MENTAL CULTURE; OR THE. MEANS OF DEVELOPING THE HUMAN FACULTIES. BY J. L. LEVISON. " The volume of nature is the book of knowledge ; and he becomes most wise, who makes the most judicious selection." GOLDSMITH. LONDON : PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR: AND SOLD BY JACKSON AND WALFORD, 18, ST. PAUL'S CHUBCH-YARD. [iEntm* at ^tatiotunT 1833. LOUTH : PRINTED BY J. AND J. JACKSON. PREFACE. IN this volume, which is submitted to the un- prejudiced, we have endeavoured to show how practical and easy Moral Culture becomes, when the real nature of man is understood. It is the peculiar duty of those who frame the laws of a country, and of those who administer them for the preservation of society, to adopt such a sys- tem of mental philosophy as will enable them to ascertain what number of the primitive facul- ties are connate, and also to distinguish between their uses and their abused states. This know- ledge, indeed, would give incalculable advantages to all who influence society, and particularly to the Parent and Teacher: it would enable them to discriminate those excesses of the feelings which result from mis-directed or neglected education, and demonstrate the circumstances most favour- able to give a moral and intellectual bias to the a3 2094938 IV PREFACE. character of the rising generation. The funda- mental truths of this science of mind are briefly stated in the first part of this work, and their practical application in the second; and the au- thor hopes that a candid perusal of both parts will prove their value in developing and training the mental faculties. J. L. LEVISON. CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION, containing Observations on the General History of the Arts and Sciences, and on the Advantages of Civilized Society, as contrasted with Savage Life 1 CHAPTER I. Structure and Uses of the Brain Various Phenomena con- nected with this Organ from Infancy to Old Age Prospec- tive Wisdom of the Creator displayed in the Mental Seasons Mode adopted for the Security and Preservation of the Brain Its Membranes The Wisdom of God manifested in the Provision for the Relative Changes of the Skull at the dif- ferent Periods of Life 10 CHAPTER II. General and Particular Views, on the Modification of the Ac- tivity of the Mental Faculties, by what are called Constitu- tional Temperaments Explanation of each Temperament in the following order : the Nervous, the Bilious, the Sanguin- eous, and the Lymphatic Shakespeare's Opinion of the Temperaments strictly Physiological Sir George Mackenzie's Advice in studying Human Character The Absurdity of re- ferring any of the Mental Operations to Chance 17 CHAPTER III. Explanation of the Uses and Abuses of the various Feelings or Propensities Physical Love Parental Instinct Inhabitive- ness, or Instinct of Place ; Love of Country, a Modification of this Feeling Instinctive Attachment, the Source of Friend- Vi CONTENTS. Page ship, Affection, and Esteem Instinct of Courage Destruc- tive Propensity, or the Carnivorous Instinct Instinct essential to Prudence Instinct of Acquiring, of Contriving, Construct- ing, Building, &c. Self-esteem Approbation, or Desire of Applause Instinctive Caution, a Source of Hesitation, Fear, Melancholy 24 CHAPTER IV. Explanation of the Organs of the Moral and Religious Senti- ments Benevolence Veneration Firmness Conscien- tiousness, or Natural Sense of Right and Wrong Hope, its Uses and Abuses Marvellousness, or Instinctive Credulity, one of the strongest Sources of Natural Religion Ideality, a Source of Refinement, of Taste, Fancy, Imagination ; and its Use in Poetic Composition Wit Imitation Concluding Remarks on the Affective Faculties 51 CHAPTER V. Introductory Remarks on the uses of the External Senses of Seeing, Hearing, Tasting, Smelling, and Touch, proving them to be the Instruments by which we acquire Knowledge, but that they are not the Cause of Intelligence The superior Powers of the senses of Animals illustrated and adduced as a p*bof of this fact 74 CHAPTER VI. General Observations on Perception The Nature and Uses of the Perceptive Faculties Individuality perceives Existence Form, Size, Weight, and Colour, relate to the Qualities of Material Objects Locality, Number, and Order, perceive the Relation of Objects Eventuality, Time, Melody, and Language Concluding Remarks 78 CHAPTER VII. Remarks on the Reflective Faculties The restricted Powers of Man The good which results from cultivating the Reasoning Faculties; the Two-fold Nature of the latter process The Functions of the Reflective Faculties explained : Comparison and Causality How true Knowledge inspires Humility, Piety, and Gratitude to the Creator 95 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER VIII. Page Moral and Philosophical Reflections on the preceding sections The Harmony of God's Providence in reference to our Men- tal Faculties ; this Knowledge an Antidote to Infidelity The Absurdity of charging these Views with a tendency to incul- cate Fatalism of Actions The Power of the Reflective and Moral Faculties in restraining Animal Abuses The Means of preserving a healthy State of the Mind The