dy LIBRARY OF THK University of California Received /^^^^L<^^^^o8taga. Entered, accordinj: to Act of Congress, in the year one tlioii^aiid ei-^ht hundred and eixty-l^ve, by IIaui'ku & Bkotiikuh, in the Clerk's OiUce of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. PUBLISHER'S ADVERTISEMENT, TiiJi: present History is intended for the use of Public Schools throughout the country, being a more element- ary book than the larger History of Greece by the same author, which aj^propriately succeeds it in more ad- vanced classes. This volume will be followed by similar Histories of Rome and England. The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the examination of his class, tlie answers to which v.'ill be found in the corresponding pages of the volume. lleimcs (Mercury). Coin of MytiLn6. CONTENTS. position of Greece . Its boundaries Its size Its name Northern Greece . . Thessaly 1 1 2 2 Epirus 2 Central Greece. Eastern Locris , Doris Phocis Boeotia Attica , Mecraris CHAPTER I. Geogr-U'iiy of Greece. I'agel Pp 1 Peloponnesus . ^ 2 1 Corinth 2 Arcadia 2 Achaia 3 Ai'golis 3 Laconia 3 Messenia 3 Elis 3 Islands 3 Euboea 8 Cyclades 3 Sporades 3 Crete 3 Khodes 3 2 2 2, - 2 2 2i Western Locris 2 Influence of the physical geography JEtolia. 2 j of Greece upon the political des- Acarnania 2 1 tinies of the people 3 CHAPTER II. Oeigi:^ of the Gueeiis and the IIeboic Age. Date of the commencement of Gre- cian histoiy The Pelasgians The Hellenes Dorians yEolians lonians Achaeias Foreign settlers in Greece Cecrops Danaus Pel ops Cadmus Phoenician origin of the Greek alphabet Heroic age : its supposed length . . . Hercules Theseus 6 4 Minos 7 4 The Argonauts 7 The Trojan AVar 7 Its supposed date S Eeturn of the Greeks from 5' Troy 8 5 State of Society in the Heroic Age. D The King 9 The Boule^ or Council of Chiefs 5) The Afjora^ or general assembly of freemen 9 Three classes : noble, common freemen, and slaves i' Simplicity of manners '-> Advances made in civilization . 1 ft Art of war 10 vm CONTENTS. CIIArTETl III. GENES.^^L SUBVEY OF THii GbEKK PEOPLE. NaTICXAL iNBTITXTnONS. Page Tiea which bound the Greek people together 11 C-onimunity of blood and language II ^kj:minuity of religioud rites and ceremonies 11 Ainphictyonic Council : its places and times of meeting. 11 Olympic Games 1.' rytliiiiu Games 14 Para Nemean Games 14 Isthmian Games 1-1 Influence of these games 15 Oracle of Apollo at Delphi : its influence 15 Community of raannera and char- acter 15 Want of political union : independ- ent sovereignty of each city IG CHAPTER IV. Eably IIistoby of rri-opoN^ESCS and Sparta to the End op tub MEt3SENIAN WaKS, U.C. 008. B.C. Page ll04. Con luost of Peloponnesus by the Dorians 17 The legendary account 17 The Dorians led by the He- raclidje 17 History of the lleraclidfe . . 17 Tcmonus, (Jresphontes, and Aristodemus tlie three Ileraclida) who led tlie Dorians 18 Invasion and conquest of the Peloponnesus IS Division of I'eloponnesua among the conquerors. . . 18 Remarks upon the legendary account IS T76. Lycurgus the legislator of Sparta 19 His life 11) His legislation I'J Population of Sparta divided into tlio three classes of 1. Spartans ^0 2. PeriuDci 20 B.C. Pep* 3. Helots 20 The Spartan government 1. The two kings 20 2. Tlie Gertixiit^ or Council of 30 Elders 21 3. Tlic popular assembly. . . 21 4. The five Ephors 21 Ciiaracter of the Spartan fjov- ernnient 21 Training of the Spartan men . 22 The Syssitia 23 Training of the Spartan women 2S 1 )ivision of landed property . . 23 Iron money 23 Kesults of discipline of Lycur- gus : growth of Spartan port- er 743-724. First Messcnian War GS5-G()S. Second Messenian War . . Aristomencs, the Messenian hero Tyrtanis, the poet Coii'iuest of Messenia: its in- corporation with Lacouia. . . 24 24 25 26 25 CirAPTER V. Kaulv IIistoby of Athens iown to tuk EBTAnuBiiMKNT or Dr.M(:;rwAcv 1Y CLlSTIlENES, JI.O. bltl. Change nf govcnimont in (Jreeco from royalty to oligarchy and democracy 7 Tlie Grecian tyrants or Despots 2S Early history of Atlicnd ...... 28 ( 'ucrnps 23 The.-eus '. S Cudrus 2S Aholilitin cf royalty 28 Life jVi-choQS 28 CONTENTS. IX B.C. Page B c. 153. Decennial Archons 21) CSS. Annual Archons: their insti- tution the first certain date in Atlienian history 29 Twofold division of the Athe- nians : 29 1. EupatridiB, Geomori, De- 5C0. niiurgi 29 2. Four tribes : Geleontes, Hopletes, ^gicores, Argades 29 527. The nine Archons and theii* functions 29 Government of the Eupatridas 39 514. 624. Legislation of Draco 30 1 C12. Conspiracy of Cylon 30 j The Alcmseonida? 80 510. 69G. Visit of Epimenides the Cretan : his purification of the city. . 31 Life of Solon 31 State of Attica at the time of Solon's legislation : civil dis- sensions between the inhab- itants of the Plains, the Mountains, and the Shores . 31 594 Legislation of Solon 31 Relief of debtors 31 Division of the people into four classes, according to their property : 32 1. Pentacosiomedimni. ... 32 2. Knights 32 3. Zeugitaj 32 4. Thetes 32 Senate of Four Hundred 32 Saate of the Areopagus 32 Pagf The Athenian government con- tinues an oligarchy after the time of Solon 33 Special laws of Solon 33 Renewal of the civil dissen- sions of Attica S3 Usurpation of Pisistratus 33 Pisistratus twice expelled and restored 34 Government of Pisistratus 34 His death L4 Government of his sous llip- pias and Hipparchus 35 Conspiracy of Hannodius and . Aristogiton 35 Assassination of Hipparchus . . 35 Expulsion of Ilippias by the Alcmajonidse and the Lace- daemonians 36 Party struggles at Athens be- tween Clisthenes and Isagoras 3G Piefomis of Clisthenes : estab- lishment of the Athenian de- mocracy 36 Institution of 10 new tribes, and of the demi 38 Increase of the number of the Senate to .500 37 Enlargement of the functions and authority of the Senate and the Ecclesia 37 Institution of the Ostracism . . 37 Invasion of Attica by Cleome- nes to overthrow the Athe- nian democracy : failure of the attempt 3T CHAPTER VI. Tnn Gkef.k Colonies. Origin of the Greek colonies, and their relation to the mother city 39 Division of the colonies into four groups 30 L Colonies in Asia Minor and tlie adjoining islands 3& jEolic, Ionic, and Doric colonies . 40 Miletus and Ephesus the most important 4i IL Colonies in the western parts of the Mediterranean 41 (Jumae in Campania 41 m. Syracuse and Agrigentum in Sicily 49 Magna Gra?cia 42 Sybaris and Croton 43 Locri 42 Khegium 43 Tarentura 42 Massalia in Gaul 44 Colonies in Mrica : Cyrene and Barca 41 Colonies in Epirus, Macedonia, and Thi'ace 4-1 Corcyra 44 PotidiPa, Byzantium, Se- lymbria 44 CONTENTS. CHArTEIl VII. TiiE Teesian Wars. Fsom tue Ionic KrrvoLT to the Battle of IiIabatuoi^ B.C. 500-4J0. B.C. 500. Page! n.c. Kint^iloni of Lydia: accession of (JnuPiu^ 45 Tlie MtViC-* and Persians 4(i fir>?-T>>'.K llvi'^n of Cyru." 40 &iC. G;ii>tiire of Sardi.s : overthrow of the Lydian monarchy ... 40 Comiucr^t of the A.-^iatic Grcek.^ by llarpagns, the general of Cyru.'i 40 629-521. l{eii;n of (Jamhy.-cs 40 Polvcrate-', tyrant of Samoa . . 40 521-485.' Kuipn of Darius 47 lli.s inva.-'ion of Scvthia 41 47 4C5. 4?4. 492. 400. 4S9. Hit-tia>u., tyrant of Miletus. 610. (Jontiuest of Tlirace and Mace- donia by the Pcrsian.s . . . .47, 4S 501. Expedition of Ari-stagoras and tlic Persians against Naxos. 48 500. Eevolt of Miletus and tlie other Greek cities of Asia 4'! Aristagoras solicits aid from Sparta and Athens 49 4S3. Burning of Sardis by the Athenians and loniaus 49 Death of Aristagoras and Jlis- ticTUs 50 Defeat of the Ionian tit*t at Lade 50 Capture of Jliletus and term- ination of the revolt 50 Exi>edition of Mardouius into Greece II Expedition of Datia and Arta- pheraes 51 Concjuest of the Cyclades and Erctria 51 Battle of Maratlion 52-54 ExitecMtion of Miltiades against I'aros 54 Trial and condemnation of Miltiades 55 War between Athena and ^'Egina 65 Theniistocles and Aristidea; their cliaracters 55 Ostracism of Aristides 55 , CHAPTER VIII. TUH Peesi^vn Wak8. The Battles of Tiieemopvl^, SALiUiis, and Platav, U.C. 4S0-479. 4-95. Accession of Xerxe.s 60 484. Prejiarationa fur the invasion of Greece 57 A bridge thrown across the Hellespont and a canal cut through the isthmua of Mount Atho.s 57 160. Xerxes sets out from Sardis : tiic march 57 Numbers of the army 57 Preparations of the Greeks to resist Xerxes 58 Ben to defend the pass of Tlieruiopyla^ 58 Description oi Thennopyhe. . . 5S Forces of Lconidas at Ther- iiiopybr 59 Attack .and repulse of tlie Per- Hians CO Treachciy of I'phinltcs : a de- t.icliment of Persians cross tlie mouutaiuri by a secret path CO Death of Leonidas and his comrades CI Persian lleet overtaken by a storm Gl First Battle of Artemisium. , . C2 Second stonn 02 Second battle of Artemisium . 02 Ketreat of the CJreciau lleet to Salamis C3 riight of the Athenians from their city OS March of the Pei-slans, and ut- tenii)t upon Delphi 03 Taking of Athens anil arrival of the Persian fleet C3 Dissensions and debates of the Greeks 03 Stratagem of TIiemistM-le . . . 04 .^ PosilioM of the hostile Heels . . (i4 'vllattlc of Salnmiri 04 Detent and flight of Xer.ves .. 16 The Greeks celebrafc their vic- tory Od CONTENTS. x .c. 479. Cnrthaginian expedition to Sicily Prepanitions of Mardonius for the campaign Mardonius occupies Athens. . . Atlienian embassy to Sparta. . March of the Spartan ai-my. . . Page CG C7 CT G7 478. March of Mardonius and the Grcelvs into Bujotia Cl Battle of Platfea G1 Division of the booty C^^ Battle of Mycal-s C3 Siege and capture of Sestos. . . CS CHAPTER IX. From the En'D of the Persian Wars to the EEonoaNO or rnn Peloponnesian "War, ij.c. 47'J-4I]1. 473. Rebuilding of Athens Attempts of the Lacednemo- niaus to prevent Athens be- ing fortified Defeated by Themistocles Fortification of Pirjeus Farther proceedings against the Persians ]\Iisconduct of Praisanias The maritime supremacy trans- feiTed to the Athenians (Confederacy of Delos Tiie combined fleet under (Ji- mon 4T1. Pausanias convicted of trea- son, and put to death 'Strife of parties at Athens. . . . Changes in the constitution. . ISlisconduct of Tliemistocles . . His ostracism 4 JG. Tiiemistocles flies to Persia. . . His death and character. Death of Aristides 47G. Cimon takes Eion on the Stry- mon and reduces Scyros. . . . 4''/G. Revolt and conquest of Naxos. Battle of the Euiymedon iZn. Revolt of Tliasos 4 A. Earthiiu;ike at Sparta, and re- volt of the Helots and Me.;- senians C'.mon marches to the assist- .ance of the Lacedaemonians : his abrupt dismissal Parties at Athens (jharacter of Pericles \Iis attacks upon the Areopa- gus, and otlier refonns 461. Ostracism of (Jimou Administration and foreign policy of Pericles 4G0. Expedition of the Athenians into Egypt to assist Inarus. . 455. Battle of CEnophyta, and con- quest of Bteotia <55. Defeat of tlie Athenians in i^ypt C9 440. Expedition of Cimon to Cy- prus : his death Conclusion of the war with 09 70 44S. 70 j 70 447. 71, I 71 71 445. Pers The Athenian power at its height : their foreign posses- sions Decline of Athenian power . . . Battle of Cliajronea: loss of Bi eotia Other reverses In%'asion of Attica by Pleisto- anax, King of Sparta Thirty Years' Truce Pericles has the eole direction of affairs at Athens His public buildings Intollectual activity at Ath- ens Athenian colonization : Cleru- chies Colony of Thurii Colony of Amphipolis Attacks upon Pericles Accusation of Anaxagoras, As- I)asia, and Pludias Imprisonment and death of Phidias Nature of Athenian maritime empire : amount of tribute : oppressions Revolt and conquest of Sa- moa Quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra Defeat of the Corinthiaps Defensive alliance between the Corcyraians and Athenians. Sea-fight between the Corinth- ians and Corcyrajans : the Athenians assist the latter. SI Revolt of Potidiea from Ath- ens Congi-ess of tlie Ptloponne- sians : they decide upon war I against Athens 77 131. The Thebans attack Plataea . . 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 443. 74 437. 432. 74 74 75 75 440. 75 435. 70 70 1 ^433. 76 1 70 432. 76 Hv 771 \ 77 7T 77 77 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 79 79 79 79 80 SO Si) 81 81 81 81 ,82 82 82 82 Xll CONTEXTS. CHAPTER X. ArnENS IN TiiE Time of Pekicles. i.. Pnpe Situation of Athens 85 Lyo!i])ettus S6 Orif^'in and progress of the an- cient city 8G Temple of the Olympian Zeus 8C ICxtent of the ncv city 87 1'ir.Tus and the I'orts 8*^ The Long Walls 8s Monuments of Ciraon 83 Temple of Nike Apteros. . 88 The Theseum 8S Tlie Acropolis and its monu- ments 81 The Propylsca DO B.C. Pup* The Parthenon tiO 1. Tlie Tympana 91 2. The Metopes 92 3. The Frieze 92 4. Statue of Athena 92 Colossal figure of Athena . 93 Tlie Ercchtlu'um S'3 The Dionysiac theatre 15 The Areopagus 96 TliePnyx 90 Tlie Agora 90 Tlie Ceramlcus 90 Tlie Academy 90 The Lyceum 90 CHAPTER XI. The PriOPONNESiAN War. Fiest Periot>, from the Coatwencement of the Wak to tiie Peace of Nicias, ij.0. 431-421. 431. General character of the war . 99 Allies of the Lucedajmoniaua and Athenians 99 First Year. Invasion of Attica 100 4B0. SVcod Fear. Invasion of Attica 100 Plague at Athens 100 Unpoi)ularity of Pericles : he is accused of peculation 101 His domestic mi.-' fortunes 102 429. Third Year. Death of Pericles: his character 102 Siege of Plataja 103 428. Fourth Year. Revolt of Myti- lOno 103 427. Fifth Year. Sun-ender of Myt- ilcno 104 The Athenian demagogue Cle- on 104 Debates of the Athenian A.''- pombly resi)ecting the Myti- leii.-nans 104 #?T. Cajiture of Plata'a, and destruc- tion of the city 103 Civil di.s.ensions at Corcyra . . 104 425. Seventh Year. The Athenians take pos.^ession of Pylus. . . . 105 Plockade of Sphacteria 100 Cleon appointed general 107 Capture of Sphacteria 108 Advantages of the victory. . . . lOS 424 Fighth Year. Defeat of the Athenians at the battle of Dclium 108 Overthrow of the Atlieuian empire in Thrace 109 , Prasidas takes Amphipolis. . . . lOD 423. Ainth Year. l?ani.-ihuient of Thucydides thn historian. . . 109 422. Tenth Year. Cleon proceeds toTliracc 109 Death of Cleon and P.rasidas. . 110 421. Fleventh Year. Fifty year.s' peace between Atliens and Sparta, calleil the I'uace of Isicias 110 CHAPTER XII. The Pelopoxnesian Wah. Second Periop, fuom ttie Peace of Nicias to Tim Defeat of the Atublnianb in Sicily, u.c. 421113, i20. Twelfth Year. Dis?ati.n if the Spartiin alii(^ with tlio peace: new coiirc^dcMiuy 111 Transactitnis between Sparta and Athens Ill Character and policy of Alci- ^lia(lu.^ Ill 1 Ic (Uitwits till' Lacfihi'iiioiiians 1 i'J Alliaiu-y between Alliens and Argos 1 IQ CONTENTS. Xlll B c. Pnge Alcibiades victor at the Oljan- pian games 113 ilB. Fourteenth Year. Battle of Mantinea: victoiy of the Lacedaemonians 113 416. Sixteenth Year. Conquest of Melos by the Athenians 113 415. Seventeenth Year. Origin of the Sicilian expedition 113 Preparations at Athens : popu- lar delusion 114 Mutilation of the llerma? 114 General panic 114 Accusation of Alcihiades 115 Departure of the fleet 1 15 Proceedings in Sicily 115 Alcibiades recalled home to stand his trial: he makes his escape 115 He takes refuge Avith the La- cedaemonians : the advice he gives to them 110 41 i. Eighteenth Year. Nicias lays ^: siege to Syracuse 110 ^^^^Description of the city IIG B.C. Pu;;* Nicias seizes Epipolre, and pro- ceeds with his circumvalla- tion of the city lit Arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus 113 Change in the Athenian pros- pects lis Nicias solicits re-enforcements IIJ 413. Ainetecnth Year. Demosthe- nes sent with a large force to the assistance of Nicias. . 119 Reverses 120 The Athenians resolve to re- treat 120 Prevented by an eclipse of the moon 120 Sea-fight in the Great Harbor. 121 Victory of the Syracusans 121 Retreat of the Athenians 121 SuiTender of Nicias and De- mosthenes 122 Their death and character . . . 123 Total destruction of the Athe- nian aiTaament 122 CHAPTER XIII. The Peloponnebian War. Thibd Peeiod, feom the Sicilian Expedition TO THE End of the War, b.o. 413^04. 412. Twentieth Year. Situation of Athens 123 Revolt of the Chians and of tlie other Athenian allies, with the exception of Samos 123 410. Samos the head-quarters of the Athenian fleet 124 411. Twenty- Fir stYear. Recovery of Lesbos by the Athenians . 124 Scheme of Alcibiades 124 lie proposes the establish- ment of an oligarchy at Athens 124'403. Progress of the oligarchical conspiracy at Athens 125 Abolition of the democracy, 40T. and establishment of the Four Hundred at Athens . . . 125 Pi'oceedings at Samos : the army refuses to recognize the new government 120 Alcibiades joins the democracy at Samos, and is elected one of the Athenian generals. . . 120 Overthrow of the Four Hund- red 120 Mindarus, the Lacedjcmonian admiral, defeated at Cyno.i- .=ema 127 Capture of Cyzicus by the Athenians, and second do- feat of the Lacedajmonians at Abydos 127 Ticentii'Second Year. Arrest of Alcibiades by Tissapher- nes : his escape 127 Signal defeat of Mindarus at Cyzicus : his death 127 Results of this battle 128 The Lacedfemonians propose a peace, which is rejected 128 Twcnt] I -fourth Year. Capture of Chalcedon and Byzantium by the Athenians 12S Twentii-fifth Year. Return of Alcibia.de3 to Athens 128 He is appointed general 12S He escorts the aacred proces- sion to Eleusis 128 Cyrus comes down to the coast of Asia 129 Lysandcr appointed command- er of the Peloponnesian fleet 129 Interview between Cyrus and Lysandcr 129 Alcibiades intrusts the fleet to Antiochns 13^ Jtiv CONTENTS. B.C. Page- Defeat of Antiochua at No- tiiim mo Pifmi.seal of Alcibiades 130 40. Twenty-tdxth Year. Ly.^ander superseded by (Jallicratidaa. IPifi His straightfonvard rondiict. . 130 He defeats Conon nt Mytiir-no, and blockades the town .... 131 The Athenians send a large ilect 131 Battle of Arpinusa> : defeat and death of Callicratidas 131 Accusation and condemnation of the Athenian generals. . . 132 B.C. 405. 104. Pttgi Twentf/sriirnth Yejir. Reap- pointment of Ly.sander as admiral 132 The war transferred to the Hellespont 133 D'jfeat and destruction of the Athenian fleet at iEgo'pc- tami 133 Proceedings of Lycander: cap- ture of tlie Athenian depend- encies 133 Tivntn-cirjhth and last Year. Capture of Athens : terms of peace 13J ' CHAPTER XIV. The Thirty Tyr.\.nts, and the Death oi'' Sockates, u.c. 404-809. 404. The Athcninn democracy abol- ished: establishment of the Thirty Tyrants l."5 Cruelty of Ci-itias 135 Opposition and death of The- ramcncs 136 De-Atli of Alcibiades 13G Jealousy of the Grecian states toward Sparta and Lysan- der 137 403. Thrasybulus and other Athe- nian e.\.ilos seize Phylo 137 39a. Occupy Pineus 1.^7 Death of Critias 137 Deposition of the Thirty, and establishment of the Ten. . . 137 The Lacediemonians march to Athens 1.S7 Uestoration of the democracy. 138 Life of Socrates 13S Eimiity against him '. . 139 His impeachment, trial, and death UO CHAPTER XV. The ExrEBiTlON of tiie Gukeks unpeh Cyrus, and PvETnEAT of tiie Ten TuouiiANi), 11.G. 401-400. .. 141 401. Causes of the expedition Cyrus engages an anuy of Greek niercenaries March of Cyrus to Tarsus .... Discontents of tlic Greeks. . . . Passage of the Euphrates .... March through the desert into lialiylonia IWittle of < "unaxa DtMtli of Cyrus 1 )ismay of tlie (J reeks Their tre.ity with Tissiii)henies Their retreat to tlie Greater Zab 140 Seizure of the generals 147 Election of Xeuoplion and oth- ers as generals 117 March from the Zab to the con- iincs of the Canhu'hi 147 March across the mountains of the Carduchl 147 144 400. March tlinmgli Armenia and other countries to Tnipczus on tlie Kuxine 14S March t<> Pyzmtiiim 148 .399. The (^rock- are iti( oiporatPil with the aimy of Thimbrou. 149 14? 11-2 14i 144 115 145 145 140 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XVI. The S0PiiEMACY of Sparta, u.c. 404-371. B.C. Papre B.C. 4 4. Nature of the Spartan empire. 140 Uecarchies .ind Ilarmosts 140 SOS. Acce33ion of Agesilaus 140 150 150 303 330. Affairs of Asia Minor The Lacedu3monians send 301 Tliimbron to assist the Greeks in Asia Minor 150 Dercyllidas supersedes Thira- 387 broQ ... 150 150 303. C.unpaign of Dercyllidas 3SG 300. Aojesilaus supersedes Dercyl- lidas 150 150 Mortifies Lysander 3S2 1 Ii-i first caniDaicn 150 lie winters at Ephesus 150 335. His second campaign 151 lie defeats Tissaphemes 152 Death of Tissaphernes, who is 370. succeeded by Tithraustes . . 15'J 304. Agesilaus recalled home Intrigues of Tithraustes in 152 Ct recce 152 War between Sparta and Thebes 152 The Athenians join the The- 378 bans . . . 15-^ Defeat and death of Lysander. 153 Retreat of Pausanias 1.5:] I^eague against Sparta 15:5 153 Battle of Corinth 154 Homeward march of Agesilaus 1.54 374. Battle of C'nidus 154 Rattle of Coroaea 154 371. Keturn of Agesilaus to Sparta. 157 1 Results of the battle of Cni- dus : loss of the Spartan maritime emi)ire Conon restores the long walls of Athens New system of tactics intro- duced by Iphicrates He destroj^s a Spartan mora. . Peace of Antalcidas Its character Aggressions of Sparta in Bceo- tla Rebuilding of Plat.Tca War between Sparta and Olyn- thus Phoebidas, the Laceda?monian commander, seizes the Cad- mea, the citadel of Thebes, . Reduction of Olynthus Unpopularity of Sparta Pelopidas Conspiracy against the Lace- daBmonian party at Thebes. The Lacedfcmoniuns are ex- pelled from the Cadmea. . . . Alliance between the Thebans and Athenians Organization of the new Athe- nian confederacy The Theban ^^ Sacred Band" . Character of Epaminondas . . . Spartan invasion of Bceotia. . . Progress of the Theban arms . Jealousy of Athens Peace of Callias : the Thebans excluded from it Pg 151 151 158 1.50 150 1.50 15a 159 160 160 100 161 IGl 1G2 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 104 CHAPTER XVII. Tn3 Supremacy of TnERES, i?.o. 371-301. Restoration of the Messenians, 871. Invasion of Bceotia by Cleom- brotus 105 Battle of Leuctra 165 Its effect throughout Greece. . 166 Treatment of the Spartan sur- vivors 160 Jason of PheriB joins the The- bans 106 370. Jason of Pherro slain 167 Invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans 167 Alarm at Sparta 167 Vigorous measures of Agesi- laus 167 Establishment of the Arcadian confederation 167 Foundation of Megalopolis ... 167 368. 367. n64. 362. 361. and foundation of Messene . 16S Expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly 163 Embassy of Pelopidas to Per- sia 108 Seizure of Pelopidas by Alex- ander of Thessaly 169 Ilis release 109 Death of Pelopidas 169 Invasion of Peloponnesus by Epaminondas 170 Battle of Mantinea 170 A general jieace, from which Sparta alone is excluded . . , 170 Agesilaus sails to Egypt 170 His death 17 XTl CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVIII. JlSTOEY OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS FKOM "^IIE DEBTRCCTION OP THE ATIEENIA* AliM.UIEMT TO THE DE-VTH OF TlMOLEON. B.C. Page 4)5. Dionysina the elder becomes tynint of Syracuse ITl His prosperous reign 171 His love of literature 171 3S9. Visit of riuto to his court 172 '*G7. Death of the elder Dionysius, and accession of the younger 172 Second visit of I'lato 172 IJanishmcnt of Dion 172 856. Dion expels Dionyaius from Syracuse 172 353. Assasaination of Dion 173 B.C. Page 340. Dionysius restored to Syra- cuse 173 The Syracusans invoke the aid of Corinth 173 Character of Timolcon 173 He sails for Sicily 173 34S. Surrender of Dionysius, and con'iuest of Syracuse 173 339. Tinioleon defeats the Cartha- ginians at the Ciimcsus 174 His moderation 174 3GG. His popularity and death 1T4 CHAPTER XIX. PniLiP OF Macedon, I!.c. S59-33G. Description of Macedonia 175 347 Kings of tlie country 175 34(5 359. Accession of I'hilip l.G He subdues the Illyrians 17G His military discipline 176 35S. Capture of Amphiiiolis 170 357. l'\iundation of Thilippi 177 4'J ;ibi- " > The Social War 177 3U>. 357. Commencement of the Sacred 339 War 177 177 The I'hocians seize Delphi . . . PrncToss of the war 177 !;w 25i. rhilip interferes in the war, and defeats the I'hocians . . 178 He becomes master of Thessa- ly 17S He attacks Thrace and the Cliersonese 17S Demosthenes : his oratory . . . . 17S His first Philippic 179 aivo. The Olynthiaus ask assistance 33G of Alliens 179 The Olyntliiac orations of Do- luostlienos 179 179 Character of rhociou Fall of Olynthus I'eacc between Thilip and the Athenians C<^>nstion at Eo- batana 200 324. Alexander takes up his res- idence at Babylon 200 His schemes 200 323. His death 201 His character 201 CHAPTER XXI. Fkom the Death of Alexandee the Geeat to the Conquest op Geeecb by tue ko.mans, b.o. 323-1 4^3. Ambitious projects of Perdic- cas 20 ilSS. Capture of Sparta by the AcliR^ans 219 1=!3. Dentil of Philopccmcn 219 170. Death of I'liilip, and accession of Per.-^eus 219 171. War between Perseus and the Romans 220 IGS. Defeat and capture of Pei-sQus. 220 Division of Macedonia 220 107. One thousand of the principal Acha'ans are sent to Ron:e . 120 147. War between the Acha'ans and the Romans 220 14G. Destruction of Corinth by Muiumius 221 Greece becomes a Roman prov- ince 221 CHAPTER XXIT. Sketch of the History of C;rf,kk LiTEii.vTiKr fkom the earliest Tlmes to TiiK Reign of Alexander the Gke^vt. Epic Poetni: its two classes . 222'6G0. Tyrtwus and Alcnjan 224 Poems of Homer: the Iliad JG25. Arion 225 and the Odyssey 222 GOO. Alca'us and Sappho 2'.5 Subject of tlie Hind 222 .V20. Anacroon 22G Subject i)i tlie ( )(lvssey 2'2'2 .WO. Simonides 220 Birthplace of Homer 223 400. Pindar 220 Date 2231 llistonj 227 Preservation T-391. Andocides 234 45S-37S. Lysias 234 4.%-33S. Isocrates 235 420-M3. Isseus 205 B.C. Papa 389-314. Machines 235 3S5-322. Demostlienes 230 Lycurgus, llyperides, and Di- narchus 2.3G Philosophy 83(5 Ionic scliool 23G 640-5.50. Tiiales 230 010-547. Anaximander 2.36 540-4S0. Anaximenes 230 500-428. Anaxagoras 226 l'21eatic school 236 540-500. Xenophanes 236 Pythagorean school 237 .580-510. Pythagoras 237 4G9-3^9. Socrates 37 The Academicians 23T 429-347. Plato 237 Tlie Peripatetics 238 384-322. Aristotle 2; The Epicureans 239 342-270. Epicurus 2;',9 The Stoics 239 310-221. Zeno 269 The Muse CUj. LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. Acropolis of Athens restored. Areli of Tiryns Map of Greece, Feontibpieck. Title-page. vn xix 1 IlermcR (Merom-v) Coin of MytilCiie The .Muse Clio Mount Paranssus Atlicn.i (Minerva) BuperiDtending the building of the Argo 4 Greek (,'hariot lU Head of Olympian Zeus (Jupiter). . 11 Tiie Foot-race. V2 Wrestling VI Hurling the javelin 13 vi;T]ie Parthenon restored Centaur, from the metopes of the Parthenon From the frieze of the I'arthenon. Panathenaic procession The Erechtheum restored The Piraeus restored Pericles and Aspasia P.ay of Pylus View of the fort Euryalus at Syra- cuse Boxing 13 Map of Syracuse Isthmian crowns 14! View of the theatre at Ephesus Tripod of Apollo at Delplii 15;Coin of Athens The Horse-race IG The Chariot-race 10 Apollo 17 Ancient bridge in Laconia 20 Athena (Minerva) 27 Site of Ephesus 3D Jlap of the cliief ^reek colonies in Asia Minor 40 Map of the chic.' rreek colonies in Sicily 41 Map of the chi ., Greek colonies in Southern Itafy 4?> Tomb of Cyrus 45 Plan of the battle of Marathon 5:! Crfcek soldier r>() Plan of Thcnnopylfe 5'> Plan of the battle of Salamis 05 The Parthenon in its present state. 6'.! Athens restored, from the Pnyx. . . 84 Tonii)le of Niko Apteros (the Wing- less Victoiy) on the Acropolis at Athens 8") Plan of Athens SO liiiins of the temple of the Olympian Zeus 87 The Thcseum restored S'.i I'lan of the Acropolis IM) The propyljea restored 'Jl Hust of Socrates Ruins of Sardis Route of the Ten Thousand .... A Greek warrior Corinth restored, viewed from tlie Acrocorinthus Ocrca? (greaves) (Join of Syracuse inato Demosthenes Coin of Alexander the Great Coin of Macedonia Coin of Demetrius Poliorcetes I oin of Ptolemy I., Soter ( Join of Soleucus Coin of Philip V., King of Macedo- nia (Join of Purseus, King of Macedonia I A'rc, with seven stiings Homer I'indar Herodotus Thurydides Sophocles Kuripidi B Mennnder Aristotle Paf-e li 03 P4 15 '.'7 OD 105 ni 117 123 134 ir>5 141 143 14J l.^-S 105 171 174 175 183 208 211 2T2 218 217 220 S2S 223 22(J 227 228 28'3 233 234 239 ill 111!' .,)ll!i mm l&mJ ';2:^;Jv^_l''i':''l ^ Jmm ^* -;;Ji j n I 3 m' -J- HISTORY OF GREECE Mount Parnassus. CHAPTER L GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. Greece is the southern portion of a great peninsnhi of Europe, washed on three sides by the MediteiTanean Sea, It is bounded on the north by the Cambunian Mountains, Avhich separate it from Macedonia. It extends from the fortietli degree of latitude to the thirty-sixth, its greatest length being not more than 250 English miles, and its gi-eatest breadth only 180. Its surface is considera- bly less than that of Portugal. Tliis small area was divided among a number of independent states, many of them containing a terri> tory of only a few square miles, and none of them larger tlian an English county. But the heroism and genius of the Greeks have given an interest to the insignificant spot of earth bearing their name, which the vastest empires have never equalled. The name of Greece was not used by the inhabitants of the coun- try. They called their land Ifellas^ and themselves Hellenes. At first the word Hellas signified only a small district in Tliessaly, from whieh the Hellenes gi-adually spread over the whole country. The A it HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap.L names of Greece and Greeks come to us from the Romans, uho gave the name of Gnccia to the country and of Graci to tlie inliab- itants. Tlie two northerly pi'ovinces of Greece arc Thcssaly and Ejnntu^ separated from each other by Mount Pindus. Thessaly is a fertile plain inclosed by lofty mountains, and drained by the river Pencils, which finds its way into the sea through the celebrated Yale of Tempe'. E])irus is covered by rugged ranges of mountains running from north to south, through which the Achelous, the largest river of Greece, flows towards the Corinthian Gulf. In entering central Greece from Thessaly the road runs along the coast through the narrow pass of Thermojjvla", between the sea and a lofty range of mountains. The district along the coast was inhabited by the eastern Locrians, while to their west were Doris and Phocis, the greater part of the latter being occu])ied by Mount Parnassus, the abode of the Muses, upon tlie slo])CS of which lay the town of Delphi, with its celebrated oracle of Apollo. South of Phocis is Boeotio, which is a large hollow basin, inclosed on every side by mountains, which prevent the waters from flowing into the sea. Hence the atmos})herc was dapp and thick, to Avhich circum- stance the witty Athenians attributed the dullness of the inhabit- ants. Thebes was the chief city of Bwotia. South of Bccotia lies Attica, which is in the form of u triangle, having two of its sides washed by the sea, and its base united to the land. Its soil is light and dry, and is better ada])ted for tlie growth of fruit than of corn. It was particularly celebrated for its olives, which were regarded as the gift of Athena (Minerva), and were always under the care of that goddess. Athens was on the western coast, between four and five miles from its port, Pira!us. "West of Aitica, towards the isth- mus, is the small district of Mer/aris. The western half of central Greece consists of westcrji Lorris, yE folia, and Ararnania. These districts were less civilized tluin the other countries of Greece, and were the haunts of rude robber tribes even as late as the Peloponnesian war. Central Greece is connected Avith the southern peninsula by a narrow isthmus, on which stood the city of Corintli. So narrow is this isthmus that the ancients regarded the ])cninsu]a as an island, and gave to it the name of l^cloponnesns, or tlie island of Pelojis, from the mythical hero of this name. Its modern name, the Mo- rea, was bestowed ujwn it from its resemblance to the leaf of the mulberry. The mountains of Pelo])onncsus have their roots in the centre of tlie country, from which they branch out towards the sea. This central region, culled Arcadia, is the Switzerland of the peninsula. Chap. I. MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS. 3 It is surrounded by a ring of mountains, forming a kind of natural wall, which separates it from the remaining Peloponnesian states. Tho other chief divisions of Peloponnesus were Achaia, Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, and Elis. Achaia is a narrow slip of country lying betAveen the northern barrier of Arcadia and the Corinthian Gulf. Argolis, on the east, contained several independent states, of which the most important was Argos. Laconia and ]\fcssenia occu- jjicd the whole of the south of the peninsula from sea to sea : these two countries Avere separated by the lofty range of TaygCtus, run- ning from north to south, and terminating in the promontory of Tse- narum (now Cape Matapan), the southernmost point of Greece and Europe. Sparta, the chief town of Laconia, stood in the valley of the Eurotas, which opens out into a plain of considerable extent to- wards the Laconian Gulf. Messenia, in like manner, was drained by the Pamisus, whose plain is still more extensive and fertile than that of tlie Eurotas. J^iis, on the west of Arcadia, contains the memorable plain of Olympia, through which the Alpheus flows, and in which the city of Pisa stood. Of the numerous islands which line the Grecian shores, the most important was Euboea, stretching along the coasts of Boeotia and At- tica. South of Euboea was the group of islands called the Ci/clades, lying around Delos as a centre ; and east of these were the Sjiorades, near the Asiatic coast. South of these groups are the large islands of Crete and Rhodes. The physical features of the country exercised an important in- fluence upon the political destinies of the people. Greece is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe. Its surface is occupied by a number of small plains, either entirely suiTounded by lime- stone mountains or" open only to the sea. Each of the principal Grecian cities was founded in one of these small plains ; and, as the mountains which separated it from its neighbours were lofty and rugged, each city grew up in solitary independence. But at the same time it had ready and easy access to the sea, and Arcadia was almost the only political division that did not possess some territory irpon the coast. Thus shut out from their neighbours by mount- ains, the Greeks were naturally attracted to the sea, and became a maritime people. Hence they possessed the love of freedom and the spirit of adventure, which have always characterized, more ol less, the inliabitanta of maritime districts. Athena (Minerva) superintending the building of the Argo. CHAPTER II. ORIGIN OF THE GREEKS AND THE UEROIC AGE. No nation possesses a liistoiy till events are recorded in written (locnmcnts ; and it was not till the epoch known by the name of the First Olympiad, corresponding to tlic year 77G n.c, that the Greeks began to em))loy writing as a means for perpetnating the memory of any historical facts. Before that period everything is vagne and nncertain ; and the exploits of the heroes related by the poets must not be regarded as historical fiicts. The Pelasr/ians are nniversally re])resentcd as the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. They were s])read over the Italian as well as the Grecian peninsula ; and the I'elasgic language thus formed the basis of the Latin as well as of the Greek. They were divided into several tribes, of which tlie Hellenes were ])r()bably one ; at any rate, this ])eople, who originally dwelt in the south of Tliessaly, gradually sjiread over the rest of Greece. The Pelasgians disap- |)eared before them, or were incorjiorated with them, and their dia- lect became the language of Greece. The Hellenes considered themselves tlic descendants of one common ancestor, Ilellen, the hun of Deucalion and J'yrrha. 'I'o Ik-Ucn were ascribed three sons, Dorus, Xuthus, and Jl'^ohis. ( )f these Dorus and Tl^^olus gave their names to tho Dorians and yl'Jolians ; and Xuthus, through his two Chap. II. CECROPS AND CADMUS. 6 sons, Ion and Achfcus, became the forefather of the lonians and Achrc'ans. Thus the Greeks accounted for the ori;;;in of the four great divisions of their race. The descent of the Hellenes from a common ancestor, Hellen, was a fundamental article in the popular faith. It was a general practice in antiquity to invent fictitious persons for the purpose of explaining names of which the origin was buried in obscurity. It was in this way that Hellen and his sons came into being ; but though they never had any real existence, the tales about them may be regarded as the traditional history of the races to whom they gave their names. The civilization of the Greeks and the development of their lan- guage bear all the marks of home grovv^th, and probably were lit- tle affected by foreign influence. The traditions, however, of the Greeks would point to a contrary conclusion. It was a general belief among them that the Pelasgians were reclaimed from bar- barism by Oriental strangers, who settled in the countiy and intro- duced among the rude inhabitants the first elements of civilization. Attica is said to have been indebted for the arts of civilized life to Cecrops, a native of Sais in Egypt. To him is ascribed the found- ation of the city of Athens, the institution of marriage, and the introduction of I'eligious rites and ceremonies, Argos, in like manner, is said to have been founded by the Egj'ptian Danaus, who fled to Greece with his fifty daughters, to escape from the per- secution of their suitoi's, the fifty sons of his brother ^gyptus. The Eg}T)tian stranger was elected king by the natives, and from him the tribe of the Danai derived their name, which Homer fre- quently uses as a general appellation for the Greeks. Another colony was the one led from Asia by Pelops, from whom the south- em peninsula of Greece derived its name of Peloponnesus. Pelops is represented as a Phrygian, and the son of the wealthy king Tan- talus. He became king of Mycenoe, and the founder of a ]X)werful dynasty, one of the most renowned in the Heroic age of Greece. From him was descended Agamemnon, who led the Grecian host against Troy. The tale of the Phoenician colony, conducted by Cadmus, and which founded Thebes in Baotia, rests upon a different basis. Whether there was such a person as the Phoenician Cadmus, and whether he built the town called Cadmea, which afterwards became the citadel of Thebes, as the ancient legends relate, cannot be de- termined ; but it is certain that the Greeks were indebted to the Phoenicians for the art of writing ; for both the names and the forms of the letters in the Greek alphabet are evidently derived from the Phoenician. With this exception the Oriental strangers left no permanent traces of their settlements in Greece ; and tho 6 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. IL population of tlie countiy continued to be essentially Grecian, nn- contaminated by any foreign element. The age of the heroes, from the first apj)earance of the Hellenes in Thessaly to the return of the Greeks from Troy, v,'iis su]iposed to be a period of about two hundred years. These heroes -were be- lieved to be a noble race of beings, possessing a superhuman though not a divine nature, and superior to ordinary men in strength of body and greatness of soul. Among the heroes three stand conspicuously forth : Hercules, the national hero of Greece ; Theseus, the hero of Attica ; and Minos, king of Crete, the principal founder of Grecian law and civilization, Hercules was the son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Alcmena ; but the jealous anger of Hera (Juno) raised up against him an opponent and a master in the person of Eurj'stheus, at whose bidding the greatest of all heroes was to achieve those wonderful labours which fdled tlie whole world with his fame. In these are realized, on a magnificent scale, the two great objects of ancient heroism, the de- struction of physical and moral evil, and the acquisition of wealth and power. Such, for instance, are the labours in which he de- stroys the terrible Nemean lion and Lernean hydra, carries off tlio girdle of Ares from Ilipjiolyte, queen of the Amazons, and seizes the golden apples of the Hesperides, guarded by a hundred-headed dragon. Theseus was a son of -^gcus; king of Athens, and of iEthra, daughter of Pittlieus, king of Troezen. Among his many memora- ble achievements the most famous was his deliverance of Athens from the frightful tribute imposed upon it by Minos for the murder of his son. This consisted of seven youths and seven maidens, whom the Athenians were compelled to send every nine years to Crete, there to be devoured by the Minotaur, a monster with a hu- man body and a bull's head, which Minos kept concealed in an in- extricable labyrinth. The third ship was already on the point of nailing with its cargo of innocent victims, when Theseus otfored to go witb them, bo]ting to ])ut an end for ever to the horrible tribute. Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, became enamoured of the hero, and liaving supplied him with a chie to ti*ace the windings of the Libyrintli, Theseus succeeded in killing the monster, and in track- ing his way out of tlie mazy lair. Theseus, on his return, became king of Attica, and i)roceeded to lay the foundation of the future greatness of the country. He united into one political body the twelve inde])cndent states into which Cecrops'had divided Attica, and made Athens tlie ca]>ital of the new kingdom. He then di- vided the citizens into three classes, namely, Kiijnttr'uLv, or nobles; Gcomorif or husbandmen ; and Jjcmlurgiy or artisans. Chap. II. THE AKGONAUTS. 1 Minos, king of Crete, whose history is connected with that of Theseus, appears, like him, tlie representative of an historical and civil state of life. Minos is said to have received the laws of Creto immediately from Zeus ; and traditions uniformly present him as king of the sea. Possessing a numerous fleet, he reduced the sur- rounding islands, especially the Cyclades, under his dominion, and cleared the sea of pirates. The voyage of the Argonauts and the Trojan war were the most memorable enterprises undertaken by collective bodies of heroes. The Argonauts derived their name from the Argo, a ship built for the adventurers by Jason, under the superintendence of Athena (Minerv'a). They embarked in the harbour of lolcus in Thessaly for the purpose of obtaining the golden fleece which was preserved in ^a in Colchis, en the eastern shores of the Black Sea, under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. The most renowned heroes of the age took part in the expedition. Among them were Hercules and Theseus, as well as the principal leaders in the Trojan war ; but Jason is the central figure and the real hero of the enterprise. Upon arriving at ^a, after many adventures, King iEetes promised to deliver to Jason the golden fleece, provided he yoked two flre- breathing oxen with brazen feet, and performed other Avonderful deeds. Here, also, as in the legend of Theseus, love played a prom- inent part. Lledea, the daughter of iEetes, who was skilled in magic and supernatural arts, furnished Jason with the means of accomplishing the labours imposed upon him ; and as her fathei' still delayed to surrender the fleece, she cast the dragon asleep dur- ing the night, seized the fleece, and sailed away in the Argo with her beloved Jason. The Trojan war was the greatest of all the heroic achievements. It formed the subject of innumerable epic poems, and has been im- mortalized by the genius of Homer. Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, abused the hospitality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carry- ing oif his wife Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. Ail the Grecian princes looked upon the outrage as one committed against themselves. Kesponding to the call of Menelaus, they as- sembled in arms, elected his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenro, leader of the expedition, and sailed across the ^gean in nearly twelve hundred ships to recover the faithless fair one. Several of the confederate heroes excelled Agamemtjon in fame. Among them Achilles, chief of the Thessalian MyrVnidons, stood pre-emi- nent in strength, beauty, and valour ; whilst Ulysses, king of Ith- aca, surpassed all the rest in the mental qualities of counsel and eloquence. Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam, was most distinguished for heroic qualities, and formed a striking 8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. II. conti-ast to his handsome but effeminate brother Paris. Next to Hector in valour stood JEneas, son of Anchises and Aplirodite (Venus). Even the gods took part in the contest, encouraging their favourite heroes, and sometimes lighting by their side or in their stead. It was not till the tenth year of the war that Troy yielded to the inevitable decree of fate ; and it is this year which forms the sub- ject of the Iliad. Achilles, offended by Agamemnon, abstains from the war; and in his absence tlie Greeks are no match for Hector. The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are already set- ting fire to their ships, when Achilles gives his armour to his friend Patroclus, and allows him to charge at the head of the Mymiidons. Patrocltis repulses the Trojans from the shij)s, but the god Apollo is against him, and he falls under tlie spear of Hector. Desire to avenge the death of his friend proves more powerful in the breast of Achilles than anger against Agamemnon. He appears again in tlie field in new and gorgeous armour, forged for him by the god Hephaestus (Vulcan) at the prayer of Thetis. The Trojans fly be- fore him, and, although Achilles is aware that his own death must speedily follow that of the Trojan hero, he slays Hector in single combat. The Iliad closes witli the burial of Hector. The death of Achil- les and tlie ca])ture of Troy Avere related in later poems. The hero of so many achievements perishes by an arrow shot by the unwar- like Paris, but directed by the hand of Apollo. The noblest com- liatants had now fallen on either side, and force of amis had proved unable to accomi)lish what stratagem at length effects. It is Ulys ses who now stejjs into the foreground and becomes the real con- queror of Troy. By his advice a wooden horse is built, in Avhose inside he and other heroes conceal themselves. The in&ituated Trojans admit the horse within their walls. In the dead of night the Greeks rush out and ojien the gates to their comrades. Troy is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. The fall of Troy is placed in the year 1184 B.C. The return of the Grecian leaders from Troy forms another series of i)oetical legends. Several meet with tragical ends. Agamem- non is murdered, on his arrival at Myccua', by his wife Clyta-nme*!- tra and her ]>aramour uEgisthus. IJut vt' these wantlcriugs the most celebrated and interesting are those of Ulys.ses, which form the subject of the Odvssev. After Iwentv vears' absence lie ar- rives at length in Ithaca, where he slays the numerous suitors who devoured his substance and contended fur the hand t)f his wife Po- nd (ii)e. Tlie Homeric noenis must not be regarded as a record of histori* Chap. IL SOCiETY OF THE HEROIC AGE. 9 cal persons and events, but, at the same time, tliey present a valua- ble picture of the institutions and manners of the earliest known state of Grecian society. In the Homeric age Greece was already divided into a number of independent states, each governed by its own king. The author- ity of the king was not limited by any laws ; his power resembled that of the patriarchs in the Old Testament ; and for the exercise of it he was responsible only to Zeus, and not to his people. Bu though the king was not restrained in the exercise of his power b}r any positive laws, his authority was practically limited by the Bon/e, or council of chiefs, and the Agora, or general assembly of freemen. These two bodies, of little account in the Heroic age, became in the Republican age the sole depositories of political power. The Greeks in the Heroic age were divided into the three classes of nobles, common freemen, and slaves. The nobles were raised far above the rest of the community in honour, power, and wealth. They were distinguished by their warlike prowess, their large es- tates, and their numerous slaves. The condition of the general mass of freemen is rarely mentioned. They possessed portions of laftd as their own property, which they cultivated themselves ; but there was another class of poor freemen, called Thetes, who had no land of their own, and who worked for hire on the estates of others. Slavery was not so prevalent in the Heroic age as at a later time, and appears in a less odious aspect. The nobles alone possessed slaves, and they treated them with a degree of kindness which fre- quently secured for the master their affectionate attachment. Society was marked by simplicity of manners. The kings and nobles did not consider it derogatory to their dignity to acquire skill in the manual arts. Ulysses is represented as building his own bedchamber and constructing his own raft, and he boasts of being an excellent mower and ploughman. Like Esau, who made savoury meat for his father Isaac, the Heroic chiefs pre])ared their own meals and prided themselves on their skill in cookery. Kings and private persons partook of the same food, which Avas of tlie simplest kind. Beef, mutton, and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats, and cheese, flour, and sometimes fruits, also formed part of the banquet ; Avine was drunk diluted with water, and the enter- tainments were never disgraced by intemperance, like those of our northern ancestors. The enjoyment of the banquet was heightcneromoting the political union of Greece, they nevertheless were of great importance in making the various sections of the race feci that they were all members of one family, and in cementing tliem together by common sympathies and the enjoyment of com- mon pleasures. The frecjuent occurrence of tliese festivals, for one was celebrated every year, tended to the same result. Chap. III. THE DELPHIAN ORACLE. U The Greeks were thus annually reminded of their common origin, and of the great distinction Avhich existed between tliem and bar- barians. Nor must avc forget tlie incidental advantages which at- tended them. The concourse of so large a number of persons from every part of the Grecian world afforded to the merchant o])i)ortuni- ties for traffic, and to the artist and tlie literary man tlie best means of making their work knoAvn. During the time of the games a busy commerce Avas carried on ; and in a spaciovis hall appropriated for tlie purpose, the poets, philosophers, and historians were accus- tomed to read their most recent works. The habit of consulting the same oracles in order to ascertain the Avill of the gods was another bond of union. It was the uni- versal practice of the Greeks to undertake no matter of importance without first asking the advice of the gods ; and there were many sacred spots in which the gods were always ready to give an answer to pious worshippers. The oracle of Apollo at Delphi surpassed all the rest in importance, and Avas regarded with veneration in every part of the Grecian world. In the centre of the temple of Delphi there was a small opening in the ground from which it was said that a certain gas or vapour ascended. Whenever the oracle was to be consulted, a vir- gin priestess called Ptjthia took her seat upon a tripod which was placed over the chasm. The ascending vapour affected her brain, and the words which she uttered in this excited condi- tion were believed to be the answer of Apollo to his worshippers. They were always in hexameter verse, and were reverently taken down by the attendant priests. IVIost of the answers were equivocal or obscure ; but the credit of the oracle continued unimpaired long after the downfall of Grecian independence. A further element of union among the Greeks was the similarity of manners and character. It is true tlie difference in tliis respect between the polished inhabitants of Athens and the rude mountaineers of Acarnania was marked and strik- ing , but if we compare the two with foreign ccri- temporaries, the contrast between thein and the latter is still more striking. Absolute despotism, human sacrifices, polygamy, delib- erate mutilation of the person as a punishment, and selling of children into slavery, existed in some part or other of the bar- barian world, but are not found in any city of Greece in the his- torical times. dJ KP ^-b Tripod of Apollo at DelpliL IG HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. III. The elements of union of \vljicli we have been spcnkinp; only - bound tlie Greeks J \ together in ccni- nion feelings and sentiments: they never ])rcduced any political un- ion. The inde- pendent sover- eign of each city w as a f u n d a - mental notion in the Greek niiifd. This strongly rooted feeling de- serves j'articular notice. Careless readers of histo- ly are temjtted to suppose that the territory of Greece was di- vided among a c o m ]) a r a t i V c - ly small nund)er of inde]itndent states, such as Attica, Arcadia, Ba?otia, I'hocis, Locris, and the like; but this isii most serious mis- take, and leads to a total misa]'})rc- licnsion of Greek history. Every sejjarate city was usually an in- dependent state, and consequcnily eacli of the territories described under tlic general names of Arcadia, Bicotia, Tliocis, and Locris, cemtaincd numerous jKjIitical communities independent of one another. Attica, it is true, formed a single state, and its dilVerent towns rcce)gnizcd Athens as tlieir capital and the soure-c of supreme power; but this is an cx- rcption to tlio general rule. Apollo, the priuciiJiil ueity of the Dorians, CHAPTER IV. EARLY UISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS AND SPARTA, DO'WN TO TSM END or THE MESSENIAN WARS, B.C. GG8. In the heroic age Peloponnesus was occupied by tribes of Dorian conquerors. They had no share in the glories of the Heroic age ; their name does not occur in the Iliad, and they are only once men- tioned in the Odyssey ; but they were destined to form in historical times one of the most important elements of the Greek nation. Is* suing from their mountain district between Thessaly, Locris, and Phocis, they overran the greater part of Peloponnesus, destroyed the ancient Achaean monarchies, and expelled or reduced to subjec- tion the original inliabitants of the land, of which they became the undisputed masters. This brief statement contains all that we know for certain respecting this celebrated event, which the ancient writers placed eighty years after the Trojan war (b.c. 1104). The legend- ary account of the conquest of Peloponnesus ran as follows : The Dorians were led by the Heraclidai, or descendants of the mighty hero Hercules. Hence this migration is called the Return of tho Heraclidaj. The children of Hercules had long been fugitives upon the face of the earth. They had made many attempts to regain possession of the dominions in the Peloponnesus, of which their great sire had been deprived by Euiystheus, but hitherto without B lip HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV. success. In tlicir last attcrnpt Ilyllus, the son of Hercules, had perished in single combat with Echemus of Togca; and tlie Ilerac- lidaj had become bound by a solemn comi)act to renounce their en- terprise for a hundred years. Tliis period had now expired ; and the groat-grandsons of Ilyllus Tcmenus, Cresj)hontes, and Aristo- demr* resolved to make a fresh attempt to recover their birthright. They were assisted in the enterprise by the Dorians. This jicoijIc espoused their cause in consequence of the aid Avliich Hercules him- self had rendered to the Dorian king JEgimius, when the latter was hard pressed in a contest with the Lapithai. The invaders were warned by an oracle not to enter Pelojionnesus by the Isthmus of Corinth, but across the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf. The inhab* itants of the northern coast of the gulf were ftxvourable to their en- terprise. Oxylus, king of the JEtolians, became their guide ; and from Naupactus they crossed over to Peloponnesus. A single bat- tle decided the contest. Tisamcnus, the son of Orestes, was defeat- ed, and retired with a portion of liis Acha-an subjects to the north- ern coast of Peloponnesus, then oecu])ied by the lonians. He ex- pelled the lonians, and took possession of the country, which con- tinued henceforth to be inhabited by the Acha?ans, and to be called after them. The lonians withdrew to Attica, and the greater part f them afterwards emigrated to Asia Minor. The Ileraclida) and the Dorians now divided between them the dominions of Tisamenus and of the other Achaean princes. The kingdom of Elis was given to Oxylus as a recompense for his serv- ices as their guide ; and it was agreed that Tcmenus, Cresphontcs, and Eurysthenes and Procles, the infant sons of Aristodemus (^^ ho had died at Naupactus), should draw lots for Argos, Sparta, and Messenia. Argos fell to Tcmenus, S])arta to Euiysthenes and Pro- cles, and Messenia to Cres])hontcs. Sucli are the main features of the legend of the Return of the Ileraclida}. In order to make the story more striking and impress- ive, it compresses into a single epoch events which ])robably occu- pied several generations. It is in itself improbable (hat the brave Achitans quietly submitted to the Dorian invaders after a moment- ary struggle. We have, moreover, many indications that such was not the fact, and that it was only gradually and after a long ]ro- tracted contest tliat the Dorians became undisi)uted masters of the greater ])art of PclojKmnesus, Argos was originally the chief Dorian state in Peloiionncsns, but at the time of the first Olympiad its power liad been sujtplanted by that of Si)arta. The ]>r()gress of 8])arta from the second to the first place among- the states in the ])eninsula was mainly owing to fho military discijiliue and rigorous training of its citizens. The sin* B.C. 77G. KEFORMS OF LYCURGUS. l6 gular constitution of Sparta was iinanimously ascribed by the an- cients to the legislator Lycurgus, but there were dilFerent stories respecting his date, birth, travels, legislation, and death. His most probable date, however, is B.C. 776, in which year he is said to have assisted Iphitus in restoring the Olympic games. He was the son of Eunomus, one of the two kings who reigned together in Sparta. On the death of his father, his elder brother, Polydectes, succeeded to the crown, but died soon afterwards, leaving his queen with child. The ambitious woman oifered to destroy the child if Lycurgus would share the throne with her. Lycurgus pretended to consent ; but as soon as she had given birth to a son, he presented him in the market-place as the future king of Sparta. The young king's moth-., er took revenge upon Lycurgus by accusing him of entertaining de- signs against his nephew's life. Hereupon he resolved to with- draw from his native country, and to visit foreign lands. He was absent many years, and is said to have emploj^ed his time in study- ing the institutions of other nations, in order to devise a system of laws and regulations which might deliver Sparta from the evils under which it had long been suffering. During his absence the young king had groAvn up, and assumed the reins of goA^ernment ; but the disorders of the state had meantime become worse than ever, and all parties longed for a termination to their present suffer- ings. Accordingly, the return of Lycurgus was hailed Avitli delight, and he found the people ready and willing to submit to an entire change in their government and institutions. He now set himself to work to carry his long projected reforms into effect ; but before he commenced his arduous task he consulted the Delpliian oracle, from wliicli he received strong assurances of divine support. Thus encouraged by the god, he suddenly presented himself in the market- place, surrounded by thirty of the most distinguished Spartans in arms. His reforms were not carried into effect without A'iolent op- position, and in one of the tumults which they excited, his eye is said to have been struck out by a passionate youth. But he finally triumphed over all obstacles, and succeeded in obtaining the sub- mission of all classes in the community to his new constitution. His last act vvas to sacrifice himself for the welfare of his country. Having obtained from the people a solemn oath to make no altera- tions in his laws before his return, he quitted Sparta for ever. He set out on a journey to Delphi, where he obtained an oracle from the god, approving of all he had done, and promising prosperity to the Spartans so long as they preserved his laws. AV hither he went afterwards, and how and where he died, nobody could tell. Ho vanished from earth like a god, leaving no traces behind him but his spirit ; and his grateful countrymen honoured him with a tem- 20 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiai-. IV. pie, and worshipped him with annual sacrifices dovni to the latest times. The population of Laoonia was divided into the three classes of Spartans, Periocci, and Helots, I. The Spartans were the descendants of the leading Dorian conquerors. Tliey formed the sovereign power of the state, and they alone were eligible to honours and i)uhlic offices. They lived in Sparta itself, and were all subject to the dicipline of Lycurgus. They Avere divided into three tribes the IIi//kis, the I'anijilif/U, and the Dijmdncs whicli were not, however, peculiar to Sparta, but existed in all the Dorian states. II. The Pei'iocci* were personally free, hut politically subject to the Spartans. They possessed no share in the government, and were bound to obey the commands of tlie Spartan magisti-atcs. They appear to have been the descendants of the old Achaean po])U- lation of the country, and they were distributed into a hundred townships, whicli Avere spread through the Avliole of Laconia. HI. The Helots Avere serfs bound to the soil, Avhich they tilled for the benefit of the Spartan pro]>rietors. Their condition Avas very different from that of the ordinary slaA'es in antiquity, and more similar to the villanage of the Middle Ages. ' They liA'cd in the rural villages, as the Perioeci did in the toAvns, cultivating the lands and paying OA'cr the rent to their masters in Sparta, but en- joying their homes, Avives, and families, ai)art from their master's personal superintendence. They apj)ear to have been never sold, and they accompanied the Spartans to the field as light-armed troops. But Avliile their condition Avas in these rcs])ccts sui)crior to tliat of the ordinary shiA'cs in otlicr i)arts of Greece, it Avas embittered by the fact that they Averc not strangers like the latter, but Avere of the same race and spoke the sanie language as their masters, being probably the descendants of the old inhabitants, avIio had offered the most obstinate resistance to the Dorians, and had tliei'cfore been reduced to slaveiy. As their numbers increased, they became objects of susj)icion to their nuistcrs, and Avere subjected to the most Avanton and oppressive cruelty. Tiie functions of the Sjjartan goA'crnment were distributed among two kiiv'^'s, .1 senate of thirty m('ml)ers, a ])opular assembly, and an executive directory of five men called the J^jdiors. At the head of the state were the two hereditary kings. The existence of u pair of kings Avas ])eculiar to Sparta, and is said to Ikiac arisen from the accidental circumstance of Aristodemus hav- ThiH word eignifics literiiUy Ihocllcm around the citi'^ anotj;:ri6Cil infcii/ political |nivileg'/.00 mcdimni* of corn and upwards, and were called Pentacosiomcdlmni . Tlie second class consisted of those whose incomes ranged between 300 and "jOO mcdimni, and were called Knights, from their being able to furnish a war-horse. The third class consisted of those who received between 200 and 300 mc- dimni, and Averc called Zeu(jU(r, from tlieir being able to kccji a yoke of oxen for the plough. The fourth class, called T/icfcs, included all whose property fell short of 200 mcdimni. The first class were alone eligible to the archonship and the higher offices of the state. The second and third classes fdled inferior posts, and were liable to militarj' service, the former as horsemen, and the latter as heavy-armed soldiers on foot. The fourth class were excluded from all public offices, and served in the army only as light-armed troops. Solon, however, allowed them to vote in tho public assembly, Avhcrc they must have constituted by far tho largest number. He gave the assembly the right of electing the archons and the other officers of the state ; and he also made the archons accountable to the assembly at the expiration of their year of office. This extension of the duties of the public assembly led to the institution of a new body. Solon created tho Senate, or Council of Four Hundred, with the special object of i)rei)aring all matters for the discussion of the public assembly, of j)rcsiding at its meet- ings, and of carrying its resolutions into cil'ect. No subject could be introduced before the people, except by a previous re^jolution of the Senate. The members of the Senate were elected by tho public assembly, one hundred fiom each of the four ancient tribes, which were left untouched by Solon. They held their office for a year, and were accountable at its expiration to the public as- sembly fur the manner in Avhich they had discharged their duties. The Senate of the Areopagusf is said by some writers to have been instituted by Solon ; but it existed long before his time, and may bo regarded as the representative of the Council of Cliiefs in the Heroic Age. Solon enlarged its powers, and intrusted it with (he general siijx'rvisiou of tlic institutions and laws of tlic state, and iin])osed upon it the duty of insj)ectin^ the lives and occujia* * 'I'lio iiic(liinim^< wiis ono Ixislicl jind i\ li:ilf. t It loceivcil its nnmc from its \Anvv. of nRt'liiit;, whiili was a rocky ciuinnco ^jV*Ho tho Acropolii^, culled tho liill of Arcs (Mhi-' Hill). B.C. 560. USUKPATION OF PISISTRATUS. 