UC-NRLF 
 
 SB E77 M7b 
 
 IINTS ON DAIRYING 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THK 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 GIFT OF THK 
 
 STATE VITICULTURAL COMMISSION 1 . 
 
 Deceived, January, 1896. 
 Accession No . (0 15 5 I . Class No. 
 
 ! 
 

3^ 
 
 Edited by T. D. Curtis. 
 
 AN EIGHT PAGE MONTHLY, 6 COLUMNS 20 INCHES LONG 
 To THE PAGE. 
 
 c! HE * e^ EST * ANO * (^, HEAPEST * ^APER * PUBLISHED 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 Q-^s Dairy or the Farm. - ^x) 
 
 IT KEEPS UP WITH THE TIMES 
 
 AND GIVES ALL THE LATEST 
 
 METHODS AND IDEAS. 
 
 IPriee Only 5O Oents a "^.'ear 1 . 
 T. D. CURTIS &SONS, - SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
 
THOMAS HIGGIN, ESQ., LIVERPOOL, 
 
 Inventor of the Hig^in Improved Process for manufacturing 
 Knit, an improvement in this industry as important as the Bessemer 
 process in the manufacture of steel. His firm are the owners of 
 two of the largest suit works in the Cheshire salt district, turning 
 .out immense quantities of this article, which they ship to all parts 
 of the world. 
 
 THE HIGGIN "EUREKA" SALT CO., 
 Liverpool, I^iiglaml, and 110 Reade St., New York. 
 
USING POOR SALT TO SEASON GOOD BUTTER is LIKE USING POOR THREAD IN SEWING 
 GOOD CLOTH. 
 
 HIGCIIXT'S "EUREKA" 
 
 ENGLISH HIGH GRADE 
 
 DAIRY* AND TABLE -SALT 
 
 EUREKA 
 
 FINE Sit 1 
 
 GOLD MEDALS 
 
 HIGKKJEST 
 
 Great Fairs of the World. 
 
 1st Prize Centennial Ex., Phila.,1876 
 " Ex. Dniverselle, Paris. 1878 
 " Dairy Show, London . . .1879 
 Dairy Show, Dublin. ..1879 
 " International Exposi- 
 tion. Melbourne 1881 
 
 " International Exhibi- 
 tion, Adelaide 1881 
 
 Dairy Show, London. ..1882 
 " International Exhibi- 
 tion, New Zealand... 1882 
 Dairy Show, London . . . 1883 
 " Dairy Show, London . . . 1884 
 " World 's Industrial and 
 Cotton Centennial Ex. 
 New Orleans 1885 
 
 VER 815.000 in Premiums were awarded to parties using 
 HIGGIN'S "EUREKA" SA L.T in their Prize Butter 
 and Cheese at the principal Dairy Fairs in the U. S., carrying 
 sweepstakes and highest awards wherever put in competition. 
 
 "EUREKA" S A L.T has no equal in Purity, Strength, Flavor, 
 Uniform Grain of Crystal, Keeping Quality, Perfect Dryness and 
 cheapness. Give it a trial and be convinced of its merits. 
 
 THE HIGGIN "EUREKA" SALT CO., 
 
 (OF LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND") 
 
 Office, 116 Reade Street, - - - NEW YORK. 
 
I N T S 
 
 1 1 1 Y 1 1 
 
 BY T. D. CURTIS. 
 
 Complete success 
 
 conditions. 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
 
 PUBLISHED FROM THE OFFICE OF THE 
 
 FARMER AND DAIRYMAN. 
 
 1885. 
 
S F 2, ! 
 
 COPYRIGHTED IN THE YEAR 1885 
 BY T. D. CURTIS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It was intended by the Author to publish an exhaus- 
 tive practical work on Dairying. But his time was so 
 occupied by other matters that he was compelled to aban- 
 don the idea. Much of the following pages was written 
 while traveling, the intervals of waiting at hotels and rail- 
 road stations being devoted to this work. But on reperus- 
 ing the chapters as they appeared in the columns of the 
 FARMER AND DAIRYMAN, and making slight additions, he 
 has concluded to give them to the Dairy Public in their 
 present form, believing that they may be of some assist- 
 ance to the tyro, and perhaps afford a hint, here and there, 
 to the dairyman of more experience who wishes to keep 
 abreast of his fellows in the march of progress. This 
 
IV HINTS OX DAIRYING. 
 
 little book is not intended to supersede any other work 
 on the subject, but to play' the part of an auxiliary and 
 present in a condensed form ther pith which the reader 
 might not have time to get from a more elaborate volume. 
 The favor with which his "Hints on Cheesmaking" now 
 out of date was received, gives the author confidence 
 that his later effort may serve to fill a place that now re- 
 mains unoccupied. Providence seems to have selected 
 him as one of the laborers in this field of education, and 
 he conscientiously devotes a portion of his energies to 
 the service with envy toward none, but entertaining the 
 hope that his mite may not be unacceptable among so 
 many larger contributions. 
 
HINTS fFOTG. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 JJgv AIRYINQ runs back to a period in the development 
 |(pj of the human race of which we have no record. 
 * * Man early learned to not only slay animals and eat 
 their flesh, but to appropriate to himself the food belong- 
 ing to their young a trait of selfishness which he has not 
 yet overcome, and even manifests by preying in various 
 ways upon his fellows. We have in the world large class- 
 es who add nothing to its real wealth, but live and luxu- 
 riate on the fat of the earth by drawing the results of 
 labor from the toilers through cunningly devised schemes 
 of finance, business and government. 
 
 Away back in the dimness of antiquity, of which even 
 tradition gives no hint, comparative philology shows us 
 that a civilized race, now known as the Aryan race, dwelt 
 
C HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 on the steppes of Central Asia, and that the ox and the 
 cow constituted their chief means of subsistence. They 
 lived in simple peace and innocence, their language hav- 
 ing no terms of war and strife. But there came a time 
 when separation began and migration followed. They 
 were scattered to the four corners of the Eastern Conti- 
 nent, and their descendants now constitute the progressive 
 nations of the earth. The parent nation appears to have 
 utterly perished in giving birth to the nations of the fu- 
 ture. No trace of it is left, save the remnants of its lan- 
 guage inherited by its children; but they furnish indis- 
 putable evidence of a common parentage. 
 
 A MONO THE JEWS. 
 
 Our earliest authentic records about the dairy are of 
 the use of milk and its products among the Jews. We 
 are told, in the 8th verse of the 18th chapter of Genesis, 
 that when Abraham entertained the three strangers, "he 
 took butter and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, 
 and set it before them." Moses, in his song, as recorded 
 in the 23d chapter of Deuteronomy, 14th verse, says of 
 Jacob that the Lord, among other things, gave him to eat 
 "butter of kine and milk of sheep." Deborah, who de- 
 clares in her song that "the stars in their courses did 
 fight against Sisera," who was entertained and slain 
 by Jael, says of the murderess (Judges, 25th verse and 8th 
 chapter) "he asked water and she gave him milk, she 
 brought forth butter in a lordly dish." In the 17th 
 chapter and 5th verse of 2d Samuel, the writer tells us 
 that David and his people, after the battle in the wood of 
 Ephraim, were given ''honey and butter, and sheep and 
 
HISTORICAL. 7 
 
 cheese of kine," to eat. Zophar, in the 20th chapter of 
 Job, 17th verse, declares of the wicked hypocrite, who 
 "hath swallowed down riches," that his triumph is short, 
 and "he shall not see the rivers, the floods, the brooks of 
 honey and butter" which, we inter, are designed for the 
 righteous; and Job (29th chapter and Gth verse) bemoans 
 the loss of his former prosperity, u \vhen I washed my 
 steps with butter." In the ooth Psalm, 24th verse, David 
 says of his enemy that "the words of his mouth were 
 smoother than butter." Solomon appears to have under- 
 stood the whole business. In Proverbs, ;30th chapter and 
 33d verse, he exclaims: "Surely, the churning of milk 
 bringeth forth butter." Isaiah, in the 7th chapter and 
 loth verse, declares of the coming Immanuel, that "butter 
 and honey shall he eat;" and again (22d verse) that "for 
 the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall eat 
 butter." 
 
 IN SOUTHERN EUROPE. 
 
 Chambers says: " In ancient times, the Hebrews seem 
 to have made copious use of butter as food ; but the 
 Greeks and the Romans used it only as an ointment in 
 their baths, and it is probable that the Greeks obtained 
 their knowledge of the subject from the Scythians, Thra- 
 cians, and Phrygians, whilst the Romans obtained it of 
 Germany." This would indicate that the Germans at 
 that time were engaged in dairying. But, even now, in 
 Southern Europe, butter is sparingly used, and in Italy, 
 Spain, Portugal and Southern France, it is sold by apoth- 
 ecaries as an ointment. Dairying is now extensively 
 carried on in all the countries of Northern Europe. 
 
HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 IN AMERICA. 
 
 When the early settlers of America crossed the At- 
 lantic, the} r brought with them their favorite domestic 
 animals, including the family cow. But dairying for a 
 long time, in this country, appears to have been confined 
 mainly to producing supplies for the family of the dairy- 
 man. It was not until quite a recent date that dairying 
 sprang into commercial importance. But, to-day, dairy- 
 ing cannot be considered second to any other industry as 
 to either magnitude or importance; and it is a patent 
 fact that, in those sections where dairying is most exten- 
 sively and successfully carried on, the farming population 
 is the most prosperous and happy. 
 
 Within the last twenty years, since associated dairying 
 has been introduced, great progress h;\s been made in the 
 dairy but not greater than in many other occupations, 
 nor out of proportion with the growth of population. 
 The growth of the dairy will probably never exceed the 
 growth of population so long as the present heavy tide of 
 immigration continues to set tow 7 ard our shores. 
 
 FIGURES FROM THE CENSUS. 
 
 Let us refer to the census of 1880, and note the devel- 
 opment of the dairy during the previous 80 years: 
 
 By the census of 1850, we had 6,085,094 cows, and pro- 
 duced 314,345,306 pounds of butter, and 105,535,893 pounds 
 of cheese a total of 418,881,199 pounds of product. 
 
 By the census of 1860, we had 8,585,735 cows, and 
 produced 459,681,372 pounds of butter, and 103,663,927 
 pounds of cheese a total of 563,345,299 pounds of 
 product. 
 
HISTORICAL. 
 
 By the r^nsus of 1870, we had 8,980,832 cows and pro- 
 pucod 514,090,088 ponnds of butter, and 162,927,382 pounds 
 of cheese a total of (5 7 7, 020, 065 pounds of product and 
 this notwithstanding the war of the rebellion came in 
 this decade. 
 
 By the census of 1330, \vc !rid 12,443,120 cows, and 
 produced 803,662,071 pounds of butter, and 243,157,850 
 pounds of cheese M total of 1,049,819,921 pounds of 
 product. 
 
 GROWTH IN THIRTY YEARS. 
 
 This is an increase in annual product of 630,948,622 
 pounds in thirty years, or 212,057,523 pounds more than 
 double the amount, in 1880, that was manufactured in 
 1850. History records no parallel to this anywhere on 
 the face of the globe. 
 
 Let us put some of these figures into tabular form. 
 We had in 
 
 Cows Inhabitants 
 
 1880 12,443,120 to 50,155,783 
 
 1850 6,385,094 to 23,191,876 
 
 Increase in 80 years 6,058,026 26,963,907 
 
 We did not quite double the number of cows, but con- 
 siderably more than doubled the population. The num- 
 ber of inhabitants was, in 
 
 1850 3.63 per cow 
 
 1880... 4.03 
 
 The increase in 30 years is .40 inhabitant to each cow. 
 That is to say, the population, as compared with the 
 number of cows, was .40 larger in 1880 than it was in 1850. 
 
10 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 PRODUCT PER COW AND PER CAPITA. 
 
 And now let us compare the product per cow and per 
 capita. It was in 
 
 Lbs. per Lbs. per 
 cow capita 
 
 1850 418,881,199 Ibs., or 05.77 or 18.06 
 
 1880 1,049,829,921 Ibs., or 84.37 or 20.93 
 
 Increase in 30 years 18.60 2.87 
 
 HOME CONSUMPTION VS. EXPORTS. 
 
 But it should be borne in mind that in 1850 very near- 
 ly all our dairy products were consumed at home ; where- 
 as in 1880, we exported a large amount. As the exports 
 do not all come in the year of production, we will take 
 the average amount of exports for 1879 and 1880: 
 Lbs. Butter. Lbs. Cheese. 
 
 Exports, 1879 38,248,016 141,654,474 
 
 1880 39,236,658 127,553,907 
 
 Divided by 2)77,484,674 269,208,361 
 
 Yearly average 38,742,337 134,604,190 
 
 Add butter and cheese together. . 38,742,337 
 
 We have a yearly av. export of. .173,346,527 
 l>o;m:ls of product. If we take this from the total pro- 
 
 tltict of 1880 1,049,829,921 pounds 
 
 173,346,527 pounds 
 
 ^ V < J ii.'ive 876,483,394 pounds 
 
 ')!' product for home consumption, or more than five times 
 :is muA\ as we export. This is a consumption of 17.47 
 
HISTORICAL. 11 
 
 pounds per capita for our 50,155,783 inhabitants, or .59 of 
 a pound less than in 1850, when it was 18.60 pounds per 
 capita. Does not this indicate the folly of catering for a 
 foreign market to the neglect of our own? 
 
 FORMS OF MILK CONSUMPTION. 
 
 It is estimated by good judues that 45 per cent, of our 
 milk product is consumed in its natural state, 50 per 
 cent, is used in butter making, and 5 per cent, is made 
 into cheese. The fact of there being a foreign demand 
 for so large a proportion of our cheese, has led everybody 
 astray, and magnified the cheese factor} into the position 
 of supreme importance. 
 
 THE PRIVATE DAIRY VS. THE FACTORY. 
 
 Let us again turn to the census of 1880, and see how 
 the factory product compares in amount and importance 
 with the product of the private dairy. It appears by the 
 census of 1880 that the number of pounds of dairy pro- 
 ducts made in factories was as follows: 
 
 Cheese made in factories . . .215,885,361 Ibs. 
 
 Butter " " " .... 29,411,784 " 
 
 Total factory product. . .245,307,145 Ibs. 
 
 Cheese made on farms 27,272,489 Ibs. 
 
 Butter " " " 777,250,287 " 
 
 Total farm product 804,522,776 Ibs. 
 
 Deduct factory product 245,307,145 " 
 
 Excess of private dairy. .559,215,631 Ibs. 
 or considerably more than double the total factory pro- 
 duct. 
 
12 IIISTOIUCAL. 
 
 Now, let us make a comparison by values, calling the 
 cheese 10 cents and the butter 25 cents a pound. We 
 made in factories : 
 
 Cheese, 215,885,301 Ibs., (>.i 10c. $2 I, ,">&, >:',(> 
 Butter, 20,411,784 Ibs., ( 25c. 7.352,J)4(5 
 
 Value of factory prodir-t $39,941,482 
 
 There was made in the private dairies: 
 
 Cheese, 27,272,489 Ibs., @ lOe. $ 2,727,249 
 Butter, 777,250,287 Ibs., (a 25c. 194,812,571 
 
 Value of private dairy products $197,039,820 
 Deduct value of factory products 29,941,482 
 
 In favor of private dairy $167,098,388 
 
 In short, the product of the private dairy is between 
 three and four times larger than that of the factory, and 
 nearly seven times its value. Important as the factory 
 is and is likely to become, let us not forget the private 
 dairy nor overlook the home interest in striving for a 
 little foreign patronage. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fault with the census that is 
 found by some, the census is the most reliable source of- 
 statistical information about the dairy that we have. 
 
N S. 
 
 T is not every novice that can take up the business of 
 dairying and curry it on successfully ; yet, some of 
 our most successful dairymen are comparative novi- 
 ces in the business. Quick observation and sound judg- 
 ment are important qualities in a dairyman. These 
 qualities are not always acquired by long experience, but 
 are oftener the generous gifts of nature. Hence, it fre- 
 quently happens that men of quick discernment step into 
 a new business and achieve success where others have 
 met only years of failure. Improvements in all callings 
 are apt to be made by sharp lookers-on, who are not bred 
 in the habits of routinism, nor prejudiced against radical 
 innovations. They see at a glance where the plodder 
 fails, and fearlessly apply the remedy often a short-cut 
 to ends that have hitherto been reached with much diffi- 
 culty and hard labor. And here is where the real inven- 
 tor finds his greatest field of usefulness. 
 
 PASTURES. 
 
 Sweet pastures, with a variety of nutritious grasses 
 growing in them, are essentials to success in dairying 
 especially in butter making in summer. Bitter and 
 other mal-flavored weeds must be avoided, as they flavor 
 
14 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 both the milk and the product manufactured from it. The 
 cows must not be worried, nor over- worked in rambling 
 over poor pastures to get sufficient food. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Plenty of clean water must be conveniently at hand 
 for the cows to drink. The water must be sweet and 
 clean enough for the human stomach. Abundance of 
 such water is more essential in the pasture for the cows 
 to drink while secreting milk that contains 87 per cent, 
 of water than it is in the daily-house, where a small 
 amount of water will answer, if ice is used, and hence can 
 more easily be obtained pure. 
 
 WINTER FOOD. 
 
 In winter, the food must be in proper condition, pro- 
 perly balanced between the nitrogenous and carbonaceous 
 materials, and in full supply all the cow can digest and 
 assimilate. At least one ration a day should include 
 sweet ensilage, roots, or other succulent food, to aid in 
 the separation of the butter from the cream by action of 
 the churn, it having been shown that all dry feed not 
 only reduces the flow of milk, but makes churning slow 
 and difficult, leaving a large percentage of fat in the 
 buttermilk. 
 
 THE STABLE. 
 
 While in stable, the cow must also have plenty of pure 
 air and sweet water, and not be chilled in obtaining 
 either. Without pure air, the cow becomes debilitated 
 and diseased, and the milk impure and unwholesome. 
 
CONDITIONS. 15 
 
 4 
 
 Impure water both taints and corrupts the product. A 
 proper temperature certainly above freezing should 
 be kept up. Remember, the cow standing still cannot 
 resist cold as she could if she were free to move about. 
 It is cheaper to build warm stables always providing 
 for perfect ventilation, the air coining in at the head and 
 passing oft' in the rear of the cow and even to resort to 
 artificial heating, than to compel the cow to burn an extra 
 amount of carbonaceous food in her system to keep up 
 the temperature of her body. Not only is fuel cheaper 
 than food, but the system of the cow cannot devote to 
 milk secretion the energy which is expending in secret- 
 ing and consuming fat to maintain a proper amount of 
 vital heat. 
 
 SHELTER. 
 
 Proper shelter in summer, from the scorching rays of 
 the mid-day sun, and from beating storms and winds, is 
 necessary. This should be easily accessible- Especially 
 in early spring and late fall do the animals suffer severely 
 from exposure to the cold winds and storms of all hours 
 in the twenty-four. 
 
 DAIRY HOUSE. 
 
 Every dairyman should have a good dairy house dis- 
 tinct from the dwelling apartments. It need not, neces- 
 sarily, be a separate building, but it should not be subject 
 to the inflowing of odors from the kitchen and sitting 
 rooms. The dairy house should be so constructed that 
 the temperature may at all times be kept under per- 
 fect control. There should be no surrounding cesspools 
 
16 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 or other mal-odorous sources of taint, and the ventilation 
 should be free without perceptible drafts or currents of 
 air. No matter what method of setting milk and churn- 
 ing may be adopted, there is a decide;! advantage in hav- 
 ing the dairy house, or any other workshop, separate 
 from the dwelling apartments, so that the work of the 
 one shall in no way interfere with the work of the other. 
 Almost all dairymen fail, to some extent, in not having 
 the dairy house entirely separate. It would cost but lit- 
 tle extra; and until dairymen look upon the business as 
 their life work and build and plan accordingly, we need 
 not expect the best possible success in dairying. 
 
 CLEANLINESS. 
 
 Cleanliness everywhere and at all times is an absolute 
 necessity. There is not the le;;st clanger of being too 
 clean. The writer has never 3 et seen a dairy without 
 defects in this particular. Yet, most people mean to be 
 clean, and suppose they are. Lack of information is 
 often the cause of uncleanliness, and habit goes a great 
 way in making people indifferent to untidy surroundings. 
 It is safe to copy thp neat points found in every dairy, 
 as well as to avoid the offensive ones. As Gov. Seymour 
 once said, "cleanliness is a comparative term." It is 
 well to keep making comparisons on this point, until no 
 unfavorable comparisons with anybody's dairy can be- 
 found; and these comparisons should extend to liie 
 surroundings of the cows, the manner of milking, the 
 handling of the milk, the cleansing of milk utensils, and 
 all the processes of manipulation from beginning to end. 
 The dairy house should not only look clean, but be, as it 
 
CONDITIONS. 17 
 
 were, fragrant with neatness and sweetness. And it is 
 all-important that the clothing and person should be 
 clean and neat to a fault. A sweet temper, even is no 
 drawback. 
 
