one bracket, shown in the upper left 
 hand corner of figure 6, in which 16 shows four fuel pumps; four similar 
 pumps are on the other side. Each pump is connected to its respective 
 combustion chamber. All fuel pumps are operated by a small crankshaft, 
 17, which is similar to the main upper crankshaft and is attached to 
 same by means of a special clutch, 18, which permits a certain angular 
 movement between the two crankshafts. The action of each pump may 
 be tested by means of lever 19. Lever 20 is for regulating the speed of 
 the engine, and when raised raises the .speed and when lowered reduces 
 the speed of the engine. Governor, 21, regulates the maximum speed of 
 the engine. 
 
 For self-starting, the engine is provided with a locking device as 
 described in connection with the stationary engine. Parts of this 
 locking device, 22, are indicated on figures 1 and 6. 
 
 From the description above, it can be easily seen that the system 
 permits a large concentration of power pistons in a small space, so it 
 is not surprising that this engine is very light in weight (35 Ibs. per 
 B.H.P.), although the pistons speed is only about 750 feet 'per minute. 
 
 For operating the engine, two methods of starting will be described: 
 one, the air starting, the other, "Self Starting." 
 
 It is recommended in regular practice, for starting as well as re- 
 versing, to use the air device, while the "self starting" is -utilized in 
 emergency cases when for some reason or other there is no air available. 
 
 Before starting, the ignition tubes, 6, are heated by means of special 
 torches inserted in the lower funnel of spray box, 4. This heating is 
 continued for about two minutes. After this, air-starting lever, 15, is 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 481 
 
 slightly moved either forward or backward, depending upon the direc- 
 tion in which it is desired to set the engine in motion. The compressed 
 air will then operate the scavenging pumps and as soon as the engine 
 has made about one-third of a revolution, fuel pumps will come into action 
 and the engine will begin to run on its own power. As mentioned before, 
 as soon as the hand is removed from the starting lever, 15, same will 
 automatically return to its neutral position; this will cut off the com- 
 pressed air supply and the pumps, 11 and 11A, will work as "scavenging" 
 pumps. 
 
 For "self starting," the engine must be first set in a "starting posi- 
 tion," i. e., a certain cylinder must have its pistons in such a position 
 that its corresponding crank pins are about 60 degrees beyond its inner 
 dead centre, as shown on the right hand side in figure 3. The slot in 
 the flywheel, as well as the locking device, are so situated that this is 
 attained in the first working cylinder on figure 6, counting from the left. 
 
 After the flywheel has thus been "locked," the torches are ignited 
 and kept burning for about two minutes, as for air starting. Then air 
 at about 80 Ibs. pressure, is introduced into the combustion chamber be- 
 tween the two pistons. A quick push by hand of the corresponding oil 
 pump plunger, will send a spray of oil into this combustion chamber, 
 which will be readily ignited by the hot ignition tube. An explosion will 
 follow, which will collapse the locking device holding the flywheel, and 
 the engine will start operating. ,It must be observed that a very small 
 quantity of air is required for this method of starting, and said air can 
 be easily generated by several foot pumps, same as used with the station- 
 ary engine. Same pumps will also serve to operate the torches. 
 
 For reversing the engine, speed lever, 20, is first put in the bottom 
 position and the starting lever 15 moved in the direction it is desired 
 to run the engine. Just a slight movement of the crankshaft is sufficient 
 to start the engine running. The engine requires very little air for 
 reversing. 
 
 It is possible to reverse the engine without compressed air by means 
 of a special device giving a premature ignition. 
 
 As soon as the engine is started the torches are extinguished ana 
 after that all operations such as running, maneuvering, and reversing are 
 performed without the torches burning. 
 
 The method of operating the engine does not require much explana- 
 cion. As seen in figure 3, the pistons approach each other in a sym- 
 metrical fashion and when about at the end of their inward stroke, a 
 fuel pump injects the oil through the atomizer, which oil is ignited. On 
 cne expansion stroke, the lower ports, 9, are opened first and the com- 
 Dustlon space is then in communication with the air manifold, 10, in 
 which there is slightly compressed air. This air will then pour into 'the 
 combustion space, driving before it the products of previous combustion 
 and scavenging the said combustion space thoroughly, as there are no 
 valves or other kind of pockets in the whole structure. The return 
 
482 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 movement of the pistons will first close the transfer ports and then the 
 exhaust ports, and then follows the compression, etc. 
 
 The advanced opening of the exhaust ports is accomplished by mak- 
 ing the lower leg of the V cylinder structure slightly shorter than the 
 upper one. 
 
 In the construction as shown, the ports are so arranged, that in any 
 position of the crankshaft, there are always open some transfer and 
 exhaust ports, and so the air manifold, 10, is always in communication 
 with the exhaust manifold and the outer atmosphere through one of the 
 cylinders and therefore there is very little pressure maintained in this 
 manifold, just enough to overcome the fractional losses of this pipe sys- 
 tem. This feature is of great importance as the scavenging pumps, 
 although of about 50 per cent over-capacity, have to work under very 
 little pressure and while Insuring perfect scavenging, the pumping: losses 
 are negligible as compared with most of the two cycle engines in which 
 the air in the manifold is kept under several pounds pressure. 
 
 As constructed, the engine produces 8 double impulses per revolu- 
 tion. It has six upper crankpins and six lower crankpins a total of 12 
 crankpins. In the well known opposed piston engine to obtain the same 
 number of impulses, 26 crankpins would be required, this including 2 
 crankpins for operating two scavenging pumps. 
 
 A four cycle engine, to give the same number of impulses, would 
 require 32 crantopins. 
 
 This example is merely one way of illustrating the great compactness 
 and simplicity of the engine which is the subject o,f this description. 
 
 This is essentially a highspeed engine, although built as a heavy 
 duty engine. With the modern electric or gear transmission it is a de- 
 sirable engine even when slow speed is desired. 
 
 Up to this time the steam engine was almost without a competitor 
 for rail transportation. The electric locomotive is practicable only in 
 very rare cases. In this connection it must be remembered that the 
 automobile became a practical possibility as a result of the perfection 
 of the internal combustion engine. There are very few steam cars in this 
 country, while there are about 10,000,000 automobiles with internal com- 
 bustion engines. There is no reason why the internal combustion engine 
 should not be called upon to do the work for rail transportation, as it is 
 doing now for automobile transportation. The only question is how to 
 concentrate large powers in small space. The characteristics necessary 
 for starting, as well as for changing speed and torque, under different cir- 
 cumstances can be solved in the internal combustion locomotive just as 
 well as in the automobile. The advantages for an internal combustion lo- 
 comotive are too numerous to mention. It is sufficient to mention the fuel 
 economy, the possibility of covering tens of thousands of miles without 
 cleaning boilers, etc. 'Favorable argument is too strong to let tkis proposi- 
 tion stay dormant much longer. The engine described above should be 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 483 
 
 considered, as the solution of the problem of an internal combustion 
 engine for locomotive purposes. 
 
 While designing this engine, the conditions prevailing in this country 
 were kept in mind all the time. 
 
 The automobile became the most popular machine in America 
 because it does not require any expert or licensed engineer to operate it. 
 The whole mechanism is locked up in boxes and the driver is given very 
 few controls which he can master in an hour or so. 
 
 The above described engine was built with the above mentioned pur- 
 pose in view, viz., to build an engine with the minimum amount of 
 mechanism and designed so that it could 'be built on the interchangeable 
 principle and be turned out in large quantities at a low figure. 
 
 Further, it is designed so that there are no adjustments required, and 
 two control handles are all that is necessary for starting, operating 
 and running. The whole engine, with the exception of 'beds and crank- 
 shafts, is built up of small parts so that in case. of defective parts same 
 could be replaced instead of repaired. 
 
 This engine has been built in a 1,000 H.P. unit, which is made in four 
 sections. A six section unit would give 1,500 H.P. A. 10,000 H.P. engine 
 could be made on this system with parts, the dimensions of which are 
 not new to the art and therefore could be built on sure lines. 
 
 BOLINDER'S CRUDE OIL ENGINES 
 (RUNDLOF'S PATENTS) 
 
 STATIONARY AND MARINE ENGINES 
 
 The Bolinder engine is essentially a typical light weight engine 
 following the general principle identical to all two-cycle machinery of 
 the Semi-Diesel type. In general construction the engine is exceedingly 
 simple in design and accessible throughout. 
 
 The manufacturer of this engine, the J. & C. G. Bolinder Co., Ltd., 
 at Stockholm, Sweden, have added some improved features, particu- 
 larly in the marine type, which makes the engine very desirable on ships 
 operating by auxiliary power, where weight factors are of vital import- 
 ance and elimination of space of necessity calls for Internal Combustion 
 powernproducing machinery- 
 
 The consumption of fuel compares well with others of this type of 
 engine. For fuel most any residue oil can be used. The specific gravity 
 of fuels should be preferably about 0.88 and the heat value about 10,000 
 calories per kilo or 18,000 B.T.U.'s per pound. 
 
484 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 In following description of the 
 working performance of stationary 
 engines of the Bolinders, an ac- 
 curate idea will be formed of the 
 principle underlying the two-cycle 
 type. 
 
 When the piston (A) at the end 
 of its outward stroke is moving in 
 towards the ignition chamber (E), 
 the necessary air for combustion is 
 drawn in through the air valves 
 (B) into the enclosed crank hous- 
 ing and ait the same time, the air 
 in the cylinder (D) is compressed. 
 When the piston (A) has reached 
 its extreme inward position, a cer- 
 tain amount of crude oil is injected 
 into the ignition chamber (E) 
 through the nozzle (P), and the 
 fuel charge explodes the expand- 
 ing gas, driving the piston outward 
 towards the shaft. 
 
 During this outward stroke of 
 the piston, the air in the cranR 
 housing is compressed. As the 
 piston nears the end of its stroke, 
 the exhaust port (Cr) opens, and 
 immediately after also the inlet air port (H). 
 
 The burnt gases escape by the exhaust port (G), while the com- 
 pressed air in the crank housing entering the cylinder by the port (H), 
 completes the scavenging work, and furnishes the cylinder with the air 
 necessary to make up the next fuel charge. 
 
 It will be noticed that the ignition chamber (E), has two ports; by 
 this means it is blown through with fresh air every revolution, an im- 
 portant feature for securing a rapid and effective ignition. 
 
 The piston is now on the inward stroke again and the cycle is 
 completed. 
 
 Starting Engines with Compressed Air: Larger engines and all 
 engines having more than one cylinder have a special starting arrange- 
 ment consisting of an air receiver fitted with pressure gauge and stop 
 valve connected by a pipe to a valve on the cylinder. Starting the en- 
 gine by means of air pressure is accomplished as follows: 
 
 After the engine 'bulbs have been sufficiently heated by means of 
 the blow lamps, the 'blow-off cocks on the cylinders are opened and the 
 flywheel is turned over until the piston in the cylinder to which the 
 starting device is attached has just commenced its downward stroke, 
 after which the blow-off cocks are closed again. 
 
 Demonstration of "Cycle of Op- 
 eration," Bolinder Two-Cycle 
 Semi-Diesel Stationary Engine. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 485 
 
 The blow-off valve on the starting device is now closed, the stop 
 valve opened, and the hand wheel opened up two or three complete 
 turns. 
 
 After fuel has been injected into the cylinders by a couple of good 
 strokes of the fuel hand levers, the starting valve is opened quickly by 
 means of the hand lever and is held open about half a second, allowing 
 the pressure in the air receiver to set the engine running. As soon as 
 the engine starts, the starting valve is closed quickly, the hand wheel 
 screwed down, and the stop valve closed while the 'blow-off valve is 
 opened to allow the remaining gas in the pipe and valve to blow out, 
 as otherwise the starting valve may show a tendency to stick 
 
 As soon as the engine is running normally, the air receiver is loaded 
 as follows: 
 
 After the blow-off valve has been closed, the stop valve to the air 
 receiver is opened, after which the loading valve is opened and the 
 pressure allowed to build up in the receiver until the pressure gauge 
 shows from 8 Kg. to 12 Kg. pressure above the atmosphere equal to 
 120 Ibs. to 180 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 Plan View of Reversible Type of Bolinder Marine Engine. 
 
 The loading valve is now closed as well as the stop valve. Lastly, 
 the blow-off cock is opened to allow the gas remaining in the pipe to 
 come out. "The air receiver should always be kept under pressure. The 
 sipring on the starting device should be adjusted so that the valve does 
 not open by the pressure in the cylinder. 
 
 In the maneuvering of the direct reversible engine, following direc- 
 tions should be strictly adhered to: 
 
 It is understood, that the reversal direction of rotation is effected 
 by means of pre-ignition without appealing to any external source of 
 power such as compressed air, electric, etc. 
 
 1. The clutch is 'thrown out by means of the hand lever. 
 
 2. The reversing lever is pulled out aft (for going astern). This 
 movement causes the engine Instantaneously to slow down; a charge 
 of oil is automatically injected at the appropriate stage of the cycle, 
 and the movement of the piston is immediately reversed. 
 
 3. The reversing lever is returned to its central position. 
 
486 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 4. The clutch is thrown in again. The whole maneuver is per- 
 formed by two hand levers. To change from astern to ahead, the pro- 
 cedure is exactly the same, except that the lever is thrown over in the 
 opposite direction. The reversing should not be moved until the clutch 
 has been thrown out; but should then be held either at astern or ahead, 
 until the engine has reversed after which it can be returned to its cen- 
 tral position. 
 
 150 H.P. Bolinder Crude Oil Engine, Two-Cycle. 
 STARTING WITH COMPRESSED AIR. 
 
 In the following illustration, a good view is allowed demonstrating 
 the usage of compressed air, as used} on the Bolinders type, for starting 
 purposes. On large engines and all engines having more than one cylin- 
 der are fitted with a special starting arrangement consisting of a air 
 receiver (102) fitted with a pressure gauge and stop valve (103) con- 
 nected by a pipe to a valve (104 A) on the cylinder. 
 
 To start the engine by compressed air is accomplished as follows: 
 
 After the ignition bulbs have been sufficiently heated by means of 
 the /blow lamps the blow-off cocks on the cylinders are opened and the 
 flywheel is turned over until the piston in the cylinder to which the 
 starting device is attached has just commenced its downward stroke, 
 after which, the blowoff cocks are closed again. 
 
 The blow-off valve (246) on the 'Starting device is now closed, the 
 sitop valve (103) opened, and the handwheel (245) opened up two or 
 three complete turns. 
 
 After fuel oil has been injected into the cylinders by a couple of good 
 strokes of the fuel hand levers, the starting valve is opened quickly by 
 means of the hand lever (113) and is held open about half! a second, al- 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 487 
 
 lowing the pressure in the air receiver to set the engine running. As 
 soon as the engine starts, the starting valve is closed quickly, the hand 
 wheel (245) screwed down, and stop valve (103) is closed while the 
 blow-off valve (246) is opened to allow the remaining gas in the pipe 
 and valve to blow out, as otherwise the starting valve may show a 
 tendency to stick. 
 
 As soon as the engine is running normally the air receiver is loaded 
 as follows: 
 
 Demonstration of Air Starting Method on BoUnder Engines. 
 
 After the blow-off valve (246) has been closed, the stop valve (103) 
 to the air receiver is opened, after which the loading valve (254) Is 
 opened and the pressure allowed to build up in the receiver until the 
 pressure gauge shows from 120 Ibs. to 180 Ibs. per square inch, equal 
 to from 8 Kgs. to 12 Kgs. above atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The loading valve (254) is now closed as well as the stop valve 
 (103). Lastly, the blow-off cock (246) is opened to allow the gas re- 
 maining in the pipe to come out. 
 
488 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 The air receiver should always toe kept under pressure. The spring 
 (120) on the starting device should be adjusted so that the valve does 
 not open by the pressure in the cylinder. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations pertaining to the Fetter Crude Oil 
 Engine, built in England, demonstrates the simple method of reversing 
 arrangement. This engine, which is of the hot surface two-cycle type, is 
 built in sizes having four cylinders up to about 300 H.P. The operation 
 of the pump as shown in the illustration, follows the system of direct re- 
 versal of rotation of the crankshaft, and is explained in the following 
 paragraph. 
 
 By 'manipulation of the hand lever, shown in illustration, the fuel 
 pump is placed out of action when so desired. With the slowing down 
 in speed of the engine the reversing lever is moved to the "astern" posi- 
 tion, which movement allows compressed air to be admitted to the cyl- 
 inder on the upstroke of the piston. The volumetric efficiency of the 
 engine, owing to its excellent construction, equals engines of most up- 
 to-date types. It is principally due to experiences gained by engineers 
 of this company that the accomplishment of this pumip ranks as an ele- 
 gant mechanism on this machine. The reversing of this engine may be 
 accomplished without stopping the engine. The pressure in the cylinder 
 causes the piston to descend in the reverse position without stopping 
 the engine, as previously mentioned. After this has been accomplished 
 the fuel pump is then allowed to be in operation again and the reversing 
 lever is returned to the center or neutral position. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 489 
 
 Fuel Pump Arrangement on Fetter Crude Oil Engine. 
 
 Maneuvering Lever on Fetter Crude Oil Engine. 
 
490 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
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LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 491 
 
492 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 THE KAHLENBERG ENGINE 
 
 To those more familiar with the more modern types of semi-Diesel 
 engines, it wtill be seen at a glance that the Kahlenberg is entirely dif- 
 ferent. There are numerous features in the design and construction to 
 draw the attention. Notably the levers on the forward end of the ma- 
 chine one is the speed and. the other injection control. Speed control 
 is the same as the throttle valve of a steam engine and with it any speed 
 from just turning over to the rated speed of engine is obtainable, with- 
 out relighting the torches and without missing a single impulse from no 
 load to full load. 
 
 Valve Arrangement, Gears and Governor Equipment on Kahlenberg 
 
 Oil Engine. 
 
 Inasmuch as the fuel delivery is instantaneous and is at the proper 
 time relative to the piston traveling over the top center, no water injec- 
 tion is used. With the injection control lever, the fuel injection is made 
 to occur at the proper time for best operating results, and is adjusted 
 while engine is running. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 493 
 
 The reversability of the engine is a feature which deserves mention. 
 Kahlenberg engines are reversible and can be operated either direc- 
 tion. The engine can be reversed from forward to the backward motion 
 and the time of fuel injection can ,be advanced to any part of the stroke, 
 both on the go j ahead and the reversing, while the engine is in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Partial Section Through Cylinder and Bearing of Kahlenberg Marine 
 
 Oil Engine. 
 
 On nearly all surface ignition engines, as noted in the description 
 of the numerous engines, the time of fuel injection is permanently set, 
 requiring a stoppage of the engine to make adjustment. This is not to 
 imply as disadvantageous, but rather as a fact corresponding with the 
 general design based upon the respective type. 
 
 In the illustration pertaining to the governor of the vertical type, 
 the similarity to those used on full Diesel engines is notable. The sensi- 
 tiveness of this specific arrangement allows the engine speed to he held at 
 the number of revolutions at which it is set, with just the least perceptible 
 
494 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 n 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 495 
 
 variation from no load to full load. It acts on the driving cam, which in 
 turn acts on all the fuel pumps, thus changing their stroke instantaneously, 
 regardless of position when the change in load occurs. The maximum 
 R.P.M. 'that the governor will hold the engine at can be varied while 
 the engine is in operation by a knurled screw spring adjustment. Thus, 
 if the main governor spring is adjusted for 350 R.P.M. , the small knurled 
 screw under the fork lever of governor may be adjusted until desired 
 speed is obtained. 
 
 End View Through Eccentric* Pit of Kahlenberg Marine Oil Engine. 
 Note the Double-Set of Pumps. 
 
 The air compressor attached to the engine is of the single stage type 
 and furnishes air for starting at 150 Ibs. pressure. It unloads itself 
 automatically when up to this pressure and lias also a hand unloading 
 device so the compressor can be stopped or started as required and the 
 Hand Air Control is located in intake ports and all are connected 
 to one lever (below throttle and injection controls) . It is used only 
 when operating slow for long periods and is then closed to prevent in- 
 rush of cold air cooling the not bulbs. 
 
496 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 SPECIKICATIONS AND DIMENSIONS OF KAHLENBERG MARINE 
 
 OIL ENGINES 
 
 HorsePower Capacity 100 H.P. to 120 H.P. 
 
 Size of Cylinders lOXlO 1 ^ in. 
 
 Diameter of Balance Wheel 36 in. 
 
 Diameter of Crank Shaft 4 in. 
 
 Length of Main Bearings 10 in. 
 
 Length of Intermediate Bearings 8*4 in. 
 
 Extreme Length of Engine 12 ft. 9% in. 
 
 Height from Center of Crank Shaft to Top of Engine 4 ft. 3 in. 
 
 Distance from Center of Engine to Outside of Silencer 23% in. 
 
 Width of Bedplate 26% in. 
 
 Note. Engines of above specifications and capacities are of 4 cylin- 
 der construction, reversible in addition to reverse gear. The engines will 
 operate on fuel oil of not less than 24 degrees Baume. Consumption five- 
 tenths pounds per B.H.P. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 497 
 
 Port Side of Four-Cylinder "(7-0" Fairbanks-Morse Marine Engine 
 
498 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 FAIRBANKS-MORSE "C-O" MARINE OIL ENGINES 
 
 Principle of Operation: Engines of this type operate on the two* 
 stroke cycle. Following is the procedure of power production: On the 
 upward stroke of the piston air is drawn into the crankcase through a 
 set of automatic valves located in the crankcase and on the downward 
 stroke this air is slightly compressed. Near the end of -this stroke the 
 exhaust ports are uncovered by the piston, permitting the burned gases 
 in the cylinder to escape. Shortly after the exhaust ports are opened, 
 the piston uncovers the air ports on the opposite side of the cylinder and 
 the air compressed in the crankcase rushes into the cylinder, cleaning 
 the latter of burnt gases and charging it with fresh air. After the piston 
 closes the inlet and exhaust ports this charge of pure air is compressed 
 in the cylinder. 
 
 Fairbanks-Morse "C-O" Engine, Marine Type 
 
 Just before the piston reaches its upper dead center, the fuel is in- 
 jected in the form of a fine spray. At the dead center, when the com- 
 pression has reached its maximum, ignition automatically takes place 
 and the resulting pressure drives the piston downward, doing useful 
 work. After expansion is completed, the piston again uncovers the ex- 
 haust ports and the cycle of operation is repeated. 
 
 Air Seal in Crankcase: Fresh air for combustion enters the cylinder 
 ait the end of the down stroke under slight pressure from the crankcase. 
 It -is important that compression be maintained and equally as import- 
 ant that the lubrication oil shall not be blown out of the bearings. This 
 is accomplished by a unique arrangement without stuffing boxes and 
 without putting any pressure on the main bearings. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 499 
 
 Combustion Chambers: The "C-O" is not a hot bulb engine. The 
 combustion chambers are almost entirely water cooled, with the walls of 
 sufficient thickness and strength) to meet all demands of the service. 
 
 Exhaust Manifold: The exhaust manifold is of large capacity and 
 acts as a muffler. It is closed at the ends with removable heads, each 
 of which is provided with a pipe connection for the exhaust outlet. A 
 cleanout plate is provided opposite each cylinder, which also serves for 
 inspection of the exhaust ports. The manifold is completely water jack- 
 eted and all the cooling water after leaving the cylinders, flows through 
 the jacket of the manifold. 
 
 Circulating Water Pump: This pump is of the plunger type and is 
 of large capacity. It is located at the after end of the engine, driven 
 directly from the crankshaft by means of an accentric. 
 
 Governor: The governor for all engines up to and including 100 H.P. 
 is mounted in the flywheel, and for all larger engines directly on the 
 crankshaft. It is of the centrifugal type and acts on the fuel pumps, 
 automatically altering the stroke of the pump plungers according to the 
 power required from the engine. 
 
 Speed Control: Each engine is provided with a speed control which 
 makes it possible to run the engine at any pre-determined rate, from full 
 down to 35 per cent of its rated speed. 
 
 Fuel Injection Pumps: There is no part that requires more careful 
 and accurate machining than these pumps, The plungers are of steel, 
 carbonized, hardened and ground. The suction and discharge valves are 
 contained in cages so that they can be removed and replaced in com- 
 plete, self-contained units. There is one pump for each cylinder and 
 each pump can be held out of action or even replaced while the engine 
 is running without interfering with the operation of the remaining cylin- 
 ders and pumps. The pumps are operated by cams, which are of steel, 
 carbonized, hardened and accurately ground by a special cam grinder 
 and are of such shape that all levers and rods operating the pumps are 
 always in contact with each other, thus insuring quiet operation. The 
 cams are provided with adjustments so that the timing of the fuel injec- 
 tion may be advanced or retarded if necessary. 
 
 Air Compressor: An air compressor, used to pump air for starting 
 the engine and such work required by air, is attached to the engine. Is 
 of the single-action, single-stage type, driven by an eccentric directly 
 from the crankshaft. The entire compressor and head are water cooled. 
 The suction valves are of the 'poppet type, made of siteel and mounted 
 in removable cages, being so constructed that they may be held off their 
 seats when the tanks are filled to the desired pressure. The discharge 
 valves are of the cup type, made of steel, mounted in removable cages. 
 The entire cylinder head is removable. 
 
 Electric and Torch Starting: Each engine is equipped with an elec- 
 tric device to initially heat the combustion chambers. This is necessary 
 when the engine is started from a cold condition. The electric outfit 
 consists principally of a storage battery, charging generator and one 
 
500 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 ignition or heating plug for each, cylinder. The plug carries ah element 
 that can quickly be made red hot by current from the battery. The ele- 
 ment can be replaced at small expense with renewing the entire plug. 
 With this device an engine can be started in 30 seconds. As an auxiliary 
 means, kerosene torches are also furnished for heating the combustion 
 chambers, 
 
 Reverse Gear: All engines up to and including 100 H.P. are equipped 
 with reverse gears. The forward drive consists of a multiple disc clutch, 
 the discs being faced with a special non-burning, asbestos woven mate- 
 rial. The reverse drive consists of a set of gears and pinions, enclosed 
 in a drum and running in oil. 
 
 Air Starter: All engines are started with compressed air (Engine 
 above 100 H.P. are direct reversible and will be described later). A dis- 
 tributor mounted on the after end of the engine delivers air to each cyl- 
 inder in proper rotation. The distributor; comprises a set of valves, one 
 for each cylinder, operated by a cam located directly on the crankshaft. 
 The distributor is connected to a tank holding compressed air. It is in 
 operation only during starting, and all parts stand still when- the engine 
 is in regular operation. 
 
 Direct Reversing Engines: All engines of 150 H.P. and larger are 
 started and reversed with compressed air. The necessary air for each 
 engine is stored in tanks which are pumped up by an air compressor 
 attached to the main engine and driven by an eccentric. A separate air 
 compressor driven by a small engine is in some cases found desirable, as 
 the air can be stored then independently of the larger engine. The starting 
 and reversing mechanism consists essentially of a housing containing two 
 rotating discs of which one is timed for ahead and the other for astern. 
 Each disc has a slot which admits air to the pipes leading to the cylin- 
 ders in order for rotation in the proper direction. A hand controlled air 
 inlet valve admits air to the ahead or astern disc at the will of the oper- 
 ator. The distributor is positively driven from the crankshaft by a set 
 of gears. 
 
 One important feature in reversing liquid fuel engines is the control 
 of the fuel; that is, the injections must cease positively as soon as the 
 control lever is moved, and the fuel also must be turned on immediately 
 the engine runs in the desired direction. This is accomplished by cams 
 and levers controlling the suction valves of the fuel pumps, allowing the 
 fuel to be by-passed back into the oil tank or pumped into the cylinders 
 as required. All movements controlling the air as well as the fuel are 
 accomplished with one lever. 
 
 In accompanying illustration of the 75 H.P. "C-O" engine, it will be 
 noticed that the accessibility is a distinctive feature highly commend- 
 able. The crankcase is of the completely enclosed type. It has heavy 
 supporting flanges running along its entire length. It is partitioned off 
 into as many compartments as the engine has cylinders, and each com- 
 partment is provided with a drain for the surplus lubricating oil. A 
 large opening, covered with a plate, is provided on each side of each com- 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 501 
 
 partment for the purpose of removing the connecting rod box and; inter- 
 mediate 'bearings. On the inner side of the plates are the special ring- 
 shaped scavenging air intake valves, giving very large openings with 
 very small lifts, therefore having very high efficiency. 
 
 The main bearing shells are of cast iron, provided with dovetail 
 grooves to hold a high grade bearing metal. They are rigidly supported 
 in the lower part of the orankcase casting, and can be taken out with- 
 out removing the shaft. 
 
 The engine is adaptable for auxiliary purposes abroad ships depend- 
 ing upon sail power, tug boat service, ferry (boats, etc., its special fea- 
 tures may be summarized in following: 1. The ability to use a wide 
 variety of low priced fuel oils. 2. Operation without water in the cylin- 
 der. It is possible to use water with the fuel to slightly increase the 
 power of an engine, but it results in certain and rapid wear on both 
 cylinder and piston. In other words, a higher rate is assured by mini- 
 
 75 H. P. "Y" Oil Engine 
 
 mizing the use of water. 3. Perfect lubrication. Fuel is injected into 
 the combustion chamber not into the cylinder where it would impair 
 lubrication. The fuel never comes into contact with the lubricating oil. 
 The main bearings, pistons, piston pins, and crank pins, are lubricated 
 from a force feed pump. 4. No excessive temperature. There is no hot 
 ball or hot bulb to overheat or burn out. The combustion chamber Is 
 water jacketed and its temperature is thereby always under control. 
 5. Air tight crankcase. Special air seals on the crank shaft are used 
 instead of stuffing boxes that would require repacking. With this con- 
 struction the end main bearings are not enclosed in the crankcase; thus 
 lubricating is not interfered with by air pulsations and the bearings may 
 be inspected readily. 6. A special quick starting arrangement. 
 
502 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 As only a comparatively small amount of heat in the combustion 
 chamber is necessary for starting, and since the "C-O" is provided with 
 special arrangements for quick starting, it does not require a thin wall 
 hot bulb. On the contrary, the walls of the combustion chamber are 
 quite heavy; hence the necessity of replacement is very remote. 
 
 FAIRBANKS-MORSE "Y" VERTICAL OIL ENGINES 
 
 The "Y" engines are adapted to any stationary power purpose with- 
 in their range of sizes. They can be 'belted direct to line shafts for 
 driving factories, cotton gins, elevators, flour mills, etc., or they can be 
 belted direct to an individual machine, for example an air compressor, 
 ice machine, punup of any variety, or any similar unit. 
 
 For the generation of electric current, which may be used for light- 
 ing or for power, "Y" engines can be furnished either for belting bo the 
 generators or for direct connection to them. The choice between these 
 two varieties will depend upon the condition of the iplant as to space and 
 other item's. Whether for belt or direct connection, the engines are 
 equipped with flywheels of sufficient weight to prevent pulsations or 
 flicker in electric lights from the generators, and they may be arranged 
 for parallel operation or two or more similar units on the switchboard. 
 
 Typical Horizontal "Y" Oil Engine 
 
 Principle of Operation: The "Y" engine operates on the two-stroke, 
 moderate pressure principle, with the fuel injection into the combustion 
 space by means of a simple pump, properly timed, and controlled by the 
 governor in proportion to the load on the engine. 
 
 The "Y" is not a hot-bulb engine, as the combustion chamber is 
 entirely water jacketed. There are no hot plates or firing pins, but the 
 heat remaining in the combustion chamber, together with that produced 
 by the compression of the charge of air, ignites the oil, which burns 
 with more of an expansive pressure than the explosion in the ordinary 
 internal combustion engine. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 503 
 
 This system of combustion is a development accomplished by ex- 
 periments of many engineers and represents an advancement in this re- 
 spective type of engines. 
 
 A Comparison of Types: Within the range of sizes in which they are 
 built, the "Y" engines have several marked advantages worthy of mention. 
 
 The "Y" engine has an initial compression of scarcely more than 
 half 'that of the Diesel 'type and does not have the extremely high, firing 
 pressure of the latter. This allows the use of fewer piston rings (consti- 
 tuting the largest element entering into engine friction), and the "Y" 
 engine operates with proportionately less pressure on all the main work- 
 ing parts, such as pistons, rods, crankshaft and 'bearings. 
 
 By using the solid injection principle, this type does not require a 
 two or three stage high pressure air compressor, which in this case 
 would be an expensive auxiliary to maintain and in which the Diesel 
 absorbs from 10 to 15 per) cent of the total power generated. 
 
 There is an absence in this engine of all inlet and exhaust valves, 
 which in the four-cycle type require great care in maintenance and re- 
 newals throughout the life of the engine. 
 
 Owing to the lower working pressures and temperatures of the "Y," 
 the upkeep is extremely low in comparison to engines where mechanical 
 arrangements are of a nature which, require considerable upkeep ex- 
 penses. 
 
504 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF 30, 45 AND 60 H.P. "C-O" ENGINES 
 (Fairbanks-Morse Marine Type) 
 
 Horsepower 30 
 
 Number of Cylinders 2 
 
 Revolutions per minute 400 
 
 Net weight of engine with rev. gear__lbs. 
 
 Length over all 
 
 Width over all 3' 6y 2 " 
 
 Height above base flange 4' 6y 2 " 
 
 Depth below base (without flywheel) 9%" 
 
 Flywheel Diameter 33" 
 
 Flywheel Face 6" 
 
 Flywheel Weight _ 600 Ibs. 
 
 Water Inlet Pipe 
 
 Water Outlet Pipe 
 
 Fuel Inlet Pipe 
 
 Exhaust Pipe 
 
 Diameter of Propeller Shaft 
 
 Diameter of Propeller (approx.) 
 
 3/4" 
 
 5" 
 
 2" 
 
 34" 
 
 45 
 3 
 
 400 
 6870 
 9' 11 y 2 " 
 3' 6%" 
 4' 6V 2 " 
 
 33" 
 6" 
 
 600 Ibs. 
 1" 
 
 3/4" 
 W 
 
 5" 
 
 2y 2 " 
 
 38" 
 
 60 
 4 
 
 400 
 8000 
 11' 03/4" 
 3' 6 y 2 " 
 4' 6y 2 " 
 
 9y 2 " 
 
 33" 
 
 6" 
 600 Ibs. 
 
 1" 
 %* 
 
 5" 
 
 2%" 
 42" 
 
 Note. On larger types of engines of "C-O" Fairbanks-Morse, follow- 
 ing figures are given in regards to dimensions of propeller shaft and 
 diameter of proipellers: 
 
 Diameter of Propeller 
 
 Diameter of Propeller Shaft 
 
 75 and 100 H.P. (approximately) 
 44" 50" 
 
 Diameter of Propeller 
 
 Diameter of Propeller Shaft 6^" Gy 2 " 6y 2 " 
 
 150, 200 and 300 H.P. (approximately) 
 66" 72" 78" 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 505 
 
506 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 GULOWSEN GREI MARINE HEAVY DUTY ENGINE 
 
 The Gulowsen Grei Engine is of two-cycle construction. It is of Nor- 
 wegian design and built since 1919 in Seattle, Washington. There are 
 features of exclusive distinction on this engine, which 'have proven highly 
 satisfactory in operation of this type of machine. 
 
 The engine, which is equipped with an electric heating device, which 
 takes place of the torch usually employed in accomplishing its initial 
 starting temperature, can be started in 20 seconds. 
 
 This device consists of a wire element contained in a plug, and 
 exposed to 'the oil spray in the combustion chamber. The element is 
 heated by current from a 6-vo'lt storage battery. When the engine is 
 revolved by means of compressed air, the oil spray from the injection 
 nozzle comes in contact with the heated wire elements, ignition takes 
 place and the engine starts in motion. After the engine has been run- 
 ning for about one minute, the combustion chamber becomes heated suf- 
 ficiently to ignite the oil without the heat of the wire elements, when the 
 circuit between the plug and the battery may be broken. 
 
 These engines operate on crude or fuel oils of either asphalt or 
 paraffine base, containing 18000 B. T. U.'s per pound or more, and having 
 a gravity of not less than 24 degrees Baume. They also operate on all 
 higher gravity oils such as gas oil, solar oil, stove distillate, etc. A sul- 
 phur content of not over 1 per cent is permissible. 
 
 Water injection cannot be used with asphalt base, such as Mexican 
 or California oils, on account of the chemical action which takes place 
 in the cylinder. However, with paraffine base oils, an increase of power 
 of about 15 per cent may be obtained when necessary by using water in- 
 jection. These engines run as well without water injection, and where it 
 is not convenient to carry water, it is not used. It is practice in Europe 
 to carry a tank of water for reserve power. 
 
 The fuel consumption is about .5 lb., or .066 gal. per B.H.P. hour, 
 depending entirely on the heat units in the fuel. 
 
 Construction Details 
 
 Base: The base is of the channel type, very deep and heavily con- 
 structed, which gives a maximum strength and rigidity. This is very 
 necessary, especially where the engine is installed in a wooden vessel 
 which will weave in a seaway, as under severe conditions a weakly con- 
 structed, shallow base, will crack in the center. 
 
 The main bearing housing are turned to fit the main bearings, which 
 are babbitt lined cast iron shells. When the shells are of a uniform 
 thickness, the alignment of the crankshaft will be correct. Each crank 
 pit is separate from the rest and has drain pipes with check valves to 
 drain any surplus lubricating oil. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 507 
 
 Crankshafts: The cranckshafts are cut from solid billets of high 
 carbon o>pen hearth steel of high tensile strength, and conform to Lloyd's 
 specifications. All crankshafts are exceptionally heavy, have a bearing 
 between each throw, and have very large bearing surfaces. Each crank- 
 shaft throw on the engines up to 240 B.H.P. has a pair of counterweights, 
 doubly fastened by means of| keys and bolts. 
 
 Thrust Shaft and Bearings: Thrust shafts are also cut from steel 
 forgings of high tensile strength. The thrust bearings are horse 'Shoe 
 jokes, the type used in marine steam engine practice. The jokes are 
 unusually large and are removable for inspection or re-babbitting with- 
 out disturbing the thrust shaft. On all four-cylinder engines, 125 H.P. 
 and up, the jokes are water cooled. 
 
 Crankcases: Crankcases are cast separate from the cylinder and 
 are of ample strength to tin sure rigidity 1 under all loads. The hand hole 
 plates on each side of the crank chamber are made very large for easy 
 inspection and removal of the connecting rod bearings. On the inner 
 side of the plates are the scavenging or intake valves, made of leather 
 with an alloy steel spring. 
 
 Combustion Chamber Head: The combustion chamber head is half 
 water cooled and half air cooled. The air cooled part never gets hotter 
 than a black heat. 
 
 Fuel Injection Pumps: The fuel injection pumps are constructed 
 with phosphor bronze bodies and steel plungers, hardened and ground. 
 All pumps are subjected to a hydraulic test pressure of 5000 pounds. The 
 plungers are long and work with an oil seal. Each cylinder has an in- 
 dividual fuel pump. 
 
508 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 MIETZ & WEISS OIL ENGINES. 
 
 509 
 
 Like most Ignition Surface engines or such where hot balls, hot 
 tubes, etc., are used, this engine is of the two-cycle construction. Since 
 the fuel is sprayed directly in the combustion chamber shortly before 
 completion of the compression stroke, ithere can be no loss of fuel 
 through crank case leakage or through the exhaust port. 
 
 The fuel consumption of this engine is as low as .6 of a pound per 
 horsepower hour. The engines operate on kerosene, fuel oil distillate, 
 crude oil, or alcohol. 
 