33 tions of the citizens. All archons became members of it at the expiration of their year of office. Solon laid only the foundation of the Athenian democracy by giving the poorer classes a vote in the popular assembly, and by enlarging the power of the latter ; but he left the government ex- clusively in the hands of the wealthy. For many years after his time the government continued to be an oligarchy, but was exer- cised with more moderation and justice than formerly. Solon enacted numerous laws, containing regulations on almost all subjects connected with the public and private life of the citi- zens. He encouraged trade and manufactures, and invited foreign- ers to settle in Athens by the promise of protection and by val- uable privileges. To discourage idleness, a son was not obliged to support his father in old age, if the latter had neglected to teach him some trade or occupation. Solon punished theft by compelling the guilty party to restore double the value of the property stolen. He forbade speaking e\il cither of the dead or of the living. Solon is said to have been aware that he had left many imper- fections in his laws. He described them not as the best laws which he could devise, but as the best which the Athenians could receive. Having bound the government and peojtle of Athens by a solemn oath to observe his institutions for at least ten years, he left Athens and travelled in foreign lands. During his absence the old dissensions between the Plain, the Shore, and the Mount- ain broke out afresh with more violence than ever. The first was headed by Lycurgus, the second by Megacles, an Alcmroonid, and the third by Pisistratus, the cousin of Solon. Of these lead- ers, Pisistratus was the ablest and the most dangerous. He bad espoused the cause of the poorest of the three classes, in order to gain popularity, and to make himself master of Athens. Solon, on his return to Athens, detected the ambitious designs of his kins- man, and attempted to dissuade him from them. Finding his re- monstrances fruitless, he next denounced his projects in verses ad- dressed to the people. Few, liowever, gave any heed to the warn- ings ; and Pisistratus, at length finding his schemes ripe for action, had recourse to a memorable stratagem to secure his object. One day he appeared in the market-place in a chariot, his mules and his ov\'n person bleeding with Avounds inflicted with his own hands. These he exhibited to the people, telling them that he had been nearly murdered in consequence of defending their rights. Thes popular indignation was excited; and a guard of fifty clubmen was granted him for his future security. He gradually increased the n^unber of bis guard, and soon found himself strong enough to n Ui niSTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V. throw off the mask and seize the Acropolis (n.c. 500). Mcgaclcii and the Alcniaconidaj left the city. Solon alone had the courage to oppose the usurpation, and u])braided the jjcoplc with their co\v< ardice and their treachery. "You niiKlit," said he, "with ease have crushed the tyrant in the bud ; but nothing now rcmaing but to i)luck him up by the roots." But no one responded to his appeal. He refused to fly; and Avhen his friends asked him on what he relied for protection, "On my old age," was his reply. It is creditable to Pisistratus that he left his aged relative unmo- lested, and even asked his advice in the administration of the gov-, crnment. Solon did not long survive the overthrow of the con- stitution. He died a year or two aftenvards, at the advanced ago of eighty. His ashes are said to have been scattered by his own direction round the island of Salamis, which he had won for the Athenian people. Pisistratus, however, did not retain his power long. The leaders of the factions of the Shore and the Plain combined, and drove the usurper into exile. But the Shore and the Plain having quarrel- led, Pisistratus was recalled and again became master of Athens. Another revolution shortly aftenvards drove hii i into exile a sec- ond time, and he remained abroad ten years, the assistance of mercenaries from other GreciAi states and with the aid of his partisans in Athens, he became milster of Athens for the third time, and henceforth continued in possession of the su- preme power till the day of his deatli. As soonlas he was firmly established in the government, his administration was marked by mildness and equity. He maintained the institAtions of Solon, taking care, however, that the highest offices should always be held by some members of his own family. He not only en- forced strict obedience to the laAvs, but himself set the example of submitting to them. Being accused of murder, he disdained to take advantage of his authority, and went in person to plead his cause before the Areo])agus, where his accuser did not venture to appear. He courted ])opularity by largesses to the citizens and by throwing open his gardens to the poor. He adorned Athens with many ]nblic buiklings. He commenced on a stui)endous scale a temple to tlie Olynijiian Zeus, wliich remained unlinishcd for cen- turies, and was at length completed by the Emperor Hadrian. He was a patron of literature as well as of the arts. He is said to have been the first person in Greece who collected a library, which ho threw open to the pid)!ic ; and to him ]u)stcrity is indebted for the collection of tlie Homeric ])()cms. On the wliolc, it cannot bo denied that he made a wise and noble use of liis power. Pisistratus died at an advanced age iu 527 B.C., thirty-threo B.C. 514. ASSASSINATION OF IIIPPARCIIUS. 85 years after his first usurpation. He transmitted the sovereign pow, er to his sons, Hippias and Hipparclius, who conducted tlie govern- ment on tlie same jsrinciples as their fother, Hipparchus inherited his father's literary tastes. He invited several distinguished poets, such as Anacreon and Simonides, to his court. The people ap- pear to have been contented with their rule; and it was only an accidental circumstance which led to their overthrow and to a change in the government. Their fall was occasioned by the conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristoglton, who were attached to each other by a most intimate friendship. Harmodius having given offence to Hippias, the des- pot revenged himself by putting a public affront upon his sister. This indignity excited the resentment of the two friends, and they hovr resolved to slay the despots at the festival of the Great Pana- thensea, when all the citizens were required to attend in arms. Having communicated their design to a few associates, the con- spirators appeared armed at the appointed time like the refit of the citizens, but carrying concealed daggers besides. Harmodius and Aristoglton had planned to kill Hippias first as he was arranging the order of the procession outside the city, but, upon approaching the spot where he was standing, they were thunderstruck at behold- ing one of the conspirators in close conversation with the despot. Believing that they were betrayed, they rushed back into the city with their daggers hid in the myrtle boughs which they were to have carried in the procession, and killed Hipparchus. Harmo- dius was immediately cut down by the guards. Aristoglton died under the tortures to Avhich he was subjected in order to compel him to disclose his accomplices. Hipparchus was assassinated in B.C. 514, the fourteenth year after the death of Pisistratus. From this time the character of the government became entirely changed. His brother's murder converted Hippias into a cruel and suspicious tyrant. He put to death numbers of the citizens, and raised large sums of money by extraordinary taxes. The AlcmffionidiB, vAio had lived in exile ever since the third and final restoration of Pisistratus to Athens, now began to form schemes to expel the tyrant, Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, who v.as the head of the family, secured the Delphian oracle by pecuniaiy presents to the Pythia, or priestess. Henceforth, when- ever the Spartans came to consult the oracle, the answer of the priestess was always the same, ''Athens must be liberated." This order was so often repeated, tliat the Spartans at last resolved to obey. Cleomenes, king of Sj^arta, defeated the Thessoliau allies of Hippias ; and the tyrant, unable to meet his enemies in the field, 36 IIISTOUY OF GREECE. Chap. V. took refuge in the Acropolis. Here he miglit liavc maintained himself in safety, had not his children been made prisoners as they were being secretly carried out of the country. To procure thcii restoration, he consented to quit Attica in the space of five days. lie sailed to Asia, and took up his residence at SigCnim in the Troad, which his father had wrested from the Mytilenreans in war. Ilippias was expelled in u.c. 510, four years after the assassina- tion of Ilipparchus. These four years had been a time of snft'er- ing and oppression for the Athenians, and had effaced from their minds all recollection of the former mild rule of Pisistratus and his sons. Hence the expulsion of the family was hailed with de- light. The memory of Ilarmodius and Aristogiton was cherished witli the fondest reverence ; and the Athenians of a later age, overlooking the four years which had elapsed from their death to the overthrow of tlie despotism, represented them as the liberators of their country and the first martyi's for its liberty. Their statues were erected in the market-place soon after the expulsion of Hip- pia? ', their descendants enjoyed immunity from all taxes and public burdens ; and their deed of vengeance formed the favourite subject of drinking-songs. The Lacedaemonians quitted Athens soon after Hippias luul sailed away, leaving the Athenians to settle their own afiairs. Clisthenes, to whom Athens was mainly indebted for its liberation from the despotism, aspired to be the political leader of the state, but he was opposed by Isagoras, the leader of tlie party of the no- bles. By the Solonian constitution, the whole political power was vested in tlie hands of the nobles; and Clisthenes soon found that it was hopeless to contend against his rival under the existing order of things. For this reason he resolved to introduce an im- portant change in tlie constitution, and to give to the people an equal share in tlie government. The reforms of Clisthenes gave birth to the Athenian democrncy, wliicli can hardly be said to have existed Itefore this time. His first and most im])ortant measure Avas a redistribution of the whole population of Attica into ten new tril)cs. He abolished the fonr ancient Ionic tribes, and enrolled in the ten new tribes all the free inhabitants of Attica, including both resident aliens and even cmnncipatcd slaves. He divided tlio tribes into a certain numbot of cantons or townships, called (Ittni, which at a later time were 174 in number. Every Athenian citizen was obliged to be en- rolled in ademus, each of whicli, like a jjarisli in England, admin- istered its own atralrs. It had its pidilic meetings, it levied rates, and was under the siq)erinteiuleiice of an ofiicer called Jh iiuirc/ms. The establishment of the ten new tribes led to a change in tho B.C. 51a REFORMS OF CLISTIIENES. 37 number of the Senate. It had previously consisted of 400 mem- bers, but it was noAV enlarged to 500, fifty being selected from each of the ten new tribes. The Ecclesia, or formal assembly of the citizens, was now summoned at certain fixed periods ; and Clis- thencs transferred the government of the state, which had hithen to been in the hands of the archons, to the senate and the ecclesia. He also increased the judicial as Avell as the political pov/er of the people ; and enacted tliat all public crimes should be tried by the whole body of citizens above thirty years of age, specially convoked and sworn for the purpose. Tlie assembly thus convened was called Ilelicva, and its members Ileliasts. Clisthenes also intro- duced the Ostracism, by which an Athenian citizen might be ban- ished without special accusation, trial, or defence for ten years, which term was subsequently reduced to five. It must be recollect- ed that the force which a Greek government had at its disposal Was very small ; and tlxat it was comparatively easy for an am- bitious citizen, supported by a numerous body of partisans, to over- throw the constitution and make himself despot. The Ostracism was the means devised by Clisthenes for removing quietly from the state a powerful party leader before he Could carry into execution any violent schemes for the subversion of the government. Every precaution was taken to guard this institution from abuse. The senate and the ecclesia had first to determine by a special vote whether the safety of the state required such a step to be taken. If they decided in the affirmative, a day was fixed for the voting, and each citizen wrote upon a tile or oyster-shell* tlie name of the person whom he wished to banish. The votes were then collected, and if it was found that GOOO had been recorded against any one person, he was obliged to withdraw from the city within ten days ; if the number of votes did not amount to GOOO, nothing was done. The aristocratical party, enraged at these reforms, called in the assistance of Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians. Athens was menaced by foreign enemies and distracted by party struggles. Clisthenes was at first compelled to retire from Athens ; but the people rose in arms against Cleomenes, expelled the Lacedaemoni- ans, Avho had taken possession of the city, and recalled Clisthenes. Thereupon Cleomenes collected a Peloponnesian army in order to establish Isagoras as a tyrant over the Athenians, and at the same time he concerted measures with the Thebans and the Chalcidians of Euboca for a simultaneous attack upon Attica. The Pelopon- nesian army, commanded by the two kings, Cleomenes and Dem- arutus, entered Attica, and advanced as far as Eleusis ; but wlien the allies became aware of the object for which they had been O.sfraco/?, whence the name Gstracism. 38 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V. summoned, they refused to march fixrtlicr, and strongly protested aj::ainst the attempt to establish a tyranny at Athens. Their re- monstrances bein^' seeoiuk'd by Dcniaratiis, CIcomenes found it necessary to abandon the expedition and return home. At a later period (b.c. 491) Cleomenes took revenge upon Bemaratus by per- suading the Spartans to depose him upon tlie ground of illegiti- macy. The exiled king took refuge at the Persian court. The unexpected retreat of the Peloponnesian army delivered the Athenians from tlieir most formidable enemy, and they lost no time in turning their arms against their other foes. Marching into Boeotia, they defeated tlic Thcbans, and then crossed over into Euboca, where they gained a decisive victory over the Chalcidians. In order to secure their dominion in Euboca, and at the same time to provide for their poorer citizens, the Athenians distributed the estates of the Avealthy Chalcidian landowners among 4000 of their citizens, who settled in the country under the name of Clerudn. The successes of Athens excited the jealousy of the Spartans, and they now resolved to make a third attempt to overthrow the Athenian democracy. They had meantime discovered the decep- tion which had been practised upon them by the Delphic oracle ; and they invited Hippias to come from Sigeum to Sparta, in order to restore him to Athens. The experience of the last campaign had taught them that they could not calculate upon the co-opera- tion of their allies without first obtaining their approval of the proj- ect ; and they therefore summoned deputies from all their allies to meet at Sparta, in order to determine respecting the restoration of Hippias. But the proposal Avas received with universal repug- nance ; and the Spartans found it necessary to abandon their i)roj- cct. Hippias returned to Sigeum, and afterwards proceeded to the court of Darius. Athens had now entered upon her glorious career. The institu- tions of Clisthenes had given her citizens a personal interest in the welfare and the grandeur of their country. A spirit of the wann- est patriotism rapidly sprang up among them ; and the history of the Persian wars, which followed almost immediately, exhibits a striking ])roof of the heroic sacrifices which they were prepared to make for the liberty and independence of their state. Site of Ephesus, CHAPTER YI. THE GREEK COLONIES. The vast number of the Greek colonies, their wide-spread dif- fusion over all parts of the Mediterranean, which thus became a kind of Grecian lake, and their rapid growth in wealth, power, and intelligence, afford the most striking proofs of the greatness of this wonderful people. Civil dissensions and a redundant popu- lation were the chief causes of the origin of most of the Greek col- onies. They were usually undertaken with the approbation of the cities from which they issued, and under the management of leaders appointed by them. But a Greek colony was always con- sidered politically independent of the mother-city and emancipated from its control. The only connexion between them was one of filial aifection and of common religious ties. Almost every co- lonial Gi'eek city was built upon the sea-coast, and the site usual- ly selected contained a hill sufficiently lofty to form an acropolis. The Grecian colonies may be arranged in four groups : 1. Thosa founded in Asia Minor and the adjoining islands ; 2. Those in the western parts of the INIediterranean, in Italy, Sicily, Gaul, and Spain ; 3. Those in Africa ; 4. Those in Epirus, JMaccdonia, and Thrace. 1. The earliest Greek colonies were those founded on the western shores of Asia Minor. They were divided into three great mass- iO HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VI. cs, each bearing the name of tliat Paction of tlie Greek race with which they claimed afiinit}'. Tiie AloVic cities covered the nortli- cm part of the coast, togetlier with the islands of Lesbos and Tencdos ; the lonians occupied tlie centre, with the islands of Chios and Samos ; and the Dorians the southern portion, with the n '-12 A ti r.^ ALCEDON. ^^' ^-^ C^"^ c '-;^; 'fi. &'^j n m^ Map of the chief Greek (Jolouiod in Adiii Minor. B.C. 735-600. THE GREEK COLONIES. i\ islands of Rhodes and Cos. Most of these colonies were found- ed in consequence of the chanpjes in the population of Greece which attended tlie conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians. The Ionic cities wei-e early distinguished by a spirit of commercial enterprise, and soon rose superior in Avealth and in po;ver to their ^li^olian and Dorian neighbours. Among the Ionic cities them- selves IMiletus and Ephesus were the most flourishing. Grecian literature took its rise in the ^olic and Ionic cities of Asia Minor. Homer was probably a native of Smyrna. Lyric poetry flourish- ed in the island of Lesbos, where Sappho and Alcaus were born. The Ionic cities were also the seats of the earliest schools of Gre- cian philosophy. Thales, who founded the Ionic school of phi- losophy, was a native of Miletus. Halicarnassus was one of the most important of the Doric cities, of which Herodotus was a na- tive, though he wrote in the Ionic dialect. 2. The earliest Grecian settlement in Italy was Cumtc in Cam- pania, situated near Cape Misennm, on the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is said to have been a joint colony from the ^olic Cyme in Asia and from Chalcis in Euboea, and to have been founded, according to the common chronology, in B.C. 1050. Cumre was for a long time the most flourishing city in Campania ; and it v/as not till its de- cline in the fifth century before the Christian era that Capua rose into importance. ftlap of the chief Greek Colonies in Sicily. 42 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VT. The earliest Grecian settlement in Sicily was founded in n.c. 735. The extraordinary fertilit}' of the land soon attracted nu- merous colonists from various parts of Greece, and there arose on the coasts of Sicily a succession of flourishing cities. Of these, Syracuse and Agrigentum, both Dorian colonies, became the most I)Owerful. The former was founded by the Corinthians in B.C. 734, and at the time of its greatest prosperity contained a population of 500,000 souls, and was surrounded by walls twenty- two milec in circuit. Its greatness, however, belongs to a later period of Grecian history. The Grecian colonies in southern Italy began to be planted at nearly the same time as in Sicily. They eventually lined the whole southern coast, as far as Cuma? on the one sea and Tarcn- tum on the other. They even surpassed those in Sicily in number and importance ; and so numerous and flourishing did they be- come, that the south of Italy received the name of Magna Gra?cia. Of these, two of the earliest and most prosperous were Sybaris and Croton, both situated upon the Gulf of Tarentum, and both of Acha'an origin. Sybaris was planted in n.c. 720, and Croton in B.C. 710. For two centuries they seem to have lived in harmony, and we know scarcely anything of their history till their fatal con- test in B.C. 510, Avhich ended in the ruin of Sybaris. During the whole of tliis period they were two of the most flourishing cities in all Ilellas. Sybaris in particular attained to an extraordinaiy degree of wealth, and its inhabitants were so notorious for their luxury, effeminacy, and debauchery, that their name has become proverbial for a voluptuary in ancient and modern times. Croton was the chief scat of the Pythagorean philosophy. Pythagoras was a native of Samos, but emigrated to Croton, where he met with the most wonderful success in the propagation of his views. He established a kind of religious brotherhood, closely united by a sacred vow. They believed in the transmigration of souls, and their whole training was designed to make them temperate and self-denying. TIic doctrines of Pythagoras spread through many of the other cities of Magna Gnvcia. Of the numerous other Greek settlements in the south of Italy, those of Locri, Rhcgium, and Tarentum are the most important. Locri was founded by the Locrians from the mother-country in B.C. GS3. The laws of this city were drawn uj) by one of its citizens, named Zaleucus, and so averse were the Locrians to any change in them, that whoever proposed a new law had to appear in the public assembly witli a rope round his neck, which was immediately tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens of the necessity of the alteration. Rhegiuui, situated on the fc^traits B.C. 735-GOO. THE GREEK COLONIES. 43 of Messina, opposite Sicily, was colonized by the Chalcidians, but received a large body of Messenians, who settled here at the close of the Messenian war. Anaxilas, tyrant of Khegiuni about b.c. 500, was of Messenian descent. He seized the Sicilian Zancle on the opposite coast, and changed its name into Messana, which it still bears. Tarentum was a colony from Sparta, and was founded about B.C. 708. After the destruction of Sybaris it was the most powerful and flourishing city in Magna Grgecia, and continued to enjoy great prosperity till its subjugation by the Romans. Al- tliough of Spartan origin, it did not maintain Spartan habits, and its citizens were noted at a later time for their love of luxury and pleasure. Q TARENTUM. Map of the chief Greek Colonies in Southern It'' 44 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VJ: Tho Grecian settlements in the distant countries of Ganl and Spain were not numerous. Tlie most celeljratcd was Massalia, tlio modern Marseilles, founded by the Ionic IMioctvans in iJ.c. GOO. 3. The northern coast of Africa, between the territories of Carthage and Egypt, was also occui)ied by Greek colonists. The city of Cyrene was founded about n.c. OIK). It was a colony from the island of Thera in tlic vEgean, which was itself a colony from Sparta. The situation of Cyrene was well chosen. It stood on the edge of a range of hills, at the distance of ten miles from the Mediterranean, of which it commanded a fine view. These hills descended by a succession of terraces to the ])ort of the town, call- ed A})oIlonia. The climate Avas most salubrious, and the soil was distinguished by extraordinary fertility. AVith these advantages Cyrene rapidly grew iu wealth and ]JOwer; and its greatness is attested by the immense remains which still mark its desolate site. Cyrene jdanted several colonies in the adjoining district, of which Barca, founded about n.c. 500, was the most important. 4. There were several Grecian colonies situated on the eastern side of the Ionian Sen, in Epirus and its immediate neighbour- hood. Of these tlie island of Corcyra, now called Corfu, was tho most wealthy and powerful. It was founded by the Corinthians about u.c. 700, and in consequence of its commercial activity it soon became a formidable rival to the mother-city. Hence a war broke out between these two states at an early period ; and the most ancient naval battle on record was tlie one fought between their fleets iu n.c. 00k The dissensions between the mother-city and her colony arc frequently mentioned in Grecian history, and were one of the immediate causes of the Peloj)onnesian war. Not- withstanding their quarrels, they joined in planting four Grecian colonies upon the same line of coast Leucas, Anactorium, Apol- lonia, and Epidamnus. Tiic colonies in Macedonia and Thrace were very numerous, and extended all along the coast of the JEgean, of the Hellespont, of the I'ropontis, and of the Euxine, from the borders of Thessaly to the mouth of the Danube. Of these we can only glance at the most imi)ortant. The colonies on the coast of jNlacedonia were chiefly founded by Chalcis and Erctria in Eubcca ; and the penin- sula of Chalcidice, with its three projecting headlands, was covered with their settlements, and derived its name from the former city. The CJorinthians likewise i)lanted a few c()h)nies on this coast, of which Potidica, on tlic luirrow isthmus of I'allcne, most deserves mention. Of the colonies in Thrace, tlic most flourishing were Selymbria au'l nvzantium, l)i)th founded by the Mogarians, who ajipcar aan o.uK'rprisiug maritime ]>eo])le at an early period. Tomb of Cyrus. CHAPTER VII. THE PERSIAN WARS. FR03I THE IONIC REVOLT TO THE BATTLE OF MARATHON, B.C. 500-430. The Grecian cities on the coast of Asia Minor were the neigh- bours of an Asiatic power which finally reduced thein to subjec- tion. This was the kingdom of Lydia, of which Sardis vras the capital. Croesus, the last and most powerful of the Lydian kings, who ascended the throne b.c. 5G0, conquered in succession all the Grecian cities on the coast. His rule, however, was not opprers- ire, and he permitted the cities to regulate their own affairs. He spoke the Greek language, welcomed Greek guests, and rev- erenced the Greek oracles, which he enriched with the most mu- nificent offerings. He extended his dominions in Asia Minor ns far as the River Halys, and he formed a close alliance v/ith Asty- ages, king of the Medes, who were then the ruling race in Asia Everything seemed to betoken Tininternipted prosperity, when a people hitherto almost unknown suddenly became masters of the whole of western Asia. i6 HISTORY OF GliEECE. Chap. VII The Persians were of the same race as the Modes, and spoke a dialect of tlic same hinj^iiagc. They inhabited the mountaiiiou region soiitli of JNIedia, which shjpcs gradually down to the low gi-ounds on the coast of the Persian Gulf Wliile the Mcdes be- came enervated by the corrii]iting influences to which they were exposed, the Persians preserved in tlicir native mountains their simple and M'arlike habits. They Avere a brave and hardy nation, clothed in skins, drinking only water, and ignorant of the com- monest luxuries of life. Cyrus led tliesc lierce warriors from their mountain fastnesses, defeated the Medes in battle, took Asty- agcs prisoner, and deprived him of his throne. The other nations included in the Median em]>irc submitted to the conqueror, and the sovereignty of Upper Asia tlius i)assed from the INIedes to the Persians. The accession of Cyrus to the empire is ])laced in J5.c. 559. A few years afterwards Cyrus turned his arms against the Lydians, took Sardis, and deprived Croesus of his throne (n.c. 54G). The fall of Crasus was followed by the subjection of the Greek cities in Asia to the Persian yoke. They offered a brave but inef- fectual resistance, and were taken one after the other by Harpagus, the Persian general. Even the islnnds of Lesbos and Chios sent in their submission to Ilnrjiagus, although the Persians then jios- sessed no fleet to force them to obedience. Samos, on the other hand, maintained its independence, and appears soon afterwards one of the most powerful of the Grecian states. During the reign of Cambyses (n.c. 529-521), the son and suc- cessor of Cynis, the Greek cities of Asia remained obedient to their Persian governors. It was during tliis reign that Polycrates, ty- rant of Samos, became the master of the Grecian seas. The am- bition and good fortune of tliis enterprising tyrant were alike re- markable, lie possessed a hnndred ships of war, with which he conquered several of the islands ; and he aspired to nothing less than the dominion of Ionia, as well as of the islands in tlie ^Egean. The LacedaBmunians, who had invaded the island at the invitaiiin of the Samian exiles, for the purpose of overthrowing his govcm- ment, were obliged to retire, after besieging his city in vain for fjrty days. Everything Avhich ho nndcrtook seemed to prosper; but his uninterruj>ted good fortune at length excited the alarm of his ally Amasis, the king of Egypt. According to the tale related by Herodotus, the Egyptian king, convinced that such amazing good fortune would sooner or later incur the envy of the gods, wrote to I'olycratcs, advising him to tlirow away one of iiis most Valual)le jiosscssions, and thus inllict some injury nj)on himself. 'J'hinking tlic advice to be good, Polycrates threw into the sea a favourite ring of matchless price and beauty; but, unfortunately, it B.C. 559-510. CYRUS, CAMBYSES, DARIUS. 4) was found a few days afterwards in the belly of a fine fish which a fisherman had sent him as a present. Amasis now foresaw that the ruin of Polycrates was inevitable, and sent a herald to Samos to renounce his alliance. The gloomy anticipations of the Egyptian monarch proved well founded. In the midst of all his prosperity Polycrates fell by a most ignominious fate. Oroetes, the satrap of Sardis, had for some unknown cause conceived a deadly hatred against the Samian despot. By a canning stratagem the satrap allured him to the main land, where he was immediately arrested and hanged upon a cross (b.c. 522). The reign of Darius, the third king of Persia (b.c. 521-485), is memorable in Grecian history. In his invasion of Scythia, his fleet, which was furnished by the Asiatic Greeks, was ordered to sail up the Danube and throw a bridge of boats across the river. The king himself, with his land forces, marched through Thrace ; and, crossing the bridge, placed it under the care of the Greeks, telling them that, if he did not return within sixty days, they might break it down and sail home. He then left them, and penetrated into the Scythian territory. The sixty days had already passed away, and there was yet no sign of the Persian army ; but shortly afterwards the Greeks were astonished by the appearance of a body of Scythians, who informed them that Darius was in full retreat, pursued by the whole Scythian nation, and that his only hope of safety depended upon that bridge. They virged the Greeks to seize this opportunity of destroying the Persian army, and of re- covering their own liberty, by breaking down the bridge. Their exhortations were warmly seconded by the Athenian Mihiadcs, the tyrant of the Thraeian Chersonesus, and the future conqueror of Marathon. The other rulers of the Ionian cities were at first dis- posed to follow his suggestion ; but as soon as Histiajus of Miletus reminded them that their sovereignt}' depended upon the support of the Persian king, and that his ruin would involve their ov>'n, they changed their minds and resolved to await the Persians. Aft- er enduring great privations and sufferings, Darius and his army at length reached the Danube and crossed the bridge in safety. Thus the selfishness of these Grecian despots threw away the most favourable opportunity that ever presented itself of delivering their native cities from the Persian voke. To reward the services of Histireus, Darius' gave him the town of Myrcinus, near the Stry^ mon. Darius, on his return to Asia, left Megabazus in Europe with an army of 80,000 men to complete the subjugation of Thrace and of the Greek cities upon the Hellespont. Magabazus not only subdued the Thracians, but crossed the Strymon, conquered tho Pajonians, and penetrated as far as the frontiers of ^lacedonia. 48 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VI L lie then sent heralds into the latter country to demand earth and water, tlie customary symbols of submission. These were im- mediately granted by Amyntas, tlie reigninf^ monarcli (n.c. />10); and thus the Persian dominions were extended to the borders of Thessaly. Megabazus, on his return to Savdis, where Darius awaited him, informed the Persian monarcli that llistireus was collectinf:^ tlie elements of a power wliich mipht hereafter jirove formidable to the Persian sovereignty, since Myrcinus commanded the navigation of the Strymon, and consequently the commerce Avith tbe interior of Thrace. Darius, perceiving that the appre- licnsions of his general were not without foundation, summoned llisti;\?as to his presence, and, under the j)retext tliat he could not bear to be deprived of the corajiany of his friend, carried him with the rest of the court toSusa. This apparently trivial circumstance was attended with important consequences to the Persian empire and to tlie wliole Grecian race. Por tlie next few years everything remained quiet in the Greek cities of Asia ; but about n.c. 502 a revolution in Naxos, one of the islands in the T^^gean Sea, first disturbed the general repose, and occasioned the war between Greece and Asia. The avistocratical exiles, Avho liad been driven out of Naxos by a risiug of the ]cople, applied for aid to Aristagoras, the tyrant of IMilctus and the son- in-Uiw of Ilistiajus. Aristagoras readily promised his assistance, knowing that, if they were restored by his means, he should be- come master of the island. He obtained the co-operation of Arta- phcrnes, tlie satrap of western Asia, by holding out to liim the prosj)eet of annexing not only Naxos, but all the islands of tlic JKpcan Sea, to the Persian empire. He oilcred at the same time to defray the expense of the armament. Arta[)hernes jdaced at his disposal a fleet of 200 ships, under the command of Mei:ab:ites, a Persian of high rank ; but Aristagoras having affronted the Per- sian admiral, the latter revenged himself by i)rivately informing the Naxians of the object of the expedition, which had hitherto been kept a secret. When the Persian fleet reached Naxos they cxijeiienccd a vigorous resistance ; and at the end of four months they were compelled to al)andou the enterprise and return to Miletus. Aristagoras was now threatened with utter ruin. Ihiv^ ing deceived Arta]hernes, and incurred the enmity of Mcgabates, lie could expect no favour from the Persian govcnimcnt, and might be called upon at any moment to defray the ex]icnscs of the arm- ament. In those dilliculties he began to think of exciting a re- volt of his countrymen ; and while revolving the jirojcct he re- ceived u message from his father-in-law, Histiieus, urging him to tliis very step. Afraid of trusting any one with so dangerous a B.C. 499. BURNING OF SARDIS. 4d message, Histiasus had shaved the head of a trusty slave, branded upon it the necessary words, and as soon as the hair liad grown again sent liim off to Miletus. His only motive for urging the lonians to revolt was the desire of escaping from captivity at Susa, thinking that Darius would set him at liberty in order to put down an insurrection of his countrymen. The message from Histiaeua fixed the wavering resolution of Aristagoras. He forthwith call- ed together the leading citizens of Miletus, laid before them the project of revolt, and asked them for advice. They all approved of the scheme with the exception of Hecatajus, one of the earliest Greek historians. Aristagoras laid down the supreme power in Miletus, and nominally resigned to the people the management of their own affairs. A democratical form of government was estab- lished in the other Greek cities of Asia, which thereupon openly revolted fi-om Persia (b.c. 500). Aristagoras now resolved to cross over to Greece, in order to so- licit assistance. The Spartans, to whom lie first applied, refused to take any part in the war; but at Athens he met with a very different reception. The Athenians sympathized with the lonians as their kinsmen and colonists, and were incensed against the sa- trap Artaphemcs, Avho had recently commanded them to recall Hippias. Accordingly, tlicy voted to send a squadron of twenty ships to the assistance of the lonians ; and in the following year (i?.c. 499) this fleet, accompanied by five ships from Eretria in Euboea, crossed the JEgean. The troops landed at Ephesus, and, being re-enforced by a strong body of lonians, marched npon Sar- dis. Artaphernes was taken vmprepared; and not having suflS- cient troops to man the Avails, he retired into the citadel, leaving the town a prey to the invaders. Accordingly, they entered it im- pposed ; and v/hile engaged in pillage, one of the soldiers set fire to a house. As most of the houses were built of wickerwork and thatclied with straw, the flames rapidly spread, and in a short time the whole city was in flames. The Greeks, on their return to the coast, were overtaken by a large Persian force and defeated with great slaughter. The Athenians hastened on board their ships and sailed home. When Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he burst into a paroxysm of rage. It was against the obscure strangers who had dared to burn one of his capitals that his wrath was chiefly direct- ed. "The Athenians!" he exclaimed, "who am t/tei/f' Upon being informed, he took his bow, shot an arrow high into the air, saying, "Grant me, Jove, to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" And he charged one of his attendants to remind him tlirice every day at dinner, " Sire, remember the Athenians." Mean<^imc tho D 60 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIL insurrection spread to the Greek cities in Cyprus, as well as to those on the Hellespont and the Propontis, and seemed to prom- 'ise permanent independence to the Asiatic Greeks; but they were no match for the whole power of the Persian empire, which was soon brought against them. Cyprus was subdued, and siege laid to the cities upon the coast of Asia. Aristagoras now began to despair, and basely deserted his countrymen, whom he had led into peril. Collecting a large body of Milesians, he set sail for the Thracian coast, where he was slain under the walls of a town to which he had laid siege. Soon after his departure, his father- in-law, Ilistiajus, came down to the coast. The artful Greek not only succeeded in removing the suspicions which Darius first en- tertained respecting him, but he persuaded the king to send him into Ionia, in order to assist the Persian generals in suppressing the rebellion. Artaphernes, liowcver, was not so easily deceived as his master, and plainly accused Jlistiitus of treacher\' when the latter arrived at Sardis. "I will tell you how the facts stand," said Artaphernes to Ilistia^us; "it was you who made the shoe, and Aristagoras has put it on." Finding himself unsafe at Sar- dis, he escaped to tlic island of Chios; but he was regarded with 6usi)icion by all parties. At length he obtained eight galleys from Lesbos, with which he sailed towards Byzantium, and carried on piracies as well against the Grecian as the barbarian vessels. This unprincipled adventurer met with a traitor's death. Having land -d on the coast of Mysia, he was sur})riscd by a Persian force and made prisoner. Being carried to Sardis, Artajdiernes at once caused him to be crucified, and sent his head to Darius, who or- dered it to be honourably buried, condemning the ignominious ex- ecution of the man who had once saved the life of the Great King. In the sixth year of tlie revolt (ii.c. 41)r>), when several Grecian cities had already been taken by the I'ersians, Artai>hernes laid siege to Miletus by sea and by land. A naval engagement took place at Lade, a small island off Miletus, which decided the fate of ihe war. The Samians deserted at the commencement of the battle, and the Ionian fleet was completely defeated. Miletus was soon aftenvards taken, and was treated with signal severity. Most of the males were slain ; and the few who escaped the sword were carried with tlic women and children into captivity (n.c. 41)4). The other Greek cities in Asia and the neighbouring isl- ands were treated witli the same cruelty. The islands of Ciiios, Lesbos, and Tenedos were swejit of their inhabitants ; and the Per- sian fleet sailed up to the Hellespont and Propontis, earning with it lire and sword. Tlie Athenian Miltiadcs only esca])ed falling into the power of the Persians by a rajiid Higlit to Athens. B.C. 490. INVASION OF GREECE. 51 The subiufi:ation of Ionia was now complete. Tbis vas the third time that the Asiatic Greeks had been conquered by a -foreign power ; first by the Lydian Croesus ; secondly by the generals of Cyrus; and lastly by those of Darius. It was from the last that they suffered most, and they never fully recovered their former prosperity. Darius was now at liberty to take A'engeance upon the Atheni- ans. He appointed Mardonius to succeed Arta])hernes as satrap in western Asia, and ht placed under his command a large arma- ment, with injunctions to bring to Susa those Athenians and Ere- trians who had insulted the authority of the Great King. Mar- donius, after crossing the Hellespont, commenced his march through Tlirace and Macedonia, subduing, as he Avent along, the tribes which had not yet submitted to the Persian power. He ordered the fleet to double the promontory of Mount Athos, and join the land forces at the head of the Gulf of The.vma ; but one of the hurricanes which frequently blow off this dangerous coast overtook the Persian fleet, destroyed 300 vessels, and drowned or dashed upon the rocks 20,000 men. Meantime the land forces of Mardonius had suffered so much from an attack made upon them by a Thracian tribe, that he could not proceed farther. He led his army back across the Hellespont, and returned to the Per- sian court covered with shame and grief (b.c. 492). The failure of this expedition did not shake the resolution of Darius. He began to make preparations for another attempt on a still larger scale, and meantime sent heralds to most of the Grecian states to demand from each earth and water as the symbol of sub- mission. Such terror had the Persians inspired by their recent conquest of Ionia, that a large number of the Grecian cities sJ once complied with the demand ; but the Athenians cast the her- ald into a deep pit, and the Spartans threw him into a well, bid- ding him take earth and water from thence. In the spring of b.c. 490 a large army and fleet were assembled in Cilicia, and the command was given to Datis, a Median, and Artaphernes, son of the satrap of Sardis of that name. "Warned by the recent disaster of Mardonius in doubling the promontory of Mount Athos, they resolved to sail straight across the ^gean to Euboea, subduing on their way the Cyclades. These islands yielded a ready submission ; and it was not till Datis and Arta- phernes reached Euboea that they encountered any resistance. Eretria defended itself gallantly for six days, and repulsed the Persians with loss ; but on the seventh the gates were opened to the besiegers by the treacheiy of two of its leading citizens. The city was ray.*^'^' to tb " ground, and the inhabitants were put iu 52 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VII. chains. From Eretria the Persians crossed over to Attica, and landed on the ever memorable i)lain of Maratlion, a spot ^vhich had been pointed out to them by the despot Ilippias, who accom- panied the array. As soon as the news of the fall of Eretria reached Alliens, a courier had been sent to Sparta to solicit assistance. This was j)romised ; but tlie superstition of the Spartans ju-eventcd tliom from setting out immediately, since it wanted a few days to the full moon, and it was contrary to their religious customs to commence a march during this interval. Meantime the Athenians had marched to Marathon", and Avere encamped upon the mountains wliich surrounded tlie plain. They were commanded, according to the regular custom, by ten generals, one for each tribe, and by the Rolemarch, or third Archon, wl d down to this time continued to be a colleague of tlie generals. Among tlicse the most distin- guished was Mihiades, who, though but lately a tyrant in tlie Cher- Bonesus, had shown such energy and ability, that the Athenians had elected him one of their commanders ui)on the approach of the Persian fleet. Upon learning the answer which the courier brought from S])arta, the ten generals were divided in oj.inion. Five of them were opposed to an immediate engagement with the overwhelming number of Persians, and urged the importance of waiting for the arrival of the Lacedaemonian succours. Miltiades and the remaining four contended that not a moment should be lost in fighting the I'ersians, not only in order to aA'ail themselves of the present enthusiasm of the jjcoj-le, but still more to prevent treachery from spreading among their ranks. Callimachus, the Polemarch, yielded to the arguments of Miltiades, and ffave his vote for the battle. The ten generals commanded their army in rotation, eacli for one day ; but tlicy now agreed to surrender to Miltiades their days of command, in order to invest the whole power in a single person. While the Athenians were preparing for battle, they received unexpected assistance from the little town of I'latica, in Bfcotia. Grateful to Ihc Athenians for the assist- ance whicli tlicy had rendered ihem against the 'JMu-bans, the whole force of I'lataja, amounting to 1000 heavy-armed men, marched to the assistance of their allies and joined them at Mar- athon. The Athenian army only numbered 10,000 liopiitcs, or hcavr-armed soldiers: there were no archers or cavalry, iiiid only Fomo slaves as light-armed attciuhints. Of the number of the Persian army we have no trustworthy account, but the lowest esti- mate makes it consist of 1 10,000 men. Tne ]>lain of Marathon lies on the eastern const of Attica, at the distance of twentv-two miles from Athens bv the shortest road. B.C. 490. BATTLE OF MARATHON. 53 It is in the form of a crescent, the hon:s of which consist of two promontories running into the sea, and forming a semicircular buy. This plain is about six miles in lengtb, and in its widest or central part about two in breadth. On the day of battle the Per- sian army was diawn up along the plain about a mile from the sea, and their fleet was ranged behind them on the beach. The Athenians occupied the rising ground aboA'C the plain, and ex- tended from one side of the plain to the other. This arrangement Plan of the Battle of Marathon. was necessary in order to protect their flanks by the mountains on each side, and to prevent the cavalry from passing round to atf-ack them in rear. But so large a breadth of ground could net be oc- cupied with so small a number of men without weakening some portion of the line. Miltiades, therefore, drew up the troops in the centre in shallow files, and resolved to rely for success upon the stronger and deeper masses of his wings. The right wing, which was the post of honour in a Grecian aiTny, was commanded by the Polemarch Callimachus ; the lioplites were arranged in the 54 mSTOIlY OF GREECE. Chap. VH order of iheir tribes, so that the members of the same tribe fought by each other's side ; and at the extreme left stood tlie rhitneans. Miltiadcs, anxious to come to close quarters as speedily as pos- fiible, ordered his soldiers to advance at a running step over the mile of ground which separated them from the foe. Both the Athenian wings were successful, and drove the enemy before tliera towards the shore and the marshes. But the Athenian centre was broken by the Persians, and compelled to take to flight. Mil- tiades thereupon recalled his wings from pursuit, and charged the Persian centre. The latter could not withstand this combined at- tack. The rout(^ now became general along the Avliole Persian line ; and they fled to their ships, pursued by the Athenians. The Persians lost G400 men in this memorable engagement . of the Athenians only 192 fell. The aged tyrant Ilippias is said to have perished in the battle, and tlic brave Polemarch Calli- machus Avas also one of the slain. The Persians embarked and sailed away to Asia. Their departure was hailed at Athens with one unanimous burst of heartfelt joy. Marathon became a magic word at Athens. The Athenian people in succeeding ages al- ways looked back u])on this day as the most glorious in their an- nals, and never tired of hearing its praises sounded by their ora- tors and poets. And they had reason to be proud of it. It was the first time that the Greeks had e\ev defeated the Persians in the field. It Avas the exploit of the Athenians alone. It had saA'cd not only Athens, but all Greece. If tlie Persians had conquered at Marathon, Greece must, in all likelihood, have become a Per- sian province ; the destinies or ihe Avorld Avould have been clianged ; and oriental despotism might still have brooded OA'er the faircsi countries of Europe. The one hundred and ninety-tAvo Athenians Avho had perished in the battle Avcre buried on the field, and over their remains a tumulus or mound Avas erected, Avhieh may still be seen about half a mile from the sea. Shortly after the battle Miltiadcs requested of the Athcniano a fleet of seventy ships, Avithout telling them the object of his expe- dition, but only promising to enrich the state. Such unbounded confidence did the Athenians repose in the hero of Maratlion, tiiat they at once comjdied Avith his demand. This confidence INIiltiades abused. In order to gratify a ])rivate animosity against one of the leading citizens of Paros, he sailed to this island und laid siege to the town. The citizens rej)elled all his attacks; and having rcceiAcd a dangerous injury on his thigh, he Avas com- pelled to raise the siege r^nd return to Atiiens. Loud Avas the in- dignation against Miltiadcs on his return. lie was accused by B.C. 483. BANISHMENT OF ARISTIDES. 65 Xanthippvas, the father of Pericles, of having deceived the people, and was brought to trial. His wound had already begun to show symptoms of gangrene. He was carried into court on a couch, and there lay before the assembled judges, while his friends plead- ed on his behalf. They could offer no excuse for his recent con- duct, but they reminded the Athenians of the sen'ices he had ren- dered, and begged them to spare the victor of Marathon. The judges were not insensible to this appeal ; and instead of con- demning him to death, as the accuser had demanded, they com- muted the penalty to a fine of fifty talents. Miltiades was unable immediately to raise this sum, and died soon afterwards of his wound. The fine was subsequently paid by his son Cimon. The melancholy end of Miltiades must not blind us to his offence. He had grossly abused the public confidence, and deserA^ed his punish- ment. The Athenians did not forget his services at Marathon, and it was their gratitude towards him which alone saved hira from death. Soon after the battle of Marathon a war broke out between Athens and iEgina. This war is of great importance in Grecian history, since to it the Athenians were indebted for their na^y, which enabled them to save Greece at Salamis as they had already done at Marathon. ^Egina was one of the chief maritime powers in Greece ; and accordingly Themistocles urged the Athenians to build and equip a large and powerful fleet, without which it Avas impossible for them to humble their riA-al. There Avas at this time a large surplus in the public treasury, arising from the produce of the sih'er-mines at Laurium. It had been recently proposed to distribute this surplus among the Athenian citizens ; but Themis- tocles persuaded them to sacrifice their priA-ate advantage to the public good, and to appropriate this money to building a fleet of 200 ships. The tAvo leading citizens of Athens at this period AA'ere Themis- tocles and Aristides. These two eminent men formed a striking conti-ast to each other. Themistocles possessed abilities of the most extraordinary kind ; but they Avere marred by a Avant of honesty. Aristides Avas inferior to Themistocles in ability, but Avas incomparably superior to him in honesty and integrity. His uprightness and justice were so uniA'crsally acknowledged that he received the surname of the "Just." Themistocles AA-as the leader of the democratical, and Aristides of the conserA'ati\'e party at Athens. After three or four A-ears of bitter riA^alrv, the two chiefs appealed to the ostracism, and Aristides Avas banished (n.c. 483). We arc told that an unlettered countryman gaA^e his vote against Ai'istides at the ostracism because, he Avas tired of hearing him al- )fvays called the Just. Greek Soldier. (From an ancient VajJC.) CIIAl^TER Ylll. THE PERSIAN AVARS. THE BATTLES OF TIIFRMOrYL^, SALAMI3, AND PLAT^A, 15. C. 4S0-479. The defeat of the rersiaiis at Jfarathon sciTcd only to increase the resentment of Darius. lie now resolved to collect the wholft forces of his emi)irc, and to lead them in person aj^ainst Athens. For three years busy preparations were made throu<;hout his vast dominions. In the fourth year his attention was distracted by a revolt of the Egyptians ; and before he could reduce them to sub- jection he was surjjrised l)y death, after a reijjjn of 37 years (ii.c. 48r>). Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, had received the education of an eastern despot, and been surrounded with slave* from his cradle. In person he was the tallest and handsomest man amidst the vast hosts which he led npainst Greece ; but there was nothin<; in his mind to corrcsjjond to this fair exterior. His character was marked by f:iint-hearted timidity and childish vanity. Xerxes had not inherited his father's animosity against Greece ; ])ut he was surrounded by men who urged liim to continue the en- terprise. Foremost among these was Mardonius, who was eager B.C. 480. INVASION OF XERXES. 57 to retrieve his reputation, and to obtain the conquered country as a satrapy for himself. After subduing Egypt (b.c. 484), Xerxes began to make preparations for the invasion of Greece. For four years the din of preparation sounded throughout Asia. Troops were collected from every quarter of the Persian empire, and were ordered to assemble in Cappadocia. As many as forty-six dif- ferent nations composed the land-force, of vaiuous complexions, languages, dresses, and arms. Meantime Xerxes ordered a bridge to be thrown across the Hellespont, that his army might march from Asia into Europe ; and he likewise gave directions that a canal should be cut through the isthmus of Mount Athos, in order to avoid the necessity of doubling this dangerous promontory, Avhere the fleet of Mardonius had suffered shipwreck. The mak- ing of this canal, which was about a mile and a half long, employ- ed a number of men for tlirce years. In the spring of b.c. 480 Xerxes set out from Sardis with his vast host. Upon reaching Abydos on the Hellespont, the araiy crossed over to Europe by the bridge of boats. Xerxes surveyed the s?ene from a marble throne. His heart swelled v.'ithin him at the sight of such a vast assemblage of hiiman beings ; but his feel- ings of pride and pleasure soon gave way to sadness, and he burst into tears at the reflection that in a hundred years not one of them would be alive. Xerxes continued his march through Eu- rope along the coast of Thrace. Upon arriving at the spacious plain of Doriscus, Avhich is travei'sed by the liiver Hebrus, he re- solved to number his forces. He found that the Avhole armament, both military and naval, consisted of 2,317,610 men. In his march from Doriscus to Thermopylie ho received a still further accession of strength; and accordingly, when he reached Ther- mopylae, the land and sea forces amounted to 2,G4],G10 fighting men. The attendants are said to have been more in number than the fighting men ; but if they were only equal, the number of per- sons who accompanied Xerxes to Thermopylae reaches the astound- ing figure of 5,283,220! This number is quite incredible; but, though the exact number of the invading anny cannot be determ- ined, we may safely conclude, from all the circumstances of the case, that it was the largest ever assembled at any period of history. From Doriscus Xerxes continued his march along the coast through Tiirace and Macedonia. The principal cities through which he passed had to furnish a day's meal for the immense host, and for this purpose had made preparations many months before- hand. The cost of feeding such a multitude brought many cities to the brink of ruin. At Acanthus his fleet sailed through the isthmus of Athos, and, after doubling the promontories of Sithonia 68 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII. and Pallene, joined him at the city of Thcrma, better known by its later name of Thessalonica. Thence he continued his march tluough tlic soutliern part of Macedonia andTliessaly, meeting with no opposition till he reached the celebrated pass of Thermoj)yla?. The mighty prejjarations of Xerxes had been no secret in Greece ; and during the preceding winter a congress of the Grecian states liad Ixicn summoned by the Spartans and Athenians to meet at the isthmus of Corintli. But so great was the terror inspired by the countless hosts of Xerxes, that many of the Grecian states at once tendered their submission to him, and others refused to take any ])art in the congress. The only i)Cople north of the istlimus of Corinth who remained faithful to the cause of Grecian liberty were the Athenians and Phocians, and tlie inliabitants of the small Boeotian towns of Plataia and Thespiaj. The other people in northern Greece were either partisans of the Persians, like the Thebans, or were unwilling to make any great sacrifices for tlic j)reservation of their independence. In Pchijionnesus, the power- ful city of Argos and the Acluvans stood aloof. From the more distant members of the Hellenic race no assistance was obtained. (Jelon, the ruler of Syracuse, oflbred to send a ])owerfiil armament, ])rovided the command of the allied forces was intrusted to him ; but the envoys did not venture to accept a jiroposal which would have placed both Sparta and Athens under the control of a Sicil- ian tyrant. The desertion of the cause of Grecian independence by so many of the Greeks did not shake the resolution of Sparta and of Athens. The Athenians, csjjecially, set a noble cxamjile of an enlarged patriotism. They became reconciled to the JEginetans, and thus gained for the common cause the powerful navy of their riA'al. They readily granted to the Sjiartans the sujjreme command of the forces by sea as well as by land, although they furnished two thirds of the vessels of the entire lleet. Their illustrious citizen Themis- tocles was the soul of the congress. He sought to enkindle in the other Greeks some portion of the ardour and energy which ho had succeeded in breathing into the Athenians. The Greeks determined to make a stand at the ]iass of Ther- mojtyla.', which forms the entrance from nortliern into southern Greece. This pass lies betw'een INfount QCta and the sea. It is tibout a mile in length. At each of its extremities the mountains a])])roach so near the sea as to leave barely room for the passage of a single carriage. The northern, or, to speak more j)roperly, tlie western Gate, was close to tlie town of Anthela, where the Amjjhictyonic council held its autumnal meetings; while the south- ern, or the eastern Gate, was near the Locrian town of Alpeiu B.C. 480. THE PASS OF TIIERMOPYLJE. 59 These narrow entrances were called PyliC, or the Gates, The space between the gates was wider and more open, and was dis- tiiiguislied by its hot springs, from which tlie pass derived the name of ThermopyhTj. or the " Hot-Gates." The island of Euboea is here separated f-om the main land by a narrow strait, which in one part is only two miles and a half in breadth ; and according- ly it is easy, by defending this part of the sea with a fleet, to pre- vent an enemy from landing troops at tlie southern end of the pass. Plan of Themiopylie. The Grecian fleet, under tlie command of the Spartan Eury- l)iadcs, took up its station off that portion of the northern coast of Euboea which faces Magnesia and the entrance to the Thessalian Gulf, and which was called Artemisium, from a neighbouring tem- )de of Artemis (Diana). It was, liowcA'er, only a small land-force that was sent to the defence of Thermopyla;. When the arrival of Xerxes at Therma became known, the Greeks were i;pon the point of celebrating the Olympic games, and the festival of the Carnean Apollo, which was observed with great solemnity at Si)arta and in other Doric states. The Peloponnesians tlierefore sent forward only 300 Spartans and 3000 hoplites from other Pelopon- nesian states, tinder the command of the Spartan king Leonidas, a force which they thought would be sufiicient to maintain the pass till the festivals were over. In his march northwards Leonidas received additions from the Thespians, Phocians, and Locrians, so that he had under his command at Thermopylae about 7000 men. Meanwhile Xerxes had arrived within sight of Therino])yla;. 