 THE HERD. 
 
 Of course, a thorough knowledge of the business must 
 be had or be acquired. The proper selection or rearing 
 of dairy stock is essential to success. The cow should 
 not only be a good milker, but give milk suited to the 
 line of dairying pursued. If cheese making is the object, 
 there must be a large flow of milk rich in caseine. In 
 butter making, a large flow of milk is not essential, but 
 there must be a large percentage of fat in it. And the 
 breeding must be such as to keep up the status of the 
 herd. Some depend on purchasing cows, and exercise 
 great care and judgment in so doing. In exceptional 
 cases, a herd may be kept up in this way. But somebody 
 must breed and rear good cows, or soon none can be had 
 at any price. As a rule, it may be said to be the duty of 
 every dairyman to breed from the best blood obtainable, 
 and to rear the heifer calves from his best cows. Unless 
 this condition is fulfilled, the dairy as a whole must run 
 down. It is only by constant care and breeding from the 
 best that the present status can be maintained, and pos- 
 sibfy a little progress made. It should be the ambition 
 of every dairyman to constantly improve the value of his 
 herd, and to make progress in ever} r department of his 
 dairy, while improving the quality of his product. 
 
L3A.1RV STOCK. 
 
 is no more important subject connected with 
 the dairy than that of the selection and rearing of 
 stock. The herd is the fountain head. If there is 
 failure here there is failure everywhere. Many a dairy- 
 man has remained poor all his days because he spent his 
 time and energies on an unprofitable herd. This is the 
 first thing to be looked after. The selection of a herd is 
 a matter of both knowledge and judgment knowledge 
 of the characteristics of breeds and of the requisites of a 
 good dairy cow, and judgment as to whether the individ- 
 ual cow in question possesses these characteristics and 
 requisites. We will give some of the generally acknow- 
 ledged characteristics of the different breeds, first indi- 
 cating, as far as we can in words, some of the points of a 
 good dairy cow. 
 
 POINTS OF A MILKER. 
 
 
 
 The dairy cow should be deep and broad through the 
 flunk deeper and broader than through the shoulders 
 but must have a comparatively large chest, giving capa- 
 city of lungs and stomach, for she must have good diges- 
 tive powers and inhale plenty of fresh air. Her hips 
 
DAIRY STOCK.. 1U 
 
 should be broad, setting her thighs well apart, and her 
 thighs should be rather thin. This gives space for a 
 large udder, which is indispensable, for it is unreasonable 
 to expect a large flow of milk from an udder of small 
 capacity. The udder should be soft and fleshless when 
 empty, and extend high up in the rear. It should also 
 extend w'ell forward, and from it should extend further 
 forward large* protruding milk-veins. If they are dou- 
 ble and are crooked and knotty, all the better. These 
 veins carry off the blood after it has passed through the 
 udder and performed its part in elaborating milk, and 
 their size indicates the amount of blood employed, and 
 by inference the amount of milk secreted. So the es- 
 cutcheon, which should extend out on the thighs and run 
 with even edges and unbroken surface up to or near the 
 vulva, is supposed to be some indication of the extent of 
 the arterial system that contributes blood for the elabo- 
 ration of milk. The neck should be slender, taper and 
 thin, the horns small and slender, the face dishing or 
 flat, the eyes wide apart and mild and intelligent in ex- 
 pression, the muzzle broad when viewed from the front 
 but thin when viewed from the side, and the lips thick 
 and strong. A long, slender tail is indicative of good 
 breeding. A yellow skin, or one which secretes an oily 
 yellow scurf especially seen in the ears, along the back 
 and at the end of the tail -is considered a sign of milk 
 rich in fat, The skin should be soft and pliable, the hair 
 fine, and the coat glossy. We prefer rather light to very 
 dark colors. Our observation is that a black cow never 
 gives as rich milk as one in which the white predomi- 
 
20 HINTS OX DAIRYING . 
 
 nates. In other colors we have not noted such a differ- 
 ence. Viewed fro hi the front, the general shape of the 
 cow should be a little wedging thinner in front and 
 thicker in the rear. Viewed from the side, the cow 
 should taper from rear to front, with the upper and low- 
 er lines generally straight, with little or no slope from 
 the rump to the tail. 
 
 DUTCII-FKIESIAN. 
 
 For general or all purposes, the Dutch-Friesian cow 
 is not excelled. She may be equaled, but where is her 
 superior V We use the name Dutch-Friesian because it 
 expresses precisely what we mean the black and white 
 cattle of Friesian origin which have been bred pure in 
 Friesland or North Holland, and not the cattle called 
 "Holstein " in this country, which have been picked up 
 promiscuously in the different provinces of Germany, 
 because of their peculiar markings, but without reference 
 to their breeding. Some of these may be pure bred, but 
 they are liable to disappoint the honest purchaser, who 
 buys them for and pays the price of pure bloods. The 
 Dutch-Friesian cow is large, readily takes on flesh when 
 not in milk, and therefore makes splendid beef. She is 
 Hardy, docile and easily cared for. No other breed 
 equals her in yield of milk. Her milk is of average 
 richness, and she gives so much of it that it makes her 
 valuable as a butter cow. Microscopists say the fat glob- 
 ules in her milk are very small. This makes it some- 
 what difficult to separate the fats from the milk for the 
 purposes of butter making. Though the fat globules are 
 quite uniform in size, it requires a long time to raise the 
 
Dutch-Friesian Bull, MOOIE, 26 D. F. H. B. 
 
 Property of llie Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' As- 
 sociation, \Vliitesto\\n, N. Y. 
 
 JACOB A HARTO&, 2 . D.F.H.B. 
 Dutch-Friesian Cow, JACOBA HARTOG, 2 D. F. H. B. 
 Property of the Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' Asso- 
 ciation, Wbitestown. N. Y- 
 
DAIRY STOCK. 21 
 
 cream by the ordinary methods, and the separation is not 
 complete; but this makes the skim-milk all the more 
 valuable for cheese making, feeding, or to market. With 
 ihe centrifuge, there would be no difficulty in getting out 
 all the cream. For market, or family use, or for cheese 
 making, the milk of the Dutch-Friesian cow, because ot 
 the slowness with which the cream separates from the 
 milk, is superior. It is rich in caseine, and therefore 
 very valuable for cheese making. We could not recom- 
 mend any other breed with greater confidence. Dutch- 
 Friesian grades the result of using pure-blooded Dutch- 
 Friesian bulls on common or other stock make very 
 valuable dairy stock. 
 
 THE JERSEY. 
 
 Perhaps as widely separated from the Dutch-Friesian 
 cow as any breed is the Jersey. She certainly is the 
 smallest of all as the Dutch-Friesian is the largest un- 
 less we except the Shorthorn and Hereford. The Jersey 
 gives a small mess of milk, but it is very rich in fat, and 
 the fat readily separates from the milk, leaving the skim- 
 milk very blue and poor. It is not generally considered 
 very rich in caseine, and it is therefore as poor and 
 worthless as skim-milk well can be. But, considering 
 size, the Jersey is conceded to yield more butter than 
 any other breed. The cream globules are said to be very 
 large and very uniform in size. Hence, they not only 
 readily separate from the milk, but churn easily. The 
 Jersey is out of the question as a beef animal, there is so 
 little of her carcass; but we never heard complaint of 
 
22 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 the quality of the meat. But lack of beef qualities we do 
 not consider a very serious objection in a dairy cow. We 
 get our profit from her in the dairy. We cannot reason- 
 ably expect all good qualities in one animal or one breed. 
 Nature is nowhere thus partial in her gifts. We find 
 some good quality predominating in every one of the sev- 
 eral breeds, and we must select accordingly to suit our 
 line of dairying and our circumstances. The Jersey is a 
 fawn-like, beautiful animal, with a mild eye and intelli- 
 gent face, hut usually has a quite angular frame, as a 
 consequence of her excessive dairy qualities. She is ra- 
 ther tender, and cannot bear the exposure and harsh 
 treatment that some of the breeds can. But no animal 
 ought to receive such treatment. Kindness and comfort- 
 able quarters are due to all domestic animals, and such 
 care, with proper feed, is the most profitable to the 
 owner. The Jersey will not stand harsh usage; but 
 for the man of refined taste and good judgment, who 
 wants a nice thing and to turn out fancy goods, she is 
 most decidedly the cow, and will not disappoint him. 
 Solid colors and black muzzles are the fashion in Jerseys, 
 but we are not aware that there is any practical merit in 
 these. They have been bred down in size, to suit the 
 taste of the English Lord, who wants them as pets on his 
 lawns. This is rather against than in favor of the Jersey 
 as a dairy cow, as it must of necessity reduce her capa- 
 city for converting food into milk and cream. 
 
 THE GUERNSEY 
 
 There are but few of these animals as yet in this 
 country, but the few that have been imported and bred 
 
DAIRY STOCK. 23 
 
 here have proved very satisfactory and promising. They 
 are pale red or buff red and white. The colors are about 
 in equal proportions, though the red may predominate. 
 They are considerably larger than the Jersey and possess 
 all the good qualities of the latter. Indeed, there is 
 pretty good evidence that these breeds have the same 
 origin, and that the Jersey is the Guernsey bred down in 
 size and bred also for solid colors. The Guernsey is just 
 as beautiful in face and form as the Jersey, and we think 
 rather hardier and possesses more capacity. For all 
 practical purposes, we should be inclined to give prefer- 
 ence to the Guernsey, which has no rival in her line, 
 except the Jersey. This breed can lay claim to some 
 beef qualities, because of its size. It is destined to be- 
 come a popular favorite in the butter dairy and as a 
 family cow. 
 
 THE AYRSHIRE. 
 
 This breed is a great favorite with many. It is small 
 scarcely larger than the Guernsey and is remarkably 
 nimble and hardy, thriving on scant feed and in rough 
 pastures where some of the other breeds would starve. 
 The Ayrshires are red or red and white and give a large 
 flow of milk, fairly rich in caseine and in butter. The 
 breed has its phenomenal cows, both as milkers and as 
 butter makers. The cream globules of the milk are 
 quite irregular in size, and hence do not readily separate 
 from the milk by ordinary methods of cream raising. 
 But this fact makes the milk all the better for family 
 use, for marketing and for the cheese factory, or for both 
 
24 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 butter and cheese from th.-^ same milk. The Ayrshire, 
 like the Dutch-Friesian, may be called a good general 
 purpose cow. The greatest objections to this breed have 
 been its nervousness and its small teats; but both of 
 these may be overcome by gentle treatment and careful 
 breeding indeed, have been overcome in many cases. 
 For rough, hilly pastures, there is no better cow than the 
 Ayrshire. But although she can stand some hard fare, 
 she responds quickly to gentle and generous usage. 
 Well-selected and well-bred Ayrshires make a splendid 
 dairy herd. 
 
 THE SHORTHORN. 
 
 This has long been a popular breed, and there may 
 be said to be a strong popular prejudice in its favor. Its 
 undisputed, and perhaps unequaled, beef qualities have 
 been its strongest recommend. It was, however, origi- 
 nally a milch breed, and some families of the breed are 
 still hard to excel for the dairy. But it is quite difficult 
 to select and maintain a milking strain, so long have the 
 Shorthorns been bred for "beef and beauty," and so 
 effectually have the milking qualities been bred out of 
 them. In some of the beef families, the cows do not give 
 milk enough to support their calves. Yet, many dairy- 
 men cling to this breed and keep unprofitable dairies be- 
 cause they can get a good price for the old carcass as 
 beef when the cow is no longer tolerable in the dairy 
 herd. This is short-sightedness, and holding beef for 
 market too long and at too great a cost. The profit 
 should be in the dairy products, where a dairy herd is 
 
DAIRY STOCK. 25 
 
 kept, and beef should be altogether. a subordinate con- 
 sideration. The Shorthorn is usually red or roan, and 
 occasionally red and white, though we always suspect 
 other blood Ayrshire, for instance in the spotted ani- 
 mals. As a rule, we do not consider the Shorthorns as 
 really profitable dairy cows, though there are many ex- 
 ceptions where a milking strain is cultivated. But there 
 is no disputing their value for beef. 
 
 THE DEVON. 
 
 This is one of the choicest and most reliable of the 
 dairy breeds. They are uniformly red, of fair size, have 
 a sprightly appearance, and reproduce their like more 
 certainly than any other breed that we know. As has 
 been said, they are so prepotent, uniform, and distinct 
 from the other breeds that they may be called a race of 
 cattle. Their history runs back hundreds of years, until 
 it is lost in tradition and uncertainty. But origin and 
 history are of little consequence, since it is the living 
 fact the cattle themselves that w T e have to deal with. 
 The cows give a good sized mess of milk large milkers 
 have appeared among them as among other breeds and 
 their milk is very rich. It is not as rich as the Jersey's 
 and the Guernsey's milk, but there is more of it, and 
 it approximates the richness of the milk of these 
 breeds more closely than that of any other. Hence, they 
 are excellent butter cows, and justly favorites among 
 those who are the most familiar with them and know 
 how to breed them. Healthy, hardy, and easy to keep, 
 they are adapted to almost any circumstances, and are 
 
26 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 excellent as butter or family cows, while the males, 
 owing -to their activity and endurance, make splendid 
 oxen both useful and fine looking. They make fine 
 beef and a fair amount of it. They would be useful ani- 
 mals for crossing on the common stock and grades of the 
 Northwest, where the climate is rigorous and Loth but- 
 ter and beef are objects of importance. As workers, 
 they would be very useful there. They will stand as 
 much hardship as any breed we have, and as much as any 
 breed ought to, but will do better under favorable than 
 under unfavorable circumstances. Like all other breeds, 
 they respond readily to kind and generous treatment, it 
 being a universal law that want and abuse are sources of 
 loss in the keeping of stock, the best results always fol- 
 lowing the best treatment. They will do well on level, 
 hilly or rough pastures, because of their nimbleness and 
 endurance: while the certainty of their breedidg makes 
 it perhaps less difficult to perpetuate their good qualities 
 than is the case with any of the other breeds. In short, 
 they are the most prepotent and uniform of all, give a 
 good-sized mess of very rich milk, are easy to keep, hardy 
 and active, and fill a sphere which it would be difficult to 
 fill without them. We do not know how their milk ap- 
 pears under the microscope, but we judge from the char- 
 acteristics of these animals that the butter globules are 
 above the average size and very uniform. Hence the 
 cream rises readily, is easily churned, and makes a rich- 
 colored, fine-flavored butter. It is a little remarkable 
 that the breeders of these cattle have not succeeded in 
 getting up a "boom;" but the probability is that no 
 
DAIRY STOCK. 27 
 
 strenuous and persistent effort has been made in this 
 direction. Their superior merits are unquestioned and 
 unquestionable. 
 
 THE AMERICAN HOLDERS ESS. 
 
 This is a new breed, and its reputation is mainly of a 
 local character. But it is not without its representatives 
 in most of the Northern and Northwestern States, and its 
 fame has traveled quite extensively, considering the qui- 
 et and unpretentious manner in which it was originated 
 and has been bred. In some particulars it is the most 
 uniform of the breeds, even more uniform than the 
 Devon. Especially is this true of the quality of the milk, 
 which is as uniform throughout the herd as if it were 
 drawn from a single cow, the quality varying, where the 
 keep is the same, only with the age of the cow, and the 
 lapse of time since calving. The yield of milk, though 
 not excessive, is large and very rich almost equal to 
 that of the Jersey and Guernsey, and quite equal to that 
 of the Devon. It churns easily, and the butter com- 
 pletely separates from the buttermilk, rendering a second 
 churning of no avail. Three hundred pounds per cow a 
 year of high-colored and fine-flavored butter is a fair 
 average for a herd. Few, even of selected herds, of other 
 animals equal this. We are not aware of phenomenal 
 milkers among the Holderness cattle, unless all can be 
 called such, their chief characteristic being uniformity. 
 They breed, it may be said, perfectly true to type, so that 
 all are excellent. The reason for this uniformity is plain, 
 and is found in the origin of the breed in the closest pos- 
 
28 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 
 
 sible inbreeding for thirty years. They originated from 
 a cow with calf which was bought by Mr. Truman A. 
 Cole, of Solsville, N. Y., of a drover who had just pur- 
 chased it at auction in Knoxboro, N. Y., v;here a herd of 
 pure-bloods, because of the death of the owner, had been 
 sold under the auctioneer's hammer. The cow dropped 
 a bull calf, which was bred to its mother, then to both 
 mother and sister; and this system of close inbreeding, 
 even sire to daughter, as well as brother to sister, has 
 been continued down to the present time, or for thirty 
 years, as before stated. This has fixed and intensified 
 the qualities, and at the same time secured the greatest 
 possible uniformity and really established a breed, sep- 
 arate and distinct from all others. This is the way in 
 which all the valuable breeds have been established, and 
 this is the first persistent and successful effort at estab- 
 lishing a purely American breed that has ever been 
 made. While carefully watching results and selecting 
 for breeding purposes, Mr. Cole has steadily refused to 
 be turned from his course, or to change his purpose of 
 establishing a uniform butter breed, and of testing the 
 fallacy of the popular notion about the injurious effects 
 of inbreeding. His thirty years of the closest inbreeding 
 have shown no such disastrous effects, but, on the con- 
 trary, have produced only good ones. There is no failure 
 in form or constitution. The only marked external 
 change, save in securing the greatest uniformity, has 
 been in the gradual change of color. The original ani- 
 mals were pale red and white, the white being along the 
 back from the shoulders to the tail, down the hind-quar- 
 
American Holdcrness Bull, LEWIS F. ALLEN, 
 
 at 16 months. 
 Pro; ert\ of T. A. Cole, Sol.-ville, N. Y. 
 
 American Holderness Cow, ADELAIDE 17th. 
 
 Property of T. A. Cole, Solsville, N. Y. 
 
DAIRY STOCK. 29 
 
 ters, and along the belly to the shoulders. This distribu- 
 tion of the light and dark colors has remained essentially 
 the same, but the light red gradually turned to dark red, 
 then to brindle and finally to black. The later bred ani- 
 mals are all black and white. But the calves, when first 
 dropped, are still red and white, the red changing to 
 black when the first coat of hair is shed. This is proba- 
 bly one of the most remarkable cases of inbreeding on 
 record, as the breed is also one of the most remarkable. 
 All who have tried this stock are remarkably well pleased 
 with it, and calves readily sell for $100 a head with a 
 demand gi eater than the supply and this without any 
 newspaper advertising. The breed is endorsed by Mr. 
 Lewis F. Allen, former editor of the Shorthorn Herd- 
 Book, and author of a work on cattle that stands second 
 to none as authority. This endorsement has appeared in 
 print over Mr. Allen's signature, as have the favorable 
 opinions of many other good judges. In the latest edi- 
 tion of his book on the Cattle of America, he says : 
 
 u I never saw 7 a more uniform herd of cows, in their 
 general appearance and excellence, which latter quality 
 they daily prove in the milk they produce. * * Com- 
 pared with ordinary dairy herds, the uniformity in yield 
 testifies to their purity of breeding and management." 
 
 Col. Weld, who saw these cattle on exhibition at the 
 New York State Fair, held at Utica in 1879, said of them, 
 in the November number of the American Agriculturist ; 
 
 "The cattle of this ' Cole-Holderness breed' are of 
 good size and fair form as beef animals. * * They 
 are deep-bodied, with large udders and teats, with excel- 
 lent escutcheons, great swollen and tortuous milk-veins 
 
80 HINTS OX DAIItYIKtt. 
 
 and skins as yellow as Guernsey's. The interior of their 
 ears was almost like orange-peel. The butter made from 
 their milk * * * showed admirable color and keeping 
 qualities. * * * Could we test the various breeds of 
 cattle, with the view of determining with accuracy which 
 is the most profitable dairy cow for all purposes butter, 
 cheese, veal, and ultimately beef giving to each its fair 
 weight in the scale of excellence, I would not be sur- 
 prised if Mr. Cole's breed would win the distinction of 
 being the most useful of all." 
 
 INBREEDING. 
 
