SIGNAL OFFICE, WAR DEPARTMKNT. 
 
 SIGNAL SERVICE NOTES NO. XII. 
 
 THE SPECIAL 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TORNADOES, 
 
 WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 'FOR THE PROTECTION 
 OF LIFE AND PROPERTY. 
 
 I'REPAREJ) I'NDEK THE DIRECTION OF 
 HRIG-. ,fe JRVT. INIAJ. G-KN'J^, \V. B 
 
 CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER OF THE ARMY, 
 
 JOHN P. FIN LEY, 
 
 SERGEANT, SIGNAL coRI'S, r. S. ARMY. 
 
 15 V ACTHOKITY OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR. 
 
 WASHINGTON CITY : 
 
 SIGNAL OFFICE. 
 
 1884. 
 
SIGNAL OFFICE, WAR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 SIGNAL SERVICE NOTES NO. XII. 
 
 THE SPECIAL 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TORIADOES, 
 
 WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION 
 OF LIFE AND PROPERTY. 
 
 I'RKI'AKKl) I'NDKK THK Dl RUCTION OK 
 
 'Vr. MA,T. CS-KIT'I-, "\V. B. 
 
 C'HIHF SKiXAL OFFICER OF THE ARMY, 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN P. FINLEY, 
 
 SERGEANT, SIGNAL CORPS, U. S. ARMY, 
 
 BY 
 
 WASHINGTON CITY : 
 SIGNAL OFFICE. 
 
 1884. 
 


 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. TERMS. 
 II. TORNADOES. 
 
 III. CONDITIONS OF FORMATION. 
 IV. PREMONITORY SIGNS. 
 
 V. CHARACTER OF TORNADO CLOUD AND MOTIONS. 
 VI. ELECTRICITY AND ITS RELATIONS. 
 VII. PROTECTION OF LIFE. 
 VIII. PROTECTION OF PROPERTY. 
 IX. WHERE TO BUILD. 
 
 X. HOW TO BUILD AND USE A " DUG-OUT" A-ND CELLAR CAVES. 
 
 XL PROTECTION IN EMERGENCIES. 
 
 XII PROTECTION IN TOWNS AND CITIES. 
 
 XIII. STATE WEATHER SERVICES. 
 
 XIV. .OBSERVATION AND RECORD OF TORNADOES. 
 
 286148 
 
THE SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TORNADOES. 
 
 The present pamphlet considers the practical bearing of some of the results of 
 the study of tornadoes, and will answer questions as to the object of this systematic 
 labor under government authority and the possibility of deriving any benefit from 
 the knowledge obtained by scientists. 
 
 I. TERMS. 
 
 In the United States, the terms cyclone, tornado, and hurricane, are frequently 
 interchanged in ordinary conversation and, in the minds of nine-tenths of the peo- 
 ple, these terms mean one and the same thing. This is not altogether surprising, 
 considering the want of systematic instruction in accurate meteorological knowledge, 
 and the general disposition of intelligent minds to speculate about the weather. 
 Hut, in fact, the tornado of the United States is a well-defined species of storm, dif- 
 fering in many points from hurricanes, cyclones, and thunder-storms, and it is the 
 only one that will now be considered. 
 
 II. TORNADOES. 
 
 Omitting consideration of the tornadoes, so called by Portuguese and Spanish 
 navigators on the African coast, and confining our attention to the United States, it 
 is believed that these storms are possessed of the following prominent character- 
 istics: The general direction of movement of the tornado is invariably from a point 
 in the southwest quadrant to a point in the northeast quadrant. The tornado cloud 
 assumes the form of a funnel, the small end drawing near to, or resting upon, the 
 earth. This cloud and the air beneath it revolve about a central vertical axis, with 
 inconceivable rapidity, and always in a direction contrary to the movement of the 
 hands of a watch. The destructive violence of the storm is sometimes confined to 
 a path a few yards in width, as when the small or tail end just touches the earth; 
 while, on the other hand, as the body of the cloud lowers, more of it rests upon the 
 earth, the violence increases, and the path widens to the extreme limit of eighty 
 rods. The tornado, with hardly an exception, occurs in the afternoon, just after the 
 hottest part of the day. The hour of greatest frequency is between 3 and 4 p. m. 
 Tornadoes very rarely, if ever, begin after 6 p. m. A tornado commencing about 
 5 p. m. may continue its characteristic violence until nearly 8 p. m., which means, 
 only, that the tornado cloud may be travelling after 6 p. m., or after 7 p. m., but it 
 does not develop, that is, make its appearance, for the first time after those hours. 
 Outside of the area of destruction, at times even along the immediate edge, the 
 smallest objects often remain undisturbed, although, at a few yards distant,- the 
 largest and strongest buildings are crushed to pieces. At any point along the 
 storm's path, where there is opportunity afforded the tornado cloud to display its 
 power, the disposition of the debris presents unmistakable signs of an action of the 
 wind, such as might be called a rotation, from the right through the front to the left 
 around the centre. The destructive power of the wind increases steadily from the 
 circumference of the storm to its centre. 
 
 Observations with a single isolated barometer will not indicate the approach of a 
 tornado, however near the position of the instrument to the path of the storm, but 
 
r> 
 
 TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 such observations arc <>t vnlir: when, a number are displayed upon the daily weather 
 map. The tomado season is embraced between the ist of April and the ist of Sep- 
 tember. The months of greatest frequency are June and July. There are, however, 
 instances in a long series of years where tornadoes have been reported in every 
 month of the year. Taking the w^hole United States together, it is found that the 
 region of greatest average frequency per year, per square mile, embraces the follow- 
 ing states : Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio. The actual 
 figures are about as given in the following table : 
 
 Relative frequency of tornadoes. 1874 to 1880, tnclu.<n-< . 
 
 
 State. .r = 
 
 If 
 
 
 6 8 
 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 o 5 
 
 
 c g 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 c c 
 
 
 8 i 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 0.8 
 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 ... . 8.4 
 
 
 4 7 
 
 Missouri . . 
 
 6.5 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 7.6 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 79 
 
 
 o 8 
 
 New York 
 
 4 7 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 5.1 
 
 Ohio 
 
 4 o 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 ... 4 6 
 
 
 3.4 
 
 Tennessee . 
 
 .... 4.6 
 
 
 I.O 
 
 Vermont . . . 
 
 ... 5 T, 
 
 All of New England ... 
 
 6.8 
 
 1-5 
 
 3- 
 
 6. 
 
