ACTUAL SINESS ENGLISH DEFFENDALL UC-NRLF ^B 257 b^S III 1 H^^^H'^^ ! i >I I :•: i i ■ -v 1 ^^^^^^^^^^^B - ^^^^^H: ^^^^^^^^Bk- ^^^^^^^^^^^K i ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ' ^■^ ^^^^^^H ^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^B Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/actualbusinessenOOdeffrich ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH ^jn^g^ THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO.. Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OP CANADA. Ltd. TORONTO ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH BY P. H. DEFFENDALL SUPERVISOR OF ENGLISH, CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 All rights reserved PRINTEl)' IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Copyright, 1922, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1922 MA(«i t .^.«,^ ^ 3ir»CULTU«« OKP-4 Press of J. J. Little & Ives Company New York, U. S. A. EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION For more than a generation, authors of text books on English have called their books by the title Business English. So far as I know, no one previous to Mr. Def- fendall has dared actually to do what is implied in the title. In Actual Business English every illustrative sentence is taken from business; every usage recommended is a business usage; every modern detail taught is a detail nec- essary to business letter writing; and every antiquated de- tail ignored is a detail that the business office of today also ignores. The usual text labeled Business English begins with illustrations taken from the classics, and ends with them. This book is different. Mr. Deffendall's sentences and paragraphs come hot from Wanamaker, Packard, Good- year, and others who pay men to do what Mr. Deffendall is trying to train the student to do. No such sentences as "The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea," appear in his work. This is not because such sentences are not beauti- ful and correct, but because *'The growing company moved into a new building," suits Mr. Deffendall's purpose bet- ter, and has a stronger appeal to enthusiastic commercial students. That the author has actually done what his title promises, is the first thing that stands out from the pages of this book. 494239 VI EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION The second really notable thing Mr. DefiFendall has done is scientifically to select and arrange the common errors of speech with the corrected forms. These errors are no mere hodge-podge of incorrect phrases presented for hap- hazard study. With careful, painstaking scholarship, the author has compiled lists of the common vulgarisms, col- loquialisms, and grammatical blunders of American speech. He has used Dr. Charters' Study of Pupils' Errors^ and other similar studies, besides a list of his own, gathered from years of experience as an instructor in English. There is much that is true in the old saying that to cor- rect a man's grammatical errors you must begin with his grandparents. If young people constantly hear ungram- matical language at home, the teacher can do little for them. But as much as a teacher can do, the author has done in this book. He has given the most carefully se- lected list of such errors that has ever been compiled; he has shown the correct forms; he has, when necessary, ex- plained the reasons for these correct forms; and in all cases, he has demanded practice of the pupil and has put him to a test in an exercise at the end of the same lesson. More- over, he has presented each error at the exact time when in the student's progress it can best be corrected — that is, when the preceding lesson or lessons have shown the cor- rect usage in the specific case that is being studied. Few texts present for correction so well chosen a list of habitual errors. No other text presents them in so scien- tific and systematic a manner. It is likely that Mr. Def- fendall's success in this connection is due to his realization that the number of such errors is small, as has been clearly EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION vii shown by a scientific analysis of them through a period of years. The teaching of correct English, which is the main ob- ject of the book, is preceded by a review and restatement of the essentials of grammar, in which that dread study is stripped of the compHcated rules that modern instruction has shown to be unnecessary. What is given of grammar is the part that is vital to correct English as required by the modern business office. What is omitted is the vast, compHcated machinery of hair-splitting rules and their still more intricate exceptions. For the practical purposes of every-day speech, these are shown by the author to be un- necessary, for he has accompUshed his purpose without them. The art of putting correct words together in sensible sentences begins with the study of the word and then pro- ceeds through the study of the sentence, the paragraph, and the whole composition. By a gradual process, Mr. Deffendall skillfully brings the student up to the study of letter writing, leaving him prepared for definite and posi- tive progress toward the mastery of that well-paid accom- pHshment. His treatment of punctuation, one mark at a time, is as simple and thorough as his handling of the problem of the correct word. Unity, clearness, and emphasis are taught as well as cor- rectness. The writer's aim has been to teach the student to write material that wins, the kind of plain writing that has force, that sells goods, that explains difficulties, that admits of no misunderstandings, that gets results. All viii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION topics for the student's written work are drawn from real business situations. All the terms that are used are cor- rect, modern business terms. The book is clear, forcible, brief, and comprehensive. It is for the average person who wants to learn to use busi- ness English effectively. Its slogan is '' Business Usage." Its method is direct instruction with suitable exercises ap- pHed to each step. It is, as its title implies. Actual Busi- ness English. Harlan Eugene Read. CONTENTS LESSON PAGE I A Necessary First Step i II The Formation of Plurals 7 III The Formation of the Possessive .... 11 IV Nouns Commonly Confused 14 V How TO Use the Personal Pronouns Correctly 19 VI How TO Use the Pronouns Correctly (Con- tinued) 24 VII How TO Use the Pronouns Correctly (Con- tinued) 26 VIII Relative Pronouns 30 IX Troublesome Verbs 34 X Troublesome Verbs (Continued) ..... 40 XI Speclal Use of Were 43 . XII Shall and Will 45 XIII Agreement 49 XIV Agreement (Continued) 53 XV Verbs Commonly Confused 56 XVI Adjectives and Adverbs 62 XVII Adjectives and Adverbs (Continued) ... 67 XVIII Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs ... 70 XIX Comparison 75 XX Similar Adjectives and Adverbs Distinguished 79 XXI How TO Use Prepositions Correctly ... 87 XXII How TO Use Conjunctions Correctly ... 93 XXIII Sentence Structure: The Simple Sentence . 97 XXIV Sentence Structure: The Complex Sentence iot XXV Sentence Structure: The Compound Sentence 104 XXVI Punctuation 107 XXVII Punctuation (Continued) . iii CONTENTS PAGE XXVIII Punctuation (Continued) ii6 XXIX Punctuation (Continued) 119 XXX Special Cases of Punctuation 125 XXXI Capitalization 132 XXXII Abbreviations 137 XXXIII Unity of the Sentence 141 XXXIV Clearness in the Sentence 147 XXXV Emphasis in the Sentence 152 XXXVI The Paragraph 162 XXXVII Unity of the Paragraph 169 XXXVIII Clearness in the Paragraph 173 XXXIX Emphasis in the Paragraph 180 XL The Whole Composition . 186 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH LESSON ONE A Necessary First Step Business English — what is it? Hardly different indeed from any other English except in its application to business forms, customs, and usages. Once quite technical and legal in expression, it is now becoming simpler, more direct, and more personal. One of the chief requisites for success in business is the ability to speak and write correct and effective English. What chance of success, for example, has the salesman who says ''I ain't," ''I seen," and *' between you and I"? You would neither respect him nor have confidence in his ability. As a commercial asset, the study of business English is of the utmost importance. In the following lessons you will study good English usage and will be required to apply your knowledge of it in care- fully selected drills and exercises. As a necessary first step, however, you should review briefly the parts of speech. the parts of speech A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing — as, Mar- shall Field, California, pencil. A noun may also name an idea, a quality, or an action. Such names as beauty, noise^ odor, and pain express ideas that one gains through the senses. Names of qualities include such words as honesty. 2 ' '"' * ['AtrttTAL JBUSINESS ENGLISH ' hap'piht's^,' faitk, 'ptrsever'ance, etc., while names of actions comprise hundreds of words Hke counting, filing, writing. A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. Pronouns are classified as follows: Personal pronouns: /, you, he, she, it, we and they. Relative pronouns: who, which, that, and what. Interrogative pronouns: who, which, and what. Demonstrative pronouns: this and that, and the plurals these and those. Indefinite pronouns: one, any, anyone, someone, none, each, both, another, etc. Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another. Compound personal pronouns: myself, ourselves, yourself, your- selves, himself, herself, themselves, and itself. A verb is a word that asserts — as, " Business men work.^^ Sometimes a group of words, called a verb phrase, is used to make an assertion. Such a phrase consists of a prin- cipal verb and one or more helping words, called auxiliary verbs. The auxiHary verbs include the various forms of the verbs be (is, am, are, was, were, has been, have been), may, can, must, might, could, would, should, will, shall, ought, have, do, and did. The following sentences contain verb phrases : 1. Your order will receive prompt attention. 2. We shall he glad to hear from you in a few days. 3. Our draft has been returned. An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pro- noun. An adjective that limits the meaning of a noun or a pronoun is called a limiting adjective — as, this, that {these, those), all, each, either, few, etc. The articles a, an, A NECESSARY FIRST STEP 3 and the belong to this class. An adjective that describes the object named by a noun or pronoun or expresses the kind or condition of the object is a descriptive adjective — as, beautiful, good-, tall. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. The following sentences contain ad- verbs: 1. You are cordially invited to be present at a Private Exhibi- tion of our new spring hats. 2. We were extremely sorry to learn from your letter of April 4 that the table was damaged. 3. We will very gladly take back the two coats. An adverb answers the question when? where? why? how? how many? or how much? The words how, when, where, and why are sometimes used in asking questions, and in such cases are called interrogative adverbs. A preposition is a word that is used to show the relation between a noun or a pronoun and some other word in the sentence — as, " Our draft of November 10 has been re- turned to us.'' The noun or pronoun following the prepo- sition is called its object. Thus us is the object of to in the foregoing sentence. A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses. These sentences illustrate the three uses: 1. Manufacturers and wholesalers allow credits varying from ten to ninety days. 2. The business envelope bears in its upper left-hand corner or on the flap the name and address of the house. 3. Some business houses prefer to have all letters single spaced, hut others prefer to have them double spaced. 4 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH This discussion would scarcely be complete without a brief discussion of verbals. It is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the verb and the verbal. Take, for example, the verb write. It has the forms write, writes, wrote, writing, and written. Not all of these forms are verbs, since some of them do not assert. The words written and writing do not make assertions by themselves. They are verbals. A verbal is a form of the verb that does not assert. There are three classes of verbals; namely, infinitives, participles, and gerunds. An infinitive is a verbal having the root form of the verb and performing the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 1. To write clearly is a great accomplishment. (Used as a noun.) 2. Our superintendent is a man to admire. (Used as an adjec- tive modifier of man.) 3. The manager called to see me. (Used as an adverb, answer- ing the question Why?) Common forms of the infinitive include such as to write, to he written, to have written, to have been written. A participle is a verbal not having the root form of the verb and performing the office of an adjective. 1. Standing near the stenographer's desk, the superintendent dictated the letter. 2. The company, having refused to accept the return of the goods, lost a valuable customer. Common forms of the participle include such as writing, being written, having written, having been written, and written. A gerund is a verbal having the ending ing and perform- ing the office of a noun. A NECESSARY FIRST STEP 5 1. Rendering additional credit would be unwise. 2. His taking up the matter promptly with the railroad company- hastened the delivery of the shipment. Like a verb, an infinitive, participle, or gerund may take the usual adverbial modifiers or an object. It is the way in which a word is used in the sentence that determines what part of speech it is. For example, in reply to a letter ordering goods, you may say, " Your order of June lo has been received." In this sentence order is a noun. The case is different, however, in the following: " We frequently order goods from other houses." Here it is a verb. Again, a word may be an adjective in one sen- tence and an adverb in another. In the sentence, " Kindly make shipment by fast freight," fast is an adjective. It is, however, an adverb when used as follows: " The truck was driven so fast that the stove was broken." To determine what part of speech a word is, therefore, you must answer the question, How is it used in the sentence? It will be necessary also in this lesson to review briefly sentence, clause, and phrase. A sentence is the expression of a complete thought in words. The simplest sentence must necessarily have a subject, the word or expression that names the person, thing, idea, quality, or action about which an assertion is made, and a predicate, the word or words that say something about the subject. In the sentence, " The customer paid cash for the goods," the subject is The cus- tomer and the predicate paid cash for the goods, of which paid is the verb. Some sentences also contain an object, that is, a word or group of words that completes the meaning of 6 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH the verb and tells what is acted upon, — as, ''The sales- man broke his pencil. ^^ Here pencil is the object of broke. Simple sentences become more complex as modifiers — words, phrases, and clauses — are added. A phrase is a group of words that does not have a sub- ject and predicate. It generally consists of a preposition and its object, or of an infinitive or participle and its ob- ject. The following sentences contain phrases: 1. The president of the company resigned. 2. The man wanted to study salesmanship. 3. The bond, torn to pieces, was found in the waste basket. A clause is a group of words that has a subject and predi- cate. A principal, or independent, clause is one that makes an assertion. A subordinate, or dependent, clause is one that is used as a modifier of a word in the principal clause. The following sentences contain both principal and subordi- nate clauses: 1. An electrician who was graduated from the Ranken Trade School was employed to do the work. 2. // you can operate the diferent office machines skillfully, you should be able to secure employment without difficulty. 3. We understand that orders have fallen ojff greatly during the past month. LESSON TWO The Formation of Plurals A careful examination of a bundle of discarded business letters revealed a number of flagrant errors in the forma- tion of plurals. Fortunately, these mistakes were of only a few kinds. By far the greatest number was found in the use of certain words that every successful stenographer or bookkeeper should know. In this lesson, then, you will be required to study only those forms that will likely be useful in your future work. In general, nouns form their plurals by the addition of 5 or es to the singular. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es. The word lady, belonging to this class, seems to cause more trouble than almost any other. You may rightly say a lady^s hat, or even a lady^s hats, if you are thinking of but one person; but if you are thinking of more than one, you should write ladies^ hats. Most nouns ending in / or fe change f to v and add es — as, knife, knives; shelf, shelves. There are, however, a few belonging to this class that add merely s. As they are very frequently used, you should make an effort to remember them. The chief ones are brief, chief, gulf, proof, and scarf. Nouns ending in o cause much trouble. Perhaps this simple rule will help a great deal: If a consonant precedes the 0, add es — as, cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes. There are of course some exceptions which must be carefully com- mitted to memory. These include the following: solos, 7 8 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH albinos, banjos, dynamos, pianos, porticos, provisos, tobaccos, twos, zeros. Compound nouns cause little difficulty, and need cause none if you remember that each consists of two parts — a principal word and a word or words that describe the prin- cipal word. All that is required, therefore, is that you make the principal word plural — as, car-loads, brothers-in-law. In compounds written solid — that is, without a hyphen — make the ending plural — as, bucketfuls, cupfuls, hand- fuls, spoonfuls. If, however, you desire to say that there is more than one bucket or cup, you should write the ex- pressions thus: buckets full, cups full, etc. Occasionally you will want to use the plural of a letter, figure, or sign. In this case merely add the apostrophe and s — as, Fs, 5'^, $'s. In correspondence you will doubtless be puzzled at times to know how to form the plural when titles are involved. For example, how should you write the plural of Miss Brown? If you will examine the work of careful writers, you will find that almost all of them make the title plural — as. The Misses Brown. To form the plural of military titles you should generally add 5 at the last — as, major generals. In the case of civil titles, however, you should generally add 5 to the first part — as, attorneys general. In writing the salutation of a letter addressed to several women, single or married, you may be puzzled to know just what is the required plural. There is indeed no English plural for madam; so we have borrowed mesdames from the French. Remember, however, that dear is not used with mesdames. THE FORMATION OF PLURALS 9 The words goods, assets, and proceeds are used frequently in business. They always require plural verbs. Remem- ber to say, " The goods are damaged," " The company's assets are greater than its HabiHties," and " The proceeds of the sale were one hundred dollars, " not " The goods is damaged," " The company's assets is greater than its lia- bilities," and " The proceeds of the sale was one hun- dred dollars." The names of certain sciences — physics, ethics, and mathematics — end in s, but they are nevertheless singular. They are no more plural than Charles and James. Note that they require a singular verb — thus : Mathematics is sl study helpful to a bookkeeper. Business ethics was studied by every member of the firm. The expressions two dozen, three score, four yoke, etc., are very often used. Remember that dozen, score, yoke, and a few other words of this kind do not require the addition of 5 when preceded by a numeral. In order letters the word pair is sometimes used instead of pairs. This is incorrect. The word pairs should always be used — as, three pairs of socks. A few foreign nouns still retain their old plurals. Where new plurals have been adopted, these are formed in the regular way, and you need spend no time on them. For example, memorandums is the new plural of memorandum. The following foreign forms should be carefully learned: addendum an addition addenda alumnus a graduate of a school or alumni (masculine) college lO ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH alumna a graduate of a school or college a division into parts a decisive moment a fact or principle on which an inference is based a mistake in printing or writing a French title correspond- ing to the English Mr. parenthesis one of the curved marks in punctuation ( ) an unusual occurrence a brief outline of main points analysis crisis datum erratum monsieur phenomenon synopsis alumnae (feminine) analyses crises data errata messieurs parentheses phenomena synopses LESSON THREE The Formation of the Possessive A young woman recently sent an order letter in which she had written " 2 doz. lady's handkerchiefs " and " 3 pairs of childrens' rompers." These expressions correctly writ- ten are, of course, " 2 doz. ladies' handkerchiefs," and " 3 pairs of children's rompers." Evidently her mistake was due to her failure to understand the formation of the plural possessive. In order to avoid such errors it is neces- sary to remember at least two rules. Ordinarily, the possessive singular is formed by adding the apostrophe and 5 — as, "the company^s capital stock." When the addition of s produces a hissing sound, however, a few writers would add only the apostrophe — as, ''Burns^ works," "Dickens' novels." But the tendency is to follow the rule — writing '^Burns^s works," ^'Charles^s books," " the witnesses testimony," and " the countesses jewels" — and this contention is supported by such authorities as Hitchcock, Manly, Baskerville and Sewell, and the Style Book of the Government Printing Office. The possessive plural is formed by adding only the apos- trophe to plural nouns ending in s. Thus you should write ''ladies' gloves," %oys' suits," ''misses' coats," and "citi- zens' league." To plural nouns not ending in 5, add, usually, both the apostrophe and s. According to this rule you should write "wew'5 clothing," "women's low shoes," and "children's dresses." First decide whether you need a singular or a plural 12 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH noun. Then make sure you can spell the required form correctly, omitting for the time being the sign of the pos- sessive. Having done this, you are ready to form the posses- sive. Remember that goods advertised or kept for sale are intended for more than one person; consequently you should write " ladies^ gloves," " women's coats," " girls^ dresses." It is correct, however, to write " a lady's glove " or " a woman's coat " when speaking of one person's property. When two or more nouns are used together to denote joint ownership, add the sign of the possessive to the last — thus : Little, Brown and Company's publications Hanly & Miller's law office Should you desire to express separate ownership, add the sign of the possessive to each. For example, write " Haniys and Miller's law offices." The following expressions occur frequently in business, and every commercial worker should remember to use the possessive form: * a four months' note sixty days' credit two years' time two weeks' vacation a day's wages two years' experience Sometimes compound nouns prove troublesome. Where, for example, should the sign of the possessive be placed in such words as brother-in-law? In answer it should be said that all authorities agree that it should be placed at the last, regardless of the part of the word changed in forming the plural — thus: 1 Scott, Practical English, pages 54-55. THE FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE 13 Sing, brother-in-law Sing. poss. brother-in-law's Plu. brothers-in-law Plu. poss. brothers-in-law's Certain crude errors arise in the addition of the pos- sessive sign to the pronouns. Do not write our's, your^s theirs, his\ her^s, etc. These words are already possessive in form and certainly do not need the apostrophe. Simply write ours, yours, theirs, his, and hers. Also remember that ifs is a contraction of it is and that its is the possessive form. Always avoid awkward possessive expressions. Write simple but dignified English, such as is found in the cor- respondence of reputable firms. It is not good writing, for example, to use the expression " somebody's else book '' when ninety-nine per cent of the people say " somebody else's book." The observance of these principles should make you a better writer of business English. LESSON FOUR Nouns Commonly Confused This lesson treats of the meaning and use of a number of words commonly misused. The words are presented in pairs, and the one point most needed to insure the proper use of each is carefully stated. The definitions given, sometimes in full, are taken from the New Standard Dictionary,^ and some of the comments distinguishing mean- ings are also from this book. Study the distinctions in meanings and the illustrations until you thoroughly under- stand the use of every word. ABILITY, CAPACITY Ability. The state or quality of being able; physical, mental, moral, or legal power; power to plan, direct, give, or do; talent; faculty, especially as having reference to action. Capacity, i. The ability to receive or contain; cubic extent; car- rying power or space; said of that within which any solid or fluid may be placed, and also used figuratively. 2. Ability to absorb and retain; as, heat, moisture, electricity, etc. 3. Adequate mental power to re- ceive, understand, endure, or develop; measure of such ability; tal- ent; especially passive power. 4. Productive power in general; capability — as, "Fire has an immense capacity for destructiveness." 5. Specific position or relation — as, "He traveled in the capacity of tutor." This distinction should be kept carefully in mind; namely, abil- ity means power or skill to do a thing, while capacity means the power to receive and retain knowledge. Capacity implies aptness and talent for learning and planning. 1, An office manager should possess ability to handle men. 2. An engineer must have capacity for mathematics. ^ Copyright by Funk and Wagnalls Company, New York and London. 14 NOUNS COMMONLY CONFUSED 15 ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION Admittance. The act of admitting or the state or fact of being admitted; entrance; or the right or permission to enter. Admission, i. The act of admitting, or the state of being ad- mitted, as to some place, society, office, etc.; the right or power of approach or entrance; entrance — as, admission into a room, ad- mission of air. 2. A conceding, acknowledging, or confessing, or that which is acknowledged or conceded — as, admission of guilt. 3. The price charged or paid to be admitted. Admittance means the gaining of entrance; admission ^ the gaining of entrance together with certain favors or privileges. We rightly say "Admission, one dollar" and "Admission, free." 1. Will you please write me stating fully the requirements for admission to Brown's Business College? 2. The messenger gained admittance to the office and handed the manager a telegram. AUDIENCE, SPECTATORS Audience. An assembly of hearers; a gathering of persons to Hsten to something. Spectator. One who beholds or looks on; an eye-witness; also, one present at a spectacle — as, "At the royal approach the specta- tors cheered." 1. The audience heard a lecture on salesmanship. 2. A group of business men were interested spectators at the races. BALANCE, REST, REMAINDER Balance, i. A pair of scales; an instrument for weighing, es- pecially very delicate, accurate weighing, or for measuring physical force. 2. The act of balancing or mentally comparing the qualities or importance of two things. 3. Com. (i) An equality between the credit and debit totals of an account. (2) The difference between such totals; excess on either side — as, "The balance is $500." Rest. I. That which remains or is left over. 2. Those that re- main; those not included in a given statement or description. The i6 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH word also has the following meanings: i. The act or state of resting. 2. Freedom from disturbance, disquiet, or uneasiness. 3. Sleep as a condition of repose. 4. That on which anything rests, lies, or leans. Remainder. I. That which remains; something left after a sub- traction; expenditure, or passing over of a part; a residue; remnant. 2. That which is left after the subtraction of one quantity from an- other. 3. An estate in expectancy. To insure the correct use of these words it will be necessary to re- member that balance is a term used in bookkeeping and that remain- der is not generally used in speaking of persons. Do not use balance in the sense of rest or remainder. 1. The bookkeeper was busy making up a trial balance. 2. We have decided to keep the greater part of the goods, but are shipping the remainder by American Express. 3. When business became dull, the company decided to keep only the best ones of its employees; the rest of them were dis- charged. COMMUNICATION, LETTER Communication is the more general term and may refer to a letter, telegram, telephone message, etc. It is almost always better to use the more specific word letter. For example, "Your letter of October 10" is better than "Your communication of October 10." COUNCIL, COUNSEL Council means an assembly; counsel, an adviser, an attorney. 1. We shall employ experienced counsel to represent us before the City Council. 2. Mr. Young acted as my counsel in business affairs. NEGLECT, NEGLIGENCE Neglect. I. The act of neglecting. Specif, (i) Omission to do something that should be done; oversight. (2) Omission to pay due attention or civility; slight; disregard. 2. The state of being neg- lected. Negligence, i. The act of neglecting, or the quality that exhibits NOUNS COMMONLY CONFUSED 17 neglect; habitual omission of that which ought to be done; or the habit of omitting to do things, either from carelessness or design. Negligence is often used to denote the quality or trait of character of which the act is a manifestation, or to denote the habit of neglecting that which ought to be done. 1. Our neglect to fill your order promptly has no doubt caused you great inconvenience. 2. We assure you, however, that negligence is not a characteristic of our house. PARTY, PERSON Party, i. Any one of two or more bodies of people contending for antagonistic or rival opinions or policies in a community or society; especially one of the opposing political organizations striving for su- premacy in a state. 2. The action of taking sides on a question of public policy. 3 . A number or company of persons assembled for some purpose; especially a number gathered for amusement; also, an en- tertainment to which a number are invited. 4. A company constitut- ing a part of a larger company or body, especially a small company of soldiers detailed for special service. 5. Law. One of the persons, natural or artificial, named on the record in an action, either as plain- tiff or defendant; one who is related or united with another or others in a contract. Party is a legal term that should not be used in the ordinary sense of person. It is used most frequently in contracts — as, "The party of the first part.'' 1. Our company was made a party to the suit. 2. Here is the person who represents the Goodyear Rubber Com- pany. (Not the party.) PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE Principal, i. One who takes a leading part; one concerned di- rectly and not as an auxiliary; one who is a leader or chief in some action — as, the principal in a debate. Law. (i) The actor in a crime or one present aiding and abetting. (2) The employer of one who acts as an agent. 2. One who is at the head of some body; 1 8 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH chief; one who is in authority. 3. Property or capital, as opposed to interest or income. Principle, i. A source or cause from which a thing proceeds; a power that acts continuously or uniformly. 2. That which is inher- ent in anything, determining its nature; essential character; essence; original faculty. 3. A general truth or proposition. 4. A settled law or rule of action. 1. The principal directed his agent to buy certain goods. 2. The principal of the Burdett School has made his institu- tion one of the best in the country. 3. A successful business man is guided by the principles of hon- esty and economy. RELATIONS, RELATIVES Relation. The fact or condition of being related or connected or that by which things are connected, either objectively or in the mind; the standing of two or more things with reference each to the other; interdependence; connections, such as family relations. Relative. One that is connected by blood or affinity; a kinsman. We may rightly speak of our business relations, but should not use the word in reference to those related to us by blood. 1. His business relations have always been pleasant. 2. I have not been associated with any of my relatives in the grain business. STATUE, STATUTE Statue. A plastic work representing a human or animal figure, generally in marble or bronze; especially such a work nearly life- size or large as distinguished from statuette and preserving the pro- portions in all directions as distinguished from relief. Statute. A legislative enactment duly sanctioned and authenti- cated by constitutional rule. Do not make such errors as this: "He carved a beautiful statute.'^ 1. A statue of General Grant was placed near the entrance of the building. 2. The planters were protected in their rights by a state statute. LESSON FIVE How TO Use the Personal Pronouns Correctly Among the troublesome words which you use frequently are the personal pronouns. They include /, we, me, us, he, she, they, him, her, and them. Unlike nouns, the per- sonal pronouns have distinct forms for subject and for object. Those that are used as subjects are commonly called nominative forms, and they include /, we, he, she, and they. Note their use as subjects in these sentences. 1. / am required to open the envelopes and check all enclosures. 2. Under separate cover they sent samples. Those that are used as objects are called objective forms. The objective forms are me, us, him, her, and them. The following sentences illustrate their use: 1. The stranger saw me working at the desk. 2. We notify them by card or by letter when their order has been received. 