 A word here about inbreeding will not be out of 
 place. It may be disastrous, or it may be beneficial. So 
 also may be crossing or grading. The evil as well as the 
 good qualities are developed and intensified. Like be- 
 gets like. Couple animals having the same bad points, 
 and these points will be increased and strengthened. 
 Couple those with good points, and corresponding results 
 tollow that is, the good are increased and strengthened. 
 But if one animal has one point to excess, so as to become 
 a deformity, and the other is deformed by lack of this 
 same point, it is both safe and advantageous to breed them 
 together, as the result is likely to be a medium betw y een 
 the two. So, whatever the manner of breeding inbreed- 
 ing, crossing or grading the good or evil results depend 
 altogether on the characteristics of the animals coupled. 
 Inbreeding intensifies and fixes the qualities, be they 
 good or bad. 
 
 SWISS. 
 
 There have been a few importations of Swiss cattle, 
 which are short-legged and strong-boned, and hence well 
 
DAIIIY STOCK. 31 
 
 adapted to hilly regions. Some of these have made 
 splendid butter records from 500 to over 700 pounds of 
 butter in a year. We should have great -hopes of them 
 for the mountainous sections of our country; but as yet 
 importation and breeding of this stock is not extensive 
 enough to permit of their availability to any considerable 
 extent for dairy purposes. 
 
 POLLED. 
 
 The polled or hornless cattle are great favorites with 
 some of the Western people, and an effort is made to get 
 up a boom on them. But they not only lack in numbers, 
 but in the essential quality of a large flow of milk, or of 
 a very rich one. The best information we can get does 
 not indicate usefulness for the dairy. Neither do they 
 excel several of the other breeds for beef. Their chief 
 recommend appears to be their destitution of horns, 
 which in our eye is far from a mark of beauty. It gives 
 them a sort of bald, unfinished look that is anything but 
 pleasing. We prefer, for looks, short, well-turned horns. 
 But of course, without horns there is no hooking, but 
 pushing is by no means aovided. Besides, in some cases 
 we have known a lack of horns to make it difficult to 
 fasten the animals in stanchions or with ropes. This 
 may not be true of the cows ; but we were cognizant of 
 an instance on the ISTew York State Fair grounds where 
 a polled bull was constantly getting loose. His neck was 
 so thick tlfat he could slip his head through anyplace 
 not tight enough to choke him. As to disposition, we 
 presume the lack of horns would not make the bulls any 
 
32 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 more amiable. However, we have nothing to say against 
 this kind of stock, and would advise all who like them to 
 keep them. If horns are objectionable, it is easy to pre- 
 vent them from growing on any stock by removing the 
 first appearance of them on the calf. This can be done 
 without much pain to the calf and without much trouble 
 to one who knows how to do it. It, as we understand, 
 requires no great skill, and ean hardly be said to come 
 under the head of cruelty to animals. It is nothing like 
 as painful as castration. 
 
 IIEllEFOHDS. 
 
 The Herefords are having quite a boom in the West, 
 but it is not as dairy stock, but as superior for beef. We 
 have seen no strong claims put in for them for dairy 
 purposes. The few we have seen did not seem to indicate 
 any great dairy qualities, nor have any of the numerous 
 portraits we have seen published borne the marks of 
 dairy stock. But the claim of beef qualities we believe 
 is well founded. Their great rivals in this line are the 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 COMMON STOCK. 
 
 We have not mentioned the so-called " Native " stock 
 as a dairy breed, because it is not a breed, but a mixture 
 of breeds crazy-quilt stock. We would not be under- 
 stood as considering it of no value for dairy purposes, for 
 when carefully selected, a dairy herd of commonn stock 
 may be very valuable. Great milkers and great butter 
 makers are not uncommon among them ; but there is such 
 a mixture of blood in their veins that there is no guar- 
 
DAIRY STO: K. 38 
 
 antee of their producing their like. They originally 
 sprang from the best animals that the early emigrants 
 could select to bring over with them from Europe. But 
 they were subsequently crjss-bre.l so promiscuously that 
 no trace of the original blood can be discovered with any 
 certainty. They were also subjected to groat exposure 
 and hardship, with scanty food, which had a greatly de- 
 teriorating tendency. But, perhaps worst of all, there 
 was no careful selection of males for breeding purposes, 
 nor any attempt at judicious coupling for improvement, 
 or for even the maintenance of the existing status. In 
 short, the entire treatment and all the surroundings had 
 a deteriorating influence and a tendency to the produc- 
 tion of scrubs. If we were to take all the existing pure- 
 blood stock and breed it together promiscuously, while 
 at the same time subjecting it to harsh treatment and 
 neglect, it would not require a very long period to reduce 
 it to the same mongrel and scrub condition in which we 
 now find the common stock of the country. Yet. some of 
 our common stock make excellent crosses, when "pure- 
 blood males are used But no improvement or valuable 
 results could come from using common stock bulls on 
 pure-blood or other cows. The male has the controlling 
 influence, and to the constant use of pure-blood males 
 must we look for the improvement of the common stock 
 of the country and for the maintenance of the existing 
 status of the pure-bloods ; and not only must we use pure- 
 blood males, but keep up a constant and careful selection 
 of the best. Neither should we trust to cross-bred or 
 grade bulls for breeding purposes; for the progeny will 
 
 5 
 
34 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 inherit the traits of ancestors on one side or the other, 
 and hence will lack in uniformity, both in appearance 
 and in quality. When we use a grade bull, the result is 
 just the opposite of what it is when we use a pure blood. 
 With the latter, we get half-bloods, then quarter, then 
 eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and so on, toward pure 
 blood; but with a half-blood grade bull, the first off- 
 spring from common stock has only one-fourth pure 
 blood, the next cross has only one-eighth, the third one- 
 sixteenth pure blood, and so on reducing the purity in 
 the same ratio as the use of pure blood improves itif 
 we continue to breed from the grade male offspring. If 
 we always use a half-blood male, there may be a slight 
 improvement in the blood. But the improvement is too 
 slow and the benefit too uncertain to make the use of a 
 grade bull advisable when a pure blood can be had. 
 
STOCK. 
 
 AVING briefly glanced at the characteristics of the 
 different breeds, it will not be out of place to say a 
 .few words about breeding and rearing dairy stock. 
 There are three things to be considered : 
 
 1. Selection. 
 
 2. Coupling. 
 
 3. Care. 
 
 SELECTION. 
 
 By selection, we mean not only the selection of the 
 breed adapted to the line of dairying pursued, but the 
 selection of the individual animals to breed and rear ani- 
 mals from, and especially the bull to be used on the herd. 
 This male should have a good pedigree that is, be the 
 lineal descendant of animals known to possess the qual- 
 ities desired in the future herd. This is all-important; 
 for however well-formed and comely he may be, he will 
 transmit the qualities of his ancestors as surely as like 
 begets like. This fact can never be safely ignored. Milk 
 and butter qualities, in a dairy herd, must take prece- 
 dence over beauty of form, however desirable the latter 
 may be. The cows to rear stock from should be selected, 
 as far as possible, on the same principle. Pedigree is 
 
36 
 
 not of as much consequence in a cow, so far as practical 
 results are concerned, though it helps insure certainly in 
 the quality of the offspring when that of the cow, as well 
 as of the bull, is right. But we may safely venture, on 
 raising the calves of a good milker, as the probabilities 
 are that the offspring will inherit the qualities' of the 
 sire, while it may also inherit the qualities of the dam, 
 though she he of the most mongrel or mixed blood. If 
 there is failure, however, it need not go beyond that one 
 animal unless an attempt is made to use a grade bull 
 on a nondescript dam, in which case prepotency is weak- 
 ened and mongrel ism may show in the offspring. But 
 grade bulls should never be used when it is possible to 
 have the use of the right kind of pure blood, which is 
 always stronger than mixed blood, and hence a pure 
 blood sire is pretty sure to transmit the qualities of his 
 herd and family, in a great degree, even when coupled 
 with a cow of uncertain blood. In breeding, the one bull 
 makes half the herd, and when used on common stock, 
 the offspring will always be half-bloods the first gener- 
 ation. The second generation they become three-quarter 
 bloods; the third seven eighths; the fourth fifteen-six- 
 teenth, and so on, constantly approaching, but never 
 reaching, purity. For all dairy purposes, however, they 
 become practically as good as pure-bloods. But if the 
 breeding is the other way- that is, if a scrub bull is used 
 on pure-blood cows the degeneration to the scrub status 
 is in precisely the same ratio that we have just given for 
 improvement when pure-blood males are constantly used. 
 By using grade bulls, there is also a constant deteriora- 
 
^HEEDING- DAIKY STOCK. ' 37 
 
 tion of blood, but not as rapid as when scrub bulls are 
 used. The only safety is in using pure blood males. 
 With these well selected and all other conditions main- 
 tained, the status is certain to be preserved, if improve- 
 ments, in consequence of better care and selection, are 
 not secured. 
 
 COUPLING. 
 
 Proper coupling, or rather the coupling of proper 
 animals, has received little attention, and is now confined 
 generally if not exclusively to professional breeders. 
 But it is a subject to which the dairymen ca-n as well as 
 not pay attention with good results. By coupling proper 
 animals, we mean having regard to individual points 
 and qualities, never coupling those having the same de- 
 fects, either in form or quality. For, instance, to illus- 
 trate, a cow high on the rump may be safely bred to a 
 bull low on the rump, or vice versa, the result, in all pro- 
 bability, being an offspring with a level rump. This is 
 breeding together opposite extremes, depending on the 
 one to correct the other. But it we breed two sloped 
 rumps together, or two humped rumps, the result would 
 be to exaggerate and intensify or strengthen this deform- 
 ity in the offspring. So of quality or disposition. A 
 nervous cow bred to a nervous or irritable bull, would be 
 pretty sure to drop a calf that would be more nervous 
 than either sire or dam. But if one of the parents is dull 
 and sluggish and the other irritable and sensitive, the 
 offspring might be an improvement on both. Again, a 
 cow lacking in the quality of richness of milk, though 
 giving a large flow, should not be coupled with a bull 
 
HINTS OX DAIKYINO. 
 
 descended from a family having the same peculiarity of 
 large flow lacking in richness. But if there is richness 
 on one side and abundance on the other, the coupling of 
 the two might reasonably be expected to result in im- 
 provement in the offspring, which might inherit both the 
 large flow and the rich quality. Bad points and qualities 
 are inheiited as well as good ones. Hence, the constant 
 aim and care must be to avoid developing what is objec- 
 tionable as well as to develop what is desired. It must 
 be constantly borne in mind that like begets like. All 
 the trouble attending inbreeding, crossing or grading 
 comes from not properly regarding this fact. Where 
 inbreeding is followed, the only disadvantage arises from 
 the fact that all the animals are likely to have the same 
 defects of form, quality and constitution. But where- 
 these are all right, the advantage is that inbreeding fixes 
 the features and qualities and secures the establishment 
 of them in a type or breed. But crossing or grading 
 animals having the same failing will prove just as disas- 
 trous as would inbreeding. But crossing may be done in 
 a way to develop good qualities, and these may afterward 
 be fixed by careful selection and inbreeding of offspring. 
 This subject of breeding is one of great importance, 
 and yet little understood. Many things pertaining to it 
 are yet to be settled, though great progress has been 
 made during the last few years, and public attention is 
 being drawn to it as it never was before. It will be 
 found that man can become master of the situation, and 
 may, by observing certain fundamental conditions and 
 varying only the details, breed domestic animals of 
 
BREEDING DAIRY STOCK. J)!) 
 
 almost any form, disposition, and quality, that he may 
 desire. 
 
 CAKE AND KKK1'. 
 
 Better care and keep, however, are the key notes to 
 improvement. Higher conditions and better surround- 
 ings lead to improvements which may be developed into 
 fixed traits by proper selection and coupling, provided 
 the improved environment is maintained. The status can 
 be maintained only by maintaining the conditions. This 
 is what we mean by care. Under this head, we include 
 all that pertains to the health and comfort of the animal. 
 Judicious care is of prime importance not only inbreeding 
 but in securing the best results in dairy products. Proper 
 food and drink and enough of it, with shelter, kind treat- 
 ment, regularity and the most thorough system, must be 
 provided, or corresponding failure, for any and all abuse, 
 neglect or mistake, is sure to follow. 
 
FEEDING- STOCK. 
 
 HE question of feeding stock is yearly rising -into 
 greater prominence and importance. Formerly, il 
 was thought that anybody wh.o could throw out 
 coarse fodder and hay to cattle knew enough for all prac- 
 tical purposes about feeding, and that any sort of a shel- 
 ter, or no shelter, if the animal survived, was sufficient- 
 Better ideas are beginning to prevail. Few men now 
 think they know all that can be learned about feeding 
 stock, and those who know the most are the most anxious 
 to learn. A thorough knowledge of feeding requires a 
 knowledge of physiology and biology, with the chemical 
 composition and nutritive qualities of the different kinds 
 of food. Added to this must be the practical knowledge 
 gained by observation of the effects of the different foods 
 on different ani mals under various conditions. And when 
 all is known that can be, there will still be room left for 
 the exercise of the best judgment of the feeder as to the 
 conditions and requirements of the animal fed, and as to 
 the quality of the foods available and the quantity and 
 proportions of each. 
 
 CARBONACEOUS AND NITROGENOUS FOODS. 
 
 It is pretty well known what the constituents of the 
 animal organism are, and what elements of nutrition are 
 
FEEDING STOCK. 41 
 
 required in the food for the sustenance of the animal. 
 Of these primal elements some twelve or fifteen in 
 number it is found that, practically, when foods com- 
 bined contain two of them in proper proportion, the iest 
 are generally present in sufficient quantity. These two 
 are CARBON and NITROGEN, and the foods containing them 
 in relatively large proportion are respectively called <<//- 
 botificcouK and nitrogenous. All foods contain these ele- 
 ments in greater or less proportion. The proper propor- 
 tion for feeding is found to be about one of nitrogen to 
 fice or */> of carbon. If the temperature of the weather 
 is low, the proportion of carbon may be raised to eight, 
 and even ten, where little exercise is had as, for in- 
 stance, milch cows standing in a cold stable. But, in hot 
 weather, when cows are giving milk, the carbon may be 
 reduced to four and even three that is, so that there 
 shall be one part of nitrogen to three or four parts of car- 
 bon. The carbon is heat and fat producing, and some 
 class it as motor producing, but we think this is a mis- 
 take, save so far as heat is essential to motion. We think 
 nitrogen is motor producing as well as muscle producing 
 or, in other words, that the element which produces the 
 organs of motion also fills them with energy, for the ex- 
 ercise of which heat is essential. We cannot have mo- 
 tion, or even life, much below the normal temperature of 
 about 98 degrees Fahrenheit. At all events, it is found 
 necessary to feed nitrogenous food to all animals that are 
 working hard, to supply the waste of muscle and we 
 think also to replace the expended energy. Dr. J. M51- 
 ner Fothergill, in his work on the "Maintenance of 
 
42 
 
 Health," published by G. P. Putnam's Sous, s:iys : " The 
 effect of the nitrogen upon the brain is to c^nlrc ucrcc 
 force fredy, and this rules and regulates the actual force 
 which takes its origin in the respiratory foods consumed. 
 These respiratory foods furnish the force itself, but the 
 nitrogenized foods furnish the muni festers of force 1 .' 1 It 
 appears to us that the nerve force, which he says is 
 evolved, is all there is of it, save the requisite conditions 
 afforded by heat. Dr. Hough ton says : kk The hunted deer 
 will outrun the leopard in a fair open chase, because the 
 force supplied to its muscles by vegetable food is capa- 
 ble of being given out continuously for a long period of 
 time ; but in a sudden rush at a near distance, the leopard 
 will infallibly overtake the deer, because its flesh food 
 stores up in the blood a reserve of force capable of being- 
 given out instantaneously in the form of exceedingly 
 swift inuscualr action." Dr. Fotbergill goes on to say: 
 " Nitrogen is the essential factor in all explosive com- 
 pounds, from gunpowder to nerve force. It endows the 
 consumer of it with energy and enables him to discharge 
 his force quickly and rapidly." Again, he says of the 
 race-horse: "His food affects his speed and endurance, 
 and without his nitrogenized food he would cut a poor 
 figure at a race, because without it he could not discharge 
 his force fast enough." 
 
 WHAT IS OAKBONV 
 
 It is pure in the diamond, nearly pure in coal, and is 
 the principal constituent of all woody fiber also of oils, 
 fat, starch, sugar, etc. Nearly-all the visible organic 
 
FKKDTNd STOCK. 43 
 
 world is composed of carbon. It appears to be very 
 plentiful, but of our atmosphere it composes only about 
 Ibur-ten-thonsandth.s, while oxygen, with which it unites 
 to form carbonic acid gas for vegetation to feed on, .com- 
 poses one-fifth and nitrogen four-fifths. Really, we have 
 link- trouble in securing carbonaceous foods. The only 
 difficulty is to get them in a digestible form. Only what 
 is soluble can be digested and assimilated by the animal 
 organism. Hence, great care must be taken to get food 
 in a proper condition for animal nutrition. 
 
 WHAT IS NITROGEN? 
 
 It is almost pure in the albumens, both vegetable and 
 animal. It is nearly pure in the white of egg. Hence, 
 nitrogenous foods are quite commonly called albumin- 
 oids. It exists abundantly in all the proteins as cheese 
 or caseine, fibrin or lean meat, albumen, etc. Nitrogen, 
 in its free state, appears to be an innocuous gas, diluting 
 the oxygen and preventing it from rapidly oxydizing or 
 burning up everything. As before said, it constitutes 
 four-fifths of our atmosphere, but does not appear to be 
 directly appropriated by either vegetables or nnimals. 
 As food for either, it must be in combination with other 
 elements especially carbon and yet it is very difficult 
 to make it unite with other elements, and hard to main- 
 tain the union when it is once formed. Its disposition is 
 to break these unions and seek an idle state of freedom. 
 Hence it is that, when held in durance, its constant ten- 
 dency to free itself makes it the motor force in all animal 
 organisms, and the terrible energy in all explosives. It 
 
44 
 
 HINTS ()X DAIRYING. 
 
 is secured in the form of ammonia in rain, by a process 
 called nitrification it unites with the soil, and it exists in 
 all decayed animal and vegetable matter in a form suit- 
 able for plant food. Men and animals get it by eating 
 vegetables or by eating one another. It is a very abun- 
 dant and important element, yet very difficult to obtain 
 in an available form for plant and animal food. Fortu- 
 nately, but comparatively little of it is needed. 
 
 RATION'S. 
 
 By referring to the feed tables furnished by the ana- 
 lysts of this country and Europe, the farmer can learn 
 the constituents of foods. Then, knowing the ration re- 
 quired, he can take different foods and compound in the 
 right proportions aimed at in feeding, whether for work, 
 for growth, for fat, for bare maintenance, or for milk. 
 We give the German standards for feeding animals: 
 
FEEDING STOCK. 
 
 SJ 
 
 ;2 oc' d oc 00 ooi 
 
 ddo 
 
 o w e; q oq oq 10 
 
 OO rH n >^ * * C<J 
 
 oo t-; co * >Cj q t-; ic 
 
 ^ d rH C** <M CO C^ Cl 
 
 fi x a8 -H *> H 
 I1III1I 
 
 C d S S C fl 
 
 x x x x x x 6 
 CCOOOOQ 
 
 eo ic oc d ' 
 
 d d d 6 o 
 
 -; r-J 00 TH W 
 
 M rj! CO C5 Oi 
 
 
 WOOOO-* 
 
 co t-' e-j d d 
 
 l&ll 
 
 o3 
 
 s 
 
 .52 co ?c c<) oo -+ 
 ^ M <M co cc !M 
 
40 HINTS OX DA IKYING. 
 
 SAMl'LK KATiONS. 
 
 Dr. Wolf gives an illustration of the standard lor a 
 milch cow, by saying (hat '}() Ibs. of young clover hay 
 will keep a cow in good milk; and that this contains oi' 
 dry organic substance, 23 Ibs., of which is digestible 1 al- 
 buminoids 3.21, carbohydrates 11. 28, .and fat 0.(>3. This 
 is .71 Ib. albuminoids more, and .22 11). of carbohydrates 
 less, with .13 Ib. of fat more, than the standard. Then In- 
 takes the richest and best meadow hay, of which 30 Ibs. 
 contains of organic substance 23.2 Ibs., having digestible 
 albuminoids 2.49 Ibs., carbohydrates 12.75 Ibs., and fat 
 42 Ib. This is almost exactly the feeding standard. 
 
 As will have been seen by what has preceded, the 
 German standard ration for a milch cow is 24 Ibs. of dry 
 organic substance, containing 2.50 Ibs. nitrogenous food. 
 and 12.90 Ibs. of carbonaceous food. To secure this, Dr. 
 Wolff recommends for every 1,000 Ibs of live weight : 
 12 Ibs. average meadow hay. 
 6 " oat straw. 
 20 " mangolds. 
 25 " brewers' grain. 
 2 " cotton seed cake. 
 