60 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIIL He had heard that a handful of desperate men, commanded hy a Spartan, had determined to dispute his passapje, but he refused to believe the news. He was still more astonished when a horseman, whom he had sent to reconnoitre, brought back word that he had seen several Spartans outside the wall in front of the pass, some amusing themselves with gymnastic exercises, and others combing tlieir long hair. In great perj)lexity, he sent for the exiled Sj)artaQ king Demaratus, who had accomjjanied him from Persia, and ask- ed him the meaning of such madness. Demaratus replied that the Spartans would defend the pass to the death, and tliat it was their practice to dress their heads with peculiar care when they were going to battle. Later writers relate that Xerxes sent to them to deliver up their anns, Leonidas desired him "to come and take them." One of tlie Spartans being told that " the Persian host was so prodigious that their arrows would conceal the sun" "So much the better" (he replied), "we shall then fight in the shade." At length, upon the fifth day, Xerxes oi'dercd a chosen body of Modes to advance against the presumi)tuous foes and bring them into liis presence. But their superior numbers were of no avail in such a narrow space, and they were kept at bay by the long spears and steady ranks of the Greeks. After the combat had lasted a long time with heavy loss to the Ivledes, Xerxes ordered his ten thousand "Immortals," the flower of the Persian army, to ad- vance. But they were as unsuccessful as the Modes. Xerxes be- held tlie repulse of his troops from a lofty throne which had been provided for him, and v.as seen to leap thrice from his scat in an agony of fear or rage. On the following day the attack was renewed, but with no bet- ter success ; and Xerxes was beginning to despair of forcing his way through the ])ass, when a IMalian, of the name of Ki)hialtes, betrayed to the Persian king tlmt there was an unfrequented ]iath across Blount CFAa, ascending on the northern side of tlie mountain, and descending on the southern side near the termination of the pass. Overjoyed at this discovery, a strong detachment of Per- sians was ordered to follow the traitor. Meantime Leonidas and his troo])S had received amjjle notice of the imi>ending danger. During the niglit deserters from the enemy had brought him the news ; and their intelligence was confirmed by his own scouts on the hills. His resolution was at once taken. As a Spartan, he was bound to conquer or to die in the ])Ost assigned to him ; and he was the more ready to sacrifice his life, since jvn oracle luid de- clared that cither Spnrta itself or a Spartan king must jjcrish by the Persian arms. His three hundred comrades were fully cqu' B.C. 480. BATTLE OF ARTEMISIUM. 61 to the same heroism wliich actuated their king; and the seA'en liundred Thespians resolved to share the fate of this gallant band. He allowed the rest of the allies to retire, Avith the exception of four hundred Bceotians, Avhom he retained as hostages. Xerxes delayed his attack till the middle of the day, when it was expected that the detachment sent across the mountain would arrive at the rear of the pass. But Leonidas and his comrades, only anxious to sell their lives as dearly as possible, did not wait to receive the attack of the Persians, but advanced into the open space in front of the pass, and charged the enemy with desperate valour. Kum- bers of the Persians were slain ; many Avere driA'en into the neigh- bouring sea ; and others again Av^ere trampled to death by the vast hosts behind them. As long as the Greeks could maintain their ranks they repelled every attack ; but Avhen their spears Avero broken, and they had only their SAVords left, the enemy began to press in betAveen them. Leonidas AA'as one of tlie first that fell, and around his body the battle raged fiercer than CA'er. The Per- sians made the greatest efforts to obtain possession of it; but four times they Avere driven back by the Greeks Avith great slaughter. At length, thinned in numbers, and exhausted by fatigue and Avounds, this noble band retired AA-ithin the pass, and seated them- selves on a hillock. MeauAvhile the Persian detachment, AA'hich had been sent across the mountains, began to enter the pass from tlie south. The Spartan heroes Avere noAv surrounded on every side, overwhelmed Avith a shower of missiles, and killed to a man. On the hillock, Avhere the Greeks made their last stand, a mar- ble lion Avas set up in honour of Leonidas. Another monument, erected near the spot, contained the memorable inscription : " Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, That here obedient to their laws v/e lie." While Leonidas had been fighting at Thermopylsie, the Greek fleet had also been engaged Avitli the Persians at Artemisium. The Persian fleet set sail from the Gulf of Therma, and arrived in one day at almost the soutlicrn corner of Magnesia. In this position they Avere overtaken In' a sudden hurricane, Avhich blew upon the shore with irresistible fury. For three days and tliree nights the tempest raged Avithout intermission ; and Avhen calm at length returned, the shore Avas seen strcAved for many miles Avith Avrecks and corpses. At least four hundred ships of Avar Avere de- stroyed, together Avith a countless number of transports, stores, and treasures. The Greek fleet had been seized Avith a panic terror at the approach of the Persians, and retreated to Chalcis, in the narroAvest part of the Euboean Straits ; but upon liearing of the disaster of the Persian fleet, they took courage, ond sailed back C2 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VHL with the utmost speed to their former station at Artemisium. Being now encouraj^cd to attack the enemy, they gained some success. On the following night another terrific storm burst upon the Persians. All night long it blew upon the Thessalian coast at Ajjlictre, where the Persian sliips were stationed, thus causing little inconvenience to the Greeks on tlie opposite shore. Not- withstanding these losses, the Persian fleet still had a vast superi- ority of numbers, and determined to offer battle to the Greeks. Quitting the Thessalian coast, they sailed towards Artemisium in the form of a crescent. The Greeks kept near the shore, to pre- vent the Persians from bringing their whole fleet into action. The battle raged furiously the whole day, and each side fought with determined valour. Both parties suflered severely ; and though tlie Persians lost a greater number of ships and men, yet so many of the Greek vessels were disabled that they found it would be impossible to renew the combat. Under these circumstances, the Greek commanders saw that it would be necessary to retreat ; and their determination was hastened by the news which they now re- ceived, that Leonidas and his companions had fallen, and that Xerxes was master of the pass of Thermopyhx;. Having sailed through the Eubaan Strait, the fleet doubled the promontory of Sunium, and did not stop till it reached the island of Salamis. Meanwhile the Peloponnesians had abandoned Attica and the adjoining states to their fate, whilst they strained every nen-e to secure themselves by fortifying the isthmus of Corinth. The Athenians, relying ujion the march of the Peloponnesian army into Baotia, had taken no measures for the security of their families and property, and beheld with terror and dismay the barbarian host in full march towards their city. In six days it was calcu- lated Xerxes would be at Athens a short space to remove the population of a whole city ; but fear and necessity work wonders. Before the six days had elapsed, all who were willing to abandon their homes had been safely transported, some to -^gina, and oth- ers to Trcc/.cn in Peloponnesus ; but many could not be induced to proceed farther tlian Salamis. It was necessary fur Themisto- cles to use all his art and all his eloquence on this occasion. Tiin oracle at Delphi had tohl the Athenians that " the divine Salamis would make women childless"' yet, " when all was lost, a wooden wall sliould still shelter the Athenians." Thomistoclcs told his countrymen that these words clearly indicated a lleet and a naval victory as the only means of safety. Some, however, gave to the words another meaning ; and a few, especially among the aged and the i>oor, resolved to shut tlu'niselves up in the Acropolis, and to fortify ifs accessible or wcstt-ni front with barricades of tinilwr. B.C. 480. BATTLE OF SAL AMIS. 63 On his march towards Athens, Xerxes sent a detachment of his army to take and plunder Delphi. But this attem})t proved un- successful. The god of the most i-enowned oracle of the Grecian world vindicated at once the majesty of his sanctuary and the truth of his predictions. As the Persians climbed the rugged path at the foot of Mount Parnassus, leading np to the shrine, thunder was heard to roll, and two crags, suddenly detaching them- selves from the mountain, rolled down upon the Persians, and spread dismay and destruction in their ranks. Seized with a sud- den panic, they turned and Hed, pursued, as they said, by two war- riors of superhuman size and prowess, who had assisted the Del- phians in defending their temple. On arriving before Athens, Xerxes found the Acropolis occupied by a handful of desperate citizens, who made a brave resistance ; but they were overpowered and put to the sword. The temples and houses on the Acropolis were pillaged a,nd burnt ; and Xerxes thus became undisputed master of Athens. About the same time the Persian fleet arrived in the Bay of Phalerum. Its strength is not accurately known, but it must have exceeded 1000 vessels. The combined Grecian fleet at Salamis consisted of 336 ships, of which 200 were Athenian. At this critical juncture dissension reigned in the Grecian fleet. In the council of war Avhich had been summoned by Eurybiades, the Spartan commander, Themistocles urged the assembled chief? to remain at Salamis, and give battle to the Persians in the nar- row straits, where the superior numbers of the Peisians would be of less consequence. The Peioponnesian commanders, on the other hand, were anxious that the fleet should be removed to the isthmus of Corinth, and thus be put in communication with their land-forces. The council came to a vote in favour of retreat; but Themistocles prevailed upon Eurybiades to convene another as- sembly upon the following day. When the council met, the Peio- ponnesian commanders loudly expressed their dissatisfaction at seeing a debate re-opened which they had deemed concluded. Adimantus, the Corinthian admiral, broke out into open rebukes and menaces. " Themistocles," he exclaimed, "those who rise at the public games before the signal are whipped." "True," re- plied Themistocles; "but they who lag behind it never win a crown." Another incident in this discussion has been immortal' ized by Plutarch. Eurybiades, incensed I y the language of The- mistocles, lifted up his stick to strike him, whereupon the Atheninu exclaimed, "Strike, but hear me !'' Themistocles repeated his ar- guments and entreaties ; and at length threatened that he and the Athenians would sail away to Italy and there found a new city, if 64 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII. the Peloponncsians still determined to retreat. Eurybiades now P&ve way and issued orders for the fleet to remain and light at Salamis ; but the Peloponnesians obeyed the order with reluct- ance. A third council was summoned ; and Thcmistocles, per- ceiving that the decision of the assembly would be against him, determined to effect his object by stratagem. He secretly de- spatched a trusty slave with a message to Xerxes, representing the dissensions which prevailed in the Grecian fleet, and how easy a matter it would be to surround and vanquish an armament both small and disunited. Xerxes readily adop'ted the suggestion, and ordered his captains to close up the Straits of Salamis at both ends during the night. On the council assembling in the morn- ing, Aristidcs arrived with the news that the Grecian fleet wa completely surrounded by that of the Persians, and that retreat was no longer ])ossible. As tlie veil of night rolled gradually away, the Persian fleet was discovered stretching as far as the eye could reach along the coast of Attica. The Grecian fleet, being concentrated in the harbour of Salamis, was thus surrounded by the Persians. Xerxes had caused a lofty throne to be erected upon one of the projecting declivities of Mount JEgaleos, oj>posito the harbour of Salamis, whence he could survey the combat, and stimulate by his presence the courage of his men. As a battle vvas now inevitable, the Grecian commanders lost no time in making preparations for the encounter. The Greek seamen eml)arkcd with alacrity, encouraging one another to deliv- er their country, their wives, and children, and the temples of their gods, from the grasp of the barbarians. History has j)reservcd to us but few details of the engagement. The I'ersian fleet, with tlic exception of some of the Ionic contingents, fought with courage. But the very numbers on wliich they so confidently relied proved one of the chief causes of their defeat. Too crowded cither to ad- vance or to retreat, tlieir oars broken or impeded by collision with one another, their fleet lay like an inert lifeless mass u]>uu the wa- ter, and fell an easy ])rey to the Greeks. A single incident will illustrate tlie terror and confusion which reigned among the Per- ians. Artemisia, queen of Ilalicarnassus in Caria, distinguished herself in it by deeds of daring bravery. At length she turned and fled, pursued by an Atheniiin galley. Fidl in her course lay Uic vessel ofaCariau jirincc. Instead of avoiding, siie struck and Hunk it, sending her countrynuin and all his crew to the bottom. Tlie captain of the Athenian galley, believing from this net that dhe was a deserter from the Persian cause, sullered her to escape. Xerxes, wlio froTu his lofty throne l)cheld the feat of tlie Ilalicar- fia)siiiu queen, but who imagined that the sunken chip belonged B.O. 480 KETREAT OF XERXES. 65 to the G'-eeks, was filled with admiration at her courage, and ex- claimed, " ]My men are become women, my women men !" Plan of the Battle of Salami?. Two hundred of the Persian ships were destroyed and sunk, when night put an end to the engagement. But, notwithstanding this loss, the fleet was still formidable by its numbers. The Greeks themselves did not regard the victory as decisive, and prepared to renew the combat. But the pusillanimity of Xerxes relieved them from all further anxiety. He became alarmed for his own per- sonal safetv, and his whole care was now centred on securing his retreat by land. The best troops were disembarked from the ships, and marched towards the Hellespont, in order to secure the bridge, whilst the fleet itself was ordered to make for Asia. These dispositions of Xerxes were prompted by Mardonius. He repre= seated to his master that the defeat, after all, was but slight; that, having attained one of the great objects of the expedition by the capture of Athens, he might now retire with honour, and even with glory ; and that for the rest he (Mardonius) would undertake to complete the conquest of Greece with 300,000 men. While the Persian fleet sailed towards Asia, Xerxes set out on his home- wai'd march. In Thessaly Mardonius selected the 300,000 men with \vhoni he ]irnposed to conclude the war ; but a-^ autumn was QG HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIH now approacliinp;, he resolved to postpone all further operations till the s])ring. After forty-five days' march from Attica, Xerxes again reached the shores of the Hellespont, with a force greatly diminished by famine and pestilence. On the Hellespont he found his fleet, but the bridge had been Avashed away by storms. Landed on the shores of Asia, the Persian army at length obtained abundance of provisions, and contracted new maladies by the sudden change from privation to excess. Thus terminated this mighty but un- successful expedition. Greece owed its salvation to one man Themistocles. This was virtually admitted by the leaders of the other Grecian states when they assembled to assign the prizes of Avisdom and conduct. Ui)on the altar of Poseidon, at the isthmus of Corinth, each chief de- posited a ticket inscribed with two names, of those whom he con- sidered entitled to the first and second ])rizes. Put in this adjudi- cation vanity and self-love defeated their own objects. Each com- mander had put down his own name for the first prize ; for the second, a great majority preponderated in favour of Themistocles. From the Spartans, also, Themistocles received the honours due to his merit. A crown of olive was conferred ui)on him, together with one of the most splendid chariots which the city could produce. On the very same day on which the Persians were defeated at Salamis the Sicilian Greeks also obtained a victory over the Car- thaginians. There is reason to believe that the invasion of Sicily by the Carthaginians was concerted with Xerxes, and that the simultaneous attack on two distinct Grecian peo]>les, by two im- inense armaments, was not merely the result of chance. Gelon, the powerful ruler of Syracuse, defeated Ilamilcar, the Carthagin- ian general, with the loss, it is said, of 150,000 men. In the spring of ij.c. 47'J Mardonius prei)ared to open the cam- paign. He was not without Iiojjcs of inducing the Athenians to join the Persian alliance, and he desi)atched Alexander, king of Maccdon, to conciliate the Athenians, now ])arlially re-established in their dilapidated city. His oilers on the ])art of the I'crsians were of the most seductive kind ; but the Athenians dismissed him with a positive refusal, whilst to the Lacedicmonians they pro- tested that no temjjtations, however great, should ever induce them to desert the common cause of Greece and freedom. In return for this disinterested conduct, all they asked was tliat a Pelopon- nesian army slioidil be sent into lUcotia for the defence of tho Attic frontier: a request which the Sjiartan envoys promised to fullil. No sooner, however, had they returned to their own coun- try than this promise was c(jmpletely forgotten. B.C. 479. BATTLE OF PLATiEA. 67 When Mardonius was informed that the Athenians had rejected his proposal, he immediately marched against Athens, accompa- nied by all his Grecian allies ; and in May or June, b.c. 479, about ten m.onths after the retreat of Xerxes, the Persians again occupied that city. With feelings of bitter indignation against their faith- less allies, the Athenians saw themselves once more compelled to remove to Salamis. Mardonius took advantage of his situation to endeavour once more to win them to his alliance. Through a Hellespontine Greek, the same favourable conditions were again offered to them, but were again refused. One voice alone, that of the senator Lycidas, broke the unanimity of the assembly. But his opposition cost him his life. He and his family were stoned to death by the excited populace. In this desperate condition, the Athenians sent ambassadors to the Spartans to remonstrate against their breach of faith, and to intimate that necessity might at length compel them to listen to the proposals of the enemy. The Spar- tans became alarmed. That very night 5000 citizens, each at- tended by seven Helots, were despatched to the frontiers ; and these were shortly followed by 5000 Lacedaemonian Perioeci, each attend- ed by one light-armed Helot. Never before had the Spartans sent so large a force into the field. Their example was followed by other Peloponnesian cities ; and the Athenian envoys returned to Salamis with the joyful news that a large army was preparing to march against the enemy under the command of Pausanias, who acted as regent for the infant son of Leonidas. Mardonius, on learning the approach of the Lacedaemonians, abandoned Attica and crossed into Bceotia. He finally took up a position on the left bank of the Asopus, and not far from the town of Plataja. Here he caused a camp to be constructed of ten fur- longs square, and fortified with barricades and towers. Mean- while the Grecian army continued to receive re-enforcements from the different states, and by the time it reached Boeotia it fonned a grand total of about 110,000 men. After several days' manoeuvring a general battle took place near Plattca. The light-ai'med undis- ciplined Persians, whose bodies were unprotected by armour, main- tained a A'ery unequal combat against the serried ranks, the long spears, and the mailed bodies of the Spartan phalanx. Mardonius, at the head of his body-gnard of 1000 picked men, and conspicu- ous by his white charger, was among the foremost in the fight till struck down by the hand of a Spartan. The fall of their general was the signal for flight to the Persians, already wearied and dis- heartened by the fruitless contest ; nor did they once stop till they had again crossed the Asopus and reached their fortified camp. The glory of haWng defeated the Persians at Plata;a rests 68 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII. with the Lacedaemonians, since the Atlienians were cnp;aped in an- other part of the field with the Thebans. After rcjjulsing the The- bans, the Athenians joined the Lacedaemonians, who had jjursued the Persians as far as their fortified camp. L'pon the arrival of the Athenians the barricades were stormed and carried, after a gal- lant resistance on the part of the Persians. The camp became a scene of the most horrible carnage. The Persian loss was immense, while that of the Greeks seems not to have exceeded 1300 or 1400 men. It remained to bury the dead and divide the booty ; and so great was the task, that ten days were consumed in it. The booty was ample and magnificent. Gold and silver coined, as well as in jdate and trinkets, rich vests and carpets, ornamented arms, horses, cam- els in a word, all the magnificence of Eastern luxury. The fail- ure of the Persian expedition Mas completed by the destruction of their navul armament. Leotyohides, the kSpartan admiral, having sailed across the JEgean, found the Persian Hect at !Mycale, a prom- ontory of Asia Minor near Miletus. Their former reverses seem completely to have discouraged the Persians from hazarding an- other naval engagement. The ships were hauled ashore and sur- rounded witli a rampart, whilst an army of G0,000 Persians lined the coast for tlieir defence. The Greeks landed on the veiy day on which the battle of Platsea was fought. A supernatural pre- sentiment of that decisive victory, conveyed by a herald's staff, whic'i floated over thc^gcan from the shores of Greece, is said to have pervaded the Grecian ranks at Mycale as they marched to tlic attack. The Persians did not long resist : they turned their backs and fled to their fortifications, pursued by the Greeks, who entered them almost simultaneously. A large number of the Persians per- ished ; and the victory was rendered still more decisive by the burning of the fleet. The Grecian fleet now sailed towards the Hellespont with the view of destroying the bridge ; but, hearing that it no longer ex- isted, Lcotychidcs de])arted homewards with the l*cloponnesian vessels. Xantliij)pus, however, the Athenian commander, seized the oj'portunity to recover from the Persians the Thracian Cher- sonese, which had long been an Athenian possession ; and pro- ceeded to blockade Sestos, the key of the strait. This city sur- rendered in the autumn, after a i)rotractcd siege, whereu])on the Athenians returned lionie, carrying with tlicui the cables of the bridge across the Hellespont, which were afterwards preserved in the Acro])olis as a trojdiy. yu 1^0 The Partlienon iu its jDresent state. CHAPTER IX. FROM THE EXD OF THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR, B.C. 479-431. The Atlienians, on their return to Attica, after the defeat of the Persians, found their city ruined and their country desolate. The)^ began to rebuild their city on a larger scale than before, and to fortify it with a wall. Those allies to whom the increas- ing maritime power of Athens was an object of suspicion, and especially the iEginetans, to v/hom it was more particularly for- midable, beheld her rising fortifications Avith dismay. They en- deavoured to inspire the Lacedicmonians Avith their fears, and urged them to arrest the work. But, though Sparta shared the jealousy of the allies, she could not, v.'ith any decency, interfere bj force to prevent a friendly city from exercising a right inherent in all independent states. She assumed, therefore, the hypocritical garb of an adviser and counsellor. Concealing her jealousy under the pretence of zeal for the comm.on interests of Greece, she rep- resented to the Athenians that, in the event of another Persian invasion, fortified towns Avould serve the enemy for camps and strongholds, as Thebes had done in the last war; and proposed that the Athenians should not only desist from completing their 70 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciup. IX. own fortifications, but help to demolish those which already ex. isted in other towns. Tlic object of the proposal was too transparent to deceive so acute a statesman as Themistocles. Athens was not yet, however, in a condition to incur the danger of openly rejecting it ; and he therefore advised the Athenians to dismiss the S])artan envoys with tlie assurance that they would send ambassadors to Sparta to ex- plain their views. He then caused liimself to be appointed one of these ambassadors ; and setting off straightway for Sparta, di- rected his colleagues to linger behind as long as possible. At Sparta, the absence of his colleagues, at which he affected to be surprised, afforded him an excuse for not demanding an audience of the cphors. During the interval thus gained, the whole popu- lation of Athens, of both sexes and every age, worked day and nii;ht at tlic walls, whicli, when the other ambassadors at length arrived at Sparta, had attained a height sufficient to afford a tol- erable dcfencG. Meanwhile the suspicions of the Spartans had been more than once aroused by messages from the ^ginctans re- specting the progress of the walls. Themistocles, however, posi- tively denied their statements; and urged the Spartans to send messengers of their own to Athens in order to learn the true state of affairs, at the same time instructing the Athenians to detain them as hostages for the safety of himself and colleagues. When there was no longer any motive for concealment, Themistocles openly avowed tlie progress of tlic works, and his intention of se- curing the independence of Alliens, and enabling her to act for herself The walls being now too far advanced to be easily taken, the Spartans found themselves compelled to acquiesce, and the works were completed without furtlicr hindrance. Having thus secured the city from all danger of an immediate attack, Themistocles pursued his favourite project of rendering Athens the greatest maritime and commercial j)ower of Greece. He erected a town round the harbour of Piraius, distant between four and five miles from Athens, and enclosed it with a wall as large in extent as the city itself, but of vastly greater lieight and thickness. Meanwhile an event occurred which secured more iirmly than ever the maritime supremacy of Athens, by transferring to her the command of the allied fleet. In the year after the battle of I'lat.Ta a fleet had been fitted out and ])laccd under the coiuniand of the Si'artaa regent, I'ausanias, in order to carry on the war against the Persians. After deliver- ing most of the Grecian towns in Cy})rus from the I'ersians, this armament sailed uj) the Bosporus and laid siege to By/Jintium, which was garrisoned by a large Persian force. The town sur- B.C. 478. CONFEDERACY OF DELOS. 71 rendered after a protracted siege : but it was during this expedition that the conduct of the Spartan commander struck a fatal blow at the interests of his country. The immense booty, as well as the renown, which Pausanias had acquired at Plataa, had filled him with pride and ambition. Aft- er the capture of Byzantium he despatched a letter to Xerxes, of- fering to marry the king's daughter, and to bring Sparta and the rest of Greece under his dominion. Xerxes was highly delighted with this letter, and sent a reply in which he urged Pausanias to pursue his project night and day, and promised to supply him with all the money and troops that might be needful for its execution. But the childish vanity of Pausanias betrayed his plot before it was ripe for execution. Elated by the confidence of Xerxes, and by the money Avith which he was lavishly supplied, he acted as if he had already married the Great King's daughter. He assumed the Persian dress ; he made a progress through Thrace, attended by Persian and Egyptian guards ; and copied, in the luxury of his table and the dissoluteness of his manners, the example of his adopted countr}'. Above all, he offended the allies by his haughty reserve and imperiousness. His designs were now too manifest to escape attention. His proceedings reached the cars of the Spar- tans, who sent out Dorcis to supersede him. Disgusted by the in- solence of Pausanias, the lonians serving in the combined Grecian fleet addressed themselves to Aristides, whose manners formed a striking contrast to those of the Spartan leader, and begged him to assume the command. This request was made precisely at the time when Pausanias was recalled ; and accordingly, when Dorcis arrived, he found Aristides in command of the combined fleet (B.C. 478). This event was not a mere empty question about a point of honour. It was a real revolution, terminated by a solemn league, of which Athens was to be the head. Aristides took the lead in the matter, for which his proverbial justice and probity eminently qualified him. The league obtained the name of "the Confed- eracy of Delos," from its being arranged that deputies of the allies belonging to it should meet periodically for deliberation in the temple of Apollo and Artemis (Diana) in that island. Each state was assessed in a certain contribution, either of money or ships, as proposed by the Athenians and ratified by the synod. The assess- ment was intrusted to Aristides, whose impartiality was universal- ly applauded. Of the details, however, we only know tliat the first assessment amounted to 4G0 talents (about 10G,0C0 sterling), that certain officers called Hellenotamia; were appointed by the Athenians to collect and administer the contributions, and that Delos was the treasury. 72 HISTORY OF GEEECE. Chap. IX. Such was the origin of the Confederacy of Dclos. Soon after its formation Aristides Avas succeeded in tlie command of the com- bined fleet by Cimon, the son of jNliltiades. Fausanias, on his return to Sparta, seems to have been acquit- ted of any definite charges ; but he continued his corresjjondence with Persia, and an accident at length afforded convincing proofs of his guilt. A favourite slave, to whom he had intrusted a letter to the Persian satrap at Sardis, observed with dismay that none of the messengers employed in tliis service had ever returned. Moved by these fears, he broke tlie seal and read the letter, and finding his suspicions of the fate that awaited him confirmed, he carried the document to the ephors. But in ancient states the testimony of a slave was always regarded with suspicion. The cjjhors refused to believe the evidence offered to tlicm unless con- firmed l)y their own ears. For this purpose they directed him to plant himself as a supiiliant in a sacred grove near Cape Ta^narus, in a hut behind which two of their body might conceal themselves. Pausanias, as they had expected, anxious at tlie step taken by his slave, hastened to the spot to question him about it. The con- versation which ensued, and which Avas overheard by the ejjhors, rendered the guilt of Pausanias no longer doubtful. They now determined to arrest him on his return to Sparta. They met him in the street near the temple of Athena Chalcicecus (of the Brazen House), when Pausanias, either alarmed by his guilty conscience, or put on his guard l)y a secret signal from one of the ephors, turned and fled to the temple, Avhcre he took refuge in a small chamber belonging to the building. From this sanctuary it was unlawful to drag him ; but the ephors caused the doors to be built np and the roof to be removed, and his own motlier is said to have placed the flrst stone at the doors. When at the point of deatli from stan-ation, he was carried from the sanctuary before he pol- luted it Avith his corpse. Such Avas the end of the A'ictor of Plataa. After his death ])roofs Averc discoA'cred among his papers that The- mistocles Avas im])licated in his guilt. But, in order to folloAv the fortunes of the Athenian statesman, it is necessary to take a glanee at the internal history of Athens. Th.e ancient riA-alry between Tlicmistocles and Aristides had f)3en in a good degree extinguished by the danger Avhicli threat- ened their common country during the Persian vars. Aristides had since abandoned his former ]irejudiccs, and Avas Avilliiig to conform to many of the democratical innoA'ations of his rival. The effect of this was to produce, soon after their return to Atlica, a still further modilication of the constitution of Clisthcnos. The Thctcs, the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens, Avcro B.C. 471. BANISHMENT OF THEMISTOCLES. 73 declared eligible for the magistracy, from -uhich they had beeq excluded by the laws of Solon. Tims not only the archonship, but consequently the Council of Areopagus, was thrown open to them ; and, strange to say, this reform was proposed by Aristides himself. Nevertheless, party spirit still ran high at Athens. Cimon and Alcmajon were violent opponents of Themistoclcs, and of their party Aristides was still the head. The popularity of Aristides was never greater than at the present time, owing not only to the more libor^^l spirit which he exhibited, but also to his great services in establishing the Confederacy of Delos. Themistoclcs had of- fended the Athenians by his ostentation and vanity. He was con- tinually boasting of his services to the state ; but, worse than all this, his conduct was stained with jiositive guilt. Whilst, at the head of an Athenian squadron, he was sailing among the Greek islands for the ostensible purpose of executing justice, there is lit- tle room to doubt that he corrupted its very source by accepting large sums of money from the cities Avhich he visited. Party spirit at length reached such a height that it was found necessary to re- sort to ostracism, and Themistoclcs was condemned to a temporary banishment (b.c. 471). He retired to Argos, where he was resid- ing when the Spartans called upon the Athenians to prosecute their great statesman before a synod of the allies assembled at Sparta, on the ground of treasonable correspondence with Persia. Accordingly, joint envoys Avere sent from Athens and Sparta to ar- rest him (b.c. 4G6). Themistocles avoided the impending danger by flying from Argos to Coi'cyra. The Corcyrseans, howcA^er, not daring to shelter him, he passed OA'er to the continent ; where, being still pursued, he was forced to seek refuge at the court of Ad- metus, king of the Molossians, though the latter Avas his personal enemy. Fortunately, Admetus happened to be from home. The forlorn condition of Themistoclcs excited the compassion of the Avife of the Molossian king, Avho placed her child in his arms, and bade him seat himself on the hearth as a suppliant. As soon as the king arriA-ed, Themistocles explained his peril, and adjured him by the sacred laAvs of hospitality not to take vengeance upon a fallen foe. Admetus accepted his appeal, and raised him from the hearth ; he refused to deliA-er him up to his pursuers, and at last only dismissed him on his OAvn expressed desire to proceed to Per- sia. After many perils, Themistocles succeeded in reaching in safety the coast of Asia. Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, was noAV upon the throne of Persia, and to him Themistocles hastened to announce himself. The king AA-as delighted at his arriv-al, and treated him Avith the greatest distinction. In a year's time, The- n HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX. mistocles, having acquired a sufficient knowlcdfjc of the Persian languaf^jc to be able to converse in it, entertained Artaxerxes with magnificent schemes for the subjugation of Greece. Artaxerxes loaded liim with presents, gave him a Persian wife, and appointed Magnesia, a town not far from the Ionian coast, as his place of res- idence. After living there some time he was carried off by dis- ease at the age of sixty-five, without having realized, or apparent- ly attempted, any of those ])lans witli which he had dazzled the Persian monarch. Rumour ascribed his death to ]toison, which he took of his own accord, from a consciousness of his inability to ])cr- form his promises ; but this report, wliich was cun-ent in the time of Thucydides, is rejected by that historian. Aristides died about four years after the banishment of Themis- toclcs. The common accounts of his poverty arc probably exag- gerated, and seem to have been founded on the circumstances of a public funeral, and of handsome donations made to his tliree children by the state. But, whatever his pi'operty may have been, it is at least certain that he did not acquire or increase it by un- lawful means ; and not even calumny has ventured to assail his well-earned title of t/ie Just. On the death of Aristides, Cimon became the undisputed leader of the conservative party at Athens. Cimon was generous, affable, magnificent ; and, notwithstanding his political views, of exceed- ingly popular manners. lie had inherited the military genius of his father, and was undoubtedly the greatest commander of his time. He employed the vast wealth acquired in his expeditions in adorning Athens and gratifying his fellow-citizens. It has been already mentioned that he succeeded Aristides in the command of the allied fleet. His first exploits were the cnpture of Eion on the Strymon, and the reduction of the island of 8cyros (n.c. 47G). A few years afterwards we find the first symptoms of discontent among the members of the Confederacy of Dclos. Naxos, one of the confederate islands, and the largest of the Cyclades, rcA'olted in n.c. 4GG, probably from a feeling of the growing oi)p'rcssiveness of the Athenian headship. It was immediately invested by the coniederate fleet, reduced, and made tributary to Athens. This was another step towards dominion gained by the Athenians, whoso pretensions were assisted by tlie im])ruden(e of the allies. !Many of the smaller states belonging to the confederacy, wearied with perpetual liostilities, commuted for a money ]>ayment tlie shijjg wliich they were bound to su])ply ; and thus, by dei)riving them- selves of a navy, lost the only means by which they could assert tlicir independence. The same year was marked by a mcmoviable action against tho B.C. 464. THIRD MESSENIAN WAR. 75 Persians. Cimon, at the head of 200 Atlieuian triremes, and 100 furnished by the allies, proceeded to the coast of Asia Minor. The Persians had assembled a large fleet and army at the mouth of the River Eurymedon in PamjDhylia. After speedily defeating the fleet, Cimon landed his men and marclied against the Persian army, which was drawn np on the shore to protect the fleet. The land-force fought with bravery, but was at length put to the rout. The island of Thasos was the next member of the confederacy against which the Athenians directed their arms. After a siego of more than two years that island surrendered, "svhen its fortifica- tions were razed, and it was condemned to pay tribute (b.c. 4G3). The expedition to Thasos was attended with a circumstance which first gives token of the coming hostilities between Sparta and Athens. At an early period of the blockade the Thasians secretly applied to the Laccdiemonians to make a diversion in t!ieir favour by invading Attica; and though the Laceda;monians w>,i-e still ostensibly allied with Athens, they were base enough to comply with this request. Their treachery, however, was prevent- ed by a terrible calamity which befcl themselves. In the year B.C. 4u4 their capital was visited by an eartliquake, which laid it in ruins and killed 20,000 of the citizens. But this was only part of the calamity. The earthquake was immediately followed by a revolt of the Helots, who were always ready to avail themselves of the weakness of their tyrants. Being joined by the JSIessenians, they fortified themselves in Mount Ithome in Messenia. Hence this revolt is sometimes called the Third Hfessenian War (b.c. 4G4). After two or three years spent in a vain attempt to dis- lodge them from this position, the Lacedaimonians found them- selves obliged to call in the assistance of their allies, and, among the rest, of the Athenians. It was with great difticulty that Cimon persuaded the Athenians to comply with this reqiiest ; but he was at length despatched to Laconia with a force of 4000 hoplites. The aid of the Athenians had been requested by the Lacedaemo- nians on account of their acknowledged superiority in the art of attacking fortified places. As, however, Cimon did not succeed in dislodging the Helots from Ithome, the^iiacedaimonians, proba- bly from a consciousness of their own treachery in the affair of Thasos, suspected that the Athenians wsrc playing them false^ and abruptly dismissed them, saying that they had no longer any occasion for their services. This rude dismissal gave great oftence at Athens, and annihilated for a time the political influence of Cimon. Tiie democratical party h.ad from the first opposed the expedition ; and it afforded them a great trium])h to be able to point to Cimon returning not only unsuccessful, but insulted. 76 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX Tliat party was now led by rericles. A sort of hcrcLlitary feud existed between I'ericles and Cinion ; for it was Xanthijipus, the father of Tcricles, wlio had impeached Mihiades, the father of Ci- mon. The character of Tericles was almost the reverse of Ci- mou's. Although the leader of the ])Opular party, his manners were reserved. He a]ipcared but little in society, and only in pub- lic upon great occasions. His mind had received the highest ])ol- ish whicli that period was capable of giving. He constantly con versed with Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Zeno, and other eminent ] lii- losophers. To oratoiy in particular he had devoted much atten- tion, as an indispensable instrument for swaying the public assem- blies of Athens. Tcricles seized the occasion ])rcscntcd by the ill success of Ci- mon both to ruin that leader and to strike a fatal blow at the aris- tocratic party. lie deprived the Areopagus of its chief functions, and left it a mere shadow of its former influence and j^ower. He rendered the election to magistracies dependent simjsly ujjon lot, so that every citizen, however poor, had an equal ci-.aiice of ob- taining the honours of tlie state. Other changes which accom- ].anied this revolution for such it must be called were the insti- tution of paid dicostcrics or jury-courts, and the almost entire ab- rogation of the judicial power of the Senate of Eive Hundred. It cannot bo su])posed tluit such fundamental changes were efl'ectcd without violent party strife. The poet ^^schylus, in the tragedy of the Euvicnides, in vain exerted all the powers of his genius in support of the aristocratical party and of the tottering Areopagus ; his exertions on this occasion resulted onl}' in his own flight from Athens. The same fate attended Cimon himself; and he was condemned by ostracism (n.c. 4('.l) to a ten years' banishment. Nay, partv violence even went the length of assassination. Ephi- altcs, who had taken the lead in the attacks upon the Areopagus, fell beneath the dagger of a Ba^otian, hired by the conservativo party to despatch him. It was from tliis period (r..r. 4G1) that the long administration fcf I'ericles may l)c said to liavc commenced. The cllccts of his accession to power soon became visible in the foreign relations of Athens, rericles had succeeded to the political principles of Themistoclcs, and his aim was to render Athens the leading pow- er of Greece. The Confederacy of Dclos had already secured her maritime ascendency; Pericles directed his policy to the extension of her influence in continental Greece. She fonned an alliance witli the Thessalians, Argos, and ISIcgara. The possession of ile- gura was of great iinjiortance, as it enabled the Athenians to ar- rest the progress of an invading army from I'cloitonucsus. .^gina. B.C. 418. rPiEDOMINANCE OF ATUEXS. 77 so lonir th3 maritime rival of Athens, was subdued and made trih . utarr. The Athenian^! marched v.ath ra})id steps to the dominion of Greece. Shortly afterwards the battle of CEnopliyta (b.c. 45G), in which the Athenians defeated the Boeotians, gave Athens tho command of Thebes, and of all the other Ba^otian towns. From the Gulf of Corinth to the Straits of Thermopykia Athenian influ- ence was now predominant. Daring these events the Athenians had continued to prosecute the war against Persia. In the yei.f B.C. 460 they sent a powerful fleet to Egypt to assist Inarus, win had revolted against Persia ; but this expedition proved a com- plete failure, for at the end of six years the revolt was put down by the Persians, and the Atlienian fleet destroyed (b.c. 455). At a later period (b.c. 449), Cimon, Avho had been recalled from ex- ile, sailed to Cyprus with a fleet of 209 ships. He undertook the siege of Citium in that island, but died during the progi-ess of it, either from disease or from the eflects of a wound. Shortly afterwards a pacification was concluded with Persia, which is some- times, but erroneously, called " the peace of Cimon." It is stated that by this compact the Persian monarch agreed not to tax or molest the Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor, nor to send any vessels of war Avestward of Phaselis in Lycia, or within tho Cyanean rocks at the junction of the Euxine with the Tliracian Bosporus; the Athenians on their side undertaking to leave the Persians in undisputed possession of Cyprus and Egypt. During the progress of these events, the states which formed the Confed- eracy of Delos, with the exception of Chios, Lesbos, and Samos, had gradually become, instead of the active allies of Athens, her disarmed and passive tributaries. Even the custody of the fund had been transferred from Delos to Athens. The purpose for which the confederacy had been originally organized disappeared with the Persian peace ; yet what may now be called Imperial Athens continued, for her own ends, to exercise her prerogatives as head of the league. Her alliances, as we have seen, had like- wise been extended in continental Greece, where they embraced Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris ; together with Troezen and Achaia in Peloponnesus. Such was the position of Athens in the year 448 B.C., the period of her greatest power and prosperity. From this time her empire began to decline ; while Sparta, and other watchful and jealous enemies, stood ever ready to strike a blow. In the following year (b.c. 447) a revolution in Boeotia deprived Athens of her ascendency in that country. With an overweening contempt of their enemies, a small band of 1000 Athenian lioplites, chiefly composed of youthful volunteers belonging lo the best Athe- nian families, together with a few auxiliaries, marched imder the 78 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX, command of Tolmides to put down tlic revolt, in direct ojiposition to the advica of Pericles, who adjurcil them to w:iit and collect a more numerous force. The enterprise proved disastrous in the extreme. Tolmides was defeated and slain near Ciiaeronca; a large number of the lio])litcs also fell in the engagement, whilst a still larger number were taken ])risoners. This last circumstance proved fatal to the interests of Athens in Baotia. In order to re- cover these prisoners she agreed to evacuate Bocotia, and to penniv the re-establishment of the aristocracies which she had formerly overthrown. But the Athenian reverses did not end here. Tho expulsion of the i)artisans of Athens from the government of Pho- cis and Locris, and the revolt of Euboca and Megara, were an- nounced in quick succession. Tlie youthful Pleistoanax, king of Sparta, actually penetrated, with an army of Lacedaemonians and Peloponnesian allies, as far as the neighbourhood of Eleusis; and the capital itself, it is said, was saved only by Pericles having bribed the Spartan monarch. Pericles reconquered Eubwa ; but this was the only possession which the Athenians succeeded in re- covering. Their emjare on land had vanished more speedily than it b.ad been acquired; and they were therefore induced to CdU- clude, at the beginning of n.c. 44"), a Tiiikty Yeaks' Truce with Sparta and her allies, by which they consented to abandon all tho acquisitions which they had made in Peloponnesus, and to leave Megara to be included among the Peloponnesian allies of 8j)arta. From the Thirty Years' Truce to the commencement of the I'e- loponncsian war, (aw political events of any importance occurred. During these fourteen years (n.c. 445-431) Pericles continued to enjoy the sole direction of affairs. His views were of the most lofty kind. Athens was to become the capital of Greece, and the centre of art and refinement. In her external aiii>earance tlie city was to be rendered worthy of the high position to which she aspired, by the beauty and splendour of her public buildings, by her works of art in sculpture, architecture, and painting, and by the i)omp and magnificence of her religious festivals. All these objects Athens was enabled to attain in an incredibly short si)ace of time, through tlie genius and energy of her citizens, and the vast resources at her command. No state lias ever exhibited so much intellectual ac- tivity and so great a progress in art as was disjdaycd by Athens in the ])eriod wliicli clajjsed between the 'i'hirty Years' Truce and the breaking out of the I'elopunnesiau war. bhe was the seat and centre of Grecian literature. The three great tragic poets of Greece were natives of Attica. Jl^^schylus, the earliest of the throe, had recently died in Sicily ; but St)])h()clcs was now at the full height of his reputation, and Eurijiidcs was rapidly rising into notice. Aristoiiliaiies, the greatest of the comic p()"ts, was Jilso B.C. 440. PERICLES. 79 born in Attica, and exliibited plays soon after tho beginning of the Feloponncsiau war. Herodotus, the Father of History, though a native of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, resided some time at Athens, and accompanied a colony which the Athenians sent to Thurii in Italy. Thucydides, the greatest of Greek historians, was an Athe- Hian, and was a young man at this period. Colonization, for wliich the genius and inclination of the Athe- nians had always been suited, was another method adopted by Per- icles for extending the influence and empire of Athens. The set- tlements made under his auspices were of two kinds, ClerucJdes^ and regular colonies. The former mode was exclusively Athe- nian. It consisted in the allotment of land in conquered or sub- ject countries to certain bodies of Athenians, who continued to retain all their original rights of citizenship. This circumstance, as well as the convenience of entering upon land already in a state of cultivation, instead of having to reclaim it from the rude condi- tion of nature, seems to have rendered sut*a a mode of settlement much preferred by the Athenians. The earliest instance which we find of it is in the year b.c. 50G, when four thousand Athenians entered upon the domains of the Chalcidian knights (see p. 38). But it was under Pericles that this system was most extensively adopted. During his administration 1000 Athenian citizens were settled in the Thracian Chersonese, 500 in Naxos, and 250 in Andros. The islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, as well as a large tract in the north of Euboea, were also completely occupied by Athenian proprietors. The most important colonies settled by Pericles were those of Thurii and Amphipolis. Since the destruction of Sj^baris by the Crotoniates in b.c. 509, the former inhabitants had lived dispersed in the adjoining territory along the Gulf of Tarentum. In b.c. 443 Pericles sent out a colonv to found Thurii, near the site of the ancient Sybaris. The colony of Amphipolis was founded some years later (r..c. 437), under the conduct of Agnon. But Pericles, notwithstanding his influence and power, had still many bitter and active enemies, who assailed him through his private connections, and even endeavoured to wound his honour by a charge of peculation. Pericles, after divorcing a wife with wliom lie had lived unhappily, took his mistress Aspasia to his house, and dwelt with her till his death on terms of the greatest affection. She was distinguished not only for her beauty, but also for her learning and accomplishments. Her intimacy with An- axagoras, the celebrated Ionic philosopher, was made a handle for wounding Pericles in his tenderest relations. Paganism, notwith- standing its license, was capable of producing bigots ; and even at Athens the man who ventured to dispute the exist-^* oe of a hund- 60 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. IX. red gods with morals and passions somewhat worse than those of ordinar}' human nature, did so at the risk of his life. Anaxag- oras was indicted for impiety. Aspasia was included in the same charge, and dragged before the courts of justice. Anaxagoraa prudently fled from Athens, and thus probably avoided a fate which, in conseqiicnce of a simihir accusation, afterwards overtook Socra- tes. Pericles himself pleaded the cause of Aspasia. lie was in- deed indirectly implicated in tlie indictment ; but he felt no con- cci'n except for his beloved Aspasia, and on this occasion the cold and somewhat haughty statesman, whom the most violent storms of the assembly could not deprive of his self-possession, was for once seen to wcej). His appeal to the jury was successful, but an- other trial still awaited him. An indictment was preferred against his friend, the great scul[)tor Phidias, for the embezzlement of the gold intended to adorn the celebrated ivory statue of Athena; and, according to some, Pericles himself was included in the charge of peculation. Whetlier Pericles was ever actually tried on this ac- cusation is uncertain ; but, at all events, if he Avas, there can be no doubt that he was honourably acquitted. The gold employed in the statue had been fixed in such a manner that it could be de- tached and weighed, and Pericles challenged his accusers to tlic proof. But Phidias did not escape so fortunately. There were other circumstances which rendered him unpopular, and amongst them the fact that he had introduced portraits both of himself and Pericles in the sculjitiircs which adorned the fiieze of the Parthe- non. Phidias died in prison before tlie day of trial. The Athenian emi)ire, since the conclusion of the Thirty Years' Truce, had again become exclusively maritime. Yet even among the subjects and allies united with Athens by the Confederacy of Delos, her sway was borne with growing discontent. One of the chief causes of this dissatisfaction was the amount of the tribute exacted by the Athenians, as well as their misapplication of the proceeds. In the time of Aristides and Cimon, when an active war was carrying on against the IVrsians, the sum annually collected amounted to 4G() talents. In the time of Pericles, although that ivar had been brought to a close, the tribute had nevertheless in- creased to the annunl sum of 000 talents. Another grievance was the transference to Athens of all lawsuits, at least of all public suits; for on this subject we ;ire unable to drav/ the line distinct- ly. In criminal cases, at all events, the allies seem to have been deprived of the jjower to inflict cajjital punishment. Besides all these caiises of complaint, the allies hail often to endure the op- pressions and exactions of the Athenian oflicers, both military and naval, as well as of the rich and powerful Athenian citizens settled imonc lliem B.C. 43D. CORCYRA AND CORINllI. 1 In B.C. 440, Samos, one of tho tlirco independent allies already mentioned, revolted from Athens; but even this island was no match for the Athenian power. Pericles, who sailed against the Samians in person, defeated their fleet in several engagements, and forced the city to capitulate. The Samians were compelled to raze tlieir fortifications, to surrender their fleet, to give hostages for their fu- ture conduct, and to pay the expenses of the war. The triumphs and the power of Athens were regarded with fear and jealousy by her rivals ; and the quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra ligiited the spark which Avas to produce the conflagration. On tlie coast of Illyria, near the site of the modern Durazzo, the Corcyrasans had founded the city of Epidamnus. Corcyra (now Corfu) was itself a colony of Corinth ; and though long at enmity with its mother country, was forced, according to the time-hallow- ed custom of the Greeks in such matters, to select the founder of Epidamnus from the Corinthians. Accordingly, Corinth became the metropolis of Epidamnus as well as of Corcyra. At the time of which we speak, the Epidamnians, being hard pressed by the Illyrians, led by soriie oligarchical exiles of their own city, applied to Corcyra for assistance, which the Corcyrtcans, being connected with the Epidamnian oligarchy, refused. The Epidamnians then sought help from the Corinthians, who undertook to assist them. The Corcyrajans, highly resenting this interference, attacked the Corinthian fleet off Cape Actium, and gained a signal victory (n.c. 435). Deeply humbled by this defeat, the Corinthians spent the two following years in active preparations for retrieving it. The Cor- cyraeans, who had not enrolled themselves either in the Lacedae- monian or Athenian alliance, and therefore stood alone, were great- ly alarmed at these preparations. They now resolved to remedy this deficiency ; and, as Corinth belonged to the Lacedaemonian alli- ance, the Corcyrasans had no option, and were obliged to apply to Athens. The majority of the Athenians were ready to comply with their request; but, in order to avoid an open infringement of tho Thirty Years' Truce, it was resolved to conclude only a dcfensivo alliance with Corcyra that is, to defend the Corcyrrcans in case their territories were actually invaded by the Corinthians, but be- yond that not to lend them any active assistance. A small Athe- niaii squadron of only 10 triremes was despatched to the assistance of the Corcyra?ans. Soon after their arri^-al a battle ensued off the coast of Epirus, betvv'een tho Corinthian and Corcyraean fleets. Aft- er a hard-fought day, victory finally declared in favour of the Co- rinthians. The Athenians now abandoned tlieir neutrality, and did all in their power to save tlie flying Corcvrasans from their pur- 82 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. IX suors. This action took place early in the niorninp; and the Co- rhithians prepared to renew the attack in the afternoon, when thev saw in the distance 20 Athenian vessels, which they believed to bo tlie advanced guard of a still larger fleet. They accordingly sail- ed away to the coast of Epirus ; but, finding that the Athenians did not mean to undertake offensive operations against them, they departed homewards with their whole fleet. These events took place in the year B.C. 432. The Corinthians were naturally incensed at the conduct of Athens, and it is not surprising that they should have watched for an opportunity of revenge. This was soon afforded them by tlici enmity of the Macedonian prince Perdiccas towards the Athenians. lie incited her tributaries upon the coast of Macedonia to revolt, including Potida^a, a town seated on tlie isthmus of Pallene, Poti. d:ea, though now a tributary of Athens, was originally a colony of the Corinthians, and received from them certain annual magistrates. Being urged as well by the Corinthians as by Perdiccas, the l^oti- da;ans openly raised the standard of revolt (b.c. 432). A powerful Athenian annament was despatched to the coast of Macedonia and laid siege to Potidaca. Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians, iirged on all sides by the com- plaints of their allies against Athens, summoned a general meet- ing of the Peloponnesian confederacy at Sparta. The Corinthians took tlie most prominent part in the debate ; but other members of the confederacy had also heavy grievances to allege against Athens. Foremost among these were the JNIegarians, who complained that their commerce had been ruined by a recent decree of the Athe- nians which excluded them from eveiy port within the Athenian jurisdiction. It was generally felt that the time had now arrived for cliecking the power of Athens. Influenced by these feelings, the Lacedaemonians decided upon war; and the congress passed a resolution to the same effect, thus binding the whole Peloponne- Bian confederacy to the same policy. This important res(dution was adopted towards the close of v..c. 432, or early in the following year. Lefore any actual declaration of war, hostilities were begun in the spring of u.c. 431 by a treacherous attack of the Thebans upon Plataa. Though Baotians by descent, the Plata'ans did not belong to the Ba^otian league, but had long been in close alliance with the Atlicnicans, Hence they were regarded with liatred and jealousy by the Thebans, whicli sentiments were also shared l)y a small oligarchical faction in Plata-a itself. The Platrean oligarcha secretly admitted a body of 300 Thebans into the town at night ; but the attempt proved a faihu'c ; the citizens flew to arms; and in tlie morning all the Thebans were cither blaiu or taken i)riscncrii 11 II 't. Temple uf >.'iko Aptc. us (the Wingless V^ictoiy), on the Aci'opolis at Atlicna. CHAPTER X. ATHENS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. At the commencement of the Peloponncsian war Athens was at the height of its glory under the brilliant administration of Peri- cles. We may therefore here pause to take a brief survey of the city and of its most important buildings. Athens is situated about thi'ee miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica. In this plain rise several eminences. Of these the most prominent Is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked summit, now called the hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the name of Lycabettus. This mountain, which Avas not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edin- burgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a mile from the latter, Avas the Acropolis, or citadel of Atliens, a square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Im- mediately west of the Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the Areopagus. To the south-west there rises a third liill. the 86 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. Pmjx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held ; and to the south of the latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum. On the eastern and western sides of the city there run two small streams, which are nearly exhausted before they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and by the channels for artificial irrigation. I'l:in of Athens. 