3. The clerk addressed the envelope for him. {Him is the ob- ject of for.) Unless your English is very good you will probably find that in compound subjects you have been using an objec- tive form where you needed a subject, or nominative form. You have heard such expressions as " Miss Smart and me work in the shipping department " and " Us boys are stud)dng shorthand." The pronouns needed here are, of course, / and we — thus: " Miss Smart and / work in the shipping department," and " We boys are studying short- 19 20 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH hand." Such errors are common where the subject is compound, that is, where there are two or more subjects. A like error is often made when the object is com- pound — as, " Mr. Wayman sent James and me to the post office." It would be bad English to say, "Mr. Wayman sent James and / to the post office." Remember also that you should use objective forms after prepositions — such words as in, on, at, to, from, between, etc. Have you ever heard such sentences as these: ^^ Between you and I there should be no hard feehngs in regard to the settlement of this account," ^^For you and I there is little hope of success," and " Hand your report to Mr. Shall- cross or I ".? However right these may sound, they are, nevertheless, incorrect, and you must make a determined effort to say, ^^ Between you and me there should be no hard feehngs in regard to the settlement of this account," "For you and me there is Httle hope of success," and "Hand your report to Mr. Shallcross or we." By the rule of politeness the speaker should mention himself last, and the pronoun you should stand first in the sentence. It is therefore incorrect to say, " I and Mr. Fisher will assist you in fihng the letters " and " I hope you will include me and Miss Benn in your maihng Hst." The following sentences illustrate the appHcation of the rule : 1. Miss Smith and I will make copies of the letter. 2. I hope you will include Miss Benn and me in your mailing list. 3. You, Mr. Miller, and I have just been appointed mailing clerks. Your attention has already been called to the fact that objective forms of the pronouns should be used after HOW TO USE PERSONAL PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 21 prepositions. There are, however, two words that deserve special attention on account of the large number of errors that arise in their use. These words are like and than. Like should be considered a preposition in such sentences as these: " Like you and me Miss Starr wishes to become a private secretary " and ^^Like him I have learned to use an adding machine." It is incorrect to use like as a con- junction — that is, to introduce a statement; for example, " The typewriter looks like it needed cleaning ^^ and " It looks like the superintendent will not he here this afternoon. ^^ In all such cases use as if, as though, or as — thus: "The type- writer looks as if it needed cleaning J*^ After than or as introducing an incomplete clause, always use the form of the pronoun required if the clause were ex- pressed in full; for example, " Mr. Stein can take dictation faster than I (can).'^ Do not say, " Mr. Stein can take dictation faster than we." So important are the common errors in the use of pro- nouns that a complete hst of correct forms is presented for your study. Note that the pronoun it is not included, as the subject and object forms are the same, and therefore there are no errors in their use. The correct forms should be repeated aloud and written several times. The following sentences show compound subjects cor- rectly used: 1. John and I stamped the envelopes. (Not John and me.) 2. He and his partner borrowed the capital. (Not him and his partner.) 3 . She and her friend secured positions. (Not her and her friend.) 4. Our friends and we resigned. (Not Our friends and us.) 22 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 5. They and their competitors agreed. (Not them and their com- petitors.) 6. He and I worked late. (Not him and I or him and me.) 7. She and I signed the note. (Not her and I or her and me.) 8. She and he signed the note. (Not her and he or her and him.) 9. They and I made a contract. (Not them and I, they and me, or them and me.) y 10. Ue and they cut prices. (Not him and they, he and them, or him and them.) 11. She and they resigned. (Not her and they or her and them.) 12. They, he, and I all did a big business. (Not them, he, and /or them, him, and I, or them, him, and me.) 13. They, she, and I sell insurance. (Not them, she, and I or them, her, and I or them, her, and me.) 14. They and we made a profit on the goods. (Not them and we or they and us.) 15. They, he, and we had a meeting. (Not them, him, and us or they, him, and us, or them, him, and we.) 16. They, she, and we bought steel stock. (Not them, her, and us or they, her, and us or them, her, and we.) The following sentences show the same pronouns cor- rectly used as objects: 1. The envelopes were stamped by John and me. (Not John and I.) 2. The capital was borrowed by him and his partner. (Not he and his partner.) 3. The positions were secured by her and her friends. (Not she and her friends.) 4. They discharged us and our friends. (Not we and our friends.) 5. An agreement was made between them and their competitors. (Not they and their competitors.) 6. The hour was late for him and me. (Not he and I or him and I.) 7. The note was signed by her and me. (Not she and I or she and me.) HOW TO USE PERSONAL PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 23 8. The note was signed by her and him. (Not she and he or her and he.) 9. A contract was made by them and me. (Not they and I or them and I or they and me.) 10. Prices were cut by him and them. (Not he and they or him and they or he and them.) 11. Resignations were mailed to the company by her and them. (Not she and they or she and them or her and they.) 12. Business prospered for them, him, and me. (Not they, he, and I or them, him, and I or they, him, and me.) 13. Much insurance was sold by them, her, and me. (Not they, she, and I or them, she, and I or they, her, and me.) 14. A profit on the goods was made by them and us. (Not they and us or them and we.) 15. A meeting was held by them, him, and us. (Not they, he, and we or they, him, and us or they, he, and us.) 16. Several shares of steel stock were bought by them, her, and us. (Not they, she, and we or them, she, and we or they, she, and us.) LESSON SIX How TO Use the Pronouns Correctly (Continued) There is one important exception to the rule stated in Lesson Five; namely, the nominative, or subject, pro- nouns should be used after the various forms of the verb be. You have often heard such mistakes as "It is we " and " It was her " for " It was I " and " It was she.'' It will require a great deal of care to estabHsh the habit of using the correct expression in all such cases. First of all you will need to remember the various forms of the verb be. They include is, are, was, were, has been, have been, can be, could be, will be, shall be, would be, should be, may be, etc. Read the following sentences carefully and review them frequently until you can use the correct form without effort: 1. It is I who distribute the mail. 2. // is we who address the envelopes. 3. It is they who asked for application blanks. 4. Who was at the desk? // was she. 5. // it was he who folded the letter, he did not follow the rule. 6. // it had been they who received the goods, they would have notified us at once. 7. I am sure it will he he who will be chosen business manager. 8. Can it he she who is working at the letterpress? 9. Could it have been they who manufactured an article so inferior as this? 10. If any company succeeds in the clothing business, it should he we. There are only two exceptions to the foregoing, as fol- lows: When to be or to have been is preceded by the word 24 HOW TO USE THE PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 25 it, the verbal is followed by the objective form of the pro- noun — thus : 1. I believe it to be him. 2. I supposed it to have been them. When to be or to have been is not immediately preceded by it, the verbal is followed by the subject form, or nom- inative, as usual — thus : 1. It was believed to be he. 2. It was supposed to have been they. LESSON SEVEN How TO Use the Pronouns Correctly (Continued) TROUBLESOME COMPOUNDS Certain compound pronouns are so frequently misused that it will be necessary to study them somewhat carefully. They include the following forms: myself ourselves himself themselves herself itself yourself yourselves These forms should not be used as subjects. For ex- ample, it is incorrect to write the following: 1. Sister and myself a.re studying business English. 2. Mr. Cline and yourself will be sent to our Missouri territory. 3. The agent and myself should be able to arrange terms of sale satisfactory to both sides. The correct expressions, of course, are as follows: 1. Sister and I are studying business English. 2. Mr. Cline and you will be sent to our Missouri territory. 3. The agent and I should be able to arrange terms of sale satis- factory to both sides. Do not allow yourself to fall into the habit of using the compound forms to supplant the simple personal pronouns- either as subjects or objects. For example, do not say, " He intrusted the work to Miss White and myself " and " // was ourselves who were compelled to cancel our orders." It is correct to say, '' He intrusted the work to Miss White 26 HOW TO USE THE PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 27 and me/^ and " It was we who were compelled to cancel our orders." The compound forms may, however, be used with a sub- ject, or even with an object, for emphasis — thus: 1. The superintendent himself signed the check. 2. / myself was appointed wire chief. 3. The mistake was made by the president himself. 4. They themselves have become manufacturers of rubber goods. They may also be correctly used to refer back to the subject — thus: 1. The carpenter hurt himself. 2. The salesman did himself an injustice. 3. By refusing to pay the account, you have placed yourself in a very embarrassing position. Certain incorrect forms often creep into our speech. Do not say hisself for himself, theirself for themselves, ourself for ourselves, and theirsehes for themselves. For example, it is incorrect to say, " Our packers theirsehes are responsible for the broken table," "Owr buyer hisself was unsuccessful in selecting the best quaHty of goods," and " We bought oil stock ourself.''^ The correct expres- sions are, of course, as follows: " Our packers themselves are responsible for the broken table," " Our buyer himself was unsuccessful in selecting the best quality of goods," and " We bought oil stock our selves. ^^ A GROUP OF SINGULAR SUBJECTS Each of the following subjects denotes but one person. Learn them thoroughly and do not forget that they are singular subjects. 28 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH anyone anybody a person everyone everybody a man none nobody someone somebody Everyone and everybody look very much like plural forms, but each refers to but one person. Therefore, when you use pronouns to refer to these words, you should use the singular to agree with them in number — thus: 1. Everybody took off his hat. 2. Someone has lost his check. 3. Anyone can do as he pleases about returning the goods. 4. Nobody can deny that he has made mistakes selling. 5. Everyone has the right to protect his own property. 6. A person should never forget his duty to his regular customers. The following words also are singular when used as pro- nouns: each, every, either, and neither. These words are also frequently used with singular subjects. Note care- fully how they are used in the following sentences: 1. Each took off his coat. 2. Each clerk had his pencil and notebook. 3. Every man in our store has his own salesbook. 4. Either Mr. Deal or Mr. Wise must give his full time to the work of preparing for the spring sales. When two or more subjects connected by and are pre- ceded by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular. For example, you should say, " Each letter and each card has its place," not " Each letter and each card has their place." Also, " Each person has his own desk," not " Each person has their own desk." In this sentence his is prefer- able to his or her, though either may be used. HOW TO USE THE PRONOUNS CORRECTLY 29 Sometimes a second subject is joined to another by such expressions as and also, as well as, together with, but not, etc. When this is the case, the pronoun must agree in number with the first, as the first is indeed the real subject; for example, " Mr. Price, as well as our other representatives, has done his best to serve our interests." Some difficulty arises in the use of pronouns to repre- sent nouns denoting a collection. When the collection is thought of as a whole, you should use a singular pronoun — as, " The jury returned its verdict at noon." The case is different, however, when the individuals in the collec- tion are thought of — as, " The jury were divided in their opinions." When the pronoun one is used as a subject, it is not generally followed by his, but by one^s; for example, " One should do one's best to increase the business of the firm." Some authorities, however, assert that it is a matter of taste whether his or one's should be used when one is the subject.^ * Scott: Practical English, pages 42-43. LESSON EIGHT Relative Pronouns There are four relative pronouns — whOj which, that, and what. They are of such great importance in ordinary- speech and writing that everyone should learn to use them correctly. Who should be used in speaking of persons; which, in speaking of animals and things; and that, in speaking of persons, animals, and things. What is equivalent to that which and is used in speaking of things. That has a broader use than any other relative, often being used instead of who or which. It must necessarily be used when there is joint reference to persons and things — as, " Our attention was turned to the man and the dog that entered the store." Its most appropriate use, how- ever, is to introduce a clause that limits closely the word to which it refers — as, " The man that lives next door is the manager of the company." The clause " that lives next door " points out a particular man (not every man); so that it may be regarded as limiting the word man closely. You will find, however, that some good writers do not fol- low this rule, but use who in speaking of persons or which in speaking of animals and things whenever it suits their fancy. Who has different forms for the nominative, possessive, and objective uses. Nominative, or subject, form who Possessive form whose Objective, or object, form whom 30 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 31 Notice the use of these forms in the following sentences: 1. The owner of a good car respects the man who sold it to him. (yVho is the subject of sold.) 2. We believe you will like the new salesman whom we have sent. (Whom is the object of sent.) 3. This is the merchant whose profit last year exceeded fifty per cent. A very common error is the use of who for whom in short questions ending or beginning with a prepo- sition. You almost constantly hear such incorrect expres- sions as these: " Who did you call for? " " Who are you working for? " " Who are you associated in business with? " In all such cases you should use an objective form on account of the preposition. If you will turn these expressions around so that the preposition stands first, you can see this more clearly. The correct expressions are these: ^^ For whom did you call?" ^^ For whom are you working? " " With whom are you associated in business? " If you prefer to close a question with a preposition, you should usually begin it with the word whom. For ex- ample, you should say: " Whom are you working for?" " Whom shall we appeal to? " But it is better to use the preposition at the beginning of the clause or sentence than at the end. Remember that the forms of the verb be {is, are, was, were, etc.) take subject forms after them, which, as you learned in Lesson Six, is an exception to the general rule that all verbs are followed by the objective form. It is, therefore, incorrect to say, " Whom did you say the 32 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH manager was? " or "I do not know whom it is that is to blame." Say who in these cases. Sometimes when certain expressions — such as, " I am sure/' " I cannot doubt," etc. — are thrown into the sen- tence, you will find it more difficult to choose between who and whom; for example, ^' We are sending you a book- keeper who, we are sure, will give satisfaction." Here who is the right word, because a subject is needed for will give. But it is correct to say, " She is a young lady whom, I am sure, you can trust.'' In this sentence whom is the object of can trust. Note carefully the following sentence: " The superintendent, who, as you know, was to blame, has been discharged." This is somewhat more involved than any of the preceding sentences, but it becomes easy if you merely drop out the parenthetical expression "as you know." It then appears that who is the subject of was in the expression " who was to blame." No one would think of saying " whom was to blame." The compound forms whoever and whomever are used like who and whom. Whoever is a subject, or nominative form, while whomever is the objective. The form whom- ever may disappear at some time in the future, but it should not be given over yet. Note the correct use of these words in the following sentences : 1. I will enter into a contract with whoever gives me the best terms. 2. Whoever can sell the greatest number of cars will be given a prize. 3. You may employ whomever you choose. (Whomever is the object of choose.) RELATIVE PRONOUNS ss 4. Hand the subscription list to whomever you meet. (Whom- ever is the object of the preposition io.) Note carefully this sentence: "When a check is made payable to the bearer, the bank must pay the money to whoever presents it." Here a subject for the verb presents is needed, and whomever would be incorrect. The whole word clause is the object of the preposition to. LESSON NINE Troublesome Verbs Most verbs have one form to denote present time and another to denote past time — as, " I see " and " I saw.'* Many errors arise from confusing these two forms. For example, come and came are confused. Came is rightly used to express only past time, but again and again you will hear such sentences as " I come late to work yester- day," " Many orders come last Monday," and " As soon as the telegram come, I handed it to Mr. Wright." In the same way the following forms are often confused: Present Past forbid forbade give gave run ran It is incorrect to say — 1. When I arrived the tesLcher forbid me to enter. 2. I give you references in my letter of January lo. 3. Our supply of oak lumber run out last week. Good usage requires that we use the past forms, com- monly called the past tense, in these sentences — thus: 1. The tesicher forbade me to enter when I arrived. 2. I gave you references in my letter of January 10. 3. Our supply of oak lumber ran out last week. Verbs also have a third form which is called the past participle. For example, the verb see has for its principal parts the forms see, saw, and seen. It is the third form, or past participle, with which are used has, have, is, are, 34 TROUBLESOME VERBS 35 was, were, will be, shall be, and a few others, giving the cor- rect expressions has seen, have seen, is seen, are seen, was seen, were seen, etc. The past participle cannot be used either to make an assertion by itself or to express past time. Many mistakes arise in this way, and they are in- deed crude. The following sentences illustrate this kind of error: 1. I seen Mr. Wiley folding the letter. 2. I begun work at eight o'clock today. 3. Miss Price broken my typewriter. 4. The young man done the work with a stamping machine. 5. At noon I drunk a glass of milk. 6. The manager shrunk from the unpleasant task of discharging the boy. 7. Mr. Wells sung all day long at the music counter. Good usage requires that you use in these sentences either the ordinary past forms or the past participle with one of the forms of have or be, according to the meaning to be conveyed — thus : 1. I saw Mr. Wiley folding the letters, (or have seen.) 2. I began work at eight o'clock today. 3. Miss Price broke my typewriter, (or has broken.) 4. The young man did the work with a stamping machine, (or has done.) 5. At noon I drank a glass of milk. 6. The manager shrank from the unpleasant task of discharging the boy. 7. Mr. Wells sang all day long at the music counter, (or has sung.) Many mistakes arise through the use of has or have, is or are, was or were, with the ordinary past forms. For example, " I have saw " or ^' I have went " is incorrect. 3^ ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Other mistakes of this kind include has did, has broke, has drank, has ate, etc. The correct expressions, of course, are have seen, have gone, has done, has broken, has drunk, and has eaten. Recent investigations have shown that most of our mis- takes occur in the use of thirty or forty verbs. These have been gathered together in the following list.^ Every stu- dent should carefully learn their principal parts. Present Past Past Participle awake awoke awaked blow .blew blown break broke broken burst burst burst choose chose chosen come came come dive dived dived do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten flee fled fled flow flowed flowed fly flew flown freeze froze frozen go went gone hang hung (an object) hung hang hanged (a person) hanged know knew known lose lost lost loose loosed loosed 1 This list contains all the principal verbs listed in the investigation of pupils' errors made by Prof. W. W. Charters, with some additions. TROUBLESOME VERBS 37 Present plead prove ride rise run see shine show shrink sing sink slay- speak steal swim tear throw wear write Past Past Participle pleaded pleaded proved proved rode ridden rose risen ran run saw seen shone shone showed shown shrank shrunk sang sung sank sunk slew slain spoke spoken stole stolen swam swum tore torn threw thrown wore worn wrote written Compare the expressions given below and form the habit of using each verb correctly. If necessary, read the sen- tences carefully several times. Incorrect 1. Our office boy had awoke at six o'clock each day. 2. The whistle has blew early the past few days. 3. The man has broke his con- tract with us. 4. The motor was so heavy that it bursted the box. 5. Mr. Lane had chose book- keeping. Correct 1. Our office boy had awaked at six o'clock each day. 2. The whistle has blown early the past few days. 3. The man has broken his contract with us. 4. The motor was so heavy that it burst the box. 5. Mr. Lane had chosen book- keeping. 3^ ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Incorrect 6. The messenger dove into the stream. 7. Mr. Brown done his work well while employed here. 8. The architect has drawed a plan for our new fac- tory building. 9. The railroad company re- fused to employ anyone who had drank liquor for several years. 10. The salesman had drove from one village to an- other. 11. Our employees had eat lunch early that day. 12. The bandit had fleed with the payroll. 13. A copy of the contract had fell out of the window. 14. We are sorry to learn that the fruit was froze be- fore it reached you. 15. We have went through our files carefully. 16. The company has knowed his financial standing for many months. 17. Our attorney plead the case. 18. The Goodrich Tires have more than proven supe- rior in quality. Correct 6. The messenger dived into the stream. 7. Mr. Brown did his work well while employed here. 8. The architect has drawn a plan for our new factory building. 9. The railroad company re- fused to employ anyone who hcLd drunk liquor for several years. 10. The salesman had driven from one village to an- other. 11. Our employees had eaten lunch early that day. 12. The bandit had fled with the payroll. 13. A copy of the contract had fallen out of the window. 14. We are sorry to learn that the fruit was frozen be- fore it reached you. 15. We have gone through our files carefully. 16. The company has known his financial standing for many months. 17. Our attorney pleaded the case. 18. The Goodrich Tires have proved more than supe- rior in quality. TROUBLESOME VERBS 39 Incorrect 19. Our salesmen have often rode eighty miles a day by automobile. 20. The elderly gentleman had ran a grocery store. 21. The secretary has showed me how to iile the pa- pers. 22. The company had sank beneath the weight of its debts. 23. Evidently the watchman had stayed the robber. 24. The head of the complaint department had spoke harshly to him. 25. A well dressed woman had stole a beautiful fur coat. 26. The boy had swam the stream in an effort to deliver the package. 27. Several leaves were tore from the book you sent us. 28. The customer throwed the package down. 29. I have wore this style of shoes for three years. Correct 19. Our salesmen have often ridden eighty miles a day by automobile. 20. The elderly gentleman had run a grocery store. 21. The secretary has shown me how to file the pa- pers. 22. The company had sunk beneath the weight of its debts. 23. Evidently the watchman had slain the robber. 24. The head of the complaint department had spoken harshly to him. 25. A well dressed woman had stolen a beautiful fur coat. 26. The boy had swum the stream in an effort to deliver the package. 27. Several leaves were torn from the book you sent us. 28. The customer threw the package down. 29. I have worn this style of shoes for three years. LESSON TEN Troublesome Verbs (Continued) The verbs lie, sit, and rise are often misused. If you understand their meaning, however, you should have Uttle difficulty with them. The following are simple definitions which you should learn: To lie means to rest in a reclining position. To sit means to rest on the haunches or to occupy a seat. To rise means to get up, not to raise something. As you have already learned, every verb has three prin- cipal parts — the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle. The principal parts of the verbs given here should be carefully learned: resent Past Past Participle lie lay lain sit sat sat rise rose risen There are also three verbs very similar to these — namely, lay, set, and raise. Though they are different in meaning from lie, sit, and rise, they are often confused with them. You should therefore learn the exact meaning of each. To lay means to place an object down. To set means to place something or to cause to sit. To raise means to lift an object or to cause it to rise. You will remember that some verbs take an object — as, "We wrote the letter. ^^ Here the noun letter is the ob- 40 TROUBLESOME VERBS 41 ject of wrote. The verbs lay, set, and raise take an object, and in this way differ from lie, sit, and rise. Note that one always lays^ raises^ or sets something, some object. For example, " The stenographer laid her notebook on the table/* The fact that these verbs are similar makes it necessary to distinguish carefully their forms. For this reason they are given here in pairs: Present Past Past Participle Ue lay lain > lay laid laid It is incorrect to say — 1. I laid down to rest before going to the office. 2. We have lain your letter aside. It is correct to say — 1. llay down to rest before going to the office. 2. We have laid your letter aside. Present Past Past Participle sit sat sat set set set It is incorrect to say — 1. Mr. Smith set down to dictate a letter. 2. The salesman sat the box on the counter. 3. The secretary has set at his desk every day for months. It is correct to say — 1. Mr. Smith sat down to dictate a letter. 2. The salesman set the box on the counter. 3. The secretary has sat at his desk every day for months. 42 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Present Past Past Participle rise rose risen raise raised raised It is incorrect to say — 1. Wages raised on the first of the month. 2. The successful accountant had raised from the ranks. 3. The price of clothing had rose steadily for two years. It is correct to say — 1. Wages rose on the first day of the month. 2. The successful accountant had risen from the ranks. 3. The price of clothing had risen steadily for two years. There are, however, a few expressions that do not fol- low the rule. They are called idioms and do not require explanation, because an idiom is a usage that has no gram- matical explanation. Such expressions include the follow- ing: " The next day we set out on our journey " and " The sun 5^5." Two other verbs are also commonly confused — leave and let. The meanings of these words, if kept in mind, should insure their correct use. To leave means to go away from a person or an object. To let means to permit. Errors arise when you use leave where let should be em- ployed. For example, it is incorrect to say — 1. Leave me go to the post office for you. 2. Leave him do the filing. 3. Leave him have a trial as stenographer. It is correct to say — 1. Let me go to the post office for you. 2. Let him do the filing. 3. Let him have a trial as stenographer. LESSON ELEVEN Special Use of Were Ordinarily were should be used with plural subjects to express past time, but it is also used to express a condi- tion that is contrary to fact and to express a wish. Conditions are generally introduced by the conjunction if — as, "If I were you, I should figure merchandise costs more closely." If the condition is contrary to the fact, were is used, even with singular subjects, such as /, he, she^ it, and singular nouns. The following sentences illustrate this usage: 1. If I were you (but I am not), I would study both stenography and bookkeeping. 2. If he were to blame for the error (but he isn't), we would gladly replace the goods. 3. // she were a graduate of a commercial course (but she isn't), we would gladly give her the position. 4. // it were possible to send you an exact duplicate of the chair (but it isn't), we would gladly do it. 5. // the young man were able to spell and use the typewriter well (but he isn't), we would consent to keep him in our office. Whenever the condition is an admitted fact, however, was should not be used with singular subjects. The fol- lowing sentences illustrate this point : 1. If I was to blame for the loss (and I was or may have been), I will pay for it. 2. If he was not as well qualified for the position as his opponent (and he was not), he should not have been elected. 3. If Mr. Riley was slow at typewriting (and he was), he could not hope to hold the position. 43 44 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 4. If the letter was not properly paragraphed (and it wasn't), it should not have been sent. To express a wish, use were with /, he, she, it, and sin- gular nouns. No trouble arises when plural subjects are used. Wishes are, of course, always contrary to fact, and this is why were should be used. Note the following illustrations : 1. I wish I were able to double my speed in shorthand. 2. Would that he were thoroughly prepared for the position! 3. We wish that it were possible to adjust the matter as you sug- gest in your letter of February 8. 4. We wish this last lot of shoes were of much better quaHty. You should therefore be careful to avoid such errors as these: "If I was you," "If I was he," and "I wish I was " or "I wish it was,^^ Remember also that it is in- correct to say, " You was " or ^'Was you." The pronoun you is plural in form and consequently requires a plural verb — as, " You were,^^ " You are," etc. Sometimes the word if is omitted, and were is made to stand first in the sentence — thus : 1. Were your financial standing rated good in Bradstreet^s, we would grant you credit. 2. Were the table as good as you represented, I would not ask to return it. Throughout this lesson your attention has been called to the special use of were with singular subjects, because ordinarily it is used with plural forms. You will therefore need to remember only the foregoing instructions. These may be summed up as follows: 1. Use were with singular subjects in clauses contrary to fact. 2. Use were with singular subjects in clauses expressing a wish. 3. Always use were with the subject you and with plural subjects. LESSON TWELVE Shall AND Will A careful examination of sample letters from many large firms throughout the country reveals the fact that shall and will are used not only with great frequency but in nearly every case correctly. This shows that the writers have given careful thought to correct usage and that they recognize the value of these words in expressing shades of meaning. In oral speech perhaps even the most careful business men do not always distinguish between shall and will, but they are careful to do so in written speech. No good business house would desire to employ a stenographer who does not know how to use shall and will correctly. There is nothing in the practical usage of these words which you cannot easily learn. In this lesson you will find the explanations and illustrations made very easy. When you wish merely to express future time, use shall with / and we. The word is correctly used in the follow- ing sentences: 1. We shall welcome future orders from you. 2. We shall be glad to hear from you in a few days that our terms are satisfactory. 3. I shall he pleased to meet your representative and talk the matter over with him. 4. I shall he delighted to see you. If you wish to express a promise or to show that you are determined to do something, use will with / and we. Thus " I will " is the natural and correct way to say, " I 45 46 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH am willing/' " I promise," or " I have made up my mind." Note the correct use of will in these sentences: 1. Send the bookcase back, and we will refund your money. 2. We will extend your credit from thirty to sixty days. 3. If shipment has not already been made, we will see that the cabinet goes forward just as soon as possible. 4. The goods reached us in damaged condition, and unless you replace them we will place no more orders with your house. 5. I will send a tracer at once. Do not say, " I will he pleased to call at your office for a personal interview " or "I will he glad to meet your cousin." In such sentences you are not making a promise or even expressing determination, for certainly nobody would promise or express a determination to be pleased or to be glad. Remember that the correct expressions are these: " I shall he pleased " and " I shall he glad.'' In questions always use shall with / and we. Remember to say, ''Shall /.? " or ''Shall we?'' Note the following illustrations : 1. Shall I answer the telegram from the Simmons Hardware Company? 2. Shall we address the letters to the company or to you person- ally? You have already learned that you should use shall with- / and we to express future time. With all other subjects, however, you should use will to express future time. The term " all other subjects " includes you, he, she, it, John, people, etc. Note carefully the use of will in the following sentences: SHALL AND WILL 47 1. You will be pleased with Goodrich tires. 2. It will require three months to finish the course in business EngHsh. 3. The enclosed card when properly filled out will bring you our catalog. If you wish to express determination that someone else shall do a thing, you should use shall instead of will with all subjects but / and we. A promise is expressed in the same way. The meaning is usually very clear. Note care- fully the following illustrations: 1. They shall not pass. (Determination.) 2. You shall have your orders in the future. (Promise.) 3. If he will return the wheel, he shall have an exact duplicate*. (Promise.) In questions, when any subject other than I or we is used, choose the word that would occur in the answer. In this case you would have to pause a moment to think what the answer would be; then the difficulty quickly dis- appears. Note carefully the following illustrations: 1. Will you file these letters? I will. (Promise in the answer.) 