difference between Desires and Actions, and the Power which an Individual de- rives from the early Cultivation of his higher Faculties 102 CHAPTER IX. General Remarks on Education Causes of Failure in Moral Tuition A Knowledge of Man, as a physical, organic, moral, and intellectual Agent, is essential to educate him on correct Principles How to cultivate the Feelings or Propensities Means of preventing Anger, Pugnacity, Evasion, Slyness, Cunning, Pride, Vanity, and of so directing the Natural Faculties as to prevent their degenerating into Abuses The baneful Effects of Flattery Remarks on the Force of Exam- ple ; concluding with some few Observations on the Charac- ters of Teachers 117 CHAPTER X. Moral Culture continued Benevolence, Piety, and Justice ought to be the Motives usually appealed to The Injudiciousness of Corporeal Punishments The fatal consequences of Public Punishments The demoralizing Effects of Rewards Re- wards in Money or Books only excite the lower Feelings Principle inculcated, that it is no Merit to do our Duty Re- wards excite Pride, Vanity, and Avarice, and deaden the Moral Sensations Employment of Time to be diversified by Study and Relaxation The superior Advantages of Public Tuition, if so conducted Much depends on the Respecta- bility of the Master The moral Power of the Teacher, if he gains the Confidence of a Pupil 163 CHAPTER XI. Rationale of Moral Culture ; a Knowledge of the Organic Laws The Diversity of Mankind explained by these Laws So- ciety divided into Four Classes, but considered only as One Titi CONTENTS. Page Species Causes of Moral and Intellectual Degradation, illus- trated by a Case The natural Means of improving the Hu- man Race, illustrated by two interesting Cases The direct Effects of Changes in Character traced to the Brain ; illustra- ted by an Anecdote of a Hottentot, related by Dr. Philip of Cape Town Concluding Remarks 205 CHAPTER XII. On the Means of cultivating the Intellectual Faculties according to the Organic and Phrenomatic Laws Curious Fact of the Mental Process of the Deaf and Dumb The Object of In- tellectual Education two-fold, to give an elevated Tone to the Moral and Religious Sentiments, and to promote Rational Enjoyment and Public Utility Remarks on the necessity of modifying the Principles of Tuition How Precocious Mental Powers should be treated What constitutes Genius The Injury of over-exciting the Faculties How to prevent Dis- appointments in the early Promises of Genius The natural Order of the Perceptive Faculties explained : the use of this Knowledge in practical Education The Periods of Tuition divided into Four Stages ; Three of these, extending to the 12th or 13th year, discussed Means of teaching a Lan- guage The Difference between Knowledge and Learning Concluding Observations on partially cultivating the Percep- tive Faculties 219 CHAPTER XIII. Fourth Stage of Intellectual Education, embracing a Period from the Age of Twelve or Thirteen to the Eighteenth Year This Period determines the Usefulness or Depravity of the future Man How to treat Youth at the Age of Puberty The Advantage of having stored the Mind of Youtli with Knowledge, and gained his Confidence The Means of using the Enthusiasm of Youth to advance him in Morality and Intelligence The Necessity of Relaxation : Science a Means of Instruction and Relaxation : the Wonders of the Micros- cope given as an Example Possibility of applying Dramatic Representations for the Illustration of History The Philoso- G'ty of Shakespeare's Works, and his correct Knowledge of uman Motives Causes for the present vitiated Tastes for vulgar Pageants, Cards, &c. A Knowledge of the innate Faculties of Man should be communicated to Youth, in order that he may become acquainted with his various Duties On CONTENTS. the Study of the Sciences, as part of a System of a National Education The Creator, in every Part of the visible World, has anticipated the Inventions of Men, and suggested Models for Imitation 251 CHAPTER XIV. Practical Reflections The Reason why various Systems have failed, owing to a partial Application of true Principles Ob- jections against educating all Classes refuted Objections to Mechanics' Institutions, particularly those drawn from the Superficiality of the Knowledge of the Members, answered Recapitulation of the Advantages of a systematic Plan for Moral and Intellectual Education, not suited to any particular Country, but capable of universal Application Concluding Remarks 282 Explanation of Terms strictly technical, or rendered so by being used in a particular sense in this Work 297 MENTAL CULTURE. " The volume of nature is the book of knowledge ; and he becomes most wise, who makes the most judicious selection." GOLDSMITH. WHEN a man ventures to enquire into the origin and progress of society, he is imperceptibly drawn into certain considerations as to the causes of moral and political error, and the intellectual aberrations which have hitherto rendered human institutions so very mutable. And, un- less he commence dispassionately, and with some pre- knowledge of the philosophy of mind, his views will be too much obscured by early prejudices, and his