 End View of Mietz Marine Oil Engine 
 
 The fuel is injected in liquid form through, the injection nozzle at 
 extreme high velocity. 
 
 Directly in its path is the lip or tongue of the ignitor ball. The 
 impact of the fuel against this lip is so violent that the former is atomized 
 and scattered throughout the combustion space to form an explosive mix- 
 ture. The heat of compression together with the heat of the ignitor 
 
510 
 
 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 ball, which lias been previously heated, serve to gasify the atomized 
 fuel, and to automatically ignite the charge. 
 
 The igniter ball is not water-jacketed. It is heated for a few min- 
 utes, before starting, by means of the (burner. As soon as the engine is 
 started, and the load is thrown on, the burners are extinguished, the 
 ball being maintained at the proper temperature by the heat of the 'Suc- 
 cessive explosions. 
 
 The time of ignition is controlled and the efficiency of combustion 
 is increased 'by a little water, which is injected with the incoming air 
 through the side feed. 
 
 The ignited charge drives the piston down on a power stroke. Near 
 the bottom ;the exhaust port is overrun. The burned gases escape and 
 a fresh charge of air from the crank case takes their place. This is 
 
 Governor arrangement of Mietz Oil Engine, Direct Driven from 
 Engine Shaft 
 
 compressed, mixed with fuel and ignited as before. Thus: Every up- 
 ward stroke of the piston is a compression stroke. Every downward 
 stroke is a power stroke. 
 
 A lip or tongue attached to the ball projects through the cylinder- 
 head into the cylinder, directly in the path of the oil injection. The oil 
 spurting from the injection nozzle striking the lip forcibly. The oil being 
 brought in a stage of foggy substance is automatically ignited as the 
 piston completes its compression stroke by the increasing temperature 
 due to compression and the heat from the ignitor ball, as previously 
 stated. For this reason the ball must be heated before the engine can 
 be started. Kerosene torches, which will heat the ignitor ball sufficiently 
 in five or ten minutes, are mounted on each cylinder. 
 
LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 511 
 
512 LOW COMPRESSION ENGINES 
 
 After the engine is started and the ignitor ball is at a dark red heat, 
 the torch can be extinguished. In normal operation the heat of explo- 
 sion maintains the ball at an almost red heat. The temperature of the 
 ball can be controlled by regulating the sight water feed. The damper 
 on the air mantle should be open while the torch is burning. After ex- 
 tinguishing the torch, close the damper to protect the ball from the cool- 
 ing effects of the air currents. The temperature of the ball also depends 
 largely on its wall thickness and the load on the engine. The Ignitor 
 balls furnished with the engine will maintain the proper temperature at 
 constant full load while the damper is on. 
 
 When using very heavy oils, the ignitor ball should -be so inserted 
 that the oil from the nozzle strikes the tongue on the outside (i. e., the 
 ball turned 180 degrees about its vertical axis from the original position). 
 
 A commendable feature on the Mietz & Weiss engines is the coun- 
 terbalancing of the piston and rotating parts by accurately proportioned 
 weights which are 'bolted and keyed to the crank cheeks. This results 
 in reducing the vibration of the engine to a minimum. 
 
 When stopping of engine is to 'be accomplished, see that there is at 
 least 75 pounds per square inch air pressure in the sitarter tank. Open 
 the water feed for a short time and push the throttle lever slowly to its 
 off position. Close the water sight feed and shut off the fuel. In cold 
 weather draw off the water from the jacket and pipes to avoid damage 
 by frost. To stop a direct reversible engine it is only necessary to 
 place the air control lever in the stop position. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 . AIR COMPRESSORS 
 THE AIR COMPRESSOR 
 
 The compressing of air is not in any case as simple an operation as 
 the pumping of water. In particular is this true where high pressures are 
 required, involving multiple-stage compression, where factors of propor- 
 tional requirements and existing conditions must be taken in considera- 
 tion. 
 
 At whatever pressure the air must be delivered for the respective pur- 
 pose desired, the fact remains that the mechanical efficiency on Com- 
 pressor Machinery must be in proportion >to work to be performed and 
 no device known in the field of engineering requires more intimate 
 knowledge as to its accurate performance than the Compressor. 
 
 With all our great improvements and the wonderful accomplishment 
 in the field of engineering we may still consider the problem of machin- 
 ery in its infant" stage. This (particularly applies itself to the use of air 
 as a factor well worth considering. 
 
 When chemically analyzing air we say that it is composed of 23 
 parts by weight of oxygen, and 77 parts of nitrogen. By volume the 
 proportions are 21 parts of oxygen and 79 parts of nitrogen. We find in 
 those figures that oxygen is somewhat heavier than air, while nitrogen is 
 a fraction lighter, the specific gravity of the former when separated being 
 1.106, and in the case of the latter, 0.974, air being 1, and when liquid air 
 is evaporated the nitrogen boils away first, which is taken advantage of 
 for the commercial segregation of these gases. 
 
 When using the expression, atmospheric pressure, so commonly used 
 in the engineering language, we allude to air-sphere, natural in its aspect. 
 The air mechanically compressed brought in close confinement subject to 
 pressure may be termed compressed air. Again after the function has been 
 performed required of it, it again becomes "free" and intermingles with 
 the atmosphere or rather the mass which encircles the earth. In all 
 stages relating to the volume, weight or pressure of air, whether it is 
 free or compressed, it will vary at all times with temperatures under 
 specific conditions. If a volume of air is brought under pressure 
 as in the confined state in a receiver, the air will increase in heat pro- 
 portions, depending upon the space. 
 
 The opposite temperature may be created when, for instance, as in 
 the use of refrigeration the volume of air is surrounded with a steady 
 flowing stream of water; it may be brought to the freezing point. 
 
514 
 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 This heat creation would counteract the intrinsic value of the use 
 of air for industrial purposes, were it not for the fact that in cases where 
 air being compressed to high pressure a method of cooling minimizes 
 the heat and by water-cooling process the normal temperature is es- 
 tablished. We term this stage-cooling and the expression is used when 
 speaking of multi-stage compressors. 
 
 On the other hand, if cooling means are used, the work is less 
 than is required for adiabatic compression, and the efficiency as com- 
 pared with adiabatic compression therefore may approach or exceed uni- 
 ty, and this might conceivably be true even as compared with isothermal 
 compression. Where cooling means are employed the compression curve 
 ordinarily lies between the adiabatic and the isothermal lines and with 
 good cooling is close to the isothermal. 
 
 Compressor installation for Stationary Diesel Plant, Sullivan Type 
 
 The usual basis for the comparison of compressors of all types is 
 the number of foot-pounds required at the shaft or horse power capacity 
 of main engine to be required to produce a cubic foot of free air at a 
 stated temperature compressed to a given pressure. The important con- 
 sideration is the efficiency of the complete unit, including engine and 
 compressor. In this respect, the efficiency performances of the engine, 
 acting as the driving medium to cause the air to be compressed for the 
 operating use on Diesels, is the factor upon which the performances of 
 the compressor depends. 
 
 Cause of Defective Mechanism: The temperature due to compres- 
 sion depends upon three factors: (1) Initial temperature before compres- 
 sion; (2) Pressure to which air is compressed; (3) Efficiency of cooling 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 515 
 
 devices. No account will be taken of the effect of moisture in the air, 
 and all temperatures given are for dry air. 
 
 The place from which the air is drawn may have a very important 
 bearing on initial temperature. The engine room is, to 'be sure, in the 
 case of Diesel engine, the place where a compressor must be located. It 
 if therefore to be expected that in this case the initial temperature is ex- 
 ceedingly high. A difference of 50 degrees between the engine room and 
 
 Cylinder Arrangement, Vilter Compressor 
 
 the outside air means more than a difference of 50 degrees in terminal 
 temperature, as well as a loss of about 10 per cent in the capacity for 
 the same amount of power expended. 
 
 The effect of leaking discharge valves upon initial temperature 
 and consequently upon the temperature after compression, may be very 
 serious indeed. Suppose an extreme case, where the amount of leakage 
 is just sufficient to maintain atmospheric pressure within the cylinder, 
 so that no fresh air enters. 
 
 Muffing Box and Piston Rod, Vilter Compressor 
 
516 
 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Sullivan W-J 3 Angle Compound Compressor, Full View 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 517 
 
 The initial temperature is now' nearly the same as the terminal 
 temperature of the previous charge, for the compressed air, in leaking 
 back, has done no work upon the piston, and consequently has not drop- 
 ped any in temperature. The hot air now receives a second compression 
 and the terminal temperature, reached -by starting from an initial tem- 
 perature due to the previous stroke, may easily reach the point of igni- 
 tion of combustible matter. If the initial temperature were 60 degrees F., 
 the terminal pressure 40 pounds, the terminal temperature, with no cool- 
 ing, 300 degrees F. If this air at 300 degrees F. leaks back and com- 
 pression starts from that temperature, the temperature of discharge be- 
 comes 650 degrees F. With a discharge valve stuck open it is plain 
 that in one stroke of the compressor a temperature might be reached 
 sufficient to ignite the .best grade of high flash cylinder oil. 
 
 Cross Sectional View of Type "W-J 3" Angle Compound Compressor, 
 Equipped with Inter-cooler 
 
 Operation of Compressor: (1) High flash test cylinder oil alone 
 should be used for regular lubrication. Under no circumstances must 
 kero'sine or light oil be introduced. If an extra heavy dose of lubri- 
 cant is required, give it soap and waiter through the oil pump. 
 
 (2) Discharge valve must be kept tight, and to this end the use 
 of an indicator is advised. The cards may not tell much about the con- 
 ditions of the valves, but one of the greatest values of the indicator 
 is the moral effect upon the engineer. 
 
 (3) Discharge valve must be cleaned from dust and oil and frequent 
 examinations made to see if they need it. 
 
 (4) Accumulations of water and oil must be blown from the receiver 
 and air starting bottles and an internal examination made at stated in- 
 
518 
 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Cross-Sectional View of Stuffing Box of Vilter Air Compressor 
 
 Sectional Plan of Cylinder Head on Vilter Air Compressor 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 519 
 
 tervals. The responsibility of operation of the engine depends upon the 
 compressor, and that rests on the engineer in charge. He should be thor- 
 oughly instructed as to the possibility of explosion, the dangers attendant 
 upon the use of any but prescribed oil, and the effect of leaking discharge 
 valves or other mechanical defects. He should be acquainted with 
 the use of indicator apparatus and required to submit cards at stated 
 intervals. He should record in the engine room log the daily condition 
 of the machine under his charge. He should be given a wholesome re- 
 spect for an air compressor, with imperative knowledge as to the re- 
 quirements of the same. 
 
 Knock in Cylinder: The clearance between the air pistons and the 
 air cylinder heads is in most compressors about one-sixteenth of an inch. 
 This clearance is carefully adjusted for proper functioning while in ser- 
 
 Suction Valve of Vilter Type 
 of Compressor 
 
 Discharge Valve of Vilter 
 Type of Compressor 
 
 vice, but in course of time, as wear takes place in the crankshaft bear- 
 ings and connecting rod boxes, this clearance may be gradually reduced 
 on one side until the piston strikes the head. This will be indicated by 
 a pound as the crank passes the dead center on one end. When this is 
 observed, shut down at once, remove a discharge valve and cage from 
 each end of the cylinder, slack off the check nut on the piston rod where 
 it screws into the crosshead, and screw the rod in or out until the clear- 
 ance is even on both ends. This may be determined 'by bending an offset 
 in a piece of soft steel or lead wire about one-sixteenth of an inch in dia- 
 meter, and passing it through the discharge valve openings. When the 
 compressor is turned over slowly the piston will compress the part of 
 the wire projecting between it and the head, and show the amount of 
 clearance. 
 
520 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Inl-et valves: The inlet valves should be removed occasionally for ex- 
 amination. To remove the inlet valves of most compressors, unscrew 
 the plugs covering the valves. Usually the valves, together with its cage, 
 will come out by giving a slight pull on the projecting end of the valve, 
 as the cage has an easy sliding fit in the opening. If it does not pull 
 out easily, it can ordinarily be started by working the valve up and 
 down in the cage so as to produce a series of sharp blows on the cage. 
 If the valve has not been removed for a long period, the cage sometimes 
 becomes stuck in the opening, due to gumming of the cylinder oil, in the 
 points. This dried oil may be readily softened by taking out a dis- 
 charge valve at either end of the cylinder and pouring about a quart 
 of kerosene into the cylinder on either side of the piston. This will 
 work its way into the joints around the cages and allow them to be re- 
 moved readily. If the cage still resists all efforts to remove it, it may 
 be necesary, in order to remove the valve from the outside end of the 
 cylinder, to take off the outside cylinder head and drive the valves out by 
 means of a block of wood. To drive out the valves on the inside or frame 
 end of the cylinder, it will be necessary to unscrew the piston rod from 
 the crosshead and remove the pislton from the cylinder. This last opera- 
 tion, however, is only necessary where the valves have t)een left in posi- 
 tion for long periods and where the cylinder oil has been of extremely 
 poor quality. 
 
 It is an excellent idea to have an extra valve, cage, spring and plug on 
 hand. Then every week take out one valve and cage and replace it with 
 the extra one. The valve and cage removed may then >De examined, 
 cleaned and refitted at leisure. The next week another valve may be re- 
 moved and replaced; in this way all the valves will be regularly inspect- 
 ed and any wear or defect discovered before it becomes serious. 
 
 Thoroughly remove all oil from the valves and before replacing, 
 smear the 'plugs and interior of the valves with air cylinder oil. 
 
 A mixture of graphite and cylinder oil placed on the threads of 
 the iplugs before putting them into place will allow them to be removed 
 without difficulty at any time. Screw up the plugs firmly, so that the 
 cages will not 'become loose and play back and forth. 
 
 Discharge Valves: In case a discharge valve needs regrinding, a 
 special regrinding attachment should be on hand. The same may be ob- 
 tained at small cost most anywhere. In most machines the discharge 
 valves -seat directly on the cylinder. Avoid leaky discharge valves. The 
 principal troubles in lack of effiency on compressors are traceable to 
 this defect. A leaky valve may be observed by the gauge and an es- 
 caping noise making a whistling sound. The inimical substances in air may 
 cause corrosion. This defect will ultimately cause pitting of material 
 with the consequential detrimental breakdowns. 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 521 
 
522 
 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 ,1 : 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 523 
 
 THE REAVELL THREE-STAGE REVERSIBLE AIR COMPRESSOR 
 Type Used on the Dow Diesel Engine 
 
 The Reavell patented Air Compressor, as shown in the illustration, 
 is a 'three-stage reversible type and mounted on the end of the main 
 engine bedplate, driven directly from an eccentric pin, wihich is secured 
 to the main crankshaft. This compressor is of ample size to supply all 
 the air required for starting and reversing purposes, as well as that re- 
 quired for injecting and atomizing the fuel oil. 
 
 Three-stage Reversible Keavell Air Compressor as used on the Dow 
 
 Diesel Engine. 
 
524 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 Definitions of Parts of Reavell Air Compressor: 
 
 1. H,P. Discharge Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Plug; 
 
 (E) Cap. 
 
 2. H.P. Suction Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Plug; 
 
 (E) Cap; (F) Collar. 
 
 3. L.P. Discharge Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Plug; 
 
 (E) Cap. 
 
 4. L.P. Suction Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Plug; 
 
 (E) <Ca>p; (F) Collar. 
 
 5. H.P. Piston. (A) Piston; (B) Outer Ring; (C) Inner Ring; (D) 
 
 Carrier Ring; (E) Follower. 
 
 6. LP. Piston. (A) Piston; (iB) Outer Ring; () Inner Ring; (D) 
 
 Bull; (E) Follower. 
 
 7. L.P. Piston. (A) Piston; (B) Outer Ring; (C) Inner 'Ring; (D) 
 
 Follower. 
 
 8. H.P. Cylinder. (A) Cylinder; (B) Discharge Fitting; (C) Union 
 
 Nut; (D) Ring; (F) Suction Fitting; (G) Union Nut; (,H) Ring; 
 (K) Oil Fitting; (L) Union 'Nut; (M) Ring. 
 
 9. LP. Cylinder. (A) Cylinder; (B) Discharge Fitting; (C) Union Nut; 
 
 (D) Ring; (F) 'Suction Fitting; (G) Union Nut; (H) Ring. 
 
 10. L.P. Cylinder. '(A) Cylinder; (B) Discharge Fitting; (C) Union 
 
 Nut; (D) Ring. 
 
 11. Connecting Rods. (A) H.P. Connecting :Rod and Nut; (B) LP. Con- 
 
 necting Rod and Special Nut; (C) L.P. Connecting Rod and Nut; 
 
 (E) 'Special Nut. 
 
 12. Gudgeons. (A) 'H.P. Gudgeon; (B) I.P. Gudgeon; (C) L.P.- Gudgeon. 
 
 13. Retainer Rings. (A) H. and I.P. Inner Retainer Ring; (B) H. and 
 
 I.P. Outer Retainer Ring; (C) L.P. Inner Retainer Ring; (D) L.P. 
 Outer Retainer Ring; (E) H. and LP. Retainer Ring Bolts and 
 Nuts; (F) L.P. Retainer Ring Bolts and Nuts. 
 
 14. Bushings. (A) H.P. Bushing; (B) L.P. Bushing. 
 
 15. Crank Pin Oiler. 
 
 16. Oiling Screw. 
 
 17. Crank Pin. 
 
 18. I.P. Purge Pot. (A) Body;" (B) H.P. Suction Fitting; (C) Union 
 
 Nut; (D) Ring; (E.) Nut and Washer; (F) I.P. Discharge Fitting; 
 (G) Union Nut; (H) Ring; (J) Nut and Washer; (O) Cover. 
 
 19. L.P. Purge Pot. (A) Body; (B) L.P. Suction Fitting; (C) Union 
 
 Nut; CD) Ring; (E) Nut and Washer; (F) L.P. Discharge Fitting; 
 (G) Union Nut; (H) Ring; (J) Nut and Washer; (K) I.P. Suction 
 Fitting; (L) Union Nut; (M) Ring; (N) Nut and Washer; (O) 
 Cover. 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 525 
 
 20. I.P.Relief Valve. (A) 'Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Body; 
 
 (E) Screw; (F) Collar; (G) Nut. 
 
 21. L..P. Relief Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Body; 
 
 (E) Screw; (F) Collar; (G) Nut. 
 
 22. H.P. Relief Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Spring; (D) Screw. 
 
 23. Water Relief Valve. (A) Seat; (B) Valve; (C) Inner and Outer 
 
 Springs; (E) Screw; (F) Collar. 
 
 24. Final Delivery Fitting. (A) Body; (B) Union Nut; (C) Ring. 
 
 25. Air Piping. (A) H.P. Discharge Pipe; (B) H.P. iSuction .Pipe; (C) 
 
 I.P. Discharge Pipe; (D) I.P. Suction Pipe; (E) Long L.P: Dis- 
 charge Pipe; (F) Short L.P. Discharge Pipe. 
 
 26. Lubricator Fittings. (A) Lubricator; (B) Fitting; (C) Union Nut; 
 
 (D) Ring; (E) Nut and Washer. 
 
 27. Oil Drip Fittings. (A) Oil Drip; (B) Fitting; (C) Union Nut; (D) 
 
 Ring. 
 
 28. Leading Pipes. 
 
 29. Connection Parts. 
 
 30. Casing. (A) Main Casing; (B) H.P. Cover; (C) I.P. Cover; (D) 
 
 L.P. Cover; (E) Inspection Cover; (F) Front Cover; (G) Nam* 
 Plate Cover. 
 
526 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 EFFLUX OF AIR 
 
 As the pressure is dependent upon both the height and the density 
 of the fluid, it is evident that for a given pressure, the less the density 
 the greater the height of the column. But the law of fallen bodies 
 recognizes the fact that it is the distance fallen through and not the 
 weight of the body that determines the velocity. Therefore, the less 
 dense a body the higher the column required to produce ai given pressure 
 and the greater the velocity of discharge. From this it is evident that 
 the velocity of a gas issuing under a given pressure would be greater 
 than that of a liquid under the same conditions. And conversely, the 
 more dense the fluid issuing at a given velocity the greater must have 
 been the pressure to produce that velocity. 
 
 In the case of a liquid, the atmospheric pressure upon the inlet and 
 outlet of a containing vessel is balanced and the actual height or head 
 may be actually measured. But air is invisable, and there is no tangible 
 distinction in substance between that producing the pressure and that 
 constituting the surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere is due to the weight of air, and, for 
 any area, is to be measured by the weight of a column of air having the 
 given area as a base and a height equal to that of the atmosphere. But 
 this height cannot be accurately determined, and, furthermore the density 
 of the air decreases in geometric ratio as the distance from the earth 
 increases. For the purpose of calculation, however, the practical equiva- 
 lent of such a column may be determined by assuming the air to be of 
 uniform density throughout and the column of such a weight the same 
 and to produce the same effective pressure per unit of area. 
 
 Under the standard conditions of barometric pressure of 29.921 
 inches, the atmospheric pressure is 14.69 pounds per square inch, or 
 2,115.36 pounds per square foot. 
 
 At this pressure a cubic foot of dry air at 50 degrees has a density 
 of 0.077884 pounds. Consequently a homogeneous column 
 
 2,115.36 
 = 27,160 pounds 
 
 0.077884 
 and exerts this pressure upon the given area. 
 
 EFFICIENCY OF COMPRESSOR 
 
 The efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor is ordinarily stated 
 as the ratio of the work done upon the air. If air be compressed in a 
 non-conducting vessel without commotion or friction, its temperature will 
 rise in a definite and known way as its pressure is increased and its 
 volume diminished. Such compression is known as adiabatic compres- 
 sion, since heat does not leave nor center the air as heat during the 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 527 
 
 process. On the other hand, if the air be slowly compressed and heat 
 be withdrawn constantly during compression, so that the temperature is 
 constant throughout the process, the final volume when compressed to a 
 stated pressure is less than in adiabatic compression, or if compressed 
 to a given volume, the pressure will be less, as likewise, in either case, 
 will be the work of compression. This is called isothermal compression. 
 If the air is cooled so much that the final temperature is lower than the 
 initial temperature, the pressure or volume, or both, and the work will 
 be reduced below that corresponding to isothermal compression. The 
 standard of isothermal compression, while therefore in a sense arbitrarily, 
 may properly be used when stating the efficiency of compressors which 
 are equipped with cooling means or intercoolers, as it gives a measure 
 of the combined efficiency of the cooling means and of the means of 
 compression. 
 
 In a "perfect" uncooled compressor the relation between pressure 
 and volume would follow the adiabatic law, which therefore supplies a 
 rational standard for comparison. In actual compressors not supplied 
 with cooling means, the volume to which the aw is reduced at the given 
 pressure, or the pressure reached at a given volume reduction is always 
 greater than that corresponding to adiabatic compression, as is also the 
 amount of work required. In actual compressors where cooling means 
 are not employed, the final temperature is always higher than that which 
 would be obtained in adiabatic compression, due to heat generated by 
 friction of the air. As compared with adiabatic compression, compres- 
 sors without cooling means may reach efficiencies of 70 per cent, or above. 
 
 A factor which enters into the efficiency rating of high-pressure com- 
 pressors is the usual basis for the comparison of all types in the number 
 of foot-pounds required at the shaft fey the engine per cubic foot of free 
 air at a stated temperature compressed to a given pressure. The im- 
 portant consideration is the efficiency of the complete unit, including 
 motor and compressor. 
 
 Simultaneously with the variations in head and delivery at constant 
 speed, there are corresponding variations in the power consumed and in 
 the efficiency necessary to supply the amount of air in Diesel engineering. 
 Variation of Dry Air According to Temperature: The volume of one 
 pound of dry air at 32 degrees Fahrenheit and 30-inch barometer is 
 12.38 cubic feet. This volume varies directly as the absolute tempera- 
 ture, and therefore, for a temperature of 90 degrees Fahrenheit the 
 volume is 
 
 460 + 90 
 
 12.38 X = 13.84 cubic feet. 
 
 460 + 32 
 
528 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 WEIGHT OF DRY AIR IN POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT 
 30-IN. BAROMETER. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 op 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 op 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 op 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 
 
 . . .0863 
 
 210 
 
 .0593 
 
 600 
 
 .0374 
 
 10 _ _ 
 
 .0845 
 
 220 
 
 . 0584 
 
 650 
 
 .0358 
 
 20 
 
 .; .0827 
 
 230 
 
 .0575 
 
 700 
 
 . __ .0342 
 
 30 
 
 .0810 
 
 240 
 
 __ _ .0566 
 
 750 
 
 .0328 
 
 40 
 
 .0794 
 
 250 
 
 .0559 
 
 800 
 
 .0315 
 
 50 ___ 
 
 .0779 
 
 260 
 
 .0551 
 
 850 _ . 
 
 .0303 
 
 60 
 
 .0764 
 
 270 
 
 .0544 
 
 900 _ - 
 
 . _ .0292 
 
 70 _ 
 
 ___ .0749 
 
 280 
 
 .0536 
 
 950 
 
 . 0282 
 
 80 _ 
 
 .0736 
 
 290 
 
 .0529 
 
 1000 
 
 . _ .0272 
 
 90 
 
 .0722 
 
 300 
 
 _ _ .0522 
 
 1100 
 
 . _ .0254 
 
 100 
 
 ___ .0709 
 
 1 320 
 
 _ _ .0509 
 
 1200 
 
 .0239 
 
 110 
 
 .0696 
 
 340 
 
 .0496 
 
 1300 _ . 
 
 . _ .0226 
 
 220 ___ 
 
 .0685 
 
 360 
 
 .0484 
 
 1400 
 
 .0214 
 
 130 
 
 .0673 
 
 380 
 
 .0473 
 
 1500 
 
 .0203 
 
 140 
 
 _ _ .0661 
 
 400 
 
 .0461 
 
 1600 _ . 
 
 .0913 
 
 150 __ 
 
 .0651 
 
 420 
 
 .0451 
 
 1700 _. 
 
 .0184 
 
 160 _. 
 
 .0640 
 
 440 _ 
 
 _ .0441 
 
 1800 
 
 .0176 
 
 170 _ 
 
 __ .0630 
 
 460 
 
 ,.0432 
 
 1900 
 
 .0168 
 
 180 
 
 .0620 
 
 480 
 
 _ .0422 
 
 2000 
 
 .0161 
 
 190 
 
 _ .0611 
 
 500 
 
 . .0414 
 
 3000 
 
 .0115 
 
 200 _ 
 
 . :0602 
 
 550 
 
 .0393 
 
 
 
 Centrifugal Compressor Formula: In general the pressure genera- 
 ted per stage 'by a centrifugal blower or compressor may be represented 
 by following formula: 
 
 U2 
 
 P = C D 
 g 
 
 wherein D is the density, C is an arbitrary co-efficient, U is the rim ve- 
 locity of the impeller in feet per second, and g is the acceleration of 
 gravity, equal to 32.2 in the English system of units. The limiting value 
 of U is controlled by the sipeed of revolution, which may be imposed by 
 the driving motor, the strength of materials available and the volume 
 handled. The value of C depends upon the shape of the blades and the 
 efficiency of the diffusor 'and in blowers and compressors suitable for 
 Diesel operation has a value in the neighborhood of 0.5, 
 
AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 529 
 
 THEORETICAL LEAKAGE OF AIR AT 70 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 
 
 Effective Draft in 
 Inches of Water 
 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 0.8 
 1.0 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 3.5 
 
 Leakage in pounds per hour 
 per square in. of opening 
 
 56 
 
 79 
 
 97 
 112 
 125 
 153 
 177 
 197 
 216 
 234 
 
 The tabular values above are for the ideal case of zero friction and 
 contraction and must be multiplied by a co-efficient C, to obtain the ac- 
 tual leakage. For the equivalent of an orifice in a thin plate, C = 0.6 
 approximately. For a short cylindrical pipe with inner corners not 
 rounded, C = 0.75 approximately. 
 
 MEAN BAROMETER PRESSURES CORRESPONDING TO ALTITUDES 
 FROM 100 TO 4900 FT. ABOVE SEA LEVEL 
 
 Altitude Pressure 
 Feet Inches 
 
 30.00 
 
 100 29.88 
 
 200 29.76 
 
 300 29.64 
 
 400 _ _ 29.52 
 
 500 - . 
 
 29.40 
 
 600 _ 
 
 29.29 
 
 700 __ 
 
 29.18 
 
 800 
 
 29.08 
 
 900 _ _ 
 
 _ _ 29.97 
 
 1000 _ 
 
 _ _ 28.86 
 
 1100 _ 
 
 28.76 
 
 1200 __ 
 
 28.65 
 
 1300 
 
 ___ 28.54 
 
 1400 
 
 __ 28.44 
 
 1500 
 
 28.34 
 
 1600 _ 
 
 . 28,23 
 
 Altitude Pressure 
 Feet Inches 
 
 1700 28.14 
 
 1800 _ 28.04 
 
 1900 _ 27.94 
 
 2000 27.82 
 
 2100 27.70 
 
 2200 27.58 
 
 2300 27.47 
 
 2400 27.36 
 
 2500 27.26 
 
 2600 27.17 
 
 2700 __' 27.05 
 
 2800 26.95 
 
 2900 26.85 
 
 3000 26.74 
 
 3100 26.65 
 
 3200 - 26.55 
 
 3300 . . 26,45 
 
 Altitude 
 Feet 
 3400 _ 
 
 Pressure 
 Inches 
 _ 26.35 
 
 3500 26.26 
 
 3600 26.16 
 
 3700 26.06 
 
 3800 25.96 
 
 3900 25.85 
 
 4000 25.75 
 
 4100 25.64 
 
 4200 25.55 
 
 4300 25.46 
 
 4400 25.37 
 
 4500 25.26 
 
 4600 25.16 
 
 4700 25.07 
 
 4800 24.98 
 
 4900 _ 24.88 
 
530 
 
 AIR COMPRESSORS 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLE 
 BAROMETER 3O" 
 
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DRY AND WET THERMOMETERS 
 
 AIR TIMPERATVRES 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2|3 
 
 4(5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 1Z1314I15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18|19>20 
 
 21 
 
 222324 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 .40 
 
 00 
 
 89 
 
 7867 
 
 57,47 
 
 36 
 
 2b 
 37 
 
 iy 
 
 28 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 100 
 
 91 
 
 8273 
 
 6554 
 
 45 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 00 
 
 92 
 
 84766860 
 
 5345 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 92 
 
 85i7871 
 
 64 
 
 58 
 
 51 
 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 93 
 
 87807467 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 100 
 
 94 
 
 88 ! 82]7670 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 94 
 
 8984 
 
 78 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 3026 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 9085 
 
 8075 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 3531 
 
 28 1 24'20 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 10095 
 
 9018681 77 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 5_5 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 4036 
 
 33|292623'19 
 
 16 13 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 75_ 
 
 100J95 
 
 91 87 
 
 .82J78 
 83,79 
 
 74 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 6662 
 
 58 
 
 55 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 4440 
 
 37 
 
 34|31!2724 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 100:96 
 
 9287 
 
 72, 
 73 
 
 68 ! 64 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 38J3532 
 
 29 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 85 
 
 100J96 
 
 92,88 
 
 84|80 
 
 77 
 
 7066 
 
 63 
 
 6056 
 
 53 
 
 50,47 
 
 444113836 
 
 30 
 
 2826 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 
 90 
 
 10096 
 
 9288 
 
 85 
 
 81 
 
 78!75 
 
 71 68 
 
 65 
 
 5259 
 
 56 
 
 5350 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 74 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 96 
 
 9389 
 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 79'76 
 
 7269 
 
 66 
 
 6360 
 
 58 
 
 55:52 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 95 
 
 1(K 
 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 9390 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 80.77 
 81 78 
 
 74 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 6562 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 51 49 
 53L5T 
 
 47ft'4[42 
 I 49 I 46 I 44 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 10097 
 
 939087 
 
 84 
 
 72 
 
 69 
 
 6664 
 
 61 
 
 5856 
 
 424038 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 3028 
 
 105 
 
 IK 
 
 100:97 
 
 949087 
 
 84 
 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 76 73 
 
 70 
 
 67165 
 
 62 
 
 6057 
 
 5553 
 
 50 
 
 4846 
 
 4442J4038 
 
 36 
 
 343230 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2|3|4 
 
 5 
 
 617 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Illl2 
 
 13 
 
 I4il5 
 
 16171181920 
 
 21 22123 24 25 
 
 26!27l28l 
 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PUMPS 
 SOME FACTS ON PUMPS 
 
 Pumps may be defined in two classes; namely, the Plunger Pump, 
 working upon the plunger system, and the Centrifugal Pump, which 
 operates by rotary or centrifugal motion. The first named type may be 
 termed "pressure" pump of either the low pressure or high pressure type, 
 depending upon the construction of the same. Where the necessity of 
 pumping masses is called for, the centrifugal pump answers this purpose. 
 
 The centrifugal pump is the most suitable of all the forms of pumps. 
 Its simplicity in construction and the adaptability to be operated by elec- 
 tric power creates a greater demand for this machine. 
 
 It can be coupled direct to the armature shaft of the motor either 
 with a rigid connection or an elastic coupling, preferably the latter, and 
 may be driven at any speed from 500 revolutions per minute up to 2000 
 revolutions per minute. 
 
 It has one conspicuous advantage over the three-throw and similar 
 forms of pumps, in that it has no valves, and is in consequence able to 
 pump muddy or gritty water without damaging the working parts or 
 hindering its action in any way. 
 
 The centrifugal pump is thus particularly suitable for disposing of 
 the discharge water from coal-washing machines, or for use in construc- 
 tion work, providing the 'head of the water is not too great. The cen- 
 trifugal pump in its simplest form consists of a number of curved blades 
 arranged round a central axle or shaft, and revolving in an approximately 
 circular casing which is connected up to the delivery pipe or column. 
 
 Both in outward appearance and internal construction the centrifugal 
 pump is, therefore, not unlike the ordinary centrifugal fan. 
 
 Its action, too, depends upon the same principle, namely, centrifugal 
 force. The water contained between the blades of the pump, by reason 
 of the centrifugal force, is thrown off at a tangent, and finds escape at 
 the orifice leading to the discharge pipe or column. 
 
 Until quite recently the main objection to the centrifugal pump has 
 been the very low efficiency obtained, and as the limit of working head 
 of a single pump is about 70 feet, this has entailed the use of the cum- 
 bersome combinations for higher lifts. These objections, however, cannot 
 now be urged against the centrifugal pump, as by coupling up two or more 
 single pumps in series it is possible to throw water to any height up to 
 1000 feet, and still obtain a very good efficiency. 
 
532 PUMPS 
 
 The principle feature in the multiple chamber centrifugal pump is 
 that it consists of one or more sets of vanes or impellers, each running 
 in its own chamber, but upon a common shaft, the delivery pressure of 
 the liquid varying directly as the number of chambers is used. Thus, 
 if an ordinary single pump can deliver water against a head of 70 feet, 
 the addition of another chamber will give a final delivery head of 140 
 feet, while four chambers will enable the pump to discharge the same 
 amount of water against a total head of 280 feet. 
 
 Of late a great deal of use is made with the Turbine Pump. In this 
 type the water enters the revolving wheel axially, traverses the curved 
 internal passages between the vanes, and is discharged tangentially at 
 the periphery into a stationary guide ring; this conveys it to the annual 
 chamber in the body ofl the pump, where the velocity head imparted to 
 the water by the wheel is converted into pressure head. 
 
 From this chamber the water is finally discharged into the pipe 
 lines, or, if the pump may be a multiple one, into the second and subse- 
 quent chambers. A special feature of this pump is the provision of the 
 stationary guide ring mentioned above; this is fixed concentric with the 
 revolving vanes, and, owing to its design, enables the conversion of the 
 velocity into pressure head to be very effectively accomplished, thus in- 
 creasing not only the possible height of lift, but also the working ef- 
 ficiency of the pump. The ideal source of power for working centrifugal 
 and turbine pumps is undoubtedly the direct coupled electric motor. 
 
 The Turbine Pump possesses many advantages, conspicuous amongst 
 these being the small number of working parts, compactness, low first 
 cost, and minimum of wear and tear. 
 
 In calculations . relating to the centrifugal and turbine pumps the 
 following formula will be helpful: 
 
 Let S = speed of periphery of wheel in feet per second. 
 
 Let H = height in feet to which water is to be delivered. 
 
 Let D = diameter of wheel in feet. 
 
 Let G = gallons of water delivered per minute. 
 
 Let R = revolutions per minute. 
 
 The horsepower of motor required will be found by multiplying the 
 height in feet by the quantity of water in pounds delivered per minute, 
 and by the efficiency of the pump and motor, and dividing by 33,000. The 
 efficiency of the pump may be anything from 0.55 to 0.65, and the ef- 
 ficency of the motor, say, 0.85, the combined efficiencies being thus equal 
 to from 70 to 75 per cent. 
 
 The average slippage of a pump is about 20 per cent. 
 
 Suppose fwe had a pump that had the actual displacement of 130 
 gallons per minute, and it only pumped 100 gallons per minute, how 
 would we find the actual slippage? 
 
 The percentage will be 100 gallons divided by 13 = .7461 X 100 = 
 74.61%. Deduct this from 100 per cent, will equal 25.39% slippage. 
 
PUMPS 
 
 533 
 
 Table Showing Capacities of Pumps in U. S. Gallons 
 
 Diam. Pumps II 
 in Inches 
 
 Piston Speed in Feet per Minute 
 
 ll 
 
 sj 
 5.S 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 200 
 
 \y 2 
 
 3.67 
 
 4.58 
 
 5.51 
 
 6.42 
 
 7.34 
 
 8.25 
 
 9.17 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 1 A 
 
 \Yi 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.49 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.25 
 
 12.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 * A* 
 
 1*1 
 
 2 
 
 6.53 
 
 8.15 
 
 9.79 
 
 11.41 
 
 13.06 
 
 14.67 
 
 16.32 
 
 
 
 
 
 * z4 
 
 2 
 
 2% 
 
 8.26 
 
 10.32 
 
 12.39 
 
 14.45 
 
 16.52 
 
 18.58 
 
 20.65 
 
 
 
 
 
 2*A 
 
 2]/ 2 
 
 10.20 
 
 12.75 
 
 15.30 
 
 17.85 
 
 20.40 
 
 22.95 
 
 25.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 * /4 
 
 2J4 
 
 2-K 
 
 12.34 
 
 15.42 
 
 18.51 
 
 21.59 
 
 24.68 
 
 27.67 
 
 30.85 
 
 
 
 
 
 2V. 
 