2. Shall you welcome future orders from them? We shall wel- come them. 3. If you do not finish your work, what excuse shall you give? I shall give none. Should and would are, in general, used like shall and will, being the past tense forms of these verbs. Would may also be used to express habitual action — as, " The secretary would sit for hours at his desk." Both should and would are frequently used by business men and others in so-called softened statements — as, ** I should advise an 48 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH early settlement " or "I should like to suggest a better plan of adjustment." Finally, should is often used to ex- press duty or obligation — as, " We believe that you should make a small payment at least each month." In clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood, when the subject is different from that in the principal statement, the same auxihary should be used that would be employed if the clause were made a separate sentence — for example, " Henry says that I will find my new work interesting." Here will is the correct word, because if the clause were made an independent sentence, it would be stated as follows: " Henry said, * You will find your new work interesting.' " LESSON THIRTEEN Agreement A verb must agree with its subject in number — that is, if a subject is singular in meaning, the verb must be sin- gular; if plural, the verb must be plural. Ordinarily, you will recognize, without difficulty, a subject as singular or plural in meaning, but in some cases you may easily be mistaken. In order to assist you, some of the essential facts of the agreement of the verb with its subject are presented in this lesson. 1. Two singular subjects connected by and or both — and take a plural verb — as, " Springgate and Geer are part- ners." If, however, the words are intended to be singular in meaning, they take a singular verb — as, " Springgate and Geer is the name of the firm." 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either — or, or neither — nor take a singular verb — thus : 1. Miss Porter or Miss Condon is ready to make copies of the letter. 2. Either stenography or bookkeeping is a profitable occupa- tion. 3. Neither the salesman nor the customer has any cause for complaint. Always make sure that you use the right words in pairs; namely, either — or and neither — nor. For example, you shouM not use or with neither in such expressions as " I had neither book or pencil." This of course should be stated as follows: " I had neither book nor pencil." It is also a very common error to use nor after not in such 49 50 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH sentences as " We did not see Miller nor Jones.'' This should be stated thus: " We did not see Miller or Jones." If the pronoun / or we is used in a compound subject connected by these words or by or alone, it will according to the order of courtesy stand second, and the verb must agree with it in number. Observe carefully the follow- ing examples : 1. Either she or / am to blame for the delay. 2. Neither Mr. Stone nor we are under obligations to find the errors in your accounts. 3. If one subject is joined to another by such expres- sions as with^ in addition to, as well as, or also, the verb should agree with the first, which is in fact the real subject. This contention is supported by the best authorities, in- cluding Wood and Woolley. Note that even the punctu- ation indicates that these subjects are disjoined and do not form a compound subject. 1. Money, as well as mind, counts for much in business. 2. Mr. Reed, in addition to three other friends of mine, has signed the contract. 3. Miss Huff, with her friend, is waiting in the office. 4. This young man, together with his brother, has learned of the increased demand for stenographers. 4. A collective noun is one that stands for a group or class considered as a unit. When the group is considered as a whole, the subject takes a singular verb — as, " The committee is ready to report." If, however, the indi- viduals are thought of as acting individually or holding dif- ferent opinions, etc., the verb must be plural — as, *'The committee were by no means of one mind concerning the AGREEMENT 5 1 report." Perhaps the easiest way to learn to use collec- tive nouns correctly is to make a note of sentences in which they are used by reputable business firms and by good present-day writers. Here are a few examples, which you should study until the difficulty disappears: 1. The Guaranty Trust Company of New York was the only in- stitution in the state accepting sterling drafts payable at a future date. 2. Our firm was doing the most prosperous business in its his- tory. 3. The firm were unable to agree on a plan of advertising. 4. The Bankers Life Company continues its conservative in- vestment policy. 5. T. Morgan ^ Son owe him $3000.00. 6. The National Cash Register Company is a large concern. 5. Fractions and the words plenty, variety, abundance, and rest are generally followed by the word of. If of is followed by a plural noun, use a plural verb; if followed by a singular noun, use a singular verb — thusi^ 1. Seven eighths of the farm is timber land. 2. One half of the company's employees are mere boys. 3. An abundance of peaches were shipped to us. 4. A variety of apples were sold in my store. Sometimes a subject plural in form represents a single thing and consequently takes a singular verb — thus:^ 1. Fifty dollars is too much. 2. Ten days is too long to wait for the money. Read the following sentences carefully until you under- 1 Scott: Practical English, page 21. 2 WooUey: Written English, page 189. 52 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH stand them thoroughly. Compare them with the fore- going illustrations. 1. Miss Stone and I are employed at John Wanamaker's store in Philadelphia. 2. Neither Miss Hess nor I am going to resign. 3. A variety of oranges were offered for sale. 4. The number of girls employed in the office is ten. 5. A number of clerks were discharged. 6. Four fifths of the estate is Mr. Wright's share. 7. The firm agrees to pay all outstanding bills. 8. The ]ury finds for the plaintiff. 9. The Curtis PubHshing Company is a well-known firm. 10. A multitude of visitors go to Springfield every year to visit the tomb of Lincoln. 11. Denver, as well as other western cities, has become known in every part of the country for its healthful climate. 12. The Chalmers Motor Company, as well as a number of other manufacturers of cars, has its headquarters in Detroit. 13. Ten dollars is too much to pay for a hat. 14. One fourth of the time is devoted to the study of business English. 15. Neither Mr. Wray nor Miss Perry has finished the course in commercial correspondence. 16. The entire family were opposed to John's leaving school. LESSON FOURTEEN Agreement {Continued) 1. Sometimes when a noun stands between the subject and the verb, it requires care to make the verb agree with the real subject. For example, take the sentence " One of his customers is dissatisfied." Since one is the subject, it would be incorrect to use are dissatisfied. Read these sentences several times and observe that the subjects and verbs in italics agree in number: 1. Part of the supplies has been shipped. 2. None of the clerks was permitted to leave his work unfinished. 3. Any one of us is eligible to enter the contest. 4. A box of handkerchiefs has been sent to you. 5. Either of the boys is qualified to take a position as secretary. 6. Every one of the soldiers was anxious to go to Europe. 7. Each of the boys comes from a good home. 8. Everybody who has graduated has taken business English. 2. The relative pronouns who, which, and that are singular subjects when their antecedents are singular, and plural when their antecedents are plural. For ex- ample, take the sentence, "He is one of those conserva- tive men who do not take a chance on the stock market." Here who refers to men, for the speaker evidently means to mention a certain class of men; namely, "men who do not take a chance on the stock market." Since the word men is plural, who is plural and consequently takes a plural verb. You must be very careful, therefore, in writing sentences of this kind to determine just what the antecedent of the pronoun is. S3 54 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Note carefully whether the verb in each clause is singular or plural and explain: 1. Mr. Clark is one of those men who talk incessantly about their investments. 2. Marshall Field is one of the few merchants who are known throughout the country. 3. Salesmanship is the most interesting of the many subjects that have been added to the curriculum. 4. Miss Dougherty is one of those stenographers who never make a mistake. 3. There are at least two contracted forms that cause considerable trouble; namely, donH and doesn't. The word don't is a contraction of do not and, therefore, can be rightly used only to take the place of that expression. Do not is used with plural subjects and with /. You must be careful, then, to use the contracted form don't only with these subjects. It is correct to say / don't, we don't, you don't, they don't, and men don't, but you should not say he don't, she don't, it don't, and John don't. No one would think of saying he do not and she do not. You must not, therefore, say he don't and she don't. As it is right to say he does not, she does not, it does not, and John does not, you may say he doesn't, she doesn't, it doesn't, etc. These errors are so common that every one should make a special effort to use he and she with doesn't — as, " He doesn't study his bookkeeping thoroughly enough" and " She doesn't Hke music." The following sentences contain the word don't used correctly with /, we^ you, and plural subjects: I. I don't give any man as reference unless I have his full per- mission. AGREEMENT 55 2. We donH find typewriting difficult. 3. They don't care for the customer's welfare. 4. Business men donH regret the money they spend on adver- tising. The following sentences contain doesn't correctly used with he, she, it, who (singular), and singular subjects. Of course, when who refers to more than one, it is used with donH — as, " Those who donH try to save will not accu- mulate much money." As about nine tenths of the mis- takes occur in the use of doesn't, you should read these sentences until you cannot forget them: 1. He doesnH understand the meaning of debit and credit. 2. She doesn't understand drafts, invoices, and bills of lading. 3. Miss Pike doesn't hke her present position. 4. Two other very crude errors commonly occur in un- guarded conversation; namely, hain't and ain't. In order to avoid them, you should find the correct contractions. Almost always the proper expression will be one of these: are not, aren't, have not, haven't, has not, hasn't, is not, or isn't. Whenever you find that you have used hain't or ain'tj correct yourself immediately. Keep this up until you can use the right form without effort. Remember that the ability to speak good EngUsh is a part of your stock in trade. LESSON FIFTEEN Verbs Commonly Confused It is sometimes claimed that the finer shades of meaning between certain similar words are gradually disappearing and that it is not worth while to acquire, by constant effort, the habit of distinguishing them. Careful writers, however, do not abandon useful distinctions so freely as this would imply. Therefore, if you wish to write Eng- lish correctly and effectively, you must take as your stand- ard the work of the best present-day writers and the cor- respondence of the best business concerns in the country. All definitions are taken from the New Standard Dictionary.^ The following Hst of words includes a number that repu- table writers and business men still use with great care : ADVISE, INFORM Advise. To offer an opinion to, by way of common counsel; give suggestion or advice to concerning a course or act; counsel; warn — as, to advise a friend to reform. Inform. To tell (a person) that of which he had no knowledge before; to impart information to. (i) To communicate news to; to notify; to apprise; etc. (2) To communicate instruction to; etc. Advise is most appropriately used in the sense of to counsel or to give suggestion concerning a course or an act. It is correct to use it in letters in the sense of to tell, but inform is better. AFFECT, EFFECT Affect. I. To have an effect upon; act upon; lay hold of; im- press; influence; change — as, "Worry ajed^ the mind." 2. To act 1 Copyright by Funk & Wagnalls Company, New York and London. . 56 VERBS COMMONLY CONFUSED 57 upon the emotions or sensibilities of; to touch; to move — as, ''The audience was deeply affected." Effect. To be the cause or producer of; bring about; especially to bring to an issue of full success; accomplish; achieve. Effect, meaning to accomplish, must be carefully distinguished from affect, meaning to influence. The following sentences illustrate the correct use of the words: 1. Labor unions have effected two great reforms — higher wages and shorter hours. 2. Improper working conditions affect the health of working people. 3. Prices were greatly affected by an oversupply of commodities. CALCULATE, INTEND Calculate. To compute mathematically; ascertain by computa- tion; to find out beforehand the time or circumstances of; to reckon. Intend. To set the mind on to accompHsh; be intent upon; have in view as a purpose to be effected ; plan; design. Calculate should never be used in the sense of intend. It is cor- rect to say, 'T intend to apply for the position," but not 'T calcu- late to apply for the position." To use calculate or reckon in the sense of think, suppose, or believe is colloquial and therefore to be avoided. DISCOMMODE, INCOMMODE These words mean substantially the same; namely, to cause in- convenience to; annoy. Incommode is, however, considered the better form of the two, but inconvenience is usually better than either. DISCOVER, INVENT Discover. To get first sight or knowledge of, as something pre- viously unknown or unperceived; find out; ascertain; espy; de- tect. 58 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH . Invent. To find out as a new means, instrument, or method; contrive by ingenuity. One discovers what already existed but was previously unknown, and invents some new means, instrument, or method — thus: 1. The explorer discovered a new river. 2. Many useful office machines have recently been invented. EXPECT, SUSPECT, GUESS Expect. To look forward to as certain or probable; feel assured of before the event; anticipate in thought. Suspect. I. To imagine to exist; to have some though insuffi- cient grounds for inferring; also, to have a vague notion of the ex- istence of, without adequate proof; mistrust; surmise; often fol- lowed by an object clause — as, 'T suspect that he is deceiving me." 2. To believe to be possibly guilty. Guess. To judge, estimate, or conclude from slight indications or on mere probable grounds; anticipate or presume without sure knowledge or adequate evidence; hazard a supposition about; con- jecture — as, to guess a person's age. Do not use guess for expect, because the latter is used in speaking of future events looked forward to as probable or certain. When you have some though insufficient grounds for inferring a thing, use suspect. Expect cannot be used in speaking of the past. Note the following examples: 1. We expect a shipment of new refrigerators from our factory within a week or two. 2. I suspect that he did not address the letter carefully. 3. Do not permit your customer to suspect that you are deceiving him. 4. We could not even guess whether prices would advance or fall. GRADUATE, WAS GRADUATED Graduate. To admit to or take an academic degree at the end of a course of instruction, especially a college or university. The institution graduates the candidate at the end of a course of in- VERBS COMMONLY CONFUSED 59 struction. The man is therefore graduated, and objection is often made to ''He graduated," but this double meaning is frequent, and in this word well established. The foregoing discussion is sufficient authority for the use of the expression "Mr. Hunt graduated,^' as well as "Mr. Hunt was graduated." IMPLICATE, INVOLVE Implicate. To bring into intimate connection; affect; involve; hence, to show or prove to be involved or concerned in — as, to implicate in the plot by evidence. Involve. I. To draw into entanglement literally or figuratively; implicate; embroil — as, to involve a. nsLtion in wa,r. 2. To include or necessitate as a part or adjunct; have as a result or logical con- sequence; imply; comprise; etc. While these words are similar in meaning, it should be remem- bered that implicate is used in a bad sense — as, to implicate in a crime, plot, conspiracy, etc. Involve does not imply any unfavorable connection. 1. Evidence was submitted that implicated several wholesale deal- ers in a plot to raise the price of clothing. 2. Mr. Drew was not involved in any controversies with his com- petitors. IRRITATE, AGGRAVATE, EXASPERATE Irritate, i. To excite ill temper or impatience in; make petulant; fret; exasperate — as, to be irritated by the prattle of children. 2. To excite physically; inflame or cause reaction in by stimula- tion — as, to irritate the skin by electricity or friction. Aggravate, i. To add weight or intensity to; to make heavier, worse, or more burdensome; also, to make more heinous; increase the guilt of — as, " Sickness aggravates the ills of poverty." 2. Colloq. To provoke greatly; exasperate; annoy — "He aggravated me be- yond measure." 3. To increase inflammation in; irritate — as, to aggravate a wound. Exasperate^ l. Tq rouse a:nd roughen the temper of- irritate 6o ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH exceedingly; excite great anger in; enrage. 2. To make bitter or grievous; aggravate as in grievousness or malignancy; embitter; in- tensify; inflame. Remember, therefore, that aggravate should not be used for irri- tate or exasperate, for to use it in the sense of to provoke greatly or to exasperate is colloquial. 1. Mr. Holt's carelessness irritates his employer. 2. The attempt to bring colored laborers from the South aggra- vated the situation. 3. Tried by unfavorable circumstances, he became thoroughly exasperated. LEARN, TEACH Learn. To acquire knowledge of or skill in by observation, study or instruction; become informed about. Teach. To impart knowledge or information to by means of les- sons; give instruction to; guide by precept or example; train; edu- cate; discipline; counsel — as, to train a child. If you remember that to learn means to acquire knowledge, and to teach means to impart, you will have no difficulty in using these words correctly. 1. It is not difficult to learn how to use the mimeograph. 2. The company sent an agent to teach him how to drive the car. MEND, FIX Mend. To restore to a sound or serviceable condition, as some- thing broken, worn, or defaced; supply deficiencies or defects in; patch up; repair — as, to mend shoes. Fix. To fasten, attach, or secure firmly or set or place per- manently; make firm or secure. Do not use fix in the sense of mend or repair. 1. Our vforkradji fixed the rod in the proper position. 2. The shoemaker mended the shoes. PURPOSE, PROPOSE Purpose. To have or place before oneself as a purpose or aim; have a fixed determination to do or attain; resolve; intend; design. VERBS COMMONLY CONFUSED 6i Propose. To offer, as a plan or scheme, for acceptance or con- sideration; present as a candidate; put forward — as, to propose a topic or question for discussion. 1. The manager proposed a plan for the reorganization of the company. 2. A salesman sometimes purposes to improve his personality. LESSON SIXTEEN Adjectives and Adverbs Most mistakes in the use of adjectives and adverbs are due to the violation of certain very simple rules of good usage. In this lesson your attention will be directed to the most important of these. A, an, and the, sometimes called articles, are merely ad- jectives. You learned in the grammar grades that a should be used before a noun beginning with a consonant sound and an before a noun beginning with a vowel sound. Ac- cording to Webster, a should be used in the following: a unit, a eulogy, a oneness, a history, a historian, a one, and a hotel. An should be used before honest, hour, etc. These illustrations show that whether a or an is to be used depends upon the sound of the following word and not upon its first letter. If two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article should be used before the first adjective only — as, a black and red ribbon (one ribbon) ; a red, white, and blue flag. Sometimes, however, two or more adjectives modify dif- ferent nouns, only one of which is expressed, the other being understood. In such cases the article should be repeated before each adjective — thus: 1. The carbon and the letterpress copies are lying on your desk. (Two different copies) 2. The express and the postal money orders were received. (Two different money orders) 3. Have you a large and a small envelope? (Two differeut en- velopes) 6z ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 63 When two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the article should be used before the first noun only — thus: The secretary and treasurer was not at the ofl&ce. When the nouns refer to different persons or things, you should repeat the article before each — thus: 1. The secretary and the treasurer were not at the office. 2. The office manager and the stenographer have been selected. Sometimes the nouns are so closely related in thought that they may be considered as a whole. In such cases the article need be used only before the first — thus: 1. The bread and butter. 2. The pen and ink. This AND That This and that are two very simple words that cause a great deal of trouble. The difficulty arises from the failure to remember that each has a distinct plural form and that the plurals should be used only with plural nouns. The plural of this is these, and the plural of that is those. It is, therefore, incorrect to say these kind, these sort, those kind, and those sort. You should say this kind, this sort, that kind, and that sort. If, however, there is more than one kind or sort, you should use the following expressions: these kinds, these sorts, those kinds, and those sorts. Avoid the use of a in such expressions as " this kind of a person." It is better to say " this kind of person." A more serious error, however, is the use of the objec- tive pronoun them as if it were an adjective to take the place of these or those — them papers, them typewriters, etc. 64 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Another crude error should be mentioned here. You doubtless have heard the expressions this here and that there in such expressions as " This here book is torn " and " That there letter is neatly written." The words here and there should be omitted. The following sentences contain this and that correctly used. Read them several times until you are able to use the correct expressions without effort. 1. I like this kind of stationery. 2. We have ordered these kinds of envelopes. 3. This sort of work does not appeal to him. 4. Among other things we have for sale these sorts of utensils. 5. That machine is not in good repair. Not That there machine) 6. I like this kind, (Not these kind) 7. These kinds of typewriters include almost every make. 8. This kind of letterhead is of the most attractive style. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES When compound expressions are used to form adjectives standing before the noun they modify, they should be written with a hyphen — as, " sl fifty-foot lot," "a sixty-day note," etc. The following expressions containing compound adjectives are commonly found in business correspondence : ^ a fifteen-day note labor-saving machine a two-letter series ready-made clothes mail-order department all-wool suits two-foot rule hand-made laces Compound numerals should always be written with a hyphen whether used as adjectives or nouns — as, " thirty-one yards," ^^ fifty-five cents," etc. ^ Style Book of the Government Printing Office, pages 91, 92. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 65 Compound adjectives containing the words above, ill, well, and so are written with a hyphen when they stand before the word they modify, but not otherwise. For ex- ample, we may say, " a well-educated man " or " The man is well educated J^ But an adverb ending with ly is not usually joined to the adjective which it modifies — as, "a neatly written advertisement.'' The following compounds are so frequently used that you should note them carefully: above-named well-educated above-mentioned well-informed ill-natured well-known ill-bred so-called Note also that the following are written with a hyphen: half-hearted first-class half-witted second-class whole-souled high-class whole-hearted high-grade first-rate high-flown self-controlled high-handed Sometimes a group of words are used together as an adjective. In such cases they should be written with hyphens — thus: ready-to wear clothes up-to-date prices made-to-order garments out-of-town customers heart-to-heart talk Read the following sentences containing compound ad- jectives and learn to use a hyphen in all such expressions. 66 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 1. Mr. Graves gave us his thirty-day note. 2. We still have on hand a number of all-wool dresses. 3. Browning & King handle high-class men's clothing. 4. Mr. Wray has an up-to-date print shop. 5. A first-class salesman should make a large salary. 6. Our mail-order department is most efficient. 7. Mr. Hert was graduated from a well-known business college. 8. Amber-colored goggles will protect your eyes. 9. We call your attention to our sale of ladies' ready-to-wear garments. 10. Our store provides many accommodations for out-of-town customers. LESSON SEVENTEEN Adjectives and Adverbs {Continued) PLACING OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Adjectives and adverbs should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to what they modify. Generally they should stand as close as possible to the word or phrase to which they belong. Perhaps the most common error is the misplacing of the adverbs only, merely, almost, and similar words. Note the errors in the following sentences: 1. I only had three dollars. 2. Sickness merely was an excuse for his absence from work. 3. Mr. Hughes almost answered all the questions. 4. Mr. Dunn nearly missed all the problems in commercial arithmetic. It is interesting to note how much more effective these sentences become when the adverbs are correctly placed — thus: 1. I had only three dollars. 2. Sickness was merely an excuse for his absence from work. 3. Mr. Hughes answered almost all the questions. 4. Mr. Dunn missed nearly all the problems in commercial arithmetic. THE DOUBLE NEGATIVE Such words as no, not, never, nothing, none, and no- where are called negatives. The words hardly and scarcely are also treated as such. 67 68 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH The following sentences are written correctly. Note that each has but one negative: 1. The new clerk did not do his work well. 2. Miss Holt hadn't any money for expenses. 3. I saw no one in the office. (Not 'T didn't see nobody") 4. After that I never told anyone a lie. 5. Mr. Brown hadn't invested more than two thousand dollars. 6. The student couldn't post the items from the journal cor- rectly. (Not couldn't hardly) 7. We couldn't see anybody at the secretary's desk. (Not "We couldn't see nobody.") 8. There was scarcely any paper for the exercise in discounts. (Not ''There was not scarcely no paper.") Two negatives should not be used in the same sentence. For example it is incorrect to say — 1. I couldn't see nothing. 2. We never told nobody. 3. I can't hardly write. 4. I never did nothing to nobody. 5. Miss Hartnett couldn't scarcely find enough paper. 6. I can't, I don't think. Such sentences as the foregoing contain the so-called double negative, which should be carefully avoided. It is a mistake to use never as an ordinary negative to take the place of not. It may, however, be used occa- sionally to express emphatic negation — as, "Never fear." It is incorrect to say, " I never brought my bank book." Say rather, " I did not bring my bank book." The following sentences are written correctly, each con- taining but a single negative. Read them carefully until you are thoroughly familiar with the correct expressions. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 69 1. We had no money to spare. 2. Miss McConnel did nothing but get out the day's corre- spondence. 3. The boy could hardly speak. 4. I don't say anything while taking dictation. 5. There wasn't anyone who could forecast the market. 6. There was scarcely enough ink in the wells. 7. The children could hardly endure work in the factory. 8. We could never forget that day in New York. 9. I didn't tell anything that was in the letters dictated to me. 10. I think the trial balance will not reveal any errors. (Not **The trial balance will not reveal any errors, I don't think.") LESSON EIGHTEEN Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs Many errors in usage arise from the confusion of adjec- tives and adverbs. In order to prevent this, you must understand thoroughly the difference between these parts of speech. In general, adjectives belong to the subject or object, and adverbs to the predicate. Sometimes, however, an ad- verb modifies an adjective or another adverb — as, "A remarkably effective sales letter was sent to all our cus- tomers.'' In this illustration, remarkably modifies the adjective effective. If you wish to describe or limit the sub- ject, use an adjective — as, ''The salesman's voice sounds harsh.^' Here harsh modifies voice. If you wish to indi- cate the manner of an action, use an adverb — as, "He spoke harshly to his customer. " Here harshly modifies spoke. Most verbs express action of some kind and are, there- fore, followed by adverbs. There are, however, a few that do not express action, and these are followed usually by adjectives telling something about the subject. These verbs are be, become, look, appear, seem, etc.^ The list is short and should be memorized. Note carefully the fol- lowing sentences in which adjectives are used after these words: 1. Your investment is safe. 2. The surplus fund became very large, 3. Our business men look prosperous. 1 Scott: Practical English, pages 93-94. 70 CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 71 4. A successful salesman appears happy. 5. An investment in Liberty Bonds seems desirable. Certain verbs related to the senses — such as sound, feel, taste, and smell — also take adjectives after them — thus: 1. The customer's complaint sounds reasonable. 2. Miss Price felt happy in her new position. 3. All Queen Brand Jam tastes sweet. 4. The flowers she had for sale smelled fragrant. Sometimes the verbs grow, turn, and fall take adjectives after them. Note carefully the following sentences: 1. Mr. Scott's creditors grew impatient. 2. The grass turned brown. 3. All of our clerks fell ill. Even verbs that express action may take an adjective after them when the sense requires it — as, " The sun rose bright and warm.^' There are, however, not many cases of this kind. Study carefully the distinctions in the use of the follow- ing words and, if necessary, consult the dictionary: Good, well. As a rule good is used to describe a person or thing, while well tells how something is done. In other words, good is an adjective and well an adverb. Some- times, however, well is used as an adjective to describe a state of health — as, " Our superintendent is well today." The following sentences illustrate the correct use of these words: 1. Our department has a good manager. 2. Every employee should do his work well. 72 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Most, almost. Almost is an adverb; most, an adjective or an adverb. Use almost in the sense of nearly. Most, as an adverb, means in the highest degree or chiefly. It is therefore wrong to say most always, most any, etc. These words are correctly used in the following sentences: 1. The company's resources were almost exhausted. 2. Most municipal bonds are desirable as an investment. Near, nearly. If you remember that nearly is the ad- verbial form, you should have no difficulty with these words. Do not say, " Brown is not near so successful in business as Jones." The correct expression is " Brown is not nearly so successful in business as Jones." Previous, previously. Remember that previously is the adverbial form. Do not say previously to that time, pre- viously to June lo, etc., but previous to that time, previous to June lo, etc. Bad, badly. Badly should be used only as an adverb, but sometimes it is difficult to decide whether an adverb or an adjective should be used in a given case. For ex- ample, should you say, " The mail clerk had a severe cold and felt had " or " The mail clerk had a severe cold and felt badly "? Grammatical authorities permit the use of had in such sentences when speaking of one's physical con- dition and hadly when speaking of one's emotions,^ but from the standpoint of good taste it is better to say ill in the former case, and unkindly in the latter. The following sentences illustrate the correct use of these words: * Genung and Hanson: Outlines of Composition and Rheto ic. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 73 1. Mr. Bland ate too much and feels had. 2. The secretary feels hadly toward some of his competitors be- cause they have taken unfair advantage of him. One of the most common errors in English is the use of hadly for very much or greatly. Do not say, " I wanted to make the sale hadly.'' All right. The expression all right should always be written as two words. There is no such word as alright. All ready, and already. In the first of these expressions ready is an adjective meaning prepared or supplied with what is needed — as, " Are the papers all ready to be filed? " Already is an adverb meaning heforehand or hy this time or the time mentioned — as, " The fund has already been exhausted." The following sentences will show some of the common errors in the use of adjectives and adverbs. In the second column you will find the correct expressions. Incorrect Correct We are desirous of having a We desire to have a confer- conference with you. ence with you. We wrote something more We wrote somewhat more than fifty letters. than fifty letters. Miss Meyers bought an aw- Miss Meyers bought a very fully pretty hat. (or unusually or remarkably) pretty hat. Various customers asked to Many (or several) customers see our new styles of spring asked to see our new styles of suits. spring suits. We have sold quite a few of We have sold several (or these suits. many) of these suits. 74 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Incorrect We have for sale a number of elegant fifteen-dollar dresses. Our sales fell off terribly in August. The firm has sold over fifty machines. Mr. White hunted all over for the check. Relative to your offer of March lo. Correct We have for sale a number of beautiful (or handsome or fashionable) fifteen-dollar dresses. Our sales fell off a great deal (or greatly) in August. The firm has sold more than fifty machines. Mr. White hunted every- where for the check. With reference to your offer of March lo. Look up the meanings of the following words in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences : 1. various 2. limited 3. quite 4. evinced 5. restricted 6. exquisite 7. delighted 8. delicious 9. wonderful LESSON NINETEEN Comparison Most adjectives and many adverbs have three forms to denote different degrees of comparison — as, large^ larger^ largest; soon, sooner, soonest. The first form, which does not really suggest comparison at all, is commonly called the positive degree; the second, the comparative degree; and the third, the superlative degree. The comparative degree should be used in comparing two things or sets of things — thus : 1. A government bond is safer than a corporation bond. 2. Our prices are lower than yours. The superlative degree should be used in comparing three or more things — thus: 1. Liberty bonds are the safest investment in the world. 