 3- 
 
 3- 
 
 6.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 i.i 
 
 5-0 
 
 i.S 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.20 
 0.40 
 0.62 
 
 i- l 3 
 0.88 
 0.58 
 0.85 
 0.34 
 
 1. 12 
 
 0.29 
 0.31 
 0.23 
 
 0.77 
 0.24 
 o.44 
 o.75 
 0-53 
 0.35 
 o.b4 
 0.46 
 o.47 
 0.41 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.31 
 
 It is not within the province of this memoir to discuss at length the points of dif- 
 ference or harmony, or enter into an intricate analysis of meteorological phenomena 
 and the multiform operations of atmospheric changes attending the origin, develop- 
 ment, and complete formation, of tornadoes. On the contrary, it is desired to pre- 
 sent a minute consideration of the peculiarities of tornadoes, with a view to placing 
 at the disposal of the people most interested the facts and practical results of past 
 and present investigations of this terrible, yet most interesting, class of storms. 
 
 III. CONDITIONS OF FORMATION. 
 
 These may be divided into classes as follows : 
 
 First: those within the reach of, and which may be known or investigated by, an 
 isolated observer. To the single observer, located at his farm, workshop, or store, 
 there are important atmospheric conditions which he may carefully watch and study 
 with profit, viz. : the gradual setting in and prolonged movement of the air from the 
 north and south points ; the gradual, but continued,/^// of the thermometer during 
 the prevalence of the former currents, and a rise during the predominence of the 
 latter. 
 
TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 7 
 
 If the northerly currents are the prevailing air movements at the place of obser- 
 vation, the atmospheric disturbance is forming southward, but, if the prevailing air 
 currents are from the south, then to the northward of the observer. 
 
 Carefully study cloud development, color as well as form ; also, manner and 
 direction of approach. Clouds render visible the air currents, and are full of meaning. 
 
 A study of the currents of the atmosphere would be impossible without their 
 existence, and that, too, in a variety of forms. Dispense with cloud formation, and 
 the face of the sky would become blank, and severe storms no longer visible. 
 
 Wind direction, temperature, and clouds, are proper subjects of observation and in- 
 vestigation by the isolated observer. The barometer is of less importance in this line 
 of inquiry, unless the barometric observations can be promptly compared with those 
 taken at other points near by and at the same moment of time. The tornado itself 
 is an extremely local affair, and the accompanying barometer changes do not affect 
 a large extent of country. Probably if a barometer were placed in the immediate 
 track of the tornado cloud, it would not, with any certainty, indicate the presence of 
 the storm until the crashing winds had fallen upon the instrument. 
 
 Second: conditions that can only be witnessed and analyzed by the intelligent eye 
 of the student of the Weather Map. 
 
 From this panoramic view of the situation a. vast extent of country can be most 
 carefully watched from hour to hour, for days, weeks, or months. Atmospheric con- 
 ditions on opposite sides of the probable course of the storm can be watched from 
 their inception, and, in any new relations, easily detected and analyzed. From a 
 study of the Weather Map, it has been found that the formation of what is termed 
 a barometric trough or elongated area of low pressure (where the barometer stands 
 below the normal for that region and for the hour of observation) precedes the 
 occurrence of tornadoes in the lower Mississippi valley, or adjoining states to the 
 south and east. This low pressure area assumes the form of an ellipse, and gen- 
 erally extends from southwest to northwest between northern Texas and the upper 
 lake region. Such a depression may lie between the central Mississippi valley and 
 the lower lake region, trending northward just south of Michigan and over the Ohio 
 valley. The longer axis of either of these depressions is easily estimated, while 
 the shorter axis may be stated as generally varying from three to five hundred miles. 
 To the north of the longer axis, even for a distance of several hundred miles, the 
 winds are found to proceed from any or all points between northeast and northwest 
 with comparatively low temperatures, accompanied sometimes by a cold rain or even 
 snow. South of the longer axis, and generally to a greater distance, the winds come 
 from any or all points between southeast and southwest, accompanied by compara- 
 tively high temperature, high humidty, and often dashes of quite heavy rain. 
 
 As these conditions continue to prevail, the map shows an increasing contrast of 
 temperature on the north and south sides of the longer axis, and as this contrast of 
 temperature gradient increases, the formation of clouds commences in earnest. 
 
 An isolated observer in the warm south wind on the south side of the longer axis 
 of course can know nothing of the existence of this cold, dry air to the north of him, 
 but he sees huge masses of clouds of dark and portentous appearance bank up in the 
 northwest and southwest with amazing rapidity, and soon the scene becomes one of 
 awful grandeur. 
 
 The upper currents of air are thus indicated by the cloud formations. The con- 
 densation of vapor increases rapidly, and huge volumes of air rush upward. The 
 outward indication of the formation of a tornado i> first shown in the whirling, dash- 
 ing clouds over the broken surface of the heavy bank of condensed vapor forming 
 the background ; a scene not easily depicted or realized by one who has not witnessed 
 it, but never to be effaced from the memory of the actual observer. The next stage 
 in the further development of this atmospheric disturbance is the gradual descent of 
 
8 TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 the funnel-shaped cloud. The tornado is now before- us, not fully developed, but 
 soon to acquire that condition. 
 
 IV. PREMONITORY SIGNS. 
 
 On the day of the storm, and for several hours previous to the appearance of the 
 tornado cloud, what indications of its probable formation and approach are within 
 the comprehension of an ordinary observer and can readily be detected by him ? A 
 sultry, oppressive condition of the atmosphere, described by various observers 
 as follows : " I really experienced a sickly sensation under the influence of the sun's 
 rays." "I was compelled to stop work on account of the peculiar exhaustion expe- 
 rienced from physical exertion." " It seemed as if the lightest garments that I could 
 put on were a burden to me." " There was not a breath of air stirring." "The air> 
 at times, came in puffs, as from a heated furnace." " I felt a want of breath, the a in- 
 frequently appearing too rarified to breathe freely." " I was startled at the sudden 
 and continued rise in the thermometer, especially at this season of the year." " It 
 was terribly oppressive ; it seemed as if the atmosphere was unusually heavy and 
 pressing down on me with a great weight." 
 
 Enough examples have now been cited to indicate the effects and signs of this 
 oppressive sultriness. Other signs may be found in the development and peculiar 
 formation of the clouds in the western horizon. Sometimes these peculiar clouds 
 extend from the southwest through the west by the north to the northeast. More 
 frequently, however; they form in the northwest and southwest, sometimes com- 
 mencing, first in the former quarter and then again in the latter, but in either case 
 they are equally significant. The marked peculiarity of the clouds is found to oc- 
 cur not only in the form but in the color and character of development. 
 