1. Pnyx Eoclcsia. v. Tlieseum. 3. Tlieutro of Dionysus. 4. Odcuni of Poricloa. 6. Tt-iuiilo of the Olympinn Zeus. That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed through the southern quarter of the city : that on the west is the Cci)hissus. South of the city was seen the Saronic Gulf, Avith the liarbours of Athens. Athens is said to have derived its name from the ])rominencc piven to the worship of Athena by its king Erechlheus. The in- habitants were previously called Cranai and Cecropida), from Ce- crops, who, according to tradition, was the original founder of the city. This at lirst occupied only the hill or rock wliich afterwards became the Armjjo/is ; but gradually the buildings began to spread over the ground at the southern foot of thi-s hill. It Avas not till the time of Tisistratus and his sons (n.c. r>(j()-r)14) that the city began to assume any degree of splendour. The most remarkable building of these dcsjjots was the gigantic tcm]le of the Olymjiian CUAP. X. CITY OF ATHENS. 8? Zeus, which, however, was not finished till many centuries later. In B.C. 500 the theatre of Dionysus was commenced on the soiith- eastern slope of the Acropolis, but was not completed till b.g. 340 ; though it must have been used for the representation of plays long before that period. Ruins of the Temple of the Olympian Zeus. Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes. After the departure of the Persians, its reconstruction on a much larger scale was commenced under the superintendence of The- mistocles, whose first care was to provide for its safety by the erec- tion of walls. The Acropolis now formed the centre of the city, round which the new walls described an irregular circle of about 60 stadia or 7i miles in circumference. The space thus inclosed formed the Asty, or city, properly so called. But the views of Themistocles were not confined to the mere defence of Athens : he contemplated making her a great naval power, and for this purpose adequate docks and arsenals Avere required. Previously the Athenians had used as their only harbour the open roadstead 88 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ci'ap. X. of Phalcrum on the eastern side of the Phalcric bay, where the Bea-shore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles transferred the naval station of the Athenians to tlie peninsula of Pirajus, Avhicli is distant about 4^ miles from Athens, and contains three natural harbours a large one on the western side, called simply Pinrns, or The Ilarbo7tr, and two smaller ones on the eastern side, called respectively Zca and Mtmyckia, the latter being nearest to the city. It was not till the administration of Pericles that the walls were built which connected Athens with her ports. These were at first the outer or northern Long Wall, Avhich ran from Atliens to PiraBus, and the Phaleric wall qonnecting the city with Phalerum. These were commenced in r-.c. 4o7, and finished in the following year. It was soon found, however, that the space thus inclosed Avas too vast to be easily defended; and as the port of Phalcrum was small and insignificant in comparison with the Piraus, and soon ceased to be used by the Athenian ships of war, its Avail was abandoned and probably alloAved to fall into decay. Its place Avas snpi)lied by another Long Wall, Avhich Avas built parallel to the first at a distance of only 550 feet, thus rendering both capa- ble of being defended by the same body of men. Tlieir height in all probability Avas not less than GO feet. In process of time the space betAA-een the two Long Walls Avas occupied on each side by houses. It will be seen from the preceding description that Athens, in its larger accci)tation, and including its port, consisted of tAvo cir- cular cities, the Asty and Piroms, each of about Ih miles in cir- cumference, and joined together by a broad street of betAveen four and five miles long. Such Avas the outAvard and material form of that city, Avhich during the i)eriod between the Persian and Peloponnesian Avars reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory. The latter portion of tliis period, or that comprised under the as- cendency of Pericles, cxliibits Athenian art in its highest state of perfection, and is therefore by Avay of excellence commonly desig- nated as the age of Pericles. The great sculptor of tliis period perhaps the greatest the Avorld has ever seen Avas Pliidias, to whom Pericles intrusted the superintendence of all the Avorks ex- ecuted in his administration. The first public monuments tliat arose after the Persian Avars were erected under the auspices of Cimon, Avho Avas, like Pericles, a lover and patron of the arts. The principal of these AN'ere the small Ionic tem])li; of Niko Apteros (Wingless Victory), and the Theseum, or Temple of Theseus. The temple of Nike Apteros was only 27 feet in length by 18 in breadth, and Avas expected on Chap. X. MONUMENTS OF CIMON. 89 the Acropolis in commemoration of Cimon's victory at the Eurym- cdon. A view of it is given at the beginning of this chapter, and its position on the Acropolis, on one side of the Propylaa, is seen in the drawings on p. 91, as well as on the Frontispiece of the work. The Theseum restored. The Theseum is situated on a height to the north of the Areop- agus, and was built to receive the bones of Theseus, which Cimon brought from Scyros in B.C. 469. It was probably finished about 4G5, and is the best preserved of all the monuments of ancient Athens. It was at once a tomb and temple, and possessed the privileges of an asylum. It is of the Doric order, 104 feet in lengtli by 45 feet broad, and surrounded with columns. But it was the Acropolis which was the chief centre of the architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars the 'Acropolis had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated to the worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city. It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus ft3 platform presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum, contain- iri'r the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colours, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of tho 90 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. Athenir.n atmosphere. It was surrounded with walls, and the surface seems to have been divided into terraces communicating vith one another by steps. The only approach to it was from the Agora on its western side. At tlie top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood tlie Propykta, constructed under 1. Parthenon. 2. Erechilicuin. Plan of the Acropolis. 3. Propyla-ft. 4. Tuii;i)le of Nike Apteros. 5. Statue of Athena Promacbus- the auspices of Pericles, and which served as a suitable entrance to the exquisite woiks within. The Proi)ylKa were themselves one of the masterjneces of Athenian art. They were cntii*ely of rentelic marble, and covered tlie whole of the western end of the Acropolis, having a breadth of 1C8 feet. Tiic central ])ortion of .;hem consisted of two porticoes, of which the western one faced I;he city, and the eastern one the interior of the Acropolis, each consisting of a front of six fluted Doric columns. This central part of the building was 58 feet in breadth, but the remaining breadth of the rock at this point was covered by two wings, which projected 2G feet in front of the western portico. Each of these wings was in the form of a Doric temple. The northern one, or that on the left of a i)crson ascending the Acropolis, was called the I'inacotlicca, from its walls being covered witli paintings. The southern wing consisted only of a ])orch or oi)en gallery. Im- mediately before its western front stood the little temple of Niko Apteros already mentioned. On ])assing through tlu; rropyhva all the glories of the Acropolis became visible. The chiut'ljuihling waa the I'artlienon (/. ., llouio Chap. X. THE TROrYLiEA THE PARTHENON. 91 of the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian architecture. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena I'arthenos, or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It was also called Ilecatompedon, from its breadth of 100 feet. It was built under the administration of Pericles, and was completed in B.C. 438. The Parthenon stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near its centre, and probably occupied the site of an earlier temple destroyed by the Persians. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a rustic basement of ordinaiy limestone, and its architecture, which was of the Doric order, Avas of the purest kind. Its dimensions were about 228 feet in length, 101 feet in breadth, and 66 feet in height to the top of the pediment. It consisted of a cella, sur- rounded by a peristyle. The cella was divided into two chambers of unequal size, the eastern one of which Avas about 98 feet long, and the western one about 43 feet. The ceiling of both these chambers was supported by rows of columns. The Avhole build- ing Avas adorned Avith the most exquisite sculptures, executed by The Propylsea restored. A. Pinncotlieca. B. Temple of Nike Apteros. C. Pedestal of Agrippa. I). Road lending to the central entrance. E. Central entrance. F. Hall corresponding to the Pinscotheca. rarious artists tmdcr the direction of Phidias. These consisted of, 1. The sculptures in the tympana of the pediments (/. e., the inner portion of the triangular gable ends of the roof above the two porticoes), each of which Avas filled with about 24 colossal figures. The group in the eastern or principal front represented the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus, and the Avcstern the HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X. contest bc:;wccn Athena and Poseidon (Neptune) for the land of Attica. 2. Tlie metopes between the ti-i^lyi)hs in tlie frieze of the entablature (/. c, the upper of the two portions into Avhich tlie space between the columns and the roof is divided) were filled with sculptures in high relief, representing a variety of subjects relating to Atliena herself, or to the indigenous heroes of Attica. Each tablet was 4 feet 3 inches square. Those on the south side related to the battle of the Athenians with the Centaurs. One of the metopes is tigured below. 3. The frieze which ran along out- side the wall of the cclla, and within the external columns which surround the building, at the same height and parallel with the \,.MM^i-^ The Partheuou restored. metopes, was sculptured with a representation of the Panathenaic festival in very low relief. This frieze was 3 feet 4 inches in height, and 520 feet in length. A smiill portion of the frieze is also figured below. A large number of the slabs of the frieze, to- gether with sixteen metopes from the south side, and several of the statues of the pediments, were brought to England by Lord Elgin, of wliom they were purchased by the nation and deposited in the Britir^Ii Museum. ]>ut the chief wonder of the Parthenon Avas the colossal statue of the Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias himsalf, which stood in the eastern or princij)Ml chamber of the cclla. It was of the sort called r/in/s( /rj)/uiiiliii<', a i. X. thcns, and from the earliest times was associated with Athena as one of the two protecting deities of Athens. The original Ercch. tlieum was burnt by the Persians, bnt the new temple was erected on the ancient site. This could not have been otherwise ; for on this spot was the sacred olive-tree which Athena evoked from the earth in her contest with Poseidon, and also the well of salt water which Poseidon jjroduced by a stroke of his trident, the impression of which was seen upon the rock. The building was also called the temple of Athena Polias, because it contained a separate sanctuary of the goddess, as well as her most ancient statue. The building From the Frieze of the Parthcuou. 1 unuthcuiiic I'rocecrfiun. of the new Erectheum was not commenced till the Parthenon and Propylica were finished, and probably not before the year preceding the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. Its progress was rtd doubt delayed by tliat event, and it was probably not completed before o93 n.c. When finished it presented one of the finest models of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric. It stood to the north of the latter buildin;^, and close to the northern wall of the Acropolis. The form of the Erechtlieum differs from every known exani])le of a Grecian temple. Usually a Grecian tcm])lo v/as an ublou;^ fi.i^urc with a portico at each extremity. The Erechtlieum, on the contrary, though oblong in shape, and having a portico at the eastern or ])rincipal front, had none at its western end, where, however, a portico i)r()jectcd north and south from either side, thus forming a kind of transept. This irregularity seems to have l>cen chielly owing to the necessity of ])rcscrving the different sanctuaries and religious objects belonging to the ancient tcmi)lc. A view of it is given opposite. The roof of the southern portico, Bs shown in the view, was suitported by six Caryatides. Ciup. X. THE DIONYSIAC THEATRE. 9;? The Erechtheum rostored. Such were tlie principal objects w^hlch adorned the Acropolis at the time of which Ave are now speaking. Their general appearance will be best gathered from the engraving on the Frontispiece. Before quitting the city of Athens, there are two or three other objects of interest Avliich must be briefly described. First, the Dionysiac theatre, which occupied the slope at the southeastern extremity of tlie Acropolis. The middle of it was excavated out of the rock, and the rows of scats ascended in curves one above another, the diameter increasing with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently large to accommodate the whole body of Athenian citi- zens, as well as the strangers who flocked to Athens during the Dionysiac festival, but its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascertained. It had no roof, but the spectators were probably pro- tected from the sun by an awning, and from their elevated seats they had a distinct vi In the following year (n.c. 430) the Peloponncsians, under Ar- chidamus, renewed their invasion of Attica. At the same time the Athenians were attacked by a more insidious and a more for- midable enemy. The plague broke out in the crowded city. This terrible disorder, which was supposed to liave originated in JEthiuj)ia, Irid already desolated Asia, and many of the countries mound the INIediterranean. A great proportion of those who wcro seized perished in from seven to nine days. It frequently attack- ed the mental faculties, and left even thoso who recovered from it B.C. 430. THE PLAGUE AT ATHENS. 101 so entirely deprived of memory that they couhl recognize neither themselves nor others. The disorder being new, the physicians could find no remedy in the resources of their art. Despair now began to take possession of the Athenians. Some suspected that the Feloponnesians had poisoned the v.-ells ; others attributed the pestilence to the anger of Apollo. A dreadfid state of moral dis- solution followed. The sick -were seized with unconquerable de- spondency ; whilst a great part of the population who had hith- erto escaped the disorder, expecting soon to be attacked in turn, abandoned themselves to all manner of excess, debauchery, and crime. The numbers carried off by the pestilence can hardly be estimated at less than a fourth of the whole population. Oppressed at once by war and pestilence, their lands desolated, their homes filled with mourning, it is not surprising that the Athenians were seized with rage and despair, or that they vented their anger on Pericles, whom they deemed the author of their misfortune. But that statesman still adhered to his plans with unshaken firmness. Though the Lacedemonians were in Attica, though the plague had already seized on Athens, he was vigorously pushing his scheme of offensive operations. A foreign expedition might not only divert the popular mind, but would prove beneficial by relieving the crowded city of part of its population ; and ac- cordingly a fleet was fitted out, of which Pericles himself took the command, and wliich committed devastations upon various parts of the Peloponnesian coast. But, upon returning from this expe- dition, Pericles found the public feeling more exasperated than be- fore. Envoys had even been despatched to Sparta to sue for peace, but had been dismissed without a hearing ; a disappointment which had rendered the populace still more furious. Pericles now found it necessary to call a i^ubiic assembly in order to vindicate his con- duct, and to encourage the desponding citizens to persevere. But, though he succeeded in persuading them to prosecute the war with vigour, they still continued to nourish their feelings of hatred against the great statesman. His political enemies, of whom Cleon was the chief, took advantage of this state of the public mind to bring against him a charge of peculation. The main object of this accusation was to incapacitate him for the office of Strategus, or general.* He was brought before the dicastery on this charge, and sentenced to pay a considerable fine ; but eventually a strong' reaction occurred in his favour. He was re-elected general, and apparently regained all the influence he had ever possessed. * Tlie Strategi, or Generals, were ten in number, elected annually, and vreve intnir^tcd not only with the command in military expedition?, but with the su- perintendence of all warlike preparations, and with the regulation of all mattara VI any way connected with the wav department of the state. 102 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL But he was not destined long to enjo}' this return of popularity. His life was now closing in, and its end wa clouded by a long train of domestic misfortunes. The epidemic deprived him not only of many personal and political friends, but also of several near relations, amongst whom were his sister and his two legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus. Tlie death of tlie latter was a se- vere blow to him. During the funeral ceremonies, as he placed a garland on the body of his favourite son, he was completely OA'cr- powered by his feelings and wept aloud. His ancient house was now left witliout an heir. By Aspasia, however, he had an ille- gitimate son who bore his own name, and whom the Athenians now legitimized, and thus alleviated, as far as lay in their power,, the misfortunes of their great leader. After this period it was with difficulty that Pericles was per- suaded by his friends to take any active part in jniblic affairs ; nor did he survive more than a twelvemonth. An attack of the pre- vailing epidemic was succeeded by a low and lingering fever, which nndermined both his strength of body and vigour of intellect. As Pericles lay ai)i)arently unconscious on his death-bed, the friends who stood around it Avcre engaged in recalling his exploits. The dying man interrupted them by remarking, "What you praise in me is partly the result of good fortune, and, at all events, common to me Avith many otlier commanders. What I chiefly pride my- self upon you have not noticed no Athenian ever wore mourning through me." The enormous influence which Pericles exei'cised for so long a period OAcr an ingenious but fickle people like the Athenians is an unquestionable proof of his intellectual superiority. This hold on the public atfection is to be attributed to a great extent to his extraordinary eloquence. Cicero regards him as the first example of an almost perfect orator, at once delighting the Athenians with his copiousness and gi'ace, and overawing them by the force and cogency of his diction and arguments. He seems, indeed, to hava fiingiilarly combined tlie ])Owcr of pcrsunsion with that more rapid and abrupt style of oratory which takes an audience by storm and defies all resistance. As the accom]dished man of genius and the liberal patron of literature and art, Pericles is worthy of the high- est admiration. By the.^e qualities he has justly given name to the most brilliant intellectual epoch that tlic world has ever seen. But on tliis ])oint we have already touched, and shall have occa- sion to refer hereafter in the sketch of Grecian literature. , V^ In the third year of the war (n.c. 420) Archidamus directed his whole force against the ill-fated town of Plata\a. The siege that ensued is one of the most memorable in the ann.nlsj of Grecian B.C. 429. SIEGE OF PLATiEA. 103 warfare. Platrca was but a small city, and its garrison consisted of only 400 citizens and 80 Athenians, togetlier with 110 women to manage thciv household aflairs. Yet this small force set at de- fiance the whole army of the Feloponnesians. The latter, being re- pulsed in all their attemjjts to take the place by storm, resolved to turn the siege into a blockade, and reduce the city by famine. The Platajans endured a blockade of two years, during which the Athe- nians attempted nothing for their relief. In the second year, how- ever, about half the garrison effected their escape ; but the rest wore obliged to surrender shortly afterwards (n.c. 427). The whole garrison, consisting of 200 Platieans ami 25 Athenians, were now 'arraigned before five judges sent from Sparta. Their indictment was framed in a way which precluded the possibility of escape. They were simply asked "Whether, during the present war, they had rendered any assistance to the Lacedemonians and their al' lies?" Each man was called up separately before the judgment- seat, and the same question having been put to him, and, of course, answered in the negative, he was immediately led away to execu- tion. The town of Plataa was transferred to the Thebans, who, a few months afterwards, levelled all the private buildings to the ground. Thus was Plataea blotted out from the map of Greece uji'T' (B.C. 427). In recording the fall of Plata3a we have anticipated the order of chronology. Tne most important event in the fourth year of the war(B.c Ji^^ 428) was the revolt of Mytilene, the capital of Lesbos, and of the greater part of that island. The Athenians sent out a fleet which blockaded Mytilene both by sea and land. The Peloponnesians promised their assistance ; but, from various causes, their fleet was unable to reach the place. Meanwhile the provisions of the town were exhausted, and it was therefore resolved, as a last desperate expedient, to make a sally, and endeavour to raise the blockade. With this view even the men of the lower classes were armed with the full armour of the hoplites. But this step produced a very dif- ferent result from what had been expected or intended. The great mass of the Mytileneans regarded their own oligarchical govern- ment with suspicion, and now threatened that, unless tlieir de- mands were complied with, they would surrender the city to the Athenians. In this des])erate emergency the Mytilenean govern- ment perceived that their only chance of safety lay in anticipating the people in this step. They accordingly opened a negotiation M'ith Paches, the Athenian commander, and a ca])itulation was agreed upon by which the city was to be surrendered, and the fate of its inhabitants to be decided by ilie Athenian Assembly. At Athens the disposal of the prisoners caused great debate. I* 104 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XI. was on this occasion that the leather-seller Clcon first comes prom< inently fonvard in Athenian .aihiirs. Jf we may trust tlie jtictiire drawn by tlic comic i)oet Aristoi)liancs, Cleon was a perfect model of a low-born demagogue ; a noisy brawler, insolent in his gestures, corrupt and venal in liis princijiles. INIuch allowance must no doubt be made for comic license and exaggeration in this portrait, but even a caricature must have some grounds of truth for its basis. It was this man who took the lead in the debate respecting tlia disposal of the Mytileneans, and made the savage and liorrible pro- posal to put to death the ichole male population of Mytilenc of military age, and to sell the women and children into slaA'cry. This motion he succeeded in carrying, and a trireme was imme- diately despatched to Mytilene, conveying orders to Paelics to carry the bloody decree into execution. This barbarous decree made no discrimination between the innocent and the guilty ; and on the morrow so general a feeling prevailed of the horrible in- justice tliat had been committed, that the magistrates acceded to the i)rayer of the Mytilcnean envo3's and called a fresh assembly. Notwithstanding the violent opposition of Cleon, the majority of the assembly reversed their former decree, and resolved that the Mytileneans already in custody should be put upon their trial, but that tlie remainder of the population should be spared. A sec- ond trireme was immediately des])atched to ]\lytilenc, with orders to Paches to arrest the execution. The utmost diligence was need- ful. Tlie former trireme had a start of four-and-twenty hours, and nothing but exertions almost superhuman would enable the second to reacli Mytilene early enougli to avert the tragical catas- trophe. The oarsmen were allowed bv turns only short intervals of rest, and took their food, consisting of barley-meal steeped in wine and oil, as they sat at the oar. llai)])ily the weather proved favourable ; and the crew, wlio had been jiromiscd large rewards in case they arrived in time, exerted themselves to deliver the re- prieve, whilst the crew of tlie preceding vessel had conveyed the order for execution with slowness and reluctance. Yet even so the countermand came only just in time. The mandate avus al- ready in the hands of Paches, wlio was taking measures for its execution. Tlui fortifications of Mytilene were razed, and her fleet delivered up to the Athenians. i^y The fate of the Platjcans and INlytileneans affords a fearful illus- tration of the manners of the age ; but these horrors soon found a ])arallel in Corcyra. A fearful struggle took place in this island between the aristocratical and ileniociaiical parties. The peojilc at length obtained the nnistcry, and the vengeance which they took on their opponents was fearful. The most sacred sanctuarie* B.C. 428. CONQUEST OF MYTILENE. 105 alForded no protection ; the nearest ties of blood and kindred were sacrificed to civil hatred. In one case a father slew even his own son. These scenes of horror lasted for seven days, during which death in every conceivable form was busily at work. The seventh year of the war (b.c. 425) Avas marked by an im-t| x^y portant event. An Athenian fleet was detained by bad weather at Pylus in Messenia, on the modern Bay of Navavino. Deraoss- Buy of Pylus. .. Island of Spbacteria. B. Pylus. C. The modern Navariiio. D D. Day of Pyllfc E. Promontory of Coryphasiuin. thenes, an active Atlienian officer, wlio was on board the fleet, thought it an eligible spot on which to establish some of the Mes- Bsnians from Naupactus, since it was a strong position, from which they might annoy the Lacedaemonians, and excite revolt among their Ilelot kinsmen. As the bad Aveather continued for some time, the soldiers on board amused themselves, under the direo- iOG HISTORY OF GiyiECE. Chap. XI tions of Demosthenes, in constmctinfc a sort of rude fortification. The nature of the j^round was favourable for the work, and in iivo or six days a wall was thrown up sulhcient for the purposes of de- fence. Demosthenes imdcrtook to garrison the place; and five ships and 200 hoplites Avere left behind with him. This insult to the Lacedaemonian territory caused great alarm and indignation at Sparta. The rdoponnesian fleet was ordered to Pylus ; and tlie Lacedicmonian commander, on arriving with the fleet, immediately occupied the small uninhabited and densely wooded island of Sphacteria, which, with the exception of two narrow channels on the north and south, almost blocked uj* the entrance of the biiy. Between the island and the main land was a spacious basin, in which the fleet took iip its station. The Lace- d:vmonians lost no time in attacking the fortress; but, notwith- standing their repeated attempts, they were unable to effect a land- ing. Whilst they were preparing far another assault, they were sur- prised by the appearance of the Athenian fleet. They had strange- ly neglected to secure the entrances into the bay; and, when the Athenian ships came sailing through both the undefended chan- nels, many of their ti'iremes were still moored, and part of their crews ashore. The battle which ensued was despernte. Both sides fouglit with extraordinary valour ; but victory at length de- clared for the Athenians. Five Peloponncsian ships were cap- tured ; the rest were saved only by running them ashore, whero they were protected by the Lacedaemonian army. Tlie Athenians, thus masters of the sea, were enabled to blocks ade the island of Sphacteria, in whicli the flower of the Lacedae- monian army was shut up, many of them native Spartans of the highest families. In so grave an emergency messengers were sent to S])arta for advice. The Ej)hors themselves immediately re- paired to the spot ; and so desponding was their view of the mat- ter, that they saw no issue from it but a i)cace. They therefore proposed and obtained an armistice for the purpose of o])ening ne- gotiations at Athens. But the Athenians, at the instigation of Clcon, insisted upon the most extravagant demands, and hostili- ties were accordingly resumed. They were not, however, attend- ed with any decisive result. The blockade of Si)hactcria began to grow tedious and harassing. The force upon it continually re- ceived sui)plics of ])rovisions cither from swimmers, who towed skins fllh'd with linseed and po]i])v-secd mixed with honey, or from Helots, who, induced by the jaoniise of large rewanls, eluded the blockading squadron during the dark and stormy nights, and landed cargoes on the back of the island. The summer, more B.C. 425. BLOCKADE OF SPIIACTERIA. 10^ over, was fast ^yearing away, and the storms of winter oight prob- ably necessitate tlio ruisinj^ of tlie blockade altogether. Undet these circumstances, Demosthenes began to contemplate a descent upon the island ; with which view he sent a message to Athens to explain the unfavourable state of the blockade, and to request furtlier assistance. These tidings were very distasteful to the Athenians, who had looked upon Sphacteria as their certain prey. They began to rcr gret having let slip the favourable opportunity for making a peace, and to vent their displeasure upon Cleon, the director of their conduct on that occasion. But Cleon put on a face of brass. He abused the Strategi. His political opponent, Nicias, was then one of those officers, a man of quiet disposition and moderate abilities, but thoroughly honest and incorruptible. Him Cleon now singled out for his vituperation, and, pointing at him with his finger, ex- claimed, "It would be easy enough to take the island if our gen- erals were men. If /were general, I would do it at once !" This burst of the tanner made the assembly laugh. He was saluted with cries of "Why don't you go, then?" and Nicias, thinking probably to catch his opponent in his own trap, seconded the voice of the assembly by offering to place at his disposal whatever force he might deem necessary for the enterprise. Cleon at first en- deavoured to avoid the dangerous honour thus thrust upon him. But the more he drew back the louder were the assemblv in call- ing upon him to accept the office ; and as Nicias seriously repeat- ed his proposition, he adopted with a good grace Avhat there was no longer any possibility of evading, and asserted that he would take Sphacteria within twenty days, and either kill all the Lace- demonians upon it, or bring them prisoners to Athens. Never did -general set out upon an enterprise under circum- stances more singular ; but, what was still more extraordinary, fortune enabled him to make his promise good. In fact, as we have seen, Demosthenes had already resolved on attacking the isl- and ; and when Cleon arrived at Pylus he found everything pre- pared for the assault. Accident fiivoured the enterprise. A fire kindled by some Athenian sailors, who had landed for the purpose of cooking their dinner, caught and destroyed the woods with which the island was overgrown, and thus" deprived the Lacedae- monians of one of their principal defences. Nevertheless, such was the awe inspired by the reputation of the Spartan arms, that Demosthenes considered it necessary to land about 10,000 soldiers of different descriptions, although the Lacedaimonian force con- sisted of only about 420 men. But this small force for a long while kept their assailants at bay; till some Messenians, stealing -I 108 HISTORY OF GKEECE. Chap. XI. round by tho sea-shore, over crags and clifts which the Lnccdae- nioniaiis had deemed impracticable, suddenly appeared on the high ground which overhung their rear. Tliey now began to give way, and would soon have been all slain ; but Clcon and Demosthenes, being anxious to carry them prisoners to Athens, sent a herald to summon them to surrender. The latter, in token of compliance, dropped their shields, and waved their hands above their heads. They requested, however, permission to communicate with their countrymen on the main land ; who, after two or three communi- cations, sent them a final message "to take counsel for them- selves, but to do nothing disgraceful." The survivors then sur- rendered. They were 2i)2 in number, 120 of whom were native Spartans belonging to the first families. By this surrender the prestige of the Spartan arms was in a great degree destroyed. The Spartans were not, indeed, deemed invincible ; but their pre- vious tbats, especially at Thermopylae, had inspired the notion that they would rather die tlian yield an opinion which could now no longer be entertained. Cleon had thus performed his promise. On the day after the victory he and Demosthenes started Avith tlie prisoners for Athens, where they arrived within 20 days from the time of Cleon's de- parture. Altogether, the alfair was one of the most fiivourable for the Athenians that had occurred during the war. The prisoners would serve not only for a guarantee against future invasions, which might be averted by threatening to put them to death, but also as a means for extorting advantageous conditions whenever a peace should be concluded. Nay, the victory itself was of con- siderable importance, since it enabled the Atlienians to place Ty- lus in a better posture of defence, and, by garrisoning it with Mcs- senians from Naupactus, to create a strongliokl whence Laconia might be oveiTun and ravaged at i)leasure. The Laceda;moniaus themselves were so sensible of these things, that they sent repeat- ed messages to Athens to jiroijose a peace, but which the Athe- nians altogether disregarded. The eightli year of the war (u.c. 424) opened witli brilliant pros- pects for the Atlienians. Elate with their continued good fortune, they aimed at nothing less tlian the recovery of all the posses- sions which they had lield before tlie Thirty Years' Truce. For this purpose tliey iilauned an expedition against Bieotia. But tlieir good fortune had now reached its culminating i)oint. They were defeated by the J5as spacious enough to receive a large iieet of ships of war. The outer city was surrounded on the north and cast by the sea, and by sea-walls which rendered an assault on that side almost iin[)racticable. On the land side it was defended by a wall, and partly also by the nature of the ground, which in some ]>arts was very steej). West and northwest of the wall of the outer city stood two unfortilied suburbs, which were, at a later jjcriod, included within the walliof Syracuse under the names of Tyche and Neapolis. Between these two suburl)s tlio ground rose in a gentle acclivity to the summit of the ranges of hills callvil Kpii)ola!. B.C. 415. ATHENIANS IN SICILY. \V It was from the high ground in Epipolce that Syracuse was most exposed to attack. Nicias landed at Leon, a place upon the Bay of Tliapsus, at the distance of only six or seven stadia from Epipolce, M:ip of Syiacuwe. took possession of Epipolro, and erected on the summit a fort called Labdalum. Then coming farther down the hill towards Syracuse, he built another fort of a circular form and of considerable size at a place called Sykc'. From the latter point he commenced his line of circumvallation, one wall extending southwards from Syke to the Great Harbour, and the other wall running northwards to the outer sea. The Athenians succeeded in completing the circum- vallation towards the south, but in one of their many engagements with the Syracusans they lost the gallant Lamachus. At the same time, the Athenian fleet entered the Great Harbour, where it was henceforth permanently established. The northern wall was nevcj 118 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIL completed, and through the passaf:je tints left open the bcsicc^ed con tiiiued to obtain provisions. Nicias, avIio, hy the death of Luniachus, had become sole commander, seemed now on the point of succeed- infc. The Syracusans were so sensible of their inferiority in tho field that they no longer ventured to show themselves outside tho walls. They began to contem})late surrender, and even sent mes- sages to Nicias to treat of the terms. This caused the Athenian commander to indulge in a false confidence of success, and conse- quent apathy ; and tlie army having lost the active and energetic Lamachus, operations were no longer carried on with the requisite activity. It was in this state of affairs tliat the Spartan commander, Gylippus, passed over into Italy with a little squadron of four ships, with the view merely of preserving the Greek cities in that country, supposing tliat Syracuse, and, with her, the other Greek cities in Sicily, Avorc irretrievably lost. At Tarcntum he learned to his great surprise and satisfaction that the Athenian Avail of circumA-allation at Syracuse had not yet been completed on the northern side, lie now sailed through the Straits of Mcssana, which were left completely unguarded, and arrived safely at Ilimcra on the nortli coast of Sicily. Here he announced liim- self as the forerunner of larger succours, and began to levy an army, which the magic of the Spartan name soon enabled him to effect ; and in a few days he was in a condition to march towards Svracuse Avith about 3000 men. The Syracusans now dismissed all thoughts of surrender, and went out boldly to meet Gylipi)U?, Avho marched into Syracuse over tlie heights of Epipohc, which the supineness of Nicias had left nnguarded. Upon arriving in the city, Gylippus sent a message to the Athenians allowing them a fiA'e days' truce to collect their effects and evacuate the island. Nicias returned no answer to this insulting proposal ; but the operations of Gylippus soon showed that the tide of affairs Avas really turned. His first exploit AA'as to capture the Athenian fort at Labdalum, Avhich made him master of Ei)ipola}. He next com- menced constructing a counter-wall to intersect tbe Athenian linos on the northern side. Tliis turn of affairs induced those Sicilian cities which had hitherto hesitated to embrace the side of Syracuse. Gylipi)us was also re-enforced by the arriA'al of thirty triremes from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia. Nicias now felt that the attcm])t to blockade Syracuse Avith his present force Avas lK)])elcss. Ho therefore resolved to occu])y the headland of Plemmyrium, tho southernmost point of the entrance to the Great Harbour, Avhich would be a conA'cnient station for Avatcliing the enemy, as well as for facilitating the introduction of lupplies. Here he accordingly B.C. 413. ATIIENIiVXS IN SICILY. 119 erected three forts and formed a naval station. Some slight af- fairs occurred, in which the balance of advantage was in favour of the Syracusans. By their change of station the Athenians were now a besieged rather than a besiegiijg force. Their triremes were becoming leaky, and tlieir soldiers and sailors were constantly deserting. Kicias himself had fallen into a bad state of health ; and in this discouraging posture of atuiirs lie wrote to Athens re- questing to be recalled, and insisting strongly on the necessity of sending re-enforcements. The Athenians refused to recall Nicias, but they determined en sending a large re-enforcement to Sicily under the joint command of Demosthenes and Eurymedon. The news of these fresh and extensive preparations incited the Lacedaemonians to more vigor- ous action. The peace, if such it can be called, was now openly broken ; and in the spring of 413 B.C., the Lacedamionians, under King Agis, invaded Attica itself, and, following the advice of Al- cibiades, established themselves permanently at Decelea, a place situated on the ridge of Mount Barnes, about 14 miles north of Athens, and commanding the Athenian plain. The city was thus placed in a state of siege. Scarcity began to be felt within tlic walls ; the revenues were falling off, whilst on the other hand ex- penses were increasing. Meanwhile in Sicily the Syracusans had gained such confidence that they even ventured on a naval engagement with the Athe- nians. In the first battle the Athenians were victorious, but the second battle, which lasted two days, ended in their defeat. They were now obliged to haul up their ships in the innermost part of the Great Harbour, under the lines of their fortified camp. A still more serious disaster than tlie loss of the battle was the loss of their naval reputation. It was evident that the Athenians had ceased to be invincible on 'he sea ; and the Syracusans no longer despaired of overcoming them on their own element. Such was the state of affairs when, to the astonishment of the Syracusans, a fresh Athenian fleet of 75 triremes, under Demos- thenes and Eurymedon, entered the Great Harbour with all the pom.p and circumstance of war. It had on board a force of 5000 lioplites, of Avhom about a quarter were Athenians, and a great number of light-armed troops. The active and enterprising char- acter of Demosthenes led him to adopt more vigorous measures than those which had been hitherto pursued. He saw at once that whilst Epipolre remained in the possession of the Syracusans there Avas no hope of taking their city, and he therefore directed all liis efforts to the recapture of that position. But his attempts were unavailing. He was defeated not only in an open assault 120 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XH upon the Syracusan wall, but in a noctumal attempt to carry ix by surprise. These reverses were aggravated by the breaking out of sickness among the troops. Demostliencs now proposed to re- turn home and assist in expelling the Lacedemonians from At- tica, instead of pursuing an enterprise which seemed to be ho])eN less. But Nicias, who feared to return to Athens with the Btigm:^ of failure, refused to give his consent to this step. Demosthenes then urged Nicias at least to sail immediately out of the Great Harbour, and take up their position cither at Thapsus or Catana, where they could obtain abundant supplies of provisions, and would have an open sea for the manoeuvres of their fleet. But even to this pi'oposal Nicias would not consent ; and the army and navy remained in their former position. Soon afterwards, however, Gylippus received such large re-enforcements, that Nicias found it necessary to adopt the advice of his colleague. Preparations were secretly made for their departure ; the enemy appear to have had no suspicion of their intention, and tljcy wei^e on the point of quitting their ill-fated quarters on the following morning, when, on the very night before (27th Aug., 413 n.c.), an eclipse of the moon took place. Tlie soothsayers Avho were consulted said that the army must wait thrice nine days, a full circle of the moon, before it could quit its present position ; and the devout and superstitious Nicias forthwith resolved to abide by this decision. Meanwhile the intention of the Athenians became known to the Syracusans, who determined to strike a blow before their enemy escaped. They accordingly attacked the Athenian station both by sea and land. On land the attack of Gylippus M-as repulsed ; but at sea the Athenian fleet was completely defeated, and Eurym- cdon, wlio commanded the right division, was slain. The spir- its of the Syracusans rose with their victories ; and though they would formerly have been content with the mere retreat of the Atlienians, they now resolved on effecting their utter destruction. With this view they blocked up the entrance of the Great Harbour with a line of vessels moored across it. All hope seemed now to be cut off from the Athenians, unless they could succeed in forc- ing this line and thus effecting their escape. The Athenian fleet Btill numbered 110 triremes, which Nicias furnished with grap- pling irons, in order to bring the enemy to close quarters, and tlien caused a large proportion of ins land-forces to embark. Never, perhaps, was a battle fought under circumstances of such intense interest, or witnessed by so many spectators vitally con- cerned in tlie result. Tlic basin of the Great Harbour, about 5 miles in circumference, in which nearly 200 shij)s, cacli witli crewa of more than 200 men, were about to engage, was lined with spec- B.C. 413. FIGHT IN THE GREAT HAEBOUR. 121 tators. The Syracusan fleet was the first to leave the shore, A considerahlc portion was detained to guard the harrier at the mouth of the liarbour. Hither the first and most impetuous attack of the Athenians was directed, who sought to break through the nar- row opening which had been left for the passage of merchant ves- sels. Their onset was repulsed, and the battle then became gen- eral. Tlie shouts of the combatants, and the crash of the iron heads of the vessels as they were driven together, resounded over the water, and were answered on shore by the cheers or wailings of the spectators as their friends were victorious or vanquished. For a long time the battle was maintained with heroic courage and dubious result. At length, as the Athenian vessels began to yield and make back towards the shore, a universal shriek of horror and despair arose from the Athenian army, whilst shouts of joy and victory were raised from the pursuing vessels, and were echoed back from the Syracusans on land. As the Athenian vessels near- ed the shore tlieir crews leaped out, and made for the camp, whilst the boldest of the land army rushed forward to protect the ships from being seized by the enemy. The Athenians succeeded in sav- ing only GO ships, or about half their fleet. The Syracusan fleet, hovv'ever, had been reduced to 50 ships ; and on the same after- noon Nicias and Demosthenes, as a last hope of escape, exhorted their men to make another attempt to break the enemy's line, and force their way out of the harbour. But the courage of the crews was so completely damped that they positively refused to re-em- bark. The Athenian army still numbered 40,000 men ; and, as all chance of escape by sea was now hopeless, it was resolved to re- treat by land to some friendly city, and there defend themselves against the attacks of the Syracusans. As the soldiers turned to quit that fatal encampment, the sense of their own woes Avas for a moment suspended by the sight of their unburied comrades, who seemed to reproach them with the neglect of a sacred duty ; but still more by the Availings and entreaties of the Avoundcd, who clung around their knees, and implored not to be abandoned to certain destruction. Amid this scene of universal woe and dejec- tion, a fresh and imwonted spirit of energy and heroism seemed to be infused into Nicias. Though suffering under an incurable com- plaint, he was everywhere seen marshalling his troops, and en- couraging them by his exhortations. The march was directed to- wards the territory of the Sicels, in the interior of the island. The army Avas formed into a hollow square, with the baggage in the middle; Nicias leading the van, and Demosthenes bringing up the rear. The road ascended by a sort of ravine over a steep hill call- 122 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIL cd the Acrpp.an cliff, on which the Symcusans liad fortified them- selves. After spcndiii.ijj two days in Ajiin attempts to force this po- sition, Nicias and Demosthenes resolved durinj:; the night to strike off to the left towards the sea. Bnt they were overtaken, snrround- ed by superior forces, and compelled to surrender at discretion. Out of the 40,000 who started from the camj), only 10,000, at the utmost, were left at the end of the sixth day's march ; the rest had either deserted or been slain. The prisoners were sent to work in the stone-quarries of Achradina and Ei)ij)ohc. Here they were crowded together without any shelter, and with scarcely jirovisions enougli to sustain life. The numerous bodies of those who died were left to putrefy where they had fallen, till at length the place became such an intolerable centre of stench and infection that, at the end of seventy days, the Syracusans, for their own comfort and safety, were obliged to remove the survivors, who were sold as slaves. Nicias and Demosthenes Avcrc condemned to death, in s])ite of all the clforts of Gylipi)us and Hcrmocrates to save them. Such was the end of two of the largest and best-a])pointed arma- ments that had ever gone forth from Athens. Nicias, as we have seen, was from the first opposed to the expedition in which they were cmjdoyed, as ]iregnant with the most dangerous consequences to Atliens ; and, though it must bo admitted that in this resjiect his views were sound, it can not, at the same time, bo concealed that his own want of energy, and his incompetence as a general, Avere the chief causes of the failure of the undertaking. His mis- takes involved the fall of Demosthenes, an officer of far greater resolution and ability than himself, and who, had his counsels been followed, would in all probability have conducted the enter- prise to a safe termination, though there was no longer room to Iiopc for success. :'^i.'^ -,<: View of the Theatre at Ephesu.?. CHAPTER XIII. THE rELO->ON>-ESIAN AVAR. THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE END OF THE WAR, B.C. 413-401. The destruction of tlic Sicilian armament was a fatal blow to the power of Athens. It is astonishing that she was able to pro- tract the war so long with diminished strength and resources. Her situation inspired her enemies with new vigour; states hith- erto neutral declared against her; her subject-allies prepared to throw off the yoke ; even the Persian satraps and the court of Susa bestirred themselves against her. The first blow to her em- pire was struck by the wealthy and populous island of Chios. This again was the work of Alcibiades, the implacable enemy of his native land, at whose advice a Lacedaemonian fleet was sent to the assistance of the Chians. Their example was followed by all the other Athenian allies in Asia, with the exception of \amos, in which the democratical party gained the npper hand. In the midst of this general defection the Athenians did not give way to despair. Pericles had set apart a reserve of 1000 talents to meet the contingency of an actual invasion. This still remained un- touched ; and now, by a unanimous vote, the penalty of death, whicli forbade its appropriation to any other purpose, was abolish- 121 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIL ed, and the fund applied in fitting out a fleet against Chios. Sa mos became tlie head-quarters of the fleet, and the base of theij operations during the remainder of the war. After a time the tide of success began to turn in favour of the Athenians. They recovered Lesbos and Chu-omenje, defeated tlic Chians, and laid waste their territory. They also gained a victory over the Peloponnesians at Miletus; while the Peloponnesian fleet had lost the assistance of Tissapherncs, the Persian satrap, through the intrigues of Alcibiadcs. In the course of a few months Alcibiadcs had completely forfeited the confidence of the Lacoilajmonians. The Spartan king Agis, whose wife he had se- duced, was his personal enemy ; and after the defeat of the Pelo- ponnesians at Miletus, Agis denounced him as a traitor, and per- suaded tlic new Ephors to send out instructions to put him to death. Of this, however, he was informed time enough to make his escape to Tis.^aijhernes at ]\Iagncsia. Here he ingratiated himself into the confidence of the satrap, and persuaded him that it was not for tlie interest' of Persia that either of the Grecian par- ties should be successful, but rather that they should wear each other out in their mutual struggles, when Persia would in the end succeed in expelling both. This advice was adopted by the sa- trap ; and in order to carry it into execution, steps were taken to secure the inactivity of the Peloponnesian armament, which, if vigorously employed, was powerful enough to i)ut a speedy end to the war. In order to secure his return to Athens, Alcibiadcs now endeavoured to persuade Tissaidierncs that it was more for the Persian interest to conclude a league with Athens than with Spar- ta ; but the only part of his advice which the satrap seems to have sincerely adoi)ted was that of ])laying olF one party against the otlier. About this, however, Alcibiadcs did not at all concern himself. It was enough for his views, which had merely the self- fish aim of his own restoration to Athens, if he could make it ap> pear that he possessed suflicient influence with Tissapherncs to procure his assistance for the Athenians. He therefore began to communicate with the Athenian generals at Samos, and held out tlie hope of a Persian alliance as the jiricc of his restoration to his country. Put as he both hated and feared the Athenian democ- racy, he cou])led his oft'er with the condition that a revolution fihould be efrected at Athens, and an oligarchy established. The Athenian generals greedily caught at the i)roposal ; and though the great mass of the soldiery were violently ojtposed to it, they were silenced, if not satisfied, when told that Athens could be saved only by means of Persia. The oligarchical conspirators formed t'.icmselves into a confcderacv, and Pisandcr was sent to B.C. 412. REVOLUTION AT ATHENS. 125 Athens to lay the proposal before the Athenian assembh^ It n:ct, as it might be supposed, with the most determined opposition. The single but unanswerable reply of Pisander was, the necessities of the republic ; and at length a reluctant vote for a change of constitution was extorted from the people. Pisander and ten others were, despatched to treat with Alcibiades and Tissapherncs. Upon their arrival in Ionia they informed Alcibiades that meas: ures had been taken for establishing an oligarchical form of gov-r ernment at Athens, and requii'cd him to fuiiil his part of the en^- gagement by procuring the aid and alliance of Persia. But Alci^ blades knew that he liad undertaken ^\hat he could not perform, and he now resolved to escape from the dilemma by one of his habitual artifices. He received the Athenian deputation in the presence of Tissapherncs himself, and made such extravagant de-. mands on behalf of the satrap that Pisander and his colleagues indignantly broke off the conference. Notwithstanding the conduct of Alcibiades, the oligarchical con- spirators proceeded with the revolution at Athens, in which they bad gone too far to recede. Pisander, with five of the envoys, returned to Athens to complete the work they had begun. Pisander proposed in the asserabl}", and carried a resolution, that a committee of ten should be appointed to prepare a new con- stitution, which was to be submitted to the approbation of the peo- ple. But when the day appointed for that purpose arrived, the assembly was not convened in the Pnyx, biit in the temple of Poseidon at Colonus, a village ujjwavds of a mile from Athens. Here the conspirators could plant their own partisans, and were less liable to be overawed by su])crior numbers. Pisander obtained the assent of the meeting to the following revolutionary changes : 1. The abolition of all the existing magistracies; 2. The cessa- tion of all payments for the discharge of civil functions; 3. The appointment of a committee of five persons, who were to name ninety-five more ; each of the hundred thus constituted to choose three persons ; the body of Four Hundred thus formed to be an irresponsible government, holding its sittings in the senate-house. The four hundred were to convene a select body of five thousand citizens whenever they thought proper. Nobody knew who these ^ive thousand were, but tliey answered tAvo purposes, namely, to give an air of greater popularity to the government, as well as to overawe the people by an exaggerated notion of its strength. Thus perished the Athenian democracy, after an existence of nearly a century since its establishment by Clisthenes. The revo- lution was begun from despair of the foi-eign relations of Athens, and from the hope of assistance from Persia ; but it was earned 12G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII. out tlirou^li tlic macliiiiations of the conspirators after that delu- sion had ceased. At Samos the Atlienian army refused to rcco>:nize the new gov- ernment. At tlie instance of Thrasybuliis jiihI Tlirasyllns, a meet- inj; was called in which tlie soldiers ]dedgcd themselves to main- tain the democracy, to continue tlie war against Peloponnesus, and to put down the usurpers at Athens. The soldiers, laying aside for a wliilc their military character, constituted themselves into an assembly of the ])eo])le, deposed several of their officers, and appointed others whom they could better trust. Thrasybiilus ])ro])Osed t!ie recall of Alcibiades, notwithstanding his connection with the oligarchical conspiracy, because it was believed that he was now able and willing to aid the democratic cause with the gold and forces of Persia. After considerable o])])osition, the ]ro- posal w;is agreed to ; Alcibiades was brought to Samos and intro- duced to the asscmbh', where, by his magnificent ])romiscs and ex- travagant boasts respecting his influence with Tissa])liernes, he once more succeeded in deceiving the Athenians. The accom- ])lislied traitor was elected one of the generals, and, in jnn'suancc of his artful jxdicy, began to ])ass backwards and forwards between Samos and Magnesia, with the view of inspiring botli the satrap and tlie Athenians with a reciprocal idea of his iniiuencc Avitli cither, and of instilling distrust of Tissa])hernes into the minds of tlie Peloponncsians. At the first news of tlie re-estab;ishment of democracy at Samos, distrust and discord had broken out among the Four Hundred. Antiphon and Phrynichus, at the head of the extreme section of the oligarchical party, were for admitting a Lacedicmonian garri- son. Jjiit others, discontented with their share of ])Owcr, began to air,'ct more i)oi)ular sentiments, anujug wlu)m were Thcramencs aTid Aristocrates. Menntiiuc Eid)tt!a, su])ported by the Laccdic- monians and Ikcotians, revolted from Athens. The loss of this island seemed a death-blow. The Laccdicmonians might now easily l)l()cka(h! the jiorts of Athens and starve licr into surrender, whilst tlie i)artisans of the Four Hundred would doubtless co-ojt- erate with tlio enemy. But from tliis ftitc they were saved by tho characteristic slowness of the Lacedicmonians, who confined them- selves to secnring the conquest of Kubcoa. 'J'lins left unmolested, the Athenians convened an assembly in tlic Pnyx. "\^)tcs were jiassed for deiK)sing the Fonr HiindriHl, :ind jihicing the govern- ment in tlie hands of the 5000, of wliom every citizen who could furnish a jianoply might be a member. In short, the old consti- tution was restored, except that the fraiuhise was restricted to rAH){) citizens, and ]>aymcnt for the discharge of civil f^iinclions B.C. 411. NAVAL VICTORY AT CYNOSSEMA. 127 abolislietl. In subsequent assemblies, the Archons, the Senate, and other institutions were revived ; and a vote was passed to re- call Alcibiades and some of his friends. The number of the 5000 was never exactly observed, and was soon enlarged into universal citizenship. Thus the Four Hundred were overthrown after a reign of four months, B.C. 411. While these things were going on at Athens, the war was pros- ecuted with vigour on the coast of Asia Minor. Mindarus, Avho now commanded the Peloponnesian fleet, disgusted at length by the often-broken promises of Tissapherncs, and the scanty and ir- regular pay which he furnished, set sail from Miletus and proceed- ed to the Hellespont, with the intention of assisting the satrap Pharnabazus, and of effecting, if possible, the revolt of the Athe- nian dependencies in that quarter. Hither he was pursued by the Athenian fleet imder Thrasyllus. In a few days an engagement ensued (in August, 411 b.c), in the famous straits between Scstos and Abydos, in which the Athenians, though with a smaller force, gained the victory, and erected a trophy on the jjromontory of Cy- nossema, near the tomb and chapel of the Trojan queen llccuba. The Athenians followed up their victory by the reduction of C\ z- icus, which had revolted from tlicm. A month or two afterwards another obstinate engagement took place between the Peloponne- sian and Athenian fleets near Abydos, which lasted a whole day, and was at length decided in faA'Our of the Athenians by the arrival of Alcibiades with his squadron of eighteen ships from Samos. Shortly after this battle, Tissapl) ernes arrived at the Hellespont with the view of conciliating the offended Peloponnesians. He was not only jealous of the assistance which the latter were now rendering to Pharnabazus, but it is also evident that his temporiz- ing policy had displeased the Persian court. This appears from his conduct on the present occasion, as well as from the subse- quent appointment of Cyrus to the supreme command on the Asi- atic coast, as we shall presently have to relate. AVhen Alcibiades, who imagined that Tissapherncs was still favourable to tlie Athe- nian cause, Avaited on him with the customary presents, he was ar- rested by order of the satrap, and sent in custody to Sardis. At the end of a month, however, he contrived to escape to Clazomcna% and again joined tbe Athenian fleet early in the spring of 410 n.c. Mindarus, with the assistance of Pharnabazus on the land side, was now engaged in the siege of Cyzicus, which the Athenian ad- mirals determined to relieve. Here a battle ensued, in which Min- darus was slain, the Lacedaemonians and Persians routed, and al- most the whole Peloponnesian fleet captured. The severity of this blow was pictured in the laconic epistle in which Ilip)iocrates, the 128 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII. second in command,* announced it to the Ephors: "Our good luck is gone ; Mindarus is slain ; the men are starving ; mc know not what to do." The results of this victory were most important. Pcrinthus and Sclymbria, as well as Cyzicus, were recovered ; and the Athenians, once moi'e masters of the Propontis, fortified the town of Chrysop- olis, over against Byzantium, at the entrance of the Bosporus; re- established their toll of ten per cent, on all vessels passing from the Euxine; and left a squadron to guard the strait and collect the dues. So great was the discouragement of the Lacodaimoniana at the loss of their fleet, that the Ephor Endius proceeded to Atliens to treat for peace on the basis of both parties standing just as they wore. The Athenian assembly was at this time led by the dem- agogue Cleophon, a lamp-maker, known to us by the later com- edies of Aristophanes. Cleophon appears to have been a man of considerable ability ; but the late victories had inspired him with too sanguine hopes, and he advised the Athenians to reject the terms proposed by Endius. Atliens thus threw away the golden opi)ortunity of recruiting her shattered forces, of which she stood so much in need ; and to this unfortunate advice must be ascribed the calamities which subsequently overtook her. The possession of the Bosporus reopened to the Athenians the trade of the Euxine. From his lofty fortress at Dccclea the Sjiar- tan king Agis could descry tlie corn-sliips from the Euxine sailing into thii harbour of tlie Pirajus, and felt how fruitless it was to oc- cupy the fields of Attica whilst such abundant supplies of provis- ions were continually finding their way to the city. In n.c. 403 tlie important towns of Chalcedon, Sclymbria, and Byzantium fell into tlie hands of the Atlienians, thus leaving them undisputed masters of the Propontis. These great achievements of Alcibiades naturally paved the way for his return to Athens. In the spring of 407 u.c. he proceeded witli tlic fieet to Samos, and from thence sailed to Piraius. Hi* reception was far more favourable than he had ventured to antici- pate. Tlie whole i)opulatit)n of Athens flocked down to Pirajus to welcome him, and escorted him to the city. He seemed to be in the present juncture the only man capable of restoring the gran- deur and tlie empire of Atlu'iis: he was accordingly named gen- eral with unliniited powers, and a force of lUO triremes, laOO lio])- lites, and 150 cavalry i)laced at his disposal. Before his departuro he took an opportunity to atone for the impiety of which he had been suspected. Although his armament was in perfect readiness, * (Jailed Kj)u(nhus or "Fooretary" in the Laredtrmdnian fleet. The com wiandor of tlm Ik'ut had the title of yararchtis. B.C. 407, PROCEEDINGS OF LYSANDER. 