EXCHANGE I ra cietit Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witin funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/antiquitiesofgreOOpaulricli cienU 2.Kot\Y) JJiXzvpai 4.Tolxpi S^EyxaTta or rpvTtrjfioLra e.IJpcjpa iJlpviiyTO 8.j{yipoarb\i(x. and Izokoc^ 10:0 BOOK II. or THE RELIGION OF GREECE. I. The gods of Greece 37 II. Of ^tJieir temples, altars, images, and asyla 44 III. Of the ministers of religion 46 IV. Of the Grecian sacrifices, offerings, and tithes 48 V. Of the Grecian pi-ayers, supplications, and impreca- tions 55 VI. Of the Grecian oaths 58 VII. Of the Grecian divination in general 60 VIII. Of the two sorts of inartificial divination; namely, oracles and theomancy 61 IX. Of the seven sorts of artificial divination 67 X. Of the Grecian festivals in general 71 XI. The most remarkable Grecian festivals 72 XII. Of the public games in Greece, and the principal exercises used in them 78 VI CONTENTS. BOOK III. OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF GREECE. Chap. Page. I. Preliminary remarks on the armies of the Greeks. . 85 II. Of the levies, provisions, and pay of the Grecian soldiers 94 III. Of the different sorts of soldiers 96 IV. Of the armour, weapons, and military apparel of the Greeks 99 V. Of the officers in the Athenian and Lacedaemonian armies 103 VI. Of the several divisions and forms of the Grecian army 107 VII. Of their manner of making peace and declaring war, their ambassadors, &c 110 VIII. Of their camps, guards, watches, and military course of life 112 IX. Of their battles, the generals' harangues, the sacri- fices, music, signals, ensigns, watchword, way of ending wars by single combat, &c 113 X. Of their sieges and miHtary engines 116 XI. Of the slain and their funerals 119 XII. Of their booty taken in war, their gratitude to the gods after victory, their trophies, &c ^ ... 120 XIII. Of their military punishments and rewards, with their manner of conveying inteUigence 122 BOOK IV. OF THE GRECIAN NAVY. I. Preliminary remarks on the Grecian navies 124 II. Of the different sorts of ships 130 III. Of the parts, ornaments, and tackling of ships, and the instruments of war employed on board It IV. Of the mariners, soldiers, and naval officers 13b V. Of their voyages, harbours, and engagements by sea 138 VI. Of the spoils, naval rewards, punishments, &c 141 CONTENTS. VU BOOK V. MISCELLANEOUS MANNERS AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE GREEKS. Chap. Page. I. Of their marriages, divorces, &c 142 II. Of the confinement and employments of their women 147 III. Of the treatment of newly born infants, their names, &c 148 IV. Of the different sorts of children, wills, inheritances, the duties of children to their parents, &c 150 V. Food of the Greeks 152 VI. Legions in use among the Greeks 154 VII. Of the meals of the Greeks, their feasts, mode of entertaining strangers, &c ib. VIII. Of the Grecian funerals 160 IX. Dress of the Greeks 165 X. Music 170 XL Painting 172 XIL Sculpture 173 XIII. Of the Grecian architecture 175 XIV. Grecian mode of computing time 178 XV. Grecian money, weights, and measures 186 PART II. OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. BOOK L OF ATHENS. I. Geography of Attica, tribes, Demi, Laurium, Pen- telicus 190 II. Of the city of Athens, its walls, gates, streets, build- ings, &c 194 '"^11. Of the Athenian citizens, sojourners, and servants 213 T[V. Of the Athenian magistrates 219 V. Of the Athenian eKKATjcr/ot or public assemblies .... 224 VI. Of the senate of five hundred 228 VII. Of the senate and court of Areopagus. 232 Vlll CONTENTS. Chap. Page. VIII. Of some other courts of justice, their judicial pro- cess, &c 236 IX. Of the Athenian punishments and rewards 242 X. Officers employed in the collection and administra- tion of the Athenian revenues 246 XI. Of the pubHc expenditure of Athens 250 XII. Of the ordinary revenues of Athens 260 XIII. Of the extraordinary revenues of Athens 265 BOOK II. OF SPARTA. I. Geography of Laconia, and description of the city of Lacedaemon or Sparta 268 II. Of the citizens, tribes, &c 273 III. Freemen and slaves 276 IV. Of the kings 278 V. Of the senate 282 VII. Of the ephori 283 VIII. Of the inferior magistrates and other officers .... 285 * Vlll.Of the pubHc assembhes 287 X. Of the common meals 289 XI. Of the laws of Sparta 291 XII. Abridged catalogue of the laws 292 XIII. Judgments 297 XIV. Of the public rewards and punishments . . ^ftk . . . 298 XV. Of the revenues of Sparta 301 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 303 QUESTIONS 307 INDEX 349 PART I. GREECE IN GENERAL, BOOK I. GENERAL HISTORY, &C. CHAP. I. Geographical outline. Sect. 1. ANCIENT Greece was bounded on the Geographi- cal outline of north by the Cambunian mountains, which separated Greece. it from Macedonia ; on the south and east by the -^gaean sea ; and on the west by the Ionian sea. Its greatest length from north to south was 220 English miles; and its greatest breadth from east to west was 140 English miles. Its area (including Euboea) contained nearly 8000 square miles. 2. Greece was divided into Northern Greece, Cen- tral Greece or Hellas, and the southern peninsula or Peloponnesus. 3. Northern Greece extended from the Cambunian Northern mountains to the chain of CEta, between the Am- bracian gulf on the west, and the Maliac gulf on the east. It comprised two countries, Thessaly on the east, and Epirus on the west. 4. Thessaly, an extensive plain, was bounded on Thessaiy. the north by the chains of Olympus and the Cambu- nian mountains ; on the south by the chain of QEta ; on the east by the ^Egaean sea ; and on the west by B . ^ GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. P. I. the chain of mount Pindus. It was divided into five districts; Estiaeotis^ Pelasgiotis, Dolopia, Phthiotis, and Magnesia. Mountains. The Olympus^ Olt/mpo^; Ossa^ Kis- sovo; and Pelion_, Zagora; the range of Pindus^ and its two branches Othrys and CEta, at the eastern extremity of which is the pass of Thermopylae. Rivers. The Peneus, Salembria, with its branches the Apidanus, Vlacho Jani; and Enipeus^ Gowra/ the OnchestuSj Patrassi; and the Sperchms, Hellada. Lake. Boebeis^ Carlo s. Cities. Larissa; Pharsalus, Phersala; Pherse; Tricca, Triccala; &c. Epirus. 5. ^Epirus was bounded on the west by the Ionian sea ; on the north by Illyria ; on the east by Mace- donia and Thessaly^ on the south by the Ambracian gulf and Acarnania. It was divided into three dis- tricts, Chaonia^ and Thesprotia towards the coast, and Molossis inland. Mountains. The Acroceraunian mountains^ Cki- marra. Rivers. Thyamis^ Calamus; Acheron^ Souli; and Aracthus, Arta. Lakes. Acherusia, Tchouknida. Cities. Buthrotum, BuU'intoj Doddna; Ambra- cia, Arta; and Nicopolis, Prevesa vecchia, (built by Augustus.) Central 6. Central Greece comprised those parts which lie Greece. a The modem names are printed in Italics, b These were Greek settlements on the coast of Epirus, but the inhabitants of the interior were all barbarians. B. I. C. I. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 6 between Thessaly and Epirus, north ; the -^gaean sea, east ; the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs^ south ; and the Ionian sea, west. It consisted of nine coun- tries: Attica, Megaris, Boeotia, Phocis, East and West Locris, Doris, j3jitolia, and Acarnania. 7. Attica was situated on the north coast of the Attica, Saronic gulf. It was bounded on the west by Mega- ris ; on the north by Boeotia and the strait of Euri- pus ; and on the east by the ^Egaean sea. Mountains. Fames, Nozea; Hymettus, Trelo- vouni; Pentelicus, Pentele; Brilessus, Turko-vouni ; Anchesmus, S, Giorgio; Corydallus, Dapkni-vouni. Rivers. Cephissus and Ilissus. Cities. Athens; Eleusis, Le/im«; Deceleia, near Varihohi; Marathon, &c. 8. Megaris was situated between Attica and the Megaris. isthmus of Corinth, and was bounded west and east by the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs. Cities. Megara with its port Nisaea; Pegae, Psato; &c. 9. Boeotia was bounded on the south by Megaris Boeotia. and Attica; on the east by the strait of Euripus and the island of Euboea; on the north by the Opuntian gulf and the Locri Opuntii ; on the west by Phocis and the Corinthian gulf. Mountains. Helicon, Palceo-vouni ; Cithaeron, Elatea; &c. Rivers, Asopus, Asopo; Cephissus, Mauro~po~ tamo; Ismenus. Lakes. Copais, Topolias; and Hylice, Likari. Cities. Thebes, Thiva; Plataeae, or Plataea, b2 4 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. P. I. Kokla; Leuctra, Lefka; Thespiae, Eremo castro ; Coronea^ near Corunies; Lebadea^ Livadia; Chaero- nea^ Kaprena; Orchomenus, near Scripou; Delium, near Dramisi; Tanagra, Gramada; &c. Phocis. 10. Phocis was bounded on the south-east by Boeo- tia, north-west by Doris^ north-east by Locris^ and south by the Corinthian gulf. Mountain. The chain of Parnassus. River. Cephissus, on its course eastward into the lake Copais. Cities. Delphi, Castri; Crissa, Crisso; Elatea, Elepkta; Daulis, Daulia; Anticyra, Asprospiti. EastLocris. \\\ East Locris was situated between Phocis on the west and the sea on the east. It was divided into Epicnemidian Locris on the north, and Opun- tan Locris on the south. Mountain. Cnemis, Talanta, in Opuntian Lo- cris. Cities, north ; Scarphea, near Andera; Nicaea, Apafio-molo; Thronium : south; Opus, near ^/acy^i/ Alope. West Locris. 12. West Locris (or country of the Locri Ozolae) extended in a triangular shape along the Corinthian gulf, between Phocis and ^tolia, and was bounded on the north by Doris. Cities. Naupactus, Lepa??/oy Amphissa, ASa/owa / &c. Doris. 13. Doris was situated on the north-west side of Phocis, and south side of mount CEta. Cities. Boium, Pindus, Erineus, and Cytinium, which form the Tetrapolis Dorica. B. I. C. I. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. D 14. iEtolia was bounded on the west by the river jEtoiia. Achelous ; on the south by the sea_, beyond the Co- rinthian gulf; on the east by the Locri Ozolae and Doris ; and on the north by Thessaly. Mountains. The range of Corax^ Koraka, run- ning north-east and south-west; mount Aracynthus, Zigos; &c. Rivers. Achelous^ Aspro-potamo ; Evenus^ Fu dari. Cities. Calydon; Thermus; Pleuron; Chalcis, Galata. 15. Acarnania was bounded on the north by the Acamania. Ambracian gulf; on the west by the Ionian sea; and on the east by the river Achelous. Mountains. Thyamus^ Olympus. Rivers. Achelous; Anapus^ Ados; Inachus, per- haps Krikeli. Cities. Argos Amij^liilochicum, Ambrakia ; Olpse; Stratus, Porta; Actium, Azio; Anactorium^ Punta; and Leucas ; on the peninsula or rather island of Leucadia, Santa Maura. 16. Southern Greece, or Peloponnesus, Mbre«, Peioponne- SU8. comprised eight countries ; Arcadia, Laconia, Mes- senia, Elis, Argolis, Achaia, Sicyonia, and Co- rinthia. 17- Arcadia was a very mountainous district. It was bounded on the south by Laconia and Messenia; on the west by Elis ; on the north by Achaia ; and on the east by Argolis. Mountains. The northern range of Cyllene, Zyria; Lycaeus, Tetragi; &c. b3 6 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. P. I. Rivers. Alpheus, Roupkia, with its northern and southern branches, Ladon, Laudona; and Ery- manthus, Dogana. Lake. Stymphalus, near Zaraka. Cities. Mantinea, Goritza; Tegea, Piali; Me- galopolis, Sinano; Orchomenus, Kalpaki; Heraea, Agiani; &c. Laconia. Jg. Laconia was bounded on the north by Arcadia ; on the west by Messenia; on the east by the bay of Argolis ; and on the south by the Mediterranean sea. Mountains. The range of Taygetus, Pente Dac- tylon, on the west ; Thornax, Tornikaj on the east. River. Eurotas, Evro or Vasili potamo. Cities. Sparta, or Lacedsemon, near Misistra; Amyclae, Sclavo-Chorio ; Thyrea, Astro, on the Ar- golic frontier ; Therapne ; Gythium ; &c. Messenia. 19. Messeuia was bounded on the east by Laconia; on the north by Arcadia and Elis ; on the other side by the sea. Mountain. Cerausius. Rivers. Pamlsus, Pirnatza; Nedon, Boutzi ; &c. Cities. Messene, (with its citadel or fort on the adjoining hill Ithome,) Ira, (a mountain fort ;) Cy- parissia, Castel Kyparissi; Pylus, Navarino, with the fort Coryphasium, and the little island of Sphacteria close to the coast ; Methone, Modon. Elis. 20. Elis was bounded on the north by Achaia ; on the east by Arcadia ; on the south by the river Neda ; and on the west by the sea. It was an^ A B. I. C. I. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 7 ciently divided into three districts, Triphylia, Pisa- tisj and Coele. Mountain. Scollis, Santa Meri. Rivers. Peneus, Igliaco; Alpheus, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia ; and the Neda. Cities. Elis, Palaio-poli ; Cyllene, Chiarenza; Pisa, (separated by the river Alpheus from the neighbouring plain of Olympia ;) Triphylian Pylos, Palaio castro; &c. 21. Argolis was bounded on the north by Corin- Argoiis. thia ; on the west by Arcadia ; and on the south by Laconia. Mountains. Parthenius, Partheni; Arachnaeus, Sophico; &c. River. Inachus, Xero. Cities. Argos ; Mycenae, near Krabata; Nau- plia, Napoli di Romania; (the port of Argos;) Epi- daurus, Epithauro ; Trcezen, Damala; Tiryns, a little east of Argos ; Hermione, Kastri. The islands Calaurea, Poros, and Hydrea, Hy~ dra, lie close on the eastern coast. 22. Achaia was bounded on the east by Sicyonia; sicyonia on the west by the Ionian sea ; on the south by Elis and Arcadia ; and on the north by the Corinthian gulf. Mountain. Panachaicus, Voda. Rivers. Pirus, Camenitza; Selinus, Vostizza. Cities. Patrae, Patras; Dymae, near Palaio^ Achaia; .^gium, Vostizza; Helice; Tritaea, GoMiwe- Achaia. nitza; &c. 23. Sicyonia was bounded on the north by the b4 8 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. P. I. Corinthian gulf; on the west by Achaia; on the south by Arcadia ; and on the east by Corinthia. Rivers, ^lisson, Melisso ; AsdipuS) Basilico; (both small streams.) Cities. Sicyon^ Basilico; Phlius, near Agios Giorgios ; (an independent city^) &c. Corinthia. 24. Coriuthia was bounded on the north by the gulf of Corinth and the Geranean mountains; on the west by Sicyonia ; on the south by Argolis ; and on the east by the Saronic gulf. Cities. Corinth^ with its citadel Acro-Corin- thus, and its two ports, Lechaeum on the Corin- thian gulf, and Cenchreae^ Kenchres, on the Saronic gulf. i B. I. C. I. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. Grecian islands. 25. The Grecian islands may be divided into Grecian - . islands. three classes; those which lie immediately off the coasts^ those which are in groups^ and those which are in the open sea. 1. Islan ds off the coast. 2. Islands 3. Islands J . in the open Islands off the western Island off the Islands Islands off the in groups. coast of southern off the Islands coast of sea. Greece in the coast of eastern off Thes- Asia Mi- Ionian sea. Greece. coast. saly. nor. Corcyra Cythera /Eglna Sciathos Lesbos Cyclades Crete Corfu Kerig-o Engia Skiathos Mytilini and Spora- Candia or Leucadia Salamis Scopelos Chios des Kriti Sia Maura Koulouri Skopelo Khio Among Cyprus Cephalle- Euboea Halon- Samos which Cipro nia Egripo nesus Samos the most Kephalonia or Kheli import- Negi'o- dromi Cos ant are Ithaca pont Kos Thiaki Scyros Skyro Rhodes Andros Andro Zacynthns Rhodos Zante Farther north Delos Delos The Stro- on the phades Thracian Paros Strophadia coast are Imbros Imhro Thasos Tasso Samo- thrace Samot- raki Lemnos Stall- mene Paros Naxos Naxia Melos Milo B O 10 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. CHAP. II. Outline of the political history of the Grecian states. Northern 1. Thessaly. This country was the original Thessaiy. seat of the Hellenes, from which they spread over Greece. At the time of the Trojan war it con- tained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary princes, among whom the most remarkable were Achilles and Philoctetes. Liberty seems never to have been established in Thessaly. Its two princi- pal cities, Larissa and Pherae, were subject to a suc- cession of tyrants, who preserved their power until the Macedonian period. The reigning family at Larissa were the Aleuadae. In Pherae, about the year 380, arose a tyrant named Jason, who sub- jected the whole of Thessaly to his dominion. His brother and successor Alexander was murdered by Lycophron and Tisiphonus, who reigned until they were deposed by Philip of Macedon. Epini*. 2. Epirus. This couutry ^vas occupied by Several tribes, each of which had its separate king, (except the Corinthian colony of Ambracia, which was a republic,) until, in consequence of an alliance with INIacedonia, the whole of Epirus, and even Am- bracia, was placed under the dominion of the kings of the Molossi. Greec? ^' ^TTiCA. Athens, the capital city of Attica, was founded, about 1556 years before Christ, by Cecrops, an Egyptian. The city was called Cecro- pia, from its founder; and afterwards Athenae, in honour of Minerva, who had obtained the right of Attica. B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 11 giving it a name in preference to Neptune. It was Attica: governed by seventeen kings, the history o§ most of whom is fabulous. The history of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father ^geus about B. C. 1300 ; although certain institutions, such as that of the Areopagus, the di- vision of the people into nobles {cviraTplbai), hus- bandmen (yewpyot), and mechanics (brjfxiovpyol)^ are perhaps of an earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus, however, was in some measure the founder of the state, since, instead of the four districts, hitherto independent of one an- other, he constituted the city of Athens as the only seat of government. The period of kingly government lasted until the year B. C. 1068, when the last king, Codrus, by a voluntary sacrifice of his life, rescued Attica from the inroads of the Dorians. The period from 1068 to 752 was that of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus. The first was Medon, the last Alcmseon. During this period the lonians migrated from Attica to Asia Minor. Third period from 752 to 682. Seven decennial archons, likewise taken from the family of Codrus, succeeded during this period. Fourth period extending to Solon, 682 to 594. That of nine archons yearly chosen — Rise of an op- pressive aristocracy — First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622— Murder of Cylon (598), by which the nobles drew upon themselves the pollution of blood, which was long used as a pretext for commotion. b6 12 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I- Attica. In the year B. C. 594 Solon was chosen archon, and at the same time charged to give a better con- stitution to Athens. The heads of his legislation were as follows: 1. Abolition of the statutes of Draco, except those against murder. 2. Fourfold division of the people according to their property^; the three first classes being alone allowed to fill the offices of the state^ although the people had the right of confirming the laws, of debating all public affairs referred to them by the senate, and of ad- ministering justice. 3. Enlargement of the powers of the court of Areopagus, which had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the aristocracy. Solon charged it with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship upon the conduct of the archons who had gone out of office, and with the power of amend- ing and rescinding the measures that had been pro- posed by the commons. This constitution continued until the final expul- sion of the Pisistratidae in B. C. 510, when Clisthe- nes, the son of Megacles, with a view of putting an end to party spirit by a new combination of the citi- zens, increased the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the senate to five hundred. From this time to the close of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 404, the constitution of Athens continued to be democratic ; the people being generally guided by eminent individuals^ as Themistocies, Pericles, ^ Viz. irevraKoffiofidSiinvoi, those who had a yearly income of 500 medimni ; lirireis, who had 400 ; (evyirai, who had 300 ; and drJTes, whose income did not amount to that sum. B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 13 &c. who stood at the head of affairs as generals or Attica. demagogues. On the surrender of Athens in the year 404_, the constitution was changed, in obedience to the com- mands of Lysander, into an oligarchy under thirty rulers, or tyrants, as they were called. These ty- rants were expelled by Thrasybulus, B. C. 403, and the form, if not the spirit, of Solon's constitution reestablished. Thrasybulus having thus freed his country from the Lacedaemonian yoke, Conon esta- blished it in all its ancient privileges by a signal victory at Cnidus, in which he totally defeated the Lacedaemonian fleet. For some years Athens seemed to have recovered her former glory ; but after the death of Epaminondas the Theban, the Athenians having no longer any rival, fell into a state of luxury and indolence, which gave opportunity to Philip, king of Macedon, to raise his kingdom from com- parative obscurity to the empire of all Greece and Asia. From the time of the first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could scarcely afford matter for doubt : although the eloquence of Demosthenes warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphic- tyonic sentence passed on the Locrians. The battle of Choeronea laid the foundation of Philip's com- plete ascendency over the Grecian republics ; which was, as it were, formally acknowledged by the ap- pointment of that prince to be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war. Still the Athenians were permitted to enjoy a show of liberty. On the 14 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. Attica. accession of Alexander the Athenians revolted, but were easily subdued, and remained quiet until his death. The rest of their history presents little more than a scene of successive revolt, defeat, and intes- tine sedition. Antipater changed their form of con- stitution, and instituted an oligarchy, depriving of the right of suffrage all who were not worth 2000 drachms, and placing Demetrius Phalereus at the head of the state. The popular government was afterwards restored, and Demetrius Phalereus ex- pelled by Demetrius Poliorcetes, B. C. 308. After the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 301, Athens closed her gates on Demetrius. On the city falling a second time into his power, Demetrius again received them into favour. In 286 the Athenians, taking advan- tage of the embarrassments of Demetrius, drove out the Macedonian garrison, and by the election of ar- chons reestablished the ancient constitution. De- metrius laid siege to their city, but after a time was induced to quit it, and leave them once more in possession of their freedom. Athens was again re- covered by Antigonus Gonatus, the son of Deme- trius, who put a garrison into the city, and left it in the hands of his successor. About the year 232 Athens joined the Achaean league, (a confederacy of twelve Achaean states, which had been dissolved after the battle of Ipsus, 301, and revived in 280.) The animating spirit of this confederation was Aratus, a Sicyonian, who prevailed on Diogenes, the governor, to deliver up Piraeus, Munychia, Salamis, and Sunium to the B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 15 Athenians, in consideration of 150 talents, B.C.Attica. 227. Not long after this reestablishment they quar- relled with Philip, king of Macedon, who reduced them to great extremities, laid waste their country, and destroyed all their stately edifices, B. C. 200. But the Romans coming to their assistance, Philip was forced to abandon his enterprise. In the year B. C. 198 Athens, with the other cities of Grfeece, was proclaimed independent of Macedonia by the Romans ; a measure which served merely to transfer the supremacy of their country from Macedonia to Rome. From this time the history of Athens is closely interwoven with that of Rome. 4. Megaris. Until the Dorian migration this state Megaris. was subject to the Athenians. The form of govern- ment was monarchical until the assassination of their last king Hyperion ; after the death of whom it was entrusted to magistrates elected for certain periods. About the year 600 Theagenes usurped the sove- reign power, but was expelled, and the republican form of government was again restored. 5. BcEOTiA. At a very early period the race of Boeotia. Cadmus (who had emigrated from Phoenicia) be- came the ruling family at Thebes, to which the greater part of Boeotia was subject. Among his posterity were Laius, the celebrated GEdipus, Eteo- cles, and Polynices. In the year 1215 the Boeotians were driven by the Thracian tribes into Arne of Thessaly, whence they returned to their ancient country at the time of the Dorian migration. Roy- alty was abolished in Boeotia in 1126, when each 16 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. Boeotia. city became an independent state. The oligarchical form of government seems to have been adopted in them all about the time of the Persian war. The general affairs of Boeotia were transacted in four assemblies^, held in the four districts into which the country was divided. These assemblies elected ele- ven officers^ called Boeotarchs, who presided as su- preme magistrates and generals of the confederacy. The other states seem always to have been very jealous of the ambitious attempts of Thebes. Plataea in particular brought ruin on herself by her opposi- tion to the designs of that state. Phocis. 6. Phocis. This state was ruled by kings (de- scended, it is said, from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth) until about the time of the Dorian migration, when a republican constitution was adopted. Crissa and Delphi were independent states. In the year 590 the former was conquered by the Amphictyons, and annexed to Delphi. Locris. 7* LocRis. Of this state little is known. In an- cient times they had their kings, among whom Ajax, the son of Oileus, is celebrated by Homer. The form of government afterwards became republican. The three tribes remained politically distinct. Doris. 8. Doris. The original name of this district, according to Herodotus, was Dryopis ; it was after- wards called Doris, from Dorus, the son of Hellen, who was driven thither from Thessaly by the Cad- means. This little country was the abode of the Heraclidse during their exile from Peloponnesus, and the spot where they concerted their plans for B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 17 regaining that country, which they carried into effect eighty years after the siege of Troy. The four cities of Doris formed a small republic. 9. ^Etolia. The ^tolians were a rude and savage iEtoiia. race, whose political constitution is unknown. Pro- bably in time of war the several hordes chose a tem- porary general or king. 10. AcARNANiA. This country derived its name Acarnania. from Acarnan, son of Alcmaeon. The form of go- vernment was once monarchical, but at what time and under what circumstances it became republican is not known. During the Trojan war some part at least of this country was subject to Ithaca. 11. Arcadia. This country continued to bepeioponne- ruled by kings from the days of Areas, its founder, Arcadia. until the assassination of Aristocrates II, B. C. 668, when the kingly power was abolished, and Arcadia crumbled into several small states, the constitution of which was probably democratical. 12. Laconia. The city of Lacedaemon, otherwise Laconia. called Sparta, was founded at a period beyond certain memorials. It appears from Homer to have been among the most considerable of those cities which existed in the remote ages. The government of the Spartans was originally monarchical. The first of their sovereigns was called Lelex, from whom the inhabitants had the name of Leleges. His descend- ants, thirteen in number, reigned successively after him, until the reign of the descendants of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, who were driven from the 18 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. Laconia. Peloponnesus by the Heraclidae, about eighty years after the Trojan war, (B. C. 1104.) Two years after the invasion of the Peloponnesus, Eurysthenes and ProcleSj the two sons of Aristodemus, one of the Heraclidae, were appointed joint kings of Sparta, by command of the oracle of Delphi; and after them it was decreed that the two families should always sit on the throne together. The successors of Eu- rysthenes were called Eurysthenidae, and afterwards Agidse ; and those of Procles, Proclidae, and after- wards Eurypontidae. This form of government con- tinued until the time ofLycurgus, (about B.C. 888,) who, although unable or unwilling to abolish the double regal authority, established a senate superior to the two kings ; and thus the Spartan monarchy was changed into a commonwealth. From the capture of Athens, at the end of the Peloponnesian war, may be dated the ruin of the Spartan constitution. The treasures found there were transported by Lysander to Sparta, and cor- rupted the citizens ; and his pupil Agesilaus finished what Lysander had begun. Sparta continued to be the ruling state of Greece until the year B. C. 371 > when the Lacedaemonians were overthrown, in the battle of Leuctra, by the Thebans, under the com- mand of Epaminondas. The encroaching power of Sparta received another check (B. C. 344) from Philip of Macedon; and fourteen years after, she revolted from his son Alex- ander the Great, under the command of Agis, one B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 19 of the kings of Sparta, who was defeated and slain Laconia. by Antipater, Alexander's general ; and 5300 Lace- daemonians perished with him. In the year B. C. 243, Agis the Third attempted to reform Sparta, but was unsuccessful, and lost his life. In the year B. C. 226, Cleomenes the Third resolved to restore the ancient discipline of Lycur- gus in its full force, by banishing luxury and in- temperance. He killed the ephori, and removed by poison his royal colleague Eurydamidas, and made his own brother Euclidas king, against the laws of the state, which forbad more than one of the same family to sit on the throne. Cleomenes made war on the Achaeans, and attempted to destroy their league. Aratus, the general of the Achseans, called Antigonus to his assistance ; and Cleomenes, after the unfortunate battle of Sellasia, fled into Egypt, where he afterwards killed himself. About the year B. C. 191, Nabis made himself tyrant at Sparta ; and having made an alliance with Flaminius, the Roman general, pursued with the most inveterate enmity the war which he had un- dertaken against the Achaeans. He besieged Gy- thium, and defeated Philopoemen in a naval battle. He was, however, soon afterwards himself defeated by the Achaeans, and treacherously murdered as he attempted to save himself by flight, after an usurpa- tion of fourteen years. After this, Sparta was taken by Philopoemen, by whom the laws of Lycurgus were abrogated for a while. After its conquest, Sparta became tributary to the Achaeans. In the 20 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. year B.C. 147, however, it obtained the support of Rome against the Achseans ; and from that time Sparta, in common with the other nations of Greece, became a Roman province. Messenia. 13. Messenia. This country derived its name from Messene, wife of Polycaon, one of the earliest sovereigns of the country. At the time of the Tro- jan war it was partly under the dominion of Mene- laus, and partly under that of Nestor. In the year B.C. 743 began the first Messenian war, which ended in the subjugation of Messenia to Sparta in 724. The Messenians revolted on two subsequent occasions, in 685 and 464, and were finally, after the capture of Ithome, permitted to retire from Peloponnesus, and were settled by the Athenians in Naupactus. Eiis. 14. Elis. At the period of the Trojan war this district contained four small kingdoms. At the Dorian invasion the Dorians took possession of Elis, but permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in the country. After the abolition of sovereignty, supreme magistrates (Hellanodicae) were chosen, who were also entrusted with the management of the Olympic games. These magistrates were at first two, and afterwards increased to ten. There was also a senate, consisting of ninety persons. The city of Elis was built in 447 ; until which time the Eleans resided in different small hamlets. Argoiis. 15. Argolis. This country, even before the Dorian migration, was parcelled into several small kingdoms, of which Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns were the most remarkable. The monarchical form B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 21 of government continued in Argos until about the year B. C. 984, when a republican constitution was introduced. 16. AcHAiA. This country remained in the hands Achaia. of the descendants of Ion (who had taken possession of it when expelled from Athens) until the Dorian migration,, when the Achaeans, who had been driven out of Argos and Laconia, took possession of the country. Their government was monarchical until the reign of Gyges, whose tyranny produced the abo- lition of monarchy. Achaia was then divided into twelve small republics, each of which had a de- mocratic constitution, and all were united by a league. 17. SiCYONiA. This state is represented by tra- sicyonia. dition as the most ancient in Greece. At the Dorian irruption the lonians were expelled, and Sicyon became a Dorian state. After the abolition of mo- narchy, (date uncertain,) the constitution became democratical. 18. CoRiNTiiiA. The Dorians drove out the original Corinthia. inhabitants of this state. The government was at first monarchical, but afterwards became oligarchical. Corinth soon became a naval power : she invented triremes ; and the earliest naval engagement on re- cord was fought between her fleet and that of Cor- cyra, B. C. 664. Corinth sent out many colonies, the most remarkable of which were Epidamnus, Corcyra, Leucas, and Syracuse. The commerce of Corinth was very extensive, and her riches propor- tionately great. 22 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. Principal 19. CoRCYRA was a colony of Corinth, of which Grecian islands. citv she became the rival. The constitution, like Corcyra. "^ that of Corinth, was oligarchical; but after the Persian war a democratic faction arose, by which Corcyra was at last entirely ruined. iEgina. 20. ^GiNA. This island was occupied after the Dorian migration by colonists from Epidaurus. ^gina was for a long time the rival of Athens, but was humbled by Themistocles in 485, and finally subjugated in 458. She had previously suffered very much in consequence of the frequent struggles be- tween the aristocratic and democratic parties. Euboea; 21 . EuBCEA. Each of the cities in this island had a separate constitution. In Chalcis and Eretria it was aristocratic, the government being in the hands of the opulent (Hippobotae) ; nevertheless we hear of tyrants of Chalcis. After the Persian war, Eu- boea became dependent on Attica. In 446 she re- belled, and was subdued by Pericles. cyciades. 22. The Cyclades. These islands were first colonized by Crete, during the reign of Minos. The Carians had in earlier times spread over them, but were gradually driven out by the Hellenes. The most important of them were Delos and Paros. Each of the smaller islands had one city of the same name as the island which contained it. Crete. 23. Crete. In the earlier ages Crete had her kings, the most celebrated among whom was Minos, who by his fleets cleared the Mgean sea of pirates. To him is also attributed the Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta by Lycur- B. I. C. II. POLITICAL HISTORY. 23 gus. The last king was Etearchus^ about B. C. 800; after whose death a republican form of government was introduced. Each city had its own constitu- tion, and possessed its senate {yepovcria), at the head of which were ten censors {koct^iol), chosen from certain families. 24. Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited Cyprus, by a mixed race. Down to the Persian period there seems to have been a close connexion between this island and the Phoenicians. Nine small kingdoms arose in the island, and continued to exist until the time of Alexander, whom they joined in 332, and thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy. The Cyprians were at one time tributary to the Egyptians, and afterwards to the Persians. 25. The principal Grecian colonies were, 1. Those Principal on the western coast of Asia Minor, founded by colonies. iEolians, lonians, and Dorians. Of these, the -^o- 1. Colonies in Asia lians occupied the coasts of Mysia and Caria, and Minor, the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos. These colonies were founded about B. C. 1124. The lonians occu- pied the southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria, with the islands of Samos and Chios. These colonies were founded, about 1044, by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus, the celebrated Athe- nian king. They possessed in common one sanc- tuary, the Panionian temple of Neptune, built on Mycale. Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to discuss matters of mutual interest, al- though each state was perfectly independent* The 24 POLITICAL HISTORY. P. I. Dorian colonies were situated on the continent of Asia MinoFj along the southern shore of Caria. They were likewise established in the islands of Cos and Rhodes. They were all founded at a later period than the Ionian colonies^ and probably were the result of successive migrations. 2. Colonies 2. Colonics in Italy and Sicily: viz. of Dorian in Italy and •' •' sicUy. origin, Tarentum, and its colonies Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin, Sybaris, Croton, Posidonia, &c. Of Ionian origin, Thurii, Rhegium, Elea, Cumse, and its branch settlement Neapolis. In Sicily the Greek colonies were founded at the same period as those of Magna Graecia in Italy. Of Dorian origin were Messana, Tyndaris, Syracuse, Hybla, Segesta, Gela, and Lipara. Of Ionian, Naxus, Catana, Taurominium, and Zancle. It may be re- marked, that both in Italy and Sicily the govern- ment in the Dorian states was generally more ari- stocratic than in the others. 3. Colonies 3. Colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, on the shores , . --/r i • mi o -r^ • oftheMedi- and in Macedonia, Ihrace, &c. ror instance, m and in ' Corsica was Alaria ; in Gaul, Massilia ; in Spain, INIacedonia and Thrace. Saguntum ; in Africa, Cyrene; and in Macedonia and Thrace, -(Egos-potamos, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, and Potidaea. CHART OF THE VARIOUS FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN THE GRECIAN STATES. rHESSALY. EPIRUS. ATTICA. MEGARIS. BCEOTIA. Ten small I. Clans governed I. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. kingdoms. by their chiefs. 3. Archons for life. 2, Democracy. 2. Each city an One kingdom 2. Subjected to the (B.C. 1068.) 3. Usurpation independent under Jason. kings of the Mo- S.DecennialArchons. of sovereign state. (B.C. j ;B.C.38o.) lossi. (B.C. 752.) power by The- 1126.) Oligar- J 4. Annual Archons. agenes. chy establish- ' (B.C. 682.) 4. Democracy ed in them all, 1 5. Constitution of restored. about the time ; Athens made of the Persian ' more purely de- war. mocratical by So- lon. (B. C. 594.) 6. Oligarchy under the thirty tyrants. (B.C. 404.) 7. Democracy restored. Oligar- chy under Antipa- ter. Democracy restored. Attica subject to the Ro- mans. (B.-C. 403— 198.) 1 ' PHOCIS. LOCRIS. DORIS. iETOLIA. ACARNANIA. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. A small republic Constitution I. Monarchy. Democracy. 3. Democracy. formed by the four unknown. 2. Democracy. | About B. C. N. B. The three cities which com- (Date un- 104.) tribes remained politically dis- tinct. pose the Tetrapo- lis Dorica. known.) i ARCADIA. LACONIA. MESSENIA. ELIS. ARGOLIS. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. I . Monarchy. I. Four small I. Several small The country 2. Government of 3. Subjected to kingdoms. kingdoms. ivided into two kings with Sparta. (B.C. 734.) 3. Governed by 2. Democracy oaall states, equal powers. a senate of established in le constitu- (B.C. 1102.) ninety, and Argos. (B. C. on of which 3. A senate, superior magistrates 984.) 'as probably emocratical. to the two kings, established by Ly- called Hella- nodicse. B.C. 668.) curgus. (B.C.888.) 4. Tyranny of Nabis. (B.C. 191.) 5. Laconia a Roman province. (B. C. 147.) ACHAIA. SICYONIA. CORINTHIA. CORCYRA. JEGINA. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. I. Monarchy. Oligarchy in- I. Struggles Twelve sma.ll 3. Democracy. 2. Oligarchy. terrupted by a between the 'publics , democratic aristocratic nited by a faction after and demo- ague. the Persian war. cratic fac- tions. 2. Subject to Athens. (B.C. 458.) EUB(EA. CYCLADES. CRETE. CYPRUS. ;h city of the Each island had its I. Monarchy. I. Nine small land had a constitution. 2. Each city had its kingdoms. iparate con- own constitution 2. Cyprus united to the Mace- itution. with its senate and ten censors. donian empire. i . (B.C. 332.) C 26 LANGUAGE. P. I, Greeks had originally a common language. Dorian the primitive language. CHAP. III. Of the language of ancient Greece. 1 . The inhabitants of Greece, whether they bore the name of Pelasgi or Hellenes^, or were called Dorians, -^olians, lonians, and Achaians, all sprung from the same stock, and had one common language, which varied, in progress of time, according to the pursuits of the different tribes, their intercourse with one another and with foreigners, and their im- provements in the arts and sciences. 2. The Dorian seems to have been the primitive language of the Pelasgi, who dwelt in Thessaly, and to have remained with fewer changes in that moun- tainous district than in other parts of Greece, where it underwent considerable alterations from the influx of strangers and the progress of commerce. That it was the original language of the whole country ap- pears also from this, that the rustic songs, the an- cient^ hymns in honour of the gods, and the choruses of the tragic and comic poets, (written in imitation of these hymns,) were all in the Doric dialect. It continued to be spoken, with a mixture of the ^o- lian, to which it had a near affinity, by the inhabit- ants of Peloponnesus, the Sicilians, the Cretans, the Rhodians, and the people of Epirus, with a few variations in the change and addition of some letters. Attic dialect. 3. The Athenians, who belonged to the Ionian tribe, were led by their national character to study the arts and refinements of life more than their sur- B. I. C. IV. HISTORIANS. 27 rounding neighbours ; and their language was culti- vated in proportion. Hence arose a peculiar dialect, celebrated for its softness and elegance, denominated the Attic. The iEolians, meanwhile, who were expelled from .Eoiian. Peloponnesus by the Dorians, having established colonies along the western coast of Asia Minor, dif- fused their language over that tract of country. The Ionian dialect, over which the Attic had triumphed Ionian, in Greece, was retained by those who had emigrated to Asia and the islands. Thus the lana;uaffe of the Four dialects ° ° ^ established. inhabitants of Greece, the islands, and Asia Minor, was divided into the Doric, the Attic, the ^olic, and the Ionic, a distinction uniformly observed by all the writers of the different countries where set- tlements had been made. CHAP. IV. Of the princijml Greek historians, poets, philoso^ phers, statesmen, generals, and orators. Historians. 1. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus in Caria, Herodotus. about 484 years before Christ. He wrote a history, in the Ionic dialect, of the Lydians, Medes, Per- sians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Scythians, and of the unsuccessful invasion of Greece by the Per- sians. His work has since been divided into nine books, corresponding with the names of the Muses. 2. Thucydides was born at Athens, about 471 '"^"'^y^''*^'- years before Christ. He ^vrote, in eight books, a c2 28 LANGUAGE. P. I. history of the Peloponnesian war, in which he had himself served. Xenophon. 3. Xenophon was born at Athens^ about 449 years before Christ, and was a favourite pupil of the great SocrateSj, whose life and doctrines he expounded in his Memorabilia and (Economics. He wrote a sup- plement to the history of Thucydides, which had been brought down only to the summer of the twenty-first year of the Peloponnesian war. He also wrote an account of the life of Cyrus the Great, (now regarded more as a moral tale than an au- thentic history,) and a history of the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks whom he himself conducted home after the death of Cyrus the Younger, in the battle of Cunaxa. His style is considered the model of Attic purity. 4. Polybius was born at Megalopolis, in Pelopon- nesus, about 200 years before Christ. He wrote an universal history, in forty books, of which only five are now entire. 5. Diodorus Siculus was born at Argyra^ in Sicily, about 50 years before Christ. He wrote a history of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage; which was divided into forty books, of which only fifteen are extant, with some few frag- ments. Diouysius. Q, Dionysius was sumamed of Halicarnassus, from his birthplace. He went to Rome in the reign of Augustus. He wrote an account of the antiquities of Rome for the period of three hundred and twelve Polybius. Diodorus Siculus. B. I. CIV. POETS. 29 years. Only eleven out of twenty books of this work have been preserved. 7. Arrian was born at Nicemedia, in Bithynia^ Arrian. about 136 years after Christ. He wrote seven books on Alexander's expedition^ and other works. His style is a good imitation of that of Xenophon. 8. Plutarch^ the biographer and moralist^ was Plutarch, born at Chseroneaj in Boeotia, about 100 years after Christ. Poets. 9. Homer was born about 900 years before Homer. Christ; the place of his birth is unknown. He wrote an epic poem^ called the Iliad, descriptive of the siege of Troy; and another, called the Odyssey, in which the wanderings of Ulysses are recorded. 10. Hesiod was born at Ascra, in Boeotia, pro^ Hesiod. bably about the same time as Homer. Only two of his poems have descended to us, the Works and the Days ; and the Theogony, or birth of the gods. 11. Apollonius Rhodius was born at Naucratis, iuApoiionius Egypt, about 230 years before Christ. Hi^ poem on the Argonautic expedition is the only one of his writings now extant. 12. Anacreon, a famous lyric poet, was born at Anacreon. Teos in Ionia, about 530 years before Christ. The poems attributed to him are full of elegance and beauty. 13. Pindar, also a lytic poet, was born at Thebes Pindar. in Bceotia, about 521 years before Christ. He wrote odes on victories obtained at the four greatest festi- vals of the Greeks ; the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, c3 30 POETS. r. I. and Nemaean games. His poetry is admired for its boldness and sublimity. ^gchyius. 14. ^schylus, the earliest tragic writer of Greece, was born at Eleusis in Attica about 525 years be- fore Christ ; was wounded at Marathon, B. C. 490 ; and was also present at the battle of Salamis, B. C. 480. Of nearly one hundred tragedies written by him, only seven have come down to us. His style is sometimes harsh, but forcible, and often sublime. Sophocles. 25^ Sophocles, a tragic writer, was born at Co- lonus in Attica, about 497 years before Christ. He wrote one hundred and twenty tragedies, of which seven only remain. He is the most generally ad- mired of all the Greek tragic poets. Euripides. iQ Euripides, a tragic poet, was born at Sa- lamis, 480 years before Christ. He wrote eighty plays, of which only nineteen have reached us. His language is often pathetic, but too full of far-fetched sentences and reflections. Aristopha- 17. Aristophaues, the most celebrated of the nes. ... comic poets of antiquity, was born at ^gina, about 434 years before Christ. Only eleven of the fifty comedies which he wrote have descended to poste- rity. They are all of a political nature, and furnish us mth invaluable matter for the internal history of Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Cleon, Euripides, and Socrates, were favourite objects of the poet's satire. Menander. 18. Meuauder was born at Athens, about 345 years before Christ. He was the most celebrated writer of what is called the new comedy. Of one B. I. C. IV. PHILOSOPHERS. 31 hundred plays which he wrote only a few fragments remain. 19. Theocritus and Moschus, both born at Syra- Theocritus, cuse; and Bion^ born at Smyrna, all flourished about 300 years before Christ. They wrote pastoral poetry, in the Doric dialect. Philosophers. 20. Socrates, the father of the ancient moral phi- Socrates. losophers, was born in Attica, 469 years before Christ. He has left no writings, but his opinions have been recorded by his pupils, Xenophon and Plato. He was unjustly put to death by the Athen- ians, on a charge of impiety, in the 70th year of his age. 21. Plato was born in the island of ^gina, 430 Plato, years before Christ. He was the founder of the Academic sect, so called, because his school was held in a public grove, called the Academus. His works are in the form of dialogues. 