 The sudden appearance of ominous clouds, first in the southwest and then almost 
 immediately in the northwest or northeast (or perhaps reversed in the order of 
 their appearance), generally attracts the attention of the most casual observer. In 
 almost all cases these premonitory clouds are unlike any ordinary formation. If 
 they are light their appearance resembles smoke issuing from a burning building or 
 straw stack, rolling upward in fantastic shapes to great heights ; sometimes they 
 are like a fine mist, or quite white like fog or s^eam. Some persons describe these 
 light clouds as at times apparently iridescent or glowing, as if a pale whitish light 
 issued from their irregular surfaces. If the premonitory clouds are dark and pre- 
 sent a deep greenish hue, this fairly forbodes very great evil. So, also, if they 
 appear jet black from the centre to circumference, or if this deep set color appears 
 only at the centre, gradually diminishing in intensity as the outer edges of the 
 cloud or bank of clouds are approached. Sometimes these dark clouds, instead of 
 appearing in solid and heavy masses, roll up lightly but still intensely black, like 
 the smoke from an engine or locomotive burning soft coal. They have been de- 
 scribed as of a purple or bluish tinge, or at times possessed of a strange lividness, 
 or frequently dark green, and again of an inky blackness that fairly startles you 
 with its intensity*. 
 
 The following are extracts from reports of observers : "They were the worst 
 looking clouds I ever saw; perfectly awful." "The clouds seemed to be boiling 
 up like muddy water, the upper surface of the cloud reminding me of the incessant 
 eddies or whirls seen in the muddiest portions of the Missouri river." " I saw two 
 whirling circles of lightish gray clouds in the west ; they were acting independent 
 of each other, and moved slowly inward toward each other from opposite directions. 
 The clouds were very low ; seemed to be on the earth, the wind in contrary direc- 
 tions across the face of the western sky, and surrounding clouds in great confusion." 
 " Observed clouds moving in all directions ; some of a dark green color, others 
 white as steam." " The lower end of the cloud was \ery while, like fog." " I saw 
 
TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 11 
 
 a great smoke, and supposed, at first, it was a fire." " I saw a terrible cloud, of a 
 dark purplish color." " There was a peculiar and terrifying look to the clouds." " 1 
 saw a green cloud in the northwest, surrounded by others not so deep set in color. 
 Under the cloud from the southwest, there came a large number of little thunder- 
 heads, some very dark, but others as white as steam. They seemed to be separated 
 and running very low. I never saw clouds so low before. Pretty soon they began 
 to go in all directions, some up, some down, right and left, backwards and forwards. 
 I next saw a cloud that looked even all over in color and very white, the edges being 
 pretty regular. It moved remarkably steady, and seemed to be right under the edge 
 of the cloud from the southwest." " I noticed a strange action in the clouds, and 
 saw a cloud rolling on the ground coming from the southwest." " The ground was 
 covered with white, steamv looking clouds, that prevented one from seeing any dis- 
 tance." " Two clouds, one from the northwest, and the other from the southwest, 
 seemed to meet, and, after meeting, passed still lower. Above their place of meet- 
 ing, black smoke appeared in very peculiar shape.'' " The air presented a very pe- 
 culiar appearance; it seemed to be in different shaded strata and quite marked." " At 
 the bottom of the cloud a hazy appearance rose up, obstructing the view," " Two 
 clouds came together ; one from the southwest and the other from the northwest ; 
 the latter was the higher, and the former the heavier and looked the worse." " A 
 heavy cloud spread out before us to a width of about six hundred feet, and as black 
 as night." 
 
 The peculiarities of the clouds while they are forming is another interesting and 
 significant feature which should be carefully watched. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances, clouds form, move, arid disappear, without exciting special remark or, per- 
 haps, thought, from the casual or even the interested observer. In the event of a 
 Ihunder-storm or hail-storm, the movement and disposition of the clouds are not 
 looked upon with fear or as possibly possessed of a power to create great havoc, but 
 on the occasion of a tornado the formation and movement of the clouds strike most 
 persons dumb with fear. There seems to be some strange connection between the 
 almost simultaneous appearance of clouds in the southwest and northwest, possess- 
 ing, as they do, such unusually threatening forms. As they approach from oppo- 
 site directions, they are suddenly thrown into the greatest confusion, breaking up, as 
 it were, into small portions, which clash pell-mell over each other and in every di- 
 rection, now darting toward the earth, now rushing upward to considerable heights 
 or at moderate elevations, rolling over each other in a well developed whirl. An 
 observer, in describing the approach of the clouds from the southwest and north- 
 west, stated that they "came together with a terrific crash, as if thrown from the 
 mouths of cannons." Generally, following closely upon the existence of this con- 
 dition, the funnel-shaped tornado cloud appears against the western sky, moving 
 boldly to the front from without this confused mass of flying clouds. As the tornado 
 cloud advances, these clouds continue to play about its top and sides, constituting a 
 characteristic feature of the scene. 
 
 Another and invariable sign of the tornado's approach is a heavy roaring, which 
 augments in intensity as the tornado cloud advances. This roaring is compared to 
 the passage of a heavily loaded freight train moving over a bridge or through a 
 deep pass or tunnel, or as heard on damp mornings when the sound is very clear 
 and loud. At times the roaring has been so violent that persons have compared it 
 to the simultaneous "rush of 10,000 trains of oars." Again, the roaring is likened 
 to the low rumbling of distant thunder. The varying intensity of the roar, as here' 
 represented, is apparently due to the lack of uniformity in the positions of the various 
 observers with respect to the advancing tornado cloud. Those situated nearest the 
 cloud, other things being equal, experience the loudest roar, while to those at 
 greater distances the noise is proportionally weaker. In any event, however, the 
 
10 TORNADO CHARACTER ISTICS. 
 
 noise is sufficiently peculiar and distinct to create alarm, and as a means of -Burn- 
 ing should not be overlooked under any pretext. 
 
 V. CHAKACTKK ()F TORNADO CLOUD AND ATTENDING MOTIONS. 
 
 The tornado cloud is, generally speaking, at its first formation, funnel-shaped, 
 that is to say, it tapers from the top downward, not always in the same degree with 
 every appearance of the cloud, but the lower end of it (the part nearest the earth) 
 is invariably the smallest, and this, too, whatever may be the inclination of the cen- 
 tral axis of the cloud to the vertical or plumb line. As seen in different positions 
 and stages of development by various observers, located differently, the tornado 
 cloud has been called "balloon-shaped;" "basket-shaped;" "egg-shaped;" trailing 
 on the ground like the tail of an enormous kite;" "of bulbous form;" "like an ele- 
 phant's trunk;" &c., &c. In the majority of instances, however, observers describe 
 the cloud as appearing like an upright funnel. When the small end of the cloud 
 just reaches to the earth, the violence of its whirl causes a peculiarly formed cloud 
 of dust, and finely divided debris, around which play small gatherings of con- 
 densed vapor. To all appearances now, the tornado cloud has two heads, one on 
 the surface of the earth and the other in the sky, the bodies of each joining in mid- 
 air and tapering both ways with the smallest diameter at their junction. In other 
 words, the cloud now assumes the shape of an hour-glass, and the lower portion dis- 
 plays extraordinary destructive violence. This last and most fatal form of the 
 tornado cloud is fortunately not a constant feature of the storm. The tornado cloud 
 is constantly changing from the hour-glass form to that of the upright funnel, or 
 some other intermediate shape previously referred to. 
 