129 he delayed its sailinf^ till after the celebration of the Eleusiniau mysteries at the beginning of September. For seven years the cus- tomary procession across the Thriasian plain had been suspended, owing to the occupation of Dccelea by the enemy, -which compel- led the sacred troop to proceed by sea. Alcibiades now escorted them on their progress and return -with his forces, and thus suc- ceeded in reconciling himself with the oftended goddesses and witli their holy priests, the Euniolpidrc. Meanwhile a great change had been going on in the state of affairs in the East. We have already seen that the Great King was displeased with the vacillating policy of Tissaphernes, and had determined to adopt .more energetic measures against the Athenians. During the absence of Alcibiades, Cyrus, the young- er son of Dai'ius, a prince of a bold and enterprising spirit, and animated with a lively hatred of Athens, had arrived at the coast for the purpose of carrying out the altered policy of the Persian court ; and with that view he had been invested with the satrapies of Lydia, the Greater Phrygia, and Cappadocia. The arrival of Cyrus opens the last phase of the Peloponnesian war. Another event, in the highest degree unfavourable to the Athenian cause, was the accession of Lysander, as JS^avarcIws, to the command of the Peloponnesian fleet. Lysander Avas the third of the remark- able men whom Sparta produced during the war. In ability, en- ergy, and success he may be compared with Brasidas and Gylip- pns, though immeasurably inferior to the former in every moral quality. He was born of poor parents, and was by descent one of those Lacedixjmonians who could never enjoy the full rights of Spartan citizenship. Ilis ambition was boundless, and he was wholly unscrupulous about the means which he employed to grat- ify it. In pursuit of his objects he hesitated at neither deceit, nor perjury, nor cruelty, and he is reported to have laid it down as one of his maxims in life to avail himself of the fox's skin where the lion's failed, Lysander had taken up his station at Ephesus, with the Lace- da3monian fleet of 70 triremes ; and when Cyrus arrived at Sardis, in the spring of 407 B.C., he hastened to pay his court to the young prince, and was received with every mark of favour, A vig- orous line of action was resolved on, Cvrus at once offered 300 talents, and affirmed that, if more were needed, he was prepared even to coin into money the very throne of gold and silver on which ho sat. In a banquet whicli ensued Cyrus drank to the health of Lysander, and desired him to name any wish which he could gratify, Lysander immediately requested an addition of an obolus to thq* daily pay of the seamen. Cyrus was surprised I 130 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIl at so disinterested a demand, and from tliat day conceived a high degree of respect and confidence for tlie Si)artan commander. Lysander, on Lis i-eturn to Epliesus, employed himself in refitting his fleet, and in organizing clubs in the Si)artan interest in the cities of Asia. Alcibiades set sail from Athens in Sej)tembcr. Being ill pro- vided with funds for carrying on the war, he was driven to make predatory excursions for the purpose of raising money. During his absence he intrusted the bulk of the fleet at Samos to his pilot Antioclius, witli strict injunctions not to venture on an ac- tion. Notwithstanding these orders, however, Antioclms sailed out and brought the Feloponnesiau fleet to an engagement offNotium, in which the Athenians were defeated with the loss of 15 ships, and Antioclius himself was slain. Among the Athenian aniia- nicnt itself great dissatisfaction wa.^ growing up against Alcibia- des. Though at the head of a sjdcadid force, he had in three months' time accomplished literally notliing. His debaucheries and dissolute conduct on shore were charged against him, as well as his selecting for confidential jjosts not the men best fitted for tlicm, but those who, like Antioclius, were tlie boon comjianions and the chosen associates of his revels. These accusations for- warded to Athens, and fomented by his secret enemies, soon pro- duced an entire revulsion in the public feeling towards Alcibiades. The Athenians voted that he should be dismissed from his com'- mand, and they ai)pointcd in his place ten new generals, with Co- con at their head. The year of Lysander's command expired about the same time ns the appointment of Conon to the Athenian fleet. Through the intrigues of Lysander, his successor Callicratidas was received with dissatisfaction both by the Laceda:monian seamen and by Cyrus. Loud com})laints were raised of the impolicy of an annual change of commanders. Lvsander threw all sorts of difficulties in the way of his successor, to whom he handed over an empty chest, having first repaid to Cyrus all the money in his possession under the pretence that it was a private loan. The straightfonvard con- duct of Callicratidas, however, who summoiicd the Lacedaemonian commanders, and, after a dignified remonstrance, ] plainly put the question whether he should return h.ome or remain, silenced all opposition. But he was sorely embarrassed for funds. Cyrus treated him with haughtiness; and when he waited on that ininco Bt Sardis, he was dismissed not only without money, but even with- out an audience. Callicratidas, however, had too much energy to be daunted by such obstacles. Sailing with his fleet from Ephesua *o Miletus, he laid before the assembly of that city, in a spirited B.C. 40G. BATTLE OF ARGINUSiE. 131 address, all the ills they had suffered at the hands of the Persians, and exhorted them to bestir themselves and dispense with the Persian alliance. Hie .succeeded in persuading the Milesians to make him a large grant of money, whilst the, leading men even came forward with private subscriptions. By means of this as- sistance he Avas enabled to add 50 triremes to the 90 delivered to him by Lysander; and the Cliians further, provided him with ten days' pay for the seamen. The fleet of Callicratidas was now double that of Conon. The latter was compelled to run before the superior force of Callicrat- idas. Both fleets entered the harbour of Mytilene at the same time, where a battle ensued, in which Conon lost 30 ships, but he eaved the remaining forty by hauling them ashore under the walls of the town. Callicratidas then blockaded Mytilene both by sea and land ; but Conon contrived to despatch a trireme to Athens witli the news of his desperate position. As soon as the Athenians received intelligence of the blockade of Mytilene, vast cflbrts were made for its relief; and we learn with surprise that in thirty days a fleet of 110 triremes was equip- ped and despatched from Pirrcus. The armrimcnt assembled at iSamos, where it was re-enforced by scattered Athenian ships, and by contingents from the allies, to the extent of 40 vessels. The whole fleet of 150 sail then proceeded to the small islands of Ar- ginusre, near the coast of Asia, and facing Malea, the southeastern cape of Lesbos. Callicratidas, wlio went out to meet them, took up his station at the latter point, leaving a squadron of 50 ships to maintain the blockade of Mytilene. He had thus only 120 ships to oppose to the 150 of the Athenians, and his pilot advised him to retire before the superior force of the enemy. But Callicratidas replied that he would not disgrace himself by flight, and that if he should perish Sparta would not feel his loss. The battle was long and obstinate. All order was speedily lost, and the ships fought singly with one another. In one of these contests, Calli- cratidas, who stood on the prow of his vessel ready to board the enemy, Avas thrown overboard by the shock of the vessels as they met, and perished. At length victory began to decliire for the Athenians. The Lacedaemonians, after losing 77 vessels, retreat- ed with the remainder to Chios and Phoceea. The loss of the Athenians was 25 vessels. The battle of Arginusa3 led to a deplorable event, which has for ever sullied the pages of Athenian history. At least a dozen Athe- nian vessels were left floating about in a disabled condition after the battle ; but, owing to a violent storm that ensued, no attempt was made to rescue the survivors, or to collect the bodies of the 132 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIH. dead for burial. Eight of tlie ten generals -were summoned home to answer for tliis conduct ; Conon, by his situation at Mytilene, was of course exculpated, and Archcstratus had died. Six of the generals obeyed the summons, and were denounced to the Assem- bly by Theraracnes, formerly one of the Four Hundred, for neglect of duty. The generals replied that they had commissioned Thcram- cncs himself and Thrasybulus, each of whom commanded a tri- reme in the engagement, to undertake the duty, and had assigned 48 ships to them for that purpose. This, however, was denied by Theramencs. There arc discre])ancics in the evidence, and we have no materials for deciding positively which statement was true ; but probability inclines to the side of the generals. Public feeling, however, ran very strongly against them, and was increased by an incident wliich occurred during their trial. After a day's debate, tiic question was adjourned; and in the interval the festival of the Ajtatiiria was celebrated, in which, according to annual custom, the fiimilics met together according to their families and phratries. Those who had perislied at Arginusie were naturally missed on such an occasion ; and the usuallv cheerful charai-tcr of the fcsti- val was deformed and rendered melancholy by the relatives of the deceased appearing in black clothes and with shaven heads. The passions of the people were violently roused. At the next meet- ing of the Assembly, Callixenus, a senator, proposed that the peo- ple should at once proceed to pass its verdict on the generals, though they had been only partially heard in their defence ; and, moreover, that they should all be included in one sentence, though it was contrary to a rule of Attic law, known as the psephisma of Canonus, to indict citizens otherwise than individually. The Frytanes, or senators of the presiding tribe, at first refused to juit the question to the Assembly in this illciral way ; but their opi)0- sition was at length overawed by clamour and violence. There was, however, one honourable exception. The philosopher Socra- tes, who was one of the Frytanes, refused to withdraw his protest. But his opposition was disregarded, and the proposal of Callixenus was carried. The generals were condemned, delivered over to the Eleven for execution, and compelled to drink the fatal hem- lock. Among them was Fericlcs. the son of the celebrated states- man. In the following ycar(n.c. 40.'), tlirough llic infiuonce of Cyrus and the other allies of Sjiarta, Lysaudcr again obtained the com- mand of the Feloi)onnesian fleet, though nominally under Aracus as admiral ; since it was contrary to Spartan usage that the same man should be twice NacarrJtus. His return to i)ower was' mark- ed by more vigorous measures. He sailed to the Hellespont, and B.C. 405. CAPTURE OF THE ATHENIAN FLEET. 133 laid siege to Lampsacus. The Athenian fleet arrived too late to save the town, but they proceeded up the strait and took post at ^gospotarai, or the " Goat's Kiver;" a place which had nothing to recommend it except its vicinity to Lampsacus, from which it was separated by a channel somewhat less than two miles broad. It was a mere desolate beach, Avithout houses or inhabitants, so that all the supplies had to be fetched from Scstos, or from the surrounding country, and the seamen were compelled to leave their sliips in order to obtain their meals. Under these circum- stances, the Athenians were very desirous of bringing Lysander to an engagement. But tlie Spartan commander, who was in a strong position, and abundantly furnished with provisions, was in no hur- ry to run any risks. In vain did the Athenians sail over several days in succession to ofter him battle ; they always found his ships ready manned, and drawn up in too strong a position to warrant an attack ; nor could they by all their manoeuvres succeed in en- ticing him out to combat. This cowardice, as they deemed it, on the part of tlie Lacedaemonians, begat a corresponding negligence on theirs ; discipline was neglected, and the men allov.ed to strag- gle almost at will. It was in vain that Alcibiades, who, since his dismissal, resided in a fortress in that neighbourhood, remonstrated Avith the Athenian generals on the exposed nature of the station they had chosen, and advised them to [iroceed to Scstos. His coun- sels were received Avitli taunts and insults. At length, on the fifth day, Lysander, having watched an opportunity when the Athenian seamen had gone on shore and were dispersed over the country, rowed swiftly across the strait with all his ships. He found the Athenian licet, with the exception of 10 or 12 A'cssels, totally un- prepared, and he captured nearly the whole of it, without having occasion to strike a single blow. Of the 180 ships which composed the fleet, only the trireme of Conon himself, the Paralus, and 8 or 1 otlier vessels, succeeded in escaping. Conon was afraid to re- turn to Athens after so signal a disaster, and took refuge with EA-agoras, prince of Salamis in Cyprus. By this momentous A^ictory (September, B.C. 405) the Pelopon- iissian Avar Avas virtually brought to an end. Lysandei', secure of an easy triumph, Avas in no haste to gather it by force. Tiie command of the Euxine enabled him to control the supplies of Athens, and sooner or later, a fcAV Aveeks of famine must decide her fall. He noAv sailed forth to take possession of the Athenian toAvns, Avhifh fell one after another into his jJOAver as soon as ho. appeared before them. About November he arrived at iP^gina, with an ovenvhelming fleet of 150 triremes, and proceeded to dcA-- asfjvta Salamis and blockade Piraeus. At the same time the Avhole 131 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIL Pcloponnesian army was marched into Attica, and encamped in the precincts of the Acadcmus, at the very gates of Athens. Fam- ine soon began to be felt "within the walls, and at the end of tlirec months it became so dreadful that the Athenians saw themselves compelled to submit to the terms of the conqueror. These terms were : That the long walls and the fortifications of Pineus should be demolished ; that the Athenians should give up all their for- eign possessions, and conline themselves to their own territory ; that they should surrender all their ships of war ; that they should readmit all their exiles ; and that they should become allies of Sparta. It was about the niMdlc or end of March, b.C; 404, that Lysander sailed into Pirajus, and took formal possession of Athens ; tlie war, in singular conformity with the prophecies current at the begin- ning of it, having lasted for a period of thrice nine, or 27 years. The insolence of the victors added another blow to the feelings of the conquered. The work of destruction, at which Lysander presided, was converted into a sort of festival. Female flute-play- ers and wreathed dancers inaugurated the demolition of the strong and pryud bulwarks of Athens; and as the massive walls fell piece by piece, exclamations arose from the ranks of the Peloponnesians tkat freadom had at length begun to dawn upon Greece. Bust of Socriites. CHAPTER XIV. "t^E THIRTY TYRANTS, AND THE DEATH OF BOCEATES, B.C. 404-399. The fall of Athens brought back a host of exiles, all of tbcra '^'^. enemies of her democratical constitution. Of these the mosS t'istinguished was Critias, a man of wealth and family, the uncle of Plato, and once the intimate friend of Socrates, distinguished both for his literary and political talents, but of unmeasured am- bition and unscrupulous conscience. Critias and his companions soon found a party with which they could co-operate ; and, sup- ported by Lysander, they proposed in the Assembly that a com- mittee of thirty should be named to draw ixp laws for the future government of the city, and to undertake its temporary adminis- tration. Among the most prominent of the thirty names were those of Ci'itias and Theramenes. The proposal was of course carried. Lysander himself addressed the Assembly, and contempt- uously told them that they had better take thought for their per- sonal safety, which now lay at his mercy, than for their political constitution. The committee thus appointed soon obtained the title of the Thirty Tyrants, the name by which they have become known in all subsequent time. After naming an entirely new Senate, and appointing fresh magistrates, they proceeded to ex- terminate their most obnoxious opponents. But Critias, and tho more violent party among them, still called for more blood ; and, with the view of obtaining it, procured a Spartan garrison, under the harmost Callibius, to be installed in the Acropolis. Besides 13G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV. this force they htul an ovfranized band of assassins at their disposal Blood now llowcd on all sides. I\Iany of the leading men of Athens fell, others took to flight. Thus the reign of terror was completely established. In tho bosom of the Thirty, however, there was a party, headed by Tlieram- enes, who disapproved of these proceedings. But his modera- tion cost him his life. One day, as he entered the Senate-house, Critias rose and denounced him as a public enemy, and ordered him to be carried olr to instant death. Upon hearing these words Theramenes sprang for refuge to the altar in the Senate-house ; but he was dragged away by Satyrus, the cruel and unscrupulous licad of the "Eleven," a body of oflicers who carried into execu- tion the penal sentence of the law. Jjcing conveyed to prison, he was compelled to drink the fatal hemlock. The constanc}' of his end might have adorned a better life. After swallowing the draught, he jerked on the floor a drop which remained in the cup, according to the custom of the game called cottabos, exclaiming, ''This to the health of the ;/ent/e Critias!" Alcibiadcs had been included by the Thirty in the list of exiles ; but the fate which now overtook him seems to have sprung from the fears of the Lacedaemonians, or j)crliaps from the personal hatred of Agis. After the battle of -ZEgospotami, BharnaljazAis permitted tlie Athenian exile to live in Phrygia, and assigned him a revenue for liis maintenance. But a despatch came out from Sparta to Lysander, directing that Alcibiadcs should be put to death. Ly- sandcr commimicated the order toPharnabazus, who arranged for carrying it into execution. The house of Alcibiadcs Avas surround- ed with a band of assassins, and set on fire. He rushed out with drawn sword upon his assailants, who shrank from the attack, but who slew him from a distance with their javelins and arrows. Timandra, a female with whom he lived, j)erformed towards liis body the last ofliccs of duty and iiifcction. Thus jierishcd miser- ably, in the vigour of his age, one of the most remarkable, but not one of the greatest, characters in Grecian history. A\'ith (lualities which, jnoperly applied, might liavc rendered him the greatest benefactor of Athens, ho contrived to attain the infamous distinc- tion of being that citizen who had inilictcd upon her the most signal amount of damage. Meantime an altered state of feeling was sjjringingup in Greece. Athens had ceased to be an object of fear or jealousy, and those feelings began now to be dirocti'd towards Sj>arta. livsauderhad risen to a height of unparnlleled power. He was in a manner idolized. I'octs showered their praises on him, and even nltai'S were, raised in his honour by the Asiatic Greeks. In the name of B.C. 404. THE THIRTY DEPOSED. 137 Spfirta lie exercised almost uncontrolled authority in the cities ]\(\ had reduced, including Athens itself. But it was soon discovered that, instead of the freedom promised by the Spartans, only an- other empire had been established, whilst Lysander was even meditating to extort from the subject cities a yearly tribute of one thousand talents. And all these oppressions were rendered still more intolerable by the overweening pride and harshness of Ly- Sanders demeanour. Even in Sparta itself the conduct of Lysander was beginning to inspire disgust and jealousy. Pausanlas, son of Plistoanax, who was now king with Agis, as well as the new Ephors appointed in September, u.c. 404, disapproved of his proceedings. The Thebans and Corinthians themselves Avere beginning to sympathize with Athens, and to regard the Thirty as mere instruments for support- ing the Spartan dominion ; whilst Sparta, in her turn, looked upon them as the tools of Lysander's ambition. IMany of the Athenian exiles had found refuge in Bceotia ; and one of them, Thrasybulus, with the aid of Ismenias and other Theban citizens, starting from Thebes at the head of a small band of exiles, seized the fortress of Phyle, in the passes of Mount Parnes and on the direct road to Athens. The Thirty marched out to attack Thrasybulus at the head of the Lacedoemonian garrisoH and a strong Athenian force, but their attack was repulsed with considerable loss. Sliortly afterwards Thrasybulus marched from Phyle to Piraeus, which was now an open town, and seized upon it without opposi- tion. When the whole foi'ce of the Thirty, including the Lacedae- monians, marched on the following day to attack him, he retired to the hill of Munychia, the citadel of Pirraus, the only approach to which was by a steep ascent. Here he drew up his hoplites in files of ten deep, j^osting behind them his slingers and dartmen. He exhorted his men to stand patiently till the enemy came within reach of the missiles. At the first discharge the assailing column seemed to waver ; and Thrasybulus, taking advantage of their confusion, charged do^\^l the hill, and completely routed them, killing seventy, among Avhom was Critias himself. The loss of their leader had thrown the majority into the hands of the party formerly led by Theramenes, who resolved to depose the Thirty and constitute a new oligarchy of Ten. Some of the Thirty weie re-elected into this body ; but the more violent colleagues of Critias were deposed, and retired for safety to Eleusis. The new government of the Ten sent to Sparta to solicit further aid ; and a similar application was made at the same time from the section of the Thirty at Eleusis. Their request was complied with ; and Lysander once more entered Athens at the head of a Lacedai- 138 HISTOKY OF GKEECE. Chap. XIV. monian force, rortunatcly, however, the jealousy oftlie Lacciloc- monians towards Lysander led tlicm at this critical juncture to Bupersedc him in the command. King Pausanias was appointed to conduct an army into Attica, and when he encamped in the Academus he was joined by Lysander and his forces. It was known at Athens that the views of Pausanias were unfavourablo to the proceedings of Lysander ; and the presence of the Spartan king elicited a vehement reaction against the oligarchy, which fear had hitherto suppressed. All parties sent envoys to Sparta. 'I he Ephors and the Lacedaemonian Assembly referred the ques- tion to a committee of fifteen, of whom Pausanias was one. The decision of this board was : That the exiles in Piraus should be readmitted to Athens, and that there should be an amnesty for all that had passed, except as regarded the Thirty and the Ten. When these terms were settled and sworn to, the Peloponne- sians quitted Attica ; and Thrasybulus and tlie exiles, marching in solemn procession from Pirajus to Athens, ascended to the Acrop- olis and offered up a solemn sacrifice and thanksgiving. An as- sembly of the I'eople was then held, and, after Thrasybulus had addressed an animated reproof to the oligarchical party, the de- mocracy was unanimously restored. This imjiortant counter- revolution took i)lace in the spring of 403 B.C. The archons, the senate of 500, the public assembly, and the dicasteries, seem to have been reconstituted in the same form as before the capture of the city. Thus was terminated, after a sway of eight months, tlie despot- ism of the Thirty. The year which contained their rule was not named after the archon, but was termed "the vear of anarchv." Tlic first archon drawn after their fall was Euclides, who gave his name to a year ever afterwards memorable among the Athenians, For the next few years the only memorable event in the history of Athens is the death of Socrates. This celebrated ]ihilosophcr Was l>orn in llic year 40S n.r., in the immediate neighbourhciod Df Athens. His father, Soi)hroniscus, was a sculptor, and Socrates was brought up to, and for some time ]iractised, the same profes- Rion. He was married to Xanthippi^, by whom he had three tons ; but her bad tcm))cr lias rendered her name jiroverbial for a con- jugal scold. His iihysical constitution was healthy, robust, and wonderfully enduring. Indillcrent alike to heat and cokl, the same scanty and homely clothing sufficed him both in summer and winter; and even in the camjiaign of Potidaa, amidst the snoAvs of a Thracian \\ inter, he went barefooted. But, though tlnis gifted with strength of body and of miiul, he was far from being endoweil with jiersonal beuuty. His thick lijs, Hut nose, and B.C. 399, CONDEMNATION OF SOCRATES. 133 prominent eyes gave him the appearance of a Silenus or satyr, lie served with credit as a hoplite at FoticJiisa (b.c. 432); Dcliiim (b.c. 424), and Amphipolis (i;.c. 422); but it was not till late in life, in the year 40G b.c, that he filled any political office. He was one of the Prytancs when, after the battle of ArginusiC, Callix- cnus submitted his proposition respecting the six generals to the public Assembly, and his refusal on that occasion to put an uncon- stitutional question to the vote has been already recorded. lis had a strong persuasion that he was intrusted with a divine mis- sion, and he believed himself to be attended by a daimon, or genius, whose admonitions he frequently heard, not, however, in the way of excitement, but of restraint. He never wrote anything, but he made oral instruction the great business of his life. Early in the morning he frequented the public walks, the gymnasia, and the schools ; whence he adjourned to the market-place at its most crowded hours, and thus spent the Avhole day in conversing with young and old, rich and poor with all, in short, who felt any desire for his instructions. That a reformer and destroyer, like Socrates, of ancient preju- dices and fallacies which passed current under the name of wisdom should have raised up a host of enemies is only what might be ex- pected ; but in his case this feeling was increased by the manner in which he fulfilled his mission. The oracle of Delphi, in response to a question put by his friend Chterephon, had affirmed that no man was wiser than Socrates. No one was more perplexed at this declaration than Socrates himself, since he was conscious of possessing no wisdom at all. However, he determined to test the accuracy of the priestess, for, though he had little wisdom, others might have still less. He therefore selected an eminent politician who enjoyed a high reputation for wdsdom, and soon elicited, by Ills scrutinizing method of cross-examination, that this statesman's reputed wisdom was no wisdom at all. But of this he could not convince the subject of his examination ; whence Socrates con- cluded that he was wiser than this politician, inasmuch as he was conscious of his own ignorance, and therefore exempt from the error of believing himself wise when in reality he was not so. The same experiment was tried with the same result on various classes of men on poets, mechanics, and especially on the rhetors and sophists, the chief of all the pretenders to wisdom. The first indication of the uni)opularity which he had incuried is the attack made upon him by Aristophanes in the "Clouds" in the year 423 n.c. That attack, however, seems to have evaporated with the laugh, and for many years Socrates continued his teach- ing without molestation. It was not till b.c. 399 that the indict- no HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV. merit ^'as preferred against him whicli cost him liis life. In that year, Melctus, a leather-seller, seconded by Anytiis, a poet, and Lycon, a rhetor, accused him of impiety in not worshijiping the gods of the city, and in introducing new deities, and also of being a corrupter of youth. With respect to the latter charge, his former intimacy with Alcibiades and Critias may have weighed against him. Socrates made no preparations for his defence, and seems, indeed, not to have desired an acquittal. But, although lie ad- dressed the dicasts in a bold and uncompromising tone, he was condemned only by a small majority of five or six in a court com- posed of between five and six hundred dicasts. After the verdict Avas pronounced, he was entitled, according to the practice of tlie Athenian courts, to make some counter-pro]iosition in jtlace of tbe penalty of death, which the accusers had demanded, and if he had done so with any show of submission, it is probable that the sen- tence Avould have been mitigated. But his tone after the verdict was higher than before. Instead of a fine, he asserted that ho ought to be maintained in the PrytanCum at the public expense, as a public benefactor. This seems to have enraged the dicasts, and he was condemned to death. It happened that the vessel which proceeded to Delos on the annual deputation to the festival had sailed the day before his condemnation, and during its absence it was unlawful to put any one to death. Socrates was thus kept in prison during thirty days, till the return of the vessel. lie spentthe interval in j)hilosophica] conversations with his friends. Crito, one of these, arranged a scheme for his escape by bribing the jailer ; but Socrates, as might be expected from the tone of liis defence, resolutely refused to save his life by a breach of the law. His last discourse, on the day of his death, turned on the immortality of the soul. Witli a firm and cheerful countenance he drank the cup of hemlock amidst his sorrowing and weeping friends. His last words were addressed to Crito: "Crito, we owe a cock to JEsculajaus ; discharge the debt, and by no means omit it." Thus perished the greatest and most original of the Grecian philosojihers, whose nnins])ired wisdom made tlie nearest approach to tlie divine morality of the Gosi)el. His teaching forms an epoch in tlie history of jihilosophy. From his school sjirang Plato, the founder of tlic Academic ])hilosop]iy ; Euclides, tlie founder of the Megaric school ; Aristipi)us, tlie founder of the Cyrcnaic school,* and many other jihilosophers of eminence. Iluins of Sardi.=. CHAPTER XV. THE EXPEDITION OF THE GREEKS UNDER CYRUS, AND RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND, B.C. 401-400. The assistance which Cyrus l;ad rendered to the Lacedemo- nians in the Peloponnesiau war led to a remarkable episode in Grecian history. This was the celebrated expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes, in v.hich the superiority of Gre- cian to Asiatic soldiers was so strikingly shown. The death of Darius Xothus, king of Persia, took place b.c. 404, shortly before the battle of JEgospotami. Cyrus, who was present at his father's death, was charged by Tissaphernes with plotting against his elder brother Artaxerxes, who succeeded to the throne. The accusation was believed by Artaxerxes, who seized his brother, and would have put him to death but for the intercession of their mother, Parysatis, who persuaded him not only to spare Cyrus. but to confirm him in his former government. Cyrus returned to 142 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV. Sarflis burniiif^ v/ith revenge, and fully resolved to make an effort to dethrone his brother. From his intercourse with the Greeks Cyrus had become aware of their superiority to the Asiatics, and of their usefulness in such an enterprise as he now contemplated. The peace which followed the capture of Athens seemed favourable to his ])rojects. Many Greeks, bred up in the practice of war during the long struggle be- tween that city and Sparta, were now deprived of their employ- ment, whilst many more had been driven into exile by the estab- lishment of the Spartan oligai'chies in the various conquered cities. Under the pretence of a private war with the satrap Tissapher- nes, Cyrus enlisted large numbers of them in his service. The Greek in whom he placed most confidence was Clearchus, a Lace- daemonian, and formerly harmost of Byzantium, who had been condemned to death by the Spartan authorities for disobedience to their orders. It w.as not, however, till the beginning of the year n.c. 401 that the enterprise of Cyrus was ripe for execution. The Greek levies were then withdrawn from tlic various town in which they were dis- tributed, and concentrated in Sardis, to the number of about 8000; and in JNIarch or April of this year Cyrus marched from Sardis with them, and with an army of 100,000 Asiatics. The object of the expedition was proclaimed to bo an attack upon the mount- ain-freebooters of Pisidia ; its real destination was a secret to every one except Cyrus himself and Clearchus. iVmong the Greek sol- diers was Xenophon, an Athenian knight, to whom we owe a nar- rative of the expedition. He went as a volunteer, at the invita- tion of his friend Proxcnus, a Boeotian, and one of the generals of Cyrus. The march of Cyrus was directed through Lydia and Phrygia. After passing Colosstv; he arrived at CcUcna?, where he was join- ed by more Greek troops, the number of whom now amounted to 11,000 hoplites and 2000 peltasts. The line of march, which had been hitlierto straight upon Pisidia, was now directed northwards. Cyrus passed in succession the Phrygian towns of Pclta\ Ceramon Agora, the Plain of Cayster, Tliymbrium, Tyria'um, and Iconium, the last city in Phrygia. Thence he jn-oceeded through Lycaonia to Dana, and crossed RIount Taurus into Cilicia. On arriving at Tarsus, a city on the coast of Cilicia, the Greeks plainly saw that they had been deceived, and that the cxi)edition was designed against the Persian king. Seized with alarm at tho ^ospcct of so long a marcli, they sent a deputation to Cyrus to ask iim what his real intentions were. Cyrus rcidied that his design was to march against his enemy, Abrocomas, satrap of Syria, who ^%^='. ^ ^v^ ,i,n.*''yii=^^- (7 '/ill *** "*. 144 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XV. was encamped on tlic banks of tlie Euijliratcs. The Greeks, tliougli they still susi)CcteJ a delusion, contented themselves with this answer in tlie faec of their present diiliculties, especially as Cyrus ])romiscd to raise tlieir pay from one Daric to one Daric and a half a month. The whole army then marched forwards to Issus, the last town in Cilicia, situated on the gulf of the Fame name. Here they met the fleet, which brought them a re-enforce- mcnt of 1100 Greek soldiers, thus raising the Grecian force to about 14,000 men. Abrocomas, who commanded for the Great King in Syria and rhasnicia, alarmed at the rapid })rogress of Cyrus, fled before him with all his army, reported as 300,000 strong, abandoning the im- pregnable pass situated one days' march from Issus, and known as the Gates of Cilicia and Syria. JMarching in safety through this j)ass, the army next reached Myriandrus, a seaport of I'ha'ni- cia. From this ])lacc Cyrus struck oil" into the interior, over INIount Amanus. Twelve days' march brought him to Thapsacus on the Euphrates, where for the first time he formally notified to the army that he was marching to Ijabylon against his brother Arta- xerxcs. The water liap])encd to be very low, scarcely reaching to the breast ; and Abrocomas made no attemjit to dis]uite the pas- sage. Tlic army now entered upon the desert, where the Greeks were struck with the novel sights which met their view, and at once amused and exhausted themselves in the chase of the wild ass and the antelope, or in the vain pursuit of the scudding ostrith. After several days of toilsome march the army at length reached Pylas, the entrance into the cultivated plains of Babylonia, where they halted a few days to refresh themselves. Soon after leaving that jilace symptoms became perceptible of a vast liostile force moving in their front. The exaggerated re- ports of deserters stated it at 1,200,000 men; its real strength was about 1)00,000. In a characteristic address, Cyrus exhorted the Greeks to take no heed of the multitiule of their enemies; they would find in them, he aftirmed, nothing but numbers and noise, and, if they could bring themselves to despise these, they would soon find of what wortiiless stuft' the natives were com- posed. Tlie army then marched cautiously fonvards, in order of ];attle, along the left bank of the Eu])hratcs. They soon came npon a Imge trench, 30 feet broad and 18 deep, which Artaxcrxes had caused to be dug across the i)lain for a length of about -i'J En- glish miles, reaching from the Eu]>hratcs to the wall of l^Icdia. Between it and the river was left only a narrow passage about 20 feet broad ; yet Cyrus and his army fouiul with surprise that this pass was left entirely undefended. This circumstance inspired B.C. 401. BATTLE OF CUNAXA. i45 them with a contempt of the -enemy, and induced them to proceed in careless array ; but on the next day but one after passing the trench, on arriving at a place called Cunaxa, they were surprised with the intelligence that Artaxcrxes was approaching with all his forces. Cyrus immediately drew up his army in order of battle. The Greeks were posted on the right, whilst Cyrus himself, sur- rounded by a picked body-guard of GOO Persian cuirassiers, took up his station in the centre. When the enemy was about half a m.ilc distant, the Greeks charged them Avitli the usual war-shout. The Persians did not await their onset, but turned and fled. Tissa- phernes and his cavalry alone offered any resistance ; the remain- der of the Persian left was routed without a blow. As Cyrus was contemplating the easy victory of the Greeks, his followers surrounded him, and already saluted him with the title of king. But the centre and richt of Artaxerxes still remained unbroken : and that monarch, unaware of the defeat of his left wing, ordered the right to wheel and encompass the army of Cyrus. No sooner did Cyrus perceive this movement than with his body-guard he impetuously charged the enemy's centre, where Artaxerxes him- self stood, surrounded with GOOO horse. The latter were routed and dispersed, and were followed so eagerly by the guards of Cy- rus, that he was left almost alone with the select few called his "Table Companions." In this situation he caught sight of his brother Artaxerxes, whose person As^as revealed by the flight of his troops, when, maddened at once by rage and ambition, he shouted out, "I see the man !" and rushed at him with his handful of com- panions. Hurling his javelin at his brother, he wounded him in the breast, but was himself speedily overborne by superior num- bers and slain on the spot. Meanwhile Clearchus had pursued the flying enemy upwards of tliree miles ; but, hearing that the king's troops were victorious on the left and centre, he retraced his steps, again routing the Per- sians who endeavoured to intercept him. When tlie Greeks re- gained their camp they found that it had been completely plun- dered, and were consequently obliged to go supperless to rest. It was not till the following day that they learned the deatli of Cy- rus ; tidings which converted their triumph into sorrow and dis- may. They were desirous that Ariasus, who now commanded the army of Cyrus, should lay claim to the Persian crown, and offered to support his pretensions ; but Ariaeus answered that the Persian gi'andees would not tolerate such a claim ; that he intended im- mediately to retreat ; and that, if tlie Greeks wished to accompany him, they must join him during the following night. This was accordingly done ; when oaths of reciprocal fidelity were inter- K 14G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV. changed between the Grecian generals and Ariffius, and sanctified by a solemn sacrifice. On the following day a message arrived from the Peisian kin^, with a proposal to treat for ])eacc on equal terms. Clearclius v.i- fectod to treat the offer with great iiidilference, and made it en opportunity for procuring i)rovisions. '-Tell your kiug," said he to the envoys, "tiiat we must first figlit ; for we have had no breakfast, nor Avill any man i)resume to talk to the Greeks about a truce without first providing for tliem a breakfast." This was agreed to, and guides were sent to conduct the Greeks to some ^ villages where they might obtain food. Here they received a visit from Tissaphernes, who pretended much friendship towards them, and said that he liad come from the Great King to inquire the reason of their expedition. Clearchus replied what was indeed true of the greater part of tlie army that they had not come hither with any design to attack the king, but had been enticed forwards by Cyrus under false pretences ; that their only desire at present was to return home ; but that, if any obstacle was oflcrcd, they were prepared to rei)cl hostilities. In a day or two Tissa- phernes returned, and witii some parade stated that he had with great difficulty obtained permission /o sai'e the Greek army; that he was ready to conduct them in person into Greece ; and to sup- ply them with provisions, for which, however, they were to ] ay. An agreement was accordingly entered into to tliis cficct, and after many days' delay they commenced tlie liomeward march. After marching three days they passed through the wall of INIedia, which was 100 feet high and 20 feet broad. Two days more brought tliem to the Tigris, whicli they crossed on the following morning by a bridge of l)0ats. They then marched northward, arriving in four days at the River riiyscus and a large city calh-d Opis. Six days' further march through a deserted ])art of Media brought them to some villages belonging to Queen Parvsatis, which, out of enmity to her as the patron of Cyrus, Tissajtherncs aban- doned to be plundered by the Greeks. From thence they jno- ceedjCd in five days to tlie River Zabatns, or Greater Zab, having previously crossed the Lesser Zab, which Xenojtlion neglects to mention. In the first of these five days they saw on the oj)])osite Fide of the Tigris a large city called Cajua?, the inhabitants of whic'i brought over provisions to theni. At the Gi-eater Zab they halted three days. Mistrust, and even slight hostilities, had ]>ecn already manifested between the Greeks and Persians, but they now be- came so serious that Clearchus demanded an interview with Tissn- jdiernes. The latter ]irotestcd tlu^ groatcsf fidelity and friend- ship towards the Greeks, and jjromisod to delivor to the Greek B.C. 401. RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. 147 generals, on the following day, the calumnifitors who had set tlio two armies at variance. But when Clearchus, with four otlier generals, acconi]mnied by some lochages, or captains, and 200 sol- diers, entered the Persian camp according to appointment, tho captains and soldiers were immediately cnt down ; whilst the fire generals were seized, put into irons, and sent to the Persian court. After a short imprisonment, four of them were beheaded ; tlia fifth, Menon, who pretended that he had betrayed his colleagues into the hands of Tissaphcrnes, was at first spared ; but after a year's detention was put to death with tortures. Apprehension and dismay reigned among the Greeks. Tlieif situation was, indeed, appalling. They were considerably mor# than a thousand miles from home, in a hostile and unknown coun* try, hemmed in on nil sides by impassable rivers and motmtains, without generals, without guides, without provisions. Xenophoif was the lirst to rouse the captains to the necessity for taking im-- mediate precautions. Though young, he possessed as an Atheniai? citizen some claim to distinction ; and his animated address show- ed him fitted for command. He was saluted general on the spot; and in a subsequent assembly was, with four others, formally elect* cd to that office. The Greeks, having first destroyed theh' superfluous baggage, crossed the Greater Zab, and pursued their march on the othe! bank. They passed by tho ruined cities of Larissa and Mespila on the Tigris, in the neighbourhood of the ancient Nineveh. The march from INIespila to the mountainous country of the Carduchi occupied several days, in which the Greeks suffered much from the attacks of the enemy. Their future route was now a matter of serious pei'plexity. On rieir left lay the Tigris, so deep that they could not fathom it with their spears ; while in their front rose the steep and lofty mountains of the Carduchi, which came so near the river as hardly to leave a passage for its waters. As all other roads seemed barred, they formed the resolution of striking into these mountains, on the far- ther side of v/liich lay Armenia, where both the Tigris and the Euphrates might be forded near their sources. After a difficult and dangerous march of seven days, during which their sufferings v/ere far greater than any they had experienced from the Persians, the army at length emerged into Armenia. It was now the month of Decembei", and Armenia was cold and exposed, being a table- land raised high above the level of the sea. Whilst halting near Bomc well-supplied villages, the Greeks were overtaken by two deep falls of snow, which almost buried them in their open biv- ouacs. Hence a five days' march brought them to the eastern 148 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV. branch of the Euphrates. Crossing the river, they proceeded on the other side of it over plains covered with a deep snow, and in the face of a biting north wind. Here many of the slaves and beasts of burthen, and even a few of the soldiers, fell victims to the cold. Some had their feet frostbitten ; some were blinded by the snow ; whilst others, exhausted Avith cold and hunger, sunk down and died. On tlie eighth day they proceeded on their way, ascending the banks of the Phasis, not the celebrated river of that name, but probably the one usually called Araxes. From thence they fought their way throngli the countiy of the Taochi and Chalybes. They next reached the coiintry of the Scythini, in w'hose territory they found abundance in a large and populous city called Gymnias. The chief of this place having engaged to conduct them within sight of the Euxine, they pro- ceeded for five days under his guidance ; when, after ascending a mountain, the sea suddenly burst on the view of the vanguard. The men proclaimed their joy by loud shouts of "The sea! the sea !" The rest of the army hurried to the summit, and gave vent to their joy and exultation in tears and mutual embraces. A few days' march through the country of the IMacroncs and Colchians at length brought them to the objects for which they fiad so often pined, and which many at one time had never hoped to see again a Grecian city and the sea. By the inhabitants of Trapezus, or Trebizond, on the Euxine, where they had now arrived, they were hospitably received, and, being cantoned in some Colchian villages near the town, refreshed themselves after the hardships they had undergone by a repose of thirty days. The most difficult part of the return of the Ten Thousand was now accomplished, and it is unnecessary to trace the remainder of their route. After many adventures they succeeded in reaching Byzantium, and tliey subsequently engaged to serve the Lacedaj- monians in a war wliich Sparta liad just declared against the satraps Tissaphernes and riiarnabazus. In the spring of n.c oO!>, Thimbron, the Lacedaemonian com- mander, arrived at Pergamus, and the remainder of the Ten ThoxK sand Greeks became incorporated with his army. Xenophon now returned to Atliens, wlicre he must have arrived shortly after the execution of his master Socrates. Disgusted probably by that event, lie rejoined his old comrades in Asia, and subsequently re- turned to Greece aloni,^ with Agcsilaus. A Greek \Viimor. CHAPTER XVI. THE SUPREMACY OF SPARTA, B.C. 40i-371. After the fall of Athens Sparta stood without a rival in Grofcse. In the various cities which had belonged to the Athenian empirG Lysander established an oligarchical Council of Ten, called a Decarchy or Decemvirate, subject to the control of a Spartan Har- inost or governor. The Decarchies, however, remained only a short time in power, since the Spartan government regarded them with jealousy as the partisans of Lysander ; but harmosts continued to be placed in every state subject to their empire. The govern- ment of the harmosts was corrupt and oppressive ; no justice could be obtained against them by an appeal to the Spartan authorities at home ; and the Grecian cities soon had cause to regret the mild-- er and more equitable sway of Athens. On the death of Agis in b.c. 398, his half-brother Agesilaug was appointed king, to the exclusion of Leotychides, the son of Agis. This was mainly effected by the powerful influence of Ly- sander, who erroneously considered Agesilaus to be of a yielding and manageable disposition, and hoped by a skilful use of those qualities to extend his own influence, and under the name of an- other to be in reality king himself. Agesilaus was now forty years of age, and esteemed a model of r /50 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XVI. those viitncs more peculiarly deemed Spartan. lie was obedient to the constituted authorities, emulous to excel, courageous, ener- getic, capable of bearing all sorts of hardsliip and fatigue, simj.'le and frugal in his mode of life. To these severer qualities he added the po])uhxr attractions of an agreeable countenance and jileasing address... His personal defects at first stood in the way of his pro- motion. He was not only low in stature, but also lame of one leg ; and thorc was an ancient oracle which warned tlie Spartans to beware of " a lame reign." The ingenuity of Lysander, assist- ed probably by the popuhir qualities of Agesilaus, contrived to overcome this objection by interpreting a lame reign to mean not any bodily defect in the king, but the reign of one who was not a genuine descendant of Hercules. Once possessed of power, -Age- silaus sujjplicd any defect in biis title by the prudence and j^olicy of his conduct ; and, by the marked deference which lie })aid both to the Ephors and the senators, he succeeded in gaining fur him- self more real power than had been enjoyed by any of his prede- cessors. The affairs of Asia Minor soon began to draw the attention of Agesilaus to that quarter. The assistance lent to Cyrus by the Spartans was no secret at the Persian court ; and Tissajjlierncs, who liad been rewarded for his fidelity with the satrapy of Cyrus in addition to his own, no sooner returned to his government than he attacked the Ionian cities, then under the protection of 8j arta. A considerable Lacedtcmonian force under Thimbron was de- spatched to their assistance, ami which, as related in the preceding chapter, was joined by the remnant of the Greeks who had served under Cyrus. Thimbron, however, ])roved so inefticicnt a com- mander, that he Avas suspended at the end of 3'Ji.> or beginning of 398 B.C., and Dercyllidas appointed in his place. But, though at first successful against Tharnabazus in ^olis, Dercyllidas was sub- sequently surprised in Caria in such an unfavourable position that he would have sutfered severely but for the timidity of Tissai)her- nes, Avho was afraid to venture u])ou an action. Under these cir- cumstances an armistice was agreed to for the purpose of treating for a peace (397 u.c). Pharnabazus availed himself of this armistice to make active pre]iarati(nician and ])aitly Grecian, with which he cither destroyed or captured more than half of the Laccdivmonian fleet. Agesilaus, fearing the impression which such sad news might pro- duce iipon his men, gave out tliat the Lacedamionian fleet had gained a victory ; and, having oftercd sacriticc as if for a victory, he ordered an advance. Agesilaus soon came up with the confederate army, which had prepared to opi)Ose him in the i)lain of CoronCa. The Thcbans succeeded in driving in the Orchomenians, who formed the left wing of the army of Agesilaus, and penetrated as far as the baggage in tl)c rear. But on the remainder of the line Agesilaus was vic- torious, and the Thcbans now saw themselves cut oil' from their companions, who had retreated and taken up a position on Blount Helicon. Facing about and forming in deep and comj)act order, the Thcbans sought to rejoin the main body, but they v>-erc op- posed by Agesilaus and his troops. The shock of the conflicting masses which ensued was one of the most tciTible recorded in tho flnnals of Grecian warfare. The shields of the foremost ranka %cve shattered, and their spears broken, so that daggers became the only available arm. Agesilaus, w^^o was in the front rankiv r o C Ti- er o s a a- a o B O o B.C. 394. BATTLE OF CORONEA. 157 unequal by his size and strength to sustain so furious an onset, was flung down, trodden on, and covered with wounds ; but the devoted courage of the 50 Spartans forming his body-guard reocued him from death. The Thebans finally forced their way through, but not v/ithout severe loss. The victory of Agesilaus was no? very decisive ; but the Thebans tacitly acknowledged their defeat by soliciting the customary truce for the burial of their dead, Agesilaus, on his arrival at Sparta, was received with the most lively demonstrations of gi'atitude and esteem, and became hence- forward the sole director of Spartan policy. Thus, in less than two months, the Lacedaimonians had fouglit two battles on land and one at sea ; namely, those of Corinth, Cor- onea, and Cnidus. But, though they had been victorious in the land engagements, they were so little decisive as to lead to no im- portant result, whilst their defeat at Cnidus produced the most disastrous consequences. It was followed by the loss of nearly all their maritime empire, even faster than they had acquired it after the battle of ^Egospotami ; for, as Conon and Pharnabazus sailed with their victorious fleet from island to island and from port to port, their approach was everywhere the signal for the flight or expulsion of the Spartan hai'mosts. In the spring of the following year (b.c. 393) Conon and Phar- nabazus sailed to the isthmus of Corinth, then occupied as a cen- tral post by the allies. The appearance of a Persian fleet in the Saronic Gulf was a strange sight to Grecian eyes, and one which might have served as a severe comment on tlie effect of their sui- cidal wars. Conon dexterously availed himself of the hatred of Pharnabazus towards Sparta to procure a boon for his native city. As the satrap was on the point of proceeding homewards, Conon obtained leave to employ the seamen in rebuilding the fortifica- tions of Pirajus and the long walls of Athens. Pharnabazus also granted a large sum for the same purpose ; and Conon had thus the gioiy of appearing like a second Themistocles, the deliverer find restorer of his country. Before the end of autumn the walls were rebuilt. Having thus, as it were, founded Athens a second time, Conon sailed to the islands to lay again the foundations of an Athenian maritime empire. During the remainder of this and the whole of the followmg year (b.c. 392) the war was carried on in the Corinthian terri- tory. One of the most important events at this time was the destmc- tion of a whole Lacedicmonian mora, or battalion, by the light- armed mercenaries of the Athenian Iphicrates. For the preced- ing two years Iphicrates had commanded a body of mercenaries. 158 IIISTOKY OF GREECE, Chap. XVL consistinf^ of pcltasts,* wlio had been first organized liy Conon after rebuililing the walls of Athens. For tliis force Iphicratcs introduced those improved arms and tactics which form an cjiocli in the Grecian art of war. His oljcct was to combine, as far as possible, the peculiar advantages of the hoplitcs and light-armed troops. He substituted a linen corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hojjlites, and lessened the shield, while he rendered the light javelin and short sword of the peltasts more effective by lengthening them both one half. These troops soon proved very effective. After gaining several victories he ventured to make a sally from Corinth, and attacked a Laccdremonian mora in liank and rear. So many f^U under the darts and arrows of the peltasts tliat tho Lacedaemonian captain called a halt, and ordered the youngest and most active of his hoplitcs to rush funvard and drive olFtho assailants. But their heavy arms rendered tliom quite im- cqual to such a mode of fighting; nor did the Lacedaemonian cav- alry, which now came up, but which acted with very little vigour and courage, produce any better effect. At length the Lacedaemo- nians succeeded in reaching an eminence, where they endeavoured to make a stand ; but at this moment Callias arrived Avith some Athenian hoplitcs from Corinth, whereupon the already disheart- ened Lacedaimonians fled and broke in confusion, pursued by the pcltasts, Avho committed such havoc, chasing and killing some of tlicm even in the sea, that but very few of the whole body succeed- ed in clFiJcting their escape. Tiic maritime v,ar was prosecuted with vigour. Thrasybulus, and after his death Ii)lHcrates, were successful upon the coast of Asia Minor, and made the Athenians agtiin masters of the Helles- pont. Under these circumstances, the Laceda;monians resolved to si)arc no eiforts to regain the good will of the Persians. Antal- cidas, the Lacedaemonian commander on the Asiatic coast, entered into negotiations with Tiribazus, who had succeeded Tithraustes in the satrapy of Jonia, in order to bring about a general ])eace imder the mediation of Persia. Conducted ])y Tiriba/.us, Antalcidas re- paired to the Persian court, and prevailed on tlie Persian monarch both to adoi)t tiie peace, and to declare war against those who sliould reject it. Antalcidas and Tiribazus returned to the coast.s of Asia Minor not only armed with these powers, but provided with an amjile force to carry them into execution. In addition to tho entire fleet of Persia, Dionysius of Syracuse had jilaccd 20 triremes at tlic service of the Lacedaemonians; and Antalcidas now sailed witli a large fleet to the llellesjiont, where Iphicratcs and the Athenians were still jiredominant. The overwhelming So culled from the poUn,(ir kind of Hhieltl which they carried. B.C. 387. PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 159 force of Antalcidas, the largest that liacl been seen in the Helles- pont since the battle of ^gospotami, rendered all resistance hope- less. The sujjplies of corn from the Euxine no longer found thcif way to Athens ; and the Athenians, depressed at once botli. hv what they felt and by what they anticipated, began to long for peace. As without the assistance of Athens it seemed hopelesa for the other allies to struggle against Sparta, all Greece was in^ clined to listen to an accommodation. Under these circumstances deputies from the Grecian statea were summoned to meet Tiribazus ; Avho, after exhibiting to them the royal seal of Persia, read to them the follov/ing terms of a peace: "King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia und the islands of Clazomenaj and Cyprus should belong to him. IIo also thinks it just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scy- ros, which arc to belong to Athens, as of old. Should any jiarties refuse to accept this peace, I will make war upon them, along with those who are of the same mind, both by land and sea, with ships and with money." All the Grecian states accepted these terms. This disgraceful peace, called the Peace of A>.talcidas, vaxs concluded in the year b.c. 387. By it Greece seemed prostrated at the feet of the barbarians ; for its very terms, engraven on stone and set up in the sanctuaries of Greece, recognized the Persian king as the arbiter of her destinies. Although Athens cannot be en- tirely exonerated from the blame of this transaction, the chief guilt rests upon Sparta, whose designs were far deeper and more hypocritical than they appeared. Under the specious pretext of securing the independence of tiie Grecian cities, her only object was to break up the confederacies under Athens and Thebes, and, with the assistance of Persia, to pave the way for her own absolute dominion in Greece. No sooner was the peace of Antalcidas concluded than Sparta, directed by Agesilaus, the ever-active enemy of Thebes, exerted all her power to weaken that city. She began by proclaiming the independence of the various Boeotian cities, and by organizing in each a local oligarchy, adverse to Thebes and favourable to herself, ' Lacedaemonian garrisons were placed in Orchomenus and Thespiaj, and Platsea was restored in order to annoy and weaken Thebes. Shortly aftei'wards the Lacedaimonians obtained possession of Thebes itself by an act of shameful treachery. They had de- clared war against Olynthus, a town situated at the nead of tliQ Toronaic Gulf, in the peninsula of the jNIacedonian Chalcidic^, the head of a powerful confederation, which included several of th( adjacent Grecian cities. The Thebans had entered into an alii ICO HISTORY OF GHEECE. Chap. XVL ance w'th Olynthus, and had forbidden any of their citizens to join the LacediL'inunian anny destined to act against it ; but tliey were not strong enough to prevent its marching through their territory. Phccbidas, who was conducting a Lacedaemonian force against Olynthus, halted on his way through Bccotia not far from Thebes, where ho was visited by Leontiades, one of the polemarchs of the city, and two or three other leaders of the Lacedaemonian party in Thebes. It happened that the festival of the Thesmophoria was on the point of being celebrated, during which the Cadmea, or The- ban Acropolis, was given up for the exclusive use of the women. The Oj^porlunity seemed favourable for a surprise; and Leontiades and Phoebidas concerted a jjlot to seize it. Whilst the festival was celebrating, rhabidas pretended to resume his march, but only made a circuit round the city walls; whilst Leontiades, stealing out of the senate, mounted his horse, and, joining the Lac- edaemonian troops, conducted them towards the Cadmea. It was a sultrv summer's afternoon, so that the verv streets were desert- ed ; and Phccbidas, without encountering any opposition, seized the citadel and all the women in it, to serve as hostages for the quiet submission of the Thebans (n.c. 382). This treacherous act during a period of profound peace awakened the liveliest indigna- tion throughout Greece. Sparta herself could not venture to justi- fy it openly, and Phabidas was made the scape-goat of her ati'cct- ed displeasure. As a sort of atonement to the violated feeling of Greece, he was censured, fined, and dismissed. But that this was a mere farce is evident from the fact of his subsequent restoration to command ; and, however indignant the Lacedaemonians alfect- cd to appear at the act of Pha^bidas, they took care to reap the fruits of it by retaining their garrison in the Cadmea. The once haughty Thebes was no\y enrolled a member of tho Lacedaemonian alliance, and furnished her contingent the grate- ful olfering of the new Theban government for the war which Sparta was prosecuting with redoubled vigour against Olynthus- This city was taken by the Lacediemonians in n.c, 379 ; tlie Olyn- thian confederacy was dissolved ; the Grecian cities belonging to it were compelled to join the Lacedainonian alliance; whilst tho maritime towns of IVIaccdonia were reduced under the dominion of Amyntas, the king of Macedon. Tiie power of Sjiarta on land had now attained its greatest height. Iler inii)0))ularity in Greece was commensurate with tho extent of her harshly administered dominion. She was leagued on all sides with the enemies of Grecian freedom with the Pei*- sians, with Amyntas of Macedon, and with Dionysius of Syracuse. Hilt she had now reached the turning-point of her fortunes, and B.C. 879, LIBERATION OF THEBES. 