 3 
 
 14.69 
 
 18.36 
 
 22.03 
 
 25.70 
 
 29.38 
 
 33.04 
 
 36.72 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 74 
 
 3 
 
 3% 
 
 17.24 
 
 21.54 
 
 25.86 
 
 30.16 
 
 34.48 
 
 38.78 
 
 43.09 
 
 
 
 
 
 3/4 
 
 3y 2 
 
 19.99 
 
 24.99 
 
 29.99 
 
 34.98 
 
 39.98 
 
 44.98 
 
 49.98 
 
 62.47 
 
 
 
 
 3 1 A 
 
 3K 
 
 22.95 
 
 28.68 
 
 34.42 
 
 40.15 
 
 45.90 
 
 51.63 
 
 57.37 
 
 71.72 
 
 
 
 
 J /3 
 
 314 
 
 4 
 
 26.11 
 
 32.64 
 
 39.17 
 
 45.19 
 
 52.22 
 
 58.75 
 
 65.28 
 
 81.60 
 
 97.92 
 
 
 
 J 74 
 
 4 
 
 4i/J 
 
 29.48 
 
 36.84 
 
 44.22 
 
 51.58 
 
 58.96 
 
 66.32 
 
 73.69 
 
 92.12 
 
 110.54 
 
 
 
 4J4 
 
 4/, 
 
 33.05 
 
 41.31 
 
 49.57 
 
 57.83 
 
 66.10 
 
 75.35 
 
 82.62 
 
 103.27 
 
 123.93 
 
 144.59 
 
 
 
 4J4 
 
 4J4 
 
 36.82 
 
 46.02 
 
 55.23 
 
 64.43 
 
 73.64 
 
 82.84 
 
 92.05 
 
 115.07 
 
 138.08 
 
 161.10 
 
 
 4f$ 
 
 5 
 
 40.80 
 
 51.00 
 
 61.20 
 
 71.00 
 
 81.60 
 
 91.80 
 
 102.00 
 
 127.50 
 
 153.00 
 
 178.50 
 
 204.00 
 
 5 
 
 5J4 
 
 44.78 
 
 5622 
 
 67.47 
 
 78.71 
 
 89.56 
 
 101.20 
 
 112.45 
 
 140.51 
 
 168.68 
 
 196.67 
 
 224.91 
 
 5tf 
 
 5J4 
 
 49.37 
 
 61.70 
 
 74.05 
 
 86.39 
 
 98.74 
 
 111.07 
 
 123.42 
 
 154.27 
 
 185.13 
 
 215.98 
 
 246.84 
 
 5/a 
 
 5>4 
 
 53.96 
 
 67.44 
 
 80.94 
 
 94 42 
 
 107.92 
 
 121.40 
 
 134.89 
 
 168.62 
 
 202.34 
 
 236.07 
 
 269.79 
 
 5f4 
 
 6 
 
 58.75 
 
 73.44 
 
 88.13 
 
 102.71 
 
 117.50 
 
 132.19 
 
 146.88 
 
 183.60 
 
 220.32 
 
 257.04 
 
 293.76 
 
 6 
 
 6/ 2 
 
 68.95 
 
 86.19 
 
 103.43 
 
 120.66 
 
 137.90 
 
 155.14 
 
 172.38 
 
 215.47 
 
 258.57 
 
 301.66 
 
 344.76 
 
 6tf 
 
 7 
 
 79.97 
 
 99.96 
 
 119.95 
 
 139.94 
 
 159.94 
 
 179.92 
 
 199.92 
 
 249.90 
 
 299.88 
 
 349.86 
 
 399.84 
 
 7 
 
 7M 
 
 91.80 
 
 114.75 
 
 137.70 
 
 160.65 
 
 183.60 
 
 206.55 
 
 229.50 
 
 286.88 
 
 344.25 
 
 401.62 
 
 459.00 
 
 7X 
 
 8 
 
 104.45 
 
 130.56 
 
 156.67 
 
 182.78 
 
 208.90 
 
 235.00 
 
 261.12 
 
 326.40 
 
 391.68 
 
 456.96 
 
 522v4 
 
 8 
 
 8/2 
 
 117.91 
 
 147.39 
 
 176.87 
 
 206.34 
 
 235.82 
 
 265.30 
 
 294.78 
 
 368.47 
 
 442.17 
 
 515.86 
 
 589.56 
 
 8X 
 
 9 
 
 132.19 
 
 165.24 
 
 198.29 
 
 231.33 
 
 264.38 
 
 297.43 
 
 330.48 
 
 413.10 
 
 495.72 
 
 578.34 
 
 660.96 
 
 9 
 
 9'/2 
 
 147.29 
 
 184.11 
 
 220.93 
 
 257.75 
 
 294.58 
 
 331.39 
 
 368.22 
 
 460.27 
 
 552.33 
 
 644.38 
 
 736.44 
 
 9tf 
 
 10 
 
 163.20 
 
 204.00 
 
 244.80 
 
 285.60 
 
 326.40 
 
 367.20 
 
 408.00 
 
 510.00 
 
 612.00 
 
 714.00 
 
 816.00 
 
 10 
 
 IOJ4 
 
 179.93 
 
 224.91 
 
 269.89 
 
 314.87 
 
 329.86 
 
 404.83 
 
 449.82 
 
 562.27 
 
 674.73 
 
 787.18 
 
 899.64 
 
 10J4 
 
 11 
 
 197.47 
 
 246.84 
 
 296.21 
 
 345.57 
 
 394.94 
 
 444.31 
 
 493.68 
 
 617.10 
 
 740.52 
 
 863.94 
 
 987.36 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 235.00 
 
 293.75 
 
 352.50 
 
 411.25 
 
 470.00 
 
 528.75 
 
 587.50 
 
 734.40 
 
 881.30 
 
 1028.20 
 
 1175.00 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 275.80 
 
 344.75 
 
 413.70 
 
 482.65 
 
 551.60 
 
 620.55 
 
 689.50 
 
 861.90 
 
 1034.30 
 
 1206.70 
 
 1379.00 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 319.90 
 
 399.85 
 
 479.80 
 
 559.79 
 
 639.70 
 
 719.73 
 
 799.70 
 
 999.60 
 
 1199.50 
 
 1399.40 
 
 1599.40 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 367.20 
 
 459.00 
 
 550.80 
 
 642.60 
 
 734.40 
 
 826.20 
 
 918.00 
 
 1147.50 
 
 1377.00 
 
 1606.50 
 
 1836.00 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 417.80 
 
 522.25 
 
 626.70 
 
 731.15 
 
 835.60 
 
 940.05 
 
 1044.50 
 
 1305.60 
 
 1566.70 
 
 1827.80 
 
 2089.00 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 528.80 
 
 660.95 
 
 793.20 
 
 925.33 
 
 1057.50 
 
 1189.71 
 
 1321.90 
 
 1652.40 
 
 1982.90 
 
 2313.40 
 
 2643.80 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 652.80 
 
 816.00 
 
 979.20 
 
 1142.42 
 
 1305.60 
 
 1468.80 
 
 1632.00 
 
 2040.00 
 
 2448.00 
 
 2856.00 
 
 3264.00 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 789.90 
 
 987.35 
 
 1184.80 
 
 1382.29 
 
 1579.80 
 
 1777.23 
 
 1974.70 
 
 2468.40 
 
 2962.10 
 
 3455.80 
 
 3949.40 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 940.00 
 
 1175.05 
 
 1410.00 
 
 1645.07 
 
 1880.10 
 
 2115.09 
 
 2350.10 
 
 2937.60 
 
 3525.10 
 
 4112.60 
 
 4700.10 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 1103.20 
 
 1379.05 
 
 1654.80 
 
 1930.67 
 
 2206.50 
 
 2482.29 
 
 2758.10 
 
 3447.60 
 
 4137.10 
 
 4826.60 
 
 5516.10 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 1279.50 
 
 1599.35 
 
 1919.20 
 
 2239.09 
 
 2559.00 
 
 2878.83 
 
 3198.70 
 
 3998.40 
 
 4798.10 
 
 5597.70 
 
 6397.40 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 1468.80 
 
 1836.00 
 
 2203.20 
 
 2570.40 
 
 2937.60 
 
 3304.80 
 
 3672.00 
 
 4590.00 
 
 5508.00 
 
 6426.00 
 
 7344.00 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 1671.20 
 
 2088.95 
 
 2506.70 
 
 2924.53 
 
 3342.30 
 
 3760.11 
 
 4177.90 
 
 5222.40 
 
 6266.90 
 
 7311.40 
 
 8355.80 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 2115.10 
 
 2643.85 
 
 3172.60 
 
 3701.39 
 
 4230.14 
 
 4758.93 
 
 5287.70 
 
 6609.60 
 
 7931.50 
 
 9253.40 
 
 10575.30 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 2611.20 
 
 3264.00 
 
 3916.80 
 
 4569.60 
 
 5222.40 
 
 6775.20 
 
 6528.00 
 
 8160.00 
 
 9792.00 
 
 11424.00 
 
 3056.00 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 3760.10 
 
 4700.15 
 
 5640.20 
 
 6580.21 
 
 7520.20 
 
 8460.27 
 
 9400.30 
 
 11750.40 
 
 14100.40 
 
 16450.50 
 
 8800.60 
 
 48 
 
534 
 
 PUMPS 
 
 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE AND HORSEPOWER 
 
 Developed in Compressing a Cubic Foot of Free Air (Adiabatically) 
 from Atm. Press. (14.7 Ibs.) to Various Gauge Pressures. Initial Temp, 
 of Air in Each Cylinder taken as 60 Fahn. Jacket Cooling not considered. 
 
 
 
 
 Single Compression 
 
 Two-Stage Compression 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 eg 
 
 Jj 
 
 *i|' 
 
 Cu 
 
 ^s| 
 
 a; 1 
 
 .M 
 
 riii 
 
 1 
 
 
 = 1 
 
 1* 
 
 ._ <u 5> 
 
 511 
 
 11 
 *{ 
 
 * i_ q3 
 
 *1 
 
 &* 
 
 .28 
 
 . P. per Sq. 
 rcent Frict 
 luded 
 
 pi 
 
 |s6 
 
 0'^ 
 
 <sr|1 
 
 &o^c 
 
 *A 
 
 gJSJ 
 
 Q-H.it 
 
 o.s 
 
 (/> .2 
 F!r $ 
 
 m 
 
 a; 15 
 
 og 
 
 cu . ~-z 
 
 "V^.<J 
 
 !-! 
 
 s 
 
 11 
 
 jia 
 
 W vf. 
 
 .(2P 
 
 t 
 
 u c 
 S~ 
 
 ~v^-z 
 
 &U.U. 
 Q 
 
 2**. 
 
 If 
 
 f 
 
 "& 
 
 F 
 
 <y > i* <L 
 
 P s 
 
 5 
 
 19.7 
 
 1.34 
 
 4.46 
 
 .019 
 
 5.12 
 
 .022 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 24.7 
 
 1.68 
 
 8.21 
 
 .036 
 
 9.44 
 
 .041 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 29.7 
 
 2.02 
 
 11.46 
 
 .050 
 
 13.17 
 
 .057 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 34.7 
 
 2.36 
 
 14.30 
 
 .062 
 
 16.44 
 
 .071 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 39.7 
 
 2.70 
 
 16.94 
 
 .074 
 
 19.47 
 
 .085 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 44.7 
 
 3.04 
 
 19.32 
 
 .084 
 
 22.21 
 
 .096 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 49.7 
 
 3.38 
 
 21.50 
 
 .094 
 
 24.72 
 
 .108 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 54.7 
 
 3.72 
 
 23.53 
 
 .103 
 
 27.05 
 
 .118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 59.7 
 
 4.06 
 
 25.40 
 
 .111 
 
 29.21 
 
 .127 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 64.7 
 
 4.40 
 
 27.23 
 
 .119 
 
 31.31 
 
 .136 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 69.7 
 
 4.74 
 
 28.90 
 
 .126 
 
 33.23 
 
 .145 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 74.7 
 
 5.08 
 
 30.53 
 
 .133 
 
 35.10 
 
 .153 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 79.7 
 
 5.42 
 
 32.10 
 
 .140 
 
 36.91 
 
 .161 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 84.7 
 
 5.76 
 
 33.57 
 
 .146 
 
 38.59 
 
 .168 
 
 29.31 
 
 .128 
 
 33.71 
 
 .147 
 
 12.7 
 
 75 
 
 89.7 
 
 6.10 
 
 35.00 
 
 .153 
 
 40.25 
 
 .175 
 
 30.43 
 
 .133 
 
 34.99 
 
 .153 
 
 13.0 
 
 80 
 
 94.7 
 
 6.44 
 
 36.36 
 
 .159 
 
 41.80 
 
 .182 
 
 31.44 
 
 .137 
 
 36.15 
 
 .158 
 
 13.5 
 
 85 
 
 99.7 
 
 6.78 
 
 37.63 
 
 .164 
 
 43.27 
 
 .189 
 
 32.46 
 
 .142 
 
 37.32 
 
 .163 
 
 13.8 
 
 90 
 
 104.7 
 
 7.12 
 
 38.89 
 
 .169 
 
 44.71 
 
 .195 
 
 33.37 
 
 .145 
 
 38.36 
 
 .167 
 
 14.2 
 
 95 
 
 109.7 
 
 7.46 
 
 40.11 
 
 .175 
 
 46.12 
 
 .201 
 
 34.28 
 
 .149 
 
 39.41 
 
 .172 
 
 14.5 
 
 100 
 
 114.7 
 
 7.80 
 
 41.28 
 
 .180 
 
 47.46 
 
 .207 
 
 35.20 
 
 .153 
 
 40.48 
 
 .176 
 
 14.7 
 
 110 
 
 124.7 
 
 8.48 
 
 43.56 
 
 .190 
 
 50.09 
 
 .218 
 
 36.82 
 
 .161 
 
 42.34 
 
 .185 
 
 15.4 
 
 120 
 
 134.7 
 
 9.16 
 
 45.69 
 
 .199 
 
 52.53 
 
 .229 
 
 38.44 
 
 .168 
 
 44.20 
 
 .193 
 
 15.9 
 
 130 
 
 144.7 
 
 9.84 
 
 47.72 
 
 .208 
 
 54.87 
 
 .239 
 
 39.86 
 
 .174 
 
 45.83 
 
 .200 
 
 16.5 
 
 140 
 
 154.7 
 
 10.52 
 
 49.64 
 
 .216 
 
 57.08 
 
 .249 
 
 41.28 
 
 .180 
 
 47.46 
 
 .207 
 
 16.9 
 
 150 
 
 164.7 
 
 11.20 
 
 51.47 
 
 .224 
 
 59.18 
 
 .258 
 
 42.60 
 
 .186 
 
 48.99 
 
 .214 
 
 17.2 
 
 160 
 
 174.7 
 
 11.88 
 
 
 
 
 
 43.82 
 
 .191 
 
 50.39 
 
 .219 
 
 
 170 
 
 184.7 
 
 12.56 
 
 
 
 
 
 44.93 
 
 .196 
 
 51.66 
 
 .225 
 
 
 180 
 
 194.7 
 
 13.24 
 
 
 
 
 
 46.05 
 
 .201 
 
 52.95 
 
 .231 
 
 
 190 
 
 204.7 
 
 13.92 
 
 
 
 
 
 47.16 
 
 .206 
 
 54.22 
 
 .236 
 
 
 200 
 
 214.7 
 
 14.60 
 
 
 
 
 
 48.18 
 
 .210 
 
 55.39 
 
 .241 
 
 
 250 
 
 264.7 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 52.84 
 
 .230 
 
 60.76 
 
 .264 
 
 
 300 
 
 314.7 
 
 21.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 56.70 
 
 .247 
 
 65.20 
 
 .283 
 
 
 350 
 
 364.7 
 
 24.81 
 
 
 
 
 
 60.15 
 
 .262 
 
 69.16 
 
 .301 
 
 
 400 
 
 414.7 
 
 28.21 
 
 
 
 
 
 63.19 
 
 .276 
 
 72.65 
 
 .317 
 
 
 450 
 
 464.7 
 
 31.61 
 
 
 
 
 
 65.93 
 
 .287 
 
 75.81 
 
 .329 
 
 
 500 
 
 514.7 
 
 35.01 
 
 
 
 
 
 68.46 
 
 .298 
 
 78.72 
 
 .342 
 
 
 550 
 
 564.7 
 
 38.41 
 
 
 
 
 
 70.70 
 
 .308 
 
 81.30 
 
 .354 
 
 
 600 
 
 614.7 
 
 41,81 
 
 
 
 
 
 72.83 
 
 .317 
 
 83.75 
 
 .364 
 
 
PUMPS 
 
 535 
 
 STROKES REQUIRED TO REACH A PISTON SPEED OF 100 Ft. PER 
 
 MINUTE 
 
 Length 
 of 
 Stroke 
 
 4 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Strokes 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 240 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 7 
 
 172 
 
 8 
 
 150 
 
 10 . 
 
 . 120 
 
 Length 
 of 
 Stroke 
 
 12 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Strokes 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 86 
 
 16 
 
 75 
 
 18 
 
 67 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 22 . 
 
 55 
 
 Length 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 Stroke 
 
 Strokes 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 40 : 
 
 30 
 
 HOW TO DETERMINE THE POWER REQUIRED FOR PUMPING 
 
 The power required for pumping depends primarily upon two fac- 
 torsthe weight of the liquid to be pumped per minute and the vertical 
 height it has to be raised from the source of supply to the point of de- 
 livery. In addition to these two principal factors, allowance must be 
 made in practice for the power required to -overcome the losses in the 
 pumping equipment and the friction in the pipe lines. 
 
 To get the power required in terms of horsepower: multiply the 
 weight of the liquid to be pumped per minute in pounds, by the height 
 it has to be lifted and forced in feet; and divide this by 33,000. 
 
 This gives the following formula: 
 
 Wt. of Liquid per Min. in Lbs. X Height pumped in Ft. 
 
 Horsepower = 33,000 
 
 The above gives the theoretical power required. The actual power 
 needed to do the work will be in excess of this, the amount depending 
 upon the losses. To get the actual power required, the figure represent- 
 ing the height pumped should be increased by the loss of head in feet 
 due to friction in the pipe line. 
 
 The result determined in this way must then be corrected for the 
 power loss in the pumiping equipment. This is accomplished by dividing 
 the horsepower obtained, by the efficiency of the pumping outfit, ex- 
 pressed in a decimal; with these corrections our formula becomes: 
 
 W X H 
 
 H. P. = 
 
 33,000 X E 
 
 Where W is the weight of liquid pumped per minute in pounds, H 
 is the total head in feet including loss of head due to friction in pipe 
 lines and E is the efficiency of the pump, 
 
536 PUMPS 
 
 Having determined the horsepower required, the cost of operating 
 the pump per hour can be obtained by multiplying this figure by the cost 
 per horsepower-hJour of operating the engine or motor used to drive the 
 pump. 
 
 Another formula commonly used in practice for determining the 
 power required for pumping water is: 
 
 G.P.M. X H 
 
 H. P. = 
 
 3,960 X E 
 
 Where G.P.M. is the gallons of; water per minute, H is the total head 
 in feet including loss of head due to friction in pipe, and E is the ef- 
 ficiency of the pump, expressed as a decimal. This formula is satisfac- 
 tory for all practical purposes, where water is the liquid pumped. 
 
 The actual brake horsepower required to drive a centrifugal pump can 
 be found by the following formula: 
 
 U. ;S. Gallons per Minute X Head in Feet 
 
 .000253 = i = Brake Horsepower 
 
 Pump Efficiency Per Cent 
 
 In .pumping fuel oil, where the liquid being heavier than water it be- 
 ing necessary, to multiply by the specific gravity. 
 
 The horsepower of the motor selected should be approximately ten 
 per cent greater than the brake horsepower as centrifugal pumps are de- 
 signed to be slightly over capacity. 
 
 To figure current consumption per thousand gallons of water pumped 
 the following formula will be found convenient: 
 
 Head in feet X .0031456 
 1 = KWH's per 1000 gallons pumped. 
 
 Pump Efficiency X Motor Efficiency 
 
 To figure duty for Diesel driven pumps the following formula can be 
 used : 
 
 1980 X Pump Efficiency 
 
 Constant pressure per B.H.P. per hour 
 Foot Pounds duty per Lbs. Constant Pressure of Engine. 
 
PUMPS 537 
 
 INFORMATION ON PUMPS 
 (Constants and Formulas) 
 
 V = Velocity feet per second. 
 D = Diameter pipe in inches. 
 A = Area square inches. 
 Q = Water quantity, G.P.M. 
 
 f 2.02 I 2 Q 3.21 
 V I X X 
 
 [ D J 10 A 10 
 
 Q = 2.45 VD2 
 Gal. per 24 hours = 3530 X V X D2 
 
 10 X A X V 
 
 Q _ 
 
 Velocity head, h = = 32.16 ft. per sec. 
 
 Pump Formula: In determining the size of a pump required to de- 
 liver a given number of gallons through pipes, allowance must be made 
 tor friction in the pipes. This places additional work on the pump and is 
 figured as so much additional head, which is called friction head. 
 
 If H = loss of head due to friction, or friction head in feet, 
 L = length of straight pipe in feet, 
 V = velocity of flow in feet per second, 
 D diameter of pipe in feet; 
 
 we have the following formula for Friction Head: 
 
 .02LV2 
 
 H = 
 
 64. 4D 
 
 Pump Horse Power Formula: If allowance is made for the fric- 
 tion of the flow in the pipe, we have the following: 
 
 Dbs. water per minute (H -f 2.31 P+ H) 
 H.P. = - 
 
 33,000 
 
 In which H.P. = pumip horsepower required, 
 H = suction lift in feet, 
 
 P = pressure developed in pipe in Ibs. per sq. in. 
 which = pressure delivered by pump minus pressure at 
 
 which water is delivered to pump, 
 H = friction head allowance in feet. 
 
538 PUMPS 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 1 cubic foot of water 62.3791 Ibs. 
 
 1 cubic inch of water .03612 Ibs. 
 
 1 gallon of water 8.338 Ibs. 
 
 1 gallon of water 231. cubic ins. 
 
 1 cubic foot of water 7.476 gallons 
 
 1 pound of water 27.7 cubic inches 
 
 A Gallon of Water (United States 'Standard) weighs 8 1/3 pounds, 
 and contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62% 
 pounds and contains 1.728 cubic inches, or 7% gallons. 
 
 On pump formula use this: 
 
 P = pressure per Ibs. per sq. in P = H X .4335 . 
 
 H = head of water in feet H = P X 2.307 
 
 Pressure per square foot = H X 62.425 
 
 Pressures: 1 atm. = 14.7 Ibs. sq. in. at sea level. Roughly the ba- 
 rometric pressure decreases l / 2 Ib. per sq. in. per 1000 ft. ascent. 
 
 1 Ib. per sq. in. 2.0416 in. Mercury at 62 F. 
 
 = 2.0355 in. Mercury at 32 F. 
 
 = 27.71 in. Water at 62 F. 
 
 = 2.309 ft. of Water at 62 F. 
 
 = 0.0703 kg. per sq. cm. 
 
 1 ft. of Water at 62 F. = .433 Ib. per sq. in. 
 1 in. of Mercury at 62 F. = .491 Ib. per sq. in. 
 
 = 1.132 ft. of Water at 62 F. 
 
 The above data is calculated for distilled water at 40 degrees Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 To compute the horsepower necessary to raise water to any height: 
 Multiply the gallons per minute by 8.33. Multiply this product by the 
 feet lift. The result is foot pounds. Divide by 33,000 to reduce to 
 horsepower per minute. (An allowance of 25 per cent should be made 
 for friction, etc.) 
 
 To compute the capacity of pumping engines, multiply the area of 
 the water piston, in inches, by the distance it travels, in inches, in a given 
 time. The product divided by 231 (gives number of gallons in time named. 
 
 To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the area, in 
 inches, by the length of stroke, in inches, which will give the total number 
 of cubic inches; divide this product by 231 (which is the cubical con- 
 
PUMPS 539 
 
 tents of a gallon in inches), and quotient is capacity in gallons. Ordinary 
 speed to run pumps is 100 feet of piston travel per minute. 
 
 To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute, running at 100 
 feet of piston travel per minute, square the diameter of water cylinder 
 and multiply by 4. 
 
 To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of 
 water or liquid per minute (100 feet of piston travel being the speed), 
 divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, which 
 will be the required diameter in inches. 
 
 To find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to discharge a given 
 volume of water or liquid in a given time, multiply the number of cubic 
 feet of water by 144, and divide the product by the area of the pipe in 
 inches. 
 
 To find the area of a required pipe, the volume and velocity of water 
 or liquid being given, multiply the number of cubic feet of water or liquid 
 by 144, and divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute. The 
 area being found, it is easy to get the diameter of pipe necessary. 
 
 The actual brake horsepower required to drive a centrifugal pump 
 can be found by the following formula: 
 
 U. S. Gallons per Minute X Head in Feet 
 
 .000253 - - = Brake Horsepower 
 
 Pump Efficiency Per Cent 
 
 In case the liquid being pumped is heavier than water, it will be 
 necessary to multiply by the specific gravity. 
 
 The horsepower of the motor selected should be approximately ten 
 per cent greater than the brake horsepower, as centrifugal pumps are 
 designed to be slightly over capacity. 
 
 To figure current consumption per thousand gallons of liquid or 
 water pumped, the following formula will be found convenient: 
 
 J ,1 : Li -4 Hi 
 
 Head in Feet X .0031456 
 = KWH's per 1000 gallons pumped. 
 
 Pump Efficiency X Motor Efficiency 
 
 Note: When piping to engine friction losses should at all times be 
 considered. Exhaust piping or discharge piping should be connected so 
 that all unnecessary bends be avoided. When elbows and valves are 
 introduced the 'friction is increased. Roughly the friction in a short 
 radius 90-degree elbow can be estimated as the same as the loss in a 
 straight pipe 30 times the diameter of the elbow in length, the friction 
 in a long radius elbow that of a pipe 16 times as long as the diameter 
 of the elbow and the friction of 45-degree elbows one-half that of 90-de- 
 gree elbows. 
 
540 PUMPS 
 
 To Find the Pressure in Pounds Per Square Inch of a Column of 
 Water: Multiply the height of the column in feet by ,434. (Approxi- 
 mately every foot elevation is called equal to one-half pound pressure 
 per square inch.) 
 
 Doubling the Diameter of a Pip-e Increases Its Capacity Four Times. 
 Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. 
 
 Ordinary Speed to Run Pumps is 100 feet of piston per minute. To 
 find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100 feet of pis- 
 ton per mimnte: Square the diameter of water cylinder in inches and 
 multiply by 4. 
 
 Example: If the capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired, the square 
 of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, which 
 is gallons per minute (approximately). 
 
 Convenient Multiples: 
 
 For the circumference of a Circle, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 For the diameter of a Circle, multiply circumference by .31831. 
 
 For the Area of a Circle, multiply square of diameter by .7854. 
 
 For the Side of an Equal Square, multiply diameter by .8862. 
 
 For the Surface of a Sphere, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 For the Solidity of a Sphere, multiply cube of diameter by .5236. 
 
 For the Side of an inscribed Cube, multiply the radius of sphere 
 by 1.1547. 
 
 The Area of the Base of a Pyramid, or Cone, whether round, square 
 or triangular, multiplied by one-third of its height, equals the Solidity. 
 
PUMPS 
 
 541 
 
 PRESSURES CORRESPONDING TO GIVEN HEADS OF WATER 
 
 Temperature = 62 Fahrenheit 
 Pressure in pounds per square inch = P = .036085 h (head in inches) 
 
 h 
 0.1 
 
 P 
 
 .00361 
 
 h 
 
 0.8 
 
 P 
 
 .0289 
 
 h 
 6 
 
 P 
 
 .2165 
 
 0.2 
 
 .00722 
 
 0.9 
 
 .0325 
 
 7 
 
 .2526 
 
 03 
 
 0108 
 
 1 
 
 0361 
 
 8 
 
 .2887 
 
 0.4 
 
 .0144 
 
 2 
 
 .0722 
 
 9 
 
 .3248 
 
 0.5 
 
 .0180 
 
 3 
 
 _ .1083 
 
 10 
 
 .3608 
 
 06 
 
 0216 
 
 4 
 
 1443 
 
 11 
 
 .3969 
 
 0.7 
 
 0253 
 
 5 
 
 .1804 
 
 
 
 Pressure 
 H 
 1 
 
 in pounds per 
 P 
 
 .4330 
 
 square 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 inch P 
 P 
 
 10.83 
 
 .43302 H 
 H 
 105 
 
 (head in fe-et) 
 P 
 45.47 
 
 2 
 
 .8660 
 
 26 
 
 11.26 
 
 110 
 
 _ 47.63 
 
 3 
 
 1.299 
 
 27 
 
 __ 11.69 
 
 115 
 
 _ 49.80 
 
 4 
 
 1 732 
 
 28 
 
 12 12 
 
 120 
 
 51.96 
 
 5 
 
 2 165 
 
 29 
 
 12 56 
 
 125 
 
 54.13 
 
 6 
 
 2.598 
 
 30 
 
 12 99 
 
 130 
 
 56.29 
 
 7 
 
 3 031 
 
 31 
 
 13 42 
 
 135 
 
 58.46 
 
 8 
 
 3 464 
 
 32 
 
 13 86 
 
 140 
 
 60.62 
 
 9 
 
 3.897 
 
 33 
 
 14.29 
 
 150 
 
 _ 64.95 
 
 10 
 
 4 330 
 
 34 
 
 14 72 
 
 160 
 
 69.28 
 
 11 
 
 4 763 
 
 35 
 
 15 16 
 
 170 
 
 73.61 
 
 12 
 
 5.196 
 
 40 
 
 17.32 
 
 180 
 
 _ 77.94 
 
 13 
 
 5 629 
 
 45 
 
 19 49 
 
 190 
 
 82.27 
 
 14 
 
 6 062 
 
 50 
 
 21 65 
 
 200 
 
 __ 86.60 
 
 15 
 
 6.495 
 
 55 
 
 23.82 
 
 210 . 
 
 90.93 
 
 16 
 
 6928 
 
 60 
 
 25 98 
 
 220 
 
 95.26 
 
 17 
 
 7 361 
 
 65 
 
 28.15 
 
 230 
 
 99.59 
 
 18 
 
 7.794 
 
 70 
 
 30.31 
 
 240 . 
 
 103.9 
 
 19 
 
 8 227 
 
 75 
 
 32 48 
 
 250 
 
 108.3 
 
 20 
 
 8.660 
 
 80 
 
 34 64 
 
 260 
 
 112.6 
 
 21 
 
 9.093 
 
 85 
 
 36.81 
 
 270 
 
 116.9 
 
 22 
 
 9 526 
 
 90 
 
 38 97 
 
 280 
 
 121.2 
 
 23 
 
 9.959 
 
 95 
 
 41 14 
 
 290 
 
 125.6 
 
 24 
 
 10.39 
 
 100 
 
 43.30 
 
 300 . 
 
 . 129.9 
 
542 
 
 PUMPS 
 TABLE OF GALLONS 
 
 United States 
 
 Cubic inches in 
 a gallon. 
 231 
 
 Wt. of a gal. in 
 IDS., Avoir. 
 8.33 
 
 Gallons in a 
 cubic foot 
 
 7.480 
 
 New York 
 
 221 819 
 
 8.00 
 
 7.901 
 
 Imperial 
 
 277.274 
 
 10.00 
 
 6.232 
 
 Weight of a Cubic Foot of Water, English Standard = 62.321 pounds 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 PRESSURES OF WATER AND EQUIVALENTS (Rankirre) 
 
 One Atmosphere ( = 29.922 inch mercury) = 33.9 feet of water. 
 One inch of mercury at 32 = 1.1334 feet of water. 
 One cubic foot of average seawater == 1.026 cubic feet of pure water 
 in weight. 
 
 One Fahrenheit degree = .55555 Centigrade degree. 
 One Centigrade degree = 1.8 Fahrenheit degrees. 
 Temperature of melting ice = 32 on Fahrenheit's scale. 
 Temperature of melting ice = on Centigrade scale. 
 
 Specfiic Gravity is denned to be the ratio of the weight of a given 
 bulk of substance, to the weight of the same bulk of pure water at a 
 standard temperature. 
 
 HORSEPOWBR TRANSMITTED BY BELTING 
 
 Width of 
 
 H.P. per 100 feet Belt 
 
 Width of 
 
 H.P. per 100 feet Belt 
 
 Belt 
 
 
 Volnr-i tv 
 
 Belt 
 
 
 tfrtl r-k^ij 4-t-r 
 
 
 velocity - 
 
 
 velocity - 
 
 in inches 
 
 Single Belt Double Belt 
 
 in inches 
 
 Single Belt Double Belt 
 
 2 
 
 .3 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 3 
 
 .5 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.1 
 
 4 
 
 .7 
 
 1.1 
 
 16 
 
 2.9 
 
 4.6 
 
 5 
 
 .9 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 5.8 
 
 6 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 8 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 9 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 10 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.9 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 Note: To find diameter of driving pulley, multiply the diameter of 
 the driven pulley by its revolutions and divide the product by the revolu- 
 tions of the driver; the quotient will give the diameter of the driver. 
 
PUMPS 
 
 543 
 
 HORSEPOWER REQUIRED FOR DRIVING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 
 
 Capacity of Pumps 
 
 Horse Power Required for 
 
 Size of 
 
 
 Cu. Ft. per Sec. 
 
 Miner's 
 
 Each Foot of Lift 
 
 Pump 
 
 Gals per 
 
 also Acre Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Theoretical 
 
 Recommended 
 
 
 Minute 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 
 H.P. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 1% 
 
 50 
 
 .1 
 
 4.5 
 
 ..013 
 
 .04 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 .2 
 
 8.9 
 
 .025 
 
 .06 
 
 2V 2 
 
 150 
 
 .3 
 
 13.4 
 
 .038 
 
 .085 
 
 3 
 
 225 
 
 5 
 
 20. 
 
 .057 
 
 .114 
 
 m 
 
 300 
 
 .6 
 
 27. 
 
 .08 
 
 .16 
 
 4 
 
 400 
 
 .9 
 
 35.7 
 
 .10 
 
 .20 
 
 5 
 
 700 
 
 1.5 
 
 62.5 
 
 .17 
 
 .34 
 
 6 
 
 900 
 
 2.0 
 
 80. 
 
 .23 
 
 .39 
 
 7 
 
 1,200 
 
 2.6 
 
 107. 
 
 .31 
 
 .50 
 
 8 
 
 1,600 
 
 3.5 
 
 143. 
 
 .41 
 
 .67 
 
 10 
 
 3,000 
 
 6.6 
 
 268. 
 
 .76 
 
 1.17 
 
 12 
 
 4,500 
 
 10.0 
 
 400. 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.75 
 
 The sizes of pumps given above correspond to the diameters of dis- 
 charge openings in inches. 
 
544 
 
 PUMP'S 
 DISCHARGE OF WATER 
 
 In following table the amount of water to be discharged in correspond- 
 ing relation to the pump unit to Diesel engine, gives a clear idea as to 
 the amount of water a pump can discharge a stream of water. 
 
 GIVEN IN CUBIC FET PER MINUTE, THE AREA OF THE STREAM 
 BEING ONE SQUARE INCH IN THIS TABLE 
 
 Head Discharge 
 
 1 3.34 
 
 2 4.73 
 
 3 5.79 
 
 4 6.68 
 
 5 7.47 
 
 6 8.18 
 
 7 8.84 
 
 8 9.45 
 
 9 10.02 
 
 10 10.51 
 
 11 11.08 
 
 12 11.57 
 
 13 12.05 
 
 14 12.50 
 
 15 12.94 
 
 16 13.37 
 
 17 13.78 
 
 18 14.18 
 
 19 14.57 
 
 20 14.95 
 
 21 15.31 
 
 22 15.67 
 
 23 16.02 
 
 24 16.37 
 
 25 ' -_ 16.71 
 
 26 17.04 
 
 27 17.36 
 
 28 17.68 
 
 29 17.99 
 
 30 18.30 
 
 31 18.60 
 
 32 __- 18.90 
 
 33 19.20 
 
 34 19.49 
 
 35 19.77 
 
 36 20.05 
 
 37 20.33 
 
 38 _ _ 20.60 
 
 Head Discharge 
 
 39 20.87 
 
 40 21.13 
 
 41 _ 21.38 
 
 42 21.64 
 
 43 21.90 
 
 44 22.15 
 
 45 22.40 
 
 46 22.65 
 
 47 22.89 
 
 48 23.14 
 
 49 23.38 
 
 50 23.61 
 
 51 23.85 
 
 52 24.08 
 
 53 24.31 
 
 54 24.54 
 
 55 24.76 
 
 56 24.99 
 
 57 25.21 
 
 58 25.43 
 
 59 25.65 
 
 60 25.87 
 
 61 26.08 
 
 62 26.29 
 
 63 26.49 
 
 64 26.72 
 
 65 26.92 
 
 66 27.13 
 
 67 27.33 
 
 68 27.54 
 
 69 27.74 
 
 70 27.94 
 
 71 28.14 
 
 72 28.34 
 
 73 28.53 
 
 74 28.73 
 
 75 28.93 
 
 76 _ _ 29.11 
 
PUMP'S 
 
 545 
 
 DISCHARGE OF WATER (Continued) 
 
 Head 
 77 __. 
 78 
 
 79 __. 
 
 80 __. 
 
 81 __. 
 
 82 __. 
 
 83 __. 
 
 84 __. 
 
 85 ... 
 
 8.6 30.97 
 
 87 31.15 
 
 88 31.33 
 
 89 ' 31.50 
 
 90 31.68 
 
 91 31.86 
 
 92 __. 
 
 93 _ 
 
 Discharge 
 29.30 
 29.49 
 29.68 
 29.87 
 30.06 
 30.24 
 30.42 
 30.61 
 30.79 
 
 32.04 
 32.20 
 
 94 32.38 
 
 95 32.55 
 
 96 32.72 
 
 97 32.89 
 
 98 33.06 
 
 99 33.23 
 
 100 33.40 
 
 101 33.57 
 
 102 33.73 
 
 103 33.90 
 
 104 _ 34.06 
 
 105 34.22 
 
 106 34.39 
 
 107 34.55 
 
 108 34.71 
 
 109 34.87 
 
 110 35.03 
 
 111 35.19 
 
 112 35.35 
 
 113 _ _ 35.50 
 
 Head Discharge 
 
 114 35.66 
 
 115 35.82 
 
 116 35.97 
 
 117 -. 36.12 
 
 118 36.28 
 
 119 36.43 
 
 120 36.58 
 
 121 36.73 
 
 122 36.88 
 
 123 37.03 
 
 124 37.18 
 
 125 37.33 
 
 126 37.48 
 
 127 ____ 37.63 
 
 128 37.78 
 
 129 37.93 
 
 130 38.07 
 
 131 38.22 
 
 132 38.37 
 
 133 38.51 
 
 134 38.66 
 
 135 38.80 
 
 136 38.95 
 
 137 39.09 
 
 138 39.23 
 
 139 39.37 
 
 140 39.51 
 
 141 39.65 
 
 142 39.79 
 
 143 39.93 
 
 144 40.07 
 
 145 40.21 
 
 146 40.35 
 
 147 40.49 
 
 148 40.63 
 
 149 40.77 
 
 150 _ _ 40.90 
 
546 
 
 PUMPS 
 
 THE PRESSURE OF WATER AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS 
 
 Feet 
 Head 
 
 1 
 
 Equals 
 Pressure 
 per Sq. In. 
 
 .43 
 
 Feet 
 Head 
 
 130 
 
 Equals 
 Pressure 
 per Sq. In. 
 
 56 31 
 
 Feet 
 Head 
 
 260 
 
 Equals 
 Pressure 
 per Sq. In. 
 