 The various gradations of form, not any of which, however, affect the stereotyped 
 relation between the size of top and bottom, number some twenty-five or thirty, so 
 far as reliable information has been secured upon this point. These variations of 
 form depend upon the peculiar movements of the whirling currents of air within 
 and about the tornado cloud, the direction of the currents being outlined to the eye 
 by the singular disposition of the rapidly condensing masses of vapor. The 
 characteristic motions of the tornado cloud number four, and are described as 
 follows : 
 
 No. I. is called the whirling or gyratorv motion of the tornado, which is invaria- 
 bly from the right by the front around to the left. This whirling motion, in all prob- 
 ability, exists in the air preceding the formation of the tornado cloud, and should, 
 therefore, be placed first in order of consideration. Its velocity is far in excess of 
 any of the others. Many efforts have been made, but most of them altogether 
 fruitless, to estimate this velocity, and results, ranging from 100 to 800 and even 
 1,000 miles per hour, have been deduced, but no great precision can be assigned to 
 such figures. In the majority of instances the determinations have ranged between 
 100 and 500 miles per hour. Theoretical velocities of over 2,000 miles per hour, 
 based upon certain assumed atmospheric conditions, have been deduced. Such 
 velocities are mathematically possible but not meteorologically probable. 
 
 The uncertainty of the computed velocities results largely from the difficulty 
 attending the acquirement of absolutely reliable data. In all carefully conducted 
 investigations heretofore made, such a long time has intervened between the occur- 
 rence of the storm and the arrival of the person authorized to commence the work, 
 that valuable and satisfactory results in this direction are precluded. It is always 
 of prime importance to ascertain definitely what portion of a building or other 
 object was first struck by the wind and what the configuration and inclination of 
 the exposed surface. As a rule such determination has been rendered next to im- 
 possible by the rapidity with which devasted districts recover from the violence of 
 the storm. This statement is a most praiseworthy and well deserved commentary 
 
TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 11 
 
 on the exemplary industry and determined spirit of the people, especially of the 
 lower Missouri valley. 
 
 With the gyratory motion of the tornado cloud objects are drawn inward to the 
 centre of the storm, and then carried violently upward by a spirally inward and up- 
 ward motion which fairly crushes and grinds into pieces buildings, trees, and what- 
 ever else stands in the line of the advancing cloud. The spirally upward motion 
 throws the ascending debris in a circular manner outward at the top of the tor- 
 nado cloud. This debris, when beyond the central whirl of the cloud, falls to the 
 earth, but in such a manner and so disposed as to indicate the character of the force 
 which acted upon it. 
 
 No. II. is called the progressive, motion of the tornado cloud taken as a whole, or 
 the motion which determines the cloud's progress from one point to another. The 
 rate of progressive velocity ranks next in order to the velocity of motion No. I., 
 although it is certainly at all times far below the high degree of the latter. 
 
 The rate of progress of the tornado cloud is subject to great variability through- 
 out the duration of any one storm. Some observers have indicated the movement 
 by the following, expressions : " All in an instant." " Gone in a moment." "Quicker 
 than thought." " Without a moment's warning." " It moved no faster than a horse 
 gently galloping." " I just saw what it was, and then it was all over." " Before I 
 had time to turn about in my tracks it flashed by me." " It seemed to remain almost 
 motionless, as if held to the ground by some mysterious force." " I shuddered, 
 held my breath, and the monster had vanished." "It seemed to move no faster 
 than I could run." 
 
 These estimations of velocity are not to be taken literally. The circumstances 
 under which the impressions were received must be considered, viz.: undue excite- 
 ment, or abject terror. However, the comparative results are important, and, to a 
 certain extent, reliable. In view of them, people will at least not underestimate the 
 awful grandeur of the panorama, or fall into the fatal mistake of encouraging a belief 
 that the tornado is not what the united experience of all observers has portrayed it. 
 
 Such data will not answer, however, to figure on very closely, but the items, aver- 
 age diameter of cloud, actual time (local or standard), and measured distances, are 
 greatly desired as a basis for accurate study. Reliable data are very difficult to 
 obtain, especially of time. This fact should be thoroughly appreciated by observers, 
 and every reasonable effort made by them to examine their clocks or watches upon 
 the approach and passage of a tornado cloud. Generally speaking, it is a good habit 
 to form, of jotting down, in some place of ready reference, the hour, day, month, and 
 year, of notable events. 
 
 In regard to this matter of time, so far as past determinations can be valued, the 
 progressive velocity of the tornado cloud, taken as a whole, is variously estimated 
 at from twenty-five to seventy-five miles per hour. The former is perhaps too low 
 and the latter quite likely too high, and, although in both instances they represent 
 the extremes, yet either of the above velocities may have existed for short intervals. 
 The general average is probably about forty miles per hour. 
 
 No. III. is termed the rising &&.& falling motion of the tornado cloud, the character 
 of which finds definition in the following expressio \s from various witnesses: " The 
 top of the cloud seemed to pop up and down, and then to rush forward." " It 
 bounded over the ground like a ball." " It was the strangest jumping and flopping 
 object I ever saw." "At times it seemed to lash the earth in terrific fury with 
 its huge tail." "It came along, popping up and down in a most fantastic way." 
 "Rising up like the uncoiling of a huge rope, it cut loose from the earth and passed 
 over us with a horrible \vhizzing sound." " Ever and anon it would shoot directly 
 upward from the earth, sometimes with great rapidity, and then again quite slowly, 
 each time dashing to the surface with renewed vigor." 
 
1:2 TOKXA1X) 
 
 It is, perhaps, clearly seen that this is a distinct motion, with striking peculiarities 
 which define its character. Sometimes, upon the lifting of the tornado cloud from 
 the earth, it does not again descend for a distanceV>f several miles, at times making 
 the return movement or descension twenty or thirty miles distant, the intervening 
 space proving a complete blank in its track. More frequently, however, these gaps 
 are from one to live miles in length. 
 