161 her successes, wliicli had been earned without scruple, -were soon to bo followed by misfortunes and disgrace. The first blow came from Thebes, where she had perpetrated her most signal injustice. That city had been for three years in the hands of Leontiades and tlie Spartan party. During this time great discontent had grown lip among the resident citizens ; and there was also the party of exasperated exiles, who had taken refuge at Athens. Among these exiles was Felopidas, a young man of birth and for- tune, who had already distinguished himself by his disinterested ])atriotism and ardent character. He now took the lead in the plans formed for the liberation of his country, and was the heart and soul of the enterprise. His warm and generous heart was irresistibly attracted by everything great and noble, and hence he was led to form a close and intimate friendship with Epaminon- das, who was several years older than himself, and of a still loftier character. Their fiiendsliip is said to have originated in a cam- paign in which they served together, Avhen, Pelopidas having fall- en in battle apparently dead, Epaminondas protected his body at the imminent risk of his own life. Pelopidas afterv/ards endeaA*- oured to persuade Epaminondas to share liis riches with him ; and when he did not succeed, he resolved to live on the same frugal fare as his great friend. A secret correspondence was opened with his friends at Thebes, the chief of whom were Phyllidas, sec- retary to the polemarchs, anu Charon. The dominant faction, besides the advantage of the actual possession of power, was sup- l)orced by a garrison of 1500 Lacedaemonians. The enterprise, therefore, was one of considerable difficulty and danger. In the execution of it Phyllidas took a leading part. It was arranged that he should give a supper to Archias and Philippus, the two polemarchs, and after they had partaken freely of Avine the con- spirators were to be introduced, disguised as women, and to com- plete their work by the assassination of the polemarchs. On the day before tlic banquet, Pelopidas, with six other exiles, arrived at Thebes from Athens, and, straggling through the gates towards dusk in the disguise of rustics and huntsmen, arrived safely at the house of Charon, where they remained concealed till the appoint- ed hour. While the polemarchs were at table, a messenger ar- rived from Athens with a letter for Archias, in Avliich the whole plot was accurately detailed. The messenger, in accordance with his instructions, informed Archias that the letter related to mat- ters of great importance. But the polemarch, completely en- grossed by the pleasures of the table, thrust the letter under the pillow of his couch, exclaiming, " Serious matters to-morrow." The hour of their fate was nov/ ripe. The conspirators, disguised 1C2 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XVI. ^vith veils, and in the ample folds of female attire, were ushcrciS into the room. For men in the state of the revellers the decep- tion was com})lcte ; but -when they attempted to lift the veils from tlie -women, tlieir passion was rewarded ))y the mortal tlirust of a dagger. After thus slaying the two polemarchs, the conspirators went to the house of Leontiades, Avhom tliey also desjjatched. The ncAvs of tlie revolution soon spread abroad, rroclamations were issued announcing that Thebes was free, and calling upon aU citizens* who valued their liberty to muster in the market-jjlace. As soon as day dawned, and the citizens became aware that they were summoned to vindicate their liberty, their joy and enthusiasm Avere unbounded. For the first time since the seizure of their cit- adel they met in public assembly ; the conspirators, being intro- duced, were crowned by the })riests with wreaths, and thanked in the name of their country's gods ; Avhilst the assembly, with grate- ful acclamation, unanimously nominated Fclopidas, Charon, and Mellon as the first restored Bccotarchs. Meanwhile the remainder of the Theban exiles, accompanied by a body of Athenian volunteers, assembled on the frontiers of Bceotia ; and, at the first news of the success of the cons})iracy, hastened to Thebes to complete the revolution. The Thebans, under their new Boeotarchs, were already mounting to the assault of the Cadniea, when the Lacedaemonians capitulated, and were allowed to march out with the honours of war. The Athenians formed an alliance with the Thebans, and declared war agai\ist Sparta. From this time must bo dated the a!ra of a new political com- bination in Greece. Athens strained every nerve to organize a fresh confederacy. Thebes did not scruple to enrol herself as one of its earliest members. The basis on which the confederacy was formed closely resembled that of Delos. The cities comjjosing it were to be independent, and to send de])utics to a congress at Athens, for the purpose of raising a common fund for tlie sujtport of a naval force. Care was taken to banish all recollections con- nected with the former unpopularity of the Athenian empire. The name of the tribute was no longer p/ioros, but si/niaris, or ''contribution." The confederacy, which ultimately numbered 70 cities, was chiefly organized through the exertions of Chabrias, and of Timotheus the son of Conon. Nor were the Thebans les? zealous, amongst v.-hom the Spartan government had left a lively feeling of antipathy. The milirary force was put in the 1)cst training, and the famous "Sacred Band" was now for the first time instituted, 'i'his l)and was a regiment of oOO hoplitcs. It was supported at the jjublic cxjicnsc, and kept constantly under B.C. 378. ALLIANCE OF ATHENS AND THEBES. 1G3 arms. It was composed of young and chosen citizens of the best families, and organized in such a manner that each man had at his side a dear and intimate friend. Its special duty was the de- fence of the Cadmea. The Thebans had always been excellent soldiers ; but their good fortune now gave them the greatest general that Greece had liitherto seen. Epaminondas, who now appears conspicuously in public life, deserves the reputation not merely of a Theban,. but of a Grecian hero. Sprung from a poor but ancient family, Epami- nondas possessed all the best qualities of his nation without that heaviness, either of body or of mind, which characterized and de- teriorated the Theban people. By the study of philosophy and by other intellectual pursuits his mind was enlarged beyond the sphere of vulgar superstition, and emancipated from that timorous interpretation of nature which caused even some of the leading men of those days to behold a portent in the most ordinary phe- nomenon. A still rarer accomplishment for a Theban was that of eloquence, which he possessed in no ordinary degree. These intellectual qualities were matched with moral virtues worthy tc consort with them. Though eloquent, he was discreet ; though poor, he was neither avaricious nor corrupt ; though naturally firm and courageous, he was averse to cruelty, violence, and blood- shed ; though a patriot, he was a stranger to personal ambition, and scorned the little arts by which popularity is too often court- ed. Pelopidas, as we have already said, was his bosom friend. It was natural, therefore, that, Avhen Pelopidas was named Bceo- tarch, Epaminondas should be prominently employed in organiz- ing the means of war; but it was not till some years later that his military genius shone forth in its full lustre. The Spartans were resolved to avenge the repulse they had re- ceived; and in the summer of b.c. 378 Agesilaus marched with a large army into Bocotia. He was unable, however, to effect any- thing decisive, and subsequent invasions were attended with the like result. The Athenians created a diversion in their favour by a maritime war, and thus for two years Boeotia was free from Spartan invasion. Thebes employed this time in extending her domanion over the neighbouring cities. One of her most import- ant successes during this period was the victory gained by Pelopi- das over a Lacedemonian force near Tegyra, a village dependent upon Orchomeuus (n.c. 375). Pelopidas had with him only the Saci-ed Baud and a small body of cavalry when he fell in with the Laced;cmonians, who were nearly twice as numerous, lie did lot, however, shrink from the conflict on this account ; and when one of Ms men, running up to him, exclaimod, "Wo are fallen 1G4 HISTORY OF GKEECE. Ciiat. XVI. into the midst of the enemy," he replied, "Why so, more than thc^ into the midst of us?" In the battle which ensued the two Spar- tan commanders fell at the first cliarge, and their men were put o the rout. So signal a victory inspired tlie Thebans witli new confidence and vigour, as it showed that Sparta was not invincible even in a pitched battle, and with the advantage of numbers on her side. By the year 374 b.c. the Thebans had succeeded in ex- pelling the Lacedaemonians from Boeotia, and revived the Bccotin-l confederacy. They also destroyed the restored city of Plattca, and obliged its inhabitants once more to seek refuge at Athens. The successes of the Thebans revived the jealousy and distrust of Athens. Prompted by these feelings, the Athenians opened negotiations for a peace Avith Sjjarta ; a resolution which was also adopted by tlie majority of the allies. A congress was accordingly opened in Sparta in the spring of 371 B.C. The Athenians were represented by Callias and two other envoys; the Thebans by Epaminondas, then one of the polemarchs. The terms of a peace were agreed upon, by which the independ- ence of the various Grecian cities was to be recognized ; and the Spartan harmosts and garrisons everywhere dismissed. Sparta ratified the treaty for herself and her allies ; but Athens took the oaths only for herself, and was followed separately by her allies. As Epaminondas refused to sign exce})t in the name of the Ba'o- tian confederation, Agcsilaus directed the name of the Thebans to be struck out of the treaty, and proclaimed tlicm excluded from it. The peace concluded between Sparta, Athens, and their repre- sentative allies was called the Peace or Callias. The result with regard to Thebes and Sparta will appear in the following chapter. 03rea3, Greaves. (From the yEginetan Marbles.> CHAPTER XVII. THE SUPREMACY OF THEBES, B.C. 371-861. In pursuance of the treaty, the Lacedtfimonians withdrew theii harmosts and garrisons, whilst the Athenians recalled their fleet from the Ionian Sea. Only one feeling prevailed at Sparta a desire to crush Thebes. This city Avas regarded as doomed to destruction ; and it was not for a moment imagined that, single- handed, she would be able to resist the might of Sparta. At the time when the peace Avas concluded Cleombrotus happened to be in Phocis at the head of a Lacedaemonian army, and he now re- ceived orders to invade Bceotia without delay. The Thebans, on their side, were equally determined on resistance. The two armies met on the memorable plain of Leuctra, near Thespise. The forces on each side are not accurately known, but it seems probable that the Thebans were outnumbered by the Lacedemonians. The military genius of Epaminondas, howcA^er, com.pensated any in- feriority of numbers by novelty of tactics. Up to this time Grecian battles had been uniformly conducted by a general attack in line. Epaminondas noAV first adopted the manceuvre, used with such success by Napoleon in modern times, of concentrating heavy masses on a given point of the enemy's array. HaA'ing formed his left Aving into a dense column of 50 deep, so that its depth AA-as greater than its front, he directed it against the Lacedaemonian right, containing the best troops in their army, draAvn up 12 deep, and led by Cleombrotus in person. The shock Avas terrible. Cleombrotus himself was mortally Avounded in the onset, and Avith difficulty carried off by his comrades. Numbers of his officers, as Avell as of his men, Avere slain, and the Avhole Aving Avas broken and IGG HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVII driven back to their camp. The loss of the Tliebans was small compared with that of tlic Lacedaemonians. Out of 700 Spartans in tlie army of the latter, 400 liad fallen ; and their kin, son of Amyntas, aftenvards the celebrated King of Macedon, who remained for some vears at Thebes. In the following year Pelopidas and Ismenias proceeded on an embassy to Persia. Ever since the peace of Antalcidas the Great King had become the recognized mediator between the states of Greece, and his fiat seemed indis])ensable to stamp the claims of that city which ])retcnded to the headship. The recent achieve- ments of Thebes might entitle lier to asjjire to that ])osition ; and, at all events, the alterations which she had produced in the in- ternal state of Greece, by the establishment of INIcgaloiiolis and Messcne, seemed to require for their stability the sanction of a t'ersian rescri])t. This was obtained without dilliculty, as Thebes WHS now the strongest state in Greece, and it was evidently easier B.C. 3GL DEATH OF PELOPIDAS. IGD to exercise Persian ascendency there by her means than through a weaker power. The Persian rescript pronounced the independ- ence of Messcue and Am^jhipolis ; the Athenians were directed to lay up their ships of war in ordinary ; and Thebes was declared the head of Greece. It was, in all probability, during a mission undertaken by Pelop- idas and Ismenias for the purpose of procuring the acknowledg- ment of the rescript in Thessaly and the northern parts of Greece that they Avere seized and imprisoned by Alexander of Phenc. The Thebans immediately despatched an army of 8000 hoplites and COO cavalry to recover or avenge their favourite citizen. Un- fortunately, however, they were no longer commanded by Epami- nondas. Their present commanders were utterly incompetent. Tliey were beaten and forced to retreat, and the army was in such danger from the active pursuit of tlie Thessalians and Athenians that its destruction seemed inevitable. Luckily, however, Ejiami- nondas was serving as a hoplite in the ranks. By the unanimous voice of the troops he was now called to the command, and suc- ceeded in conducting the army safely back to Thebes. Here the unsuccessful Boeotarchs were disgraced ; Epaminondas was re- stored to the command, and placed at the head of a second The- ban army destined to attempt the release of Pelopidas. Directed by his superior skill, the enterprise proved successful, and Pelopi- das (B.C. 367) returned in safety to Thebes. In B.C. 3S-1: Pelopidas again marched into Thessaly against Alexander of Phera;. Strong complaints of the tyranny of that despot arrived at Thebes, and Pelopidas, who probably also burned to avenge his private wrongs, prevailed upon the Thebans to send him into Thessaly to punish the tyrant. The battle was fought on the hills of Cynoscephalaj ; the troops of Alexander were rout- ed ; and Pelopidas, observing his hated enemy endeavouring to rally them, was seized with such a transport of rage that, regard- - less of his duties as a general, he rushed impetuously fonvards and challenged him to single combat. Alexander shrank back within the ranks of his guards, followed impetuously by Pelopidas, who was soon slain, fighting with desperate bravery. Although the army of Alexander was defeated with severe loss, the news of the death of Pelopidas deprived the Thebans and their Thessa- lian allies of all the joy which they would otherwise have felt at their victorv. Meantime a war had been carried on between Elis and Arcadia which had led to disunion among the Arcadians themselves. The Mantineans supported the Eleans, who were also assisted by the Spartans ; whilst the rest of the Arcadians, and especially the Te- 170 HISTORY OF GUEECE. CiiAr. XVII Rcans, favoured Thebes. In n.c. 3G2 Epaminondas marched into reloponiicsus to support the Thcban party in Arcadia. The Spar- tans sent a ])nwcrful force to the assistance of the I\rantiiieans, in whose territory the hostile armies met. In the battle -which en- sued Epaminondas formed his Boeotian troops into a column of extraordinary depth, with which lie bore down all before them. The Mantineans and Lacedaemonians turned and fled, and the rest followed their example. The day was won ; but Ejiaminondas, who fought in the foremost ranks, fell pierced with a mortal wound. His fall occasioned such consternation among his troops, that, although the enemy were in full flight, ihey did not know how to use their advantage, and remained rooted to the spot. Epaminondas Avas carried elf the field with the spear-head still fixed in his breast. Having satisfied himself that his shield was safe, and that the victory was gained, he inquired for lolaidas and Daiphantus, whom he intended to succeed him in the command. Being informed that both were slain, "then," he observed, "you must make peace." After that he ordered the spear-head to be withdrawn, v.hcn the gush of blood which followed soon tenni- nated his life. Thus died this truly great man ; and never was there one whose title to that epithet has been less disputed. An- tiquity is unanimous in his praise, and some of the first men of Greece subsequently took him for their model. With him the commanding influence of Thebes began and ended. IHs last ad- vice was adopted, and peace was concluded probably before the Theban army quitted Peloponnesus. Its basis was a recognition cf the status quo to IcaA'C everything as it was, to acknowledge the Arcadian constitution and the independence of Messcnt'. S])arta alone refused to join it on account of the last article, but she was not supported by her allies. Agesilaus had lived to see tlie empire of. Sparta extinguished by her hated rival. Thus curiously had the ])ropliecy been ful- filled which warned Sparta of the evils awaiting her under a "lame sovereignty." But Agesilaus had not yet abandoned all hope, and he now directed his views towards the east as the quarter from which S]iartnn power might still be resuscitated. At i'uQ age of 80 the indomitable old man i)roceeded with a force of 1000 ho])lites to assist Tachos, king of Egypt, in his revolt against .Ver- Bia. He died at Gyrene on his return to Greece. His body wai embalmed in wax, and sjjleudidly buried iu Sparta. Coin of Syracuse. CHAPTER XVIII. BISTORT OF THE SICILIAN CREEKS TRO^VI THE DESTRUCTION" CS THE ATHENIAN ARMAMENT TO THE DEATH OF TIJIOLEON. The affairs of the Sicilian Greeks, an important branch of tho Hellenic race, deserve a passing notice. A few years after the destruction of the Athenian armament, Dionysius made himself master of Syracuse, and openly seized upon the supreme powef (B.C. 405). His reign as tyrant or despot Avas long and prosper- ous. After conquering the Carthaginians, who more than once in- vaded Sicily, he extended his dominion over a great part of ths island, and over a considerable portion of Magna Grrecia. He raised Syracuse to be one of the chief Grecian states, second in in- fluence, if indeed second, to Sparta alone. Under his sway Syr- acusc was strengthened and embellished with new fortifications, docks, arsenals, and other public buildings, and became superior even to Athens in extent and population. Dionysius was a warm friend of literature, and was anxious to 172 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr.XVill. gain distinction hy his literary compositions. In the midst of his political and military cares ho devoted himself assiduously to po- etry, and not only caused his poems to l)e publicly recited at tho Olympic games, but repeatedly contended for the prize of tragedy at Athens. In accordance with the same spirit we find him seek- ing the society of men distinguished in literature and philosoj)hy. Plato, who visited Sicily about the year 389 from a curiosity to seo Mount iEtna, was introduced to Dionysius by Dion. The high moral tone of IMato's conversation did not, howevei, prove so at- tractive to Dionysius as it had done to Dion ; and the philosopher was not only dismissed with aversion and dislike, but even, it seems, through the machinations of Dionysius, seiz^ed, bound, and sold for a slave in the island of JEgina. He was, however, repurchased by Anniceris of Cyrone, and sent back to Atliens. Dionysius died in n.c. 3G7, and was succeeded by his eldest son, commonly called tlie younger Dionysius, who was about 25 years of ago at the time of his father's death. At first he listened to the counsels of Dion, who liad always enjoyed the respect and confi- dence of his father. At the advice of Dion he invited Tlato to Syracuse, where the ])hilosopher was received with the greatest honour. His illustrious pupil immediately began to take lessons in geometry ; superfluous dishes disappeared from the royal table ; and Dionysius even betrayed some symptoms of a wish to mitigate the former rigours of the despotism. But now the old courtiers took the alarm. It was wliispered to Dionysius that the whole was a deep-laid scheme on the part of Dion for the purpose of effect- ing a revolution and placing his own ne])hews on tlie throne.* Tiiese accusations liad tlie desired effect on the mind of Dionysius, who shortly afterwards expelled Dion from Sicily. Plato with difficulty obtained permission to return to Greece (u.c. 3(50). Dionysius now gave way to his vices without restraint, and be- came an object of contempt to the Syracusans. Dion saw that the time had come for avenging his own wrongs as well as those of his country. Collecting a small force, he sailed to Sicily, and suddenly ajipeared befoi'e the gates of Syracuse during the absence of Dionysius on an expedition to the coasts of Italy. The inhab- itants, filled with joy, welcomed Dion as their deliverer; and Di- onysius on his return from Italy found liimself compelled to quit Syracuse (n.c. 35(5), leaving Dion undisputed master of the city. The latter was now in a condition to carry out all those exalted TliR older Diony^^ill^ Imil mniTied two wivos nt tlie pamo time: one of thc?e was H Locniiii woiiiiin luinicJ Dori.-i; the other, Aristoniache, wiis a Syracu:, a few years aft- er the battle of Criiuesus. lie was splendidly iri'^.erred at the ])ub- lie cost, whilst the tears of tlie whole Syracusaw ivipjij^it^^ji follow- ed him to the grave. I'illtO. Demosthenes. CHAPTER XrX. PHILIP or MACEDON, B.C. S59-33G. The internal dissensions of Greece produced their natural fruits; and we shall have now to relate the downfall of lier indci^endencQ and her subjugation by a foreign power. This power was Mace- donia, an obscure state to the north of Thessaly, hitherto OA'cr- looked and despised, and considered as altogether barbarous, and without the pale of Grecian civilization. But, though the Mace- donians were not Greeks, their sovereigns claimed to be descend- ed from an Hellenic race, namely, that of Temenus of Argos ; and it is said that Alexander I. proved his Argive descent previously to contending at the Olympic games. Perdiccas is commonly re- garded as the founder of the monarchy ; of the history of which, however, little is known till the reign of Amyntas I., his fifth suc- cessor, Avho was contemporary with the Pisistratidaj at Athens. Under Amyntas, who submitted to the satrap Megabyzus, Mace- donia became subject to Persia, and remained so till after the bat- tle of Plataja. The reigns of the succeeding sovereigns present little that is remarkable, with the exception of that of Archelaus (n.c. 413). This monarch transfen'ed his residence from JEgod to Pella, Avhich thus became the capital. He entertained many lit- erary men at his court, such as Euripides, who ended his days at Pclla. Archelaus Avas assassinated in B.C. 399, and the crown de- volved upon Amyntas II., a representative of the ancient line. Amyntas left three sons, the youngest being the celebi'ated Philip, of whom we have now to speak. It has been already mentioned that the youthful Philip was one of the hostages delivered to the Thebans as security for the peace etfectcd by Pelopidas. His residence at Thebes gave him somo tincture of Grecian philosophy and literature ; but the most im- portant lesson which he learned at that citj' v/as the art of war. 17G HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap.XTS:. with all the improved tactics introduced by Epaniinondas. Philip succeeded to the tlirone at the age of 23 (u.c, 35'J), and displayed ftt the beginning of his reign his extraordinary energy and abilities. After defeating the Illyrians he cstablislied a standing army, in which discipline was preserved by the severest punishments. lie introduced the far-famed Macedonian phalanx, which was IG men deep, armed with long projecting spears. Philip's views were first turned towards the eastern frontiers of his dominions, where his interests clashed with those of the Athe- nians. A few years before the Athenians had made various un- availing attempts to obtain possession of Amphipolis, once the jewel of their empire, but which they had never recovered since its capture by Brasidas in the eighth year of the Peloponncsian war. Its situation at the mouth of the Strymon rendered it also valuable to Macedonia, not only as a commercial port, but as open- ing a passage into Thrace. The Olynthians Avere likewise anxious to enrol Amphipolis as a member of their confederacy, and ac- cordingly proposed to the Athenians to form an alliance for the purpose of defending Amphipolis against their mutual enemy. An alliance between these two powerful states would have proved an insurmountable obstacle to Philijj's views, and it was therefore absolutely necessary to prevent this coalition. Here we have the first instance of Philip's skill and dujjlicity in negotiation. By secretly promising the Athenians that he would put Ami)liipolis into their hands if they would give him possession of Pydna, lie induced tliem to reject the overtures of the Olynthians; and by ceding to the latter the town of Antlicmus, he bought otf their op- position. He now laid siege to Amphipolis, which, being thus left unaided, fell into his hands (b.c. 358). He then forthwith marched against Pydna, which surrendered to him ; but on tho ground tliat it was not the Atlienians who had ])ut him in pos* session of this town, he refused to give up Amphipolis to them. Pliilip had now just reason to dread the enmity of the Athe- nians, and accordingly it was his policy to court the favour of the Olyutliians, and to prevent tlienr from renewing their negotiations with the Atlienians. In order to separate them more cflectually, he assisted the Olynthians in rccoA-ering Potidica, which had for- merly belonged to their confederacy, but was now in the hands of tlie Athenians. On tlie capture of the town he handed it over to the Olynthians. Plutarch relates that the capture of l'otida\'i wns accompanied with three other fortunate events in tlie life of Pliilip, namely, the prize gained by his chariot at the Olympic games, a victory of his general Parmenio over the Illyrians, and the birth of his son Alexander. These events happened in n.c. 356. B.C. 357. SOCIAL AND SACRED WAES. 177 Pliilip now crossed tho Strymon, on the left bank of which lay Pangajus, a range of mountains abounding in gold-mines. lie conquered the district, and founded there a new town called Phi- lippi, on the site of the ancient Thracian town of Crenides. By improved methods of Avorking the mines he made them yield an annual revenue of 1000 talents, nearly 250,000. Meanwhile Athens was engaged in a war Avith her allies, which has been called the Social War, and which Avas, perhaps, the reason why she was obliged to look quietly on whilst Philip was thus aggrandizing himself at her expense. This Avar broke out in B.C. 357. The chief causes of it seem to have been the contri- butions levied upon the allies by the Athenian generals. The Avar lasted three years ; and as Artaxerxes, the Persian king, threatened to support the allies Avith a fleet of 300 ships, the Athenians Avere obliged to consent to a disadA^antageous peace, which secured the independence of the more important allies (b. C. 355). Another Avar, AA^hich had been raging during the same time, tended still further to exhaust the Grecian states, and thus paA'o the Avay for Philip's progress to the supremacy. This Avas the Saci'ed War, Avhich broke out betAvcen Thebes and Phocis in the same year as the Social War (n.c. 357). An ill-feeling had long subsisted between those two countries. The Thebans noAV aA'ailed themseh-es of the influence Avliich they possessed in the Amphicty- onic council to take A'cngeance upon the Phocians, and accord- ingly induced this body to impose a heavy fine upon the latter people, because they had cultivated a portion of the Cirrhaan plain, Avhich had been consecrated to the Delphian god, and Avas to lie Avaste for ever. The Phocians pleaded that the payment of the fine Avould ruin them ; but, instead of listening to their rcmon' strances, the Amphictyons doubled the amount, and threatened, in case of their continued refusal, to reduce them to the condition of serfs. Thus driven to desperation, the Phocians resolved to comijlcte the sacrilege Avith Avhich they had been branded, by seizing the very temple of Delphi itself. The leader and coun- sellor of this enterprise Avas Philomelus, aa'Iio, Avith a force of no more than 2000 men, surprised and took Delphi. At first, hoAv- evcr, he carefully abstained from touching the sacred treasure ; but, being hard,])ressed by the Thebans and their allies, he thrcAv olr tlie scruples Avhich he had hitherto assumed, and announced that the sacred treasures should be conA'erted into a fund for the payment of mercenaries. On the death of Philomelus, Avho fell in battle, the command Avas assumed by his brother Onomarchus, who carried on the Avar Avith vigour and success. But he Avas M 173 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciim>. XIX. checked in liis career by riiilip, v/lio liad previously been cxtend- in;2; his dominion over Tlicssaly, nnd Avho now assumed the char- acter of a chamijion of tlie Delpliic god, and made his soldiers wear wreaths of laurel i)lucked in the groves of Tempc. He pen- etrated into Thessaly, and encountered the Phocians near the gulf of Pngasa:. In the battle which ensued, Onomarchus Avas slain, and his army totally defeated (i;.c. 352). This victory made Philip master of Thessaly. lie now directed his march south- wards with the view of subduing the Phocians ; but, upon reaching TliermopyliC, he found the pass guarded by a strong Athenian force, and was compelled, or considered it more prudent, to re- treat. After his return from Thessaly Philip's views were directed to- wards Thrace and tlie Chersonese. It was at this juncture that De- mosthenes stepped forwards as the proclaimed opponent of Pliilij), and delivered the first of those celebrated orations which from their subject have been called "the Phili])pics." This most fa- mous of all the Grecian orators was born in n.c. 382-381. Having lost his father at the early age of seven, his guardians abused their trust, and defrauded him of the greater part of his paternal inlicr- itance. This misfortune, however, i)roved one of the causes which tended to make him an orator. Demosthenes, as he advanced to- wards manhood, perceived with indignation the conduct of his guardians, for which he resolved to make them answerable when the proper opportunity sliould arrive, by accusing them himself. His first attempt to speak in public proved a faihire, and he retired from the bcma amidst the hootings and laughter of the citizens. The more judicious and candid among his auditors perceived, however, marks of genius in his speech, and rightly attributed hia failure to timidity and want of due i)reparation. Euuomus, an aged citizen, who met him wandering about the Pira'us in a stato of dejection at his ill-success, bade him take courage and jiersevcrc. Dcmusthenes now withdrew awhile from public life, and devoted himself perseveringly to remedy his defects. They were such as might be lessened, if not removed, by practice, and consisted chief' ly of a weak voice, imi)erfect articulation, and ungraceful and iu' appropriate action. He derived much assistance from JSatyrus tli3 actor, who exercised him' in reciting })assages from So])hoclcs and Euripides. He studied the best rhetorical treatises and orations, and is said to have copied the work of Thucydides with his own hand no fewer than eight times. He shut himself up for two or tlu'ee months together in a subterranean chauiber in order to i>rac- ticc composition and declamation. His ])erscvcrance was crowned vrith success ; and he who ou the Hrst attempt had descended fronj B.C. 352. DEMOSTHENES FIRST PKILIPPIC. 179 tlie bcma amid the ridicule of the crowd, became at last the most perfect orator the world has ever seen. Demosthenes had established himself as a public speaker before the period which we have now reached ; but it is chiefly in con- nexion with Philip that Ave are to view him as a statesman as well as an orator. Philip had shown his ambition by the conquest of Thessaly, and by the part he had taken in the Sacred War ; and Demosthenes now began to regard him as the enemy of the liber- ties of Athens and of Greece. In his first "Philippic" Demosthe- nes tried to rouse his countrj-men to energetic measures against this formidable enemy; but his warnings and exhortations produced little effect, for the Athenians were no longer distinguished by the same spirit of enterprise which had characterized them in the day:? of their supremacy. No important step was taken to curb the growing power of Philip ; and it was the danger of Olynthus which first induced the Athenians to prosecute the war with a little mora energy. In 350 B.C., Philip having cptured a town in Chalcidicc, Olynthus began to tremble for her own safety, and sent envoys to Athens to crave assistance. Olynthus was still at the head of thirty-two Greek towns, and the confederacy was a sort of coun- terpoise to the power of Philip. It was on this occasion that De- mosthenes delivered his three Olynthiac orations, in which he warmly advocated an alliance v/ith Olynthus. Demosthenes was opposed by a strong party, vAih which Phocion commonly acted. Phocion is one of the most singular and origi- nal characters in Grecian histoiy. He viewed the multitude and their altairs with a scorn which he was at no pains to disguise ; re- ceiving their anger with indifference, and their praises with con- tempt. His known probity also gave him weight with the assembly- He was the only statesman of whom Demosthenes stood in awe ; who was accustomed to say, when Phocion rose, "Here comes tho pruner of my periods." But Phocion's desponding views, and his. mistrust of the Athenian people, made him an ill statesman at a period which demanded the most active patriotism. He doubtless injured his country by contributing to check the more enlarged and patriotic views of Demosthenes ; and though his own conduct was pure and disinterested, he unintentionally threw his weight on the side of those who, like Demades and others, were actuated by the basest motives. This division of opinion rendered the op- erations of the Athenians for the aid of the Olynthians languid and desultory. Town after town of the confederacy fell before Philip ; and in 347 Olynthus itself Avas taken. The whole of the Chalcidian peninsula thus became a Macedonian fvfovince. The prospects of Athens now became alarming. Her possession* 180 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX in the Chersonese were threatened, as well as the freedom of the Greek towns upon the IIelles])ont.* Tlie Athenians had supported the Phocians in the Sacred War, and were thus at war with Thebes. In order to resist Philip, the attention of the Athenians was now directed towards a reconciliation with Thebes, especially since the trea,sures of Delphi were nearly exhausted, and, on the other hand, the war was becoraing every year more and more burthensome to tlie Thebans. Nor did it seem inii)rol)able that a peace niiglit be concluded not only between those two cities, but amonp the Grecian states j^enerally. It seems to have been this aspect of affairs that induced Philip to make several indirect overtures to the Athenians in the summer of B.C. 317. In sjjite of subsidies from Delphi the Avar had been very onerous to them, and they received these ad- vances with joy, and eventually agreed to the terms of a j)eacc. Having thus gained over the Athenians, Philip marched through Thermopylaj and entered Phocis, which surrendered uncondition- ally at his approach. He then occupied Delphi, where he assem- bled the Am])hietyons to pronounce sentence upon those who had been concerned in the sacrilege committed there. The council de- creed tliat all the cities of Phocis, cxce])t Abre, should be destroy- ed, and their inliabitants scattered into villages containing not more than lifty houses each. Sparta was deprived of her share in the Amphictyonic privileges; the two votes in the council possess- ed by tlic Phocians were transferred to the kings of Macedonia; and Philip Avas to share with the Thebans and Thessalians the honor of presiding at the Pythian games (u.c. MG). The result of the Sacred "War rendered IMncedon the leading state in Greece. Philip at once acquired by it military glory, a reputation for piety, and an accession of power. His ambitious designs were now too i)lain to be mistaken. The eyes of the blind- est among the Athenians wex'c at last o]iened; the promoters of the peace which had been concluded with I'hilip incurred the ha- tred anel sus])icion of the jieojilc, whilst, on the other hand, De- mosthenes rose higher than ever in public favour. I'hilip was now busy with preparations for the vast ))rojects which he contemplated, and which embraced an attack upon the Athenian colonies, as well as upon the Persian empire. For this i)uri>ose he hail organized a consideiable naval force as well as an army, and in the sjjring of 312 u.c. he set out on an exi)edition against Thrace. His jirogress soon ajjpeared to menace the Chersonese and the Athenian possessions in that quarter, and at length the Athenian troojts under Diopithes came into actual collision with tlie Mace- donians. In the folh)wing year Philij) began to attack the Greek eities north of the IIellcs])ont. He fu'st besieged and capture^ B.C. 338. BATTLE OF CII^RONEA. 181 Selymbria on the Propontis, and then turned his arms against Perinthus and Byzantium. This roused the Athenians to more vigorous action. War was formally declared against Philip, and a fleet equipijcd for the immediate relief of Byzantium. I'hilif v/as forced to raise the siege not only of that town, but of Perin- thus also, and finally to evacuate the Chersonesus altogether For these acceptable services the grateful Byzantians erected a colossal statue in honor of Athens. After this check Philip undertook an expedition against tho Thracians ; but meantime his partisans procured for him an op- portunity of marching again into the very heart of Greece. Amphissa, a Locrian town, having been declared by the Am- p'h"ctyonic council guilty of sacrilege, Philip was appointed by tlic council as their general to inflict punishment on the inhabitants of the guilty town. Accordingly, he marched southwards early in r.c. 338 ; but, instead of proceeding in the direction of Amphissa, he suddenly seized Elatea, the chief town in the eastern part of Phocis, thus showing clearly enough that his real design was against Boeotia and Attica. Intelligence of this event reached Athens at night, and caused extraordinary alarm. In the follow- ing morning Demosthenes pressed upon the assembly the neces- sity for making the most vigorous preparations for defence, and especially recommended them to send an embassy to Thebes, in order to persiiade the Thebans to unite with them against the common enemy. The details of the war that iEbllowed are exceedingly obscure. Philip appears to have again opened negotiations with the Thebans, which failed ; and we then find the combined Theban and Athcniai'i armies marching out to meet the Macedonians. The decisive bat- tie was fought on the 7th of August, in the plain of Chteronea in Bceotia, near the frontier of Phocis (b.c. 338). In the Macedonian army was Philip's son, the youthful Alexander, who was intrusted with the command of one of the wings ; and it was a charge made by him on the Theban sacred band that decided the fortune of the day. The sacred band Avas cut to pieces, without flinching from the ground Avhich it occupied, and the remainder of the combined army was completely routed. Demosthenes, who was serving as a foot-soldier in the Athenian ranks, has been absurdly reproached with cowardice because he participated in the general flight. The battle of Chceronea crushed the liberties of Greece, and made it, in reality, a province of the Macedonian monarchy. To Athens herself the blow was almost as fatal as that of ^"Egospotami. But the manner in which Philip used his victory excited universal sui-prise. He dismissed the Athenian prisoners without random, to 182 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX. and voluntarily offered a peace on terms more advantageous than the Athenians themselves would have ventured to })roi)0.sc. Phil- ij), indeed, seems to have regarded Athens with a sort of love and respect, as the centre of art and refinement, for his treatment of the Thebans was very different, and marked by great harshness and severity. They were compelled to recall their exiles, iu whose hands the government was ])laced, whilst a Macedonian arrison was established in the Cadmea. A congress of the Grecian states was now summoned at Cor- inth, in which war was declared against Persia, and Philip was ai))iointcd generalissimo of the expedition. In the si)ring of n.c. 3oG Philip sent some forces into Asia, under the command of Attains, Parmenio, and Amyntas, which were designed to engage the Greek cities of Asia in tlie expedition. Put, before quitting Macedonia, Philip determined to j'rovide for the safety of his dominions by celebrating the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of Epirus. It was solemnized at ^Egrc, the ancient capital of Macedonia, with much jjomp, including banquets, and musical and theatrical entertainments. The day after the nuptials was dedicated to theatrical entertainments. The festival was opened witli a procession of the images of the twelve Olyrajjian deities, with which was associated that of Philip himself. TliQ. monarch took part in the procession, dressed in Avhite robes, and crowned with a chaplet. Whilst thus proceeding through the city, a youth suddenly rushed out of tlie crowd, and, drawing a long sword which he had concealed under his clothes, i)lunged it into Pliili])'s side, who fell dead upon the s])Ot. The assassin was ]ur- sued by some of the royal guards, and, having stumbled in his flight, was despatched before he could reach the place where horses had been provided for his escape. His name was Pausanias. He Avas a youth of noble birth, and we arc told that his motive for taking Philip's life was that tlic king had refused to jjunish an outrage which Attains had committed against him. Thus fell I'liilip of Macedon, in the twenty-fourth year of his reign and forty-seventh of his age (n.c. 330). AVhcn we rcHcct upon his achievements, and how, partly by i)o]icy and jiarily by arms, lie converted his originally poor and distracted kingdom into the mistress of Greece, we must acknowledge him to have been an extraordinary, if not a great man, In the better sense of that tenn. His views and his ambition were certainly as large as those of his son Alexander, but he was in-evented by a jtreuniture death from carrying them out ; nor would Alexander liimself have been able to perform his great achievements had not Philip handed down to him all tlie means and instruments which they required. Coin of Alexander the Great. CHAPTER XX. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, B.C. 336-323. Alexander, at the time of his father's death, was in his twen- tieth year, having been born in b.c. 356. His early education was entrusted to Leonidas, a kinsman of his mother, a man of se- vere and parsimonious character, who trained him with Spartan simplicity and hardiliood ; whilst Lysimachus, a sort of under- governor,. early inspired the young prince with ambitious notions, by teaching him to love and emulate the heroes of the Hiad. Ac- cording to the traditions of his family, the blood of Achilles actu- ally ran in the veins of Alexander;* and Lysimachus noui'ished the feeling which that circumstance was calculated to awaken by giving him the name of that hero, whilst he called Philip Peleus, and himself Phoenix. But the most striking feature in Alexan- der's education was, that he had Aristotle for his teacher, and that thus the greatest conqueror of the material world received the instructions of him who has exercised the most extensive em- pire over the human intellect. It was probably at about the age of thirteen that he first received the lessons of Aristotle, and they can hardly have continued more than three years, for Alexander soon left the schools for the employments of active life. At the age of sixteen we find him regent of Macedonia during Philip's absence ; and at eighteen we have seen him filling a prominent military post at the battle of Chajronca. On succeeding to the throne Alexander announced his inten- tion of prosecuting his fatiier s expedition into Asia ; but it was first necessary for him to settle the affairs of Greece, where the news of Philip's assassination, and the accession of so young a prince, had excited in several states a hope of shaking off the * His mother Olympias was the daughter of Neoptolcmus, king of Epirus, Avh elairaed descent from Pyn'hus, the son of Achines. 184 IIISTOIIY OF GllEECE. Chap. XX, Macedonian yoke. Athens was tlie centre of these movements. Demosthenes, altlioii^li in niovirnin;; for the recent loss of an only daughter, now came abroad dressed in Avliite, and crowned with a chaplet, in which attire lie was seen sacrificing at one of the jnib- lic altars. He also moved a decree that rhilij/s death should be celebrated by a public thanksgiving, and that religious honours should be paid to the memory of Tausanias. At tlic same time he made vigorous preparations for action. He despatched en- voys to the principal Grecian states for the purpose of inciting tliem against JNIacedon. Sparta, and the whole Peloponnesus, with tlic exception of Megalopolis and Messenia, seemed inclined to shake olT their compulsory alliance. Even the Thebans rose against tlie dominant oligarchy, although the Cadmea was in the hands of the Macedonians. The activity of Alexander disconcerted all these movements. Having marched through Thcssaly, he assembled the Amjthicty- onic council atThermopyhc, Avho conferred ujxm him the command with which they had invested his father during the Sacred War. He then advanced rapidly upon Thebes, and thus prevented the meditated revolution. The Athenians sent ambassadors to depre- cate his wrath, who were graciously accepted. He then convened a general congress at Corinth, where he was appointed general- issimo for the Persian war in place of his father. ^Most of the phi- losophers and persons of note near Corinth came to congratulate him on this occasion ; but Diogenes of Sinope, who was then liv- ing in one of the suburbs of Corinth, did not make his appear- ance. Alexander, thcrefure, resolved to jjay a visit to the eccen- tric cynic, whom he found basking in the sun. On tlie approach of Alexander Avith a numerous retinue, Diogenes raised himself lip a little, and the monarch affably inquired how he could serve him? "Py standing out of my sunsliine," replied the churlish philosopher. Alexander was struck with surprise at a behaviour to wliich he was so little accustomed ; but, whilst his courtiers were ridiculing the manners of the cynic, he turned to them and said, "Were I not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes." The result of the Congix'ss might l)e considered a settlement of tlie affairs of Greece. Alexander then returned to IMaccdonia in the hope of being able to begin his Persian expedition in the spring of 0.0.335; but reports of disturbances among the Thra- cians and Triballians diverted his attention to that quarter. Ho therefore crossed Mount Ihtmus (the I'alkan) and marched into the territory of the Triballians, defeated their forces, and j)ursued them to the Danube, whicli he crossed. After acquiring n largo booty he regained the banks of the Danube, and thence marched B.C. 335. CAPTURE OF THEBES. 185 against the Illyrians and Tanlantians, wliom he speedily reduced to obedience. During Alexander's absence on these expeditions no tidings were heard of him for a considerable time, and a report of his death was industriously spread in Southern Greece. The Thcbans rose and besieged the Macedonian garrison in the Cadiuea, at the same time inviting other states to declare their independence. Demosthenes was active in aiding the movement. He persuaded the Athenians to furnish the Thebans -with subsidies, and to assure them of their Bup])ort and alliance.. But the rapidity of Alexander again crushed the insurrection in the bud. Before the Thebans discovered that the rei)ort of his death was false he had already arrived at On- chestus in Ba:;otia, Alexander was willing to afford them an o])por- tunity for repentance, and marched slowly to the foot of the Cad- mea. But the leaders of the insurrection, believing themselves irretrievably compromised, replied with taunts to Alexander's pro- posals for peace, and excited the people to the most desperate re- sistance. An engagement was prematurely brought on by one of the generals of Alexander, in which some of the Macedonian troops Avere put to the rout ; but Alexander, coming up with the phalanx, whilst the Thebans were in the disorder of pursuit, drove them back in turn, and entered the gates along with them, when a fearful massacre ensued, committed principally by the Thracians in Al- exander's service. Six thousand Thebans are said to have been slain, and thirty thousand were made prisoners. The doom of the conquered city was referred to the allies, who decreed her destruc- tion. The grounds of the verdict bear the impress of a tyrannical hypocrisy. They rested on the conduct of the Thebans during the Persian war, on their treatment of Plata^a, and on their enmity to Athens. The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and all the houses, except that of Pindar, were levelled with the ground. The Cadmea was preserved to be occupied by a Macedonian garrison. Thebes seems to have been thiis harshly treated as an example to the rest of Greece, for towards the otlier states, which were now eager to 4nake their excuses and submission, Alexander showed much for- bearance and lenity. The conduct of the Athenians exhibits them deeply sunk in degradation. When they heard of the chastisement inflicted uijon Thebes, they immediately voted, on the motion of Demosthenes, that ambassadors should be sent to congratulate Alexander on his safe return from his northern expeditions, and on his recent success. Alexander, in reply, Avrote a letter, demanding that eight or ten of the leading Athenian orators sliould be deliv- ered up to him. At the head of the list was Demosthenes. In artcd he distributed most of the crown property among his friends, and when Ferdic" cas asked him what he had reserved for himself, he replied, "My hopes." A march of sixteen days brought Alexanj)ort of Persia, had been manifested in Greece. But, in order to put a complete stop to all such intrigues, which chiefly depended on the assistance of a Persian fleet, Alexander resolved to seize Phanicia and Egypt, and thus to strike at the root of the Persian maritime power. Meanwhile, Darius, attended by a body of only 4000 fugitives, had crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus. Before lie had set out from Babylon the whole forces of the empire had been summoned ; but he had not thought it worth while to wait for what he deemed a mcrelv useless encumbrance ; and the more distant levies, whicli comprised some of the best troojjs of the cmi)irc, were still hasten- ing towards Babylon. In a short time, tlierefore, he would be at the head of a still more numerous host than that which had fought at Issus ; yet he thought it safer to open negotiations with Alex- ander than to trust to the chance of arms. "With this view he sent a letter to Alexander, who was now at IMarathus in Phoenicia, proposing to become his friend and ally; but Alexander rejected all his overtures, and told him that he must in future be addressed, not in the language of an equal, but of a subject. As Alexander advanced southwards, all the towns of Phoenicia hastened to open their gates ; the inhabitants of Sidon even hailed him as their deliverer. Tyre also sent to tender her submission, but coupled Avith reservations by no means accei)table to a youth- ful conqueror in the fidl tide of success. Alexander affected to receive their olV.'r as an unconditional surrender, and told then: that he Avould visit their cifv and vW'cr sacrifices to Melcart, a B.C. 332. SIEGE OF TYRE. 191 Tyrian dci'iV, Avho was considered as identical with the Grcf ian Hercules. This bronglit the matter to an issue. The Tyrians now intbrmcd hira tliat they could not admit any foreigners within their walls, and that, if he wished to sacrifice to Melcart, he would find another and more ancient shrine in Old Tyre, on the main land. Alexander indignantly dismissed the Tyrian ambas- sadors, and announced his intention of laying siege to theit city. The Tyrians probably deemed it impregnable. It was hf nature a place of great strength, and had been rendered still stronger by art. The island on which it stood was b.alf a mile distant from the main land ; and though the cliannel was shallow near the coast, it dcei)cned to three fathoms near the island. The shores of the island were rocky and precipitous, and the walls rose from the cliffs to the height of 150 feet in solid masonry. As Alexander possessed no ships, the only method by which he could i^pproach the town was by constructing a causeway, the materials for which were collected from the forests of Libanus and the ruins of Old Tyre. After overcoming many difficulties, the mole was at length pushed to the foot of the v/alls ; and as soon as Alexander had effected a practicable breach, he ordered a general assault both bv land and sea. The breacli was stormed under the imme- diate inspection of Alexander himself; and though the Tyrians made a desperate resistance, they were at length overpowered, when the city became one wide scene of indiscriminate carnage and plunder. The siege had lasted seven months, and the Mace- donians were so exasperated by the difficulties and dangers they had undergone that they granted no quarter. Eight thousand of the citizens arc said to have been massacred ; and the remainder, with the exception of the king and some cf the principal men, who had taken refuge in tlic temple of Melcart, were sold into slavery to the number of 30,000. Tyre was taken in the month of July in 332. Whilst Alexander was engaged in the siege of Tyre, Darius made him further and more advantageous proposals. He now of- fered 10,000 talents as the ransom of his family, together Avith all the provinces west of the Euphrates, and his daughter Barsine in marriage, as the conditions of a peace. When these offers were submitted to the council, Parmenio was not unnaturally stiuck with their magnificence, and observed that, were he Alexander, he would accept them. " And so would I," replied the king, " were I Parmenio." Darius therefore prepared himself for a desperate resistance. After the fall of Tvrc, Alexander marched with his army towards Egypt, whilst his fleet proceeded along the coast, Gaza, a strong 192 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX fortress on the sca-shorc, obstinately held out, antl delayed his prog, ress three or four months. After tlic cajiture of this city Alex- ander met his fleet at Pelusium, and ordered it to sail up the Nil as far as Memphis, whither he himself marehed with liis army across the desert. lie conciliated the affection of the E3 Tigris and the mountains of Kurdistan, near a village calletl Gaugamrda (the Camel's IIous',;), 'J'he town of ArbGla, after which the battle that ensued is commonly named, lay at about twenty miles distance, and there Darius had deposited his baggage and treasure. That monarch had been easily persuaded that his for- mer defeat was owing solely to the nature of the ground; and, therefore, he now selected a wide plain for an engagement, where there was abundant room for his multitudinous infantry, and for the evolutions of his horsemen and charioteers. Alexander, after giving his army a few days' rest, sot out to meet the enemy soon after midnight, in ordin- that he might come up with them about daybreak. On ascending some sand-hills, the whole array of the Persians suddenly burst upon the view of the Macedonians, at the B.C. 331, BATTLE OF ARBELA, 193 distance of three or four miles. Durins, as usual, occupied the centre, surrounded by his body-guard and chosen troops. In front of the royal position were ranged the war-chariots and elephants, And on either side the Greek mercenaries, to the number, it is said, of 50,000. Alexander spent the first day in surveying the ground and preparing for the attack ; he also addressed his troops, point- ing out to them that the prize of victory would not be a mere prov- ince, but the dominion of all Asia. Yet so great was the tranquil- lity with which he contemplated the result, that at daybreak on the following morning, when the ofRccrs came to receive his final in- structions, they found him in a deep slumber. His army, which consisted only of -1:0,000 foot and 7000 horse, was draAvn up in the order which he usually observed, namel}', with the phalanx in the centre in six divisions, and the Macedonian cavalry on the right, Avhcre Alexander himself took his station. The Persians, fearful of being sui'prised, had stood under arms the whole night, so that the morning found them exhausted and dispirited. Some of them, however, fought with considerable bravery ; but when Alexander had succeeded in breaking their line by an impetuous charge, Da- rius mounted a fleet horse and took to flight, as at Issus, though the fortune of the day was yet far from having been decided. At length, however, the rout became general. Whilst daylight lasted Alexander pursued the flying enemy as far as the' banks of the Lycus, or Greater Zab, were thousands of the Persians perished in the attempt to pass the river. After resting his men a few hours, Alexander continued the pursuit at midnight in the hope of overtaking DariuB at Arbela. The Persian monarch, however, had continued his flight without stopping; but the whole of the royal baggage and treasure was captured. Finding any further pusuit of Darius hopeless, Alexander now directed his march towards Babylon. At a little distance from the city the greater part of t'.ie population came out to meet him, headed by their priests and magistrates, tendering their submis- sion, and bearing with them magnificent presents. Alexander then made his triumphant entry into Babylon, riding in a chariot at the head of his army. The streets Avere strewed with flowers, incense smoked on either hand on silver altars, and the priests celebrated his entry with hymns. Nor was this the mere display of a compulsory obedience. Under the Persian sway the Chaldaan religion had been oppressed and persecuted; the temple of Beliis had been destroyed and still lay in ruins ; and both priests and people consequently rejoiced at the downfall of a dynasty from which they had suffered so much wrong. Alexander observed ''ere the same poli*^" conduct AvhicK he had adopted in Eg)7)t. N 191 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X:S He caused tlio ruined temples to be restored, and proposed to offev personally, but under the direction of the priests, a sacrifice to Belus. Alexander contemjjlated making Babylon the capital of his future empire, llis army was rewarded Avi,h a large donativo from the Persian treasury ; and after being allowed to indulge for some time in the luxury of Babylon, was again put in motion, towards the middle of November, for Susa. It was there that tlio Persian treasures were chiefly accumulated, and Alexander had despatched one of his generals to take possession of the city im- mediately after the battle of Arbela. It was surrendered without a blow by the satrap Abulites. The treasure found there amount- ed to 40,000 talents in gold and silver bullion, and 9000 in gold Darics. But among all tliese riches the interest of the Greeks must have been excited in a lively manner by the discovery of tho spoils carried off from Greece by Xerxes. Among them were the bronze statues of Ilarmodius and Aristogiton, which Alexander now sent back to Athens, and which were long afterwards pre- served in the Ceramlcus. At Susa Alexander received re-enforcements of about 15,000 men from Greece. He then directed his march soutlieastwards towards Pcrscpolis. His road lay through the mountainous ter- ritory of tlie Uxians, who refused him a passage unless lie ])aid the usual tribute whicli they were in the habit of extorting even from the Persian kings. But Alexander routed them with great slaughter. He then advanced rapidly to Pcrscpolis, whose mag- nificent ruins still attest its ancient splendoin-. It Avas the real capital of the Persian kings, though they generally resided at Susa during tlic winter, and at Ecbatuna in summer. The treasure found tlicre exceeded that both of Babylon and Susa, and is said to liave amounted to 120,000 talents, or nearly 30,000,000 sterling. It was here that Alexander is related to have committed an act of senseless folly, by firing with his own hantl the ancient and mag- nificent palace of tho Persian kings, of which the most charitable version is that he committed the act when heated with wine at tho instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtesan. By some writers, howevc", the story is altogether disbelieved, and tlie real destruc- tion of Pcrscpolis referred to the INIohammedan epoch. AVhilst at Pcrso]jolis, Alexander visited the tomb of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, which was situated at a little distance, at a city callc 1 Pasargada;. Thus, in between tlirce and four years after crossing the Helles- pont, Alexander had cstalilishcil himself on the J'ersian throne'. But Darius was not yet in his i)ower. After the battle of Arbela tiuit monarch had fled to Ecbatina. It was not till about foul B.C. 330. DEATH OF DARIUS. 