2. Lumber reached its highest price in 1920. In spite of the foregoing rules, good writers sometimes use the superlative when only two things are compared. ^ For example, you will find such sentences as " Henry is the tallest of the two." Hall says that the comparative degree is on the road to extinction except before than. Lounsbury, Carpenter, and Baskerville and Sewell defend the use of the superlative in comparing two things, while Hill, Genung, and Herrick and Damon favor a rigid appH- cation of the foregoing rules. Though the rule is often disregarded by good writers, it is better to use the com- parative when two things or sets of things are compared. Many adjectives and adverbs are compared by the use * J. Leslie Hall: English Usage. IS ■ 76 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH of more and most, or less and least as the case may require — as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. This method is used when the addition of er or est would not be pleasing in sound. 1 Carpenter says that the ear alone should de- cide which ought to be used.^ Some of the most noted writers of prose, however, have violated this rule. Thack- eray used handsomest, immensest, and wonderfulest, and Ruskin patientest, and sorrowfulest. You will find, how- ever, that most modern writers use more and most whenever it will prevent a series of harsh or unpleasant sounds. Most handsome, most immense, most wonderful, most patient, and most sorrowful are the better forms. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by the use of more and most — as, slowly, more slowly, most slowly. Most adjectives in /y — such as lowly, friendly, lovely, and manly — form the comparative and superlative by the addition of er and est. The following words do not admit of comparison : double, square, round, horizontal, perpendicular, perfect, ideal, and infallible. If an object is square or round, it is inaccurate to say that it could be more square or round. You should say more nearly square, more nearly round, more nearly perfect, etc. Many errors consist in the use of double comparison. You have no doubt heard the following expressions : worser, lesser, etc. Of course, the correct forms are worse and less. The double forms furthermore, furthermost, and utter- most, however, are approved. The expressions more preferable, more superior, and most favorite involve double comparison, and hence should be avoided. * Baskerville and Sewell: School Grammar, page 87. * Carpenter: Principles of English Grammar , page 103. COMPARISON 77 Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The follow- ing forms should be carefully learned: Positive bad, or ill good, or well far late little many, or much near old Comparative worse better farther (distance) further (additional) later latter less more nearer older elder Superlative worst best farthest furthest latest last least most nearest, or next oldest eldest Latter and former are now generally used in speaking of two things, the latter being the one mentioned second and the former the one mentioned first. You should, however, use these forms only when necessary, as it is easy to acquire the habit of overworking them. So-called mixed comparisons should generally be avoided. For example, it is incorrect to say, " Mr. Jones is as good a salesman if not better than Mr. Brown." Certainly no careful writer would say, " Mr. Jones is as good a salesman than Mr. Brown." Say, " Mr. Jones is as good a sales- man as Mr. Brown, if not better." It is also an error to say, " John Wanamaker is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, merchant this countr}^ has produced." You should say, " John Wanamaker is one of the greatest merchants this country has produced, if not the greatest." The mixed comparison is thus avoided by the transposition of the phrases or clauses. 78 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH When one thing or one group of things is compared with another of the same sort, they must be clearly separated in meaning. This can be done whenever necessary by adding the word other — thus : 1. Amber-colored goggles will protect your eyes from the sun better than any other glasses. 2. Miss Young is more accurate than any other person in the auditing department. Since amber-colored goggles are a kind of glasses, it is necessary to add the word other. There is a great deal of uncertainty about the correct use of as — as and so — as. Good usage favors the use of as — as in equal comparisons and so — as in unequal comparisons. 1 Note the following sentences: 1. Shaw- Walker's trade is as large as ours. 2. Shaw- Walker's trade is not so large as ours. Notice that unequal comparisons are made by the addi- tion of a negative. You may, therefore, find it easy to remember that so — as should be used in preference to as — as in sentences where a negative occurs. Read these sentences carefully until you can use the correct expression without difficulty: 1. Mr. Stone is not so careful as his partner in selecting his in- vestments. 2. The supply of raw cotton is scarcely so great as that of 1920. 3. No one else is so well known to business men as Mr. Schwab. 4. We have not received so many orders during the present month as we did last year. 5. Neither of the applicants was so well prepared for the work as Mr. Taylor. * McLean, Blaisdell, and Morrow: Steps in English, Book II, page 216. LESSON TWENTY Similar Adjectives and Adverbs Distinguished Since every person should acquire an accurate and varied vocabulary, your attention is again directed to the study of certain words commonly misused. It is, of course, im- possible to present here a complete list of similar words. They constitute a study of importance and would require a large book. The intention of the lesson is to present a few of the most common illustrations and to show how such words can be studied, with the aid of a good diction- ary. All definitions are taken from the New Standard Dictionary.^ CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS ContinuaL Renewed in regular succession; oft'en repeated; very frequent — as, ^^ continual interruptions." Continuous. Connected, extended, or prolonged without separa- tion or interruption of sequence; unbroken; uninterrupted; unin- termitted. Continuous describes that which is absolutely without pause; con- tinual, that which often intermits, but as regularly begins again. 1. Continual interruptions made it impossible to complete the work according to contract. 2. Mr. Johnson's connections with this concern have covered fifteen years of continuous service. FEW, LESS Few. Small or limited in number; not many; only a small num- ber of. . Less. I. Smaller, as in capacity, quantity, or scope; not so large, * Copyright by Funk & Wagnalls Company, New York and London. 79 8o ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH great, or much; used as the comparative of little — as, 'Hess time." 2. Lacking full number or quantity; smaller by subtraction or omission — as, ''a year less a month." 3. Of smaller import, of slighter consequence; inferior. Vse few when speaking of numbers; less, when speaking of capac- ity, quantity, or scope. 1. We have received fewer orders than usual. (Do not say less orders unless you wish to indicate their size rather than the number of them.) 2. There is less demand for cotton goods than there was a year ago. GRAND, SPLENDID Grand, i. Of imposing character or aspect; magnificent in pro- portion, extent, or belongings — as, ''grand scenery "; "a grand pal- ace." 2. Characterized by striking excellence or impressive dignity; inspiring — as, ' 'a. grand idea " ; "a grand oration. " 3 . Preeminent by reason of great abihty or high character; noble; worthy of exalted respect — as, "the grand old man." Splendid, i. Giving out or reflecting brilliant light; brightly shining; glittering. 2. Magnificent; imposing; gorgeous — as, "a. splendid pageant." 3. Inspiring the imagination or causing emo- tions of great admiration; illustrfous; grand; glorious; heroic — as, "splendid achievement." The foregoing definitions make clear the distinction in meaning between these words. You should not allow yourselves to fall into the habit of speaking of everything that pleases you as grand or splendid, though sometimes either is correct. These words are correctly used in the following expressions 1. grand jury i. splendid display 2. grand review of troops 2. splendid necklaces 3. grand cathedral 3. splendid pageant 4. grand opera 4. splendid parade 5. grand river 5. splendid sunset 6. grand old man 6. splendid costumes SIMILAR ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 8 1 7. grand result 7. splendid coronation robes 8. grand bridge . 8. splendid stone (diamond) 9. grand fireworks 9. splendid achievement 10. grand achievement 10. splendid scenery HARDLY, SCARCELY Hardly, i. In a hard or rough manner; rigorously; harshly; oppressively; severely; unfavorably — as, "to deal hardly with one." 2. With difiiculty or great pains — as, ''Seamen's wages are hardly earned." 3. Almost not; not, with few exceptions; not wholly; barely: noting that the qualified clause is untrue, but lacks little of being true — as, ' 'He had hardly escaped when he was re- captured." 4. Not quite; not, though almost: a euphemism for not, noting that the qualified clause is untrue, though approaching very nearly to truth — as, "That is hardly the way to do it." 5. Improbably; not likely — as, "He will hardly take such a risk." Scarcely, i. Only just; with difficulty or with little lapse of time; barely: signifying that the qualified attribute or action is true, but lacks little of being untrue — as, "I had scarcely spoken." 2. Not quite; hardly: negativing the qualified word, but asserting that it lacks but little of truth — as, "You will scarcely maintain that proposition." Scarcely is often improperly used for hardly. In strict usage scarcely has reference to quantity; hardly, to degree. You may rightly say, "It is scarcely dun hour to nightfall" and "He will hardly finish his task before nightfall." Do not say scarcely — than — as, ^'Scarcely had I recognized him than he addressed me." In such sentences, use no sooner — than. HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL Healthy, i. Having health; being in a condition of health; sound; well — as, "a healthy body." 2. Conducing or tending to health, etc. Healthful. Efficacious in promoting health or causing health; sanative; salubrious — as, "a healthful climate." 82 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Healthy is most correctly used to signify possessing or enjoying health or its results — as, '^ a. healthy person "; ''a healthy condition." Healthful signifies promoting health, or tending, or adapted to con- fer, preserve, or promote health — as, "a healthful climate." MAD, ANGRY Mad. I. Disordered in mind; lunatic; insane; crazy. 2. Sub- ject to overmastering emotion; excited intensely or beyond self-con- trol; inflamed or infatuated, as with jealousy, terror, or grief. Specif, I. Strongly moved by desire or curiosity; eager; infatuated — as, ^'mad for gold." 2. Wild with animal spirits; extravagantly gay. 3. Distracted with trouble or anxiety, as mad with grief; angry; furious; enraged. 4. Uncontrollable, as an animal through rage or disease, especially rabies. 5. Proceeding from or indicating a dis- ordered mind; rash, as a mad project. 6. Tumultuous or uncon- trollable in movement or action: said of things, as a mad torrent. Angry, i. FeeHng anger; moved by violent resentment or indig- nation against the agent or cause of the trouble — as, "angry with his brother." 2. Showing or wearing the marks of anger; caused, occasioned, or aflfected by or as by anger — as, ''an angry sky." 3. Med.: inflamed — as, "an angry sore." 4. Vexed, grieved, etc. Mad in the sense of angry is colloquial. Do not say, ''You make me mad" or "I am mud at you." In about nine cases out of ten the correct word is angry. You may very properly speak of a mad man, meaning an insane person, of a mad scheme, or of a mad dog. NOWHERE, NOWHERES Nowhere, somewhere, and some place are correct. Avoid no- wheres, somewheres, and someplace. Do not say nowhere near for not nearly. REAL, VERY Real. I. Having actual existence; not theoretical or imaginary — as, "That is a real instance of success." 2. Being in fact accord- ing to appearance or claim; genuine; not artificial, false, spurious SIMILAR ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 83 — as, ''real diamonds." 3. Philos. Having actual being, whether spiritual or material; etc. 4. Law. (i) Relating or pertaining to, or arising out of, lands. (2) Civ. Law. Relating to or connected with things, including things movable and immovable, as distin- guished from persons. Very. i. In a high degree; in a large measure; extremely; ex- ceedingly — as, ''very generous." Do not say, "I am very pleased to meet you" or ''He was very provoked.'' You should say, ''I am very much pleased'' or ''He was very muck provoked." Avoid the very common error of using the adjective real for very. The foregoing definitions leave no doubt about the distinction in meaning between the two. Do not say, "This book is real deep." Say, "This book is very deep." Here are several incorrect expres- sions: "real tired," "real hungry," "real pretty," "real busy," and "real unjust." Very or really is correct in each case. RESPECTFULLY, RESPECTIVELY Respectfully. With due respect. Respectively. As singly or severally considered; singly in the order designated — as, "John, James, and William were elected president, secretary, and treasurer respectively." In closing a letter in which Yours respectfully is to be used, be especially careful not to use respectively. SOME, SOMEWHAT Some. I. Of indeterminate quantity; of indefinite number or amount — as, "He bought some land in Texas." 2. Appreciable yet limited in degree or amount; moderate — as, "The report is in some measure true." 3. Conceived or thought of, but not definitely known: used to express ignorance or uncertainty in regard to the person or thing referred to — as, "Some person drove past" or "He may fall into some ditch." 4. Logic. Part at least; etc. 5. Colloq. Of considerable account; noteworthy or eminent. As an adverb the word som£. has the following meanings: i. Colloq. 84 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH In an approximate degree; as nearly as maybe estimated; about — as, "Some eighty people were present." 2. Dial, or Prov. Some- what — as, ''He was some tired" or "I like it some." Somewhat. Adv. In some degree; to some extent — sls, *' some- what hastily," "somewhat more than a year ago." Remember, therefore, that some should not be used in the sense of somewhat. Do not say, ''Business is some better this year." It is incorrect to say, "Shipments were delayed some'' for 'Shipments were delayed somewhat." NICE, AGREEABLE Nice. I. Characterized by discrimination and judgment; dis- cerning — as, "a nice criticism." 2. Refined and pure in tastes and habits; refined; hence overparticular; dainty; modest; fastidious; etc. From the above definition it is clear that nice in the sense of agreeable or attractive is colloquial. All such expressions as "nice time," "nice man," "nice business," etc. are incorrect. APT, LIKELY, LIABLE Apt. I. Having a natural or habitual tendency (to); liable, likely, or given (to) — as, "Iron is apt to rust." 2. Adapted by nature; naturally gifted; fitted; able — as, "apt to rule." 3. Adapted to the purpose — as, "an apt illustration." Likely, i. Apparently true or real; easily credible; plausible; probable — as, "a likely explanation." 2. Reasonably expected; showing a tendency; etc. Liable, i. Exposed, as to damage, penalty, expense, burden, or anything unpleasant or dangerous; open; contingently subject; with to — as, "liable to insult or injury." 2. Justly or legally re- sponsible; answerable — as, "The endorser is liable." 3. Having a tendency, inclination, or likelihood (to do something unfortunate or undesirable); likely (with unfavorable sense) — as, "All men are liable to err." There are some places in which these words are exact synonyms SIMILAR ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 85 and one may, therefore, be used for the other. For example, you will note that likely is given as one of the meanings of liable and that both likely and liable are given as synonyms of apt. Words that have the same meaning in some cases, however, have different meanings in others, and the selection of the correct word where the meanings are different is important. If you eliminate the first definition of apt, because this meaning of the word is the same as one of the meanings of the words liable and likely, you get its distinctive meanings, naturally gifted and adapted to a purpose. Neither liable nor likely has these meanings. Similarly in the first two definitions of liable you get its distinc- tive meanings, exposed to danger and legally responsible. Neither apt nor likely has these meanings. The distinctive meaning of likely is the first one given — plaus- ible. Neither apt nor liable has this meaning. So much for the distinctive meanings — that is, the place where one cannot be substituted for the other. But even where the mean- ings are similar there is a slight difference. Apt refers to a natural tendency; liable, in the sense of likelihood, refers to something un- favorable; and likely refers to something expected merely. Thus you say "Iron is apt to rust" when you have in mind its natural chemical qualities; you say ''Men are liable to err" when you have in mind an undesirable possibility; and you say "That man is likely to do wrong" when you have in mind a real probabiUty. None of the three words is wrong in the sentences just given, but the slight shade of difference in them is worth noting. The following is a list of similar words to be studied with the help of the dictionary or a good book of synonyms: adequate, enough, sufficient disinterested, uninterested apparent, seeming due, owing credible, creditable exceptionable, exceptional delicious, delightful funny, odd, peculiar desirous, anxious human, humane 86 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH ingenious, ingenuous mutual, common new, novel, modern noted, notorious partly, partially pitiable, piteous, pitiful plenty, plenteous, plentiful practicable, practical sincere, frank sure, certain surprised, astonished, as- tounded valuable, valued LESSON TWENTY-ONE How TO Use Prepositions Correctly As prepositions have different shades of meaning, they should be selected with care. The following suggestions should help you to use them correctly: 1. Ordinarily such prepositions as in, on, at, and hy de- note rest; such prepositions as to, into, unto, toward, from, and a few others, denote motion. 1. The telegram is lying on the table. 2. The messenger walked to the station. 2. In denotes position or presence within; into, entrance. 1. All employees of the Crossett Lumber Company live in the village. 2. A stranger came into the office to inquire for work. 3. Between should be used with reference to two persons or things; among, with reference to three or more. 1. The unsuccessful man divided his time between gambling and speculation. 2. The company distributed the money as a bonus among its employees. 4. Beside means by the side of; besides, in addition to. 1. The plaintiff sat beside his attorney. 2. Besides ambition, the salesman should have patience. 5. In should be used when reference is made to the in- terior of any place. It is used before the names of coun- tries or districts and of large cities. At should be used generally in speaking of a place regarded as a mere local point, such as a village.^ 1 Webster: Nov International Dictionary. 87 88 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 1. The president of the company arrived in New York on Friday. 2. Our agent stopped at Lake Village, a small town in Arkan- sas. 6. On and upon should be considered as absolute syno- nyms, but upon is more emphatic. Upon is also the proper word to use with depend — as, ''Your ability in any line will depend upon dozens of important character quahties." Some crude errors in the use of prepositions are due al- most wholly to carelessness. These consist chiefly of the omission of a necessary preposition or the addition of an unnecessary one. Do not omit a preposition whenever it is necessary to the grammatical completeness of the state- ment or adds clearness or emphasis. For example, it is incorrect to say, ^'Any size envelope will be satisfactory." Say, "An envelope of any size will be satisfactory." It is also very poor usage to say, "It is no use,'' "It is no avail/' "It is no consequence," etc. Note the gain in effective- ness when stated thus: " It is of no use," " It is of no avail," " It is of no consequence," etc. Do not say, " Where is the telegram at?" or "Why did you do it for?" In both cases much is gained by the omission of at and for. Another incorrect expression, limited almost wholly to oral speech, is off of — as, " The copy of the contract fell off of the table." Here the word of should be omitted. Also in such sentences as " I do not remember of his mail- ing the letter," the word of is not permissible. It is correct to say, "I do not remember his mailing the letter." The use of the word of to take the place of have in such expressions as could of, would of, should of, might of, may \ HOW TO USE PREPOSITIONS CORRECTLY 89 (?/, had of, and must of is inexcusably bad. The correct expressions are, of course, could have, would have, should have, might have, may have, had, and must have. WORDS FOLLOWED BY SPECIAL PREPOSITIONS The preposition to be used after a word sometimes de- pends upon the sense in which the word is used. For example : Accommodate with a desirable or needed thing. My banker accommodated me with a loan. Accommodate to, to adapt. They accommodated themselves to their surroundings. Accused of crime or offense. The treasurer has been accused of embezzlement. Accused by a person. The young man was accused by his employer. Adapted for something by nature. The rich delta land was adapted for cotton. Adapt from an author. The paragraph was adapted from Read's "Salesmanship." Adapt to a thing. Our customers became adapted to the new high-price level. Agree to a plan, a proposal, or an opinion. Edison sometimes agreed to the plans of his friends. Agree with a person. Mr. Perkins agreed with me that an investment in oil is unsafe. Agree upon a decision. The officers of the company agreed upon an advertising cam- paign. Angry at a thing. The customer became angry at my sarcastic remarks. po ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Angry with a person. You cannot afford to become angry with a customer. Attend to business. The manager of a small concern frequently attends to all the business of his office. Attend upon a person. The gentleman's secretary attended upon him throughout his visit to South America. Attended by a person. The capitalist was attended by his faithful servant. ' Attended with consequences. The rainy season was attended with heavy losses to cotton. Beset by evils. Before banks became numerous many business men were be- set by highwaymen. Beset with arguments. The crafty salesman beset his customer with many arguments. Communicate to a person, to give information to. Through extensive advertising we have communicated to the public the facts about the merits of our goods. Communicate with a person, to speak or write to. Should you need additional cars, communicate with any one of our salesmen. Compare to unHke things. The personality of a salesman may be compared to magnetism. Compare with like things or similar qualities. Our rubber goods compare favorably with those of any other company. Consist in, to have the substance, foundation, or character. Tact in salesmanship consists in the ability to do the right thing at the right time. HOW TO USE PREPOSITIONS CORRECTLY 91 Consist of, to be made of or composed of. Our stock of goods consists of dniigs and stationery. Confide in, to trust in. The people would gladly confide in men like Mr. Straus. Confide to, to trust to. The manager confided to his stenographer several important papers. Die of disease (not from disease). In 1918-19 so many people died of influenza that the Iowa Bankers' Life Company suspended payment of dividends. Differ from a person or thing in likeness. Our new Steel Filing equipment difers greatly from the wooden one we have been using. Differ with, in opinion. None of our competitors has dared to difer with us concerning the merits of the Chalmers Sedan. Different from (not difer ent than or to). Your work in the office is different from mine. Do not say "Your work in the office is difer ent than mine." Part from a person. It was hard to part from my old partner, Mr. Brown. Part with a thing. A salesman must make his article of merchandise so attrac- tive that the customer will be ready to part with his money. Remonstrate against a thing. The managers of the large department stores remonstrated against the closing order issued by the Board of Health. Remonstrate with a person. The foreman stopped to remonstrate with some striking work- men. 92 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Taste for literature, music, art, etc. Working people should endeavor to cultivate a taste for good literature. Taste of food. The taste oj pie was unknown to the employees at the lumber camps. Omit oj when taste is used as a verb — as, ^^ Taste the pie." LESSON TWENTY-TWO How TO Use Conjunctions Correctly The most common conjunctions are — and, hut, for, or, nor, and neither. And should be used only to connect words, phrases, or clauses that express equal or similar ideas; hut, to connect those that express dissimilar or op- posite ones. And cannot, therefore, be used where hut is needed. For example, it is incorrect to say, "It rained and I reached the office at the usual time." Say, "It rained, hut I reached the office at the usual time." And is incorrectly used in such expressions as "Try and see me." Say "Try to see me." The use of too many and's is a fault that renders written work unbearably dull. If you find that you have fallen into the " and " habit, cure it by learning to use the fol- lowing substitutes: also, hesides, again, furthermore, like- wise, moreover, too, presently, in addition to. Conjunctions are sometimes used in pairs.^ The prin- cipal ones so used appear in the following Hst: as — as not only — but also both — and so — as either — or though — yet neither — nor whether — or When using conjunctions in pairs, remember that either should be followed by or and neither by nor. It is a common mistake to follow neither by or. For example, you often hear such sentences as " Neither Mr. Mills or I secured the position," instead of "Neither Mr. Mills nor I secured the position." 1 Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlatives. 9^ 94 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Remember that so — as should be used when inequality- is expressed. Inequality is generally expressed by the help of a negative — as, " Railroad stocks were not so firm today as usual." When using conjunctions in pairs, remember that they should be placed as near as possible to the parts of the sentence which they connect. Note that this is true of the conjunctions in the following illustrations: 1. The salesman should either train himself or seek special train- ing elsewhere. 2. This separator not only skims closer but also lasts longer than any other kind. 3. Not only must you know all about your goods, but also all that is to be learned about your competitor's goods. Your attention has been called to the fact that like should not be used for as if, as though, or as to introduce a clause. For example, you should avoid such sentences as the fol- lowing: " It looks like the price of lumber would rise much higher." In the following sentences as, as if, and as though are used correctly. Like would be incorrect. 1. It looks as if the August sales will be large. 2. The manager speaks as though he were angry. 3. Alice filed the letters precisely as she was instructed. Like is a preposition. In the following sentences it is correctly used : 1. The success of our advertising campaign seems like a dream. 2. Like all other kinds of electrical work, armature winding is ex- tremely interesting. 3. Like him, every clerk had his particular work to do. HOW TO USE CONJUNCTIONS CORRECTLY 95 Unless should be used rather than without or except to introduce a clause. Without and except are prepositions. Do not say, *' Without he shows more interest, he will not be promoted," but, " Unless he shows more interest, he will not be promoted." It is also incorrect to use except in such sentences as " The abstract shows a good title to the land, except there is one lien unsatisfied." Say, ^^ Except that there is one lien unsatisfied." The correct use of without and except is shown in these sentences : 1. Miss Morton cannot secure the position without a recommen- dation. 2. Your car is the most expensive on the market except one. 3. Without the use of the Addressograph, the work of the office would be done more slowly. In the following sentences unless is used correctly: 1. Unless you return the chair promptly, we cannot refund your money. 2. We shall be compelled to cancel our order of May 4, unless the goods arrive tomorrow. 3. Unless present indications prove unreliable, there will be a shortage of silk goods for the fall trade. Study the following incorrect and correct expressions: The expressions in this col- The expressions in this col- umn are either incorrect or umn are correct and in good in had taste: taste: . I do not deny hut what gov- i. I do not deny that govern- ernment bonds are safe ment bonds are safe enough. enough. 96 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH The expressions in this col- umn are either incorrect or in had taste: 2. I do not doubt hut that this article was manufactured by your Company. 3. You may return the goods providing they are defec- tive. 4. During August we shall try and increase our sales. 5. See if the order has been correctly filled. 6. I do not see as the goods are really damaged. 7. Henry said how he would deliver every package before night. 8. Do you know if the bill has been paid? g. As long as you have always met your obligations promptly, we will extend your credit sixty days. 10. I do not know as the quality of these goods is superior to our own. 11. Under these circumstances, therefore, we cannot hut refuse to replace the table. The expressions in this col- umn are correct and in good taste: 2. I do not doubt that this ar- ticle was manufactured by your company. 3. You may return the goods provided they are defec- tive. 4. During August we shall try to increase our sales. 5. See whether the order has been correctly filled. 6. I do not see that the goods are really damaged. 7. Henry said that he would deliver every package before night. 8. Do you know whether the bill has been paid? 9. Since you have always met your obHgations promptly, we will extend your credit sixty days. 10. I do not know that the quality of these goods is superior to our own. 11. Under these circumstances, therefore, we can but refuse to replace the table. LESSON TWENTY-THREE Sentence Structure: The Simple Sentence There are many kinds of subjects. Note the seven kinds of subjects in the following: • 1. The price has advanced. (A noun) 2. They wear well. (A pronoun) 3. The ambitious succeed. (An adjective) 4. To write was his delight. (An infinitive) 5. To answer letters was his duty. (An infinitive phrase) 6. Answering letters was his duty. (A gerund) 7. That the price of sugar has risen cannot be denied. (A clause) The simple subject may be much enlarged by the addi- tion of modifiers. For example, we may expand the first of the foregoing sentences — thus: " The price of all the shoes that the company manufactures has advanced. ^^ The simple subject (price), together with all its modifiers, is called the complete subject. Similarly, the complete predicate is the simple predicate, or predicate verb, with all its modifiers. Note the com- plete predicate in each of the following sentences: 1. A night letter will he delivered on the morning of the next busi- ness day. 2. Business men sometimes use code language in night letters. 3. The Standard Dictionary is used by many business houses. The subject usually stands first in the sentence, but may come after the verb — as, " Immediately came an insistent demand for higher wages. ^^ This kind of sentence can at times be used effectively to secure variety. Many statements in speaking and writing begin with 97 98 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH There is or There are. You often use the one when the other is needed. In such cases, there causes the trouble. The word there is not the subject of the sentence at all; it merely introduces it and makes it possible for the subject to stand after the verb. In the following sentences the subject follows the verb. Observe that when the subject is singular we should use is, was, or has and when plural, are, were, or have. 1. There is a telegram from the National Cash Register Com- pany on your desk. 2. There are many kinds of office directories and reference books. 3. There was no explanation of the delay in your letter of August 4. 4. There were several form letters lying on the manager's desk. 5. There have been placed on the market machines for sealing and stamping mail at the same time. If we rearrange these sentences so that the subject stands first, the difficulty disappears — thus : 1. A telegram from the National Cash Register Company is on your desk. 2. Many kinds of office directories and reference books are in existence. 3. No explanation of the delay was in your letter of August 4. 4. Several form letters were lying on the manager's desk. 5. Machines for sealing and stamping mail at the same time have been placed on the market. Through carelessness many fall into the habit of saying they is or they are, they has or they have, they was or they were, instead of there is or there are, there was or there were, there has or there have. This is a very crude error, but one that can be easily corrected if you pronounce SENTENCE STRUCTURE 99 distinctly the word there each time. Do not say, for ex- ample, ^^They have been fewer orders this month than last." In the following sentences expressions beginning with there are used correctly. Read them carefully several times, and try to form the habit of using these words rightly: 1. There is no reply to your telegram. 2. In the mail yesterday there was an order for hammers. 3. There are many interesting tr Side journals. 4. In Mr. Clower's office there were several machines for taking care of the correspondence. 5. Recently there has been an unusual demand for Goodrich tires. 6. During the past year there have been many changes in the money market. 7. There is no doubt that municipal bonds are desirable. 8. There are few organizations, if any, doing so much for the city as the Chamber of Commerce. 9. Among the working people there has developed a spirit of cooperation. 10. In the industrial world there have risen a number of situa- tions entirely new. 11. There is much news concerning the business world in Sys- tem. 12. During the past year there have come many changes in rates of interest. 13. There are only a few basic rules in good salesmanship. 14. There have been some instances in which the law of supply and demand has been set aside. Sometimes the word it is used to introduce a sentence, the real subject standing after the verb — thus : 1. It is the policy of this house to give the best service possible to its customers. 2. It has been decided to replace all furniture broken in transit. lOO ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 3. It is important to find out certain facts regarding your custo- mer's tastes and character. 4. It has been scientifically demonstrated that a deficiency of speech can he cured through practice. The subject or predicate of a sentence may be compound. In the following sentences the subject is compound: 1. The price and quality of the goods should be clearly stated. 2. Either Frank or Rufus is ready to make copies of the letter. In these the predicate is compound: 1. You may take the suit hack and refund the money. 