22. Aristotle was born at Stagira, in Thrace, 384 Aristotle, years before Christ. He was the founder of the Peripatetic school, so called, because he walked whilst delivering his lectures. He was also tutor to Alexander the Great. Of about four hundred different treatises which he composed, only forty- eight have reached us. Of these, the most generally read are, his treatises on Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetry. Statesmen, generals, and orators. 23. Miltiades, son of Cimon an Athenian, com- Miitiades. manded the Athenian army at the battle of Mara- c4 Tliemis- tocles. Pausanias. 32 STATESMEN, GENERALS, &C. P. I. thon, in which the Persian army, under Datis and Artaphernes, was completely routed, 490 years be- fore Christ. He was afterwards thrown into prison by his countrymen, and died of a wound which he had received before Paros. 24. Themistocles, a celebrated Athenian general, commanded at the battle of Salamis, where the navy of Xerxes was totally destroyed, 480 years before Christ. He was afterwards banished from Athens, and died in exile at the court of Artaxerxes. Leonidas. 25. Leonidas, a king of Lacedaemon, was slain at Thermopylae, after having kept the pass with three hundred Spartans for three days, against the army of Xerxes, 480 years before Christ. 26. Pausanias, a Spartan general, greatly distin- guished himself at the battle of Plataea. He was afterwards made commander-in-chief of the Greek forces at the Hellespont : but being suspected of a treasonable correspondence with the Persians, he was recalled, and starved to death at Sparta, 469 years before Christ. 27. Aristides, honourably entitled the Just, was contemporary with Themistocles, by whose influ- ence he was banished for ten years, but recalled by the Athenians before the expiration of six. He was present at Salamis, and was joint commander with Pausanias at Plataea. 28. Cimon, son of Miltiades, an Athenian, dis- tinguished himself by his bravery against the Per- sians, and the liberality which he displayed in em- bellishing and fortifying Athens at his own expense. Aristides. B. I. C. IV. STATESMEN, GENERALS, &C. 33 He died whilst besieging Citium, in Cyprus, 449 years before Christ. 29. Pericles, a most illustrious statesman, war- Pericles, rior, and orator, was a native of Athens. He was at the head of affairs at Athens for forty years, during fifteen of which he ruled alone. He died of the plague, early in the Peloponnesian war, about 429 years before Christ. 30. Alcibiades, an Athenian statesman, warrior, Aicibiudes and orator, persuaded the Athenians, during the Peloponnesian war, to undertake the fatal expedi- tion into Sicily, in which the Athenian army was miserably defeated. He was chosen general in that expedition, but being afterwards accused of impiety, he fled to Sparta, and tried to stir up the Lacedae- monians to make war on his country. He was after- wards recalled by the Athenians, but again banished, and at last assassinated in Asia Minor by Pharna- bazus, at the instance of Lysander, the Spartan general, in the 46th year of his age, 404 years be- fore Christ. 31. Lysander, a celebrated general of Sparta, de- Lysander. feated the Athenians at ^gos-potamos, and put an end to the Peloponnesian war by taking Athens, 404 years before Christ. He was afterwards slain in battle by the Haliartians. 32. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, made war upon Ag«?siiaus, Artaxerxes with success, but was recalled home to oppose the Athenians and Boeotians, who desolated his country. He defeated his enemies at Coronea, but sickness prevented the progress of his conquests. 34 STATESMEN^ GENERALS, &C. P. I. Epaminon das. and the Spartans were beaten in every engagement, especially at Leuctra, until he appeared at their head. He died in his 80th year, 362 years before Christ. 33. Epaminondas, a famous Theban general. In conjunction with Pelopidas, he defeated the Spartans at the celebrated battle of Leuctra, about 371 years before Christ. He was slain at Mantinea, in the 48th year of his age, 363 years before Christ, Phiiopflemen. 34. Philopcemcn, called by his countrymen the last of the Greeks, was a celebrated general of the Achaean league. He took Sparta, and abolished the laws of Lycurgus. Some time after, he fell into the hands of the Messenians, (who had revolted from the league,) and was compelled to drink poison. 35. Lysias, an orator, was born at Syracuse, about 460 years before Christ. He was educated at Athens, and was distinguished for the purity of his style. Thirty-four of his orations are extant. 36. Isocrates, a native of Athens, was born about 437 years before Christ. He taught oratory, but never spoke in public. He has left thirty-one orations. 37- -^schines was the rival of Demosthenes. He wrote three orations, which are extant. 38. Demosthenes, the greatest master of eloquence in ancient or modern times, was born at Athens about 382 years before Christ. His father was a blacksmith. In early youth he had inherited a good fortune from his father, but this he rapidly dissi- Lysias. Isocrates. JEschines. Demosthe- B. I. C. IV. STATESMEN, GENERALS^ &C. 35 patedj and at the age of twenty-five became a writer Demosthe- of speeches for suitors in the courts of justice. When ambassadors from Olynthus came to entreat the assistance of the Athenians against Philip, De- mosthenes who was their leading political character, strongly urged his countrymen to aid them. He is famous for the orations which he delivered on this and other occasions, generally with the inten- tion of rousing the Athenians to resist the encroach- ments of Philip. His celebrated " Oration on the " Crown" was delivered under the following circum- stances. Before the battle of Chaeronea, Ctesiphon had proposed a decree to honour Demosthenes with a golden crown. The crown being voted, ^Eschines arraigned the decree as irregular in form and false in statement : and instituted proceedings against Ctesiphon for a penalty of fifty talents. Soon after its commencement the prosecution was dropt, and nothing more heard of it until it was revived in the time of Alexander, whilst Demosthenes held the lead in Athens, as a ready mode of attacking him. iEschines and Demosthenes both spoke on this occasion, and the splendid oratory of the latter caused the acquittal of Ctesiphon, and the impo- sition of a heavy fine on ^schines, who being un- able to pay it retired to Rhodes. Thirty-one of the orations of Demosthenes are now extant. He swallowed poison in his sixty-first year in order to avoid falling alive into the hands of the iMace^ donians. c6 36 THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL. P. I. CHAP. V. Of the Amphictyonic council. Establish- 1. This aueust assembly was first established by ment and a j j constitution Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion, and consisted of ofthecoun- c j ' ' ^'^- deputies, originally sent by the following states: the loniansj Dorians, Perrhoebians, Boeotians, Mag- nesians, Phthians, Locrians, Malians, Phocians, Thessalians, Dolopes, and the people of CEta. Other cities, in process of time, sent also some of their citizeijs to the council of the Amphictyons. They met twice every year, in spring at Delphi, and in autumn at Anthela, a village at the distance of a few miles from Thermopylae. The design of their meeting was to determine public quarrels, and decide the differences that happened betwixt any of the cities of Greece, when no other means were left of settling them. Before they entered on business they jointly sacrificed an ox, cut in pieces, to Del- phian Apollo, thereby signifying the union and agreement of the cities which they represented. Their determinations were always received with great respect, and considered inviolable; the Gre- cians being always ready to join against those who rejected them, as common enemies. iMode of pro- 2. Every state was represented by two deputies, ceeding. one of these, appointed by lot, bore the name of 'lepofivrjfKov ^, and was expected to attend to any business regarding religion which might come be- fore the assembly. The other, styled UvXrjyopas, was cl See Mitford's Greece, vol. VI. p. 245. B. II. C. I. GODS OF GREECE. 37 elected by suffrage before every meeting of the council; and being generally a man of ability, was entrusted with the care of the political or judicial affairs which happened to be the subjects of discus- sion. The office of president of the council was always held by one of the Hieromnemons, who was probably elected by lot to that office. 3. In the time of Philip, king of Macedon, the Sacred war. Phocians, having ransacked and spoiled the Del- phian temple, were, by a decree of the Amphictyons, invaded by the rest of the Greeks, as a sacrilegious and impious nation; and, after a ten years' war, deprived of the privilege of sitting amongst them, together with their allies the Lacedaemonians ; and their vacant places were supplied by the Macedo- nians, who were admitted in return for the good service they had done in the Phocian war. BOOK II. OF THE RELIGION OF GREECE. CHAP. I. The gods of Greece. 1. The Greeks probably derived their religion whence the . - Greeks de- not from any one particular nation, but from the rived their rrn religion. various nations which colonized the country. Thus the Thebans, who were a Phoenician colony, are supposed to have retained a great part of the Phoe- nician worship; the Athenians were instructed in the religion of Egypt by their founder Cecrops, who came from that country ; and the Argives also are 38 GODS OF GREECE. P. I. thought to have learnt the Egyptian religion from Danaus. 2. The Grecians in general, and the Athenians vastnum- in particular, were not content to worship their an- bera of the ^ ^ Grecian gods, cieui deities^ but frequently consecrated others of their own making ; and, besides these, assumed into the number of their own the gods of all the nations with whom they had any commerce ; so that even in Hesiod's time they had thirti/ thousand gods. So fearful were the Athenians of omitting any, that they erected altars to unknown gods ; but no new deity was allowed to be worshipped without the approbation of the court of Areopagus. Hence it was that Socrates was condemned to death for worshipping strange gods ; and that St. Paul, when he preached Jesus and the resurrection, was sum- moned to appear before the Areopagites, to give an account of his new doctrine. Three classes 3. Of the deities worshipped by the Greeks, some were supposed to inhabit heaven, some the earth, and others the infernal regions. The gods of heaven were called 'ETrovpavioi, *OXv/i7riot, *A$dvaToi. The subterranean gods Xdovioi, 'YttoxOovioij Karax^o- vioi. Those of the earth 'ETrtx^oViot. The twelve principal gods, called by the Greeks fieyoXot 6€o\, were, Jupiter, Apollo, Neptune, Vulcan, Mars, Mer- cury, Juno, Ceres, Minerva, Diana, Venus, and Vesta. The Athenians had the greatest veneration for these twelve gods; whose figures were painted on the portico of the Ceramicus. They also erected an altar in honour of them, called /Sw/iaop tS>v dadeKa Beav, i B. II. C. I. GODS OP GREECE. 39 4. JupileVj Zevs, was called the father of gods Jupiter, and meiij and was believed to govern heaven, and to direct the elements. Hence he was called Baai. Xeus, king ; "Ofi^pios, god of showers; 'YeVtoy, rainy; N€(f)e\r}y€peTT]s, gatherer of clouds } ^Aa-repoTrrjTriSj 'Aorpcu TToioSy tightener; Bpovralos, thunderer ; TepTriKepavvos, that delights in the thunder. Other epithets were also given to him relating to the wants of men, over which he was supposed to watch, as, SeVioy, god of hospitality; ^^Taipfios, god of companionship; *E^€- arios, presiding over the hearth; ^IXlos, god of friend- ship; '^OpKios, god of oaths; 'iKecriosj god of suppliants. He was said to be the son of Saturn and Ops ; and is generally represented sitting on an ivory throne, and attended by an eagle. 5. Apollo, 'AttoXXo)!/, was the son of Jupiter and ApoUo. Latona. He was the god of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence. He is represented as a beardless youth, holding in his hand a bow or a lyre, and with his head surrounded by beams of light. One of the most common epithets was IIu- 6ios, because he destroyed the serpent Python with his arrows. He was also called Ao^/ay, oblique; (from the course of the sun, or as some say from the obscurity of his oracles ;) ^AXe^UaKos, averter of evil; ^ATTOTponatos, turner away from harm; ^EKarr)- /SoXoff, far darting; To^ocf)6pos, bow-bearing ; Uaiav, P(Ean, (derived from traUiv, to strike, or from Traveii/,) because he caused diseases to cease. 6. Neptune, Uoa-eidatv, was the brother of Jupiter, Neptune, and god of the sea. He was generally represented u 40 GODS OF GREECE. P. I. sitting in a chariot made of a shelly and drawn by sea horses or dolphins. His wife's name was Am- phitrite. From his surrounding the earth he was called TaiTjoxos. The epithets 'AXifxedav, ruler of the sea ; Uovrios, 'EvaXios, of the sea ; "Ittttios, equestrian, (because in his contest with Minerva he caused a horse to spring out of the ground,) were also given to him. Vulcan. 7. Vulcan, "Ucfyaio-Tos, presided over fire^ and was the patron of all artists who worked iron and other metals. He was the son of Juno alone. His work- shop was supposed to be in Sicily, under mount ^tna, where he was assisted in his labours by the Cyclopes, one-eyed monsters. Venus was his wife. On account of his skill, he had the surname of KXv- TOT€xvT]s, renowned artist. Mars. 8. Mars, "ApTjs, the god of war, was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He generally rode in a chariot drawn by furious horses, which the poets called Flight and Terror. He was surnamed XdXKeos, bra- zen; BaBvTToXeixos, very warlike, &c. Mercury. Q. Mercury, ^Epfxrjs, the messenger of the gods, was the sdn of Jupiter and Maia. He conducted the souls of the dead into the infernal regions, and wats the patron, not oiily of orators, merchants, a^ad travellers, but also of thieves and pickpockets. He is generally represented with a winged cap, called petasus, on his head ; winged sandals on his feet ; and a winged rod, called caduceus, in his hand. He had also a short sWord, called herpe. He had a vast number of surnames, such as 'E/iTroXalos, patron of B. II. C. I. GODS OF GREECE. 41 commerce; Aokios, crqfti/ ; KvWrjvios,Ci/llenian, {{rora mount Cyllene in Arcadia ;) lTpo<^aLos, keeper of the gate, (from a-Tpo^evs, a hinge ; others however de- rive it from (TTpocpT], as referring to his shuffling character.) At Athens his images were merely- square stones, with a head sculptured at the top of them. 10. Juno/B.pa, was the sister and wife of Jupiter. Juno. She is represented sitting on a throne, holding a sceptre in her hand, with peacocks beside her, and her attendant Iris (the goddess of the rainbow) behind her. Sometimes she appears in a car drawn by peacocks. She presided over marriage and child- birth, whence she was called TafjLtjXios. She was also called Boanis, ox-eyed; (from her large eyes ;) and TeXcia, presiding over matrimonial rites. 11. Ceres i AT]fxr}rT]p, was the goddess of corn and Ceres, husbandry, and the mother of Proserpine. She was especially worshipped at Eleusis in Attica, where mysteries were celebrated in honour of her. She is represented with a garland of ears of corn on her head ; holding in one hand a lighted torch, and in the other a poppy, which was sacred to her. 12. Minervtty ^AdrjvT] or UaWas, (the latter of which Minerva, names she derived diro roO ndWeiv, from brandish- ing her spear,) came armed out of the head of Jupiter, which Vulcan had cleft open. She was the goddess of wisdom, of the arts, and of war. The owl a,nd the cock were her favourite birds. She was the patroness of the city of Athens, which was called after her. In most of her statues she appeared in 42 GODS OF GREECE. P. I. armour, with a shield called agis (on which was the head of Medusa) in one hand, and a spear in the other. She was called TXavKtomsj from her blue eyes; KKt}8ovxoSj keeper of the keys^; ^Epvo-iTTToKiSj protectress of the city, &c. ; and had various other epithets, some of which were derived from the dif- ferent temples in which she was worshipped, as XdkKLoixog, from her brasen temple at Sparta. Diana. i3. Diana," h.pT€fii9, was the goddess of hunting, and sister of Apollo. She was also the patroness of chastity. She is represented as a tall virgin, armed with a bow and arrows, and attended by dogs. She was called EiXci^uia, (from iXevdo),) the goddess who was invoked to make children come into the world; Kwrj-yem, huntress; *Ioxeaipa, de- lighting in shooting arrows, &c. Venus. 14. Venus i *h.(f)pohiTr], derived her Greek name from having sprung from the froth of the sea, {a^pqs.) She was the goddess of beauty and love. She is generally represented, with her son Cupid, on a chariot drawn by doves, or at other times by swans and sparrows. She had many surnames, ex- pressive of her origin, her propensities, and her power; such as Ovpavia, the heavenly; 'H eV Kqirois, she of the gardens; Ildv8r]p,os, public, common, &c. Vesta. 15. Vesta, 'Ecrria, was the daughter of Rhea and Saturn ; she was the goddess of fire ; and was re- presented in a long flowing robe, with a veil on her e To " bear the keys" was among the Hebrews as well as the Greeks a phrase expressive of power. See Isaiah xxii. 20—22. B. II. C. I. GODS OF GREECE. 43 headj holding in one hand a lamp or two-eared ves- sel, and in the other a javelin, or sometimes a pal- ladium. 16. Among the inferior deities, the most remark- inferior ° ' ^ deities. able were, Pluto, UXovrav, the brother of Jupiter, and king of the infernal regions ; the Fates, fxolpai, (in Latin parccE,) whose names were, Clotho, La- chesis, and Atropos ; the nine Muses ; and the Fu'- rieSj 'Epivwes, avengers; who were more generally called Evfieyidesj benign goddesses; as being a name more likely to propitiate their favour ; their names were, Alecto, Megara, and Tisiphone: they were also called 2€fxva\ Oealj venerable goddesses. 17. There were also heroes, called rjfxiBeoij demL Keroes. gods; such as Bacchus, Hercules, Castor, Pollux, &c. ; men who, for their virtues whilst on earth, had been admitted after death into the society of the gods. '^ The influence which their religion had upon Effect of their reli- " the moral character of the people was perhaps ofgiononthe " a less exceptionable character than might have " been imagined. The stories of their errors and " crimes were indeed esteemed even by the vulgar '^ as little better than poetical fictions, and the gods '^ were considered to be on the whole superior be- '^ ings, who desired excellence, and abhorred and " sometimes punished crime ^." f Heeren, Political History of Ancient Greece, chap. 3. It may however be fairly doubted whether the moral cha- racter of the people were not more injured by the disgusting stories which were related of the adventures of the gods than it was benefitted by the wholesome restraint of religious fear. 4.4 TEMPLES^ &C. P. I. Temples divided into two parts. Altar. CHAP. II. Of their temples, altars, linages ^ and asyla. 1. Temples were divided into two parts, the sa- cred and the profane ; the former they called ro eo-w Trepippam-qpLOV, the latter ro e^ta. This irepLppavrrjpiov was a vessel filled with holy water, which was pro- bably placed at the door of the temple, beyond which it was not lawful for any who was polluted (^e^rjXos) to pass. 2. The whole sacred edifice stood in an enclosure, Tefievos, which was generally laid out as a grove. The temple itself was called vaos and Upov, and con- tained ^(opbs, the altar; ivpovaov, the porch, in which Shrine, &c. usually stood an altar or image ; ahvTov, the shrine, into which none but the priest entered ; and o-t^kos-, an enclosure, in the centre of the temple, which contained the image S. 3. There was also belonging to temples a place called apx^lov, in which were deposited both the treasure belonging to the temple, and the property of individuals who wished to place it there for se- curity. 4. Altars Ow/xot) were generally made of stone. Those of the celestial gods were much higher than Treasury. Altars. & IMost of these terms are used differently by diflFerent writers. Some, for instance, make no distinction between vahs and Uphv, whilst others, as Thucydides and Pausanias, speak of them as distinct. The Scholiast on the former explains Upbv to be the whole place consecrated to the god, and vahs that part in which the image stood. Some authors too consider ^Sutov and TjfifLT€, or some similar expression ; and dismissed the people when the sacrifice was concluded. They were also employed as butchers and cooks at sacri- fices- and as ambassadors. At Athens there was a family named KrjpvKcs, from Krjpv^ the son of Mer- cury, which was accounted sacred. 6. Ncoxdpot, (so called from veas, a temple, andNiuKo^oi. Kopfiv, to keep clean,') whose business it was to adorn the temples, and look after the furniture of them. 7. 'Sao(f)vkaK€s, whose charge it was to take care iiuo(pvkec»is. of tlie holy utensils, and to repair what went to decay. 8. There were also other priests, called TrpoiroXot upoi 6ea)v, who always waited on the gods, and whose prayers the people desired at sacrifices. 9. None were admitted into the sacred offices Qualification for the who were not -sound and unblemished in body, and priesthood, of good reputation. Their garments were to be without spot, and were generally very splendid; for the celestial gods, the other for the Salfioves or demigods. At Athens almost every god had a high priest. The Delphians had five chief priests. 48 SACRIFICES, OFFERINGS, &C. P. I. and their heads were crowned with garlands of the tree most acceptable to the god, and sometimes with woollen fillets. The office of priesthood was hereditary in some families, such as the Eti/xoXTri'Scu at Athens, who possessed the privilege that the hierophant and other three functionaries at the per- formance of the Eleusinian mysteries should be taken from their family. The KrjpvKcs, lEvirarpibai, and 'Ereo/3ovTaSai at Athens, and the 'AKeoropifiat at Argos possessed similar hereditary privileges. CHAP. IV. Of the Grecian sacrifices, offerings, and tithes. 1. Sacrifices among the Greeks were of four sorts: 1 . EvKToia or xapto-TJyptaj VOWS or Ji'eewill offerings ; such were those promised to the gods before, and paid after, a victory ; as also the firstfruits oflTered by husbandmen after harvest : 2. 'iXaoriKa, propl- tiatory offerings, to avert the anger of some offended deity : 3. AlrTjriKa, petitionary sacrifices, for success in any enterprise : 4. Ta a7r6 fiavrelasj such as were imposed or commanded by an oracle or prophet. Living crea- 2. lu the aucicnt sacrifices there were neither tures not . /y« i offered in liviug creatures otiered, nor any thing costly or mag- first, nificent ; but only herbs and plants burnt whole, with their leaves and fruit, before the gods. As soon however as animal food began to be used by men, instead of herbs and roots, they also began to sacrifice living creatures to the gods. Sacrifices are called in Greek Ovaiai and dcopa. To sacrifice is B. II. C. IV. SACRIFICES^ OFFERINGS^ &C. 49 Bveip, 7rpo(r(f)epeiVj or dva(f)€p€iv 6v(rias, and TToiflv. The poets use the verbs pe^eiv and epheiv. 3. The solemn sacrifices consisted of three things^ Libation of pure wine. a-TTopBrj, 6vp.iap.a, and Upelov. 27rovbrj, a libation, from ii€(T6a, Let MS pray. At this time also the crier commanded silence in these or the like words, Ev(f>Tj~ fiuTC (Tiya, arlya iras ecrroa Xetas. Mode of as- H- Prayer being ended, the priest, having before the wSihfg- examined all the members of the victim, proceeded tims. now to examine whether it was sound within. To this end meat was set before it ; and if it refused to eat, it was judged unsound. This being done, they made trial whether the victim was willing to be sacrificed to the gods, by drawing a knife from its forehead to its tail. If it struggled, it was re- B. II. C. IV. SACRIFICES^ OFFERINGS, &C. 53 jected; but if it remained quiet^ and signified its approbation by a nod, (which it was made to do by pouring water into its ear,) it was considered ac- ceptable to the gods. 12. After this they prayed again; which being n^a^ar^ done, the priest took a cup of wine, and having tasted it himself, caused the company to do the like, and poured the remainder between the horns of the victim. After this, incense was strewed upon the altar. Part of the oiXaij or salted cakes, was then poured on the back of the victim, and the re- mainder upon the altar. All these were called npo- Bvfxara, as being offered before the victim. 13- Then the priest, or the Krjpv^, or sometimes. Manner of . 1 -I T 1 slaying the where no priest was present, the most honourable victim. person in company, killed the victim, by cutting its throat with a knife called fidxaipa and cr^ayis. If it escaped the stroke, or died unquietly, it was con- sidered an unlucky omen. 14. The victim being then opened by the KrjpvKfSy inspection the priest with a long knife turned over the bowels, trails. to observe and make predictions with them, (it be- ing unlawful to touch them with his hands.) This ceremony was termed a-irXayxvoaKOTria, and he who performed it a-TrXayxvoa-Korros. The blood was re- served in a vessel called crc^ayeiov, and offered on the altar. Wine and frankincense were then poured upon the fire, to increase the flame ; and the thighs (which were considered as belonging to the gods) were laid on the altar, together with small pieces of I, cut from every part, as the drrapxai, or Jirst- d3 54 SACRIFICES, OFFERINGS^ &C. P. I. fruits of the whole ^ : they also covered the thighs with fat, called in Greek kvIo-o-t]. Each of the parts of- fered in sacrifice was sprinkled with fine barley-meal. Hymns. ^5^ Whilst the sacrifice was burning, the priest and the person who offered the victim jointly made their prayers to the god, with their hands upon the altar. Sometimes musical instruments were played, and hymns were sung, consisting of three stanzas or parts ; namely, 1. strophe, which was sung in turning from east to west; 2. antistrophe, in re- turning from west to east ; and 3. epode, which was the last part of the song. These hymns were called by the general name of iraiaves. The instrument most generally used at sacrifices was the flute. ?easf"^'"^ 16. The sacrifice being ended, the priest received his share ; and some part of the victim was carried home, for good luck, by the sacrificer. This was termed vy'uia, as conducing to their health and wel- fare. The sacrifice being ended, they generally made a feast in the temple, at which they offered the tongues of the victims to Mercury. After all, they returned thanks to the god for the honour of sharing with him in the victim ; and then were dis- missed by the Kr]pv^ in this or the like form, Xaot? Difference 17. It should be observed, that the sacrifices between sacrifices offered to the infernal srods differed from those offered to the ° tho?e offered o^^^'ed to the celestial in the following respects : nai*dei«er ^' ^^ ^^^ time: they sacrificed to the celestial gods m Homer expresses this by the verb wp-od^reiv. (Od. 7'. 456, &c.) B. II. C. V. PRAYERS, SUPPLICATIONS, &C. 55 at sunrise, or at least in open day; but to the in- fernal about sunset, or even at midnight. 2. In the dress of the sacrificers ; who, in sacrifices to the infernal gods, were clothed in black robes. 3. In the colour of the victim; which, in sacrifices to the infernal gods, was of a dark colour. 4. In the manner of slaying the victim: for if the sacrifice was to the celestial gods, the throat was turned up to- wards heaven ; whereas in a sacrifice to the infernal gods, or to the heroes, it was killed with its throat thrust down towards the ground. 5. In the manner of pouring out the blood; which, in sacrifices to the infernal gods, was poured, not on an altar, but into a ditch. 18. Besides sacrifices, there were other sorts of offerings, presents ofifered to the gods ; such as crowns and garlands, garments, cups of gold, &c. These were commonly called uva6r}fiaTaj and sometimes avaKci- fifpa, from their being laid up in the temples. People who retired from any trade or profession, dedicated to the gods the instruments belonging to it. The tenth of spoils taken in war, and of many other things, were also claimed by the gods. CHAP. V. Of the Grecian prayers, supplications^ and imprecations. 1. The ancient Greeks seldom engaged in any Morning and GV6iiiiifir affair without first imploring the assistance of the prayer, gods : and even when they had no particular favour to ask, it was nevertheless their custom to recom- d4 56 PRAYERS, SUPPLICATIONS, &C. P. I. mend themselves to their several deities every morning and evening. Prayers were called in Greek Garb and be- 2. Their pravers to the sods, and their supplica- haviourof . & ' rr petitioners, tions to men, being performed for the most part with similar ceremonies, may be treated of together. Petitioners both to gods and men used to supplicate with green boughs in their hands, and crowns upon their heads, or garlands upon their necks. These boughs were commonly of olive or laurel, and were called iKT-qpioL KKdboi. Wool was wrapped around them. These fillets of wool were called ore/A- fiara. Modes of 3. With these boughs, and sometimes with their supplication, , , , hands, they touched the knees of the statue or man to whom they addressed themselves. If they had some hopes, they touched the right hand, but never the left, that being considered unlucky : if they were confident of success, they touched the face or head. Sometimes they kissed the hands and knees, and even the feet, if they were very fearful. An- other mode of supplication was by pulling the hairs off their heads, and offering them to the person to whom they prayed. Sometimes they kissed their own hands, and then stretched them towards the gods whom they worshipped. So generally was the custom of kissing practised by supplicants, that the word TTpoa-Kwclp, to adore or worship, signifies pro- perly to kiss^ They often put on rags, or mourning apparel, in order to excite compassion J". m The Molossians had a peculiar manner of supplicating, B. II. C. V. PRAYERS, SUPPLICATIONS, &C. 5? 4. The postures which they used were different : Postures, sometimes they prayed standing, sometimes sitting, but generally kneeling. They not unfrequently even prostrated themselves on the gronnd before the images, altars, and sometimes the thresholds of the temples. Those who prayed to the celestial gods stretched out their hands towards heaven; those who invoked the infernal gods prayed with their hands pointed downwards ; and the petitioners of the deities of the sea expanded their hands to- wards the sea. 5. The safest place for petitioners, either to gods Temples, altars, and or men, (next to the temples and altars,) was the hearths, the ^ ^ ^ safest place hearth or fire-place, as being the altar of Vesta foi" petition- and the household gods. When they fled to the gods for refuge or help, they used first to crown the altars with garlands, and then to make known their desires to the deity. It was usual also to take hold of the altars. 6. With respect to the Grecian imprecations, the ippreca- most dreadful were those pronounced by parents, priests, prophets, ot other sacred persons. Hence it was customary for men condemned for any noto- rious crime to be publicly cursed by the priests. diflfierent from that of all other countries ; which was practised by Themistocles, when he was pursued by the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, and forced to cast himself on the protection of Admetus, king of that country : he held the young prince (who was then a child) in his arms, and in that posture pros- trated himself before the king's household gods ; that being the most sacred mode of supplication among the Molossians. Tku- cyd. I. 136. d5 58 OATHS. P. I. Imprecations were thought so powerful, when duly pronounced, as to occasion the destruction, not only of single persons, but of whole families and cities. The Greeks called imprecations dpai and Kardpai. Twofold division of oaths. Gods by whom they generally other ob- jects by which they sometimes swore. CHAP. VI. Of the Grecian oaths. 1. It is probable that at first oaths (opKoi) were only used upon weighty and momentous occasions, yet in process of time they came to be applied to every trivial matter; which has given occasion to the distinction of oaths into that which was called 6 fieyas, and was used only on solemn occasions; and that which they termed 6 fiiKpos, which was sometimes used merely as an expletive to fill up a sentence. 2. The god who was thought more especially to preside over oaths was Jupiter ; although it was usual to swear by them all, or any of them. The women commonly swore by Juno, Diana, or Venus, or VT] TO) $€0), by the two goddesses, i. e. by Ceres and Proserpine. Men generally swore by the god to whom the business which they had in hand, or the place in which they were, belonged. Some- times, out of haste, they swore indefinitely by any of the gods, in this manner, ''O/xw/^t fieV nva rau OcStv. Others, thinking it unlawful to use the name of a god on every slight occasion, said no more than Nat fia TOP, By . Sometimes they swore by inani- mate creatures, as rivers, fountains, the sun, moon, and stars. Sometimes by the implements used in B. II. C. VI. OATHS. 59 their own professions^, as the soldier by his spear. Sometimes by men, both living and dead ; by their parents, children, and friends; and by the eyes, right hand, and head of those persons ; or by their safety, a-aTrjpia ; or their misfortunes j aXyea; or their names. 3. The manner of taking oaths was sometimes by Manner of lifting up their hands to heaven. In the fieyas opKos they frequently laid their hands upon the altar. Besides this, in all solemn leagues and cove- nants they sacrificed to the gods by whom they swore ; offering for the most part a boar, ram, or goat; sometimes all three; and now and then a bull or lamb. The ceremonies performed on such an occasion were these : they first cut some of the hair off the victim's head, and gave part of it to all present, that all might share in the oath. After this they invoked the gods to be witnesses of their agreement, and to punish the person that should first violate his oath. They then killed the victims by cutting their throats; hence the phrase opKia refiveiv, to make a 'covenant, 4. After this they made a libation of wine, which Libation, was at this time mixed, to signify the conjunction and concord between the parties; then, praying again to the gods, they poured it forth, requesting that whoever should first break his oath might have his blood or brains poured out in the same manner. The flesh of the victim was not eaten, as at other sacrifices, but buried in the ground, or cast into the d6 60 DIVINATION. P. I. Ordeal. 5. Besidcs the usual oaths, they had other ways of clearing themselves from the imputation of crime; such as creeping upon their hands through the fire, holding in their hands red hot iron, &c. ron^heidhr*^' ^' ^^ *^® ancient Greeks expressed a great re- abhorrence. g^pd for oaths, and a horror of those who violated them ; so that the term evopKos, one who keeps his oaths y is commonly used for evare^rjSy a pious person; and, on the contrary, when they wished to express a wicked, profligate wretch, they called him imopKosj perjured. The gods too, and even inanimate beings, were supposed to avenge the violation of oaths taken in their names. Notwithstanding all this, the Greeks were too apt to violate this solemn obliga- tion; particularly the Thessalians, Locrians, and Lacedaemonians, who were all proverbial for their contempt of oaths. CHAP. VII. Of the Grecian Divination in general. Artificial and 1. Those tO whom the gods were supposed to re- divination, veal future events were called fxavreis, and the word IxavTiKrj is used as a general name for all sorts of divination. It is divided by Plato, Aristotle, &c. into two sorts ; one of which is called arexvos, viar- tificial; the other rex^''<^) ariijicial. With the for- mer of these two sorts all were indued who deli- vered oracles and foretold future events by inspira- tion, without observing external signs or accidents. The latter was called artificial, because it was not obtained by immediate inspiration, but was the B. II. C. VIII. DIVINATION. 61 effect of experience and observation, as soothsaying ; or depended chiefly upon human art, invention, or imposition : such was divination by lots. 2. The different modes by which men became ac- Different •' modes of quainted with futurity were as follows : the inarti- each, ficial were, oracles and theomancy ; the artificial were, divination by dreams, by sacrifices, by birds and other animals, by lots, by ominous words and things, by appearances in the heavens, and magic. CHAP. VIII. Of the two sorts of inartificial Divination ; namely, Oracles and Theomancy. 1. Of all the sorts of divination, oracles had al- Grades, ways the greatest repute, as being supposed to pro- ceed in a more immediate manner from the gods. The principal oracles were those of Jupiter, of Apollo, of Trophonius, and of Amphiaraus, besides a number of inferior ones in different parts of Greece. 2. The most ancient oracle of Greece was that Oracle of Ju- . -rv 1 • mi • 1 11 piter at Do- of Jupiter, at Dodona m Thesprotis, where the oaks dona, and beeches in the sacred grove spoke with a human voice ; a miracle which is easily explained, by sup- posing that the priests concealed themselves in the hollows of those trees, and spoke from thence. It was also said that the oracles were delivered by two doves, a circumstance which may be explained by the word TreXeiaSe?, signifying in the language of that country, ^' old women" as well as doves. Dodona was celebrated for its fountain, at which torches were bZ DIVINATION. P. I. lighted, and for its caldron which sent forth a con- tinual sound, occasioned by the wind or some other cause ; hence the proverb xo^'^f to^ Aadavaiop, applied to a very talkative person. There was another very ancient oracle of Jupiter in Crete, and one at Elis. Oracle of 3. The oracles of Apollo were not only the most Apollo at ^ ■' Delphi. numerous, but of the greatest repute ; and amongst them the most celebrated of all was that of Delphi. It is said to have been discovered by means of some goatSj which, whilst browsing on mount Parnassus, were observed to be seized with strange antics when- ever they approached the mouth of the cavern in the mountain. This oracle was very ancient, and flourished above a hundred years before the Trojan war. The responses of the oracle were delivered by a woman called Pythia, who, after having washed her body, and especially her hair, in a fountain call- ed Castalis, and having shaken the laurel tree which grew by it, and sometimes eaten the leaves, seated herself on a sacred tripod, on which was placed a lid of a circular figure with a hole in it, called oKfxos, and thence delivered her prophecies with the voice and manner of a maniac. The time of consulting this oracle was anciently only one month in the year; afterwards the opportunities were more fre- quent, but never oftener than once a month. The answers were always delivered in Greek, and for many ages in hexameter verse. The city of Pytho or Delphi was situated on the little plain which surrounded that cleft in the ground over which the tripod was placed. This spot was supposed by the ■^^m^^ B. II. C. VIII. DIVINATION. 63 ancients to be the middle of the world, because two eagles dispatched by Jupiter at the same moment from the two extremities of the heavens are said to have met there; hence it was called yrji ofKpaXos, the navel of the earth. The first temple, concern- ing the building of which nothing is known, was succeeded by an edifice of stone, which was acci- dentally burnt in the first year of the fifty-eighth olympiad, B. C. 548. The Amphictyons then en- gaged to build another for 300 talents, one fourth of which sum was to be paid by the Delphians. The Alcmseonidae, an Athenian family, having agreed to construct the edifice of Porine stone, afterwards sub- stituted Parian marble for the front, a circumstance which is said to have given them considerable influ- ence at Delphi. The temple of Delphi was full of magnificent ofiTeringso, presented by those who had *^ A few of the most remarkable of these oiFerings were, 1. a brasen bull sent by the inhabitants of Corcyra; 2. nine statues presented by the Tegeatae after a victory over the Lacedae- monians. 3. The statues of the principal Lacedaemonian offi- cers, twenty-eight in number, who fought at vEgos-Potamos. 4. Thirteen statues by Phidias, presented by the Athenians after the battle of Marathon. 5. A statue twelve cubits high, holding an ornament of a ship, presented by the conquerors at Salamis. In the temple were several small edifices, used as treasuries by different nations. Of all these treasuries, that of the Corinthians was the richest. The temple also contained the splendid presents of Gyges and of Croesus, kings of Lydia, consisting of gold and silver vases, a lion of gold (damaged by the burning of the second temple) &c. &c. The amount of treasure when the Phocians seized on the temple was estimated at 10,000 talents. — Voyage du jeune Anacharsis, par VAhbe Barihelemi, torn. ii. c. 22. 64 DIVJNATION. P. I. at different times consulted the oracle. The most remarkable of the Pythian responses are those which Herodotus records as having been delivered to the Athenians before the invasion of Xerxes, to Croesus, Lycurgus, Glaucus the Spartan, &c. There was how- ever no difficulty in bribing the Pythia. The ora- cle at Delphi had lost its reputation at the com- mencement of the Christian era, and is said to have ceased altogether from the time when Nero, an- noyed at one of its responses, polluted it by killing men in the mouth of the cavern, out of which the sacred inspiration ascended. Apollo had also a famous oracle at Delos, to which the Athenians made a pilgrimage every year, in commemoration of a vow made by Theseus, when he was sent into Greece to be devoured by the Minotaur. The persons employed on this occasion were called Oeapol, and the ship which conveyed them (being the same which carried Theseus to Crete) Oeapis. There was also an oracle of Apollo Didymaeus, (so called from the double light imparted by him to mankind.) The place of it was also called Didyma, and belonged to the Milesians. It was also called the oracle of the Branchidse, from Branchus, a son or favourite of Apollo. This temple was burnt by Xerxes, but re- built by the Milesians after the defeat of the Per- sians. Apollo had also oracles at Abse in Phocis, at Claros in Ionia, and a vast number of other places. Oracle of 4. The oraclc of Trophonius was delivered in a Tropnonius ^ atLebadea. g^vc Underground at Lebadea, a city of Boeotia, B. II. C. VIII. DIVINATION. 65 where Trophonius is said to have buried himself alive. This oracle was first brought into repute in consequence of some Boeotians, who had gone to consult the oracle at Delphi on account of a long continued drought, having been told by Apollo to go home and consult Trophonius at Lebadea. 5. The oracle of Amphiaraus was about twelve Oracle of ^ ' Amphiaraus stadia distant from Oropus, a city on the confines "ear Oropus. of Attica and Bceotia. The temple was erected on the spot where Amphiaraus, on his way to the The- ban war, was swallowed up with his chariot and horses. There was here a remarkable altar, divided into five parts, each of which was sacred to a variety of gods. Those who came to consult the oracle were first purified by oflfering sacrifices to Amphia- raus and all the other gods whose names were in- scribed on the altar. They then oflfered a ram to Amphiaraus, and went to sleep, lying on the victim's skin, and in that posture expected a revelation by dream. Near the temple was a fountain, into which those who, by the advice of the oracle, had reco- vered out of any disease, were to cast a piece of coined gold or silver. 6. Among the inferior oracles may be remarked Oracle of /»7r^i' T^'i '-r*! iEsculapius. that of TEsculapius, at Ji-pidaurus in Peloponnesus, famous for curing diseases ; 4;he remedies of which were revealed in dreams. 7- The other sort of inartificial divination was Theomancy. theomancy, Beoixavrela, which is a compound word, consisting of two parts, by which it is distinguished from all other sorts of divination: by the former 66 DIVINATION. P. I. (Oeos) it is distinguished from artificial divination, which does not proceed immediately from the gods, being the effect of experience and observation ; by the latter {fiavnia) it is opposed to oracular divina- tion, which was confined to a stated place, whereas the 6€0fidvT€is were free and unconfined. There were three sorts of them among the Greeks, distinguished by three distinct manners of receiving the divine inspiration. 1. One sort were possessed with pro- phesying demons, which lodged within them, and spoke out of the bellies or breasts of the possessed persons, who all the while remained speechless. They were called from this circumstance iyyacrrpl- fivBoi EvpvKKels, from Eurycles, the first who prac- tised this art at Athens, and Uvdaves, from UvBav, a prophesying demon. 2. The second sort of Beofxav' rets were called iuBovo-iaa-Toi, evdeao-riKol, and QeoiT' P€v(TTai, who differed from the former in not con- taining the deity within them, but being merely in- spired and instructed by him. 3. A third sort were the iKo-rartKolj or those who were cast into trances or ecstasies, during which the soul was supposed to have left the body, and to have had strange reve- lations, which they related on coming to themselves. Under this head may be classed the prophecies which dying men were believed to utter when the soul was on the point of taking its departure from the body. B. II. C. IX. DIVINATION. 67 CHAP. IX. Of the seven sorts of artificial Divination. 1. Revelations by dreams were of three sorts. Three sort- ofrevela- 1. XprjfiaTia-ixos, when the ffods or spirits, in their tions by *• dreams. own or under any assumed form, conversed with men in their sleep. 2. "Opa/^a, in which the images of things that were to happen were plainly repre- sented in their own shape or likeness. 3. "Ovcipos, in which future events were revealed by types and figures. Those who expected dreams used to sacri- fice to Mercury before they went to bed ; and if any frightful or obscure dream appeared, they used to disclose their fears to some one of the gods. 2. Divination by sacrifices, called lepoiiavrela, or Divination . . by sacrifices. lepoa-Koma, was divided into different kinds, accord- ing to the diversity of the materials offered to the gods. They first made conjectures from the exter- nal parts and motions of the victim ; then from its entrails, from the flame in which it was consumed, from the cakes and flour, from the wine and water, and several other things. Unlucky omens were when the beast was drawn by force to the altar, or escaped by the way, or struggled violently, or espe- cially when it died suddenly, without being struck by the knife; lucky omens were when the victim seemed to meet its fate willingly. The omens de- rived from an examination of the entrails were un- lucky, when the liver, or heart, or any other of the intestines, happened to be unsound, or when any part was wanting. It was also a very bad omen if bo DIVINATION. P. I. the entrails palpitated after the dissection of the victim. In divination by the fire of the sacrifice^ good signs were when it burnt bright and purely, without smoke, and speedily consumed the victim. In a word, in all cases, if things appeared perfect and natural, the omens were good, if imperfect or unnatural, the omens were bad. Divination 3. The omeus ffiven by birds were called by the by birds. n j j Greeks opvus, olcovol, &c., and those who observed them, opveoa-KOTTOL, olavonoXoi, &c. The Grecian au- gurs, being clothed in white, with crowns of gold on their heads, made their observations with their faces turned to the north. The omens which ap- peared towards the east were considered fortunate ; those towards the west, unlucky. Some birds, as the eagle and the dove, were considered fortunate ; others, as the hawk, the swallow, and the owl, were unfortunate. A great deal also depended on the situations in which they were seen, and the manner in which they behaved. Those birds, of which the flight was observed by the augur, were called ravvir- Tepvyes, in Latin, allies; those which gave omens by their voices and singing were called adiKoi, or oscines. Owls, although unlucky every where else, were lucky at Athens, being sacred to Minerva, the protectress of the city. Many sorts of beasts and insects were also ominous. Lots. 4. Of loiSf there were two sorts most in use, viz. a-Tixofiavrda and Kkrjpofjiavrela. The first of these was a sort of divination by verses, which were written upon little slips of paper, and being put into a ves- B. ir. C. IX. DIVINATION. 