221 
 
 ;-NRLF 
 
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LIBRARY 
 
 or THK 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOR 
 
 ( rl KT OK 
 
 Accessions Nv.ff&fQ . CLus No. 
 
POPULAR TREATISE 
 
 BEET ROOT CULTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 SUGAR FABRICATION 
 
 IN CANADA. 
 
 "Travaillex, pix-r.ox de la peine, 
 C'est le fond qui manque le moin> 
 Lafontaint. 
 
 BY OCT. C t UISSET, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL CHEMIST AND MAN! ! ' ii.KT HOOT SC^AR. 
 
 Trwaslated and published by order of the Legislature of Qu< ?>< 
 
 LIBRARY. 
 
 pUEBEC : 
 
 :Ci 3 ' PRINTING. ('': H. K. 
 
\ 
 
 /it 10 
 
DEPARTMENT OF AORICULTUBl AND PUBLIC WORKS. 
 
 Quebec, 12th August, 1875. 
 
 MR. QCTAVI CUISSWT, 
 
 Quebec. 
 Sir, 
 
 A copy of the book which you Lave published under th<? 
 title of " Popular treatise on Beet Root Culture and Sugar Fabri- 
 cation in Canada " having been laid before me, I deemed it 
 advisable to submit it for examination to Mr. Edouard Barnard, 
 of Yarennes, a gentleman well versed in studies of the kind, 
 and you will find, hereunto annexed, his very flattering estimate 
 of your rery interesting work. 
 
 I entertain the hope that the public will confirm his opinion 
 and subscribe liberally for your book, whose practical working 
 cannot fail to produce excellent results, in view of the establish- 
 ment of this branch of industry in this Province. 
 
 I have the honor to be, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 P. GARNEAU, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 
 THB HONORABLE MR. GARSEAU, 
 
 Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works. 
 
 ' 
 
 At the request of Mr. Moreau, Secretary of your Depart- 
 ment, I have carefully perused Mr. Octave Cuisset's book inti- 
 tuled " Popular treatise on Beet Root Culture and Sugar Fabri- 
 cation in Canada.'' 
 
fV 
 
 This work, which is easily read, giveg very exact inform- 
 ation on the culture of the sugar beet and its manufacture. It i* 
 f a. nature to popularize among our farmers this industry, whkk, 
 if established permanently, cannot fail to regenerate our agricul- 
 tural system. 
 
 I hare the honor to be, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient serrant, 
 
 lo. A. BA-XIUV*. 
 
LIB EAR F 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The idea of introducing the manufacture of beet- 
 root sugar into Canada, has during the last few 
 years, deeply moved the Canadian public,and assur- 
 edly nothing should more attract the attention of am 
 essentially agricultural people. 
 
 Not only would its manufacture be a source of 
 profit to those engaged in it and a boon for the work- 
 ing classes, but the general cultivation of the sugar 
 beet would necessarily introduce most desirable im- 
 provements in the agricultural system of the country. 
 
 In publishing this small work, I wish to convey 
 in the first part of it^ information to farmers as to 
 the manner best calculated to succeed in cultivating 
 this plant, and in the second part I will explain the 
 principles upon which the sugar is made. 
 
 In writing it,I endeavored specially to make my- 
 self understood by all who are able to read. 
 
 It is now by experience incontestably shown that 
 the soil of Canada is favorable to the culture of th 
 sugar beet. The numerous experiments made im 
 various parts of the country have sufficiently show* 
 that with a good system of cultivation 15 or 20 ton* 
 of beets per acre or 600 to 800 bushels, the ton com- 
 
tainiog 40 bushels, could be easily raised. This 
 alone would be sufficiently remunerative to satisfy 
 the ordinary requirements of agriculture, even if no 
 other results of the greatest importance to its future 
 p:*ogress, should arise therefrom. But it is not 
 enough that the quantity should appear sufficient : 
 for agriculture to be productive and satisfactory the 
 quality must equal the quantity, and that it should 
 produce for the sugar manufacture a raw material 
 possessing all the requisites necessary to be truly 
 remunerative in its subsequent making up. In fine, 
 the beet should contain a sufficient quantity of pure 
 sugar to permit of its economic extraction ; and in 
 this view again, there can be no doubt as to the 
 excellence and saccharine richness of the beets 
 raised in various parts of Canada, as well in the 
 Province of Quebec, as in Ontario. I will say 
 further : That they have been generally found to be 
 most uncommonly rich. Thus, whilst the juice that 
 I had before observed rarely exceeded 7 degrees 
 Beaume and never more than 8., or 5, 1 1 to 5, 88 
 eeatissimals or again 12<>, 61 to 14, 42 Brix, it has 
 keen acknowledged that the juice of the Canadian 
 keet generally marked 9 Beauine, say 6, 67 centes- 
 simals or 16, 24 Balling, which is a maximum that 
 kas been rarely met with in any country. 
 
 It is to be understood that I am here speaking <>t 
 sugar beets which have been cultivated according to 
 a good system and in suitable ground ; and which 
 were sown in proper time and were not taken up 
 until fully matured. 
 
For the perfect understanding of what I write, I 
 must here speak of areometer's and explain what I 
 mean by degrees Beaume, degrees Centessimal and 
 degrees Brix : in ordinary practice to ascertain the; 
 value of a sugar beet, it is scraped, the pulp is 
 pressed and the juice gathered and then weighed. To 
 weigh the juice, there are several instruments in 
 use, which when plunged into liquid show its 
 strength, as they sink more or less into it. Thes 
 instruments with which no doubt many are fami- 
 liar, but which th( j majority have never seen, are 
 called areometers. To ascertain the value of the juice 
 of the beet throw kinds of areometers are used : the 
 first, the Beaume areometer whose graduation is 
 somewhat arbitrary ; the second the centessimal 
 areometer, generally used in France and Belgium, 
 indicates directly the density of liquid and con- 
 sequently its specific gravity ; lastly, the third, that of 
 Balling or of Brix, specially designed to w r eigh solu- 
 tions of sugar in water, shows directly by its gra_ 
 duation the quantity of sugar in any watery solution 
 of this nature, either the juice of the beet, or cane 
 or the sap of the maple. 
 
 It is easily seen that the latter is the most useful 
 for the subject which occupies our attention, but as 
 it can not always be procured, whilst the Bean me 
 areometer is known and sold every where, it is 
 easy, by the use of comparative tables and simple 
 calculations, to arrive at the degree upon one of 
 these areometers, given the degree which a liquid 
 marks upon the other. Thus, T find either by UKJ 
 
8 
 
 tables or by calculation, that a juice which marks 
 in the Beaum6 areometer 7. 8, 9, respectively, 
 marks on the densimeter 5, 1 1, 5, 88, 6, 67 and on 
 the Brix areometer 12", 01, MO, 42, KK 2'*. 
 
 Aided by the figures just, given and the table 
 which I give on page 89, those who cultivate the 
 sugar beet may ascertain the industrial value of 
 their crop. 
 
 If therefore you have cultivated the sugar 1 KM- t 
 and wish to ascertain its industrial value, you must 
 take one root of the average size, or two roots one 
 large and one small, and scrape them in the direc- 
 tion of their length, so that if you do not scrape the 
 whole beet, the pulp shall -have been taken equally 
 from the head, the middle and the point. This pre- 
 caution is necessary to obtain a juice of the average 
 richness, for all parts of the beet are not equally 
 rich in sugar ; in fact it is well known that the 
 ttpper portions are poorer in proportion as the collar 
 is neared. This done, you place the pulp in a press 
 and you press it as much as possible ; you catch the 
 juice in a deep and narrow vessel and plunge in your 
 juice weigher, say the Beaume areometer : the point 
 of contact being noticed, you establish the degree. 
 Suppose you find 8 degrees and a half ; you wish 
 to have the Brix degree, the most rational of all, 
 you find in my table that 8 Beaum6 corresponds to 
 14, 42 Brix and that 9 corresponds to 16, 23 ; 
 between 14, 42 and 16, 24, there is a difference of 
 1, 82; halve this difference and add the half 0.91, 
 to 14, 42 and you have 15. 33 Brix corresponding 
 
to our 8 and a half degrees Beaume. That is to say 
 if the juice of the beet experimented upon were 
 a solution of pure sugar in water it would contain, 
 for a hundred pounds of juice. 84.67 pounds of water 
 and 15.33 pounds of sugar ; but as will be afterwards 
 seen these 1 5.33 pounds of matter in solution in the 
 water contain in addition to the sugar a variable 
 quantity of foreign substances, sometimes as much 
 as 25 and even 30 per cent, so that the absolute 
 richness in sugar of our juice, at the rate of 75 of 
 sugar for every 100 of matter in solution, comes to be 
 11 pounds and a half of sugar per 100 pounds of 
 juice. If we wish to know from these data the total 
 quantity of sugar contained in the beet, we would 
 admit what experience has shown to be the case, that 
 the beet contains 96 per cent of juice, although in its 
 manufacture only 80 per cent is utilized and by 
 multiplying the quantity of sugar im 100 pounds of 
 juice by 96 we would have in our case 1 1 . 04. I think 
 these data are sufficiently complete, and it will be 
 sufficient for me to add that when a beet yields juice 
 reaching 9 Beaume it is considered to be extremely 
 rich, deduction being always made of all physiolo- 
 gical circumstances that might accidentally tend to 
 disadvantageously modify the ordinary nature of 
 the juice; a beet yielding a juice of 8 Beaume is 
 very good ; that yielding a juice of 7 Beaume is 
 used with advantage ; whilst beets yielding a juice of 
 6 or less are unfit for manufacturing into sugar, 
 not because sugar cannot be extracted from them, 
 but because the cost of manufacture would be too 
 high in proportion to the results obtained. 
 2 
 
10 
 
 To arrive at strictly accurate results, we have 
 only to rely upon chemical analysis to give complete 
 satisfaction. But it is not my intention here to give 
 methods of chemically analyzing beets or juices,. 
 this would necessitate entering into details of too 
 complicated a nature for a work such as the one 
 that I intend to submit to the public. It is sufficient 
 if each will be able approximately to estimate the 
 industrial value of his crop, and 1 think, as I have 
 already stated, that those who read my work with 
 some attention will be able to make the necessary 
 experiments for themselves in a sufficiently accurate 
 manner, without having recourse to tedious chemical 
 processes of difficult study and comprehension. 
 
HISTORICAL NOTICE. 
 
 The manufacture of beet root sugar, one of the 
 finest and most important inventions of modern 
 times, is a project of the nineteenth century, so 
 fertile in great discoveries. Although the presence 
 of sugar in the beet had already been known, it 
 remained for this age to commence its extraction as 
 a manufacturing industry, and it was reserved to 
 France, the agricultural country par excellence, to be 
 the first to commence this new industry." 
 
 The establishment of beet root sugar factories 
 arose entirely from political causes. In 1806 the 
 Napoleonic sway had reached its highest. By his suc- 
 cessive conquests he had acquired a formidable 
 empire, of which the other states, Spain, Prussia, 
 Austria and even Russia were only as it were the 
 satellites ; one power alone counterbalanced that of 
 the great emperor and seemed to defy him, even in the 
 midst of his unheard of glory; the English govern- 
 ment was the irreconcilable enemy of the glorious 
 continental despot. Often had Napoleon gathered 
 formidable armies together to carry the war into 
 the territory of his uassailable enemy, whose in- 
 fluence he everywhere felt, but his enerny always 
 baffled his efforts. The emperor understood that he 
 could not conquer her. except by attacking her in 
 
the source of her power, her- commerce. This was 
 in fact England's vulnerable side, her immense 
 colonies and innumerable manufactures supplying 
 the world with innumerable quantities of fabrics. 
 The continental llMkude was decreed and the con- 
 quered powers were obliged willingly or unwillingly 
 to submit. By this treaty the entry of all raw or 
 manufactured goods, coming directly or indirectly 
 from England or her colonies was rigorously ex- 
 cluded from all European ports. 
 
 This measure caused an extraordinary develop- 
 ment in the various manufacturing industries of the 
 continent, and gave rise to several new industries, 
 such as that of artificial soda and of beet root sugar, 
 which have been abundantly successful. Napoleon 
 especially encouraged the latter, by generously re- 
 warding all efforts made to establish it. From that 
 time it has unceasingly prospered, and has now 
 spread over all the countries of central Europe. 
 
 It will suffice to read the following figures to 
 show the importance of this enterprise, which has 
 risen within the last century. 
 
PRODUCTION OF BEET ROOT SUGAR IN FRANCE.' 
 
 18-25 
 
 5 000 ton^ 
 
 183G 
 
 40000 " 
 
 185-2 
 
 68 000 " 
 
 1862 
 
 170 000 ." 
 
 1868 
 
 275 000 " 
 
 1872 
 
 30M,000 a 
 
 1874... 
 
 . 350.000 " 
 
 I here give a table showing the state of Beet 
 root sugar in Europe in 1866-67. 
 
 TABLE showing the Prod act ion of Beet Root sugar in 
 Europe in 1867. 
 
 
 Number of 
 Factories. 
 
 Sugar 
 produced 
 tons. 
 
 Product, of 
 each fact'y 
 tons. 
 
 Number of 
 acres under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 France.... 
 Germany.. 
 Austria.... 
 Prussia.... 
 Belgium... 
 Holland... 
 Poland.... 
 
 434 
 296 
 140 
 259 
 120 
 18 
 41 
 
 216,854 
 
 202,850 
 76,164 
 149,000 
 60,000 
 5,000 
 11,250 
 
 499 
 685 
 544 
 575 
 500 
 355 
 276 
 
 180,000 
 
 170,000 
 75,000 
 120,000 
 50,000 
 5.000 
 10,000 
 
 I have no data to show the present state of the 
 industry ; I only know, that in France there are 
 600 factories and that 350,000 tons, of sugar are 
 made, that in Belgium there are 200 with a produc- 
 tion of lOO^OOO tons; and that the other producing 
 
14 
 
 countries have since increased their amounts by 50 
 per cent at the least, so that the present production 
 of beet root sugar in Europe is : 
 
 .For France 350,000 tons. 
 
 " Belgium 100,000 " 
 
 " the other countries 600,000 " 
 
 Total 1,050,000 tons. 
 
0* THK 
 
 THTIVSRSITT 
 
 PART FRST. 
 BEET ROOT CULTURE. 
 
 t. CHOICE OF SOIL. 
 
 The beet may be cultivated in the majority of 
 soils which produce cereals ; but the most favorable 
 places for its culture are vegetable moulds, rather 
 sandy than argillaceous, deep, friable, soft to the 
 touch, warm, active, without stones and permeable. 
 The greater part of the soil of Canada fulfils these 
 conditions and is especially adapted to the culture of 
 the sugar beet ; it is in faci formed of alluvial deposit 
 or of argillaceous and calcarious earths in favorable 
 conditions. 
 
 Alluvion soils are the best, as well from their 
 composition as from the assimilative nature of the 
 matter contained and which furnishes nourishment 
 to the plants. Beets sowed in such soil come up 
 very well : they give the best return to the farm and 
 a substance of superior quality for manufacturing 
 purposes, provided always that these lands are kept 
 properly manured and drained, and are carefully 
 worked and cleaned. The sugar beet cannot succeed 
 in marshy lands, in which it gives only poor crops. 
 if this plant would grow in such soils and give an 
 
16 - 
 
 abundant harvest and roots of sometimes large di- 
 mensions, still the beet would furnish only poor 
 juice, not rich in sugar and having a great deal of 
 water and foreign substances, which would make it 
 unfit for manufacturing purposes and very difficult 
 to preserve. With such soils, drainage is absolutely 
 necessary to render the soil fit for beet culture. 
 
 Argillaceous soils are also very well fitted for the 
 culture of the sugar beet, if they are not too com- 
 pact and the sub soil permeable. These soils are in 
 good condition when with the clay they have a suf- 
 ficient quantity of sand 
 
 For rich lands about 50 per cent. 
 
 For sandy soils with clay basis Of) 
 
 For clay soils with sandy basis 75 
 
 When these soils drain easily, whilst retaining a 
 certain amount of humidity, have a vegetable coat- 
 ing sufficiently friable, are easily worked and do 
 not get a solid hard crust in dry weather after rain, 
 they generally give an abundant crop of good quality. 
 This is not the case with soils in which clay predo- 
 minates ; these soils are heavy, compact and dried 
 up and get into cakes which are very difficult to 
 break. The drills are not easily made and the seed 
 often fails. When properly cultivated and in a fa- 
 vorable season these lands, however, give larger 
 crops than argilacious sandy soils ; but altno' they 
 need not be rejected -for manufacturing purposes, 
 still the beets are often of inferior quality. Land of 
 
this nature should be improved as economically as 
 possible. 
 
 Galcarous soils are generally remarkable for the 
 fine crops that they yield. The reason is easily given, 
 the beet requires rapid growth, and once germinated, 
 the sooner it arrives at maturity the better it will be. 
 Every thing therefore that tends to quicken its 
 growth would increase the yield. The lime in the 
 soil makes it more easily warmed, more active and 
 hastens vegetation. Consequently, in crops gathered 
 at the same time, we would have from caicarious 
 soils richer beets and those giving a purer juice, 
 than from lands that have no. lime. One reason also 
 of this greater activity in caicarious lands is that 
 the lime in the soil hastens the decomposition of 
 the organic substances and of the principal alkalis 
 that they contain, and sooner prepares these prin- 
 ciples for absorption by the plant. 
 
 There are caicarious soils, however, that are 
 inert, which become unfit for the culture of the beet 
 and in which all other plants equally fade or die. I 
 speak here only of caicarious soils that have in them 
 in normal proportions, the two other primitive ele- 
 ments of the soil, sand and clay, and whose vegeta- 
 ble coating is of sufficient depth and friable, and this 
 is generally the case as well in this country as in 
 all others. Compact slate lands are met with, which 
 at first sight would seem to be unfit for beet culture. 
 To improve these lands and make them fit for this 
 culture they must be prepared. * 
 
 The greater part of the soil of Canada then, can 
 
- 18 
 
 be advantageously employed in the culture of the 
 sugar beet, and the facts that I have given are proved 
 by experience, as in several places many experiments 
 have been made in cultivating this plant and very 
 successfully. I would not however advise the sow- 
 ing this plant in light and shallow soils which scar- 
 cely retain the necessary humidity for the growth 
 of the beet ; low, marshy, cold lands must not be 
 used in this culture, as in them the beet cannot suc- 
 ceed in its growth. 
 