conclu- sions will partake of fanciful conjecture, instead of being conformable to actual fact 5 and when once reality gives way to imagination, truth is sure to be lost amidst the mazes of mere metaphysical speculation. It is, therefore, our intention, in the succeeding pages, to submit only such opinions as are founded on a positive knowledge of man, and of the physical, organic, moral, and intellectual laws on which his being is dependant ; and we shall en- deavour to prove that the inconsistencies in all the com- mon modes of education, the vicissitudes of all human institutions, and the consequent failure of their anticipat- ed results, are ascribable to the fact that their framers B 2 MENTAL CULTURE. and promoters have been ignorant of the number of the mental faculties, of their relative importance, and of the means of training them to produce the greatest possible good to the greatest number. The records of antiquity will avail us but little in our enquiry,* as the origin of society is too much obscured with mysterious legends by the poetical historians of the Greeks and Romans ; and we can only infer the actual condition of mankind in the earliest periods of human history from the fact, that arts and sciences have been ages in progressing towards a state of comparative re- finement. It should also be remembered that in too many instan- ces the gifted beings, to whom we have been indebted for every improvement, have, instead of receiving honour and rewards for their discoveries, been either neglected by their contemporaries or regarded by them with the most narrow-minded prejudice, and sometimes treated with the bitterest persecution. The least reflection must convince us that these circumstances have had a tendency to retard the advancement of knowledge, by damping the patriotic ardour and checking the growth of intelligence in many an aspirant for fame, who has been deterred from persevering in his solitary and unequal struggle against the selfishness and cupidity of power, on the one hand, and the passions and ignorance of an unthinking multitude, on the other. If these observations are correct in reference to those individuals who have distinguished themselves as either inventors or improvers in the art of agriculture and the * In the succeeding pages we intend to confine ourselves to a philosophical investigation of the principles of human nature, as derivable from the zoological rank of man, and the natural history of the mind. MENTAL CULTURE. 3 mechanical sciences, how much more cogent they appear when we examine the history of literature and moral philosophy ! In these records we find that any innova- tion, however good and useful, invariably excited a frightful host of opponents, all influenced by selfishness, and tenacious of their own cobweb fame ; and such per- sons, disguising their real motives by the unworthy pretence of fearing the bad consequences of new opinions, have often, for a time, retained a flimsy reputation at the expense of their integrity and by the sacrifice of truth. That this was the case in what are called the " dark ages," there are many sad instances to prove ; and mo- dern experience shows that these disgraceful examples are still not without followers, a circumstance only to be explained by the fact, that the passions of men, being the emanations of certain fundamental powers, produce similar results, however modified by time and circum- stances, and can only be regarded, in their apparent varieties, as different phases of the same innate feelings. We certainly might have been led to expect different consequences, had these feelings been adventitious, or had they originated from accidental circumstances : we might have expected that in a highly civilized state, where the minds of men are enlightened by cultivation, they would not evince that antipathy to novel opinions in morals, philosophy, and literature, which so conspicu- ously manifested itself in the earlier periods of society that, having felt the benefit of science, their minds would be less impervious to the rays of truth j and that, whilst they entertained every proposed improvement with pro- per precaution, they would, at the same time, be ready to enquire into the real merits of the new opinions with candour and intelligence, particularly if it appeared evi- dent that those opinions directly tended to the advance- 4 MENTAL, CULTURE. ment of the moral condition of the human race. Then how lamentable it is to be obliged to state, that, in spite of all experience, the errors of the gothic age still dim the mental vision of the luminaries of the present time, who shrink appalled when contemplating changes of opinion, however enlightened, and who seem to prefer their own " darkness visible" to the splendid brightness of pure and rational philosophy, a truth easily demon- strated by the manner with which the discovery of Gall was received ! In thus censuring the intellectual imbe- cility and want of integrity in those who have influenced public opinion, my only object is to caution candid men from falling into the same error; to urge upon them the necessity of acting more consistently