2. We will supply all the lahor and furnish all the material ac- cording to specifications for $1000. The sentence should be carefully distinguished from ex- pressions that merely assume. To assume means to take for granted — as, the working people, the man writing at the desk, the letter being short and poorly written. Some of these expressions are long and somewhat involved and bear a close resemblance to a sentence. Remember that a sen- tence must have both a subject and predicate and express a complete thought. Note that these expressions are not sentences : 1. Then after we had packed the goods. ' 2. In the factory located near the river. 3. The bookkeepers working patiently on their books. LESSON TWENTY-FQUR, : Sentence Structure: The Complex Sentence In the sentence, " The bank book is sometimes the only receipt which the depositor has for his money," there are two clauses. The first of these is, *' The bank book is the only receipt," and the second " which the depositor has for his money." It is clear that the second clause depends upon the first for its meaning. It is therefore called a depen- dent or subordinate clause. The first clause does not de- pend upon any other word in the sentence for its meaning and hence is called the principal clause. The subordinate clause in this sentence tells us something about the noun receipt, that is, modifies it. It is, therefore, used like an adjective. Subordinate clauses are named according to their use in the sentence. We have three kinds — ad- jectival, adverbial, and noun clauses. An adjectival clause is a clause that is used as an adjective. Such clauses are generally introduced by the relative pro- nouns who, which, and that or some of their inflected forms. Occasionally adjectival clauses begin with the word where, when, or why. When introduced by relative pronouns, they are commonly called relative clauses. The following sentences contain adjectival clauses: 1. The clerk who knows how to handle the mail of the average busi- ness house should easily find employment. 2. Letters that have not been edited by the stenographer should not be submitted for signature. 3. The man by whom the note was signed could not be found. 4. The file clerk whose duty it was to care for the letter had mislaid it. lOI io2 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH ^ "> ^^ 1\- : ' '■ '. i ■ ■ ' s'. The time 'wk^ntke note is due should always be kept in mind. 6. I know the reason why a discount is allowed to customers. An adverbial clause is a clause that is used as an adverb — as, "When a person writes his name across the hack of a note, he indorses it." Here the clause ''When a person writes his name across the back of a note" modifies in- dorses. Adverbial clauses are introduced by such conjunc- tions as when, where, while, if, as, as if, than, because, since, before, though, although, and unless. The following sen- tences contain adverbial clauses: 1. If the office mail is stamped by hand, the stamps are usually bought in sheets of one hundred. 2. As business men must occasionally refer to previous correspond- ence, all letters should be carefully filed. 3. Although a nominal partner in a business invests no capital, he is responsible for the obligations of the firm. 4. Insurance is not wholly a development of modern times, /or it was known to the ancients. 5. Nothing else in life can be so important to a man as the work in which he engages (is). 6. Let the competitor's goods be secondary if they are men- tioned at all. A noun clause is a clause that is used as a noun — as, " That salesmanship can be taught successfully cannot be denied." We have here as the subject a group of words playing the part usually played by a noun or pronoun. The clause is, therefore, a noun clause. Noun clauses are generally introduced by the word that — as, "I did not know that government bonds were free from taxation J ^ However, that is frequently omitted. In fact SENTENCE STRUCTURE 103 it can be left out of the foregoing sentence without affect- ing the thought in any way. Noun clauses may also be introduced by the relative pro- nouns who, which, what, and that, and by the conjunctions when, where, why, whether, and how. The following sentences contain noun clauses as ordi- narily used : 1. That prices rise during war times is evident. 2. Your objection to the suit is that it is not made of wool. 3. I know that a man can study his goods and increase his knowl- edge of them. 4. We wish to say that we are most certainly interested in con- sidering all new mechanical devices. 5. Please tell us when the goods should be shipped. 6. We are unable to tell whether we shall he interested in your gasoline feed system. 7. We did not know who manufactured the shoes. 8. The salesman asked which we preferred. g. The manager's reply was, " That is the best we can do." 10. How prices were controlled has not been learned. 11. I inquired when he would ship the goods. 12. The public soon learns where the best service is given, 13. It is not difficult to explain why he failed in business. 14. No one could tell hffiv long the supply of cotton would last. LESSON TWENTY-FIVE Sentence Structure: The Compound Sentence A sentence is said to be compound if it consists of two or more independent statements closely related in thought — as, " The money lent is called the principal, and the sum paid for the use of it is called the interest." Here we have two statements, or members, united, each of which might stand alone. They are clearly related in thought and belong together. There Sirefive connectives commonly used to connect in- dependent statements.^ They are: and nor but neither or Sometimes, however, the connective is omitted, espe- cially when the relation in thought between the members is close — as, ''We cannot wait longer for a remittance; our own bills must be paid." It is important to be able to distinguish a simple sentence with a compound subject or predicate from a compound sentence. For example, the following statement looks very much like a compound sentence: "He looked hurriedly through the letter and presently laid it on the table." If you examine it carefully, you will find that there is but one subject and a compound predicate. It is therefore * Commonly called coordinate conjunctions because they connect equal members, 104 SENTENCE STRUCTURE 105 a simple sentence. Reduced to its simplest form it appears thus: " He looked and laid." And merely connects two verbs. In deciding whether a sentence is simple or compound, the question is, what does the conjunction connect? Are there really two or more independent statements? If so, the sentence is compound. Sometimes a simple sentence has both subject and predi- cate compound. Then, indeed, it does look like a compound sentence. For example, the following statement resembles a compound sentence very closely: " The manager and his secretary talked together for several minutes and finally arrived at a decision." Reduced to its simplest form, this statement reads: " Manager and secretary talked and ar- rived." There is evidently but a single statement here. The sentence is therefore a simple sentence. Any of the members of a compound sentence may con- tain a subordinate clause — as, *' We are much interested in your gasoline-feed system, but it would not be worth con- sidering unless the idea were properly protected by patents.^' In the foregoing illustration the second member contains a subordinate clause; namely, " Unless the idea were prop- erly protected by patents." If the second member were detached from the first, then it would be merely a complex sentence. As it stands it is a compound sentence, the second member of which is complex. If you examine a few printed pages, you will probably find many compound sentences with complex members. ^ 1 Manly and Bailey: Lessons in English, Book II, page 172. lo6 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Compound sentences may be formed by uniting 1. Statements that are similar in meaning or a continuation of the same line of thought — as, "The salesman's voice should be clear, and his language ought to be free from errors." Do not unite independent members that are evi- dently incongruous in meaning. For example, it is incor- rect to say, "Mr. Price has invested large sums of money in oil stock, and his wife is a loyal Presbyterian." When in- congruous ideas — those that have no relation to each other and do not belong together — present themselves, subordinate one of them or separate them into two sen- tences. 2. Statements expressing thoughts that are in contrast — as, "The price of these leather belts has been greatly reduced, although the quality of material in them is superior." 3. Statements expressing thoughts between which one must choose — as, "Some remittance, however small, must be received before the last day of the month, or your account will be placed in the hands of our attorney for collection." 4. Statements expressing inference or consequence. A great variety of connectives may be used in such sentences, among which are the following: so, so that, hence, therefore, consequently, accordingly, wherefore, and whereas} These sentences illustrate this kind of compound sentence: 1. Everyone could understand and appreciate our plan of selUng stock on monthly payments; so it became popular in a very short time. 2. Into every Goodrich tire goes the very best material; therefore, the product outlives the guarantee of the manufacturer. * Campbell and Vass: Essentials of English, page 52. LESSON TWENTY-SIX Punctuation the period Rule I. A period should he placed at the end of euery sentence that states a fact or expresses a command. Simple as the rule is, it is often disregarded. This is sometimes due to carelessness, but generally to an inabil- ity to see at once just where the thought is completed and the sentence ends. Notice the errors in the following ex- amples chosen from business letters: 1. We have received your check of $150. Also your letter in regard to the ten-dollar balance which still remains open on our books. 2. We do not feel that you have given the matter due consider- ation. The open items on your account, as you will note from the enclosed statement, having run considerably past the date of maturity. 3. We intend no discourtesy by the return of your affidavit dated January 24, certifying a shortage of merchandise. This in its present form not being effective in collecting a claim. 4. The two invoices total $171.86; we allowed $25 in addition to your check. In the first three of these examples, incomplete thoughts are treated as if they were sentences. Such errors generally arise in mistaking a long phrase or clause for a statement. Participial phrases, particularly those containing being or having, are especially troublesome. If you take the foregoing errors separately, you will see at once that they are not sentences: 107 io8 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 1. Also your letter in regard to the ten-dollar balance which still remains open on our books. 2. The open items on your account, as you will note from the enclosed statement, having run considerably past the date of maturity. 3. This in its present form not being effective in collecting a claim. The fourth example illustrates the common fault of run- ning together several sentences. This particular expres- sion should be pointed as follows : " The two invoices total $171.86. We allowed $25 in addition to your check." Rule II. A period should be used after an abbreviation. Note the following illustrations: C.O.D., f.o.b., inst., doz., pkg., p., etc. The rule appHes also to initials — as, A. M. Hyde. A period should not, however, be placed after a contraction or ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc. A few abbreviations, such as per cent and ad, no longer require the period. In references to public land divisions, the following punc- tuation is approved: the NW 34 SE 34 sec. 35, T. 16 N., R. 2 W.i THE QUESTION MARK Rule III. A question mark should be used at the close of eoery direct question. 1. "How much can you pay?" Mr. Day inquired. 2. Mr. Day inquired how much I could pay. Note that in the second illustration the question is not 1 This describes the northwest quarter of the southeast quarter of section 35 of township i6 north in range 2 west. PUNCTUATION 109 stated directly and is therefore not followed by a question mark. THE EXCLAMATION POINT Rule IV. An exclamation point should he used after interjections,^ exclamatory words, and phrases and clauses that express strong feeling. THE COMMA Rule V. The comma should he used to mark the omis- sion of words or word groups. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses — that is, where there are more than two — the comma should be inserted after each member of the group except the last. It is im- portant to remember, however, that the terms so separated must be used alike in the sentence. That is, a series of nouns used as the subject of a verb, a series of verbs used with the same subject, or several modifiers — adjectives, adverbs, phrases, or clauses — belonging to the same word, require the comma. Note the following illustrations: 1. Stamps, currency, checks, and money orders were found in the different letters. (A series of nouns) 2. A new table has been selected from our stock, carefully crated, and shipped to you by fast freight. (A series of verbs) 3. Our representative has had much experience in our advertis- ing department, in the office, on the road, and even in foreign cities. (A series of phrases) 4. We claim that you can easily equip your store with our new model National Cash Register, that you can thereby ren- der better service to your customers, and that you can save more money. ^ Interjections are words that express strong feeling — as, oh, alas, ah, etc. no ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Many good writers, however, omit the comma between the last two members of a series when they are connected by andy or, or but. The first of the foregoing sentences is quite as often written thus: " Stamps, currency, checks and money orders were found in the different letters." In such expressions as " attractive plain net curtains," no comma should be used because each word modifies all that follows. In the following sentence, however, the case is different: " A mimeograph will produce sharp, clean-cut, and accurate copies of typewritten papers." The rule applies also to cases in which a verb is omitted to avoid tiresome repetition. 1. Call loans are payable on demand; time loans, at the end of a given period of time. 2. The first case of merchandise was shipped October 4; the second, one month later. It must not be presumed that all omissions require a conMna. There are many " short-cuts " which are so well known as not to need any mark. In cases where the comma would neither aid the eye nor make the meaning clearer — where, in other words, there would be nothing gained — do not use it. For example, no comma need be used to show the omission of that in the sentence " The manufacturer knew he would make a profit on his goods." LESSON TWENTY-SEVEN Punctuation {Continued) THE COMMA {Continued) Rule VI. A comma should he used to separate the mem- bers of a compound sentence when they are closely related in thought even though they are connected by and, but, or, nor, or neither. 1. The material of the car should be light but strong, and the springs should have ample play. 2. In some states the landlord must keep the premises in repair, but in others the law makes no such provision. 3. The goods may have been lost, or some other accident may have occurred. 4. A salesman should not neglect his personal appearance, nor should he become careless in speech. 5. Our dealers have not solicited orders during the month, neither have they advertised our cars in the daily papers. The related assertions may be made to stand alone. It is a question of the amount of expression-force you wish to obtain. If you wish to emphasize each thought, let each statement stand alone and put a period after it. There is therefore considerable freedom of choice. Note that the foregoing examples may be written thus: 1. The material of the car should be light but strong. The springs should have ample play. 2. In some states the landlord must keep the premises in re- pair. In others the law makes no such provision. 3. The goods may have been lost. Some other accident may have happened. 112 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 4. A salesman should not neglect his personal appearance. He should not become careless in speech. 5. Our dealers have not solicited orders during the month. They have not advertised our cars in the daily papers. A comma should not be used to separate the members of a compound predicate unless they are long and some- what involved. It was for this reason that you were asked to distinguish carefully between a simple sentence whose predicate is compound and a compound sentence. For example, no comma is needed before the connective in the following sentence, because only the predicate is compound. A number of our dealers have used our sales letters and obtained satisfactory results. Should you use a different subject with the second verb, making two statements, you must use the comma — thus : A number of our dealers have used our sales letters, and some of them have obtained very satisfactory results. Rule VII. A comma should be used to set ojff a subordi- nate clause standing first in the sentence, 1. When we furnished you the routing information, we closed our file on the tracer. 2. If he is unable to show delivery to your satisfaction, he can take up the matter with his agent at Peoria for the passing record at that point. One exception should perhaps be mentioned. A clause that is used as a subject should not be set off, as it is almost always incorrect to separate a subject from its verb, unless, of course, it is very long and intricate. For ex- ample, it would be incorrect to insert a comma after signed PUNCTUATION 113 in the following sentence: ^'That the contract will he signed is certain." Rule VIII. Introductory participial phrases and infini- tive phrases used independently should he set of hy a comma. 1. Having shipped the goods hy fast freight, we feel sure they will reach you by September 4. 2. Having made no complaint when the merchandise was received, you cannot expect us to accept return of the goods now. 3. On referring to our records, we find that your order left our shipping department April 4. 4. To tell the truth, we did not expect a reply to our letter. Seldom is it necessary to set off other phrases standing j&rst in the sentence. For example, it is not necessary to separate the phrases in the following sentences: 1. In this way an error could easily be made in packing the goods. 2. At your early convenience will you make out another requisi- tion for three pieces of beaverboard? If, however, the phrase is long and complex, it should be set off — thus : 1. For the corresponding six months in 1920, we lost $100,000. 2. After a conversation with a friend or business acquaintance, re- tire to your office or room and think over all that was said. An introductory adverb or one that is used independ- ently should be set off by a comma — thus : 1. Now, I want to take your order strictly on the merits of the goods. 2. Then, why should we refund your money? 3. In short, it is wrong for the salesman to blame his failure upon the buyer. 114 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Rule IX. Modifying clauses should he set of by commas only when they present an additional thought. The following sentences are types of this kind: 1. Mr. Davis, who is our representative in that part of the state f will call on you in a few days. 2. You have taken more orders than any other salesman, which is all the house can ask. 3. Our buyer reached Paris early in June, where he decided to re- main for a week or two. 4. The farm was practically sold, when suddenly a defect was found in the title. In order to show that the modifying clauses present additional ideas, the foregoing sentences may be written as follows: 1. Mr. Davis will call on you in a few days. He is our repre- sentative in that part of the state. 2. You have taken more orders than any other salesman. This is all the house can ask. 3. Our buyer reached Paris early in June. He decided to remain there for a week or two. 4. The farm was practically sold. Suddenly a defect was found in the title. You will find it necessary to distinguish carefully be- tween a clause that presents an additional thought and one that limits or closely defines the word it modifies. ^ Observe that in the following sentences no comma is needed to set off the limiting clauses: ^ A clause that limits or closely defines the word it modifies is commonly called a restrictive clause; ene that presents an additional thought, a non- restrictive clause. PUNCTUATION 115 1. The mailing clerk who is familiar with the regulations covering domestic and foreign mail will succeed. 2. Bring me the telegram that lies on Mr. Heuson's desk. 3. Our store is the one place where quality is supreme. 4. I will notify you when Mr. Morgan deposits the warranty deed. In the first sentence the clause who is familiar with the regulations covering domestic and foreign mail limits the word clerk. Not every mailing clerk will succeed, but only the one who is familiar with the regulations covering do- mestic and foreign mail. The clause could not be dropped without leaving the meaning changed or incomplete. The same line of reasoning applies to the remaining examples. LESSON TWENTY-EIGHT Punctuation {Continued) THE COMMA {Continued) Rule X. Words of address, together with their accom- panying modifiers, should he set of by commas. 1. We feel certain, Mr. Clay, that you will be pleased with our new American Radiators. 2. Yes, sir, I am more than pleased with them. Rule XI. A word or phrase in apposition should be set off by commas.^ 1. Our New Model lo, the best typewriter made, has been re- ceived by the public with great enthusiasm. 2. H. E. Girard, treasurer. Rule XII. Parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses should be set of by commas.^ 1. If, however, this account is correct, will you please remit at once? 2. This article, for example, cannot be bought for less at whole- sale. 3. The goods, / am sure, were lost in transit. 4. The firm had decided, he said, to refuse the return of goods shipped according to contract. The words however, nevertheless, indeed, therefore, namely, no doubt, of course, perhaps, in truth, for example, and such * A word or phrase attached to a noun or pronoun to explain it, is said to be in apposition. 2 Parenthetical words, phrases, and clauses are expressions which might be omitted without destroying the main idea of the sentence. They are thrown-in expressions. 116 PUNCTUATION 117 expressions are often used parenthetically. Sometimes, however modifies a single word, and in this case should not be set off — as, ^^ However anxious he may have been to sell his goods, he did not misrepresent a single article." In this case however is not a parenthetical word but an adverb. Rule XIII. So-called intermediate expressions — those that come between such closely related pafts as subject and predicate or the verb and its object — should be set of by commas. 1. This plan, with your hearty cooperation, should enable us to sell many new cars. 2. You may, if you like, use my name for reference. 3. After a reasonable time, every effort having been made by letter to induce payment, the account should be placed in the hands of an attorney for collection.^ Remember, however, that phrases which limit closely should not be set off — as, " The desk by the window is very expensive." It is a mistake to assume that all par- ticipial phrases should be set off. For example, in the sentence " The goods kept on display were sold at a reduc- tion," the purpose of the phrase is not to present an addi- tional fact, but to tell us just vv^hat goods were sold at a reduction. Therefore, no comma should be used. * A noun and a participle with their modifiers are sometimes used inde- pendently to make up what is called the absolute phrase. Whether used at the beginning of the sentence or within it, the phrase should be set oflf. The absolute phrase should not be confused with the so-called suspended participle — that is, one that has no expressed noun or pronoun to modify. For example, in the sentence ''Going into the office, a letter was written to the manufacturer," the participle is suspended. Ii8 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Rule XIV. Occasionally a comma is needed to make the meaning clearer or to avoid ambiguity, 1. We have just received a letter containing enclosure, and a telegram. 2. Our new foreman is tall, and heavily built. 3. To sell the same article always, prevents the salesman from dividing his attention. In the first sentence the comma is necessary to show that the telegram was not enclosed in the letter. In the second, if the comma were omitted, you would read tall and heavily together. In the third, the comma prevents ambiguity. Rule XV. Words or phrases contrasted with each other should be separated by commas. f 1. You should file claim with the railroad company, not with us. 2. There are few positions, but many applicants. Rule XVI. A short quotation should be set off by a comma. 1. Mr. Bush said, "We will accept orders mailed before July 7." 2. "We will accept orders mailed before July 7," said Mr. Bush. LESSON TWENTY-NINE Punctuation (Continued) THE SEMICOLON Rule XVII. Members of a compound sentence not con- nected by and, but, or, nor, or neither should be separated by a semicolon. In some states the landlord must keep the premises in repair; in others the law makes no such provision. Sometimes the members of a compound sentence are united by a set of connectives which are really adverbs rather than con junctions, i The list includes the following: accordingly then in fact consequently therefore at least however so at last indeed yet of course nevertheless hence When a statement is joined to another by one of the foregoing, the semicolon should be used — thus : 1. It looked as if the sugar market would break within a month; accordingly we began marking down the price and dispos- ing of our large supply. 2. We cannot believe that you have personally overlooked your indebtedness to us; consequently we are writing merely to remind you of your past-due account. 3. If you can send your note for the amount by return mail, we will accept that; however we prefer a draft or your personal check. * C. H. Ward: Sentence and Theme, page 314. 119 I20 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 4. Orders came in faster yesterday; in fact we received double the usual number. When a statement beginning with for example, for in- stance, or for illustration follows another, the semicolon should be used: We have been unusually unfortunate this spring; for example , we could not secure transportation for any of our cotton goods. If you wish to secure greater emphasis, however, you should make the statements thus united stand as separate sentences. Rule XVIII. The members of a compound sentence should he separated by a semicolon when they contain commas even though the connective is expressed. We are sure you do not wish us to discriminate against any of our customers ; however, if we accept the return of the goods •we have shipped, we shall be doing so. THE COLON Rule XIX. The colon should be used to announce an explanation, enumeration, or quotation to follow after such expressions as as follows, in the following manner, the following, thus, this, these, one, two, etc. 1. Please ship us by fast freight the following: 20 doz. pint cans Sweet Corn 12 pails No. 2 Mackerel 15 cases Royal Baking Powder 2. Some of the articles to be included in our September sale are PUNCTUATION 121 as follows: hats, shirts, neckwear, traveling bags, and shoes. 3. There were two reasons why he failed: He was lazy, and he had no credit. The expression that follows the colon may be one or more independent statements or questions. In this case it should be capitalized: 1. I sent him this telegram: "Kindly extend time on contract at least one week." 2. These things should be kept in mind: Prices are subject to change without notice. All prices are f.o.b. point of storage. 3. This can be said of the Mississippi Valley Trust Company: It has never lost a dollar of capital for any estate for which it has made an investment. A mere list of particulars, however, should not begin with a capital — thus : The merchant sold the following goods: shoes, hats, neckwear, and handkerchiefs. Rule XX. The colon should generally be used after the salutation of a letter, 1. Dear Sir: ; ,,^ 2. Gentlemen: THE DASH Rule XXI. The dash should he used to mark an abrupt change in thought or in sentence structure. 1. The price of sugar suddenly rose — whether on account of a shortage of the supply or not, no one seemed to know. 2. You will see that trucks do more than increase territory — they multiply it. 3. Then the company — but that is another story. 122 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Rule XXII. An explanatory expression at the end of a sentence should ordinarily be set off by a dash. 1. You develop confidence in yourself — the greatest single as- set a salesman can have. 2. Life insurance policies fall into three groups — whole-life, term, and endowment. Sometimes such expressions are introduced by such as, aSy that is, for example, or for instance. Car manufacturers want something automatic — that is, something that will keep the gasoline above the carburetor continually. Namely, however, is usually preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Property is of two kinds; namely, real and personal. Sometimes explanatory matter is set in the midst of the sentence. In this case a dash is needed both before and after the expression — thus : 1. A number of articles of furniture — library tables, buffets, dining-room chairs, and iron beds — are offered at a dis- count. 2. These two kinds — that is, the warranty deed and the quit- claim deed — are now about the only kinds made. Rule XXIII. A dash may be used to set of parenthetical expressions wherever commas would not give sufficient em- phasis or would be confusing. These written promises to pay — for indeed they are promises — are called promissory notes. Rule XXIV. A dash should follow a list of particulars when there is a summarizing phrase or clause.^ 1 A summarizing phrase or clause is one that presents a summary of what has preceded. PUNCTUATION 123 To act as trustee of property, to manage real property, to act as receiver for defunct concerns, and to act as depository for trust funds, securities, and other personal property — these are the powers granted to trust companies. No other mark of punctuation is so expressive as the dash. Writers of sales letters and advertisements use it again and again to point out a part of the sentence on which they wish to lay special stress. There is a great danger in the too frequent use of the dash by lazy writers, who use it because it is easy to apply. You can avoid this error by using the dash only when there is a real need for it, as shown in Rules XXI to XXIV. Note the advantage in emphasis through the use of the dash in the following sentences gathered from sales letters and advertisements : 1. We sell them — Cords and Fabrics. 2. Remember, — and this will save you road trouble, — there is only one best cord tire. 3. The best is put in — to bring the best out. 4. Our bungalows are just what you will want — new — mod- ern — convenient — beautiful — and at a price you can't resist. THE QUOTATION MARKS Rule XXV. A direct quotation should he enclosed in quotation marks.^ Mr. Baker said, "We should have ordered the goods to be re- turned immediately to you." Note that a direct quotation begins with a capital letter and is set off by a comma. However, if it is long or very * A direct quotation is one that repeats the exact words of a speaker or writer. 124 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH formal, it should be preceded by a colon. No comma is needed in such expressions as this: Yesterday I received a " please remit." Remember that neither the comma nor quotation marks are needed unless the exact words of the speaker are quoted — thus : Mr. Baker said that they should have ordered the goods imme- diately returned to us. Quotations are often broken by such expressions as said he, replied she, etc. In such cases, enclose both halves in quotation marks and set off the expressions said he, etc., by commas — thus : "We should," said Mr. Baker, "have ordered the goods to be returned immediately to you." Rule XXVI. // several paragraphs are quotedy place marks before each separate paragraph, hut after only the last. When the quotation covers several consecutive sentences in the same paragraph the marks should be placed before the first only and at the close. Rule XXVII. A quotation within a quotation requires single marks. Mr. Haines then continued, 'In my letter of November 4 I said, 'We cannot accept the return of the merchandise be- cause it was shipped according to contract;' you have failed to reply to this statement." Rule XXVIII. Titles of articles, poems, magazines, and hooks when quoted should he enclosed in quotation marks or underlined. If printed, they should he italicized. I have received a copy of Sorelle's Office Training for Stenog- raphers. LESSON THIRTY Special Cases in Punctuation THE parts of a LETTER Envelope Addressing. Some houses omit punctuation at the end of the Hnes in envelope addresses, but a majority uses so-called conservative punctuation. This requires a comma at the end of each line, except the last, which is followed by a period. When two items — for example, the name of the city and the state — occupy the same line, they should be separated by a comma, and abbreviations should always be followed by a period — thus: Sacramento, Cal. If city and state are written on separate lines, they appear as follows: Sacramento, or Sacramento, California. Cal. It is not necessary to place # or No. before numbers, and th and d also should be omitted after figures. Write street name and number as follows: 150 West Sixty-second Street, 150 West 62 Street, or 150 W. 62 St. The following illustrations show the correct punctuation of the envelope address: Jacoby Brothers, Jacoby Bros., 331 S. Broadway, or 331 S. Broadway, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Cal. California, I2S 126 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Letter Headings. What has been said of the punctua- tion of the envelope address, applies also to the heading. The following shows correct punctuation: 5500 Euclid Avenue, 5500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio, or Cleveland, Ohio, December 16, 1923. Dec. 16, 1923. Business houses use printed or engraved letterheads, consisting generally of the firm name, address, and char- acter of the business. When the letterhead is used, place the date in the right-hand side, about three spaces below the printed matter. The following letterhead shows the correct form and punctuation. The name of the month, however, may be abbreviated. METAL DEPARTMENT S. G. ADAMS STAMP AND STATIONERY CO. ADAMS BUILDING April 21, 1923. The Inside Address. The inside address consists of the same items as the envelope address, and therefore requires the same punctuation. The Salutation. The salutation should be followed by a colon — thus: Dear Sir: Gendemen: The Complimentary Close. Only the first word of the compHmentary close should be capitalized, and a comma should be placed at the end — thus : Yours truly, Yours respectfully, There are no such abbre\dations as Yrs. and Respy, SPECIAL CASES IN PUNCTUATION 127 Office Style. The office style governs questions of punc- tuation and abbreviation where choice is permitted. It should be uniform. That is, if words are spelled out in full on the envelope, they must be in the letter, and vice versa. If commas or periods are used at the end of some lines, they must appear at the end of all lines. COMMERCIAL FORMS Checks. In the upper right-hand corner of the check is the name of the city and state, together with date line. A comma should follow the name of the city and the state and the month and day. The name of the bank is gen- erally printed in large capitals in the center above the body of the check. It need not be followed by a comma. In the printed forms, the date, the name of the payee, and the amount of the check are all that need to be added. The number of dollars should be spelled out, beginning with a capital letter. The fraction of a dollar should be written close to the number of dollars, and all the remaining blank space should be occupied by a Hne to prevent insertion of words. The signature need not be followed by a period. The following shows the correct form and punctuation: Check No. 35 St. Louis, Mo., February 4, 1923 FIRST NATIONAL BANK Pay to the order of James Doe $75.00 Seventy-five and 00/100 Dollars Arthur Blake Bills. A bill should show the names of the parties buy- ing and selhng, the date and place of sale, and the kind, quantity, and price of goods sold. In the upper right- 128 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH hand corner occur the names of the city and state, and the date. They are written in the same line usually, and the items are separated by commas. A period is not neces- sary after the names of the persons buying and selHng or the terms of sale. No punctuation should be used at the close of the different items of goods. The names of the articles sold are capitalized, but not the quantities. The following shows correct form and punctuation: A BILL Des Moines, Iowa, January 4, 1923 Mr. Calvin Brown, Jr. Bought of Page & Company Terms: 30 days net 1 bbl. Gold Medal Flour 2 doz. cans Tomatoes I doz. cans Corn Rec'd Payment Jan. 10, 1921 Page & Company Per E. A. White >IO.OO 2.60 2.00 $10.00 5.20 2.00 $17.20 Receipts. The names of the city and state, and the date should be written on a single line in the upper right-hand corner. The items are separated by commas, but no period need be used at the close. The amount of money received is spelled out and should begin with a capital letter. The signature need not be followed by a period. The following shows correct form and punctuation: SPECIAL CASES IN PUNCTUATION 129 Chicago, 111., March i, 1923 Received of Frank Ellis Fifty-five and 00/100 Dollars for rent from March i to April i, 1923. $55.00 James Carew Notes. Like a check, a note has the names of the city and state, and the date in the upper right-hand corner. The items are separated by commas. There is no end punc- tuation throughout. The amount for which the note is drawn should begin with a capital letter. The following shows correct form and punctuation: $100.00 San Francisco, Cal., June 20, 1923 Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of — James Howard One hundred and 00/100 Dollars Value received, with interest at 6 % Franklin Bell Drafts. What has already been said of the punctuation of checks apphes also to drafts. In the lower left-hand corner is placed the name of the person or the bank on which the draft is drawn and the address. The items of the address are separated by commas. The following dis- plays correct form and punctuation: $171.00 # 1812 Lake Village, Ark., Jtdy 20, 1923 First National Bank Pay to the order of Caleb Welch $171.00 One hundred seventy-one and 00/100 Dollars To the First National Bank Carl Hart Chicago, 111. Cashier I30 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH HOW TO EXPRESS NUMBERS In ordinary writing in which numbers do not occur fre- quently, spell all amounts from one to one hundred inclu- sive, and also round numbers. 