 2o CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 
 
 The beet is a plant which belongs to the temperate 
 regions ; it is the sugar cane of northern countries. 
 It is cultivated in Europe between latitude 60 and 
 40 north, and specially between Kiew in Russia 
 and Rome in Italy. It likes warmth and attains a 
 maximum degree of richness and purity under its 
 influence. Thus a temperate spring, with moderate 
 rain at intervals causes its rapid growth ; under this 
 influence, the leaves are developed, and soon cover 
 the ground, from which the roots are obtaining 
 nourishment, and, preventing it from drying by 
 intercepting the rays of the sun, they enable the 
 plant to endure without damage the heats of summer. 
 When the leaves cover all the ground the roots 
 then commence to be fully developed ; exterior work 
 seems to be arrested, and the work inside acquires- 
 the greatest activity, if the temperature is warm and 
 if from time to time the earth is refreshed with moder 
 a*te but not continuous rain. Whilst expanding, 
 
19 
 
 the beet, at this period, that is during the month of 
 August, is forming its sugar, and this is again an 
 important period for the final result. If the beets 
 have grown with favorable' surroundings, and the 
 months of August and September are warm and 
 dry but not without some frequent showers of rain 
 we are certain, that with every thing else favor- 
 able, our beets will ripen perfectly and will yield juice 
 of great richness and remarkable purity. 
 
 We cannot always expect to have such favorable 
 conditions as that I have just mentioned ; they do 
 not happen every, year. Does this mean that for the 
 years in which things are not quite so, that the beets 
 will not be good ! Let us reject all such notions. In 
 the value of the yield from the earth, there is a 
 maximum and minimum yield, between which is 
 found the average. Crops above the average are 
 considered as good, and as better the nearer they ap- 
 proach the maximum. On the other hand there 
 are, under the average, various degrees more 
 and more unfavorable. Each year will give different 
 returns of beets as well in quantity as in quality. 
 All crops are subject to these fluctuations. 
 
 3 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 I mean by preparation of the soil, all those 
 mechanical operations which are necessary to adapt 
 it to receive the seed of the beets, to mellow it, and 
 to place the fertilizing principles contained in it, in 
 such a condition that they may be assimilated by 
 
20 
 
 the seed. This work of preparation includes the 
 ploughing of the land in the fall and spring before 
 sowing. 
 
 The arable coating should be sufficiently deep and 
 strong so that the roots may descend deeply into it 
 and find new nourishment even down to the subsoil. 
 To attain this end, the land must be ploughed in 
 the fall to the depth of one and one half feet, and 
 upwards. As the beet should find in the soil a 
 certain quantity of alkaline salts in dissolution, the 
 field should be ploughed deeply in the fall and left 
 in furrows ; under the influence, of the air, the 
 moisture of the rain and snow, and of the frost, the 
 insoluble substances contained in the soil are dese- 
 gregated and are brought into the state necessary to 
 be absorbed by the plants'. This mechanical prepa- 
 ration of the soil is certainly the best method of 
 rendering the soil suitable for assimilation by the 
 plants. The better the ploughing, the better will be 
 attained the end aimed at in vegetation. In the fall 
 care should be taken to plough the same field several 
 time over. The turning over of the soil and the chang- 
 ing of that portion in immediate contact with the air 
 tends to increase in the soil a larger quantity of 
 soluble matter. When beets are to be grown after a 
 crop of cereals, whether corn, barley or oats, as 
 soon as this crop is taken up, the land should be 
 lightly ploughed over to pull up all the straw and 
 uproot all plants still growing. If this is done these 
 plants are prevented from arriving at maturity, to 
 produce seed that would poison the ground the 
 
21 
 
 I 
 
 following year. This ploughing is intended to hasten 
 
 the decay of the vegetable matter remaining from 
 the preceding growth, which under the action of 
 the air and moisture is rapidly transformed and 
 becomes suitable to nourish the subsequent crop. 
 The roots being thus destroyed, immediately after 
 the harvest, decomposition has more time to become 
 complete and it is further favored and hastened by 
 the still high temperature of the season. During the 
 fall, when the straw, the roots and the plants are 
 destroyed, the land should be ploughed as deeply as 
 possible. This deep mellowing of the soil cannot be 
 too strongly recommended and for beets in particular 
 it seems to give the best results. The moisture after 
 penetrating this ploughed strata can not afterwards 
 evaporate as easily ; it is stored in the soil and forms 
 a reserve whose future action, in dry seasons is very 
 necessary for vegetation. In dry seasons the plant 
 will draw up by its roots from the sub-soil the 
 moisture not to be met with in the layers nearer 
 the surface. The bases of the arable coating thus 
 become a permanent reservoir of moisture ; at the 
 same time being a protection against changes of 
 temperature, for after rain it absorbs a much larger 
 quantity of water than the soil which had been only 
 superficially ploughed. Lastly, general experience 
 has shown that deep autumn ploughing is of the 
 greatest advantage to the growth of the beet and. its 
 influence is specially efficient during dry seasons. 
 
 In countries where the soil has never been culti- 
 vated except to a very small depth, and in which 
 
the rotation of crops does not allow of deep ploughing 
 every year, it would be well to break up the sub- 
 soil with a sub-soil plough, so as to mellow the 
 lower courses without mixing them with those of 
 the surface, richer in manure. 
 
 During the winter the furrows made by the 
 plough are left open. The frost tends to break up 
 the cakes ; the water from the rain, which has filled 
 all the small pores of the mass expands in freezing 
 and reduces the earth to dust. Thus is obtained a 
 pulverized mellow surface, perfectly prepared for 
 the reception of the grain whose particles will sur- 
 round the seed and favor its growth. 
 
 From what we have said, it is certain that good 
 ploughing at proper seasons, notably tends to increase 
 the nutritive qualities held in solution in the earth. 
 Such ploughing really takes the place ofmamireand 
 is thus true economy. A well ploughed field may, 
 with less manure, yield as much as a field badly 
 ploughed but batter manured; or which is the same 
 thing, being equally manured the yield of a field 
 will be so much the better if the plounhing in the 
 fall has been carefully and properly done. 
 
 By burying the straw in the fall, the soil is 
 rendered more porous and mellow and thus it faci- 
 litates the necessary circulation of air and moisture. 
 Organic substances remaining from the preceding 
 crop or brought with the manure, are decomposed 
 in the soil. The gas which they give off causes a 
 certain degree of fermentation which contributes to 
 the mellowing of the ground. Each straw and root 
 
23 
 
 when decomposed or pu trifled leaves a canal through 
 which the air penetrates to forward decomposition 
 in the lower strata. 
 
 Formerly, the fields in which beets were intended 
 to IDC sowed were worked over several times, either 
 with the spade or hoe. Ploughing is a more certain 
 and rational operation and the only one that can be 
 employed in working to any great extent. Here, as 
 every where, machinery is better than hand labor, 
 which is always more expensive. The plough is 
 adapted to all agricultural labor and is more efficient 
 than unskilled hand labor in opening up the soil 
 regularly and to a constant depth. If required, the 
 land may be alternately ploughed across its length 
 and breadth and the soil thus equally mixed. The 
 rapidity of the work, due to the use of the plough, 
 allows a larger surface of ground to be prepared, an 
 essential condition for beet culture. 
 
 It will be seen by that which precedes what are 
 the advantages to be derived from careful ploughing 
 in the autumn, and the influence it has upon the 
 growth of the beet. Its influence is none the less 
 felt upon other crops, raised from the soil under a 
 good system of rotation. The earth contains an in- 
 exhaustible quantity of substances adapted to assist 
 the nourishment of plants. To be assimilated, these 
 substances must become soluble and everything 
 that tends to this end, will increase the immediate 
 richness of the soil and render it capable of returning 
 a maximum yield to the farmer. Land is capital, 
 real capital, unvarying capital; cultivated in any 
 
-24 
 
 way, it will give interest of some sort; but we must 
 not be content to receive interest of some sort, if by 
 earnest work this capital may be made to yield two, 
 three or four fold, &c. The industrious farmer is 
 amply repaid his efforts by the results he obtains ; 
 agriculture and the branches depending upon it are 
 the only really staple industries upon which we can 
 at all times depend. Farmers, love your occupation, 
 cherish your farms, work them and labor upon them, 
 they contain inexhaustible riches, which they will li- 
 berally bestow upon you. In this connection I cannot 
 avoid quoting one of the apologues of the great french 
 fabulist, Lafontaiae. An old man. on his death bed. 
 speaks to his children : 
 
 " Travaillez, prenez de la peine, 
 
 C'est le fonds qui manque le moiiis. 
 XJn riche laboureur, sentant sa mort prochaine, 
 Fit venir ses enfants, leur parla sans temoins : 
 4i Gardez-vous, leur dit-il, de vendre 1 'heritage 
 " Que nous ont laisse nos parents, 
 " Un tresor est cache dedans. 
 tl Je ne sais pas 1'endroit, mais un peu de courage 
 " Vous le fera trouver, vous en viendrez a bout. 
 "' Remuez votre champ des qu'on aura fait 1'aout : 
 *' Creusez, fouillez, bechez, ne laissez nulle place 
 
 " Ou la main ne passe et repasse." 
 Le pere mort, les fils vous retourneiit le champ, 
 Deca, dela, part-out ; si bien qu'au bout de 1'an. 
 
 II en rapporta clavantage, 
 
 D'argent, point de cache, mais le pere fut sage 
 De leur montrer avant sa mort. 
 Que le travail est un tresor." 
 
Work, do your best, the farm is the only thing which 
 will not delude you." 
 
 A rich farmer, feeling that he was about to die, called his 
 children to his bedside and spoke to them in private. 
 
 " Do not said he, sell, the inheritance which has come to 
 us from our ancestors : a treasure is hidden therein. I don't 
 know the exact place, but with a little courage, you shall find 
 it; Work up your field immediately after harvest turn it over, 
 search into it, dig into it, leave no place unturned." 
 
 When father died, his sons plowed and worked the field 
 here and there and every where, so much so that at the -year's 
 end. it yielded a large return. Of money none was hidden, but 
 the father was wise in teaching them before his death, that labor 
 in itself is a treasure. 
 
 I will not comment upon this apologue, it is 
 easily understood by any one that reads it. 
 
 I think that I have sufficiently enlarged upon 
 the preparatory ploughing in the fall. I must now 
 speak of preparing the ground in the spring for the 
 seed. 
 
 Generally the harrow and roller are solely used 
 in preparing the soil for the seed, and this with a 
 view of retaining in the soil all the moisture possible. 
 This method, however, is not sufficient unless for 
 highly cultivated lands. In other places, the winter 
 farrow is .first smoothed by the harrow or roller. 
 The cakes are as much as possible broken and 
 smashed, Chen the ground is grubbed and harrowed. 
 The sowing then takes place and the land is after- 
 wards rolled. 
 
 But in fields, in which noxious weeds are easily 
 produced,a light ploughing would be the best means 
 
26 
 
 of causing these parasites to disappear. It would also 
 mark out more mellow ridges for the seed. It is true 
 that by so doing, the land would through the inva- 
 riably dry winds of the spring lose a great portion 
 of its moisture ; but one fall of rain will restore the 
 soil to its normal state of moisture. From the more 
 rapid growth thus secured to the beets the weeds are 
 killed off by them, and a more abundant harvest is 
 assured. A multiple share plough which would give 
 a smeoth surface for the seed 3ould be advanta- 
 geously employed. 
 
 In terminating this section 1 will give a general 
 rule, which should always be a guide to farmers. 
 
 The land must be worked as well before as after hav- 
 ing been sown, BUT IT MUST NEVER BE WORKED EXCEPT 
 WHEN DRY. All work in land when it is wet is more 
 hurtful than useful. The ground cakes and becomes 
 compact, instead of mellow and remaining subject to 
 atmospheric influences ; and the growing plant entrusted 
 to it can only grow under unfavorable conditions. 
 
 4. ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Rotation is the system which determines the suc- 
 cession of crops in a field. 
 
 The choice of a good system of distribution or 
 rotation is of vital importance to agriculture and it 
 is especially necessary when the sugar beet is ex- 
 tracted. The object of rotation is so to arrange the 
 crops that each shall draw from the earth the subs- 
 tances necessary for its growth and under the most 
 
27 
 
 favorable conditions. Tf all plants draw from the 
 earth the same elementary principles they do not 
 draw them in the same proportions nor in the same 
 combinations, and their regular succession allows 
 each in its turn to draw the nourishment best fitted 
 for it. Every one knows, without it being neces- 
 sary for me to explain, the little- advantage to be 
 gained by cultivating the same plants in the same 
 fields for several years in succession : the land soon 
 loses all the substance required by the plant and 
 the crops gradually grow less and less. It can 
 hardly be objected that in uncultivated lands we see 
 indefinitely reproduced, with equal strength of vege- 
 tation, plants spontaneously produced, for we can 
 find in their very diversity a simultaneous rotation 
 which prevents the destruction of the equilibrium 
 of the soil. In a good system of rotation, care must 
 be taken to take a natural order, that is to say 
 the preceding crop prepares and gives way to the 
 succeding one. 
 
 For example beets require a clean, mellow, and 
 deep soil : to have clean soil, for any given year, a 
 plant must be cultivated the preceding year, which 
 by its vigorous growth has choked the greater part 
 of the weeds or which has allowed them to be des- 
 troyed by being cut before their seed has arrived at 
 maturity. 
 
 A rotation of three or four years is often followed. 
 
 In Europe, I have often observed the following 
 four year system. 
 
-28 
 
 Rye or corn, 
 
 Beets, 
 
 Spring cereals, 
 
 Clover with dressing in autumn. 
 
 Glover is sown in the spring of the third year and 
 dressing is applied in the fourth year for fall plough- 
 ing. Here in Canada, the three year system might be 
 adopted as follows : 
 
 Rye, oats, potatoes, 
 Fodder plants with dressing, 
 Beets, 
 or 
 
 Fodder plants with dressing, 
 
 Corn, rye or oats, 
 
 Beets. 
 
 This latter mode would perhaps give smaller 
 crops, but the beets would generally be better. 
 
 When dealing with very rich lands, a beet crop 
 must always be preceded by a crop of cereals, and 
 the land mast not be manured between them if it is 
 desired to secure good beets giving excellent juice. 
 The crop of the preceding year is in itself a sort of 
 dressing. That which is left in the soil, the straw 
 for example,is buried in ploughing, and when decom- 
 posed gives its elements to the new generation of 
 plants that are developing. It is thus easily under- 
 stood that a good system of rotation is important in 
 cultivating the beet, which in great measure profits 
 by the quantity often large of the various leavings of 
 
-29 
 
 anterior crops. The more numerous these leavings 
 and the more they bring organic matter in decompo- 
 sition to the earth, that is to say the more manure, 
 the more do they assist in mellowing the soil and 
 giving to it a greater adaptability to be influenced 
 by atmospheric changes. But although important, 
 the advantages of a good system of rotation in 
 producing sugar do not end here. Preceding vege- 
 tation also serves to extend and dilute the nutritive 
 elements of the soil and thus improve the beet. 
 
 > MANURE. 
 
 It would be superfluous in the presont state of 
 agriculture in Canada, and within the confined 
 limits of such a treatise as the present, to speak of 
 the infinite number of manures both natural and 
 artificial that are in use in the old countries of 
 Europe. In these countries, where for a long time 
 agriculture has been forced, very many substances 
 have of necessity been used to return to the earth, 
 those principles which are annually taken from it 
 by the crops to prevent its being exhausted. Canada 
 has not yet arrived at this state ; its soil is naturally 
 rich and abundant, and it will be sufficient for the 
 farmer, at least at present, to plough his land careful- 
 ly and collect such manure as he can. It would be 
 only advantageous to him to increase the number 
 of his cattle, to produce a larger quantity of manure. 
 It it not many years since, in the countries in which 
 I for a long time lived, agriculture was not obliged 
 to mike u : e of all those manures more or less 
 
3U 
 
 artificial which are now sold; it had only to learn 
 how to make a profitable use of all the riches which 
 were being lost every where on the farm. Within 
 reach of the farmer there were numerous precious 
 substances which they have learned to collect with 
 the greatest care. As soon as there was need lie 
 endeavourd to increase these substances. Cattle had 
 heretofore been only considered from a commercial 
 point of view, they were soon to be considered as a 
 factory for manure and they were increased as much 
 as possible. The old useless and even hurtful fallows, 
 nurseries of seeds of hurtful weeds, were replaced 
 by fine crops of fodder plants which served to feed 
 the cattle and improved in place of deteriorating the 
 land. The amount of fodder to be used was increased : 
 the manure, from the stable-, was placed in watertight 
 ditches or placed in contact with purin. where decom- 
 position set in, and it thus became more suitable to 
 give up in a shorter time its nutritive qualities to 
 the plants. The stale was directed to these manure 
 heaps to increase their value, or collected in separate 
 cisterns to be distributed over th-j natural or arti- 
 ficial grass lands. All the stray and hurtful farm 
 rubbish was gathered together and mixed with 
 lime to form. valuable compost, to be applied, in the 
 fall, upon the fields being prepared for the culture of 
 the beet or in -the spring upon artificial grass lands. 
 Under the influence of these improvements agri- 
 culture soon attracted to itsolf large capital, and 
 when the time came that the land required an 
 increase of manure, which wr>s not just at hand, 
 
31 
 
 the farmers were enabled to produce the necessary 
 funds for its purchase. 
 
 Thus, as I have said, the Canadian farmer in the 
 mean time need only turn round to find about him 
 a valuable and sufficient source of riches, for his 
 present' use and future enjoyment. Let him work 
 his fields carefully, not lose any sort of manure, let 
 him increase the quantity of manure within his 
 reach and make a judicious use of what he has, let 
 him adopt a good system of rotation, and if he is 
 active, careful and economical, I may guarantee 
 that he will not long fail to enter upon the 
 road that leads to fortune. Let him attach his son 
 to the farm, it is better for the son to remain a far- 
 mer than to vegetate in large towns, there to lose the 
 love of his family, the habit of working and spend 
 a life often useless both to himself and to society. 
 
 The principal manures that we have at our im- 
 mediate disposal are green and stable manure. 
 
 Green manure has been employed at all times 
 and in all countries ; it consists in plants that are 
 allowed to grow and are afterwards buried in the 
 earth. In North America red clover is not. mowed/ 
 it is merely buried as a manure. In this country 
 maize is often repeatedly grown on exhausted lands 
 for the same purpose. The green plant is each time 
 buried in the soil with its leaves and thus makes 
 more manure for the land. In France, England and 
 Belgium, buckwheat, vetch and theafter growth of 
 clover, fc &c., &c., are used for the same purpose. 
 These crops are buried when just about to flower. 
 