when they are called upon to judge of the value and usefulness of any new subject; and, at all events, not to evince so utter a want of principle as to pronounce a verdict upon any new system (as, for instance, that of Phrenology) before they have thoroughly examined its merits. What should we say of an ignorant rustic, who, unacquainted with the laws of mechanical or natural philosophy, should dog- matically assert, " that it was impossible to measure the earth, or weigh the air," &c.? We should deem his egotism commensurate with his stupidity. Now this, in effect, is the conduct of the learned of the present day in reference to the science of Phrenology; they give a verdict against it without examination, and in perfect ignorance of the mass of evidence on which it has been founded. It is some consolation for us to state, that although this charge is but too true with regard to the greater portion of those who would fain pass for enlight- ened philosophers, yet there are many exceptions, and it is to such noble exceptions we can trace the reception of truth in all ages. The few who thus venture to receive MENTAL CULTURE. knowledge, may suffer persecution, but time consecrates their names ; and even if those names be forgotten, still they are tacitly honoured by posterity, whenever the force of truth places their adopted notions on the solid founda- tion of public opinion. Had there never existed men who preferred the mental pleasure of real knowledge to the temporary gratification of an ephemeral fame, society would have remained in its original state of barbarism, without the comforts of civilized society, or the enjoy- ment of that delightful relaxation of the intellectual faculties now experienced by those who duly cultivate their mental powers; and it should never be forgotten, that for all these blessings we are indebted to a few noble beings who have graced every age, and who breathed a purer moral atmosphere than the thoughtless or interest- ed mob around them ! For, it is mere sophistry to talk in praise of a " state of nature," which state, if interpreted by common sense, means, an existence very little removed from that of the highest order of the brute creation ; and can this be said to be better than one wherein the no- blest faculties of man are improved } It may well suit the dark policy of some persons to recommend the blessings of ignorance ; but a brief comparison between the " child of nature" and the cultivated man, will demonstrate the great advantages enjoyed by the latter. Nothing but a wish to delude and to enslave his fellow-creatures could induce any man to oppose the intellectual improvement of the human race, whose moral regeneration will then only be realized, when man shall have his moral and reli- gious sentiments and his reflective faculties duly and early cultivated, and when it shall be deemed necessary to in- struct youth in the various arts of civilized life, and in the sciences, but more particularly in the profound science of human nature. Let us shew the consequences of not B3 6 MENTAL CULTURE. educating men, by contrasting the precarious existence of the savage with that of a civilized being. The cha- racteristic traits of the untaught savage are most of them of a selfish kind, pride, cunning, vanity, cruelty, and a cupidity which delights in present gratification, and seems reckless of the future. These abuses of some of our in- nate feelings are the sole motives of all his actions : and rarely, if ever, are these propensities restrained by moral considerations, or directed by the friendly admonitions of reason : he is the creature of impulsive passions, which urge him to act blindly and immediately, without regard- ing consequences. In this manner the savage spends his life between powerful excitements and an abject listless- ness. He consumes the precarious plunder of the day, without bestowing a thought on the morrow : sometimes feeding with keen appetite even to repletion, and at other times pining in sullen inanition from scarcity -, and all this springs from his ignorance and improvidence. The barbarian rarely cultivates the land, or lays up a store for the period of scarcity : and thus, like a predatory animal when driven by hunger and the fear of starvation, he will steal or murder to obtain provision. His know- ledge of the arts is more like instinct than the suggestion of the intellect, being limited to the building of a rude hut, preparing skins for clothing of the simplest kind, shaping the deadly club and other uncouth instruments of defence, and moulding utensils in clay to contain his food ; yet has this state of mental degradation and gloom been eulogized in the fanciful dreams of poetry and romance ! The morality of the savage consists in self- preservation 3 and hence, with him, "might is right j" and, being unrestrained by the natural or social laws, he is continually liable to receive a more than adequate balance of misery and suffering, the never-failing conse- MENTAL CULTURE. 