69 selj were drawn out, and supposed to reveal their fate to those who drew them. Sometimes they took the works of a poet, and opening in one or more places, accepted the first verse they met with for a prediction. Kkrjpofxavreia was a sort of divination in which they made conjectures by throwing tovs kKtj- povs, lots. They cast these lots into a vessel, and having made supplication to the gods to direct them, drew them out, and, according to their characters, conjectured what should happen to them. The lots were usually black and white beans, or pebbles, or dice, distinguished by certain characters. All lots were sacred to Mercury. 5. Ominous things were of two sorts ; 1. internal. Two sorts of ominous or those which affected the person himself ; 2. ex- things, ternal, which only appeared to men, but did not affect their persons. Under the first head may be classed, marks upon the body, panic fears, (so called because attributed to Pan,) palpitations, and sneez- ing. Under the second may be reckoned, sudden blazes of light, sweating or falling down of images, monstrous and frightful births, omens offering them- selves in the 7vay, {ivoBia avfi^oXa,) such as meeting an eunuch, a black, an ape, a snake, a hare crossing the way, &c., and particularly a weasel crossing the road, which was considered very unlucky. To these may be added, omens which happened at home, as the spilling of salt, the coming in of a black dog, &c. Lastly, unlucky words were so carefully avoid- Ominous ed, that, instead of a prison, men talked of a dwell, ing, instead of calling the furies 'Epiwves, the aveng- 70 DIVINATION. P. I. ers, they called them 'Elficvidesy the benign goddesses; and so in a hundred other instances. This way of speaking prevailed chiefly at Athens. The way to avert an evil omen was, if it appeared in the form of an animal, to kill it; or if it was an unlucky speech, to retort it upon the speaker, by saying, ds K€(l)aKr)v a-oij may it fall on thy own head. It was usual also to spit into their bosoms on meeting an unlucky omen ; and lastly, they often desisted from what they were doing, and began it afresh. It may be remarked in this place, that certain days were reckoned fortunate, others unlucky. Appearance 6. Appearances in the heavens were either unlucky in the hea- . . vens. jn themselves, as eclipses of the sun and moon ; or they were fortunate or unfortunate according to the quarter of the heavens in which they appeared. Under this last head may be reckoned lightnings, meteors, &c. Earthquakes were always unlucky: thunder was lucky when heard on the right hand, unlucky when heard on the left. Magic and in- 7- The last sort of artificial divination was that cantation. hy magic and incantations; the principal kinds of which were, veKpofiavreia, in which answers were given by the dead; vbpo^avreia, or divination by water J in which they observed the swellings, colour, &c. of the water ; XeKavofxavreia, in which they threw stones into a bason, and invoked the demon, who answered them in a small voice proceeding out of the water ; oKiKrpvo^iavTeia, in which they wrote in the dust the twenty-four letters of the alphabet, and laid a grain of wheat or barley on each of them ; B. II. C. X. FESTIVALS. 71 a cock, magically prepared^ was then let loose among them, and those letters out of which he picked the corns being joined together,, were thought to declare whatever they were desirous of knowitag ; (j)apfiaK€ia, which was usually performed by certain enchanted compositions of herbs^ minerals^ &;c. To which may be addedj ^acKavia, fascination, in which the malig- nant influence darted from the eyes of envious per- sons was supposed to infect the air^ and to penetrate the bodies of animals. There were various other sorts of magical arts, and a vast number of specifics for avoiding their malignant influence. CHAP. X. Of the Grecian Festivals in general. 1 . Festivals were instituted on four accounts ; Festivals in- . -i-ii stituted oil 1. m honour of the gods, to whom, besides the wor- four ac- counts. ship every day paid them, some more solemn times were set apart ; 2. in order to obtain some special favour from the gods, or to induce them to avert some evil, as famine or pestilence; 3. in memory of deceased friends, of those who had done any re- markable service to their country, or of those who had died in defence of it ; 4. festivals were insti- tuted as times of ease and rest to labourers. 2. The ancients had few or no festivals besides Festivals in , - . 1 . 1 modern times those alter harvest and vmtage; but m later ages, ver^' numer- when there were almost as many gods as men, a vast number of games, processions, and ceremonies were introduced, and celebrated at the expense of the public. At Athens they used to compel those who 72 FESTIVALS. P. I. were thought to have too much wealth to contri- bute towards the defraying the expenses at public festivals. ' CHAP. XI. The most remarkable Grecian Festivals. 1. The Grecian festivals were so numerous as to render it impossible, in so small a work as the pre- sent, to do more than specify a few of the most re- markable among them. A very complete list, occu- pying nearly eighty octavo pages, may be found in Potter's Archseologia Graeca. Anthesteria. ANGESTHPIA, an Athenian festival, observed in honour of Bacchus, upon the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth days of the month Anthesterion. The first day was called Uidoiyia, dno tov nldovs oiyuv, i. e. because they then tapped their barrels. The second day was called Xocs, from the measure xo"^ because every man drank out of his own vessel. The third day was called Xvrpot, from x^'''P^3 ^ pot, which was brought forth full of all sorts of seeds, which were accounted sacred to the infernal Mercury. During these days the slaves were allowed to drink and make merry. Apaturia. 2. AIIATOYPIA, a festival first instituted at Athens, and from thence derived to the rest of the lonians, except those of Ephesus and Colophon. It received its name from anarri, deceit, in memory of a strata- gem by which Melanthius, king of Athens, overcame Xanthus, king of Boeotia. The festival was cele- brated in the month Pyanepsion, and lasted three B. II. C. XI. FESTIVALS. 73 days. The first was called Aopnia, from Boprros, a supper, because on that day^ at evening, each tribe had an entertainment. The second day was named ^Avdppvo-is, diro rov ava epveiv, because on that day sacrifices were offered to Jupiter and Mercury, in which the heads of the victims were turned upwards. The third day was named Kovpeans, from Kovpos, a youth, or rather from Kovpa, shaving, because the young men, who until that time had remained un- shaved, had their hair cut off previously to being registered. 3. BOHAPOMIA, an Athenian festival, called arro Boedromia. Tov ^oTjdpofielv, {from coming to help,) because it was instituted in memory of Ion, the son of Xuthus, who came to the assistance of the Athenians when they were invaded by Eumolpus, the son of Nep- tune, or, as Plutarch says, in memory of a victory obtained by Theseus over the Amazons. 4. AlAMA2TirQ2I2, a solemnity at Sparta in ho- Diamastigo- sis, nour of Diana Orthia, so named diro tov paa-nyovv, from whipping, because it was usual to whip boys upon the altar of the goddess. The origin of this custom is not distinctly known : probably it was designed for no other end than to accustom the Spartan youth to endure pain. Those who died under this discipline were buried at the public ex- pense, with garlands on their heads. 5. AIA2IA, a festival at Athens in honour of Ju-Diasia. piter, surnamed MeiKixtos, the propitious. It was so called diro tov Aios Kal ttjs aa-rjs, from Jupiter and misfortuncy because by making supplications to Ju- FESTIVALS. P. I. piter they obtained protection from dangers and misfortunes. It was celebrated about the latter end of the month Anthesterion. Dionysia. 6. AI0NY2IA, Solemnities in honour of AtoVvo-oy, Bacchus, observed at Athens with great splendour. These festivals were almost innumerable in different parts of Greece. Upon one of the solemnities of the god at Athens, the procession was led by a crowd of persons, of both sexes, dancing in ridicu- lous postures, and shouting EuoT Ba/^xfj ^^^ Ba/c^f, &c. After them came persons carrying sacred vessels ; then a select number of honourable virgins, called Kavr](})6poij because they carried little baskets of gold, filled ^vith all sorts of fruit. Next was the Uepi- p,0PIA. An anniversary at Athens in honour of Minerva, or as some say of Ceres and Proserpine. The name is said to be derived from a-Kipovj {an umbrella,) which at this time was carried in procession by the priest of Erectheus. CHAP. XII. Cff the public games in Greece, and the principal exercises used in them. Four solemn 1. There Were four public and solemn games, celebrations of games in which Were peculiarly termed lepol, sacred, and were attended by crowds of spectators from every part of Greece. Certain judges were appointed to preside at these games, and adjudge the prizes to those who merited them. These judges were called dOXoOerai, and also pa^dovxot, from the rod which they carried in their hands. 2. The principal exercises used in them were B. II. C. XII. PUBLIC GAMES. 79 comprehended in the word irivraBkov, which con- The five ^ Exercises sisted of the five exercises contained in this verse : "sed in the games. "AXfia, TTodcoKeirjVj dltTKov, aKovra, rroKrivi i. e. leaping, runnmg, throwing, darting, and wrest- ling. Instead of darting, some mention boxing. In fact, TTevraOXov seems to have been a common name for any five sorts of exercise performed at the same time. 3. "AXfxa, leaping, was performed with weights Leaping. upon their heads and shoulders, or in their hands. The place from which they leaped was called ^arrjp ; that to which they leaped, to. ia-Kcifxixepa, because it was marked by digging up the earth. 4. Apofios, running, was performed on a course Running. called a-TaBiop, being of the same extent with the measure of that name, which contains 125 paces. The stadium had two boundaries; the one where the course began, the other where it ended. The former, or starting place, was called a^ecns, ^aX^ls, ypafifirj, &c. ; and the latter, or goal to which they ran, rekos, repfxa, ypap,p,rj and aKpa ypafxfir}. He who arrived first at the goal received a prize called aSXov and ^pa^fiov. Sometimes the length of it was in- creased, and then it was called bokLxos. Sometimes they ran in armour, and were called oTrXiTodpofMoi. 5. AicTKos was a quoit of stone, brass, or iron. Quoits, which they threw by the help of a thong put through the middle of it. Persons who played at this game were called dicrKo^oKoi. 6. 'Plyjns, darting, was performed either with a Darting, javelin or rod, which they threw out of their naked e4 80 PUBLIC GAMES. P. I. hands, or by the help of a thong tied through the middle of it : the doing of which was termed dicov' Tia-fxa. Or sometimes with an arrow or little javelin, which was shot out of a bow, or cast out of a sling : the act of doing which was called to^ikti. Wrestling of ^. UaKrj, wrestUng, was of two sorts : 6p6ia ttoXtj, in which the combatants stood upright, and the vic- tory was adjudged to him who gave his adversary three falls''. It was performed in the xystus or covered portico, where two wrestlers naked, anoint- ed -with oil and sprinkled with dust^, endeavoured to throw each other do^vn ; and dvaKkivoTrakrj, in which the combatants voluntarily threw themselves down, and continued to fight upon the ground, by pinching, biting, scratching, and in all ways annoying one another. He who was vanquished signified that he yielded by lifting up his finger ; hence the prover- bial expression mpe BaKTvXov, " acknowledge yourself " defeated" Theseus improved this exercise of wrest- ling into an art. The words used to express this sort of contest were ffkl^uv, Karexeiv^ Kara^dXkeiUf prj- ^ai, [lecrov e^eiv, (rvve)((eLV, and dvTikafx^dvfcrOai. Boxing, 8. UvyiMiK^, boxing, (from ttu^, a fist,) was per- formed by combatants who held in their hands balls of stone or lead called (K^aipai. Their hands and arms were also surrounded with thongs of leather called cestuSj {Ifids ^oeios.) Those who prepared themselves for this exercise rendered themselves as q Whence the victor was called T^taxrh^ (JEscht/l. Agamem- non. 180.) Hence the phrase uxovtrt vixZv, to conquer without labour. B. II. C. XII. ^ PUBLIC GAMES. 81 fat as possible before they engaged. Boxers aimed their blows principally at the face of their adver- sary. The effects of these blows were called virdyma. The two exercises of wrestling and boxing were comprehended under the term irayKpaTLou. 9. Besides these games^ there were horse-races. Horse races. which were either performed by single horses, called Kekrjresj or by two horses, on one of which they per- formed the race, and leaped on the other at the goal. These men were called dva^drai. There were also chariot-races, in which all the horses, whatever their number might be, were placed side by side. The principal part of the charioteer's skiU consisted in avoiding the goals. There were also contests of music, poetry, recitation, &c. 10. The names of the four sacred games were, the Olympian, ° Pythian, Olympian, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isth- Nemean, and mian. The Olympian games were so called fromga"»es- Olympian Jupiter, in whose honour, it is said, they were first instituted by Hercules. After having been laid aside for many years, they were reinsti- tuted by Iphitus, who was contemporary with Ly- curgus, the Spartan legislator, about 884 years be- fore Christ. After this time the Olympiads were again neglected until the time of Choroebus, who lived B. C. 77^, from which time the Olympiads are reckoned. Women were forbidden, on pain of death, to be present at these games. The games commenced on the 11th day of Hecatombaeon, and continued for five days. The descendants of Iphi- tus presided during the space of 200 years. After- E 5 82 PUBLIC GAMES. J P. I. wards the office was held by two persons chosen by- lot from the whole nation of the Eleans, and at length each Elean tribe appointed one. These offi- cers were named *EXXj;i/oSiW or judges of Greece. They adjudged the prizes, inflicted whipping or fines on any of the candidates who behaved unfairly, and had the power of excluding individuals, and even whole nations, from the games. None were per- mitted to contend who were not of Greek origin s, and who had not spent ten months in preparatory exercises. Of all the games the chariot-race was the most magnificent. The chariot, which had only two wheels, and was open in front and behind, was driven twelve times round a pillar at each extremity of the course ; and as, in order to save distance, they ap- proached as closely as possible to this pillar, the chariots were often overturned and broken. They generally drove four horses abreast. Chariots drawn by mules were called anr^vai, and those drawn by a pair of horses crvvfopih^s. To preserve order, certain officers called akirai. (who were the same as the pa/S- 8o(j)6poi of other Greeks) were appointed by the Eleans. The order of the wrestlers was appointed by lots which were thrown into a silver urn called KoXTTts, each lot being marked with a letter. Those who drew the same letter wrestled together; and s In his youth, Alexander the first, son of Amyntas, king of Macedon, was desirous of contending in the foot-race at Olym- pia. The judges objected to him on the ground of his not being a Greek, and it was not until he had proved his family to have come originally from Argos, that they granted him per- mission to attend. B. II. C. XII. PUBLIC GAMES. 83 if there happened to be an uneven number, he who drew the odd pellet wrestled with him who had last conquered; hence he was called €(f)€bpos, as coming after the rest. The conquerors (called Olympionicae) received a crown of olive, called in Greek kotivos, and their statues were erected at Olympia, in the sacred wood of Jupiter. They also returned in triumph to their native cities, a breach being made in the walls to admit them. The Olym- pian games were celebrated near Olympia in Elis every fifth year^. 11. The Pythian games were instituted by Apollo pythian himself, in commemoration of his victory over the ^'^™*^" serpent Python ; or, as some say, by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion. They were originally celebrated s It is generally supposed that the people of Pisa (a city on the left bank of the Alpheus, six stadia from Olympia) were in possession of the temple of Olympia, and presided at the cele- bration of the games from the earliest period of their institu- tion until their rights were usurped by the Eleans and Hera- cHdae. They did not however tamely submit to this injury on the part of their more powerful neighbours, and having pro- cured the assistance of Phidon, tyrant of Argos, recovered Olympia, where in the eighth Olympiad they again celebrated the festival; but the Eleans in their turn obtaining succour from Sparta defeated Phidon, and once more expelled the Pi- satae from Olympia. The Pisatae again recovered possession in the thirty-fourth Olympiad. The final struggle took place in the forty-eighth Olympiad, when the people of Pisa, as Pausa- nias affirms, supported by the Triphylians and other neigh- bouring towns which had revolted from Eb's, made war upon that state. The Eleans however, aided by Sparta, proved vic- torious, and put an end for ever to the contest by the destnic- tion of Pisa and the other confederate towns. — Cramer, Descrip- tion of Greece, vol. iii. p. 94, 95. E 6 84 » PUBLIC GAMES. P. I. every ninth year, but afterwards once in five years, near the temple at Delphi. Musical contests occu- pied a conspicuous place at these games ; and there was always a hymn sung, called UvOikos vofiosj ac- companied by a dance, and consisting of five parts, in which the fight of Apollo and Python was repre- sented. The prizes were at first silver or gold, but were afterwards changed into a garland. Nemean 12. The Ncmean games were so called from Ne- games. C) mea, a village and grove between the cities Cleonse and Phlius, where they were celebrated every third year. The exercises were chariot-races, and all the games of the pentathlum. The presidents were chosen out of Corinth, Argos, and Cleonae, and were dressed in black, because these were funeral games in honour of Archemorus : for which reason also the victors were crowned with parsley, as being a herb used at funerals. Isthmian 13. The Isthmian games were so called from the games. place where they were celebrated, viz. the Corin- thian Isthmus, a neck of land by which Pelopon- nesus is joined to the continent. By whom these games were instituted seems very uncertain, and various conjectures have been hazarded on the sub- ject. They were observed every third, or rather every fifth year. The victors were rewarded with garlands of pine-leaves; afterwards parsley was given them ; but in process of time it was left off, and the pine-tree came again into use. B. III. C. I. ON THE ARMIES OP THE GREEKS. 85 BOOK III. OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF GREECE. CHAP. la. Preliminary remarks on the Armies of the Greeks. 1 . Notwithstanding the frequency of wars in The art of ^ 1 /> T 1 1 .1 ^^^ made Greece, the art of war did not make any consider- little pro- gress in able advance. The civil and other institutions op- Greece. posed too many obstacles ; and war never became a regular science until standing armies were intro- duced. For the proof of this we need only look to history. There were some individual commanders of great merit ; but what they effected was merely personal. 2. After the republican constitutions of the Causes. Greeks were established, their armies consisted chiefly of national troops or militia. Every citizen was obliged to serve, unless the state made parti- cular exception. Every citizen was therefore a sol- dier; even the resident aliens were not always spared ; and there were times of distress when the very slaves were armed, usually on a promise of manumission if they should do their duty. Consi- dering indeed the small size of the Grecian states, it was the less to be expected that any of them could assemble a large army, if the slaves were not en- rolled. Even where every one was put in motion, a This chapter is abridged (by permission) from Professor Heeren's " PoKtical History of Ancient Greece." Too much can hardly be said in praise of the design of this admirable work. ON THE ARMIES OP THE GREEKS. P. I. Large armies could not be raised with- out the union of several states. Such alli- ances only temporary, and there- fore the art of war was not much ad- vanced by them. After the battle of PlatBea the navy was of more im- portance than the army. Less im- provement made during the Pelopon- nesian war than might the number remained limited; not more than 10;,000 Athenians fought on the plain of Marathon. Large armies could be collected only by the union of many states ; and of these armies the most nu- merous ever assembled in Greece during its inde- pendence was engaged in the battle of Platsea. But these extensive alliances were commonly of a temporary nature; and on that account the art of war could not be much advanced by them. From the battle of Platsea until the age of Epaminondas, that is, during the most flourishing period of Greece, a Grecian army of 30,000 men was probably never assembled in one place. 3. The Persian war seems to have been better adapted to the improvement of military science; but after the battle of Plataea, it was the navy and not the land forces which became of decisive influ- ence. After that battle no other of importance was fought by land ; no large Grecian army was again brought into the field. By maintaining the ascend- ancy in the yEgean sea, Greece was protected. The petty wars, which after the victories over the Per- sians were carried on between the several states, could not contribute much to the advancement of the art. They consisted only of single expeditions, and were decided by single insignificant engage- ments. 4. No considerable improvement could therefore be expected until the time of the Peloponnesian war, in which all Greece was involved. This war however, being carried on more by sea than by land. B. III. C. I. ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. 87 no ereat battle was fought on land during its whole have been ° ° ^ ^ =* expected. course. The art of besieging perhaps made some progress in the expedition against Syracuse; but as this expedition terminated in the total destruction of the army_, it could have no permanent effects. 5. Until the age of Epaminondas, Sparta and Causes <=> i- A which pre- Athens are the only states which attract our atten- vented spar- •' ta from tion. In Sparta^ where the militia resembled ^^^y^nceT-^^^ standing army, it would seem that the art of war JJ^^^j.^^^* °^ might have made som€ advances. But two causes prevented it. The one was the obstinate attach- Cause i. ment to ancient usage, which rendered changes and improvements difficult. The other was the remark- Cause 2. able scarcity of great commanders. The talents of Pausanias, limited in their exercise by the regula- tions of his native city, proved ruinous to himself by making him a traitor. Leonidas has our admiration for his greatness as a man, not as a general: and the impetuous Brasidas, well fitted to be the hero of a revolutionary war like the Peloponnesian, fell in the very beginning of his career, and no worthy suc- cessor appeared until Lysander and Agesilaus. And of the first of these two, it is known that he placed more reliance in the Persian subsidies than in his own resources. 6. More might have been expected from Athens. Causes But m that state the army was subordinate to the vented T IT • . . . 1 . Athens from navy. Its allies were maritime cities, and assisted becoming more skil- with ships rather than with troops; and the fate offuiinmm. tary affairs. Athens was decided on the sea, gloriously at Sala- Cause i. mis, and fatally in the Hellespont. Such were the 88 ON THE ARMIES OP THE GREEKS. P. I. Cause 3, general obstacles ; others arose from the manner in which the military affairs of the Grecians were regu- lated. At Athens for instance^ and several other cities, we may mention the situation of the com- manders; for in these cities not one but several generals shared the chief command with one an- other, and even that usually for a short time. In states where a militia exists, the political divisions are usually military in their origin. Such was the case with the tribes at Athens. The ten (})v\a\ had each its own leader; and these together were the generals. There was a similar regulation in Boe- otia. Cause 3. 7, Another still greater obstacle was the circum- stance that the troops were not paid. Before the Peloponnesian war, or at least before the adminis- tration of Pericles, no pay was given in Athens or any Grecian city, except perhaps Corinth. From that period the custom of paying the troops was so far introduced, that those who had actually taken the field received a small compensation. Now it is evident that he who receives nothing from the state will not submit to its commands. Another 8. Besides these difficulties there was in many cause in many states states another, arising from the weakness of the arising from ^ the want of cavalrv, or a total want of it. Homer makes no cavalry. •' ■' mention of cavalry. It does not seem to have been introduced in the Grecian states until after the esta- blishment of republican forms of government ; since, according to the remark of Aristotle, the opulent citizens found in it at once a support of their power B. III. C. I. ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. o9 and a gratification of their vanity. But whether a city could have cavalry depended on the nature of its territory^ and the quantity of pasture which it possessed. Athens^, where so much attention was paid to the subject^ never had more than a thousand horsemen ; Sparta appears before Agesilaus to have had few, or perhaps originally none at all ; the Pe- loponnesus was little fitted for cavalry ; and Thes- saly, the only state of the mother country which possessed any considerable body of horse, was not ren^rkably skilful in making use of it. Where it existed, none but wealthy citizens could serve in it, for the service was expensive. 9. Previously to the Macedonian age, the dis- Arms and equipments tmction between heavy and light horse seems to of the ca- ^ ^ valry. have been unknown in Greece. The Athenian horsemen were equipped much like a modern cuiras- sier, with breast-plate, helmet and greaves, and even the horses were partly covered. The Thessalian cavalry was probably not very light, as Pausanias speaks of the horsemen who were thrown down, as of the in- being unable to rise. With respect to the infantry, the difference between heavy and light armed troops Heavy prevailed throughout Greece. The former were armed for the attack and close conflict. They wore a coat of mail and helmet ; the rest of the body was protected by the shield. For the attack they had Light troops. both spear and sword. The light troops unencum- bered with armour, carried the javelin, with bow and arrows. The weapons therefore continued the same as those which we find used in the Homeric age. 90 ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. P. I. Tactics. Battle of Marathon, B. C. 490. Weapons not Many attempts however were made to improve materially . changed them in various respects, but before the Macedo- until the Ma- ^ cedonianage. nian age we hear of no changes which could give a new character to the whole. 10. With respect to that art which relates to the positions and manoeuvres of armies^ all of which are comprehended under the term tactics, we shall best be able to judge of the progress of the Greeks by comparing together some of the principal engage- ments, of which detailed accounts have been pre- served. In the Persian war, the victory of Mara- thon was the first splendid military action of the Greeks, or rather of the Athenians. Athens owed it to the heroic spirit of Miltiades. It was he who turned the scale when it was still a question, whe- ther a battle should be ventured or not. The voices of the ten generals, of whom Miltiades was one, were divided ; the eleventh vote of the Polemarch was to decide. At this moment Miltiades rose and addressed the Polemarch Callimachus, and by his ar- guments induced him to adopt his opinion. Miltia- des himself could not then have foreseen how much depended on that moment. But besides the talents of the general, who knew how to avail himself of his position to cover his wings, the victory was not less decided by the discipline of the Athenian mili- tia, accustomed to preserve their ranks while ad- vancing with rapidity. They ran to the encounter, the first of the Greeks who had done so. The wings of the enemy were discomfited ; and the name of Miltiades became immortal. B. III. C. I. ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. 91 11. The battle of Plataea, which happened eleven Battle of years later^ is one of those of which we have the b- c. 479- most accurate accounts. The motions of the army on the preceding days give it an importance for the student of tactics. In his manoeuvres the Persian general seems to have been superior to the Grecian ; for he cut off all their communications, and all sup- plies of water, and compelled them to change their encampment. But the superior strength of the Per- sian cavalry made every motion of the Greeks diffi- cult ; and Pausanias had besides greater difficulties to contend with in the little power which he pos- sessed over his allies and even over his own Spar- tans. And yet the Greeks obtained a splendid vic- tory ; but it was far more the result of the desperate attack made by the Tegeans and Spartans than of skilful manoeuvring. 12. Of the battles which the able and successful Mmtary an not advancea Cimon won of the Persians, history has preserved g^^j^J^^y^^t'^' no details ; but yet enough to shew that the military art was not advanced by them. The first campaign of the Peloponnesian war shews beyond dispute that the art of war had made but little progress. The case was changed, when, after this war, Sparta con- tended for the rank which she had won, but was obliged to yield the ascendency to Thebes. Then The army be- comes of im- the decision was made bv armies and not bv navies, po^t^n^^ *» •^ •' the Spartans In the view of those states therefore armies rose in ^^^ Thebes. importance. 13. Agesilaus was a model not only of a Spar- Agesiiaus. tan, but a Greek general. In the Spartan mode of 92 ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. P. I. Epaminon- das. war he made one change ; in his wars against the Persians in Asia he was the first to form a numerous cavalry, and to shew that he knew the use of it. 14. The higher branches of the art of war began to be understood with Epaminondas. With an in- ferior force this great general had to cope with a more powerful adversary. It did not escape him that he could not succeed with the received order of battle, in which one line was drawn up in front of the other. Hence he determined to concentrate the attack in one point with a part of his army, and his object was there to break through the enemy's line. In this manner he was triumphant at Leuctra, where he fell upon the right wing of the Spartans. But at Leuctra the success of the Theban cavalry first turned the fortune of the day ; it was at Man- tinea that, for the first time, a full application was made of the new tactics, which are described to us by one thoroughly acquainted with the subject. ^' Epaminondas," says Xenophon, " advanced with " his army like a galley with threatening prow ; " sure that if he could once break through the line " of his adversaries, a general flight would ensue." The art of war which was thus invented deserved the name, and was that which insured to Alexander the victory on the Granicus. Mercenaries. 15. The use of mercenaries in Greece may be traced to a very remote period. The tyrants were doubtless the first to introduce it. The force, how- ever, did not always consist of foreigners, but rather, especially in the earlier times, of an armed body of Battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371. Battle of Man tinea, B.C. 363. B. III. C. I. ON THE ARMIES OF THE GREEKS. 93 the citizens. Hired troops began to be employed in Hired troops , ^ . . . 1 . . . first used in the Grecian cities at a later period. In the beeinninff the Peiopon. . o o jiesian war. of the Persian war, at Marathon and at Plataea, we hear nothing of them. In the Peloponnesian war they were occasionally, and afterwards almost uni- versally employed. The cause of this was partly Cause, the luxury introduced after the Persian invasion, which rendered the rich unwilling to encounter the hardships of war, and partly the increase in the number of the poor caused by the numerous revo- lutions produced by the Peloponnesian war. The Persian subsidies first enabled the Spartans to hire troops ; but the Persians soon hired in their turn ; and no mercenaries were so acceptable to them as the Grecian. We need only mention the ten thou- sand whom Clearchus led to Cyrus the younger, and with whom Xenophon effected his retreat, to be convinced that great numbers followed this kind of life. The natural consequence of all this wasj that Conse- quences of he who had the most money had the most power ; this system, and Greece learned (what Carthage also learned with a more melancholy certainty) that a state which trusts to mercenary troops must finally trem- ble before them. " Unless we are careful," says Isocrates to Philip, " to provide for the support of " these people by establishing colonies of them, " they will soon collect in vast troops, and be more " formidable to the Greeks than the barbarians." — We learn from Xenophon's retreat that they were formidable to their own commanders. 94 LEVIES AND PAY OF SOLDIERS. P. I. CHAP. II. Of the levies J provisions, and pay of the Grecian soldiers. Age of ad- I. The Grecian armies consisted for the most mission into . . /• i • the Grecian part of free Qenizens_, whom the laws or their coun- armies. try obliged^ when arrived at a certain age, to ap- pear in arms upon the summons of the magistrate or commissioned officer. In some states they were admitted into the army at an earlier age than in others. At Athens, for instance, young men of eighteen were appointed to guard the city, with the forts belonging to it; from their going about to visit which they were called irepiirciXoi : but they were not sent to foreign wars until twenty ; and the Spartans seldom until thirty. Exemptions. 2. Persous Were excused from serving on account of their age; it being usual in most places to allow them to retire after sixty, and in Athens after forty, except in times of extreme danger. Others were exempt on account of their functions ; such were several of the sacred orders, and some officers, whose presence at home could not be dispensed with. Slaves and foreigners were not allowed to enter the army, except in cases of the most immi- nent danger. Pay and 3. All that served were entered in a public roll provision ^ x, j j • money. called Karaypa<^r], or Kardkoyog, and were branaed m the hand with certain marks called ariy fiara a. The a The practice does not appear to have prevailed before the time of the Roman emperors. It is first mentioned by -iEtius, B. III. C. II. LEVIES AND PAY OP SOLDIERS. 95 soldiers in the earlier ages were all maintained at their own expense, and it was considered infamous to receive pay. The Carians were the first who broke through this custom, and were considered base and servile for so doing; but afterwards pay was generally received by all the nations of Greece. Pericles first introduced the custom of paying sol- diers at Athens. The payment was made under two different names; 1. wages, (fxiados,) out of which the soldiers were obliged to furnish their arms and clothes ; and, 2. provision-money, {crirq- picriov, (TLTapKCLa, alros.) The pay of an oTrKiTrjs was never less than two oboli a day, and the provision- money amounted to the same sum. The cavalry received a drachma a day. The life of a soldier on account of their rate of pay was proverbially called TCTpoi^oXov /3tos. Each hoplites had an attendant {vnrjpeTrjs, a-Kevo(f)6po9) who carried his baggage, shield, &c. : the cavalry were also attended each by a groom. Wherever the army halted there was generally a market established for provisions, and the soldiers were moreover generally furnished with a quantity of wheat and parched barley. 4. The money for all these purposes was gene- Mode of rally raised at Athens by means of the contributions money for •' •' ^ these pur- of tributary cities, public lands, woods, mines, &c.; poses, and, when these resources failed, by imposing a tax on the whole commonwealth ; or, in cases of great a Greek physician, who lived in the reign of Justinian, when the Romans were masters of Greece as well as of the rest of the world. DIFFERENT SORTS OF SOLDIERS. P.I. necessity, by laying extraordinary burdens on the richer citizens. Confederate wars were maintained at the common charge of all the allies, every one being obliged to send a proportion of men. The first tax or tribute which we find paid by the Gre- cians for this purpose was after the expulsion of Xerxes out of Greece, when they agreed to invade their common enemy under the command of the Athenians. On this occasion the inhabitants of all the towns were assessed, each according to his ability, by certain Athenian commissioners, called 'EXKrjvoraiiiaij who held their meetings in the temple of Apollo in Delos. CHAP. III. Of the different sorts of soldiers. 1. The Grecian armies were composed of vari- ous sorts of soldiers: their gross or main body usually consisted of infantry; the rest rode, some in chariots, some on horseback, others upon ele- phants. The foot soldiers were distinguished into three sorts : 1. 'OTrXTrat, who bore heavy armour, and en- ^iA«r. gaged with broad shields, and long spears. 2. ■'J'iXoi, light-armed, who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, annoying their enemy at a dis- tance, but being unfit for close fight. They were inferior in dignity to the heavy-armed soldiers. naraffra). 3. HeXraoTat, a middle sort, between the heavy and light armed, being furnished with spears and shields, but far inferior in size to those of the heavy-armed Diflfe'ent sorts "f sol diers. Oct Xt«;. B. III. C. III. DIFFERENT SORTS OF SOLDIERS. 97 men. The name is taken from their narrow shields, called TreXrat. 2. Chariots are generally supposed to have been chariots. the mode in which the most ancient heroes were conveyed to battle. The chariots in Homer are drawn by two horses coupled together. Sometimes they added a third, which was not coupled with the other two, but governed with reins, and usually called in Homer nap^opos. JSvery chariot carried two men ; whence it was called dLaX6s, a boss, jutting out. in the middle of the buck- ler, upon which was fixed another protuberant part, termed €7rop(f)aXiov. 3. TeXa/xcbi/, a thong of leather, and sometimes a rod of metal, reaching across the buckler, by which th'ey hung it on their shoulders. B. III. C. IV. ARMOUR, WEAPONS, &C. 101 Sometimes the bucklers had small rings called nop- iraKes, but at length most of the Greeks used a han- dle denominated oxavov or oxavr^, (from exw, to hold.) Most of the bucklers were curiously adorned with all sorts of figures of birds and beasts : the form of them was usually round. The buckler was consi- dered the chief of all their arms, and the loss of it was deemed very disgraceful. 9. There were also shields of smaller sizes, and^^.^f^ shields. other forms. 1. Teppov, or y^ppa, was squared like the figure rhombus, and first used by the Persians. 2. Qvpeos was oblong, and usually bending inward. 3. Aaicrrj'iov seems to have been shaped like the for- mer, and composed of hides with the hair on. 4. IleXr?; was a small and light buckler in the form of a half-moon, or, as some say, of an ivy leaf; and was first used by the Amazons. 10. The only offensive weapons used by the an-ofrensive weapons. cients were stones and clubs. In later ages, the principal of their offensive weapons were, ^'yxos, or 86pv, the lance, the body of which was composed of Lance, wood, usually ash ; and the head, alxfirj, of metal. There was also a sort of spike called a-avpaTTjp, which was hollow at one end, where it was fixed into the bottom of the spear ; and sharp at the other, which, being thrust into the ground, kept the spear erect when the soldiers rested from the toils of war. 11. Slcjiosj the sword, which, according to ancient Sword. custom, was hung in a belt put round the shoulder. Whether they wore the sword on the right or the left side is not distinctly known ; perhaps sometimes p3 102 ARMOUR, WEAPONS, &C. P. I. on the one, and sometimes on the other. The scab- bard was called koXcos. Close to the sword was hung a dagger, eyxeipldiov, and in Homer fxdxaipa. Pole-axe. 12. *A^ivT] and ireXcKvs, a sort of pole-axe; one of which was single-headed, the other double. Bow, arrows, 13. To^ov, the bow, generally composed of wood, but anciently of horn ; whence it was called K€pas. The bowstring, vevpov, was composed of horse-hair; and the uppermost part of the bow, Kopavrj, was generally of gold. The arrows, iSeX?;, oiVrot, tot, were usually made of light wood, and had an iron head, and were winged with feathers. They were carried to the battle in a quiver, j"^tJo" 3. The nomination of the generals was made in and the du- » *e^ner^i?^ an assembly of the people convened in the Pnyx ; and the same persons were frequently re-elected. Before their admission to office, they took an oath of fidelity to the commonwealth ; in which oath there was one remarkable clause, viz. that they obliged themselves to invade the Megareans twice every year^. The command of all the forces was then put into their hands, to be employed as they judged convenient, with the understanding, how- ever, that at the expiration of their command they were to render an account of their administration : only on some extraordinary occasions it seemed fit to exempt them from this restraint, and then they were styled avTOKparopes. These commanders were ten, according to the number of the Athenian tribes, and all called (TTparr^yoX, being invested with equal power, and frequently dispatched all together on expeditions of importance, where they enjoyed the supreme command by turns, each for a day. But lest, in controverted matters, an equality of voices plan, of merely mentioning those in the Athenian and Lacedae- monian armies. c This clause was first inserted in the oath on account of the murder of Anthemocritus, an Athenian hei'ald, whom the Me- gareans had basely assassinated, about the beginning of the Pe- loponnesian war. B. III. C. V. OFFICERS IN THE ARMIES. 105 should retard their proceedings, there was an ele- venth person joined in commission with them^ and called TToXeixapxosj who gave a casting vote. To this officer the command of the left wing of the army belonged of right. 4. Afterwards, however, it was deemed unneces- some of the generals re- sary for so many generals to be sent out together : ™^^"?^ '" accordingly some of them remained in the city, and were called tovs inl rrjs dioLKrjo-ecos ; whilst others joined the army^ and were called tovs eVi rau onXav. The former of these ordered all the affairs of war in the city ; the latter enlisted and disbanded soldiers, as there was occasion, and had the whole manage- ment of war during their continuance in that post, which seems not to have been long, it being cus- tomary for the generals who remained in the city to take their turns of serving in the war. 5. Ta^iapxoi were also ten, (every tribe having the Taxiarchus. privilege of electing one,) and were next in com- mand to the (TTpaTrjyoh They had the care of mar- shalling the army, gave orders for the marches, and what provisions every soldier should furnish himself with. They had also power to cashier any of the common soldiers, if convicted of misdemeanours. Their jurisdiction was only over the infantry. 6. 'iTTTrapxol were only two in number, and had Hipparchus. the chief command of the cavalry under the a-rpa- Tqyoi. 7- ^vXapxoi were ten, (one being nominated by phyiarchus. every tribe.) They were subordinate officers to the IwTrapxolj and were invested with authority to dis- r5 106 OFFICERS IN THE ARMIES. P. I. charge horsemen, and fill up the vacancies, as occa- sion required. The inferior officers usually derived their titles from the squadron, or number of men, under their command ; as, 'Koxayol, xi^tapxai, iKarovrapxoi, &c. Commander- ^' -^^ Sparta, the Supreme command was lodged s"parta. ** ^^ ^^^ person, except on very extraordinary occa- sions, when each of the kings took the command of an army : such occasions, however, were extremely rare, the Spartans having in very early times ex- perienced the inconvenience of having two com- manders. power"ofthe ^' "^^^ general's title was ^dyosj although some general. contend that this title was common to all military officers. He was ordinarily one of the kings of Sparta ; but in cases of necessity, as in the king's minority, a protector or viceroy, called 7rp68iK0Sj was substituted for the management of military as well as civil affairs. The king's powers, although very great, were in some measure restrained by the pre- sence of some of the ephori, who accompanied him on every expedition in the quality of advisers. To these, on some occasions, others were joined. Jnhe^s^I?^ 10. Besides these, the general was guarded by tan general, three hundred valiant Spartans, called tVTj^ey, or horsemen, who fought about his person. Before him fought all those who had obtained prizes in the sacred games; and this was considered one of the most honourable posts in the army. The chief of the subordinate officers was called noXefiapxos. The names of the rest were derived B.III.C.VI. DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE ARMY. 107 from the divisions under their command; as, \oxa- yayyolj TreprrjKoo-T^pes, ivcofiorapxaij &c. CHAP. VI. Of the several divisions and forms of the Grecian army. 1. The whole army, as composed of horse and J^i^isions of •^ ^ the army. foot, was called a-rparia. The front, fiercoTrov, or Trpco- Tos C^os ; the right-hand man of which was called irpcoToa-rdrqs. The wings, Kepara ; the soldiers in which were called irapaaToxm, and those in the mid- dle ranks cmarTaTai. The rear was called ea-xaros ^v- yos, or ovpa; and the person who brought up the rear ovpayos, or oTnaOocjyvXa^. 2. UefiTras was a party of five soldiers : its leader Pempas. Tre fiTrddapxos. AeKas, a party of ten : its leader Se^ca- Bapxos; and so of the rest. 3. Aoxos consisted generally of sixteen men, some- Lochus. times perhaps of twenty-four or twenty-five : its leader was called \oxay6s. Aifioipla, or ffp.CKoxi-a, was a half \6xos : its leader was called dipioipiTrjs, or fjlllKoXlTTJS. 4. Iva-raa-is consisted of two Xo'xot, or thirty-two Systasis. men. 5. UevTrjKovTapxia, although the name signifies a Pentecontar- command of fifty, was generally a double crixrrao-iSj consisting of four \6xoi, or sixty-four men. Its leader was not only termed irevT-qKovrapxos, but re- rpapxr)£. 6. 'EKarovrapxiaj sometimes called rd^is, consisted Hecatontar- of two of the former, containing 128 men. Its com- F 6 108 DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE ARMY. P. I mander was anciently called ra^iapxos, but afterwards iKUTovTapxos. To every iKarovrapxia were assigned five necessary attendants^ called tKraKroi, as not be- ing reckoned in the ranks of the soldiers. These were, 1. ^rparoKripv^, the crier, who conveyed by voice the word of command. 2. l,r}ix€io<^6po9, the signal-man, conveyed by signs the officers' com- mands to the soldiers; and was of use when the noise of war drowned the crier's voice. 3. 2aX- iriyKTrjs, the trumpeter, was necessary as well to sig- nify to the soldiers the will of their commanders, when dust rendered the two former useless, as to animate and encourage them. 4. 'YTrrjpeTTjs was a servant that waited on the soldiers, to supply them with necessaries. These four were placed next to the foremost rank. 5. Ovpaybs, the lieutenant^ brought up the rear, and took care that none of the soldiers were left behind or deserted. Syntagma. 7. 2vPTayfia was made up of two rd^ets, or 256 men. The commander was called (TvvTayfiaTdpxr}s, Pentacosiar- 8. HevraKoa-iapxta contained two crvvTayfiaTa, or chia. 512 men. The commander was irevTaKoa-idpxrjs. chiiiarchia. 9. XiXtapx'a was the former doubled, and consisted of 1024 men. The commander x'-^^o.px^^' Merarchia. 10. Mipapx^o., by some Called Ttkos, contained two of the former, i. e. 2048 men. The commander, /xe- pdpxr)S, or Te\dpxr]S. Phalangar- 11. ^aXayyapx^a, sometimes called fiepos, d7rorop.rj Keparos, and by the ancients a-rpaTTfyia, was com- pounded of two tcXt/, and contained 4096 men. The officer, (fiaXayydpxvs and arrparr^ybs. chia B. III. C. VI. DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE ARMY. 109 12. AicjiaXayyia, Kepas, or eVira-y/na, was almost a Diphalangia. duplicate of the former^ for it consisted of 8132 men. The commander's title was Kepdpxrjs. 13. T€Tpa(f)a\ayyapxia contained about two St<^a- Tetraphalan- Xayyiai, or 16,384 men. The commander, rerpa(\>a- Xayydpxqs. 