 Prof. S. W. Johnson's ration for the same purpose is: 
 20 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 
 5 " iye straw. 
 
 6 " malt sprouts. 
 
 2 " cotton seed meal. 
 
 The following milk rations are recommended by Prof. 
 E. W. Stewart : 
 
FEEDING s 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 18 Ibs. oat straw. 
 ."' ' bean straw, 
 fi " cotton seed cake. 
 
 2 >; wheat bran. 
 5 " linseed meal. 
 
 No. :;. 
 
 20 Ibs. poor hay. 
 5 ' corn meal. 
 5 " cotton seed cake 
 
 20 Ibs. wheat si raw. 
 5 " wheat bran, 
 
 3 ' corn meal. 
 
 4 " linseed meal. 
 
 No. r,. 
 
 20 Ibs. fresh marsh hay. 
 r> corn meal. 
 5 " cotton seed meal. 
 
 No. ti. 
 
 I0ft>s.good mead'whay 
 10 " rye straw. 
 3 " wheat bran. 
 
 5 " linseed meal. 
 
 The following are given by the same author as milk 
 rations : 
 
 No, 4. 
 15 Ibs. straw. 
 
 10 Ibs. clover hay. 
 10 " straw. 
 
 4 linseed oil cake. 
 
 4 *' wheat bran. 
 
 2 " cotton seed cake. 
 
 4 " corn meal. 
 
 18 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 8 "wheat bran. 
 4 ' cotton seed meal. 
 
 4 " corn meal, 
 
 . meadow hay. 
 wheat bran, 
 linseed meal, 
 corn meal. 
 
 hay. 
 
 cotton seed meal 
 
 bran. 
 
 corn meal. 
 
 malt sprouts. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 10 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 10 " oat straw. 
 2 " linseed meal. 
 
 4 " malt sprouts. 
 
 10 " oat & corn meal. 
 
 No. 6. 
 60 Ibs corn ensilage. 
 
 5 " hay. 
 
 2 " linseed meal. 
 4 " bran. 
 
 FATTENING RATIONS. 
 
 The following rations are recommended by Prof. E. 
 AV. Stewart for fattening cattle. The rations are for 1,000 
 pounds of live weight: 
 
48 
 
 HINTS ON DAIRY IN(i. 
 
 Nol. 
 
 18lbs.wint'r wh't straw. 
 
 40 " corn sugar meal. 
 
 4 " cotton seed meal. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 12 Ibs oat straw. 
 
 10 " wheat bran. 
 
 40 " corn sugar meal. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 12 Ibs. clover hay. 
 
 6 " oat straw. 
 40 " corn siigar meal. 
 
 2 " linseed meal. 
 
 No. 4. 
 15 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 
 5 " malt sprouts. 
 3 " corn meal. 
 
 40 " corn sugar meal. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 20 Ibs. best clover bay. 
 50 " corn sugar meal. 
 
 No, 6. 
 
 20 Ibs. wheat straw. 
 8 " timothy hay. 
 
 6 " cotton seed cake 
 
 NO. 7. 
 
 20 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 " Indian corn. 
 6 " linseed cake. 
 
 WORKING RATIONS. 
 
 The following are rations for oxen at hard work, as 
 given by Prof. Stewart : 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 20 Ibs. best meadow hay. 
 10 " corn meal. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 20 Ibs. corn fodder. 
 5 " clover hay. 
 
 2 " wheat bran. 
 
 3 " cotton seedcake. 
 
 No. 3. 
 17 Ibs. clover hay. 
 
 3 " wheat bran. 
 10 " corn meal. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 25 Ibs. oat straw. 
 5 " wheat bran. 
 
 4 " linseed cake. 
 
 DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. 
 
 The following table, copied from Prof. Stewart, give 
 the digestibility of a few of the more common foods : 
 
 Digestible 
 In loo Ibs. Digestible, in 2.000 Ibs. 
 
 CLOVER HAY. 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 .. 15.3 
 35.8) 
 22.2 } 
 3.2 
 
 10.7 
 37.5 
 2.1 
 
 214 
 
 752 
 42 
 
 1008 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 Crude fibre 
 Fat 
 
FEEDING STOCK 
 
 4!) 
 
 Digestible 
 In 100 ll)s. Digestible, in 2,000 Ibs. 
 
 AVERACfK MEADOW HAY. 
 
 Albuminoids 9.7 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 41.6 > 
 
 Crude fiber , 21. 9 y 
 
 Fat 2.5 
 
 CORN FODDER. 
 
 Albuminoids 4.4 
 
 Car bo hyd rates 37.9 
 
 Crude fiber 25.0 \ 
 
 Fat 1.3 
 
 OAT STRAW. 
 
 Albuminoids 4.0 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 36.2 ( 
 
 Crude fibre 39.5 J 
 
 Fat 2.0 
 
 L1NSEKD OIL CAKE. 
 
 Albuminoids 28.3 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 32.3 ) 
 
 Fibre..." 10.0 \ 
 
 Fat 10.0 
 
 WHEAT 1UIAN. 
 
 Albuminoids .15.0 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 52.2 ) 
 
 Fibre...' 10. l f 
 
 Fat... 3.2 
 
 CORN MEAL. 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 Crude fibre 
 
 Fat .. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 Albuminoid* 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 Crude fibre 
 
 Fat . . 
 
 .10.0 
 .62.1 ; 
 . 5.5 
 . 6.5 
 
 .12.0 
 .55.01 
 . 9.3 J 
 , 6.5 
 
 5.4 
 
 41.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 43.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 40.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 12.9 
 42.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 8.4 
 60.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 9.0 
 43.0 
 4.7 
 
 108 
 
 820 
 
 20 
 
 948 
 
 60 
 
 868 
 
 20 
 
 "954 
 
 28 
 802 
 
 14 
 844 
 
 475 
 703 
 
 180 
 
 1358 
 
 852 
 52 
 
 1156 
 
 1212 
 
 96 
 
 147G 
 180 
 
 sao 
 
 94 
 
 1134 
 
50 
 
 HINTS ON DATimNG. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF FOOD. 
 
 We give the names of a few fo:)ds, with their relative 
 amount of nitrogenous and carbonaceous elements: 
 
 i; sl| I,- l| : 
 
 FOODS. 5 -? i ; 
 
 jz; 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 C 
 
 Meadow hay, medium 
 
 to 8.0 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 
 o io.fi 
 
 Red clover, medium 1 
 
 " 5.9 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 
 ' S.7 
 
 Lucerne, good 
 
 " 2.8 
 
 Ruttabagas 
 
 
 ' 8.3 
 
 Swedish clover (alsike) 
 
 " 4.9 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 
 ' 17.0 
 
 Orchard grass, in blos'm 
 
 " 6.5 
 
 ( 'arrots 
 
 
 ' 9.3 
 
 White clover, medium 
 
 " 5.0 
 
 Turnips 
 
 
 ' 5.S 
 
 Timothy 
 
 " 8.1 
 
 Whea.t, grain 
 
 
 ' 5.S 
 
 Blue grass, in blossom 
 
 " 7.5 
 
 Rye. grain 
 
 
 ' 7.0 
 
 Red to)> 
 
 ' 5.4 
 
 Barlev. sn'a.in 
 
 
 7.9 
 
 Foddei rye 
 
 1 7.2 
 
 Oute, grain 
 
 
 
 Italian rye grass 
 
 ' 6.3 
 
 Maize, grain 
 
 
 ' S.G 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 Rich pasture grass 
 
 7.1 
 
 ' 3.6 
 
 Millet, grain 
 Peas, grain 
 
 
 ' 5.4 
 ' 2.9 
 
 Green maize, German 
 
 ' 8.9 
 
 Buckwheat, grain 
 
 
 ' 7.4 
 
 Fodder oats 
 
 ' 7.2 
 
 Cotton seed 
 
 
 ' 4.6 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 ' 7.4 
 
 Pumpkins 
 
 
 ' 18.4 
 
 Pasture clover, young- 
 
 ' 2 5 
 
 Coarse wheat bran 
 
 
 ' 5.6 
 
 Rod clover, before bl's'm 
 
 ' 3.8 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 
 ' 6.9 
 
 Hed clover, in blossom 
 
 ' 5.7 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 
 ' 5.3 
 
 White clover, in blossom 
 
 ' 4.2 
 
 Barley bran 
 
 
 ' 4.5 
 
 Buckwheat, in blossom 
 
 ' 5.1 
 
 Buckwheat bran 
 
 
 ' 4.1 
 
 Fodder cabbage 
 
 1 5.2 
 
 Hempseed cake 
 
 
 ' 1.5 
 
 Ruttabaga leaves 
 
 " 3.9 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 
 ' 1.3 
 
 Fermented hay, from 
 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 
 1 10.:; 
 
 maize 
 
 " 12.0 
 
 Brewers' grain 
 
 
 ' 3.0 
 
 Fermented hay, from 
 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 
 
 beet leaves 
 
 " 4.0 
 
 \\ heat meal 
 
 
 ' 5 7 
 
 Fermented hay, from 
 
 
 Rape cake 
 
 
 ' 1.7 
 
 red clover 
 
 " iA 
 
 Rape nu al, extracted 
 
 
 ' 1.3 
 
 Winter wheat straw 
 
 
 Barlev, middlings 
 
 
 1 6.0 
 
 Winter rye straw 
 
 " 52.0 
 
 Oat bran 
 
 
 ' 9.7 
 
 Winter barley straw 
 
 " 40.5 
 
 Linseed cake 
 
 
 ' 2.0 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 " 29.9 
 
 Linseed meal, extract.-;! 
 
 
 ' 1.4 
 
 Corn stalks 
 
 ' 34.4 
 
 Col'n-seed meal, decort. 
 
 
 i.s 
 
 Seed clover 
 
 ' 7.4 
 
 Cot'n-s'd cake,undecort. 
 
 
 1 .7 
 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 24.1 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 
 ' 4.4 
 
 Rve chaff 
 
 ' 32.6 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 
 ' 2.0 
 
 Oat chaff 
 
 ' 23.8 
 
 Skimmed milk 
 
 
 ' 1.9 
 
 Bui-ley chaff 
 
 I ' 30.4 
 
 Cream 
 
 
 ' 30.5 
 
FEEDING STOCK. 51 
 
 ENSILAGE. 
 
 Major Henry E. Alvord, of Houghton Farm, N. Y., 
 gives the following as tiie range and average of analyses 
 bv a large number of eminent scientists: 
 
 Total dry matter 
 Water .'. 
 Protein 
 Fat, 
 Nitrogen-free extract, 
 t'rudo Ki.'er 
 
 lian^e in 100 Ibs. 
 
 .. 15.10 to '25.90 
 .. 84,90 to 74.10 
 . . ().!)() to 1.90 
 .. o.;;o to o.!);i 
 . . 7.00 to 13.40 
 4 70 to 7 9!) 
 
 Average, 
 18.60 
 81.40 
 1.30 
 0.60 
 9.60 
 5.90 
 
 Ash 
 
 .. 0.90 to 1.40 
 
 1.20 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 It is safe to always feed cotton seed meal, bran, or lin- 
 seed cake with corn fodder, or fodder corn, or ensilage. 
 And it will always be found to work well if corn meal is 
 fed with clover hay. Corn ensilage with clover hay will 
 constitute a proper feed. To avoid waste, and secure the 
 best results, we must learn to balance the nitrogenous and 
 carbonaceous foods. Our greatest difficulty in feeding* 
 as in manuring the soil, is to secure enough of the nitro- 
 genous elements. These are what we have mainly to 
 look out for, the carbonaceous foods usually being over 
 abundant. 
 
 Not only must we proportion the elements of food pro- 
 perly, but we must prepare the food so that it will be in 
 a proper condition. It may contain all the elements, but 
 in consequence of being in a bad or wrong condition, the 
 animal cannot digest it. There is plenty of carbon in 
 coal, but who would expect the animal stomach to digest 
 it? So there is nitrogen in saltpeter and gun-cotton, but 
 they are not in a suitable condition or form for diges- 
 
HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 tion, and hence have no food value. Most raw vegeta- 
 bles are indigestible in the human stomach, but cook 
 them, and thus put them in a proper condition, and they 
 become nutritious foods. 
 
 There are few, if any, perfect foods. Every food needs 
 to be supplemented with something' else. Hence it is 
 that both men and animals want variety. Summer pas- 
 ture, composed of mixed grasses, makes the best food for 
 all kinds of stock. Meadow hay, cot at the right time 
 and properly cured provided there is a mixture of 
 grassesmakes a proper food for winter; mat even this 
 needs to be accompanied by roots, ensilage or something 
 of a juicy nature, as a relish, if for nothing else, and as 
 an aid to digestion. 
 
 In a state of nature, roaming free, animals select and 
 balance their rations according to the cravings of appe- 
 tite. But when domesticated, they have no such freedom 
 of choice, except perhaps in a few of the summer months. 
 In winter, they must take what is given to them. It is 
 our duty, therefore, to give their food a proper balance 
 of elements as far as possible; and in thus conforming 
 to the laws of nature, we shall find both the greatest 
 economy and the greatest profit. 
 
MILK. 
 
 T|T is a comparatively easy operation to milk, if one 
 /to knows how. The process is about as simple as that 
 of Columbus in making an egg stand on end, but it re- 
 quires skill, practice and a muscular hand to do it well. 
 Grasping the teat so as to fill it with milk, and then 
 tighten the thumb and fore finger so as to prevent a re- 
 turn of the milk to the udder as the rest of the fingers 
 are gently but firmly closed, so as to give a downward 
 pressure and expel the milk, is not likely to be done by 
 the novice the first time trying. But ordinarily, the 
 performance of this operation is soon achieved by any 
 one who wishes to learn, though it is declared by some 
 that they "never could learn to milk." Substitute 
 "would'' for "could," and we think the truth is more 
 nearly approximated. Still there is a givat difference in 
 milkers, as well as in cows, the man or woman with a 
 good grip in the hand having decidedly the advantage, 
 both as regards ease and expedition and it is quite im- 
 portant that the milk should all be quickly and continu- 
 ously drawn from the cow after the milking is begun, 
 ;md while the cow is in the mood of " giving down." 
 
T)4 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 
 
 KEKP QTIET. 
 
 If a cow is suddenly disturbed, so as to get excited, or 
 gets tired and out of patience, the flow of milk may be 
 prematurely stopped. If this disturbance is continued 
 from time to time, the effect will be to permanently les- 
 sen the flow, or "dry up" the cow. Any tiling that irri- 
 tates a cow, while being milked, reduces both quality 
 and quantity. Hence, milking should be clone in a quiet 
 and orderly manner. Treat the cow very kindly and 
 gently, so as to gain her confidence, and be as careful ns 
 possible not to hurt her teats by unnecessarily tearing 
 open any cracks there mmy be, or pinching any warts, 
 and be sure to not dig your finger-nailr. into the tents. 
 
 REGULARITY. 
 
 It is a good plan to milk cows regularly in the same 
 order, taking the same one first, and winding up with the 
 same one every time. Regularity of hour in commenc- 
 ing the milking of the herd is an advantange in securing 
 the best results, since animals as well as men are greatly 
 the creatures of habit, and when the time comes around 
 the cow will desire to be milked and all the functions of 
 her system will concur in this desire. 
 
 KEEP DOWN THE FOUL ODORS. 
 
 The milking should be done in a sweet, clean place 
 either a stable kept scrupulously clean, and piaster or 
 other deoclerizer freely used, or in a row of stanchions 
 in an open shed, with barely a roof to keep off storm and 
 sunshine, and no filthy deposits allowed to accumulate 
 
HANDLING MILM. 5o 
 
 around, it. The milk, as fast as drawn, should be re- 
 moved from the place of milking, lest it absorb odors 
 from the droppings, the breath, or the exhalations from 
 the cow's body or even from the sweat and grime of the 
 person and clothes of the milker for milk is extremely 
 sensitive to the.'-e influences. It is much more so than is 
 popularly supposed, and should be put in a sweet atmos- 
 phere as soon as possible when drawn. Fine fancy 
 goods, with the most delicious and delicate flavor, cannot 
 be made from milk that has been exposed to the influence 
 of a foul atmosphere. 
 
 KEEP OUT THE DIET. 
 
 So, also, great care should be taken to keep out all 
 hairs, dirt and filth of every kind. If permitted to get 
 into the milk, filth cannot be entirely strained out, and 
 hence some of its odors and flavors w r ill linger in the 
 fats of the milk and appear in the product munufactured 
 from it. The indispensable necessity for clean utensils 
 has already been mentioned. Filth from this source will 
 not only affect odor and flavor, but is quite likely to con- 
 tain the germs of ferment which will multiply in the 
 milk and product, and eauso disastrous results. With a 
 clean can, clean pails and clean hands, begin the task of 
 milking by brushing off all loose materials from the 
 cow's side that may rattle down into the pail, carefully 
 brush and clean the udder and teats, and then place the 
 pail between your knees in a way to prevent the cow 
 putting her foot into it, or upsetting it, if she should 
 move about nervously, or be suddenly startled which 
 should not be permitted if it is possible to avoid it. 
 
50 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 LET OUT THE COWS. 
 
 As fast as milked, it is best to let the cows go. This 
 gives more room, reduces the generation of heat in the 
 stable or milking place, and lessens the amount of drop- 
 pings and consequent bad odors rising from them. 
 Those left will soon imclsrstair.l this and iv>t get uneasy. 
 
 A LICK OF MEAL. 
 
 If the cows have been prepared for milking by giving 
 them a lick of meal, or a little dry hay, when they come 
 into the stable, it will be found to have a good effect. It 
 will also cultivate a willingness to come home at milk- 
 ing time and take their respective places in the stanch- 
 ions. It pays to please and satisfy a cow. She will de- 
 posit her appreciation in the pail. 
 
 CARE OF MILK. 
 
 - When the milking is over, the milk should be taken 
 as directly to the place of manufacture as possible. If it 
 must be kept over night, see that it is well stirred and 
 properly cooled to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, before leaving 
 it. Do not put on a close cover, unless the milk is thor- 
 oughly cooled. It is far better to deliver it directly to 
 the cheese or butter maker, who knows how to care for 
 it, and has facilities for doing the work or, at least, 
 ought to have. Very much depends on having the milk 
 delivered in good condition. If it is not, no after care 
 and skill can make a perfect product from it. True, if 
 all right when 'delivered, it may be afterward" injured or 
 spoiled, but it is not likely to be. It is therefore the duty 
 of the patron to do his part of the work all right; then 
 
HANDLHIG MILK. -> < 
 
 lie in. -iy with some reason blame the operator if the result 
 is not right. But luitter and cheese makers are too 
 often expected to turn out first-class products from sec- 
 ond or third class milk a task impossible to perform. 
 With good milk and proper facilities, there is no valid 
 excuse for failure. 
 
 The first object is the production of good milk. This 
 is of prime importance. Without it, the after product 
 must of necessity be inferior. The next object is to pre- 
 serve the milk in its best condition, all through the 
 handling, in order to reach the best results. Milk is 
 often spoiled in the handling. Hence care and judgment 
 must be exercised to maintain the proper conditions to 
 the end. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF MILK. 
 
 Few understand the delicate and complex nature of 
 milk. It is a compound of man} 7 ingredients; and if any 
 one of these is disturbed, it affects the whole. Their 
 union is very weak and unstable, and liable to be broken 
 by many influences. To give a clearer idea of the com- 
 position of milk, we copy the following diagram, pre- 
 pared by Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant, Director of the New 
 York Agricultural Experiment Station: 
 
s-aaag^to is 
 
 H 
 
 HIP 
 
 [B 
 
 E i 
 3'J 
 
 
 llfj 
 
 
 
HANDLING MILK. 59 
 
 Hero are between twenty and thirty different constit- 
 uents, in various proportions. Their combination is 
 effected through the organism of the cow, the ultimate 
 work beinir performed by the udder, where it is no soon- 
 er completed than reaction begins and change is the 
 result. 
 
 DETKKIOKA'I TON OF MILK IN THE UDDEll. 
 
 The longer the milk remains in the udder, the more it 
 is impoverished by absorption ot some of its ingredients. 
 This is specially true of the tats, which are taken up by 
 the absorbent vessels of the udder and carried into gen- 
 eral circulation. For this reason, the first milk drawn 
 which is the first secreted, and therefore remains in the 
 udder the longest is the poorest milk drawn, and that 
 which is last secreted and last milked (the strippings) is 
 the richest. Hence, the longer the interval between 
 milkings, the poorer the milk for butter making. Three 
 milkings a day will give better results than two. 
 