32 
 
 The warmth of the air and soil tends to the rapid 
 decomposition of these organic matters full of sap 
 which spreads more evenly through the land than 
 any other manure and brings to it a rich provision 
 of nourishment gathered for the most part from the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Green manure in being transformed in the soil 
 gives rise to such gaseous products, as ammonia, car- 
 bonic acid which can be almost entirely absorbed 
 by the land, whilst the decomposition of nearly all 
 other manures is attended with serious loss. 
 
 These gases retained by the moisture of the land 
 afterwards give nourishment to the plants. 
 
 Green manures are specially advantageous for 
 beets, as they do not burn and do not introduce into 
 the root any excess of matter which might tend to 
 prevent the extraction of sugar. In the interests of 
 the manufacturer, we value the beets grown 
 with green manure at a higher rate than those 
 grown with any other manure. 
 
 Green manure may be advantageously employed 
 in sparsely settled countries, in which there is a 
 great quantity of land at disposal, because it avoids 
 expense in labor and cartage. 
 
 This manure may be also used in conjunction 
 with stable manure ; manure is often spread over 
 the plants before they are buried. 
 
 Green manure produces the same effect as would 
 the manure of a herd of cattle who had consumed 
 three times the amount of fodder. 
 
33 
 
 Stable manure is the most used. It contains nearly- 
 all the elements necessary for ordinary farming, 
 which the crops take from the soil. For beets, a fresh 
 dressing of this manure gives a more abundant crop, 
 but the juices of the roots are less pure and more 
 charged with organic and mineral substances which 
 prevent the extraction of sugar; it is therefore in 
 the interest of manufacture, better to raise one crop 
 between the fresh dressing and the culture of the 
 beet, either a crop of corn, rye, barley or oats. 
 
 The manure, before application, must be kept in 
 such a way that it shall not become heated or dried 
 \ip, so that all its fertilizing qualities may be re- 
 tained. 
 
 Liquid excrements are an excellent manure easily 
 assimilated. It is estimated that 'urine has a value 
 equal to five times its weight of good stable manure. 
 To facilitate its preservation and use, it is collected 
 sometimes upon dust or dry earth. A. pulverulent 
 and inodorous manure and one very suitable for 
 beet culture is thus obtained. 
 
 Lmie"ha.s a very efficient action upon beets, it 
 fixes the free acids of the soil and prevents their 
 hurtful effects; it also decomposes the insoluble 
 organic and mineral combinations contained in the 
 soil, and makes them soluble and adapted to vegeta- 
 tion. Lime thus revivifies and renders profitable the 
 inert treasures of mother earth, and brings about a 
 more rapid return of capital, a result everywhere 
 regarded as a considerable advantage. Lime is, 
 therefore, for the manufacturer an important means 
 3 
 
34 
 
 of securing good beets in as short a season as pos- 
 sible. It cannot exercise a hurtful action even if 
 employed in too large quantities so as to extract 
 from organic substances more ammonia than can 
 be retained by the earth. Lime does not exhaust the 
 soil by prematurely subtracting therefrom, but 
 rather returns to the earth the interest of the dead 
 capital lying enclosed in it. 
 
 Naturally lime is only useful when the soil has in 
 it large and undecomposed quantities of mineral and 
 organic substances, and when the land is of itself 
 neither active nor warm enough to extract all these 
 necessary substances without assistance. Lime is 
 therefore a method of assuring the most prompt 
 utilizing of the manure, and it is for this purpose 
 that it is mixed in compost. Lime decomposes organic 
 substances and it is through it that the hurtful 
 decomposition of plants is transformed into fermen- 
 tation, which is necessary for vegetation. 
 
 Lime is used in various ways. Quicklime is 
 mixed with vegetable refuse, cleanings of streams 
 and ditches, and dust from roads. When the lime 
 is quickly slacked, it is mixed as much as possible 
 with the other matters by moving the mass with a 
 shovel. This manure is applied to fodder crops in 
 the spring or on the same crops in the fall before 
 ploughing ; or, and very advantageously, upon the 
 fields in preparation to receive the seed of the beet 
 Sometimes small heaps of lime are made regu- 
 larly in the fields and they are covered with a few 
 shovelfulls of earth, and when the lime is slacked 
 
35 
 
 it is spread over the field. This method is applied 
 to the fields under cultivation and specially in the 
 spring before sowing beets. The lirne also is finally 
 slacked in a covered place and it is spread indust 
 over the field which is to be or has just been sown. 
 The quantity of lime to be used per arpent is 
 generally from 4 to 5000 pounds or about 40 bushels. 
 
 $ (). SOWING THE BEET. 
 
 All beets contain sugar, but ail cannot be advan- 
 tageously used in the manufacture of sugar. In fact 
 the beet which is generally cultivated for cattle cannot 
 be used in manufacture. In addition to containing, 
 only a small proportion of sugar, it contains in 
 greater quantities albuminous matter which itself 
 is antagonistic to the extraction of sugar. The 
 presence of this foreign \substance would not make 
 the beet unfit for distilling purposes, but it cannot 
 be employed with advantage for this purpose on 
 account of its scarcity in sugar,and consequently ils 
 poor return in alcohol. Thus, as I stated in the intro- 
 ductory portion of my work, beets to be suitable for 
 manufacturing into sugar, should contain a juice 
 which will show a strength of at least 7 degrees on 
 the Beaurne areometer ; and further that these 
 juices must be sufficiently pure, so as not to hinder 
 the extraction of sugar. 
 
 In the manufacture of sugar several kinds of 
 beets are cultivated, the chief of which are : 
 The S'ilesian bee' with the rose collar. 
 
36 
 
 file Silesian beet with the green collar. 
 
 These beets are originally from Silesia, an eastern 
 province of the Kingdom of Prussia. They are most 
 generally cultivated in Belgium and France. They 
 are the richest in sugar, their tissue is firm and they 
 are better able to resist the influences of cold and 
 the like, and the firmness of their tissue permits 
 of their being easily kept. I have always seen 
 this kind used. I have known some farmers and 
 manufacturers to prefer the rose collar and some the 
 green, but their preference did not seem to me to be 
 based upon any industrial advantage. The yield of 
 the one cannot be considered to be better either in 
 quantity or quality than that of the other. For rny 
 part, both for growing and manufacturing, I have 
 always preferred the green collar, and I must admit 
 that I can find no reason* whatever to justify my 
 choice. Some however think that rose collar beets 
 are apt to degenerate, but no positive experiment has 
 given rise to this opinion. It would also appear that 
 green collars are better able to withstand frost, but 
 this again is a very rash assertion. However, farm- 
 ers often sow both separately and sometimes mixed 
 half and half. The reason for this mingling, whose 
 necessity is not very apparent, seems to be easily 
 explained, that influences might arise which would 
 be contrary to the one and not affect the other, 
 and thus a goo(l crop would be obtained at any rate. 
 
 Beet seed consists in a hard envelope which 
 contains several small germinating seeds, sometimes 
 3 and sometimes 5. Each small seed is made up of 
 
37 
 
 the germinating particle and another substance to 
 serve as the first nourishment of the plant, the fecula. 
 When the seed is exposed to moisture for a certain 
 time, the envelope is softened and the moisture 
 reaches the germ itself. Under the influence of this 
 moisture the germ swells and bursts the envelope, 
 the fecula is gradually transformed and is the first 
 nourishment of the germ, as milk is the first nourish- 
 ment of mammals. During this time, the germ 
 develops and the root shows itself and is soon 
 enabled to draw from the earth the nourishment 
 suitable to it. Two small leaves are then noticed 
 making their appearance and the root descends 
 vertically into the earth. When the two leaves 
 appear, the root has attained a length of about 
 2 inches. This root develops very rapidly arid soon, 
 after one or two weeks, the leaves are strong enough 
 to assist the growth of the plant by a sort of breathing 
 or respiration of the air. 
 
 The influences necessary for germination are 
 air moisture and moderate heat. If one of these in- 
 fluences is absent the seed cannot germinate, or if 
 it germinates, vegetation languishes and the germ 
 will soon die. Thus you may keep the seed in dry 
 air and in any heat, without it ever germinating ; 
 a too low temperature prevents germination. For 
 as a seed can germinate in vacuo or in water, 
 although apparently deprived of air, it does so, be 
 causs water always contains to a greater or less 
 degree a certain quantity of air, and the vacuum 
 could not have been altogether absolute, so that a 
 
 or xn 
 
38 
 
 small quantity of air must have remained, sufficient- 
 for germinating the seed, but which in a short tim< 
 is insufficient for growth and the young plant soon 
 languishes and dies. 
 
 At first heavy moisture does nol seem to hurt 
 germination, but if prolonged the plant is soon seen 
 to wither. Too great heat would prevent germi- 
 nation and growth : both heat and moisture must 
 be within the 'ordinary natural limits. 
 
 Some seeds of plants retain their germinating 
 power for many years, others again lose it in 
 a very short time. Beet seed for example germi- 
 nates less quickly at the end of two years, and 
 becomes more and more slow until it at last loses this 
 power altogether. In this connection I will mention 
 what occurred to myself as an example which 
 those who intend to undertake the culture of the beet 
 may profit by : it happened in 1869 in Belgium. 
 I then managed a factory in the province of Hainaut 
 and had to supply seed to sow 600 arpents of land, 
 the contracting farmers being obliged by their 
 agreement to use only the seed furnished to them. 
 The quantity of seed required was about 8000 Ibs., 
 say 14 Ibs. per arpent, I had grown on account of 
 the factory the seed required ; but I had 200 Ibs. 
 remaining over from the preceding year which I 
 intended to supply to these farmers whose land 
 seemed more adapted to hasten germination, or 
 which were early ready for the seed. I was more- 
 over certain from experiments made that the seed 
 had in no way lost its germinating quality. But 
 
39 
 
 during an absence of a few days, one of the factory 
 hands, whom I had entrusted to serve out the seed 
 to the farmers, mixed this seed with an equal quan- 
 tity of the new seed. The error was irreparable, 
 as the seed had been delivered before my return. 
 T took note of the farmers to whom it bad been 
 delivered and observed the consequences : a portion 
 of the seed, undoubtedly the new, came up in ten 
 days, and every one, except myself was surprised 
 that the plants were so far apart : eight or ten days 
 afterwards however the balance of the seed sprang 
 up. Unless under favorable climatic circumstances 
 this would have caused great inconvenience, but 
 nothing came of iN, as on thinning out sufficient 
 plants were found to cover any vacancies and the 
 crop did not suffer. However "the case seemed to me 
 of sufficient importance to put me on my guard in 
 the future against its repetition. I must also warn 
 my readers against such an inconvenience. They 
 must endeavor to secure seed grown the preceding 
 year or at least not more than two years before ; 
 and specially if they have seed of two different 
 years let them take care not to mix them, but sow in 
 different fields the seeds of different growths, and 
 place the oldest in the most active fields and in 
 those that are soonest sown. 
 
 *0n this subject of seed I would ask those who are 
 engaged in the culture of the beet not to neglect 
 trying it first. For this purpose, before sowing, a 
 small box with proper earth is placed in a room and 
 a certain number of seeds, carefully counted and at 
 
40 
 
 proper distances are placed in it. If after ten or fifteen 
 days this seed has for the most part sprung up, it 
 may be concluded that the seed is good ; but if 
 after three weeks the seed has not sprung up, it- 
 would be hazardous to make use of it, and it would 
 in such case be better to lose the. seed than risk the 
 crop. The temperature of the room in which the 
 experiment is to be tried should be from to 60 to 70* 
 Farenheit. 
 
 Beet seed is sown when the earth has become 
 sufficiently warm, has reached from 50 to 54 and 
 when the later spring frosts are no longer to be 
 dreaded. This sowing takes place in France during 
 the later part of April and the month of May. It 
 would be about one month later in Canada. As I 
 have already stated, as soon as the fine weather 
 commences in the spring the land is prepared by 
 superficial working, so as to make the top soil very 
 fine, a harrow and roller being used for the purpose 
 I must again insist that in no case must the land be 
 worked, for this purpose, unless dry. The sowing is then 
 proceeded with, also in dry weather. When sowing 
 is done by machine 14 pounds of seed per arpent 
 are required ; this quantity being reduced to 8 or 
 10 pounds if hand sowing is used. Some farmers 
 sow beet seed as it is, without any further prepara- 
 tion ; others with a view of hastening germination 
 use certain preparatory processes, so as to make the 
 seed have more vigorous germs and to preserve the 
 seed and young shoot from the attacks of insects. 
 
 If good beet seed is sown in soil well prepared. 
 
41 
 
 that has a natural temperature of from 50 to 54, it 
 will take 10 or 1 5 days to spring up, but this time may 
 be shortened by one half, if the grain before sowing 
 is exposed to suitable moisture and an equal tempe- 
 rature. If the temperature is increased to a mode- 
 rate degree not exceeding from 65<> to 68 during 
 this preparatory operation, the time required for 
 germination may be further shortened by two or 
 three days. 
 
 Steeping the seed in water at 65 causes incon- 
 venience, as the water carries off from the seed cer- 
 tain soluble substances necessary to it ; but this is 
 no longer the case if it is streeped in urine or purin 
 at the same temperature, which instead of abstracting 
 nutritive qualities, impregnates it with fertilizing 
 principles ; and it has been noticed that plfnts from 
 seed subjected to this process are from the very first, 
 much stronger and more capable of resisting the oa- 
 trary influences that may arise. Another advantage 
 is that the employment of purin prevents the drying 
 of the seed if a short time only elapse between the 
 operation and the sowing. 
 
 A good fresh seed, soaked in purin at 65 during 
 3 days and afterwards sown, rises in 5 days or at 
 the most in 7 or 8 days. But the great advantage of 
 this preparatory process is that it gives special energy 
 to the growth, more particularly during the first 
 fortnight, and it is thus of the highest importance ; 
 in fact at its first appearance, the plant is very 
 delicate and may easily be injured by insects, or 
 changes of temperature and it is absolutely essential 
 
42 
 
 that it should in as short a time as possible, acquire 
 sufficient strength to resist these influences. The 
 importance of this proceeding being thus shown, it 
 is performed as follows : 
 
 The seed is steeped for 48 hours in juice of ma- 
 nure, and afterwards kept damp for two or three 
 days in thin layers of 4 inches(in sacks for example). 
 In this way it remains without heating five days at a 
 temperature of from 60 to 65. 
 
 As an example of the effect of this system, I will 
 cite one instance : the same sort of seed prepared and 
 unprepared had been sown, otherwise under iden- 
 tically the same conditions; on the 12th april the 
 unprepared seed and on the 18th those that had been 
 prepared* The prepared seed sprang up on the '26th 
 april, that is to say at the end of 8 days, and the 
 unprepared on the 2nd may, that is to say, at the 
 end of twenty days, say a difference of 12 days. 
 
 If prepared seed is employed, care must be taken 
 before sowing, to mix it with dust, so that it may 
 pass through the machine easily. 
 
 Whether prepared or unprepared seed is used, 
 it must be sown. 
 
 The soil has received all necessary preparation, 
 and presents a well evened surface of fine earth, 
 free from lumps, in fact it is ready to receive the 
 seed. 
 
 The time for sowing cannot be fixed by absolute 
 rules, lor each region and each year even, special 
 circumstances arise which may modify the choice 
 
43 
 
 of the time. As I have above stated, as soon as the 
 land is sufficiently warmed and the later spring- 
 frosts are no longer to be dreaded, the sowing must 
 without further delay be commenced. 
 
 Beets are sown in clusters, or in ridges or fur- 
 rows, by the hand or machine. Let us first notice 
 hand sowing which can only be used in farm- 
 ing on a small scale. 
 
 There are two methods of proceeding : In the 
 first, we commence by laying out the field by tracing 
 either with a pallet or tarnbour, drills that cross one 
 another. The points of intersection mark the places 
 in which the seed is placed. 
 
 It is to be noticed that the most suitable depth 
 is about one inch. The distance between the drills 
 should be from 12 to 18 inches. Several seeds are 
 placed in each place so as to ensure success. 
 
 In the second process, two parallel cords ar 
 stretched from the extremities of the field witk 
 knots to indicate the divergence of the lines. Between 
 these two cords are placed other threads at right 
 angles, also with knots showing the places in which 
 the seeds are to be sown. The farmer makes a hole 
 in these places in which he deposits several seeds, 4 
 or five, and covers them over with a little earth } 
 lightly pressed down. 
 
 This process is called cluster sowing. The seeds 
 thus sown together spring quicker on account of 
 the heat generated in germinating. The young shoots 
 are better able to resist the night chills, and give a 
 
44 
 
 sufficient provision for the insects, so that at least 
 one plant will remain and the harvest be thus 
 assured. However there is one inconvenience, that 
 is, the young roots often get entwined together and 
 on being thinned out, they are liable to the danger 
 of being uncovered. 
 
 But I repeat that hand sowing is suitable only 
 for restricted operations at the best, and the use of 
 mechanical sowers is a necessity, if beet culture is 
 to be at all carried on, on a reasonable footing. At 
 any rate the work done by the machine is more 
 regular than that done by hand, even when most 
 carefully performed. The sower always deposits the 
 seed at an equal depth, which is very important in 
 regard to the regularity of the crop, and further its 
 use is more economical. 
 
 A great number of mechanical sowers more or 
 less perfect are in use. 
 
 A fe\v days after putting in the seed, when the 
 land is sufficiently dry it is passed over with the 
 roller. The top soil is rendered smooth so that it cov- 
 ers the plant better, which insures the success of the 
 sowing. The roller again makes the surface more 
 even and consequently the isolation of the plants is 
 better secured and each root can thus sprout sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 Sowing by machine is generally in uninterrupted 
 lines, that is to say the seed is deposited all along 
 the line. 
 
 When the seed has missed in certain places and 
 
45 
 
 there are vacant spaces, these are filled by planting 
 in young shoots when setting out and even after- 
 wards. 
 
 NOTI. The distances between the drills of beets are from 
 ene foot to eighteen inches. The lesser distance for very rich 
 lands, and the greater for those less lich. In general 15 inchei 
 is the distance in use. The distance between th beets in th 
 drills is from 8 to 10 inches and the rule is governed by the same 
 circumstances as for the drills. The reason of the rule of greater 
 or less distances as the soil is poorer or richer is, that the root 
 increases on account of the richness of the soil, and the space 
 left each to germinate, so that with the same distances a rich soil 
 would give larger beets. But the larger a beet is in size, the less 
 rich is it in sugar, and the juice contains a larger quantity of 
 water and foreign substances. By diminishing the distances for 
 fertile soils, the beets are forced to ripen in better condition as 
 to size, and the return is not diminished, for if the root 
 diminished, in size there are mere of them and of a better 
 quality. 
 