14. ^dXay^ is sometimes taken for a party ofphaianx. twenty-eight men, sometimes of 8000 ; but a com- plete phalanx is said to be the same with TeTpa(f)a- Xayyapxia. Several other numbers are signified by this name, it being frequently taken for the whole body of foot, or for any company of soldiers. 1. MrjKos (f)dXayyos was the length or first rank of the phalanx, reaching from the furthest extremity of one wing to that of another. It is the same with fieraTTov, aropa, C^yos, &c. The ranks behind were called according to their order, Bevrepos C^yos, rpirosy &c. 2. Bddosy or irdxos ^aXayyos, sometimes called ToTxos, was the depth, consisting in the number of ranks from front to rear. 3. ZvyoX <^dXayyos were the ranks taken according to the length of the pha- lanx. 4. 2x1X0 1, or Xo^ot, were the files, measured according to the depth. 5. AixoTOfiia (^dXayyos, the distribution of the phalanx into two equal parts, which were termed irX^vpai, or Kepara, wings. 6. ''A- paposy or a-vvoxn (f)dXayyos, the body or middle part between the wings. The (t)dXay^ had a variety of names from the form of battle in which the men were ranged. Thus we read of €7nKap.7rf}s (jtdXay^, a phalanx in the form of a half moon ; irXivOiov, an army drawn up in the figure of a brick or tile, &c. 110 MANNER OP MAKING PEACE, &C. P. I. Lacedaemo- 15. The Lacedsemonian divisions of their army nian divi- sions, had peculiar names. The whole army was divided into fio^pai, or regiments. What number of soldiers was arranged in each is uncertain, perhaps from 400 to 700. The commander, or colonel, was called tto- Xefiapxos : his lieutenant, a-vfjicfyopevs. Lochos. 16. Aoxos was the fourth part of a fxopa. Pentecostys. J 7, U€VTr)KO(TTvs was the fourth part, or, as others say, the half, of a \6xos, and contained fifty men. Enomotia. Jg. ^EvafioTia was the fourth part, or, according to otherfe, the half, of nevTrjKoa-Tvs ; and was so called because all the soldiers in it were ivafwroi bia a-(j)a' yiav, bound hy a solemn oath upon a sacrifice to be faithful to their country. The commander was called ivafxoTapxoSy or iva>ixorapxT^s. Biotions of 19. The motions of the soldiers at their officers' the soldiers. command were termed kK'ktcls. Thus, kKIo-ls iirX dopv, to the right; because they managed their spears with their right hands : kXIo-is eir dcnrlba, to the left, &c. Teachers of 20. It may be observed, that the Greeks were military tac- •' tics. ygj.y skilful in military manoeuvres, and maintained public professors, called raKriKoi, (from Tarreti/,) who exercised the youth in this art, and rendered them expert in all the forms of battle, before they ven- tured into the field. CHAP. VII. Of their manner of making peace and declaring war, their ambassadors, S^c. senred before ^' ^^^^re the Grecians engaged in war, it was B.III. C.VII. AMBASSADORS, LEAGUES, &C. Ill usual to publish a declaration of the injuries which engaging in they had received, and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors. Invasions without notice were looked upon rather as robberies than lawful wars. 2. Ambassadors were either sent with a limited Ambassa- dors. commission which they were not to exceed, or with full powers to act according to the best of their judgment, whence they were called irpeo-^as avroKpd- Topesy plenipotentiaries. 3. Their leagues were of three sorts: 1. Sttoi/S^, Three sorts ^ _ of leagues. a-vpOrjKTjj or elprjvrjj whereby both parties were obliged to cease from all acts of hostility, and neither to molest one another, nor the confederates of either. 2. 'Emimxlaj whereby they obliged themselves to assist one another in case they should be invaded. 3. ^vjifiaxia, whereby they covenanted to assist one another, as well when they made invasions upon others, as when they were themselves invaded, and to have the same friends and enemies. All these covenants were solemnly confirmed by mutual oaths, and engraven upon tablets, which were fixed up at places of general concourse. Others exchanged certain tessera, in Greek a-vfi^oXaj which might be produced on any occasion as evidence of the agreement. It was usual also for states thus united interchangeably to send ambassadors, who, on some appointed day, should openly repeat, and, by mutual consent, confirm their former treaty. 4. Their manner of declaring war was, after hav- Manner of . . , , , Till declaring mg propitiated the gods, to send a herald, who bade war. the persons that had injured them to prepare for an 112 CAMPS^ GUARDS, WATCHES, &C. P. I. invasion ; and sometimes, in token of defiance, cast a spear towards them d. The herald generally bore the KTjpvKeiov, which was a straight stick encircled with two serpents, having their crests opposite to each other. J^uidmlrch ^' Nothing, however, would induce the Greeks tunate"day8 *^ Diarch, except ou those days which they esteemed fortunate. For instance, the Athenians could not be persuaded to march cvtos i^bofirjs, before the se- venth day of the month ; and the Lacedaemonians were forbidden by their laws ever to march before the full moon. An eclipse of the moon, or any * Other unlucky accident, was sufficient to deter them altogether from entering on an expedition. CHAP. VIII. Cff their camps, guards, watches, and military/ course of life. Arrange- 1. Nothing certain is known of the form of the ments of the ^ Grecian camps in general, although the Lacedaemo- nians are said to have been ordered by their law- giver to make them of a spherical figure, as best fitted for defence. The most valiant soldiers were placed at the extremities of the camp, the rest in the middle. When they intended to continue long in their encampments, they contrived a place where altars were erected to the gods, and divine service regularly performed. They also, if there was any danger of an attack, fortified their camp with a d Heralds (/djpy/ces) were employed in war; ambassadors {vp€v, the small fore-sail; eiriSpofios, the mizzen. Kepaiai, Kepara, the yards. 'loro?, the mast; the parts of which were irrepva, the heel ; \iv6s, or TpdxrjXos, the part to which the sail was Jixed ; Kapxrjo'iov, the block ; p.€(r68p,r}, the step in which the mast was placed. The cordage of a vessel was expressed by the general terms oTrXa, o-;;(oti/£a, and AcaXo). 'Ettitovoi were the haulyardsy irodes, the braces, irporovoi, the fore and backstays. Instruments 5. The instruments of war in ships were, eu^oXov, of war. ^ B. IV. C. III. PARTS, &C. OF THE SHIP. 135 a heak of wood, fortified with brass, placed in the prow, to pierce the enemy's ships. 'ETrcoTiSes, pieces of wood placed on each side of the prow, to guard it from the enemy's beaks. KaTacrTpoofiaTa, KaTa(l)pdy~ IMTttj hatches, erected on purpose for soldiers to stand on in action ^. AeXc^iv, a vast piece of lead or iron^ in the form of a dolphin^ hung with cords and puUies to the yards, and thence thrown with great force into the enemy's ship, ^opara vavp.axa^ spears of an immense length. ApeTravov, a sort of sickle, placed at the end of a long pole, and used for cut- ting the enemy's rigging. Kepamt, engines for cast- ing stones. Xeip aiBrjpa, a grappling iron, which they cast out of an engine into the enemy's ship. "Aprrayes, hooks of iron secured with chains to the mast, and thrown with great force into the enemy's ship. The method used to defeat these engines was, to cover their ships with hides, which cast off, or blunted, the stroke of the iron. Some of the Greek nautical phrases were as follows: rrfs KcoTrrjs imXa^eia-Oai, to handle the oar ; rponova-dai, to hang the oars on the scalmi by means of the rponos; epeaa-eiv, to row; ipeideip, to give way ; ekavveiv, to pull; crxdirai, to hold water; opOovcrOai, to step the mast; cmkovtf 'urrla, Trcrav icrTia, to set the sails ; areWeiu la-ria and (TvorreXXet*' tcTTta, to reef and furl, or to shorten sail ; irpvixvqu KpovecrOai, to hack water, literally to beat or pull to prow; (sub. ets;) Spui^etv, to bring to anchor, as a pilot does; opfMi^ea-Oat, to come to an anchor. b What is meant by iKpia. vf\hs in Homer has been much disputed, probably they were the thwarts, or rowers' seats. 136 MARINERS, SOLDIERS, &C. P. I. The whole fabric being completed, it was fortified with pitch to secure the wood from the water, whence Homer gives the ships the epithet of /ne- \aivat,. The ship being bedecked with garlands and flowers, and the mariners also adorned with crowns, she was launched into the sea, and being purified by a priest with a lighted torch, an egg, and brim- stone, was consecrated to the god whose image she bore. CHAP. IV. Of the mariners, soldiers, and naval officers. Three sorts 1. Among the ancients there were no different of seamen. ranks of seamen, but the same persons were employ- ed to fight and to labour at the oar. These were teruied avreperai. In later times, however, their ships of war were furnished with the three follow- ing sorts of men: 1. 'Eperai, KWTrjjXarat, the rowers, who were often condemned malefactors and slaves ; they were of three kinds, thranitae, zugitae, and thalamitae. 2. NaCrat, the mariners, who were ex- empt from drudging at the oar, but performed all the other duties in the ship ; and, in order to avoid confusion, had each his separate duty, one being em- ployed in rearing the mast, another in hoisting the sails, &c. There were a sort of men inferior to the former, and called fxeorovavrai, who had no definite duty, but were ready on all occasions to attend on the rest of the men. 3. 'ETri^arat, soldiers, who served at sea. They were armed after the same manner with those designed for land service, only B. IV. C. IV. MARINERS, SOLDIERS, &C. 137 there seems to have been always a greater number of heavy-armed men than was thought necessary on land. The full crew of a ship were called irXrjpafia. The regular compliment of a trireme is said to have consisted of 200 men : of these we may reckon 140 rowers, twenty other seamen, and forty im^aToiS. In fighting, the epibata used arrows and darts at a distance, spears and swords in close combat; the rowers struck their opponents with their oars, al- though probably they had other arms, not regularly provided, but furnished by each man for himself in the best manner that he could. They were there- fore often able to fight on land. 2. There were two sorts of oflicers, in all fleets : Two sorts of 111' 1 • T 1 officers. one governed the ships and marmers ; the other was intrusted with the command of the soldiers, but had likewise power over the ship-masters and their crews. These last-mentioned ofiicers were, 1. ^Tparrjybsj or a-T6Xapxos, the admiral, which oflSce was sometimes executed by one alone, sometimes in conjunction with other persons. 2. ^Eiria-ToKevs, the vice-admiral. 3. Tpirjpapxos, captain of a trireme, who commanded all the other soldiers therein. 3. The officers that had the care of the ships were officers %vho the following : 1. 'ApxiKv^epvrjTai, those who were in- of the ship. trusted with the care and management of all marine aflfairs; to provide commodious harbours, to direct the course of the fleet, and order all things concern- S This rests principally on conjecture ; at Salamis only eighteen men fought upon deck on the Athenian triremes. BoecWs Economy of Athens, vol. I. p. 374. 138 VOYAGES^ HARBOURS, &C. P. I. ing it, except those which related to war. 2. KvjSep- vrjTTjSj the master or pilot, had the care of the ship, and government of the seamen therein, and sat at the stern to steer. 3. Kekevo-rfjSj the boatswain ; his office was to signify the word of command to the rowers, and to distribute to all the crew their daily portion of food. 4. TpirjpavXijs was a musician j who by the harmony of his voice and instrument raised the spirits of the rowers, when weary with labour. This music was called viykapos. 5. Lloiroi, vavcfiv- XoKes, men who were obliged to take care that the ship received no damage by striking upon rocks or otherwise. To this end they sounded, especially in the night, with long poles. There were several inferior officers, whose duties are not so clearly understood. Pay of a 4. The pay of a sailor was probably the same as that of a foot soldier ; two oboli a day for wages, and two for provisions. When, as was generally the case, the provision was supplied in kind, the trier- archs received the siteresion, and furnished the men with barley-meal, (aXcjura,) cheese and onions, or garlic, which were carried in nets. The maza was composed of barley-meal with water and oil, to which wine was sometimes added. CHAP. V. Of their voyages, harbours, a?id engagements by sea. Manner of 1. When the signal for sailing was given by the admiral, the mariners hauled the ships, which were drawn on dry land when unemployed, into the water. B. IV. C. V. VOYAGES, HARBOURS, &C. 139 Before they embarked, the ships were adorned with flowers and garlands, and the protection of the gods invoked. This being done, a dove was let fly, (pro- bably as an omen of a safe return,) and the signal being given by a trumpet, a shout, or, in the night, by a light from the admiral's ship, they put to sea ; the lighter vessels first, then the ships of war, led by the admiral, and lastly the vessels of burden. 2. When they arrived at any port where they de- Mode of en- signed to land, they went about, and run into har- harbour. hour stern foremost, or stern on, as it is called. Being landed, they paid their vows to the gods, and generally off*ered a sacrifice. 3. Harbours were either natural or artificial : the Different parts of the latter were vast piles, or heaps of earth or other harbour, materials, cast up in the form of a semicircle, with arms extended into the sea ; these were called xi^^h from their resemblance to crabs' claws. On both sides of the mole were strong towers, garrisoned with soldiers. There was also generally a lighthouse, called pharos. The second part of the harbour was termed aTOixa, and the inmost part next the shore (where the docks, vewpta, were) was called iivxos. The whole together composed what was called vav- a-TaOfjLos. The accommodations on board ships of war were so indifi^erent, that the men never slept on board in harbour, but generally formed an encamp- ment on shore, where they also dressed and ate their provisions. 4. In preparing for an engagement at sea, the Preparation , . ^ for an en- first business was to lighten the ships, by throwing gagement. 140 VOYAGES, HARBOURS, &C. P. I. all lumber overboard : they then secured the masts and sails, trusting entirely to their oars. Their order of battle was various, sometimes being in form of a half moon, sometimes of the letter V, &c. Be- fore they joined battle, both parties invoked the gods ; and the admirals, going from ship to ship in some of the lighter vessels, exhorted the men. Manner of 5. All things being then in readiness, the signal commencing . the action, was giveu by hanging out a gilded shield, or a red banner from the admiral's ship : this was termed alp€LP a-Tjfiela ; and the fight continued until they were lowered. Trumpets were also sounded, and the sol- diers sung a paean to Mars before the fight, and after it another to Apollo. The fight was generally begun by the admiral's ship ; and was carried on by the ships endeavouring to run down and sink one another with their beaks, and by the soldiers annoy- ing their enemies with darts and slings. When the ships were linked together, by means of the grap- pling irons, the soldiers fought with swords and spears. Mode of be- 6. When a town was besieged by sea, they used sieging a ^ ^ o j j town by sea. to euvirou its walls and harbour with ships ranged in order from one side of the shore to the other, and joined together with chains and bridges, on which armed men were placed. The besieged, on their part, defended themselves with darts, stones, fire- balls, &c. j and sometimes sent fire-ships into the midst of the blockading fleet. B. IV. C. VI. SPOILS, &C. 141 CHAP. VI. Of the spoils, naval rewards, punishments, S^c. 1 . Victory being obtained, the conquerors set up Return of . thecon- a trophy, and returned home, towing after them querors. the disabled ships of the enemy. Their own ships were decorated with garlands, and hung about with broken pieces of the ships destroyed in battle. These they called aKpcarripia. In this manner they returned, filling the air with shouts, acclamations, and hymns. Being received into the city, they went immediately to the temples of the gods, where they dedicated the choicest of their spoil. The remainder was placed in different parts of the city to commemorate their victory. The conquerors were also honoured with statues, inscriptions, &c. 2. The chief of their punishments was whipping Punish- with cords, which was sometimes inflicted on crimi- nals, having their lower parts within the ship, and their heads thrust out of port-holes, and hanging into the sea. They were also sometimes tied with cords to a ship, and dragged through the water until they were drowned. ^AvavfjAxoi, or such as refused to serve at sea, after a lawful summons, were, at Athens, condemned, themselves and their posterity, to drifila, ignominy, AeiTTovavTM, deserters, were not only bound with cords, and whipped, but also had their hands cut off. 142 MARRIAGES^ DIVORCES, &C. P. I. BOOK V. MISCELLANEOUS MANNERS AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE GREEKS. CHAP. I. Of their marriages, divorces , S^c. Marriage 1. Marriaffc was very much encouraffed by the greatly en- & J b J couraged in laws of most of the Grecian states : and at Lace- Greece. daemon, in particular, those who abstained from it incurred several penalties, and were treated with contempt and ridicule. At Athens, too, no public office of importance was intrusted to a man who was not married, and had not children. The age at which persons might contract marriage was dif- ferent in almost every state : women, however, were universally allowed to marry at an earlier age than men. Seasons 2. The times or seasons of the year most proper most pros- ^ j i. s: perous for for marriao;e were, according to the Athenians, some marriage. ° of the winter months, especially January, which, for that reason, was called Tafirpitav. The most convenient season of all was when there happened to be a conjunction of the sun and moon. No Athenian 3. Most of the Grecian states required that their citizen per- mitted to citizens should match with none but citizens : and, marry a fo- reigner, at Athens, if a foreigner married a free woman of the city, he was condemned, on conviction, to per- petual slavery. The children also of such marriages were all slaves. If an Athenian citizen married a foreigner, he was fined a thousand drachms. 4 B. V. C. I. MARRIAGES^ DIVORCES, &C. 143 4. Vireins were not allowed to marry without Form of be- ° , ; trothing. the consent of both their parents; or, if the pa- rents were dead, of their brothers ; or, if there were no brothers, of the nearest of kin. If they had no relations, they were committed to the care of guardians called iiTLTpoiroi or Kvpioi. The usual form of betrothing ^ was, for the father to give his daugh- ter to her intended husband, and sometimes to men- tion the dowry which he intended to give with her. The ceremony in promising fidelity was kissing each other, or giving their right hands. 5. In the primitive age, the bride, so far from Dowry, having any dowry of her own, was purchased by the bridegroom : but afterwards the woman's dowry became a thing so much sought after, that Lycur- gus, at Sparta, thought it necessary, in order to find husbands for those who had no portions, to put an end, by a law, to the custom of receiving a dowry with the wife. The dowry was named irpoi^; some- times €bva (quasi rjdava) irapa to rjdeiVjJrom pleasing. Sometimes it was named 1. Tvrjcrioi, children born in lawful marriage; 2. Nd- 6oi, those born of concubines or harlots; and, 3. eerol, adopted children. B.V. C. IV. DIFFERENT SORTS OF CHILDREN. 151 2. Before the time of Solon, those who had no Athenian law of inherit- legitimate sons were obliged by the Athenian laws ance. to leave their estates to their daughters. Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to adopt whom they pleased, whether their own natural sons^ or (by consent of their parents) the sons of other men. Such as had neither natural nor adopted children were succeeded by their nearest relations. By a law of Solon's, however, persons were allowed to leave their property by will to whom they pleased, * under the following restrictions : 1 . That the testa- tors must be neither slaves nor foreigners, as in that case all their property was confiscated to the public use. 2. That they must be twenty years of, age. 3. That they must not have been adopted, the estates of adopted children returning to the rela- tions of the man who adopted them. 4. That they must have no male children of their own. 5. That they must be in their right minds. 6. That they must not be under imprisonment or constraint. 7. That they must not be induced to it by the charms and insinuations of a wife. 3. Wills were usually signed before several wit- wiiis. nesses, who put seals to them for confirmation, and then placed them in the hands of trustees, called 4. The duties of children towards their parents Duties of cliildren to- consisted in paying them the utmost honour, in wards their parents. supporting them when past labour, &c. At Athens, however, Solon excused from maintaining their pa- rents those children who had been bred up to no h4 152 FOOD OP THE GREEKS. P. I. profession^ or who had not been born in lawful wedlock. Persons unfit 5^ When any man. either through dotage, or other to manage J ' o o ' affairs°m?ght infirmities^ became unfit to manage his estate, his ed,™ d^fa-^ son was allowed to impeach him before the men of dislin^Trk^* liis owu ward, who had power to invest the son with dren.'^ *' the present possession of his inheritance. Fathers might also disinherit their children : but at Athens it was necessary to have the sanction of certain ma- gistrates to such a measure. When this sanction was obtained, the public crier proclaimed that such an one rejected the criminal (whose name was then rep'eated) from being his son. This was called airoKripv^ai rbv vlov. CHAP. V. Food of the Greeks. Bread. 1. The principal aliment of the Greeks was bread, called apTos: hence this word is taken sometimes for food in general. In Homer, and other authors, bread is called by metonymy alros. Bread was ordinarily carried in osier baskets called Kaveov, ku- vovv. Loaves were either baked on the ashes, when they were called o-rroblraL aproi; or in an oven, (Kpi^dva,) and then they were called Kpt^avlrai. The Greeks had another sort of bread called /Mi^a, made of meal, salt, and water, to which oil was sometimes added. They also made great use of barley-meal, {aXcfyirov.) Several sorts 2. The 6p7ov was a cake composed of butter, eggs, of cakes. , /» t • honey, and flour, wrapped in a JigJeajj whence its B. V. C. V. FOOD OF THE GREEKS. 153 name. The fivTrarbv was a dish composed of cheese, garlic, eggs, and various other ingredients. The poor were accustomed to hollow out their bread, and use it as a spoon: this was called [narrvWr], whence the verb fxio-rvWaa-Bai. The Greeks had several other sorts of cakes, viz. rrvpaixovs, (a cake made of toasted wheat and honey;) (rrjo-afiovs, (a cake made of sesame ;) afivXosj (a cake of very fine wheaten flour, from a and fivXr], a mill;) Irpiaj (a thin cake made of sesame and honey;) fieXiTTovTa, (a cake sweetened with honey ;) olvovrraj (a cake flavoured with wine,) &c. 3. The Greeks g-enerallv ate the flesh of animals Meat and ° -^ ^ fish. roasted, and very seldom boiled. Among the Lace- daemonians their young men ate meat, and older persons lived on black broth, (fieXas C^ixos.) At Athens the poorer people lived for the most part on garlic and onions. The ancient Greeks were fond of fish, especially eels, which they dressed with beets, and called eyx^^is, ivreTevrXavcofxevai. They also frequently ate salted fish, of which they pre- ferred the jowl and the belly. Sweetmeats were used for the devrepa TpdrreCa, or dessert : they were called in Greek, rpayr]p.ara, rpaKTciy €7rLbopmap,aTa, and TTe/x/iara. Salt {okas) was universally employed. In conclusion it may be remarked that Athens was celebrated for its pastry ; Cappadocia for a sort of bread made of milk, oil, salt, and flour of wheat; Boeotia for eels; Salamis for ducks; Euboea for apples; Phoenicia for dates; Corinth for quinces, and Naxos for almonds. h5 154 LIQUORS IN USE AMONG THE GREEKS. P. I. CHAP. VI. Liquors in use among the Greeks. Wines. In ancient times the Greeks drank only water; afterwards they mingled (iKepda-avro) wine^ with the water, whence the word Kparrjp, a bowl. Sometimes they used to perfume their wine. The Lacedae- monians used to boil their wine upon the fire until the fifth part was consumed ; and then, after four years were expired, began to drink it. They kept their wine in earthen jars, (Kepa/iois,) or in skins, (acTAcoiff,) as the Spaniards do in the present day. The ancient Greeks seem to have drunk out of the horns of oxen, but in more modern times they used cups made of earth, wood, glass, iron, gold, and sil- Drinking yer. A drinking cup was called (fytaXijj iroTrjpioVf Kv\i^, derras, KVTreWoVj djxcfuKVTreKKov, (TKv(f)os, KVfi^ioVj Kadavj &c. Some of the names were derived from the form of the cup, others from the materials of which it was composed. At feasts they were com- passed about with garlands, and filled to the brim. CHAP. VII. Of the meals of the Greeks, their feasts, mode of entertaining strangers, Sfc. The Grecians 1. The times of eatiuff among the ancient Greeks ate three ° ° times a day. are generally supposed to have been three every day; 1. 'A/cpaTttr/ia, the morning meal; so termed be- cause it was customary at this time to eat pieces of ^ The most approved wines were the Thasian, Lesbian, Chian, Rhodian, Mareotic, &c. B. V. C. VII. MEALS, FEASTS, &C. 155 bread dipped in wine unmixed with water, which in Greek is called aKparov. This meal is also called apiarrov by Homer. 2. AeiTn/oi/, the noontide meal, or dinner. And, 3. bopttos, the evening meal, or supper. It seems probable, however, that among the later Grecians hopiros and bdirvov were used to signify the same meal. In that case, the aKpana-fxa and apiarov were, perhaps, two distinct meals : so that the three meals were, dKpdricrna, apia-TOV, and da,7rvov. The last of these was the most important, as being eaten when the labour of the day was over, and being the meal at which entertainments were given. 2. The Greeks had two sorts of entertainments ; Two sorts of , , / 1 • 1 • 1 1 1 Grecian en- €i\ainvT), or evw^ia, which was provided at the ex- tertainment. pense of one man ; and epavos, which, like the modern pic-nic, was made at the expense of all present. Those who were present at the latter of these without contributing were termed d(Tvp.^6koi, in which condition were poets and singers, and others who came for the amusement of the company. 3. The most frugal in their repasts were the Public tables Lacedaemonians, who, at their (rvaariTia, or public mon. entertainments, were allowed only the most simple fare, of which the black broth formed a principal part. They were also limited in quantity. Next to the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians were the most temperate. In other cities of Greece, how- ever, and in later ages, the mode of living was more luxurious. 4. The principal meal (the supper) was com- The supper. posed of three distinct parts ; 1 . hi'mvov irpoolpnov, h6 156 MEALS, FEASTSj &C. P. I. which consisted of colewort^, eggs, oysters, olvo^eXi, (a mixture of wine and honey,) and other things which were thought to create an appetite: 2. BeU TTvov, which was plentifully furnished with more solid fare : and, 3. dcvrepa rpavre^a, the second course, which consisted of sweetmeats of all kinds, called Tpayrjfiara. Manner of ^ The ancient Greeks sat at meat^; but when the reclining at ' meals. people became more luxurious, couches (KXivai) were introduced, on which they reclined. The manner of lying at meat was thus : the table was placed in the middle, round which stood the beds, covered with cloth or tapestry, according to the quality of the master of the house. The coverings of the beds were called a-Tpafmra. Upon these lay the guests, resting on their left arms, their heads being raised up, and their backs sometimes supported with pil- lows, called TTpoo-KetpaXaia. If several persons lay upon the same bed, then the first lay upon the uppermost part, with his legs stretched out behind the second person's back: the second's head lay below the bosom of the former, his feet being placed behind the third's back; and in like manner the third, fourth, fifth, and so on: for the Greeks, un- like the Romans, sometimes crowded five, or even more persons, on the same bed. The first seat was considered the most honourable. The table, rpd- b Homer mentions three different sorts of seats : At^^os, which contained two persons. &oove;, on which they sat upright with their feet on a foot- stool named O^tivjs. KX/(r^6.c, on which they sat leaning a little backwai'ds. B. V. C. VII. MEALS, FEASTS, &C. 157 TTffa, was commonly supported by three feet, and very plain ; but those which belonged to rich per- sons were sometimes inlaid with gold and silver, and stood on one leg, formed of ivory, and carved into the shape of a lion, or other beast. 6. At an entertainment the guests were dressed Dress and behaviour of in white, or some other cheerful colour, crowned the guests, with garlands of flowers, and anointed, especially on the head, with fragrant ointments. It was also usual, before they sat down, to wash and anoint their hands and feet, and to wash their hands be- tween every course, and after supper. Before the feast began, an oblation was made to Vesta, the chief of the household gods ; afterwards they wor- shipped some of the other gods; and, last of all, oifered a libation to Vesta. 7. The master of the feast first drank a part of Manner of ^ drinking. the cup himself, and then passed it to the most honourable guest, with the salutation of x«^P^^ or irpoiTLva) aoL KoXois, to which the person who received the cup replied, Xajx^avo) diro a-ov Tjdecos. The me- thod of drinking was not, however, the same in all places. The Chians and Thasians drank out of large cups, passing them to the right hand. The Athenians out of small cups to the right. At Lace- daemon every man had his distinct cup, which a servant filled up as soon as it was emptied. It was also customary to drink to persons absent, and to the gods ; pouring some of the wine on the earth as often as they mentioned a name, and drinking at 158 MEALS, FEASTSj &C. P. I. every name one or more cups of wine*'. Some- times they contended who should drink most. All the Grecian nations seem to have been addicted to drunkenness, except the Spartans, who were laid under a necessity of keeping themselves within the bounds of sobriety by a law of Lycurgus, which enacted that all men should return from entertain- ments without a torch to shew them the way. At Athens, an archon convicted of being drunk was put to death by the laws of Solon. Game of the g. The feast beinfiT ended, a libation of wine, with cottabus. ° a prayer, was offered, and a hymn sung to the gods. The company were then entertained with music and dancing, and played at various games, among which, the most remarkable was the cottabus. The form was this: a piece of wood being erected, another was placed upon the top of it, with two dishes hanging down from each extremity in the manner of scales; beneath each dish was placed a vessel full of water; wherein stood a statue, generally composed of brass. Those who played at the cot- tabus stood at some distance, holding a cup of water or wine, which they endeavoured to throw into one of the dishes, that the dish by that weight might be knocked against the head of the statue under it. c Three cups were brought in at supper. The first dedi- cated to Mercury ; the second to Charisius, a surname of Jupi- ter, from x'^S'h (favour;) the third to Jupiter ^urtj^. After supper a cup of unmixed wine was carried round and tasted by all the guests. This was called 'AyaOou Aal/^ovos x^aryi^, the cup of good genius, meaning Bacchus, the inventor of wine. B. V. C. VII. MEALSj FEASTS,, &C. 159 The person who threw in such a manner as to spill least of his water^ and to knock the dish with the greatest force upon the statue, was conqueror. There was another sort of cottahus, in which they tried to sink empty vials by pouring wine out of cups into them ; and a third, which was played with dice. Conversation, riddles, and other amusements were also had recourse to, in order to pass the time. At the conclusion of the feast each of the guests retired to his own home : this was termed yipecrdai CK deiTTVov, dvaXveiv eK crvfXTroarlov, &c. 9. The officers and attendants at entertainments officers and were as follows: 1. ^vfjLiroa-iapxos, the chief manager at entertain- of the entertainment, generally the person by whom the feast was provided; or, in pic-nic entertain- ments, elected by lots, or by the votes of the guests. 2. Baa-ikevs, the king, whose business it was to de- termine the laws of good fellowship, and to observe whether every man drank his proportion. 3. Aai- rpos, the person who divided and distributed to every guest his portion. 4. Olvoxoot, the cupbearers, who were generally beautiful youths. 10. The rites of entertaining strangers were the mtes of . . . hospitality. same with those or receiving guests at entertain- ments, only that salt was commonly set before strangers, before they tasted the victuals provided for them ; by which was signified, that as salt pre- serves from corruption, so the friendship thus com- menced should be firm and lasting. The alliance which was contracted by hospitality was termed TTpo^evla, and was held very sacred. It was some- 160 FUNERALS. P. I. times contracted by individuals with whole nations. Thus Nicias is called Upo^evos Ta>v AuKedaiixoviau. CHAP. VIII. Of the Grecian funerals, Greeks very 1. The Greeks, entertaining an opinion that their about the souls could not be admitted into the Elysian shades, funeral rites of their but Were forced to wander for a hundred years, friends. unless their bodies were committed to the earth, were naturally very anxious about the funeral rites of their deceased friends : and those who neglected this duty were thought accursed. Interring and 2. The custom of the most primitive ages seems burning both I'lit i in use. to have been to bury their dead; but among the later Greeks, both interring and burning were prac- tised, although the latter custom was the more common. Some persons, however, were not allowed the usual funeral rites; for instance, suicides, in- solvent debtors, sacrilegious persons, crucified male- factors, and persons killed by lightning. These last, being thought hateful to the gods, were buried apart by themselves, lest the ashes of other men should be polluted by them. Infants without teeth were also buried without being consumed to ashes. Ceremonies 3. When a pcrson was at the point of death, the performed to the dying, nearest relations endeavoured to receive his last breath into their mouths; and as soon as he had expired, they closed his eyes, which was termed Kadai- pfiv, (rvvapp.6TT€tv, avyicKeUiv tovs ocfydaKpiovSj and co- vered his face with a cloth: the limbs were then com- posed, and the body washed and anointed. A cloak B. V. C. VIII. FUNERALS. 161 was wrapped round it, and a rich robe, commonly white, thrown over all. After this, the corpse was laid out on a bier, strewed with flowers, and placed at the entrance of the house, with the feet towards the gate. Some time before interment, a piece of money was put into the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be Charon's fee for ferrying the soul over the infernal river. Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake, composed of flour, honey, &c. and therefore called fieXiTTovTa. This was designed to appease the fury of Cerberus, the infernal gatekeeper. During this time the hair of the deceased was hung upon the door, to signify that the family were in mourning ; and a vessel of water stood before the door, in order that such as had been concerned about the corpse might purify themselves by washing. 4. The body, lying on its bier, or, at Lacedae- Funeral pro- *! *• 1 T • cession. mon, on a buckler, was borne out of the house in broad daylight, except in the case of young men who died in the flower of their age ; these were buried in the morning twilight, it being thought almost impious to reveal so unusual and grievous a calamity in the face of the sun. The relations walked immediately behind the corpse, and were fol- lowed at some distance by the rest of the mourners. In military funerals, the soldiers followed the body, with their arms reversed : and, in like manner, at the funerals of magistrates, their ensigns of honour were inverted. The carrying out the corpse was termed eK(f)opaf eKKOfiidrj. 162 FUNERALS. P. I. Funeral 5. The piles on which they burnt dead bodies piles. ^ were called TrvpaX. They seem not to have been erected in any constant form, or to have consisted always of the same materials. The body was placed upon the top of the pile; and not unfrequently various kinds of animals, and sometimes even slaves or captives, were consumed together with the corpse. All sorts of precious ointments and perfumes were also poured into the flames. The garments of the deceased, and his arms, if he had been a soldier, were usually burnt with him. Mode of 6. The pile was lighted by some of the dead burning and of collecting person's nearest relations or friends, who made the ashes. * prayers and vows to the winds to assist the flames, that the body might be quickly reduced to ashes. At the funerals of generals, the soldiers made a so- lemn procession three times round the pile. During the time the pile was burning, the dead person's friends stood by it, pouring forth libations of wine, and calling upon the deceased. When the pile was burnt down, and the flames had ceased, they ex- tinguished the remains of the fire with wine, and then collected the ashes and bones, and placed them in urns of wood, stone, earth, silver, or gold, (ac- cording to the quality of the deceased,) which were afterwards deposited in the earth. Burial places 7- When bodies were interred without being tmd monu- i.i. ey » i i f ments. bumt, they were laid m coflins, with the face up- wards, and looking towards the rising sun. Near relations or intimate friends were commonly buried in the same sepulchre. The burial-places of the B. V. C. VIII. FUNERALS. 163 Greeks were generally without their cities^ and chiefly by the highways. The Lacedaemonians, how- ever, buried within their city. Every family of consequence had its own proper burying-place. The ornaments with which sepulchres were beautified were various. The most common were pillars, or^- Xat, on which was engraved the name of the de- ceased, or some short exhortation to the living. Besides this, they generally added the effigy of the dead man, or some appropriate emblem, or the in- struments which he had used when alive. These monuments were called crrjfiaTa, fxvijfjLcIa, &c. and in later ages were erected at such enormous expense that, at Athens, Solon thought it necessary to re- strain such profusion by a law. 8. Monuments were also erected in honour of the Two sorts ot cenotaphs. dead, but not containing any of their remains, and thence called KcvoTa^ia and Kevrjpia. They were of two sorts ; one erected to such persons as had been honoured with funeral rites in another place, and the other erected for those who had never obtained a just funeral. All sepulchres were esteemed sa- cred, and to deface or in any way violate them was considered sacrilege. 9. Before the company departed from the sepul- Funeral ^ •' ^ A oration and chre, they were sometimes entertained with a pane- games. gyric upon the dead person. Such of the Athen- ians as died in war had an oration solemnly pro- nounced by a person appointed by the public ma- gistrate, which was constantly repeated upon the anniversary day. Games were also sometimes cele- 164 FUNERALS. P.I. brated at funerals. The persons who had attended the Aineral, and the house of the deceased, being considered polluted, were obliged to undergo puri- fication. Honours 10. After the funeral was over, the company met paid to the ••• memory of together at the house of the deceased person's nearest the deceased. ° *■ relations, where they were entertained with a feast. The tombs were bedecked with flowers and herbs, among which parsley was chiefly in use : they were also often perfumed with sweet ointments. Sacri- fices were likewise ofl'ered to the ghosts of the de- ceased, consisting sometimes of black heifers, or black sheep ; but generally only libations of blood, honey, wine, milk, water, &c. These honours were paid on the ninth and thirtieth days after the fu- neral, and repeated upon all other occasions which required their surviving relations to have them in remembrance; especially in the month Antheste- rion, some portion of which seems to have been particularly set apart for these ceremonies in seve- ral of the Grecian cities. The anniversary of the death was also observed. Mourning. H. With respect to their mournhigy the most ordinary ways of expressing sorrow for deceased friends were as follows : 1. They abstained from banquets and entertainments, and sequestered them- selves from company. 2. They divested themselves of their jewels and ornaments, and put on black clothes. They tore, cut off, and sometimes shaved their hair, which was frequently cast into the fu- neral pile, or thrown upon the grave. 4. They B. V. C. IX. DRESS OF THE GREEKS. 165 tlirew themselves upon the earth, and rolled in the dust. 5. They covered their heads with ashes. 6. When they went abroad, they muffled their heads. 7. They beat their breasts and thighs, and tore their flesh. 8. They accused and cursed the gods. 9. They had mourners and musicians to increase the so- lemnity : these were called dprjvcov e^apxoi. Songs were sung at funerals, termed oko(f)vpfio\y \ivoi, &c. The flutes used at funerals were generally of the Phrygian fashion, the sounds of which were pecu- liarly mournful. When public magistrates, or persons of note died, or any public calamity happened, all public meet- ings were intermitted; the schools, baths, shops, &c. shut up ; and the whole city put on a face of sorrow. 12. In conclusion it may be remarked, that death, iii.omened - ,, , . . . . . , words avoid- and all things pertaining to it, were ominous anded. ill-boding, and therefore frequently expressed in softening words : to die being commonly termed dnoylvea-dai, to withdraw; o'lxea-Oaij to depart: and the dead, olxofievoi, the departed. To utter words of ill omen was termed ^\a(r(f)T)ixe2v. CHAP. IX. Dress of the Greeks. 1. The ancient Greeks went bareheaded; butomaments afterwards they used a sort of hat called in Greek TTiXot, TTtXia, and TrtXiSta. Women however had the head always covered. The ornaments which they wore on their heads 166 DRESS OF THE GREEKS. P. I. were KoKvivrpa, a veil; ainru^, a jillet, with which the hair was tied; Kprjbcfivov, a veil, which came down from the head to the shoulders; KCKpixjidKos, a net J in which the hair was enclosed ; /xirpa_, ajillet, with which barbarian women bound up their hair ; 67n(T6o(r(j)€vb6vr}, a particular kind of net^ with which the heads of some females were decorated^ and which was intended to excite laughter. The ancient 2. The ancient Athenians wore in their hair Athenians wore golden golden grasshoppers, (rerTiyas,) to shew that they pers. were Air oxOoves, sprung from the same earth. Ladies of consequence wore on their heads a sort of bandelettCj or tiara, called a-recjidvT] v^t^Xj). In their ears they wore pendents called ep/iara, evdyria, and eXtKfs, with a collar or necklace round their necks, termed opfios. tiiTbod^^^ 3. The covering of the body was expressed in Greek by the general terms of ia-Orjs, ea-Or^iia, ea-Brjcris: and by the poets ei/na. The inner garment both of men and women was x'-'^^^i ^ tunic ^, or x*'"'^^ 6p6o(TTdhLos, a loose robe. The verb ivhvecrdai is used to express the putting on of this inner garment. Ladies of fashion, instead of having the sleeves sewn, used to clasp them with a row of studs reach- ing from the shoulder to the wrist. These studs were made of gold or silver, and were called irepo- vai, TTopirai. They had also a kind of tunic styled iyKVKKioVy ;(iTa)»'toj/, or eyKVKkov ; but whether it d Composed of two pieces, square or long square ; connected sometimes only at the shoulders, sometimes down the sides B. V. C. IX. DRESS OF THE GREEKS. 167 worn as an inner or an outer garment is not accu- rately known. 4. 'ludriovj sometimes called (bdposy was the exte- Different sorts of gar- rior robe of the men among the Greeks, as the toga ments. was among the Romans. The words used to ex- press the putting on of this garment are 7rfpt/3aX- XecrBai, dva^dXKea-Oat. We also read of dva^dXK€(T0ai lixdriov in dpiCTTepdj or cVt de^ia, to throw the cloak over the right or left shoulder,, as the modern Ro- mans do. Hence the substantives dva^okaiov, Trept- ^okaiov, and dfjLTTexdvT] , XXaTva was a thick outer garment worn in cold weather. ^aivoXrjs and cfjaikavijg, in Latin, pcenula ; a gar- ment without sleeves, nearly round, worn in rainy or cold weather. A^dosj XT]8dpiov, a dress common to both sexes. *E/xts was a slave's garment, which had only one sleeve, and which served both for a tunic and a cloak. neVXos was an exterior robe worn by women. 'EttcbjmIs was a short female garment, which was thrown over the shoulders. To women also belonged the (warpovj or girdle, f^^ OF THE ^-^A U/MIVERSITy .OF 168 DRESS OF THE GREEKS. P. I. a-Tp6(j)iov, which was a round zone, or kind of ker- chief, worn by women over their breasts ; and ^jreX- Xiov, the bracelet with which the Grecian women adorned their hands and arms. :s:rokri, a long robe which descended to the heels. KarcovaKj], a slave's garment, trimmed at the bot- tom with sheepskin. BaiTT), BicfiBepa, a sheepskin garment worn by shep- herds. ^EyKofx^oDfxa was a cloak worn by shepherds, young girls, and slaves. X\av\s was a fine robe. KpoKaros and KpoKariov, a saffron-coloured gar- ment worn by women, by Bacchus, and by Her- cules, when in the service of Omphale. 2vpp,€Tpia, a female robe which descended to the feet. Qtpia-Tpov, or Bepia-rpiov, a thin robe worn in sum- mer. Coverings of 5. The coveriuffs of the feet were called by the the feet. * ^ , -^ ^ general name of vTrohrjpara, shoes, which were tied under the soles of the feet with thongs or cords, denominated by the Greeks iixdvres. To put on the shoes was termed virobelv; to put them off, Xveiv and vTToXveiv. Shoes were termed neblXa by the poets. Aid^a6pa were shoes common both to women and men. 2dvbaXa were shoes which were anciently peculiar to heroines, and to opulent and gay women. KprjTriBes were a kind of shoes, said to have been worn by the military. B. V. C. IX. DRESS OP THE GREEKS. 169 Ucpa-iKoi were female shoes, of a white colour, supposed by some to have been worn by courte- sans. AaKcoviKoi and dixvKKatdes were Spartan shoes, and of a red colour. *E/A^arat were shoes used by comedians. Kodopvoi were buskins, worn by tragedians. 5. Flax, cotton, and wool, were the materials of Materials. which the garments of the latter Athenians were usually made. The clothes of the rich were dyed with various colours, among which a sort of purple was most valued. They wore very light dresses in summer; but in winter some of them wore large robes imported from Sardes. They had also stuffs embroidered with gold, and others worked with flowers ; but these were employed only in the vest- ments with which they covered the statues of the gods, or for the dresses of the actors at the thea- tres. 6. The usual dress of the Athenian women was a Dress of the white tunic, fastened over the shoulder with but- women. tons, and bound under the bosom with a broad sash ; secondly, a shorter robe, confined round the waist with a broad ribbon, and bordered at the bot- tom vidth an edging of various colours; and, thirdly, a robe, which was sometimes worn gathered up like a scarf, and at other times suffered to unfold itself over the body. They also painted their eyebrows black, and rouged their cheeks. 7. The dress of the Spartan women consisted of Dress of the a tunic, or kind of short shift, and a robe which men. 170 MUSIC. P.I. descended to their heels. The girls, who were con- stantly employed in active exercises, commonly wore a light garment without sleeves, fastened over the shoulders with a clasp, and confined round the waist by a girdle. j)ressofthe g. In public, the Theban women concealed their Theban wo- ^ men. faces, and discovered only their eyes ; their hair was knotted upon their heads, and their feet were confined in purple slippers, so small as to leave them almost entirely bare. Dress of the 9. In general, the Greeks were content with Spartans. throwing over a tunic, that descended to the mid- leg, a mantle which almost entirely covered them. Among the Spartans, kings, magistrates, and the lowest of the people, could not be distinguished by external appearance. They wore a very short and very coarse woollen tunic, over which they threw a mantle, or short cloak. On their feet they wore sandals or shoes, commonly of a red colour. They also wore on their heads caps in the form of half an egg-shell, in imitation of Castor and Pollux, who, as it was pretended, wore them in commemoration of the eggs from which they sprung ®. CHAP. X. Music. Derivation of 1. The word fxov(riKrj, music, is derived, according to some authors, from the nine muses, and accord- e The latter half of this chapter is abridged from Dr. Robin- son's Antiquities of Greece, a work which I would strongly recommend to the more advanced student. B. V. C. X. MUSIC. 