 DO FATS EXPAND BEFORE CONG EALING V 
 
 If milk is to be set for cream, the sooner it is put to 
 rest and the less heat it looses before setting, the better 
 for the separation of the cream. If cooled down much, 
 the cream will rise more slowly and separate more im- 
 perfectly. In cooling, the fluids and semi-fluids condense 
 faster than the fats, and hence become relatively heavier, 
 and settle as the fat globules rise, b}' virtue of tiie law of 
 gravitation. The theory has been broached by Mr. H. B. 
 Gurler, of DeKalb, Illinois, that in sudden cooling, the 
 rluids and semi-fluids are not only condensed, but the fats 
 
80 HINTS ON DAIRYING;. 
 
 expanded, thus increasing the diliereme in specific 1 gra- 
 vity in l;oth directions. In this way. the rapid rising of 
 cream iu sudden cooling he thinks may he better accoun- 
 ted lor. His idea is based on the fact that water, just 
 before concealing 1 , l.egins to expand and continues to ex- 
 pand as the temperature lowers. Fats consolidate at a 
 much higher temperature than water, and he thinks the 
 same law of expansion may intervene in both cases. So 
 far as we are aware, it is not known whether fats do act- 
 ually expand before and after reaching the point of con- 
 gelation or not, and we shall feel an interest in having 
 the question positively settled by the scientists. If it is 
 a fact, it introduces a new element into our philosophy, 
 and will help in the solution of some points not yet satis 
 factorily determined. 
 
 EFFECTS OF FALLING TKMPKKATUKE. 
 
 It is a fact that cream rises best in a falling tempera- 
 ture, very slowly in a stationary one, and little or none 
 in a rising temperature. Hence, in cold weather, when 
 milk cools very rapidly after being drawn from the cow. 
 it is the practice of many good dairymen to raise the 
 temperature of the milk to 100 degrees when set. In 
 this way, they get a quicker and more complete separa- 
 tion of the cream as the milk cools down. 
 
 It would be a good idea to have, in all butter factories. 
 apparatus for setting milk so constructed that tr,e tem- 
 perature of the mass of milk can be gradually and even- 
 ly raised to 100 degrees, or even slightly above; for it is 
 difficult to deliver warm milk in a good conditi 
 
61 
 
 pecially in liot weather \i' \' has to be carried an}- con- 
 siderable distance, while in cold weather, it is sure to 
 get considerably reduced in temperature, both in milking 
 and on the road to the factory. Hence, it seems almost 
 absolutely essential, if the best results are to be attained, 
 to have some means of properly raising the temperature 
 of the milk at the factory. 
 
 If milk is to be sent to the factory, for either butter or 
 cheese making, where the distance is half a mile or 
 more, it should be aired and cooled especially if it is to 
 be shut up iu a tight can. This cooling should be done 
 as speedily as possible after milking, to ayoid taint or 
 souring. If the milk is kept over night, such airing and 
 cooling are absolutely indispensable. The mode of doing 
 this must vary with conditions and circumstances; but, 
 whatever method may be adopted, we would by no means 
 recommend putting ice directly into the milk. The ef- 
 fect cannot lie to improve flavor or keeping quality. 
 
 PROTECTION FROM TIIK HOT SIN. 
 
 By no means should the can of milk be exposed to the 
 direct rays of a hot sun, either on the platform waiting 
 for the delivery wagon, or on the wagon. Give it shelter 
 and shade of some kind, in both cases. If a woolen blanket 
 is wet in cold water and wrapped around the r;.n, the 
 rapid evaporation from the blanket will keep down the 
 temperature. Everything that can be should be done to 
 preserve milk in its normal condition. 
 
()'-3 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 TREAT.MKNT OK NIGHT'S AND MORNING'S MIJ.K. 
 
 The night's milk and the morning's milk should never 
 be mixed before starting for the factory, but kept in sep-i- 
 rate cans and s:> delivered. The e,Te.;t of mixing will be 
 seen soon enough at the factory, and often much too soon 
 in hot weather. If the mornings milk were made as 
 cool as the night's, the effect of mixing would not he so 
 speedy and disastrous. But it appeal's to be an immuta- 
 ble law, that reducing the temperature and then raising 
 it hastens decomposition. A low temperature only re- 
 tards decomposition; it does not prevent it, unless very 
 low and it is continued. As soon as the temperature is 
 raised, decomposition sets in with accelerated rapidity, 
 as if to make up for lost time. Hence, we have always 
 looked upon low temperatures in the dairy as objection- 
 able. As low as (50 degrees but not below .">() degrees is 
 the limit which we prefer. We think this range more 
 effective for long keeping than a lower one. Certainly, 
 dairy goods made and kept within this range will not go 
 to decay so soon as in a higher temperature. 
 
 RECEIVING. 
 
 In receiving either milk or cream from the patron, it 
 is essential not only that justice be done in the weight or 
 measure, but that the patron should be satisfied of this 
 fact. The agent sent out to gather cream should be an 
 honest man, in whom the patrons as well as the employer 
 have confidence, and should understand his business and 
 do it in a workman-like manner, so as to inspire confi- 
 dence. He should also be versed in the various tricks 
 
that may be resorted to by patrons to deceive and cheat, 
 and be on his guard, quick to discern any suspicious sur- 
 roundings or indications. As much depends on his judg- 
 ment and observation as on his honesty especially if 
 any of the patrons are disposed to be dishonest, as is 
 sometimes the case where it would generally be least 
 suspected. The later device of not only measuring cream 
 by the gauge, but of testing its yield of butter by churn- 
 ing a sample, is not only a guard, to considerable extent, 
 against fraud, but more closely approximates justice by 
 getting at the actual quality of the cream, on which de- 
 pends its value. There is no associated s}'stem yet 
 devised save that of churning every patron's cream sep- 
 arately and weighing the product that secures exact 
 justice to all. Nature does not appear to have furnished 
 standards of commercial measure or value for the pur- 
 pose of indicating mine and thine in mixed transactions, 
 or in speculative exchange. We have only relative and 
 approximate guides, by which justice, in a business 
 sense, is by no means secured. 
 
 TESTING. 
 
 Where milk is delivered at the factory, w 7 e have as 
 yet no standard test of value. All the receiver can do is 
 to see that it is in a normal condition neither sour nor 
 tainted, nor containing bad odors. For this purpose, the 
 smell must mainly be relied on. Hence, healthy and 
 keen olfactories are a gre^at aid here, as in some other 
 cases. If one catches the fumes when the can cover is 
 first removed, or as the milk runs into the weighing can, 
 he is pretty sure to detect any very positive bad odor. 
 
(54 HINTS OX DAIKVINC. 
 
 The eye, to one of experience, is almost certain to detect 
 any great variation. Even slight watering is seen by 
 some from the peculiarity of the reflection of light from 
 the surface especially when in motion. Much water 
 shows from the "thin" appearance of the fluid. Where 
 the smell or appearance are cause for suspicion, or there 
 is any other cause, a sample may he saved and such tests 
 as are at hand may be applied. The so-called lactometer 
 will show whether the specific gravity is below or above 
 the normal standard. The cream gauge will give the 
 percent, of cream at a given temperature. If, after- 
 ward, a sample right from the herd, taken so as to know 
 that it has not been tampered with, shows better quality 
 by these two tests, it is pretty conclusive evidence that 
 the milk from which the factory sample was taken was 
 not in a normal condition. If the herd has been subject 
 to no change of feed or conditions between the times of 
 taking the two samples, any jury would be safe in bring- 
 ing in a verdict against the defendant for watering, skim- 
 ming, or otherwise tampering with his milk, as the facts 
 in evidence might indicate. 
 
 BAD MILK. 
 
 Sour or tainted milk, to any perceptible degree, ought 
 not to be received at the factory. One such mess will 
 injure, if it does not spoil, a whole batch. The sour milk 
 is likely to lead to a sour, leaky batch, and the tainted 
 milk to huffy if not floating curd, and porous, quickly 
 off-flavor and decaying cheese. We have little patience 
 with those who deliver such milk, and none with those 
 who attempt to devise means to work it into palatable 
 
IIANDIJNM MILK. (55 
 
 cheese and thus to get it into the unsuspecting stomachs 
 of the consumers. It is too much like making omelets of 
 rotten eggs. This is especially the case with tainted milk. 
 The first stages of souring are not so objectionable, so far 
 as wholesomeness is concerned. Sour milk' may make 
 good pot-cheese to which we do not object, but it will 
 not make good American cheddar cheese. To attempt 
 to work it into this is the worst use it can be put to. 
 
 WEIGHING. 
 
 All possible precautions should be taken to avoid mis- 
 takes in weighing and giving credit. A hasty compari- 
 son of each mess with that of the previous one delivered 
 by the same man will indicate any marked departure 
 from weight and serve as a check against error. It is 
 well to always announce the weight to the patron, who 
 then has a chance for comparison with his average or 
 previous messes. He will be pretty likely to mention any 
 marked variation, especially if it is against him. Some 
 patrons like to have a pass-book, in which the weight of 
 each mess is entered. This is a little trouble to the re- 
 ceiver when in a hurry, but it is a complete check 
 against errors of ontry on the factory book, and against 
 the forgetfulness of the patron, who may get the impres- 
 sion that he has delivered more milk in a given time 
 than he has been credited with. Everything that guards 
 against error or misunderstanding will be found to pay 
 and give satisfaction to honest men. An honest factory- 
 man not only wants to be right, but to appear right and 
 have the confidence of his patrons. A dishonest one will 
 want to appear right, and it is well to take such precau- 
 
 9 
 
(>() HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 tions as will make him what he appears. See that the 
 weighing can is properly balanced, that the scales are 
 true, and that the weights are correct. An honest man 
 will bear watching, and it is absolutely necessary to 
 watch a rogue. Where the milk is sold to tin 1 factory, 
 of course all interest in the matter with the patron ends 
 when he gets his milk correctly weighed and his money 
 for it. Where the pro rnt<i system is carried out, this 
 interest extends to the weighing of the cheese, its mar- 
 keting and the division of the proceeds. 
 
 KEEPING MILK. 
 
 When the milk is in the cheese vat, it should be 
 stirred and aired at night until the temperature is down 
 to 70 degrees, if it is to stand quiet; if an agitator is 
 used, which is preferable, no further attention need be 
 paid to the milk but to see that the supply of cold water 
 is ample and continuous. As to mixing the morning's 
 with the night's milk, it appears to be preferable to 
 working up the two milk ings separately. 
 
MAJ&INGr. 
 
 [HERE really are but four systems of setting milk 
 for cream, notwithstanding the numerous inven- 
 tions and devices. These are: 1. Cooling in water; 
 2. cooling in air; 3. shallow setting; 4. deep setting. 
 
 DEEP SETTING AND WATER COOLING. 
 
 Deep setting, whether in pails or pans, is always ac- 
 companied with water and the use of ice. In many in- 
 stances, however, where running water is abundant, ice 
 is dispensed with, and the pails are set in pools or tanks, 
 while the pans have water run around them, if not under 
 them. Under-cooling, however, is pretty well understood 
 to be a disadvantange, unless the vessel containing the 
 milk is submerged in water or nearly so. Ice is a good 
 deal used, and the milk rapidly run down in tempera- 
 ture. Some think this is the better as well as the 
 quicker way, if not the only way to get all the cream. 
 Our only objection to this rapid cooling is that it runs 
 the temperature too low, and, in our opinion, injures the 
 keeping quality of the product. 
 
 EFFECT OF TOO LOW COOLING. 
 
 If run below 40 degrees, or the point where water 
 l.egins to expand, all cooHng below that point lessens 
 
(58 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 the difference in specific gravity between the water and 
 the fat globules, and operates diametrically in the oppo- 
 site direction to what is desired. The aim is to condense 
 the water, which is a good conductor, and leave the fal 
 globules, which are poor conductors, unchanged or but 
 slightly contracted. In this way, the heavier fluid settles 
 and drives the light, particles of fat upward to rest on 
 the surface. l>ut, if we go below 40 degrees, we produce 
 the directly opposite effect and retard the rising of the 
 cream. For quality, we prefer the slower cooling in 
 water, and think the longer time given will secure all 
 the cream available and in a purer condition. 
 
 BUTT K K M I I/K F I , A VO K . 
 
 If more cream or butter is obtained by rapid cooling, 
 we think it is because more particles of caseine are en- 
 tangled in the cream and remain in the butter when 
 churned. This would of course make more weight for 
 market, but of inferior quality and sooner to go oil' flavor. 
 But where the butter is consumed fresh from the churn, 
 this does not matter so much; and if the particles of ca- 
 seine give the butter a slight buttermilk flavor, it pleases 
 some palates that have been educated to like it. We, 
 however, prefer the sweet, delicate flavor of cream but- 
 ter, free from caseine or lactic acid. But, if one has a 
 special line of customers, he must please them, whatever 
 the demand may be. If the butter is thrown on the gen- 
 eral market, and there is liable to be delay in getting it 
 into consumption, it cannot be made too pure, nor retain 
 its rosy flavor too long. 
 
Bl'TTEll MAKING. 6t) 
 
 SETTING ANT) AIR COOLING. 
 
 Uenorally, in shallow setting, whether in large or 
 small pans, cooling the milk in air is depended upon. 
 Formerly, an underground room, or one in a shady place, 
 was the only appliance usually resorted to for cooling. 
 'But, of late years, some method of artificially cooling the 
 air by the use of ice is generally adopted. In some cases, 
 the milk room is made sm.ill, with low ceiling and double 
 walls, so that a cake of ice near the ceiling does the cool- 
 ing. Usually, however, some sort of refrigerator con- 
 struction is resorted to, so that cool air from the ice- 
 house, or ice placed above the milk room, is introduced 
 to regulate the temperature and keep it steady. We pre- 
 fer cooling in air, though it may take a little more space 
 and time. By this method, extremely rapid cooling and 
 low temperature are avoided, and no violence is done to 
 the milk or cream. Deep setting, it is true, exposes less 
 surface to the air; but if the milk is not submerged, the 
 surface is likely to be cooler than the air above, and 
 to condense the vapor in it, which falls with all its impu- 
 rities on the surface of the cream. Any foulness or bad 
 odors are thus absorbed and go into the butter product. 
 While submerging obviates this objection and keeps out 
 all impurities from the air, it also prevents all escape of 
 bad odors by evaporation. Whatever that is objectiona- 
 ble may be in the milk is retained there. By setting in 
 open air, which should of course always be pure and 
 sweet, the air, being cooled down and used as a medium 
 lor cooling the milk, takes up the exhalations of moisture 
 and odor from the milk, and thus purifies it. The colder 
 
70 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 medium is always the condense] 1 and absorbent, and it is 
 only when the milk gets colder than the air above it that 
 it condenses the moisture in the air and absorbs its odor. 
 This will never occur where cold air is the cooling me- 
 dium. The milk theoretically can never get cooler than 
 the air, while practically it remains a degree or two 
 warmer than the ail'. 
 
 OXYDIZIN;; CREAM. 
 
 There is another advantage in using the air as a cool- 
 ing medium. In shallow setting, more surface, is ex- 
 posed and the air, coming in contact with the surface, 
 imparts to it a portion of its oxygen, which mingles with 
 the oils and develops that fine butter flavor so much rel- 
 ished by most and which is a peculiarity of fine butter. 
 Again, slow cooling gives more time for this oxydation 
 to go on, and thus " ripen " the cream for churning with- 
 out souring it. This leaves all the fine flavor in it, un- 
 mixed with flavors resulting from acidification. But, 
 where milk is set deep for creaming and especially 
 where there is no exposure to the air, as is the case in 
 submerging no butter flavor is developed, and the 
 cream has to be kept until sour before it is properly 
 oxydi/ed. There is not a full development of butter fla- 
 vor proper, but development of flavor resulting from the 
 mingling ot lactic acid with the oils. But without this 
 exposure and acidification, the butter is insipid and com- 
 paratively flavorless. Any subsequent exposure to the 
 air s:>on throws the butter oil" flavor, the oxygen min- 
 gling with the fats alone while the cream is- rising and 
 still s-.v-^f. This development of flavor by oxydation i* 
 
BUTT K II MAKING. 71 
 
 not mere theory; it has b33ti sruentiti^ illy demonstrated 
 at Cornell University, New York, if not elsewhere, and 
 must sooner or later be generally accepted and butter 
 m tkiii'j: proceed on a more rational and certain basis. 
 But it is hard work to get people out of old ruts, or to 
 oveivome lixed habits and prejudices. Really scientific 
 butter making, in whisii every step will be thoroughly 
 understood and deliberately taken, is a thing of the 
 future. It will come in time, and then our descendants 
 will wonder why we were so stupid and slow as not to 
 see and adopt the simplest principles when they were 
 thrust into our very faces. But mind and judgment are 
 matters of growth, the same as everything else in this 
 universe of being. 
 
 SKIMMING MILK. 
 
 80 many improvements or inventions have been intro- 
 duced in the setting of milk for cream that the term 
 " skimming " has become almost a misnomer. In both 
 deep and shallow setting, arrangements have been made 
 in several of the patent pans and cans for drawing out 
 the milk from the bottom and leaving the cream. Glass 
 gauges are set in the vessels so that the exact depth of 
 the cream can be seen, and the milk drawn down 
 close to the cream or a small amount of the upper por- 
 tion of the milk left with the cream. In skimming with 
 a skimmer or dipper, many aim to take the upper por- 
 tion of the milk, on the theory that the separation is less 
 perfect toward the top than it is lower down. Especially 
 may this be done where a dipper or skimmer without 
 holes is used. It is claimed by some careful expermu'.nt- 
 
iz HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 ers and close observers that this adds to the quantity of 
 butter yielded without deteriorating the quality. 
 
 WHEN TO SKIM. 
 
 Whether skimming off the cream or drawing off the 
 milk be practiced, the question arises as to the proper 
 time for performing the operation. The more general 
 practice is to "skim" just as the milk gives unmistaka- 
 ble signs of acidity, or thickens a very little on the bot- 
 tom of the pan or can. A few prefer to skim the cream 
 sweet, and still another few let the milk lopper. This 
 wide divergence of opinion and. practice shows how very 
 imperfectly is the real philosophy of butter making un- 
 derstood; but, notwithstanding this, each one is usually 
 very tenacious in his belief as to thf> superiority of his 
 own practice. A few fancy butter makers say that the 
 finest butter is made from sweet cream, raised in cold air 
 by shallow setting. It is insisted by them that airing 
 and oxydizing, and not souring, is what " ripens" cream 
 and fits it for easy churning, while this airing and oxydi- 
 zing imparts the fine aroma so much desired in the finest 
 butter. This view of the origin or development of flavor 
 is sustained by experiments made at Cornell University, 
 at the suggestion or under the supervision of Prof. L. B. 
 Arnold. It is also claimed that the lack of flavor and 
 the short-keeping of sweet-cream butter churned from 
 cream raised by deep setting is due to its lack of oxygen, 
 and that souring the cream thus raised, before churning, 
 both oxydizes it and imparts a ranker and more positive 
 flavor resulting from the effects of the lactic acid. We 
 think both propositions look reasonable, and we should 
 
BUTTER MAKING. 73 
 
 like to see a series of scientific experiments made to de- 
 termine both the effects of oxygen and the effects of lac- 
 tic acid on the butter product of cream. At present, 
 theory and practice vary so widely with different butter 
 makers who turn out a high-priced butter for the mar- 
 ket, that one is led to doubt all theories and query whe- 
 ther the quality of butter does not depend on something 
 not yet known, which is independent of all current theo- 
 ries and practices. 
 
 CHURNING. 
 
 And as to the proper time of churning, there is an 
 equal divergence of opinion and practice. One churns 
 his cream sweet, another wants it slightly changed, a 
 third wants positive acidity in the cream, and a fourth 
 loppers the cream, while a fifth lets the cream stand 
 even twelve hours after loppering and this extremely 
 sour cream butter sells for the very highest market 
 price. So we are left all at sea, so far as acidity is an 
 element in butter making. Again, to further illustrate 
 these extremes, w^hile a gentleman in Vermont is setting 
 his neighbors agog by raising cream in a vacuum, a Can- 
 ada gentleman is experimenting with an invention to 
 raise cream by hydrostatic pressure and get the fat of the 
 milk so pure as to dispense with churning. We hope 
 both will succeed. 
 
 TEMPERATURES. 
 