1. There are eighty-three people in our employ. 2. The paper contained ^?;e hundred signatures. Note, however, that in writing numbers of five or more digits in the thousands it is preferable to use figures when- ever it would be awkward to spell them. For example, you should express twenty-one thousand in words, but 21,512 in figures. 1 The following special rules will be found helpful: 1. Spell numbers or signs beginning a sentence or imme- diately following a colon. In such cases, if you prefer, you may change the arrangement of the sentence. 1. Seventy-five dollars is too much. 2. Plus and minus sometimes occur together in algebra. (Not 4- and — .) 3. Fifty or sixty orders were received. (Not ^^Fijty or 60 orders were received.") 2. When two numbers occur together, express one of them in words — thus : 1. Ten 5-room cottages. 2. Seven 8-inch guns. 3. 150 Fifth Avenue. 3. Express in words the time of day. In time-tables, however, figures are used. 1. Eight-thirty. 2. Ten o'clock. 1 W. R. Bowlin and George L, Marsh: Vocational English, page 168. SPECIAL CASES IN PUNCTUATION 131 4. Express in words sums of money less than a dollar. If associated with several other sums, use figures. Fifty cents was the admission fee. 5. Express ages in words. The secretary was fifty years of age. In writing that involves the frequent enumeration of weights, measures, distances, sums of monty, dates, de- grees, percentages, proportions, stocks and bonds, etc., figures are much more freely used. This applies especially to adjustment letters, collection letters, order letters, con- tracts, and to statistics of any kind. The following special rules should prove helpful : 1. Express dates in figures, but spell the month. June 25, 1921. (Not 6/25/21) 2. Express in figures sums of money amounting to $1 or more. $9-75- 3. Express in figures street numbers and house numbers. 1014 N. 10 Street. 4. Express per cents, degrees, and ratios in figures. 1.7 per cent interest. 2. Longitude 70° 05' 08'' E. 3. The ratio is 3 to 5. 5. Express in figures a list of articles such as may occur in inquiries or statements about them. Please send 3 doz. No. 1237 shirts. LESSON THIRTY-ONE Capitalization Capital letters are used to attract attention to certain words. This is, of course, a broad statement — broad enough indeed to include the capitalization of each word in whole statements in sales letters and advertisements. There are, however, a number of well-defined rules which good usage has developed and by which you should be guided in your writing. Use a capital letter to begin the following: 1. Every sentence, every direct quotation, and the first word of every line of poetry. 2. Every proper noun — as, Marshall Field, Swift &' Company, Philadelphia, President, Senate, Congress. 3. The names of directions when they refer to sections of the country — as : The South has always produced great quantities of cotton. But not when they don't — as: The factory is north of the station. 4. The names of the days of the week and of the months of the year, but not the names of the seasons unless they are personified — as, Monday, Tuesday, January, February, spring, summer, etc. 5. The names of hohdays and festivals — as, Christmas, Easter, Labor Day, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, Shrove Tuesday. 6. The names of paintings, statues, tombs, monuments, and relics of public interest — as, The Angelus, Statue of 132 CAPITALIZATION 133 Liberty^ Grants Tomb, Washington's Monument, Liberty Bell. 7. Names of popular appellations — as, Hoosier State, City of Brotherly Love, Windy City, Wall Street, Yankee, etc. 8. Names of executive departments, bureaus, commis- sions, etc., of the state and national governments. Department of Commerce and Labor Public Service Commission Interstate Commerce Commission 9. Names of offices and divisions of the army and the word army when it is a proper name — as, Infantry, Cav- alry, Field Artillery, First Regiment, American Army. 10. The names of pubHc buildings — as, Carnegie Li- brary, Municipal Courts Building, Independence Hall. 11. The names of church denominations, political par- ties, and other organizations except college classes — as, Presbyterian Church, Democratic Party, Masonic Fraternity, Knights of Columbus, Chamber of Commerce, but class of igo6. 12. The names of streets, avenues, alleys, courts, lanes, roads, rivers, lakes, and mountains — as, Michigan Avenue, Market Street, Ohio River, Rocky Mountains. But write Mississippi and Ohio rivers. 13. Titles used in connection with the names of persons — as. Governor Smith, ex-President Taft, King George, General Pershing. 14. The names of offices and titles of honor, particu- larly those pertaining to the President of the United States, when they refer to a particular person or thing. (Do not capitalize presidential.) 134 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 1. The Governor signed a very important labor bill. 2. The Commander in Chief made a short address to the Busi- ness Men's League. 3. The Executive did all in his power to favor business men. 15. Father, mother, brother, and sister, when used with a name or instead of a particular name. 1. Then Mother Macey helped each of us to find employment. 2. We asked Father to retain his interest in the business. When modified by a possessive pronoun they are not capitalized — as, They asked my father to retain his in- terest in the business. 16. The names of townships, counties, states, and other poHtical divisions of the country — as, Logan Township, Gibson County, Illinois, New England States. 17. The names of the Deity and the words Bible and Scripture, together with the names of the books of the same — as, God, Saviour, Jesus, Holy Ghost, Genesis. 18. Every proper adjective — as, American, English, Smithsonian. Many words of this class, referring to mer- chandise, however, are now written with a small letter. Remember to use small letters when writing the following: brussels carpet mercerized lining chinaware morocco binding gothic architecture oriental rugs india ink pasteurized milk India rubber roman type macadamized road russia leather 19. Every important word in the title of a book, article, poem, or theme. Do not capitalize a, an, and the, and prepo- sitions and conjunctions unless they stand first. CAPITALIZATION 135 The Demands of the Times The Elements of Business 20. The words / and O. 21. Terms used with Roman numerals — as, Section III, Chapter X, Group V, Plate II, etc. 22. The initials of proper names, the abbreviations of titles and of degrees : D. S. Jordan, LL.D. Gov. Small 23. Trade names — as, Gold Dust, Sunshine Biscuits, Bon Ami, Shredded Wheat, etc. Only the distinguishing name of common products need be capitalized — as, Good Luck rubbers, Eagle pencil. Holeproof silk stockings, etc. 24. Important words in headings and salutations of let- ters — as, Gentlemen, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, etc. Capi- talize only the first word in the complimentary close — as, Yours truly. Yours respectfully. 25. Abbreviated words such as No., Co., R.R., O. K., etc. CAPITALIZATION OF ABBREVIATIONS Do not capitalize a.m. and p.m. meaning before noon and after noon. The United States Government Printing Office and a majority of the largest business concerns write these abbreviations with small letters. They may, how- ever, be expressed with small capitals. The expression free on board is written f .o.b. — small letters. Remember, however, to write C.O.D. — all capitals. CAPITALS IN SALES LETTERS Frequently in sales letters and in advertisements the name of the product is spelled out in capitals in order to 136 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH secure more attention. The most important phrase or clause in a strong statement, or even the whole sentence, may be written all capitals. In a sales letter sent out by a large insurance company recently occurs this statement, the last part in capitals: ''Without your written permis- sion, filed with the Company before your death, YOUR WIFE CAN NEVER CHANGE THE INCOME settlement:' Capitalization for this purpose, how- ever, should not become too profuse, for it would be likely to defeat its own purpose — it would distribute attention, not center it. Select with great care the sentences or parts of sentences that deserve this special badge of attention. LESSON THIRTY-TWO Abbreviations In written composition, except that of a technical na- ture, abbreviations should be used sparingly. There are, however, a few that are almost always used; namely, etc., e.g., viz., a.m., p.m., a.d. and B.C. In business cor- respondence also, the body of the letter should be free from unnecessary abbreviations, though here, of course, Co., C.O.D. and f.o.h. must be added to the list just given. Unless the nature of the work is such that it would save a great deal of time and space, not many more should be used. The following suggestions should be helpful: 1. Do not abbreviate the word company unless it is part of a firm name — as. The Thomas Milling Co. Some com- panies object to its abbreviation even here. 2. The abbreviation No. should be used only with fig- ures — as. No. 12. Say No. 8 or number eight, not number 8. 3. Do not use rec^d, resp^y, yWs, bl'd'g, and SupH. Write out received, respectfully, and yours. The correct abbrevia- tions for building and superintendent are bldg. and Supt. 4. Do not use R.R. and Ry. for railroad and railway in the body of the letter unless they are part of a company's name — as, The Wabash R.R. Co. 5. Although an abbreviation of per centum, the expres- sion per cent is not generally followed by a period. 6. The contracted forms 15/, 2d, 3 J, 4///, etc., are not followed by a period. 137 138 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 7. Avoid &* for and except in a company name and do not use &*€ for etc. Never say and etc. 8. Per, via, re, and Miss are not abbreviations and there- fore should not be followed by a period. Re is a Latin word meaning in reference to, in regard to, or regarding. 9 Use the apostrophe in such abbreviations as O.K'd, but write O.K.ing. ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF STATES The following are the abbreviations approved by the Government Printing Ofhce. Note that the shortest names, Idciho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, and Utah should not be abbre- viated. Alabama Ala. Nebraska Nebr. Arizona Ariz. Nevada Nev. Arkansas Ark. New Hampshire N. H. California Cal. New Jersey N.J. Colorado Col. New Mexico N. Mex. Connecticut Conn. New York N. Y. Delaware Del. North Carolina N. C. District of Columbia DC. North Dakota N. Dak. Florida Fla. Oklahoma Okla. Georgia Ga. Oregon Oreg. Illinois lU. Pennsylvania Pa. Indiana Ind. Rhode Island R.L Kansas Kans. South Carolina S. C. Kentucky Ky. South Dakota S. Dak. Louisiana La. Tennessee Tenn. Maryland Md. Texas Tex. Massachusetts Mass. Vermont Vt. Michigan Mich. Virginia Va. Minnesota Minn. Washington Wash. Mississippi Miss. West Virginia W. Va. Missouri Mo. Wisconsin Wis. Montana Mont. Wyoming Wyo. ABBREVIATIONS 139 ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF THE MONTHS The names of the months are always capitaHzed and, therefore, their abbreviations should begin with a capital letter. Note that the shortest names, May, June, and July, should not be abbreviated. January Jan. September Sept. February Feb. October Oct. March Mar. November Nov. April Apr. December Dec. August Aug. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS Ai first class C. 0. D. collect on de- Acct. or a/c account livery Agt. agent Cor. Sec. Corresponding A.M. {ante Secretary meridiem) forenoon C. P. A. Certified PubHc Assn. or Ass'n Association Accountant Asst. or Ass't Assistant Cr. Creditor, credit Atty. attorney cwt. hundredweight Ave. avenue or hundred- av. average weights bal. balance Dept. department bbl. or brl. barrel dft. draft B/L or B. L. bill of lading disc, or disct. discount Bs/L bills of lading do. (ditto) the same Bldg. building dol. dollar bet. bought doz. dozen or dozens Boul. or Blvd. boulevard Dr. debit, debtor Bros. brothers et al {et alii) and others bu. bushel Exch. exchange bus. bushels Exec. Executor c. cent f. 0. b. free gn board c/o in care of ford, or for'd forward I40 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH gal. gallon pes. pieces G. P. A. General Pas- pd. paid senger Agent pk. peck hhd. hogshead pkgs. packages h. p. or H. P. horsepower P.M. (post me^ i.e. (id est) that is ridiem) afternoon Inc. incorporated P.O. post office Ins. inspector, in- pr. pair, price surance Pres. President int. interest Prin. Principal inv. invoice P. S. postscript invt. inventory pt. pint jour. journal qt. quart Jr. or jr. junior rect. receipt lb. pound Rec. Sec. Recording Sec- M. (mUle) one thousand retary mdse. merchandise rev. revise, revision mem. or memo. memorandum R. R. railroad Messrs. (Mes- Ry. railway sieurs) gentlemen s. c. small capitals mfg. manufactur- Sec. Secretary ing Sr. or sr. senior mfrs. manufactur- ss. to wit ers St. street mfs. manufactures Supt. Superintend- Mgr. Manager ent mo. month Treas. Treasurer MS. manuscript Vice Pres. Vice Presi- MSS. manuscripts dent 'N.B.inotabene) note well viz. (videlicet) namely No. number vs. (versus) against O.K. all correct W/B or W. B. waybill oz. ounce or W/Bs waybills ounces wt. weight payt. payment LESSON THIRTY-THREE Unity of the Sentence Careless writers often express two or more unrelated thoughts in the same sentence — as : 1. We are at a loss to understand why you did not keep your promise to remit, and we have begun many suits lately to collect past-due accounts. 2. St. Louis should always extend a hearty welcome to manu- facturers, and it has one of the largest parks in the United States. Sometimes a sentence contains two ideas that it is really absurd to connect — as : Mr. Annis was a successful manufacturer, but he died in Cali- fornia. Sometimes also a sentence contains too many members or is unduly lengthened by the addition of several subor- dinate clauses — as : 1. We agree that it is somewhat late to address you in regard to this, but we are trying to get your account in proper bal- ance, and as you know we are having a hard problem to solve in handling our returned goods, we have been unable to give everything its proper attention. 2. We have some customers who wish to return goods which were shipped according to the contract which we have taken great pains to make clear to all that do business with us. But quite often there is not enough in the sentence. For example, a subordinate clause will be mistaken for a sentence and made to stand alone — as : You having made no effort to pay your past-due account. Although we have extended to you most courteous treatment. 14? 142 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Again, a relative clause will be connected with a state- ment by and or hut^ when the connectives should be omitted — as: We wrote you January 7 about the invoices of October and November and which should have been paid before the Christmas holidays. Sometimes there is a needless change of the subject — as : Our Iowa representative visited the house today, and business in his territory was reported good. Note the improvement when the subject is made the same — as : Our Iowa representative visited the house and reported business good in his territory. In all of the foregoing cases, the writers failed to make their meanings clear because they did not express their thoughts, one at a time, in complete units. That is, their sentences lacked unity. Unity in the sentence is the expression of but one main idea. Rule I. Do not unite two or more statements unless they are closely related in thought. Original: I was greatly disappointed this morning to find that your check had not yet reached us, and I told the manager of the Credit Department that you would pay your bills promptly. Improved: Several months ago I told the manager of the Credit Department that you would pay your bills promptly. This morning, however, I was greatly disappointed to find that your check had not reached us. Rule II. Do not include in the same sentence inconsistent or absurd ideas. UNITY OF THE SENTENCE 143 1. Original: Hoping to hear from you at an early date, we trust that you will find the sale of our line satisfactory. Improved: We hope to hear from you at an early date. Meanwhile we trust that you will find the sale of our goods satisfactory. 2. Original: The hat was undoubtedly crushed in shipping, and it was a John B. Stetson hat. Improved: This Stetson hat was undoubtedly crushed in shipping. Rule III. Do not use and or hut to connect a relative clause with a sentence. 1. Original: Referring to your account on our books, we find that since the date of this statement you have paid us $155.51, and which remittance we appreciate. Improved: We appreciate the payment of $155.51 which our record of your account shows you made since your last statement. 2. Original: We have received many orders from Mr. W. A. Miller, a well-known retailer, and who understands the conditions in that part of the state. Improved: We have received many orders from Mr. W. A. Miller, a well-known retailer, who understands conditions in that part of the state. Rule IV. A sentence should not contain too many mem- bers even though they are closely related in thought, I. Original: This statement is sent for comparison, and if, at your convenience, you will be kind enough to check it over and if found to be correct, favor us with a remittance, we shall be enabled to balance your account down to the point mentioned. Improved: This statement is sent for comparison. Please check it over at your convenience, and if you find it cor- rect, favor us with a remittance. We shall then be able to balance your account down to the time mentioned. 144 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 2. Original: We are sure you do not wish us to discriminate against our good customers; however, we do just this, if we waive interest in your favor while other customers who for some reason could not pay for their purchases on the maturity date allow us interest for the overtime. Improved: We are sure you do not wish us to discriminate against our good customers who for some reason could not pay for their purchases on the maturity date and have al- lowed us interest for the overtime. If, however, we waive interest in your favor, this is precisely what we do. Rule V. Do not mistake a phrase or a clause for a com- plete sentence. ^ 1. Original: We do not urge our customers to put their private funds into these bonds. Although we have ourselves bought heavily of them. Improved: Although we have bought heavily of these bonds, we do not urge our customers to put their private funds into them. 2. Original: We shipped one case June 7, price twenty-seven dollars. The other June 23, price thirty-six dollars. Improved: We shipped one case June 7, price twenty-seven dollars, and the other June 23, price thirty-six dollars. Rule VI. When clauses, phrases, and single parts of speech are connected by and, or, but, either — or, neither — nor, etc., they should be made similar in form. Careless writers often join a clause and a phrase by one of the foregoing connectives when both expressions should be clauses or nouns. I. Original: We could not continue longer in business, /or very few orders had come in and on account of the high cost of labor. Improved: We could not continue longer in business, for very few orders had come in and the cost of labor was high. UNITY OF THE SENTENCE 145 2. Original: The company decided that it would raise the wages of its employees and to grant them a bonus. Improved: The company decided to raise the wages of its em- ployees and to grant thtm a bonus. 3. Original: As we have written you many letters and no reply having been received, we are placing your account in the hands of our attorney for collection. 4. Improved: As we have written you many letters and have re- ceived no reply, we are placing your account in the hands of our attorney for collection. Careless writers also unconsciously shift from one form of the verb to another, from present time to past time, from one pronoun subject to another and from one form of verb to an unlike form — as, " My duties are to answer the telephone and filing letter sJ^ This, of course, should be written: "My duties are to answer the telephone and file letter s.^^ The following sentences illustrate these types of errors : 1. Original: Mr. Hart will call on you in a few days, and sam- ples of our goods will be shown to you. Improved: Mr. Hart will call on you in a few days and show you samples of our goods. 2. Original: Just then a customer comes in and wanted to re- turn some goods which she had bought. Improved: Just then a customer came in and wanted to ex- change some goods which she had bought. 3. Original: We appreciate his going on the road for us, his loyalty to the house, and that he has made money for us. Improved: We appreciate the fact that he went on the road for us, was loyal to the house, and made money for us. 4. Original: We regret being unable to replace the broken chair and that you have decided not to give us future orders. 146 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Improved: We regret that we are unable to replace the broken chair and that you have decided not to give us future orders. Rule VII. Avoid any needless change of the subject, 1. Original: You may give us a promissory note for the amount, or a check may be sent by you. Improved: You may give us a promissory note for the amount or send us your personal check. 2. Original: Our salesman will call on you next week, and our proposition will be explained to you in detail. Improved: Our salesman will call on you next week and ex- plain our proposition in detail. LESSON THIRTY-FOUR Clearness in the Sentence Clearness requires that the various parts of the sentence should be so carefully arranged as to make the meaning unmistakable. Observe a watchmaker at work. How carefully he places each tiny piece in its proper place, and how exact he makes every detail of his work. Before the watch will run and keep accurate time, every part must be rightly arranged in relation to the whole. The watch will run and keep correct time only when its parts are per- fectly adjusted. In precisely the same way, the sentence can do its work best only when each part is in its proper position. In order that you may correctly arrange the details of a sentence, you should keep in mind the following principles : 1. Every modifier — word, phrase, or clause — should be so placed that it will qualify or be properly related to the word intended. For example, do not say, "I only deducted two per cent." Say, "I deducted only two per cent." 2. Every pronoun should refer unmistakably to the noun or pronoun for which it stands. It is incorrect to say, "Mr. Field told his father he would succeed." We do not know whether the pronoun refers to Mr. Field or his father. Similarly, it is incorrect to say, "The books and tablets were received three days after we received the pencils. This was on January 15." It is better to say, "The books and tablets were received January 15, and the lead pencils January 12" (or January 18 and January 15, according to the meaning). 3. A summarizing word or expression — such as these, all these, 147 148 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH these and many more, etc. — should be used to collect the parts of a long subject — thus: To act as trustee of property left with it as guardian of minors; to act as agent in the management of real prop- erty; to act as receiver for defunct concerns of all kinds and those needing reorganization; to act as depository for trust funds, securities, and other personal property — these are among the various powers granted to trust companies. Clearness also requires accuracy of statement. For ex- ample, note the following: "There were 12 doz. shoe boxes in each of the 20 cases, and half of them were broken." As the statement stands, you cannot determine whether 10 of the cases were broken or 120 dozen of the boxes. It is better to state the sentence as follows: " There were 20 cases each containing 12 dozen shoe boxes. Ten of the cases were broken." In order to secure clearness in the sentence, the follow- ing rules should be carefully applied: Rule I. Adjectives and adverbs should he so placed that there can he no doubt as to what they modify. It is incorrect to say — 1. One pair of black ladies' stockings. 2. Our tailored babies' coats. 3. Special sale of hlackcalf boys' school shoes. 4. I only asked five dollars for the hat. 5. We nearly sold all the stock at a premium. 6. Every box was not broken. Note the gain in clearness when the modifiers are rear- ranged: 1. One pair of ladies' black stockings. 2. Our babies' tailored coats. CLEARNESS IN THE SENTENCE 149 3. Special sale of boys' blackcalf school shoes. 4. I asked only five dollars for the hat. 5. We sold nearly all the stock at a premium. 6. Not every box was broken. Rule II. Like adjectives and adverbs, phrases and clauses should be so placed thai they will modify the word intended. In the following sentences, the phrases and clauses are misplaced : 1. Your order was received Saturday /or two Victrolas. 2. I saw a man wrapping bundles with a Roman nose. 3. We are sending you a statement amounting to $250 of your account. 4. Wanted: A horse for an old man that is well broken. 5. The stoves came yesterday in good condition that I ordered. The same sentences, when correctly arranged, gain much in clearness: 1. Your order for two Victrolas was received Saturday. 2. I saw a man with a Roman nose wrapping bundles. 3. We are sending you a statement of your account which amounts to $250. 4. Wanted: A horse that is well broken for an old man. 5. The stoves / ordered came yesterday in good condition. Rule III. There should be a definitely expressed noun or pronoun for euery participle or participial phrase to modify, and a participial modifier should be placed as near as pos- sible to the word it modifies. The following are incorrectly written: 1. Knowing your needs, hundreds of fall raincoats have been placed on sale. 2. Having secured a money order, the bill was paid by me. 3. Walking into the office, a telegram was seen by the manager. 150 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Note carefully the changes necessary to make the mean- ing clear: 1. Knowing your needs, we have placed hundreds of fall rain- coats on sale. 2. Having secured a money order, I paid the bill. 3. Walking into the office, the manager saw a telegram. Rule IV. A sentence should he so constructed that the word to which a pronoun refers will he easily discoverable. The following sentences illustrate errors of this kind: 1. Mr. Lee's father entered the hardware business when he was quite young. 2. In the letter it says the goods were damaged. 3. We are interested in your gasoline-feed system, but it would not be worth our while considering it unless it is protected by patent. Note the gain in clearness when the reference of each pronoun is made definite: 1. When Mr. Lee was quite young, his father entered the hard- ware business. 2. The letter says that the goods were damaged. 3. We are interested in your gasoline-feed system, but would not consider it unless the device were protected by patent. Rule V. When the suhject of a sentence is long and con- tains a series of words, phrases, or clauses, both clearness and force may he obtained by the use of a summarizing word — thus: Government bonds, or those issued by the Federal Government; state and municipal bonds, or those issued by states, counties, school districts, cities, and villages; railroad bonds; public utility bonds, or those issued by street railways, water, gas, I CLEARNESS IN THE SENTENCE 151 and electric companies; industrial bonds, the issues of com- panies engaged in commercial and industrial enterprises — these are the different classes of bonds. Rule VI. Clearness requires accuracy of statement. The following sentences contain inaccuracies: 1. The enclosed statement amounting to $250 and showing a balance on your account down to date is now due. 2. The shipment of June 7 was for December shipment. In the first of the foregoing, one should not speak of a statement as amounting to a certain sum because the sum referred to is evidently the balance due; and, in the second, the statement is so inaccurate as to make it a puzzle. Note how each may be improved: 1. The enclosed statement of your account shows a balance of $250, which is now due. 2. The goods sent you June 7 were originally intended for De- cember shipment. Rule VII. Whenever possible use simple words, but use technical words if necessary. The following sentences contain expressions for which technical terms should be used : 1. Please send me two packages of Examination Paper. 2. We shipped you a box of shoes on Feb. 4. Note the improvement in them when technical terms are substituted: 1. Please send me two reams of Examination Paper. 2. We shipped you a case of shoes on Feb. 4. LESSON THIRTY-FIVE Emphasis in the Sentence A cleverly written advertisement never fails to arrest attention and secure interest. Have you ever paused to find out just why this is true? If so, you, no doubt, noticed the naturalness, newness, and charm of each expression, its directness and brevity, every word performing its work in the most effective way. You found important words and phrases in positions where they would compel atten- tion, some of them chosen for headings and set in large type. In short, the entire advertisement was so con- structed as to emphasize every fact. In much the same way, in all of your writing you should make your ideas stand out forcibly. Every sentence should possess emphasis. Emphasis in the sentence is the force of an idea to attract attention. The following rules will be found effective in securing emphasis: Rule I. Avoid worn-out words and phrases and all mean- ingless expressions. To some extent, worn-out, or commonplace, expressions are likely to be found in writing of any kind, but especially in letter writing. There is perhaps a reason for this. Business letters have always been somewhat encumbered with legal expressions and with certain servile words and phrases, the relics of an overcourteous day. Then, too, certain convenient words have become overworked merely because people do not think carefully enough to find fresher expressions. The following expressions should be avoided: 152 EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE 153 1. Advise. This word is too often used for inform or tell. 2. At hand, to hand, duly at hand, etc. As these expres- sions are entirely useless, they should be avoided. It is better to refer in a very direct manner to a letter by giving subject and date — as, "I will accept the offer mentioned in your letter of June 8." 3. Beg to say, beg to remain, beg to advise, etc. These are servile expressions which are no longer excusable. Simply tell what you have to say. Do not say, *'In reply we beg to say that we cannot accept the return of the shoes," but "We cannot accept the return of the shoes." 4. Contents carefully noted. This expression is useless if not entirely senseless. The fact that you reply will be evidence that the contents of the letter have been noted. Omit it entirely. 5. Esteemed, esteemed favor, kind favor, kindly, etc. These expressions of courtesy have become meaningless be- cause used indiscriminately. In fact they have become almost servile. The word favor should not be used in the sense of letter, but may be employed to express its true meaning. 6. Hand you. This expression is inaccurate. It is bet- ter to say enclose, send by parcel post, etc. 7. Herewith. This word is unnecessary when used with enclose. It is greatly overworked. 8. Inst., ult., and prox. These terms are rightly losing their place in modern business writing. It is much better to give the name of the month. For example, say Jan- uary 10 rather than the 10th inst. 154 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 9. Our Mr, Bennett, This expression has become quite commonplace. Say Mr. Bennett; our representative, Mr. Bennett; etc. 10. Recent date. It is generally better to give the exact date. Do not say, " In response to your letter of recent date, would say that the merchandise was shipped accord- ing to contract." Say, '' The merchandise which you men- tion in your letter of January 7 was shipped according to contract." 