171 ing to others from a Hebrew word mosai, which signifies artf science. 2. There were seven notes^ each of which was seven notes, dedicated to one of the seven planets : 1 . viraTi], to the moon ; 2. Trapyrrdrr}, to Jupiter ; 3. Xlx^vos, to Mercury ; 4. fiea-r), to the sun ; 5. irapafxea-r), to Mars ; 6. Tpirr), to Venus ; 7- ^V''^> to Saturn. The key, or modCf in which musicians played and sang, was either flat or sharp, and was called voixos. Of these modes there were four varieties: 1. The Phrygian ; 2. the Lydian ; 3. the Doric ; 4. the Ionic : to which some add a fifth, the ^olic. The characteristics of each of these modes were as follows : the Phrygian was religious, the Lydian plaintive, the Doric warlike, the Ionic florid, the ^olic simple. The mode which was employed to animate combatants in the field was called opBios. In later times the term vofios was used to signify the words of the hymns which were sung in those modes. 3. The music of the Greeks was either vocal or Musical in- . . stniments of instrumental. Musical instruments were either two sorts, . J , , wind and 7vina instruments, ip-irvcvcrra, or stringed instnanents, stringed. evrara. Among the instruments used by the an- cients, the principal were the lyre, the flute, and the pipe. Of these the most famous was the lyre. The lyre. called KiOdpa and <^opp.iy^, to the strains of which they sang the exploits of heroes and songs of love. The strings were at first of linen thread, afterwards of catgut. Anciently the number of the strings was three, whence the lyre was termed rpixopbos ; i2 172 PAINTING. P. I. afterwards four more strings were added, whence it received the epithets of iTrrdxopbos, itrTa^doyyos, iTTTdyKoia-a-os. These strings were touched either with a bow (jrXrjKTpov) or with fingers alone. To play on the harp was termed in Greek KiOapl^eLv, Kpoveiv TrXrjKTpcOj diaKciVj daiCTvXiois KpoveiVf and "^aX- Xetj/. The flute. 4. The flute, avkoSf was a celebrated instrument, employed in the sacrifices of the gods, entertain- ments, festivals, and funerals. The inventor of the flute was Jubal, although the Greeks ascribe it to Hyagnis, a Phrygian, who lived in the time of Joshua. Flutes were made of the bones of mules or fawns, whence the epithet ve^petoi avXol: they were also made of the bones of asses and elephants, and of reeds, and box- wood. The pipe. 5. The pipe, called in Greek a-vpiy^, diflfered from the flute in having a thin sharp sound, (whence the epithet of AfTTToXfat ;) whereas that of the flute was full and grave, whence it was called ^apu- ^pOflOS. The Greeks attributed to music great power, not only over the minds, but over the bodies of men, believing that various diseases were cured by it. Musical instruction formed a principal part of the education of their children. CHAP. XL Painting, Rise and 1 . Painting sometimes formed a part of Grecian progress of . the art. education. This art, which was termed ypa^t/ci). B. V. C. XII. SCULPTURE. 173 from the verb ypd(j)€iVj and also Coyypa(f)ia, was pro- bably first learned from the Egyptians. In its in- fancy it was so imperfect^ that painters were obliged to write at the foot of the picture the name of the object which it was intended to represent f. At first only one colour was used^ then five, and sub- sequently a still greater variety. 2. The instruments employed in painting were instruments employed in oKpi^as and KoXv^as, the easel j irivaKes and Trivaxia, painting. the tablets or canvas, XrjKvOot ; little boxes in which they kept their colours; Krjpo^, the wax; xP<^/^"''"j the unprepared colours; cfidpfiaKa, the prepared co- lours; ypa(JH9, the style or pencil : the rough sketch or outline was called vTrorviroxn^, v7roypa(f)rjj (TKia and (TKiaypa^la. The picture, when completed, was termed elKa>v. CHAP. XII. Sculpture. 1. The most ancient material employed in this infancy of _ n 1 • •, 1 . „theart. art was wood, out of which rude representations of the human figure were carved. The head and hands of many of these images were of stone, and the faces coloured red. In some of them (as in the old Figures of wood and statues of Mercury at Athens) no attempt was made clay. by the sculptor to represent any part except the head, the remaining portion of the statue being nothing more than a rough block. Pausanias says f As may be seen in the productions of some of the very early modern painters ; for instance, in those of Pietro Perru- gino, the master of Raphael. i3 174 SCULPTURE. P. I. that he saw many wooden images (^oava) which must have been executed in the very infancy of the art S. About the fifteenth Olympiad it became fashionable to cover images with gold^ silver, or ivory ; and possibly about the same time the sur- face of the wood began to be carved with greater accuracy by means of the turning chisel, (ropvos.) Images of clay, either dried in the sun or baked in an oven \ were also very common. They are said to have been first used at Corinth, and were pro- bably introduced at an early period into Athens, as the Ceramicus derives its name from having been the place in which the manufacture of earthen sta- tues and vessels was carried on '. Metal. 2. Metal was at first, after being properly softened in the fire, harnmered {acpvprjXaTelv) into thin plates, and laid over the wood. The oldest statue of this kind was the Jupiter of Learchus, the Rheginian at Sparta. The Jupiter at Olympia, presented by Cypselus, was of similar workmanship ; as was also the statue of Minerva on the Acropolis at Athens. The art of casting metal (xooveveiv) was first invented at Chios, or Samos, by a Samian named Rhsecus, in the eighth century before Christ ; from which time brass statues cast in one piece were substituted for S Pausan. iv. 33. h Terra cotta. i It is possible that the paste figures of animals which were offered by the poor at the sacrifices first suggested the idea of sculpture. Wachsmuth. Hellenische Alterihiiiner, vol. iv. p. 331. I am glad to hear that an English translation of this work (from which I have derived considerable assistance) is about to be pubHshed. B.V. C. XIII. ARCHITECTURE. 175 those which had been made of wood and plates of metal. About the same time Glaucus^, a Chian or Samian, found out the method of soldering, (koX- Xr)(T ts (Tibrjpov.) 3. The first successful attempts at working in Marble. marble were made by Dipoenus and Scillis of Crete in the fiftieth Olympiad. After working at Athens they went to Sicyon^ and established a school there. Among the many renowned sculptors wliom Greece produced in succeeding ages, the most distinguished was Phidias, who flourished about the time of the Peloponnesian war. CHAP. XIII. Of the Grecian Architecture. 1 . The orders of architecture ^ invented by the Doric. Greeks were the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The first building in that style which was subse- quently named the Doric, was, according to Vitru- k Every order consists of two chief parts ; the column and the entablature. The column is again subdivided into the base, or lower part ; the shaft, or middle ; and the capital, or upper part. The crowning part of the capital is called the abacus; and the foundation of the base, the plinth. The entablature consists also of three parts : the architrave, or lower ; (which rests immediately on the capital ;) the frieze, or middle ; and the cornice, or upper. The mutule in the Doric order, and the modillion and dentile in the Ionic and Corintliian, are orna- ments in the cornice, supposed to represent the extremities of rafters which supported the roof in the primitive huts. Pilas- ters diflFer from columns in being squai'e instead of round. Attics are rows of pilasters, with their cornices, placed at the top of a building, in order to conceal the roof. They should never exceed in height one-third of the height of the order over which they are placed. i4 176 ARCHITECTURE. P. I. vius, the temple of Juno at Argos, erected by Dorus, the son of Hellen. As this is the most ancient of all the orders, it resembles more nearly than any other those rude huts, which are supposed to have first suggested the idea of regular architecture 1. The Doric column is short and thick ™j and in most ancient buildings has no base : the shaft is sometimes fluted. The frieze is adorned with trL glyphs; (triple flutings, from rpXs, thrice, and y\v~ (f)co, to carve;) the spaces between which are called metopes, because they were usually occupied by a carved representation of the heads of oxen. Ionic. 2. The Ionic order is said to have been invented by Ion, the nephew of Dorus. This order is more light than the Doric. The column is taller in pro- 1 "When men began to erect solid buildings, they imitated the vai'ious parts of the primitive huts. The rough trunk of a tree which supported the building was the origin of the column. The stone placed underneath to preserve its lower extremity from decay became the base, and that which stood on the top was the capital : the extremities of the beams were the triglyphs ; and the mortar, or other material, placed to fill up the space between the ends of the several beams, gave birth to the architrave, frieze, and cornice. m The proportions of the architectural column are measured by what ai-e termed modules, each of which is generally equal to half the diameter of the base. The module is again sub- divided into sixty (or sometimes thii-ty) minutes. Thus, for example, the height of the Doric column is sixteen modules, or eight times the diameter of the base ; and its entablature four modules ; that of the Ionic column eighteen modules, and its entablature four modules, thirty minutes. The height of the Corinthian column is twenty modules, and its entablature five modules. B.V. C. XIII. ARCHITECTURE. 177 portion to its diameter. The shaft of it may either be plain, or fluted with twenty-four flutings. The capital is adorned with volutes, or curls; an idea suggested perhaps by the manner in which the bark when partly stripped from the tree curled about its upper extremity. The ornaments of this order are very simple. 3. The Corinthian order was invented at a much Corinthian, later period than the other two. The idea of it was suggested to Callimachus, a sculptor, by a basket covered with a square tile, over which an acanthus had grown and entwined its leaves. The parts of this order are highly ornamented. The column is taller in proportion to its diameter than that of either of the other orders. The shaft of the column is sometimes fluted. The capital is enriched with volutes, and with the leaves of the olive or the acanthus : and the abacus has its four sides arched inwards, and ornamented in the middle with a rose or other flower i^. 4. The private houses of the Greeks consisted of private two courts : the first, or smaller court, had on three sides piazzas, under which were rooms for eating and other common purposes. The fourth side con- tained lodgings for men and women servants. Oppo- site to the entrance was a passage which led to the second or larger court. Round this court were four piazzas. Two sides of the court were kept for the n The two remaining orders of architecture are the Com- posite, which is, strictly speaking, only a species of the Co- rinthian ; and the Tuscan, which is a sort of massy Doric. i5 178 SIODE OF COMPUTING TIME. P. I. accommodatioii of visitors ; the master of the house occupied the third; and the fourth was appropriated to the women. CHAP. XIV. Grecian mode of computing time. Ancient di- 1. In the heroic a^es the years were numbered visions of o j the natural bv the return of seed-time and harvest, and by the day. -^ •' seasons of labour and rest. The day was not then divided into certain and equal portions of time, but measured by the access and recess of the sun. Hence the more ancient Greeks distinguished the natural day, that is, the time from the rising to the setting of the sun, into three parts, the first of which was called T]Q)s, the morning ; the second, fiea-ov rjfiap, the middle of the day ; and the third, Beikt], the even- ing. Again, SetX?;, the evening, was subdivided into dclXrj TTpcota, the early part of the evening ; and SeiX?; oyjria, the latter part of the evening : the former was the time after dinner, when the sun began to de- cline ; and the latter about the setting of the sun. Nor were the Greeks more accurate in distinguish- ing the several proportions of time, until they learned the use of the sundial, the pole, and the twelve parts of the day from the Babylonians. Mode of 2. The Grecian mode of reckoning time continued reckoning . „ ^^ i time very to be Very imperfect until the days of Meton o, who o The Attic year after the time of Solon (who flourished B. C. 594) was lunar, of 354 days. The 360 days were re- duced to the lunar time by the omission of six days from six of the months. These lunar years were brought to the course of the sun by an intercalary month, Poseideon second, inserted at the end of every two years. See Herod, ii. 4. B. V. C. XIV. MODE OP COMPUTING TIME. 179 having observed that the motions of the sun and imperfect until reform- moon fell short of each other by some hours, and ed by Meton. that this disagreement, although at first hardly per- ceptible, would entirely invert the seasons in the course of a few years, invented a cycle of nineteen years, which was called ivveaKaiBeKacTrjpls. In this term the sun having finished nineteen periods, and the moon 235, both returned to the same position in the heaven, in which they had been nineteen years before. 3. In B. C 432, Meton commenced his cycle Melon's cycle. with the new moon nearest to the summer solstice. But this new moon fell upon the thirteenth day of Scirophorion, so that the irregularity which Meton undertook to rectify was as great as it could be, if the new moon coincided with the thirteenth day of the civil month. The ivveaKaideKaerrjpls of Meton intercalated seven months in nine years. The years which received the intercalary months were these: 3. 5. 8. 11. 13. 16. 19. His nineteen years accordingly contained 235 months of thirty days, or 7^050 days. But as nineteen years in solar time contained 6,940 days according to Meton's computation, there was an overplus of 110 days to be expunged from his cycle. His method was, in the whole period of 235 months, or 7j050 days, to strike out every sixty-third day P. p In the old method of deducting a day from every alternate month, at the rate of six days in the year, too much was gained ; 19 + 6 being = 1 14. i6 180 MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. P. I. These rjixepat i^aipeariixoij were taken from every month in turn^ while the cycle of Meton continued in use Q. Caif^^us^and ^" ^®**^^ made great improvements upon the Hipparchus. calculations of his predecessors. But the difference between his computation and the true time was still considerable. In his solar year there was an excess of thirty minutes. Hence his nineteen years, amounting to 6_,940 days, exceeded the true solar time by about nine hours and a half. To prevent this Calippus invented a new cycle of seventy-six years, which commenced in the archonship of Ari- stophon, B. C. 330. Calippus however had esti- mated the error of Meton to be only one day in seventy-six years, whereas it was in reality thirty- eight hours. Hipparchus therefore devised another cycle, which contained four of those instituted by Calippus. Athenian 5. The Athenians divided their civil year into ten pri/tanicBj corresponding to the number of their tribes, each of thirty-five days. They began their year after their calendar had been reformed by q It is manifest therefore that six particular months are improperly called by Potter menses cavi, and six other months menses pleni. For instance, Metagitnion, Anthesterion, and Gamelion, are improperly called months of twenty-nine days, since Metagitnion, for example, in the 1. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10, 11. 12. 14. 18. 19. years of the cycle was a month of thirty days. Hecatombaeon again, Boedromion, Posideon, Elaphebolion, are improperly termed pleni : for in the years of the cycle 2. 4.6. 8. 10. 11. 12. 14. 19. Hecatombaeon had oiJy twenty-nine days. See Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. i. p. 338 ; second edit. year. B. V. C. XIV. MODE OP COMPUTING TIME. 181 Meton, on the iirst new moon after the summer solstice. The names and order of the Athenian months Names of the Athenian were as follows : 1 . 'EKarofi^aiaVf which derived its months. name from the great number of hecatombs offered in this month. The great Panathenaa were cele- brated in this month, and also the Cronia, or festi- val of Saturn. 2. MerayeLTviciv, so called from the feast of Apollo Metagitnios, celebrated at this time. 3. Bor)8pofiio}Vj so called from the festival Boedromia. (See b. II. c. xi.) 4. Uvaveyjriap ^j a month in which the Pyanepsia were celebrated. (See b. ii. c. xi.) 5. MaLfiaKTripLOiVy SO called from Jupiter MaifmKrrjs, the stormer, or the boisterous; as the festival was celebrated at the beginning of winter. 6. Eloo-ctSfto)!/, a month in which the Posidoniuj or festival of Nep- tune, was celebrated s. 7- TafirjXioiv, a month cele- brated to Juno rajjirjXios, the goddess of marriage. 8. 'AvQearripLOiv, anciently called Kr]vaia>v. The An- thesteria (see b. ii. c. xi.) were celebrated on the 11th, 12th, and 13th days of this month. 9. ^EXa^??- /SoXiwi/, a month which derived its name from the festival Elaphebolia. The Aiovva-ia [MeydXaj or to. iv aorei, were celebrated in this month. 10. Movw- r This month is the fifth in the Hst of Potter and others, but I have followed the arrangement of Mr. CHnton, whose reasons for altering the position of this and other months seem to me perfectly satisfactory. See Clinton, Fasti Helleniciy vol. i. p. 324. s In this month, as containing the shortest day in the year, the proportions of the /cAei/zuSpa were measured. See Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. i. p. .S31. 182 MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. P. 1. Xi-^Vj so called from the festival of Diana Movwxia. 11. Qapyrjkioiv, which derived its name from the festival Thargelia. (See b. ii. c. xi.) In this month the Panathencea Minora were celebrated. 12. 2ki- po^opiuiv, a month which received its name from the feast Scirophoria. (See b. ii. c. xi.) Macedonian, BceotiaUj and Spartan months, compared with the Athenian. Athenian. Macedonian, Boeotian. Spartan. 1. Hecatombaeon, 10. Lous. 7- Hippodromius. 2. Metagitnion. 11. Gorpieus. 8. Panemus. 3. Boedromion. 12.Hyperberetaeus. 9. 4. Pyanepsion. 1. Dius. 10. Lamatrius. 5. Maemacterion. 1 2. Apellaeus. 11. Alalcomenius, 6. Posideon. 3. Audynaeus. 12. 7. Gamelion. 4. Peritius. 1. Boucatius. 8. Anthesterion. 5. Dystus. 2. Hermoeus. 9. Elaphebolion. 6. Xanthicus. 3. Prostaterius. Artemisius 10. Munychion. 7. Artemisius. 4. 11. Thargelion. 8. DcEsius. 5. 12. Scirophorion. 9. Panemus. 6. 1 We have no perfect list of the names of months in any state except the Athenian and Macedonian. Besides the two Spartan months inserted in the table the names of three others (Gerastius, Phlya- siusj and Hecatombseus) are given; but we have B. V. C. XIV. MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. 183 no means of knowing with which of the Athenian months they corresponded. We read also of three Eleian months, (Af oUonius, Parthenius, and Ela- phius,) one Corinthian, (Panemus,) one Argive, (Her- meus,) &c. &c. 6. Every month was divided into rpia 8€XW^P<^3 Divisions and days in three decades of days. The first was /x?/i/6? dpxofxe- each month. vov, or larafxevov ; the second, firjvos fiea-ovvrog ; the third, jxrjvos (J)6lvovtos. 1 . The first day of the first decade was termed veofiijvla, as falling upon the new moon ; the second, devrepa larafievov ; and so on. 2. The first day of the second decade was called irpoiTT] p.((rovvTos, or Trpwri] eVi 8eKa ; the second, 8ev- repa p.€crovvros ; and so on to elms, the twentieth. 3. The first day of the third decade was termed TrpoiTT} eV* eiKaBt ; the second, bevripa iir ciKabi. ; and SO on to TpiaKus, the thirtieth : for even in the months which had only twenty-nine days they ma- naged to retain the thirtieth, by passing over one of the other days. The thirtieth day was also called evT) KOL via, the old and the new; because the former part of it belonged to the old moon, the latter to the new. 7- The date of events in Grecian history is marked Olympiads. by Olympiads, which were periods of four years, beginning in the year before Christ 776. They reckoned from the eleventh day of Hecatombseon, which began at the first new moon after the sum- mer solstice. The computation by Olympiads ceased in the reign of Theodosius, A. D. 395. The 293rd Olympiad appears therefore to have been the last. The following rules will enable the student to 184 MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. P. I. find the Olympiad when the year before or after Christ is given ; and vice versa. Rules for RuLE 1. — The year before Christ being given. Olympiad, jn order to find the Olympiad, subtract from the number 776 (the date of the first Olympiad) the number of the given year ; divide the remainder by 4, and add 1 for the Olympiad and 1 for the year. The result will be the required Olympiad. Examples. With what year of what Olympiad does the year B. C. 434 correspond ? From 776 Take 434 4)342 85 2 1 1 Olymp. 86 3 year. Answer. — The third year of the 86th Olympiad. With what year of what Olympiad does the year B. C. 773 correspond ? From 776 Take 773 4) 3 3 1 1 Olymp. 1 4 year. Answer. — The fourth year of the first Olympiad. Rule 2. — The Olympiad being given to find the year before Christ. Multiply the number of Olym- B. V. C. XIV. MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. 185 piad by 4, and subtract the product from 776 ; then deduct the odd years, (minus 1,) and add four. The result will be the year required. Examples, What year before Christ was the third year of the eightieth Olympiad ? 80 4 320 From 776 Take 320 456 Deduct odd years 3—1 2 454 Add 4 458 Answer. — The year B. C. 458. Rule 3. — The year after Christ being given, to find the Olympiad. — Add the given year to 77^ ; then divide by 4, and add 1 for the Olympiad. Example. With what year of what Olympiad does A. D. 14 correspond ? 776 14 4)790 197 2 1 198 2 Answer. — The second year of the 198th Olympiad. 186 MONEY, WEIGHTS, &C. P. I. Rule 4. — The Olympiad being given, to find the year after Chrst. Observe that A. D. 1 was the first year of the 195th Olympiad. Subtract 195 from the number of the given Olym- piad, multiply by 4, and add the odd years. Example. What year after Christ was the second year of the 198th Olympiad ? From 198 Take 195 4 12 Add odd years 2 I4 Answer. — A. D. 14. CHAP. XV. Grecian money, weights, and measures. 1. The following table will shew the value of money among the Greeks : £. s. d. Lepton ^Vtr 7 lepta make 1 chalcus 41 2 chalci, 1 dichalcus 0:^ ^ 2 dichalci, 1 hemiobolus 0\-^ 2 hemioboli, 1 obolus 1^1 6 oboli, 1 drachma* 71 t The drachma was divided into eighteen Ki^aTia, or siliquae, as well as into six oboli. In different parts of Greece were different drachmas : that of jEgina was equal to ten Attic oboli ; the value of the Corinthian drachma is not known. B. V. C. XV. MONEYj WEIGHTS, &C. 187 L. s. d. 2 drachmae, 1 didrachmon 1 3^ 100 drachmae^ 1 mina 3 4 7 60 minae, 1 talent^ 193 15 The lesser coins, as the lepton, chalcus, &c. were generally of brass, except the drachma and didrach- mon, which were of silver. There was also the tetradrachma, which was called yXav^, owl, because it had that bird on one side, and a head of Minerva on the other. The stater was both a gold and silver coin, but most commonly the latter. It was of different weights and names, according to the different states by which it was coined. The stater aureus weighed two Attic drachms, and was worth 1/. 0*. 9d. The stater Cyzicenes, the stater Philippi, and the stater Alexandri, were each of the value of 18*. \d. English. The stater Daricus and the stater Croesi were each of the value of 1/. 12*. 3|^. Observe, that when the word dpyvpiov is found joined with a number, drachms are to be understood. 2. The following are their weights reduced to English Troy weight : lb. oz. dwt. grs. Drachma 6 2-|-|- u TaXavTov: the talent commonly signifies in Homer, a ba- lance ; however, it usually denotes either a weight or a sum of money ; and its value difi^ered according to the diiferent ages or countries in which it was used. The talent of ^gina con- tained ten thousand Attic drachmae. Another talent much more ancient and of less value than those, was that which may be called the Homeric talent of gold, supposed by some to be worth twenty-four drachmae. 188 MONEY, WEIGHTS, &C. P.I. lb. oz. dwt. grs. Mina Attica communis Oil 71 6f Mina Attica media 1 2 11 lOf Talentum Atticum commune . . 56 11 17-7- It must be remembered, that every mina always contains 100 drachmae, and every talent 60 minae: the talents therefore differ according to the different standard of their minae and drachmae. 3. The following are the Grecian measures of length reduced to English : paces ft. in. decimals. Dactylus, or digit 7554ii Doron 3 218 4 Lichas 7 5546 i Orthodoron 8 3101-iV Spithame 9 656^ Uovs, foot 1 875 Uvyfi^, cubit 1 1 5984 f Uvyi>v 1 3 109 4 n^X^s, larger cubit 1 6 13125 *Opyvta, pace 6 525 Stadium 100 4 4 5 Milion 805 5 The Grecian square measures were, the pletkron, or acre, containing 1444, as some say, or, as others report, 10,000 square feet; and the aroura, which was half the plethron. 4. The following are Attic measures of capacity for things liquid, reduced to the English wine measure: gal. pints. Cochlearion . . -rh^ Cheme VV B. V. C. XV. MONEY, WEIGHTS, &C. 189 gal. pints. Mystron ^ Conche -^ Cyathus -iV Oxybaphon -|- Cotyle 4- Xestes 1 Chous 6 Metretes 10 2 5. The following are Attic measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English corn measure : pks. gals. pts. s. in. dec. Cochlearion 276A Cyathus 2 763 4- Oxybaphon 4 144 4 Cotyle 16 579 Xestes 33 158 Choenix 1 15 705 4 Medimnus 4 6 3 501 PART 11. OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. BOOK I. OF ATHENS. CHAP. I. Geography of Attica, tribes, Demi, Laurium, Pentelicus. Extent and 1. ATTICA is a neck of landj or peninsula^ oppo- bounuaries ^ •"■ ^ of Attica. site to that of Argolis^ (being separated from it by the Saronic gulf, extending in a south-easterly di- rection about sixty-three miles into the ^gaean sea. Its greatest breadth may be twenty-five miles ; but it tapers more and more to a point southward, until it ends in the rocky promontory of Sunium, {cape Cohnna,) on the summit of which stood the temple of Minerva a. Productions 2. The soil uever produced corn enough to sup- sources, ply its inhabitants ; but the marble of the Pentelic mountains^ the silver mines of Laurium^ and more especially the culture of the olive^ and the commer- cial advantages which the inhabitants derived from the situation of their country gave to the people wealth sufficient to procure them all the necessaries and most of the luxuries of life. a Neptune was also worshipped there, as we learn from Aristophanes. Equi. bbT. B. I. C. I. GEOGRAPHY OF ATTICA, &C. 191 The whole surface of the country furnishes an area of about 730 square miles, allowing for the very hilly nature of the ground. 3. The total population of Attica B. C. 31 7^ at Population. which time a census was taken by Demetrius the Phalerian, was estimated at 528,000; of these the citizens, or those who had votes in the public as- sembly, amounted to 21,000^. The fierotKotj or re- sidents, who paid taxes, but had no vote, amounted to 10,000, and the slaves to 400,000, which, with a proportionate allowance of women and children, furnishes the number of souls above mentioned ^. 4. The mountains of Attica are a continuation Mountains of the chain from BcBotia. In its northerly highest part this chain was called mount Parnes, (Nozea.) Below this is mount Pentelicus, celebrated an- ciently for its marbles A range now called Ttirko- vouni connects the last mentioned with mount Anchesmus. The two summits of mount Hymet- tus^, (now Trelo-voujii and Lampro-vouni,) form b That this number could not comprehend women and chil- dren as Avell as men, is very satisfactorily proved by Mr. Chnton in note c, p. 388, vol. i. of his Fasti Hellenici. In the time of Pericles, about 130 years before, the number of voters was 19,000, the entire Athenian population, exclusive of ixeroiKoi and slaves, being at that time 78,240. Clinton's Fasti, vol. i. p. 53. c The proportion of the free nhabitants to the slaves, there- fore, was nearly as one to four. In the American sugar planta- tions of our own day the slave population bears to that of the freemen the proportion of six to one. Botckh's Polit. Ec. of Athens, vol. i. d Hymettus was famous for its flowers and honey. 192 GEOGRAPHY OP ATTICA, &C. P. II. the southern portion of this chain, which is con- tinued to the promontory of Sunium. The air of Attica is rema kably pure. Tribes. 5. The whole of Attica had been divided as early as the time of Cecrops into four tribes, or wards, (• 1,600 of the republic J Total 31,800 The 14,200 citizens were between the ages of twenty and sixty. Ol peajraTOL would be the ephehi, from eighteen to twenty ; ot Trpecr^vTaroi, the citizens above the age of sixty. These two last classes, with such of the fxeroiKOL as were oTrXTrat, come under the denomination of ot eV rots (f)povpiois. 2. Free-born Athenians were those who had one or both of their parents Athenian. This law was repealed at the instance of Pericles, and afterwards reenacted by his persuasion, after he had lost all his Distinction legitimate children. The law was again modified between ^ ,. . . , free-born m such a wav as to make a distmction between Athenians and those those whose parents were both of them Athenians, who had one ^ parent only and those who had only one free parent. For in- an Athenian. •' -"^ B. I. C. III. ATHENIAN CITIZENS^ &C. 215 stance, those who had but one parent an Athenian were not allowed to exercise themselves in any of the gymnasia that were frequented by those who had both, but only at the Cynosarges, a place with- out the city. In the same place there was a court of judicature, where persons, suspected of having fraudulently insinuated themselves into the number and privileges of citizens, were arraigned. This proceeding was called blio) t^s ^evlas. 3. In order further to prevent all frauds of this Enrolment, nature, all fathers were obliged to enrol their sons in the register of their particular wards, probably when they were three or four years old. There were also two other seasons at which young men were enrolled, namely, at the ages of eighteen and twenty. By the former of these enrolments they were admitted into the number of the ephebij by the latter they were registered among the men, and became thenceforth their own masters. 4. The second sort of inhabitants were called uWotxou fieToiKoi : by which word were signified persons who came from a foreign country, and settled in Attica, being admitted by the council of Areopagus, and entered in a public register. They differed from the TToXIrat, or citizens, because they were not free citizens of Athens, but either came from another city themselves, or were descended from those who did ; and from the |eVot, or strangers, because they only took up their lodgings for a short time, whereas the fieroiKoi had fixed habitations, and constantly re- 216 ATHENIAN CITIZENS, &C. P. 11. sided in the place to which they had transported themselves. They were permitted to dwell in the city, and follow their own business, without dis- turbance; but could not be intrusted with any pub- lic office, give their votes in the assemblies, or have any share in the government. In return for the protection afforded them, they were required to per- form several duties, and the men were obliged to pay a tribute annually of twelve drachms, and wo- men who had no sons a tribute of six. The ser- vices of the fxeroiKoi in war were important : they did not however serve in the cavalry, conferred on ^- -^^ ^ reward for eminent services, the fieroiKoi them. ^ere sometimes admitted into the number of citi- zens ; in which case they were eligible to all public offices, except the priesthoods and the archonships. More commonly, however, they were honoured with an immunity from all taxes, and other duties, ex- cept such as were required of the free-born citizens. The persons who enjoyed this honour were called to-orcXeiy, because they did la-a reKelv rois darois, pay only an equal proportion with the citizens. Serrants of g, Qf the third description of inhabitants, namely, two sorts. ^ ' J » the servants, there were two sorts : the first were persons who through poverty, although free citizens, were obliged to serve for hire. These were called BrjTts. The second sort were slaves, who were wholly at the command of their masters, who had the power of punishing them, even with death. All the descendants of this class of persons became B. I. C. III. ATHENIAN CITIZENS, &C. 217 the property of the master as soon as they were born. 7. Slaves at Athens were treated very ignomini- Slaves. ously. They were not allowed to dress like free- men, and were compelled to cut their hair in a peculiar form. They were also excluded from the worship of some of the deities, as for instance, that of the Eumenides at Athens. They were generally kept in a state of brutal ignorance. Their names were also different from those of freemen, seldom consisting of more than two syllables, such as Geta or Davus. Above all things, especial care was taken that slaves should not wear arms; although, in cases of extreme danger, we sometimes read of their being armed in defence of their masters and themselves. Slaves laboured either on their master's account, or their own, in consideration of a certain sum to be paid to the master ; or they were let out on hire either for the mines, or any other kind of la- bour, and even for other persons' workshops, or as hired servants for wages (a7ro<^opd) . A similar pay, ment was also exacted by the masters from their slaves serving in the fleet. 8. The most common crimes of which the slaves Punishments ., 1 ' 1 . • -inflicted on were guilty were, desertion to the enemy m time or slaves. war, (called avronoXehj) and theft. The common punishment for these offences was whipping, which was inflicted with great severity, the criminal being bound to a wheel or pillar during the infliction. They who were convicted of any notorious offence were condemned to grind at the mill. It was also L 218 ATHENIAN CITIZENS, &C. Difference between olx'srai and ^pvXot. Tortures. The slave- market. customary to brand them, not only as a punishment for their offences, but in order to distinguish them in case they should desert from their masters. 9. Slaves, as long as they were under the govern- ment of a master, were called olKerai ; but after their freedom was granted them they were termed fioOXot, not being, like the former, a part of their master's estate, but only obliged to some grateful acknow- ledgment and small services. They were, however, seldom advanced to the full rank of citizens. The freedmen were obliged to pay a tribute annually of twelve drachms and three oboli, being three oboli more than the sum paid by the fieroiKoi. They were also obliged to choose a TrpoaTdrrjs, or patron, who was to be no other than the master out of whose service they had been released. 10. Slaves were often tortured to extort con- fessions; but whoever wished to torture another man's slave was obliged to give security, that he would pay the value of the slave in the event of his dying under the infliction. 11. At Athens several places in the forum were appointed for the sale of slaves : and upon the first day of every month the merchants brought them into the market, and exposed them to sale, the crier standing upon a stone erected for that purpose, and calling the people together. The market-price of slaves, exclusively of the variations caused by the greater or less demand and supply, was very differ- ent according to their age, health, strength, beauty, natural abilities, mechanical ingenuity, and moral B. I. C. IV. ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. 219 qualities. The slaves employed in the mills and mines were undoubtedly the lowest. The average price of one of these does not seem to have been more than a mina. Slaves skilled in some art were often sold for five minse. For eunuchs, women who played on the harp, and other slaves of a simi- lar description, twenty or thirty minae seem not to have been an uncommon price. Slaves might be given or taken as pledges like any other property. When a slave was first brought home, there was an entertainment provided, to welcome him to his new service, and certain sweetmeats were poured upon his head. CHAP. IV. Of the Athenian magistrates, 1. According to Solon's constitutions, no manQuaiifica- tions for the was capable of being a magistrate, unless he was magistracy. possessed of a considerable estate : and although this law was afterwards repealed by Aristides, the modesty of the common people still left all the chief offices to persons of superior quality. The magistrates may be divided into three classes, ac- Three classes ofmagis- cording to the difl'erent modes of their appointment, trates. 1. XeipoTovrjTol were such as received their dignity from the people, met together in a lawful assembly, which on this occasion was held in the Pnyx ; and were so called from the manner of their election, in which the people gave their votes by holding up their hands. 2. KXtjpcotoi were those who owed their promotion to lots, which were drawn by the Thes- l2 220 ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. P. II. mothetae in the temple of Theseus. No person, however, was permitted to try his fortune by the lots, unless he had been first approved by the people. The manner of casting lots was thus : the name of every candidate being inscribed on a tablet of brass, and put into an urn, together with beans, the choice fell upon those persons whose tablets were drawn out with white beans. If any man threw more than one tablet into the urn, he suffered capital punishment. 3. Alperol were extraordinary officers, appointed by particular tribes or boroughs to take care of any business, such as surveying the public works, &c. It was a capital crime for any man to enter upon the magistracy while unable to pay his debts. 2. It would be impossible in so small a work as the present to enumerate all the different sorts of Athenian magistrates; we must therefore confine ourselves to a few of the principal ones. Archons. The chief magistrates of Athens were the nine archons, who were elected by lots, but were not admitted to their offices until they had undergone a twofold trial ; one in the senate-house, called avaKpiais ; and a second in the forum, called boKifm- arla. The principal points as to which they were examined were, whether they were descended from ancestors who had been citizens of Athens for three generations ; of what tribe and kindred they were ; whether they had been dutiful to their parents; whether they had a competent estate ; and whether they were perfect in all their members. They then B. I. C. IV. ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. 221 took an oath (in the forum and in the Acropolis) that they would administer justice impartially^ and if they were ever guilty of receiving a bribe^ they would dedicate a statue of equal weight Avith their own bodies to the Delphian Apollo. They all had the power of punishing malefactors with death, and were all crowned with garlands of myrtle. They had a joint commission for inquiring into the be- haviour of other magistrates, and deposing such as were by the suffrages of the people declared to be unworthy of bearing the office which had been com- mitted to them. As a recompense for their services, they were free from all taxes and contributions ex- acted from the other citizens for the building of ships of war. If any person insulted them, he was punished with artpa, infamy. The three first ar- Titles of the chons were called, 1 . "Apx^v, and sometimes iiraw- archons. fxosj because the year took its denomination from him. His jurisdiction extended to both ecclesi- astical and civil affairs. It was his duty to deter- mine all causes relating to husbands and wives, wills, legacies, orphans, &c. and to punish drunkards. He held a court in the Odeum, where trials about victuals, and other necessaries, were brought before him. 2. Bao-iXevs had a court of judicature in the royal portico, where he decided all disputes that happened among the priests. Persons also who were accused of impiety or profanation of any of the mysteries, temples, or other sacred things, were brought before him. It was also his business to take account of accusations of murder, and refer l3 222 ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. P. II. Thesmo thetse. them to the Areopagites^ amongst whom he had a right of suffrage^ but was obliged to lay aside his crown during the trial. 3. UoKefxapxos had under his care all the strangers and sojourners in Athens^ and exercised the same authority over them as was used by the archon towards the citizens. It was customary for these three magistrates to make choice each of two Trdpedpoi, or assessors, who sat with them on the bench, and directed them as there was occasion. The six remaining archons were called by one common name thesmothetce. They received complaints against persons guilty of false accusations, calumny, bribery, and impiety ; settled disputes between the citizens and strangers, so- journers, slaves, &c. They also took the suffrages in public assemblies, and took care that no laws should be established but such as conduced to the safety and prosperity of the commonwealth. The eleven. 3. Ot epbcKa, the eleven, SO called from their num- ber, were elected out of the body of the people, each of the ten tribes sending one ; to whom there was added a ypafifiarevs, or registrar. Their office was not unlike that of our sheriffs : for they were obliged to see malefactors executed, and had the charge of such as were committed to the public prison. They had also the power of seizing thieves and highwaymen upon suspicion ; and, if they con- fessed the fact, of putting them to death; if not, they were obliged to prosecute them in a judicial way. NofzoipvXa. 4. NojxocfivXaKes were officers whose business it was B. I. C. IV. ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. 223 to see that neither the magistrates nor common people made any innovation upon the laws^ and to punish the stubborn and disobedient. 5. NofxoOeraL were a thousand in number^, who lio/AoQirai. were commonly chosen by lot out of such as had been judges in the court Heliaea. Their office was to revise the old laws^ and cause the useless ones to be abrogated by the people. They also took care that no one should plough or dig ditches within the Pelasgian wall. 6. Arjfiapxol presided over the demi, of which they A>j^af;^;fl/ managed the revenues, and paid all the duties re- *" i(r- fiara, because in them the people confirmed and ratified the decrees of the senate. They were held four times in five and thirty days. The first as- sembly was employed in approving and rejecting magistrates, hearing proposals concerning the public good, &c. The second made provision both for the community and for private persons ; and it was per- mitted to every man to prefer any petition, or speak his judgment, concerning either of them. In the third, audience was given to the ambassadors of foreign states. The fourth was wholly taken up with religion, and matters relating to divine wor- ship. 3. SvyKXT^rot €KicKTj(riai were SO called dnb Tov (Tvy- KoXelv, because the people were suinmoned together; whereas in the Kvpiai they met of their own accord, without receiving any notice from the magistrates. The persons who summoned the people were com- B. I. C. V. PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 225 monly the a-Tparrjyol, the TroXe/uapxos', and the KrjpvKes. The crier seems to have summoned them twice at the least. KaT€Kic\T)(riai were assemblies held upon some very weighty and momentous affair, to which they sum- moned not only those citizens who resided in the city, but all that lived in the country, or were in the ships then at anchor in the haven. 4. The places where the eKKKrja-iai were assembled were, 1. *Ayopa, the market-place, in which not only the Athenians, but most other cities, had their pub- lic meetings. Hence the assemblies themselves were called dyopai. 2. Uvv^ was a place near the Acro- polis, so called Bia to TreTrvKvSxrOai,, because it was crowded with seats, or because there were crowds of persons assembled there. It was remarkable for nothing but the meanness of its buildings, which remained for many ages as a monument of ancient simplicity h. 3. In later times the theatre of Bacchus was the usual place in which assemblies were held. On extraordinary occasions the assemblies were not confined to any particular place, being sometimes held in the Piraeus, in the Munychia, or any other place large enough to contain the people. h The celebrated Bema, from which the orators addressed the people, was a simple pulpit of stone, which at first looked to the sea, but in the time of the thirty tyrants was turned towards the interior of the country. (Aristophan. Pac. 659.) Some traces of this ancient structure are still to be seen on a hill, the situation and bearings of which answer in all respects to what has been collected from ancient authorities relative to the Pnyx. CoL Leakeys Top. Athens, p. 40. l5 226 PUBLIC ASSE3IBLIES. P. II. Magistrates 5, The magistrates who had the care and ma- who had the *-^ ^A'ff^^'"™* nagement of these assemblies were^, the TrpvTdveiSj sembhes. npoeSpoij and eTncrrdTrjs. 1. The prytanes sometimes called the people together, and always before their meeting set up a Trpoypa/x/ia in some place of general concourse, in which were contained the matters to be discussed in the following assembly. 2. UpoebpoL were so called from the ^first places which they had in the assemblies. While the tribes of Athens were no more than ten^ the proedri were nine in number, being appointed by lot out of the nine tribes which at that time were free from the office of prytanes. Their business was to propose to the people the affairs on which they were to deliberate. Their office expired as soon as the deliberations of the assembly were ended. It was customary for the vopocpvXaKcs in all assemblies to sit with the proedri, and to hinder the people from decreeing any thing contrary to the public interest. 3. 'ETrio-rdr?;?, the president of the assembly, was chosen by lot out of the proedri. The chief part of his office seems to have consisted in granting the people liberty to give their voices, which they were not permitted to do until he had given the signal. Mode of 6. If the people were remiss in coming to the compelling the people assemblies, the magistrates used their utmost eiForts to attend. ^ , to compel them. If they were very obstinate, two of the To^orai were dispatched into the market with a cord dyed with vermilion ; and one of them stand- ing on one side, and the other on the other, they pursued all whom they found there, and marked B. I. C. V. PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 227 with the cord as many as they caught, all of whom had a certain fine imposed on them. On the other handj by way of encouragement, three oboli were given out of the exchequer to all such as came early to the place appointed for the assembly. 7. If tempestuous weather^ or a sudden storm, Expiatory . . rites. or earthquake happened^ or any inauspicious omen appeared, the assembly was immediately adjourned. But if all things continued in their usual course^ they proceeded in the following manner. Firsts the place where they were appointed to meet was purified by killing young pigs, which were carried round the utmost bounds of it ; on the outside of which no man was permitted to stand, because those places were accounted profane and unsanctified. 8. The expiatory rites being ended^ the public Prayer, crier made a solemn prayer for the prosperity of the commonwealth^ and the good success of their coun- sels and undertakings. He then pronounced a so- lemn curse against such as should endeavour any thing in that assembly to the prejudice of the com- monwealth. 