195 months after the battle of Arbela, and consequently early in 330, that Alexander quitted Persepolis to resume the pursuit of Darius. On approaching^ Ecbatana he learned that the Persian monarch had already fled with the little army which still adhered to him. Alexander, with his main body, then pursued Darius through Media by forced marches, and reached Rhaga?, a distance of three hundred miles from Ecbatana, in eleven days. Such was the rapidity of the march that many men and horses died of fatigue. At Rhagse he' heard that Darius had already passed the defile called the "Caspian Gates," leading into the Bactrian provinces; and, as that pass was fifty miles distant, urgent pursuit was evidently use- less. He therefore allowed his troops five days' rest, and then re- suuKid his march. Soon after passing the Gates he learned that Darius had been seized and loaded with chains by his own satrap Bessus, who entertained the design of establishing himself in Bactria as an independent sovereign. This intelligence stimulated Alexander to make still further haste with part of his cavalry and a chosen body of foot. On the fourth day he succeeded in over- taking the fugitives with his cavalry, having been obliged to leave the infantry behind, with directions to follow more at leisure. The enemy, Avho did not know his real strength, were struck with con- sternation at his appearance, and fled precipitately. Bessus and his adherents now endeavoured to persuade Darius to fly Avith them, and provided a fleet horse for that purpose. But the Per- sian monarch, who had already experienced the generosity of Alexander in the treatment of his captive family, preferred to fall into his hands, wliereupon the conspirators mortally wounded him in the chariot in which th.ey kept him confined, and then took to flight. Darius expired before Alexander could come up, who threw his own cloak over the body. He then ordered him to bo magnificently buried in the tomb of his ancestors, and provided for the, fitting education of his children. The next three years were employed by Alexander in subduing Ilyrcania, Drangiana, Bactria, and Sogdiana, and the other north- ern provinces of the Persian empire. In these distant regions ho founded several cities, one of which in Aria, called after him (Alexandria Ariorum), is still, under the name of Herat, one of the chief cities in central Asia. Alexander's stay in Prophthasia. the capital of Drangiana, was signalized by a supposed conspiracy against his life, formed by Philotas, the son of Parmenio. Alex- ander had long entertained suspicions of Philutas. But the im eiediate subject of accusation against him was that he had not re- vealed a conspiracy which was reported to be forming against Al- sxander's life, and which he had deemed too contemiDtiblc to notice. 196 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XX. lie was consequently suspected of beinpf implicated in it ; and on beins put to the torture, he not only confessed his own guilt in his agonies, but also implicated his father. PhilGtas was executed, and an order was sent to Ecbatana, where Parmenio then was, directing that veteran general to be i)ut to death. A letter, pur- porting to be from his son, was handed to him ; and whilst the old man was engaged in reading it, Polydamus, his intimate friend, together with some others of Alexander's ])rincipal officers, fell upon and slew him. His head was carried to Alexander. Meantime Bessus had assumed tlic royal dignity in Bactria, but upon Alexander's approach he fled across the Oxus into Sog- diana. Early in the summer of 329 Alexander followed him across the Oxus, and shortly afterwards Bessus was betrayed by two of his own officers into the Iiands of Alexander. Bessus was carried to Zariaspa, the capital of Bactria, where he was brought before a Persian court, and put to death in a cruel and barbarous manner. Alexander even crossed the River Jaxartes (Sir), and defeated the Scythians. Sogdiana alone of the northern provinces oifered any serious resistance to his arms. Accordingly, in 328, he again crossed the Oxus. He divided his army into five bodies, ordering them to scour the country in ditforent directions. With the troops under his own command he marched against the fortress called the Sogdian Rock, seated on an isolated hill, so precijntous as to be deemed inaccessible, and so well supplied with pi'ovisions as to defy a blockade. The summons to surrender was treated with derision hy the commander, who inquired whether the ^Maccdo- nians had wings. But a small body of JNlacedonians having suc- ceeded in scaling some heights which overhung ihc fortress, the garrison became so alarmed that they immediately surrendered. To this jdace a Bactrian named Oxyartes, an adherent of Bessus, had sent his daugliters for safety. One of them, named Roxfina, was of surpassing beauty, and Alexander made her the partner of his throne (n.c. 328). At Maracanda (now Sama7'cand) he appointed his friend Clitus Batrap of Bactria. On the eve of the parting of the two friends A-lexander celebrated a festival in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor ftud Pollux), though the day was sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus). The ban(iuct was attended by several jiarasites and literary flat- terers, who magniiit'd the ])raiscs of Alexander with extravagant and nauseous flattery. Clitus, Avliom wine had released from all n-udent reserve, sternly rebuked their fulsome adulation ; and, as the conversation turned on the c()nq)arative merits of the cxjjloits of Alexander and his father Philip, he did ^ot hesitate to prefer B.C. 327. INVASION OV IXDIA. 19? the exploits of the latter. Ho reminded Alexander of his former services, and, stretchin;^ fortii his hand, exclaimed, " It Avas this hand, Alexander, vvliicli saved your life at the battle of the Granl- cus !" The king, who was also flushed with wine, was so enraged by these remarks that lie rushed at Clitus with the intention of killing him on the spot, but he was held back by his friends, whilst Clitus was at the same time hurried out of the room. Alexander, however, was no sooner released than, snatching a spear, he sprang to the door, and meeting Clitus, who was returning in equal fury to brave his anger, ran him through the body. But when the deed was done he M-as seized with repentance and remorse. He flung himself on his couch, and remained for three whole days in an agony of grief, refusing all sustenance, and calling on the names of Clitus and of his sister Lanicc', who had been his nurse. It was not till his bodily strength began to fail through protracted absti- nence that he at last became more composed, and consented to listen to the consolations of his friends, and the words of the sooth- sayers, who ascribed the murder of Clitus to a temporary frenzy Avith which Dionysus had visited him as a punishment for neglect- ing the celebration of his festival. After reducing Sogdiana, Alexander returned into Bactria in 327, and began to prepare for his projected expedition into India. Whilst he was thus employed, a plot was formed against his life by the royal pages, incited by Hermolaus, one of their number, who had been punished with stripes for anticipating the king during a hunting party in slaying a wild boar. Hermolaus and his associates, among whom was Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, were first tortured, and then put to death. It seems certain that a conspiracy existed, but no less certain that the growing pride and haughtiness of Alexander Avere gradually alienating from him the hearts of his followers. Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the spring. He crossed the Indus by a bridge of beats near Taxila, the present Attock, Avhere the river is about 1000 feet broad, and very deep. He now found himself in the district at present called the Penj~ Coin of M;ice !o!ii;i. CIIArTER XXI, PROM -mb OKATTI OF ALKXANDEJl TIII5 GREAT TO TIIK COXQUESt OF GREECE V.Y THE ROMANS, K.C. 320-1 2G. The vast empire of Alcxaiulcr tiic Great was divided, at his deatli, amon^jj his ucnerals ; but, before relatiiij^j tlicir history, it is necessary to take a brief retrospective Rbince at tlie atiiiirs of Greece. Tlirce years after Alexander liad quitted Europe the Spartans made a vij:;orous effort to throw off the Macedonian yoke. They were joined by most of the Feloponnesian states ; but, though they met with some success at first, they were finally defeated with great slaughter by Antipater near Megalopolis. Agis fell in this battle, and the chains of Greece were riveted more firmly than ever. Tliis victory, and the successes of Alexander in the East, encouraged the Macedonian party in Athens to take active measures against Demosthenes ; nnd iEschincs revived an old charge against him which had lain dormant for several years, k^oon after the battle of Chajronea, Ctesiphon had ]m)posed that Demosthenes should be presented with a golden crown in the theatre during the gi'catDi- onysiac festival, on account of the services he had confeiTcd npon his country. For pro])Osing this decree JEschincs indicted Ctesi- ])hon; but, though the latter was the nominal defendant, it waa Demosthenes who was really put npon his trial. Tiic case was de- cided in 330 iJ.c, and has been immortalized by the memorable and still extant speeches of iEschines "Against Ctesiphon," and of De- mosthenes " On the Crown." JEschines. who did not obtain a fifth ]>art of the votes, and consequently became hinifself liable to a pen- alty, was so chagrined at his defeat that lie retired to llJiodes. ^ In 15. c. 32.") Ilarpillus arrived in Athens. He had been left by Alexander at Ecbatana in charge of the royal treasures, and aj^pears also to have lield the important satrajty of Babylon. During the absence of Alexander in India he gave himself up to the most cx B.C. 325. CONDEMNATION OF DEMOSTHENES. 203 travagant luxiiiy and profusion, squandering the treasures intrust- ed to him, at the same time that lie alienated the people subject to his rule by his lustful excesses and extortions. He had prob- ably thought that Alexander would never return from the remote regions of the East into which he had penetrated ; but when he at length learnt that the king was on his march back to Susa, and had visited with unsparing rigour those of his officers who had been guilty of any excesses during his absence, he at once saw that his only resource was in flight. Collecting together all the treasures which he could, and assembling a body of GOOO mercenaries, he hastened to the coast of Asia, and from thence crossed over to At- tica. At first the Athenians refused to receive him ; but bribes administered to some of the principal orators induced them to alter their determination. Such a step Avas tantamount to an act of hos- tility against iMacedonia itself; and accordingly Antipater called upon the Athenians to deliver up llarpalus, and to bring to trial those who had accepted his bribes. The Athenians did not ven- ture to disobey these demands. Harpalus was put into confine- ment, but succeeded in making his escape from prison. Demos- thenes was among the orators who Avere brought to trial for cor- ruption. He was declared to be guilty, and was condemned to pay a fine of uO talents. Not being able to raise that sum, he Avas thrown into prison; but he contrived to make his escape, and went into exile. There are, however, good grounds for doubting his guilt ; and it is more probable that he fell a victim to the implacable hatred of the Macedonian party. Upon quitting Athens, Demosthenes resided chiefly at JEgina orTroezen, in sight of his native land, and when- ever he looked towards her shores it was obsen^ed that he shed tears. Wlien the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, the anti- Macedonian party, which, since the exile of Demosthenes, was led by Hyperides, carried all before it. The people in a decree de- clared their determination to support the liberty of Greece. En- voys were despatched to all the Grecian states to announce the de~ tennination of Athens, and to exhort them to struggle with her for their independence. This call was responded to in the Pelopon- nesus only by the smaller states, whilst Sparta, Arcadia, and Achaia kept aloof. In northern Greece the confederacy was join- ed by most of the states except the Boeotians ; and Leosthenes was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied forces. The allied army assembled In the neighbourhood of Thermop- ylce. Antipater now advanced from the north, and offered battle in the vale of the Spercheus ; but, being deserted by his Thessalian ^^valry, who went over to his opponents during the heat of the er- I 204 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI gagement, he was obliged to retreat, and threw liimself into Lamia, a strong fortress on the Malian Gulf. Lcostliencs, desirous to tin- ish tlie war at a blow, pressed the siege Avith the utmost vigour ; but his assaults were repulsed, and he was compelled to resort to the slower method of a blockade. From this town the contest be- tween Antipater and the allied Greeks has been called the Lamiau i War. The novelty of a victory over the Macedonian arms was received with boundless exultation at Athens, and this feeling was raised to a still higher pitch by the arrival of an embassy from Antipater td sue for peace. But the Athenians were so elated with their good fortune, tliat tliey would listen to no terms but the nnconditional surrender of Antijjater. Meantime Demosthenes, tliough still an exile, exerted liimself in various parts of the Peloponnesus in counteracting the envoys of Antipater, and in endeavouring to gain adherents to the cause of Athens and the allies. The Athe- nians, in return, invited Demosthenes back to his native country, and a shi;) was sent to convey him to Pirajus, where he was re- ceived with extraordinary honours. Meanwhile Leonnatus, governor of the Ilellespontine Phrygia, had appeared on the theatre of war with an army of 20,000 foot and 2500 horse. Leosthenes had been slain at Lamia by a sally of the besieged ; and Antiphilus, on whom the command of the allied army devolved, hastened to offer battle to Leonnatus before he could arrive at Lamia. The hostile armies met in one of tho plains of Thessaly, where Leonnatus was killed and his troops de- feated. Anti]iater, as soon as the blockade of Lamia was raised, had i)ursued Antiphilus, and on the day afcer the battle he cllect- cd a junction with the beaten army of Leonnatus. Shortly afterwards Antipater was still further re-enforced by the arrival of Craterus with a considerable force from Asia ; and boing now at the head of an army which outnumbered the forces of the allies, he marched against them, and gained a decisive vic- tory over them near Crannon in Thessaly, on the 7th of August, B.C. 322. The allies were now compelled to sue for peace ; but Antipater refused to treat with them except as se})arate states, forcseeiug that by this means many would be detached from the con- fjderacv. The result answered his expectations. One bv one the various states submitted, till at length all had laid down their arms. Athens, the original instigator of the insurrection, now lay at the mercy of the con([ueror. As Antipater advanced, Phocion used all the influence which he possessed with the Macedonians in favour of his countrymen ; but he could obtain no other termii tlian an unconditional surrender. On ,< sccoml luission Phocioa B.C. 322. THE LAMIAN WAR. 205 received the final demands of Antij)atcr, which were, that the Athenians should deliver up a certain number of their orators, among whom were Demosthenes and Ilyperidcs ; that their polit- ical franchise should be limited by a property qualification ; that they should receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia; and that they should defray the expenses of the war. Such was the result of the Lamian war, which riveted the Macedonian fetters more firmly than ever. After the return of the envoys bringing the ultimatum of An- tipater, the sycophant Demades procured a decree for the death of the denounced orators. Demosthenes, and tlie other persons com- promised, made their escape from Athens before the Macedonian garrison arrived, ^gina was their first place of refuge, but they soon parted in different directions. Hyperides fled to the temple of Demeter (Ceres) at Ilermione in Peloponnesus, Avhilst Demos- thenes took refuge in that of Poseidon (Nei)tune) in the isle of Calaurca, near Tra'zen. But the satellites of Antipater, under the guidance of a Thurian named Archias, who had formerly been an actor, tore them from their sanctuaries. Hyperides Avas carried to Athens, and it is said that Antijjater took the brutal and cowardly revenge of ordering his tongue to be cut out, and his remains to be thrown to the dogs. Demosthenes contrived at last to escape the insults of the tyrannical conqueror. Archias at first endeavoured to entice him from his sanctuary by the blandest promises. But Demosthenes, forewarned, it is said, by a dream, fixing his eyes intently on him, exclaimed, "Your acting, Archias, never touched me formerly, nor do your promises now." And when Archias be- gan to employ threats, "Good," said Demosthenes; "now you speak as from the IMacedonian tripod ; before you were only play- ing a part. But wait awhile, and let me write ray last directions to my fixmily." So, taking his writing materials, he put the reed into his mouth, and bit it for some time, as was his custom when composing; after which he covered his head with his garment and reclined against a pillar. The guards who accompanied Archias, imagining this to be a mere trick, laughed and called him coward, whilst Archias began to renew his false persuasions. Demosthenes, feeling the poison work for such it was that he had concealed iu the reed now bade him lead on. "You may now," said he, "enact the part of Creon, and cast me out nnburied ; but at least, O gracious Poseidon, I have not polluted thy temple by my death, which Antipater and his Macedonians would not have scrupled at." But whilst he was endeavouring to walk out, he fell down by the altar and expired. The history of Alexander's successors is mark'^d from first to 20G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL last by dissensions, crimes, and unscrupulous ambition. It is only necessary for the purpose of the present work to mention very briefly the most important events. Alexander, on his death-bed, is said to have given his signet-ring to Perdiccas, but he had left no k'gitimate heir to his throne, though his wife R^xana was pregnant. On the day after Alex- ander's death a military council was assembled, in which Perdiccas assumed a leading part; and in which, after much debate, an ar- rangement was at length cife'cted on the following basis: That lihilip Arrhidicus, a young man of weak intellect, the half-brother of Alexander (being the son of Philip by a Thessaliau woman named Philinna), should bo declared king, rescning, however, to the child of Roxana, if a son should be born, a share in the sov- ereignty: that the government of Macedonia and Greece should be divided between Antipater and Craterus : that Ptolemy should preside over Egypt and the adjacent countries : that ^Yjitigunua should have Phrygia Proper, Lycia, and Pam])hylia: that the Ilellespontine Phrygia sliould be assigned to Lconnutus : that Eumones should have the satrapy of Pai)hlagonia and Cappadocia, which countries, however, still remained to be subdued: and that Thrace should be committed to Lysimachus. Perdiccas reserved for himself the command of tlie horse-guards, the post before held by Ilephajstion, in virtue of wliic'i he became the guardian of Philip ArrhidiBus, the nomiual sovereign. It was not for some time after these arrangements had been completed that the last rites were paid to Alexander's remains. They were conveyed to Alexandria, and de])Osited in a cemetery which afterw.ards became the burial- place of the Ptolemies. Nothing could exceed the magnificence of the funeral car, which was adorned with ornaments of massvc gold, and was so heavy that it was more than a year in being con- veyed from Babylon to Syrin, tliough drawn by 81 mules. In due time Roxana was delivered of a sou, to whom the name of Alex- ander was given, and who was declared the partner of Arrhidanis in the empire. Roxana had ])reviously inveigled Statira and her sister Drypetis to Babylon, where she caused them to be secretly assassinated. perdiccas ])ossessed more power than any of Alexander's gen- erals, and he now aspired to the INIacedonian throne. Ilis designs, however, were not unknown to Antigonus and I'tolemy ; and when he attempted to bring Antigonus to trial for some oifence in tlie government of his satrapy, that general made liis escape to Mace- donia, where he revealed to Antipater the full extent of the am- bitious schemes of Perdiccas, and thus at once induced Antij)ater and Craterus to unite in a league with him and Ptolemy, and B.C. 318. DEATH OL^ ANTIPATER. 207 openly declare war aj:;^ainst the rep;ent. Thus assailed on all sides, Fcrdiccas resolved to direct his arms in the first instance ajjainst Ptolemy. In the spring of b.c. 321 he accordingly set out on his march against Egypt, at the head of a formidable army, and ac- companied by Pliilip Arrhidoius, and Koxana and her infant son. He advanced without opposition as far as Pelusium, bnt he found the banks of tlie Nile strongly fortilicd and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed in repeated attempts to force the passage of the river; in the last of which, near Memphis, he lost great numbera of men by the depth and rapidity of the current. Perdiccas had never been popular with the soldiery, and these disasters com- pletely alienated their affections. A conspiracy was formed against , him, and some of his chief officers murdered him in his tent, - The death of Perdiccas was followed by a fresh distribution of the provinces of the empire. At a meeting of the generals held at Triparadisus in Syria, towards tlie end of the year 321 B.C., Antipater was declared regent, retaining the government of Mace- donia and Greece; Ptolemy Avas continued'in the government of Egypt ; Seleucus received the satrapy of Babylon ; whilst Antig- onus not only retained, his old province, but Avas rcAvarded with that of Susiana. Antipater did not long survive these CA^ents. He died in the year 318, at the adA'anced age of 80, leaving Polysperchon, one of Alexander's oldest generals, regent ; much to the snrprise and mortification of his son Cassander, Avho received onlv the second- ary dignity of Chiliarch, or commander of the cavalry. Cassander Avas now bent on obtaining the regency ; but, seeing no hope of success in Macedonia, he Avent OA'cr to Asia to solicit the assist- ance of Antigonus. Polysi)erchon, on his side, sought to conciliate the friendship of tiic Grecian states by proclaiming tliera all free and independent, and by abolishing the oligarchies Avhich had been set up by Antij)- ater. In order to enforce these measures, Polysperchon prepared to march into Greece, Avhilst his son Alexander AA^as despatched beforehand Avith an army tOAvards Athens, to compel the Mace- donian garrison under the command of Nicanor to evacuate Mu- nychia. Nicanor, hoAvever, refused to mov^e Avithout orders from Cassander, Avhose general he declared himself to be. Phocion Avas suspected of intriguing in faA'our of Nicanor, and, being ac- cused of treason, fled to Alexander, now encamped before the Avails of Athens. Alexander sent Phocion to his father, Avho sent him back to Athens in chains, to be tried by the Athenian people. The theatre, where his trial Avas to take place, AA-as soon full to overflowing. Phocion Avas assailed on '^verv side bv the clamour.*' 208 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL of his enemies, which prevented his defence from being heard, and he Avas condemned to deatli by a show of hands. To the hxst rhocion maintained his calm and dif^nilied, but somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some wretched man spat upon liim as he passed to tlie prison, "Will no one," said he, "check this fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him whether he had any message to leave for his son Thocus, he answered, " Only that lie bear no grudge against the Athenians." And when the hemlock which had been i)rcpared was found insufficient for all the con- demned, and the jailer would not furnish more unless he was paid for it, "Give the man his money," said Phocion to one of his friends, "since at Athens one cannot even die for nothing." lie died in B.C. 317, at the age of 85. Tlic Athenians afterwards re- pented of their conduct towards Phocion. His bones, which had been cast out on the frontiers of iMegara, were brought back to Athens, and .a bronze statue was erected to his memory. Whilst Alexander was negotiating with Kicanor about the sur- render of ^lunychia, Cassander arrived in the Pincns with a con- siderable army, with which Antigonus had supplied him. Poly- sperchon was obliged to retire from Athens, and Cassander estab- lished an oligarcliical government in the city under the presidency of Demetrius of Phalerus. Altliough Polyspcrchon was supported by Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, he proved no matcli for Cassander, who became master of Macedonia after the fall of Pydna in B.C. 310. In this city Olympias had taken refuge together with Roxana and her son ; buf, after a blockade of some months, it was obliged to surrender. 01ymi)ias had stii)ulated that her life should be sjared, but Cassander soon afterwards caused her to be murdered, and kept Roxana and her son in custody in the citadel of Amphipolis. Shortly afterwards Cassander began the restoration of Tliebcs (is.c. 315), in the twentieth year after its destruction by Alexan- der, a measure highly popular with the Greeks. A new war now broke out i the East. Antigonus had become the most powerful of Alexander's successors. He had con(piered Eumenes, who had long delied his arms, and he now began to dispose of the })rovinces as he thouglit fit. llis increasing ])()wer and ambitious jjroji'cts led to a general coalition against him, consisting of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus, tho governor of Thrace. The war began in the year 315, and wtM carried on with great vehemence and alternate success in Syiia, Phienicia, Asia Minor, and (irecce. After four years all parties became exhausted with the struggle, and ])cace was accordingly concluded in 311, on condition that the Greek cities should be free. B.C. 307. EXPEDITION OF DEMETRIUS. 209 that Cassandcr should retain his authority in Europe till Alexan- der came of ago, that Ptolemy and Lysimachus should keep pos- session of E.c:ypt and Thrace respectively, and that Antigonus should liave the government of all Asia. This liollow peace, which had been merely patched up for the convenience of the parties con- cerned, was not of long duration. It seems to have been the im- mediate cause of another of those crimes which disgrace the his- tory of Alexander's successors. His son, Alexander, who had now attained the age of sixteen, Avas still shut up with his mother Rox' ana in Amphipolis ; and his partisans, with injudicious zeal, loud- ly expressed their wish that he should be released and placed upon the throne. In order to avert this event, Cassandcr contrived the secret murder both of the mother and the son. This abominable act, however, does not appear to h?.ve caused a breach of the peace. Ptolemy was the first to break it (b.c. 310), under the pretext that Antigonus, by keeping his gaiTisons in the Greek cities of Asia and the islands, had not respected that article of the treaty which guaranteed Grecian freedom. After the war had lasted three years Antigonus resolved to make a rig- orous effort to wrest Greece from the hands of Cassandcr and Ptolemy, who held all tiie principal towns in it. Accordingly, in the summer of 307 B.C. he despatched his son Demetrius from Ephesus to Athens, Avith a fleet of 250 sail, and 5000 talents in money. Demetrius, who afterwards obtained the name of " Poli- orcetes," or "Besieger of Cities," Avas a young man of ardent tem- perament and great abilities. Upon arriving at the Pira;us he immediately ])roclaimed the object of his expedition to be the lib- eration of Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison. Supported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. Of mean birth, Demetrius the Phalerean owed his elevation entirelv to his talents and perseverance. His skill as an orator raised him to distinc- iion among his countrymen ; and his politics, which led him to embrace the party of Phocion, recommended him to Cassandcr and the Macedonians. lie cultivated many branches of literature, and was at once an historian, a philosopher, and a poet ; but nons of his works have come down to us. The Athenians heard with pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus ; his name- sake, the Plialerean, was obliged to surrender the city to him, and to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. The Macedo- nian garrison in Munychia offered a slight resistance, which was soon overcome. Demetrius Poliorcctcs then formally announced to the Athenian assembly the restoration of their ancient consti- tution, and promised them a large donative of corn and ehip-tim- O 210 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XXL bsr. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians -with the basest and most abject flattery. Both Demetrius and his father were dei- fied, and two new tribes, those of Antif:r<>ni:is and Demctrias, were added to the existing ten which derived their names from the an- cient licrocs of Attica. Demetrius roliorcGtcs did not, however, remain h^ng at Athens. Early in 300 u.c. he was recalled by his father, and, sailing to Cy- prus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy hastened to its relief with UO vessels and 10,000 troops. The battle that ensued was one of the most memorable in the annals of ancient naval warfare, more particularly on account of the vast size of the ves- sels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated ; and so import, ant was the victory deemed ])y Antigonus, that on the strength of it he assumed the title of king, wliich lie also conferred upon his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and "iysimachus. D;jmctrius now undertook an expedition against Rhodes, Avhich iiad refused its aid in the attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the memorable siege of Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of "Poliorcetes." After in vain attempting to take the town from the sea-side, by means of floating batteries, from which stones of enormous weight were hurled from engines with incredible force against the walls, ho determined to alter his ])]an and invest it on the land-side. With the assistance of Epimachus, an Athenian engmeer, he constructed a machine whidi, in anticipation of its effect, was called IIelei)ulis, or "the city-taker." This was a square wooden tower, 150 feet high, and divided into nine stories, filled with armed men, who discliarged missiles through apertures in the sides. When armed and jtrcpared for attack, it required the strength of 2300 men to set this enormous machine in motion. But, though it was assisted by tlie operation of two battering-rams, each 150 feet long, and propelled by the labour of 1000 men, the Rhodiaus were so active in re])airing the broaclies made in their walls, that, after a year spent in the vain attempt to take the town, Demetrius was forced to retire and grant the Rhodiaus peace. In 301 15. c. the struggle between Antigonus and his rivals was broug'at to a close by tiie battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, iu which An- tigonus was killed, and his army completely defeated. He had attained the age of 81 at the time of his death. A third partition of the empire of Alexander was now made. Seleucus and Lysim- achus shared between them the possessions of Antigonus. Ly- simachus seems to have had the greater ])art of Asia Minor, whilst the whole country from the coast of Syria to the Eu|)hratcs, as well as a part of Phrygia and Ca])padocia, fell t'^ the share of So- B.C. '294. CONQUESTS OF DEMETRIUS rYRRHUS. 211 Icucus. Tlic Litter founded on the Orontes a new capital of his empire, which he named Antioch, after his father Antiochus, and which long continued to be one of tlie most important Greek cities in Asia. The ftill of Antigonus secured Cassander in the posses- sion of Greece. Demetrius was now a fugitive, but in tlie foilovring year he was agreeably surprised by receiving an euibassy from Seleucus, by which that monarch solicited his daughter Stratonlce' in marriage. Demetrius gladly granted the i^equest, and found himself so much strengthened by this alliance, that in the spring of the year 29G he was in a condition to attack Athens, which he captured after a long siege, and drove out the bloodthirsty tyrant Lachares, who had been established there by Cassander. Meanwhile Cassander had died shortly before the siege of Athens, and was succeeded on the throne of IMacedon by his eldest son, Philip IV.* But that young prince died in 295, and the succes- sion was disputed between his two brothers, Antipater and Alex- ander. Demetrius availed himself of the distracted state of Mac- edonia to make himself master of that country (b.c. 294). He reigned over Macedonia, and the greater part of Greece, about seven years. He aimed at recovering the whole of his father's do- minions in Asia ; but, before he was ready to take the field, his ad- versaries, alarmed at his preparations, determined to forestall him. In the spring of B.c. 287 Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet against Greece, while Pyrrhus on the one side, and Lysimachus on the other, simultaneously invaded Macedonia. Demetrius had com- pletely alienated his own subjects by his proud and haughty bear- ing, and by his lavish expenditure on his own luxuries ; Avhile C Jill of Demetrius Pl llorcetes. Pyrrhus, by his generosity, afnibility, and daring courage, had be- come the hero of the Macedonians, who looked upon him as a sec- ond Alexander. The appearance of Pyn-hus was the signal for revolt: the Macedonian troops flocked to his standard, andDeme- * Philip Arrhiilseii:^ i.< callel Phiiip III, 212 niSTORY OF GllEECE. CiiAr. XXL 'trius was compelled to fly. Pvrrhns now {isccnded the throne of Macedonia, but his reign was of brief duration ; and at the end I of seven montlis he was in turn driven out by Lysiniai-lius. De- metrius made several attempts to regain his jtower in Greece, and then S3t sail for Asia, where he successively endeavoured to estab- lish himself in the territories of Lysimaehus, and of his son-in-law Seleucus. Falling at length into the hands of the latter, he waa kept in a kind of magnificent captivity in a royal residence in Syria, where, in 283, at the early age of 55, his checkered career was brought to a close, partly by chagrin, and i)artly by the sensual indulgences v.ith which he endeavoured to divert it. Lysimaehus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy now divided the empire of ': Alexander between them. In Egyj)! the aged Ptolemy had abdi- cated in 285 in fovour of his son by Berenice, afterwards known as Ptolemy Philadelphus, and to the exclusion of his eldest son, Ptol- emy Ceraunus, by his wife Eurydicc. Ptolemy Ceraunus quitted Egypt in disgust, and fled to the court of Lysimaehus ; and Arsi- noe, the wife of Lysimaehus, jealous of her stepson Agathocles, the (Join of Ptolemy I., Soter. heir-apparent to the throne, and desirous of securing the succes- sion for her own children, conspired with Ptolemy Ceraunus against the life of Agathocles. She even procured the consent of Lysim- aehus to his murder ; and, after some vain attempts to make away with him by i)oison, he was ilung into prison, where Ptolemy Ce- raunus desi)atdioil him with his own hand. Lysandra, the mother of Agathocles, Hod with the rest of her family to Seleucus, to de- mand from him protection and vengeance ; and Seleucus, induced by the hojjes of success inspired by the discontent and dissen- sions which so foul an act had excited among the subjects of Ly- simaehus, espoused her cause. The hostilities which ensued be- tween him and Lysimnclius were brought to a termination by tiie j battle of Corupedion, fought near Sardis in 2S1, in whlcli Lysim- aehus was defeated and slain. By this victory, INIacedonia, and the whole of Alexander's cmi)irc, with the cxecptiou of Egyi)t, B.C. 280. ASSASSINATION OF SELEUCUS. 213 southern Syria, Cyprus, and part of Phoenicia, fell under the scep- tre of Selcucus. Coin of Selcucus. Tliat monarch, wlio had not beheld his native land since he first joined the expedition of Alexander, now crossed the Helles- pont to take possession of Macedonia. Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, after the battle of Corupedion, liad thrown himself on the mercy of Seleucus, and had been received with forgiveness and favour, accompanied him on his journey. The murder of Agathocles had not been committed by Ptolemy merely to oblige Arsinod. Ho had even then designs upon the supreme power, which he now com- pleted by another crime. As Seleucus stopped to sacrifice at a celebrated altar near Lysimachia in Thrace, Ptolemy treacherous- ly assassinated him by stabbing him in the back (280). After this base and cowardly act, Ptolemy Ceraunus, who gave himself out as the avenger of Lysimachus, was, by one of those moA^emcnts wholly inexplicable to our modern notions, saluted king by the army; but the Asiatic dominions of Seleucus fell to his son Anti- ochus, surnamed Soter. The crime of Ptolemy, however, was speedily overtaken by a just punishment. In the very same year his kingdom of Macedonia and Thrace was invaded by an im- mense host of Celts, and Ptolemy fell at the head of the forces which he led against them. A second invasion of the same bar- barians compelled the Greeks to raise a force for their defence, which was intrusted to the command of the Athenian Callippus (b.c. 279). On this occasion the Celts, attracted by the report of treasures whicli were now perhaps little more than an empty name, penetrated as fiir southwards as Delphi, with the view of plunder- ing the temple. The god, it is said, vindicated his sanctuary on this occasion in the same supernatural manner as when it was at- tacked by the Persians : it is at all events certain that the Celts were repulsed with great loss, including that of their leader Bren- nus. NcA-ertheless, some of their tribes succeeded in establishing: themselves near tlie Danube ; others settled on the sea-coast of 214 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI Thrace ; M'hilst a third portion passed over into Asia, and garo their name to tlie country called Galatia. After the death of I'tuleniy ("crainuis, IMacedonia fell for somo timo into a state of anarchy and confusion, and the crown wfts dis- puted by several potentates. At length, in 278, Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, succeeded in establishing himself on the tiirone of Macedonia ; and, with tlie exceptioii of two or tb.rec years (274:-272) during which he was temporarily expelled by Pyrrhus, he continued to retain possession of it till his death in 239, The struggle between Antigonus and Pyrrhus was brought to a close at Argos in 272. Pyrrhus had marched into the Pelo- ponnesus with a large force in order to make war upon Sparta, but with the collateral design of reducing the ])laccs wliifh still held out for Antigonus. Pyrrhus, having failed in an attempt to tako Sparta, marched against Argos, where Antigonns also arrived witli his forces. Both armies entered the city by oi)posite gates; and in a battle which ensued in the streets, I'yrrhusAvas struck from his horse by a tile hurled by a woman from a house-top, and was then despatched by some soldiers of Antigonus. Such was the inglorious end of one of the bravest and most warlike monarchs of antiqu'.ty, whoso character for moral virtue, though it would not stand the test of modern scrutin}', shone out consj)icuously in comparison with that of contemporary sovereigns. Anhgonus Gonatas now made himself master of the greater part of Peloponnesus, which he governed by means of t}Tants Avhom he established in various cities. While all Greece, with the exception of Sparta, seemed hope- lessly prostrate at the feet of Macedonia, a new political power, which sheds a lustre on the declining period of Grecian history, arose in a small province in Peloponnesus, of which the very name has been hitherto rarely mentioned since the Heroic Age. In Achaiiv a narrow slip of country npon the shores of the Corinth- ian Gulf, a league, chiefly for religions purposes, had existed from a very early period among the twelve chief cities of the province. This league, however, had never possessed much ])olitical import- ance, and it had been suppressed by the Macedonians. At tlie time of which we are speaking Antigonns Gonatas was in jiosses- sion of all the cities formerly belonging to the league, citlicr by means of his garrisons or of the tyrants who were subservient to him. It was, however, this very opi)ression that led to a revival of the league. The Aclucan towns, now only ten in number, as two had boen destroyed l)y earthquakes, began gradually to coalesce again ; but Aratus of Sicyon, one of the most remarkable char- ^ actors of thi^ period of Grecian historv. was the man who, about B.C. 251. THE ACII^EiVN LEAGUE. 215 the year 251 p.c, first called the new league into active political existence. He had long lived in exile at Argos, whilst his native city groaned under the dominion of a succession of tyrants. Hav- ing collected a band of exiles, he surprised Sicyon in the night time, and drove out the last and most unpopular of these tyrants. Instead of seizing the tyranny for himself, as he might easily have done, Aratus consulted only the advantage of his country, and with this view united Sicyon Avith the Acbiean league. The ac cession of so important a town does not appear to have altered the constitution of the confederacy. The league was governed by a Strategus, or general, whose functions were both military and civ- il ; a Grammateus, or secretary ; and a council of ten Demmrgi. The sovereignty, hovv-ever, resided in the general assembly, which met tmce a year in a sacred grove near iEgium. It was composed of every Achiean who had attained the age of tliirty, and possessed the right of electing the officers of the league, and of deciding all questions of war, peace, foreign alliances, and the like. In the year 245 B.C. Aratus was elected Strategus of the league, and again in 243. In the latter of these years he succeeded in wresting Corinth from the Macedonians by another nocturnal surprise, and uniting it to the league. The confederacy now spread with wonderful rapidity. It was soon joined by Troczen, Epidaiu'us, Hermione, and other cities ; and ultimately embraced Athens, Megara, -/Egina, Salamis, and the whole Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, and some of the Arcadian towns. Sparta, it is true, still continued to retain her independence, but without a shadow of her former greatness and power. The ])rimi- tivc simplicity of Spartan manners had been completely destroyed by the collection of wealth into a few hands, and by the consequent progress of luxury. The number of Spartan citizens had been re- duced to 700 ; but even of these there were not above a hundred who possessed a sufficient quantity of land to maintain themselves in independence. The young king, Agis IV., Avho succeeded to the crown in 244, attempted to revive the ancient Spartan virtue by restoring the institutions of Lycurgus, by cancelling all debts, and by making a new distribution of lands ; and with this Aiew he relinquished all his own property, as well as that of his family, for the public good. But Agis perished in this attempt, and was put to death as a traitor to liis order. A few years afterwards, how- ever, Cleomenes, the son of Lconidas, succeeded in effecting the reforms which had been contemplated by Agis, as well as several others which regarded military discipline. The effect of these new measures soon became visible in the increased success of the Spartan arms. Aratus was so hard pressed that he was comi^ellcd 216 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL to solicit the assistance of the Macedonians. Both Antiponus Gonatas and Iiis son Demetrius If, who liad reip^ned in Mace- donia from 239 to 229 u.f. were now dead, and the government was administered by Anti^onus D.Json, as guardian of Philip, the youthful son of Demetrius II. Antigonus Duson was the grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the nephew of Antigonus Gonatas. The Macedonians comi)elled liim to accept the crown ; but he re- mained faithful to his trust as guardian of Philip, whoRC mother he married ; and though he had children of his own by her, yet Phili]) succeeded him on his death.* It was to Antigonus Duson that Aratus applied for assistance ; and though Cleomcnes main- tained his ground for some time, he was finally defeated by An- tigonus Duson in the Hital battle of Sellasia in Laconia (n.c. 221). The army of Cleomenes was almost totally annihilated; he him- self was obliged to fly to Egypt; and Sparta, which for many centuries had remained unconquercd, fell into the hands of the victor. In the following year Antigonus was succeeded by Philip V., the son of Demetrius II., who was then about sixteen or seventeen years of age. His youth encouraged the JEtolians to make preda- tory incursions into the Peloponnesus. That people were a species of freebooters, and the terror of their neighbours ; yet they were united, like the Acluvans, in a confederacy or league. The -^tolian League was a confederation of tribes instead of cities, like the Aclnvan. The diet or council of the league, called the Pana;tol- icum, assembled every autumn, generally at Thermon, to elect the strategus and other officers ; but the details of its affairs were con- ducted by a committee called Apoc'efi, who seem to have formed a sort of permanent c^ I'erdcu.- 17S-1(J7 B.C. 220. THE iETOLIAN LEAGUE. 217 portions of Acarnania, Thessaly, and Epirus. Thus both the Am- phictyonic Council and the oracle of Delplii were in their power. They had early wrested Naupactus from the Achreans, and had subsequently acquired several Peloponnesian cities. Coin of Philip V., king of Macedonia. Such was the condition of the ^tolians at the time of Philip's accession. Soon after that event we find them, under the leader- ship of Dorimachus, engaged in a series of freebooting expeditions in Messenia, and other parts of Peloponnesus. Aratus marched to the assistance of the Messenians at the head of the Achaean forces, but was totally defeated in a battle near Caphvffi. The Achajans now saw no hope of safety except through the assistance of Philip. That young monarch was ambitious and enterprising, possessing considerable military ability and much political sagacity. He readily listened to the application of the Achasans, and in 220 en- tered into an alliance with them. The war which ensued between ihz ^tolians on the one side, and the Achreans, assisted by Phil- ip, on the other, and which lasted about three years, has been call- ed the Social War. Philip gained several victories over the ^tolians, but he concluded a treaty of peace with them in 217, because he was anxious to turn his arms against another and more formidable power. The great struggle now going on between Rome and Carthage attracted the attention of the whole civilized world. It was evi- dent that Greece, distracted by intestine quarrels, must be soon swallowed up by whichever of those great states might prove suc- cessful ; and of the two, the ambition of the Romans, who had al- ready gained a footing on the eastern shores of the Adriatic, was by far the more formidable to Greece. After the conclusion of tho peace with the vEtolians, Philip prepared a large fleet, which ho employed to watch the movements of the Romans, and in the fol- lowing year (216) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal, which, among other clauses, provided that the Romans should not be al- lowed to retain their conq uests on the eastern side of the Adriatic. 18 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI He even meditated an invasion of Italy, and, with tliat view, en- deavoured to make liimself master of Apollonia and Oricnm. But, though he succeeded in taking the hitter city, tlic Romans sur- prised his camp whilst he was hesieging Apollonia, and compelled liim to Lurn his ships and retire. Mcanwliile l^hilip had acted in a most arbitrary manner in the affairs of Greece ; and when Ara- tus remonstrated with him resj)ecting his proceedings, he got rid of his former friend and counsellor by means of a slow and secret poison (n.c. 213). In Ji.c. 209, the Aclucans, being hard pressed by the JEtolians, were again induced to call in tlic aid of Philip. The spirit of the Acluxjans was at this time revived by Philopocmen, one of the few noble characters of the period, and who has been styled by Plu- tarch " the last of the Greeks." He was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, and in 208 was elected Strategus of the league. In both these posts Philopocmen made gi'cat alterations and improve- ments in the arras and discipline of the Achajan forces, which ho assimilated to those of the Macedonian phalanx. These reforms, as well as the public spirit Avith which he had inspired the Achi\}- ans, were attended with the most beneficial results. In 207Phil- opcemen gained at Mantinea a signal victory over the Lacedaemo- nians, who had joined the Roman alliance ; 4000 of them were left upon the field, and among them Machanidas, who had made him- self tyrant of Sparta. This decisive battle, combined with the withdrawal of the liomans, who, being desirous of turning tlicir undivided attention towards Carthage, had made peace witli Philip (205), secured for a few years the tranquillity of Greece. It also raised the fame of Philopocmen to its highest point ; and in the next Nemcan festival, being a second time general of tlie league, he was hailed by the assembled Greeks as the liberator of their country. Upon the conclusion of the second Punic war the Romans re- newed their enteri)rises in Greece, and declared war against Philip (n.c. 200). For some time the war lingered on without any de- cided success on either side ; but in 198 the consul T. Quiuctiui Flamininus succeeded in gaining over the Achaean league to the Roman alliance; and as the JEtolians liad previously deserted ; I'hilip, both those powers fought fur a sliort time on the same side. In 197 the struggle was brought to a terniination by the battle of Cynoscephahc, near Scotussa, in Thessaly, which decided the fate of the Macedonian monarchy. Philip was obliged to sue for p^ace, and in the following year (19(1) a treaty was ratified by which the IMaccdunians were conij>ellod to renounce their suprem- acy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian towns, to sur- B.C. 189. BATTLE OF CYNOSCEPIIALiE. 219 render their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war. At the ensuing Istlimian games Fhimininus solemnly pro- claimed the freedom of the Greeks, and was received by them with overwliclming joy and gratitude. The iEtolians, dissatisfied with these arrangements, persuaded Antiochus III., king of Syria, to enter into a leagiie against the Romans. He passed over into Greece with a wholly inadequate force, and Avas defeated by the Eomans at Thermopyla? (b.c. 191). The ^tolians were now compelled to make head against the Ro- mans by themselves. After some inftectual attempts at resist- ance they were reduced to sue for peace, Avhich they at length ob- tained, but on the most humiliating conditions (b.c. 189). Tiiey were required to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests tiiey had recently made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid the Romans in their Avars. The power of the JEtolian league was thus for ever crush' ed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till a much later period. The Acha3an league still subsisted, though destined before long to experience the same fate as its rival. At first, indeed, it en- joyed the protection of the Romans, and even acquired an exten- sion of members through their influence, but this protectorate in- volved a state of almost absolute dependence. Philopoemen also had succeeded, in tlie year 192, in adding Sparta to the league, v/hich now embraced the whole of Reloponnesus. But Sparta hav- ing displayed symptoms of insubordination, Philopoemen marched against it in 188, and captured the city; when he put to death eighty of the leading men, razed the walls and fortifications, abol- ished the institutions of Lycurgus, and compelled the citizens to adopt the democratic constitution of the Achaans. Meanwliile the Romans regarded with satisfaction tlie internal dissensions of Greece, which they foresaw would only render her an easier prey, and neglected to answer the appeals of the Spartans for protec- tion. In 183 tlie Messcnians, under the leadership of Dinocratcs, having revolted fiom the league, Philopoemen, who had now at- tained the age of 70, led an expedition against them ; but, having fallen from his horse in a skirmish of cavalry, he was captured, and conveyed with many circumstances of ignominy to Messene, Avhere, after a sort of mock trial, he was executed. His fate was avenged by Lycortas, the commander of the Achaean cavalry, the father of the historian Polybius. In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus, the last monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal of the war. 220 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL which lie foresaw to be inevitable ; yet a period of seven years elapsed after the accession of Terseus before the mutual enmity of the two powers broke out into oj)en hostilities. The war was waged three years without any decisive result, but was brought to a conclusion in 1G8 by the consul L. iEmilius Paulus, who de- feated Perseus with great loss near I'ydna. Perseus was carried to Rome to adorn the triumph of Taulus (1G7), and was permitted to spend the remainder of his life in a sort of honourable captivity at Alba. Such was the end of the Macedonian empire, which was now divided into four districts, each under the jurisdiction of an oligarchical council. Cuin of PcrKCUS, king of Macedonia. The Roman commissioners deputed to arrange the affairs of Macedonia did not confine their attention to that province, but evinced their design of bringing all Greece under the l\oman SNvay, In these views they were assisted by various despots and traitors in different Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a man of great influence among the Acha\ans, and who for many years lent himself as the base tool of tlie Romans to cff'ect the en- slavement of his country. After the fall of Macedonia, Callicrates denounced more than a thousand leading Achaans who had fa- voured the cause of Perseus. These, among whom was Polybiua the historian, were api)fehended and sent to Rome for trial. A still harder fate Avas experienced by JEtolia, Pa^otia, Acarnania. and Epirus. In the last-named country, esi)ecially, no fewer tlutji seventy of the i)rincipal towns were abandoned by Paulus to his soldiers for pillage, and 150,000 persons are said to have been sold into slavery. A quarrel between the AcluTans and Sparta afforded the Romans a pretence for crushing the small remains of Grecian inde]iend- cnce by the destruction of the Acluvan league. The Spartans, feeling themselves incompetent to resist the Achajans, appealed to the Romans for assistance; and in 147 two Roman commissioners were sent to Greece to settle the disputes B.C. UG. GREECE A ROMAN PROVINCE. 22^ between the two states. These commissioners decided tliat not only S^rnvta, but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of Achaia, should be restored to their independence. This decision occasioned serious riots at Corinth, the most important city of the league. All the Spartans in the town were seized, and even the Roman commissioners narrowly eccaped violence. On their return to Rome a fresh embassy Avas dtcpatched to demand satisfaction for these outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Cri- tolaiis, then Strategus of the league, rendered all attempts at ac- commodation fruitless, and after the return of the ambassadors the Senate declared war against the league. The cowardice and incompetence of Critolaiis as a general were only equalled by his previous insolence. On the approach of the Romans under Metel- lus from ISIacedonia he did not even venture to make a stand at Thermopylae ; and being overtaken by them near Scarphea in Locris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Diteus, who succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage. But a fresh Roman forc3 under Mummius having landed on the isthmus, Direus was overthrown in a battle near Corinth, and that city was immediately evacuated not only by the troops of the league, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants. On entering it Mummius put the few males who remained to the sword ; sold the women and children as slaves ; and having carried away all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (b.c. 146). Corinth was filled with masterpieces of ancient art ; but Mummius was so insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with those who contracted to convey them to Italy, that, if any were lost in the passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value ! Mummius then employed himself in chastising and regulating the whole of Greece ; and ten commissioners were sent from Rome to settle its futui'e condition. The whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was formed into a Roman province, under the name of Aciiaia, derived from that confederacy which had made the last struggle for its political existence. Lyre, with seven strings. From a coin of ChalciB. CHAPTER XXII. gKETCn OF THE IIISTOllY OF GIIEKIC LITERATURE FROM THE JiARLIEST TniES TO THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. The Greeks possessed two large collections of epic poetry. The one comprised poems relating to the great events and enterprises of the Heroic Age, and characterized by a certain poetical unity; the other included works tamer in character and more desultory in their mode of treatment, containing the genealogies of men and gods, narratives of the exploits of separate heroes, and descriptions of the ordinary jmrsuits of life. The poems of the former clr.ss passed under the name of Homer, while those of the latter were in the same general way ascribed to Hcsiod. The former were the productions of the Ionic and JEolic minstrels in Asia Minor, among wliom Homer stood pre-eminent, and eclipsed the bright- ness of the rest : the latter were the comjiositions of a school of bards in the neighbourhood of INIount Helicon in Bccotia, among whom, in like manner, Hesiod enjoyed the greatest celebrity. Tlie jiocms of both schools were comp'osed in tlie hexameter metre and in a similar dialect, but they differed widely in almost every other fjaturc. Of the Homeric poems the Iliad and the Odyssey were the most distinguished and have alone come down to us. The subject of tlie Iliad was the cxjiloits of Achilles and of the other Grecian jierocs before Ilium or Troy ; that of the Odyssey was the wander- ings and adventures of Odysseus or Ulysses after the cajiture of Trey on his return to his native island. Throughout the flourish- ing period of Greek literature these unrivalled works were uni- Chap. XXII. POEMS OF HOMER. 22S versally regarded as the productions of a single mind ; but thcK was very little agreement respecting the place of the poet's hirtU the details of his life, or the times in which he lived. Seven cities laid claim to Homer's birth, and most of them had legends to tell respecting his romantic parentage, his alleged blindness, and his life of an itinerant bard acquainted with poverty and sorrow. It cannot he disputed that he was an Asiatic Greek ; but this is the only fact in his life which can be regarded as certain. Several of the best writers of antiquity supposed him to have been a native of tlie island of Chios ; but most modern scholars believe Smyrna to have been his birthplace. His most probable date is about b.c. 850. Homer. The mode in which these poems were preserved has occasioned great controversy in modern times. Even if they were committed to writing by the poet himself, and were handed down to posterity in this manner, it is certain that they were rarely read. We must endeavour to realize the difference between ancient Greece and our own times. During the most flourishing period of Athenian literature manuscripts were indifferently written, without division into parts, and without marks of punctuation. They were scarce and costly, could be obtained only by the wealthy, and read only by those who had had considerable literary training. Under these circumstances the Greeks could never become a reading people ; and thus the great mass even of the Athenians became acquainted with the productions of the leading poets of Greece only by hear- ing them recited at their solemn festivals and on other public oc- casions. This was more strikingly the case at an earlier period. The Iliad and the Odyssey were not read by individuals in private, but were sung or recited at festivals or to assembled companies. The bard originally sung his own lays to the accompaniment of \u lyre. He was succeeded by a body of professional reciters, called lihapaodists, who rehearsed the poems of others, and who appear at early times to have had exclusive possession of the Homeric poems. But in the seventh century before the Christian era lit- eraiy culture began to prevail among the Greeks, and men of edu- cation and wealth were naturally desirous of obtaining copies of fno great poet of the nation. From this cause copies came to bo circulated among the Greeks ; but most of them contained only separate portions of the poems, or single rhapsodes, as they were called. Pisistratus, the tyrant or despot of Athens, is said to have been the first person who collected and arranged the poems in 224 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII. their present form, in order that they miglit be recited at the gic;4 1'anathcna.ic festival at Alliens. Tlirce works liavc come down to us bearing the name of Ilcsiod the " Works and Days," the "Tlieo^ony," and a dcscri]tion of the "Shield of Hercules." Many ancient critics believed the "Works and Days" to be the only {genuine work of llesiod, and their o])inion has been ado]>ted l)y most modern scholars. Wc learn from this Mork that llesiod was a native of Ascra, a village at tlie foot of iSIount Helicon, to which his father had migrated from the iEolian Cyme in Asia Minor. He further tells us that he gained the ])rize at Chalcis in a poetical contest, and that ho was robbed of a fair fb^-e of his heritage by the unrighteous de- cision of judges wl;o hai~ ?en Ijribed by his brother Perscs. The latter became afterwards i luced in circumstances, and api)licd to his brother for relief; and it is to him that Hesiod addresses his didactic poem of the "Works and Days," in which he lays down various moral and social maxims for tlie regulation of his conduct and his life. It contains an interesting re])resentation of the feel- ings, habits, and superstitions of tlie rural pojnilation of Greece in the earlier ages. Respecting the date of llesiod nothing cer- tain can be affirmed. Modern Avriters usually suppose him to have flourished two or three generations later than Homer. The commencement of Greek lyric })oetry as a cultivated species of composition dates from the middle of the seventh century be- fore the Ciiristian era. No important event cither in the public or private life of a Greek could dispense with this accomjianiment ; and the lyric song was equally needed to solemnize the worshi]) of the gods, to cheer the march of battle, or to enliven the festive board. The lyric poetry, "with the exception of that of Pindar, has almost entirely perished, and all that wc i)Ossess of it consists of a few songs and isolated fragments. The great satirist Auciiii.ociius was one of the earliest and most celebrated of all the lyric poets. He Avas a native of the island of I'aros, and flourished about the year 700 u.c. His fame rests chiefly on his terrible satires, com])osed in the Iambic mctrC; in which he gave vent to the bitterness of a disa])])ointed man. TviiTiEUS and Alc.man were the two great lyric jjoets of iSparta, though neither of them was a native of Lnecdiemon. The person- al history of Tyrtajus, and his warlike songs, which roused the fainting courage of the 8i)artans during the second IMessenian war, have already been mentioned (p. 2r>). vMcman was origiimlly a Lydian slave in a Spartan family, and Avas einnncipated by iiis master. He lived shortly after the seconil Messenian Avar. His poems partake of the characicr of this period, Avhit'U Avas one of CiiAP. XXII. ARIONALCiEUS SAPPHO. 