 112 62 
 
 5 
 
 2.16 
 
 135 
 
 58.48 
 
 265 
 
 114.79 
 
 10 
 
 4.33 
 
 140 
 
 60.64 
 
 270 
 
 116.96 
 
 15 
 
 6.49 
 
 145 
 
 62.81 
 
 275 
 
 119.12 
 
 20 
 
 8. (56 
 
 150 
 
 64.97 
 
 280 
 
 121.29 
 
 25 
 
 10 82 
 
 155 
 
 66.14 
 
 285 
 
 123 45 
 
 30 
 
 12 99 
 
 160 
 
 69.31 
 
 290 
 
 125.62 
 
 35 
 
 15.16 
 
 165 
 
 71.47 
 
 295 
 
 127.78 
 
 40 
 
 17 32 
 
 170 
 
 73.64 
 
 300 
 
 129 95 
 
 45 
 
 19' 49 
 
 175 
 
 75.80 
 
 310 
 
 134.28 
 
 50 
 
 21 65 
 
 180 
 
 77.97 
 
 320 
 
 138.62 
 
 55 
 
 23.82 
 
 185 
 
 80.14 
 
 330 
 
 142.95 
 
 60 
 
 2599 
 
 190 
 
 82.30 
 
 340 
 
 147.28 
 
 65 
 
 28.15 
 
 195 
 
 84.47 
 
 350 
 
 151.61 
 
 70 
 
 30 72 
 
 200 
 
 86 63 
 
 360 
 
 155 94 
 
 75 
 
 32 48 
 
 205 
 
 88.80 
 
 370 
 
 160.27 
 
 80 
 
 34.65 
 
 210 
 
 90.96 
 
 380 
 
 164.61 
 
 85 
 
 36 82 
 
 215 
 
 93 13 
 
 390 
 
 168.94 
 
 90 
 
 38 98 
 
 220 
 
 95.30 
 
 400 
 
 173.27 
 
 95 
 
 41.15 
 
 225 
 
 97.49 
 
 500 
 
 216.58 
 
 100 
 
 43 31 
 
 230 
 
 99 63 
 
 600 
 
 259.90 
 
 105 
 
 45.48 
 
 235 
 
 101.79 
 
 700 
 
 303.22 
 
 110 
 
 47 64 
 
 240 
 
 103 96 
 
 800 
 
 346.54 
 
 115 
 
 49 81 
 
 245 
 
 106.13 
 
 900 
 
 389.86 
 
 120 
 
 51 98 
 
 250 
 
 108 29 
 
 1000 
 
 433.18 
 
 125 _ 
 
 __ 54.15 
 
 255 _ 
 
 . 110.46 
 
 
 
PUMPS 
 
 547 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES CORRESPONDING TO DEGREES BAUME 
 (Liquids Lighter than Water) 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES CORRESPONDING TO DEGREES BAUME 
 (Liquids Lighter than Water) Continued 
 
 Degree Specific Degree Specific Degree Specific 
 
 Baume Gravity 
 
 Baume 
 13 
 
 Gravity 
 0.979 
 
 11 
 
 0.993 
 
 12 
 
 0.986 
 
 13 _ 
 
 0.079 
 
 14 0.972 
 
 15 0.966 
 
 16 0.959 
 
 17 0.952 
 
 18 0.946 
 
 19 0.940 
 
 20 0.933 
 
 21 0.927 
 
 22 0.921 
 
 23 0.915 
 
 24 0.909 
 
 25 0.903 
 
 26 0.897 
 
 27 0.892 
 
 28 0.886 
 
 29 0.881 
 
 30 0.875 
 
 31 0.870 
 
 32 _ 0.864 
 
 33 _ _ 0.859 
 34 0.854 
 
 35 _ 0.849 
 
 36 0.843 
 
 37 0.838 
 
 38 0.833 
 
 39 _ _ 0.828 
 
 40 0.824 
 
 41 0.819 
 
 42 0.814 
 
 43 0.809 
 
 44 0.805 
 
 45 0.800 
 
 46 0.796 
 
 47 __ 0.791 
 
 48 0.787 
 
 49 0.782 
 
 50 0.778 
 
 51 0.774 
 
 52 0.769 
 
 53 0.765 
 
 54 0.761 
 
 55 0.757 
 
 56 0.753 
 
 57 0.749 
 
 58 0.745 
 
 59 0.741 
 
 60 0.737 
 
 61 0.733 
 
 62 0.729 
 
 63 0.725 
 
 64 0.722 
 
 65 0.718 
 
 66 _ 0.714 
 
 67 0.711 
 
 68 0.707 
 
 69 _ _ 0.704 
 
 Baume Gravity 
 
 70 0.700 
 
 71 0^697" 
 
 72 0.693 
 
 73 0.690 
 
 74 0.686 
 
 75 0.683 
 
 76 0.680 
 
 77 0.676 
 
 78 0.673 
 
 79 0.670 
 
 80 0.667 
 
 81 0.664 
 
 82 0.660 
 
 83 0.657 
 
 84 0.654 
 
 85 0.651 
 
 86 0.648 
 
 87 0.645" 
 
 88 0.642 
 
 89 0.639 
 
 90 0.636 
 
 91 0.634 
 
 92 0.631 
 
 93 0.628 
 
 94 0.625 
 
 95 0.622 
 
 96 0.620 
 
 97 0.617 
 
 98 0.614 
 
 99 _ _ 0611 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 BATTERIES 
 CARE OF A STORAGE BATTERY 
 
 In the proper care of a storage battery, there are four things to be 
 remembered of great importance. By remembering these 75% of the 
 battery troubles will be eliminated. 
 
 (1) Keep all cells filled with distilled water to a level % inch above 
 the level of the plates. NEVER fill the cells FULL. 
 
 (2) Do not attempt to use a battery in a leaking condition. 
 
 (3) Test the gravity of all cells with a hydrometer syringe on the 
 first and fifteenth of every month. If any cells are below 1.275 on two 
 successive testing dates, take the battery out and have it fully charged. 
 
 (4) NEVER allow the battery to become heated above 110 degrees F. 
 while in service. Watch the battery for heating once or twice a day dur- 
 ing warm weather. When the top connectors become more than blood 
 warm to the touch take the temperature with a dairy thermometer. If 
 the temperature reaches 100 degrees burn lamps to bring down tempera- 
 ture. If the temperature reaches 120 degrees the battery may become 
 ruined. 
 
 Period of Filling with Water: 
 
 A battery should be filled with pure water without fail, once every 
 week in summer, and once every two weeks in winter. 
 
 It is very important that the solution should be at the proper height 
 in all of the cells. This can be easily determined by looking through the 
 vent hole through the top. 
 
 Looking into the hole exposed by removing the vent plug one sees 
 an inner hole that looks like the bottom of the tube. If it is filled above 
 this point, it will slop over, because when the battery is charging the 
 solution contains thousands of minute bubbles which cause it to expand 
 and occupy a greater space than when it is not being charged. 
 
 Effect of Overfilling: 
 
 Overfilling causes the solution to run over the top of the battery 
 down the sides of the box. It will rot the battery case. 
 Water For Filling: 
 
 Water for filling a battery should be pure and free from foreign 
 matter. This should be distilled water, melted artificial ice, or filtered 
 
BATTERIES 549 
 
 rain water which has not come in contact with iron pipes or tin roofs. 
 Avoid the use of spring water, river and well water; they are liable to 
 contain iron or other substances detrimental to the life of the battery. 
 
 Use Water Only: 
 
 Only water should be used regularly for filling. If acid solution is 
 used the electrolyte will gradually get stronger resulting in eating through 
 the plates and separators and destroying the insulation of the battery. 
 The battery will then become dead. If the battery becomes tipped up- 
 side down, or spilled, otherwise, it may be necessary to add to the elec- 
 trolyte. 
 
 Method of Filling: 
 
 In filling the battery the most convenient way is to use a hydrometer 
 syringe. The advantage of using the hydrometer is that if you should 
 get too much water in one cell, the excess solution can be withdrawn and 
 used in the next cell, or to put it back into the receptacle. 
 
 How To Use Hydrometer: 
 
 In preparing to add water to the cells, first obtain pure water and 
 fill receptacle (porcelain or glass), which is to be used for the battery. 
 Next, take bulb and squeeze firmly in the palm of the hand to exclude 
 the air, then place the tip of the hydrometer in the glass of water. Then, 
 insert the tube in the vent hole of battery and squeeze the bulb until the 
 cell is filled to the desired height, but do not over fill. Release the tube 
 and hold it in a horizontal position so as to keep the solution from drip- 
 ping on the battery and again compress the bulb and expel the balance 
 of the contents into the glass. 
 
 What Is a Dead Battery? 
 
 A storage battery is said to be dead when it will deliver no appreciable 
 current at a voltage sufficient to do work. A battery goes dead from one 
 of two causes from insufficient current, which is lack of nourishment, 
 or from some internal trouble. In the former case all cells in the battery 
 show low specific gravity. The remedy is charging, pfeferably a long 
 continuous charge from an outside source. If the cause is internal the 
 troublesome cell will show low gravity. In this case the battery needs 
 attention. 
 
 Lack of Solution: 
 
 This rapidly shortens the battery's life by reducing the area of ac- 
 tive surface on the plates. If a battery is used for any length of time 
 with the solution below the tops of plates they will rapidly disintegrate. 
 Regular inspection and filling with pure water is the preventative. 
 
550 BATTERIES 
 
 Under-Charging: 
 
 If too much current is taken by the lamps and other electric appar- 
 atus, or the generator is not large enough to furnish sufficient current, 
 the battery will go dead. It must then be taken off and charged from some 
 outside source. 
 
 Short-Circuits: 
 
 These are caused by bad insulation, wiring coming in contact with 
 metal parts of engine and by laying a wrench, screw driver, or other 
 tools on top of battery. 
 
 What Is Electrolyte? 
 
 The electrolyte is the solution in the battery and consists of a definite 
 mixture of "pure" sulphuric acid and distilled or other "pure" water. 
 The sulphuric acid must be "chemically pure" to a certain standard, 
 which is the same standard as is usually sold in drug stores as "CP" 
 (chemically pure), or by the chemical manufacturers as "battery acid." 
 Do not confuse "chemically pure" sulphuric acid with sulphuric acid of 
 "full strength," because the use of the latter would not materially reduce 
 the strength, but would make the mixture impure and endanger the ef- 
 ficiency of the battery. 
 
 Full strength of concentrated sulphuric acid is a heavy, oily liquid 
 having a strength (specific gravity) of about 1.835. If put into the bat- 
 tery, it would quickly ruin it, and must, therefore, first be diluted with 
 "pure" water to the proper strength for the particular type of battery to 
 which it is to be added. 
 
 If electrolyte of the proper strength is not on hand, it may be pre- 
 pared from "chemically pure" sulphuric acid by mixing the acid with 
 pure water. The acid may be of any strength, providing it is stronger 
 than the electrolyte desired. The proportions of acid and water depend 
 upon the strength of the acid. When mixing, take the following pre 
 cautions: 
 
 1. Use a glass, china, earthenware, rubber or lead vessel; never 
 metallic, other than lead. 
 
 2. Carefully pour the acid into water; not the water into the acid. 
 
 3. Stir thoroughly with a wooden- paddle and allow to cool before 
 taking a hydrometer reading of the strength. 
 
 Electrolyte, like most substances, expands when hot, affecting the 
 hydrometer reading. To % compare different hydrometer readings, there- 
 fore, the temperature should be the same. It is not necessary, however, 
 to actually bring the temperatures to the same value, because it is a 
 known fact that every three degrees increase in temperature decreases 
 the hydrometer reading one point, and this fact can be used in estimat- 
 ing what the hydrometer reading would be at a normal temperature. 
 The normal is taken as 70 degrees Fahrenheit. If the hydrometer read- 
 ing at 100 degrees is 1.270, it would be 10 points more, or 1.280 at 70 
 degrees. If the reading is 1.290 at 40 degrees, it would also be 1.280 at 
 
BATTERIES 551 
 
 70 degrees. Therefore, although the two actual readings differ by 20 
 points, the difference is all due to temperature, and if the temperature 
 were the same, the readings would be the same. When the temperature 
 is much above or below normal, the hydrometer readings should be "cor- 
 rected for temperature." 
 
 Why Is the Electrolyte Weaker in Batteries in Tropical Climates? 
 
 The electrolyte used in such batteries is purposely made weaker be- 
 cause batteries operated in tropical climates give better results if the 
 solution is weaker than that used for batteries in colder climates. Places 
 where freezing of water never occurs are regarded as having tropical 
 climates. 
 
 How Can Trouble Be Located? 
 
 1. Go over all connections. A loose or dirty connection is often the 
 cause of trouble. If the connections between the battery and cable ter- 
 minals are not kept well coated with gasoline, they may corrode, causing 
 a poor connection, or else opening the circuit all together. If the con- 
 nector is causing the trouble, remove it and clean the parts thoroughly 
 with weak ammonia. Then remove all dirt, apply vaseline, tighten the 
 connection perfectly and give the whole connection a heavy coating of 
 vaseline. 
 
 2. There may be a leak or ground in the wiring. Test for this by 
 turning all lamp switches and then removing the bulbs from the sockets. 
 Disconnect one of the cables at the battery and in its place tightly hold 
 a file against the battery post, making sure there is good electrical con- 
 tact between the file and the post. Then rub the cable terminal along the 
 file; if sparks are noticed, there is a ground in the wiring, which musi 
 be looked for and removed. 
 
 3. If the generator of the starting system is not in proper adjust- 
 ment, the battery will not be kept supplied with the proper amount of 
 current. If the supply is insufficient, the battery will become discharged, 
 if it is too much, the battery solution will become hot (110 degrees Fah- 
 renheit). The generator should be readjusted to deliver more or less cur- 
 rent, as the case requires. 
 
 When Is the Best Time to Add Water? 
 
 In warm weather, it makes no difference when water is added. In 
 freezing weather, it should be added just before using the engine. The 
 reason is that water will remain on top of the solution until it is mixed 
 with it by action of the battery. If not mixed with the solution, it would 
 freeze almost as quickly as outside the battery. 
 
 Why Do Hydrometer Readings Indicate the Condition of a. Battery? 
 
 When current is taken from a battery, a certain part of the solution 
 combines with the plates, leaving the solution weaker. When current is 
 
552 BATTERIES 
 
 put back into the battery, this is returned to the solution which is 
 strengthened again. A measurement of the strength of the solution, 
 therefore, will indicate the condition of the battery, because when the 
 battery is fully charged the solution will be strong and when it is dis- 
 charged the solution will be weak. 
 
 Can a Battery Freeze? 
 
 The freezing point of the battery solution depends upon its strength. 
 For example, a solution with a strength or specific gravity of 1.250 will 
 not freeze until the extremely cold temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit 
 below Zero is reached. A strength of 1.150 will freeze at 5 degrees above 
 Zero, so it will be seen there is little danger of freezing except with a 
 completely discharged battery. Moreover, at these freezing points, the 
 solution is slushy and does not become hard until the temperature goes 
 still lower. If water is added to a battery in freezing weather and then 
 not stirred in with the solution by charging the battery, it will remain 
 on top of the solution and may freeze. But to avoid this possibility, 
 warning is given not to add water in cold weather until just before run- 
 ning the engine. 
 
 DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF TERMS AND PARTS OF A 
 STORAGE BATTERY 
 
 Acid: The active component of the Electrolyte. 
 
 Active Material: The active portion of the battery plates; the most 
 used is peroxide of lead on the positive and spongy metallic lead 
 on the negative. 
 
 Alternating Current: Electric current which does not flow in one di- 
 rection only, like direct current, but rapidly reverses its direction 
 or "Alternates" in polarity so that it will not charge the battery. 
 
 Ampere: The unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current. 
 
 Ampere Hour: The unit of measure of the quantity of electric cur- 
 rent. Thus, 2 amperes flowing for one-half hour = 1 Amp, hr. 
 
 Battery: A number of complete cells assembled in one case. 
 Buckling: Warping or bending of the battery plates. 
 
 Burning Strip: A convenient form of lead, in strips for filling up the 
 joints in making burned connections. 
 
 Case: The containing box which holds the battery cells. 
 
 Cell: The battery unit, consisting of an element complete with elec- 
 trolyte, in its jar with cover. 
 
BATTERIES 553 
 
 Cell Connector: The metal link which connects the positive post one 
 cell to the negative post of the adjoining cell. 
 
 Charge: Passing direct current through a battery in the direction op- 
 posite to that of discharge, in order to put back the energy used 
 on discharge. 
 
 Charge Rate: The proper rate of current to use in charging a battery 
 from an outside source. It is expressed in amperes and varies 
 for different sized cells. 
 
 Corrosion: The attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte; 
 it is the result of lack of cleanliness. 
 
 Cover: The rubber cover which closes each individual cell; it is 
 flanged for sealing compound to insure an effective seal. 
 
 Discharge: The flow of electric current from a battery through a cir- 
 cuit. The opposite to "charge." 
 
 Electrolyte: The fluid in a battery cell, consisting of specially pure 
 sulphuric acid or rather chemicals diluted with pure water. 
 
 Element: One opposite group and negative group with separators, 
 assembled together. 
 
 Filling Plug: The plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the fill- 
 ing tube in the cell cover. 
 
 Flooding: Over-flowing through the filling tube. 
 
 Casing: The bubbling of the electrolyte caused by the rising of gas 
 set free toward the end of the charge. 
 
 Generator System: An equipment including a generator for automatic- 
 ally recharging the battery, in contradict action to a straight 
 storage system, where the battery has to be removed to be recharged. 
 
 Gravity: A contraction of the term "Specific Gravity," which means the 
 density compared with water as a standard. 
 
 Grid: A set of plates, either positive or negative, joined to a strap. 
 Groups do not include separators. 
 
 Hold Down Clips: Brackets for the attachments of bolts for holding the 
 battery securely in position. 
 
 Hydrogen Flame: A very hot and clean flame of hydrogen gas and com- 
 pressed air, used for making burned connections. 
 
 Hydrogen Generator: An apparatus for generating hydrogen gas for 
 lead burning. 
 
 Hydrometer: An instrument for measuring the specific gravity of the 
 electrolyte, 
 
554 BATTERIES 
 
 Hydrometer Syringe: A glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and pro- 
 vided with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte. 
 
 Jar: The hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte. 
 
 Lead Burning: Making a joint by melting together the metal of the 
 parts to be joined. 
 
 Lug: The extension from the top frame head plate, connecting strap 
 to strap. 
 
 Maximum Gravity: The highest gravity which the electrolyte will reach 
 by continued charging indicating that no acid remains in the plates. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol: Commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid 
 (1.835 specific gravity). This will ruin a battery if used. 
 
 Plates: Metallic grids supporting active materials. They are alternately 
 positive (brown) and negative, (gray). 
 
 Polarity: Electrical condition. The positive terminal of a cell or bat- 
 tery, or the positive wire of a circuit, is said to have positive polarity ; 
 the negative, negative polarity. 
 
 Post: The portion of the strap extending through the cell covei-, by 
 means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the 
 position for light or ignition. 
 
 Rectifier: Apparatus for converting alternating current into direct cur- 
 rent. 
 
 Resistance: Material (usually lamps or wire) of low conductivity in- 
 serted in a circuit to retard the flow of current. By varying the re- 
 sistance, the amount of current can be regulated. 
 
 Rubber Sheets: Thin, perforated hard rubber sheets used in combina- 
 tion with the wood separators in some types of batteries. They 
 are placed between the grooved sides of the wood separators and 
 the positive plate. 
 
 Sealing Compound: The acid proof compound used to seal the cover of 
 .the jar. 
 
 Sediment: Active material which gradually falls from the plates and 
 accumulates in the space below the plates provided for that purpose. 
 
 Separators: Sheets of grooved wood, specially treated, inserted between 
 the positive and negative plates to keep them from contact. 
 
 Short Circuit: A metallic connection between the positive and negative 
 plates within the cell. The plates may be in actual contact or ma- 
 terial may be lodged and bridged across. If the separators are in 
 good condition, a short circuit is unlikely to occur. 
 
BATTERIES 555 
 
 Spacers: Wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the 
 case, and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts. 
 
 Specific Gravity: The density of the electrolyte compared to water as 
 a standard. It indicates the strength and is measured by the hy- 
 drometer. 
 
 Starvation: The result of. giving insufficient charge in relation to the 
 amount of discharge, resulting in poor service and injury to the bat- 
 tery. 
 
 Strap: The leading casting to which the plates of a group are joined. 
 
 Sulphated: The condition of plates having an abnormal amount of lead 
 sulphate caused by "starvation" or by allowing the battery to re- 
 main discharged. 
 
 Terminal Connectors: Devices attached to the positive posts to one end 
 of the cell and the negative of the other, by means of which the bat- 
 tery is connected to the ignition and lighting circuit. 
 
 Tie Bolts: Bolts, which in some types, extend through the battery case 
 between the cells and clamp the jars in position. 
 
 Top Nuts: The hexagon nut, which, in batteries with bolted connections, 
 screws on the post and holds the connectors and sealing nuts in 
 place. 
 
 Voltage: Electrical potential or pressure, of which the volt is the unit. 
 
 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 
 
 Good Conductors 
 
 Silver Tin 
 
 Copper Lead 
 
 Aluminum German Silver (copper 2 parts, 
 
 Zinc zinc 1, nickel 1) 
 
 Brass (according to the composi- Platinoid ('German silver 49 parts, 
 
 tion) tungsten 1 part) 
 
 Platinum Antimony 
 
 Iron Mercury 
 
 Nickel Bismuth 
 
 Fair Conductors 
 
 Charcoal and Coke Acid Solutions 
 
 Carbon Living Vegetable Substances 
 
 Plumbago Moist Earth 
 
556 BATTERIES 
 
 Partial Conductors 
 
 Water Pine 
 
 The Body Rosewood 
 
 Flame Lignum Vitae 
 
 Linen Teak 
 
 Cotton Marble 
 Mahogany 
 
 Non-Conductors or Insulators 
 
 Slate Gutta Percha 
 
 Oils Shellac 
 
 Porcelain Ebonite 
 
 Dry Leather Amber 
 
 Dry Paper Paraffine Wax 
 
 Wool Glass (varies with quality) 
 
 Silk Mica 
 
 Sealing Wax Jet 
 
 Sulphur Dry Air 
 
 Resin 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR MAINTAINING BATTERIES 
 
 Q. What is a volt? 
 
 A. A volt is a unit of pressure. Current will not flow without there 
 is a difference of potential or pressure, and this difference is meas- 
 ured in volts. It is analogous to head in pipe in hydraulics. 
 
 Q. What is an ampere? 
 
 A. An ampere is a unit of current and signifies the rate of flow of 
 electricity. The analogous .term in hydraulics would be gallons per 
 minute. 
 
 Q. What is an Ohm? 
 
 A. An Ohm is the unit of resistance or friction. It is analogous to 
 friction head in pipe in hydraulics. 
 
 Q. What is a Watt? 
 
 A. A Watt is the unit of power and it is volts multiplied by am- 
 peres. 
 
 Q. What is a kilowatt? 
 
 A. A Kilowatt is 1000 watts. 
 
BATTERIES 557 
 
 Q. What is meant by a "Kilowatt" hour and a "Watt" hour? 
 
 A. A Kilowatt hour and a Watt hour is the product of the product 
 of the number of watts or kilowatts respectively by the number of hours. 
 
 Q. What is a dynamo? 
 
 A. A dynamo is a machine for converting electrical energy into 
 mechanical energy. 
 
 Q. What is a direct current dynamo? 
 
 A. A direct current dynamo is a machine for generating a current 
 flowing only in one direction. (This current used for charging batteries.) 
 
 Q. What is an alternating current dynamo? 
 
 A. An alternating current dynamo is one generating a current 
 which rapidly reverses its direction of flow. (This current is generally 
 used for lighting service and domestic use.) 
 
 Q. What is a primary battery? 
 
 A. A primary battery is a combination of metals and acids which 
 generate an electric current by chemical action. 
 
 Q. What is a secondary or storage battery? 
 
 A. A storage battery is one which, after current has passed through, 
 is capable of giving off current when its terminals are connected. 
 
 Q. What is the distinction between a battery and a battery cell? 
 
 A. A battery of any kind is made up of a number of divisions. In 
 an electric battery these divisions are called cells and consist of an 
 element containing one negative and one positive terminal. 
 
 Q. What governs the number of cells in a battery? 
 
 A. The required volts and amperes as compared with the volts and 
 amperes per cell. 
 
 Q. How are the terminals of a battery designated? 
 
 A. Each battery or cell has a positive or negative terminal, the 
 current flowing externally from the positive to the negative. 
 
 Q. How are the battery cells connected to combine voltage? 
 
 A. In series, that is, the positive to the negative of the next and 
 the positive and negative terminals at either end of the series to the load. 
 
 Q. How are battery cells connected to combine amperage? 
 
 A. In parallel, all positives together and all negatives together, and 
 load taken off from the positive and negative connection. 
 
558 BATTERIES 
 
 Q. How are battery cells connected to combine both volts and am- 
 perage? 
 
 A. By connecting a number of cells in series to get the required 
 voltage and a sufficient number of these combinations in parallel to give 
 the proper amperage. 
 
 Q. How are incandescent lamps rated? 
 
 A. In candlepower or watts. 
 
 Q. How do you determine the amperes required to operate a lamp? 
 
 A. Select the w.p.c. according to class. Multiply by candlepower 
 and divide by voltage of current. 
 
 Q. How do you determine the number of lamps a dynamo will 
 operate? 
 
 A. Multiply kilowatt rating by 1000 watts. Divide by wattage of 
 lamps. 
 
 Q. How do you determine the number of lamps a battery will operate 
 for a given number of hours? 
 
 A. Divide the ampere hours battery capacity by the sum of the 
 product of the amperes of each lamp by the hours it will operate. 
 
 Q. How can a size of dynamo be determined to charge a battery? 
 
 A. Multiply the ampere charging rate by the voltage of the battery, 
 which gives generator capacity in watts. 
 
 Q. Can a storage battery be charged with alternating current? 
 
 A. No. It requires direct current or the alternating current must 
 be changed by a rotary conveyor or a rectifier. 
 
 Q. A battery giving 120 volts was to be charged, and you had a 
 generator of the same voltage, could you charge from the same? 
 
 A. This can be done by dividing the battery into two sections of 60 
 volts each and connecting the sections in series. In such a case the 
 current capacity of the generator must be double the charging capacity 
 of the battery. 
 
 Q. What would the object be of such a plant? 
 
 A. The lights can be operated from either, the battery or the gen- 
 erator direct. 
 
BATTERIES 559 
 
 DEFINITION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 Water is universally adopted as the standard by which the relative 
 weight of all liquids and solids are determined, this relation being ex- 
 pressed by the term "specific gravity." The specific gravity of a body, 
 therefore, indicates its weight as compared with that of an equal body 
 in the form of volume of pure water. Determinations of specific gravity 
 generally referred to the weight of one cubic foot of water at sixty-two 
 degrees Fahrenheit. At the more important temperatures the weights 
 are as follows: 
 
 Weight of One Cubic Foot of Pure Water: 
 
 At 32 degrees F. (freezing point) 62.418 Ibs. 
 
 At 39.1 degrees F. (maximum density) 62.425 Ibs. 
 
 At 62 degrees F. (standard temperature) 62.355 Ibs. 
 
 At 212 degrees F. (boiling point '(under atmos. 
 
 pressure) 59.640 Ibs. 
 
 For general purposes the weight of water is taken in round numbers 
 as 62.5 pounds per cubic foot. Bulk water is usually measured by the 
 gallon. The volume of which is 231 cubic inches (the British gallon con- 
 tains 277.274 cubic inches), or 0.134 cubic feet. A gallon of water at 
 sixty-two degrees, therefore, weighs 8.35 and 7.48 gallons equals one 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Pressure of Water: 
 
 From the weight of water at the standard temperature of 62 degrees, 
 its pressure upon any exposed surface may be readily determined for 
 any given depth or head. The weight of one cubic foot at the above 
 temperature being 62.355 Ibs., it is evident that for a head of one cubic 
 foot the pressure must be 62.355 Ibs., per square foot, and 62.355 
 
 Uk ! it 144 
 
 0.433 Ibs. per square inch; and, further, that a pressure of one pound per 
 square inch will be produced by a head of 1 
 
 = 2.309 feet. 
 0.433 
 
 CARE AND MAINTAINING OF THE LEAD ACID BATTERY 
 
 In writing this treatise on storage batteries it will be undertaken 
 to explain and make as simple as possible the theory, care, and main- 
 tenance of the lead acid battery. 
 
 First, let us understand for once and all that a storage battery does 
 not mean that electricity is stored as the name storage battery would 
 seem to imply, 
 
560 BATTERIES 
 
 All minerals, gases, and liquids are classed either as a positive ( + ) 
 or negative ( ) element. 
 
 In tlie lead acid cell we have the sponge lead plate which is a highly 
 positive element and the lea^ peroxide plate which is one of the most 
 negative elements known. 
 
 Next, the electrolyte which is any chemical fluid or semi-fluid, 
 which will be decomposed by the passage of an electrical current. 
 
 Now it follows that if these two elements, the P B sponge lead and 
 the Pb02 = lead peroxide, one electric positive, the other electro nega- 
 tive, be put in an electrolyte composed of dilute sulphuric acid, we have 
 the two elements of different polarity in an electrolyte and as electricity 
 closely resembles water in a pipe always tending to flow from a higher 
 to a lower level, so electricity always tends to flow from -j- to , but, 
 like water, if it has no outlet it will cease to flow. 
 
 As the current flows from the Pb plate to the PbO 2 plate it leaves 
 the Pb02 plate at the terminal of this plate and continues through the 
 conductor, which is furnished for it, and back to the Pb plate, this, as 
 can readily be seen, makes the terminal of the Pb02 plate a positive 
 terminal, since the current leaves the cell by this terminal; so it also 
 makes the terminal of the Pb plate a negative terminal of the Pb plate 
 a negative terminal since it enters the cell again by this terminal. The 
 positive terminal is on what voltically is 'termed the negative plate, and 
 the negative terminal is on what is voltically termed the positive plate. 
 Since great confusion arises in the mind of some students as to the re- 
 lation of the plates, the plate by which the current leaves the cell on 
 discharge is always known as the positive. The positive plate of a lead 
 acid cell is of a dark brown almost chocolate color and is very firm when 
 the plate is in good condition, while the negative is gray and is soft and 
 springy, if in good condition. 
 
 As the current flows from the Pb plate through the H 2 SO* = sul- 
 phuric acid and water to the PbO 2 plate due to the potential difference 
 of these elements it decomposes the H 2 ,SO 4 . The plates taking the SO* 
 from the electrolyte and combining it with the lead, and, since lead and 
 sulphuric acid combined gives lead sulphate, both plates taking in com- 
 bination with them the SO* from the electrolyte, changes them both to 
 the same material theoretically, so, of course, no more potential dif- 
 ference exists 'between them, and there will be no more current flow, in 
 the condition the battery is discharged. As sulphuric acid tends to hard- 
 en and deteriorate any mineral with which it comes in contact with one 
 should have only enough of such material in the electrolyte to combine 
 with the lead in both slates to turn them to lead sulphate upon discharge. 
 
 So in a cell in which there is plenty of room for electrolyte a lower 
 gravity can be made than in one where there is but little space for elec- 
 trolyte, since we can have plenty of SO* to combine with the plates and 
 still not have it so concentrated as to do damage to the elements of the 
 battery. On the other hand, in a cell where the space for the electrolyte 
 is very limited we must have a higher specific gravity in order to have 
 
BATTERIES 561 
 
 the necessary SO 4 to combine with all of the active material of the plates 
 to complete their discharge. 
 
 So from the preceding one can readily see that the capacity of a 
 storage cell depends upon the amount of active material in the plates 
 that can combine with SO 4 of the electrolyte and the amount of SO* of 
 the electrolyte that can combine with the plates to change them to 
 PbSO , lead sulphate. 
 
 If the symbols used in the writing have been noted a great step 
 toward an understanding of the lead acid storage cell has been made, 
 but so as to make it plainer we shall put down the symbols and their 
 meaning. 
 
 Pb = Sponge lead, negative plate. 
 
 PbO 2 = Lead peroxide or positive plate. 
 
 H2SO 4 = Water H2<X Sulphuric acid SOs the two combined forming 
 the electrolyte. 
 
 The chemical changes in the cell are as follows: 
 
 All fully discharged bath plates are PbSO 4 or lead sulphate due to 
 the electricity decomposing the SO* from the electrolyte and combining 
 it with the lead of the plates, leaving the electrolyte H 2 O. 
 
 On charge the current being in the opposite direction decomposes 
 the SO from the plates back into the electrolyte changing it back to 
 H^SO 4 and leaving the plates in their original condition as a voltic 
 couple. 
 
 It stands to reason since the passage of a current of electricity de- 
 composes the H 2 SO 4 combining the SO 4 with the plates on discharge, 
 that the heavier the current the more rapid will be the change of the 
 plates to lead sulphate or PbSO^, and as the plates are porous the capac- 
 ity of the battery depends upon the diffusion of the SO 4 to the innermost 
 particles of the active material. Now sulphate is of high resistance, so, 
 when a cell is discharged at a very high rate the sulphation will form on 
 the surface of the plates and clog the pores of them so it will be hard 
 for the SO 4 to penetrate to the active material in the inside of the plate, 
 consequently, the voltage of the cell drops to its safe limit 'before the 
 inside of the plates are discharged. But upon the discontinuance of 
 the discharge the voltage will rise due to the slow diffusion of the SO 4 
 to the unworked portion of the active material. 
 
 Due to the above fact the capacity of a storage cell is very low at 
 high rates of discharge. 
 
 On the other hand if the discharge be carried on at a low rate the 
 capacity will be much greater due to the fact, that the sulphation is go- 
 ing on in the innermost recesses of the active material because the SO 4 
 has a chance to reach and combine with the inside active material the 
 same as the outside particles of active material. 
 
 For the two above reasons a standard for time and rate in amperes 
 has been established, the time being the greatest number of amperes 
 that can be taken from a battery for a continuous 8 hours. 
 
562 BATTERIES 
 
 For instance, if we say a battery has an ampere hour capacity of 200 
 we mean that 200 ampere hours can be obtained from the battery in 8 
 hours time, and, since 1 ampere flowing for one hour = 1 ampere hour, 
 200 ampere hours would mean 200 amperes flowing for 200 hours, but 
 since neither of the above are carried to extremes the time set to com- 
 pute ampere hour capacity has been set at 8 hours. 
 
 The 200 amperes divided by the 8 hours gives us the current that 
 will be maintained for the 8 hours, or 25 amperes. 
 
 For safe working limits a discharge must be stopped before the 
 voltage drops so low, as to show that sulphation has been too dense in 
 the plate, so there is a voltage limit to allow for each cell; at the 3 hour 
 rate let the limit be 1.5 volts due to the fact, that it will rise again as 
 soon as the discharge has stopped because there is still SO* in the elec- 
 trolyte and Pb and PbO 2 in the inside of the plates. While at the 8 
 hour rate the discharge should be stopped when the voltage reaches 1.7 
 volts per cell, due to the fact, that the plate is sulphated all the way 
 through and will not recuperate much. 
 
 When we speak of the ampere hour efficiency of a battery we mean 
 the number of ampere hours that can be gotten from a battery, divided 
 by the ampere hours which must be used to decompose the SO 4 from 
 the plates back into the H- ? O, bringing the electrolyte back to H 2 SO , 
 and leaving the plates Pb and PbO* the same as before discharged. 
 
 On account of the resistance offered by the iSCH in the plates there 
 is some of the charging current lost in heat and gasing and a battery 
 with 8'5 per cent efficiency is considered very satisfactory, this allows 
 for 15 per cent loss in heating and gasing in overcoming resistance due 
 to sulphate and counter voltage. 
 
 As the battery nears a charged condition the sulphation decreases 
 and the counter E. M. F. or counter voltage increases. This is readily 
 seen, due to the fact, that sending a current, through the battery 
 in a direction opposite to discharge bucking a voltage, is being bucked 
 which tends to cause a current to flow in direction of discharge. 
 
 Therefore, the charging voltage must be higher than the voltage 
 of this hattery and as the battery nears a charged condition the current 
 will taper due to the resistance offered up by the counter E. M. F., un- 
 less the charging voltage, as the charge nears completion. It is a very, 
 good plan to allow the current to fall very low toward the end of charge 
 as any current that is not used in breaking down sulphation is really 
 wasted, so as the rate of charge falls off, do not raise charging voltage 
 unless it falls to zero or the ammeter starts showing on discharge side. 
 In storage battery work it is always convenient to use a two-way am- 
 meter so as to show charge and discharge without having to change 
 connections on the meter. 
 
 Electrolyte of from 1.240 to 1.280 specific gravity, depending upon 
 the space available in the cell for electrolyte, should be used, 
 
BATTERIES 563 
 
 As the SO 4 is the heavier elements in the electrolyte it will be noted 
 as the cell is discharged the weight as sp. gr. of the electrolyte becomes 
 less, due to the fact that the S04 is combining with the plates, also it 
 will be found that the plates are becoming heavier, due to the SO* com- 
 bining with them. 
 
 It is safe in allowing about 80 points drop in sp. gr. where 1.280 is 
 used from these two, proper judgment must be used. No set rule as 
 to the range of gravity need be followed as one is safe if the voltage 
 limit is regarded. Always take voltage reading while current is flowing 
 as it will give a better idea when to stop discharge and avoid damage 
 caused by excessive sulpha tion to plates. 
 
 In mixing sulphuric acid and water to make electrolyte, always re- 
 member to pour the acid into the water, never pour the water into the 
 acid. Always be sure the water is chemically pure. Always be sure the 
 acid has been made for electrolyte. Always use a container that will 
 not be attacked by acid such as hard rubber, glass or pure lead, and be sure 
 the mixing tank is clean. 
 
 Concentrated sulphuric acid has a sp. gr. of 1.835, while distilled 
 water is 1.000, and a very good formula for figuring out how much acid 
 and water to use for different gravities is as follows: 
 
 Say you wanted to use 1.260 sp. gr. 
 
 Subtract 1.000 from 1.835, which gives you 835 parts of water; next, 
 subtract 1.000 from 1.260, which will give you 260 parts of acid. This 
 will not give you the exact specific gravity required, but is close enough 
 so that when you have mixed nearly enough electrolyte let it cool and 
 then after thoroughly stirring with a clean stick add enough water and 
 acid to bring the specific gravity to the right density which can be done 
 without much heating of the electrolyte. 
 
 Suppose you receive your battery without electrolyte which is often 
 the case where the shipment is of long distance. The first thing to do 
 is to determine how to assemble it without injury to the parts. 
 
 First, we will consider the separators which are placed between the 
 plates of opposite polarity. They may be of perforated rubber so as 
 to allow the free circulation of the electrolyte, or wood which is very 
 porous and especially treated to withstand the effect of the acid. If of 
 wood they will be packed in a water-tight sealed receptacle and very 
 damp, and if they are not to be used immediately upon arrival they 
 should be either left packed, and, if opened, placed in distilled water 
 so as not to dry out and crack as their use is to keep the plates of op- 
 posite poles from touching one another, and if cracked, will allow the 
 massing across of the negative plate, short circuiting the cell, 
 as all the positive plates are connected to a common brass bar as are 
 also all of the negatives. Thus you can readily see the effect would be 
 the same as connecting the terminals together, thus causing a current to 
 flow from the Pb plate to the PbO 2 plate through the electrolyte and 
 from the PbO 2 back to the Pb through the short circuit where the plates 
 were touching each other. 
 
564 BATTERIES 
 
 Next, look for data on the name plate of the battery to determine 
 what the ampere hours capacity of the battery is, and what specific 
 gravity electrolyte is to be used. After mixing electrolyte to proper 
 gravity set aside to cool to a temperature of 80 degrees F. while you 
 get the battery ready to accept the electrolyte. 
 
 Next, if the plates are not to be burned to their fuses interleave 
 them, laying down a negative first, then a separator, then a positive, then 
 another separator, then another negative, until the necessary number 
 of plates for the cell are in position, there will be always one or more 
 negative than positive, consequently the element will have a negative 
 for each outside plate. 
 