 There is not so wide a difference in opinion and prac- 
 tice as regards the temperature at which churning should 
 
 be done in order to secure the best results; yet there is 
 10 
 
74 IILNTS ON l)Af]!V[N(i. 
 
 quite a wide range from 55 degrees to 05 degiees or 
 10 degrees Fahrenheit. But only a few go as high as f>5 
 degrees or as low as 55 degrees. The great majority 
 favor 60 degrees to 03 degrees as the proper range of 
 temperature for different seasons and conditions. Some 
 favor 58 degrees to 60 degrees, and all appear satislied 
 with results. It is not improbable that different degrees 
 of acidity in the cream require different degrees of tem- 
 perature for churning, and that sweet cream requires 
 still another variation of temperature. So the breed, 
 condition of the cows, kind of feed, quality of feed, char- 
 acter of the water drank, length of time the cows have 
 been in milk, and other considerations, require variations 
 in the temperature. Sure we are that the difference in 
 conditions and surroundings must explain some of the 
 differences of opinions and practices among butte: 1 
 makers. 
 
 WHAT MAKES THE BUTTER COME. 
 
 It is not known whether concussion or friction, or 
 both, cause the separation of the butter from the butter- 
 milk in churning. But we suspect that concussion is the 
 real agent that produces the separation, as we have 
 really seen no churn that did not in some way produce 
 more or less concussion. All the churns we have seen 
 used appeared to produce good results, and we find every 
 dairyman is satisfied with the work of the churn he 
 uses, whatever the kind, style or patent. We cannot, 
 therefore, recommend any style of churn as superior to 
 another, but we prefer the simple and less expensive 
 
BTJTTEU MAKING. 75 
 
 forms, as not only costing less but being easier to keep 
 clean. 
 
 The churning should be steady and not violent. A. too 
 rapid or sudden separation of the butter from the butter- 
 milk is not desirable. It is no recommend for a churn 
 that it churns quick. Such a churn is apt to injure the 
 so-called grain of the butter and make it salvy and 
 greasy. The least churning that will separate the butter 
 from the buttermilk is the best. 
 
 WHEN TO STOP CHURNING. 
 
 The improved modern method, now in practice by 
 the best butter makers generally, is to stop the churn as 
 soon as the butter is collected in particles the size of 
 wheat kernels. Just before this, when the first signs of 
 the separation of the butter is seen, the sides of the churn 
 are washed down with cold water usually below 00 
 degrees, or about 55 degrees to not only prevent waste, 
 but to harden the butter and make it easier to handle. 
 When the granules are the size of wheat kernels, the 
 butter is drawn off or the butter taken out of the butter- 
 milk, as the case may be. If the butter is left in the 
 churn, water is poured in to float the butter, which is 
 then gently agitated a moment and the water drawn off. 
 This operation is repeated until the water runs clear. 
 Sometimes one of the washings is in brine, which coagu- 
 lates the caseine into a soluble form and prepares it to 
 be washed out afterward. In this way, it is believed that 
 purer, longer-keeping butter can be made. In some 
 ca.x<>s. however, butter makers have customers who want 
 
76 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 a buttermilk flavor in their butter. They, therefore, do 
 not wash the butter, or wash it very little. Such butter 
 must be consumed at once, as it will not keep. 
 
 WORKING. 
 
 By this method of retaining the butter in a granulated 
 form, only sufficient working is required to evenly work 
 in the s-.ilt. The less working the better. 
 
 SALTING. 
 
 The salt, after the butter is properly drained, can be 
 carefully mixed with the butter by stirring. When thor- 
 oughly incorporated, barely pressing the butter together 
 into a solid mass is all that is needed. If one does not 
 want butter very salty to the taste, it can be evenly and 
 nicely salted by completely wetting it with saturated 
 brine, then carefully pressing the granulated butter to- 
 gether and leaving in it as much of the strong brine as 
 will remain. We have seen butter salted in this way, 
 and it was very evenly and completely salted, having in 
 it no undissolved grains of salt, but it was not as salt to 
 the taste as some like. 
 
 About an ounce to the pound is good salting; but 
 more or less salt must be used to suit the taste of custo- 
 mers. None but retined salt should be put into butter. 
 No salt, is better for this purpose than the Onondaga F. 
 F., which is American, and the cheapest salt fit for dairy 
 use that can be obtained. 
 
 The principal office of the salt in butter is to impart 
 an agreeable flavor, in conjunction with the natural 
 aroma of fine butter; but it is a fact that too much salt 
 
BUTTER MAKING. 77 
 
 injures i>ood flavor, and it may, to some extent, be used 
 to cover up or neutralize bad flavors. We do not recom- 
 mend its use for this latter purpose, preferring that the 
 natural flavor of butter from pure cream should be pre- 
 served. 
 
 SALT A8 A PRESERVATIVE. 
 
 Salt does very little to preserve butter. It retards the 
 decomposition of the caseous and albuminous materials 
 left in it; but if butter is properly made of cream not 
 mixed with loppered milk and is completely washed with 
 pure water, it is a fair question if butter will not keep 
 longer without salt than with it. There are instances on 
 record where butter has been kept sweet without salt for 
 a long time. We half suspect that, though salt at first 
 retards decomposition, the salt itself, in time, decompos- 
 es and becomes sodium and chlorine gas, or enters into 
 new combinations with the constituents of the butter, 
 and thus makes new compounds that do not in the least 
 improve the flavor. We have no positive evidence of this, 
 but have had this suspicion awakened by facts related 
 about the keeping of butter and by a process of general 
 reasoning. It is true that salt is one of the most stable 
 compounds known, but we have proof that it can be re- 
 solved into its original elements, when stronger affinities 
 are presented lor one or both of them to unite with. It 
 would not, therefore, be strange if such decomposition 
 sometimes follows when used in our food preparations. 
 
 TACKING BUTTER. 
 
 It is quite a knack to properly pack butter in large 
 packages, and the work needs to be carefully done. Some 
 
78 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 use it too violently, by pounding it down, and thus ma- 
 king the butter greasy or oily. It should be gently 
 pressed together in the package in such a way as to leave 
 no spaces rilled with air, for the air will surely mingle 
 with the surrounding butter and injure its flavor. A 
 good way is to begin the pressure at the center and work 
 carefully toward the circumference, so that all air may 
 escape at the sides. In this way, perfect solidity of the 
 mass is secured, and it is left in the best condition for 
 keeping, so far as the packing is concerned. 
 
 PREPARING THE PACKAGE. 
 
 Before putting the butter in the package, the package 
 should be soaked in water, so as to remove the taste of 
 the wood, and then thoroughly soaked in saturated brine, 
 so that the wood will not draw the salt from the butter 
 which comes in contact with it. If it does, the butter 
 thus deprived of salt will turn white, have a sickish fla- 
 vor, and soon turn rancid. It is a good idea to not only 
 sprinkle a thin layer of salt over the bottom of the pack- 
 age, but to rub the moist inner sides with dairy salt, and 
 thus make sure that there is salt enough in contact with 
 the wood to prevent its absorbing the salt from the butter. 
 
 CLOSING THE PACKAGE. 
 
 When a package is filled, a piece of thin muslin, cui 
 so as to just fit into the top of the package and complete- 
 ly cover the butter, should be wet in cold water and 
 carefully placed over the top, having the edges pressed 
 down close to the sides of the tub. Then the cloth 
 should be completely covered with a thin layer of salt : 
 
BUTTER MAKING. <9 
 
 and if the salt is moistened, so as to form of it a thick 
 paste that will become air-tight when it dries, it will do 
 much to keep the top of the butter clean and sweet for 
 the more nearly airtight the package is when completed 
 the better it is for the preservation of the butter. Then 
 put on the cover, and seal the whole as tightly as possible. 
 
 STORING. 
 
 Remove the package to a cool, sweet place, not above 
 the temperature of GO degrees, and set it so that it will 
 absorb no moisture or odors from the ground. Much 
 butter is spoiled by keeping, because of neglecting the 
 temperature, and setting the bottom of the package di- 
 rectly on the cellar bottom. If kept at a temperature 
 above 60 degrees, butter wall surely go off flavor, and 
 wood will as surely draw moisture from the ground, if in 
 contact with it, and become sour and musty, sooner or 
 later affecting the flavor of the butter within the package. 
 Nothing is to be lost, but all to be gained, by paying at- 
 tention to these little things. 
 
 STYLE OF PACKAGE. 
 
 Of course, where a maker has a special market for 
 his butter, he will put it up in such style and form of 
 package as suits his customers. He needs no other 
 guide and would injure his business if he followed one. 
 But, for general market purposes, the 50 Ib. tub is the 
 best form. The New York and Boston dealers like this 
 because it is convenient for the retailer, who can read- 
 ily slip the tub off from the butter for either weighing or 
 cutting up for his customers. But aside from these con- 
 
80 HINTS ON 
 
 siderations, the Welsh tub is a very bad form of package 
 for keeping butter, as it is by no means air-tight nor 
 anything approaching it. Hence, butter sent to market 
 in these tubs must soon be sold and go into consumption, 
 or there is material depreciation in quality and a corres- 
 ponding loss in price. The old-fashioned firkin, which 
 could be headed up and the butter covered with brine, 
 is a much better package for keeping butter. But, 
 where butter is consumed as fast as it is made, and fresh 
 winter made butter supplies the demand through the 
 cold season, the keeping of butter for any considerable 
 length of time is not of so much consideration. We 
 think it fortunate that this is so. 
 
() much li.'.s been written and said, and so little un- 
 derstood, about cheese making, that it seems almost 
 a hopeless task, as \vell as a thankless one, to at- 
 tempt to say anything more on tlie subject. Sour igno- 
 ramuses and floating charlatans have spoiled more curds 
 than have been spoiled by any detect in the milk. Sour, 
 \vh<>y-so iked cheese has been ths r-ige, and it is generally 
 supposed that acid alone makes a firm cheese, when the 
 experience of every cheese maker is that it is very diffi- 
 cult, by the ordinary processes, to make a firm curd out 
 of sour milk which, of course, no one ought to be asked 
 to make into cheese unless it be pot-cheese. Acid may 
 mako a curd solid, but not until it has cut out a large 
 share of the goodness of the curd, and the cheese result- 
 ing will be about as digestible as so much putty. 
 
 DUTY OP PATRONS. 
 
 It is the duty of every patron of a cheese factory to 
 send good milk to it, and to send the milk in good condi- 
 tion. It is not only his duty, but his interest to do this. 
 A bad mess of milk may spoil a whole vat-full. This not 
 only entails loss on his neighbor, where the factory is 
 run on the i>r.> r.itu plan, but the patron must stand his 
 
HINTS ON I>Ali;y[.\<;. 
 
 share of the loss. Aside from the loss entailed on others 
 and himself, lie ought to he ashamed to deliver milk in 
 a bad condition. There is no valid excuse for it. Il 
 ought to be his pride to deliver milk in as good condition 
 as anybody does. If he cannot, he should leave the bus. 
 iness, and go into something in which he has the ability 
 to excel. Care and cleanliness, if the cows are ha ilt'.iy 
 and have proper food, will insure good milk always. 
 
 rNP.EASONAI'.LK KXTl-XTATION. 
 
 It is unreasonable to expect a cheese maker to turn a 
 prime article of cheese out of poor milk. If one carries 
 shoddy cloth to the tailor, he expects a shoddy suit in 
 return, not a broadcloth one. So, if he carries bad milk 
 to the factory, he must expect bad cheese. If he takes 
 sour apples to the cider mill, he does not expect sweet- 
 flavored cider, but sour. So, if he carries sour milk to 
 the cheese factory, he must expect sour cheese. These 
 defects, when they exis 1 ; in a small degree, may be over- 
 come, or nearly so, an 1 a pi-^i^le cheese mule. But, is 
 the cheese made from imperfect milk really a fit article 
 of food? Who would work rotten egus into custard, or 
 sour meal into bread? Yet this is just as consistent as 
 working sour or tainted milk into cheese, and the pro- 
 duct is just as wholesome. That which makes stinking 
 eggs makes stinking milk decayed albumen which is 
 just as wdiolesome in the one as in the other. 
 
 GUARANTEES. 
 
 The cheese maker who guarantees his cheese is very 
 foolish if he does not insist on a guarantee of good milk, 
 
nor should lie be compelled to rely on his judgment 
 formed in the haste of receiving the milk. A tricky man 
 may juggle a bad mess of milk on to the best expert. 
 How can the cheese maker tell whether the milk is from 
 a garget ty udder, or the first milk after calving both of 
 which may develop in a very offensive way when the 
 milk is heated up? So the milk may be so nearly tainted 
 or so nearly sour that it will not stand the process of 
 heating up and cooking. The law ought to be very se- 
 vere on the man who delivers bad milk at a factory, or 
 sell- it to anyone. - The factory in an who pays the price 
 of good milk for sour or tainted milk is certainly very 
 short-sighted, and cannot long maintain the respect of 
 the man who sells it to him, nor sustain himself pecuni- 
 arily. The man who pays cash for milk has the right, 
 above all others, to demand that the milk shall be sweet 
 and wholesome. This is one point that should be insist- 
 ed upon the delivery of good milk in good condition. 
 
 HEATING. 
 
 After the milk is all in, or the requisite amount is in 
 the vat, the heat may at once be started and raised to 
 some point between 80 and 80 degrees. If we set below 
 this, the rennet works too slow; if we set above, it is 
 thought to work too fast so custom has fixed upon this 
 range of temperature for setting, and there appears to be 
 no valid objection to it. But while the temperature of 
 the milk is being raised, and before, it should receive 
 frequent stirrings to keep the cream from rising, and 
 thus becoming partially or wholly wasted. The rennet 
 
84 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 should by no means Le added until the temperature stops 
 rising or so nearly so that by the time the rennet is 
 stirred in and the stirring stopped, because the milk be- 
 gins to coagulate, a stationary temperature will have 
 been reached. 
 
 COLORING. 
 
 The coloring fluid should be added just before the 
 rennet is unless white cheese is made. There is a lim- 
 ited demand for white cheese for the London market. 
 But do not make the color too high as there is a limited 
 demand for high-colored goods, and this mainly from the 
 South, in spring and fall. Nor should the color be too 
 pale, as there is really no demand for pale cheese. It 
 should be either white or of a medium hue a bright, 
 golden yellow. There is a demand for uniformity of 
 color, as buyers often want large lots, all of the same hue 
 or shade. In selecting such a lot, they may rule out 
 first-class cheese that is to pale or too high-colored. The 
 universal use of the same manufacture of coloring extract 
 guaranteed of uniform strength, might secure uniformity 
 in coloring. But this is doubtful and difficult. A better, 
 and we think, a feasible way, would be to have a standard 
 color like those accompanying paints furnished to 
 every cheese maker a* a guide, and let him color to it 
 as nearly as possible. In this way, a close approximate 
 to uniformity of color might be secured. He could then 
 use whatever coloring fluid he chose, and his eye would 
 be his guide. Coloring does not improve the product. 
 If it does no harm, it does no good beyond gratifying the 
 
CIIEEJTE MAKING. CO 
 
 eye and deceiving the palate through the common notion 
 that high color and high flavor go together. 
 
 SETTING. 
 
 Theoretically, 98 degrees or blood heat would seem to 
 be the temperature for setting, as rennet is the most ac- 
 tive at this point. Usually, 82 degrees in warm weather, 
 and 80 degrees in cool weather, are the points at which 
 the rennet is added in setting. But there is no reason 
 for a different temperature at different seasons, except 
 that in cool weather the temperature is liable to run 
 down a little which should not and would not be the 
 case, if the make room were so constructed that the tem- 
 perature could be controled and kept at summer heat. 
 
 OTHER DETAILS. 
 
 Enough rennet should be added, as a rule, to cause 
 thickening of the milk to begin in 20 minutes, at 82 de- 
 grees. More or less rennet may be used, as it is designed 
 to have cheese cure more or less rapidly. As a rule, the 
 more rennet is used, the lower should be the temperature 
 at which the milk is set and the curd worked. Agitation 
 of the milk should be kept up for at least 15 minutes, 
 where coagulation begins in 20 minutes, or as long as it 
 can be and not prevent a solid coagulation. The stirring 
 after the rennet is incorporated is merely to keep the 
 cream from rising. The less cream gets to the surface, 
 the less waste there wall be. In a cool room, where the 
 surface cools quickly and there is a falling of the tem- 
 perature of the milk, there will be a thin cream on the 
 surface. This will form a soft cream curd, which will 
 
86 
 
 adhere to the sides of the vat, to the rake, and to the 
 hands, and be quite annoying-. The amount is trifling, 
 but the annoyance of the thing is enough of itself to 
 make it desirable to keep the cream down; and a sum- 
 mer temperature of the room is useful for this purpose, 
 aside from the comfort and the better handling of the 
 curd, from first to last. 
 
 KEEP' THE TEMPERATURE EVEN. 
 
 After the milk begins to thicken, a cloth should be 
 thrown over the vat to keep the surface warm. A con- 
 venient way is to tack a cloth to slats a little longer than 
 the vat is wide, putting the slats a foot or eighteen inches 
 apart. This is easily rolled up and set aide, when not 
 wanted, and is easily unrolled over the vat when needed. 
 There should be no raising of the temperature after 
 the rennet is added and the mass comes to a standstill. If 
 there is, the portion next to the sides and in the bottom 
 of the Vat will get the most heat, and there the rennet 
 will work the fastest and the curd will become tough be 
 fore it is firm enough on the surface. Therefore, let the 
 heat be stationary after the rennet is added and until the 
 curd is cut fine, and keep the heat as even as possible all 
 this time. 
 
 CUTTING. 
 
 The coagulum should be cut as soon as it will break 
 clean across the finger when placed in it and lifted gent- 
 ly upward. This early cutting is essential. There is 
 seldom, if ever, any waste from cuUing a curd too sonn. 
 The clearest whey will always be obtained by cutting- 
 
CHEESE MAKING. 87 
 
 oarlv. Tin- whey exudes from the curd much more 
 freely when it is yet young and tender and the only ob- 
 ject in cutting the curd at all is to get out the whey. 
 When cutting is begun, let it be continued as expeditious- 
 ly as possible until it is finished. Do not stop and let 
 the curd stand and toughen. It cuts more easily, with 
 less friction and less waste by loosening line particles of 
 curd, when it is tender and parts easily before the knife. 
 The more it toughens,- the harder it cuts, the more fric- 
 tion there is, the more the curd is torn and bruised, and 
 the more the waste. If we could cut early and cut in- 
 stantaneously, it would be all the better. 
 
 CUT FINE. 
 
 Cut the curd very fine. Seldom, if ever, is a curd cut 
 too fine.. As the object is to get rid of the whe}^, the 
 finer it is cut, the more easily we achieve our object. It 
 is not as far from the center of a small piece of curd for 
 the whey to run out as it is from the center of a large 
 piece. By cutting fine, we expose more surface for the 
 whey to run out of, and we have smaller pieces to heat 
 up. Curd is a bad conductor of heat. If the pieces are 
 large, it takes a long time for the heat to slowly pene- 
 trate them when w r e want to increase it. The small 
 pieces, therefore, absorb the heat more evenly, and this 
 gives an evener action of the rennet. 
 
 "COOKING." 
 
 After the cutting is done, if the whey is separating 
 rapidly, the heat may be started at once. If the action 
 
88 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 of the rennet is rather slow, it is better to wait a tew 
 minutes for the curd to harden a little, while with 
 your hand you carefully rub down the side of the vat, 
 thus removing all the curd that may be adhering to it. 
 Not over five minutes waiting, as a usual thing, is neces- 
 sary, and generally there need be no waiting. But as 
 soon as the heat is started, begin to gently stir the curd 
 with a rake, by passing it down into the middle of the 
 vat and gently raising the curd on each side. If uncut 
 pieces appear, carefully separate thorn with the teeth 
 of the rake. Keep up this stirring, which may be more 
 violent after the curd hardens, until the whole is heated 
 up to 98 or 100 degrees or to blood heat. The reason 
 for constant agitation is to keep an even temperature 
 throughout the mass and prevent the curd from packing. 
 This secures even action of the rennet. The reason for 
 going to blood heat is because rennet is most active at 
 this point. It is the temperature indicated by Xature. 
 It is the one at which we digest our food, and the one at 
 which the calf's stomach forms curd and afterwards di- 
 gests it. The pepsin or gastric juice is more potent at 
 blood heat, and this pepsin or rennet is what does the 
 work. The heat does not cook the curd in the vat any 
 more than it cooks the milk in the cow's udder. We 
 choose 98 degrees as the proper temperature because the 
 digestive or cheesing process of the rennet goes on faster 
 at this point. To go above or below it is to lose instead 
 of gain. This temperature sluuld therefore be main- 
 t'linecl until the curd is ''coikeJ" that is, until the ac- 
 tion of the rennet has expelled the proper amount of 
 
CHEESE MAKI^ZZ-^ 89 
 
 whey and the curd is as firm as we want it. Anent the 
 stirring of curds, use the hands as little as possible. 
 There is nothing better for this purpose than the com- 
 mon hay rake with the handle shortened and one tooth 
 cut off from each end by severing the rake-head within 
 three quarters of an inch of the next tooth* 
 
 DllAWING THE WHEY. 
 