 7 CULTURE OF THE BEET. 
 
 Beet culture, properly so called, includes every- 
 thing that should be done both to the ground and 
 plant from the time of the appearance of the shoot 
 until its final maturity. It includes the destruction of 
 the weeds, the clearing of the young plants and the 
 various ploughings or delvings which tend to soften 
 and make pervious to the air and moisture, the 
 upper coating of the soil. 
 
 The young plants, being elastic and vigorous, 
 soon rise from their confined position caused by the 
 seed and stand upright. Two small and tender 
 
46 
 
 leaves first rise from the earth and seek the light. 
 In favorable circumstances this should accur in 15 
 days. At this time the sprout and roots are about 3 
 inches long, in all. The position of the plants is thus 
 easily noticed in the ground, and it is at this time 
 that the hoe should be first used to destroy the weeds 
 on their first appearance, and assist the growth of 
 the beet. This work should be very superficial and 
 should not descend further than the thin hard rust 
 which covers the ground, that is to say, at most 
 one inch in depth. In countries densely peopled and 
 where labor is plentiful, it is easy to have this work 
 performed, which is done with great rapidity, by 
 children. But in countries where labor is scarce, it 
 must be omitted. This operation destroys useless 
 plants, which would deprive the beet of a portion 
 of its nourishment and might later on retard its deve- 
 lopment. However economy here is to be regarded. 
 This work should be attended to as much as possible, 
 but must be omitted if too expensive on account f 
 the scarcity and cost of labor. 
 
 When the beet has four or five leaves and has 
 attained a certain strength, it is next submitted to 
 an operation which is called : mettre en place. This 
 operation is specially for beets in drills ; it consists 
 in rooting out with the hoe, in the drills, useless 
 beets, and in leaving in proper places only two, three 
 or four plants. The spaces between, should be from 
 8 to 10 inches, and are made with two strokes of the 
 hoe, of an ordinary size. As soon as the mise tn 
 place is completed the final clearing up is proceeded 
 
i/ 
 
 with : for this purpose, the plant that appears to he 
 the most vigorous is held in the left hand, and with 
 the right allthe others are removed, care being taken 
 not to uproot the plant that is to remain. This should 
 be done in damp weather, so that the plants to be 
 uprooted will come up easily. 
 
 Immediately after the separation of the roots, the 
 land is carefully ploughed over so as to destroy all 
 weeds and render it softer. The soil is thus separated 
 and the air more easily penetrates it and gives new 
 nourishment to the roots. This second ploughing, 
 in separating the soil, increases the earths power of 
 absorbing the moisture of the air which penetrates 
 that portion of the soil in which the roots are, gives 
 new principles to the beet and assures a vigorous 
 growth. At the same time the softening of the earth 
 allows a more vigorous growth of leaves and this 
 again causes more speedy and abundant produc- 
 tion of sugar, for sugar is not secreted until the 
 leaves have attained their full growth. 
 
 From this time until the leaves attain their full 
 maturity this operation should be repeated as often 
 as possible, due regard being had to economy. Some 
 times it is twice repeated, at others, three or four 
 times. The oftener this work is done, the quicker will 
 be the growth of the beet. To economise time and 
 labor, machines are used for this work. During the 
 month of August, when the leaves have attained a 
 sufficient growth all work is stopped. The plant 
 then seems to sleep, as it has then no exterior 
 
48 
 
 growth. Up to this time the root will not be a great 
 size, the leaves alone being developed. Now the 
 leaves become stationary and the root rapidly 
 increases in richness of sugar, until complete matu- 
 rity. I must observe that in the various ploughings 
 and especially in the first, care must be taken not to 
 disturb the earth near the young roots, which if 
 done would cause an increase of the green portion 
 of the head, which contains less sugar than those 
 parts which have not been in immediate contact 
 with the light and exterior air. And here, I will also 
 remark, that the upper portion of the beet, that 
 which rises out of the earth, is always poorer in 
 sugar and more rich in foreign substances than the 
 other portions ; the advantage therefore of culti- 
 vating a beet whose head rises little above the earth 
 is apparent; the Silesian beet is the one that best 
 answers this purpose. 
 
 Before closing this chapter I will give two tables 
 showing the value of the different parts of the beet 
 and the value of the baets at the different periods of 
 its growth. 
 
 Head of the root 9.38 per cent of sugar. 
 Other portions 13.13 " 
 
 If the large quantity of hurtful matters contained 
 in'the outside of the Leet is taken into account, it 
 will be seen how inuc'.i less is its value than the 
 other portions. 
 
 Quantity of sugar, 'n : hundred beets, during the 
 
49 
 
 different periods of their growth and the correspond- 
 ing weight of the roots. 
 
 20 July 5 2Joz. 
 
 9 August 5,8 10 " 
 
 31 August 8 lib. 4 " 
 
 13 September 10.. lib. 8 " 
 
 20 September 10,5 lib. 9 " 
 
 16 October 12,4 2 Ibs. 
 
 HARVESTING THE BEET. 
 
 The beet in ripening gains its maximum of rich 
 ness in sugar. Then is the time to take it up, to 
 pull it out. This ripeness, which comes about the 
 end of September or middle of October, manifests 
 itself by the yellow appearance of the leaves, which 
 get covered with red or brown spots and droop. T 
 pull up the beets, a fine dry time is chosen, ear 
 being taken that the beets have previously bad a 
 few r dry days so that the skin be less watery and 
 more firm. The beets will only increase in value 
 if they remain tater in the ground, as long as the 
 thermometer does not decrease to 40. 
 
 The beets are taken up with a spade or plough ; 
 they are lightly shaken to take off the larger part cf 
 the adherent earth, and the head is cut off with a 
 sharp knife. Until they can be carted away, they 
 are placed in small heaps or in lines on the ground, 
 are covered with the leaves that are cut off. 
 
 When pulling up or carting the beets, great care 
 
50 
 
 must be taken not to bruise or wound them, as it 
 would tend to their being spoilt on being kept, 
 
 Beets should be kept secure from frost, for manu- 
 facturing purposes. This root is very susceptible to 
 cold and it deteriorates if exposed to a temperature 
 higher than 40 degrees ; at 45 and 50 it germinates. 
 Frost softens the beet and destroys its sugar. A frozen 
 beet stays good, as long as it is not thawed, bu t as soon 
 as this sets in, the beet is useless for manufacturing 
 purposes. 
 
 In Belgium and in France, beets are kept in pits: 
 For this purpose, a ditch is dug in a dry place, 4 feet 
 in depth and 5 feet in breadth, with a varying 
 length. Along the bottom there is a drain to air the 
 pit and drain off the water. The ditch is covered over 
 with long beets, and the pit is then filled up with the 
 roots, the top being arranged in the form of a roof 
 about two feet above the level of the ground. The 
 upper part is covered by about a foot of earth and it 
 is smoothed down with a shovel. To ventilate the pit 
 chimneys are placed at the ends or at regular distan- 
 ces, connecting with the drain, and these may be 
 closed at pleasure. 
 
 Beets are often kept in the open air in heaps 
 5 or 6 feet in height and of irregular lengths- and 
 widths, ventilating shafts being set up, and the 
 heap is covered with a layer of bad hay, and at the 
 time of the frosts, a thick coating of earth is laid 
 against the end walls. 
 
 But these precautions would be insufficient in 
 this country to ensure the beets against the rigors- 
 
51 
 
 of the season, and it is absolutely necessary to have 
 recourse to the plan in use in Russia, of keeping 
 them in cellars. If the expense of this method is a 
 little high, it also economizes considerably the cost 
 of labor and further insures^that the beets are better 
 kept, as they can be daily watched. I saw, in 1874, 
 at Cobourg, Ontario, a similar system which fully 
 answered the purpose, and the beets that I saw, at 
 the end of March, were in a perfect state of preser 
 vation, which is almost unheard of in France, at 
 such an advanced period. 
 
 9 VALUE OF THE BEET. 
 
 A beet is all the better for being regularly grown, 
 that is to say sown in a proper field, properly pre- 
 pared, and that the season has been favorable to its 
 germination, growth and maturity. 
 
 Beets grown in wet lands, immediately after 
 fresh and too heavy manuring are larger, but they 
 are far from having the same value , as beets grown 
 in drier lands and after a crop of corn has been 
 raised between the manuring and the crop of beets. 
 They contain relatively more water and foreign 
 matter and less sugar. A rainy season also favors 
 vegetation, but only gives very watery beets, rich 
 in foreign substances but poor in sugar. 
 
 Among the foreign matters, contained in beets 
 and which must be considered in the manufacture, 
 are azote substances and alkaline salts of potash and 
 soda which flow with the juice as well as the sugar. 
 Saline substances do not destroy the sugar but pre- 
 
vent its crystallization. We will see that the elimi- 
 nation of these substances is the greatest difficulty 
 to be encountered in the extraction \>f sugar from 
 beets. Beets for manufacturing purposes are better 
 in proportion as they give a juice, richer in sugar, 
 as compared with the amount of juice and also to 
 the quantity' of soluble matter which is contained 
 in the juice. 
 
 I here give a table showing the composition of 
 the .beet at the various periods of its growth and 
 maturity. 
 
 TABLE of the matter contained in the beets in an acre of 
 land, at the various periods of their growth and 
 maturity, calculated in pounds. 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 IH 
 
 i 
 
 
 p 
 
 o o 
 -*> a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 !! 
 
 " 
 
 y o 
 o a 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 ^ Ja 
 
 "a3 
 
 02 
 
 S rS 
 
 t> ^ 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 o ,a 
 
 " ^3 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 1 'e 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^1 
 
 July 30 
 
 66 
 
 37 
 
 145 
 
 26 
 
 82 
 
 356 
 
 2310 
 
 2666 
 
 5. 
 
 August 9 . . . 
 
 239 
 
 128 
 
 582 
 
 86 
 
 231 
 
 1266 
 
 9077 
 
 10343 
 
 5.8 
 
 " 31... 
 
 445 
 
 246 
 
 1727 
 
 197 
 
 343 
 
 2958 
 
 16972 
 
 19930 
 
 8.7 
 
 Septeinb. 15 
 
 571 
 
 408 
 
 2440 
 
 202 
 
 245 
 
 4066 
 
 20000 
 
 24066 
 
 10. 
 
 " 30. 
 
 679 
 
 679 
 
 3203 
 
 209 
 
 887 
 
 5150 
 
 23315 
 
 28465 
 
 11.5 
 
 October 16.. 
 
 736 
 
 921 
 
 3891 
 
 214. 
 
 398 
 
 6029 
 
 25371 
 
 31400 
 
 12.4 
 
 I must here add a few observations concerning 
 the keeping of beets. 
 
53 
 
 After being taken up they are left for a few days 
 on the ground, in heaps covered "with leaves, before 
 being carted away. This is done so that they may 
 lose a certain portion of their heat and be less exposed 
 to ferment in the heap?. Too much care cannot be 
 taken of beets, when in heaps. They should be pro- 
 perly ventilated so as not to become heated, but care 
 must be taken not to open the ventilating shafts, 
 except when there is no danger of frost getting in to 
 the heaps. In France, after January, the beet wakes 
 up and has a tendency to grow and consequently 
 it gradually loses its value as this vegatation is at 
 the expense of the sugar itself. Ail manufacturers 
 thus so regulate their work, so as to finish by the 
 commencement of the new year, that is in three 
 months. In Canada, beets can be very well kept until 
 the end of March, without any great loss, so that 
 with a factory fitted up similarly to those in Belgium 
 and France, double the quantity of sugar could be 
 here manufactured. Every one will understand the 
 advantages thus derived. Instead of being prejudi- 
 cial, the long winter of this country will thus really 
 become an advantage. 
 
 With proper care, beets in heaps are seldom 
 heated or fermented. If this does occur, the evil 
 should be immediately remedied, if it is only local, 
 by removing the beets where fermented and culling 
 out those already commencing to spoil. 
 
 10. PRODUCTION OF THE SEED. 
 
 The beet is a biennial plant, thr.t is, it only corn- 
 
pletely finishes its vegetatio-n in two years, and it is 
 in the second year that it bears seed. 
 
 A great number of different varieties of beets are 
 met with whose general qualities do not change, so 
 that fodder beets do not because sugar beets and 
 vice versa, 
 
 It' seed of the sugar beet is wanted to be repro- 
 duced, the best sorts must be selected, at the time 
 of harvesting the crop of the first year, and these 
 in nst be carefully preserved. This choice must be 
 ivgulated by the form and nature of the root. 
 
 Beets are chosen that have the following charac- 
 ?eris!ics, tap rooted, clean and with a resemblance 
 lo a pear. 
 
 Leaves crisp and sen-ate, and not too numerous. 
 
 A medium size. 
 
 A specific gravity relatively high. 
 
 The beets, whose head rise as little as possible 
 above the earth, should be chosen. 
 
 When the beets are being taken up, the diil'e- 
 reut corn sowed fields, which appear to have sue 
 eeeded the best and which give beets very rich in 
 sugar should b > visited. Sandy clay lands in good 
 heart, which ha ve.not received a fresh coat of manure 
 iprimediately before the beet crop, give the best beets 
 for seed. Having made a proper choice, one of the 
 .hands is stationed to overlook the taking up and 
 picks out and lays aside those beets which seem to be 
 most favorable for the object in view. Great care 
 should b" taken not to hurt the roots, and the leaves 
 
00 
 
 only are to be cut off with the knife by taking 
 off the head without touching the flesh of the beet. 
 These beets are then carefully placed in pits or in 
 cellars and withdrawn the following year, to be 
 replanted. 
 
 The land to be used should be a good beet land 
 prepared as for sowing. It should be in good heart, 
 but should not be strongly manured, as a strong 
 manure would induce too quick vegetation, which 
 would retard the ripening and render it unequal. 
 Good compost and lime will do perfectly well, if 
 applied before transplanting, the lime to be lightly 
 turned in with the harrow. The beets are then plant- 
 ed in squares, with a distance of two and a half feet 
 between the rows and two feet in the rows, so that 
 there will be about 3200 plants in an arpent. It is 
 well to cover lightly the head of the root with earth. 
 
 One thing that must be particularly guarded 
 against, is that there should not be in the vicinity, 
 any field sown with seed bearing fodder beets, for 
 the wind alone might bastardize the kind and take 
 away the greater part of its value. 
 
 When the seed is ripe, which is recognized by 
 the brown tinge, taken by the extremities of the 
 stem, the plants are cut and laid carefully on the 
 ground to finish the drying, they are then beaten 
 with the flail or otherwise. 
 
 The seed is then cleaned and placed in a dry place 
 secure from mice, to be kept. 
 
 Each stock of seed bearing beets will give about 
 
56 
 
 a half a pound of seed, say for one arpent of 3*200 
 feet, 1600 pounds. If we calculate the value of this 
 seed which in France averages 100 francs for 100 kilos 
 or 9 cents per pound, the crop will be worth $144. 
 
 The cost of production, &c., amounting at the 
 most to $44, leaves a clear profit of $100 per arpent, 
 
 H. ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 Before terminating this important chapter, on the 
 cultivation of the sugar beet, I will present a few 
 economical considerations. 
 
 Admitting that the sugar industry be estab- 
 lished in Ganada r the culitvation of the sugar beet 
 itself for manufacturing purposes will pay those who 
 engage in it. To establish this, it will suffice to give 
 a table showing the expenditure necessitated by its 
 cultivation a'nd to compare the expenses with the 
 receipts. 
 
 An acre will yield from 16 to "20 tons of beets, 
 with their heads off, or 640 to 800 bushels at the rate 
 of 40 bushels to the ton. These beets could be sold to 
 the factories at the rate of $4 a ton or 10 cents a 
 bushel. 
 
 This is the average price paid in the different 
 countries in which the sugar industry is established, 
 and is in -fact the real value for manufacture, so that 
 this price could hardly be increased without gravely 
 compromising the interests of the manufacture and 
 even perhaps its existence ; and since the sugar 
 industry is called upon to assist the agricultural, the 
 
latter must not by ex-aggerated notion? render this 
 impossible. 
 
 Let us suppose the average yield to be t8 tons or 
 720 bushels ; at 10 cents per bushel the receipts would 
 be $72. 
 
 Rent, manure, preparation of the soil.. .$12.00 
 
 Seed 14 Ibs. a 18 cents 2.10 
 
 Sowing, hoeing, transplanting, planting 
 
 out 8.00 
 
 Taking up 6.00 
 
 Cartage 6.00 
 
 Total expenditure $34.00 
 
 Balance 37.90 
 
 720 bushels pf beets a 10 cts $72.00 
 
 We therefore have a clear profit of $37.90. 
 
 It is to be noticed that I include in the sum of 
 expenses, the rent of the land, manure, preparing the 
 soil, expenses which are the same as for cereal crops 
 or for potatoes. The sum of the other expenses is no 
 doubt less for other crops, but these will be more 
 than compensated by the high figures of the receipts. 
 
 As to establishing the price of 10 cents per bushel, 
 it has often been objected that in the town markets 
 table beets are sold at a much higher price. This is 
 perfectly true, but the production of sugar beets for 
 manufacturing purposes, does not Delong to market 
 gardening as that of table beets, but to growing on. 
 a large scale. In fact, it will not require less than 
 5 or 600 acres of beets to supply one factory, whilst 
 
58 
 
 the crop from 10 acres of red beets is probably more 
 than sufficient to supply the whole of Quebec city. 
 On the other hand, those who have a little expe- 
 rience in this matter very well know that where 
 700 bushels of sugar beets could be raised, 300 
 bushels of red table beets could not be grown. 
 
 An equal basis of comparison cannot then be 
 established between these two products, destined for 
 such different purposes. 
 
 If beets are considered as fodder for cattle, so as 
 to determine their value, experience has shown 
 that 1000 pounds of good hay are equal to 4000 
 pounds of beets or 71 bushels as a nutritive agent. 
 Hay is sold on an average at $10 per 1500 pounds, 
 (100 bundles) the equivalent in beets of these 1500 
 would be 6000 pounds or 1U7 bushels and we would 
 thus have a comparative value a little over 9 cents 
 per bushel. 
 
 On the other hand, the culture of the sugar beet 
 is not in any way intended to supplant any of the 
 other usual crops: it should take its place in the 
 rotation and tend to the establishment of a regular 
 system of rotation of crops, and it is destined to im- 
 prove the whole agricultural system by the special 
 care which it requires. 
 