 Next, place the element in a vice, being sure to place a piece of hard 
 wood on -each side next to the jaws of the vice so as to brace the plates 
 and, also, to protect the plates from coming in contact with the iron, 
 thus getting impurities into the plates. 
 
 Now place asbestos strips between the hanging bars so as to in- 
 sure not getting any lead down into the plates, and also to insure the 
 brass bars are high enough so as not to touch the plates of opposite 
 polarity, also all of the positives having their hanging bars burned to a bus 
 at one end and all of the negatives having their hanging bars burned to 
 a bus at the opposite end of the element. After this is done with clean 
 strips of pure lead, being sure to fuse each hanging bar to its bus bar, 
 take a piece of brass pipe with an inside diameter of the size of the 
 terminal you wish to use, and using it as a mould, fuse lead in it to the 
 bus, being sure each drop of lead fuses before putting any more into 
 the pipe, and be careful to get the terminal in a position on the busses so 
 that when you put the element in the jar the holes in the cell cover 
 will come right for the terminals. 
 
 Now put the elements in the jar, put the cover on, noting and mark- 
 ing, which is positive and which is negative. After carrying out the 
 above instructions for each cell place them in a position so that the 
 terminal of one cell will have next to it and burned to that of the next 
 cell, following out this method will give you a positive terminal free 
 for the line at one end and a negative terminal free for the line at 
 the other end. 
 
 This is known as a series grouping of cells and has the advantage 
 of voltage of one cell and the number of cells in the group, but it has 
 the disadvantage of only having the ampere output of one cell because 
 the same current that is causing a decomposition in all, consequently 
 they will all have their plates changed to PhSCH with the ampere output 
 of one cell. 
 
 This grouping of cells is used where it is necessary to overcome a 
 high resistance when the load is low. 
 
 Next, put hot battery seating compound around the edge of the 
 cover of the cell and around the terminals where they come through 
 the cover of the cell. 
 
BATTERIES 565 
 
 Now we are ready for the electrolyte, which, when cooled down to the 
 temperature of the surrounding atmosphere at 80 degrees F., pour it 
 into the cell until it is well over the top of the plates, let the battery 
 set for about twelve or fourteen hours by which time you will have 
 found the specific gravity has fallen almost to the gravity of the water. 
 This is caused by the SO 4 having an affinity for the dry plates. 
 
 Now start what is known as the initial charge. There is no set 
 rule for the rate of charging current at which this may be carried on 
 but watch the temperature rather than the current and if it rises above 
 110 degrees F., the rate, until it holds its temperature. It will require 
 from three to five times the rated ampere hours capacity of the cell to 
 complete this first charge. If the electrolyte gets down to the tops of 
 the slats do not add electrolyte, but distilled water. When the charge 
 is completed the specific gravity will be nearly, if not the same as when 
 it was put in cells, and each cell should have a voltage of about 2.'5 when 
 charge is finished. Now we will try to explain, as simply as possible, 
 the different grouping of cells and the advantage of one over the other. 
 
 First, let us get a series grouping and its advantages. We will not 
 consider the internal resistance of the cell as it is constantly changing 
 and would be very hard to keep track of, besides this is more lengthy 
 than first intended it should be and we want to make you understand, 
 if we can, without going any deeper and confusing you any more than 
 possible. 
 
 Each lamp, motor or electrical appliance is marked for the re- 
 quired voltage and if you understand the different grouping of bat- 
 teries you can readily see what connections to use to the best ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 We have 6-12 volt lamps and only 6 cells of 12 ampere hours capac- 
 ity each, each cell has an average voltage of 2 volts. Now since a 
 series grouping of cells gives us the voltage of one cell and the 
 number in series, and each cell has an E. M. F. of two volts. We 
 will have to connect the six cells in series in order to get the required 
 E. M. F. Now suppose each lamp used % ampere, the six would use 
 6X6 or 3 amperes, now if they were to burn for one hour steady 
 it would mean that 3 ampere hours had been discharged from the 
 battery and if they were left lighted for 4 hours you would notice 
 that they burned with less brilliancy than at first. This would be 
 due to the plates of the battery combining with the SO 4 the electro- 
 lyte thus losing their difference of potential and consequently their 
 electrical pressure in forcing the necessary % ampere through each 
 lamp. 
 
 Since the same three amperes have been flowing through all the 
 cells it stands that they shall all discharge with the same amount of 
 sulphation in their plates. 
 
 Now suppose the lamps in question were 2 volt lamps, it would 
 only be necessary for us to get the E. M. F. of one cell, but by the 
 
566 BATTERIES 
 
 proper connection we could secure the ampere hour capacity of all the 
 cells or the capacity of one (times) the number in the group in this 
 case, since 1 cell has 12 ampere hours the 6 would have 6X12 or 72 
 ampere hours capacity. We would have in the case of the 3 amperes 
 from each cell, the SO from the electrolyte combining with the plates 
 1/6 as fast, or the group would last 6 times as long as the series grouping 
 before discharged or the plates sulphated. 
 
 Now suppose the lamps in question were 6 volts and we wanted 
 the greatest capacity possible from the 6 cells. 
 
 It would be necessary to connect 3 cells in series to get the proper 
 E. M. F. and by making two groupings of 3 cells each and connecting the 
 2 groups in multiple we get the necessary E. M. F. and the capacity of 
 the 2 cells or 2X12=24 ampere hours, since one half of the discharge 
 rate goes thru each series group of 3 cells, you can see the result of 
 this multiple series grouping of cells over the series or multiple group- 
 ing by theirselves. 
 
 In the next grouping we will use 4 volt lamps. 
 
 In this grouping it will be necessary to use 2 cells only to get 
 the required E. M. F. so by making 3 groups of 2 cells each it can be 
 seen that only 1/3 of the discharge current will be causing the plates 
 of each group to sulphate, consequently we get the ampere hours 
 capacity of 3 cells or 36 ampere hours. This grouping is called series 
 multiple. 
 
 THE EDISON STORAGE BATTERY 
 
 A storage battery is commonly looked upon as a receptacle in which 
 to tore electricity. Electricity is not a concrete matter. In fact, no- 
 b.idy knows just what it is, therefore, in the general apprehension of 
 the term, it is not stored. Electricity simply causes a chemical change 
 to be effected in certain substances, when it is caused to flow through 
 them. These substances, in endeavoring to return to their original state, 
 produce electricity. 
 
 The fundamental principle of the Edison Storage Battery is the 
 oxidation and reduction of metals in an electrolyte which neither com- 
 bines with nor dissolves either the metals or their oxides. Also an elec- 
 trolyte which, notwithstanding its decomposition by the action of the 
 battery, is immediately reformed in equal quantity, and is, therefore, a 
 practically constant element without change of density or conductivity 
 over long periods of time. 
 
 The chemical reactions in charging the Edison Storage Battery 
 are, (1) the oxidation from a lower to a higher oxide of nickel in the 
 positive plate, and (2) the reduction from ferrous oxide to metallic iron 
 in the negative plate. The oxidation and reduction are performed by 
 the oxygen and hydrogen set free at the respective poles by the electro- 
 
BATTERIES 567 
 
 lytic decomposition of water during the charge. The charging of the 
 positive plate is, therefore, simply a process of increasing the proportion 
 of oxygen to nickel. The proportions of nickel to oxygen in definite 
 oxides of nickel are as follows: 
 
 Atomic Proportions By Weight 
 
 Ni Ni 
 
 Ni 111 .273 
 
 NiO* 1 1.33 1 .364 
 
 Ni2Q 1 1.5 1 .409 
 
 NiO, 121 .545 
 
 The relative amount of oxygen necessary to oxidize nickelous oxide, 
 or NiO, which is the oxide corresponding to the green nickel hydrate 
 used in making the battery, to the various oxides, are given in the three 
 reactions: 
 
 (1) 6 NiO + 20 = 2 Ni3CH 
 
 (2) 6 NiO + 30 3 Ni2Q 
 
 (3) 6 NiO + 60 = 6 NiO* 
 
 The NiQ2 is capable of reacting with NiO according to the reaction 
 NiO- 1 + NiO = Ni2Q3. 
 
 Note: NiO 4 is considered as a combination of NiO -f Ni^O^ = 
 
 From a chemical standpoint a charged condition of the cell would, 
 therefore, be represented in the positive plate by an atomic ratio of 
 nickel to oxygen of at least 1:1.5 (or Ni2Q3), depending on the charge. 
 A discharged condition would be represented by a ratio of 1:1.33 
 (Ni^O 4 ) or lower, depending on the discharge. 
 
 The discharge of the cell is simply the reversal of the above reac- 
 tions, the hydrogen reducing the higher oxides of nickel to lower oxides 
 and the oxygn oxidizing the iron to ferrous oxide. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 For a Type A4 Edison Cell four positive plates are mounted on a 
 steel rod, to which has been attached a vertical pole, the plates being 
 equidistantly spaced by means of steel washers. Similarly are mounted 
 five negative plates. "Intermesh" the four positive and five negative 
 plates so that they will be alternately negative and "positive, keep these 
 plates from touching by putting hard rubber rods or pin insulators be- 
 tween them, fit hard rubber ladder pieces or grid separators -to the edges 
 of the plates, and the elements are assembled and ready to place in their 
 container, 
 
568 
 
 NEGATIVE POLE 
 
 HARD RUBBER 
 GLAND CAP 
 
 CELL COVER 
 
 NEGATIVE GRID 
 
 NEGATIVE POCKET 
 (IRON OXIDE) 
 
 PIN INSULATOR 
 
 SIDE INSULATOR 
 
 BATTERIES 
 
 VALVE FILLER CAP 
 
 POSITIVE POLE 
 
 SIDE ROD 
 INSULATOR 
 
 SOLID STEEL 
 CONTAINER 
 
 CELL BOTTOM 
 
 (WILDED TO SIDES) 
 
 COPPER 
 WIRE SWEDGEU 
 INTO STEEL LUG 
 CELL COVER 
 WELDED TO 
 CONTAINER 
 STUFFING BOX 
 
 GLAND RING 
 
 STUFFING BOX 
 GASKET 
 
 WELD TO COVER 
 SPACING WASHER 
 
 CONNECTING ROD 
 
 POSITIVE GRID 
 
 GRID SEPARATOR 
 
 SEAMLESS STEEL 
 RINGS 
 
 POSITIVE TUBE 
 (NICKEL. HYDRATE 
 AND NICKEL IN 
 LAYERS) 
 
 CORRUGATIONS 
 
 SUSPENSION BOSS 
 
 Edison Alkaline Storage Battery. This is the Only Storage Battery That 
 Has Iron and Steel In Its Construction and Elements 
 
BATTERIES 
 
 569 
 
 The container is made of nickel-plated sheet steel with sides cor- 
 rugated to increase its strength. The single side seam is welded by the 
 oxy-acetylene blowpipe and the tops and bottom welded on in the same 
 manner. 
 
 The assembled elements are now placed in the container with thin 
 sheets of hard rubber on -the sides not already insulated by the grid 
 separators. A hard rubber washer is dropped on each of the vertical 
 pole pieces, and the cell is ready to have the top welded on. It is not 
 necessary to see the inside of the cell again. 
 
 The fittings through which the vertical poles pass are provided with 
 soft rubber washers, and with rings and gland caps for expanding these 
 soft rubber washers to form a gas-tight and liquid-tight packing between 
 the top of the container and the poles. 
 
 Positive Plate 
 
 The top of a Type A4 Cell with cover welded on is shown in the il- 
 lustration. The aperture for putting in solution, or adding distilled water 
 is in the valve box in the center. In the top of the lid is a little valve 
 which allows the gas generated during charging to get out, but no im- 
 purities or air can get in. 
 
 When any storage battery is charged, hydrogen gas forms on the 
 negative plates and oxygen gas on the positive. These gases, in the 
 form of minute bubbles, rise to the surface of the solution and, being 
 lighter than air, float away. Being formed in and, subsequently, passing 
 through the solution these minute bubbles each convey a small particle 
 of whatever chemical the solution is composed; if they are formed in 
 
570 BATTERIES 
 
 a lead-sulphuric acid battery, sulphuric acid is the cargo; if in an Edison 
 Alkaline Battery, potash. 
 
 When these bubbles rise from the surface of the electrolyte and 
 come in contact with an object, they either remain until evaporation 
 disintegrates them and deposit their cargo of acid or alkali, or they 
 burst and accomplish the same result. 
 
 The vent of the Edison Cell is the check valve described above. 
 To get out, the gases must lift this valve, by pressure formed within the 
 otherwise hermetically sealed steel containing can. In doing so, a 
 great majority of the little bubbles are burst, and the potash drains 
 back into the cell. A few of them get by and float harmlessly away. 
 
 'Negative Plate 
 
 The active material of the positive plate is nickel hydrate, which 
 is packed in thin layers under heavy pressure in perforated steel tubes. 
 Between the layers of nickel hydrate are still thinner layers of pure 
 nickel. These metallic layers are made up of small flakes of nickel, each 
 flake being about 1/16 inch square and much thinner than tissue paper. 
 
 During charge and discharge of the battery the passage of the elec- 
 tric current alternately oxidizes and reduces the nickel hydrate. The 
 metallic nickel acts as a conductor, forming a path of low resistance to 
 all parts of the active layers of hydrate. 
 
 The negative plate consists of a steel grid which supports a number 
 of flat, perforated steel containers or pockets. The active material is 
 iron oxide, which is held within the pockets. The pockets, after being 
 placed in the openings of the grid, are subjected to hydraulic pressure 
 
BATTERIES 571 
 
 of one hundred and twenty tons, which forces them into permanent con- 
 tact with the grid. 
 
 The passage of current during operation of the battery causes the 
 active material of the negative plate to be alternately reduced and oxi- 
 dized according as the battery is charging or discharging. 
 
 The electrolyte is a solution of caustic alkali. Unlike that of other 
 batteries the Edison battery solution does not vary appreciably in specific 
 gravity during the cycle of charge and discharge. Another distinctive 
 and favorable feature of the Edison battery is that the electrolyte is a 
 "preserver" of steel and nickel and renders impossible many of the 
 diseases encountered in storage battery practice. 
 
 The finished cells are mounted in wooden trays and are connected 
 to another by copper connectors provided with tapered steel lugs. Each 
 cell is supported by rubber buttons imbedded in the tray slats. The cells 
 are provided with steel bosses which fit into the rubber buttons in the 
 tray slats. The trays are made to contain any desired number of cells 
 to suit different conditions in the service. 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 Specific Gravity: Specific Gravity is a combination of weight and vol- 
 ume. Liquids and solids are 1. 
 
 Weight of Body in Air 
 Specific Gravity = 
 
 Weight of Water Displaced 
 
 The instrument to measure liquids lighter than water, is called a 
 Baume Hydrometer. 
 
 Substance Specific Gravity 
 
 Copper 8.8 to 9.0 
 
 Glass 2.4 to 2.8 
 
 Cast Iron 7.0 to 7.2 
 
 Lead .__ 11.34 
 
 Steel 7.8 
 
 Zinc 6.9 ' to 6.2 
 
 Cork .22 to .26 
 
 Pine (White) .411 
 
 Oak (Red) .69 
 
 H,>SO; 18 (85%) 
 
 Oil, Mineral "___ - 90 to 94 
 
 Water, 4 Cent 1.0 
 
 Sea Water _ 1.02 to 1.93 
 
572 BATTERIES 
 
 Care of Battery In Cold Weather: 
 
 A greenish deposit sometimes exists on the terminals of a storage 
 battery which has been stored. This deposit may be removed with a 
 solution of bicarbonate of soda (common cooking soda) in water. Do 
 not allow any of this solution to get into the cells of the battery. 
 
 If the battery has not been kept charged during the winter, it is 
 advisable to remove it from the line and have a plant equipped to take 
 care of the work. Give it a fifty-hour charge at a 4-ampere rate, before 
 putting it into service again. 
 
 The following is a table of the freezing temperatures of sulphuric 
 acid and water solutions of specific gravities from 1.050 to 1.300: 
 
 Specific Gravity Freezing 
 
 (Hydrometer Temperature 
 
 Reading) ( Degrees Fahr. ) 
 
 1.050 27 degrees 
 
 1.100 18 degrees 
 
 1.150 5 degrees 
 
 1.164 ___ ____ degrees 
 
 1.200 17 degrees 
 
 1.250 61 degrees 
 
 1.275 to 1.300 90 degrees 
 
 Care should be taken when laying up the battery in cold weather. 
 The battery should be fully charged and put away in a dry place. 
 
 WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF VARIOUS METALS 
 
 PerCu. PerCu. Per Cu. Per Cu. 
 
 Ft. In. Ft. In. 
 
 Wrought Iron 480 .2778 Lead 711 .4114 
 
 Steel 490 .2836 Silver 655 .3790 
 
 Cast Iron 450 .2607 Gold (cast) . 1204 .6968 
 
 Copper, Rolled 548 .3171 Platinum 1342- .7766 
 
 Brass, Rolled . _ 524 .3032 Aluminum _ 159 .092 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 RULES 
 
 GENERAL RULES AND REGULATIONS PRESCRIBED BY THE BOARD 
 OF SUPERVISING INSPECTORS UNITED STATES STEAM BOAT 
 INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, COVER- 
 ING LAWS OF UNITED STATES MOTOR SHIPS. 
 
 Engineers of Motor Vessels 
 
 No person shall receive an original license as engineer or assistant 
 engineer of motor vessels who has notJ served at least 36 months in the 
 engineer's department of a motor vessel, a portion of which experience 
 shall have been obtained within 'the three years next preceding the 
 application : 
 
 Provided, That any person holding a license as engineer of steam 
 vessels shall be eligible for license as engineer of motor vessels after 
 having served for not less than three months as oiler in the engine de- 
 partment of motor ve&sels, or employed for not less than three months in 
 the construction and installing of engines for motor vessels, which experi- 
 ence shall have been obtained within the three years next preceding the 
 application; and any person who has served three years as apprentice to 
 the machinist trade in a marine, stationary, or locomotive engine works, 
 and any person who has served for a period of not less than three years 
 as a locomotive or stationary engineer, and any person graduated as a 
 mechanical engineer from a duly recognized school of technology may be 
 licensed to serve as an engineer of motor vessels after having had not 
 less than one year's experience in the engine department of motor ves- 
 sels, a portion of which experience shall have been obtained within three 
 years next preceding his application, which fact shall be verified by the 
 certificate, in writing, of the licensed engineer or master under whom the 
 applicant has served, said certificate to be filed with the application of 
 the candidate. 
 
 No original license shall be granted any engineer or assistant en- 
 gineer who can not read and write and does not understand the plain 
 rules of arithmetic. 
 
 Inspectors may designate upon the certificate of any chief or assistant 
 engineer the tonnage of the vessel upon which he may act. (Sec. 4426, 
 R. S.) 
 
 Chief Engineers of Motor Vessels 
 
 An applicant for license as chief engineer of motor vessels shall be 
 eligible for examination after he has furnished satisfactory documentary 
 evidence to the local inspectors that he has had the following experience: 
 
574 RULES 
 
 First: One year's service as first assistant engineer of motor 
 vessels; or, 
 
 Second: Two years' service as second assistant engineer of motor 
 vessels, or two years' combined service as finst and second assistant en- 
 gineer on motor vessels; or, 
 
 Third: One year's service as assistant engineer on motor vessels 
 for license as chief engineer of motor vessels of 750 gross tons and 
 under; or, 
 
 Fourth: Any person holding a license as chief engineer of steam 
 vessels, after having served as oiler in the engine department of motor 
 vessels for not less than three months or employed for not less than three 
 months in the construction and installation of engines for motor vessels; 
 or, 
 
 Fifth: Any person who has served at least one year in the engine 
 department of motor or steam vessels, or who has had at least two years' 
 experience in the construction of marine motor engines and their installa- 
 tion, shall be eligible for examination for license as chief engineer of 
 motor vessels of not over 150 gross tons. (Sec. 4426, R. S.) 
 
 First Assistant Engineer of Motor Vessels 
 
 An applicant for license as first assistant engineer of motor vessels 
 shall be eligible for examination after he has furnished satisfactory docu- 
 mentary evidence to the local inspectors that he has had the following 
 experience : 
 
 First: One year's service as second assistant engineer of motor 
 vessels; or, 
 
 Second: Two years' service as third assistant engineer of motor 
 vessels, or two years' combined service as second and third assistant en- 
 gineer of motor vessels; or, 
 
 Third: Three years' service as oiler in the engine department of 
 motor vesels for license as first assistant engineer of motor vessels of 
 1,000 gross tons and under; or, 
 
 Fourth: Any person holding a license as first assistant engineer of 
 steam vessels, after having served as oiler in the engine department of 
 motor vessels for not less than three months or employed for not less 
 than three months in the construction and installation of engines for 
 motor vessels. (Sec. 4426, R. S.) 
 
 Second Assistant Engineer of Motor Vessels 
 
 An applicant for license as second assistant engineer of motor vessels 
 shall be eligible for examination after he has furnished satisfactory 
 documentary evidence to the local inspectors that he has had the fol- 
 lowing experience: 
 
RULES 575 
 
 First: One year's service as third assistant engineer of motor ves- 
 sels; or, 
 
 Second: Thirty-six months' actual service in the engine department 
 of motor vess.els, 12 months of which shall have been as oiler; or, 
 
 Third: Three years' service as an apprentice to the machinist trade 
 and engaged in the construction or repair of marine, stationary, or loco- 
 motive engines, together with one year's -service in the engine depart- 
 ment of motor vessels as oiler; or, 
 
 Fourth: Any person holding a license as second engineer of steam 
 vessels, after having served as oiler in the engine department of motor 
 vessels for not less than three months or employed for not less than 
 three months in the construction and installation of engines for motor 
 vessels. (Sec. 4426, R. S.) 
 
 Third Assistant Engineer for Motor Vessels 
 
 An applicant tor license as third assistant engineer of motor vessels 
 shall be eligible for examination after he has furnished satisfactory doc- 
 umentary evidence to the local inspectors that he has 'had the following 
 
 experience: 
 
 
 
 First: Two years' service as oiler on motor vessels; or, 
 
 Second: A graduate from the engineering class of a nautical school 
 ship, the term of such engineering class to be based upon a period of 
 two years, after he has served at least six months as oiler on motor ves- 
 sels, or employed at least six months in the construction and installation 
 of engines for motor vessels; or, 
 
 Third: A journeyman machinist who has been engaged in the con- 
 struction or repair of marine motor engines for two years, together with 
 one year's service in the engine department of motor vessels as oiler; or, 
 
 Fourth: Two years' service as a locomotive or stationary engineer, 
 together with one year's service as oiler on motor vessels; or, 
 
 Fifth: A graduate in mechanical engineering from a duly recognized 
 school of technology, together with six months' service as oiler on motor 
 vessels; or, 
 
 Sixth: Any person who has completed the intensive training course 
 prescribed by the United States Navy and who has been commissioned 
 as ensign in the United States Naval Reserve Force may, upon the recom- 
 mendation of the engineer officer or officers under whom he has served, 
 be examined for license as third assistant engineer of motor vessels, af- 
 ter having actually served, after being commissioned, not less than 12 
 months as junior engineer officer on motor vessels; or, 
 
 Seventh: Any person holding a license as third assistant engineer 
 of steam vessels, after having served as oiler in the engine department 
 of motor vessels for not less than three months or employed for not less 
 than three months in the construction and installation of engines for 
 motor vessels. (Sec. 4426, R. S.) 
 
576 RULES 
 
 RULE V. LICENSED OFFICERS 
 ORIGINAL LICENSES 
 
 1. Before an original license is issued to any person to act as a 
 master, mate, pilot, or engineer he shall personally appear before some 
 local board or a supervising inspector for examination. Any person 
 who has attained the age of 19 years and has had the necessary ex- 
 perience shall be eligible for examination: Provided, That no person 
 shall receive a license as master, first mate, second mate, chief engineer, 
 first assistant engineer, or second assistant engineer before reaching 
 the age of 21 years. 
 
 Inspectors shall, before granting an original license to any person 
 to act as an officer of a vessel, require the applicant to make written 
 application upon the blank form furnished by the Department of Com- 
 merce, to be filed in the inspector's office. When practicable, applicants 
 for master's, mate's, pilot's, or engineer's license shall present to the 
 inspectors, to be filed with their application, discharges or letters from 
 the master or other officer under whom they have served, certifying to 
 the name of "the vessel and in what capacity the applicant has served 
 under him; also period of such service. Inspectors shall also, when prac- 
 ticable, require applicant for pilot's license to have the written indorse- 
 ment of the master and engineer of the vessel upon which he has served, 
 and of one licensed pilot, as to his qualifications. In the case of ap- 
 plicants for original engineer's license, they shall also, when practicable, 
 have the indorsement of the master and engineer of a vessel on which 
 they have served, together with one other licensed engineer. 
 
 The first license issued to any person by a United States inspector 
 shall be considered an original license, where the United States records 
 show no previous issue to such applicant. 
 
 No original license shall be issued to any naturalized citizen on less 
 experience in any grade than would have been required of a citizen of 
 the United States by birth. 
 
 On and after July 1, 1922, no candidate for original license as mas- 
 ter, mate, pilot, or engineer shall be examined unless he shall present 
 satisfactory evidence to the inspectors that he has completed a course 
 of instructions in the principles of first aid approved by the United States 
 Public Health Service for this particular purpose, and not until he pre- 
 sents a certificate from the United States Public Health Service, duly at- 
 tested, that he has passed a satisfactory oral examination based upon 
 the contents of the "Manual on Ship Sanitation and First Aid," or some 
 other manual arranged for the purpose, having the approval of the United 
 States Public Health Service. (Sec. 4405, R. S.) 
 
RULES 577 
 
 VISUAL EXAMINATIONS REQUIRED FOR ORIGINAL AND 
 RENEWED LICENSES 
 
 2. No original license as master, mate, or pilot of any vessel shall 
 r>e issued except upon the official certificate of a surgeon of the Public 
 Health Service respecting the vision of the person applying for such 
 original license. The word "original," as contemplated in this section, 
 shall mean the first license of any character issued to a master, mate, or 
 pilot, and shall not be held to mean, for instance that a license issued 
 to a master who was previously licensed as a mate or pilot shall be 
 considered an original master's license. 
 
 No license as master, mate, or pilot of any class of vessel shall be 
 renewed except upon the official certificate of a surgeon of the Public 
 Health Service that the color sense of the applicant renewal is normal. 
 
 When an applicant for renewal of license is situated so that it 
 would put him to great inconvenience or expense to appear before 
 a surgeon of the Public Health Service for examination, the certificate 
 of a reputable physician or oculist as to the color sense of the applicant 
 shall be accepted in lieu of the certificate of the sugeon of the Public 
 Health Service. 
 
 In case an applicant for original license or renewal of license is 
 pronounced color-blind he may, in the discretion of the inspectors, 
 be limited to act as master, mate, or pilot on a vessel navigating in day- 
 light only. 
 
 Nothing herein contained shall debar an applicant who has lost the 
 sight of one eye from securing a renewal of his license, providing that 
 his color sense is normal. (Sees. 4439, 4440, 4442, R. S.) 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 3. No original master's, mate's, pilot's, or engineer's license shall 
 be issued 'hereafter or grade increased except upon written examination 
 by a board of local inspectors or a supervising inspector, which writto'i 
 examination shall be placed on file in the office of the inspectors issu- 
 ing said license: Provided, however, That upon navigable waters where 
 the only pilots obtainable are illiterate Indians or other natives, the 
 fact that such ipersons can neither read nor write shall not be considered 
 a bar to such Indians or other natives receiving license as pilot of 
 steam vessels, providing they are otherwise qualified therefor. 
 
 Before granting or renewing a license inspectors shall satisfy them- 
 selves that the applicants can properly hear the bell and whistle signals. 
 
 When any person makes application for license it shall be the 
 duty of the local inspectors to give the applicant the required examin- 
 ation ass goon as practicable. (Sees. 4405, 4439, 4440, 4441, 4442, R. S.) 
 
578 RULES 
 
 REEXAMINATIONS AND REFUSAL OF LICENSES 
 
 4. Any applicant for license who has been duly examined and re- 
 fused may come before the same local board for reexamina<tion at any 
 time thereafter that may be fixed by such board, but he shall not be 
 examined by any other local board until one year has expired from the 
 date of the refusal without the sanction of the board that refused the 
 applicant. 
 
 If the inspectors shall decline to grant the applicant the license 
 asked for, they shall furnish him a statement, in writing, setting forth 
 the cause of their refusal to grant the same. (Sees. 4405, 4455, R. S ) 
 
 PREPARATION OF LICENSES. 
 
 5. All licenses hereafter issued to masters, mates, pilots, and engi- 
 neers shall be filled out on the face with pen and black ink instead 
 of typewritten. Inspectors are directed, when licenses are completed, 
 to draw a broad pen and black-ink mark through all unused spaces n 
 the body thereof, so as to prevent, as far as possible, illegal interpola- 
 tion after issue. 
 
 Every person receiving license or certificate of lost license shall 
 sign same upon back thereof immediately upon its receipt. Sec. 4405, 
 R. S.) 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF LOST LICENSE 
 
 6. In case of license of any class from any cause any board of 
 local inspectors upon receiving satisfactory evidence of such loss 
 and a record of the lost license from the board that issued same shall 
 issue a certificate to the owner thereof, which shall have the authority 
 of the lost license for the unexpired term, unless in the meantime the 
 holder thereof shall have the grade of his license raised, after due ex- 
 amination, in which case a license in due form for such grade may be 
 issued. In all cases where a certificate of lost license is issued by a 
 board other than the board that issued the lost license the certificate 
 of lost license shall state what board issued the lost license. (Sec. 4405, 
 R. S.) 
 
 PARTING WITH LICENSE 
 
 7. Any license granted to a master, mate, pilot, engineer, or oper- 
 ator shall be immediately revoked if, for any purpose, the holder there- 
 of voluntarily parts with its possession or places it beyond his personal 
 control by pledging or depositing it with another, (Sec. 4405, R. S.) 
 
RULES 579 
 
 RENEWAL OF LICENSE 
 
 8. Whenever an officer shall apply for a renewal of his license for 
 the same grade, the presentation of the old license, with satisfactory 
 certificate of visual examination, where required, and with oath of 
 office, shall be considered sufficient evidence of his title to renewal, 
 which old license and oath of office shall be retained by the inspectors 
 upon their official files as the evidence upon which the license was re- 
 newed: Provided, That it is presented within 12 months after the date 
 of its expiration, unless such title has been forfeited or facts shall have 
 come to the knowledge of the inspectors which would render a renewal 
 improper; nor shall any license be renewed more than 30 days in ad- 
 vance of the date of expiration thereof, unless there are extraordinary 
 circumstances that shall justify a nenewal beforehand, in which case 
 the reasons therefor must appear in detail upon the records of the 
 inspectors renewing the license. 
 
 Whenever an officer shall apply for renewal of his license for same 
 grade, after 12 months after the date of its expiration, he shall be re- 
 quired to pass an examination for the same grade of license. The re- 
 newed license in either case shall receive the next higher number for 
 number of issue of present grade and for number of issues of all grades. 
 
 Whenever a licensed officer makes application for a renewal of his 
 license, he shall appear in person before some board of local inspectors 
 or supervising inspector, except that upon renewal of such license for 
 the same grade, when the distance from any local board or supervising 
 inspector is such as to put the person holding the same to great incon- 
 venience and expense to appear in person, he may, upon taking oath of 
 office before any person authorized to administer oaths, and forwarding 
 the same, together with the license to be renewed and certificate of visual 
 examination where required, to the local board or supervising inspector 
 of the district in which he resides or is employed, have the same 
 renewed by the said inspectors, if no valid reason to the contrary be 
 known to them; and they shall attach such oath to the stub end of the 
 license, which is to be retained on file in their office: Provided, hoivever, 
 That any officer holding a license, and who is engaged in a service which 
 necessitates his continuous absence from the United States, may make 
 application in writing for renewal and transmit the same to the board 
 of local inspectors, with his certificate of citizenship, if naturalized, and a 
 statement of the applicant, verified before a consul or other officer of 
 the United States authorized to administer an oath, setting forth the rea- 
 sons for not appearing in person; and upon receiving the same the board 
 of local inspectors that originally issued such license shall renew the 
 same and shall notify the applicant of such renewal, and no license 
 as master, mate, or pilot of any class of vessel shall be renewed without 
 furnishing a satisfactory certificate of color-blindness. (Sees. 4405, 4438, 
 R. S. ) 
 
580 RULES 
 
 EXTENSION OF ROUTE AND RAISE OF GRADE OF LICENSES 
 
 9. Licensed officers serving under five years' license, entitled by 
 license and service to raise of grade, after passing examination, shall 
 have issued to them new licenses for the grade for which they are 
 qualified, the local inspectors to file in their office the old license when 
 surrendered, with the report of the circumstances of the case, but the 
 grade of no license shall be raised except as hereinafter provided, un- 
 less the applicant can show one year's actual experience in the capacity 
 for which he as been licensed. 
 
 Inspectors shall, before granting an extension of route or raise of 
 grade of license, require the applicant to make his written applica- 
 tion upon the blank form of application for extension of route or 
 raise of grade of license furnished by the Department. When prac- 
 ticable, applicants for extension of route or raise of grade of license 
 shall present to the inspectors, to be filed with the application, dis- 
 charges or letters from the master or other officer under whom they 
 have served, or other satisfactory documentary evidence, certifying 
 to the name of the vessel and in what capacity the applicant has served; 
 also period of such service. 
 
 If any board of local inspectors is satisfied by the documentary 
 evidence submitted that a pilot is entitled by experience and knowl- 
 edge to unlimited tonnage, it may remove any tonnage restrictions 
 which may have been placed upon his license by any other board of local 
 inspectors. 
 
 Except as hereinafter provided, practical service in the deck de- 
 partment of an ocean or coastwise vessel propelled by machinery 
 shall be accepted when offered in documentary evidence by any per- 
 son applying for an original license or raise of grade as equal to the 
 same amount of service in any ocean or coastwise steam passenger 
 vessel. 
 
 Service on United States lighthouse tenders propelled by machin- 
 ery shall be considered as equivalent experience for raise of grade as 
 that obtained on vessels subject to inspection by this Service. 
 
 Service on United States light vessels propelled by machinery shall 
 be considered as one-half experience for raise of grade as that ob- 
 tained on vessels subject to inspection by this Service. (Sec. 4405, R. S.) 
 
 EXAMINATION FOR RENEWAL OF MASTER'S OR PILOT'S LICENSE 
 
 10. It shall be the duty of all inspectors, before renewing an exist- 
 ing license to a master or pilot of steam vessels, for any waters, who 
 has not been employed as master or pilot on such waters during the 
 three years preceding the application for renewal to satisfy themselves, 
 by an examination in writing, or orally, to be taken down in writing 
 by the inspectors, that such officers are thoroughly familiar with the 
 pilot rules upon the waters for which they are licensed. (Sees. 4439, 
 4442 R. <S.) 
 
RULES 581 
 
 LAWS, GENERAL RULES AND REGULATIONS, AND PILOT RULES TO 
 BE FURNISHED LICENSED OFFICERS 
 
 11. Every master, mate, pilot, and engineer of vessels shall, when 
 receiving an original license, a renewed license, or a raise of grade of 
 license, be furnished by the inspectors with a copy of the Laws Gov- 
 erning the Steamboat-Inspection Service, and a copy of the General 
 Rules and Regulations Prescribed by the Board of Supervising In- 
 spectors, and every master and pilot of vessels and operator of motor 
 vessels shall, when receiving an original license, a renewed license, or a 
 raise of grade of license, be furnished by the inspectors with a pamphlet 
 copy of the rules and regulations governing pilots and of the statutes 
 upon which such rules are founded, applicable to the waters on which 
 their licenses are intended to be used, as stated in the body thereof. 
 (Sec. 4405, R. S.) 
 
 SUSPENSION AND REVOCATION OF LICENSES 
 
 12. When the license of any master, mate, pilot, or engineer is 
 revoked such license expires with such revocation, and any license 
 subsequently granted to such person shall be considered in the light 
 of an original license except as to number of issue. And upon the re- 
 vocation or suspension of the license of any such officer said license 
 shall be surrendered to the local inspectors or supervising inspector 
 ordering such suspension or revocation. 
 
 When the license of any master, mate, engineer, or pilot is sus- 
 pended the inspectors making such suspension shall determine the 
 term of its duration, except that such suspension shall not extend be- 
 yond the time for which the license was issued. 
 
 The suspension or revocation of a joint license shall debar the person 
 holding the same from the exercise of any of the privileges therein 
 granted, so long as such suspension or revocation shall remain in force. 
 (Sees. 4450, R. S.) 
 
 13. Whenever a supervising, local, or assistant inspector of steam 
 vessels, or any of them, shall find on board any vessel subject to the 
 provisions of Title LII of the Revised Statutes any licensed officer under 
 the influence of liquor or other stimulent to such an extent as to unfit 
 him for duty, or when any licensed officer shall use abusive or insulting 
 language to any inspector or assaults any such inspector while on official 
 duty, the local inspectors or the supervising inspector shall immediately 
 suspend or revoke the license of the officer so offending without further 
 trial or investigation: 
 
 The fact of a licensed officer being under the influence of liquor in 
 the presence of the inspector or inspectors to such an extent as to unfit 
 him for duty while on board a vessel shall be sufficient cause for such 
 suspension or revocation. (Sees. 4405, 4450, R. S. 
 
582 RULES 
 
 LICENSES TO OFFICERS OF VESSELS OWNED BY THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 14. Any person who has served at least one year as master, com- 
 mander, pilot, or engineer of any steam vessel owned and operated 
 by the United States in any service in which a license as master, mate, 
 pilot, or engineer was not required at the time of such service shall 
 be entitled to license as master, mate, pilot, or engineer, if the inspectors 
 upon written examination, as required for applicants for original license, 
 may find him qualified: Provided, That the experience of any such 
 applicant within three years of making application has been such as to 
 qualify him to serve in the capacity for which he makes application 
 to be licensed. (Sees. 4439, 4440, 4441, 4442, R. S.) 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM RULES OF AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING 
 SECTION 36, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 General Conditions for Classification 1-4 
 
 Material requiring test and inspection 5-12 
 
 General installation requirements 13-19 
 
 Engine construction 20-28 
 
 Engine auxiliaries 29-36 
 
 Engine piping 37-44 
 
 Air containers 45-51 
 
 Ship auxiliaries 52-54 
 
 Tests 55-56 
 
 Spare parts and equipment 57 
 
 Surveys 58-60 
 
 GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR CLASSIFICATION 
 
 (1) Request for Survey 
 
 The construction of main and auxiliary internal combustion engines 
 intended for Classification with the American Bureau of Shipping is to 
 be carried out in accordance with the following requirements, under the 
 supervision and to the satisfaction of the Surveyors. 
 
 Before proceeding with the manufacture of materials subject to test 
 and inspection (as listed in Paragraphs 5 to 12) builders are required to 
 notify the Bureau in writing that survey is desired. 
 
RULES 583 
 
 (2) Drawings and Data to be Submitted 
 
 Builders are to submit blue prints in triplicate of the following 
 drawings for the main engines: Bedplate or crankcase, engine cylinder 
 including jacket and liner, shafting, connecting and piston rods, sectional 
 assemblies of engine parts, and the air containers. For auxiliary oil. 
 engines, prints of the following drawings are to be submitted: General 
 outline, crankshaft, connecting rod and engine cylinder. 
 
 The Committee reserves the right to require the submittal of such 
 additional drawings as in its judgment are necessary to determine the 
 safety of the installation. Particulars of the engines and sufficient data 
 for calculating the stresses are to be supplied together with the drawings. 
 