7 quence, in such a case, of the divine law of reciprocity. The savage, therefore, is unhappy as well as ignorant, and his unhappiness is still further increased by the operation of ignorance upon his religious sentiments, which, under that blighting influence, necessarily dege- nerate into abject superstition. And how should it be otherwise with a mind as dark and dreary as the wild heath he inhabits, deformed and irregular like the abrupt and angular points of the rugged mountain scenery in which he hunts for prey, unacquainted with even the most ordinary phenomena, and unable to conceive by what laws they are regulated ? In such a mind religion is almost wholly compounded of the marvellous senti- ment, which becomes morbid through the excessive ex- citement to which it is constantly exposed by its natural allies, timidity and ignorance. Every unexpected circum- stance that is an object of sight, such as a flash of light- ning or an eclipse, or any other visible phenomenon, will raise in the savage emotions of terror 5 and if the cause of his fear be invisible, that emotion in him becomes still more intensely slavish, and places him at the mercy of his weaker enemies. Under the dominant influence of the same cause, his imagination is peopled with good and evil spirits, to whose agency he refers every occurrence ; so that a sudden death, a hurricane, the heaving of the ground in an earthquake, or the rolling of the distant thunder, are to this uninstructed creature's mind objects of adoration to which he prostrates himself, not from love, but in pusillanimous and superstitious terror. If we turn our attention to him in his social relations, we shall perceive that in them his conduct is regulated by the most inveterate selfishness. Amongst savages, indeed, the civil compact is rather to be compared to the accidental union of gregarious animals, than to an association of moral agents desirous of being mutually beneficial to 8 MENTAL CULTURE. each other. Their verbal contracts are made to enable each individual to gratify with greater security a pro- pensity to steal, or to inflict a sanguinary revenge on a real or supposed enemy ; and accordingly, whether the excursion has been for plunder or for war, no sooner is the hour of danger past, than the savage displays his un- mollified selfishness in taking exclusive care of himself, and in disregarding the wants or sufferings of his fellows, and even his relations. Those that are acquainted with the elements of human nature will recognise in this sketch the operation of the animal propensities, unres- trained by morality and unrefined by an enlightened intelligence. Education conducted on true principles is the only means of making such miserable specimens of humanity rare. There was a time when this picture of savage life correctly represented the now cultivated and intelligent inhabitants of this country : nay, our ancestors were even more brutalized than savages in general, by the sangui- nary sacrifices of druidical worship. We ought, there- fore, when we look around us and contemplate the various blessings of civilization, not only to feel a moral satisfac- tion at the prospect, but show our gratitude by endea- vouring to dispense knowledge to all the races of mankind ; and, if we do this with that zeal and perse- verance which so important an object demands, we may feel assured that time will realize our warmest anticipa- tions for the moral and intellectual redemption of even our darkest-skinned brethren. In seeking to promote the improvement of our fellow- creatures, we ought to take nature for our guide, and make our plans of education conformable to her laws. One of those laws is, that the bodily and mental faculties are gradually developed ; another, that they require to be exercised, as a condition for their health and activity. MENTAL CULTURE. 9 The former is an obvious truism j and every discerning observer may deduce a negative verification of the latter law from the equally obvious fact, that, whenever either individuals or nations neglect their intellectual and moral culture, they rapidly degenerate, a fact, of which the sad truth is too frequently apparent in private life, and which has received some melancholy illustrations, in both ancient and modern times, in the history of the whole species, and, especially, in that of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians. The reason is obvious ; for, the brain, which is the seat of all the mental faculties, the feelings, and sentiments, as well as the intellectual powers, both percipient and reflective, is subject to the same laws as the other parts of the nervous system j and we all know that the external senses, for example, acquire a more intense sensibility in proportion as they are exer- cised : thus, in the savage, they are more acute than in the civilized being, because the dangers by which the former is surrounded, and the difficulty he experiences in procuring a precarious supply of food, tend to excite the various senses, and especially those of seeing and of hearing, from a very early period. On the contrary, contrast these same faculties in the savage with those of persons that work in mines, and it will be found that the sight, for instance, is in the latter very imperfectly manifested. In like