 After the crop of beets, the heads that have been 
 cut off w r ith the leaves remain on the ground. These 
 may be taken, for an average crop, as weighing 
 10,000 pounds. 
 
 This refuse is always ploughed into the land arid 
 
59 
 
 thus forms a natural manure. But, when required, 
 they can be fed to the cattle or the cattle can be 
 pastured on them as they are. Their nutritive value 
 is one sixth that of good hay ; so that 10,000 pounds of 
 this waste used in this way, would equal H>00 pounds 
 of hay. 
 
 By what precedes, the importance of introducing 
 the sugar industry can be seen, in an agricultural 
 point of view and the great advantage to be derived 
 from its establishment. This importance and these 
 advantages should of themselves stimulate farmers 
 to make serious attemps to plant beets, even although 
 factories have not as yet boen established. They 
 would thus know what to depend up on, as to the 
 return to be received, when they are established, and 
 in the meantime their efforts would not be lost, as 
 they would always have as a crop, a fodder root 
 whose nutritive value would recompense them for 
 their labor. 
 
 I conclude by repeating that* the land of Canada 
 requires only a little effort, work, courage and ac- 
 tivity on the part of its farmers to secure to them 
 a fortune. Let them sincerely advance in the way 
 of progress, and they will soon see their fields co- 
 vered with rich harvests, their stables filled with 
 fat cattle, their hovels changed into small chateaus, 
 and their empty coffers overflowing with dollars. 
 My prediction is by no means hazardous ; I have 
 seen the same things happen in other places. 
 
SKCOND PART. 
 
 CHAPTER FIRST. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 The second part of this work is divided into 
 three chapters, subdivided into sections. 
 
 Although my work is intended specially for 
 those who have not made special studies, I think it 
 my duty to include a few ideas on chemistry, 
 which I will endeavor to bring within the compre- 
 hension of all those who may read it. These expla- 
 nations are, at any rate, requisite for the necessary 
 understanding of this part of my work. 
 
 1 ELEMENTARY IDEAS ON CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Every thing that can be perceived by the senses 
 is called a body. Bodies are solid, liquid or gaseous. 
 
 Atoms are infinitely small particles which have 
 altogether the identical properties of the body itself, 
 aod which together compose the body. 
 
 Solid bodies are those whose molecules cannot be 
 
62 
 
 separated, except by the use of more or less force : 
 example : sugar, iron. 
 
 Liquid bodies are those whose molecules do not 
 particularly adhere together, but move over one ano- 
 ther and are separated without effort, Ex. water and 
 alcohol. 
 
 Gaseous bodies are those whose molecules, far from 
 adhering, have a tendency to separate and to fill a 
 larger space. Ex. oxygen, air, steam, carbonic acid. 
 
 Bodies are simple or compound : they are simple 
 when composed of only one element ; such as 
 oxygen, hydrogen, azote, carbon, chloral, sulphur, 
 phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, iron. 
 
 Bodies are compound,- when composed of the 
 junction of two or more simple or compound bodies 
 commingled together. Ex. water is composed of 
 oxygen and hydrogen ; carbonic acid of oxygen and 
 carbon ; sugar, of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ; 
 lime of calcium and oxygen ; carbonate of lime or 
 lime-stone, of lime and carbonic acid. These com- 
 pound bodies have special properties different from 
 those of the simple or compound bodies which 
 compose them. 
 
 Affinity is the property of bodies to combine and 
 form other bodies ; it is this property which gives 
 carbonic acid a tendency to combine with lime to 
 form corbonate of lime. 
 
 Cohesion is the property which retains atoms to 
 one another in solid bodies. 
 
 Solubility is the property of solution, possessed by 
 
bodies, of melting in liquids, to form a mixture and 
 not a combination ; for in combination, bodies 
 unite to form other totally distinct bodies, and in a 
 mixture, the bodies although intimately bound up 
 retain their own properties, that is do not change 
 their nature. 
 
 Oxygen unites with different bodies to form acids; 
 with sulphur it forms sulphuric acid, with carbon, 
 carbonic acid. Acids redden the blue tinge of 
 litmus. 
 
 In uniting with other bodies, it forms oxides as 
 lime, potash, soda, composed of oxygen, and cal- 
 cium, potassium and sodium. 
 
 These h^er bodies are called alkaline bases and 
 are the b^s-'s of alkaline salts. They bring back to 
 litmus the Jj'ue color, reddened by acids. 
 
 Acids and oxides unite to form combinations, 
 which are called salts. Ex. limestone or carbonate 
 of lime, carbonate of potash and of soda are the re- 
 sults of the combination of carbonic acid with lime, 
 potash and soda. 
 
 Sugar sometimes acts like an acid and unites 
 with lime to form sugar of lime. 
 
 Bodies are dissolved, are melted in liquids and 
 form solutions. Sugar dissolves in water. 
 
 The solution of a body is called concentrated, when 
 the liquid which contains it, contains all of the body, 
 that it can dissolve and no more than it can dissolve, 
 at a given temperature. In this case the liqufd is 
 said to be saturated with the body held in solution. 
 
64 
 
 Thus we say a concentrated solution of sugar in 
 water, or water saturated with sugar. 
 
 At a temperature of 58 Fahr., water dissolves 
 three times its weight of sugar. The higher the 
 temperature is raised, sugar becomes more so- 
 luble ; so that at boiling point, that is to say at 212*, 
 water dissolves six times its weight. Pure alcohol 
 does not dissolve sugar, but ordinary alcohol, at 85 
 per cent of .pure alcohol, and 15 of water, dissolves 
 one fourth of its weight. 
 
 This property in sugar of dissolving in water, in 
 greater or less quantity, as the temperature is more 
 or lesfe elevated, brings us to the /xo// /,.'.';/ of sugar 
 when dissolved : and as this is one of h<) general 
 principles upon which the manufacture rusts, f shall 
 enlarge upon it. 
 
 I have just stated that water is saturated with 
 sugar (or with any body whatever; when it dissolves 
 all that- it can contain. If we have 100 pounds of 
 water saturated with sugar at boiling point, this 
 water would contain 600 pounds of sugar in solution. 
 Let our solution cool down to 58 Fahr and notice 
 what occurs ; at this temperature over 100 pounds 
 of water will hold in solution 300 pounds of sugar, 
 and can only hold these 300 pounds. We would 
 then have 300 pounds of sugar not in a state of so- 
 lution. These 300 pounds of sugar become depo- 
 sited in the liquid in the shape of crystals, and if 
 we were to drain off these crystals, if we were to dry 
 them, we would have 300 pounds of dry sugar, that 
 is to say one half of that which the water contained 
 
65 
 
 at boiling point, and the other half still in the 
 liquid. If we wish to gather the rest of the sugar, 
 we would raise the temperature of our solution 
 again to boiling point, then by evaporation we would 
 bring it back to a state of concentration. Cooling 
 would give us 150 pounds of sugar. 
 
 A further evaporation of 25 pounds of water 
 would give 75 pounds of sugar, and so on. 
 
 By continuing this process, all the sugar contained 
 in a solution of pure sugar is extracted. 
 
 Notice that I have underlined the words pure 
 sugar, designedly. In fact, a solution of sugar may 
 contain certain foreign substances which more or 
 less retard crystallization, and this is the case, as 
 will be seen further on, with the juice of the bee i t. 
 This does not occur in making maple sugar, as the 
 sap of that tree is a solution of pure sugar. In this 
 latter case the temperature of the juice of the rnaple is 
 raised until it no longer contains any vegetable water, 
 so that in cooling it gives a solid mass of very small 
 crystals, without even a drop of syrup. 
 
 Sugar crystals are much increased in size if they 
 are formed by a slower cooling and from a weaker 
 solution. This explains the fineness of the grain of 
 maple sugar in cakes. By proper processes, grains 
 as large as (hose of candy could be obtained, or 
 grains simitar in size to those of loaf sugar. 
 
 The details just given explain what takes place 
 in evaporating the juice and boiling the sirup, and 
 will facilitate the understanding of these opera- 
 tions, when explained. 
 
66 
 
 '2. COMPOSITION AND DECOMPOSITION OF BODIES. 
 
 We have seen that simple bodies combine to 
 form compound bodies (acids and oxides) and that 
 these latter combine to form other more complex 
 bodies called salts, as carbonate of lime, sucrate of lime. 
 We will see that one of the most important opera- 
 tions in the manufacture of beet root sugar, the 
 purifying and clarifying of the juice, depends on 
 these principles. 
 
 All my readers have observed another pheno- 
 menon, by which two compound bodies in solution 
 in a liquid may act one upon the other, not to com- 
 bine together, but each to take from the other one 
 of its elements and to form new and distinct bodies- 
 This is often done, when an acid is placed in contact 
 with a salt and that the base of this salt has more 
 affinity for the other acid than with which it is in 
 combinaticn. This is every day noticed in the 
 manufacture of gaseous waters. It is known that 
 the distinctive quality of this water is carbonic 
 acid, retained in solution in water. To produce 
 this carbonic acid gas, water is dissolved in tartaric 
 acid and soda or carbonate of soda, tartaric acid has 
 more affinity for soda than carbonic acid, that is to 
 say, it has a greater tendency to unite, to combine 
 with this base. As soon as tartaric acid is found in 
 presence of carbonate of soda in the solution, the 
 latter is decomposed, the tartaric acid drives away 
 the carbonic acid and takes possession of the prin- 
 cipal ingredient, and forms ta>-trate of soda and the 
 
67 
 
 carbonic acid gas is liberated and mixes with the 
 water. The reaction becomes apparent by the effer~ 
 vescence of the liquid, due to the bubbles of car- 
 bonic acid that have been liberated. 
 
 One stage in the manufacture is explained by 
 this fact, which is the principal basis of our system 
 of working. 
 
 As will be afterwards seen, beot juice contains, 
 in addition to sugar and water, different foreign 
 substancts which must be first eliminated, as they 
 tend to decompose and to destroy the sugar and 
 prevent it from crystallizing. Those substances are 
 first azote matters, as albumen, which destroys the 
 sugar by causing fermentation ; coloring matters 
 and different substances held in solution in the 
 liquid. There are also salts of potash and soda of 
 which we will speak later. 
 
 To purify the juice, milk, of lime is used, which, 
 under the influence of heat, decomposes, destroys 
 and precipitates the azote principles and coloring 
 subs tan cep, in an operation which we call defecation 
 
 We have also seen that sugar forms with lime 
 salt called sucrate of lime. 
 
 When the juice is to be purified, it is mixed with 
 a quantity of lime sufficient to combine with the 
 sugar and an excess of lime capable of having 
 complete action overall the foreign azote substances 
 The sugar is thus detached and tiie action of the 
 surplus lime on the foreign substances produces all 
 its effect. But the action of the lime cannot be pro- 
 
longed the purifying, and beyond it must be detached 
 from the sugar for which purpose the action of car- 
 bonic acid must be employed, which has a greater 
 affinity for lime than sugar. To effect this, a current 
 of carbonic acid is directed into the liquid mass which 
 takes up the lime and forms with it carbonate of 
 lime. This carbonate, when being precipitated to 
 the bottom of the vessel in which the operation is 
 carried on, draws with it all the impurities con- 
 tained in the juice and when settled, leaves the 
 latter colorless and limpid on the top of the muddy 
 deposit of carbonate of lime and decomposed matter. 
 This juice then only contains sugar and salts of 
 potash and soda, and a small portion of organic 
 matter which escaped the action of the lime. 
 
 In establishing this new principle which serves as 
 a basis for the manufacture, I wished to avoid 
 entering into embarassing decails, when explaining 
 khe purifying process. To complete my explana- 
 tions I will show the manner in which carbonic 
 acid is manufactured. 
 
 3. PRODUCTION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 
 
 To prepare carbonic acid for manufacturing pur- 
 poses, lime stone or carbonate of lime which is com- 
 posed of 56 parts of lime and 44 of carbonic acid 
 is used. 
 
 This preparation is made by decomposing lime 
 stone by heat. It is simply the preparation of lime, 
 with this difference, that the gas produced during 
 the operation i- collected. Thus at the same time, 
 
69 
 
 both the lime and the carbonic acid which are to 
 used is prepared. 
 
 A kiln of mason work in form of a cone is used, 
 with a height of three or four times the diameter of 
 the base. At the apertures, there are two furnaces com- 
 municationg with the interior by two square bases; 
 at the base also is a hole to discharge the kiln. The 
 opening at the top is hermetically sealed by a cap 
 of cast iron with a tube to which is fitted a pipe of 
 from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, through which the 
 gas escapes into the cylinder of the pump, which 
 sends it into the juice to be operated upon. 
 
 The kiln is charged from the top, by first throw- 
 ing in broken sticks, faggots, then alternately, the 
 lime broken in small pieces and coke in the proportion 
 of one tenth of the latter. When completely charged, 
 fire is set in both furnaces, but the cap is not closed 
 until the operation is well under way, that is to say 
 during two or three days. The fire in both furnaces 
 must be carefully kept up. When the operation is weil 
 under way, the upper part is closed, so that the air is 
 excluded, the openings or cracks are closed with 
 soft clay, and the draft is regulated by the pump 
 which draws the gas produced by combustion and 
 calcination. 
 
 As the carbonic acid gas is not pure when 
 leaving the kiln, it, before reaching the pump, tra- 
 verses a washing apparatus, which frees it of its 
 impurities. 
 
 The daily consumption of lime stone for a factory 
 
70 
 
 working 200,000 pounds of beets in 24 hours, U 
 10,000 pounds or 5 per cent, and that of coke for 
 charging and for the two furnaces is 200 pounds. 
 Of course the coke may be wholly or partly replaced 
 by wood, if for economical reasons it maybe deemed 
 necessary. 
 
 I will add, so as not to have to return to this sub- 
 ject, a few words on the preparation of the lime for 
 purifying. 
 
 4. PREPARATION OF THK MILK OF MMK FOR PURIFYING. 
 
 This lime is first carefully slacked in a basin. 
 
 and the thick milk is passed through a sieve of wire 
 cloth which retains the pieces of uncooked stone or 
 coals that might be in it, then the milk is put into 
 another basin to such a thickness as that it may mark 
 20 degrees on the Beaume areometer. In this state it 
 is ready for use. Before using it, it must be well sha- 
 ken so as to put all the lime which has a tendency to 
 precipitate rapidly, in suspension. 
 
 The milk of lime contains one ounce of quick 
 lime per gallon and decree Beaume, so that our pre- 
 pared milk contains 20 ounces. 
 
 5. PURIFICATION OF .JUICES AND SYRUPS. 
 
 When the beet juice has been treated with lime, 
 it is freed from the greater part of the foreign matters 
 contained and specially those which are more di- 
 rectly hurtful to sugar. These are the azote mailers 
 which, if their action is not destroyed as soon as Ihe 
 
1\ 
 
 juice is extracted from the beet, won 1/1 act indirectly- 
 on the sugar, destroy it without delay and hurt the 
 manufacture. There are other substances not at- 
 tacked by the lime whose action does not imme- 
 diately seem hurtful to sugar," and which do not 
 prevent manufacture, but which later prevent part 
 of the sugar from crystallizing, without thereby des- 
 troying the sugar, but which entering into the cry- 
 stallized sugar, causes it to be less valuable. These 
 are alkaline salts, or salts of potash and soda. 
 Although, as T have stated, these substances do not 
 ^appear immediately to affect the sugar, when it is 
 not submitted to further processes, they may discolor 
 the juice and the syrups, if a part of the sugar has 
 been rendered useless for crystallization, either on 
 account of the bad quality of the boot or for any 
 other reason. In fact, it is admitted that a s aerate 
 solution; containing liquid sugar, even in small 
 proportion, is rapidly discolored, when boiled, when 
 an alkali or alkaline salts are present. On the other 
 hand these substances are more easily removed in 
 the first stages of the operation and it is then that 
 the syrups and juices must be freed from them. 
 
 To attain this separation, we have only one me- 
 thod, the use of animal charcoal or bone-black. 
 
 But before enlarging on this subject, I will con- 
 tinue to give a few chemical explanations on sugar. 
 
 6 OF SUGAR. 
 
 Sugar is specially qualified by its property of 
 being decomposed, and reduced in alcohol and 
 
carbonic. acid by fermentation and it is the only 
 'substance, in nature, which possesses this quality. 
 This decomposition takes place when it is in solution 
 with 10 or 12 times its weight in water, when fer- 
 menting at a temperature of from 59 to 67 Fahr. 
 and the solution is exposed to the air. 
 
 There are two kinds of sugar : 
 
 Prismatic or crystallized sugar. 
 
 Glucose or uncrystallizable sugar. 
 
 The first is extracted for manufacture in warm 
 countries from the juice obtained by pressure from 
 the sugar cane and in temperate regions from the 
 sugar beet. It is also extracted in Canada and thf 
 ..Northern Stales from the sap of the maple. The 
 second is met with in a great number of fruits, and 
 .especially in dried raisins, where it is found in its 
 natural state. It is also produced by the action of 
 .certain acids on the starch of potatoes, the fecula 
 of cereals and cellular tissue. 
 
 Crystallized sugar when acted upon by acids 
 : may be changed into liquid sugar or uncrystallizable 
 .but the latter can never be changed into prismatic 
 sugar. Often, as in fruit, a sort of crystallization 
 appears, but it is confused, and may in appearance 
 Le compared to the head of the cauliflower, whilst 
 prismatic sugar shows regular crystals, in regular 
 j)rismatic forms, and is best seen in the large crystals 
 of sugar candi. I have stated that sugar is composed 
 of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. These elements 
 enter into 100 pounds as follows : 
 
73 
 
 Carbon 42 Ibs. 
 
 Hyclroge n 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 At 59 F. sugar is soluble in one third of its 
 weight of water. It melts and becomes liquid, when 
 submitted to a high temperature and when cooling 
 becomes a mass of confused crystals, as in loaves of 
 maple sugar. If the temperature is raised a little, on 
 being cooled it produces barley sugar, and finally if 
 heated still further the mass browns and gires 
 caramel. 
 
 By hi'Htiu^ sugar, until completely burnt, it does 
 not give cinders if altogether pure. This latter pro- 
 perty is u>< d to ascertain whether the sugar does 
 not contain mineral substances. 
 
 When crystalized sugar is found in solution with 
 organic substances it rapidly transforms into liquid 
 sugar and is destroyed. This' explains the necessity 
 of purifying, immediately after extracting the juice. 
 