 We next draw the whey down to the curd leaving 
 enough to stir it in easily, and cool the whole mass down 
 to 90 degrees, to avoid too much packing, and draw off 
 the balance of the whey. The whey should be run off 
 before the acid develops, because acid, formed from the 
 milk in the sugar, dissolves the minerals and cuts some 
 of the oils in the curd, and these run off in the whey. 
 Many curds, by remaining in the whey too long, become 
 whey-soaked, and make cheese that is soggy and hard, 
 with a sour flavor. This kind of firmness is not desira- 
 ble, notwithstanding it is called for by buyers, who sel- 
 dom know anything about cheese making. If the acid 
 develops before the whey is properly expelled, or the 
 curd fs " cooked," it carries off the minerals, which are 
 in the form of phosphates, and this makes the cheese 
 poor indeed. These phosphates are of lime, iron, mag- 
 nesium, etc., but the principal is phosphate of lime. The 
 affinity of these minerals for lactic acid is stronger than 
 for phosphoric acid ; so they let go of the latter and unite 
 with the lactic acid, forming lactates and leaving the 
 phosphoric acid free. But if we get all of the whey out 
 
 of the curd that we desire, and then get the curd out of 
 12 
 
90 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 the whey that is, draw off the whey before the acid 
 comes on, we retain the phosphates and fats in the cheese 
 all the goodness that belongs in it. The acid will come 
 on afterward, but we have reduced the sugar to a mini- 
 mum, and the amount of acid developed does no serious 
 injury. As the whey is already expelled, of course it 
 cannot wash out the minerals that are dissolved. These 
 remain, and in the process of curing recombine with the 
 phosphoric acid. We have left in the curd about 3^ 
 parts of the 87 parts in 100 parts of milk. The whey left 
 in the curd contains, we will say, l-10tli of the sugar that 
 was in the milk. The acid formed from this, though too 
 small to do any known injury, is large enough to do all 
 the good required, if it does any good at all. We are, 
 therefore, safe when we get the whey out of the curd and 
 the curd out of the whey before the development of the 
 lactic acid. 
 
 SALTING. 
 
 When the whey is well out of the curd, so as not to 
 waste the salt, the salt may be applied and stirred in. 
 The salt does not stop the development of acid, as is pop- 
 ularly supposed. When applied, it aids in keeping the 
 curd loose. Then the curd may stand, with occasional 
 stirring, almost any length of time for the purpose of 
 airing and cooling, of getting rid of any bad odors, of 
 developing flavor by oxydation from contact with the at- 
 mosphere, and of letting the acid come on. It is safest 
 not to put the curd to press until it has a positively clean 
 sour smell. This shows that certain chemical changes 
 
CHEESE MAKING. 91 
 
 have taken place, freeing the curd of the gases genera- 
 ted by this process, and prevents any huffing of the 
 cheese on the shelf in the curing room. Where ched- 
 daring and grinding are practiced, the salt is of course 
 applied after the curd is ground. Cheddaring is the 
 easier and safer method, as the whey can be drawn 
 early, and there is no danger from the acid. Salting at 
 the rate of 2)^ Ibs. of salt to 1,000 Ibs. of milk is the usual 
 practice and not far from right. For long keeping, 3 
 Ibs. of salt are noi too much. Use none but the best 
 dairy salt the best of all the dairy salts, as well as the 
 cheapest, being the Onondaga, F. F. 
 
 PUTTING TO PRESS. 
 
 After the acid fermentation is properly progressed, 
 the curd should be put to press at a temperature not 
 much below 80 degrees, nor much above 85. If higher, 
 it is liable to heat and taint the cheese at the center; if 
 lower it is difficult to face the cheese and press the curd 
 together properly. But in warm weather, there is not 
 much danger of getting the curd too cool. 
 
ACID I.V CH-EESE 
 
 has been written on so much that the subject 
 has become hackneyed. The acid seems to have 
 eaten into the souls of some and turned them sour; 
 but notwithstanding, the so-called u sweet curd " idea has 
 made steady progress. Much of the opposition has come 
 from buyers for export, who do not appear to be 
 able to distinguish between a firm cheese and a hard 
 cheese, and who ignore quality if they get a cheese 
 hard enough to ship, without danger of breaking, by the 
 time it is ten days old. This has been demonstrated by 
 the fact that cheese condemned when green as too 
 soft has been pronounced by the same buyers fine and 
 all right, even endorsed with enthusiasm, when it was 
 two or three months old, w r hich is about as young as a 
 first-class cheese should be shipped. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MILK. 
 
 Of course, there would be no acid in milk if there 
 were no sugar in it. The proportion of sugar is shown 
 by the following analysis of an average sample of good 
 milk made by Dr. Voelcker, the late chemist of the Roy- 
 al Agricultural Society of Great Britain: 
 
ACID IN CHEESE MAKING. 93 
 
 Water 87.30 
 
 Butter ' ' ' ' 3.75 
 
 Caseine 3,31 
 
 Milk-sugar and extractive matter 4.86 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 0.78 
 
 Total 100.00 
 
 It will be seen by this that the per cent, of sugar is at 
 least 4.50, if we deduct the extractive matter, the propor- 
 tion of which is not given. Numerous German analy- 
 ses show it to range from 3.50 to 5.75 per cent. Hen- 
 ry and Chevalier put the average at 4.77, and Prof. L. B. 
 Arnold says milk from cows in perfect health should 
 contain, during the month of August, 4.30 to 5.50 per cent. 
 We will call it 4.50 per cent. There is 87.30 per cent of 
 water. 
 
 WHAT THE CHEESE MAKER DOES. 
 
 In separating the solids from the liquids, by the action 
 of rennet, at the proper temperature, we expel, say 83.30 
 parts of the water, leaving 4 parts. We get rid of, say 
 4.20 parts of the sugar, which is held in perfect solution 
 in the water. We lose, say .50 of one part of butter, .31 
 of one part of the caseine or albuminoids, and .13 of one 
 part of ash. This leaves 
 
 Water .. 4.00 
 
 Butter 3.25 
 
 Caseine 3.00 
 
 Sugar 30 
 
 Ash G5 
 
 Total 11.20 
 
 We thus have 11.20 per cent, of the 100 parts out of 
 which to get our cured cheese. A fair average is 10 Ibs. 
 of cheese for 100 pounds of milk. Some of the water 
 
94 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 evaporates in curing, say 1 part, leaying 8 parts. Our 
 10.20 parts of cheese is then composed of the following: 
 
 Water... .. .3.00 
 
 Butter 3.25 
 
 ( 'aseine 3.00 
 
 Sugar, or what results from decomposition . . .30 
 Asll , 55 
 
 Total 10.20 
 
 This is a little in excess of the general yield. The 
 waste is usually in the greater amount of ash, sometimes 
 nearly the whole of it, when the acid develops before the 
 whey is expelled. In that case, the lactic acid dissolves 
 the phosphates and they run out with the whey. This is 
 so much loss of ingredients absolutely essential to di- 
 gestion and assimilation. 
 
 WHAT OUGHT TO BE. 
 
 So far from this, there ought to be less loss of ingre- 
 dients than we have supposed in our illustrative figures. 
 But more of the butter is cut and runs off with the whey 
 when the acid is developed before drawing the whey. 
 The aim of the " sweet curd " system is to avoid this waste 
 as much as possible, especially that of the butter and ash. 
 To effect this, the whey is drawn sweet and the acid al- 
 lowed to develop after the curd is cooked and the whey 
 expelled. There need be no more water left in the curd, 
 but more butter and ash, both of which tend to make the 
 cheese softer. But with proper curing rooms, there is 
 no trouble in making the cheese firm enough for all prac- 
 tical purposes, including shipping. It is better to use 
 less rennet and not have coagulation begin under 25 min- 
 utes, cutting the curd about 15 or 20 minutes later, and 
 
ACID IN CHEESE MAKING. 95 
 
 to take more time for curing, at a lower temperature. 
 We then have a firmer, more buttery, and better flavored 
 cheese, which is a desideratum. But, with high and 
 changing temperature in the curing room, no certain or 
 satisfactory results can be counted on. 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 In theory, we ought to prevent the waste of butter 
 and caseous matter altogether; but in practice, there is 
 always a little loss of butter, and there are certain albu- 
 minous ingredients, called by the Germans ziega, which 
 rennet will not coagulate. There is, of course, no means 
 of saving this. The sugar we cannot and do not want to 
 save in the cheese. If retained, it would be injurious 
 and probably spoil the cheese, as the lactic acid in the 
 small amount of sugar retained in the water is all that 
 we can well manage. But all matter coagulable by ren- 
 net, all the butter, and all the ash, we ought to retain; 
 and we cannot really call ourselves scientific cheese ma- 
 kers until we can do this. When accomplished, a great- 
 er weight of cheese will be the result. 
 
 There is no avoiding the acid resulting from the small 
 amount of sugar retained in the curd ; but, having ex- 
 pelled sufficient whey, if we keep the curd warm enough, 
 and hold it in the vat or the sink long enough, the lactic 
 acid will come on and we shall get rid of the bad results 
 of putting a curd to press sweet. This acidity is abso- 
 lutely necessary with the generality of curing rooms. 
 But with low and steady temperature in the curing room, 
 we can do about as we please. 
 
RENNET. 
 
 UR recent observations more than ever convince us 
 of the importance of good rennet in cheese mak- 
 ing. Great evils and losses result from the use of 
 bad rennet; and the great trouble is that many cheese 
 makers do not know when rennet is bad. There is not 
 only the evil of diseased and tainted rennets, to begin 
 with, but the preparation from good rennets is often 
 spoiled in the preparing. Frequently, in hot weather, 
 they are allowed to taint while soaking; and when the 
 liquid is prepared sweet, it is often allowed to ferment 
 and taint for want of sufficient suit and from exposure in 
 a high temperature. 
 
 SOAKING IN WHEY. 
 
 Soaking in whey, containing all its taints and impuri' 
 ties, is the source of a vast amount of foul rennet and oft- 
 flavored cheese. If whey is used, it should be boiled to 
 kill taints and precipitate, as far as possible, the solids 
 remaining in it. But, do the best that can be done with 
 it, and still whey is objectionable for soaking rennets, 
 bf'i'iiuse of the acid that develops in it from the presence 
 of sugar. This acid neutralizes a corresponding amount 
 of rennet and helps to impoverish the cheese. Indeed, 
 
RENNET. 
 
 if carried far enough before the curd is removed from it, 
 the liner flavoring oils are cut by it, the phosphates are 
 dissolved, and these pass out with the whey, leaving the 
 cheese but little better than an indigestible mass. If the 
 acid adds solidity to the cheese, it does it by removing 
 from it valuable ingredients. 
 
 TAINTED HENNET. 
 
 Frequently, we have encountered rennet preparations 
 that were not only very sour, but also tainted and having 
 a strong smell of carrion. Nothing but huffy, porous, 
 stinking and rotten cheese can result from the use of 
 such rennet preparation. Yet it is used, and the result 
 is attributed to bad milk, or to the presence of some in- 
 scrutable taint or ferment, so prone are mankind to at- 
 tribute effects to wrong causes. It has been to us unac- 
 countable that cheese makers should use such horrid 
 broth as we have seen them use, if they have any sense of 
 smell whatever, and utterly astonishing that they should 
 expect good cheese to be made from, using it. With 
 good milk, the cheese may appear fairly good for several 
 days especially if put to curing at a low temperature. 
 But sooner or later, the taint must make its appearance. 
 Possibly, it may not show ten days from the hoops, but 
 the cheese can never become a mellow mass without also 
 becoming a stinking one. It will soon be ripe and soon 
 rotten. 
 
 CURING 1 RENNETS. 
 
 It is usually understood that rennets are calves' 
 stomachs salted and dried, or otherwise prepared; but it 
 
98 HINTS ON DAfKYING. 
 
 is not so certain that all Ihc rennets in market are of this 
 kind. The stomachs of the young of all milk-eating ani- 
 mals may be used for curding milk. We are not so sure 
 but that among u Bavarian " rennets we get the stomachs 
 of the young of every animal known under the sun. 
 They are of all sizes and all degrees of strength, but are 
 generally liked by those who use them. They are cured 
 by tying the two ends, and blowing the rennets up, like 
 bladders. A better w^ay, we think, is to rub them well 
 with pure dairy salt, stretch them on a hoop or crotched 
 stick, and hang them in a cool dry place. Some simply 
 fill them with salt, tie them, and hang them up to dry. 
 A great objection to this is, that the salt is likely to draw 
 moisture from the atmosphere, and in wet weather the 
 rennets are liable to drip and thus lose strength. Salting 
 rennets down in a barrel, as we do meat, is considered 
 objectionable for what reason, we know not. The wri- 
 ter had excellent u luck," one season, with rennets pre- 
 served in this way. In whatever way preserved, rennets 
 should, by all means, be kept cool. Heat is found to be 
 very injurious, while cold even freezing and thawing 
 appears advantageous. Possibly because the freezing 
 and thawing loosen the fiber and set the rennet spores 
 free. 
 
 AGE AN ADVANTAGE. 
 
 No rennets less than a year old should be used, if it 
 can possibly be avoided. The old rennets, other things 
 being equal, are stronger and make a firmer curd than 
 new ones. Any one who has experimented with both will 
 
RENNET. 99 
 
 always aim to have a supply of good old rennets on band. 
 
 SAVING RENNETS. 
 
 Ill saving rennets, great care should be taken to have 
 them right. The fourth stomach of the calf is what is 
 saved. Cut it from the adjoining stomach, at the point 
 of junction, and do not leave a piece of intestine on the 
 other end, but cut close to the opening of the rennet. 
 Remove straws and dirt of all kinds carefully, but be 
 sure to not rub off the delicate lining of the stomach, 
 which is the digestive or coagulative part and very much 
 inclined to adhere to your hands, especially if they are 
 dry. Do not try to rinse off anything more than the 
 loose dirt, and that without rubbing, for you cannot rub 
 without waste. What is better, avoid having dirt or any 
 thing else in the stomach to remove. This you can do 
 by letting the calf go sixteen or eighteen hours without 
 eating, and placed where it can get hold of nothing to 
 swallow before killing. Say, feed it at night and slay it 
 the next day about noon. The stomach will then be 
 empty and clean and well stored with pepsin for the di- 
 gestion of the next meal. This secretion, is just what 
 you want. The rennet is best when the calf is six or 
 eight days old. But, in any case, digestion should be 
 well established before killing. If the calf should go too 
 long without food as is often the case with veal calves 
 the stomach will get inflamed. This is objectionable 
 
 SELECTING RENNETS. 
 
 In selecting rennets to soak, all discolored and bad 
 smelling ones should be scrupulously rejected. But 
 
100 HINTS ON DAIUVINS. 
 
 rubbing rennets is a disagreeable and disgusting busi- 
 ness, and it is somewhat diilicult to keep your rennet o( 
 uniform strength. Therefore, if good rennet extract can 
 1)3 bought at a reasonable pri;-3, we would recommend 
 its use. It ought to be made better and cheaper in a 
 wholesale way than in little batches at each factory. To 
 guMrd against imposition, one should buy only of known 
 reputable dealers. Preparing your own rennet is much 
 like doing your own shoe making. It doesn't pay, if you 
 have got anything else remunerative to do. 
 
 WHOLESALE PREPARATION. 
 
 If one must prepare his own rennet, the better way is 
 to do it in a lump before the cheese-making season be- 
 gins. Get a strong barrel and a pounder such as used 
 by washerwomen; also a wringer. Take old rennets and 
 cut them into strips. Make a weak brine of pure water, 
 by using one pound of salt to twenty pounds of water, 
 and in this, soak, pound and wring your rennets. Hang 
 them up and freeze them; then soak, pound and wring 
 them again; and so on as long as you can get any 
 strength. When done, carefully settle, skim and strain 
 your liquid. Put it in a clean barrel or stone jars, put in 
 all the salt that it will dissolve, so that a little will settle 
 on the bottom, then stop or cover tight; put in a cool 
 place and take from it as wanted for use. There is noth- 
 ing better than saturated brine for keeping animal pro- 
 ducts. Be sure, however, that you use only the purest 
 dairy salt in preparing brine. Some say that only stone 
 jars should be used for keeping rennet. We have used 
 
RENNET. 101 
 
 an ash tub for the amount prepared weekly. To keep the 
 wood from tainting, we invariably, every time \ve dipped 
 out rennet and exposed new surface, rubbed it with salt. 
 
 EXCLUDING AIR. 
 
 Rennet could be much more easily kept sweet if put 
 in an air-tight vessel. The "American Dispensatory" 
 says: " When gastric juice is completely protected from 
 the ail 1 it may be kept unchanged for a longtime; but on 
 exposure it speedily undergoes decomposition, acquires 
 a very offensive odor, and loses its characteristic diges- 
 tive property." We think that the Dispensatory is 
 right. The composition of pure gastric juice is as fol- 
 lows: W T ater,97.00; salts, 1.75; pepsin, 1.25; total, 100.00. 
 There is also a small amount of free acid. Both rennet 
 extract and pepsin are used as medicine. 
 
KOOMS. 
 
 JT is hard to determine which is of the greater impor- 
 tance, good rennet or properly constructed curing- 
 rooms; for both are necessary to the production of 
 the best cheese, while the want of either is sure to injure 
 if not to spoil it. The importance of control iug the tem- 
 perature in curing has not yet taken hold of the popular 
 mind. The best milk in the world may be spoiled by bad 
 rennet, and the best curd in the world may be spoiled by 
 a bad curing-room. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 In a large majority of the curing-rooms of the country, 
 the temperature ranges from 60 degrees Fahrenheit to 90 
 degrees and even above. Sometimes these extremes are 
 realized within a few days. Think of setting a curd to 
 fermenting at 80 to 90 degrees, when it ought to start at 
 00 to 65 degrees ! Yet, this is frequently done; and to 
 prevent the cheese from huffing and crawling it is pro- 
 posed by some to make the curd so dry and sour in the 
 beginning that heat will not soften it. In this way, is 
 made what some buyers style a "firm" cheese. The best 
 English Cheddars, according to the American Encyclope- 
 
RENNET. 103 
 
 ilia, are set to curing at a temperature of 60 degrees, and 
 are never allowed to go above 70 degrees. Our observa- 
 tion and experience are that the range of temperature 
 should never go above 75 degrees. Curing should begin 
 as low as 05 degrees, and no cheese should be marketed 
 under thirty days from the hoops. When the curing is 
 slow, as it ought to be, the cheese will not be ripe in less 
 than that time. If sixty days old before ready for mar- 
 ket, the better. The hurrying process is everywhere bad 
 for the product, and no amount of souring helps the mat- 
 ter, however hard it may make the cheese and however 
 well it may stand up in hot weather. We want some- 
 thing else besides standing-up quality. With a low r 
 and even temperature for curing, we do not need to 
 work all 'he goodness out of the curd to make a firm 
 cheese. We do not have to cut the fats and phosphates 
 out with acid, nor to dry all the moisture out by fine cut- 
 ting and high scalding or long scalding. We can stop 
 the cooking when the curd is evenly cooked through so 
 as to be springy when pressed together by the hands, 
 take it out of the whey before the acid develops, and put 
 it to press without unnecessary delay. 
 
 AN EXAMPLE. 
 