9. Then the crier, the proedri eivinff the com- Persons caii- f ° ® edontoad- mand, repeated the irpo^ovKivyia, or decree of the dress the assembly. senate^ upon which the assembly was then to deli- berate. That being done, the crier proclaimed with a loud voice, " Which of the men above fifty years " old will make an oration }" Then the old men proposed what they thought fit. After this, the crier, by a second proclamation, gave them to un- derstand, that ^' every Athenian might then speak, l6 228 SENATE OF FIVE HUNDRED. P. II. " whom the laws allowed so to do." No one, how- ever, was allowed to deliver his sentiments who was under thirty years of age, or had been con- victed of any heinous crime, or had deserted his standard, or who was deeply indebted to the com- monwealth. Manner of 10. When the debates were ended, the crier, by voting. _ ■* ' ^ the command of the proedri, asked the people, " Whether they would consent to the decree.^" The usual manner of giving their votes was by hold- ing up their hands, and therefore they called it Xeiporovia. In some cases, however, especially when they deprived magistrates of their power for mal- administration, they gave their votes in private. The manner of voting privately was by casting peb- bles (;^T)Ka>u ; the whole plaintiflf", de- fendant, &c. suit 8la>^is ; and the defendant <})evya>v. The indict- ment before conviction was named alria ; after con- viction, eXeyxos; and after condemnation, dbiKrjfia. All the time that the cause was in suspense, and undetermined, it was exposed to public view, being engraved on a tablet, together with the name of the person accused, and hung up at the statues of the heroes surnamed cTrwi/v/xot. This they called ex- K€Lcr6ai,. Punishment 1^, jf the plaintiff had accused his adversary un- for perjury. ^ -' justly, or produced false evidence against him, he was punished with a fine. The perjured person was also severely punished by an action of i//'6vSo- fxaprvpia. CHAP. IX. Of the Athenian punishments and rewards. Minor pu- \ ^he most common and remarkable punish- nishments. ^ ments inflicted at Athens on malefactors were these: Zr\\ilajjlne, B. I. C. IX. PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. 243 *ATiixiaj infamy. Of this there were three de- grees : 1. When the criminal retained his posses- sions, but was deprived of some privilege which was enjoyed by other citizens. 2. When he was for the present deprived of the privileges of a free citizen, and had his goods confiscated. 3. When the criminal, with all his children and posterity, were for ever deprived of all rights of free citizens, both sacred and civil : this was inflicted on persons convicted of theft, perjury, or other notorious vil- lanies. AovXfia, servitude, was a punishment by which the criminal was reduced to the condition of a slave. It was only inflicted on the art/xot, or fo- reigners, and freed servants, but never on free citizens. Sr/y/Ltara, branding, was seldom inflicted on any but slaves. StjJXt; was a pillar on which the criminal's offence was engraven. Ae(r/Li6s was a punishment by which the criminal was condemned to imprisonment of fetters h Under this last head may be classed — SvXov irevTea-vpiyyov, the pillory, a board pierced with^ve holes, through which were thrust the head, i The Athenians had three sorts of prisons. The first, near the forum, for debtors. The second, called 'Swtppovia-TfipioVf was a house of correction. The third was seated in a lonely place, and was designed for malefactors guilty of capital crimes. (Plato de Leg. lib. x.) The gate through which criminals were led to execution was called Xapuvslov, from Charon, the in- fernal ferryman. m2 244 PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. P. II. arms^ and legs of the culprit ; x"^^*^* the stocks ; and (rai/is_, a piece of wood to which the malefactor was bound fast. ^^vyiy, banishment, whereby the condemned per- sons were deprived of their estates, and compelled to leave their country^ without any possibility of returning ; in which respect it differed from oarpa- Kia-fiosj which only commanded a ten years' absence, at the end of which the banished persons were per- mitted to return, and enjoy their estates, which were all that time preserved entire to them. Ostra- cism was designed, not so much as a punishment, as a means of getting rid of those who by their illustrious actions had excited the envy of the peo- ple. It was performed in this manner : every one taking an otrrpaicov, or tile, on which a name was written, carried it to a certain part of the market- place, surrounded with wooden rails for that pur- pose, in which were ten gates appointed for the ten tribes, every one of which entered by a separate gate. That being done, the archon numbered all the tiles, and if they were fewer than six thousand, the ostracism was void ; then laying every name by itself, they pronounced him whose name was writ- ten by the major part, banished for ten years. Capital pu- 2. QdvaTos, death, was inflicted on malefactors in nishraents. several ways, the chief of which were — Sl(fi05, a sword, with which the criminal was be- headed. Bpoxos, a rope, with which he was hung or strangled. B. I. C. IX. PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. 245 Kprjfivos, a precipice, from which the malefactor was thrown headlong. TvfjLirava, cudgels, with which he was beaten to death. 2Tavp6s, the cross, to which the offender was nailed. BdpaBpov, a deep pit, into which malefactors were cast. AtBo^oXia, stoning, a punishment frequently in- flicted by the primitive Greeks on persons taken in adultery. 3. The principal rewards were — Rewards. Upoedpia, or the privilege of having the^r^^ seat at all shows, and other public meetings. ElKQiv, the honour of having a picture or statue erected in some public part of the city. 2T€(f)apoi, crowns, were conferred in the public assemblies by the suffrages of the people^ or the senators in their council, or by the tribes on their own members. 'AreXeta was an immunity from all public duties, taxes, and contributions, except such as were neces- sary for carrying on the war. This honour was very rare. 2iTr}(ns iv UpvTaveia was an entertainment allowed in the common hall to such as deserved well of the commonwealth, (particularly to those who had been ambassadors.) Their fare was a sort of cake called fidCa. Some persons enjoyed this privilege during their whole lives. It was sometimes conferred on whole families, for the sake of their ancestors. It m3 246 REVENUE OFFICERS OF ATHENS. P. II. was also usual to provide, at the public expense, for the children of distinguished parents. CHAP. X.k Officers employed in the collection and administra- tion of the Athenian revenues. The adminis- 1 . The legislative authority in matters of finance, finance en- as in all Other things, belonged to the people, as the senate of being supreme ruler and sovereign, (kv/jios,) but the deredanac- administration was entrusted to the senate of five count to the people. hundred, who were responsible to the people. The senate was occupied with providing money, with re- ceiving the tribute, with the management of naval aflfairs and of the temples, and with the application of the public money in general. Three classes 2. The boards and offices subordinate to the se- subordinate nate may be classed under three heads : 1 . Those to the senate. First class, who made the arrangements necessary for the col- lection of the revenue, or themselves collected it. Second class. 2. The treasurers of the offices into which the revenue was paid, and from which it was disbursed. And Third class. 3. those whose duty it was to discharge the accounts. Concerning the first division it will be unneces- sary to say much, as in treating of the revenue, the method of its collection must be in part considered. All regular duties were let to farmers (reXwi/at) for these imposts. No particular places of payment k The subject matter of the chapters on the Athenian re- venues and expenditure is extracted principally from "Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens," a work which may be consulted with great benefit by the more advanced student. B. I. C. X. REVENUE OFFICERS OF ATHENS. 247 were necessary, except for receiving the money from the farmers. The duty of letting out to farm the taxes, mines, confiscated property, &c. was left to the care of the ten TraXriTaij a board {apxrj) to UaX'/jra). which each tribe contributed one member, and which met at a place called Poleterion. Among them was a prytaneus, who presided. The property of the temples was let by the directors of sacred possessions ; and the property of the tribes and demi, was let by themselves through their own agent or manager, to whom payment was also made. 3. Another class of the public revenues consisted UBcixTooi;. of the justice-fees and fines : these were paid in by the presidents of the courts of justice which decided the cause, when the part that accrued to the state was transferred to the officers, named exactors, (rrpaKTopes,) and the portion which was allotted to any god was placed in the hands of the treasurers of the proper temple. 4. All the revenues under the care of the pre- second class, paratory officers were necessarily delivered up to others, who either distributed them for the public service, or kept them for security. At Athens there were ten airobeKrai, after the number of the tribes, who were chosen by lot. They kept the lists of all persons who were indebted to the state, received the money which was paid in, made an entry of it, and marked the outstanding sums ; and lastly, they, together with the senate, distri- buted the money that had been paid in, that is to say, they assigned it to the separate officer. They M 4 ccyrooiKTai. 248 REVENUE OFFICERS OF ATHENS. P. II. also had power to decide causes connected with the subjects under their management. 5. Every temple of any importance had a trea- sure, which was composed of offerings and other receipts; these treasures were under the manage- Tx/i'ixi T^v ment of the treasurers of the sacred moneys {rafiiai '^^JJ^ '^f*'^''' T(ov lepav xp'7/Aa'ro)i/). About the ninetieth Olympiad, however, the treasures of the different temples (with the exception of the treasures of Minerva) were united into one board under the name of the Ta^/a< Tuv treasures of the gods {rafiiai rav Be&p) . The office of all these was annual. 6. Wholly different from these officers was the Tafuxs rns treasurer or manager of the public revenues, {rafilas, ff'olov. ^^ i7nfie\r]Tr)s rrjs Koivrjs 7rpo(r68ov,^ the most important of all offices of finance, which was filled not by lot, but by the cheirotonia of the people. This office was not annual, like those of the other treasurers, but was held for four years. All the money which was received and disbursed passed through his hands. He received the money paid in by the apo- dectse, and supplied the separate officers with the requisite sums. The manager of the public re- venue, being an officer who disbursed money, bore Ta^/aj T?ts the name of treasurer of the administration {rayiias TTjs oioLKr}(r€a>s) . Occasional ^, For the superintendence of works of architec- ofBcers for thesuperin- ture, such as the building of walls, streets, docks, tendence of *^ works of ar- and ships, and for the provision of the sacrifices, clutecture, r r ^'^^ particular authorities were appointed, {retxoTroiol, odoTToioi, eVifieXT/ral Ta>v vca>pia>Vy TpirjpoTTOiolj iepoTrotot, B. I. C. X. REVENUE OFFICERS OF ATHENS. 249 some of whom remained in office for a whole year, others acted only as commissioners for a shorter period. All these officers had their respective pay- masters, dependant upon the treasurer of the ad- ministration. 8. A separate office existed for a long time for the management of the tributes, the 'EWrjvoTafilai/Exxnvorx. or treasurers of the Greeks : to them the adminis- tration of the money at Delos, or the 'EWrjvoTaixia, belonged, when in consequence of the treachery of Pausanias after the battle of Plataea, Athens had obtained the command. This situation was at first exclusively held by Athenians: the duty attached to it was to receive the tributes, and to deposit them in the Delian treasury in the temple of Apollo, where the meetings of the allies were held. The office was retained after the funds were removed to Athens under pretence of greater security ; but after the year B. C. 403 no further mention of the Hellenotamiae occurs. 9. From the multiplicity of these officers it iscierks.un- • /. • • T f 1 derclerks, evident that the quantity of writme to be performed and check- ^ •' or ing clerks. must have been considerable. There were three public clerks, (ypa/i/xareiy,) one of whom was chosen by lot in the senate of every prytanea, for the pur- pose of keeping the writings and decrees ; the se- cond was elected by the senate by cheirotonia, and appears to have been the clerk of the senators, (ypafifxarevs rav /SovXevrcoi',) and was the public reader in the senate and the assembly. These officers had an underclerk, (Jmoypaynianvs,) and a considerable M 5 250 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. P. II. number of such persons were used at Athens^ some of whom were employed in the higher^ others in the inferior offices. There were also checking clerks, (dvTiypacpelsy) who checked the accounts. 10. No person who had any share in the govern- ment or administration at Athens (except the di- castae) was exempt from the obligation to render an account of his official expenses. ■Hiird class, The authorities whose business it was to pass and KoyiffTu). examine the accounts of public officers were called evOvuoi, or XoyicrToi. In the examination of persons who either had or had not the management of money^ the logistse after the account had been ren- dered before them, brought the cause into court, where they gave out by means of a herald that they were ready to hear any accusation. Any person who neglected to render his account could be pro- secuted by an action called bU-q oKoylov. There were ten logistae and the same number of euthyni, but in what the difference of their duties consisted has never been distinctly ascertained. CHAP. XL Of the public expenditure of Athens. Different 1. The Athenian expenditure varied very much heads of *^ •' ordinary ex- at different times. It may be arranged under the penditure. •' ^ following heads : expenses of buildings, police, cele- bration of festivals, donations to the people, pay for certain puyic services in time of peace, mainte- nance of the poor, public rewards, and the provid- ing of arms, ships, and cavalry, in time of peace. Extraordinary expenses were occasioned by war, of B. I. C. XI. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 251 which mention will be made at the end of this chapter, 2. The public buildings were constructed at so i. Public 11 11 11 buildings. great an expense, that they could not have been attempted without the treasure derived from the tributes: their maintenance alone required a con- siderable standing expense. For instance, the build- ing of the Piraeus by Themistocles, the fortification of it together with the other harbours, the theatre, and the many temples and sacred edifices in the Piraeus, all cost immense sums : the docks alone, in which the ships lay under cover, were constructed at an expense of 1000 talents. The fortifications of Athens were also enormous; and to these were added in time of war, ramparts of earth, trenches, and parapets for the strengthening of the works ; toge- ther with the fortification of smaller places in At- tica. To these buildings may be added, the porti- coes, the Pompeium, prytaneum, senate-house, and other buildings for the public offices; the innu- merable temples, the theatre, odeum, gymnasia, stadia, hippodromes, aqueducts, fountains, baths, &c. as well as the splendid edifices on the Acropo- lis, among which the propylaea alone cost 2012 talents. Besides these great works there were vari- ous smaller expenses, such as the erection of altars for certain festivals, and the construction and re- pair of roads. For the superintendence of all these labours there officers ap. were some regular officers, and some only appointed the superin- , , tendence of for certain periods. For mstance, there were in- public works. m6 [/<^ OF THE V- 252 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. P. II. Specters of the docks, (eVt/xeXjyrai tS>v veoapliov,^ com- missioners of the roadsj (oSottoioI,) commissioners of city police^ (darwofioi,) five in the city and five in the Piraeus, who, among other duties, had to attend to the cleansing of the streets. All works of build- ing undertaken by the public were let by the proper Contractors, authorities to contractors (epyoXajSoi). 2. Police. 3. The only kind of police which existed as a distinct institution in ancient times, was that to which was intrusted the performance of certain needful services, such as the street police, which was in the charge of the astynomi, together with that of the market and traders, and some sort of establishment for managing the aflfairs of aliens. For the maintenance of security and order there was a city guard composed of public slaves (drjuo- ortot). They are generally called bovniien, (ro^orai,) or, from the native country of the majority, Scythi- ans. They lived under tents in the market-place, and afterwards upon the Areopagus. Of these ofiicers the number gradually increased from 300 (who were first purchased after the battle of Sala- mis) to 1000. They also acted as bailifi^s, heralds, &c. Their leaders were called ro^apxoi. 3. Celebration 4, With the exception of the Theoricon, the most of festivals. ^ considerable expenses of the festivals were for sacri- fices, plays, and processions. The sacrifices were of very diflferent kinds : the ancient and most sa- cred oflferings were called paternal sacrifices, {rraTpiai Bvcriaij) and were opposed to those which were made at the more recent, or, as they were called. B. I. C. XI. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 253 additional festivals (eVi^crat ioprai) . Some of these sacrifices were very expensive ; a hecatomb alone cost upon an average a talent. The entertainments at festivals were also very costly. The choruses, Scemcexhi- decorations, machinery, dresses, &c. required a con- siderable outlay of money ; and although this was in part provided for by direct XeLTovpyialj the chore- gia and gymnasiarchia, it all came at last from the same source: for it makes no essential difference, whether the state raised the money and gave enter- tainments for it, or whether private individuals pro- vided the games instead of paying the money in the shape of a tax. To these expenses must be added the prizes awarded to the successful competitor, of Prizes, which some had no great value, while others were costly, and were given either in money, crowns, or tripods. Another expense connected with this sub- ject were the public burials, (Snuotrmt racbai,) which Public fu. "' ■*• ^ nerals, occurred only in a time of war. There were also the sacred embassies, or theorise, which were sent, Theoriae. after each of the four great Grecian games, to Delos, and other sacred places, for the purposes of festivals. One part of the expense of these pro- cessions was borne by the architheorus, the other by the state. For the administration and superin- Officers ap- •' ... pointed for tendence of all religious solemnities certain unpaid the superin- *^ '■ tendence of authorities were appointed who ranked amona; the religious ^^ ° solemnities. principal public oflices. Among these the most re- markable were the athlothetae, (who had particular care of the great Panathenaea,) the agonothetse, and lastly, the ^oavat, or purchasers of oxen, who were 254 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. P. II. considered officers of very great importance, and were elected by the public assembly. 4. Donations 5, The public donations, or distributions among p^^- the people, {diavoixal, BiabocreiSj) were of frequent occurrence. To these belong the distributions of corn, the cleruchise ^^, and the revenues from the mines, which, before the time of Themistocles, were divided among the citizens ; and lastly, the money Theorica. of the theorica, {to QeaypiKoVj ra Beapim, or BeapiKct XprjfJMTaj) introduced by Pericles, who, finding him- self unable by reason of the scantiness of his for- tune to vie with other public leaders and dema- gogues in liberality, thought of supplying his pri- vate incapacity by a distribution of the public re- venue. This distribution took its origin from the entrance money to the theatre. The entrance was at first free ; but afterwards, in order to avoid the confusion caused by a crowd, it was determined to sell the seats for two oboli ; but in order that the poor might not be excluded, the entrance-money was given them, on the delivery of which each person received his seat. The privilege of receiving the theorica was obtained through registration in the book of the citizens ; {Xri^iapxt-Kov ypap,[xaT€2ou f) the distribution was made both individually, and by k The cleruchi were Athenian citizens, among whom the lands of any conquered people were divided by lots (KXrjpoi). The earliest instance of this sort of division occurs before the Persian wars, when the lands of the knights (tTnro^Srai) of Chalcis in Bceotia were given to 4000 Athenian citizens, other estates being at the same time retained for the gods and the state. See Herod. V. 77 ; VI. 100. B. I. C. XI. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 255 tribes^ absentees receiving nothing; and it took place in the assembly, which was sometimes held in the theatre, particularly when the business related to the celebration of the Dionysia. The applica- tion of the theorica.was soon extended, and money was distributed on other occasions than at the thea- tre, although always at the celebration of some festival ; and as either a play or procession was in- variably connected with it, the name still continued applicable. Under the head of Theorica were also comprised the sums expended upon sacrifices and other solemnities. The surplus money of the ad- ministration was set apart for this purpose; and latterly, as Demosthenes complains, the funds that ought to have been set aside for the expenses of war were squandered upon festivals. The mana- Managers of gers of the theoricon were elected by cheirotonia, con. and it appears that their appointment took place about the time of tHe great Dionysia in the city. Their number is no where mentioned, but they were probably ten, one from each tribe. 6. The salaries at Athens were of various kinds, ^.Payforcer. , , . , „ , lain public but the most important were the wages oi the as- services in sembly, the senate, and the dicasts. The wages of peace, the assembly {fxiados iKKKrja-iaariKos) consisted at first assembly. of a payment of one obolus, and latterly of three oboli to each person who attended the public assem- bly. The money was paid to each person as he entered the assembly by the thermothetse, who re- ceived it from the treasurer of the administration. Those who came too late received nothing. The 256 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. P. II. Wages of the wases of eacli member of the senate of five hundred senate of Soo- {hi(t66s ^ovXevTLKos) amounted to a drachma for each day on which the senate was assembled. The largest item among the salaries regularly paid in time of Wages of the peace was the wages of the dicasts, {fMia-Bos biKaorn- dicasts. ■'• , ^ . . • 1 T» Kos,) the introduction of which is ascribed to Pe- ricles. It seems doubtful whether the wages of the dicasts (judges in the different courts, taken from the people) exceeded an obolus a head, at least whether a higher rate of payment ever con- tinued for any length of time. The payment of these wages took place at each sitting of the court in the following manner. Besides the judicial staff, each person received at his entrance into the court a small tablet, (called avfji^oXov ;) at the close of the sitting he gave this to the prytanes, and received the money for it : those who came late into court ran the risk of receiving nothing. The prytaneia were first appointed for defraying the expense ; but these proving insufficient, the other branches of the revenue contributed, particularly the fines, and pro- bably in ancient times the tribute. Wages of the The wasres of the public advocates, or orators, public advo- ^ ^ cates. (^fiiaOos avvrjyopiKosj) also occasioned a small expense. These advocates were ten in number; and re- ceived a drachma each for every day of business, of which there seem to have been about 300 in the year. The ambassadors also received a stipend in ancient times. In the time of Aristophanes they Wages of the received two or three drachmas a day. The sophron- sophronistse. . . j r istse, or inspectors of youth in the training schools, B. I. C. XI. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 25? (of whom there were ten, one from each tribe an- nually elected by cheirotonia,) received a daily sti- pend of one drachma. To these may be added, the pay of ambassadors, heralds, clerks, poets', and of Wages of .,.,,., p , ambassa- several hundred sailors, including the crews of the dors, clerks, heralds, &c. two sacred triremes, (the Salaminia and the Paralos, and of the crews of the the crew of which latter vessel we know received sacred tri- remes. four oboli a day per man,) and in latter times pro- bably of other triremes, named the Ammonis, Anti- gonis, Demetrias, &c. 7. The maintenance of those citizens, who one.Mainte- . /, . . , nance of the account of bodily defects or infirmities were unable poor, to obtain a livelihood, (dSvrarot,) was a laudable in- stitution. This practice, as well as the custom of supporting children, whose fathers had died in war, until they reached the age of manhood, belonged almost exclusively to the Athenians"^. In early times Athens could boast of having no citizen in want of the necessaries of life, nor did any ever dis- grace the nation by begging; but after the Pelo- ponnesian war, poverty made itself every where manifest; and no small number of persons stood in need of this assistance, if they were infirm or maimed. The bounty was restricted by law to per- sons whose property was under three minae. It was 1 It may be remarked that the receipt of any salary what- ever precluded any person from receiving pay for other ser- vices upon the same day. Demosth. in Timocrat. m I say almost exclusively, because Aristotle, Pol. ii. 5, states that in his time this last institution existed in other states besides Athens. 258 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. P. II. awarded by a decree of the people^ but the ex- amination of the candidates belonged to the senate of five hundred. The money paid to the infirm was never more than two oboli, or less than one ^. 7. Public re- 8. A small expense was occasioned by one uart wards. ^ . of the public allowances and rewards. Under this head may be mentioned the public entertainments, {a-irrja-is iv Trpwaveim,) which many others, besides the fifty prytanes, and certain inferior oflScers, re- ceived as a mark of distinction, and which must have cost the state two or three talents a year. It was also usual to present golden crowns to the senators, to individuals, and to other nations. Sta- tues were likewise erected to persons who had de- served well of the state. On particular occasions pecuniary rewards were bestowed at Athens. The daughters of Aristides received 3000 drachmas. Lastly, rewards for the discovery of ofi*enders (/x^- wTpa) may be mentioned. 8. Arms, 9. Although the most opulent citizens equipped cavalry, in themselves at their own expense, there is no doubt time of ^ ^ peace. that the Athenian state was under the necessity of n There were also friendly societies for the support of the destitute citizens, founded upon the principle of mutual assist- ance, and it was expected that the members who had been relieved should pay the money back again when they had raised themselves to better circumstances. These clubs were called tpavoi, and were instituted for various purposes, as well as the above mentioned. For instance, if some friends wished to provide a dinner, or a corporation to give a banquet, or to forward any particular object by bribery, the expense was de- frayed by an epavos. B. I. C. XI. PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. 259 providing a store of arms as well in time of war as during peace, in order that in case of need it might be possible to arm not only such citizens as from poverty could not provide for themselves, but the resident aliens, and even the slaves. In the Piraeus was the marine storehouse, which contained sails, ropes, leather bags for provisions, oars, and other articles, for the equipment of vessels ; and the build- ing of ships of war was carried on unceasingly both in peace and war. Another part of the military force for which Athens incurred some expense in time of peace was the cavalry. The particular superintendence of this body belonged to the senate of five hundred, who also examined the horses and riders. The rich were bound to serve in the cavalry. Probably each horseman received one drachma a day in time of peace, and an additional drachma by way of provision-money in time of war. Their pay in time of peace was called KaTacrraa-is. The cavalry was composed of the order of knights, but as a military force it at first increased slowly ; originally there were 100, then 300 ; afterwards 600 ; and in the time of Thucydides 1200 o. 9. These expenses, when taken together, if the Probable 1 /• T • T 1 amount of lowest estimate be made of each item, did not the peace expenditure amount annually to less than 400 talents; (about of Athens. o Aristophanes (Equ. 225) reckons only 1 000 knights ; and Demosthenes (de Symmor.) states the very same number ; we must therefore observe that Thucydides includes the 200 mounted horsemen, (linroTo^oTal,) who were light-armed, and probably mercenaries. 260 ORDINARY REVENUES. P. II. War ex- penses. 96,6661. ;) and if to these, great works of building, extraordinary distributions of money, and large sums for festivals were added, the state might easily have consumed 1000 talents in a year, even with- out carrying on war, the expenses of which are un- limited. 10. Having already spoken of the pay, &c. of soldiers and sailors in time of war, in the chapters on the Grecian army and navy, I shall only men- tion in this place that the funds for meeting the expenses of war were, with the exception of cer- tain tributes, derived from two sources, which how- ever were both of a very uncertain nature. Accord- ing to ancient laws, the surplus money of the ad- ministration was to be applied in times of war to the use of the army ; but the people had the mad- ness to require that the surplus should always be used for the distribution of the theorica, and even passed a law, that if any person again proposed that the theorica should be applied to the uses of war, he should suffer death. Besides this, the extraordi- nary property-tax (ela-cpopa) was set apart for the expenses of war ; but this being a tax which was unwillingly paid, the coffers were generally empty. CHAP. XII. Of the ordinary revenues of Athens. Regular re- 1. We may reduce all the ordinary revenues of venues of Athens re- Athens to four classes. 1. Duties (rikrii) arising ducedtofour ^ ^ ^ . . classes. partly from public domains, including the mines ; partly from customs and excise, and certain taxes B. I. C. XII. ORDINARY REVENUES. 261 on labour, and on the persons of strangers and slaves. 2. Fines, (rifxrifiaTa,) together with justice fees, and the proceeds of confiscated property (brjfxioTrpara), 3. Tributes paid by their allies or subjects ((^dpot). 4. The ordinary services to the state (XeiTovpyiai iyKVKkioi). 2. Under the term duti^ (reXos) are comprised all i. TiX)?. the revenues arising from public property, from the harbour and market tolls, and the poll and labour- tax. The public property consisted of pasturage, forests, (over which there were inspectors called vXapolj) arable land, houses, salt works, mines, &c. Lands. Of the mines (/ieVaXXa) belonging to the Athenian Mines, state some were in Attica, and others in foreign countries. They were never worked by the state, but were leased out to individual speculators. The custom-duties consisted partly of harbour-dues and Harbour- ■^ '' dues, and partly of market-tolls {dir ifiiropiov koI ayopas). market-toils. Under the former head may be comprised the taxes on commodities brought by sea, fees paid by foreign vessels in the harbour, &c. The market was at- tended by countrymen and retail dealers, (dyopaioi, KdirrjXoL,) and the toll duties were paid on the sale of goods consumed in the country, as well as fees for the right of buying and selling in the market. Besides these there was a tax of two per cent, or Tax of two f n ' 1 / \ \ n • 1 V^^ cent, on a fiftieth, (TTeiTT/KocrrT;,) on all imports and exports, imports and There was also a harbour-duty (eXXt/xeVtov). In addition to these regular duties the Athenians, Duty of a about Olymp. 91. 2, substituted for the tributes aaiicommo- . . , . dities im- duty of a twentieth (cikoott/) on all imports and ex- ported or 262 ORDINARY REVENUES, P. II* exported in ports bv sea in the states of their subject allies. the states of "^ "^ , the allies. Thesc dutics wcrc farmed by persons called cIkoo-- ToKoyoi. Tax on aliens Amongst the direct and personal taxes was the men. alien-tax {fieroiKLov) . At Athens every resident foreigner paid twelve drachmas a year. Women who had neither husbands nor adult son paid six drachmas. Freedmen paid twelve drachmas and three oboli. Persons con- Three sorts of persons were ens;ao;ed in the nectedwith ,. i i mi i the manage- management of every duty. 1. The lessees (re- mentofdu- ^ , , , ties. Xavaij irpidfievoiy or a>vov}iiVoi to rikos), 2. The sureties {eyyvoi, or iyyvr^raX), 3. The collectors {iKKoycts). 2. Justice- 3. The second class of public revenues consisted fees and fines. of justice-fees and fines {TiixrjfxaTa). These were of four sorts : irpvravela, TrapdoTaais, Trapcucara^oX^, and eTTcojSeXia. n^vTctnTcc. The irpvTavela was a sum of money paid into court by both parties before the commencement of ua^dffrei. the suit. Closely connected with it was the Trapd- araa-is, or irapaKarda-raais, which was a small sum deposited previously to public actions before the thesmothetse P. Both these contributions were ap- plied to the payment of the several judges. na^axara- The TTapaKaTa^oXrj was a sum of money deposited /3ox^. ^jy those who either claimed from the state any confiscated property^ or sought to obtain an estate p The pay of the arbitrators or diactetae was also called by this name ; but it was paid to the arbitrators themselves and not to the state. B. I. C. XII. ORDINARY REVENUES. 263 from individuals. If the depositor lost his suit^ the money was forfeited. With respect to the en-w^eXia very little is known. 'Ea-Az/Ssx/a. It seems to have been rather a private taxing of costs than any contribution of which the state had a share. The amount of fines (TifirjfiaTa) in all cases, ex- Ti^«>aTa. cept that of personal assault, was fixed by law. Those who refused to pay fines due to the state were enrolled among the public debtors, {ol tw 8t)- fio(ri(o 6(f)e[kovT€5,) and punished with infamy {dnnia) or imprisonment until the debt was discharged. Lastly, considerable sums were raised by confis- Confisca- cating the property of persons condemned to banish- ment, ((fivyfi,) slavery, and death. The property of persons banished by ostracism was not confiscated. 4. The tributes ((l)6poi) of the allies amounted at 3. Tribute. their first institution, in Olympiad 77* 3, to 460 talents a year. They were at first a voluntary pay- ment made by the weaker to the stronger states for the sake of protection : but when the allies had be- come entirely subject to the Athenians, the pay- ment of tribute was rigidly and often cruelly en- forced. About Olympiad 91. 2, the tributes were abo-Adutyofa lished, and a duty of a twentieth on imports and substituted exports substituted for them (as we have seen in section 2). 5. The sum total of the revenues of Athens sum total of (exclusive of the XeiTovpylai) seems to have varied revexmesoif from 1200 to 400 talents per annum. In ancient 264 ORDINARY REVENUES. P. II. times the overplus of the receipts formed the pub- lic treasure^ which was deposited in the oTria-Oo- dofios of the temple of Minerva on the Acropolis. This fund was at first exclusively, and afterwards in a great measure, applied to the uses of war. In the beginning of the Peloponnesian war (according to the statement of Pericles, Thucyd. ii. 13.) the Acropolis contained 6000 talents of coined silver, besides uncoined silver and gold, consisting of pub- lic and private offerings, sacred vessels, Persian spoils, &c. to the amount of not less than 500 talents. The statue of the goddess also was plated with forty talents of pure gold, which could be taken off. 4. Regular g. In addition to the revenues (irpoa-odoi) of the XstToupyiai of three State, the public also derived great benefit from the services (XeiTovfyyiai) which spared the state consi- derable expense. The most important of these ser- vices were the choregia, gymnasiarchia, and feasting of the tribes (eortdo-i?). These were called the re- gular services {iyKVKKioi Xeirovpyiai). All persons who were possessed of three talents and upwards were liable to the performance of these services, if appointed to do so by their tribe. No one could be called on to serve for two successive years, nor could the performance be imposed on orphans until they had completed the first year after attaining their majority. Sometimes an exemption from performing the regular services was given as a reward to those who had served the state. sorts. B. I. C. XIV, EXTRAORDINARY REVENUES. 265 The most important of the regular services was the choregia. The duty of the choregus was to i.Xo^riyiet. provide the chorus for tragedies and comedies, and also the lyric choruses of men and boys, Pyrrhic and Cyclian dancers and flute players, (xoprjyelv dv~ dpaai, or dvdpiKOLS xop°^^» TaiStKoTy x°P°^^f TTvppixi-O'TaiSf KVKXia Xop«, avXrjTois dvbpdcnv.) The gymnasiarchs were bound to maintain and »• ryjtAvac-;. pay those who were preparing to contend at the public festivals, and also to provide oil and to or- nament the place of combat. The feasting of the tribes was provided at the expense of certain persons chosen from the tribe.3-'E<^'r'a«^'S' The individuals who thus furnished the feast were called ea-TtaTopes. This species of service occurred but seldom. CHAP. XIV. p Of the extraordinary revenues of Athens. 1. The extraordinary revenues of the Athenian Extraordi- nary imposts state were either raised, as occasion required, ac- either legai ^ ^ or arbitrary. cording to some law or custom ; or, in circum- stances of great difficulty, were obtained by arbitrary measures. With regard to the first of these modes, the im- Legal im- f, 1 • 1 1 • • 1 posts of two posts were ot two kinds, that is to say, either a kinds, direct tax or public services. 2. The money required for the expenses of war, (over and above the funds in hand ra irepiovra xph- 1. EJ(r(po^k. fxara rrjs bioiKrja-eaySj) was raised by an extraordinary property -tax (€l(r(f)opa). The tax was proportioned N 266 EXTRAORDINARY REVENUES. P. II. Proportions in the following manner. The pentacosiomedim- in which the property-tax nus was rated at the full value of his landed pro- was paid. . -^ perty, the knight at five-sixths^ and the zeugites at five-ninths. Supposing the state to be in want of a fiftieth of the whole valuation^ the division would be made according to the following table. Classes. Incomes. Landed estates. Taxable capital. Tax of a ^oth. Pentacos. 500 drach. 6000 drach. 6000 drach. 120 drach. Knights. 300 drach. 3600 drach. 3000 drach. (5.6ths.) 60 drach. Zeugitae. 150 drach. 1800 drach. 1000 drach. (5.9ths.) 20 drach. The fourth class were exempt from the payment of taxes. New vaiua- In the archonship of Nausinicus^ B. C. 378^ a new tion in the , .,,.., archonship valuation was made, in which Solon's principle was of Nausini- ^ _ ^ ^ i • r» i cus. retained in three points, viz. the valuation of the property itself, (ovaia,) the taxable portion of it, (rifirjfia,) and the tax fixed according to the valu- ation, (elcrcfyopa). The taxable capital in the highest class was a fifth part; in others it was a smaller portion. This new valuation was not confined to land, but embraced property of every description. Symmorise. During the same archonship the symmorise were in- troduced. Little more is known of them than that they were probably associations of the wealthy and poor, in which the former were compelled to bear the chief part of the burden of the property-tax, and to manage the affairs of the whole body. 3. We will now consider the extraordinary public B. I. C. XIV. EXTRAORDINARY REVENUES. 267 service, {Xeirovpyia) called the TpiT^papx^a. The inten- a. T^/>j§a^- tion of this service was to provide for the equipment pj^g^ ^^^^ of ships of war. The state furnished the hull of the Ij. trlerarchy vessel; and the individual, who was nominated by the duals, generals, and called the trierarch, fitted her out, man- ned, and took the command of her. Certain officers (ot aTToo-roXels) were appointed to expedite the sail- ing of the fleet, and these officers had the power of inflicting imprisonment on those who were in arrear. The law provided that the service of the trierarchy should be limited to one year. The property of heiresses, (eVtAcXj^pot,) of wards, (op(^ai/tKa,) of cleruchi, {kKtipovxikcIj) and of corporations, {KoivcoviKa,) was exempted from this service. When the number of ^J ^^"^1/°/^"^ ships became so great that it was no longer possible trierLchs.^"" to find individuals who could take the whole ex- pense on themselves, two persons were allowed to discharge the office together, {(TvvTpirjpapxoij (rvvTpirjpcu X0VVTC9,) and they commanded the ship alternately. In Olympiad 105, 3. it was found necessary to ^f^^Jg J^e^. appoint 1200 partners, {(ruvriKeis,) divided into sym- g^^^gjjgg ^^^^ morise, who were to take upon them the duties of ^y"*™""*- the trierarchy. There were twenty of these sym- moriae, in which a number of members formed com- binations for the purpose of fitting out a ship. These combinations {(rvvrik^iai) often consisted of five or six persons, so that a symmoria could fur- nish ten or twelve ships. This arrangement, having been found defective, TrSaJch™" was set aside by Demosthenes, Olympiad 110, 1. theTawTf* '^ who brought forward a law, in which it was enacted nes""^* ^ n2 268 GEOGRAPHY OF LACONIA, &C. P. II. that the possessor of a property of ten talents should furnish one trireme ; those who were rated at a higher sum should furnish two triremes and one auxiliary vessel, (vTrrjperiKov,) and all who pos- sessed less than ten talents were to make up that sum by uniting in syntelise. This new regulation seems to have been attended with the best results ; for during the whole war no trierarch was cast into prison, or threw himself on the mercy of the peo- ple, or took refuge at Munychia at the altar of Diana, (which those who were unable to discharge the office were permitted to do,) nor was any ship lost. The expenses of a trierarchy probably varied from forty minse to a talent, other extra- 4. Amoug the Other means of raising money ordinary means of which the State possessed, we may reckon the spoils raising ^ _ money. of war, ransom of prisoners, fines imposed on sub- ject states, voluntary contributions, (eViSoVets,) loans both voluntary and forced, coining base money, ap- propriating the sacred treasures to the use of the state, &c. &c. BOOK 11. OF SPARTA. CHAP. I. Geography of Laconia and description of the city of Lacedcemon or Sparta. Laconia. 1. Laconia, probably the largest province in Pelo- Extent, ponnesus, is sixty-six geographical miles in length, and thirty-six in breadth: its area 1800 square B. II. C. I. GEOGRAPHY OF LACONIA^, &C. 269 miles. Its principal river is the Eurotas, {Ese, or River. Vasilipo potamo,) which arises in Arcadia ; and soon loses itself underground, and reappearing on the borders of Laconia. It then traverses that province, and passes by Sparta to Helos, near which town it empties itself into the sea. From its rugged and mountainous character, Laconia was naturally bar- ren and difficult of culture. It could however at one time boast of 100 cities, but the greater part of these were probably like the demi of Attica, not larger than villages. The whole population of the Population, country, including the Helots, who constituted by far the most numerous class, (being in the pro- portion of five to one,) may be estimated at 270,000 souls. The little river Pamisus, {Pirmatza,) and the chain of Taygetus, formed the Laconian limits on the side of Messenia. Towards Arcadia the boun- Boundaries, daries were marked by the chain of mountains, on the northern side of which rises the river Alphe- us, and on the southern the Eurotas. A continua- tion of the same ridge served to separate the Spar- tan territory from the small district of Cynuria, which originally belonged to the Argives, but be- came afterwards a constant cause of contention to the two states. 2. The principal towns of Laconia were, Sparta ; Towns, Therapnse, (probably Chrysaplea,) south-east of Sparta ; Amyclae {Sclavo-Chorio). On the coast of the Laconic bay, twenty-nine miles from Sparta, was Gythium, (Palceopoli,) the port of this dis- n3 270 GEOGRAPHY OP LACONIA, &C. P. II. Promonto- ries. Island of Cythera. Its import- ance. Sparta. Situation. trict; and in the north-east extremity of the dis- trict, on the Argolic bay, another port, Prasise, (perhaps S. Rheontas). Cape Tsenarum (now Cape Matapan) formed the southernmost promontory of Peloponnesus. Here was a famous temple of Neptune, the sanctuary of which was accounted an inviolable asylum. The celebrated promontory of Malea, (cape St. Angela or cape Malio,) which forms the extreme point of Peloponnesus to the south-east, separates the Laconic from the Argolic bay. The island of Cythera (now Cerigo) nearly faces the peninsula of Onugnathus and the gulf of Boeae. Its principal town was also called Cythera, and its harbour Scandea. This island was dependant on Sparta, who classed the inhabitants with the Perioeci, and sent thither yearly a magistrate named Cythe- rodices to administer justice. The possession of it was of the greatest importance, as its harbours shel- tered the Spartan fleets. During the Peloponne- sian war it was conquered by an Athenian force under Nicias ; but was restored by the treaty con- cluded after the battle of Amphipolis; and again conquered by Conon, when he had defeated the Spartan fleet oflf Cnidus. 3. The city of Sparta was situated in a plain of some extent, bounded on one side by the chain of Taygetus, on the other by the less elevated ridge of mount Thornax. The city lay on the western bank of the river Eurotas. In the age of Thucy- dides it was an inconsiderable town without fortifi- B. II. C. I. GEOGRAPHY OF LACONIA, &C. 271 cations, presenting rather the appearance of a col- lection of villages (Kara Kafias) than of a regularly- planned and well built city. The public buildings Buildings. also were few, and those conspicuous neither from their size or architectural beauty. The city con- tinued without walls during the most flourishing Waiis. period of the Spartan history, Lycurgus having taught his countrymen that its best defence con- sisted in the valour of its citizens. When however Sparta became subject to despotic rulers, fortifica- tions were erected, which rendered the to^vn capable of sustaining a regular siege. By that time it had increased considerably^ being forty-eight stadia in circumference. Sparta did not possess a citadel con- spicuous for its elevation, but as there were several hills within the circumference of the city, the highest of these was called the Acropolis. The remains of Remains of Sparta are about two miles distant from the modern city. town of Misitra. They comprise a magnificent theatre 418 feet in its longest diameter, with an orchestra 140 feet wide. Adjoining are two parallel walls, which are about the length of a stadium. The whole city appears to have been about a mile long, in which were included five hills, some of which have ruins on their summits. 4. The forum of Sparta contained the halls of Buildings of the forum. the Ephori, Nomophylaces, and Bidiaei : but the most conspicuous building in this part of the city was the Persian portico, so called from its having Persian por- been built with the spoils of that people. Above th colonnade were placed statues of the Persian n4 272 GEOGRAPHY OF LACONIA, &C. P. II. generals, including that of Mardonius, in white mar- ble ; also the statue of Artemisia, queen of Halicar- nassus. The Agora was also adorned with statues of the Pythian Apollo, Diana, and Latona. At the extremity of the street Aphetae, which led out of Tombs of the the forum, were the tombs of the kings of the Eurypontid , ^ kings. Eurypontid family. To the south of the forum Buildings the principal buildings were the cenotaph of Brasi- southofthe r r »^ tr forum. das, a theatre of white marble, and opposite to it the tomb of Pausanias, who commanded at Platsea, and of Leonidas, whose bones were conveyed thither from Thermopylae forty years after his death. Ora- tions were here annually recited, and games cele- brated, in which none but Spartans were permitted to contend. The names of those who fought at Thermopylae were inscribed on a pillar near the monument. The spot called Limnaeum contained the temple of Diana Orthia. On the Acropolis was Temple of the temple of Minerva Chalcicecus, {of the hrasen- Minerva Chaicioecus. kouse,) celebrated in history for the death of Pau- sanias, who took refuge in a hut within the sacred enclosure there, on the discovery of his treasonable practices, and was starved. This edifice was richly ornamented with bas-reliefs in brass, representing the labours of Hercules, the actions of the Tyn- daridae, the exploits of Perseus, and the birth of Minerva. There was at Sparta, as well as at Pceciie. Athens, a portico, called Poecile. Dromus. 