11. Said and same. These words belong to the long list of overworked legal terms. Instead of referring to a thing as said letter, said contract, etc., it is better to designate it definitely unless you are writing a legal document. For example, say this letter, the letter of June 7, etc. Same is an adjective, not a pronoun. Do not say, " We regret the delay in the shipment of your order of men's shoes and hope same has not caused you any inconvenience." Say, " We regret the delay in the shipment of your order of men's shoes and hope this has not caused you any incon- venience." The word same may be used with a noun or when a noun is understood — as, " This contract is the same (contract) as we have offered our other cus- tomers." 12. State. Try to use other words occasionally — for example, say, tell, describe, present, etc. 13. We, I, the writer. We is properly used in writing for a firm, but do not hesitate to use / whenever necessary. Do not, however, use / and we interchangeably. Some people in order to avoid / or we use the writer. It is better to use I or we whenever necessary. Do not say, ^^The EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE 155 writer of this letter has charge of the Adjustment Depart- ment," but "I have charge of the Adjustment Department/' 14. Yours. This is wrongly used for your letter or yours truly. The full expressions are much more desirable. 15. Trite expressions at the close of a letter. Avoid sentences beginning with hoping^ trusting, believing, etc. It is better to say, " We trust that this will be satisfactory." Such terms also as and oblige, I am, and I remain should be omitted. Rule II. Avoid the roundabout, wordy phrasing of ideas that can be expressed directly and briefly. Careless writers often express their thoughts in long, roundabout phrases or clauses merely because they do not take the time to search for the simple expression that will convey the meaning directly. In the following sentences note this fault : 1. Answering your recent favor addressed to us, we would state that under separate cover we are mailing you samples of the dififerent lines of letter paper that we carry, and trust you will find what you require among them. 2. As the sum in question is materially overdue, we feel that it should be paid and would thank you to let us have a re- mittance or advise in regard to your plans as to when you can make settlement. 3. It is our preference that customers remit direct, and there- fore we trust that you will give this your first attention and send us your personal check. 4. We wrote you with reference to this item under date of June 27 advising as to the correctness of our charge and feel sure you will now be in position to let us have the $50 deducted at this time either in separate check or include in your next payment. 156 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 5. In regard to the $30 which you speak of, we would say that we find that this amount is entered on your account under date of July 30 and, with an additional credit of $0.47 posted under date of September 11, has been used to offset our debit entry of June 28, $30.47. The foregoing sentences are not utterly bad, but can be restated in much briefer language. Note carefully the changes that are made in each: 1. We are mailing you the samples you asked for the other day and believe you will find among them just what you want. 2. As this sum is materially overdue, please remit by return mail or advise definitely concerning the payment of these bills. 3. As we prefer to have our customers remit direct, we trust you will send us your check by return mail. 4. We wrote you on July 27 that our charge was correct and feel sure you will prefer to send us a check for $50. 5. We find that the $30 you mention is entered on our account under date of July 30 and, with an additional credit of $0.47 entered under date of September 11, has been used to off- set our debit entry of June 28, $30.47. Rule III. Avoid needless repetition of words and phrases. Repetition sometimes secures emphasis, but as a rule it is to be avoided. Note the following examples: 1. We collected together all the boxes. 2. We have repeatedly warned you again and again that we cannot accept the return of goods sold according to con- tract. 3. The railway company resold the goods again. 4. Knowing that you will prefer to keep your credit good, we linow that you will pay this bill. EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE 157 5. We would have sent you two tables, but we had but one in stock. Note the gain in emphasis when these sentences are restated without the repetitions: 1. We collected all the boxes. 2. We have repeatedly warned you that we cannot accept the return of goods sold according to contract. 3. The railway company resold the goods. 4. Knowing that you will prefer to keep your credit good, we believe you will pay this bill. 5. We would have sent you two tables, but we had only one in stock. Rule IV. Avoid the telegraphic style of writing. In correspondence careless writers often omit pronoun subjects — for example, " Have received your letter of June 4." It is much better to write, " We have received your letter of June 4." They also frequently omit a, an, the, and other short words — for example, " Have received check and appHed on open account." Note the gain in emphasis when stated as follows: " We have received your check and applied it on your open account." This fault, with the use of too many abbreviations, gives rise to what is sometimes called the telegraphic style of writing, which is only admissible in letters from one department to another in the same business establishment. Rule V. Emphasis may sometimes he secured by trans- posing words, phrases, or clauses. The very fact that an expression is taken out of its nat- ural position and placed at the beginning of a sentence is sufficient to center attention upon it. To place a phrase IS8 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH or clause at the beginning also affords variety of sentence structure. In the following sentences the phrases and clauses stand in the natural order: 1. We believe you will like the suit if you wear it a few times. 2. You should have received the goods on April lo according to the usual time required for shipments to reach your town. 3. I refer you to Mr. J. W. Saunders for further information as to my character and ability. Note the gain in variety effected by transposing phrases and clauses : 1. // you will wear the suit a few times, we beheve you will like it. 2. According to the usual time required for shipments to reach your town, you should have received the goods on April 10. 3. For further information as to my character and ability, I refer you to Mr. J. W. Saunders. The second set of sentences is no better than the first; but such transpositions often give variety. For example, the following sentences are correct, but monotonous: I came to your office at eight. You were not there, but had gone to the factory. I followed you to the factory. You were not there when I arrived. You had returned to the office. I went back to your office and found that you had left. I went home. I will come again to see you to-morrow. Note how the transposition of words in one sentence and the union of two sentences have improved the paragraph as a whole. I came to your office at eight. You were not there but had gone to the factory. I followed you to the factory and then back again to your office, but missing you at both places I went home. To-morrow I will come again to see you. EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE 159 Rule VI. Emphasis may he secured by so constructing the sentence that its meaning is incomplete or suspended until the end is reached.^ The following sentences illustrate this type: 1. Except when she was called from her desk to consult with her employer, the stenographer never left her work for a moment. 2. Until a few weeks ago when we collected the claim from the railroad company, we had paid no attention to this in- voice. 3. Walking into his ofhce, the manager saw, lying on the floor before him, several important papers. Sometimes changing the position of a phrase or clause will produce the desired result.* For example, take the sentence, " Prices advanced every day as the war con- tinued." This may be changed as follows: ''As the war continued, prices advanced every day." By changing the structure of a loose compound sentence, you may suspend the meaning to the end. For example, you may change one of the members to a subordinate clause or a participial phrase. The following are examples of loose compound sentences: 1. I have received no reply to my letter, and as the account is still open, I earnestly request that you take some action to effect a settlement. 2. You have not made arrangements with the bank to take up this draft, and therefore we are writing to ask that you call at the bank without delay and pay the paper or send us a remittance direct. * Such sentences are commonly called periodic, while those that are so constructed that they could be broken at some point before the end and yet leave a completed meaning are called loose sentences. i6o ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH 3. We do not think you are aware of the fact that this balance is due, and so we bring it to your attention. Note the variation shown when one of the members is changed to a subordinate clause or a phrase: 1. As I have received no reply to my letter and as the account is still open, I earnestly request that you take some action to effect a settlement. 2. Since you have not made arrangements with the bank to take up this draft, we ask that you call there without delay and pay the paper, or send us a remittance direct. 3. Thinking perhaps that you are not aware of the fact that this balance is due, we are bringing it to your attention. Sometimes a phrase or even a single word can be made to take the place of a clause. For example, take the sen- tence, " In nine cases out of ten, an office manager will choose a stenographer who has been well trained.'^ Where variety is desired this can be stated by changing the clause to an adjective — thus: " In nine cases out of ten, an office manager will choose a well-trained stenographer." Rule VII. Emphasis may be secured by the use of short sentences. Too many short sentences, however, should not be used, but judiciously employed they are an effective means of securing emphasis. Rule VIII. Emphasis may be secured by the use of a dash. A true sale yields a threefold profit — to the manufacturer, to the seller, and to the buyer. The following ad from the Saturday Evening Post shows how effective emphasis may be used in written composi- tion. Note that Rules I, II, and III are observed throughout. EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE i6i The Heat that Molded Mountains Awaits Your Commands Rule VI. Not since the mighty upheavals of creation has the world known a flame so intensely hot as that produced by burning acetylene gas combined with oxygen. Rule IV. No instrument has yet been devised capable of ac- curately measuring the terrific temperature of the ox- acetylene flame which is estimated at 6300° Fahrenheit. Rule VIII. Thanks to modern industrial enterprise, this tremen- dous heat has been confined, harnessed, and converted into energy to serve American manufacturers — a worker of miracles controlled by a twist of the fingers! Rule VII. Cracked and broken parts are remade. This is done in an incredibly short time and at surprisingly low cost. Worn surfaces are built up to their original dimensions. They are every bit as serviceable as when new. Rule VIII. And the tiny oxweld cutting flame slices through iron and steel as a knife cuts butter — making a clean- edged cut in less time than it takes a man to saw through a corresponding thickness of wood. Rule VII. The applications of oxwelding and cutting to both production and reclamation are apparently limitless. The process is being used, at a great saving of time and money, in thousands of plants. Rules VI Oxweld Service Engineers, stationed in more than and VII. fifty centrally situated cities, are ready to demonstrate how oxwelding and cutting 'may be appHed to your ad- vantage in your plant. A word will bring one of these experts to your door. Rule I. Write, wire, or telephone to the nearest address below for immediate attention. Rule I. An illustrated booklet, "Oxweld Can Do It!" will be sent on request. It tells what oxweld is doing for others and what it can do for you. (By permission of the Saturday Evening Post.) LESSON THIRTY-SIX The Paragraph Every writer or speaker who thinks clearly divides his subject into steps or divisions in each of which he expresses a definite idea. These divisions are, of course, clearly marked for the reader by indentation or by double spacing. A paragraph consists of a group of sentences, bound by a close relation in idea, which develops a single subject or topic. The purpose of the paragraph is to aid both the mind and the eye. The eye would tire of the unbroken page just as it would of the continuous sentence; and without paragraph divisions, the mind could not so easily see the topics of thought that were in the writer's mind. Read carefully the following paragraph. Note that there is a single sentence in which the central idea is ex- pressed and that it stands at the beginning. This is called the topic sentence. Sometimes it appears at the beginning of the paragraph, sometimes at the end. "Packard trucks are priced at a figure which permits the na- tion's greatest producer of high-grade commercial vehicles to manufacture a good truck. That price protects you against ex- cessive after cost. It is your guarantee of continual and effi- cient truck operation. Its economy becomes more pronounced day after day and your truck is running smoothly and willingly long after the thirty per cent proposition has gone into the dis- card. Its earning power is almost unlimited, given average care and attention." The first sentence in the foregoing is the topic sentence — that is, it tells what the topic of the entire paragraph is 162 THE PARAGRAPH 163 to be. By shortening it we can give the paragraph the title: The Price of Packard Trucks Permits the Producer to Manufacture a Good Truck. This can be shortened into the title: High Price Means Economy. Of course the writer does not use the word high. From his viewpoint it is not high, but low, in the long run. There is no detail in the entire paragraph that does not develop the topic expressed in the topic sentence. Often your thoughts on a topic can be expressed in a single sentence. This is particularly true in business cor- respondence. The following is an example of what is called the single-sentence paragraph. "Packard service is regarded as the embodiment of all that should be — a thing to be counted on in a time of need — a vital necessity to be seriously considered when making a pur- chase of motor equipment." Note carefully the topic sentence in the following para- graph, and observe how every sentence helps to develop the idea and is subordinate to it: ^^ There is nothing that can injure you much more at the very start of your sale than tardiness. The customer feels that he has granted you a great favor in stating an exact time when he will be willing to see you. It is eminently fitting, therefore, that you do not waste any of his time — not one minute of it. It is said that Marshall Field made it a condition of his becoming a di- rector of any corporation that all meetings were to begin on time. Nothing irritates a prompt, exact, businesslike man much more than to be compelled to wait. — Read^s Salesman- ship. Note also the topic sentence of the following paragraph 1 64 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH and the relation to it of every sentence in the series. Could a single word be omitted? (i) Topic "(i) When we say that Packard trucks are built, (2) Durability we mean all that that word implies. (2) Statistics prove that built trucks outlive all others at least (3) Scarcity twice over. (3) You can count the "built" trucks (4) Economy on the fingers of one hand. (4) Economy is built (5) Economy into every piece of the Packard product. (5) This (6) Economy is what you buy. (6) It is what pays you dividends thereafter." In the following paragraph the topic sentence comes at the close: "The Packard truck has a strong and powerful motor. It has a strong rear axle. Its parts have all been designed, built, and tested to fill a given purpose. In short, it is mechanically the most perfect tru^k on the market. '^ The narrative paragraph, which is used in telling of busi- ness transactions, current events, incidents, and stories, does not usually require a topic sentence. If the transac- tion or incident is told in a single paragraph, however, there should be a sentence at the beginning stating the time, place, characters, and circumstances. The details are then added in the time order — that is, in the order in which they occurred. Note carefully the opening statement of the following: "One day last winter when the thermometer registered about twenty below a friend of mine looking out of the window at the hard going on the streets below, remarked: 'My, I wish I had bought that Packard truck you were trying to sell me last sum- mer. It would save a lot of money I am now paying for substi- tute hire. Now just look at that truck. Would you consider it THE PARAGRAPH 165 worth eighteen dollars a day? Its power is hardly sufficient to pull itself, let alone a load.' " Of course in longer narratives where there are a series of related paragraphs, such an opening sentence could be expected only at the beginning of the first one. Descriptive paragraphs also do not usually require a definite statement of the idea in a topic sentence. How- ever, if the writer has had a single topic in mind, you can easily find it. For example, if he is describing an article he wishes to sell, he will try to create a definite impression. He will keep the customer constantly in mind and will appeal to desire. If the customer knows the article well, if it is a staple product, the writer will select only the details that will show superiority of material, low price, service, etc. Note the central idea of the following paragraph. "The Packard Car commands an action that is prime and quiet, a control that is as velvet to the touch. In the owner's service, functions a mechanism so delicately and yet so ruggedly constructed, that though his ear scarcely can hear its movement, not his sternest usage can bully it into weakness." THE SHORT PARAGRAPH IN BUSINESS The short paragraph is popular in business correspond- ence. Turn to the sales letter, the adjustment letter — in fact, to any business letter — and you will find short pointed paragraphs. The purpose, of course, is to secure both emphasis and clearness. Quite often — and indeed it is almost the general practice — business men make each important fact stand out by placing it m a separate para- graph. Each point will thereby be made so obvious as not to be overlooked or misunderstood. i66 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Frequently the opening and closing paragraphs consist of but a single sentence. When necessary to refer to the previous letter or to acknowledge an enclosure, this part should, as a rule, be made the first paragraph. In trying to be brief, however, remember to avoid worn-out phrases and undue formality. Strive to be concise, but original in expression. Note the following opening paragraphs: "Your letter of August 20 regarding complaint on order C-273654 has been received." "The catalog for which you asked in your letter of March 8 has been mailed and we believe you can find listed just the fixtures you want." "We are pleased to enclose samples of letters asked for in your letter of August 21." "Do you know that we are not selling motor trucks as we used to, but rather we are selling transportation?" The concluding paragraph should be equally concise and especially free from worn-out expressions. Note the fol- lowing examples: "Will you kindly take this matter up with your manager so that it will eliminate our taking any such action on your future shipments? " "We hope this has caused you no inconvenience." "If you find the goods satisfactory — and I think you will — you may remit for them in July." "Don't you want to go into the facts and figures with a rep- resentative of our company? It will mean dollars in your pocket. When shall we have him call?" In order to paragraph correctly, the writer must formu- late a plan for his article or letter and Hmit each paragraph to one special or particular part of that outline. THE PARAGRAPH 167 When you study letter writing, you will learn what a number of these plans are. For example, you will learn that in the sales letter one plan is to follow these steps: attention, interest, desire, action; another, attention, in- terest, proof, persuasion, inducement, and action; another, attention, explanation, proof, persuasion; another, atten- tion, interest, persuasion; and yet another, attention, in- terest, persuasion, inducement, etc. All these plans con- form to the principles on which successful selhng is based. We have nothing to do with that here except as it applies to paragraphing. It is sufficient at this time to know that there must be a scientific order of topics, and that each topic must have a separate paragraph, and no paragraph should contain more than one topic. The following will show a business letter properly para- graphed : "If a man should suddenly step into your office and say, 'Mr. Brown, I will increase the efficiency of your Attention pick-up and delivery system twofold today, tomorrow, and every day thereafter, at a cost no greater than you are now paying, and possibly less,' what would you say? "Hundreds of firms have had that same assertion put Explanation to them in the last few years, and they have done what you would do — grasped the opportunity. Packard trucks have come to their rescue. They are proving the absolute truth of the statement. "Their problems have not differed greatly from yours, and they have found it highly profitable to Packardise their business. They know that under the old system Proof of horse and wagon, or unreliable truck deliveries, they were constantly harassed with breakdowns just when i68 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH they were most costly and with innumerable petty wor- ries that add to the burden of life. "Packards have revolutionized this. They stand up. Persuasion They represent an asset which other buyers could not do without. ''Can you?'' LESSON THIRTY-SEVEN Unity of the Paragraph Unity of the paragraph is as important as unity of the sentence. In the foregoing lesson you learned that a para- graph contains a central idea, often summed up in a state- ment called the topic sentence, and a number of details that help to develop the idea. When the details are properly arranged to support the main idea, there is produced that singleness of effect that is called unity. In order to assist in securing unity, you should observe certain principles which will be stated and illustrated. Rule I. A paragraph should present but one central idea. Note that the following selection taken from a sales letter contains two main ideas: "Any piece of machinery is only as strong as its weakest part. If a truck has a good rear axle, a strong frame, but an under- powered engine, you will surely have trouble. So it is with any part of it. A truck to be right must be built to serve a given pur- pose, each little piece properly designed and manufactured to fit with its component parts, and the whole considered from the angle of a single unit. The result becomes mechanical perfec- tion in so far as human ingenuity can make it so." In order to secure unity, divide the passage into two paragraphs as follows: "Any piece of machinery is only as strong as its weakest part. If a truck has a good rear axle, a strong frame, but an under- powered engine, you will surely have trouble. So it is with every part of it. "A truck to be right must be built to serve a given purpose, each little piece properly designed and manufactured to fit with its 169 170 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH component parts, ^nd the whole considered from the angle of a single unit. The result becomes mechanical perfection in so far as human ingenuity can make it so." If a paragraph possesses unity, its central idea can be expressed in a topic sentence. If it requires more than one such statement to express the topic, there should be more than one division. Rule IL Minor details that do not help to develop the central idea should be excluded. In narration select the essential details and state them in the order of occurrence. Do not turn aside to mention something that has nothing to do with your story. If you feel that you should begin a statement with " By the way," you had better omit the sentence altogether. If you are describing an unfamiHar article or something entirely new, you should give full details. If the customer knows the article well, however, you will not need to give many details. Too many details destroy the singleness of effect and purpose which gives unity. The following example shows a description of men's suits which contains 'unnecessary details: "We are putting on sale more than a thousand suits of men's clothes. They include all the soft wool materials — blue serge, velour-finished cassimeres, fine-twill flannels, etc. The colors are black, blue, gray, and brown. Many of the suits have shades of green in them. Some of them have small stripes and checks, others being plain. The styles are correct and almost every design may be found. The coats include double-breasted ones and pinch-backs. There are also a great number of sack coats. The collars fit nicely and there are no wrinkles across the UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH 171 shoulders. All trimmings and linings are of the finest satin and silk. You will like these suits if you see them. They would sell for seventy-five dollars if made to measure." Since the customer is familiar with men's suits, minute details are unnecessary. Note the improvement when restated : "We offer more than a thousand men's suits. All the beauti- ful soft wool materials of rich color and design that were so scarce a year ago are here in abundance. You will find correct styles, single and double breasted, snappy Hues that make you appear well dressed, smart fitting collars, and excellent trim- mings and linings. These suits would sell for seventy-five dol- lars each if made to measure." Rule III. Determine definitely a single point of view and hold to it throughout the paragraph. In business writing, select the point of view of the reader and hold to it. At least you should not change it without giving definite notice. Be careful not to confuse your own interests with his, for you will find a natural tendency to change from the you-point of view to the I-point of view. Moreover, you should keep in mind the class of customers to whom you are writing. And this is true whether of description, explanation, or argument. If you were sell- ing motor trucks, for example, you would hardly write the same description and explanation to the farmer as to the retail merchant, nor would you use the same argument. Note the following example written from the point of view of the farmer: "In the busy season the farmer finds the motor truck a dis- tinct advantage. Other conveyances are too slow or fail en- 172 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH tirely. But the truck can be depended upon to get perishable goods quickly to market and to bring in supplies." Compare the foregoing with this paragraph written to the retail merchant: "In cold and stormy weather customers appreciate delivery service more than ever. They find it a distinct advantage to deal with a house that brings goods to their very door and saves them the discomforts of shopping." In your text on letter writing, Rule III will be discussed from the standpoint of salesmanship. What you are to study here is its effect on paragraphing, which may be restated in the following way : The you-point of view and the I-point of view must never be mixed in the same paragraph. The style of the para- graph also must consistently recognize the general char- acter, occupation, education, or other important facts about the receiver of the letter, and not change from one type to another. LESSON THIRTY-EIGHT Clearness in the Paragraph Often through lack of definite planning, careless writers fail to arrange their sentences in a natural and logical order. This makes the meaning of the paragraph difficult to de- termine. The following is an example of this error: "You know our invariable policy, 'If anything is not right, we make it right.' Surely the goods were perfectly satisfactory, or we should have heard from you before this. And that policy really means that our goods are right in the first place." Note the gain in clearness when the sentences are ar- ranged in the proper order: "Surely the goods were perfectly satisfactory, or we should have heard from you before this time. You know our invari- able policy, 'If anything is not right, we make it right.' And that policy really means that our goods are right in the first place." Careless writers, in passing from one sentence to another, are also likely to change unnecessarily from one subject to another — thus : *A successful business man must study the market. You must be able to determine when prices of commodities are likely to rise or fall." Of course, the correct form is as follows: "A successful business man must study the market. He must be able to determine when prices of commodities are likely to rise or fall." Again, careless writers often fail to use connecting words and phrases. They forget that in brief writing, such as business letters, there are in many cases wide gaps between 173 174 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH ideas where connectives like however, therefore, conse- quently, etc. would make the meaning clearer. Note the lack of connectives in the following paragraph: "On January 4 a telegram came from Mr. Smith concerning some tires that had been returned. I went to the factory. I examined them carefully. I refused to accept them. They had been shipped according to contract." But compare it with the same rewritten with the neces- sary connectives suppHed: "On January 4 a telegram came from Mr. Smith concerning some tires that had been returned. I therefore went to the fac- tory and examined them carefully. They were in good condi- tion, hut I did not accept their return because they had been shipped according to contract." Clearness in the paragraf)h requires that the foregoing errors be carefully avoided. The following rules should therefore be observed: Rule I. The sentences should he arranged in natural and logical order. Clear and logical thinking will do more than anything else to insure the proper arrangement of ideas. Before beginning to write, work out a definite plan for develop- ing the topic. There are a few plans that experienced writers have approved. The more important ones follow: The Narrative Order. In telHng about a business trans- action, the narrative order, of course, should be followed, as you would follow it in a story. This means nothing more than setting forth details in the time order — thus : "February 4 I was in your factory and ordered a shipment of tires. You will remember that you promised to deliver them CLEARNESS IN THE PARAGRAPH 175 in ten days. Today I received only twenty-four of them. It is now February 16 and there are still twenty-six to be deliv- ered. You have, therefore, not lived up to your contract." The Descriptive Order. In describing an article offered for sale or in picturing a person or place, you follow the so-called descriptive order — that is, you mention the things together that stand or belong near each other in space. Naturally you should not skip about or change your point of view. First give a general impression of the object and follow this with the most necessary details — thus : "Our sedan is a comfortable, roomy, six-passenger car with the rear seat as wide as can possibly be contrived in a body which is hung extremely low and thus is between the rear wheels rather than over them. The front seat is not divided. Two large, comfortable, well-upholstered folding seats drop into a recess back of the front seats. The body is unusually strong; the frame is constructed principally of ash with very heavy door and corner posts and will stand the shock and strain incident to driving over rough roads. Finally, the simple lines give an air of elegance without any suggestion of a 'boxy' appearance." The Argument Order. Although the descriptive order is followed largely in picturing articles in sales letters and advertisements, business is concerned chiefly with ex- planation and argument. In this case the order of presen- tation may be called the argument order. Here are several plans of development. I. Statement and Illustration. You may begin with a topic sentence stating a general truth and then follow it with a concrete example, or illustration — thus: "Progressive companies are constantly endeavoring to increase their business. There's a bank here in Denver — not much 176 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH larger than yours — that secured over a thousand new deposit- ors in December. They secured them, mind you, by giving away one of our handsome self-filling fountain pens to every person opening an account. You can do the same. Try it now." 2. Statement and Figure of Speech. You may introduce a comparison with good effect, if not too long — thus: "^ speedometer, too, is important. It is really the driver's time-table — indispensable to motor travel." 3. Statement and Contrast. Perhaps a contrast may serve equally as well to develop your general statement: "Suburban property is in far greater demand than before the days of automobile transportation. Formerly the advantages of life outside the cities were limited to the efficiency of railway connections. Now the automobile owner is independent of every other conveyance. The inconvenience of family shopping and getting about generally no longer exists — in any season." 4. Effect and Cause. Again, in your topic sentence you may state an effect. In this case you will proceed by men- tioning the causes — thus: " You would probably, however, have had very much the same difficulties with any other firm to whom you had given the work. As you may have noticed by the papers, practically all the printing establishments in the city have been tied up for the past month with the general printers' strike. We were, therefore, compelled temporarily to hire unskilled men, who were unable to do the work so rapidly or so well as our own employees." — The B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co. 5. General Statement and Detail. In all of the foregoing examples the paragraph begins with a topic sentence or general truth. Another plan of development, however, is CLEARNESS IN THE PARAGRAPH 177 the direct opposite of this. In following this you begin with a statement of details or particulars and lead up to a general statement or conclusion — thus: "Immense numbers of firms are now using Packard equip- ment profitably. New orders are constantly coming in from old and new customers, large and small, who have found that Packards are the only logical solution to a business similar to yours. There are more than twenty-six thousand Packards giv- ing day in and day out service in every line of endeavor both at home and abroad. In short, there is every indication that the Packard trtick has won a place for itself." 