 While the tornado cloud is traversing the atmosphere at some considerable dis- 
 tance from the earth, it may reach down so low as to just skim over the tops of the 
 highest trees; descend to a level with the roofs of buildings, simply scaling off the 
 shingles in spots or entirely on one side, leaving the roof-boards and rafters un- 
 moved ; removing the tops of chimneys ; taking out all the fans in the wheels of a 
 windmill and leaving every portion (even the tail) of the remainder of the mill 
 unharmed ; taking off the cornice without disturbing the remainder of the roof ; 
 removing simply the top boards, or one or two of the top rails, of a fence. 
 
 The tornado cloud may, however, remain at a perfectly safe distance throughout 
 its aerial course and where it may be seen at a great height, moving solitary and 
 alone, like a huge balloon. While in this condition it has, not a few times, been un- 
 wittingly taken for the latter object, but the mystery and sensation were entirely dis- 
 pelled when the news came in from the surrounding country of the frightful power 
 of this now silent monster. 
 
 There is still another feature of motion No. III.: upon rising from the earth and 
 passing through a few uncertain struggles, apparently to decide upon the final direc- 
 tion of movement, the tornado cloud is ultimately lost sight of in tht surrounding 
 clouds, but reappears suddenly at some point, either to descend or to remain above 
 at a safe distance. 
 
 .No IV. is called the zigzag motion, or swaying of the tornado cloud from side to 
 side of a general line of progress. This motion is sometimes quite suddenly per- 
 formed, but generally it is a moderately slow movement, and one that can be watched 
 and easily identified. It seems to occur most frequently just as the tornado cloud 
 touches the earth, as described in the preceding motion No. III., when the cloud will 
 often diverge about an equal distance on either side of the central line of movement. 
 
 At the commencement of this motion, the tornado cloud always moves first to the 
 left (N. N. \V.) and then to the right (E. S. E.). On the return movement, the cloud 
 may or may not cross the major axis to the right (E. S. E. ). The zigzag movement 
 from one side to the other of the central line of progressive action may continue 
 for several miles, or it may be cut short after the first few moves. 
 
 The regularity of this peculiar action appears to be in connection with indraughts 
 of violent currents of air from the south side of the major axis, which frequently 
 advance (only from the left side) and give evidence of their existence by swaths or 
 narrow paths of destruction (alternating with spaces of no damage ) cut inward toward 
 and joining with the central line or track. The tornado cloud may, upon the return 
 movement, whether executed upon the north or south side of the major axis, fail to 
 cross it, but upon reaching it continue onward in the central line of movement to 
 the northeast. 
 
 The distance travelled by the tornado cloud in departing from the major axis, 
 either to the right or left, is subject to considerable variability, ranging from forty 
 or fifty yards to nearly as many rods. While executing this /ig/ag motion it very 
 frequently happens that the tornado cloud simply skims over the earth, without 
 manifesting its extreme violence. 
 
 V I. KI.Ki'TRiriTY. 
 
 The rain and hail which sometimes precede, and at other times follow, the tor- 
 nado cloud, but always accompany the heavy clouds which form in the north and 
 
TORXADO CHARACTERISTICS. 13 
 
 west, is generally, but not always, attended by lightning ; sometimes by most violent 
 manifestations and then again by occasional flashes. The most terrific displays are 
 reported during the heavy precipitation which often occurs ten or twenty minutes 
 after the tornado cloud has passed. Very often flashes are observed in the dark 
 clouds which begin to rise above the western horizon an hour or more before the 
 storm. 
 
 What relation has electricity to the formation and power of the tornado clouds ? 
 Most persons are utterly at a loss to account for the prodigious power manifested in 
 the destructive effects of the tornado. If they make the least attempt to philosophize 
 upon the subject, they are determined to assign the cause to some mysterious inter- 
 ference of electrical force. Whenever a piece of iron is bent, broken, twisted, or 
 carried a considerable distance, a tree torn up by the roots, or clothing snatched 
 from the body, it is attributed to electricity. The fact that lightning does not ap- 
 pear in the tornado cloud itself is explained away by supposing some incomprehen- 
 sible modification of its usual character. There is a dogmatic predisposition to 
 attribute everything unusual to this one member of the category of physical forces. 
 Of course it is the easiest way to get rid of a difficult problem. 
 
 Even if electricity is present, there is no requirement of its intervention to pro- 
 duce the force required. It is plainly evident that the movement of a current of air 
 at the rate of two hundred to five hundred miles per hour is sufficiently powerful to 
 demolish the strongest buildings, lift a piece of iron or, if necessary, distort its 
 shape. 
 
 VII. PROTECTION ol- LIFK. 
 
 How can people save their lives or avoid terrible injuries ? In regard to this, much, 
 if not everything, depends upon the manner and direction a person moves, together 
 with the distance of the tornado cloud, its direction, and the kind of motion prevail- 
 ing at the instant one determines upon changing his position. 
 
 We will now suppose the various conditions, and proceed to point out the neces- 
 sary action in each instance. In all cases it is granted, for the sake of convenience 
 in illustration, that you are in front, or situated directly in the line, of the advancing 
 tornado cloud. Under these circumstances, if progressive motion No. II. of the 
 cloud is prevailing and your distance from it, say, eighty rods (one-fourth mile) or 
 more, moz'c directly, and with all possible dispatch, to the north. Whenever this 
 motion is prevailing, ahuavs run to the north, unless in so doing you would be obliged 
 to cross the entire path of the storm. A sharp glance to the u'estward will tell you 
 whether you are about on the southern edge of the probable path of the tornado 
 cloud, or more to the north. If in the centre or half way between the centre and the 
 southern edge, your chances are best in a direct course to the north. If further to 
 the south, move directly and very rapidly to the south, bearing slightly east. In no 
 event should you ever run directly to the east or northeast. Suppose the tornado 
 cloud to be distant from you (W. or SW. ) eighty rods (one-fourth mile) and its pro- 
 gressive velocity sixty miles per hour, it would advance one mile in sixty seconds, 
 or eighty rods in fifteen seconds. Assuming the average width of the destructive 
 path of the tornado cloud to be forty rods and your position at the centre of that 
 path, it will be seen that you have fifteen seconds in which to reach the outer edge 
 of the path to the north (a distance of twenty rods) before the tornado cloud could 
 arrive at your location. 
 