 The Committee is prepared to examine and comment on additional 
 drawings upon the request of the Owners or Builders. 
 
 (3) Supplementary Requirements 
 
 The requirements for boilers, pumps, piping, electrical equipment, 
 steering gear, etc., as specified in other Sections of the Rules apply also to 
 vessels fitted with Internal Combustion Engines, unless otherwise speci- 
 fied in this Section. 
 
 (4) Classification 
 
 Upon satisfactory completion in accordance with the requirements 
 of the Rules, the machinery will be entered in the Record Book ^ 
 A. M. S. signifying the Highest Classification of the American Bureau 
 of Shipping for Machinery and Boilers, and Special Survey during con- 
 struction. 
 
 The Committee reserves the right to re-fuse class to any vessel 
 where the engines have not been built under the Survey of the Bureau. 
 
 MATERIAL REQUIRING TEST AND INSPECTION 
 
 (5) Modification for Test and Inspection 
 
 The material listed below is to be made in accordance with the 
 requirements of the Rules and to be tested and inspected by the Sur- 
 veyors to the Bureau. Copies of purchase orders for material requiring 
 test and inspection at the source, stating the requirements of the pur- 
 chaser, should be forwarded for the information of the Surveyors. 
 
 (6) Forgings and Castings 
 
 The material for the following is to be in accordance with Section 
 40, Para. 8 and Fara. 11. 
 
 For engines of all sizes: Crankshafts, thrustshafts, lineshafts, pro- 
 peller shafts, also generator shaft and motor shafts for indirect drive. 
 
 For engines with cylinders 12 inches in diameter and over: connect- 
 ing rods, piston rods and frame tension rods. 
 
 For engines with cylinders 18 inches in diameter and over: cross- 
 
584 RULES 
 
 
 
 head pin, shaft coupling bolts, connecting rod bolts and main bearing 
 bolts. 
 
 (7) Brass and Copper Tubes 
 
 Seamless copper and brass tubes for compressed air intercoolers 
 and after coolers and copper tubes for injection air and starting air 
 are to be in accordance with Section 40. Paras. 18 and 19 respectfully. 
 
 (8) Seamless Steel Pipes 
 
 Seamless steel pipes for high pressure fuel oil and for injection 
 air and starting air are to be in accordance with Section 40, Para. 14. 
 
 (9) Lap-Welded Steel Pipe 
 
 Lap-welded steel pipes for starting air and for starting air con- 
 tainers carrying pressures not exceeding 350 Ibs. are to be in accordance 
 with Section 40, Para. 13. 
 
 (10) Seamless Containers 
 
 Seamless steel containers for injection air and for starting air carry- 
 ing pressures exceeding 350 Ib3. are to be in accordance with Section 
 40, Para. 15. 
 
 (11) Riveted or Welded Containers 
 
 The material for riveted or welded containers is to be in accordance 
 with section 40, Para. 1 to 5. 
 
 (12) Test of Other Materials When Requested 
 
 The 'Surveyors to the Bureau will test other materials than those 
 listed above upon request from the builders or owners. 
 
 GENERAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS 
 
 (13) Arrangement of Machinery 
 
 Drawings showing the general arrangement of the machinery in the 
 vessel giving sizes and types of the various engine auxiliaries and ship 
 auxiliaries, also the sizes and purposes of the suction and discharge con- 
 nections of the pumps, are to be submitted for approval. 
 
 (14) Ventilation 
 
 All parts of the engine room shall be thoroughly ventilated by effi- 
 cient supply and exhaust vents. 
 
 (15) Floor and Gratings 
 
 It is recommended that the engine room platforms be made of open 
 grating. (Supports are to be of metal. 
 
 (16) Sheathing 
 
 Steel Hulls should have all wood work eliminated from the machin- 
 ery space. 
 
RULES 585 
 
 In wood and composite vessels, planking, frame timbers, bulkheads, 
 etc., in the machinery compartment are to be metal sheathed from the 
 floors six feet up, and all woodwork within four feet of unjacketeo cylin- 
 ders, exhaust pipes and silencers and within six feet directly over the 
 cylinders of all oil engines having flame starting torches, is to be metal 
 sheathed and lagged with asbestos mill board not less than one-half 
 inch thick. 
 
 (17) Oil Drain Well 
 
 The overflows of fuel oil, the drains from fuel and lubricating 
 tanks and from drip pans of oil pumps and oil tanks are to be led to a 
 closed cofferdam or drain tank fitted with air and sounding pipes and 
 having an independent suction to the fuel oil transfer pump. Special 
 care should be taken to prevent the drainage of fuel and lubricating 
 oil into the bilges. 
 
 Where a gutter bar is fitted to intercept the seepage from deep 
 oil tanks the well thus formed should be drained into the oil drain tank or 
 cofferdam by way of drain valves, or have a suction to the fuel transfer 
 pump. 
 
 (18) Fire Extinguishers 
 
 The means provided for extinguishing- fire must be thorough and 
 effective. Hose connections from the fire main with sufficient hose to 
 cover every part of the engine room, are to be located in accessible 
 positions within easy reach and always available for service. 
 
 Portable fire extinguishers of approved manufacture and of about 
 2% gal. capacity each should be stored as directed in the machinery space. 
 The number of extinguishers to be provided is as follows: 
 
 On steel vessels: 2 on vessels with propelling engines up to 300 
 B.H.P. and 1 additional extinguisher for each additional 300 B.H.P. 
 
 On wooden vessels: 3 extinguishers for propelling engines up to 200 
 B.H.P. and 1 additional extinguisher for each additional 200 B.H.P. 
 
 The maximum number of extinguishers required for single screw 
 vessels is 8 and for twin screw vessels 10. It is recommended that on 
 vessels with large power a permanent chemical fire extinguishing system 
 of approved type be installed with hose connections in approved lo- 
 cations in the engine room; in this case the number of portable extin- 
 guis'hers need not exceed three. 
 
 (19) Engine Room Electrical Apparatus 
 
 The electrical installation is to be in accordance with the require- 
 ments of Section 37. 
 
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 (20) General 
 
 The following requirements apply to all oil engines for propelling 
 and auxiliary purposes. All machinery parts subject to stresses are to be 
 
586 RULES 
 
 of sound material and the fits and clearances in accordance with the best 
 marine practice. The passages for cooling water and lubricating oil must 
 be carefully cleaned of sand and scale. The main bearings and the re- 
 ciprocating parts should be readily accessible and lifting eyes or gear 
 are to be fitted in way of main bearings and cylinder covers. The 
 nuts of main bearing and connecting rod bolts are to be secured by split 
 pins or other efficient means. 
 
 Hand or power turning gear shall be provided for all oil engines. 
 The engines for propelling the vessel are to be fitted with a governor 
 or other efficient means to prevent the speeding of the engines to more 
 than 15 per cent above the designed number of revolutions; propelling 
 engines over 300 B.H.P. should be direct reversible. Closed crankcase 
 engines should have suitable provisions to prevent the accumulation of gas 
 in the crankcase. 
 
 (21) Bedplate 
 
 The bedplate or crankcase is to be of rigid construction, oil tight, 
 and to be provided with a sufficient number of bolts to secure the 
 same to the ships structure. The structural arrangement for supporting 
 and securing the main engines are to be sumitted for approval. 
 
 (22) Cylinders 
 
 Cylinders, liners, cylinder covers, pistons and other castings subject 
 to high temperatures or pressures are to be made of the best grade of 
 cast iron or equally satisfactory material. Castings must be free from 
 defects affecting their strength. 
 
 'Cylinders using a compression pressure of over 400 Ibs. per sq. inch 
 are to fitted with relief valves set to not more than 1 1-3 times the maxi- 
 mum working pressure, and the valve discharge should lead beyond a 
 point of danger to life or vessel. 
 
 (23) Crankshafts 
 
 The minimum diameter of the cranshaft is to be determined by 
 the following formula: 
 
 D-'PL 
 
 d=Diameter of shaft in inches 
 
 D=Diameter of cylinder in inches 
 
 P=Initial Working Pressure in Ibs. per "sq. in. 
 
 L=Fore and aft length of crank over webs plus 1 (inch) 
 
 a=Factor from table below 
 
 S=iStroke of piston in inches 
 
 t=Thickness of crankweb in line with axis of shaft 
 
 w= Width of crankweb perpendicular to axis of shaft 
 
 f=7500 for Grade 1 Forgings, Section 40-11. 
 
 f=8000 for Grade 2 Forgings, Section 40-11. 
 
 f=6500 for cast steel made in accordance with Sec. 40, Par. 8 
 
RULES 
 
 587 
 
 The value of P given by the builders must be verified by the Sur- 
 veyor from indicator cards during the full power trial of the engine. 
 A set of full power indicator cards of the main engines is to accompany 
 the Classification Report. 
 
 Subsequent adjustments for the purpose of obtaining higher initial 
 pressures are not permitted without the special approval o the Com- 
 mittee. 
 
 VALUES OF "a" FOR AUR INJECTION DIESEL ENGINES 
 
 Number of Cylinders 
 
 4 cycle 2 cycle .7 .8 .9 
 
 1-2-4 1-2 1.17 1.19 1.22 
 
 3-6 3 1.19 1.22 1.25 
 
 8 4 1.20 1.24 1.27 
 
 12 6 1.22 1.25 1.29 
 
 16 8 1.25 1.29 1.33 
 
 S/L Ratios 
 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 
 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 
 1.38 
 1.40 
 1.42 
 
 1.28 
 1.30 
 1.32 
 1.36 
 
 1.32 
 1.33 
 1.36 
 1.40 
 
 1.35 
 1.37 
 1.39 
 1.44 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.50 
 
 VALUES OF "a" FOR EXPLOSIVE COMBUSTION ENGINES 
 
 Number of Cylinders 
 4 cycle 2 cycle 
 
 1-2-4 1-2 
 
 3-5-6 3 
 
 8 4 
 
 10-12 
 
 5-6 
 
 S/L Ratios 
 
 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 
 
 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 
 
 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.19 1.20 1.22 1.24 
 
 1.17 1.19 1.21 1.23 1.25 1.28 1.30 1.32 
 
 1.18 1.20 1.23 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.33 1.35 
 
 NOTE: The above constants are to be used in cases where a bearing ad- 
 joins each side of each crank and where single impulses occur at 
 equal intervals. In cases of departure from these conditions and for 
 designs not properly coming under the two groups above, data must 
 be submitted for the determination of shaft dimensions. 
 
 The dimensions of the crankwebs of solid shafts are to be such 
 that wt 2 is not less than .4ds and w 2 t not less than d 3 ; for built-up crank- 
 shafts t is to be not less than .66d and w not less than 1.9 diameters 
 of the hole in the webs. These porportioned dimensions are based on the 
 use of the same grade of material for both shaft and webs and should 
 be modified in accordance with the difference in the grade of the 
 materials. 
 
 The webs are to be shrunk or forced unto the shaft and are to 'be 
 fitted with dowels or keys of ample proportions to transmit at least 
 60% of the torque. It is strongly recommended that the radius of the 
 fillets in way of main bearings and the crank pins of solid shafts be 
 not less than .05d. The shearing stress in the coupling bolts should 
 not exceed the torsional stress in the shafting. 
 (24) Intermediate Shafts 
 
 The diameter of the intermediate shafts is to be determined by the 
 following formula: 
 
 D2PS 
 
588 RULES 
 
 VALUES OF "b" 
 
 Air Injection Diesel Engines Explosive Combustion Engines 
 
 Number of Cylinders Number of Cylinders 
 
 Four Cycle Two Cycle b Four Cycle Two Cycle b 
 
 1-2-3-4-6 1-2-3 .97 1-2-3-4 1-2 .87 
 
 8 4 1.00 5-6 3 .94 
 
 12 6 1.04 8 4 1.00 
 
 16 8 1.10 10-12 5-6 1.05 
 
 12 1.20 8 1.10 
 
 Shafting for Auxiliary or indirect drive engines may be 5% less 
 in diameter than required by the above formulae. 
 
 (25) Thrustshafts 
 
 To be 5 per cent larger in diameter than the intermediate shafts. 
 
 (26) Propeller Shafts 
 
 To be the diameter of the thrust shafts multiplied by the value of 
 C in the table for Propeller Shafts in Section 34, Paragraph 3. The ratio 
 in this case being that of the diameter of the Propeller to the diameter 
 of the thrust shaft. 
 
 (27) Trial 
 
 Before final acceptance all engines must demonstrate by a running 
 test their ability to perform satisfactorily the work for which they 
 are intended. 
 
 (28) Recommendation 
 
 In order to minimize operating troubles it is recommended that a 
 system of periodical inspection, cleaning, replacement and adjustments 
 of essential engine parts be followed by the ship's engineers. 
 
 ENGINE AUXILIARIES 
 
 (29) General 
 
 The following auxiliaries are intended to cover the minimum re- 
 quirements for seagoing vessels of average power and should be in- 
 creased for ships of large power but may be modified for River and 
 Harbor Boats and for sailing vessels fitted with auxiliary engines. 
 Propelling engines of a type and design not requiring certain auxiliaries 
 noted below are to be provided with the necessary auxiliaries or con- 
 nections in duplicate. (See also para. 13.) 
 
 Pressure gauges, thermometers and relief valves are to be fitted 
 where required. 
 
 (30) Fuel Oil Transfer Pumps 
 
 One attached pump for each engine and one independent pump, 
 or two independent pumps. 
 
RULES 589 
 
 (31) Compressors for Injection Air 
 
 SINGLE SCREW: One attached or one independent compressor 
 of maximum capacity, and one idependent compressor of 66% capacity. 
 
 TWIN SCREW: (a) One attached or one independent compressor per 
 engine of maximum capacity, and one independent compressor of 66% 
 capacity for one engine. 
 
 (b) One independent compressor of maximum capacity for both 
 engines and one compressor of 66% capacity for both engines. 
 
 (c) One attached compressor for each engine, capable and arranged 
 to supply both engines for maximum requirements and one starting 
 air compressor of adequate size. 
 
 NOTE: The capacities noted above refer to the maximum require- 
 ments at any speed. 
 
 (32) Emergency Air Compressors 
 
 One power operated compressor not requiring air for starting; 
 capacity depending on size of propelling units. 
 
 (33) Scavenging Pumps (for two cycle engines) 
 
 One or more attached pumps for each engine or one independent 
 pump. Crankpit scavenging will be approved for explosive combustion 
 engines. 
 
 (34) Main Lubricating Oil Pumps 
 
 One attached pump for each engine and one independent pump, or 
 two independent pumps; each of a capacity for maximum requirements. 
 Not required in cases of general multi-feed lubrication. 
 
 (35) Water Cooling Pumps 
 
 One attached pump for each engine and one independent pump, or two 
 independent pumps; each of a capacity for maximum requirements. 
 
 (36) Note 
 
 Independent pumps denote pumps driven independently of the 
 propelling engines. 
 
 Attached pumps denote pumps driven by the propelling engines. 
 
 ENGINE PIPING 
 
 (37) Fuel Oil Transfer System 
 
 The piping arrangements for the carriage of fuel oil are to be in 
 accordance with the requirements of Section 31. 
 
 The service tanks are to be located sufficiently high to permit 
 gravity flow to the service pump suctions and shall be fitted with air 
 vents leading to the atmosphere, drain cocks and a well protected oil 
 
590 RULES 
 
 gauge with valves on both ends. Tanks are to be placed in drip pans 
 provided with a drain to the oil drain well. 
 
 The pumps used for ithe transfer of oil are not to be used for 
 bilge and ballast purposes; the suction pipe is to be fitted with an effi- 
 cient strainer. 
 
 (38) Fuel Oil Injection System 
 
 The suction to the fuel oil injection pumps is to be fitted with a 
 Duplex Strainer and cut-out valves are to be located at the service tanks 
 operated from the engine room floor. The piping in the discharge 
 line should be of seamless drawn steel and the fittings of extra heavy 
 steel; means should be provided to discontinue the fuel supply to each 
 individual cylinder. The joints in the pipe lines should be metal to metal 
 or have metal gaskets; ample provision is to be made for expansion. 
 
 Individual injection pumps for each cylinder are recommended. 
 
 Overflows and drip pans are to have drain pipes leading to the 
 oil drain well. 
 
 (39) Starting Arrangement 
 
 The efficiency and the capacity of the starting arrangement as 
 required in Para. 49 is to be demonstrated to the Surveyor in attendance. 
 
 On vessels fitted with Surface Ignition Engines all reasonable safe- 
 guards must be provided to prevent fires. (See also Par. 16.) 
 
 (40) Scavenging System 
 
 The air supply is to be adequate for all speeds and the flow of the 
 air should be regulated to insure uniform supply. The suction and dis- 
 charge valves of scavenging pumps shall be readily accessible for ex- 
 amination and repair. Provision should be made to take care of ex- 
 cessive pressure by means of relief valves or breaking plates. 
 
 (41) Injection Air System 
 
 The discharge lines of each stage of the air compressors are to 
 be fitted with air coolers and relief valves of ample proportions. The 
 temperature of the air discharge from each cooler should not exceed 
 150. 
 
 A stop valve is to be fitted in the branch line to each cylinder so 
 located that the engine may be operated with one or more cylinders 
 cut off. The pipe lines may be made either of seamless steel or seamless 
 copper and should be fitted with drains. 
 
 The installation of oil separators is strongly recommended. 
 
 (42) Lubricating Oil System 
 
 The lubrication of main bearings, crankpins, crosshead or wrist 
 pins should be by means of pump pressure or by gravity. The pistons 
 of the engines, compressors and scavenging pumps should be lubricated 
 by individual pumps, adjustable to the particular requirements. 
 
RULES 591 
 
 Extreme care must be taken to prevent the contamination of the 
 oil supply by sea water, escaping oil gases or carbon. The oil drawn from 
 the crank pit or sump must run through a duplex strainer, readily 
 accessible for cleaning. The installation of oil filters or separators is 
 recommended. 
 
 The tanks for the storage of lubricating oil must not form part of 
 the ship's structure. 
 
 The flashpoint of the lubricating oil should in no case be below 
 350F. In order to insure the continued safe operation of the engines, 
 only the best quality of lubricants should be used. 
 
 (43) Cooling Water System 
 
 The cooling water pumps are to have at least one high and one 
 low sea suction; the suction line is to be fitted with duplex strainers. 
 For any emergency connection from the fire main the cooling water 
 should be led through the duplex strainer. Means should be provided 
 to ascertain the temperature of the return from each cylinder and the 
 proper circulation through all water jackets. 
 
 Drain cocks must be provided at the lowest point of all jackets 
 and the discharge must be led to the bilge. A relief valve should be fitted 
 in the main line to the jackets to prevent excessive pressure due to leaks. 
 
 (44) Exhaust Piping 
 
 The exhaust pipes should be water jacketed or efficiently insulated. 
 Where a number of cylinders are connected to one exhaust pipe, al- 
 lowance should be made for expansion. Exhaust pipes of several engines 
 should not be connected but run separately overboard, unless such 
 connection can be made as will prevent the return of gases to an idle 
 engine. Boiler uptakes and the engine exhaust lines should not be 
 connected. 
 
 AIR CONTAINERS 
 
 (45) Thickness of Material 
 
 The thickness in inches of the material in wrought steel containers 
 is to be determined by the following formulae: 
 
 2PD 
 
 (46) Shell t= 
 
 SB 
 
 9 For seamless tubes E=l 
 For lap-welded tubes E=.75 
 p-d 
 
 For riveted plates E= 
 
 P 
 .85na s 
 
 For the rivets E= x 
 
 pt S 
 
592 RULES 
 
 When rivets are in double shear, the value of E for the rivets is 
 to be multiplied by 1.875. The lower efficiency of the two formulae for 
 riveted points is .to be used in the formula for the thickness of the shell. 
 
 The efficiency of the circumferential end lap joints is not to be less 
 than 60% of the efficiency of the longitudinal point. 
 
 (47) Convex and Concave Heads 
 
 2.5PR 
 
 For convex heads t= 
 
 For concave heads, and for convex heads fitted with a manhole, 
 .the thickness found by the above formula is to be multiplied by 1.2. The 
 thickness of the heads shall in no case be less than the thickness of the 
 shell. 
 
 J D2P 
 
 \ 
 
 (48) Flat Heads t= .1 
 
 S 
 
 Unless properly reinforced by ribs, cast steel heads shall be 20 
 per cent thicker than required by the above formula. 
 
 t=Thickness in inches 
 
 P=Working Pressure in Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 D=Greatest inside diameter of shell in inches 
 
 s=Tensile Strength of rivet bar 
 
 iS='Min. tensile strength of plate in Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 E=Efficiency of joint 
 
 p=pitch of rivets in inches 
 
 d=Diameter of rivet holes in inches 
 
 n Number of rivets per pitch 
 
 a=Area of rivet hole 
 
 R=Major radius of dished head, maximum 1.5D 
 
 Unless otherwise specified on the approved plan S equals the mini- 
 mum tensile strength allowed by the Rules, Section 40, Para. 3. 
 
 (49) Volume of Starting Air 
 
 It is recommended that each vessel be provided with not less than 
 two containers. The container capacity for directly reversing engines 
 is to be sufficient for at least twelve consecutive starts and for non- 
 reversing engines for 6 consecutive starts for each engine without 
 recharging. The Surveyor is to verify this capacity by a trial of the 
 engine. 
 
RULES 593 
 
 Each container or group of containers is to be fitted with a cut-out 
 and a relief valve or its equivalent. 
 
 (50) Containers for Spray Air 
 
 Engines using spray air are to be provided with at least two con- 
 tainers per vessel, so arranged that each may be used independently of 
 the other. 
 
 It is strongly recommended that containers be fitted with copper 
 breaking plates. Safety valves shall be fitted between containers and 
 compressor delivery and in the absence of the container breaking plates, 
 also to the container. 
 
 (51) General Requirements 
 
 The number of connections on all containers should be reduced to 
 a minimum. The containers are to be so installed as to make the drain 
 connections effective under extreme conditions of trim. Connections 
 should be provided for cleaning tanks and pipe lines. For material re- 
 quirements see Pars. 9 to 11. 
 
 SHIP AUXILIARIES 
 
 (52) Donkey Boilers 
 
 Where a donkey boiler is located in the engine room the same is to 
 be fitted with guard plates and drip pans in the way of the furnaces. 
 Boilers installed for the purpose of providing power for ship and engine 
 auxiliaries are to have at 'least two means of feeding and two oil fuel 
 service pumps. The Rules in Section 32 apply for the construction of 
 Donkey Boilers. 
 
 (53) Bilge and General Service Pumps 
 
 Bilge and General Service Pumps are to be provided as specified 
 for steam vessels in Section 31. At least two pumps, one of which must be 
 independent of the main engine shall have discharge connections to the 
 fire main. 
 
 (54) Electric Generating Sets 
 
 At least two generators for lighting the vessel and for operating the 
 electric auxiliaries are to be flitted, each of a capacity for full require- 
 ments at sea. Where three units are provided, each should be of a 
 capacity of at least 50 per cent of the full requirements at sea. Generators 
 should be placed in a location where damage by oil. or water is remote 
 and be fitted with guard plates a*nd handrail. 
 
 TESTS 
 
 (55) Hydrostatic Tests 
 
 The following hydrostatic tests are to be witnessed and recorded by 
 the Surveyor. Castings, fittings and pipes showing defects during or 
 subsequent to these tests are to be rejected. All relief and safety valves 
 are to be tested and set in the presence of the Surveyor. 
 
594 RULES 
 
 *Engine Cylinders or liners to a 1 2/3 times the working- pressure 
 
 distance of 20 per cent of the work- 
 ing stroke. 
 
 100 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 Engine Cylinder covers in water 
 jacket. 
 
 All other water jackets. 5 ^ P6r Sq " in " 
 
 Cylinders of air compressors and ' 2/3 UmeS the W rking Pressure, 
 
 their coolers and pipes. 
 
 Scavenging pump cylinder and lf> lbs> per SQ< in> 
 
 piping. 
 
 Lubricating oil system. 50 lbs - P er S( *- in - 
 
 Injection air bottles. l 2/3 times the working pressure. 
 
 Starting air containers. l 2 /3 times the working pressure. 
 
 Fuel oil transfer system. 50 lbs - P er S( l- in - 
 
 Steam lines. 2 times working pressure. 
 
 Feed lines. .2% times the working pressure. 
 
 Sump tank. 15 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 Fuel oil service tanks. 15 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 *Where Cylinders or liners are so designed that the parts subject to in- 
 ternal pressure may be accurately gauged for thickness of material and 
 such thickness is not less than one twelfth of the diameter of the cylinder, 
 the hydrostatic test may be dispensed with. 
 
 (56) 
 
 The piping systems for starting air, fuel -injection and injection air 
 are to be tight under their relief valve pressure. 
 
 SPARE PARTS AND EQUIPMENT 
 
 (57) For Single and Twin Screw Installations 
 
 *1 Main engine cylinder head complete with valves, cages, springs, 
 etc. 
 
 1 Exhaust valve per engine complete with cage, spring, etc. 
 
 1 Intake Air Valve complete with cage, spring, etc. 
 
 1 Fuel Valve complete with cage, spring, etc. 
 
 25% of fuel valve needles or the equivalent. 
 
 1 Starting air valve complete with cage, spring, etc. 
 
 1 Cylinder relief valve complete with cage, spring, etc. 
 
 1 Set of piston rings for one piston. 
 
 1 Fuel pump complete or the working parts for one cylinder. 
 
 1 Piston lubricating pump complete or the working parts for one 
 cylinder. 
 
RULES 595 
 
 1 Complete set of air compressor piston rings for each size piston. 
 
 10% of the valves for all air compressors at least one of each size 
 and type, complete with cages and seats. 
 
 25% of the plungers for multifeed lubricators. 
 
 2 connecting rod bolts and nuts top end. 
 
 2 connecting rod bolts and nuts bottom end. 
 
 2 Main bearing bolts and nuts of each size. 
 
 i/i Set of coupling bolts for one coupling of each size. 
 
 1 iSpring of each size and type fitted. 
 
 25% of each size of gaskets and packing, at least one of each kind. 
 
 *5% of engine and compressor cylinder head studs. 
 
 One set of the above of each size and design, for main and auxiliary 
 engines are to be supplied. 
 
 At least one valve of each type and size for oil transfer pumps, 
 lubricating oil pumps, cooling water pumps and scavenging pumps. 
 
 *A sufficient length of each size of pipe used for injection air, 
 starting air and injection oil lines to replace the longest pipe. 
 *Assorted bolts, nuts, pipe flanges and pipe couplings. 
 
 A set of templets and gauges for adjusting gear and aligning main 
 bearings. 
 
 *A sufficient amount of bearing metal to rebabbitt the largest bearing. 
 
 A book of instructions for operating, maintaining and overhauling 
 the main and auxiliary engines. 
 
 Items marked * not required for river and harbor boats. 
 
 SURVEYS 
 (58) Annual Survey 
 
 Machinery installations with Internal Combustion engines are sub- 
 ject to annual Survey, at which a general examination is to be made of the 
 main and auxiliary engines. The Surveyors should be given the oppor- 
 tunity to examine such machinery parts as may be opened for inspec- 
 tion or repair. 
 
 The main engine crank shaft is to be checked for alignment. 
 
 The main and auxiliary oil engines shall be given a running test 
 in the presence of the Surveyor and the maximum working pressure 
 must not exceed the pressure for which the engines are approved. 
 
 At least one cylinder of each engine, and all air compressor cylinders 
 are to be opened up and the interior of the cylinder, the piston and piston 
 rings are to be examined; the air, fuel and safety valves are to be in- 
 
596 RULES 
 
 spected. If all the above are found satisfactory, the cylinder thus ex- 
 amined may be taken as representing the general condition of the 
 engine; if any part is not satisfactory, similar parts of the other cylinders 
 are subject to examination at the discretion of the Surveyor. 
 
 Where the engineers of the vessel are required to make systematic 
 periodical examinations and replacements of the essential machinery 
 parts, as recommended in Paragraph 28 and the report of such examina- 
 tions and replacements is entered in the engineers log, the inspection of 
 the engine parts enumerated above may be omitted at the discretion of 
 the Surveyor. 
 
 One section each of the injection air and starting air lines are to be re- 
 moved and if found oily, the air lines, air containers and air coolers, are 
 to be cleaned. 
 
 The engine room bilges are to be inspected and the causes of any 
 oil leakage into the same to be remedied. 
 
 The fire extinguishing apparatus shall be recharged when required, 
 to the satisfaction of the Surveyor. 
 
 The spares must be checked in accordance with the requirements 
 of Para. 57. 
 
 (59) Special Periodical Surveys 
 
 The requirements for Special Surveys as specified in Section 45, 
 apply also to main and auxiliary internal combustion engines as far as 
 applicable. 
 
 The various engine piping systems, the air containers, coolers, oil 
 tanks and the engine auxiliaries are to be thoroughly cleaned and retested 
 in accordance with Paragraph 55. The cylinders of all oil engines, air 
 compressors and scavenging pumps shall be opened up for examination. 
 
 The crank shaft shall be lifted and the lower bearing shells be ex- 
 amined and rebabbitted where required. Other parts of the machinery 
 as may be considered necessary by the Surveyor are to be opened for 
 examinations. The spares must be checked in accordance with the re- 
 quirements of Para. 57. 
 
 (60) Survey of Machinery Not Built Under American Bureau Survey 
 The machinery is to be surveyed, inspected and tested as required 
 
 under Special Periodical Survey. The general workmanship, the con- 
 dition of the machinery and where possible the physical characteristics 
 of the shafting shall be reported by the Surveyor. 
 
 The allowable working pressure will be determined upon the sub- 
 mission of the required engine data and sizes of shafting. 
 
 The requirements with regard to fi're protection must be complied 
 with in every case. The whole machinery installation shall be brought 
 up to the requirements ofi the Rules or the equivalent to the satisfaction 
 of the Surveyor. 
 
RULES 597 
 
 LLOYD'S RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND SURVEY OF 
 DIESEL ENGINES AND THEIR AUXILIARIES 
 
 SECTION 1. In vessels propelled by Diesel Oil Engines, the Rules 
 as regards machinery will be the same as those relating to steam en- 
 gines, so far as regards the testing of material used in their construc- 
 tion and the fitting of sea connections, discharge pipes, shafting, stern 
 tubes, and propellers. 
 
 Construction 
 
 SECTION 2. In vessels built under Special Survey and fitted with 
 Diesel Engines, the engines must also be constructed under Special Sur- 
 vey. 
 
 2. In cases of Diesel Engines being built under Special Survey, the 
 distinguishing mark ^ will be noted in Red, thus: ggLMC or 
 
 3. In order to facilitate inspection, the plans of the machinery are 
 to be examined by the Surveyors, and the dimensions of the shafts are 
 to be submitted for approval. 
 
 4. The Surveyors are to examine the materials and workmanship 
 from the commencement of the work until the final test of the machin- 
 ery under full working conditions; any defects are to be pointed out as 
 early as possible. 
 
 5. Any novelty in the construction of the machinery is to be re- 
 ported to the Committee and submitted for approval. 
 
 6. The auxiliary engines used for air compressing, working dynamos 
 and ballast, or other, pumps, are also to be surveyed during construction. 
 
 7. In cases where the designed maximum pressure in the cylinders 
 does not exceed 500 Ibs. per square inch, the diameters of the crank 
 shaft of the main engines are not to be less than those given by the 
 following formula: 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 crank shaft j ^ 2 X (AS + BL) 
 
 where D = diameter of cylinder, 
 S length of stroke, 
 
 L = span of bearings adjacent to crank, measured from inner 
 edge to inner edge. 
 
 The value of (AS + BL) are as given in the following table: 
 
598 RULES 
 
 Table I 
 
 4-Cycle Single 2-Cyle Single Values of the 
 
 Acting Engine Acting Engine Co-efficients 
 
 4 or 6 cyls. 2 or 3 cyls. .0898 + .056 L 
 
 8 cyls. 4 cyls. .0998 + .054 L 
 
 10 or 12 cyls. 5 or 6 cyls. .1118 + .052 L 
 
 16 cyls. 8 eyls. .1318 + .050 L 
 
 For, auxiliary engines of the Diesel Type the diameters of the crank- 
 shafts may be five per cent, less than given by the foregoing formula. 
 
 8. In solid forged shafts the breadth of the webs should be not less 
 than 1.33 times and the thickness not less than 0.56 times the diameter 
 of the shaft as found above, or, if these proportions are departed from, 
 the webs must be of equivalent strength. 
 
 9. The diameter of the intermediate shaft must not be less than 
 that given by theformula: 
 
 Diameter of inter- 
 
 jjiameier 01 inter- i .si 
 
 mediate shaft \ ~ C -v/ 2 X 8 
 
 where D = the diameter of cylinder, 
 S = the stroke of piston, 
 
 C is a co-efficient found from the following table by interpo- 
 lation from the values found for A. 
 
 Where the stroke is not less than 1.2 times, nor more than 1.6 times 
 the diameter of the cylinder, (.735 D + .273 8) 
 
 may be taken instead of 
 
 Table II 
 
 2-Cy.le Single 
 
 Values of 
 
 the Co-efficient C 
 
 where 
 
 Acting Engines 
 
 A = .0025 
 
 A = .0050 
 
 A = .0100 
 
 2 Cyls. 
 
 .305 
 
 .317 
 
 *' .336 
 
 3 Cyls. 
 
 .346 
 
 .363 
 
 .385 
 
 4 Cyls. 
 
 .364 
 
 .380 
 
 .396 
 
 5 Cyls. 
 
 .380 
 
 .391 
 
 .404 
 
 6 Cyls. 
 
 ,398 
 
 .403 
 
 .412 
 
RULES 599 
 
 4-Cycle Single 
 
 Values 
 
 of the Co-efficient 
 
 C where 
 
 Acting Engines 
 
 A = .0025 
 
 A = .0050 
 
 A .0100 
 
 4 Cyls. 
 
 .300 
 
 .312 
 
 .327 
 
 6 Cyls. 
 
 .338 
 
 .355 
 
 .370 
 
 8 Cyls. 
 
 .357 
 
 .366 
 
 .376 
 
 10 Cyls. 
 
 .376 
 
 .382 
 
 .389 
 
 12 Cyls. 
 
 .394 
 
 .398 
 
 .404 
 
 In using the above table the appropriate value of A is found from 
 
 A X W X d 2 X R 2 = D 2 X S 
 where D = diameter of cylinder in inches, 
 S = stroke of piston in inches, 
 d = diameter of flywheel in feet, 
 R = revolutions of engines per minute, 
 W = total weight of flywheel in tons. 
 
 10. The diameter of the flywheel shaft must be at least equal to that 
 of the crank shaft. 
 
 11. Where ordinary deep collars are used the diameter of the thrust 
 shaft measured under the collars must be at least 21/20ths that of the 
 intermediate shaft. The diameter may be tapered off at each end to the 
 same size as that of the intermediate shaft. 
 
 12. The diameter of the screw shaft must be not less than the di- 
 ameter of the intermediate shaft (found as above) multiplied by 
 
 .03 P 
 + - - but in no case must it be less than 1..07T, 
 
 - ^ 
 
 where P = the diameter of the propeller in inches, 
 
 T the diameter of intermediate shaft in inches. 
 
 The size of the screw shaft is intended to apply to shafts fitted with 
 continuous liners the whole length of the stern tube, as provided for in 
 Section 11, paragraph 3, of the Rules for Engines and Boilers for Steam 
 Vessels. If no liners are used, or if two separate liners are used, the 
 diameter of the screw shaft should be 21/20ths that given above. 
 
 The diameter of the screw shaft is to be tapered off at the forward 
 end to the size of the thrust shaft. 
 
 13. If the designed maximum pressure in the cylinders exceeds 500 
 Ibs. per square inch, the diameters of the shafting throughout must be 
 
 increased in the proportion of 
 
 3 I Maxim, press, in Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 600 
 
600 RULES 
 
 14. Where the cylinder liners are made of hard close grained cast 
 iron of plain cylindrical form, accurately turned on the outside as well 
 as bored on the inside so that their soundness can be ascertained by in- 
 spection, and their thickness at the upper part is not less than l/15th of 
 the diameter of the cylinder, they need not be hydraulically tested by in- 
 ternal pressure. If, however, they are made of complicated form, the 
 question of testing must be submitted. 
 
 15. The water jackets of the cylinders, and the water passages of 
 the cylinder covers and pistons, must be tested by hydraulic pressure to 
 30 Ibs. per square inch, and must be perfectly tight at that pressure. 
 
 16. The exhaust pipes and silencers must be water-cooled or lagged 
 by non-conducting material, where risk of damage by heat is likely to 
 occur. 
 
 17. The cylinders are to be fitted with safety valves loaded to not 
 more than 40 per cent, above the designed maximum pressure in the 
 cylinders and discharging where no damage can occur. 
 
 18. The air compressors and their coolers are to be so made as to 
 be easy of access for overhaul and adjustment. 
 
 19. Where the fuel is injected into the cylinders by air pressure, 
 the following conditions are to observed: 
 
 In single screw vessels, an auxiliary air compressor is to be provided 
 of sufficient power to enable the main engines to be kept continuously 
 at work when the main compressor is out of action. 
 
 If the manoeuvering gear is arranged so that the engines can be kept 
 continuously at work with some of the cylinders out of action, the aux- 
 iliary compressor need only be of sufficient power to enable the engines 
 to be kept at work under these conditions. 
 
 In twin screw vessels in which two sets of compressors are fitted, 
 the auxiliary compressor must be of such size as to enable it to take the 
 place of either of the main compressors. If in such engines each main 
 compressor is sufficiently large to supply both engines, a smaller aux- 
 iliary compressor will be sufficient. 
 
 20. A small auxiliary compressor, worked by a steam engine, or by 
 an oil engine not requiring compressed air, is to be fitted for first charg- 
 ing the air receivers. 
 
 21. At least one high pressure air receiver is to be arranged with 
 connections to enable it to be used for fuel injection, in case the working 
 receiver of either main engine is out of use from any cause. 
 
 22. The circulating pump sea suction is to be provided with an ef- 
 ficient strainer which can be cleared inside the vessel. 
 
 23. In all vessels fitted with engines in which the lubricating oil 
 Is circulated under pressure a spare oil pump is to be supplied with all 
 connections ready for immediate use, and two independent means are 
 to be arranged for circulating water through the oil cooler. 
 
RULES 601 
 
 AIR RECEIVERS AND PIPES 
 
 SECTION 3. 1. Compressed air receivers for starting air are to be 
 supplied of sufficient capacity to permit of twelve consecutive startings 
 of the engines without replenishment. 
 
 2. Cylindrical receivers for containing air under high pressure, used 
 either for starting or for the injection of fuel in oil engines, may be 
 made either of seamless steel or of welded, or riveted, steel plates. 
 
 3 Quality of Metal. If made of welded, or riveted, steel plates, the 
 ordinary rules regarding steel material for boilers apply, which provide 
 that where welding is employed, either in the longitudinal seams or at 
 the ends, the material must have a tensile strength not exceeding 30 
 tons per square inch (Section 33, par. 7, Rules for Engines and Boilers). 
 In these cases the welding must be lap welding; neither oxy-acetylene 
 nor electric welding will be permitted. 
 
 4. In the case of seamless receivers, the rules for material will be 
 the same as for boiler shells, but the permissible extension may be 2 
 per cent less than that required with boiler plates. 
 