225 repose and enjoyment after tlie fatigues and perils of war. Many of bis songs celebrate the pleasures of good eating and drinking ; but the more important were intended to be sung by a chorus at the public festivals of Sparta. Ariox was a native of Metbymna in Lesbos, and lived some time at the court of Pcriandcr, tyrant of Corinth, who began to reign n.c. G25. Nothing is known of his life beyond the beauti- ful story of his escape from the sailors with whom he sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, thus runs the story, Ai-ion went to Sicily to take part in a musical contest. He won the prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in a Corinthian ship to return to his friend Periander. The rude sailors coveted his treasure, and meditated his murder. After imploring them in vain to spare his life, he obtained ])ermission to play for the last time on his beloved lyi'e. In festal attire, he placed himself on the prow of the vessel, invoked the gods in inspired strains, and then threw himself into the sea. But many song-loving dolphins had assembled round the vessel, and one of them now took the bard on its back, and carried him to Tajnarum, from whence ho returned to Corinth in safety, and related his adventure to Peri- ander. Upon the arrival of the Corinthian vessel, Periander in- quired of the sailors after Arion, who replied that he had remain- ed behind at Tarentum ; but when Arion, at the bidding of Peri- ander, came forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and were pun- ished according to their desert. The great improvement in Ij'rio poetry ascribed to Arion is the invention of the Dithyramb. This was a choral song and dance in honour of the god Dionysus, and is of great interest in tlie history of poetry, since it was the germ from Avhich sprung at a later time the magniticent productions of the tragic Muse at Athens. Alc^us and Sappho were both natives of Mytilcne, in the isl' and of Lesbos, and flourished n.c. GlO-aSO. Their songs wer? composed for a single voice, and not for the chorus, and they wcro each tlie inventor of a new metre, which boars their name, and is familiar to us by the well-known odes of Horace. Their poetry was the Avarm outpouring of the writers' inmost feelings, and pre- sents the lyric poetry of the iEtolians at its highest point. Alcajus took an active part in the civil dissensions of his native state, and warmly espoused the cause of the aristocratical party, to which he belonged by birth. When the nobles were driven into exile, he endeavoured to cheer their spirits by a number of most animated odes, full of invectives against the popular party and its leaders. Of the events of Sappho's life wc have scarcely any informa- P 22G IIISTOIIY OF GREECE. CuAP. XXIL tion ; and the common story that, bcinff in love with Pliaon, and finding her love unrequited, she leaped down from the Leucadian rock, seems to have been an invention of later times. Anacreon was a native of tlie Ionian city of Tcos. He spent part of his life at Samos, under the patronage of Polycrates ; and after the death of this despot he went to Athens at the invitation of IIi])parchus. The universal tradition of antiquity represents Anacreon as a consummate voluptuary, and his jtocms prove the truth of the tradition. His death was worthy of his life, if we may believe the account that lie was choked by a grape-stone. (SiMONiDES, of the island of Ceos, was born u.c. 55G, and reach- ed a great age. lie lived many years at Athens, both at the court of Ilipparchus, together with Anacreon, and subsequently under the democracy during the Persian wars. The struggles of Greece for her independence furnished him Avith a noble subject for his muse. He carried away the ])rize from ^schylus with an elegy upon the warriors who had fallen at the battle of Marathon. Sub- sequently we find him celebrating the heroes of ThermopA-la, Ar- temisium, Salamis, and Plativa. He was uj)wards of SO Avhen his long poetical career at Athens was closed Avith the Auctory Avhicli he gained Avith the dithyrambic chorus in B.C. 477, making the 5Gth prize that he had carried off. Shortly after this event he repaired to Syracuse at the invitation of Hiero. Here he spent tlie remaining ten years of his life, not only entertaining Hiero witli his poetry, but instructing him by his Avisdom ; for Simoni- des Avas a philosopher as Avell as a poet, and is reckoned amongst the sojilii.sts. PixDAK, though the contemporary of Simonides, Avas considera- bly his junior. He Avas born either at, or in the neighbourhood of Thebes inBa^otia, about the year 522 n.c. Later Avritcrs tell us that his future glory as a poet Avas miraculously foreshadowed by a swarm of bees which rested tipon his lips Avliile he Avas asleep, and that this miracle first led him to compose poetry. He commenced his professional career at an early ago, and soon acquired so great a repu- tation, that lie Avas em])loyed by various states and princes of the Hellenic race to conqiose choral songs. He Avas courted especially by Alexander, king of Macedonia, and by Hiero, despot of Syracuse. The praises which he bestowed ujjou Alex- ander are said to have been the chief reixson Avhich led his de- scendant, Alexander the Great, to spare the house of the poet riuJiir. Chap. XXII. PINDAR HERODOTUS. 221 when he destroyed the rest of Thebes. The estimation in which Pindar was held is also shown by the honours conferred upon him by the free states of Greece. Although a Theban, he was always a great favourite with the Athenians, whom he frequently praised in his poems, and who testified their gratitude by making him their public guest, and by giving him 10,000 drachmas. The only poems of Pindar which have come down to us entire are his Epi- nicia or triumphal odes, composed in commemoration of victories gained in the great public games. But these were only a small portion of his works. He also wrote hymns, paeans, dithyrambs, odes for processions, songs of maidens, mimic dancing-songs, drink- ing-songs, dirges, and encomia, or panegyrics on jirinces. The Greeks had arrived at a high pitch of civilization beforo they can be said to have possessed a History. The first essays in literary prose cannot be placed earlier than the sixth century before the Christian era ; but the first writer who desei*ves the name of an historian is Hekodotcs, hence called the Father of History. Herodotus Avas born in the Dorian colony of Halicarnassus in Caria, in the year 484 B.C., and accordingly about the time of the Persian expeditions into Greece. He resided some years in Samos, and also undertook extensive travels, of which he speaks in his work. There was scarcely a town in Greece or on the coasts of Asia Minor with which he was not acquainted; he had ex- Herodotus, plored Thrace and the coasts of the Black Sea ; in Egypt he had penetrated as fiir south as Elephantine ; and in Asia he had visited the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. The latter part of his life was spent at Thurii, a colony founded by the Athenians in Italy in B.C. 443. According to a well-known story in Lucian, Herodotus, when he had completed his work, recited it publicly at the great Olympic festival, as the best means of procuring for it that celebrity to which he felt that it was entitled. The effect is described as immediate and complete. The delighted audience at once assigned the names of the nine Muses to the nine books into which it is divided. A still later author (Suidas) adds, that Thucydides, then a boy, was present at the festival with his father Olorus, and was so aiFected by the recital as to shed tears ; upon which Herodotus congratulated Olorus on having a son who pos- sessed so early such a zeal for knowledge. But there are many objections to the probability of these tales. Herodotus interwove into his history all the varied and exten- sive knowledge acquired in his travels, and by his own personal 228 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII. researches. But tlic real subject of tlic work is the conflict be- tween the Greek race, in the widest sense of tlie term, and in- cluding the Greeks of Asia Minor, witli the Asiatics. Thus the liistorian had a vast e])ic subject presented to liira, whicli was brought to a natural and glorious termination by the defeat of the Tcrsians in their attenii)ts u])on Greece. The work concludes with the reduction of Scstos by the Athenians, u.c. 478. Herod- otus wrote in the Ionic dialect, and his style is marked by an case and simplicity Avhich lend it an indescribable charm. TiiucYDiDES, the greatest of the Greek historians, was an Athe- nian, and was born in the year 471 B.C. His fam- ily was connected with that of JMiltiades and Cimon. He possessed gold mines in Thrace, and enjoyed great influence in that country. He commanded an Athenian squadron of seven ships at Thasos, in 424 u.c, at the time when Brasidas was besieging Amphipolis ; and having *f-fy^ ^1 failed to relieve that city in time, lie went into \ a voluntary exile, in order probably to avoid j the punisliment of death. He appears to have I s])cnt 20 veavs in banishment, principally in the J Pel goYKY^iAHc ( Peloponnesus, or in places under the dominion Tliucydiucj. or influence of Sparta. He perhaps returned to Athens in u.c. 403, the date of its liberation by Thrasybulus. Ac- cording to the unanimous testimony of antiquity, he met with a violent end, and it seems probable that he was assiissinatcd at Athens, since it cannot be doubted that his tomb existed there. From the beginning of the Peloponncsian war he had designed to write its history, and ho employed himself in collecting material.^ for that purpose during its continuance; but it is most likely tliat the work was not actually composed till after the conclusion of the war, and that he was engaged upon it at the time of his death. The first book of his History is introductory, and contains a ra]tid sketch of Grecian history from the remotest times to the breaking out of the war. The remaining seven books are filled with tlie details of the war, related according to the division into summers and winters, into which all canqiaigns naturally fall ; and the work breaks offabruptly in the middle of tlie 2Ist year of the war(u.c. 411). The materials of Tliucydidcs were collected with the most s(rui)u/ous care ; the events are related with the strictest impar- tiality ; and the work ])robably offers a more exact account of a long and eventful period than any other contemjiorary history, whether ancient or modfirn, of an ('(jually long and important ana. 'J'lie ^lylc of Tliucydidcs is U^icf and sententious, and whether in moral Chap. XXII. THUCYDIDES XENOPHON. 229 or political reasoning, or in description, gains wonderful force from its condensation. But this characteristic is sometimes carried to a faulty extent, so as to render his style harsli, and liis meaning obscure. Xenophox, the son of Gryllus, was also an Athenian, and was probably born about B.C. 444. He was a pupil of Socrates, who saved his life at the battle of Delium (b.c. 424). His accompany- ing Cyrus the younger in his expedition against his brother Arta- xerxes, king of Persia, formed a striking episode in his life, and has been recorded by himself in his Anabasis. He seems to have been still in Asia at the time of the death of Socrates in 399 b.c, and was probably banished from Athens soon after that period, in con- sequence of his close connexion vrith the Lacedaemonians. lie accompanied Agesilaus, the Spartan king, on the return of the latter from Asia to Greece ; and he fought along with the Lace- diximonians against his own countr}"men at the battle of Coronea in odl B.C. After this battle he went with Agesilaus to Sparta, and soon afterwards settled at Scillus in Elis, near Olympia. He is said to have lived to more than 90 years of age, and he men- tions an event which occurred as late as 357 b.c. Probably all the works of Xenophon are still extant. The Anabasis is the work on which his fame as a historian chiefly rests. It is written in a simple and agreeable style, and conveys much curious and striking information. The Ilellenica is a con- tinuation of the history of Thucydides, and comprehends in seven books a space of about 48 years ; namely, from the time when Thucydides breaks off, b.c. 411, to the battle of Mantinea in 3G2. The subject is treated in a very dry and uninteresting style ; and his evident partiality to Sparta, and dislike of Athens, have fre- quently warped his judgment, and must cause his statements to be received with some suspicion. The Cyropadia, one of the most pleasing and popular of his works, professes to be a histor}^ of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, but is, in reality, a kind of political romance, and possesses no authority whatever as an historical work. The design of the author seems to have been to draw a picture of a perfect state ; and though the scene is laid in Persia, the materials of the work are derived from his own philosophical notions and the usages of Sparta, engrafted on tho popularly current stories respecting Cyrus. Xenophon displays in this work his dislike of democratic institutions like those of Athens, and his preference for an aristocracy, or even a monarchy. Xeno- phon v/as also the author of several minor works ; but the only other treatise which we need mention is the Memorabilia of Socra- tes, in four books, intended as a defence of his master against tho 230 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII. charges which occasioned his death, and which undoubtedly con- tains a genuine picture of Socrates and his philosophy. The gen- ius of Xenophon was not of the highest order ; it was practical rather than speculative ; but he is distinguished for his good sense, his moderate views, his humane temper, and his earnest piety. The Drama pre-eminently distinguished Athenian literature. The democracy demanded a literature of a popular kind, the -vi- vacity of the people a literature that made a lively impression ; and both these conditions were fulfilled by the drama. But, though brought to perfection among the Athenians, tragedy and comedy, in their rude and early origin, were Dorian inventions. Both arose out of the worship of Dionysus. There was at first but lit- tle distinction between tlicsc two species of the drama, except that comedy belonged more to the rural celebration of the Dionysiac festivals, and tragedy to that in cities. The name of trafjcdi/ was far from signifying any thing mournful, being derived from the goat-like appearance of those who, disguised as Satyrs, performed the old Dionysiac songs and dances. In like manner, comedij was called after the song of the band of revellers who celebrated the vintage festivals of Dionysus, and vented the mde merriment in- spired by the occasion in jibes and extempore witticisms levelled at the spectators. Tragedy, in its more ]ierfcct form, was the off- spring of the dithyrambic odes with which that worship was cele- brated. These were not always of a joyous cast. Some of them expressed the sufferings of Dionysus ; and it was from this more mournful species of dithyramb that tragedy, properly so called, arose. The dithyrambic odes formed a kind of lyrical tragedy, and Averc sung by a chorus of fifty men, dancing round the altar of Dionysus. Tiie improvements in the dithyramb were introduced by Arion at Corinth ; and it was chiefly among the Dorian states of the Peloponnesus that these choral dithyrambic songs prevailed. Hence, even in Attic tragedy, the chorus, Avhich was the foundation of the drama, Avas written in the Doric dialect, thus clearly betray- ing the source from which the Athenians derived it. In Attica an important alteration was made in the old tragedy in the time of Pisistratus, in consequence of which it obtained a new and dramatic cliaractcr. This innoA'ation is ascribed to Tiiks- ris, a native of the Attic village of Icaria, n.c. 535. It consisted in the introduction of an actor for the purpose of giving rest to the chorus. Thcspis Avas succeeded by Chocrilus and Phrynichus, the latter of Avhom gained his first prize in the dramatic contests in 511 n.c. The Dorian Pratinas, a native of I'hlins, but Avho ex- hibited his tragedies at Alliens, introduced an iuiprovcmcnt in tragedy by separating the Satyric from the tnigic drair" A? Chap. XXII. ^SCHYLUS. 231 neither the popular taste nor the ancient religious associations connected with the festivals of Dionysns would have permitted the chorus of Satyrs to be entirely banished from the tragic representa- tions, Pratinas avoided this by the invention of what is called the Satyric drama ; that is, a species of play in which the ordinary subjects of tragedy were treated in a lively and farcical manner, and in which the chorus consisted of a band of Satyrs in appropri^ ate dresses and masks. After this period it became customary ta exhibit dramas in tetralogies, or sets of four; namely, a tragio trilogy, or series of three tragedies, followed by a Satyric play. These were often on connected subjects ; and the Satyric drama at the end served like a merry after-piece to relieve the minds of the spectators. The subjects of Greek tragedy were taken, with few exceptions,, from the national mythology. Hence the plot and story were of necessity known to the spectators, a circumstance wliich strongly distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the modern. It must also be recollected that tho representation of tragedies did not take place every day, but only after certain fixed intervals, at the festi- vals of Dionysus, of which they formed one of the greatest attrac- tions. During the whole day the Athenian public sat in the thea- tre witnessing tragedy after tragedy ; and a prize was awarded by judges appointed for the purpose to the poet who produced the best set of dramas. Such was the Attic tragedy when it came into the hands of -iEs- CHYLUS, who, from the great improvements which he introduced, was regarded by the Athenians as its father or founder, just as Homer was of Epic poetry, and Herodotus of Histoiy. iEschylus was born at Eleusis in Attica in B.C. 525, and was thus contem- porary with Simonides and Pindar. He fought with his brother Cynajgirus at the battle of Marathon, and also at those of Arte- misium, Salamis, and Platrea. In b.c. 484 he gained his first tragic prize. In 4G8 he was defeated in a tragic contest by his younger rival Sophocles. He died at Gela, in Sicily, in 45G, in the G9th year of his age. It is unanimously related that an eagle, mistak- ing the poet's bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it in or- dor to break the shell, thus fulfilling an oracle predicting that he was to die by a blow from heaven. The improvements introduced into tragedy by -^schylus concerned both its form and composi- tion, and its manner of representation. In the former his princi- I)al innovation was the introduction of a second actor; whence arose the dialogue, properly so called, and the limitation of tho choral parts, which now became subsidiary. His improvements in the manner of representing tragedy consisted in the introduc- 233 insTOKY OF GllEECE. Chap. XXIL tion of painted scenes, drawn according to the mles of perspective, lie furnished the actors with more appropriate and more magnili- cent dresses, invented for them more various and expressive masks, and raised their stature to the hei'oic size by providing them with thick-soled cothurni or buskins. iEschyhis excels in represent- ing the superliuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and in tracing tlie irresistible march of fate. Ilis style resembles the ideas which it clothes ; it is bold, sublime, and full of gorgeous imagery, but sometimes borders on the turgid. Sophocles, the ypunger rival and immediate successor of JEs- chylus in the tragic art, was born at Co- lonus, a village about a mile from Athens, in i;.c. 4U5. We have already adverted to his wresting the tragic prize from iEs- chylus in 4G8, from which time he seems to have retained the almost undisjtutcd l)osscssion of the Athenian stage, nntil a young but formidable rival arose in the person of Euripides. The close of liis life was troubled witli family dissensions, lophon, his son by an Athenian wife, and J, . , , therefore his legitimate heir, was jealous of the affection manifested bv his father for his grandson Sophocles, the offspring of another son, Ariston, whom he had had by a Sicyonian woman. Eearing lest his father sliould bestow a great part of Iiis i)roi)erty upon his favourite, lo- plion summoned him before the Phratores, or tribesmen, on the ground tliat his mind was affected. The old man's only rci)ly was, " If I am Sophocles I am not beside myself; and if I am be- side myself I am not Sophocles." Tlien taking up liis Oulipiis at Colunvs, which he had lately written, but had not yet brouglit out, he read from it a beautiful passage, with wliich the judges were so Btruck that they at once dismissed the case, lie died shortly after- wards, in B.C. 40G, in his 90th year. As a poet Sophocles is uni- versally allowed to have brought the drama to the greatest jjcrfec- tion of which it is susceptible. His plays stand in the just medium between tlic sublime but unregulated flights of -/Eschylus, and the too familiar scenes and rhetorical declamations of Euripides. His plots are worked up with more skill and care than the plots of cither of his great rivals. Sophocles added the last imi)rovemcnt to the form of the dranui by tlie introduction of u third actor; a change which greatly enlarged the scope of the action. The imiirovement was so obvious that it was adojjted by -/Eschylus in his later i)lays ; but the number of three actors seems to have been seldom or ncv er exceeded. Chap. XXIT. EURIPIDES AKISTOPIIANES. 233 Euripides was born in the island of Salamis, in p.c. 480, his I)arent3 having been among those who fled tliither at the time of the invasion of Attica by Xerxes. He studied rhetoric under Prodicus, and physics under Anaxagoras, and he also lived on intimate terms with Socrates. In 44 1 he gained his first prize, and he continued to exhibit plays until 408, tlie date of his Orestes. Soon after this he repaired to the court of Macedonia, at the invita- tion of King Archelaiis, where he died two years afterwards at the age of 74 (b.c. 406). Common report relates that he was torn to pieces by the unpi king's dogs, which, according to some accounts, were set u])on him by two rival poets out of envy. In treating his characters and subjects Euripides often arbitrarily departed from the received 1 ^gends, and diminished the dignity of tragedy by depriving it of its ideal character, and by bringing it down to the level of eveiy- day life. His dialogue was garrulous and colloquial, wanting in heroic dignity, and frequently frigid through misplaced philosoph- ical disquisitions. Yet in spite of all these faults Euripides has many beauties, and is particularly remarkable for pathos, so that Aristotle calls him " the most tragic of poets." Comedy received its full development at Athens from Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus, and his younger con- temporaries, Enpolis and Aristophanes, were the three great poets of what is called the Old Attic Comedy. The comedies of Cratinus and Eupolis are lost ; but of Aristophanes, who was the greatest of the three, we have eleven dramas extant. Aristophanes was born about 444 b.c. Of his private life we know positively noth- ing. He exhibited his first comedy in 427, and from that time till near his death, which probably happened about 380, he was a frequent contributor to the Attic stage. The Old Attic Comedy was a powerful vehicle for the expression of opinion ; and most of the comedies of Aristophanes turned either upon political oc- currences, or upon some subject which excited the interest of the Athenian public. Their chief object was to excite laughter by the boldest and most ludicrous caricature, and, provided tliat end was attained, the poet seems to have cared but little about the justice of the picture. Towards the end of the career of Aristophanes the uni'cstricted license and libellous personality of comedy began gradually to disappear. The chorus was first curtailed and then entirely suppressed, and thus made way for what is called the Middle Comedy, which had no chorus at all. The latter still con- tinued to be in some degree political ; but persons were no longer 234 IIISTOllY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII. introduced upon the stage iinder their real names, and the office of the chorus -was very much curtailed. It was, in fact, the con- necting liuk between the Old Comedy and the New, or tlie Com- edy of Manners. The Neiu Comedy arose after Athens liad become subject to the Macedonians. Politics were now excluded from the stage, and the materials of the dramatic poet were derived entirely from the fictitious adventures of persons in pri^'ate life. The two most distinguished writers of this scliool were Piiilkmon and Mi:NANr)p:i{. Philemon was ])robably l)orn about the year 3C(? 15. c, and was cither a Cilician or Syracusan, but came at an earl^ age to Athens. He is considered as the founder of the New Comedy, which was soon afterwards brought to perfection by his younger contemporary ^Icnan- der. The latter was an Athenian, and was born in B.C. 342. He was drown- ed at the age of 52, whilst swimming in the harbour of Piraeus. He wrote upwards of 100 comedies, of which only fragments remain ; and the unanimous jiraise of posterity awakens our regret for the loss of one of the most elegant writers of antiquity. The comedies, indeed, of Plautus and Terence may give us a general notion of the New Comedy of the Greeks, from which they were confessedly drawn ; but there is good reason to suppose that the works even of the latter Poman writer fell far short of tlie Avit and elegance of Menander. The latter days of literary Athens were chiefly distinguished by the genius of her Orators anH PhilosopJicrs. There were ten Attic orators, Avhoso Avorks were collected by the Greek grammarians, and many of wliose orations have come down to us. Their names are Anti])lion, Andocidcs, Lysias, Isocrates, Isa^us, iEschines, Ly- curgus, Demosthenes, Ilyperides, and Dinarchus. ANTinioN, the earliest of the ten, was born B.C. 480. He opened a school of rhet- oric, and numbered among his pupils the historian Thucydides. Antijjhon Avas ])ut to death in 411 n.c. for the part which he took in establishing tlic oligarcliy of the Four Hundred. Andocides, who was concerned with Alcibiades in the afiair of tlie Ilerma;, Avas born at Athens in B.C. 4G7, and died probably about 301. Lystas, also born at Athens in 458, Avas much superior to Ando- cidcs as au orator, but being a vietic^ or resident alien, ho Avas not Mcuaudcr. Chap. XXII. iESCIIINES DEMOSTHENES. 235 allowed to speak in the assemblies or courts of justice, and there- fore wrote orations for others to deliver. IsocKATES was boru in 43G, After receiA-ing the instructiona of some of the most celebrated sophists of the day, he became him- self a speech-writer and professor of rhetoric ; his weakly consti- tution and natural timidity preventing him from taking a part in public life. He made away with him.elf in 338, after the fatal battle of Chffironea, in despair, it is siid, of liis country's fato. He took great pains with his compositions, and is reported to have spent ten, or, according to others, fifteen years over his Panegyric oration. IsiEUS flourished between the end of the Peloponncsian war and the accession of Philip of Macedon. He opened a school of rlietoric at Athens, and is said to have numbered Demosthenes among his pupils. The orations of Isaus were exclusively ju- dicial, and the whole of the eleven which have come down to us turn on the subject of inheritances. iEscniNES Avas born in the year 389, and he was at first a violent anti-Macedonian ; but after his embassy along with De- mosthenes and others to Philip's court, he was the constant ad- vocate of peace. Demosthenes and ^schines now became the leading speakers on their respective sides, and the heat of political animosity soon degenerated into personal hatred. In 343 Demos- thenes charged ^schines with having received bribes from Philip during a second embassy ; and the speech in which he brought for- ward this accusation was answered in another by ^schines. The result of this charge is unknown, but it seems to have detracted from the popularity of iEschines. We have already adverted to his impeachment of Ctesiphon, and the celebrated reply of De- mosthenes in his speech de Corona (p. 202). After the banish- ment of iEschines on this occasion (b.c. 330), he employed him- self in teaching rhetoric at llhodes. He died in Sambos in 314. As an orator he was second onlv to Demosthenes. Of the life of his great rival, Demosthenes, we have already given some account (p. 178). The verdict of his contemporaries, ratified by posterity, has pronounced Demosthenes the greatest orator that ever lived. The principal element of his success must be traced in his purity of purpose, which gave to his ai'guments all the force of conscientious conviction. The effect of his speeches was still further heightened by a wonderful and almost magic force of diction. The grace and vivacity of his delivery are at- tested by the well-known anecdote of JEschines, when he read at Khodes his speech against Ctesiphon. His audience having ex- pressed their surprise that he should have been doAio.ted after such 23G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXH. an oration: "You would cease to wonder," he remarked, **if ycu had heard Demosthenes," The remaining three Attic orators, viz., Lycurgus, HvrERiDES, and DiNARCiius, were contemporaries of Demosthenes. Lycurgus and Uyperides both belonged to the anti-Macedonian party, and were warm supporters of the policy of Demosthenes. Dinarchus, who is the least important of the Attic orators, sun-ivcd Demos- thenes, and Vv'as a friend of Demetrius Phalereus. The history of Greek J^hilosoj)Iii/, like that of Greek poetry and histoiy, began in Asia JNIinor. The earliest philosopher of dis- tinction was TiiALES of ]\Iilctus, wlio was born about n.c. G40, and died in 550, at the age of 00. He was the founder of the Jotiic school of philosophy, and to him were traced the first beginnings of geometry and astronomy. The main doctrine of his philosoj)li- ical sj'stem was, that water, or fluid substance, was the single orig- inal clement from which everything came and into Avhich every- thing returned. Axaxlmakdkr, the successor of Thalcs in the Ionic school, lived from B.C. GIO to 547. He was distinguished for his knowledge of astronomy and gcograjdiy, and is said to liavo been the first to introduce the use of the sun-dial into Greece. Anaximknes, tlic third in the series of the Ionian philosophers, lived a little later than Anaximander. He endeavoured, like Thales, to derive the origin of all material things from a single element ; and, according to his theory, air was the source of life. A new path was struck out by Anaxagoras of Clazomena;, the most illustrious of the Ionic philosophers. He came to Athens in 480 iJ.c., where he continued to teach for thirty years, numbering among his hearers Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides. He aban- doned the system of his predecessors, and, instead of regarding some elementary form of matter as the origin cf all tilings, he conceived a su})rcme mind or intelligence, distinct from the visi- ble world, to have imparted form and order tolhe chaos of nature. Tlicse innovations aftbrded the Athenians a pretext for indicting Anaxagoras of impiety, though it is probable that his connexion with Pericles was tlie real cause of that proceeding (see p. SO). It was only througli the inlluencc and eh)(]uencc of I'cricles that he was not i)ut to death ; but he was sentenced to pay a fine of fire talents and quit Athens. The philosojjher retired to Larapsacus, whore he died at the age of 72. The scf'ond sclu)ol of Greek ])liilosoi)liy was tlie FJrat'ic, which derived its name from Elea or Velia, a Greek colony on the west- ern coast of Southern Italy. It was founded by Xknophanes of Colojjhon, who fled to Elea on the conquest of his native land by tlic IVrsiana. He conceived the whole of nature to bo God. Chap. XXII. PYTHAGORAS PLATO. 2J) The tliird scliool of jjliilosopliy was the Pijtliagorean, founded by PrniAGORAS. He was a imtive of Samos, and was born about 15. c. 580. His father was an opulent merchant, and Pythagoras himself travelled extensively in the East. He believed in the transmigration of souls ; and later writers relate that Pythagoras asseited that his own soul had formerly dwelt in the body of the Trojan Euphorbus, the son of Panthous, who v.-as slain by Mene- laus, and that in proof of his assertion he took down, at first sight, the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of Hera (Juno) at Argos, where it had been dedicated by Menelaus. Pythagoras was dis- tinguished by his knowledge of geometry and arithmetic ; and it was pi-obably from his teaching that the Pythagoreans were led to regard numbers in some mysterious manner as the basis and es- sence of all things. He was, however, more of the religious teach- er than of the philosopher ; and he looked upon himself as a being destined by the gods to reveal to his disciples a new and a purer mode of life. He founded at Crotou in. Italy a kind of religious brotherhood, the members of which were bound together by pecul- iar rites and observances. Eveiything done and taught in the fraternity was kept a profound secret from all without the pale. It appears that the members had some private signs, like Free- masons, by which they could recognize each other, even if they had never met before. His doctrines spread rapidly over Magna Graacia, and clubs of a similar character were established at Sy- baris, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities. At Athens a new direction was giveu to the study of philosophy by Socrates, of whom an account has been already given (p. 138- 1-tO). To his teaching either directly or indirectly may be traced the origin of the four principal Grecian schools : the Academi- cians, established by Plato ; the Peripatetics, founded by his pupil Aristotle ; the Epicureans, so named from their master Epicurus ; and the Stoics, founded by Zeno. Plato was born at Athens in 429 d.c, the year in which Peri- cles died. His first literary attempts were in poetiy ; but his at- tention was soon turned to pliilosophy by the teaching of Socra- tes, whose lectures he began to frequent at about the age of twen- ty. From that time till the death of Socrates he appears to have lived in the closest intimacy with that philosopher. After that event Plato withdrew to Megara, and subsequently undertook some extensive travels, in the course of which he visited Gyrene, Egypt, Sicily, and Magna Griccia. His intercourse with the elder and the younger Dionysius at Syracuse has been already related (p. 172). His absence from Athens lasted about twelve years; on his return, being then ujAvrirds of forty, he began io teach in tha 238 mSTOKY OF GREECE. Ciiap. XXLL pymnasinm of the Academy. His doctrines were too recondite for tlie popular car, and his lectures were not numerously attend- ed. 15ut he had a narrower circle of devoted admirers and disci- ples, consisting of ahout twenty-eight persons, who met in his pri- rate house, over the vestibule of which was inscribed, '*Let no one enter who is ignorant of geometry." The most distinguished of this little band of auditors were Speusippus, his nephew and successor, and Aristotle. lie died in 347, at the age of 81 or 82, and bequeathed his garden to his school. AiasTOTLE was born in 384 u.c, at Stagira, a seaport town of Chalcidice, whence he is frequently called the Stagirite. At the age of 17, Aristotle, who had then lost both father and motlier, repaired to Athens. Plato considered him his best scholar, and called him "the intellect of his school." Aristotle spent twenty years at Athens, during the last ten of which he established a school of his own. In 342 he acce])ted the invitation of Philip of Macedon to undertake the instruction of his son Alexander. In 335, after Alexander had ascended the throne, Aristotle quitted Macedonia, to which he never returned. He again took up his abode at Athens, where the Athenians assigned him the gymna- sium called the Lyceum ; and, from his habit of delivering his lec- tures whilst walking up and down in the shady walks of this i)lace, his school was called the peripatetic. In the morning he lectured only to a select class of pupils, called esoteric. His afternoon lec- tures were delivered to a Avider circle, and were therefore called exoteric. It was during the thirteen years in which he presided over the Lyceum that he composed the greater jjart of his works, and prosecuted his researches in natural history, in which he was most liberally assisted by the munificence of Alexander. The latter portion of Aristotle's life was unfortunate. He ajipears to have lost from some unknown cause the friendship of Alexander ; and, after the death of that monarch, the disturhanccs which en- sued in Greece proved unfavourable to his peace and security. Being threatened with a prosecution for impiety, he escaped from Athens and retired to Chalcis ; but lie was condemned to deatli in his absence, and dcjjrived of all the rights and honours which he had previously enjoyed, lie died at Chalcis in 322, in tho C3d year of his age. Of all the ])liilosophical systems of antiquity, that of Aristotlo was best ad:i])ted to tlie ja-actical wants of mankind. It was founded on a close and accurate observation of human nature and of the external world ; but, whilst it sought the practical and use- ful, it did not neglect the beautiful and noble. Ilis works con- Bistcd of treatises in natural, moral, and i)olitical i)hilosophy, his- CiiAP. XXII. AKlisTOTLE EPICURUS ZENO. 239 tory, rhetoric, criticism, &c. ; indeed, there is scarcely a branch of knowledge which his vast and comprehensive genius did not em- brace. Epicurus was born at Samos in 342, and settled at Athens at about the age of 35. Here he purchased a garden, where lie es~ tablished his philosophical school. He taught that pleasure is the highest good ; a tenet, however, which he explained and dignified by showing tliat it was mental pleasure that he intended. Tlio ideas of atheism and sensual degradation with which tlie name of Epicurus has been so frequently coupled are founded on igno- rance of his real teacliing. But as he denied the immortality of the soul, and the interference of the gods in human affairs though he held their existence his tenets were very liable to be abused by those who had not sufficient elevation of mind to love virtue for its own sake. Zeno was a native of Citium in the island of Cyprus, and set- tled at Athens about b.c. 299. Here he opened a school in the Poecile Stoa, or painted porch, whence the name of his sect. He inculcated temperance and self-denial, and his practice was in ac- cordance with his precepts. AriatoiliS, INDEX. ABROCOMAS. A. Abkooomas, 144. Academy, the, DC, 233. Acaraania, 2. Achaian league, 214, Achajans, 5. Achffius, 5. Achaia, 3, 13. , a Roman provinco, 2-21. Acliarnaj, 100. Achelous, 2. Achillea, 7. Achradina, 122, Acropolis, Athenian, 65, 80. Adimantus, G3. Admetus, 73. Aeetes, 7. M'^aleos^ Mt., Xerxes at, 04. .^geus, G. ^^ina, described, 55. iEgospotarai, battle of, 133. jEgyptus, 5. ./33olians, 4. .Solus, 4. .(Eschines accuses Demos- thenes, 202; retires to Rhodes, ib. ; account of his life, 235. JE ^chylus, account of, 231. .5<:tolia, 2. iEfcolian league, 213. .^tolians reduce 1, 213. Agamemnon, 5, 7. Agesilaus becomes King of >Sparta, 140 ; charac ter, ib. ; liis expedition against tlie Persians, 161; attacks Phamaba zu3, ib. ; routs the Per Biaus on the Pactolus, 152; recalled,?.').; home- ward march, 1.54; in- vades Boeotia, 163; saves Sparta, IGT ; expedition to Egypt, 170 ; cicath,i6. Agesipolis, 153. Agis, 113, 14>. -^ -IV., 215, JlLEXANDER. Agnon, 79. Agora, 9. , Athenian, 90, Agrigentum, 42, Alcseus, 225. Alcibiades, character of, 112; deceives the Spar- tan ambassadors, ib. ; at Olympia, 113 ; in Sicily, 114; accused of mutilat- ing the Henngs, 115 ; ar- rest and escape of, ib. ; condemned, ib. ; goes to Sparta, 110; excites a re- volt of the Chians, 123 ; dismissed by the Spar- tans, 124 ; flies to Tissa phernes, ib. ; intrigue: of, ib. ; procedings at Samos, 120 ; arrested by Tissaphernes, 127; de- feats the Peloponnesians at Cyzicus, ib. ; returns to Athens, 123 ; dismiss- ed from the command of the Athenian fleet, 130; flies to Pharaaba- zus, murdered, 136. Alcmsaonideo banished, 31. Alcman, 224, Alexander of Pherse, 1G8; defeated by Pelopidas, 169; subdued, 2?>. Alexander the Great, 132 ; education, 183 ; acces- sion, ib. ; overawes the Thebans and Athenians, 184 ; generalissimo a- gainst Persia, ib. ; inter- view v/ith Diogenes, ib. ; expedition against the Thracians, &c., ib.; re- duces the Thebans to obedience, 185; demands the Athenian oi'ators, ib. ; crosses to Asia, 186 ; forces the passage of the Granicus, 187: progress through Asia Minor, ib. ; cuts the Gordian knot, 183; dangerous illness, ib. ; defeats the Persians Q AMYNTAS. at Issus, 183 ; march through Phoenicia, 190; besieges Tyre 191; an- swer to Pannenio, ib. ; proceeds to Egypt, ??*.; visits the temple of Am- mon, 192; defeats Dari- us in the battle of Arbe- la^ 193 ; enters Babylon, ib.; seizes Susa, 194; marches to Persepolis, ib.; pursues Darius, 195; invades Hyrcania, ib. ; enters Bactria, 196 ; de- feats the Scythians, ib. ; marries Roxana, ib. ; kills Clitus, 197 ; plot of the pages against his life^ ib. ; crosses the In- dus, ib. ; vanquishes Po- ms, 198; marches home- wards, ib. ; peril among the Malli, ib. ; arrives at the Indian Ocean, 199; march through Gedro- sia, ib. ; marries Statira, ib. ; quells a mutiny at Opis, 200 ; solemnizes the festival of Dionysus at Eebatana, ib. ; his ambitious projects, 200, 201 ; death, 201 ; char- acter, ib. ; estimate of his exploits, ib. ; funeral, 20G, Alexander, son of Alex- ander the Great, 206, 209. Alexandria Arionmi, 105. Alexandria in Egj-pt, founded, 192; descrip- tion of, ib. Alpheus, 3, Amnion, Jove, 192. Amphictyonic council, ita origin and constitution, 11,12. Amphictyons, decree of the, at the end of the sacred war, ISO. Amphipolis, 79, 176. Amyntas, 100. 242 SNDEX. ANACREON. Ansicrcon, 226. Anactorium, 44. Auaxagoras, 230; charged with impiety, 80. Anaxiniaiider, 2iiG. Aiiaxinienc.^, 23^. Amlocide.-*, 2C4. Anicoris, 172. Antalcidas, peace of, 150. Antif^onia?, Athenian tribe, 210. Antipjnus, 200: coalition ngainst, 20S; arisuincri the title of king, 210; i^hiin, ib. Antigouu3 Doaon, 210. Antigonus Gonutas, 214. Antioch, founded by Sc- Iciicii.-^, 211. Antiochu.-', 130. Antiochus Soter, 213. Antiochus III., 2r.l. Antipater defeats the Spar- tans, 202 ; defeated at tlic Spercheus, 203, 204; overthrows tl'.e j^iod Greeks at Crannon, 204 ; demands the Athenian orators, 2('r); dcohired regent, 207; death, i?;. Antiplum, orator, 234. Anytus, 140. Apaturia, festival of, 132. ApoUonia, 44. Aratus,215. Arbcla, liattle of, 1G3. Arcadia, 2. Arcadian confederation, 1G7. Arclinlaus, 1T5. Arehias, 101. Archidanius, 100; besieges Platiua, 102. Arc'hilochus, 224. Archon, Athenian, 20. Areopagus reformed Tiy PericleH, 70; hill of, 00. Arginusa\ battle of, 131. Arg(>li.=, 3. Argonauts, 7. Argos, 3, 5, IS; head of a now confederacy. 111. Ari.idne, 0. ArsG'is, 145. Arion, 225. Ari.;tagoras, 4^. Aris tides, character of, r)5; organizes tlie confedera- cy of Delos, 71 ; change in hia viewa, 72 ; death, 74. ATHENIANS. Aristodemua of Messenia, 24. Aristoracnes ,of Messenia, 25. \- Aristophanes, account of, 233. , ^ Aristotle, 1S3 ; account of, 23S. Arsinoi.', 212. AfEaphenies, 4S, 51. Artaxei-xes, 74, 141. Artemisia, her prowess, 04. Artcmisium, battle of, 02. Asia Minor, Greek colonies in, 18. Aspasia, 70. Asty, the, 87. Athena, 2 ; statue of, 02. Athenians, divided into four classes, 32 ; assist tlic lonians, 40 ; war with yEgin.a, 55; aban- don Athens, 02 ; consti- tution more democratic, 72; form an alliance with Argos, 70; assist Inarus, 77; conquer Bfjcotia, ib. ; reduce iEgina, ib. ; lose their power in U(jnotia, ib. ; despotic power of, ib. ; make peace Avith I'crsia, ib. ; conclude n thirty years' truce with Sparta, 78; subjugate Sanios, 81 ; form an alli- ance with Corcyra, ib. ; their allies and resources in the IVloponnesian war, 00 ; their licet an- noys the Peloponnesus, 100; their decree against the Mytileneans, 104; takePjius, 100; expedi- tion against Ikeotia, 108; peace of Nicias, 110; re- fuse to evacuate I'ylus, 111 ; treaty with Argos, 112; conquer Melos, 113; massacre the inhabit- ant, ib. ; interfere in Si- cilian affairs, 113; ex- pedition to Sicily, 115; send a fresh Ih-et to Sic- ily, 110; defeated at sea liy the Syracusnns, 121 ; retreat from Syracuse, ib. ; gain a naval virtoiy at (Jynossema, 127; at Aliydos, ?7'. ; nt (Jvzicus, 12S; totally defeated at .Aiijosputami, 133; ally BOULE. themselves with Tlielio^, 15;>; fi)rm a league with Corinth and Argus ji- gainst Sparta, ih. ; head of a new confe.otia, description of, 2. Bosporus, Athenian ioll l the, 123. Uouli., 0. INDEX. 243 BRASIDAS. Brasidas, 100 ; his expe- dition into Thrace, ib. ; death, 510. Brennus, 214. Bucephala, founded by Al- exander, IDS. Byzantines, erect a statue in lionour of Athens, ISl. Byzantium, 44; taken by the Athenians, 70, Tl ; besieged by Pliilip, ISl. C. Cadmea, or Theban cita- del, seized by the Spar- tans, IGO ; recovered, 102. Cadmus, 5. Callias, peace of, 1G4. Callicrates, 220. (Jallicratidas, 130. Callippus, 173. Callixenus, 132. Cambunian Mountains, 1. Cambyses, 46. Carduchi, 147. Carthaj^ians invade Sic- ily, 6(5, 171. Caiyatides, 94. Caspian Gates, 195. Cassander, 208 ; establish- es an oligarchy at Ath- ens, ib. ; takes Pydna, ib. ; kills Koxana and her son, 2GD. Catana, surprised by the Athenians, 115. Cecropidse, 8(3. Cecrops, 5. Celts invade Macedonia, 213. Cephissus, the, 8G. Ceramicus, the, 96. Chabrias, 102. Chserephon, 139. Chajronea, second battle of, 181. Chalybes, the, 14S. Charon of Thebes, 161. Chrj'selephantino statua- ry-, 92. Cimon, son of Miltiades, 72; assists the Lacedae- monians, 75; banished, 7G ; his sentence re- voked, 77 ; expedition to Cyprus and death, ib. ; his patronage of art, SS. Cirrha^an "plain, 14. Clearchus, 142, 14"). CRATINU3. Cleombrotus invades Boo otia, 1G5; slain, ib. Cleomenes, 35, 37. Cleon, 101 ; character of, 104; his violence, 107; his expedition against Sphacteria, ib. ; to Thrace, 109 ; flight and death, 110. CleophoD, 128. Cleruchi., 38, 79. Clisthenes, 35; his re- forms, 36; their effect, 88. Clitus, saves Alexander's life, 187 ; killed by Alex- ander, 197. Codrus, death of, 28. (Jolchians, the, 143. Colonies, Greek, 39; rela- tion to the mother coun- try, ib. ; how founded, ib. ; mostly democratic, ib'. ; in Asia Minor, 39, 40 ; in Sicily, 42 ; in Italy, ib. ; in Gaul and Spain, 44 ; in Africa, ib. ; in tlie Ionian Sea, ib. ; in Macedonia and Thrace, ib. ; profp-ess of, 79. Comedv, old Attic, 233 ; new," 234. Conon, supersedes Alcibi- ades, 130; defeated by Callicratidas, 131 ; ac- cepts the command of the Persian fleet, 159; defeats the Spartan fleet at Cnidus, 154; reduces tlie Spartan colonies, 157; rebuilds the long walls of Athens, ib. Corcj-ra, 44; troubles in, 104. Corcyrajans, quairel with Corinth, 8! ; send an em- bassy to Athens, ib. Corinth, battle of, 154; congress at, 184; de- stroyed by Mummius, 221 Corinthian Gulf, 2. Corinthian v/ar, 153. Corinthians assist the Epi- damnians, 81. Coronea, battle of, 154. (yorupedion, battle of, 212. (Jranai, 86. Crannon, battle of, 204. Cratenis, 200. Cratinui, 233. DEMETRIUS. Crete, 3. Crimesus, battle of, 174. Critias, 135; slain, 137. Crito, 140. Critolaus, 221. Croesus, 4"); fall of, 4G. Croton, 42. Cumse, 41. Cyclades, 3. Cylon, conspiracy of, 30. Cvnoscephalae, battle of, 169. Cyrene, 44. Cyrus, empire of, 4G ; cap- tures Sardis, ib. Cyrus the younger, arrives on the coast, 129; his expedition against liis brother Artaxerxe^, 141 ; march, 142 ; slain, 145. Cyzicus, 127; recovered by the Athenians, 128. Danae, 5. Damj, 5. Dauaus, 5. Darius, 47; Thracian ex- pedition of, ib. : extorts the submission of the Macedonians, 48; death, 5G. Darius Codomanus, de- feated by Alexander r.t Issus, 1S9 ; overthrown by Alexander at Arbela, I'.'S ; murdered, 195. Datis, 51, Decarchies, Spartan, 145. Decelea, 119. Delium, Athenian expedi- tion against, 108 ; battle of, ib. Delos, confederacy o^, 71. Delphi, temple of, 11 ; or- acle, 15; tfiken by tha riiociaus, 177. Demades, 20.5. Demaratus, GO. Demetrias, Athenian tribe, 210. Demetrius of Phalerus, 203; character of, 209; retires to Thebes, ib. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 200; besieges Salamis, 210; besieges Bhodcs, ih. ; takes Athens, 211; king of MacedoD, ib. ; deatli, 212. 244 INDEX. DEMIUUGI. Dcmiurgi, G. Demosthenes, general , 105, 108. Dcmorfthcne-', onvtor, ac- count of, ITS; PhiUppics^ first, 17'J ; Oliinthiacs^ ib. ; fights at Chreronea, ISl; liid conduct aftei' rhilip's (Icatli, 1&4; pro- poses reliyious lionours for Philip's assassin, ib. ; exertions to roucc Greece, 1S5; embassy to Alexander, ih.\ accused by iK-ichines speech on tlta Crou'i)^ 202 ; con- demned of corruption, 203 ; recalled from exile, 204; demanded by An- tipator, 205; e -capes to Calaurea, ib. ; death, ih. ; cliaracter as an orator, 235. Dercyllidas, 150. TMacrii, 31. Diajus, 221. Dicastcries, 76. Dinarciuis, 230. Dio^^enes, liis interview with Alexander, lS-1. Dion, exiled, 1T2; takes Syracuse, ib. ; assassin- ated, 173. Dionysius the elder, tyrant of Syracuse, 171 ; dttith and character, 172. Dionysius the younger, 172; expelled by Dion, il>. ; retires to Corinth, 174. Dionvsn.^, theatre of, at Athens, 95. Diopithc.-', ISO. Dithyramb, invention of the, 225; the source of tragedy, ib. Dorcis, 71. Dorians, 4; in Telopon- ncsus, 17 ; migrations of the, ib. ; three tribea of, 20. Doris, 2 Doni Draco, laws of, 30. ^,4. E. Ecclesia., the, 37. Egypt, its inllucnce on (ircecc, 5. Elis, .{, GORDIAN. I Epaminondas, IGl ; his' chaructcr, 1C3; embassy] to Sp.irta, 1G4; military genius of, 1G5; defeats the Spartans at Lcuctra, IGG ; invades Laconia, 1G7 ; establishes the Ar- cadian confederation, and restores tlie Messe- niiins, 1G7-S; saves the Theban army, IGO ; res- cues Telopidas, ib. ; last invasion of Teloponne- sus, 170; death of, ib. Ephesus, 41. Ephialtcs, GO. Epliialtes (the friend of rericles), 7G. Ephors, 21 ; povv'cr of the, ib. Epicurean sect, 237. Epicurus, 230. Epidamnus, 44, 81. Epimenidcs, 31. Epipohc, 117. Epirus, 2. Ercchtheum, 93. Eubotja, 3; revolt from Athens, 78; second re- volt of, 126. Euclides, archon, 138. Eumones, 206. Eunicnidts of iElschylus, 76. Eumolpidfe, 115. Eupafridoi.! 6; nature of their government, 30. Euphrates, surveyed by order of Alexander, 201. Euripides, account of, 233 ; character as a poet, ib. I'^urotas, 3. i'^urybiades, 50. Eurystheus, 6. Evagoras, 150. Flamhiinu.s T. Q., 219. ^'- Four Hundred," conspi- racy of the, 125; put down, 127. IGalatia, 214. Gaugamela, battle of (u. Arbcla). Gelon of Syracuse, 53, 06. Geomotn\ (>, 29. (rcru-^a., Spartan, 21. Gordian knot, tlie, ISS. iiippARcnus. GranlcuB, battle of the, 187. Greece, form of, 1 ; physi- cal feiitures, 3; reduced to a Koman province, 221. Greek language, 11; his- tory, early, ib. Greeks, character of the, 3; cause.^ which united them, 11; disunion of, on the approach of Xerxes, 58 ; celebrate tlie battle of S8. Nicius, 107; concludes a peace witli S/utii, 110; appointed coniinander in Sicily, 114; Ids dilatory proceed! iif^.s there, 118; dst'pondiug situation of, lit); indecision, ib. ; sur- reHdcr, 122 ; death, ib. ; character, ib. Nikv) Aptcros, temple of, 88. Nineveh, 147. Nobles, 9. O. (Enophyta, battle of, 77. ()lij,'archy, 27. Oiynipia, 3. Olympiad, first, 4. Olympian murdered, 208, Olympic gauu's, 12. Olynthiac orations of De- mosthenes, IT'J. Oiynthian confederacy dis- .olvo;l, IGO. Olynthus, 159; taken by the Spartans, 100. Onomarchus, 177. Opuntian Locrians, 152. Orators, Athenian, de- manded by Alexander, 1S5; ten Attic, 234. Oratoiy, Greek, rise and progress of, 234. Orchomenos, 1G3. Ortygia, 11(5. Ostracism, introduced by (Jlisthcnes, 37. Oxyaites, 11)6. P. Pachcs, ion, 104. I'.amisus, lUvcr, 3. Pancratium, 13. PanirroiH, 177. pMrali, 31. Paris, 7. Parmcnin, 187; put to death by Alexander, 100. Parnassus, Mount, 2. Parthenon, 90. Parysatis, Queen, 14C, 152. Pasarga.he, V.)i. Panlns, L. /ICm., 220. I'ausaiiias, King of Snarti, vanity and treason of, 71 ; recftll and impcach- PERSIAN'S. ment of, 72; conviction and death, ib. Pausanias (second), 137 ; expedition into J5(jcotia, ir)3 ; coudenmed to death, ib. Pausanias assassinates Philip, 182. Pedieis, 31. Pelasgians, 4. I'elopidas, cliaracter of, 101 ; gains a victory at Tegyra, 103 ; subdues Alexander of I'liera', 108; imprisoned by Alex- ander, 101); defeats Alex- ander, ib. ; t-laiu, ib. Peloponne.sian confede- racy, meeting of, 82; decides for Avar against Athens, ib. ; war, com- mencement of, ib. ; in- vasion of Attica, 99 ; Thucydides' character of the war, 228. Peloponnesus, 2. Pelops, 5. Peneus, 2. Penj-ab, the, 197. Pcntacosiomediumi, 32. I'entathlum, 13. Perdiccas, 82, Perdiccas (Alexander's general), 200 ; marches against Ptolemy, 207 ; assassinated, ib. Pericles, character of, 70 ; innovations of, ib. ; his administration, ib. ; re- duces Euboja, 78; plans for adorning Athens, ib. ; pleads for Aspasia, SO; funeral oration by, 100 ; accused of peculation, 101 death and charac- ter, 102. Pericles, age of, character of art in, 83. Perinthus, siege of, 181. Periojci, 20. Peripatetics, 237. Perscpolis, taken and l)urut by Alexander, 194. Peiveus, 219 ; defeated by the Romans, 220. Persians, 4ii; their cniel- tios towards the Ionic (ireeks, r>0 ; invade Gre(!ce, 51 ; demand ojirth and water from rnoCIANS. the Grecian state?, t&. ; second invasion of Greece, ib. ; land nt Marathon, 52; third in- vasion ot Greece, 57 ; their number under Xerxes, ib. ; destruction of their fleet by a storm, 01 ; their progress, 02 ; attack Delphi, 03 ; taka Athens, ib. ; retreat of, C(). Phalanx, Macedonian, 170. Phiilerum, SS. I'hidias accused of pecula. tioii, SO. Philemon, 234. Philip of Macedon, carried to Thebes as a hostage, 108; education of, 175; character, 176 ; defeats the Illyrians, ib. ; takes Amphipolis and Pydna, ib. ; takes part in the sacred war, 178; reduce.-? Thessaly, ib, ; expedi- tion into Thrace, ISO; takes Olynthus, 179 ; oc- cupies Delphi, ISO; second expedition into Thrace, 181; compelled to evacuate the Cherso- nese, ib. ; defeats the Thebans and Athenians at Cha?ronea, ib. ; his conduct after the battle, 182; clemency towards Athens, ib.; appointed generalissimo against Persia, ib. ; assassin- ated, ?7). ; character, ib. Philip IV., 211. Philip v., 210; assists the Aclueans, 217 ; forms an alliance with Hannibal, ;7). ; flefcnted by the INmians, 218. Philip Arrhidanis, 20G, Philippi founded, 177. riiili]>j.ic.-^ of Demos- thenes, 178; fii-pt, 179. Pliilomehis, 177; slain, ib. l'hilop(vmen, 218; takes Sparta, 219; taken and put to death, il). Philo.-opliy, trreek, origin of, 230; Ionic scIuh)! of, 7/'. ; I'.leatic school, 77'. ; Pythagorean scliool, 237 ; various school;?, ib. Phociaup, 177. INDEX. 2^7 PIIOCION. Phocion, 179; refuses Alex- ander's presents, ISO ; accusation and death, 208. Pliocis, 2. Phoebidas, IGO. Phoenicians, 5. Phrynichus, 126. Phrynichus (dramatist), acrount of, 230. Phyllidas, 101. J'itiacotheca, 90. Pindar, account of, 220; his house sparel by Alexander, 1S5. Pindus, Mount, 2. I'irajua fortified, 70. Pisa, 3. I'isandei', 152. Pir.\=tratu3, u3ui"pation of, 33 ; \vs stratagem, ib. ; his deatn, 3i ; his char- acter, 35. Plague at Athens, 100. Plat;ca, battle of, 67 ; sur- prir^ed, 82; besieged by the Peloponnesians, 102 ; surrenders, 103; destroy- ed, ib. ; restored by the Lacedar-monians, 159 ; again destroyed by the Thebaus, 16-i. Platfoans join the Athe- nians, 52. Plato visits Sicily, 172 ; gold as a slave, ib. ; Bocond visit to Sicily, ib.; lifoof, 237; philos- ophy, ib. Pleistoanax, 78. Pnyx, the, 80, 96. Poccile Stoa., the, 239. Poetry, Greek, 222. Polemarch, 29. Polybius, 219. Polycrates of Sanios, 46. Polysperchon, 207; expe- dition to Peloponnesus, 27;. Poru?!, 197. Potidsea, 170. Pratinas, 230. Propylaja, 90. Prytanes, 132. Ptolemy, 206 ; defeated at Salamis, 210. Ptolemy Ceraunus, 212, 213. Ptolemy Philadelphus, 21 2. Pydna, 208 ; battle of, 220. Pylus, 100. SOCRATES. Pyrrlius, 211 ; becomes king of Macedonia, 212. Pythagoras, 42, 237. Pythia, 15. Pythian game?, 14. R. Rhapsodists, 223. Rhegium, 42. Rhodes, 3 ; siege of, 210. Romans, direct their at- tention towards Greece, 218 ; declare v/ar against Philip v., ib.; proclaim the freedom of Greece, 219; declare war against Perseus, 220. Roxana, man-ied by Alex- ander, 190 ; murdered, 209. S. SacreaP.and, Theban, 162. Sacred war, iTT. Salamis, acquired by the Athenians, 31 ; battle of, 04. Salamis (in Cyprus), battle of, 210. Samos, revolt of, 81; sub- dued, ib. ; its inriJortaDce to Athens, 124; revolu- tions at, 126. Sappho, 225. Sardis, 45; burnt, 49. Scarphea, battle of, 221. Scione, 109. Scythini, the, 148. Seleucus, 207; founds An- tioch, 211; succeeds to the greater part of the Macedonian empire, 213 ; assassinated, ib. Sellasia, battle of, 210. Selymbria, 44. Sestos, reduced by the Athenians, OS. Sicilian expedition, 114; termination of, 122. Simonides of Ceos, 226. Sisygambis, 190. Slaves, 9. Social war, 177 ; ill effects of the, ib. ; second, 217. Socrates at Delium, 108; opposes the condemna- tion of the ten generals, lo2 ; f^kctch of his life, 138; hid teaching and SPARTANS. method, 139 ; wisdom of, ib. ; unpopularity and indictment of, ib. ; con- demned 140 ; refuses to . escape, ib. ; death, ib. Sogdiana, fortress of, taken, 190. Solon, 30; legi.slation of, 31. Sophocles, account of, 282 ; character as a poet, ib. Sparta, IS; landed prop- erty in, 23; earthquake at, 75; allies of in the Peloponnesian v/ar, 99 ; league against, li>3 ; con- gress at, 104 ; rapid fall of, 107 ; taken by Anti- gonus Doson, 210; taken by Philopoemen, 219. Spartan constitution, 20; tribes, ib. ; education, 22; women, 23; money, ib. Spartans, make war on Arcadia, 24; alone re- tain their kings, 27; overthrow the despots, 28 ; conduct of, iu Ther- mopylae, 00 ; selfish c2-. duct of, 62 ; dismiss the Athenians, 75 ; oppose the Athenians in Bceo- tia, 77; invade Attica, 99 ; send an embassy to Athens, 100 ; invade Ar- gos, 113; force the Ar- gives to an alliance, ib. ; establish themselves at Decelea, 119; assist the Phocians against the Thebans, 153; defeated at Ilaliartns, ih. ; pro- claim the independence of the Boeotian cities, 1.59 ; garrison Orchome- nus and Thespia?, ib. ; assist Amyntas against the 01}Tithi;ms, 169 ; lieight of their power, ib. ; expelled from Boeo- tia, 164; solicit the aid of the Athenians, 168; send an embassy to Per- sia, ib. ; excluded from the Amphictyonic coun- cil, ISO ; attempt to throw oft' the Macedonian yoke, 202; their decline and degradation, 215 ; call in the Romans, 220. fii:)eusippu!^, 238. .Spluicteri.i, Itlockadcd, I'XJ; captured 103. ^.p(>r!ldei', a. ijtatira, 1'.10, 109; murder- ed by Koxiina, 200. Stoics, 237. btratcgi, Atlicnian, 101. Stratouicc, 211. Su3a, treasures at, 194. Sybaris, its luxury, 42; de- stroyed, ?&. Sybarites, 79. isipitaxiii^ tlie, 102. Syracusans, tb.eir vigorous defence, IIC. Syracuse, 42; description of., IIG; naval battle at, IIS; enf:ja!:: ' T" 2; pass of, iTliei'eum. *iTnhIft C'oni. ^vuions," tl ?f^ 30. Zi.UGIT^.. TIsHuphernes, 124, 127, 14); attacks the Ionian cities, 150 ; bche::deJ, 152. Tlthraustes, 152. Tolmides, 73. Torone, 109. Ti-agedy, Greek, oriiin of, 230. Ti-apezu8,.148. Trilogies, 231. Tnparadisus, treaty of, 207. Trojan expedition, T. Troy cai)turcd, 8. Ti/rant., value of ' 27. 7^- ly Aioi- Tyrtwus, k; U. ','.'yBSi Uxiauji, UX-, JU'4. tic* Ot? , , tuc Ar- ::iais, 194. Thales of Iililetus, 23G. Thasos, reduced, 75. Tlieban.s, surprise Plat.Tn, 82; expel King Agesi- laus from Aulis, 151; in- vade I'hocis, 152 ; form an alliance with Athens, 15;'.; forced into the I.ticedamionian alliance, 100 ; rise ()f tlicir as- ccu'lcncy, 100; defeated liy Alexander of I'heriv, 109 ; ally themselves with the Athenians aL'ainst PliUip, ISl ; humbledby Philip, 1S2; rise against the Jlacedo- nians, 1S5. Thobes, 2 ; liberated from "." 73. . 150. \ truce, 78. J i'yrants at Athens, llift; i^roscription of the, 130 ; defeated by Thra- sybulus,137; deposed by the Spartans, 13S. Thrasvbulus, 120 ; takes Phylo, 137; seizes Pi- rreus, ib. ; defeats the Thirty, ib. Thrasyllus, 120. Thucydides (the historian), in Thrace, 109; banish- ed, ?7>. ; account of, 228; his history, ib. Thurii, 79. Timocrates, 152. Timoleon, character of, 173 ; expedition to Sic- ily, ib. ; defeats fhn Carthaginians, 174; be- comes a Syracusau citi- zen, ib. Timotheiis, 102. Tiribazus, 15S. recovers cue Thracian Cherso- nese, 08. Xenophanes, 236. Xenophon, account of, 229; Iiis works, ib. ; accom- panies Cynis, 142 ; sa- luted General of the Ten Thousand, 147; returns to Athens, 148;. joind Agcsilaup, ib. Xerxes, character of, 50; subdues Kgypt, ib. ; marches towan's Gi-eece, 57; reviews hi> troop.-, ib.; crosses the llclUv- pont, ib. ; number of b.is liost, ib. ; takes Athens, 03: his alaiTO nnd re- treat, 05^ Xuthus, 4. Z. ZaleuouH, laws of, 42. Zca, 88. Zeno, 239. Zctigitce.) 32. THE END. ^ LIBRARY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED MAIN LIBRARY CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT THIS BOOK IS DUE BEFORE CLOSING TIME ON LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Ifcc^ p oc Dfyr ;^^ l*Tt LD62A-307n-7,'73 General Library (R227sl0)94l2-A-32 University of California Berkeley (iJ4Hlslu;47tJii Berkeley ^-? / s "^ -' t ' ^ - ?* y x5