manner, on the other hand, the moral and intellectual faculties being more exercised in civilized man, they become more active and vigorous than in the barbarian, in whom these faculties are almost entirely neglected. We shall, therefore, at the outset, enter into a description of the general and particular functions of the brain, and in this way bring forward the data on which we have founded our practical views of Moral and Intellectual Education. B5 10 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTURE AND USES OF THE BRAIN. WE venture to assert, that as soon as men shall com- prehend the laws of mind, and the means by which the organic instruments may be improved, it will become evident to them that their mental faculties are susceptible of much greater cultivation than is now generally sup- posed. This knowledge is only to be obtained by a physi- ological investigation of the functions of the brain, through which compound organ the mind manifests its various powers. The brain* is proved to be a compound of many parts, as may be shown by its anatomy, and as might be inferred from its numerous functions, animal, moral, and intellectual. In man, its structure is rather complex, but gradually becomes less so as we descend the scale of in- telligence through the several orders of mammalia and amphibia. This progressive increase of parts in the brains of different animals, according to the number and kind of their instincts, affords presumptive evidence that this organ cannot be regarded as an unit ; and so accu- * We call the whole mass that fills the skull, the brain. But anatomists have divided it into three parts, besides the nerves which originate at its base. First, the medulla oblongata, which joins the spinal marrow at the part where the vertebral column enters the skull. Second, the cerebellum, or little brain, situated at the back part and base of the skull, and which is united to the medulla oblongata. Third, the cerebrum, or brain proper, extending from above the cerebellum to the roots of the nose and eyebrows. MENTAL CULTURE. 1 I rate is the result to be obtained by the application of this evidence, that it would not be difficult to form a scale of the comparative intelligence of various animals from an attentive inspection of their brains, marking the different degrees from the simplest rudiment in worms up to the complicated and beautiful machine which constitutes the brain of man, who manifests faculties moral, religious, percipient, and reflective, which are peculiar to himself. Nor can this constant correspondence between the sim- plicity or complexity of an organ and the more or less compound nature of its uses be deemed adventitious or merely coincident, it being an established law of animal life that neither man nor animals can exercise a function without an organic instrument. With this truth for our guide, we may proceed to dis- cuss other phenomena of a general nature, as we can in this manner make a necessary distinction between the organ and its uses, and the principle which is essential to give the vital action. The brain at birth is soft and pulpy, but it gradually improves in structure, and becomes quite matured in middle life. In old age it again undergoes a change ; the fulness of its parts is considerably less, and there is a less susceptibility to excitement. Observation also enables us to state, that there are corresponding changes of the mental phenomena, coincident with these period- ical alterations in the organ. In infancy there is scarcely exhibited either moral or intellectual perception j in child- hood the faculties manifest more activity, and still more vivacity in youth ; in manhood all the mental powers acquire their greatest vigour - } but in old age the mel- lowed faculties of our autumnal period begin to feel the effect of declining energy, and as the chilling days of mortal winter approach, our perceptions become more 12 MENTAL CULTURE. and more enfeebled, until we finally sink into the grave ! In taking such a view of mortal existence, (confirmed by experience,) will any one be guilty of the flagrant folly of charging us with advocating materialism ? We ob- serve in this arrangement the goodness of the Creator, and see in it, as in all his other works, both harmony and wisdom. For, did man, at the time of his birth, enjoy his faculties in all the perfection of manhood, the inno- cence of infancy, and the sympathies and affections which grow up between the child and parent during the period of moral and intellectual tuition, would have been denied us ; and, if no change occurred in our latter days, grey hairs would come upon us in the midst of the follies and vanities of life, and we should drop into the grave with- out being prepared for the summons to be hourly expected in declining age. But every thing, both as regards the external world and the economy of man, bears indelible evidence of infi- nite wisdom. As the greatest exertion is required during the meridian of life, the faculties are then most vivid and active ; had this state however been prolonged to old age, man would have forgotten the higher and nobler destiny of his nature. In the present order of our mental seasons all is harmony : when the body becomes weak and de- crepid, the passions and feelings have lost much of their wonted energy, the percipient faculties are intractable, whilst the moral and religious sentiments are unclouded by sensual desires ; and the old man is thus permitted to view "eternity" as a bright and cheering prospect, or calmly to resign himself to rest, like the traveller who after a long summer-day's walk forgets both the plea- sures and the fatigues of his past journey, and only wishes to compose his weary limbs and to close his eyes in sleep. MENTAL CULTURE. 