 5. Tensile and Bend Tests are to be made from the material of each 
 receiver. When they are welded or riveted, the tests may be made, and 
 the thicknesses verified before the plates are bent into cylindrical form. 
 In the cases of seamless receivers, the thicknesses must be verified by 
 the Surveyor before the ends are closed in, and at this time the Sur- 
 veyor shall select and mark the test pieces required from either of the 
 open ends of the tube. The test pieces are to be annealed before test, 
 so as to properly represent the finished material. 
 
 6. The permissible working pressure for welded or seamless re- 
 ceivers is to be determined by the following formula: 
 
 Maximum working pressure in Ibs. per square inch 
 
 C X S X (T 2) 
 
 D 
 
 for thicknesses of 5/8 in. and above, 
 
 C X S X (T 1) 
 
 D 
 
 for thicknesses below 5/8 in., 
 
 where S Minimum tensile strength of the steel material used, in 
 T = Thickness of the material, in sixteenths of an inch. 
 D = Internal diameter of cylinder, in inches, 
 C = Co-efficient as per following table: 
 Co-efficient 
 
 77 for seamless receivers of thickness of 5/8 in. ang 
 above, 
 
602 RULES 
 
 69 for seamless receivers of thickness below 5/8 in. 
 54 for welded receivers of thickness of 5/8 in. and 
 above. 
 
 48 for welded receivers of thickness below 5/8 in. 
 
 7. for flat ends welded into the cylindrical shells, the thickness 
 must not be less than 
 
 T-==- - X ^ P 
 
 17 
 
 where T = thickness, in sixteenths of an inch, 
 D = internal diameter, in inches, 
 p = working pressure, in Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 8. The permissible working pressure for receivers made of riveted 
 steel plates is to be determined by the rules regulating the working 
 pressure of boilers. 
 
 9. Each welded or seamless receiver shall be carefully annealed 
 after manufacture, and before 'the hydraulic test. 
 
 10. Each welded or seamless receiver shall be subjected to a hy- 
 draulic test of twice the working pressure, which it shall withstand with- 
 out permanent set. 
 
 11. Each receiver made of riveted steel plates for pressures up to 
 300 Ibs. per square inch is to be tested by hydraulic pressure iy 2 times the 
 working pressure, plus 50 Ibs. per square inch. Where higher working 
 pressures are used, the test pressure need not be more than 200 Ibs. 'per 
 square inch above the working pressure. 
 
 12. All receivers above six inches internal diameter must be so 
 made that the internal surfaces may be examined, and, wherever practic- 
 able, the openings for this purpose should be sufficiently large for ac- 
 cess. Means must be provided for cleaning the inner surfaces by steam, 
 or otherwise. 
 
 13. Each receiver which can be isolated must have a safety valve 
 fitted, adjusted to the maximum working pressure. If, however, ,the 
 air compressor is fitted with a safety valve so arranged and adjusted 
 that no greater pressure than that permitted can be admitted to the re- 
 ceivers, they need not be fitted with safety valves. 
 
 14. Eacii receiver must be fitted with a drain arrangement at its 
 lowest part, permitting oil and condensed water to be blown out. 
 
 15. Oil or air pipes subjected to high pressure are to comply with 
 the Rules for steam pipes, Section 13, Clauses 7 and 16 (Rules for En- 
 gines and Boilers of Steam Vessels). 
 
 Pipes which are subjected to a working pressure up to 1,000 Ibs. per 
 square inch must be tested hydraulically to at least twice the working 
 
RULES 603 
 
 pressure to which they will be subjected, and those subjected to a higher 
 working pressure than 1,000 Ibs. per square inch to an hydraulic test of 
 at least 1,000 Ibs. per square inch above their working pressure. 
 
 PUMPING ARRANGEMENTS 
 
 SECTION 4. The pumping arrangements are to be the same as 
 would be required for steam vessels of similar size and power, with the 
 exception that no bilge suction need be fitted to the main engine cir- 
 culating pump. In the cases of vessels fitted with water ballast, the 
 water ballast pump must have, in addition, one direct suction from the 
 engine room bilges. 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 SECTION 5. 1. All oil fuel pipes, tanks and their fittings must com- 
 ply with the requirements of Section 49 (Rules for Steel Ships). 
 
 2. Special attention must be given to the ventilation of the engine 
 room. 
 
 3. If the auxiliaries are worked by electricity, the cables in con- 
 nection with them must be in accordance with the rules for electric 
 fittings. 
 
 SPARE GEAR 
 
 SECTION 6. The articles mentioned in the following list will be 
 required to be carried, viz.: 
 
 1 cylinder cover complete for the main engines, with all valves, valve 
 seats, springs, etc., fitted to it. 
 
 In addition, one complete set of valves, valve seats, springs, etc., 
 for one cylinder of the main and of the auxiliary Diesel engines, 
 and fuel needle valves for half the number of cylinders of each 
 engine. 
 
 1 piston complete, with all piston rings, studs, and nuts for the main 
 engines. 
 
 In addition, one set of piston rings for one piston of the main and 
 of the auxiliary Diesel engines. 
 
 1 complete set of main skew wheels for one main engine. 
 
 2 connecting rod, or piston rod, top-end bolts and nuts, both for the 
 
 main and for the auxiliary Diesel engines. 
 
 2 connecting rod bottom end bolts and nuts, both for the main and 
 for the auxiliary Diesel engines. 
 
 2 main bearing bolts and nuts, both for the main and for the aux- 
 iliary Diesel engines. 
 
 1 set of coupling bolts, for the crank shaft. 
 
604 RULES 
 
 1 set of coupling bolts for the intermediate shaft. 
 
 1 complete set of piston rings for each piston of the main and of the 
 
 auxiliary compressors. 
 
 1 half set of valves for the main and for the auxiliary compressors. 
 1 fuel pump complete for the main engine, or a complete set of all 
 
 the working parts. 
 1 fuel pump for the auxiliary Diesel engine, or a complete set of all 
 
 working parts. 
 
 1 set of valves for the daily fuel supply pump. 
 1 set of valves for the water circulating pumps. 
 1 set of valves for one bilge pump. 
 
 1 set of valves for the scavenge pump, where lift valves are used. 
 1 set of valves for the lubricating oil pump. 
 1 bucket and rod for the lubricating oil pump. 
 A quantity of assorted bolts and nuts, including one set of cylinder 
 
 cover studs and nuts. 
 Lengths of pipes suitable for the fuel delivery and the blast pipes 
 
 to the cylinders, and the air delivery from the compressors to 
 
 the receivers, with unions and flanges suitable for each. 
 
 PERIODICAL SURVEYS 
 
 'SECTION 7. 1. The engines are to be submitted to survey annual- 
 ly, and in addition are to be submitted to a Special Survey upon the oc- 
 casion of the vessels undergoing the Special Periodical Surveys Nos. 1, 
 2, and 3 prescribed in the Rules, unless the machinery has been 'Specially 
 surveyed within a period of twelve months, in which case the Annual 
 Survey will be sufficient. The boilers, if fitted, are to be subjected to the 
 same surveys as required by Section 37 of the Rules for Engines and 
 Boilers of Steam Vessels. 
 
 2. Special Surveys. At these special surveys, the main engines and 
 the auxiliary engines are -to be examined throughout, viz.: All the cyl- 
 inders, pistons, valves and valve gears, connecting rods and guides, 
 pumps, crank, intermediate, and thrust shafts, propellers, stern bushes, 
 sea connections and their fastenings, are to be examined. The air com- 
 pressors are also to be examined. The air receivers are to be cleaned 
 and examined and, if necessary, tested, as provided for in paragraph 3 
 of this Section. 
 
 3. Annual Surveys. The whole of the parts of the engines which 
 the engineers of the vessel open up for adjustment and overhaul should 
 be examined and reported upon. The Survey must include, for each main 
 engine, the examination of at least 2 pistons, 2 cylinder covers and their 
 valves, 2 connecting rods and their brasses, both top and bottom ends. 2 
 of the main bearings and crank shaft journals, and 1 of the tunnel bear- 
 
RULES 605 
 
 ings. If these are all satisfactory, their condition may be taken as rep- 
 resenting that of the other similar parts. 
 
 In the auxiliary Diesel engines, a similar course must be adopted, 
 but in this case one of each of the parts mentioned of each engine will 
 be sufficient, if found to be satisfactory. 
 
 The valve gears of all the Diesel engines should be examined, as far 
 as practicable, without complete dismantling. 
 
 The air receivers must be examined internally if possible, and, to- 
 gether with the air pipes from the compressors, must be cleaned in- 
 ternally by means of steam, or otherwise. If the air receivers cannot 
 be examined internally, they must be tested by hydraulic pressure to 
 twice the working pressure at each alternate Annual Survey, attention 
 being specially given to the welding of the ends and of the longitudinal 
 joints. 
 
 The pumps and air compressors must be examined and tried under 
 working conditions. If found to be satisfactory ,they need not be dis- 
 mantled. 
 
 The manoeuvering of the engines must be tested under working con- 
 ditions. 
 
 If the examination reveals any defects, the Surveyor should recom- 
 mend such further opening up as he may consider to be necessary. 
 
 4. Record of Survey. If the various parts mentioned in paragraphs 
 2 or 3 are all found to be in a satisfactory condition and the Surveyor 
 finds that the machinery generally is in good order, he should recommend 
 the vessel to have a fresh record of LMC. 
 
 5. Survey of Screw Shafts. The screw shaft is to be examined an- 
 nually and drawn at intervals as provided for in Section 37, Clause 3 
 (Rules for Engines and Boilers of Steam Vessels). 
 
606 RULES 
 
 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DANGER 
 
 The time has long passed, when the use of oil on shipboard is op- 
 posed on account of insurmountable danger. Oil has the distinct ad- 
 vantage that 'it is- not subject to spontaneous combustion, and many 
 fires which have occured in ships' bunkers at sea would not have been 
 possible with oil. Certain precautions, however, must be taken such 
 as suitable arrangements of vent pipes, protection of bunker bulkheads, 
 if exposed to heat, and particularly the use of oil with a reasonable high 
 flash point. 
 
 The United States Navy, in cooperation with the Bureau of Mines, 
 has investigated this matter of possible explosions of gases in storage 
 tanks, and it was found that no inflammable gases were formed in any 
 amount in the storage tanks or bunkers until the oil was heated to the 
 flash point, i.e., that the representative oil tested contained no dissolved 
 gas or vapor sufficient to form an explosive mixture at temperatures 
 below the flash point. The largest percentage of vapor in the atmosphere 
 of fuel tanks of various ships tested, was 0.04%, whereas, about 0.9% 
 is required to form an explosive mixture. It was also found that any 
 oil in the bunker tank had to be heated to within 60 degrees F. of the 
 flash point before even a faint "glow" of partial burning was obtained 
 on introducing a naked flame in the tank. 
 
 These important investigations show that oil is perfectly safe on 
 board ship, so long as the flash point is sufficiently above the tempera- 
 ture to which the oil may be exposed. 
 
 On the other hand, while careful attention to ventilation of the 
 tanks and leading the vent pipes well away from all possible chance of 
 exposure to flame, may result in immunity from trouble. The conclusion 
 is forced upon us that the use of heavy oils which have to be heated in 
 the tanks and bunkers may lead to very serious consequences through 
 the necessity of installing heating coils in the tanks, and the possibility 
 that the oil becoming heated to the flash point through carelessness. 
 This of course should be understood, is rarely the case in regards to 
 Fuel used in Diesel engines. 
 
 Where torches are in use, as on Semi-Diesel engines, necessitating 
 the heating of the hot bulbs, etc., if the simple precaution is taken of al- 
 ways having the lighted torch under the burner before turning on the 
 oil, no possible danger of explosion in the engine room can exist. 
 
 .Several methods of extinguishing fires at sea by the use of carbonic 
 acid gas are being developed, such as the Gronwald system, advanced 
 by leading Fire Syndicates, which consist of the installation of tanks at 
 suitable points containing liquid carbonic acid gas under high pressure. 
 These tanks are piped to various parts of the ship, where possible danger 
 from fire might exist, and the gas is admitted to these points in emerg- 
 ency, thus, completely blanketing the fire and shutting off the supply of 
 oxygen. Another system which has been very effective in extinguishing 
 fires in oil tanks, is that known as the Erwin system, manufactured by 
 
RULES 607 
 
 the Treadwell & Company of New York. A mixture of bicarbonic of 
 soda and soap bark is carried in one tank, and sulphuric acid is carried 
 in another, nearby, and these, may be mixed automatically or at will, 
 resulting in the liberation of a large mass of foam impregnated with 
 carbonic acid gas. Carbon tetrachloride has been used for extinguishing 
 fires; this is the best known in commercial form in the tanks of Pyrene. 
 It occurs to the layman, that quite as much danger may result from the 
 installation of tanks of this highly asphyxiating material on 'board ship 
 as would be caused by fire, but undoubtedly experience will show the 
 efficiency as well as the necessity of these various methods of extinguish: 
 ing fires. 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS AND VIEWS 
 
 Dr. Rudolph Diesel (Picture) Frontispiece 
 
 Demonstration of Isothermal Expansion. Figure (a) 21 
 
 .Demonstration of Adiabatic Expansion. Figure (b) 21 
 
 Practical Demonstration of Indicator Card Calculation, Figure (c) 22 
 
 Demonstrating Expansion of Gases in Cylinder. Figure (d) 23 
 
 Practical Demonstration of Indicator Card. Figure (e) 24 
 
 Practical Application of Indicator . 25 
 
 Experiments of Coal Gas and Air 29 
 
 Cross-sectional view of Nordberg Diesel Engine 55 
 
 Longitudinal view through Standard Horizontal type of two-cycle 
 
 Diesel Engine 56 
 
 Four-cycle Type (Nelseco) 58 
 
 Valve arrangement actuated by cams 60 
 
 Illustration demonstrating "Interior Action" of fuel being brought in 
 
 contact with heat temperature 61 
 
 Starting Valve of Carels type used on Nordberg Diesels 62 
 
 "Open Nozzle" Spray Valve, as adopted by the Snow Oil Engine 63 
 
 Cross-sectional view of Busch-Sulzer characteristic Fuel Injection 
 
 System 64 
 
 Valve Settings of Simple Port Scavenging Two-cycle Engine 65 
 
 Timing Diagrams, Fig. (a) and Fig. (b) 66 
 
 Valve Spindle 69 
 
 Sprayer 69 
 
 "Tyco" Instruments (a) Draft Gauge, (b) High Pressure Thermom- 
 eter, (c) Vacuum Gauge, (d) Low Pressure Thermo Gauge 85 
 
 Demonstration of actuating valves through cams __1 121 
 
 Diagram of Valve Settings of Crank Shaft on Four-cycle Engine 122 
 
 Oil Injection Nozzle of the Bald-Check Type 122 
 
 Valve settings of Double-Port-Soavenging two-cycle Engine 123 
 
 Carels Type of Fuel Inlet Valve Used on Nordberg Diesels 124 
 
 Valve Settings of Valve-Scavenging Two-cycle Engine 125 
 
 Top View of E. G. Cyldnderhead (Nordberg Engine) 127 
 
 Installation of Nordberg Diesel Engines in Oklahoma 128 
 
 Oil Injection Pump of the Giant Oil Engine 130 
 
 Four Nordberg Diesel Engines direct connected to Generators 131 
 
 Section of Cylinder and Head of Worthington Engine 133 
 
 Exposed view of spraying arrangement as used on Worthington latest 
 
 two-cycle Solid Injection Engines 134 
 
 Worthington Diesel Engine. Two-cycle Solid Injection. Control End of 
 
 Four-cylinder Engine, with Details of Fuel Pump 135 
 
 2000 B. H. P. Nordberg Two-cycle Diesel Engine. Longest in America__137 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 609 
 
 Power and beauty combined. Winton Marine Diesel Engine, Model 40. 
 
 Eight 1215/16" by 18" Cylinders 144 
 
 A Typical "Standard" engine, manufactured by the Hadfield-Penfiefld 
 
 Steel Co., Bucyrus, Ohio 145 
 
 The well known Junkers engine. A German product which has many 
 advantages as a double-acting-piston engine over her rival, the 
 single acting-piston 147 
 
 National Transit Engine of Twin-Engine design. An excellent station- 
 ary Diesel engine 148 
 
 Engine Frame of Standard Engine (Vertical Type) 151 
 
 Cylinder construction to resist tension in addition to bursting strain, 
 is a factor exceedingly vital 152 
 
 Typical Piston, Connecting Rod, Snap Ring, Wrist Pin and Brasses. 
 
 Always keep a spare set of Rings, Brasses, etc., on hand 153 
 
 Cylinder of "Standard" Horizontal Type of Diesel Engine. A result 
 of careful investigation 154 
 
 440 B. H. P. Nordberg Engine. Air Compressor and Scavenging Pump 
 
 at left. Note entire control from floor level 156 
 
 Cross-sectional view of Carels type of scavenging valve, used on Nord- 
 berg engine 157 
 
 Valve Setting Diagram for Reversing Two-cycle Engine. (Starboard 
 
 'to Port) 158 
 
 Valve Setting Diagram for Reversing Two-cycle Engine. (Port to 
 
 Starboard) , 160 
 
 Fig. B. Aspinalls Governor applied to Internal Combustion Engines__164 
 
 Front View of Engine Installed in M. S. "Caroflyn Francis". 390 I.H.P. 
 
 (300 B.H.P.) Mclntosh and Seymour Type 166 
 
 Plan and Side View of Dow Diesel Engine. Records Established with 
 Dow Engines Show Fuel-Economy Exceedingly Low and No Ex- 
 penses incurred in Breakdowns during One Year of Operation 167 
 
 Descriptive View of Worthington Solid Injection Two-cycle Diesel En- 
 gine (Exposed) 168 
 
 1250 B.H.P. Nordberg Diesel, Direct Connected to Nordberg Two-stage 
 Air 'Compressor at Left 170 
 
 A Small Type of Nelseco, Equipped with Paragon Reverse Gear. This 
 
 Type is Ideal for Yachting, Fishing Crafts, etc. 171 
 
 A 120 B.H.P. Nelseco Marine Diesel Engine. The Accessibility is Nota- 
 ble on This Type 172 
 
 The Comparison in Space Between Sketch-Crawing of Vessel 
 
 Equipped with Steam Power. (Fig. A) 173 
 
 Sketch Drawing of Vessel Equipped with Diesel Power (Fig. B) Re- 
 quire No Explanation 173 
 
 Comparison Sketch Between Reciprocating (Steam) and Diesel 
 Power. Upper, Left, Turbine; Upper, Right, Diesel; Lower Cut 
 Reciprocating Steam 175 
 
 Exposed View of Burt Oil Filter 177 
 
 Burt Oil Filter, Full View __178 
 
 Multiwhirl Oil Cooler Exposed View .. 179 
 
610 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Griscom-Russell's "G. R." Instantaneous Heater 179 
 
 The Equipment of De Laval's Oil Separators Assures an Excellent 
 
 Method of Oil Purification 180 
 
 Figure (a). Diagrammatical View of Wheeler Type of Oil Preheaters_181 
 
 Fig. Ob). Welderon Receiver Separator 182 
 
 Fig. (c). Reilly Oil Heater Exposed View 183 
 
 Fig. (d). Griscom-Russell's "Bundy Oil Separator" 183 
 
 Hoppes Mfg. Co.'s Class "R" Oil Heaters, Showing Multi-Trough Shape 
 
 I Pan 184 
 
 Class "R" Oil Heater Front End Exposed 184 
 
 Fig. (e). A "CL" Oil Separator 185 
 
 Fig. (f). Griscom-Russell's "GR" Multiscreen Filter 185 
 
 Oil Cooling and Lubricating System for Internal Combustion Engines 
 
 by Schutte & Koerting's Method 186 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Oil Cooler of th Schutte & Koerting type, for 
 Re-cooling Lubricating Oil and Cooling Oil from Diesel Engines, 
 
 Pistons and Bearings 187 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Lubricating Oil Filter for Diesel Engines 188 
 
 Schutte & Koerting's Duplex Oil Strainer 189 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Spray Air Cooler for Diesel Engines 194 
 
 Sectional Elevation of Air Spray Preheater 195 
 
 The "Neidig Oil Pump," Specially Adapted on Diesel Machinery 196 
 
 Neidig Oil Pump Interior Arrangement 196 
 
 Neidig Oil Pump Gear Arrangement 197 
 
 Sectional View of Duplex Oil Strainer 198 
 
 "Direct Acting" Manzel-Force Feed Oiler Fig. (1) 199 
 
 Sectional View of Manzel Force-Feed Lubricator Fig. (2) 200 
 
 Ashton Improved Dead-weight Pressure Gauge Tester . 202 
 
 Ashton Inspector's Testing and Proving Outfit 203 
 
 Ashton Improved Pressure Recording Gauge 204 
 
 Tycos Recording and Index Thermometer 204 
 
 Ashton Pressure Gauge Double Spring Arrangement 205 
 
 Ashton Pressure Gauge Single Spring Arrangement 205 
 
 Pneumercator Gauge 206 
 
 Ideal Valve for Use Around Internal Combustion Machinery 208 
 
 Ashton's Spring Lever Pop Valve Exposed 209 
 
 Ashton's Relief Valve 210 
 
 Illustration of Maxim Silencer 211 
 
 Fig. L Section Through Electromagnetic Clutch 212 
 
 Fig. 2. General Arrangement o<f Sperry Gyroscope Co.'s Electromag- 
 netic Clutch _213 
 
 Fig. 3. Speed-Torque Curve of Electromagnetic Clutch 214 
 
 Yoke Operating Type of Paragon Reverse Gears 216 
 
 Phantom View of Paragon Reverse Gear, Showing Parts 217 
 
 Friction Assembly for Forward Drive 218 
 
 Gear Assembly for Reverse Motion 219 
 
 Extra Heavy Duty Type of Paragon Reverse Gear 220 
 
 Itemized Parts of Paragon Reverse Gear _ __221 
 
INDEX OP ILLUSTRATIONS ' 611 
 
 Fig. (a). Double Clutch Gear Cage Perspective 223" 
 
 Fig. (b). Double Clutch, Gear Cage 223 
 
 Fig. (c). Exterior View Double Clutch 224 
 
 A view of the engine room switch board of the Motorship "Solitaire", 
 showing the circuit breakers and several of the C-H Magnetic 
 Contactors, by means of which the engine room auxiliaries are 
 controlled 226 
 
 C-H Water-tight Rheostat (same as shown at left) with upper and 
 lower covers open for ventilation. The front cover also has been 
 removed to show the resistor units. This cover is not removed 
 after installation except for occasional inspection 227 
 
 C-H Master Switch of the type used for operating small steering gear 
 
 controllers like the one shown above. Cover removed 228 
 
 Motor-operated deck winch on the motorship, "Solitaire", equipped 
 with a C-H Water-tight Drum and Resistor. The drum is located 
 where the operator has a clear view of the winch and its load and 
 where he can operate the foot brake 229 
 
 C-H Automatic Steering Gear Controller of the type used on merchant 
 vessels. This controller is installed below deck and is operated 
 from a master switch similar to the one illustrated below 230 
 
 Motor-driven Cargo Winch equipped with a C-H Drum Controller 231 
 
 Plan View of Allis-Chalmer Diesel Engine. Excellent Power Plants 
 
 for Electric Generation 232 
 
 Diagrammatical View of Worthington Diesel Engines Suitable for 
 
 Auxiliary Purposes 233 
 
 Plan View of Dow Diesel Engines, Direct 'Connected to Electric Motors 234 
 
 Allan-Cunningham's Hydraulic-Electric Steering Gear. This type has 
 
 proven a reliable machine for Diesel-powered ships 235 
 
 Allan-Cunningham's Electrically Operated Anchor-Windlass Special- 
 ly Constructed for Diesel-power ships 236 
 
 Typical Allan-Cunningham Cargo Winch 237 
 
 1125 B.H.P. Stationary and Marine Two-cycle Busch Sulzer Diesel 238 
 
 Figure 1. (a), (b), (c), (d). Demonstration of Cylinder strokes in a 
 
 four-cycle engine 240 
 
 Figure 2.' Typical Indicator Diagram of four-cycle Diesel Engine 240 
 
 Figure 3. (a), (b), (c), (d). Demonstration of Cylinder strokes in a 
 
 two-cycle engine 241 
 
 Figure 4. A typical indicator Diagram from an ordinary two-cycle 
 
 Diesel engine 241 
 
 Figure 5. Two-cycle (iBusch^Sulzer) Cylinder Head. Four-cycle (Stan- 
 dard Construction) Cylinder Head 242 
 
 Figure 6. Busch Sulzer Cylinder. Showing Two-cycle Scavenging 
 
 Sulzer System 243 
 
 Figure 7. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), (h). Demonstration of Cyl- 
 inder Valves in Busch-Sulzer Diesel Engine 245 
 
 Figure 8. Busch-Sulzer Piston Cooling 248 
 
 Fig. 10. Cross Section Through Compressor _ __251 
 
612 INDEX OP ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Figure 10. Curve Showing Fuel Consumption 1,250 B.H.P. Sulzer 
 
 Two Cycle 252 
 
 Figure (a). Full View of Dow Direct-Reversible Marine Diesel Engine_253 
 
 Figure (b). Diagram of Side, Top and Stern, Usual Metnod in Steam 
 Marine Engine. Note the Similarity in the Thrust Arrangement 
 to the Usual Method of Steam Marine Engine. 254 
 
 Fig. (c). Diagrammatical View of Dow Diesel Engine. Front and 
 Side View 255 
 
 Illustration of 585 B.H.P. Fulton Diesel Engine Driving Flour Mill 257 
 
 Diagram showing Full illustration of Engine with Compressor, 
 
 Pumps, Lubrication System, etc. 258 
 
 Diagram of Fulton Diesel Engine, Looking From Compressor In. End 
 
 View of Engine 259 
 
 Diagram of Fulton Diesel Engine. End View 260 
 
 Cross-sectional View Through Nordberg Engine. Note Coolers, Air 
 Suction Regulating Valve, Water Circulating System, Crosshead 
 Guides, Scavenging Valves, etc. 264 
 
 Diagram of Kingsbury Thrustbearing Extensively Used on Medium 
 
 Sized Mclntosh & Seymour Diesel Engines with Great Results 266 
 
 Rear View of 1200 I.H.P. Mclntosh # Seymour Diesel Engine In- 
 stalled in M/S "Kennecott" 268 
 
 600-750 B.H.P. "Nelseco" Diesel Engine Built by the New London Ship 
 
 & Engine Co., Groton, Conn. 271 
 
 Section Through Working Cylinder of Nelseco 600 B.H.P. Engine 272 
 
 Section Through A. C. Cylinder of the 600 B.H.P. Nelseco Diesel En- 
 gine 273 
 
 Diagrammatical View of 600-750 B. H. P., 200 R. P. M. "Nelseco" Diesel 
 Engine. An excellent view is allowed to valves, gears, connecting 
 rods, etc. 274 
 
 Nelseco 600 B.H.P., 200 R.P.M. Diesel Engine, looking astern. Note 
 the valve actuating arrangement 275 
 
 Section Through Cam Shaft Gear Compartment of Nelseco 600 B.H.P. 
 200 R.P.M. Diesel Engine 276 
 
 Oil Pump Arrangement of Nelseco 600 B.H.P. 200 R.P.M. Diesel En- 
 gine 277 
 
 Set of Indicator Cards taken on test of Nelseco 600 B.H.P. Diesel 
 
 Engine 279 
 
 End View of Burmeister & Wain Diesel. Note Gear, Valve Arrange- 
 men, Engine Control Lever, etc. 281 
 
 Diagram of Burmeister & Wain (Marine Diesel Engine, Showing Front 
 View of Force-Feed Fuel Pressure Pump 282 
 
 Diagram of Burmeister & Wain Diesel Engine. Cross-sectional View 
 
 Looking Astern 283 
 
 Diagram, Showing Cross-sectional View of Burmeister & Wain Marine 
 
 Diesel Engine . __285 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 613 
 
 A Winton "Model W40". This type of engine may be found on num- 
 erous yachts, specially built for long voyages. It is an excellent 
 machine also for ships of largest capacities, suitable for twin and 
 
 single installation 290 
 
 One of the Two 850 B.H.P. Werkspoor Diesel Engines for the Motor 
 
 Tanker, "H. T. Harper". Built by the Pacific Diesel Engine Co.__302 
 Valve Gear Assembly of 15^x24 National Transit Oil Engine. Type 
 
 D. H. 4B -306 
 
 Plan View Showing Detail Arrangement of 15^x24 Twin Oil Engine__307 
 General Arrangement of Sprayer on Type D4 National Transit Oil 
 
 Engine 308 
 
 Double Fuel Pump and Governor. Type D3 National Transit Diesel 
 
 Engine, (Twin Engine) 310 
 
 Transverse Sectional Assembly, Outside Air Passages, Worthington 
 
 Diesel Engine, Two Cycle, Solid Injection 314 
 
 Over-all of 600 H.P. Three Cylinder Worthington's Snow Oil Engine 
 
 with Speed Changing Governor Fig. 1 318 
 
 Longitudinal Sectional View of Single Cylinder Engine. Figure 2 319 
 
 Fuel Consumption Curve, Four Cycle "Snow" Oil Engine. Fig. 3 321 
 
 Sectional View of Compressor. Fig. 4 322 
 
 General Diagram of Installation of Allis-Chalmers Oil Engines 323 
 
 Longitudinal Section Through Allis-Chalmers Oil Engine, Diesel Type_324 
 
 Diagram of Oil Pipe Connection 325 
 
 Valve Gear Diagram, Allis-Chalmers Oil Engine 320 
 
 Longitudinal Section Through Working Cylinder of Standard Engine__329 
 
 Exhaust Side of Two-cylinder Vertical Standard Engine 330 
 
 Transverse Section Through Main and Scavenging Cylinder 332 
 
 Veiw with Portion of Railing Removed, Showing Cam Shaft, Indica- 
 tor Rig, etc. 333 
 
 Section Through Air Compressor Cylinder 334 
 
 Figure (a) Comparison of Mechanical Efficiencies. A Usual Four- 
 cycle Diesel; B Two-stroke-cycle; C Standard Two-stroke-cycle 
 
 Diesel -337 
 
 Figure (b) Indicator Diagrams of Various Loads 338 
 
 Fig. C. Curves Showing Fuel Consumption at Different Loads and 
 
 Speeds 339 
 
 Cross-sectional View of Lombard Engine 342 
 
 Illustration Demonstrating the Accessibility of Lombard's Vertical 
 
 Multi-cylinder Diesel Engines 343 
 
 Principal Dimensions for Installing Four-cylinder 165 H.P. Atlas-Im- 
 perial Mechanical Injection Diesel Marine Engine 345 
 
 Full View of 165 B.H.P. Atlas-Imperial Four-cycle Mechanical Injec- 
 tion Diesel Engine 347 
 
 Sectional View Through Cylinder Head of Cummins Four-cycle, Valve- 
 
 in-Head, 8 to 32 H.P. Diesel Engines 350 
 
 Full View of Sperry Compound Engine. Note Two "High Pressure" 
 (Four-stroke-cycle) and One "Low Pressure" (Two-stroke-cycle 
 Cylinder) 352 
 
614 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Sperry Compound Engine. Cross-sectional View. Letters Indicating 
 Constructive Features of Transfer-Valve, Port Arrangement, Pis- 
 tons, etc. 353 
 
 Comparison in Compound Indicator Card in Contrast to Diesel Type__354 
 
 Fig. 1. Demonstration of "Still Engine 356 
 
 Fig. 2. Still Engine on Test in Shop 357 
 
 Cross-section of Still Engine 360 
 
 Washington-Estep Engine, Port Side View __362 
 
 Washington-Estep Engine, Starboard Side View 363 
 
 Washington-Estep Engine, Showing Engine-Frame and Cylinder Con- 
 struction 364 
 
 Estep Design of Cylinders and Liners 364 
 
 Fig. 1 Side View of 450 H.P. Two-cycle Diesel Engine. The Two- 
 cycle as Well as Four-cycle Have Proven Efficient in Engine Per- 
 formances in Submarine Service 367 
 
 Fig. 2 From Amidship Looking Forward. (Submarine) 369 
 
 Fig. 3 From Amidship Looking Aft. (Submarine) ___ 370 
 
 Fig. 4 From Aft End Looking Forward. (Submarine) 371 
 
 Fig. 5 -U. S. Submarine "K-1". Regular Performances Have Been 
 
 Notable by Diesel Propulsion in This Service 372 
 
 Fig. 1 Typical Double Unit Shunt Propellor Motor 385 
 
 Fig. 2 Field of Typical Direct Current Shunt Motor or Generator 385 
 
 Fig. 3 Double Unit Propellor Motor with Bedplate and Self-contained 
 
 Thrust Bearing 380 
 
 Fig. 4 Diesel Engine J Generator Set 387 
 
 Fig. 5 Plan View of Engine Room for a 2500 S.H.P. 'Diesel Electric- 
 Drive 388 
 
 Fig. 6 Control Diagram for a 2500 S.H.P. Diesel Electric Drive 389 
 
 Fig. 7 Switchboard and Control for a Single Screw Diesel Electric 
 
 Drive 393 
 
 Fig. 8 Front View of Switchboard for a Double-ended Ferry Boat, 
 
 Diesel Electric Drive 393 
 
 Fig. 9 Rear View of Switchboard Shown in Fig. 8 394 
 
 Fig. 10 Double Face Plate, Main Control Rheostat 394 
 
 Fig. 11-^Control Pedestal for Twin Screw Diesel, Electric Drive 395 
 
 Fig. 12 Control Pedestal for a Single Screw Diesel, Electric Drive 395 
 
 DJS-110B Equipment of Control Group Back End View. Demonstrat- 
 ing Neutral Position 2 398 
 
 Control Group, Back View. (General Electric Diesel System) Show- 
 ing Interlocking Levers for Hand Control 398 
 
 General Plan View, Illustrating Arrangement of Propelling Machinery_400 
 Engine Room (Looking Forward), Showing Arrangement of Diesel 
 
 Engine, Allowing Excellent View of the Main Generator 402 
 
 Engine Room (Looking Aft), Showing Arrangement of Diesel Engines 
 
 Driving the Main Generators 404 
 
 Forward End of Engine Room of Trawler "Mariner" (Looking For- 
 ward) Showing Main Generator and Propeller Motor With Master 
 Controller at Right__ __406 
 
INDEX OP ILLUSTRATIONS 615 
 
 Master-Controller, Type C-S 143 A, Specially Designed for Marine 
 
 Use. Controller Used in Pilot House and Engine Room 408 
 
 Two Marine Direct-Current Generators (for M/S "Fordonia") Rated 
 MFC Pole 350 KW 200 R..PJM. Volts Compound-wound on the 
 
 Testing Stand 412 
 
 Marine Direct Current Double Armature Motor (For M/S "Fordonia") 
 Rated 850 H.P. 120 R.P.M., 500 Volts, Consisting of Two MPC-10 
 Pole 425 H.P., 120 R.P.M., 250 Volt Shunt Wound Motors Mounted 
 
 on One Shaft. Port, Looking Forward -, 412 
 
 Operation Chart No. 1, M/S "Fordonian" 414 
 
 Operation Chart No. 2, M/S "Fordonian" 416 
 
 Control Connections, Diesel Electric Cargo Boat 418 
 
 Pacific Diesel Werkspoor Engine on Test 424 
 
 Test Log No. 1 of Official Shop Test of Engine for Golden Gate Ferry 
 
 Co., Oakland, Calif. 425 
 
 Test Log No. 2 of Official Shop Test for Golden Gate Ferry Co. 426 
 
 Sectional View Showing Parts of Giant Semi-Diesel Engine, Class A-02 441 
 Position of Piston at Time of Combustion (Low Compression Engine) __443 
 Position of Piston at Time of Scavenging and Exhaust (Low Com- 
 pression Engine) 443 
 
 Giant Semi-Diesel Engine (Governor Side) Class A-02 444 
 
 Giant Semi-Diesel Engine (Clutch Pulley Side) 'Class A-02 446 
 
 Muffler Pit for Single Engine (Low Compression Engine) 447 
 
 Muffler Pit for Double Engine (Low Compression Engine) 448 
 
 Air Plan View of Ingersol-Rand "P. R." Oil Engine 449 
 
 Efficiency 'Card of Ingersol-Rand Oil Engine 451 
 
 Front View of Engine with Cover Removed 453 
 
 Longitudinal View of Single Cylinder Primm Heavy Duty Oil Enigne__454 
 
 Exposed View of Primm Reverse Friction Clutch 455 
 
 Part View of Primm Friction Clutch Coupling 456 
 
 Fig. 1200 H.P. Integral Twin "SI" Engine 458 
 
 Fig. 2 Governor and Fuel Pump Arrangement 460 
 
 Fig. 3150 H.P. Single Cylinder "SI" Engine 461 
 
 Fig. 4 Cylinder Head and Valve Gear 462 
 
 Fig. 5 Indicator Card 463 
 
 Fig. 6 Type "SI" Cross-sectional View. Note Combustion 'Space 464 
 
 Fig. 7 Cross-section Through Vaporizer 465 
 
 Fig. 8 Side Elevation in Section. Type "DH" 465 
 
 Fig. 9 Fuel Economy Curve of "DH" Type of De La Vergne 466 
 
 Fig. 10 Chart, Showing Comparative Fuel Cost of Various Engines__467 
 Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine. Horizontal Type of Engine 'Show- 
 ing Arrangement of Parts 468 
 
 Longitudinal View of Wygodsky Self Starting Oil Engine 469 
 
 Governor and Oil Pump of the Wygodsky Self Starting Oil Engine 470 
 
 Sectional Views of a Wygodsky Self Starting Oil Engine 471" 
 
 General Arrangement of Air Pump of Wygodsky Self Starting Oil En- 
 gine 472 
 
 Sectional View of Sprayer of the Wygodsky Self Starting Oil Engine-472 
 
616 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Four-cycle Single 'Cylinder Heavy Duty Wygodsky Self Starting Crude 
 
 Oil Engine 474 
 
 Two-cycle Wygodsky Self Starting Crude Oil Engine. The Economy" 
 
 Performances 'Compare Well With the Best 475 
 
 Sectional and End Views of Wygodsky Self-Starting Oil Engine 476 
 
 General Arrangement of Baltimore Oil Engine, Vertical Type 478 
 
 Fuel Pump Bracket of Two-cycle Wygodsky Self-starting Crude Oil 
 
 Engine 479 
 
 Demonstration of "Cycle of Operation", Bolinder Two-cycle Semi-Die- 
 sel Stationary Engine 484 
 
 Plan View of Reversible Type of Bolinder Marine Engine 485 
 
 150 H.P. Bolinder Crude Oil Engine, Two-cycle 487 
 
 Demonstration of Air (Starting Method on Bolinder Engines 487 
 
 Fuel Pump Arrangement on Fetter Crude Oil Engine 489 
 
 Maneuvering Lever on Fetter Crude Oil Engine 489 
 
 Kahlenberg Heavy Duty Crude Oil Engine 491 
 
 Valve Arrangement, Gears and Governor Equipment on Kahlenberg 
 
 Oil Engine 492 
 
 Partial Section Through Cylinder and Bearing of Kahlenberg Marine 
 
 Oil Engine 493 
 
 Diagrammatical View of Kahlenberg Marine Oil Engine. This Engine 
 is Direct Reversible. The Engine is Well Adapted for Service 
 Where a Machine of Rigid Construction is Called for to Perform 
 
 Heavy Duty Work 494 
 
 End View Through Eccentric Pit of Kahlenberg Marine Oil Engine. 
 