 In the fall of 1884, we ate some cheese at Mr. N. L. 
 Brown's, Gurnee, 111., which was dipped sweeter and 
 put to press softer than we ever thought of doing; yet 
 the cheese was c! .)se-grained and fine-flavored, and one 
 that would pass muster as a first-class cheese anywhere. 
 But it was not cured in a hot curing room, nor in one 
 where the temperature went up and down the same as 
 
104 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 it did on the outside of the building. It was placed in 
 his cellar, at a temperature of 64 degrees, and there re- 
 mained until it was fit to cut. Xor was it even rubbed, 
 but occasionally turned over. When cut, it looked like a 
 cheese that had been kept in a box a year, covered with 
 mold and mites. The superfluous moisture was dried 
 out but the butter was all left. It demonstrated what can 
 be done by temperature. Had this cheese been cured in 
 an ordinary curing-room, it would have gone all out of 
 shape in a few days as soon as rapid fermentation set 
 in and been off flavor by the time it was ten days old. 
 Several other cheeses were cured in the same cellar, in 
 the same way, but none of them were put to press so soft 
 or sweet, but all sweet-curd cheeses, and all buttery and 
 fine. This particular one was the result of hurry, as 
 other matters than the curd demanded attention. But 
 the thought came that it would be a good experiment, as 
 it was, and the result was satisfactory, though not differ- 
 ent from what w r as expected. Cheeses made in the same 
 way as the others that were cured in the cellar, and some 
 cooked more and soured more, were made by the same 
 gentleman and cured in an ordinary curing-room. In 
 hot weather, they swelled and some of them got out of 
 shape, while the flavor was sharp and rough. But those 
 in the cellar, at 64 degrees, apparently never moved a 
 hair's breadth out of shape, were as solid as old butter, 
 yet firm enough for shipping even, and of the finest fla- 
 vor. It is hardly necessary to say that the cellar was 
 exceedingly, clean and sweet, and was well ventilated. 
 These cheeses were a demonstration, if not a revelation. 
 
CURING ROOMS. 105 
 
 MOISTURE IX CURING. 
 
 It should be remarked, by the way, that a curing- 
 room does not want to be a dry room. We do not want 
 to dry cheese; we want to cure it; that is, let it go 
 through the proper chemical change. This it does best 
 in a somewhat moist room, in which the surface does not 
 dry and become hard and impervious, so that the gases 
 cannot escape. It is better to contend with a little mold 
 than a dry atmosphere. 
 
 15KTTEK CHEESE CAN HE MADE. 
 
 We see, on turning to Prof. Arnold's " American Dai- 
 rying, 1 ' that he says: "The temperature of a curing-room 
 for whole milk should be 65 to 70 degrees ; for part skims, 
 75 to 80 degrees." It is thus seen that fat plays an im- 
 portant part in curing. " The more fat," he says, u the 
 cooler may be the room ; and the less fat, the warmer 
 may it be." Again : " Under the present state of things, 
 a cheese that will stand a voyage of 4,000 miles can hard- 
 ly be called a fancy cheese. * * * But a much fan- 
 cier cheese than w^e are now producing, one that will 
 stand shipping, can be made. To do this will require 
 milk to be free from some of the imperfections. which are 
 now quite common; it must be transported to the facto- 
 ries in much better ventilated cans; it mast be made with 
 less rennet and less acidity; and it must be cured in an even 
 and lower temperature.'''' We mark the conclusion in ital- 
 ic*, because we believe these are vital points. We insist 
 that we cannot do ourselves credit nor realize the best 
 financial results in cheese making until we bnihl better 
 
 14 
 
 Of 
 
106 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 curing rooms rooms in which we can control the tem- 
 perature without fail. We have not yet settled down to 
 cheese making. We are still trying experiments and re- 
 sorting to temporary expedients, We must build far 
 more deliberately and for permanency. It is not neces- 
 sary that we should point out just how a building may 
 be erected so as to give control of the inside temperature. 
 Architects know how to do it. When our cheese makers 
 get to the point where they demand such buildings, they 
 will get them without much trouble and at moderate ex- 
 pense. It is only necessary that they should have the 
 -' will." The lt way " will speedily open. 
 
E notice that, in some localities, the patrons of the 
 cheese factory are very much interested in the 
 question of the value of whey for feeding purpo- 
 ses some going so far as to assert that what is left of milk 
 in cheese making is as valuable as what is removed ! This 
 is a startling assertion, and, if true, would convict our 
 dairymen of a vast amount of stupid waste. Is it true? 
 Let us try to get at the facts of the case by a direct, com- 
 mon-sense investigation of it. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF MILK. 
 
 We will begin with the composition of milk. From 
 hundreds of German analyses, ranging from 81.30 to 91.50 
 parts of water, we take a fair average analysis, which we 
 think will do justice to the mixed milk of our best cheese 
 factories : 
 
 Water... . ..87.18 | Sugar... ... 4.21 
 
 Caseine 4.21 
 
 Albumen 55 
 
 Fat 3.24 
 
 Ash 
 
 Total... .. 99.99 
 
 WHAT IS TAKEN OUT BY CHEESE MAKING. 
 
 Now, in making cheese, what follows? We ought to 
 secure all the caseine, but we do not quite. There is a 
 
108 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 
 
 small waste. We loose all, or nearly all, of the albumen. 
 We leave in the whey most of the sugar, if we do not 
 convert it into acid before getting rid ot the whey, in 
 which case we may have an injurious amount of the acid 
 in the curd, besides dissolving and washing out nearly 
 all the ash, which is composed of phosphates, principally 
 of iron, magnesia and lime. These are changed into lac- 
 tates, leaving the phosphoric acid free- not a very uood 
 food for anything but rats. We ought to save nearly or 
 quite all the ash- the phosphates. But by the ordinary 
 process of cheese making, these are nearly all lost, as is 
 shown by the analyses of whey, which probably accounts 
 for the low estimate in the popular mind of the value of 
 cheese as food, it being rated at one-half the value that 
 it would have were the phosphates all retained. But, 
 four-fifths of the nitrogenous and muscle-making mate- 
 rial has been removed, and also nine-tenths of the fat, 
 which is heat producing and some say furnishes motor 
 power. W r e have retained in the cheese 5.84 of the 12.82 
 parts of solids, leaving 5.98 parts, 4.21 parts of which are 
 sugar and not wanted in the cheese, or, at most, only a 
 fraction of it. We leave less than one part of the albu- 
 minous and caseous matter, which is the most valuable, 
 and only one-third of one part of fat. So there is less 
 than one part of solids left besides sugar, and the rest of 
 the whey is water. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF WHEY. 
 
 What is whey, then, but sweetened water, using sugar 
 of a very low sweetening quality, with a fraction of albu- 
 
WHEY. 109 
 
 ininous matter and ash in it? Again, by the so-called 
 11 s\vect " process, which retains all, or nearly all, the 
 phosphates in the cheese, the whey is made still poorer 
 by analysis. Only the sugar and a fraction of the albu- 
 minous matter, not coagulated by rennet, is left in the 
 whey; and the amount of sugar in milk varies consider- 
 ' ably, ranging, in a large number of German analyses, 
 from 8.0 to 5.48 per cent, of sugar. But let us more 
 closely examine the composition of whey. An average 
 of eighteen analyses made by Voelcker is as follows: 
 
 Water SM.02 I Sugar > , qq 
 
 Nitrogenous matter. . . .!)(> | Lactic acid ) 
 
 Fat... 33 i 
 
 Ash 70 I Total 100.00 
 
 POOR STUFF. 
 
 Thus it is very plainly to be seen that whey is pool- 
 stuff to feed, even in its best estate. It has some value 
 to mix with other foods, if used sweet; but when the su- 
 gar has all turned to acid, and the phosphates have be- 
 come lactates, leaving the phosphoric acid free, the 
 whey is abominable, andean be used only in small quan- 
 tities and with great care. It ought not to be fed to 
 young animals with tender stomachs, and does older ani- 
 mals no good. 
 
 CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. 
 
 All this corresponds with general observation and 
 experience. The most intelligent dairymen with whom 
 we are acquainted do not consider sour whey worth 
 drawing home. It is cruel to feed sweet whey to any 
 animal exclusively. Even a hog, which has made iis 
 trrowth and no animal can more fully extract the nutri- 
 
110 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 
 
 health while actually growing fat on sweet whey. The 
 portion of less than one per cent, of albuminous matter 
 prolongs, rather than sustains life. That is to say, the 
 hog will not starve to death quite so quick if fed 
 whey as it will without it. The sugar accumulates in 
 the system as fat, while the hog is slowly perishing of 
 inanition. But if it is thus cruel to feed it alone to full 
 grown animals, it is doubly so to feed it to young and 
 growing animals as pigs and calves the necessities of 
 the lives of which demand tissue-making material as well 
 as life-sustaining. If whey is used, let it be fed sweet, 
 and always with some kind of dry nitrogenous i'ood, as 
 bean meal, oil meal, pea meal, clover, etc. But, with the 
 acid system of cheese-making, it is impossible to do this. 
 The whey is decomposed before run into the whey-vat. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PREFACE 3- 4 
 
 HISTORICAL In Asia; Among the Jews; In Southern Eu- 
 rope; In America; Figures from the Census; Growth in 
 Thirty Years; Product per Cow and per Capita; Home 
 Consumption vs. Exports; Forms of Milk Consumption; 
 1 he Private Dairy vs. the Factory 5 1'J 
 
 CONDITIONS Pastures; Water: Winter Food: The Sta- 
 ble; Shelter; The Dairy House; Cleanliness; The Herd. 13 17 
 
 DAIRY STOCK-Points of a Milker; Dutch-Friesian ; The 
 Jersey; The Guernsey; The Ayrshire; The Shorthorn; 
 The Devon; The American Holderness; Inbreeding; 
 Swiss ; Polled ; Hereford ; Common Stock 18 34 
 
 BREEDING DAIRY STOCK- Selection; Coupling; Care.. 35 39 
 
 FEEDING STOCK Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Foods; 
 What is Carbon? What is Nitrogen? Compounding Ra- 
 tions; Per day and per 1,000 Ibs. Live Weight; Sample 
 Rations; Fattening Rations; Working Rations; Diges- 
 tibility of Foods; Elements of Foods; Ensilage; Re- 
 marks 40 52 
 
 HANDLING MI LK-Keep Quiet; Regularity; Keep Down 
 the Foul Odors; Keep Out the Dirt; Let Out the Cows; 
 A Lick of Meal; Care of Milk; Composition of Milk; 
 Deterioration of Milk in the Udder; Do Fats Expand 
 Before Congealing? Effects of Falling Temperature; 
 Cooling and Airing: Protection from the Hot Sun; Treat- 
 ment of Night's and Morning's Milk; Receiving; Test- 
 ing; Bad Milk ; Weighing; Keeping Milk 5306 
 
 BUTTER MAKING Deep Setting and Water Cooling; 
 Effect of Too Low Cooling; Buttermilk Flavor; Shallow 
 Setting and Air Cooling; Oxydizing Cream; Skimming 
 Milk; When to Skim; Churning; Temperatures; What 
 Makes the Butter Come ; When to Stop Churning ; Work- 
 ing; Salting; Salt as a Preservative; Packing Butter; 
 Preparing the Package; Closing the Package; Storing; 
 Style of Package 67 80 
 
CHEESE MAKING Duty of Patrons; Unreasonable Ex- 
 pectation; Guarantees; Heatiim; Coloring; Setting: 
 Other Details; Keep the Temperature Even; Cutting; 
 Cut Fine; "Cooking;" Drawing the Whey; Salting; 
 Putting to Press 
 
 ACID IN CHEESE MAKING- Analysis of Milk: What the 
 Cheese Maker Does; What Ought to Be: Theory and 
 Practice ' !2- !>:> 
 
 RENNET Soaking in Whey; Tainted Rennet; Curing Ren- 
 nets; Age an Advantage; Saving Rennets; Selecting 
 Rennets; Wholesale Preparation ; Excluding Air IK; 101 
 
 (TIRING ROOMS Temperature; An Example; Moisture 
 
 in Curing; Better Cheese Can Be Made 102101; 
 
 WHEY Composition of Milk; Composition of Whey: Poor 
 
 Stuff; Cruelty to Animals ' 107110 
 
Apparatus & Supplies 
 
 FOR 
 
 CHEESE FACTORIES, CREAMERIES 
 AND DAIRIES. 
 
 MAKING CHEESE FROM 20 TO 800 COWS 
 SENT ON APPLICATION. 
 
 CHILDS & JONES, 
 UTICA. N. Y. 
 
fREISIAN i/nTLE. 
 
 THE UNADILLA VALLEY 
 
 STOCK BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION 
 
 import only the finest registered Stock found in Friesland 
 and North Holland, in conformity with the requirements 
 of the Dutch-Friesian Breeders' Association of America. 
 The renowned prize Bull, 
 
 MOOTS 2e, 
 
 at head of herd. Their herd has been widely exhibited 
 and awarded more prizes than any herd in this country. 
 An examination of the herd will convince the most 
 skeptical of its great superiority. Catalogues on appli- 
 cation. 
 
 "r. 
 
 WEST EDMESTON, N. Y. 
 
CHEESE AND BUTTER MAKERS' SUPPLIES 
 
 and Complete Manufacturing Outfits. 
 
 Pat. Gaii 2: Cheese Presses, Self Bandr.girg Cheese Hoops, Cheese 
 ats, Patent Twin Creamery Vats, Curd Sinks, Curd Mills, Curd 
 nives, Churns. Butter Workers. Rennet and Annatto Jars, Fair- 
 
 Vats 
 
 Knives, 
 
 banks Scales, C'liee^e Screws and Hoops. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 BANISH -WESToN REAM SEPARATOR. 
 
 It saves time; cives ten to fifteen per cent, more butter and of 
 better quality; no ice required ; leaves skim milk fresh and puri- 
 fied; saves room in creamery; pays for itself in a short time; cost 
 of maintenance very small as machine is very durable. 
 
 Small Separator, portable, capacity 650 Ibs. per hour. 
 Medium Separator, capacity 900 to 1,000 Ibs. per hour. 
 Large Separator, capacity 1 ,600 to 1 ,800 Ibs. per hour. 
 Extra Separator, capacity 2,^00 to 2,500 Ibs. per hour. 
 Send for Special Circular. 
 
 Bradley Butter Boxes, Butter Pails and Butter Trays. 
 
 CHEESE BOX MATERIAL, TACKS AND NAILS. 
 
 Wire's Patent, Self Cutting, Self Agitating, Self Salting 
 CIRCULAR CHEESE VAT. 
 
 Three Sizes : -5,000, 8,000, 12,000 pounds of milk respectively. 
 
 ANSEN'S DANISH LIQUID FORTY-SIX HIGHEST 
 
 PRIZES, 3 GOLD MEDALS 
 
 "RT TT^TTT L? POT fM? at World's Fairs. Vege- 
 DU 1 1 ll\ ^Ui^Ur\ table Oil. Colors the Fin- 
 . est butter made in Em ope, 
 
 Fast superseding all other Coloring in America. Does not color 
 the Buttermilk. Butter beautiful. Greatly enhances value. No 
 Alkali. !/.en bottle-; an I Directions free to'l) nudists. HANSEN'S 
 EXTRACT of RENNET and STANDARD CHEESE COLOR. No 
 manufacturer or repacker can afford lo neglect Danish preparations. 
 
 BURRELL & WHITMAN, LITTLE FALLS, N. Y. 
 
Improved 
 
 SUITER 
 
 Will Not Color the Buttermilk. : 
 
 -*-l It is the Strongest Color Made, t-*-" 
 
 -f-t It will not Change to Rancidity. 
 
 It is the ONLY Oil Butter Color manufactured that 
 
 It WILL NOT* FLAVOR * HUTTER^ 
 
 BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. 
 l^E ONLY THE MOST RELIABLE. 
 
 Took the Highest Award at New Orleans and 
 Wherever Exhibited. 
 
 MjsCE have been engaged in the manufacture of butter color since 
 V^Ai/1870, and were the first to make an oil color in this country. 
 Other manufacturers have followed our example, and are now 
 endeavoring to reap where we have sown. Ours is the old reliable 
 butter color and the only one that is safe to use. All others flavor 
 the butter. 
 
 Our Butter Color is for sale by druggists and grocers generally 
 throughout the United States. Jf they do not have it. ask them to 
 order it from their wholesale druggist or giocer. On receipt of 
 price we will send our color to any point. Send for prices. 
 
 IF 1 . 23. lETaxgo cte Co., 
 
 MILLS. WIl^. 
 
Cltf O1VTDAGA F. F. SALT 
 
 -X WARRANTED X- 
 as Pure as any Salt in the IVIarket. 
 
 Not Excelled for Butter or Cheese, for the Table, or 
 for all Culinary Purposes. 
 
 The following is the analysis made by Prof. Babcock, of the 
 New York Experiment Station, in January, 1884: 
 
 Water 0.59,3 
 
 Insoluble Matter 0.019 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 0.760 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia 0.094 
 
 Chloride of Sodium (Pure Salt) 98.501 
 
 99.967 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing that, the Onondaga F. F. Salt is 
 very pure, containing only m percent, of impurities and water 
 The amount of pure salt is 98.501. This is not materially different 
 from the analysis of Wai/ & Stillwell, made by the direction of the 
 New York Butter and Cheese Exchange, in 1875 one analysis 
 showing 98.5242. and the other 98.3864 parts of pure salt. Asliton 
 contained, according to their analysis, 97.7598, and Higgin 97.6809 
 parts of pure salt, the impurities equaling 2.20 per cent, in Ashton 
 and ?.'>r> per cent in Higgin, while the impurities in Onondaga F. F. 
 Salt are only 1.50 per cent. 
 
 1 irst premiums were taken at New Orleans, at the World's 
 Fair, by both Butter and Cheese salted with Onondaga F. F. Salt. 
 It wins everywhere that there is open and fair competition. Dairy 
 goods salted with it took a majority of all the premiums (46 out of 
 )> awarded at the Grand Union Fair in Milwaukee, December 2d 
 to 9th, 1882, over four foreign competitors. It was awarded a medal 
 at the Centennial by a committee of scientists and experts from all 
 1 ai ts of the world, "for purity and high degree of excellence." 
 
 SCLE MANL'FA( TUKJRS, 
 
 HM ERICA^ B/IIRY SALT io., 1-. 
 
 ADDIJKSS 
 
 SYRACUSE. N. V. 
 
THE O ROWELL O REACT) 
 
 (Potent Applied f< r) 
 
 W. H. BOND, Sole Mcruff ctrcr. 
 
 Et is very easily a.l 
 justed w lie 11 clean 
 ing, no tools o r 
 wrenches being re- 
 quired, has no; glass 
 tubes to get broken, 
 is smoothly, strong- 
 ly and mechanical: 
 ly made and easy 
 to handle or move, 
 and is made in all 
 sizes to suit small 
 dairies. 
 
 It consists of a 
 heavy tin recepta- 
 cle for milk, im- 
 mersed in water, 
 \\hich is held in a 
 double walled vat. 
 and is so construct- 
 ed that either a 
 running stream or 
 ice can he used for 
 cooling and keeps 
 the milk at an even 
 temperature. 
 
 Lowest in Price, Smoothest Make, Most Durable Stojk 
 
 Very Easily Cleaned, No Possible Chance for 
 
 Souring, and is a Complete Success. 
 
 THE NEWEST I.N THE MARKET 
 
 Price, size for 56 Quarts. $25. 
 
 Dealers Should 'Secmr*e the Sale of it at Onee. 
 
 X()X 
 
 SPECIALTIES: Tin Rooting, Eave Troughs and Conductors. 
 Sinks, Pumps and Lead Pipe, all kinds of Tin, Copper and Sheet 
 Iron Work: Cream Pails, Milk Pails, Strainers, and other Ddiry 
 Goods Made to Order. 
 
 . ZBOIbTXD, 
 127 So. Salina and 3 E. Onondaga Sts., Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
ornish, isrtis ^ (jpreene. 
 
 \Yc m:ike from the best inulcrial 
 
 that are models of strength and simplicity. 
 Unquestioned Proof Given of their Durability 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE 
 
 Curtis' Improved Factory Churn, Mason's Power 
 
 Butte~ Worke , Lever Worker, Curtis' Square 
 
 Box Churn, Rectangular Churn, Cream 
 
 Vats, Dog Power, etc., etc. 
 
 "ONE FAMILY CHURN AT WHOLESALE WHERE WE 
 HAVE NO AGENT." 
 
 All goods warranted exactly as represented. 
 
 TWO GOLD AND FOURTEEN SILVER MEDALS AWARDED FOR SUPERIORITY 
 
 CORNISH, CURTIS & GREENE, 
 
 Ft. Atkinson, Wls. 
 
JENK'S AUTOMATIC CHEESE MAKER. 
 
 The Latest and Greatest Improvement in 
 
 Cheese Making Appliances for 
 
 Factory Use. 
 
 WILL PAY FOR ITSELF IN ONE SEASON. 
 
 WEEPSTAKES iURD f UTTER 
 
 and Other Great Improvements in Cheese 
 and Butter Apparatus. 
 
 The Cheapest, Handiest and Best Bandage Made, and 
 a full line of 
 
 gllEESE f ACTORY AND JDAIRY UPPLIES. 
 
 Sr/ttl for itnr lllu nti (tied Circular. 
 
 Of TH 
 
 ES MILLAR & SON, 
 
 UTICA, N. Y. 
 
"MATT 
 
 J jgo :