 A solution oi pure prismatic sugar, containing lime, 
 potash, soda, does not change even if the liquid is 
 kept at boiling point. These substances, it is true 
 prevent the sugar from crystallizing but they do not 
 change it, so that once eliminated, the pure sugar 
 remains and it can then crystallize. 
 
 But if the solution of sugar contains deteriorated 
 sugar, or liquid sugar, then boiling in presence of 
 alkaline matters will produce a color that cannot be 
 removed and the sugar produced will be more or 
 less dark. 
 
74 
 
 These alkaline substances, lime, salts of potash 
 and soda, prevent the crystallization of a certain 
 portion equal to about 5 times their weight, so that, 
 if beet juice contains 12 pounds of sugar and one 
 half pound of these substances, the latter prevents 2J 
 Ibs. of sugar from crystallizing.' 
 
 Thus we have seen that sugar forms with lime a 
 sucrate of lime : this sucrate contains per 100. 
 
 Lime 14 parts. 
 
 Sugar 86 " 
 
 100 " 
 
 This property as we have seen is used for purify- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 $ 7. OF BEET JUICE. 
 
 Beets reduced to pulp and heavily pressed give 
 about 80 per cent of highly colored juice. The 
 average components of this juice are 
 
 Sugar . 12 Ibs. 
 
 Azote substances H * 4 
 
 Salts f " 
 
 Water... . 86 " 
 
 100 
 
 The azote substances must be eliminated before 
 the sugar can be extracted. Azote substances are for 
 the greater part eliminated by the use of lime. But 
 notwithstanding the care taken in purifying, a por- 
 
75 
 
 tion always remains : there especially remains a 
 coloring substance which darkens the juice in pro- 
 portion as it is concentrated by evaporation. 
 
 On the other hand, the treatment of the juice by 
 carbonic acid, is not so complete but that it leaves a 
 certain quantity of lime. When the juice has been 
 treated by lime and carbonic acid therestjj^ft^a^a^,,^^ 
 
 Some azote substances, J/^> 
 
 Some coloring matter, ff --- - 
 
 \LIBRAIi 
 
 Salts of potash and soda. 
 
 . 
 So as to eliminate the- greatest possjl 
 
 these substances, the juice and syrup mi 
 in broken charcoal. 
 
 Charcoal in fact, 
 
 Takes away the azote substances, 
 
 Renders colorless the juice and syrup, 
 
 Absorbs the lime, 
 
 Absorbs the greater part of the alkaline salts. 
 
 I finish this section by giving the average com- 
 position of a sugar beet, 
 
 Sugar 12.00 
 
 Azote combinations 1.50 
 
 Ashes (salts) 1.00 
 
 Cellular and other matters 4.70 
 
 Water... . 80.80 
 
 100.00 
 
76 
 
 It then follows that in the pressed pulp there 
 remains. 
 
 Sugar i.OO 
 
 Azote combinations 0.25 
 
 Ashes 0.25 
 
 Cellular and other matters 4. 05 
 
 Water 13.85 
 
 moo 
 
 8. OF ANIMAL CHARCOAL. 
 
 Of its manufacture and revivification. 
 
 Animal charcoal is obtained by calcining bones of 
 animals in closed vessels until all the gases have 
 escaped. The product of this calcining is a coal of a 
 deep black, light, porous. 
 
 It is made in large kilns : and to calcine the 
 bones they are broken and placed in cast or sheet 
 iron pots, containing about one bushel. The pots 
 filled with the bones are piled on the bottom of the 
 furnace, so that they cover one another : the upper 
 pots being covered. 
 
 In sugaries where they manufacture their own 
 charcoal, they have kilns that can hold 100 pots or 
 more, so that each kiln gives 3 or 4,000 pounds of 
 charcoal. When the charge is complete, the fire is 
 lighted and it is stirred so that are the pots gradually 
 acquire a deep red tinge. Once the fire is going, an 
 abundant quantity of gas is noticed coming out of the 
 pots, arising from the organic substances in the bones. 
 
n 
 
 The process going in inside is watched through a 
 hole in the door of the kiln, and when it is observed 
 that the gas has ceased escaping from the pots, the 
 operation is finished. With a properly managed 
 lire, it should take from to ^ hours to complete the 
 calcination. 
 
 For the charcoal to be good, it must be properly 
 bin-lit] nnbnrnt bones are easily noticed on account 
 of their weight, which is greater and their density. 
 The insufficiently burnt bun s must be picked out 
 and burnt over. 
 
 When an expert views new animal charcoal and 
 has to test it at sight, he takes in to account its 
 weight, its color, which should be a fine dull black 
 and at the same he should put a pier-,' in his mouth. 
 If the charcoal adheres strongly to his tongue and 
 bi,i.c.s it, and if the color is good, he .says thai the 
 charcoal is good. 
 
 Hones give about 60 p,.T con! of llioir weigh! iu 
 animal charcoal. 
 
 When the bones have been calcined, the charcoal' 
 is not yet ready for use : it should be broken into 
 pieces of about 3 or 4 eighths of an inch in diameter 7 
 this is done in a pounding mill. We then have what 
 is called noir en yrains (seed charcoal), and it is in 
 this form that it is used to filter juice and syrups 
 
 Charcoal that has been used for filtering, should 
 before being again used, be cleaned and revivified. 
 
 In fact it has absorbed from the juice and syrup 
 certain azote substances, coloring matter, lime, salts 
 of potash and soda, which 'must be taken out. 
 
78 
 
 These substances are removed from it by hydro- 
 cloric acid, by fermenting it, washing it in hot water 
 and by reburnlng. 
 
 The charcoal after being used six or eight hours 
 in the filter is taken out and placed in cisterns of 
 wood or masonry, and there covered with water 
 mixed with a hundredth part of its weight of hydro- 
 rloric acid and it is left to itself for 8 hours at least. 
 The acid then aS tacks all the substances absorbed by 
 .the charcoal, the azote substances, coloring matter, 
 lime and salts and destroys them or renders them 
 soluble. After eight hours the charcoal is drawn off 
 and piled on the floor, or it is left another eight hours 
 to ferment and is then washed in boiling water. 
 The washer used is a semi cylindrical vessel slightly 
 inclined, in which moves an archimedean screw. 
 The charcoal is shovelled into the lower end and it 
 mounts by degrees against a strong current of hot 
 water, which comes down from the upper part. 
 The hot water takes away all the impurities still 
 in it. The charcoal when washed is placed in heaps 
 on the floor to dry, then calcined and used again. 
 
 A factory working '200,000 pounds of beets per 
 day uses 10,000 pounds of animal charcoal, say 5 
 per cent of the weight of the beets. The use of a 
 larger quantity would be preferab e if economical 
 reasons would allow it. To revivify this quantity of 
 charcoal requires 100 pounds of hydrochloric acid. 
 The stock of charcoal ol' such a factory would be 
 from 30,000 to 40.000 pounds. 
 
79 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINERY. 
 
 So as to describe without interruption the pro- 
 cesses of manufacture, in the folllowing chapter, I 
 will in this one give a description of the principal 
 machinery employed. 
 
 1. BEET WASHER. 
 
 A wooden or iron cylindrical cage of 10 feet in 
 length by 3J or 4 feet in diameter is used, immersed 
 in water to one third of its diameter in a vessel, 
 and driven 4 or 6 revolutions per minute. At one 
 end there is hopper to receive the beets. Between the 
 washer and the grater there is an inclined plane, 
 with an iron or wooden grating on the side next to 
 the washer. 
 
 The vessel is cleaned \twice a day, and the water 
 mixed with earth and rubbish runs into large 
 vats in which the solids substances are deposited 
 and make a good manure which is carefully gathered 
 after the work is finished. 
 
 GRATER AND ATTACHMENTS. 
 
 The grater is composed of a cast iron cylinder,, 
 with three disks grooved in the inside and two 
 pulleys placed at the two ends of the shaft. 
 
 The cylinder is two feet in diameter by about 
 two feet in length. The circumference is furnished 
 
80 
 
 with saw teeth, separated by wooden brackets, three 
 eighths of an inch in thickness which catch in the 
 grooves in the disks. The grater when in position 
 looks like a drum with saw teeth, appearing about 
 one sixteenth of an inch above it. The beets go down 
 the inclined plane and are shoved against the grater 
 by an alternative motion by two mechanical pushers 
 having a reciprocating movement of 10 to 15 revolu- 
 tions a minute. The grater- in movement revolves 
 800 to 1000 times per minute. 
 
 The grater is placed on a solid cast iron base and 
 is covered with a movable sheet iron cap. On the 
 upper part of the cap there is a small trench pierced 
 with holes over the full length of the grater., which 
 receives the water from a tap. This water spreads at 
 pleasure over the grater when in action. Under the 
 grater at each side there is a trough to receive the 
 pulp. 
 
 3. HYDRAULIC PRESSES. 
 
 The hydraulic presses are composed of a piston 
 of one foot in diameter by three feet in height, 
 sliding by friction in a cylinder ; this piston carries 
 a platform to receive the articles to be pressed. The 
 piston is moved by a force pump whose piston is one 
 inch in diameter. 
 
 . The piston of the press lifts the platform between 
 four strong iron pillars firmly fastened to the base, 
 and to which apparatus there is a top or cap so 
 that the articles are pressed between the platform 
 and the cap. The diameter of the platform between 
 
81 
 
 the uprights is 3 feet 4 inches, and the spa^e bet- 
 ween the platform and the cap 3 feet. 
 
 A factory fitted to make 200,000 pounds of beets 
 has 8 hydraulic presses. 
 
 The pulp is taken out of the troughs hy hand 
 shovels or machine shovels and placed in woolen bags; 
 the bag is placed on a table and the open end turned 
 over and the pulp spread uniformly. On the top of 
 the first bag there is placed a piece of sheet iron 
 called a claie, then another bag and another rlaie 
 and so >n. When the pile is sufficiently high a 
 workman called the press^nan places the sacks and 
 claies on the platform of the press. The load upon 
 the platform being sufficient, movement is given it 
 by starting the pump. Under the powerful action of 
 the press the juice runs out, and reduces the pulp 
 to twenty per cent of the weight of the beets. When 
 the pressing is finished, the pump is stopped and the 
 platform descends. A. workman called the depresseur 
 takes the sacks in which is the dry pulp, while the 
 pressman takes his claies. The pressed bags are taken 
 to a place where women or children empty them of 
 their dry pulp by shaking them, then they are again 
 used in the press until it is necessary to wash them. 
 
 The juire of the pulp runs by the trenches into a 
 juice lifter. 
 
 4. JUICE LIFTER. 
 
 The juice lifter is used to lift the juice by steam 
 pressure. It is a cylinder of strong sheet iron, furn- 
 ished at the upper end with a double tube for the 
 
82 
 
 introduction and esrape of the steam, a Uibe for the 
 rising liquid and one to raise the juice. The two 
 first, end on the inside of the top, but the pipe of the 
 latter descends to the bottom of the apparatus. The 
 juice lifter being" full, the tap for the entrance of 
 the liquid is shut olf and steam is introduced, which 
 pressing upon the juice, rapidly raises it by thefluw 
 pipe. 
 
 These marhi'ies by the rapidity and regularity 
 of their working advantageously replace pumps for 
 raising juices an 1 syrups in a fad 
 
 5. BOILERS FOR DKFRflAfl'JNr, AN!) CARUONATATING. 
 
 The juice lifter S3iids the juice into the boilers 
 for defecating. These are four large vessels of sheet 
 iron, nearly cubical. They are furnished witha s team 
 coil for heating and another coil much larger which 
 goes round the bottom and which is pierced through 
 the whole length with small holes, for the purpose 
 of injecting carbonic acid into the liquid. There are 
 also two other boilers for the second earbonatation 
 ,or saturation. 
 
 These boilers are furnished at the bottom with 
 holes closed by taps for ihe escape of the liquid. 
 
 6. DECANTERS. 
 
 These are similar vessels to the preceding, but not 
 so large and without coils, in which the carbonated 
 juice deposits its carbonate of lime and its impurities. 
 The clear juice is decanted and the deposit is sent to 
 filters. 
 
83 
 
 7. PRESS FILTERS. 
 
 The press filter is an assemblage of trays form -Hi 
 of an exterior circle of cast iron and an interior 
 disk of sheet iron pierced with holes ; they are 
 provided at the top with a hole corresponding to 
 a service pipe. Of the two exterior trays which are 
 full, one is fixed on a frame of cast iron, and the 
 other is movable and works as also the pierced 
 plates, upon two ears on two horizontal supporting 
 arms. Each interior tray is furnished with a tap 
 on its lower side, and a cloth is applied to the upper 
 surface of each. These trays are tightened by means 
 of a screw, so that there is a circular compartment 
 on the interior between them communicating by 
 the upper hole, with the service pipe and they are 
 so adjusted by means of rubber washers that the 
 apparatus is perfectly tight and all the compart- 
 ments form filters. The deposit rendered muddy 
 by the carbonatation is forcily sent up by the juice 
 lifter, through the service pi, e and fills all the 
 compartments. Pressure compels the clear liquid to 
 run out by the lower taps, whilst the carbonate of 
 lime with all the impurities remains in the compart- 
 ments nearly dry. 
 
 AYhen the operation is finished, the trays are 
 loosened, the cake that remains is let fall and the 
 apparatus is fixed again for another operation. The 
 cakes from the press-filters are a very fine manure 
 which is carefully gathered. When the cloths are 
 worn out they are replaced by others. 
 
84 
 
 S. FILTERS. 
 
 The filters are sheet iron cylinders of 10 feet in 
 height by 2-\ in diameter, with a bottom, but open at 
 the top. In the rear they are furnish. >d on a level 
 with the botlom, \v! f h a man hole to empty th:,'in, 
 'and in front, by a tube communicating with a "pipe 
 with two taps, one on a level with the bottom for 
 draining, and the other at the height of the charge 
 in the filter for the running off of the filtered juic s 
 and syrups. This level of running oifis necessary so 
 that all the charcoal can be covered with the liquid 
 and that the juice should prevent all contact between 
 the exterior air and the rhap'nal. contact which 
 might cause serious accidents. On the top there are 
 several pipe's which conduct the juice, syrup and hot 
 water. 
 
 To charge the filter, a false bottom of pi " 
 sheet iron is placed on a Ird.L 1 ' - about two inches 
 from the bottom, and on this false bottom then- is 
 placed a cloth of light texture commonly called 
 bolting-cloth ; then the charcoal is brought and regu- 
 larly piled. At the upper part above the charcoal 
 and at one foot from the top of the lilter another 
 bottom of pierced sheet iron is placed, and covered 
 with another bolting-cloth. 
 
 I must add that every time a filter is emptied it 
 should be carefully cleaned before placing new 
 charcoal in it. The walls are scrubbed to remove 
 everything that may have stuck to them and the 
 bottom is washed with hot water ; then the walls 
 
85 
 
 and bottom are sprinkled with milk of lime at 10 or 
 12 B. 
 
 This attention to cleanliness, which is easily 
 done at any rale, is of the highest importance to the 
 regular working of the manufacture. 
 
 The syrups evaporated, that is to say brought to 
 $5 or 27 u B first pass to a nr-w filter, and the simple 
 juice succeeds to the syrups. 
 
 EVAPORATING APPARATUS. 
 
 This apparatus called a triple effe 1 , is very difficult 
 to explain without the machine itself in view. I 
 will try however to give to my readers as exact 
 an idea as possible. It is composed of three principal 
 parts ; three boilers or chores, the safety columns, 
 the condenser and air pump. 
 
 Before explaining the apparatus I will first ex- 
 plain the principle upon which it is based ; the rest 
 will be more easily understood. 
 
 It is known that the air presses upon the surface 
 of the earth and upon every thing thereon. The 
 barometer shews the measure of this pressure. 
 
 We know that under atmospheric pressure (30 
 inches) water begins to boil a 212" Fahr. Juice boils 
 at a temperature a little higher which increases as 
 the concentration advances. To arrive at a suffi- 
 cient concentration, the syrup should remain a con- 
 siderable time under this high temperature, which 
 is not without serious inconveniences for the sugar. 
 
 It has been noticed that if we could work in a 
 
vacuum, boiling point could be readied at a lower 
 temperature ; that the sugar could not then be 
 damaged and the expense for fuel would be dimi- 
 nished. 
 
 To attain this object, vessels have been constructed 
 that have no communication with the outside air, 
 then a vacuum has been created in these vessels by 
 pumping out th^ air they contained : then to preserve 
 the vacuum which would destroy the steam, the 
 steam is condensed by cold water. 
 
 Such is the principle, of evaporation at alow 
 temperature in vacua. 
 
 In using a series of vessels,in which the vacuum 
 is successively increased, the steam produced by the 
 working of the first vessel, may be sent to boil the 
 second, which thus become the condenser of the 
 first ; the steam produced by the second boils the 
 third, which becomes the condenser of the preceding. 
 Finally the steam produced by the boiling of the 
 third passes into the condenser which liquifies there 
 with cold water. This latter vessel is the only one 
 that communicates 1 with the air pump, which esta- 
 blishes the equilibrium of the vacuum in all the 
 vessels. 
 
 The apparatus a triplc-e/frt is thus composed of 
 three boilers, or vessels closed from the exterior air. 
 They are cylinders of cast or sheet iron of 4 feet in 
 diameter by 8 feet in height. Each boiler has at its 
 base a space shut off from the rest, which is called 
 the steam chamber. The steam chailfber occupies the 
 whole space from one foot from the bottom to four 
 
87 
 
 feet, and is consequently 3 feet in height. Itis formed 
 by two plates clinched to the body of the boiler and 
 traversed through its whole length by vertical tubes 
 of one inch and a half in diameter, which connect 
 the lower part of the boiler with the upper part and 
 serve to circulate the juice when boiling. The steam 
 produced escapes by the top and is condensed in the 
 chamber of the next boiler. The stearn in the chamber 
 circulates about these tubes, warms them and is 
 condensed. The steam for the first comes directly 
 either from the steam boilers, or the exhaust steam 
 from the engine. 
 
 Each boiler is furnished with a steam gauge to 
 ascertain the pressure and regulate the quantity of 
 water to b,? used in the condenser, a thermometer 
 for the h'lij.piTfiture f the liquid, a steam gauge to 
 indicate Li.- inside pressure, a gauge to test the 
 syrups, a spirit level, and a glass to watch the 
 operation. 
 