5. The Dromus, or racecourse, contained two gymnasia. Statues of the Dioscuri, surnamed Aphe- terii, were placed near the commencement of the B. II. C. II. CITIZENS, TRIBES, &C. 273 course; and a little further on a monument of Alcon and a temple of Neptune. A plantation of plane- Piatanistas. trees served as an approach to the open space in which the Spartan ephebi held their combats. This was surrounded by water, across which bridges were thrown in two places. On one of these stood the statue of Hercules, and on the other that of Ly- curgus. Over a little stream called the Cnacion (possibly the Panialimond) was the bridge Babyce. Bridge Ba- CHAP. II. Of the citizens, tribes, S^c. 1. We learn from Herodotus and Xenophon that Distinction J. . . '11 T -r T • between the a distmction existed between the Lacedaemonians of Lacedaemo- nians of the the city and those of the country : the former (who city and •' , ^ ^ those of the were of Doric descent) being called Spartans, and country. the latter Lacedaemonians. The inhabitants of the provinces were called irepioicoi, and were principally the descendants of the Achaeans, who had been con- quered by the Dorians. In some respects they were politically inferior to the Spartans of the capital: for instance, they were not allowed any share in the general government; but they served in war with the rest, and seem to have exercised civil rights in their own townships. But although for the most part the early inhabitants were thus driven into the country by the Doric conquerors, there still re- mained some families which inhabited the city con- jointly with the Spartans, and were held in equal n5 274 CITIZENS^ TRIBES, &C. P. II. consideration with them. Of this the -Talthybiadae (who enjoyed the hereditary office of herald) were an instance. Citizens of 2. The citizens were of two sorts: 1. those who two sorts. I. Citizens were born citizens: and. 2. those who were pre- by birth. ' ' ^ sented with the freedom of the city. The first were the legitimate offspring of parents who were Education of citizens. As soon as the infant was bom it was free chil- dren, carried by its father to a place called Lesche, where it was inspected by the elders of the tribe. If the child appeared strong and healthy, they ordered it to be brought up, and assigned it one of the nine thousand lots of land. On the other hand, if it seemed weak or deformed, they ordered it to be thrown into a gulf near mount Taygetus. At seven years old the child, with the approbation of the parents, was admitted into one of the ayikai, or classes. From the twelfth year upwards the educa- tion of boys was much more strict. About the age of sixteen or seventeen they were called crLbevvai. At the age of eighteen they were admitted into the number of the ecjirj^oi. In their twentieth year they received the appellation of elpeves: and the oldest among them were called ficWelpeves. Lastly, at the age of thirty they were enrolled among the men, and were then called e^77^o^, as being e|o) rrjs rj^rjs, beyond the age of puberty. 2. Citizens 3. In the infancy of the commonwealth the num- by creation. •' ber of persons admitted to the freedom of the city was very great ; but afterwards it was bestowed on B. II. C. III. CITIZENS, TRIBES, &C. 275 foreigners more rarely, and only under peculiar cir- cumstances. There were also others, not natives of Lacedsemon, who having been educated from child- hood in the Spartan discipline, were eventually pre- sented with the freedom of the city. These per- sons were called fi66aK€s, The freedmen, and espe- MoOkxss. cially the Helots, were also sometimes created citizens. 5. At Sparta, as in every other Doric state, there Tribes. were three tribes, {(jivXal,) Hylleis, Dymanes, and Pamphyli ». These three tribes inhabited the four hamlets (xw/iat^) named Pitana, Limnae, Mesoa, and Cynosura, of which, according to Thucydides, the town of Sparta consisted. 6. These tribes were again subdivided into por- tions called a>i3at, (and (pparpiai,) of which there were '^/Sa/. thirty, ten for each tribe. There was another division into six /lopat ^, which M«^a/, contained all the members of the tribes who were of military age. By a law of Lycurffus the number of citizens was Number of •' JO ^YiQ citizens. never to exceed that of the lots into which the lands a The distinguished family of the iEgidae does not appear to have been a separate tribe, but to have been adopted into one of the three. MuUer''s Dorians, vol. II. p. 79. b The grammarians sometimes call these four divisions (}>v\al : which makes some confusion between them and the three tribes which inhabited them. Mutter's Dorians, vol. II. p. 48 — 50. c According to Herodotus, Lycurgus instituted the enomotieSf triacades, and syssitia (subdivisions of the /wJpot) for war, evi- dently for military divisions ; and the Lacedaemonians ate and fought in the same company. Miiller^s Dorians, vol. II. p. 253. N 6 276 FREEMEN AND SLAVES. P. II. of Sparta were divided, namely, 9000 ; and the pos- sessions of all were to be equal. In process of time however this law was disregarded, many lots be- coming the property of a single possessor. fnherif d^th^e ^^ Sparta the son always succeeded to his fa- *^*J^°f'^^*'^ther's employment. The sons of heralds became heralds, the sons of musicians became musicians, &c. CHAP. III. Freemen and slaves. Two sorts of 1. The free citizens of Sparta were either ofioioif Spartan free- i ' i . i i t m i ^^ men. who possessed equal rights, and were eligible to all the offices of the state ; or vTroyidoves, who could not be elected into any office. The latter of these classes comprehended the poorer citizens, freedmen, and sons of freedmen. Slaves. 2. In Sparta were more domestic slaves than in any other city of Greece ; they were of two sorts : those called SovXoi, who had been reduced to slavery; and those named oifceVai, who had been born in the Helots. master's house. ^' The origin of Lacedaemonian ser- " vitude may be traced to the reduction of the city *^ of Helos, the unfortunate inhabitants of which, as '' well as their descendants, were ever afterwards " called EiXwres, Helots d." The principal employ- d Robinson's Gr. Antiq. JMuller however thinks that the name was derived from eAoj in a passive sense, and conse- quently that the word Helots signifies " the prisoners." He also thinks it probable that they were an aboriginal race, which was subdued at a very early period, and which immediately passed over as slaves to the Doric conquerors. B. II. C. III. FREEMEN AND SLAVES. 277 ment of the Helots was the cultivation of the soil. They also exercised various trades. They farmed the land of the Spartans^ paying a stated rent, which was rarely increased by the proprietor. The Helots served as sailors on board the fleets ; and in the army every oTrXinjSt or heavy-armed soldier, was accompanied by one or more of them. As the num- ber of the Helots exceeded that of the freemen, they were a cause of constant terror to the Lace- daemonians, who often put them to death on trifling pretences. The most severe discipline to which the Helots were subjected was the KpvTrrcia ; which some crypteia. authors suppose to have been an annual massacre ; whilst others with greater probability conjecture that it was only a system of harassing labour e. Not un- Manumis- frequently^ however,, the Helots were rewarded with their liberty in return for their services in the army and navy. On such occasions the manumitted Helot was crowned, and led from one temple to another. It must be observed that no private individual could manumit a slave without the consent of the state. After they had been in possession of freedom for some time, they appear to have been called P€o8a- fxadeis. e Consult Miiller's Dorians, vol. II. p. 41, and the authori- ties there adduced. 278 THE KINGS. P. II. CHAP. IV. Of the kings. Order of sue- 1. The manner in which the throne was divided the two royal between two families has been already mentioned ^. families. According to Plutarch, the Lacedaemonians called their kings dpxayerai. It was requisite that both the kings should be of the family of Hercules, and born of Spartan mothers. In each of the royal families the crown descended to the eldest son. In default of sons, the brother of the late king; or if there was no brother, the nearest re- lation succeeded to the throne. If the wife of either of the kings was convicted, or even strongly suspected, of infidelity, her son was either not ad- mitted to the throne, or if he had been admitted previously to the accusation, was degraded from his rank. In order to prevent this as much as possible, the queens were intrusted to the especial charge of the ephori, who were required to watch over their conduct. When a queen was barren, the king was compelled to take another wife. Prerogative 2. The power of the kinffs was limited. Once and duties of ^ the kings, every month they took an oath before the ephori that they would govern according to the laws : the ephori on their part also swearing, that as long as they did so, they would preserve their authority to them. The kings had duties assigned to them in war called e/iTToXc/Aia, and others in peace, called elprjvaia. e See p. 18. B. II. C. IV. THE KINGS. 279 The principal power of the kings at home consisted in their being the managers and arbiters of all things pertaining to religion. All sacrifices for the safety of the state were offered by them. There were also certain priesthoods which they exercised in person; for instance, those of Jupiter Lacedae- monius and Jupiter Ovpdvtos. When a king as- cended the throne, he possessed the privilege of annulling any debts which a citizen might owe either to the preceding king or to the state. 3. The two kings presided over the deliberations Votes in the of the senators. Each gave his suffrage, or sent it, if absent, by one of the senators who was most nearly related to him. This suffrage was equivalent to two f . 4. The kings had the right of receiving and re- Duties in plying to embassies, and of declaring war against whatever nation they thought fit ; and in the field the command of the army belonged to them, if they were of a proper age. It was not however lawful for both kings to join the army at once, unless under very extraordinary circumstances. The king who commanded the army was accompanied by two of the ephori, and by two ttvOioi, or augurs. There was also assigned to him a board of counsellors, consisting ordinarily of ten persons, but on some occasions of many more. A body guard of 300 f This is the interpretation which the scholiast gives to Thucyd. I. 20. It seems probable however that the senior king, when both were present, or the one who happened to be present, had merely a casting vote when the suffrages were equal. 280 THE KINGS. P. II. chosen horsemen (IrrTrrjes) fought around his person. The victor in the Olympic games had also the pri- vilege of attending the king when he went to war. As soon as the king had assumed the command of the army, and had crossed the boundaries, he be- came general with unlimited power, {arpaTr^yos av- TOKpdrcop). He had authority to dispatch and as- semble armies, to collect money in foreign countries, and to lead and encamp the army according to his own judgment. We find however in the instance of Pausanias, that when this power was used uncon- stitutionally, the king might be punished capitally for the offence. Plistoanax, another of the Spartan kings, was banished from Sparta because he was suspected of having been bribed to withdraw his army from Attica. * Honours 5. In time of peace the kings were honoured paid to them ^ \ in time of with the first seats in public, all, except the ephori, rising in their presence. At the public repasts, as well as private entertainments, they had a double allowance; and when they could not be present, two choenices of meal and a cotyle of wine were sent to the house of each of them, in order that they might regale any friend whom they thought fit particularly to honour. Each of the kings also received an animal without blemish for sacrifice, the skins of all the sacrificed animals, a medimn of wheat, and a Lacedaemonian quart of wine on the first and seventh days of each month. They had an oflicial residence at Sparta, built, according to tradition, by Aristodemus, the ancestor of the two royal families. B. II. C. IV. THE KINGS. 281 In addition to this dwelling they had frequently- private houses of their own, and a tent was always built for them without the city at the public ex- pense. The kings had the privilege of nominating TTpo^evoL, who entertained ambassadors and citizens of foreign states in their houses s. 6. When a king of Sparta died, horsemen were ^^ oi^ Teath sent throughout the country to inform the people ''^ * ^^"^• of the event. Women also travelled from city to city beating brasen caldrons. On receiving the intelligence, all free persons were obliged to dis- figure themselves by way of mourning. It is pro- bable that all the inhabitants of the city, as well as great numbers from the country, attended the fu- neral, to which they went in crowds, both men and women, mangling their faces, making loud lamenta- tions, and exclaiming that the deceased was the best king that had ever reigned over Sparta. If a king died in war, his effigy was exposed on a bed splen- didly adorned ; and during ten days a public mourn- ing was observed, the general assembly not being convened, and the courts of justice being closed. During these days the forum was covered with straw, and nothing was allowed to be sold there. When the body arrived at the city, it was buried in the tomb appropriated to the family from which the deceased king was descended. S In other places the proxeni were appointed by the states whose proxeni they were. 282 THE SENATE. P. II. CHAP. V. Of the senate. 1. The Lacedaemonian senate was called yepova-ia Of whom the and sometimes yepaa. It consisted of the two kings Spartan se- •, ■, . , ,7 / ■, ^ i\t nate con- and thirty yepopT€s, old men (whence the name "). It sistcd was instituted in obedience to an oracle, by Ly- curgus. Quaiifica- 2. No person could be elected a senator until he tions and mode of had reached his sixtieth year. All candidates for election. the office were expected to be men of unblemished reputation^ distinguished family, and eminent sta- tion; and were required to declare openly their wish of obtaining the honour. Being an office which was held for life, it never could happen that more than one individual was elected at a time, and the eyes of the whole state were directed towards the choice of this one person. Distinguished men, therefore, bordering upon old age, offered them- selves upon their own judgment to the approbation of the people, who elected, not by lot, but by a majority of voices, the person who was deemed most worthy of the honour. Having passed through this ordeal, the senator was for ever relieved from any further responsibility, it being thought that the near prospect of death would give him more moderation h The Latin word senatus has the same signification : " Con- " siKum, ratio, et sententia nisi esset in senibus, non summum ** consihum majores nostri senatum appellassent." Cicero de Senectute, B. II. C. VI. THE EPHORI. 283 than the fear of incurring the censure of the com- munity. 3. The functions of the senate were twofold, it Powers of the senate. having at the same time an executive and delibera- tive and a judicial authority. In the first capacity it debated with the kings upon all important affairs, and passed a decree in its first stage by a majority of voices : in the latter capacity it had the supreme decision in all criminal cases, and could punish with infamy and death. The senate sat in court in the forum called ^ovKevrrfpLOV rrjs yepova-ias. CHAP. VI. Of the ephori. 1. The i^opoL, or inspectors, so called hia ro e^opSi/ Their num- ber. TO. rrfs TToXews irpdyixara, {because they overlooked the affairs of the state,) were five in number. Their office was called e / ■> >• ^ ' i p i causes. chaiTS,) m their court {apxeiov) m the torum, de- cided civil causes. They also had the right of in- flicting punishment for moral offences, as indolence, effeminacy, &c. and their share in the superintend- ence of public education, as well as over the cele- bration of the public games, gave them a jurisdic- tion in cases relating to these points. They judged according to unwritten laws, as Sparta knew no other. Executive 3. The ephori had power to convene the people, powers. rrn 1 and to put the vote to them. They also possessed B. II. C. VII. INFERIOR MAGISTRATES^ &C. 285 great authority in transactions with foreign nations. They admitted ambassadors, and had power to dis- miss them from the frontier, and also to expel sus- pected foreigners from the state. They frequently transacted the negotiations with foreign ambassa- dors, and had great influence upon declarations of war, as well as armistices and treaties of peace, which the ephori swore to and subscribed in the presence of other persons. In time of war they were empowered to send out troops {^povpav (paiveiv) on whatever day seemed to them expedient. Two of their number (as has been already stated) at- tended the general who commanded the army. The king or other general might be recalled by means of the scytale, (see p. 123,) and their first duty after their return was to visit the office of the ephori. We also find the ephori deciding with regard to conquered cities, whether they should be dependent or independent. The ephori continued until the reign of Cleomenes, the son of Leonidas, who abol- ished the office, which was re-established under the dominion of the Romans. CHAP. VIII. Of the inferior magistrates, and other officers. 1. BeiStmoi are said to have been so called fromBidisei. ^elS(Off, which the grammarians render 6 evbo^os, glo^ rious. They were five in number, and their business was to inspect the gymnastic exercises of the ephebi. They had their house of meeting {apx^lov) in the market-place. 2. l>iofio(f)vXaK€s were the guardians of the laws. Nomophy- laces. 286 INFERIOR MAGISTRATES, &C. P. II. Pythii, V Their business was to reward those who obeyed the laws, and to punish those who violated them. Of their number we know nothing. Their place of meeting was also in the market-place. Harmosyni. 3. ' Apfiocrvvoi derived their name from apfxorreiv, to Jit, or 'purify. Their business was to observe the conduct of the Spartan women. 4. JlvQioi (in the Lacedaemonian dialect UolBwi) were four persons appointed by the kings as mes- sengers to the temple of Delphi or Pytho, who delivered the oracles faithfully and truly to the kings. They were the assessors of the kings and the senate ; and were always the messmates, both at home and in the field, of the kings. 5. UpohiKos was the name given by the Lacedae- monians to the guardian of any one of their kings who happened to be a minor. They were always the nearest of kin to the young sovereign. 6. nai8oj/o/ioy, a magistrate of very extensive au- thority, who superintended the education of the boys. His assistants were the floggers, or fiaa-nyo- cj)6poi,, who were selected from the young men ; and the buagi, or managers of the /SoCat (the Spartan word for dyeXaij classes). 7. 'Apfioa-Toi were of two sorts. The former seem to have been not very different from the Roman dicta- tor, and were created whenever any great emergency required a power superior to the laws. The latter were persons sent out as governors to subject states. The former were appointed for an indefinite time ; the latter were chosen annually. Prodicus. Piedonomus. Harmostse. B. II. C. VIII. PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 287 8. IloXe/xapxot were the deputies of the king in Poiemarchi. the command of the army. Their principal busi- ness at home was to preside over the syssitia, or public meals, and to send their proper portion to those who were absent. To them was also com- mitted the care of the public arms, warlike exer- cises, &c. 9. 'l7rnayp€Tai, who are also called tTnrets, were Hippagretse. three in number, and were chosen by the ephori from those who had attained the age of manhood. These officers commanded 300 men, whom they se- lected as the best and bravest of the citizens. These chosen men were called Xoyddes ^. Each of the hip- pagretae selected 100, giving his reasons for choosing some and rejecting others. The hippagretse had no command of cavalry, (as might be supposed from their name,) but were probably set over the heavy- armed soldiers. CHAP. VIII. Of the public assemblies. 1. The Lacedaemonians had two sorts of public Two kinds of ^ assembliea. assemblies; one of which was caUed iKKKrjcria, the other fiiKpa eKKKrja-ia 1. 2. The greater assembly (called simply iKKKi](ria) -me greater was composed of the kings, the ephori, the inhabit- k Probably the three hundred Spartans who fought under Leonidas at Thermopylae belonged to this order. 1 The usual name of a public assembly in the Doric states was aXia. (Herodot. VII. 134.) In Sparta the ancient name of an assembly of the people was aneWa, 288 PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. P. II. The lesser assembly. Manner and place of meeting. Manner of voting. ants of the city and those of the country, and some- times delegates from the allies, or other nations which stood in need of the assistance of the Lace- daemonians. In this assembly questions relating to war and peace, the forming alliances, and other pub- lic matters, were discussed. The ixiKpa €KK\rja-ia, or lesser assembly, was composed entirely of Spartans, who in conjunction with the magistrates were chiefly occupied with questions relating to the constitution. The time for the regular meeting of this assembly was each full moon ; yet for business of emergency extraordinary meetings were held, often succeeding one another at short intervals. 3. The place of meeting was in Sparta between the brook Cnacion "^ and the bridge Babyce, west of the city. The assemblies were always held in the open air. None but public magistrates, chiefly the kings and the ephori, together with the sons of the former, addressed the people without being called upon, and put the question to the vote. In the greater as- sembly foreign ambassadors were permitted to enter and speak concerning war and peace. To this as- sembly all citizens above the age of thirty were admitted, who had not been deprived of their rights by law. 4. When the question had been sufliciently dis- cussed, the ephori put it to the vote. Their manner of voting was, not by ballot, but by acclamation ; and if it was found impossible to determine which m Literally, " the saiFron river." B. IT. C. X. COMMON MEALS. 289 side had the majority of voices^ the ephori desired the people to divide ; and then numbered the two parties. CHAP. X. Of the common meals, 1. The public entertainments^ or common meals PMditia, or common of the Lacedaemonians^ were instituted by Lycurgus meals. in imitation of the Cretans^ and at first called avbpeia, but afterwards ^etSiVm, from (^dba, to spare ". These assemblies were open only to the male citi- zensj women being strictly excluded. The members Mode of bai- of the phiditia were balloted for in the following members, manner: Each of the members of that table to which a candidate sought to be admitted took a small piece of soft bread in his hand. If he meant to vote for the admission of the candidate, he drop- ped the pellet, without altering its form, into a vessel called xaSSoj, which a servant carried round on his head. If, on the other hand, he intended to express his disapprobation, he flattened the pellet in his hand, and then dropped it into the vessel. Hence the word KCKabhelo-Oai signifies to be rejected. One flattened ball was suflicient to prevent the ad- mission of a candidate. 2. The party, who supped in a public hall, were Manner of divided into companies of fifteen. Their principal dish was black broth, composed of pork (the meat n It is very probable that this (peiSiria was a ludicrous dis- tortion of an ancient Spartan name, (piKlria, i. e. " love-feasts." Muller*s Dorians, vol. ii. p. 294. O 290 COMMON MEALS. P. II. of which was afterwards served up to them in small portions) and vinegar. Cakes and wine were also furnished^ and sometimes game. Those who sacri- ficed, or went out to hunt, were allowed to sup at home, provided they sent a portion of the beasts oflfered in sacrifice, or of the game, to their com- panions at the public tables. Each guest was obliged to contribute monthly a medimn of meal, eight congii of wine, five pounds of cheese, and a quantity of figs, besides a small sum of money. Conversa- 3. The Conversation at these meals turned chiefly tion. . '' upon public afl[*airs, but laughter and jocularity were not prohibited. Every person was encouraged to speak by the general confidence, and there were frequent songs. The youths and boys were admitted to these entertainments without partaking of them : as each of them entered the hall, the oldest person present pointed to the door, to signify that nothing heard there must be repeated elsewhere. The small children were allowed to eat at the public tables; they sat on low stools near their fathers' chairs, and received half a share without any vege- tables (a/3a/x/3dKfV(rra). 'E^aiKkov. The scanty meal was often enriched by the addi- tion of an after meal, (cnaiKkov,) furnished from the presents made by individuals to the society, and which no one was permitted to purchase. The only indiKXov eaten by boys was some dough of barley- meal baked in laurel leaves (Kafjifiaribes) and kneaded in oil, A cake of this kind was called Kdfifi,a. Kovis. The kottIs was a sacrificial feast, which individuals B. II. C. XI. LAWS OF SPARTA. 291 furnished on stated occasions, and invited to it any friends whom they wished, and particularly the kings. CHAP. XI. Of the laws of Sparta. 1. Concerning Lycurgus, by whom, according toLycurgus. Herodotus, the ancient laws of Sparta were com- 888. pletely remodelled o, little seems to have been known except from obscure and unsatisfactory tradition. He is said to have been guardian of a Spartan king, and after his abdication of that office to have tra- velled into Crete, where he became acquainted with the laws of Minos ; which, on his return to his own country, he made the foundation of the Spartan con- stitution. Another tradition represents him as re- ceiving from the oracle of Apollo at Delphi a code of laws, which he therefore styled pirpai, divine sanctions. It was indeed the pride of the Spartans that their laws had proceeded from the oracle of the Pythian god, (nvdoxprj^roL,) which continued to possess a superintending power over the constitu- tion, chiefly through the intervention of the Pythii, who delivered the oracles truly and honestly to the kings. The laws of Sparta were not written or engraved on stone, but committed to memory. In the next chapter we shall select from the Spartan code a few of those laws, a knowledge of which seems best calculated to illustrate the peculiarities of their language and manners. o Herodotus says, that of all the nations of Greece, Sparta, before the time of Lycurgus, had the worst laws. (B. I. c. 65.) o2 292 ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF LAWS. P. II. CHAP. XII P. Abridged catalogue of the laws. Religion. 1. RELIGION. 1. All the statues of the gods were to be represented armed. 2. Sacrifices to be made at as little expense as possible. 3. Burials to take place within the city^ and no one to be con- sidered polluted by touching a dead body. 4. No loud lamentations to be made over the dead^ and the period of mourning to be limited to eleven days. 5. No monumental inscriptions to be allowed, ex- cept in the case of those who had fallen in war. 6. The dead bodies of those slain in battle to be inspected by the Spartan matrons, in order that those who had received most wounds in front might be borne to the sepulchres of their ancestors ; and those who had most wounds behind, might either be buried in the common sepulchre, or carried home for private interment in their family burying places. City and 2. ThE CITY AND LANDS. 1. The citv of Sparta lands. '' ^ to have no walls, but to be defended solely by the valour of the citizens, 2. The houses to be built only with the saw and the axe. 3. The number of lots of land never to exceed or fall short of 30,000, of which Sparta to have 9000. 4. The possessions of all to be equal. 5. No one to buy or sell those possessions. Citizens. 3. CiTizENs. 1. The number of citizens not to P The principal authorities are Plutarch. Lycurg. Id. Apophtey. Lacon. Xenophon de Rep. Laced. Herodotus, Thu- cydides. B. II. C. XII. ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF LAWS. 293 exceed that of the lots of land. If there was an excess, the overplus to be sent to found colonies. 2. Certain persons of the same tribe to decide whe- ther or not an infant should be brought up : if ap- proved by them, a portion of land to be assigned to it. 3. Foreigners not to be allowed to settle in Sparta. 4. No citizen to go abroad except for pur- poses of war. 5. Parents, who refused to allow their children to be brought up agreeably to the laws, to lose the rights of citizenship. 6. None but citizens to undertake public offices. 4. Marriage. 1. No Spartan to continue un- Marriage, married. Old bachelors to be led naked in winter through the market-place, singing verses in ridicule of themselves. They were also excluded from the public games, where virgins contended naked ; and were deprived of the honours paid to other old men. 2. Marriage to be contracted at a fitting time of life: possibly by men at thirty and women at twenty. 3. Spartans to marry only their equals. 4. The father of three children to be exempt from the duty of mounting guard : he who had four to be free from all imposts. 5. No dowry to be given with virgins. 6. Husbands permitted to lend their wives to respectable citizens. 7- No Spartan to have more than one wife. 5. Food. 1. All the citizens to dine together at Food, the public tables. 2. The youths to have meat, but the full grown men to be content with black broth. 3. No one to drink except for the purpose of satis- fying his thirst. 4. Persons returning home from o3 \' 294 ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF LAWS. P. II. the public meals not to be allowed torches. This law was intended to accustom the citizens to walk boldly in the dark, and to prevent excess in drink- ing. Apparel. 6. AppAREL. 1. The rich and poor to be dressed alike. 2. Boys to wear tunics until they attained the age of twelve years, when each of them received a cloak which was to last a year. 3. Boys to wear no shoes. 4. Boys to wear their hair cut close : other persons to permit their hair to grow. 5. Spar- tans not to use baths or ointments ; but merely to wash their bodies in the Eurotas. 6. Soldiers to wear scarlet clothes, and to crown their heads with garlands before a battle. 7- Only iron rings to be worn on the fingers. 8. None but harlots to wear embroidered or figured garments, or golden orna- ments. 9. Virgins to appear in public unveiled, and matrons veiled. Discipline 7' DISCIPLINE AND MANNERS. 1. All persons and manners. to live conformably to the discipline enjoined by the laws. 2. Young persons to endure patiently the rebuke of their elders, and to pay them all due honour in every instance. 4. Old men to be allowed to admonish the children of any one. 5. An old man who neglects to rebuke a junior for a fault committed in his presence, to suffer the same pu- nishment as the original offender. 6. Old men meeting juniors in the streets to inquire whither they are going, and to reprove those who cannot give a satisfactory answer. 7- The fiprfv to be allowed to punish the other boys; and if he has B. II. C. XII. ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF LAWS. 295 been guilty of partiality, to be himself punished by the old men, but not in the presence of his class. 8. Youths to endure patiently the chastisements in- flicted on them by their elders. 9. Youths not to speak except on proper occasions, and to utter no inconsiderate remarks. 10. Youths to walk mo- destly in public with their eyes fixed on the ground. 11. Drunkenness to be strictly avoided. 12. No idle person to be tolerated. 13. The Spartan youth to be permitted to steal, but to be punished if de- tected. 8. Studies and literature. 1. The Lacedse- studies and literature. monians to acquire such learning as may be neces- sary for the common purposes of life, but not to study the more abstruse arts and sciences. 2. No Lacedaemonian to exercise any mean or mechanical art. 3. Professors of the arts of luxury not to be permitted at Sparta. 4. No comedies or tragedies to be performed. 5. No poets, unless approved by the magistrates, to be read by the people. 6. No orators to be allowed ; and the speeches of the Spartans to be comprehended in few words. 7' AH to be accustomed to jest and employ raillery. 8. Music to be learnt, but the ancient strains of Sparta not to be changed. 9. Slaves not to sing the songs of freemen. 9. Public exercises. 1 . No one to be stouter Public than was suitable for the public exercises. 2. Boys to be particularly accustomed to hunting. 3. Boys and girls to exercise themselves in dancing. The o4 exer- 296 ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF LAWS. P. II. Spartans had two sorts of dances. The firsts called opfios, was a grave and solemn movement^ performed by youths and virgins alternately 5 the other was performed in honour of Bacchus and Venus^ and consisted of more lively measures {a-xrjfiara <^opev- riKo). 4. Boys and girls to contend together in running, wrestling, and in throwing the discus and the javelin. 5. The ephebi to be divided into two bands, and to contend with each other until one party or the other was forced to swim across the Eurotas, or a canal which formed one of the limits of the TrXaravlaTas. 6. No ludicrous contests to be permitted. 7« Boys to be whipped once a year at the altar of Diana Orthia. Contracts JQ^ CONTRACTS AND MONEY. 1. No OUe tO pOS- and money, -^ sess either gold or silver. 2. No money but that of iron to be coined or used at Sparta. 3. Contracts to be made by barter. 4. No one to make a profit by selling or lending his property. 5. No one to make presents. The forum. 11. The Forum. 1. No oue Under thirty years of age to approach the forum, or take part in any judicial proceedings. 2. Old men not to spend much time in courts of justice, unless they have business to transact there. 3. Juniors to make no inquiries concerning the laws. 4. Persons of bad characters not to speak in public, but their senti- ments to be reported by some citizen of unblemished reputation. War. 12. War. 1. The army not to march before the B. II. C. XIII. JUDGMENTS. 29? full moon. 2. War not to be carried on repeatedly against the same enemy. 3. No sailors to be em- ployed, or naval actions to be fought. 4. A more free mode of living to be permitted in war than in peace. 5. The camp to be often shifted. 6. The soldiers to sleep in their armour; but those who watch to be without their shields, in order that being unprovided with the means of defence, they may be the more vigilant. 7- Before an engage- ment the king to sacrifice to the Muses. 8. The army to advance to the charge at the sound of flutes^. 9. No soldier to quit his rank, but either to conquer or die. 10. He who loses his shield in battle, to be considered infamous. 11. The Spartans not to pur- sue their flying enemies. 12. Dead bodies of the enemy not to be stripped. 13. He who conquers an enemy by stratagem to offer an ox to Mars : he who overcomes by open force to offer a cock. 14. He who has attained his fortieth year from the age of puberty, to be discharged from further military ser- vice. CHAP. XIII. Judgments. 1. The judgments of the Lacedaemonians were of judgments, , . , 1 -,. 1 . r^ . public and two kmds, public and private. Causes concerning private, heiresses, adoptions, and the repair of the public q they more In perfect phalanx to the Dorian mood Of flutes. Mi o5 298 PUBLIC REWARDS, &C. P. II. highways, were heard before the kings. The senate sat in judgment on capital offences. Their sentence was not passed immediately, but generally delayed for several days, in order to avoid falling into an error, (by putting an innocent person to death,) which could never be repaired. The ephori decided private disputes. When one of the kings was brought to trial, the court was composed of the other king, the ephori, and the senate. 2. When Mode of any one was accused of an offence, he was cited to^ pleading. * , , take his trial on an appointed day. If absent, a scytale, commanding his attendance, was sent to him ; or he was summoned by the officers (vTrrjpeTai) of the court. As there were no public orators at Sparta, every one was obliged to plead his own Evidence, cause. The evidence of slaves was rarely admitted. In private causes documents, such as bonds, acknow- ledgments of debt, &c., (called in the Doric dialect Kkdpia r,) were admitted in evidence. CHAP. XIV. Of the public rewards and punishments. Rewards. 1. The greatest honour which the Lacedaemonians conferred on any one was to call him a godlike man {2fios dvTJp). To be elected into the number of the three hundred \oyddes was also esteemed highly honourable s. Even to be dismissed from this class was an honour; and the dismissed were denomi- r Probably because the lots of land were assigned as secu- rity. s See part II. book II. c. viii. §. 9. B. II. C. XIV. PUBLIC REWARDS, &C. nated ayaOoepyoi, benefactors, a title which was also given to those who left the cavalry every fifth year. The other honours were, rising up when a person entered the assembly, the first seats, olive-crowns, statues, monuments, temples, annual orations, and games, &c. 2. The Lacedaemonian punishments were of six Punishments ■^ ^ of six sorts. sorts : fine, deprivation of liberty, corporal punish- ment, disgrace, banishment, and death. 1. Zr]iila was a pecuniary fine. If the offender Fine, was unable to pay it, he was driven into exile. 2. KXoios was a wooden collar, which confined the Deprivation of liberty. neck and hands of the criminal. KaiabaSf a prison, was a place in which malefac- tors were confined. The word is derived from those fissures of the earth, caused by earthquakes, which were denominated kuUtoi. 3. UaUiu, to strike, was a punishment inflicted on corporal those of the ephebi who were of too gross and cor- ments. pulent a habit. Arj^Ls dpTixeipos, biting the thumb, was inflicted by the dpr]v on those boys who gave silly answers to the questions proposed to them. Mao-Tiyojo-ts, whippings was inflicted on criminals led through the city. Kei/r7;o-ts, goadi?ig, was employed for the same purpose, and also to extract confessions from male- factors. 4. 'Ariixia, infamy, was a punishment by which a Disgrace. man was deprived of any ofl[ice, and not permitted o6 300 PUBLIC REWARDS, &C. P. II. to buy or sell. Another punishment of this sort was when the criminal was deprived of all honours, compelled to endure a beating from any one whom he should meet ; to wear dirty and ragged clothes, and to have his beard half shaven. Another mark of infamy was inflicted eZy rovs kokovs, on the idle or worthless^ who were not allowed to imitate the dveyKkrjTovs, men of unhlemished reputati07i. Lastly, it was no small mark of disgrace, when any one was commanded by the magistrates to stand idle in public with his shield in his hand. Banishment. 5. 'Pvyrj, banishment, at Sparta, was rather the avoiding of a penalty than a punishment. Those however who were guilty of unintentional homicide were punished with banishment. There were dif- ferent kinds of banishment according to the degrees of guilt : sometimes the criminal was merely ba- nished beyond the limits of Laconia : on other occa- sions he was not allowed to continue even among the allies of Sparta, but was compelled to seek re- fuge among the enemies of his country. Death. Q, eduaros, death, was considered by the Lace- daemonians the least formidable of all punishments. The only instrument of death used at Sparta was a halter, (^p6xos,)with. which criminals were strangled. The punishment was inflicted at night, in a part of the prison called deKas. The bodies of strangled malefactors were buried near the prison, apart from other graves. B. II. C. XV. REVENUES OF SPARTA. 301 CHAP. XV. Of the revenues of Sparta. 1 . No regular taxation of the citizens of Sparta No regular 1 7 _ ,: taxation. existed under any shape or name. Extraordinary contributions and taxes were however raised for the jiurposes of war^ which^ on account of their unusual and irregular occurrence, were collected with dif- ficulty. This will serve to explain the exemption from duties {arikcia) which is sometimes mentioned. There was no public treasure at Sparta up to the time of the Peloponnesian war; the revenue and expenditure were therefore nearly equal. The in- habitants of the provinces of Laconia^ whom the Spartans called crvyLjiaxoi, or allies^ furnished their (l)6poi, contingents^ to the state. 2. In order to in- Contingents. crease their revenues^ the Spartans doubled the ran- Ransoms and sale of som of prisoners; they also appointed particular spoils, commissaries, who sold to the highest bidders the spoils taken in the course of their campaigns. During the Peloponnesian war, they received in subsidies from the Persians more*than 5000 talents, or 850,000 pounds sterling. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Years before Christ. ArGOS and Sicyon founded, according to tra- dition, by Inachus and his posterity about 2000 Ogyges in Attica — Deluge about 1756 Cecrops arrives in Attica from Egypt about 1556 Deluge of Deucalion — Hellen iEolus Doms Xuthus Ion Achaeus >- about 1500 Cadmus, from Phoenicia, arrives at Thebes, and intro- duces alphabetic characters about 1500 Arrival of Pelops in southern Greece (Peloponnesus) from Lydia about 1300 The Trojan war, of ten years' duration, terminates in the destruction of Troy 11 84 Return of the HeracHdae (assisted by the Dorians) into Peloponnesus 1104 Emysthenes and Procles made joint kings of Lacedae- mon 1102 Qodrus, the last king of Attica, falls in the war against the Dorians — The Athenians thenceforth under archons for life 1068 Lycurgus, lawgiver of Sparta about 888 The names of the Olympic victors begin to be re- gistered in July, (01. 1. Corcebus the victor.) 776 Decennial archons at Athens 754 First Messenian war (beg. 743) terminates in the cap- ture of Ithome by the Spartans 724 Annual archons in Athens 684 Second Messenian war (beg. 685) ends in the capture of Ira— The vanquished Messenians withdraw into Sicily, and seize Zancla, thenceforth Messana .... 671 Sparta the most powerful state in Peloponnesus — Draco, the bloody lawgiver of Athens 624 304 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. Solon the Good, legislator of Athens 594 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens 560 Pisistratus (after being t^vice expelled) maintains himself in the tyranny of Athens against the Alcmaeonidae 555 Pisistratus dies — His sons Hippias and Hipparchus suc- ceed him 527 Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, put to death by Oroetes. . . . 522 Hipparchus slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton 514 Hippias, sole tyi-ant of Athens, is expelled by the Alcmae- onidse, aided by the Spartans — Finds refuge in Peria 510 The Athenians, confederated with the revolted Asiatic Greeks, bum Sardis ; whence originate the Per- sian WARS 499 Darius's invading army, under Datis and Artaphemes, is expelled by the victory at Marathon, gained by IMiltiades ! 490 Athens acquires a powerful nav)- through Themistocles — Athens at war with JEgina — Victories at Thermopylae, Artemisium, and Salamis. . . . 480 Victories at Plataea and Mycale, (25 Sep.) 479 Supremacy of the Athenians — City wall 477—404 Themistocles banished 471 Cimon's twofold victory on the Eurymedon 470 Revolt of the Helots — Third Messenian war (beg. 464) — The rancorous jealousy between Sparta and Athens, which shews itself whilst jointly besieging Ithome, breaks out into petty warfare, (457 — battle of Tana- gra,) and the refugee Messenians are settled by the Athenians at Naupactus 455 Cimon's expedition to Cyprus (450) — His death 449 Hostilities between Corcyra and Corinth produce the Peloponnesian war 431 Plague at Athens (430)— Pericles dies 429 Cleon the demagogue slain 422 The truce effected by Nicias 421 Athenian expedition to Sicily under Alcibiades and Ni- cias (415) — Alcibiades, accused and recalled, takes refuge at Sparta (415)— Nicias is totally defeated . . 413 Decelia, by the advice of Alcibiades, is occupied by the Spartans CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 305 B.C. Athens becomes an oligarchy (411) — Alcibiades (elected by the army) serves Athens victoriously in Asia (411 — 407) — Is deprived of his command 407 The Athenians are totally defeated off ^Egospotaraos . . 405 Athens taken by Lysander — End of the Peloponnesian war — The thirty tyrants 404 (Sparta the ruling state to 371.) Thrasybulus recovers Athens, restores the ancient con- stitution, and proclaims a general amnesty 403 Spartan war against Persia 400 Socrates put to death at Athens 399 Argos, Corinth, and Thebes, declare war against Sparta — Agesilaus, obliged to return from Asia, defeats the confederates at Coronea 394 Conon defeats the Spartans off Cnidus (394) — Rebuilds the walls of Athens with Persian gold 393 The Spartans conclude the disgraceful peace of Antal- cidas 387 Thebes seized upon by Sparta (382) — Delivered by Pelo- pidas — Thebes and Athens against Sparta 378 Victory over the Spartans at Leuctra by Epaminondas. . 371 The Theban ascendency in Hellas acknowledged by the Persians — Victory at IMantinea — Epaminondas falls, and with him the power of the Thebans 363 The three chief states, Athens, Thebes, and Sparta, ex- hausted — The tyranny of Athens produces the war of the allies 357—355 First sacred war against the Phocians (beg. 356) con- cluded by Philip II. member of the Amphictyonic council 346 Second sacred war against the Locrians, excited by Philip, (339,) and decided (as well as the fate of Greece) by the battle of Chaeronea 338 Philip generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians — Ineffectual rebellion against Alexander 335 Thebes destroyed — Sparta revolts under Agis, who is defeated and slain by Antipater 331 (Greece partly dependent.) 306 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. Athens and other cities receive Macedonian garrisons 323 Demetrius Phalerius, Cassander's lieutenant in Athens 318 Demetrius Poliorcetes delivers Athens and nearly all Greece 307 Demetrius is banished 298 The iEtolian and Achaean leagues begin to be formed . . 280 Athens Macedonian — Sparta free 266 Agis III. attempts to reform Sparta 243 Athens, freed from the Macedonian troops, enters into the Achaean league 232 Cleomenes reforms Sparta 226 Cleomenes wages war in favour of the ^Etolians — Is de- feated, and escapes into Egypt 222 War between the two leagues terminated by Philip . . 220-217 Aratus dies 214 The iEtolians supported by the Romans against the Achaeans and against Phihp 213 Philopoemen victorious — Peace 206 Athens, besieged by Philip, implores the aid of Rome . . 200 The Achaeans and ^tolians side with Rome — Declared free 198 Nabis in Sparta — The ^Etolians, dissatisfied with Rome, support Antiochus 191 The iEtolian league dissolved 189 Rome declares for Sparta against the Achaean league . . 184< Philopoemen dies 183 The Achaeans side with Rome against Perseus (168) — 1000 of them (among whom was Polybius, the histo- rian) are nevertheless carried to Rome 167 The exasperated Achaeans require submission from Sparta — Sparta obtains the support of Rome 147 The Achaeans defeated — Corinth taken and destroyed by Mummius 146 AcHAiA A Roman province — ¥' QUESTIONS. PART I. BOOK I. CHAP. I. W HAT were the boundaries of ancient Greece ? » 1 What was its extent from north to south and from east to west ? — How many square miles did it contain ? — Mention the grand threefold division of ancient Greece . . 2 What were the boundaries of Northern Greece, and what countries did it comprise ? 3 Into how many districts was Thessaly divided ? 4 Describe its boundaries, mountains, rivers, lakes, and cities — Describe Epirus in the same manner, and give the names of the three districts into which it was divided 5 What were the boundaries of central Greece, and of how many countries did it consist ? 6 Describe the boundaries, mountains, cities, &c. of Attica . . 7 Describe Megaris, Boeotia, and Phocis 8-10 Into how many districts was East Locris divided ? 