 An extreme case has been assumed in every particular. Most persons first see the 
 tornado cloud at a much greater distance, from one to three miles, sometimes five and 
 even ten miles on the prairies, Of course at the unusual distance of five or ten miles 
 you could not determine very satisfactorily its probable course, especially with re- 
 gard to your buildings or the safety of your own location. Watching the approach 
 
14 TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 of the tornado cloud closely at a distance of ten miles, and from that position on 
 and on in its eastward course until it came within a mile or so of your point of ob- 
 servation, would give you sufficient opportunity to predict its probable course in 
 regard to your location. When that matter is settled satisfactorily to your judg- 
 ment, move immediately and without further hesitation. If you wait until the tor- 
 nado cloud is distant one mile, you have at least sixty seconds in which to run 
 a distance of thirty rods, supposing that you are obliged to cover more than half of 
 the destructive path of the storm. In an average case you will probably have be- 
 tween eighty and ninety seconds in which to run a distance of twenty rods. In 
 either case it is assumed that you are prepared in every particular to wove at the 
 very instant of timely warning. Further, it is assumed that you have been watch- 
 ing the weather of the day and understand that a terrible storm is imminent. There 
 is, under ordinary circumstances, no reason why you should not be so informed. A 
 tornado cloud does not come out of a clear sky, and there are many and ample signs 
 of its approach. 
 
 What has been said in regard to the directions in which persons should move when 
 the progressive motion is prevailing will, for all practical purposes, apply to motions 
 Nos. 1. and III. With respect to motion No. IV. (the zigzag), the following prelimin- 
 ary remarks should be most carefully considered : While possessed of this motion 
 the tornado cloud crosses from one side of the central line of movement to the 
 other. This peculiar motion most frequently occurs just after the termination of 
 the rising and /<////;/ % motion (No. III. 'i. so that when you see the tornado cloud de- 
 scending to the earth from one of its aerial flights, you may expect the zigzag motion 
 to follow. The first departure of the tornado cloud from the general path of the 
 storm's progress is to the left or on the north side of the path ; all departures 
 from the general direction, whether left or right movements of the tornado cloud, 
 are invariably executed to the eastward. There is no backward movement to the west: 
 in the event of any departure it ultimately returns to the central line of movement. 
 Having these points well in mind, you are prepared to act when the exigency oc- 
 curs. When the departure of the tornado cloud is to the left and your position is 
 at any point near the central path, mure directly north with the utmost rapidity, even 
 if the cloud is at a long distance from you. Should it chance that your distance 
 from the cloud is reduced to twenty or forty rods, run instantly to the south, bearing 
 slowly west. This movement will take you away from the forward and return action 
 of the tornado cloud. Another case : Suppose your position to be the same as just 
 given, viz : near any point in the central line of movement, but with the tornado cloud 
 just crossing over the line to the south. In this event you should move instantly 
 and directly to the north, bearing slowly west. This movement will also, as in the 
 case previously cited, take you away from the forward and return action of the tor- 
 nado cloud. 
 
 To recapitulate in regard to tornado cloud motions and the manner of movement 
 with respect to them : never wait until the tornado cloud is almost upon you before 
 you move, and, remember, under no circumstances, move to the northeast, east, or 
 southeast. 
 
 Many foolhardy acts have been committed (perhaps through fear and excitement 
 or positive ignorance) by persons, which have resulted in death or terrible injuries, 
 because they tried to run in front of the tornado cloud, thinking they could outstrip 
 it in such a race. Others have attempted to cross the path just ahead of the advanc- 
 ing cloud, feeling that they could reach a safe distance on the opposite side before 
 the funnel-shaped monster passed. In one of our late storms a person assayed this 
 trip with two horses and a lumber wagon, confident that he could at least rush his 
 horses across the apparently narrow path of storm which seemed to progress within 
 such circumscribed limits ; he was instantly killed, one of his horses dreadfully 
 mangled, the other seriously injured, and the wagon a total wreck. 
 
TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 15 
 
 VJII. PROTECTION OF PROPERTY. 
 
 What can be done to lessen, in any way, the actual damage (present or prospec- 
 tive) to property, especially buildings? Since it is utterly impossible to move them 
 from the path of the advancing tornado cloud, and quite as impossible to construct 
 any buildings strong enough to completely resist the extraordinary violence of the tor- 
 nado cloud, it is equivalent to saying that you can never expect to save your buildings, 
 a conclusion to which all thought upon the subject will, sooner or later, conform. It is 
 advisable that, under all circumstances, you should avoid any labor especially directed 
 to the construction of any buildings whatsoever, for the'express purpose of resist- 
 ing the violence of the tornado cloud. Build your houses, barns, and stores as you 
 would without the knowledge of a tornado. Other things being equal, a frame build- 
 ing is better than a brick or stone one. The former will hold together longer, is more 
 elastic (if you will permit the term), and persons seeking refuge within its walls are 
 much less liable to injury. There has occasionally been evidence to show, that 
 of all frame buildings, those constructed with a hip roof and a story and a half 
 in height, were the best able to resist the violence of the tornado ; but where there 
 are cases reported of this class of buildings being saved, there are as many, if not 
 more, where they were destroyed precisely as any other frame building would have 
 been under similar circumstances. 
 
 It matters not how you construct, or of what material, if your building rises above 
 the surface of the earth (which it must necessarily do), it thereby offers obstruction 
 to the advance of the tornado cloud, and it will go, either from the foundation, or 
 into kindling-wood and a distracted mass of bricks and mortar, in spite of the prop- 
 agation of any theory or the possibilities of architectural skill. The narrow belt 
 of destruction renders it practicable for a whole state, through insurance companies, 
 to bear the loss that occurs at any one point. Cheap buildings and general insur- 
 ance is the wisest policy. 
 
 IX BUILDING SITES. 
 
 " In regard to the matter of buildings, the question may be asked whether there is 
 not some choice in a building spot, with a view to safety from the violence of the 
 tornado. Many persons have thought that if their house or barn were perched upon 
 some high " divide " or on the brow of a steep decline, in fact upon any marked rise 
 above the surrounding level, the tornado cloud would rise from the earth and pass 
 over it. But observation seems to show that the tornado cloud pursues a general 
 course to the northeast, without regard to the character of the earth's surface, and 
 if buildings are in the line of its destructive path, whether upon a hill, in a valley, 
 or within a ravine, they are liable to be subject to its violence. Western towns, as 
 a rule, are not built upon high " divides," but more frequently sheltered between 
 neighboring hills. The same may be said of farm buildings ; it being the prevail- 
 ing custom to select building spots along the low bottoms of streams, for conven- 
 ience to water and timber, and for protection from the continued heavy winds that 
 break over the open prairies. Repeated investigations have shown that buildings 
 were destroyed with as great violence and completeness upon high lands as upon 
 low lands, but the larger number in valleys, because of the facts above cited. In 
 many instances the funnel cloud has passed from one ridge to another, doing dam- 
 age on both, but skipping the intervening depressions ; again it has followed high 
 "divides" for several miles when they coincided with its general course of move- 
 ment. Ridges and valleys are almost invariably crossed at right angles when their 
 courses are from northwest to southeast. 
 