 Tho three boilers communicate with one another 
 by means of pipes, and on account of the difference 
 of the pressure, the syrups flow of themselves from 
 one boiler to the other. It may !. supposed that the 
 liquid passing successively through the three vessels 
 is more and more condensed arid arrives at the re- 
 quired state in the last. 
 
 Boiling is pro iuced as follows : 
 
 1st vessel temperature 20G 
 2nd u 185" 
 
 3rd 4 - " 149" 
 
 &et>yeeu fhe boilers there are safety 
 
88 
 
 Vh rough which the steam for the rhambers passes. 
 The syrup in boiling sometimotimes escapes by the 
 escape valve ; this syrup remains in the column and 
 is taken up ugain. Without these columns, the syrup 
 would be lost, A spirit glass shows the quantity in it. 
 
 10. BOILING APPARATUS. 
 
 The construction and working of the boiling ap- 
 paratus rest on the same principles as the evaporating 
 machine ; I will not then have to enlarge on the 
 subject. This apparatus is composed of the boiler, 
 condenser and air pump. The heating is performed 
 by three isolated superimposed coils. It is furnished 
 with a taster whi' % h goes into the in.-'fk i and bj 
 which samples of syrup are drawn out. 
 
 11. TUHIUNE OR CKNTRIFrfrAL. 
 
 The turbine is a machine which is used instant- 
 am-ously and mechanically to drain and dry the su- 
 gar, that is to say t.-> isolate the crystals from the 
 liquid. The construction of this in.-i chine is based 
 upon this principle in physics: ail bodies having 
 a circular motion tend to fly off at a tangent from 
 the centre. The turbine is composed of a drum open 
 at the top, provided with very fine wire cloth on its 
 inside surface. This wire cloth is fastened to a solid 
 iron frame of sufficient weight to give considerable 
 intensity to the centrifugal force. The drum is pro- 
 vided below with a pivot solidly fixed into a collar 
 fastened into the base. This base serves as a cover- 
 ing for the drum. 
 
 The turbine in motion runs 1000 to 1200 revolu- 
 tions per minute. 
 
89 
 
 12. AREOMETERS. 
 
 The Beaume areometer is generally used to gauge 
 juices and syrups. I have spoken of them in the 
 introduction to this work. I give here a table of the 
 graduation of this areometer, compared with that of 
 Balling which indicates the percentage of sugar, and 
 the centessimal areometer which shows the density. 
 
 Comparative tables of the Beaume, Balling atM Ctn- 
 tessimal areometers. 
 
 Degrees 
 Btaum6. 
 
 Percentage Percentage 
 of sngar or Density of Degrees of sugar or 
 degn es the liquid.' Beaume. j degrees 
 Balling. j Balling. 
 
 Density 
 
 of the 
 liq ntd. 
 
 
 
 0,00 
 
 1,0000 j! 26 
 
 47,73 
 
 1,2203 
 
 * 
 
 0,90 ! ,0085 
 
 27 
 
 49,63 
 
 1,2308 
 
 1 
 
 1,80 ! ,0070 28 
 
 51,55 
 
 1,2414 
 
 J 
 
 3,59 ,0141 
 
 29 
 
 53,47 
 
 1,2522 
 
 
 5,39 
 
 ,0313 30 
 
 55,47 
 
 1,2632 
 
 4 
 
 7,19 
 
 - ,0286 j 31 
 
 57,34 1,2743 
 
 f 
 
 9,00 
 
 ,0360 j 32 
 
 59.29 
 
 1.2857 
 
 f 
 
 10,80 
 
 ,0435 i 33 
 
 61^25 
 
 1.2973 
 
 7 
 
 12.61 ,0511 (I 34 
 
 63,22 
 
 1.3091 
 
 8 
 
 14,42 .. ,0588 1 35 
 
 65,20 
 
 l',3211 
 
 9 
 
 16,23 ! ,0667 
 
 36 
 
 67,19 
 
 1,3333 
 
 10 
 
 18.05 | ,0746 
 
 37 
 
 69,19 
 
 1.3458 
 
 1J 
 
 19,87 ; ,0827 
 
 38 
 
 71.20 
 
 1,3585 
 
 12 
 
 21,69 ' ,0909 
 
 39 
 
 73,23 
 
 1,3714 
 
 13 
 
 23,52 
 
 ,0992 
 
 40 
 
 75,27 
 
 1 ,3846 
 
 14 
 
 25,37 ,1077 
 
 41 
 
 77.32 
 
 1,3981 
 
 15 
 
 27,19 ,1163 
 
 42 79,39 
 
 1,4118 
 
 16 
 
 29,03 
 
 ,1250 
 
 43 81,47 
 
 1,4267 
 
 17 
 
 30,87 ,1339 
 
 44 
 
 83.56 
 
 1,4400 
 
 18 
 
 32,72 ! ,1429 
 
 45 85,68 
 
 1,454S 
 
 19 
 
 34J58 ,1520 
 
 46 87,81 
 
 1,4694 
 
 20 
 
 36,44 ,1613 
 
 47 
 
 89,96 
 
 1,4845 
 
 21 
 
 38,30 
 
 ,1707 
 
 48 
 
 92,12 
 
 1,5000 
 
 22 
 
 40,17 
 
 ,1803 
 
 49 
 
 94,30 
 
 1,5158 
 
 23 
 
 42,05 
 
 ,1901 
 
 50 
 
 96,51 
 
 1,5319 
 
 24 
 
 43,94 
 
 ,2000 
 
 51 
 
 98,73 
 
 1,5484 
 
 2f 
 
 45,83 ,2101 
 
 51$ 99,85 
 
 1,65J 
 
90 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF BEET ROUT SUGAR. 
 
 '^ 
 
 The details that I have given on some of the prin- 
 ciples and operations attendant upon the manufacture 
 of beet root sugar, and the descriptions given of the 
 chief machinery in use, allow me to pass rapidly 
 over the manufacture itself. 
 
 I. EXTRACTING THE JUICE. 
 
 The beets are brought and placed as required in 
 the washers. The workmen entrusted with this fluty 
 should carefully reject all beets that are spoiled, or 
 those that, having been frost bitten are thawed; as 
 those beets contain principles that might ruijn the 
 whole work. They should also avoid allowing any 
 hard substance to pass into the washer. 
 
 The rotary action of the washing drum plf uged 
 one third in water, causes the beets to rub against 
 each other and against the walls of the machine and 
 they are thus cleaned from the adhering eartl). The 
 beets arrive at the other end of the washej clean 
 and are thrown on the grating of the inclined plane 
 where they drain, and get rid of the small|stones 
 that may have come through with them. Tn& beets 
 are then sent against the grater, against which they 
 are shoved by two pushers. The grater reduce^ them 
 10 a fine pulp which falls into the vessels below. 
 
 To assist the detaching of the pulp that may 
 U) the grater, a continuous stream of svater 
 
91 
 
 from the tap on the cover on the top is directed to it, 
 regulated by the quantity of beets used. The pro- 
 Dortion of water is always 15 or 20 per cent of the 
 veight of the beets. This water mixed with the pulp 
 further assists the extraction of the juice by pressure. 
 
 The water added in the grater is always so regu- 
 lated as to maintain the juices when leaving the 
 presses at 6 or 6 degrees Beaume. More water is 
 this added if trie beets are rich, and less if the 
 befts are poor in sugar. 
 
 The room in which the juice is extracted must 
 he lept perfectly clean, without which fermentation 
 woild set in, which would ensure great loss. For 
 thispurpose every thing that touches the juice and 
 th * mlp is thoroughly washed four times a day, and 
 twio a day sprinkled with milk of lime. The wollen 
 agHised or; the presses are also washed twice a 
 day a hot water. On leaving the presses, the juice 
 shoild be immediately treated with lime, so that it 
 maynot be spoiled, and it is sent by the juice raiser 
 to tb defecating boilers in the upper story. The 
 chare of a juice raiser is the same as that of a boiler. 
 
 6. DEFECATION AND CARBONATATION. 
 
 Te juice sent up is muddy and of a dirty brown 
 color; it fills about two thirds of the boiler. 
 
 Tie juice is heated to about 86 and whilst it is 
 beiig heated there is added a quantity 6 hundredth* 
 of tilk of lime at 20 Beaume, that is to say for 560 
 gabns, the capacity of one of the boilers for th* 
 
 V* 
 
 I 
 
92 
 
 daily manufacture of -200,000 Ibs. of beets, 30 gallons 
 of milk of lime at 20 B would be added. This is 
 well mixed whilst the temparature. of the juice is 
 rising ; when the whole is well mixed a small injec- 
 tion of carbonic acid is directed into it. When the 
 temperature has reached 131, the injection pipe for 
 the introduction of the carbonic acid is opened wide", 
 this injection produces a great commotion in tie 
 boiler, to such an extent that it would overflow, if 
 the man in charge did not stir it continually witi a 
 wooden rake, and throw in a little grease to sop 
 the effervescing It is on account of this eileres- 
 cence that the boilers are only two thirds filled. 
 
 During this time the temperature slowly r.ses 
 up to 176, at which point the steam is shut off. 
 
 The carbonic acid is still continued to be injected* 
 until a small quantity of the juice on bing 
 drawn out, rapidly settles and gives on its sur- 
 face a clear, limpid and slighty amber liquid. 
 
 When at this point, the injection of acid is stoped 
 and the liquid is emptied into the decanting vesels 
 where the clear portion is gradually drawn off. 
 
 This first operation has deprived the juice <f the 
 greater portion of the hurtful ingredients tha the 
 lime could eliminate, but to purify it as mujh as 
 possible a second operation is gone through, \4iich 
 this time is carried on at a higher temperajure. 
 The decanted juices are sent to the two last holers 
 fo undergo a second carbonatation or saturation, the 
 liquid being placed in one of these boilers 4 tyn- 
 
93 
 
 dredths of milk of lime at 20 B is added thereto, 
 and is properly mixed, then carbonic acid gas is 
 introduced. At the same time it is gradually heated 
 up to about 200. Again it is watched to notice the 
 time when to shut off the injection of carbonic acid, 
 and when it is seen that the liquid when drawn out 
 is clarified instantly, the operation is complete. 
 The carbonic acid is however left to act for a few 
 minutes to ensure more complete success, then the 
 injection of gas is shut off, and the liquid is boiled 
 for a moment to drive off the excess of the carbonic- 
 acid retained and the juice is again sent to be de- 
 canted, the juice is this time sent to the filters. 
 
 The froth or deposits from the decantation pass by 
 a juice lifter which sends them into the press filters. 
 
 The clear juice drawn from the press-filters goes 
 through the second carbonatation. 
 
 3. FILTERING. 
 
 The juice runs into the filter and fills it to the 
 height of the overflow tap which is the same as the 
 upper surface of the charge of the filter. In this 
 manner is regulated the duration of the contact of 
 the charcoal with the juice, which is an important 
 point ; the animal charcoal acts not only as a mecha- 
 nical filtering agent, but also as an absorbent, and 
 the lunger the contact of the charcoal with the juice 
 is prolonged, the more does the charcoal produce 
 its effects by absorbing the azote substances, coloring 
 matter, lime and salts. The entrance and discharge of 
 
94 
 
 the juice should be so regulated that the juice shonld 
 take a half an hour in its passage through the filter. 
 
 Simple juice passes through a filter that has been 
 used to filter syrup ; it is thus enriched by the sugar 
 left by the syrup on its passage. When the juice has 
 passed 6 hours through a filter, the latter is consi- 
 dered as used up. It is then scoured, that is to say, 
 hot water is put in which drives away the remaining 
 juice from the filter, mixing more or less with it. 
 When water has been placed in the filter, the juice 
 romes out gradually loss strong until it marks only 
 J degree Beaume. Then the upper tap is closed, and 
 whilst letting the water run. the lower tap is opened. 
 The water which then runs serves to give the char- 
 coal its first washing. 
 
 The juice immediately aftor saturation has an 
 amber color and a very marked taste of lime ; when 
 leaving the filter it becomes more clear and limpid, 
 and has already a fair taste of sugar : in tasting it, a 
 man unacquainted with the manufacture will recog- 
 nize the presence of sugar, whilst he could scarcely 
 do so by tasting the juice when leaving the pr^sw s 
 or after defecation. 
 
 4. EVAPORATION. 
 
 I have little to say concerning this operation, 
 after the explanations given when speaking of the 
 vaporizing machine. The juice comes to it at 6* 
 Beaume. It approaches up to 15 in the first vessel, 
 up to 22 or 23 in the second and it is discharged 
 
95 
 
 from the 3rd at 27". As this syrup conies out of this 
 apparatus at the relatively low temperature of 149" 7 
 arid that the maximum effect of the charcoal is pro- 
 duced at an intermediate t3mperature between 160" 
 and 190, it must he heated to boiling point and then 
 sent to the filters. 
 
 Syrup at 27 B. contains M) per cent of solid mat- 
 ters in solution and 50 of water. 
 
 In our factory working 200,000 pounds of beets 
 per day, 25,000 gallons of juice at 6 B. are produced 
 weighing at 1.0435 of density, 203,700 pounds. This 
 juice contains : 
 
 Solid matters in solution.. 20,870 Ihs. 
 
 Water 187,830 u or 23,300 gals. 
 
 To reach 27>, 167,000 pounds of water or 20,800 
 gallons have to be evaporated. There remains 41,- 
 740 pounds of syrup at 1,250 of density or 420(1 
 gallons. 
 
 5. SECOND FILTRATION. 
 
 The working of the second filtration is the same 
 MS the first. The syrup remains in contact with the 
 charcoal for half an hour. Each filter is used for (v 
 hours. 
 
 Four filters per 24 hours are always used, so 
 that two are always in operation, one lVr the syrup, 
 the other for the jqice, whilst the other two are used 
 for cleaning and charging. 
 
 The syrup leaves the filter clarified and colorless. 
 
and its taste in consequence of this operation is no- 
 tably improved. It is deprived of the greater part of 
 the organic substances that might be still contained 
 in it, the lime and nearly all the alkaline salts. 
 
 When the filter has been used for 6 hours for 
 the syrups, it is used for the juice which take up 
 the remains of the syrup in it. 
 
 After the second filtration, the syrup is then 
 purified as much as possible; it only contains water, 
 sugar and a very small portion of salts of potash and 
 soda. 
 
 The last concentration is then preceded with, the 
 boiling down. 
 
 (). BOILING DOWN. 
 
 We have si'on that there remains 4200 gallons of 
 syrup at 27 B. containing : 
 
 Solid matters in solution 20,870 Ibs. 
 
 Water -20,870 u 
 
 We must bring this syrup to such a point of 
 concentration as that the sugar may crystallize. For 
 this purpose we must remove still 94 per cent of the 
 water which it contains, say 19,620 pounds or 2450 
 gallons and there will remain 1750 gallons of a 
 boiled mass containing : 
 
 Sugar and some other substances.. .20, 870 Ibs. 
 Water 1,250 * 
 
 Say 22,120 
 
97 
 
 In my calculations, I have not up to the present 
 taken into account the substances taken off in the 
 defecating and filtering processes and the losses in 
 sugar. All these taken into account will reduce 
 our 22,120 Ibs of boiled matter to 19,000 pounds. 
 
 To reach this concentration, a vacuum is first 
 created in the machine by the use of the air pump, 
 and one half of the syrup to be reduced is put in ; 
 then steam is let into the first coil and water is let run 
 intothe condenser so as to have the vacuum main- 
 tained at 24 inches corresponding to a temperature 
 of 150; and the evaporation is continued until a 
 sample ! ..;.!^n up by the taster gives the crook proof ; 
 in get this proof, a little syrup is taken up between 
 the forefi.iger and thumb, which are then quickly 
 separated ; if a very fine slight .thread is formed 
 which breaks and tarns over upon itself in the shape 
 of a cork screw, the right degree has been attained. 
 Then the rest, of the syrup is put in, two hundredths 
 at a time (say in 25 times) as the mass reaches its 
 proof point and the vacuum is maintained to 18 inches. 
 Every time more syrup is introduced the mass must 
 be brought up to the hook proof. As the second and 
 third coils are covered, steam is necessarily intro- 
 duced into them and the vacuum is gradually raised 
 to 26 inches under a pressure of 50 pounds of steam. 
 The operation is finished with 28 inches of a vacuum, 
 that is a temperature of 130, by reaching the string 
 proof, which is arrived at when the thread in breaking 
 no larger turns upon itself in the shape of a cork 
 scrtw. 
 
98 
 
 The operation of boiling down lasts from 7 to 8 
 hours. When finished, air is let in to the apparatus 
 and the mass is discharged. 
 
 7. DRYING IN THE TURBINES OR CONTRIFUGALS. 
 
 The boiled syrup is run into reservoirs of the ca- 
 pacity of one boiling, in which it very soon becomes 
 a crystallized mass. It has now only to be drained 
 off and the sugar dried in the turbine. 
 
 As the mass has become nearly solid and would 
 offer some obstacles to the draining, on account of 
 the large pieces of sugar, it is passed through a 
 crushing mill, where it is mixed with a small quan- 
 tity of syrup raised to 30 or 32 B. Thus reduced 
 into a sort of pulp, it is placed in the turbi^ s. The 
 charge for each turbine is 150 pounds. Th; ! machine 
 is then started. The mass sticks evenly to the cir- 
 cular walls of the drum which stops the grains of 
 sugar, but the liquid, driven by the centrifugal force, 
 traverses the solid portion, which it clarifies by 
 taking away its impurities, through the wire cloth 
 and runs out into reservoirs. The machines a re left 
 in motion for a quarter of an hour. 
 
 The sugar has become dry. To whiten it, a 
 stream of dry steam is directed into the drum for a 
 few seconds, which completes the purifying of the 
 Crystals and renders them white. The turbine is 
 stopped, and the sugar taken out and placed in sacks 
 for transport or sent to the store. 
 
 .operation thus gives 90 pounds of sugar, 
 
99 
 
 and the day's work, that is, the 19,000 pounds of 
 boiled stuff (1600 gallons) gives 11, 400 pounds of dry 
 sugar of the first-strike, or sixty per cent of the boiled 
 stuff or again 5, 7 per cent of the weight of the 
 beets. 
 
 The syrup which runs from the turbine and 
 which is called raw syrup, represents 40 per cent of 
 the boiled stuff, or 7,600 pounds. By proper treat- 
 ment this will produce another quantity of sugar. 
 For this purpose, the syrup which gauges 44 to 46 
 is placed in a boiler and it is brought to 30 B by the 
 addition of hot water, and it is clarified with bul- 
 lock's blood, arid powdered animal charcoal. 
 