6. Cause and Effect. You may begin by stating causes and end by giving the effect — thus: "When we say that Packard trucks are built, we mean all that that word implies. Statistics prove that built trucks out- live all others at least twice over. You can count the ' built ' trucks on the fingers of one hand. Economy is built into every piece of the Packard product. This economy is what you buy. It is what pays you dividends." Still another plan of developing frequently found in sales letters requires that the facts be arranged in the order of importance, the most important standing at the last. This arrangement makes a sort of chmax and, therefore, adds emphasis. Note the following example: "Packard trucks are designed and built to fill a given purpose. They are made of the best and most durable materials. Every part has been tested and tried. In short, they are. buUt right, from radiator to rear bumper." Rule II. There should be no unnecessary changes of the time expressed by the 'verbs. 178 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Note carefully the error in the following: "Then the customer comes into the House and orders goods for his spring trade. After this he spends an hour with us in the office and afterwards went out for an automobile ride." But this is the way it should have been written: "Then the customer came into the House and ordered goods for his spring trade. After that he spent an hour with us in the office and finally went out for an automobile ride." Rule III. There should be no unnecessary changes oj subject. The following paragraph illustrates this error: "A salesman should thoroughly understand the goods he wishes to sell. You should know their good qualities and be able to describe them. Nobody can make his customer want the ar- ticle unless you can show its good points." But note the gain in clearness when properly rewritten: "A salesman should understand thoroughly the goods he wishes to sell. He should know their good qualities and be able to describe them. He could not make his customer want the article unless he could show its good points." Rule IV. Whenever it is necessary to make the relation between ideas clearer j connecting words and phrases should be used. These connectives fall into well-defined groups. The first, including and, also, too, moreover, in addition to, etc., is used when moving along in the same line of thought. The second, including but, still, yet, however, neuertheless, in spite of, etc., is used when passing to an idea opposed to what has been mentioned. The third, including there- CLEARNESS IN THE PARAGRAPH 179 fore, then, so, consequently, hence, etc., is used when draw- ing a conclusion. With the exception of the words and and but, the connectives however, therefore, and yet are most frequently used and most serviceable. Besides these connectives, thus and that are frequently- used. Sometimes also it is advisable to use first (not firstly), second, third, etc.; and when the enumeration is long, it is better to make a paragraph for each step, begin- ning with these words. The following paragraph shows connecting words and phrases correctly used. After you have studied it care- fully, read it again, omitting the connectives, and note the result: "You can see, therefore, that we labored under great diffi- culties in turning out your work. In addition to this difficulty, the mills have discontinued making paper of the grade you ordered. In order not to increase the delay, we took the liberty of substituting in place of it a more expensive grade. No doubt the quality will partly compensate you for the extra postal bills; however, if you will send us a statement, showing the extra charge, we shall be glad to deduct that from the face of the bill. We shall also be glad to allow you a discount for any imperfect copies which you may return to us." LESSON THIRTY-NINE Emphasis in the Paragraph It is not enough that the paragraph should possess unity and coherence — it must also possess emphasis. Your problem is not merely to reveal the most important idea, or point, in the paragraph, but also to do it forcibly. Should you succeed, you will compel the reader to remember the thoughts you consider most important, and thus you will influence his behefs or move him to action. Effective writers have learned that emphasis can be se- cured best by the use of certain devices. Chief among these are the following: 1. Place important statements first or last in the para- graph. 2. Give the most important topic the greatest space. 3. Present most important ideas in specific language and attractive phraseology. 4. Stress important statements through certain typo- graphical devices, such as setting the expression in full capitals, underlining, tabulating, or enlarging space be- tween letters. These seem indeed simple, but ti^ey can be more easily understood when stated in the form of rules and carefully explained and illustrated. Rule I. Place important statements at the beginning or end of the paragraph. The most emphatic positions are at the beginning and the end of the paragraph. Emphasis may, therefore, be 180 / EMPHASIS IN THE PARAGRAPH i8i secured by making a good beginning. This may be done by placing the topic sentence first or by beginning with a statement or question that has a strong personal appeal. Note the emphasis gained by beginning the following paragraph with a topic sentence: ^^ Packard trucks are built to give you a service that will preserve our reputation. Our guarantee specifically calls for regular monthly inspection free of cost to you for one year from date of purchase. We watch over that truck. We have a vital interest in it, even though it has passed into other hands; for it is, nev- ertheless, one of the Packard family and as such must maintain the Packard reputation," In the next example, the question makes an equally effective beginning: "Do you know that a large percentage of Packard owners started with only enough money to make an initial payment on their first truck? Today they are fleet owners, operating their original purchase together with several others which that first truck has helped to pay for." Note also the gain by tabulation in the following: "Do you know that the three things necessary for j>roper freight transportation by motor truck are — The right truck, Proper installation of the right size. Proper supervision and maintenance? " An attractive, original way of saying the first sentence easily secures emphasis — thus : ''No, sir! Trucks will NOT eat you up, if you buy the right kind and have work for them to do.'' l82 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH Careful writers often close the paragraph with the most important statement. This may be the topic sentence or a statement summing up what has been set forth. Again, it may be the most important one of a series of thoughts arranged in the order of climax. To place it in the middle of the paragraph would establish an anticlimax — a move- ment from the most important thought to the weakest. This would result in a gradual weakening of expression and in a loss of interest. The reader quite naturally con- cludes that the speaker or writer has no more of real value to offer. Observe the following example in which emphasis is secured by placing the topic sentence last: "Goodrich Silvertown Cords cut your gasoline bills and re- lieve your motor. They coast farther and climb hills more easily. They give riding comfort and add to the good looks of your car. In short, they fill every requirement oj the exacting mo- torist," A similar emphasis is secured by arranging the sentence in the order of climax. Here is an interesting example: "You see with a Packard truck you are relieved of the con- stant anxiety attached to mediocre equipment. You can afford to smile at the other fellow's mishaps while your own sturdy Packard goes merrily along its way, pursuing the duties you lay out for it. Forethought has made you master of the situation. There are no little annoyances — no serious breakdowns — no tremendous repair bills. The Packard truck has met every re- quirement. No task is too hard — nothing too difficult." Rule II. Express important ideas in specific language and attractive phraseology. EMPHASIS IN THE PARAGRAPH 183 Vague general terms do not give a definite picture of a thing or convey accurate information. Such expressions as " without an equal/' " the best in the world," " a re- markable value/' " excellent quahty for the price/' etc., are not convincing. Get down to particulars about the thing you are describing or the proposition you are ex- plaining. For example, if you are selling goods, give de- tails of at least one of the superior features of your mer- chandise. Suppose the Goodrich Rubber Company had described their cord tires in general terms. It might have sounded like this: "Goodrich Cord tires are without doubt the most popular in the country. A large number of people use them on account of their many good qualities." But they actually said: "Some time just notice how many cars are equipped with Goodrich Silvertown Cord tires. It's really surprising to know how popular they are. And there's a reason. It's because they give such long, carefree service that they are the choice of mo- torists." Express your ideas in attractive language. Make an ef- fort to be original. Think of the usual way of saying a thing, then tell it differently. Note the following examples written in the same old way: "Although the initial cost of our truck is more, many corpo- rations buy of us. If they get a satisfactory return for what they spend, any person can do the same." Compare with this: "No, sir! The Packard truck is not a corporation truck alone. Corporations, no matter how wealthy, are not given to 1 84 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH bujdng anything unless they secure adequate return for all they expend. Remember — the Packard truck is every man'd truck." A dealer in men's clothing recently issued an ad containing this paragraph which is couched in vague general terms: "We have positively the best men's suits on the market. They are all wool and hand-tailored. There are many models." This is all true enough, but it is not convincing. Here is what it should be: "If you demand real style, here is the suit for you. Our suits are made of all-wool materials, in the season's popular patterns and colorings. We have snappy up-to-the-minute styles, in both single-breasted and double-breasted models, and every suit is hand-tailored to the very last stitch. We have models ranging from the most extreme to the most conservative. If you want to look your best Easter and thereafter, select your suit from this choice group." The foregoing examples will doubtless be sufficient to show that it is not enough merely to state facts in a vague sort of way. Ideas that are worth expressing at all should be stated in specific and attractive language. Rule III. In each paragraph give space to your ideas in proportion to their importance. The following example shows a violation of this rule: "I left Chicago on the midnight train, day before yesterday, and after changing cars at Indianapolis in the morning, I went to Cincinnati, where I arrived the following noon just in time to find that you had gone from the office for the day, as I learned that you often are, and could not be located either by me or by any of our clients no matter how important the busi- ness. Under the circumstances, I find it necessary to ask for your resignation." EMPHASIS IN THE PARAGRAPH 185 But note the gain in emphasis when the paragraph is revised to give space to ideas in proportion to their im- portance : "I arrived in Cincinnati yesterday noon, after a hard day's travel, and found that you were gone from the office for the day and could not be located either by me or any of our clients, no matter how important the business. I learned that you often do this — a thing that I cannot even begin to understand; for if an important client should need you at such times and be unable to find you, we should probably lose his business alto- gether. I have little doubt that we have lost considerable busi- ness in this way. Under the circumstances, I find it necessary to ask you for your resignation." You will observe that in the original, the writer used most of his space in describing his own hard trip — which was important to him, but not the important idea of his paragraph. In the revised paragraph, this is abbreviated and the proper proportion of space is given to the central idea. Rule IV. Emphasis may he secured through the use of certain typographical means of display. These include the use of capitals, underlining, tabulating, unusual spacing, and the use of the dash. They are used very frequently in sales letters and advertisements, but should be employed sparingly elsewhere. LESSON FORTY The Whole Composition The whole composition usually consists of a series of related paragraphs, each contributing toward the develop- ment of a single subject. In the business world the form of composition generally required is the letter. Throughout this book the language and subject-matter of business correspondence has been used. Letter writing as such, however, is to be studied in the letter-writing text for which this is the base. A word concerning the importance of this study will, therefore, be instructive. By almost every concern not purely local, business is carried on chiefly by correspond- ence, and employers are ever alert to find those who can write effective letters — letters that win. And what is more, " they are willing to pay good salaries. Recently, a large wholesale company granted the members of its adjustment and collection departments very substantial increases in pay at a time when it was lowering the salaries of other employees. This clearly indicates that a knowledge of letter writing insures a better salary. If you master the science of letter writing, not only will you receive a higher salary, but also you will have better opportunities for advancement. You will be promoted to a position of confidence and responsibihty, where you will have an opportunity to learn the *' inside '' of a business. This is, indeed, one of the highest rewards. Moreover, you will find a knowledge of letter writing valuable in any line of work. It is impossible to conceive i86 THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 187 of any business where there is not at least some need of correspondence; and if letters are to be written at all, they should be written effectively. The scientific study of letter writing is not only possible but in these days absolutely necessary. Take, for example, the sales letter. Millions of dollars' worth of goods are sold each year by this means alone. It is therefore impor- tant that such letters should be written according to a plan. Salesmanship students have worked out a series of steps — audience, attention, interest, desire, and action — and every one of these should be provided for in the sales talk. Likewise they should be provided for in the sales letter. As far as possible in the letter-writing text, the project method will be used. You will be assigned a business and directed, as its correspondent, to write the various types of letters that naturally arise in different situations. This will not only be interesting but serve to increase your knowledge of business as well. We have endeavored, in this text on business English, to lay a proper foundation for the study of letter writing; and will conclude with a discussion of the principles of unity, clearness, and emphasis. We have already applied them to the word, the sentence, and the paragraph. They will now be so treated as to apply to the complete com- position whether letter, circular, report, or advertisement. Unity. Unity in the whole composition requires that there should be only one central idea. Everything that does not help to develop this should, therefore, be rigidly excluded. 1 88 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH On the other hand, important details must not be omitted. Thousands of order letters have to be returned every day for further particulars — such as, size, catalogue numbers, etc. To secure unity, always state clearly the central idea — thus: 1. The Packard truck will save you money on your delivery service. 2. There was a mistake in my order of men's shoes. 3. The after expense of the Packard truck is not so great as that of a cheaper one. 4. A business education is valuable in many ways. To aid further in securing unity, you should prepare an outhne. Making up the outline, of course, presupposes that you have secured the materials for writing — that is, ideas from experience, books, your own thoughts on the subject, etc. Having the materials assembled, arrange your topics logically, excluding entirely any that do not belong to the central idea. Suppose, for example, that a salesman of the Packard Motor Company wishes to prepare a sales argument for letter, circular, or advertisement, having the following central idea : The after expense of a Packard truck is much less than that of a cheaper one. He will make a list of points that he beheves will develop the idea — thus: 1. The right kind of truck will not be expensive. 2. The first cost is the least consideration. 3. A truck will increase the efficiency of your pick-up and de- hvery service twofold. 4. Buying a good truck is like making a safe investment. 5. Our price is high enough to enable us to produce a good truck. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 189 6. A Packard gives efficient service. 7. You should go over the figures with our representatives. But after listing his points he will go over them care- fully to see whether there are any that should be omitted. A second thought will reveal the fact that the third topic does not belong to the central idea and that the sixth is too general. He will, therefore, revise his outline, leaving them out entirely — thus : The after expense of a Packard truck is much less than that of a cheaper one. 1. The right kind of truck will not be expensive. 2. The first cost is the least consideration. 3. Buying a good truck is like making a safe investment. 4. Our price is high enough to enable us to produce a good truck. 5. You should go over the figures with our representative. And here is how the finished composition will actually look. Note the complete unity of the work as a whole: "No, sir! Trucks will NOT eat you up, if you buy the right kind of trucks and have work for them to do. "First cost is really your least consideration. It is the after expense that must be closely scrutinized before you pass final judgment. "If it came to a question of bonds, which would you choose — a U. S. Liberty 4^^ with the resources of Uncle Sam back of it, or an oil stock guaranteed to pay 30% with nothing back of it but the guarantee? "One is founded on the stability of a nation. You know its value. The other is the loo-to-i shot. One represents a known quantity; the other is the ' x ' in your equation. "Packard trucks are priced at a figure which permits the na- tion's greatest producer of high-grade commercial vehicles to 190 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH manufacture a GOOD TRUCK. That price protects you against excessive after cost. It is your guarantee of continual and efficient truck operation. Its economy becomes more pro- nounced day after day. Your truck is running smoothly and willingly long after the 30% proposition has gone into the dis- card. Its earning power is almost unhmited, if it is given average care and attention. "Don't you want to go into the facts and figures with a rep- resentative of our company? It will mean dollars in your pocket. When shall we have him call?" Clearness. Much that has already been said of clear- ness in the paragraph applies equally to the entire com- position. The parts should follow one another in logical order, and the relation of ideas should be made clear by the use of connecting words and phrases. In narrative compositions, such as a complaint letter or a report of a business meeting, the problem of arrange- ment is simple. Merely follow the time order. Also in descriptive work, such as circulars or booklets picturing articles for sale, you have only to follow the so-called space order — that is, you present your details in the order in which they occur in space. Explanations of processes, giving directions, etc., follow the time order, while others begin with a statement of causes and end with the effect. However, in most business writing the order of devel- opment is determined largely from the point of view of the customer. Remember that his situation, his needs, his moods, and even his hobbies must be considered. All letters should at least begin with his point of view — a reference to the previous letter and its content. Then if desirable, as in the case of an adjustment letter, you may THE WHOLE COMPOSITION Igt conclude by bringing the customer around to your own point of view. But the sales letter should be written wholly from the point of view of the customer. As an aid to securing clearness, nothing else is quite so helpful as making an outline. First, state clearly your cen- tral idea and, then, make a hst of subordinate points. Then rearrange your outline, so that the parts will be in the correct order. Suppose, for example, a representative of the Packard Motor Company wishes to prepare an ad for the Saturday Evening Post, having the following central idea : The traffic superintendent who recommends a Packard truck to his chief can always justify his choice. His first outHne would ap- pear somewhat like this: The traffic superintendent who recommends a Packard truck to his chief can always justify his choice. 1. The record made by the heavy-duty Packard of The Stearns Lime and Cement Company is a typical example of the Packard's capacity. 2. The operating records will prove the soundness of his judg- ment. 3. The Packard truck has the benefit of country-wide service facilities. 4. Only in another Packard can be found equal power and econ- omy. 5. The Packard's ability measured by tons carried, miles trav- eled, and years of working life is the final standard of truck performance. Looking at the outHne further, he will discover that his points need to be rearranged. He will probably make his most general statements stand first and follow these with 192 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH the more specific points about the truck's abihty to do hauling. Then, logically, he will introduce the particular example of the Packard's capacity as shown by the heavy- duty truck of The Stearns Lime and Cement Company. The outhne will then appear as follows: The traffic superintendent who recommends a Packard truck to his chief can always justify his choice. 1. The operating records will prove the soundness of his judg- ment. 2. The Packard's ability measured by tons carried, miles trav- eled, and years of working life is the final standard of truck performance. 3. Only in another Packard can be found equal power and econ- omy. 4. The record made by the heavy-duty Packard of The Stearns Lime and Cement Company is a typical example of the Packard's capacity. 5. The Packard truck has the advantage of country- wide serv- ice facilities. And this is the finished composition. Note how clear and convincing it is: "The traffic superintendent who recommends a Packard truck to his chief can always justify his choice. In its first day of service, or at the end of ten years, the operating records of the Packard will prove the soundness of his judgment. "Measured by tons carried, miles traveled, or years of work- ing life, the Packard's ability to do better hauling at lower cost is the final standard of truck performance. " Only in another Packard can be found equal power and econ- omy, for Packard efficiency is the product of tested design, se- lected materials, expert manufacture, and the Packard method of rating the truck to its work. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 193 "A typical example of the Packard's capacity is furnished by The Stearns Lime and Cement Company of Chicago, whose heavy-duty Packard in a single year covered more than 36 miles a day for 301 working days, carrying an average load of 7.7 tons, a total of 10,836 miles and 14,800 tons. "In delivering such performances through year after year, every Packard truck has the benefit of country-wide service facihties established to keep it fit and in working trim." Emphasis. Emphasis in the composition as a whole depends upon the position of ideas and the amount of space devoted to them. Since most business writing is made as brief as possible, you will not need to give the question of the amount of space much consideration. The position of ideas in the composition is, however, of the greatest importance. As in the case of the paragraph, the beginning and the end are the places of greatest emphasis. Place an important point at the beginning to attract at- tention. The writers of sales letters use this device con- stantly, and to add to the emphasis, they frequently type such sentences, or parts of them in full capitals. Some- times a question makes quite the most effective opening — thus: "What has kept you from placing your order for a PACK- ARD TRUCK?" The most emphatic position in the entire composition is at the end. Place your most important point last, there- fore, and it will likely be remembered more easily. Often such statements, or parts of them, are typed in full capi- 194 ACTUAL BUSINESS ENGLISH tals. This is particularly true of sales letters. The fol- lowing is an example of this device for securing emphasis: "Remember — THE PACKARD TRUCK IS EVERY MAN'S TRUCK. When are you going to have yours?" The following example shows how effectively emphasis may be secured by placing important statements at the beginning and the end. Note that the opening sentence wins attention by giving an important proof, and the last one incites the reader to action: "Our government bought on 'record of past performance^ when they placed their order for 4800 Packard trucks at one time. The Expeditionary force into Mexico proved their fitness for any task, and when we entered the World War, Packards received the first call. "You see that with a Packard truck you are relieved of the constant anxiety attached to mediocre equipment. You can afltord to smile at the other fellow's mishaps while your own sturdy Packard goes merrily along its way, pursuing the duties you lay out for it. Forethought has made you master of the situation. No task is too hard — nothing too difficult. It has power to spare and style that causes your prestige to go up a notch. "It is surprising how much of the mechanism requires a great deal of 'letting alone.' Your driver can, therefore, save time. He will be worth more to you on a Packard truck, for he takes pride in the thoroughbred that is his to handle. He takes pleas- ure in seeing how much work he can get out of it, and the effi- ciency of both is increased twofold. "I have given some thought to your trucking problem. To my mind a (size) Packard will serve you admirably. It is a buy you cannot well afford to be without. An order placed now should get you this model for immediate delivery. You THE WHOLE COMPOSITION IQS will marvel at its performance and wonder how you managed before you got it. *^Just telephone — and I will he right over with a contract.^* You have now studied the word, the sentence, the para- graph, and the whole composition, and you have, no doubt, learned to place a new value on correct English usage both in oral and in written speech. You have also learned that the sentence, paragraph, and composition must not only be correct in language but also possess unity, clearness, and emphasis. Having mastered these essential principles, you should be ready for the important study of letter writing that is to follow. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartholomew and Hurlbut: The Business Man's English. Baskerville and Sewell: A School Grammar of the English Lan- guage. Belding, Albert G.: Commercial Correspondence. Campbell and Vass : Essentials of Business English. Carpenter: Principles of English Grammar. Cody, Sherwin: How to Do Business by Letter. How to Deal with Human Nature in Business. How to Be a Private Secretary. Earnest, W. W. : English Correspondence. Gallagher and Moulton: Practical Business English. Hammond and Herzberg: Style Book of Business English. Hatfield, Wilbur: Business English Projects. Hitchcock, Alfred M.: New Practice Book. Herrick and Damon: New Composition and Rhetoric. Hotchkiss and Drew: Business English. Lewis and Hosic: Practical English for High Schools. LooMis, Henry T. : New Practical Letter Writing. LovELL, A. E.: Punctuation as a Means of Expression. McLean, Blaisdell, and Morrow: Steps in English^ Book II. Manly and Bailey: Lessons in English, Book II. Newcomer and Seward : Rhetoric in Practice. Opdycke and Drew: Commercial Letters. Read, Harlan Eugene: Salesmanship. Schoch and Gross: Elements of Business. Scott, Angelo C. : Practical English. Teller and Brown: A First Book in Business. Ward, C. H.: Sentence and Theme. 197 1 98 BIBLIOGRAPHY Webster, Edward Harlan: English for Business. Williams, B. F.: A Brief Course in Business English. Wood, Thomas: Practical Grammar and Composition. Wood, George McLane: Extracts from the Style Book of the Govern- ment Printing Office INDEX Abbreviations, 137-140 Names of states, 138; names of the months, 139; commercial, 139-140 Ability, capacity, 14 Abundance, 51 Accordingly, 119 Adjectival clause, loi Adjective, 2 Adjectives and adverbs, 62-86 Admittance, admission, 15 Adverb, 3; interrogative adverbs, 3 Adverbial clause, 102 Advise, 153 Advise, inform, 56 Affect, effect, 56-57 Aggravate, irritate, exasperate, 59- 60 Agreeable, nice, 84 Agreement, 49-55 All ready, already, 73 All right, 73 Almost, most, 72 Also, 50, 03, 178 And, 93, III, 119, 143, 144, 178 And also, 29 Angry, mad, 82 Anybody, 28 Anyone, 28 A person, 28 Apt, likely, liable, 84-85 Argument order, 175-177 Statement and illustration, 175- 176; statement and figure of speech, 176; statement and con- trast, 176; effect and cause, 176; general statement and detail, 176-177; cause and effect, 177 Articles, 62 As, 21, 94 As — as, 78, 92 As follows, 120 As if, 21, 94 As well as, 29, 50 At hand, etc., 153 At last, 119 At least, 119 Audience, spectators, 15 Bad, badly, 72-73 Balance, rest, remainder, 15-16 Be, 24-25 Beg to say, etc., 153 Bills, 127-128 But, II, 93, 104, 119, 143, 144, 178 Calculate, intend, 57 Capacity, ability, 14 Capitalization, 132-136 Abbreviations, 135; in sales letters, 135-136 Checks, 127 Clause, defined, 6; classes, 6, loi- 103 Clearness, sentence, 147-151 Paragraph, 173-179; whole com- position, 190-193 Colon, 1 20-1 2 1 Comma, 109-118 Omission of words, 109; com- pound sentence, iii; subordi- nate clause, 112; introductory participial phrase, 113; modify- ing clauses, 114; words of address, 116; words in apposi- tion, 116; parenthetical expres- sions, 116; intermediate ex- 199 200 INDEX pressions, 117; words or phrases contrasted, 118; short quota- tions, 118 Communication, letter, 16 Comparative degree, 75 Comparison, 75-78 Complex sentence, 101-103 Complimentary close, 126 Compound adjective, 64-66 Compound nouns, 8, 12 Compound object, 20 Compound predicate, 100 Compound pronouns, 2, 26-29 Compound sentence, 104-106 Compound subject, 19-20, 100 Conjunction, 3; how to use correctly, 93-96 Consequently, 119, 179 Continual, continuous, 79 Council, counsel, 16 Dash, 1 21-123 Explanatory expressions, 122; parenthetical expressions, 122; summarizing phrase or clause, 122-123 Demonstrative pronoun, 2 Dependent clause, 6 Descriptive adjective, 3 Descriptive order, 175 Discommode, incommode, 57 Discover, invent, 57-58 Doesn't and don't, 54 Double negative, 67-69 Dozen, 9 Drafts, 129 Each, 28 Effect, affect, 56-57 Either, 28 Either — or, 93, 94, i44 Emphasis, sentence, 15 2-1 61 Paragraph, 180-185; whole com- position, 193-195 Envelope addressing, 125 Esteemed favor, 153 Every, 28 Everybody, 28 Everyone, 28 Exasperate, irritate, aggravate, 59- 60 Except, without, unless, 95 Exclamation point, 109 Expect, suspect, guess, 58 Few, less, 79-80 Figures, 8 First, second, third, 179 Fix, mend, 60 Foreign plurals, 9-10 For example, 120 For illustration, 120 For instance, 120 Gerund, 4 Goods, 9 Graduate, was graduated, 58-59 Grand, splendid, 80-81 Guess, expect, suspect, 58 Hardly, scarcely, 81 Healthy, healthful, 81-82 Hence, 119, 179 However, 178 How to express numbers, 131 Implicate, involve, 59 In addition to, 50, 93, 178 Incommode, discommode, 57 Indeed, 119 Indefinite pronouns, 2 In fact, 119 Infinitive, 4 Inform, advise, 56 Inside address, 1 26 Inst., ult., and prox., 153 Intend, calculate, 57 Interrogative adverb, 3 Interrogative pronoun, 2 Invent, discover, 57-58 Irritate, aggravate, exasperate, 59- 60 Latter and former, 77 Lay, lie, 40-42 INDEX 20I Learn, teach, 60 Leave, let, 42 Letter, 8; headings, 126 Letter, communication, 16 Liable, likely, apt, 84-85 Like, 21, 94 Limiting adjective, 2 Mad, angry, 82 Mend, fix, 60 Moreover, 93, 178 Most, ahnost, 72 Narrative order, 174-175 Near, nearly, 72 Negative, 67-69 Neglect, negligence, 16-17 Neither, 28, 93, 104, in, 119 Neither — nor, 93, 144 Nevertheless, 119, 178 Nice, agreeable, 84 Nobody, 28 Nominative forms, 19-20 None, 28 Nor, 93, 104, III, 119 Notes, 129 Not only — but also, 93-94 Noun, I Noun clause, 102-103 Nouns commonly confused, 14-18 Nowhere, nowheres, 82 Number, 7-10 Object, 3; defined, 5-6 Of course, 119 Or, 93, 104, III, 119, 144 Paragraph, 162-185 Defined, 162; topic sentence, 162-163; single-sentence, 163 Narrative, 164-165; descriptive, 165; short, 165-166; unity, 169-172; clearness, 173-179; emphasis, 180-185 Participle, 4 Party, person, 17 Past participle, 34-37 Past tense, 34 Period, 107-108 Periodic sentence, 159-160 Persona] pronouns, 2, 19-25 Phrase, defined, 6 Plenty, 51 Plurals, formation of, 7-10 Point of view, 171 Politeness, rule of, 20 Positive degree, 75 Possessive, formation of, 1 1-13 Predicate, 5 Preposition, 3, 87-92 Present tense, 34 Previous, previously, 72 Principal clause, 6, loi Principal parts, 34-37 Pronoun, 2, 19-33 Compound, 26-29; relative, 30- 33 Propose, purpose, 60-61 Prox., inst., ult., 153 Punctuation, 107-130 Parts of a letter, 125-127; com- mercial forms, 127-129; how to express numbers, 130-13 1 Question mark, 108-109 Quotation marks, 123-124 Raise, 40-42 Real, very, 82-83 Receipts, 128-129 Recent date, 154 Reciprocal pronouns, 2 Relations, relatives, 18 Relative pronouns, 2, 30-33 Remainder, 15-16 Repetition, 156 Respectfully, respectively, 83 Rest, balance, remainder, 15-16 Rise, 40-42 Said, 154 Salutation, 8, 121 Same, 154 Scarcely, hardly, 81 202 INDEX Score, 9 Semicolon, 1 19-120 Sentence, 5 Simple, 97-100; complex, loi- 103; compound, 104-106; peri- odic, 159-160; unity of, 141- 146; clearness in, 147-151; emphasis in, 15 2-1 61 Set, sit, 40-42 Shall and will, 45-48 Should and would, 47-48 So, 179 So — as, 78, 93 Some, somewhat, 83-84 Somebody, 28 Someone, 28 Spectators, audience, 15 Splendid, grand, 80-81 Statue, statute, 18 Still, 178 Subject, 5, 19-20 Superlative degree, 75 Suspect, expect, guess, 58 Teach, learn, 60 Tense, 34-38 Than, 21, 30 That, 30, 179 Therefore, 179 This and that, 63-64 Though — yet, 93-94 Together with, 29 Topic sentence, 162-163 Ult., prox., inst., 153 Unity, sentence, 141-146 Paragraph, 161-172; whole com- position, 187-190 Unless, without, except, 95 Variety, 51 Verb, 2, 34-61 Verbals, 4 Very, real, 82-83 Were, special use of, 43-44 What, 30 Whether — or, 93-94 Which, 30 Who, whose, whom, 30 Whoever, whomever, 30-33 Whole composition, 186-195 Will and shall, 45-48 Without, except, unless, 95 Worn-out expressions, 152-154 Would and should, 47-48 Yet, 119, 178 Yoke, 9 Yours, 15s \ THIS BOOF ' THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. 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