16 TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 X. iru- 
 
 Since we cannot resist the power of the tornado, the question now suggests itself, 
 what precautionary measures can be taken ? That which remains to be done can be 
 accomplished in an unostentatious, and quiet, but securd* manner. Every man can 
 and should construct a "dug-out" r at some suitable point, within a convenient dis- 
 tance of his house. If a person is situated within a town or city, let him select 
 some portion of his yard for the purpose ; but if residing in the country, he will not 
 be confined to narrow limits in the selection of a desirable location. Where a per- 
 son living in a village has no yard, he must, if he has a cellar, construct a cellar- 
 cave, as a means of protection, to be described further on. With respect to 
 the '* dug-out," in no event should the roof be other than level with the 
 surface of the earth ; in fact, it is highly desirable that the retreat should 
 be so constructed that the ordinary surface of the earth would form the 
 roof or covering, and that all preparation of the domicile proceed by way of 
 excavation and supports from beneath. As- to location, there is not much to 
 be said ; the most important points being : convenient distance, a high, dry place, 
 and possible opportunities to excavate into the northern or eastern slope of a 
 knoll or hill. In the latter instance, the entrance way would suffer less from the 
 violence of the storm, providing, perhaps, that "it did not entirely envelop your 
 retreat, for, in that event, in the whirl of the flying debris, all sides alike would be 
 at the mercy of the winds. Having decided upon the location, as regards your 
 house or other buildings, prepare to sink a shaft, say four to six feet square, the 
 entire depth of your "dug -out" From either the northern or eastern (better the 
 former) wall of this shaft, cut out a stairway leading upward to the surface of the 
 earth, for purposes of ingress and egress. On the side of the shaft opposite the 
 stairway, commence the excavation for the enclosed retreat. The size of the room 
 will, of course, depend upon how much you may at any time wish to secure from 
 injury. Better have the excavation too large than not large enough. The slight 
 difference in the expense of time and labor may, perhaps, be the means of saving 
 you a great deal when you least expect it. The entire room should be below the 
 surface of the ground a distance of at least three feet, and the overhanging roof of 
 earth should be supported from beneath by heavy timbers, to provide against any 
 emergency, like the dashing of heavy debris or the tramping of horses and cattle 
 upon it. 
 
 In the event of a tornado, your retreat (** dug-out ") may be entirely buried beneath 
 huge piles of debris, therefore everything must be made as" secure as possible. The 
 entrance door should be made of the heaviest timbers and supported between cas- 
 ings of similar strength of construction. Arrangement should be made to secure 
 the door by heavy fastenings. In order that ventilation may be provided for, two 
 box spouts, squaring eight inches, should be let through the roof. The top of these 
 spouts must be level with the surface of the ground and protected by iron gratings-.. 
 Ventilation may also be provided for by openings through the upper portion of the 
 door, and these also should be protected by iron gratings. 
 
 The "dug-out" should be large enough to contain your family and such personal 
 effects as are considered roost valuable. There are many instances where persons 
 have lost very valuable articles, even large sums of money, from supposing that if 
 such things were placed in securely bound trunks or boxes they would be perfectly 
 safe. There are cases where iron-bound trunks and even iron chests (not the regular 
 merchant's safe) especially made to secure valuable articles, have been crushed or 
 torn to pieces and the contents scattered to the winds. A heavy safe might resist 
 the force of the wind to the extent that it would not be broken open, bat it may cost 
 you several hundred dollars, and even then yon must prepare a " dug-out " for your 
 family. Why not expend this money, or that portion of it which is found necessary, 
 
TORNADO CHARACTERISE S. 17 
 
 in preparing not only a >ecure refuge for your family but also sufficient room for your 
 valuables ? This "dug-out " need not prove a worthless investment, even though you 
 do not experience a tornado. On the principle alone that "an ounce of prevention 
 is worth a pound of cure, "the outlay cannot be considered a failure. It may be used 
 tor various purposes as an out-door cellar. If it proves the means of saving a life 
 but once in five years (your own among the number), you would hardly regret the 
 expenditure. 
 
 There is still another kind of underground protection which Can be prepared to 
 advantage, if you are provided with a cellar, either under your house or store. 
 Having the cellar, cut an opening (say six feet high and four feet wide 1 ! into the west 
 wall. Carry the excavation to such an extent underground as to provide sufficient 
 p room for your family and valuable personal effects. The roof of this cellar-cave 
 should be composed of at least three feet (in depth) of the undisturbed surface 
 earth, and supported from beneath by heavy timbers. In every way it should be 
 made as secure as the dug-out." The provisions for ventilation may be made 
 through the root or entrance door, but in either case well protected by iron gratings. 
 
 XI. I'KorKClIoN IN CASES *>K KMKKGKNCY. 
 
 In case you are possessed of a building that has no dug-out or cellar-cave, your best 
 plan is to nioi-i from your house, or from the location where you are at the instant 
 stationed, as directed in the previous sections. If not able to benefit by these 
 directions, retreat instantly to your cellar and place yourself, face forward, against 
 the r^v.'Ywall. This is the best position in any cellar. If, for any reason, you cannot 
 get to the li'cst TI'<J//, take your position (the next best i, face forward, against the south 
 wall, but as near the southwest corner as possible. In case the building is removed from 
 the foundation, it will always be carried above and over you, or, if torn to pieces, the 
 debris will be instantly removed to the eastward, t 'ndcr no circumstances* whether in a 
 building or a cellar, fats a position in ,1 northeast room, in u northeast corner, in an cast 
 room, or against an cast wall. Remember that the tornado cloud invariably moves in 
 a northeasterly direction. Persons have been instantly killed, or terribly crippled, for 
 no other reason than that they ignorantly threw themselves in the very grasp of the 
 monster cloud. 
 
 The rule regarding the movement to the northeast must be obeyed. The northeast 
 quarter is a fatal position, whatever may be said ^about destruction to life or prop- 
 erty in anv other. If, unfortunately, you are close pressed by the advancing 
 cloud, never remain standing and attempt to weather the storm, but throw your- 
 self prone ^f'ace downward) upon the ground, head to the east, and arms over the 
 head, to protect it. If you should chance to be near a large stone or stump, or some 
 lu.uv. low object firmly imbedded in the ground, take a position directly to the east 
 of it. lying prone upon the ground, head toward the object, protecting the former 
 with your folded arms. This advice is given in the event of extreme necessity., 
 where other and better oppoit unities are unavailable or have been forfeited. It is 
 better, if possible, never to trust yourself behind or about any movable object 
 located within the centre of the storm's path ; by all means not a tree or anything 
 that rises some distance above the surface of the ground. If you can get out, never 
 remain in a house, or any other building that is at all likely to be torn down or 
 lemoved from its foundation. If forced to remain in a building without a cellar. 
 alwa\> take a position against the :v.7 or south wall (better the former), either prone 
 (face downward) upon the rloor or standing with your back to the wall. 
 