 CLARIFICATION. The syrup having been reduced 
 to 30 B, } per cent of bullock's blood is taken, say 3 
 quarts p T every 100 gallons, which is diluted with 
 3 or 4 times its volume in syrup and emptied into the 
 boiler. It is we'll mixed and 2 per cent of fine char- 
 coal is added. This is well shaken to mix it, and the 
 temperature is raised to 140. It is heated until 
 boiling point is reached. The albumen of the blood 
 in coagulating, rises to the surface drawing with it 
 all the impurities and leaves underneath a clarified 
 syrup which is filtered in the same manner as the 
 syrups at 27 and then boiled down. The syrup when 
 boiled down takes two or three weeks to crystallize 
 in vessels of a capacity of 4 or 600 gallons, placed 
 in what is called empli in which a temperature of 
 95 is maintained. 
 
 The 7200 Dounds of boiled stuff which we obtain 
 will give, at 30 per cent, 2160 pounds of sugar of the 
 
100 
 
 second strike and after being through the turbines, 
 there remains 50^0 pounds of syrup, which heated 
 as before, gives 4800 pounds of boiled stuff which is 
 left to crystallize during three or four months and 
 will bring 10 per cent of sugar of the third strike, 
 say 480 pounds. - 
 
 The total result from the turbines as centifugals 
 would therefore be : 
 
 From the 1st strike 1 l,4f Ibs of sugar say 5.70 p. c. 
 " " 2nd a 2,160 " " 1.03 M 
 
 u 3rd u 430 .c u u 24 u 
 
 14,040 7,02 
 
 And there remains in molasses, reduced to the 
 commercial standard, 42 ( > ^eaume, 4500 pounds or 
 400 gallons. 
 
 Our whole production for 150 days work at 200, 
 000 pounds per day would therefore be : 
 
 14040X 150=2,106,000 pounds of sugar. 
 4500x 150= 675,000 " of molasses or 60,000 
 gallons. 
 
 Which would give a production per 100 of beets. 
 Sugar 7,02. 
 Molasses 2,25. 
 
 8. EMPLOYMENT OF RESIDUE. 
 
 The residue from the manufacture of sugar is 
 molasses, pressed pulp and manure. 
 
MOLASSES. Molasses contains sugar, water and 
 nearly all the salts of potash and soda that have 
 escaped the action of the animal charcoal : at 42 
 Beaume its average composition is per 100 pounds. 
 
 Sugar .' G7 pounds 
 
 Salts and other foreign subs j anc;--s 12 u 
 
 "Water 21 cc 
 
 WP have seen thai Its prevent a pnrlloir 
 
 of the sugar from n ,ig ; h they could be 
 
 completely driven off, in an economical manner, 
 nearly the whole of the sugar thus taken would be 
 obtained ; but as this cannot be done, the most ad- 
 vantageous use to be made of the molasses is to send 
 it to the distiller, who obtains therefrom alcohol and 
 potash. !0!J pounds of imlass;>s at V?" give 4 gallons 
 of spirit, and 10 pounds of saline matter (salts of 
 potash and soda). On account of the large quantity 
 of salts contained in it. lli!> molasse is until I'm. 
 alimentary pnrp<-' - 
 
 PULP. The pnv p is ;i valuable and easily 
 
 kept food to: 1 ealtle, who eagerly relish it. Its nu- 
 tritive equivalent is 150, that is, 150 pounds of 
 pressed pulp have the same value as 1 00 pounds of 
 hay of good quality. 
 
 It is kept for use as required in juts dug in 
 the earth, or in brick reservoirs, in which it is 
 piled and it is covered so that it is sheltered from 
 rain and frost. When getting old, ii acquires a cer- 
 tain degree of acidity which makes it very agi able 
 to cattle. It is sometimes given alone, but "oftener 
 mixed with chopped straw or hav. 
 
tf)2 
 
 The arpent giving 36,000 pounds of beete> the 
 factory will return 20 per cent of pulp, say 7200 
 pounds equal to 4800 pounds of good hay. 
 
 The leaves and heads of the beets that have been 
 rut otf also furnish' food for cattle. They give abmit 
 10,000 pounds per arpent. The alimentary equi- 
 valent being GOO, these 10,000 pounds are equal to 
 1600 pounds of hay, so that an arpent of beets, 
 returns to the farm a quantity of food equal in value 
 in 6400 pounds of hay. 
 
 MAM RKS. The manures furnished by the sugary 
 consist in the residuum from the press-filters and 
 .the deposits from washing the beets. 
 
 The first is composed of carbonate of lime and 
 organic matters decomposed and precipitated by the 
 lime. 
 
 This substance constitutes a fertilizer and a ma- 
 mire, and is very well fitted for argilaceous lands. 
 So w.t-h deposits from washing the beets, composed 
 t>f earth and organic remains. These latter may be 
 advantageously employed when mixed with lime as 
 a. compost. 
 
 9. Ou> PROCESS OF MAM-FAC/ITI'.*:. 
 
 The explanations I have given have reference to 
 the improved system of manufacture, now in general 
 use. To conclude I will speak of the old system 
 which will, perhaps, seem more easy to be under- 
 stood, and which may be used by those who wish to 
 experiment on a small scale. 
 
103 
 
 The extraction of the juice, the filtering and 
 purifying of the sugar are in the first place the same 
 and the only difference is in the defecation, evapo- 
 ration and boiling down. 
 
 The new system excels the old one, in that it is 
 really more simp'e in practic ^, that it is more econo- 
 mical and that it gives be'ter and finer results. 
 
 For defecation a copper boiler with a. double bottom 
 is used, in which the. 1 sk?aui circulates. After each 
 operation this boiler is carefully cleaned. For evapo- 
 rating and boiling down, copper basins, with covers 
 surmounted by chimneys for the escape of the steam, 
 generated in the boiling, are used. These basins are 
 heated by steam in coils rolled at the bottom in 
 spirals. 
 
 The press-fillers are replaced by an ordinary 
 screw or lever press. 
 
 As after defecation there always remains too 
 much lime in the juice, the quantity of animal char- 
 coal is increased to 15 and 20 per 100 of the weight 
 of the juice to drive off this excess of lime. 
 
 Defecation. 
 
 The juice being brought to the boiler, it is ra- 
 pidly heated up to 180. Steam is then shut off and 
 2 gallons and a half of milk of lime at 20 Beaum6 
 is put into 100 gallons of the juice ; it is well mixed 
 with a stirrer and then slowly heated. 
 
 Under the influence of the heat and the lime, the 
 organic substances contained in the juice aredecom 
 
104 
 
 posed and destroyed, the albumen that it contains is 
 coagulated, and, rising in froth, it brings with it all 
 the impurities. A large quantity of thick scum 
 forms on the surface. About 205 the scum cracks and 
 a clear juice is then seen. The heat is raised to 
 boiling and the steam is immediately shut off. After 
 a few minutes rest, the clear juice is first run off and 
 sent towards the filters, then the scum, which is put 
 into wollen sacks to be pressed. The juice from this 
 pressing is put with the other clarified juice. 
 
 The clarified juice is limpid with a slight yell- 
 owish tinge. 
 
 Evaporation. 
 
 The filtered juice is by boiling in the evaporating 
 basin reduced until it marks 27 Beaume. If the 
 boiling is too quick, if the syrup rises, the efferves- 
 cence is quieted by throwing a piece of grease into 
 the vessel. When required this is done when boiling 
 down. 
 
 The syrup at '27 is filtered a second time and 
 boiled down. 
 
 Boil in {/ flnirn. 
 
 Boiling down is the complement of evaporation. 
 The concentration is continued until the string proof 
 is attained. To establish this proof a little syrup is 
 taken between the thumb and forefinger which are 
 then separated. If the boiling down approaches its 
 termination, a very fine thread is formed which 
 breaks and returns on itself, twisting into the form 
 
105 
 
 of a cork sen -^ , We then have the haok proof. By 
 boiling a little more, the thread no longer break? or 
 in breaking, it remains unscrewed and does not 
 twist like a cork screw ; we then have reached the 
 desired state and have the thread proof. 
 
 With the hook proof the mass still contains 10 
 per cent of water ; with the thread proof it contains 
 only 5 per cent. 
 
 This is called evaporation and boiling a air libr', 
 in opposition to the corresponding operations that I 
 have already described, and which are called evapo- 
 ration and boiling in vcwuo. 
 
 Experiments on a small xcalt. 
 
 Those who wish to experiment on a sn.aii scata, 
 should use this method, which is always the basis 
 of the manufacture. 
 
 To extract the juice a screw or lever press is used. 
 The same copper boiler would be used for defeca- 
 tion, evaporation and boiling down. As steam 
 would not bf> at hand, a moderate open fire could be 
 used so as not to burn the syrup. 
 
 In this case the turbine can not be employed, 
 conical moulds like the sugar loaves of commerce 
 are used, or rather boxes deeper than broad, having 
 a spout on a level with the bottom. The moulds have 
 also a hole at the pointed extremity. These openings 
 being closed UD, the boiled syrup is emptied into the 
 vessels and they are allowed slowly to crystallize in 
 a place heated to 8C. To obtain large crystals of 
 6 
 
100 - 
 
 sugar, the syrup must not be boiled further than to 
 reach the hook proof. Crystallization lasts 24 hour*;. 
 After this time, the mould is placed in a room at the 
 ordinary temperature, the bottom is unplugged and 
 all the liquid syrup is allowed to run off. When 
 the syrup has ceased running, a saturated solution 
 of sugar in water is emptied on to the surface, say 
 : about a quart for three gallons of the stuff. This 
 solution called liquor traverses the loaf of sugar, 
 washes the crystals and drains off. It is left to drain 
 perfectly, then the sugar thus obtained is dried. 
 
 Animal Charcoal. 
 
 To make the bone black or animal charcoal 
 required for experiments in a small scale, a strong 
 sheet iron pipe is taken, similar to those in use in 
 houses for heating, a fixed bottom is fitted in and a 
 movable cover ; it is filled with broken bones and 
 exposed to the moderate heat of a kiln. When no 
 more thick smoke escapes the operation is finished. 
 The pieces of bone that have become white by being 
 loo much burnt are rejected. The charcoal is re- 
 duced to small pieces, as small as possible by break- 
 ing them. To revivify it, it is allowed to ferment 
 several days, it is washed with hot water and it is 
 reburnt. 
 
 The filter is otherwise constructed as much as 
 possible, on a small scale, in the same plan I men- 
 tioned in the second chapter. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Beet root sugar manufacture cannot fail to pros- 
 per in Canada, when established, as it has prospered 
 
- 107 - 
 
 in all countries where introduced. In fact it is not 
 one of these chance industries where success depends 
 a host of various circumstances. 
 
 The sugar factory supplies a commodity which 
 is consumed in the very place of its production, and 
 which is used all over the world. This commodity 
 may be produced in Canada at as low a price as in 
 any other country, which now supplies it. Why 
 then give to others the profits on an article of con- 
 sumption, with which w r e can advantageously sup- 
 ply ourselves ? 
 
 We now consume 80 millions of pounds of sugar, 
 which v-o receive from the West Indies, the United 
 States, England and France. When we have suc- 
 ceeded in manufacturing sufficient to supply our 
 consumption, which increases every year, we would 
 have in Canada one hundied factories which would 
 use up 1,500 millions of pounds of beets, or the yield 
 of 50,000 arpents, would give work in winter to 
 20.000 persons, and which would return a profit of 
 more than three millions to the manufacturers. 
 
 A considerable revolution would be produced in 
 agriculture ; great and heathy emulation will have 
 started our farmers on the path of progress, and the 
 lands of Canada, instead of remaining nearly un- 
 productive by their unfitness for cultivation, will 
 have rewarded their labors by giving them comfort 
 and wealth. 
 
 Several other industries would derive the great- 
 est advantages, which would also tend to increase 
 the general prosperity of the country. 
 
108 
 
 On this subject I will limit myself to saying a 
 few words on the construction^ the machinery. 
 
 The first factory must no doubt be put up by 
 foreign builders who have made a specialty of the 
 work, but very soon the builders of the country will 
 kave acquired the necessary experience and all that 
 concern the building and repairing of machinery 
 for sugar factories, will form a new branch of our 
 national industry. 
 
 To conclude, I will add a few notes on the direct 
 advantages presented by the establishment of a beet 
 root sugar factory in Canada. And first I will repro- 
 duce the tables of the expenditure, receipts and 
 profits from a sugary using I C 2,()0() tons of -beets in 
 InO or 120 days in the various countries in which 
 this industry is now in a prosperous stat\ 
 
 EXPENDITURE IN FRANCS PER TON OF BEETS. 
 
 Beets. 
 Lfcbor. 
 
 Backs and cloth. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Lighting and boiling. 
 
 Management, 
 
 General expense*. 
 
 Beboiling. 
 
 Impairs. 
 
 Excise dutits. 
 
 
 l 
 
 - 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 aad 
 
 Ho/llajxi. i German v.l Russia. 
 
 M S . 
 
 Fruee. 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 22.00 
 
 27.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.85 
 
 5.50 
 
 6.75 
 
 5.50 ! 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.78 
 
 3.41 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.86i 
 
 . 50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.00! 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.33 0.75 
 
 0.75 
 
 40 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.40 0.50 
 
 0.50, 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.001 3.75 
 
 3.75 
 
 1 . 66 
 
 1.80 
 
 1.66' 3.75 
 
 3.75: 
 
 (i 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 1. 00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 18. On 
 
 18.00 
 
 20 . 00 
 
 8.75 
 
 It ; 
 
 53.21J 60.36 
 
 60.80 
 
 63.75 
 
 53.36 f 
 
109 
 
 RKCEIPT8 IN FBANCS PER TON OF BEETS. 
 
 produce in 
 
 ewgar. 
 
 Fnlp. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 Hollad. 
 
 German T. 
 
 Rassta. 
 
 Itelj. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6.4 
 
 7 
 
 8.6 
 
 1 
 7.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 64.00 
 
 71.00 
 
 76.92 
 
 83.75 
 
 71 .30 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.50 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 69.50 
 
 77.50 
 
 82.72 
 
 88.76 
 
 76.30 
 
 KKCAPITULATION. 
 
 { Belgium 
 
 i 
 
 fraaee. 
 
 Receipts per ton. 6'J.50 
 Expanses " " ' 53.21 
 
 Uolland. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Rossi;). 
 
 Italy. 
 
 77.50 
 60.36 
 
 82.72 
 60.80 
 
 88.75 
 63.75 
 
 76.30 
 52.36 
 
 Profit " " 16.29 
 
 17.14 
 
 21.92 
 
 25.00 
 
 23.94 
 
 " on 12,000 tons. 195.48'! 
 
 205.680 
 
 263.040 
 
 300.000 
 
 287 . 280 
 
 
 
 The establishment of such a factory requires a 
 a capital of 600,000 francs in France, Belgium, Hol- 
 land and Germany. In the other countries, when 
 the machinery has to be imported, the capital may 
 reach 750, 000" francs. 
 
 A factory in Canada, might extend its working 
 over 150 and even 175 days, and only use 70 or 75 
 torn of beets per 24 hours, in place of 100 or 120 
 tons, which would occasion a decrease in the price 
 machinery. 
 
til 
 
 In any case, I think that here a capital of $1 50,000 
 would be sufficient to establish a factory equal fco 
 using 12,000 tons of beets during the season, say the 
 crop of 800 acres. The special machinery alone 
 could be bought. in foreign countries and the rest 
 made here which, in addition to the advantages 
 given to local industry, would save considerable ex- 
 penditure for packing and freight. On the other 
 hand, it would be the means of interesting our 
 builders in the undertaking. 
 
 The machinery, buildings and immovable stock 
 would cost $100,000, and there would remain 
 $50,000 of floating capital. 
 
 The receipts from this factory would certainly 
 be as great as in the countries above mentioned, as 
 sugar is sold as dear here, and it has been proved 
 that our beets are as rich and as good, as those of 
 countries most favored in this respect. 
 
 The expenses of manufacture and especially 
 those for labor would b^ much higher, for the first 
 years, but this increase in the expenses would cer- 
 tainly not reach two dollars per ton of beets worked 
 up, and on the other hand, we must consider that 
 we are free from the excise duty which weighs so 
 heavily on the net cost of the sugar in these other- 
 countries, which would more than compensate the 
 difference. 
 
 We can therefore without any fallacy, count 
 on a net profit of $4 per ton of beets, say nearly 
 $50,000 on a manufacture of 12,000 tons, whkk 
 would give a dividend of more than 30 per cent. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 introduction 5 
 
 Historical notice , 11 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 Qrowtk of the Sugar Beet. 
 SBCTIOX 
 
 1 Choice of soil 15 
 
 2 Climatic influences 18 
 
 3 Preparation of the soil 19 
 
 4 Rotation of crops 26 
 
 5 Manures 29 
 
 6 Beet sowing 35 
 
 7 Culture of the Beet 45 
 
 8 Harvesting and keeping 49 
 
 9 Value of the Beet 51 
 
 10 Production of seed 53 
 
 1 1 Economical considerations 56 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 CHAPTER FIRST. 
 
 G-eneral ideas 61 
 
 1 Elementary principles of chemistry " 
 
 2 Composition and decomposition of bodies 66 
 
 3 Production of carbonic acid gas 68 
 
 4 Preparation of milk of lime for defecation 70 
 
 & Clarification of juice and syrups " 
 
 6 Of sugar 71 
 
 7 Of the juice of the beet 74 
 
 8 Of animal charcoal, its fabrication and revivification. . . 76 
 
CHAPTER SECOND. 
 
 Description of the machinery 79 
 
 1 Beet washer i " 
 
 2 Grater and accessories " 
 
 3 Hydraulic presses 80 
 
 4 Jnice lifter 81 
 
 5 Boilers for defecation and carbonatation 82 
 
 6 Decanters " 
 
 7 Press-Filters 83 
 
 8 Filters 84 
 
 9 Evaporating apparatus 85 
 
 10 Boiling apparatus 8t 
 
 1 1 Turbine or centrifugal , " 
 
 1 2 Areometers 89 
 
 CHAPTER THIRD. 
 
 Manufacture of Beet root sugar 9f 
 
 1 Extracting the juice . " 
 
 2 Defecation and carbonatation ; 91 
 
 3 Filtration 93 
 
 4 Evaporation 94 
 
 5 Second nitration 95 
 
 6 Boiling down 96 
 
 7 Turbining or use of centrifugals 98 
 
 8 Employment of residue 100 
 
 9 Old process of manufacture 102 
 
 10 Conclusion .. 10 
 
YA 06009 
 
 ,i