 Note the Double Set of Pumps 495 
 
 Port Side of Four-cylinder "C-0" Fairbanks-Morse Marine Engine 497 
 
 Fairbanks^Morse "C-O" Engine, Marine Type 498 
 
 75 H.P. "Y" Oil Engine 501 
 
 Typical Horizontal "Y" Oil Engine 502 
 
 240 H.P. Direct Reversing Gulowsen-Grei Marine Engine 505 
 
 Diagram Showing Arrangement in Installation . 508 
 
 End View of Mietz Marine Oil Engine 509 
 
 Governor Arrangement of Mietz Oil Engine, Direct Driven from En- 
 gine Shaft 510 
 
 Cross-Sectional View Mietz & Weiss Oil Engine 511 
 
 Compressor Installation for Stationary Diesel Plant, 'Sullivan Type 514 
 
 Cylinder Arrangement, Vilter Compressor 515 
 
 Stuffing Box and Piston Rod. Vilter Compressor 515 
 
 Sullivan W-J 3 Angle Compound Compressor. Full View.__ 516 
 
 Cross Sectional View of Type W-J Angle Compound Compressor 
 
 Equipped with Inter-cooler. 517 
 
 Cross Sectional View of Stuffing Box of Vilter Air Compressor 518 
 
 .Sectional Plan of Cylinder Head on Vilter Air Compressor 518 
 
 Suction Valve of Vilter Type of Compressor 519 
 
 Discharge Valve of Vilter Type of Compressor 519 
 
 Diagrammatical View of National Transit Compressor , 521 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 617 
 
 Plan View of Compressor of National Transit Engine 522 
 
 Three-Stage Reversible Reavell Air Compressor as used on the Dow 
 
 Engine 523 
 
 Relative Humidity Table 530 
 
 Table Showing Capacities of Pumps in U. S. Gallon 533 
 
 Edison Alkaline Storage Battery 568 
 
 Positive Plate of Edison Battery 569 
 
 Negative Plate __570 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Acceleration 40 
 
 Acid Solutions :__ 555 
 
 Active Materials i 552, 570 
 
 Actuating Valves 107 
 
 Adhesive Quality _i : 28 
 
 Adiabatic Expansion 15, 16 
 
 Adjusting of Gear J 215 
 
 After Coolers r .. 193 
 
 Agate Jet 79 
 
 Air- 
 Agitators 193 
 
 Coolers 113, 194 
 
 Efflux 526 
 
 Formulas 48 
 
 Operated Piston Valves 106 
 
 Preheaters 195 
 
 Starters 106, 113 
 
 Volume of Starting 592 
 
 Alcohol 81 
 
 Allis-Chalmers 325-328 
 
 Altitude 100, 529 
 
 Amber 556 
 
 Ammonia 81 
 
 Ampere ; 556, 558 
 
 Analysis of Sea Water 19 
 
 Angle Compound Compressors 516-518 
 
 Antimony 555 
 
 Apparent Slip 43 
 
 Area of Pipe 539 
 
 Area of Rivet Hole 592 
 
 Ash Deposit 114 
 
 Assembled Elements 569 
 
 Assistant Engineers 574, 676 
 
 Asphalt Contents in Oils 115 
 
 Aspinall Governor 161-165 
 
 Atomic Weight 32, 567 
 
 Atlas-Imperial Engines 344-349 
 
 Average Slippage of Pump 532 
 
 Auxiliaries 176-237 
 
 Babbit 116 
 
 Baume (Beaume) 76, 87, 90 
 
GENERAL INDEX 619 
 
 Bakelite 213 
 
 Barometer Pressures 529 
 
 Barkometer Degrees 84 
 
 Batteries 548-572 
 
 Condition 551 
 
 Dead 549 
 
 Edison 566-572 
 
 Lead Acid 559 
 
 Primary 557 
 
 Trouble Location '- 551 
 
 Belting, Calculation 542 
 
 Blcarbonic of Soda 607 
 
 Bilges, Afire 115 
 
 Boyle's Law ____ 35 
 
 Brake, Horsepower 47, 50 
 
 Brass 116 
 
 Breakage of Crankshaft 114 
 
 British Thermal Unit 19 
 
 Brix Degrees 84 
 
 Bromide 81 
 
 Bronze, Tensile Strength of 70, 71 
 
 Bundy Oil Separator 183 
 
 Burmeister & Wain Engines 281-288 
 
 Control 284 
 
 Description, General 282-283 
 
 Design 287 
 
 Frames ;__ 284 
 
 Heat 284 
 
 Pistons 284 
 
 Pumps 284 
 
 Two-Cycle vs. Four-Cycle 285 
 
 Reversing Gear 288 
 
 Types .._' 288 
 
 Busch-Sulzer Engines 238-252 
 
 Accessories 252 
 
 Air Compressors 250 
 
 Air Starting System ..251 
 
 Air Tank Piping 251 
 
 Barring Gear 1 252 
 
 Bedplate and Crankcase 246 
 
 Connecting Rods 249 
 
 Crossheads 249 
 
 Crosshead Pins ____. 249 
 
 Crankshaft __249 
 
 Cylinders 243 
 
 Cylinder Head :______241, 243, 247 
 
 Economy 240, 241 
 
 Flywheel and Extension Shaft __250 
 
620 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Pour-Cycle Demonstration 239-241 
 
 Fuel Oil Service Tanks and Filters 252 
 
 History 239 
 
 Lubrication ; _251 
 
 Main Bearings 249 
 
 Pistons 248 
 
 Piston Rods 249 
 
 Reversing Gear 247 
 
 Safety Governor 249 
 
 Scavenging System : 243-245 
 
 Scavenging Arrangement (General) 250 
 
 Water-Cooling System ,.251 
 
 Bolinder's Crude Oil Engines 483-489 
 
 Description (General) 483-484 
 
 Fuel Injection 484 
 
 Specifications 490 
 
 Starting Methods 487-488 
 
 Calorific Values 17, 100 
 
 Calorimeter 76 
 
 Cams 107, 158 
 
 Cam Roller, Heated _: 113 
 
 Carbon 117 
 
 Carbonate 84 
 
 Carbon Dioxide 84, 91, 96 
 
 Carbon in Steel 117 
 
 Carbon Monoxide 81 
 
 Carbon Tetrachloride . 607 
 
 Carnot Cycle 27 
 
 Cast Iron 116 
 
 Castor/ Oil 97 
 
 Centigrade 86 
 
 Centrifugal Pump 531-533 
 
 Charging System 154 
 
 Charles Law 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium 84 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 84 
 
 Chlorine 81 
 
 Chloroform 81 
 
 Chromium 117 
 
 Circle 39 
 
 Circulating Coil 213 
 
 Circulating System , 129 
 
 Circulating Water 110 
 
 Clearing of Cylinder . 154 
 
 Clutch Collar, Heating of 114 
 
 Clutch Collar, Slipping of 114 
 
 Clutch Coupling 212-215 
 
GENERAL INDEX 621 
 
 Clutch Gear 223 
 
 Clutch, Magnetic 214-215 
 
 Coal, Cost Comparison Table 102 
 
 Coal Tar 17 
 
 Coal Tar, Composition of 102 
 
 Coefficient 82 
 
 Coefficient of Linear Expansion 431 
 
 Coil, Third Stage Leaking 113 
 
 Colza 97 
 
 Combustibles, 33 
 
 Combustibles Calorific of 33 
 
 Combustible (Substances 33-36 
 
 Combustion 29-32 
 
 Combustion Chamber 133 
 
 Combustion, Improper 112 
 
 Combustion, Heat of 7b 
 
 Combustion, Proper, How to Detect 112 
 
 Commercial Ratings 214 
 
 Compressed Air Preheater 195 
 
 Compression Adiabatic 20 
 
 Compression, Adjusting of 111 
 
 Compression, Low 113 
 
 Compression, Loss of 112 
 
 Compression, Pressure 134 
 
 Compressor, Air 513^530 
 
 Compressor, Cause of Defects 514 
 
 Compressor, Construction of 105 
 
 Compressor, Duty of 105 
 
 Compressor, Efficiency of 526, 527 
 
 Compressor, Troubles with 110 
 
 Conduction, Definition of 16 
 
 Conductors 555, 556 
 
 CO,, 96 
 
 Constant Pressure Engine, Definition of 106 
 
 Constant Pressure Pump 536 
 
 Constant Torque 214 
 
 Construction (Horizontal and Vertical) in Low Compression Engines__440 
 
 Controller (Diesel Electric) ___' 397-399 
 
 Controller, Automatic 227-238 
 
 Control Equipment (Diesel Electric) 397-401 
 
 Control Equipment, Maintenance of (Diesel Electric) 420 
 
 Control Group (Diesel Electric) 421 
 
 Control Housing 133 
 
 Control Panel (Diesel Electric) 399 
 
 Control Pedestal (Diesel Electric) 394-395 
 
 Conversion Tables (See "Tables") 
 
 Cooler 179, 194 
 
 Cooler Oil __113 
 
622 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Coolers, Inter arid After ___193 
 
 Copper, in Steel 117 
 
 Copper Wire 434 
 
 Crankshaft, Breaking of _______114 
 
 Critical Pressures 84 
 
 Critical Temperatures 80-81 
 
 Crosshead 107 
 
 Crosshead vs. No Crosshead (Low Compression Engines) 442 
 
 Cutter-Hammer 224-231 
 
 Cummins Oil Engine 350-351 
 
 Description, General 350 
 
 Principle of Operation 350 
 
 Fuel Injection 351 
 
 Valve Arrangement _351 
 
 Starting 351 
 
 Datum Line 207 
 
 Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Tester 210 
 
 Decrease of Density 195 
 
 Defective Mechanism of Compressor 514 
 
 Definition of Reverse Gear 222 
 
 Densimetric Degrees 84 
 
 Density of Oil 99 
 
 Diagram, Valve Setting for 98 
 
 Reversing . 158, 160 
 
 Single Port Scavenging Two-Cycle Engine 65 
 
 Timing Two and Four-Cycle Engine 66 
 
 Diesel Electric Propulsion 373-434 
 
 Westinghouse __373-397 
 
 Advantages 378-380 
 
 Applications 383-384 
 
 Arrangement 384-389 
 
 Bridge Control 382 
 
 Brief Description of Units __374-380 
 
 Control 377 
 
 Engines 374-377 
 
 Exiter Arrangement 376-377 
 
 Fuel Economy _. 378 
 
 Generators 375-376 
 
 General Description 384-389 
 
 Limits of Capacity 380 
 
 Motors '__: 376 
 
 Performance 380-383 
 
 Port Operation 396-397 
 
 Principal Application Advantage 384 
 
 Reliability and Reserve Power ___ 378-379 
 
 Securing Electrical Machinery While in Port 396 
 
 Simplicity 379-380 
 
 Special Set Ups _ 396 
 
GENERAL INDEX 623 
 
 Switchboard and Control 390 
 
 Switches, Relays, etc. 390 
 
 Stand-by Conditions 380 
 
 General Electric 397-423 
 
 Controller 397, 397 
 
 Control Equipment 403-405 
 
 Control Panel 399 
 
 Electric Auxiliaries 405 
 
 Emergency Operation 417 
 
 Engine Room Panel 421 
 
 Exiter Panel 399 
 
 Generator, To Operate With One 415 
 
 Hull 401 
 
 Master Controller 408 
 
 Operation With Both Generators With One Armature Cut Out__ 417 
 
 Operation Caution 419 
 
 Resistance 421 
 
 Test in Operating 420 
 
 Diesel Engines, Example of: 
 
 Allis-Chalmers 323-328 
 
 Atlas-Imperial 344-349 
 
 Burmeister & Wain 282,288 
 
 Busch-Sulzer 237-252 
 
 Cummins Oil Engine 350-351 
 
 Dow Diesel Engine 253-256 
 
 Fulton Diesel Engine 257-261 
 
 Mclntosh & Seymour 266-271 
 
 National Transit Oil Engine 306-311 
 
 Nelseco Diesel Engine 272-281 
 
 Nobel Diesel Marine Engine 292-295 
 
 Nordberg Diesel Engine 262-265 
 
 North British Diesel Engine 311 
 
 Sperry Compound Diesel Engine 353-355 
 
 Standard Diesel Engine 329-341 
 
 Steinbecker Diesel Engine 311-312 
 
 Still Engine 355-361 
 
 Submersible Crafts 366-372 
 
 Vickers Diesel Engine 295-300 
 
 Washington Estep Diesel Engine " 361-365 
 
 Werkspoor Diesel Engine 301-306 
 
 Western Diesel Engine 300 
 
 Winton Marine Diesel Engine 289-291 
 
 Worthington Diesel Engine 311-312 
 
 Worthington-Snow Engine 318-325 
 
 Directions for Lubrication 218 
 
 Discs 220 
 
 Displacement of Ship 38 
 
 Distillate Oil . 98 
 
624 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Double-Acting Piston Diesel Engines 147 
 
 Double Clutch 224 
 
 Double Incline Lever 221 
 
 Duplex Oil Strainer 198 
 
 Draft Gauge - 207 
 
 Driving Power for Belting 543 
 
 Dry Air 528 
 
 Efficiencies, of Power Plants 174 
 
 Efficiency, Mechanical 13, 104 
 
 Of Compressor 526, 527 
 
 Of Pumps 530 
 
 Test - 51 
 
 Scavenging 14, 104 
 
 Thermal 13, 104 
 
 Thermal, Formula 48 
 
 Volumetric 14, 104 
 
 Electrical Auxiliaries 225-237 
 
 Electrical Data (Diesel Electric) 429-434 
 
 Electric Ignition (Low Compression Engines) 442-445 
 
 Elements, Relative Weight T 32 
 
 Elevations, Difference of - 546 
 
 Ellipse, Formula 39 
 
 Emergency Operation (Diesel Electric) 417-419 
 
 Engine, Constant Pressure, Definition of 57 
 
 Energizing Coil 213 
 
 Engineers, Licensing of 573 
 
 Engine Formula 46 
 
 Engines, High Speed 169 
 
 Engler, Viscosimeter 76 
 
 Equivalent of Heat 75 
 
 Equivalents of Pressures 542 
 
 Erwin System, Fire Extinguishing 606-7 
 
 Excess Air 96 
 
 Exciter Panels (Diesel Electric) 399 
 
 Exhaust Piping (Low Compression Engine) 447-448 
 
 Exhaust Valve, Leaking 112 
 
 Expansion, Adiabatic 15 
 
 Expansion, Heat of 16 
 
 Isothermal L 15, 20 
 
 Latent, Heat of 16 
 
 Linear, Coefficients of 43X 
 
 Of Pipe 72, 73 
 
 Of Water ^ 102 
 
 Ratio of 15 
 
 External Stresses _ 150 
 
GENERAL INDEX 625 
 
 Facts on Pumps 536 
 
 Fahrenheit Thermometers 86 
 
 Fairbanks-Morse Engines 498-508 
 
 Ferrovanadium 116 
 
 Filters 176, 178, 185 
 
 Fire Extinguishers 606-607 
 
 Fire, Precaution 606-607 
 
 Fordonian 407-416 
 
 Four-Cycle vs. Two-Cycle 136-146 
 
 Freighter, River Operation 169-173 
 
 Fuel Oil, 
 
 Calorific Value 17 
 
 Cost of 91 
 
 Constituents 103 
 
 Consumption 100 
 
 Equivalent for 90, 91 
 
 Heating of 81 
 
 Fuel Loses 96 
 
 Fuel Valves 105, 120-124 
 
 Function of Fuel Injection Pump 129 
 
 Formulas : 
 
 Accelerations 40 
 
 Adiabatic Calculation 20-23 
 
 Atomic Weights 32 
 
 Air, Composition of 32-34 
 
 Baume (Beaume) iScale 87-89 
 
 Brake Horsepower 47-50 
 
 Boyle's Law 35 
 
 British Thermal Unit 
 
 In Brake Horsepower per hour 48 
 
 In Jacket Cooling Water per hour 48 
 
 In Cycle Water per hour 48 
 
 Calorific Values of the 'Common Combustibles 33 
 
 Charles Law 35 
 
 Circle 39 
 
 Coal Tars 18, 102 
 
 Combustion 29, 499 
 
 Constant of a Propeller 49 
 
 Converting Specific Gravity into Degrees Baume and Vice 
 
 Versa 97 
 
 Constituents of Gas 32 
 
 Convenient Formulas 41 
 
 Cylinder Formulas 46-,47 
 
 Engine Formulas 46-47 
 
 Fahrenheit and Centigrade 86 
 
 Hydrometer Scales 84 
 
 Insulation Resistance . _ 423 
 
626 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Isothermal Expansion 20-23 
 
 Indicated Thrust of Propeller 44 
 
 Indicated Horsepower 26 
 
 Liquid Fuels 17 
 
 Mechanical Efficiency : 43-44 
 
 Pitch of Propeller 49 
 
 Pressure 41 
 
 Shaft Diameters 44-45 
 
 Strength of Seams 46 
 
 Valve Formulas 41 
 
 Velocities 40 
 
 Gas 21, 29, 31, 33 
 
 Gas in Oil Tanks 606-607 
 
 Gallons, Table of 92 
 
 Gallons, U. S. round Tanks 94-95 
 
 General Electric (See Diesel Electric) 
 
 Giant Oil Engines 440-448 
 
 Gravity . 33, 88, 89 
 
 Grease Extractors 185-186 
 
 Griscom-Russell 179-185 
 
 Gronwold System 606-607 
 
 Gulowsen-iGrei Oil Engines 506-507 
 
 Governors, Aspinall Type 161-163 
 
 Governors, Adjusting of 112, 163, 164, 165 
 
 Governors, Description of 161-163 
 
 Heads of Water 541 
 
 Heads, Tables 93, 94 
 
 Heat 
 
 Definition 28 
 
 Mechanical Equivalent 75, 76 
 
 Temperature 76 
 
 Units 50 
 
 Sensible and Latent 16 
 
 Vaporization 81 
 
 Specific 74, 85 
 
 Hemispherical Cavidity 79 
 
 Hexane 31 
 
 Hot Liners 442-445 
 
 Hoppe 187 
 
 Horsepower (.See Formulas and Tables) 37-53 
 
 Hydrogen 18 
 
 Hydrometer 76, 84, 549 
 
 Hydro Substances 19 
 
 Ignition 118 
 
 Failures of 124, 129 
 
 Electric , - 442-445 
 
GENERAL INDEX 627 
 
 Hot Ball 442-445 
 
 Hot Liner 442-445 
 
 Ingersoll Rand Oil Engines 449-457 
 
 Description, General 449-457 
 
 Design and Construction 457 
 
 Economy 450 
 
 Exhaust Stroke 452 
 
 Fuel Injection 450, 455 
 
 Gear Arrangement 457 
 
 Primm Oil Engine 456-457 
 
 Starting : 456 
 
 'Suction Stroke 452 
 
 Valve Arrangement 453-454 
 
 Working Stroke 452 
 
 Ingredients of Steel 116 
 
 Initial Temperature 517 
 
 Injection 120 
 
 Injection of Fuel 62, 108 
 
 Inlet Valves 520 
 
 Indicator Card, Practical Demonstration 22, 24, 25 
 
 Indicated Horsepower 26 
 
 Formulas 47 
 
 Test 50 
 
 Indicator, How to Apply 25 
 
 Inspection, (Diesel Electric) 420 
 
 Inspiration Stroke 123 
 
 Instruments, Recording 201-208 
 
 Isothermal Expansion 30 
 
 Insulation Resistance 421, 422 
 
 Inter 'Coolers for Air Compressors 193 
 
 Internal Stresses 150-153 
 
 Jacket Water 129 
 
 Jacket Water Measurment of 50 
 
 Jacket Water Recooling 191-193 
 
 Johnson-Carlisle 222-224 
 
 Joule's Law 35 
 
 Kahlenberg Heavy Duty Crude Oil Engine 491-496 
 
 Compressor 495 
 
 Description, General 492 
 
 Fuel Injection 493-495 
 
 Governor 495 
 
 Reversing 493 
 
 Specifications and Dimensions 496 
 
 "Kennecott" 
 
 General Description of 267 
 
 Kilovolt Amperes, K. V. A. 432 
 
 Kilowats, K. W. _ 432 
 
628 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Koerting 186-190 
 
 Knock in Cylinder 519 
 
 Latent Heats, Sensible ' 16 
 
 Expansion 16 
 
 Vaporization and Fusion 16 
 
 Licenses, Engineers' 573-576 
 
 Liquids Fuels, Value of 17 
 
 Liquid Measurement 98 
 
 Liquids, Solid 99 
 
 Liquid Substances, Calorific Values 100 
 
 Lloyds Rules, Extracts from 597-607 
 
 Low 'Compression Engine, Definition of 439 
 
 Low Compression Engines, Examples of: 
 
 Baltimore Oil Engine 487 
 
 Bolinder's Crude Oil Engines Rundlof's Patents 483-490 
 
 De La Vergne Oil Engines 457-467 
 
 Fairbanks-Morse Marine Oil Engines 497-504 
 
 Giant Oil Engines 441-448 
 
 Gulowsen- Grei Marine Engine 505-507 
 
 Ingersoll-Rand Oil Engines 449, 457 
 
 Kahlenberg Engine 491-496 
 
 Mietz and Weiss Oil Engines 508-512 
 
 Fetter Crude Oil Engine 489 
 
 Primm Heavy Duty Oil Engine 452-457 
 
 Wygodsky System of Oil Engines 468-483 
 
 Lubrication Hints 186-191 
 
 Machine Frames 116 
 
 Magnetic Clutch 214-216 
 
 Manganese in Steel 117 
 
 Manzel 199-200 
 
 Marine Diesel Engine for Twin Screw Ships 165-169 
 
 Mariner, Operation (See Diesel Electric) 401-407 
 
 Master Controller 408-421 
 
 Mechanical Efficiencies 13, 104 
 
 Mean Effectives on Horsepowers 534 
 
 Melting Points of Metals 431 
 
 Metals for Machinery 116 
 
 Metric Conversion Tables 51, 52, 97 
 
 Mietz & Weiss Oil Engines 508-512 
 
 Molecular Weight 32 
 
 Molybdenum 117 
 
 Motor (Diesel Electric) 385-38$ 
 
 Motorships 
 
 Fordonian 407-415 
 
 Kennecott 267 
 
 Mariner 401-407 
 
 Narragansett 297 
 
GENERAL INDEX 629 
 
 Muffler Pit 448 
 
 Multiples 540 
 
 Mclntosh & Seymour Engines 266-271 
 
 Air Compressor : 269 
 
 Auxiliaries 269 
 
 Comparison, Table of 270 
 
 Control 266 
 
 Crosshead 267 
 
 Description, General 266 
 
 Frames 267 
 
 Maneuvering Gear 267 
 
 Test Reports 270 
 
 Thrust Bearings . 267 
 
 National Transit Diesel Engines 308-311 
 
 Compressor 311, 520, 521 
 
 Description, General 307-309 
 
 Frames 309 
 
 Fuel Pumps and Governor 309 
 
 Spraying System 309 
 
 Neidig Oil Pump 196-198 
 
 Nelseco Diesel Engine 272-280 
 
 Air Starter 276 
 
 Compressor 275 
 
 Control 278 
 
 Description, General 272-273 
 
 Design 272 
 
 Fuel Consumption 278-279 
 
 Fuel Injection 275 
 
 Governor Arrangment 280 
 
 Lubricating System '. 276-277 
 
 (Nickel 116 
 
 Nordberg Diesel Engines 262-265 
 
 Construction 263-265 
 
 Cooling Arrangement 263 
 
 Fuel Consumption 263 
 
 Description, General 262 
 
 Sizes of Engines 262 
 
 Nobel Diesel Engines 292-295 
 
 Cylinders and Port Arrangement 293 
 
 Design and Construction 292 
 
 Fuel Consumption 292 
 
 Mean Indicated Pressures 292 
 
 Mechanical Efficiency 292 
 
 Operating and Reversing Features 294 
 
 Overall Dimensions 294-295 
 
 North British Diesel Engine _ 311 
 
630 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Oil, Burning Point 18 
 
 Oil, Density of 99 
 
 Oil Purification Arrangements 176-185 
 
 Oiler, Force Feed 199, 200 
 
 Oils, Heat Values 102 
 
 Oils Lubricating, Hints on __. 186-191 
 
 Oils. Measurements of 75 
 
 Origin, Specific Gravity of, etc. 97, 571 
 
 Physical Properties of 101 
 
 Oil Tar 18 
 
 Operating Cautions, (Diesel Electric 419-421 
 
 Operation (Diesel Electric) 395-397 
 
 Operating Test, (Diesel Electric) 420 
 
 Operation of Compressor i 517 
 
 Overload Relay (Diesel Electric) 421 
 
 Paragon 216-217 
 
 Paraffine Content in Oil 115 
 
 Pedestal, (Diesel Electric) i 394-395 
 
 Petroleum Substance 101 
 
 Petter -Crude Oil Engine 488-489 
 
 Piston, Travel of 109 
 
 Pistons, Water Cooling 107 
 
 Double Acting 146-150 
 
 Power Equivalents 52-53 
 
 Power Required for Pumping 535 
 
 Preheater, Compressed Air 195 
 
 Pressure of Water 75 
 
 Pressures Critical 84 
 
 Pressures of Water at Different Elevations 546 
 
 Primm Oil Engine (Heavy Duty) 456-457 
 
 Design and Construction 456-457 
 
 Ignition 457 
 
 Reversing Gear 457 
 
 Propellor: 
 
 Formulas 42-44 
 
 Pitch 42-44, 49 
 
 Thrust of 38 
 
 Propellor Motor (Diesel Electric) 385-389 
 
 Propellor Speed Magneto (Diesel Electric) 399 
 
 Pumps 531-547 
 
 Centrifugal 531-533 
 
 Computation of Capacities 533 
 
 Lubricating Oil 197, 198 
 
 Mechanical Oil 200 
 
 Scavenging _* 105 
 
 Fuel Injection 129-132 
 
 Purification Arrangements for Oil 176-185 
 
GENERAL INDEX 631 
 
 Quadrilateral Figure Formulas 39 
 
 Questions and Answers on Diesel Operation 104-117 
 
 Questions an Operator should know 435-438 
 
 Questions and Answers on Storage Batteries 556-558 
 
 Reavell Three Stage Compressor 523-525 
 
 Recording Instruments 201-207 
 
 Resisters 228 
 
 River-Freighter Operation 171-173 
 
 Reverse Gears for Marine Engines 215-225 
 
 Reverse Gear, Definition of 222 
 
 Reversing, Valve Setting for 158 
 
 Reversing, Methods of 158-161 
 
 Revolution Calculations 50' 
 
 Rheostat (Diesel Electric) 394 
 
 Rocker Arm, When Breaks 110 
 
 Rocking Lever and Cams 107 
 
 Rules, American Board of Shipping, Extracts from 582-596 
 
 Rules to Obtain Engineer's Licenses 573-582 
 
 Rules, Lloyds, Extracts from 597-605 
 
 Rundlofs Patents (See "Bolinder"). 
 
 Scavenging Arrangements 154-157 
 
 Scavenging Efficiencies 14, 104 
 
 Scavenging Pump 105 
 
 Schutte-Koerting 187-198 
 
 Screw, Power of 38 
 
 Seams Strength of 46 
 
 Sea Water, Composition of 19, 83 
 
 Semi-Diesel, see "Low Compression Engines" 
 
 Semi Steel 117 
 
 Shaft Formulas 44-46 
 
 Shafting, Material in 116 
 
 Shunt Motors (Diesel Electric) 428-429 
 
 Shunt Propeller Motor 385 
 
 Silencers 211 
 
 Silicon in Steel 117 
 
 Soap Bark 607 
 
 Solid Liquids 99 
 
 "Solitaire" General Description of 267-269 
 
 Solving Substances 84 
 
 Sparking, Dynamos, (Diesel Electric) 427 
 
 Specific Gravity 74, 75, 87, 90, 92, 97, 100 
 
 Specific Heat 15, 74 
 
 Specific Heat of Water 85 
 
 Sperry's Compound Diesel Engine 352-355 
 
 -Cooling System 355 
 
 Construction _ 353 
 
632 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Mechanical Efficiency 354 
 
 Principles of Operation 353 
 
 Valve Arrangement 354 
 
 Sphere 39 
 
 Spray Air Cooler 194 
 
 Spray Air System 111 
 
 Spray Valve 133 
 
 Spray Valve (Leaking) Pressure 112 
 
 Spray Valve Sticky 113 
 
 Standard Fuel Oil Engine 329-341 
 
 Air Compressor 334 
 
 Air Starting 336 
 
 Box Frame 332 
 
 Camshaft and Gears 336 
 
 Compressor 340 
 
 Description, General 340-341 
 
 Efficiency Performances 336-338 
 
 Exhaust ManifoM 335 
 
 Fuel Consumption 341 
 
 Fuel Injection 340 
 
 Fuel Injection Valve 336 
 
 Fuel Pump 335 
 
 Horizontal Type Description 339 
 
 Lubrication 336 
 
 Pistons 339-340 
 
 Scavenging Air Compressor 335 
 
 Scavenging Manifold '. 335 
 
 Starters, Air 106, 447 
 
 Starting Bottles 105 
 
 Starting Valve 19 
 
 Steam Engines, Economy Comparisons 174-175 
 
 Steel 116 
 
 Steel, Nickel 116 
 
 Steinbecker Diesel Engine 355-361 
 
 Fuel 311 
 
 History 312 
 
 Principle of Operation 312 
 
 Special Features 312 
 
 Steering Gear, Hydraulic Electric 235-236 
 
 Still Engine 355-361 
 
 Advantage of Combined Cycle 356-357-358 
 
 Definition of Parts 360-361 
 
 Description, General 355-356 
 
 Trials 358-359 
 
 Strain 115 
 
 Strength, Ultimate _ 115 
 
GENERAL INDEX 633 
 
 Stress 115 
 
 External 150-153 
 
 Internal 1 150-153 
 
 Submersible Craft 366-372 
 
 Sullivan Compressors 514-517 
 
 Sulphuric Acid ; 607 
 
 Switches (Diesel Electric) 390-394 
 
 Tables: 
 
 Baume Scale 87 
 
 Belting, Horsepower Transmitted by 542 
 
 Calorific Values (Liquid Substances) 100 
 
 Calorific Values, (Principle Constituents of Fuels) 103 
 
 Carbon Dioxide and Fuel Losses 96 
 
 Coefficients of Linear Expansion 431 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps, H. P. to Drive 543 
 
 Commercial Ratings of Sperry Electric Magnetic Clutch 214 
 
 Comparison of Averages Fuel Cost of 100 H. P. 175 
 
 Comparison of Efficiencies of Various Types of Power Plants 174 
 Converting Specific Gravity Into Degrees Baume and Vice Versa _ 97 
 Conversion Table for Degrees Baume (Lighter Than Water) to 
 
 Specific Gravity and Pounds per Gallon 92 
 
 Cooling Water, Nordberg Engines 263 
 
 Copper Wires, Dimensions, etc. 432 
 
 Critical Temperatures 81 
 
 Diesels, Application of Advantages of 384 
 
 Dry Air, Weight in Pounds per Cu. Ft. 528 
 
 Equivalent for Fuel Oil 90, 91, 98 
 
 Establishing Pounds per Square Inches to Head in Feet 93, 94 
 
 Expansion of Pipe 72, 73 
 
 Expansion of Water, (Maximum Density) 102 
 
 Fuel Consumption Constant Speed (Nelseco Engine) 278 
 
 Heat of Vaporization, Corresponding Values of Specific Gravity.- 100 
 
 Heat Values of Various Oils * 103 
 
 Hydrometer Scales 84 
 
 Liquid Measurement ___^__ 98 
 
 Mean Barometer Pressures Corresponding to Altitudes 529 
 
 Mean Effective Based on U. S. Gallons 98 
 
 Mean Effective Pressure and H. P. 534 
 
 Measurement Based on U. S. Gallons 98 
 
 Melting Points 431 
 
 Metric Conversion Table (iSolids and Liquids) 51, 52 
 
 Nobel Engines, Main Dimensions 294, 295 
 
 Official Temperatures and Critical Pressures 84 
 
 Oil, Density of _: ; 99 
 
 Oils, Origin, Specific Gravity, etc. 97 
 
 Preheating Temperature for Fuel Oil 81 
 
 Power Equivalents ,. , _ 52, 53 
 
634 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Pressures Corresponding to a Given Head of Water _ _ 541 
 
 Pumps, Capacities in ,_- - 533 
 
 Relative Atomic and Molecular Weight 
 
 Relative Cost of Coal and Oil _ - 91 
 
 Relative Humidity - 530 
 
 Round Tanks, U. S. Gallons per Foot Depth 94-96 
 
 Solid Liquids (Showing Temperature) . - 99 
 
 Solving Substances - 84 
 
 Specific Gravities Corresponding to Degrees Baume 547 
 
 .Specific Gravities in Degrees Baume and Twaddle, (Liquids 
 
 Heavier Than Water) 88, 89, 90 
 
 Specific Gravities in Degrees Baume (Liquids Lighter Than 
 
 Water) - 87 
 
 Specific Heat of Water - 85 
 
 Still Oil Engine, Trials of - 359 
 
 Strength of Materials - 71 
 
 Test of No. 7 Schutte & Korting Cooler - 187 
 
 Tensile Strength of Materials __70-71 
 
 Theoretical Leakage of Air at 70 Degrees F. 529 
 
 Thermal Efficiency, Diesel and Steam Engines - 270 
 
 Thermal Units in Water 83 
 
 Types and Sizes of Nordberg Engines 263 
 
 Variation of Texaco Ursa Oil With Temperature 188 
 
 Vicker's Engine, Efficiency Accomplishment 297 
 
 Viscosimeter Conversion Table (Reducing Sayboldt Times) 80 
 
 Washington-Estep Diesel Engine, Types, etc. 365 
 
 Water, Discharge of 544, 545 
 
 Water, Pressure of at Different Elevations _ 546 
 
 Weight in Pounds of Various Metals -_.572 
 
 Werkspoor Engines, Types, Dimensions, etc. 305 
 
 Western Diesel Engines, Dimensions, etc. 300 
 
 Winton Diesels, Overall Dimensions, etc. 291 
 
 (See "Formulas") 
 
 Tanks, Round 94-96 
 
 Temperatures, Critical 80, 81, 84 
 
 Tensil Strength of Materials 70-73 
 
 Tests, Applied to Internal Combustion Engines 51 
 
 Theory of Combustion (Low Compression Engines) _ 439 
 
 Thermal, Definition 104 
 
 Thermometer, Graduation of 86 
 
 Thermometer, High Pressure 85 
 
 Thermal Efficiency 48 
 
 Thermal Efficiency Test 51 
 
 TKermal Units and Water 83 
 
 Thermal Units (British) 13 
 
 Thermodynamics, Laws of 15 
 
 Thrust Computation 44 
 
 Timing, Fuel Valves . __.__._ 69 
 
GENERAL INDEX 635 
 
 Four-cycle Engine 66 
 
 Two-cycle Engine 65 
 
 Occurence of 108 
 
 Valves 65 
 
 Valves (Mechanical) - 67-69 
 
 Titanium, in Steel - 117 
 
 Triangle 49 
 
 Trunk Piston - 107 
 
 Tungsten in Steel 117 
 
 Two-cycle Engine, Demonstration of 
 See "Busch-Sulzer" 
 
 Two-cycle v. Four-cycle - 136-143 
 
 Types, Comparison of Efficiencies 174 
 
 Ultimate Strength - 115 
 
 Unit of Resistance 556 
 
 Unit of Power 556 
 
 Unit of Current - 556 
 
 United States Gallon 542 
 
 Useful Information on Batteries 571 
 
 Use of Water in Batteries - 549 
 
 Valves : 
 
 Actuating 107 
 
 Attachment, Air and Fuel 108 
 
 Air Compressor Discharge 113 
 
 Air Operated Piston 106 
 
 Air Starting 113 
 
 Exhaust 122 
 
 Formula 41 
 
 Fuel 64 
 
 Importance of 208-210 
 
 Fuel Injection _ 105, 120-124 
 
 Fuel, Timing of 69 
 
 Method of Setting 109 
 
 Spray 112, 113, 133 
 
 Timing of 77-80 
 
 Starting _> 18 
 
 Timing 65, 67, 68, 69 
 
 Vanadium 116 
 
 Vaporization, Latent Heat of 16 
 
 Velocities 41 
 
 Vicker's Diesel Engine 295-300 
 
 Camshaft 29~8-299 
 
 Control 298 
 
 Description, General 295-296 
 
 Fuel Injection 298 
 
 M/S Narraganset, Efficiency Accomplishment 297 
 
636 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Pumps - 300 
 
 Reversing, Method of - 299 
 
 Vilter Compressor - 518-519 
 
 Viscosimeter, Engler 77-78 
 
 Redwood - 78-79 
 
 Sayboldt 79-80 
 
 Viscosimeter Table 80 
 
 Viscosimetry - 77-80 
 
 Volumetric Efficiencies 14, 104 
 
 Ward-Leonard System (Diesel Electric) 379 
 
 Washlngton-Estep Diesel Engine 361-365 
 
 Cam Shaft 362, 363 
 
 Description, General 361 
 
 Fuel Injection - 361 
 
 Lubrication - 361, 362 
 
 Pumps 362 
 
 Reverse Gear 363 
 
 Starting 363 
 
 Thrust Bearing - 363 
 
 Types - J< : 4 
 
 Water: 
 
 Circulation of 110 
 
 Composition of Id 
 
 Cooling =, 107 
 
 Density of #2 
 
 Expansion of, Maximum Density 102 
 
 In Fuel - 114 
 
 Injection With Fuel (Low Compression Engines) 445 
 
 Pressure of 75 
 
 Sea, Composition of 18, 63 
 
 Viscosity of 82 
 
 Werksp'oor Diesel Engines 301-306 
 
 Air Compressor 303 
 
 Design and Construction 301 
 
 Fuel Injection 303 
 
 Reversing Gear 303, 304 
 
 Types, Marine and Stationary i 305 
 
 Valve Arrangement ' 304 
 
 Western Diesel Engine 300 
 
 Description, General 300 
 
 Westinghouse System 300 
 
 Winches, Electric 236-237 
 
 Windings, Drying Out of, (Diesel Electric) 423 
 
 Winton Marine Diesel 291 
 
 Air Compressor 289 
 
 Description, General 289 
 
 Injection Operation . 289 
 
GENERAL INDEX 637 
 
 Overall Dimensions, etc. 291 
 
 Valve Arrangement 289-291 
 
 Work and Power (Diesel Electric) 430 
 
 Worthington Solid Injection Engine 313-317 
 
 Combustion Chamber, etc. 313 
 
 Construction 314-315 
 
 Cylinder Combustion b!3-314 
 
 Design : 315 
 
 Development of Solid Injection 315 
 
 Early Solid Injection Diesel Engines 315-316 
 
 Fuel Pump and Control 317 
 
 Injection Chamber 313 
 
 Small Solid Injection Engine (Diesel) 316-317 
 
 Worthington Snow Oil Engine 318-322 
 
 Compressor 318-322 
 
 Description, General 318-319 
 
 Design 320 
 
 Economy 320 
 
 Fuel Consumption 321 
 
 Wygodsky System of Oil Engines 468-483 
 
 Atomizer t 468-470 
 
 Crankshaft ._ 477 
 
 Cylinders 479 
 
 Description, General 468 
 
 Design 475 
 
 Governor 473-475 
 
 Operation 477 
 
 Pistons 477 
 
 Pumps 478 
 
 Scavenging System 480 
 
 Scope of Use 482-483 
 
 Self Starting . _ 482-483 
 
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