 In any building, always take your final position on the first or ground rloor or in 
 the cellar. Never stand or lie in front of a doqr or window, or near a stove or 
 IHMVV piece of furniture. Make every effort to get into the west room and, if possi- 
 ble, before the onslaught, remove all furnituie from the western portion. If you 
 
 2 
 
18 TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 have the necessary time, shut tightly every window and door in the building within 
 which you may be located at the time of the storm. 
 
 Never take refuge in a forest, in a small grove of trees, in an orchard, in a build- 
 ing, or near a fence of any kind, unless such obstruction is entirely out of the line of 
 the storm. 
 
 If possible, always open the doors of your out-buildings and let your stock loose, 
 driving them to the north, as before directed; or, if the tornado cloud seems about 
 to pass to the north of your buildings, your stock should be driven southward, the 
 rules being, of course, the same as for human beings. 
 
 XII. I'KOTKCTION IN TOWNS AND CITIES. 
 
 With regard to the protection of life and property in towns and cities liable to be 
 visited by tornadoes, what has already been suggested in the matter of north and 
 south movements, " dug-outs," and cellar-caves, will, of course, apply here. But where 
 a large number of persons are congregated, each intent upon his particular business, 
 some provision should be made for the mass of inhabitants who are performing their 
 various duties in and out of doors, and who, by reason of their peculiar situation or 
 labor, cannot, if they would, stop to study the prognostics of the sky. 
 
 With regard to this matter a tew suggestions will be offered which may not be amiss. 
 On any day when the weather conditions presage the probable approach of a vio- 
 lent wind storm, it should be the duty of those in authority to deputize certain 
 persons, one or more in each ward, the number depending upon the sixe of the town, 
 to watch the character of the sky and approach of the storm, and. if a tornado, to 
 give timely warning of its advance to the various families in their respective wards, 
 and take charge of the removal of persons and property to places of safety. In the 
 matter. of warning the various portions of the town, it would probably be to advantage 
 to make use of the church and school bells, by ringing them, in some peculiar man- 
 ner, to be decided upon by previous arrangement and generally understood. It 
 should be well known that the persons above referred to are possessed of special 
 authority while performing their duties. They should be cool, brave, active, intel- 
 ligent, and judicious men. They should completely understand the situation, know 
 precisely what is needed and how to supply it. All men should appreciate the situ- 
 ation of these persons, and avoid confusion, by a strict compliance with orders. It 
 will not be necessary for these persons so deputized to be adepts in the science of' 
 meteorology, or to devote their time, from the ist of April until the ist of September, 
 exclusively to observations of the sky. 
 
 The signs (as before described) of tornado cloud formation and approach are dis- 
 tinct and sufficiently suggestive to afford opportunity for timely and concerted action. 
 The time for action will necessarily be limited, and the watch need not commence 
 until there is every reason to believe that such a course is absolutely necessary. ]\o 
 one should smile at the novelty and minuteness of this arrangement, or at the idea 
 of employing weather guards at western towns. It is a means of precaution very 
 competent for the protection of life and property. 
 
 XIII. STATK WKATHKR SERVICKS. 
 
 The State Weather services of Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Iowa, 
 and other states, under the efficient supervision of their several directors, are doing 
 most excellent general meteorological work. They should receive the hearty aid 
 and appreciation of the. people and of the legislatures of their respective states. 
 Every state should have a weather service, every township an observer, and every 
 chief observer at the county seat be authorized to receive monthly reports from the 
 various observers within his jurisdiction and forward the same, monthly, to the state 
 
TORNADO CHARA-CTKI 
 
 director of such service. Each director should have the time and force at his dis- 
 posal to thoroughly digest the meteorological conditions of each and every month, 
 throughout the year, preparing and publishing, at the termination of each month, 
 and also at the close of each year, a general summary of atmospheric phenomena 
 coupled with the evidence of earnest and well directed efforts toward comparative 
 study and practical results. 
 
 Such funds as are necessary to carry forward a work of this kind should yearly be 
 appropriated by the state legislature. As so organized, and when in working order, 
 each state weather service should co-operate with the United States Weather Service, 
 at Washington, and thus complete a system of meteorological work which would 
 effect a marvelous advance in the study of this most important science. 
 
 There is no country on the face of the globe where meteorology can be studied 
 with so much advantage, practically and scientifically, as in North America. The 
 elementary principles of meteorology, especially in regard to storms, should be 
 taught in every high school. In the colleges and 'universities an advanced course 
 should be prescribed. Wild speculations regarding the laws of the weather are 
 exceedingly rife, touching every branch of the science, and, in view of this, facts and 
 principles should alone be considered in conducting the prescribed course of any 
 educational institution. 
 
 It is not believed that in this concise presentation of important facts the results 
 altogether meet the supreme desire, or, perhaps, the hope, of the people interested 
 in the subject of tornadoes. Such desires or hopes may never be realized, not, at 
 least, until the investigation and analysis of these phenomena have been perfected ; 
 yet you have before you in very brief form the results of over five years of labor and 
 an examination of over 600 tornadoes. 
 
 XIV. THE OBSERVATION AND RECORD OF TORNADOES. 
 
 In order to be prepared for the possible appearance of a tornado, so far, at least, 
 as local indications are concerned, let every person situated in those regions of 
 country where the tornado is of yearly occurrence commence to carefully observe 
 and record the daily changes in the face of the sky, the variations of temperature, 
 the direction of the wind, and the character and development of clouds. Not that 
 any person should devote most or all of his time to this work of observation, nor 
 even all of his spare time, but, for the sake of regularity and uniformity, certain 
 hours for regular work of this nature are advised, viz: 3, 7, and n a. m., 3, 7, and n 
 p. in., Washington time. 
 
 Should unusually interesting phenomena occur during the period between these 
 hours of observation, it would be advisable to increase the number of observations, 
 making these at as short intervals as the importance of the case demands. By 
 means of these frequent observations, every feature of the storm becomes the 
 subject of inquiry and quite probably more important results attained. For purposes 
 of investigation of tornadoes the observations need not continue throughout the 
 entire year, at least in the northern and western states, although such a length of 
 record would be of great value for other purposes ; but observations should certainly 
 begin by the ist of April and continue, unremittingly, until at least the ist of Sep- 
 tember. Observations through the autumn can be maintained with profit. 
 
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