11 Describe West Locris 12 Describe the boundaries, mountains, cities, &c. of Doris, jEtolia, and Acarnania 13-15 How many countries did Southern Greece comprise ? .... 16 Describe Arcadia, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Argolis, Achaia, Sicyonia, and Corinthia 17-24 Into how many classes may the Grecian islands be divided ? 25 Enumerate the principal islands in each of these classes . . — CHAP. II. Of what people was Thessaly originally the seat ? 1 Of how many kingdoms did it consist at the time of the Trojan war ? — a The figures refer to the paragraphs similarly marked. 308 QUESTIONS. PART I. IMention the revolutions which took place in its tvvo prin- cipal cities 1 Give an outline of the political history of Epirus 2 By whom and in what year was Athens founded ? 3 What was the original name of the city, and to what was it changed ? .^ How many kings reigned at Athens ? — "With whom does the history of Athens as a state properly Who was the last of the kings, and what was his fate ? . . What change was made in the government immediately after his death ? How many persons held this office for life ? How many decennial archons were there ? In what year Avas the office made annual ?. . Who were Draco and Cylon ? By whom were most of the laws of Draco repealed ? What were the heads of Solon's legislation ? How long did this constitution continue ? What change of government immediately succeeded the cap- ture of Athens at the close of the Peloponnesian war ? By whom, and in what year, was liberty restored ? What circumstances led to the conquest of Athens by Philip of Macedon ? Where was the decisive battle fought ? Did Philip entirely deprive the Athenians of liberty ? . . . . Did they again revolt, and by whom were they subdued ?. . By whom was the form of government again changed, and what was substituted for the old democracy ? By whom was the popular government restored ? How did he treat the Athenians, and what return did they make for his kindness ? By whom was Athens again recovered ? Under whose auspices, and by what means, was freedom partially reestablished at Athens ? By what king were they invaded soon after this, and re- duced to great extremity ? Under whose protection did the Athenians now place them- selves, and what were the consequences of that step ? In what year did this happen ? BOOK I. QUESTIONS. 309 Give an outline of the political history of Megaris, Boeotia, Phocisj Locris, Doris, jEtolia, Acarnania, and Arcadia 4-1 1 What was the original fonn of government at Sparta?. ... 12 Who was the first of their kings, and how many of his de- scendants sat on the throne ? — By what family were they expelled ? — Mention the circumstance which led to the appointment of two kings — By what names were the two famihes known ? — How long did this form of government continue ? — By whom was the regal power considerably limited ? .... — From what event may we date the ruin of the Spartan con- stitution ? By whom was this ruin chiefly brought about ? — How long did Sparta continue to be the ruling state in Greece ? — In what battle were the Spartans overthrown, and by whom were the enemy commanded ? — What attempt was made by Agis III. and what was his fate ? II Describe the Hue of poHcy pursued by Cleomenes III — How did he violate the laws of Sparta ? — By whom, and in what battle, was he defeated, and what was his fate ? — Who was Nabis, and with whom did he form an aUi- ance ? 12 What war did he carry on, and what advantage did he gain ? — How many years did he reign, and what became of him at last ? ~ Under what circumstances did Lacedaemon become a Roman province ? — Give an outhne of the political history of Mesggnia, Ehs, Argolis, Achaia, Sicyonia, and Corinthia, as well as of the constitutions in the several islands and colonies of Greece 13-25 CHAP. III. What was the origin of all the Greeks, and what language did they all originally speak ? 1 310 * QUESTIONS. PART I. By what circumstances was that language varied in the course of time ? 1 What reason have you for supposing that the Dorian was the original language of the whole country ? 2 In what district did it continue longest without change, and why ? _ By what nations did it continue to be spoken with a mix- ture of another dialect ? — By whom was the Attic dialect formed ? 3 By whom, and under what circumstances, were the ^Eolic and Ionic dialects introduced into Asia Minor? Into how many dialects was the language of the inhabitants of Greece divided, and over what countries did it ex- tend ? 4 CHAP. IV. What were the names of the principal Greek historians ?. . 1-7 Give a short account of the writings of Herodotus 1 In what dialect did he write ? When was Thucydides born, and what did he write ? 2 Mention the works of Xenophon 3 MTiat was the subject of Polybius's history ? 4 Give an account of the writings of Diodorus Siculus, Diony- sius of Halicarnassus, and Arrian 5_7 What would you call Plutarch ? 8 How would you classify the poets *» ? Give an account of the most remarkable epic poets 9, 10 Who were the principal lyric poets ? 12, 13 Enumerate the principal tragic and comic poets 14-18 In what dialect did the pastoral poets write ? 19 Name the three chief Grecian philosophers 20, 22 Who was Miltiades, and for what was he distinguished ? 23 Give a short account of Themistocles, Leonidas, and Pau- sanias 24-26 Give also an account of Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles. . 27-29 Who was Alcibiades, and for what was he famous ? 30 State briefly the several exploits of Lysander, Agesilaus, Epaminondas, and Philopoemen 31-34 Name the four principal Grecian orators 35-38 ^ Answ. Into epic, lyric, dramatic, and pastoral. BOOK I. QUESTIONS. 311 CHAP. V. By whom was the Amphictyonic council established ? 1 Of how many persons did it originally consist ? — By what states were they sent ? — Was this number ever increased ? — How many times a year did they meet, and at what places ? — What was the design of their meeting ? — What ceremonies were performed at their meetings ? .... — How were their decisions enforced ? — By what officers were the states represented, and what were the duties of those officers ? 2 Describe the manner in which the Phocians were expelled from the council 3 By whom was their place supplied ? — P BOOK II. CHAP. I. From whom did the Greeks derive their religion ? 1 What instances can you adduce in support of this asser- tion? How do you account for the multitude of gods worshipped by the Greeks, and particularly by the Athenians ? . . 2 Was it then lawful for individuals to introduce new gods at their own discretion ? — What threefold division of the Grecian deities may be made ? 3 Name the twelve principal gods — Describe the manner in which each of these was represented, their attributes, the epithets applied to them, &c 4-15 Name the most remarkable among the inferior deities .... 16 By what names were the Furies usually known, and why? — What do you mean by heroes ? 17 What influence had their religion upon the moral character of the people ? — CHAP. II. Into how many parts were temples divided ? 1 What was the -K^pippavTiipiov ? — Define the terms refifvos, vahs, and Uphv 2 312 QUESTIONS. PART I. What do you mean by the words ficcfihs, rpouaou, &5vtov, and (TTjKhs ? 2 What was the apx^'iou ? 3 Of what materials were altars generally composed, and what was their usual shape ? 4 Were the altars of all the gods of the same height ? ^ — Was there not a class of gods who had no altars ? — Of what materials were idols composed, and in what form were they represented ? 5 Explain the meaning of the word asylum C How were the priests principally supported ? 7 CHAP. III. Were the various sacred offices always executed by different persons ? 1 Is it possible to give a very exact account of the different orders of priests ? 2 State then generally what they were 3-8 Explain the terms apxiepuo-^y-ns, irapaa-noi, K^pvKcs, vewKSpoi, and vao(p{)\aK€5 3-7 Was not the second of these terms used in later ages in a sense very different from that which it originally bore? 4. Who were the K-ljpvKes at Athens ? 5 What do you mean by the irpSiroXoi. deov ? 8 What were the necessary quaUfications for the priesthood ? 9 How were the priests dressed ? — In wliat famiUes was the office of priesthood hereditary ? . . — CHAP. IV. How many sorts of sacrifices were there among the Greeks ? 1 When did living creatures first begin to be offered in sacri- fice? 2 Of how many things did the solemn sacrifices consist ?. . . . 3 Of what liquor did libations generally consist ? — But were not other liquors sometimes used in libations ? . . 4 Were libations ever offered without victims ? — "Vl^hat do you understand by Ov/jLid/xara ? 5 Enumerate the different offerings which may be classed under this head — What is meant by Upe7ov ? 6 I BOOK II. QUESTIONS. 313 What qualities were requisite in the victim ? 6 By what circumstances were the Greeks directed in their choice of victims ? — "Were the same sacrifices expected from persons of all ranks ? — Explain the terms hecatomb^ chiliombSf and rpirrvs — How were the sacrificers purified ? 7 How were persons guilty of notorious crimes purified ?. . . . 8 What mode of purification was necessary for persons who had been considered dead ? — What epithets were applied to unclean persons ? — Before the ceremonies began, what proclamation was made? 9 What is the meaning of the word kouovv ? — How was the victim usually decorated ? — Describe the manner in which the priest sprinkled the vic- tim and the people 10 What proclamation was made at this time, and how did the people reply to it ? — In what form of words did the priest invite the people to pray with him ? — In what terms did the herald command silence ? — In what manner did the priest ascertain the soundness of the victim, internally and externally, and its willing- ness to be sacrificed ? II ^^Tiat do you mean by irpoOvfiara ? 12 By whom, and in what manner, was the victim slain?. ... 13 For what purpose did the priest examine the entrails of the victim ? 14 Explain the words (rayeioy, airapxaif and Kviffffr] — In what position did the priest and the person who offered the sacrifice pray? 15 By what general name were the sacrificial hymns known ? — Of how many parts did they consist ? — What is here meant by vyUia ? 16 What became of the remainder of the sacrifices ? — In what form were the people dismissed ? — Mention the five particulars in which sacrifices offered to the infernal gods differed from those offered to the celestial 17 What do you mean by avadrifiara and avaKcifxeva ? 18 P 314 QUESTIONS. PART I. CHAP. V. On what occasions, and at what hours of the day, did the Greeks usually pray ? 1 What was the usual form of supplication ? 2 By what gestures did the suppliants express the different degrees of confidence which they felt? 3 In what sort of apparel were they often clothed ? — What difference of posture was adopted by those who prayed to the celestial, the infernal, and the marine deities ? 4 What part of the house was the safest for petitioners ?. . . . 5 What sort of imprecations were the most dreadful, and what effects were they supposed to produce ? 6 CHAP. VI. How did the Greeks distinguish their oaths ?. 1 Which of the gods was more especially thought to preside over oaths ? 2 By what deities did the women usually swear ? — Enumerate the other varieties of oaths — What were the usual forms of taking an oath ? 3 What ceremonies were performed by the parties to all so- lemn leagues and covenants ? — What do you particularly remark respecting the libation on such occasions ? 4 What became of the flesh of the victim ? — What other ways had they of clearing themselves from the imputation of crime ? 5 How do you prove that the ancient Greeks expressed a great regard for oaths ? 6 Notwithstanding this, were there not some nations pro- verbial for their violation of them ? — CHAP. VII. What do you mean by ixavriK.)], and how many kinds of it were there ? 1 Describe each of them — Enumerate the different sorts comprehended under each of these two heads , 2 BOOK II. QUESTIONS. 315 CHAP. VIII. Which of all the sorts of divination were held in the greatest esteem ? 1 To what deities did the principal oracles belong ? — What do you know concerning the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona ? 2 Had Jupiter no other oracles in Greece ? — Which of the gods had the most numerous oracles ? 3 Where was his most celebrated oracle ? — How was it discovered, and when ? By whom were its responses delivered ? — Describe the manner in which she was affected — How many times a year was this oracle consulted ? — In what language were the answers always delivered ?. . . . — Describe the position of Delphi — By whom was its second temple erected ? — Mention some of the most remarkable responses — When is the oracle reported to have ceased ? — What other oracles had Apollo ? — Who were the Qeoopol ? — What was the fate of the temple of the Branchidae ? — What do you know concerning the oracle of Trophonius ? 4 Describe the very peculiar ceremonies observed in consult- ing the oracle of Amphiaraus 5 Which was the most remarkable among the inferior oracles ? 6 Describe the other sort of inartificial divination 7 From what other kinds of divination was it distinguished by its name ? — How many sorts of deo/xdj/reis were there ? — Explain the terms EvpvK\e'is, Uvduues, ivdovcnaa-rai, 4k- (TTariKol, &c — Under which of these heads may we class the prophecies de- livered by dying men ? — CHAP. IX. How many sorts of revelations by dreams were there ?, . . . 1 To which of the gods did those persons sacrifice who wished to dream ? « . . . . p2 316 QUESTIONS. PART I. Describe the different sorts of divination by sacrifices. ... 2 How did they distin^ish lucky from unlucky omens in each of these cases ? — "What general rule had they for distinguishing lucky from unlucky omens ? — What names were given to the omens by birds, and to those who observed them ? 3 How were the augurs dressed, and in what manner did they make their observations ? — How were birds of omen distinguished ? — On what circumstances did their good or ill luck depend ? — What was there remarkable with respect to owls ? — From what other creatures were omens derived ? — How many sorts of lots were there ? 4 Describe the manner in which each was performed — To which of the gods were all lots sacred ? — How many sorts of ominous things were there ? 5 Mention the varieties of each sort — How did the Greeks contrive to avoid unlucky words?. ... — How were ill omens in general averted ? — Were not certain days also unlucky ? — What yo you know respecting appearances in the heavens ? 6 When was thunder a lucky, and when an unlucky omen ? — How many sorts of magic were there ? 7 Explain the words veKpofiavreia, vSpofiavTela, XeKavofiaurelaj aXeKTpvofiavreia, ^apfiaKeia, and fiaffKOLvla — Were there no modes of avoiding the influence of magical arts ? — CHAP. X. On how many accounts were festivals instituted } 1 How were the expenses of games, processions, &c. usually defrayed ? 2 Was this always the case at Athens ? — CHAP. XL Were the Grecian festivals very numerous ? 1 What were the Anthesteria ? — In what month were they celebrated, and how many days did they last ? — BOOK 11. QUESTIONS. 317 Describe the Apaturia 2 In what month were they celebrated, and how many days did they last ? — What were the Botdromia? 3 What was the Diamastigosis 9 4 Was it an Athenian or a Spartan festival ? — In whose honour were the Diasia celebrated ? 5 What is the origin of the name ? — What were the Dionysia ? 6 Were there many of these festivals throughout Greece ? . . . — Describe particularly the principal Dionysiac festival at Athens — Explain the word \iKvo(p6poi — What were the Eleutheria ? 7 Which was the most celebrated solemnity of Greece ? . . . . 8 By what distinguishing name were the Eleusinian rites called ? — How often, and in whose honour, were they celebrated ? — How many soits of mysteries were there ? — What was the use of the lesser mysteries ? — Explain the terms lepotpdvrijs, 8o5ouxos, K'f]pv^., and d iirl rep ^COfl^ — Of what celestial being was each of these typical ? — How many days did the festival continue ? — Describe the torch-races at the festival of Vulcan 9 What were the Thesmophoria, in what month wei'e they celebrated, and how long did they last ? 10 What were the Carnia, in what month were they cele- brated, and how long did they last ? 11 Were they an Athenian or a Spartan festival ? 11 What were the Mismacteria? 12 Describe the great and the lesser Panathendic rites 13 What celebrated dance was performed at these festivals ? — In what month was each of these festivals celebrated ? — What were the Pyanepsia'i 14 What were the Scirophoria ? 15 CHAP. XII. How many pubhc and solemn games were there in Greece ? 1 What were the judges called ? — p3 318 QUESTIONS. PART I. Had they no other name ? 1 In what word are the five principal exercises compre- hended ? 2 Describe the mode of leaping, and explain the words fiar^p and T^ €crKafjLix4va 3 What was the course called, on which they ran races?. ... 4 What do you mean by the SirMrobpSfioi ? — What was the discus, and how was it used ? 5 In how many different ways was darting performed ?. . . . 6 How many sorts of wrestling were there ? ^ In the latter of these, how did the vanquished party declare his submission ? How was boxing conducted ? 8 Under what term were these two last exercises compre- hended ? — Describe the horse and chariot races 9 What do you mean by /ceArjTes and ava^drai ? — Were there any other sorts of contests ? — What were the names of the four sacred games ? 10 In whose honour were the Olympian games first insti- tuted ? — By whom were they revived ? — What preparation was necessary for those who wished to contend at them ? What is meant by the word e^eSpos ? What name was given to the victors, and how wei'e they honoured ? — Where were these games celebrated, how often did they occur, and how many days did they last ? By whom were the Pythian games originally instituted ? 11 In commemoration of what event ? — How often, and in what place, were they celebrated ? — What was the Uv6iKhs v6ixos ? — Of how many parts did it consist ? — What were the prizes at these games ? — Whence did the Nemean games derive their name ? 12 In whose honour were they instituted ? — How often were they celebrated ? — How were the presidents chosen, what was their dress, and with what herb were the victors crowned ? — BOOK II. QUESTIONS. 319 When were the Isthmian games celebrated ? 13 How often were they celebrated ? — How were the victors rewarded ? — BOOK III. CHAP. I. Enumerate the causes which prevented the art of war from making much progress in Greece 1, 2 Might we not expect that military science would have made some improvement after the battle of Plataea ? 3 Was much improvement made during the Peloponnesian war ? 4 Mention the causes which prevented Sparta from making great advances in the art of war 5 Enumerate the causes which prevented Athens from be- coming more skilful in military affairs 6, 7 Was not there another cause in many states ? 8 Did many changes take place in the arms of the cavalry and infantrj' previously to the Macedonian age ? . . . . 9 In what manner shall we best be able to judge of the pro- gi*ess of the Greeks in military tactics ? 10 By what circumstances was the victory decided at Mara- thon ? — Describe the battle of Platsea 11 To what states did the army become of importance subse- quently to the Persian wars ? 12 What improvement did Agesilaus introduce ? 13 Describe the improvements made by Epaminondas, and give an account of the battles of Leuctra and Man- tinea 14 At what period were hired troops first used in Greece ? . . 15 What was the cause of their introduction ? — What were the consequences of this system ? — From what authors do we learn this ? — CHAP. II. Of what sort of persons did the Grecian armies for the most part consist ? 1 p4 320 QUESTIONS. PART I. At what age were the Athenians and Lacedaemonians sent to war ? 1 Who were the TrepliroKoi ? Under what circumstances were persons exempted from serving ? 2 What sort of persons were not allowed to enter the army ? Describe the manner in which soldiers were enrolled 3 How were they maintained in the earlier ages ? — Who first introduced the custom of paying soldiers at Athens ? — What was the usual pay of the infantry and cavalry ? — Under how many different names was this payment made ? — How was the money generally raised at Athens ? 4 How were confederate wars maintained ? — Who were the 'EWrjuorafilai, and on what occasion were they first created ? » — CHAP. III. Of what sort of forces did the main body of the Grecian army consist ? 1 Describe the three sorts of foot-soldiers — WTience did the TreAraaral derive their name ? ~- In what manner were the most ancient heroes conveyed to battle ? 2 Explain the words trapi^opos and Blcppos — What do you mean by the words rjvloxos and irapafidrris ? — Of what sort of persons was the Athenian cavalry com- posed ? 3 Of all the Greeks, what nation was most famous for cavalry ? — What do you know of the Lacedaemonian and Athenian cavalry ? Describe the nature of the examination to which both men and horses were subjected at Athens 4 Explain the words rpox^s and rpvaiiririov — From what circumstances were the difi"erent appellations of horsemen derived ? 5 What were the H/ncpiinroi and the 8ifidxaL ? — What was the difference between the KaTa.os and ©xei'S ? — Describe the body-coat and belt, and give their Greek names 2, 3 What was the cuirass, and what was it called in Greek ? 4 Explain the words Trrcpvyes and yva\a — How many sorts of cuirass were there ? — What was the rjiJLidapdKiov? 5 What were the greaves, and what were they called in Greek ? 6 What were the x^^P^*^ ? 7 Of what substance was the buckler usually composed ?. . . . 8 Describe the principal parts of it — Was the buckler considered an important part of their annour ? — Describe the smaller sorts of shields ; namely, the ye^pov, dvpehs, Xaiff-fjiov, and ireArrj 9 What were the only offensive weapons used by the an- cients ? 10 Describe the lance, and give its Greek name — What was the oravpcar^ip ? — Describe the sword, with its appendages 11 What was the dagger called in Greek ? — What were the a|tVrj and •nreAe/cus ? 12 Of what was the bow generally composed ? — What do you mean by the words vevpov and Koptaift) ? . . . . 13 Describe the arrows, and the manner in which they shot. . — Describe the manner of slinging 14 What were the fire-arrows called in Greek ? 15 In what manner were they used ? — How were the Lacedaemonians clothed ? 16 What sort of provisions did they carry, and what was the name of the vessel in which they carried them ? .... — p5 322 QUESTIONS. PART I. CHAP. V. Who took the supreme command of the ancient armies ? 1 But was this rule never broken through ? "What was the person so deputed called ? — At Athens, under the democracy, by whom were the com- manders chosen ? 2 What qualification was required in those who were nomi- nated ? Where did the nomination take place ? 3 What was the oath taken by the commanders ? — What do you mean by the term avroKpdropes ? — What was the number of the Athenian commanders, and by what general name were they called ? — What were the duties and privileges of the iroXljxapxos ? — Explain the terms rovs iirl Tr^s Sioi}cf}d\Kis, and avTXia — What Greek names belong to the hold, the sides, and the seats of the rowers ? — What were the highest, middle, and lowest benches called ? — What names were given to the spaces through which the rowers put their oars ? — Describe the prow 2 What was the figure of the stern ? 3 Explain the words xv^o'^os and 6.\a- crra ? — Explain the following terras : Trapda-ofiov, irrjSdXiov, ^ynvpa, '(epfxa, P6\is, KOVTol, KXifxaKes, TreiorfiaTa, aTr6yeia, /cwTrot, (TKaXfxol, Tp6iroi, and ^^ixara 4 Describe also the sails, (iVrto,) namely, the aprefMuv, a/ccCrio, SoAcDj/, and eiriSpofjt.os — Explain also the terms Kepaiai, tcrrhs, inirovoi, ttJScs, and irpSrouoi 328 QUESTIONS. PART I. Describe the instruments of war used in ships, namely, the efxfioXou, eTTOJTtSes, KaTaffrpcofiaTa, SeA^lj/, Sdpara vav- fiaxa, dp€iravov, Kepa7ai, xelp (n5r}pa, and apwayes .... 5 What means v/ere used to defeat these engines ? Explain some of the Greek nautical phrases , — CHAP. IV. What do you understand by the term avr^pirai ? 1 Describe the three classes of persons who served on board ship — What do you mean by the fieaouavrai ? What is said to have been the regular complement of a trireme ? — How many sorts of officers were there in all fleets ? 2 Which of these classes had the most power ? — Give the Greek names for the admiral, vice-admiral, and captain, of a trireme — Explain the terms apxtKvfiepprjTai, Kvfi€pvi]Tr]s, K€\€var^s, rpnjpavKTjs, Sioiroi, and vavcpvXaKes 3 CHAP. V. When the signal for sailing was given, what was the first thing done ? 1 What ceremonies were performed previously to saihng ? — How was the signal given, and in what order did the ships sail ? — How did they act on arriving at any port where they in- tended to land ? 2 How many sorts of harbours were there ? 3 Describe particularly the artificial harbours, and explain the terms xv^^-^f vecapia, crrS/xa, fivx^s, and vavcrradfios . . — Where did the crews of ships of war generally sleep and dress their provisions ? — Describe the preparations for an engagement 4 Mention one or two of the forms in which their ships were drawn up — In what manner was the signal for attack usually given ? 5 What was the signal for discontinuing the engagement ? — To what gods did they sing a paean before and after the fight ? — BOOK IV. QUESTIONS. 329 By what ship was the fight generally begun, and in what manner was it carried on ? 5 How did they besiege a town by sea ? 6 How did the besieged defend themselves ? — CHAP. VI. After a victory, what was generally the first thing done in order to commemorate it ? 1 On arriving at home, how did the conquerors shew their gratitude to the gods ? — What honours were bestowed on the conquerors? — What was the chief naval punishment, and how was it per- formed ? 2 Was there not a still more severe punishment ? — How were those who refused to serve punished at Athens ? — What punishment was inflicted on deserters ? — BOOK V. CHAP. I. What sentiments were entertained by the Greeks in general respecting marriage ? 1 State particularly the opinions and regulations of the Lace- daemonians and Athenians on that point — What seasons were considered by the Athenians most pro- per for marriage ? 2 What regulations existed in many of the Grecian states with respect to the marriage of their citizens ? 3 State particularly the regulations at Athens on this subject — Whose consent was necessary to the legal marriage of vir- gins ? 4 What was the usual form of betrothing ? — Had the bride any dowry in the primitive ages ? 5 What law was made by Lycurgus on this subject ? — What was the regulation at Athens with regard to orphan virgins without inheritance ? — What deity was particularly invoked previously to a mar- riage ? 6 Was there not a singular custom with respect to a part of the entrails of the victim ? — 330 QUESTIONS. PART I. How were the bride and bridegroom attired ? 6 What was the (ppvyeroj/? — In what form was the bride conducted from her father's house to that of her husband ? 7 How was the bride entertained on her arrival at the bride- groom's house ? 8 How was the marriage bed adorned, and what purification was performed by the bride on entering the bed-cham- ber ? 9 What ceremony was performed by the bride's mother ? . . 10 What singular custom did the laws of Athens oblige the married couple to observe ? 11 WTiat were the two sorts of iTndaXdfjLia, and by whom were they performed ? — What peculiar customs existed at Sparta with respect to the intercourse between man and wife ? 12 What do you know of the Grecian laws concerning di- vorces ? 13 What was the law at Athens respecting them ? — Were the laws ( qual as regarded husband and wife in this particular ? — Where was the law more favourable to females than else- where ? — Were the parties ever at Uberty to contract a second mar- riage? — "VVTiat extraordinary custom prevailed in some parts of Greece ? .' — What punishments were generally inflicted upon adulterers ? 14 Upon what class of offenders did the punishment fall most severely at Athens ? — How were adulteresses treated ? — What seems to have been the general feeling in Greece with regard to concubines ? 15 How were harlots generally distinguished ? — To what places in Athens did they usually resort ? — CHAP. II. Did the Grecian women appear much in public ? 1 What name was given to the part of the house in which they lived ? — BOOK V. QUESTIONS. 331 What do you call the part appropriated to the men ? . . . . 1 What classes of women were most strictly confined ? .... 2 How were they dressed when they appeared in public ? . . — What were the most common employments of women ? . . 3 In what particulars were the Lacedaemonian women treated differently from those in the other cities of Greece ? . . 4 What effect had this on their moral character ? — CHAP. III. How were infants treated as soon as they were bom ? . . . . 1 In what were the Athenian children wrapped ? — In what liquor were the Spartan children bathed, and what was the design of this ? 2 How were healthy and unhealthy children respectively treated by the Spartans ? — Was there any state in which the cruel exposure of children was forbidden ? — What ceremony was performed on the fifth day ? 3 On what day was the child generally named ? — By whom was the name given, and whence was it gene- rally derived ? — What was the nurse called ? 4 How were the Grecian children educated ? 5 CHAP. IV. How many different sorts of children were there ? I What were the regulations at Athens with respect to the bequeathing of property before the time of Solon ?. . . . 2 What was permitted to persons who had no legitimate off- spring ? — Jf there were no children, how was the property disposed of? — Subject to what restrictions did Solon permit persons to dis- pose of their property by will ? — How were wills usually executed, and to whom was the administration of them intrusted ? 3 In what did the duties of children toward their parents consist ? 4 Under what circumstances were children excused by Solon from maintaining their parents ? — 332 QUESTIONS. PART I. In what manner were sons empowered to proceed when the father became unfit to manage his affairs ? 5 Was it lawful for fathers to disinherit their children ? . . . . — Explain the phrase airoKrjpv^ai rhv vihv CHAP. V. What was the principal ahment of the Greeks ? 1 What do you understand by fid^a ? Mention the different sorts of cakes in use among the Greeks ? 2 What was the usual mode of living at Lacedaemon and at Athens ? 3 Mention the countries which were celebrated for the dif- ferent sorts of dainties which they produced — CHAP. VI. How did the Greeks prepare their wines ? 1 In what sort of vessels were their wines kept ? — By what names are drinking-cups called in Greek ? — CHAP. VII. How many times a day did the ancient Greeks eat ? 1 What were the names of these meals ? Among the later Greeks, what were the three meals proba- bly called ? — Which was the most important meal ? .^ — How many sorts of entertainments had the Greeks ? 2 What were those persons called who contributed nothing towards the expense of the feast ? — What two nations were the least luxurious in their re- pasts ? 3 Of how many distinct parts was the supper composed ?. . . . 4 What were they called ? — Describe the manner in which they reclined at table 5 Which seat was considered the most honourable ? — Describe the table, the couches, and their ornaments — How were the guests attired, and what oblations did they perform before they sat down ? 6 To which of the deities was an oblation first made at feasts ? — Was there not also a libation oflfered to the same deity ? . . — BOOK V. QUESTIONS. 333 Describe the manner in which the master of the feast and his guests pledged each other 7 What peculiar custom had the Lacedaemonians in drink- ing To whom, besides the persons present, did they generally drink ? , — By what law was sobriety enforced among the Spartans?. . — How did the Athenians punish an archon for drunkenness ? — What ceremonies were performed when the feast was con- cluded ? 8 How were the company amused afterwards ? — Describe the three modes of playing at the cottabus — Explain the duties of the aiv6\7fs, XtjSos, i<}>€ffTphj Tpifioou, and x^a/iys ? 4 What was the c^w/ttis ? — BOOK. V. QUESTIONS. 335 Describe the ireirKos and ivafih 4 What other parts of the dress belonged to women ? — Describe the aroX'^, KaruvaKT}, fialrr}, iyKSfifiufia, x^^^^s^ KpoKoorhs, ffvfjLfMerpla, and depurrpov — By what general name were the coverings of the feet called ? 5 How were they fastened ? — Describe the different sorts of shoes — Of what materials were the garments of the later Athen- ians usually made ? 6 What colour was most esteemed ? — What use was made of embroidered and flowered robes ? . . — What was the usual dress of the Athenian women ? 6 What was the dress of the Spartan women ? 7 Describe the dress of the Theban women 8 What was the dress of the Spartans in general ? 9 CHAP. X. From what is the term fiovtriKij derived ? 1 How many notes had the Greeks ? 2 How many v6/xoi were there, and what was the charac- teristic of each ? Describe the principal instniments used by the Greeks. . . . 3-5 CHAP. XI. From whom did the Greeks probably first learn the art of painting ? 1 Give the Greek names of the instruments employed in painting 2 CHAP. XII. What was the most ancient material employed in sculp- ture ? 1 What improvements were introduced about the fifteenth Olympiad ? How was metal employed ? 2 Who invented the art of soldering ? — Who first worked successfully in marble ? 3 336 QUESTIONS. PART I. CHAP. XIII. Enumerate the orders of architecture invented by the Greeks 1 Describe the Doric order — By whom was the Ionic order invented, and what are its characteristics ? 2 What circimistance suggested the idea of the Corinthian order ? 3 Describe the peculiarities of that order — In what manner were the private houses of the Greeks constructed ? 4 CHAP. XIV. How did the ancient Greeks divide the natural day ? .... 1 What reformation in the mode of computing time was eflFected by Meton ? 2 Describe his cycle 3 Give an account of the cycles of Calippus and Hipparchus 4 Give the names of the Athenian months 5 Mention the divisions and days in each month 6 What are Olympiads, and when did the Greeks begui to mark their dates by them } 7 Give the rules for finding the Olympiad, &c — CHAP. XV. Give the value of the different Grecian coins ". 1 How many sorts of stater were there ? — Mention the names of their weights 2 Give the diiferent measures of length as reduced to English 3 Mention the Attic measures of capacity for things hquid and for things dry 4, 5 BOOK I. QUESTIONS. 337 PART II. BOOK I. CHAP. I. Describe the extent and boundaries of Attica 1 What were its productions and resources ? 2 How many square mUes does it contain ? — What was its population in the time of Demetrius the Pha- lerian ? 3 Describe the mountains and rivers of Attica 4 Into how many tribes were the Athenians originally di- vided, and by whom was this number increased ? . . . . 5 Give the names of the tribes — Was not the number again increased ? — What do you mean by demi, and how many of them were there ? 6 Mention some of the most remarkable — Describe Laurium 7 Describe Pentelicus 8 CHAP. II. What was the extent of ancient Athens ? 1 How was it subsequently divided ? 2 What was the situation of the Acropolis ? 3 What was the Pelasgicum ? ~ What was the southern wall called ? — Describe the propylaea 4 What temples stood on each side of them? — Describe the Parthenon 5 By what name is the building now called ? — Give a minute account of the Erectheium 6 What other public buildings were contained in the Acro- pohs ? — Describe the lojig walls, and the three harbours of Athens 7 Of how many gates has the existence been ascertained ? . . 8 Describe the situation of the Acropolis — Q 338 QUESTIONS, PART II. What were the most remarkable edifices of the lower city ? 9 Which was the most remarkable of the Athenian porti- coes ? 10 Describe the Odeum 11 What was the Ceramicus, and whence did it derive its name ? Which were the most remarkable of the Athenian agorae 12 What were the gymnasia, and which were the most re- markable of them ? 13 Describe the theatre of Bacchus, with its stage, machinery, &c. &c 14 WTiat was the usual number of actors ? What was the number of persons engaged in the chorus ? Describe their dances and music Describe the diffei-ent dresses of the actors — \Vhat river flowed by Athens ? 15 CHAP. III. HoAv many sorts of inhabitants were there at Athens ? 1 What were the numbers of each class ? — What was the amount of the Athenian forces in the time of Thucydides ? _ Explain the distinction between free-born Athenians, and those who had only one parent an Athenian 2 How were they enrolled ? 3 Describe the jul^toikol, their privileges, services, &c 4 What rewards were sometimes conferred on them ? 5 How many sorts of servants were there at Athens ? 6 "Vl^hat was the treatment of slaves at Athens ? 7 ^^Tiat were their most common offences, and how were they usually punished ? 8 What was the difference between ol/cerai and Sov\oi 9 What rule was obsei'ved when slaves were given up to the torture ? 10 MTiat was the usual market price of slaves at Athens ?. . . . 11 CHAP. IV. What were the qualifications for the magistracy at Athens ? 1 How many classes of magistrates were there ? — BOOK I. QUESTIONS. 339 How many arclions were there, what were their titles, and their duties ? 2 What were the duties of " the eleven ?" 3 Describe the duties of the No;uou 39 ^AvBpaviTis ib. ^ATTOTecxi'O'pos 116 ^ AveyKkr}T0V9 299 ^ A'KOTLp.rjp.a 143 *Av6((rTr}pia 72 ^AnoTopr] KepaTos 108 ^Avdea-Tijpicov 181 'AnoTpoTTaios 39 ^Avoa-Loi 51 ^ATTOcfiopa 217 ^AvTiypa(f)€ls 250 *Apai 58 ^AvTikajx^dveaOai 80 "Apapos 109 'ArrXia 131 ^Apyvplov 187 "Ai/rvl 100 ^ApeioTrdyos 232 r^^^f 1 102 "Apr^^ 40 'Att' ipLTTopiov Koi dyo- "ApKTTOV 155 pas 261 'AppoCeiv 143 A7vap)(a\ 53 ^ApflOCTToX 286 ^Airdrr} 72 "ApTTayes 134 ^ ArvarovpLa ib. "ApTefiLs 42 ' ATTrfKiaTTjs 202 'ApTefXCdU 134 ATTrjvai. 82 "ApTOS 152 'AnXovv la-Tia 135 'ApxayeTai 278 GREEK WORDS AND PHRASES. 351 Page. Page. 'Apx^lov 44, 284 BaOvrroXefxos 40 'Apx'7 247 Bairr} 168 'Apxvyosy or, "Apxrjye- BaXlBls 79 TTJS 192 Bdpadpov 245 ^ Apxt'^poiO-vvq^ 46 Bapv^pofios 172 ^ApxLKV^epvTJTai 137 Ba(nXe{>s 39,7^,159,221 "Apxcou 221 BticrtXt/cj) (TToa 234 "Aa-Kols 154 Baa-Kavia 71 "Aa-KOfxa 132 Barrjp 79 *A(r7rt9 100 Barpax^lov 212 "Aa-TTovhov 49 BavKaXav 150 ^ AcTTepoTrqrr^s 39 BavKaXrjcreis ib. ^Aa-TpaTToios ib. Be^rjXoL 51 Ao-TpdrevTOL 122 Be^TjXos 44 ^Av 181 'Art/zial41,221,243,263, BorjOclais 132 299 BoXis 134 'Art/xol 243 Bopeas 202 AvKata 210 BovdvTelv 50 AvkqTois dvbpaarii 265 BovXaia 231 AvkoX 115 BovXaios ib. Avkbs 172 BovXevTTjpia 204 Avrepirai 136 BovX€VTr]piov Trjs yepov- AvTOKpdropes 104 pias 283 AvTOfiokelv 217 BovXevTiKov 206 AvToixoXot 122 Boaivat 253 AvTOxOovfs 166 BOWTTIS 41 ^A(f)€(ns 79 Bpa^elov 79 "AcfAaa-ra 133 Bpovraios 39 'A^poStTT? 42 BpovTclov 209 'Acf)p6s ib. Bpoxos 244,300 B. Bcofxol 44 Bdyos 106 BCD/XOS ib. Bddos (fidXayyos 109 BafJLOS T(ov dwSfKa Becov 38 a 52 INDEX OP Page. Page. r AelXr) Trpcita 178 Tairjoxos 40 AftXoi 122 TafirjXios 41 ,181 AeTnvop 155, 156 TafirjXtciv 142 AeiTTvov Trpooifiiov 155 ra/xjyXicbv 181 AeKadapxos 107 rdfios 145 A€Khs 300 VdcTTpa 132 A€\(f)\v 134 Tepovres 282 Aenas 154 Vepovaia 23 ,282 Aecrpos 243 rw« 116 Acvrepa in eUddi 183 Teppa, or yeppov 101. Aevrepa larapevov ib. Tecopyoi 11 Aevrepa Tpdne^a 153 , 156 Trjs 6p(f)aK6s 63 AevTepa rpoTTis 132 Tivca-daL ck bdirvov 159 AevTepoTTOTfxoi 51 TXavKOiTns 42 Aripapxoi 223 T\av$ 187 ArjprjTrjp 41 Vvrja-toi 150 ArjpLorrpara 261 Tpapparfis 249 ArjpiovpyoX 11 Tpapp,aT€vs 222 Arjpoi 192 Tpap,pxiT€vs Tu>v /SovXev- Ar^pocnai Ta(f>ai 252 ,253 TWV 249 Arj^LS dvTix€tpos 299 Tpappri 79 Aia TO oldelv tovs TToSa? 1 50 Tpd(f)€LU 173 Aid TO TTeiTVKvSxrBai. 225 Tpa(f)iKf) 172 Aia TO €//'ia ib. Aipoipia 107 GREEK WORDS AND PHRASES. 353 Page. AiixoipiTTjs ib. Aiovvaria 74 Aiovixria fxeyaXa ]81 Ai6vv(ros 74 AlOTTOl 138 Aia-Ko^oKot 79 Aia-Kov ib. AicTKOs ib. AKpaXayyia 109 Aiipeepa 168 Ai(j)opos 97 Aicfypa €(fiopiKa 284 Ai'^poff 97, 156 AixpTop.ia ^aXXayyoff 109 Aio)K€Lv 1 72 AiWKCOI/ 242 AoKifiaa-ia 220 AoXtoy 41 AoXt^off 79 AdXcoi/ 134 Aofiov dvdyeiv ib. Aopara vavp-axa ib. Aopnla 73 AopTTOS ^3, 155 Ao> 101 AopvaXwTOfc 120 AovXeia 243 AovXofc 213, 218, 276 ApeTravov 134 A/3o>off 79, 206, 208 Aw/ja 48 E. *Eyya(Trpip,vdoi 66 'Eyyvap 143 ''Eyyvof, or, 'Ey-yvTjrai 262 *Eyyus rrjs K\r]p(OTr]s 283 'EyKoiXm 132 'EyKOfx^dfia 168 'EyKUKXtoi/, or, "EyKV- k\ov 166 ^Eyx^ipi^iov 102 "Eyxoy 101 "ESm 143 'EScoXea 132 EtKas ] 83 ElKoa-Trj 261 EiKOOToXoyot 262 Ek^)!/ 173, 245 EiKaTTivr) 155 ElXeidvia 42 Ef/ia 166 Etpevfff 274 Ei/)7;i/ ib. Elpr]vr} 111 Eis K€v ib. 'Ej/wria 166 "E|77/3oi 274 'E^w/xis 167,213 'ETTaikXoz/ 290 'EttI AeX(f)ivi(o 237 'Etti IlaXXaSiw ib. 'Etti UpvTaveLOi ib. 'ETTtjSaSfS ' 131 'EnL^dSpai 134 'ETTi^arat 136 ^ETTibopTria-fiara 153 'ETTiSoo-et? 268 'ETTidpopos 134 'ETTt^aXa/Aia 145 'ETriderqL ioprai 253 ^ETnKapnfjs (pdXay^ 109 'ETTLKXr]pOL 267 ^EttIkcottoi 130 'E7rtXa;(di/res 231 ^Einp.a-)(LO. Ill 'ETTi/xcXT/ral 7^ 'ETTtjLteXTyrat rwv veapi- cop 248, 252 'ETTLOpKOS 60 'ETTto-rarat 107 'E7no-rar»79 226, 230 ^ETricrTe(})€LV Kparripa 49 'ETTto-roXei/s' 137 'ETTiray/xa 109 'ETTtVoj/oi 134 ^ETTLTpOTTr) 133 ^EnlrpoTTOi 1 43 'E77-t;^^di/tot 38 'E7ro/x<^aXtoi/ 100 'ETTOVpdvLOL 38 *E7rrayXo)o-a"o? 1 72 'E7TTd<^6oyyos ib. 'ETTTa^OjoSos lb. 'ETTOj^eXta 262, 263 'Ettw/xIs 167 'ETTcbj/V/XOt 242 GREEK WORDS AND PHRASES. 355 Page. Page. 'Ettcow/xos 221, 283 Eva);(ta 155 'ETrarldes 134 ^E^eSpos 83 Epavos 155, 258 'E<^e(7rios 39 'EpyaaTTjpia iv Tois ap- ^E(^€(TTp\s 167 yvpLOis 194 'E^eVat 237 'EpydXajSot 252 'E(f)r]^LK6v 206 ''Ep8€iv 49 'E(firjl3ot 274 'Epeideip 135 *E(f)op€ia 283 'Epecraeiv ib. 'E(f>6poL ib. ^Eperai 136 Z. 'Epexdrits 198 Zevs 39 'EptVVV€S 43,69 Zecpvpos 202 ' Epicr[xa 134 Zrjpia 242 ,299 "Eppa ib. Zuy^ 132 ''Eppara 166 Zvyioc ib. 'Epp^s 40 Zvy LTTjS 144 'EpUO-lTTToXtS' 42 ZvyoL (f)aXayyos 109 "EaQ-qpa, iad^s, eaOriaisim Zaypa(f)ia 173 EKcrraTiKOi m Zapa, or ZaxTTrjp 100 'Ea-ria 42 Zcopevpara 132 'E(TTid(ris 264 Zaivvva-Bai 100 'E/r 202 Arj^iap^iKov ypafXfxaTelou 254 Aoyades 287, 298 Aoyeloi/ 207, 208, 209 Aoyto-rai 250, 233 Ao^ias 39 AovTpocl)6vos 145 A6(J)os 99 Ao;\;ayoi 1 06 Aoxaybs 107 Aop^aycoyoi lb. GREEK WORDS AND PHRASES. 359 Page, j Page. Aoxos 107 Mrjxoval 116 AveLv 168 1 Mrjxavri^ 209 AVKIOS 204 j MiKpd eKKXrjaia 287 M. Mi\T07rdpT]ot 132 MdCa 152,245 Mi(t66s " 95 Mala 150 McaOos ^ovXevTiKos 256 MaifiaKTTjpLojv 181 Mia-dos diKaarTiKos ib. MaKpa reixr} 199 Miados eKKKrjo-iaaTiKos 255 MaKpal 130 Micrdos crvvqyopiKOS ib. MdpTeis 60 MicrTvWaa-6ai 153 Mam-iKT) ib. MictvWt) ib. M-aprvpia 240 Mirpa 99 , 166 Macrriyaxris 299 Mvr]pc1a 163 Md^atpa 53, 102 M66aK€S 275 MeyaXoi deol 38 Molpai 43 Meyas opKOs 59 MotKaypia 147 MeXaivai 136 MoKv^diBes 102 MeXa? (copos 153 MoXv^bivat (T(f)alpai, ib. MeXiTTOvra 153, 161 Movrjpcis 131 M.€XK€lp€V€S 274 Mopa 110 Mepapxta 108 Mopai 110 ,275 Mepdpxris ib. Moppo\vK€lOV 150 Mea-Tj 171 Movvvx^a 182 Mearobpr] 134 Movvuxi'^v 181 Mecrov ex^i-v 80 MOVCTLKT) 170 Mea-ov rjpap 178 MvcT-qpia 74 MecrovavTat 136 MVTTQiTOV 153 MerayeiTviav 181 Mvxos 139 MeraXXa 261 N. MeroLKLOv 262 MeVotKoi 191, 213 Nai pa Tov 58 MercoTTOv 107, 132 Naos 44 Mr) KaTd(^paKTOi 98 Nao(f)v\aK€s 47 MrjKOs (fidXayyos 109 NavaraOpos 139 Mrjvbs dpxopevov, or, la-' 'NaVTOL 136 rapevov 183 'Nav(f)v\aK€s 138 Mrjvos pecrovirros ib. Ne^peioi avKol 172 Mrjvos cfiSipovTOS ib. l>i€KpopavT€ia 70 Mrjvvrpa 258 NeoSa/icoSeis 277 3t)0 INDEX OF Page. Pa^re. Neofirjvia 183 Ot rw dr]fio(ri(a d^eiXoi/- "Nevpov • 102 T€S 263 'NerfieXrjyepeTTjs 39 OlKcrai 218, 276 NewKopoi 47 OIkov ayeaBai 145 Netopm 139 OlvofieKi 156 N77 ro) ^eo) 58 Oivos 204 N^€S 130 OlvovTTa 153 N)7r7;^ 171 Olvoxooi 159 NrjipaXia Upa 49 'Oto-roi 102 N/yXapos 138 O'lx^crBai 165 Nd^oi 150 Olxofievoi ib. No/xets' 132 Olcavol 68 No/xo^eVai 223 OlutvoTToXoi 16 Nd/ios 171 'OKpi^as 173 Nop,o({)v\aKe9 222 ,226 'OXmSes 130 Ndroy 202 'OXkoI 134 Nvp.(fi€VTrjs 144 "OX/ios 62 Nv/A^evrpta ib. ^OXocfivpfiol 165 Nvi/i/m 150 ^OXvpLTTiov, or, "OXvfJL- S. TTLcioV 202 SeVios 39 "Ofi^pios 39 SeVoi 215 ''Op.vvp.i fxev Tiva Ta>v St>. 101 244 6ea>v 58 Eoava 74 "Ojxoiei 276 EvXov nevTea-vpiyyov 243 'Op0aX6s 100 0. "Ovcipos 67 *0 CLKVpOS 236 'OTno-BodofjLos 198, 264 '0 eXeov ib. *07n(T6o(r 76 "OnXa 134 '0 6iTL(r(o 236 'OTrXtraycoyot 131 'OdonoLol 248 ,252 OvrXirai 96, 214 Ot avrooToXeis 267 'OTrXiTrjs 95, 281 Oi eV rois (jipovpiois 214 'OTrXiTodpoiJLOi 79 Ol ivbcKa 222 "Opafxa 67 Ol vearaTOi 214 Opyvia 188 Ol Trpeo-^vTUTOi ib. ^OpOia TvaXrj 80 Oi Tcaa-apaKOvra 223 "OpBios 171 Ol Tvxovres 283 ^OpdovaBat 135 GREEK WORDS AND PHRASES. 361 Page. "opKoi 58 "OpKos fieyas ib. "OpKOs iJiLKpos ib. "OpKia re five tv 59 "OpKLOS 39 'OpfiiC^iv 135 'Opfxi^ccrBat ib. "Opiioi 199 "opixos 166, 296 ^Opveoa-Korroi 68 "OpvLis ib. ^Op(j)aviKa 267 'Opxrjo-rpa 206 *0(rTpaKi(rfx6s 244 "OcrrpaKov ib. OuXatj OiiKoxvTat 49, 53 OupA 107. 133 Ovpayos 107, 108 Ovpavia 42 Ovpai/toff 279 O^o-ta 266 '0(f)da\fio\ 132 '0(j>eaXti6s 133 "Oxai/oi/j or^ 'Oxavr; 101 'Oxevs 99 n. UayKpariov 81 naiav 39 naiai/ ip^ar-qpLos 114 namv imvUios ib. rTaiave? 55 natSayooyoi 1 50 naiStKots x^P^"''^ ^^^ TlaiboTpi^ai ib. Hateii/ 299 naXr; 79, 80 UaXkas 41 Uavadrjvaia 77 nai/dr/jMOS 42, 147 Ilai/^foi/ 202 nai/07rX la 122 Ilapa TO jJSeiv 143 napa^drj^s- 97 UapaKaTa^oXri 262 Tlapap,€(TT] 171 JJapapvpcfyos 144 napaTrXevpidia 98 Ilapd(TT]p,ov 133 HapdaLTOi 47 UapacrKrjvia 208 Hapdo-raaLi 262 UapacTTdrat 107 Uapao-vvOrjixaTa 114 ndpedpoi 222 Ilapeiat 133 Uape^eipea-la ib. Haprjopos 97 Tlapia 133 Uapddoi 206, 208 Udpoxos 144 IlapvTrdTr} 1 71 Ilarptai Bvaim 252 ndxoff (j}d\ayyos 109 neSiXa 168 ILei(Tp.aTa 134 IleXao-yt/coi' 195 nfXemSes 61 HeXeKV? 102 He'Xrat 97 liikTaa-raX 96 m'Xrj; 101 li.ip.p.aTa 153 'n.ep,TrdBapxo s 107 Il€p,7rds ib. Uevraffkov 79 Ilevraffotrtdpx'?? 108 TlevTaKoa-iapxia ib. Il€VTaK0(TL0p€8ip.V0l 1 44 R 362 INDEX OF HePTaKOVTapx t'a TLevraKovTapxo s HevraKOVTopoi Il(VTr]KO(rTr] HePTTjKoa-Ttjpes nevrrjKoarvs Uevrrjpeis UeTrXov HcttXos UepL^aXKeadai Uepi^oXaiov IIepiKc(f)aXaia UepioKot UepnrKeiv TlepiTrokoi JJepippaPTrjpiov HepiaKvXaKia-pos JlepiTeixKTpos IIepi(f>aKXia Hcpovai UfpaiKoi JJerav l(TTia UrfdaKiov Htjktis Urjxvs UiOoiyia nikia UiKidia nivaices UivaKia TlX.aTavip.a IlXiv6iov nXota Page. 107 ib. 126, 131 261 107 110 130 213 167 166 167 99 273 128 94,113 44,51 51 116 74 166 169 135 133 115 188 72 165 ib. ib. 173 173, 229 296 134 109, 132 204 172 137 109 130 liXoVTCiV Ilodcoiceiijv TloiKiXr) Page. 43 225 134 79 202 noXepapxos 103,105,106, 110,222,225,287 noXms 198 UoXlTdL 213, 215 IloXXoi Kciyadot 52 UOVTIOS 40 Ilopia 131 nopnai 166 JJopTTaKes 101 TJoacidcioiv 181 Iloo-ddSiv 39 IloTrjpiou 154 IIovs 188 UpaKTOpes 247 Upea^eis avTOKpdropes 110 UpidpcpoLj or { OPOVp€- POL TO TeXos 262 npo/SouXev/za 227, 232 Upoypappa 226 IIpodiKos 106 Upoedpta 123 ,245 UpoeBpoi 226, 230 UpoBvpara 53 Ilpo\^ 143 Ilpoperoinidia 98 Upopaop 44 Upo^epia 159 Jlpo^epoi 281 TJpo^epos Tap Aa/ceSat- popmp 160 UpoTToXoL Oecop 47 IIpo(r€Vxcu 56 Upo aK€p 182 a04 INDEX OF Page. Page. ^Konf) 209 2rpocj)aLos 41 SAcCXa * 120 2Tp6<])iov 168 2/cvXa^ 51 2TpafjiaTa 156 2KVTaXr} 123 2vyKXeULV Tovs 6(f)6a\ . 2KVTaKia 102 povs 160 2kvtos 123 2vyKK-qT0i iKKkqa-lai 224 2kv(J)os 154 2vp^o\a 111 ,114 ^■ndpyava 149 2vp,^o\a opara 114 ^Trelpat 134 2vp.^o\a (jxoviKa ib. ^TrXayxvoo-Konia 53 2vpL^o\ov 256 27rX.ay)(v6crK07ros ib. 2vp,p,axia 111 STToSirat apToi 152 2vppdxoi 301 ^TTOvdrj 49,111 2vpp,€TpLa 168 27r6v8vkoi 241 2vp7rocndpxos 159 2ra§toj/ 79 2vp,(fiopevs 110 Sravpoff 245 2vvapp6TTeiv 160 ^Tetpr} 131 2vvex(tv 80 SreXXeti/ tOTi'a 135 2vp6r]KT} 111 Sre^/iara 56 2vv6r}pa 114 2Te(j)dv7] vyJATfKrj 166 2vvoxr) (fidXayyos 109 2Te(j)avoi 245 2vvTaypa 108 2Te(fiavo(f>6pos 76 2vvTaypaTdpxr}S 108 2TriXT) 243 2vVT€X€ial 267 2Tiyfiara 94, 243 2vVT€X€7s ib. 2tIxoi. 109 2vvTpir}papxot ib. 2Tixop.avT€ia 68 2vvTpir)papxovvT€5 ib. 2T6Xapxos 137 2vva)pi,d€s 82 2to\t] 168 2vpLy$ 172 2t6\os 133 2vppa, or 2vpT0s 213 2rd/xa 139 2v(TcnTia 155 2TpaTT]yia 108 2v(TTavi6v 167 366 INDEX OF Page. I TpirjpapxM 267 Tpirjpapxos « 137 TpLTjpavXrjs 138 Tpiripcis 130 TpirjpoTroiot 248 Tpirrj 171 TpiTTVS 51 Tpixopdos 171 TpoTraia 121 TpoTTota, or, TpoTTata ib. TpoTraios ib. Tpt^TTtS 131 TpoVoi 134 TpoTToCcr^ai 135 Tpoxos 98 TpVTTrjpxiTa 132 TpvcriTTTnov 98 TpojKTa 153 Tvixnava 245 ''Y^pts ^Yyi'eia 'YdpofiaTCLa 'Yertos 'yXwpoi 'YpivaioL 'Yfxeves 'YTrdrr] 'Ynriperai 'YTTTJpeTtJS 'YTrqpcTiKov 'YiroypappaTevs 'Y7roypa^ St w^ :{h=r^. T T From O^ateUi. /^O I J 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WfflCH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. RENEWALS ONLY— TEL. NO. 642-3405 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subjea to immediate recalL hAaR15 1969lS ^jAQi .^^1071 ftO piini 1 Jk V ■«/ f ■ w - ' RECEIVED --^2; '69 -9 AM LOAN DEPT. fctC'OU) FEQ2 ^7^'§m^6t ,Ifo.f^^!?f'T.. --lSgSS„.