13 If we reject this physiological solution, we must in- evitably be driven to the absurd supposition, that the brain is the source of mental phenomena, rather than the instrument by which mind operates. In this case, there would be an utter impossibility to account for the marked changes that occur between infancy and old age, and, there being no alternative, we should be obliged to con- tend that the mind itself is subject to these changes, and in the strictest sense of the word should become materi- alists. But, to the philosopher who traces effects to causes by the inductive process, the facts on which a contrary opinion is tenable, amount almost to positive demonstration. The mind, as a distinct principle, ap- pears to him the same at the time when it first animated the embryo as it does in every subsequent stage of existence : it does not undergo changes corresponding to the periods of infancy, youth, manhood, and old age j but the organic instrument (the brain) is subject to these mutations, in the same manner as the sight becomes dim, and the limbs lose their mobility and become slug- gish, under the operation of the same physical law. The change in the latter instances produces no essential alter- ation in the sentient principle: it is only the nerves and muscles themselves that have undergone some organic modification. The importance of the brain, as the focus of all sensa- tion, might be inferred from the phenomena before cited, and further from the manner in which it is secured from either internal or external injury. The brain is enclosed in three soft coverings (mem- branes), the outermost one (dura mater) being very dense, and considerably thicker than the other two membranes, it being so contrived as to have a canal (longitudinal sinus) formed of its substance, which canal 14 MENTAL CULTURE. is for the purpose of carrying off the waste blood into the jugular veins, and, through the latter organs, to the heart, to be again vitalized. Besides this careful provi- sion, the brain is inclosed in a strong ivory-like box (skull), a cabinet of the most curious workmanship, and of the very best form for combining strength with light- ness and security. Nor are these all the proofs it exhibits of divine care and wisdom : the skull is admirably adapted to the changes which the brain is liable to un- dergo from infancy to maturity. At birth, the bones of the skull are soft and yielding, and united together by an elastic substance j so that during infancy, the bones are not dove-tailed together, that is to say, united by su- tures, as in after-life, by which contrivance the brain is protected at the same time that its growth is not retard- ed, a circumstance which must have taken place, had the bones of the head been as rigid at birth as in manhood. But, in the active period of life, when every individual is more liable to injury from accidents, the bones are harder and more dense, and united by the inimitable sutures ; and thus, when the necessity for strength is so indispensable, the profound Architect of all things has pre-arranged these changes of bone, by which is acquired greater power of resisting injuries. If, however, the substance of the skull had been solid and of a homogeneous structure, there would have been a necessity for its remaining soft, otherwise it would have cracked when any hard substance came in contact with it, a liability which is now obviated by the follow- ing most interesting contrivance. The skull is composed, first, of an external layer of hard, dense bone ; next to this is a soft and spongy substance, and then there is an internal layer similar to the first ; so that, in fact, the MENTAL CULTURE. 15 inner and outer laminae of bone* have a soft cushion interposed between them, to prevent accidental vibrations from affecting in any material degree either the brain or the skull itself. In the anatomy of an individual who has died in man- hood, after well exercising all his mental faculties, the bones of the skull, when sawed through, present a uni- form thickness. But, in other cases, where the mental faculties have been only partially cultivated, some part of the bone appears thicker than other parts, and this result may be the effect of neglected education, or of old age, when some of the faculties naturally lose their energy j and of insanity, in which many of the mental powers may be torpid from diseased action. In all such cases there is a want of parallelism in the tables of the skull. The brain is further protected by having a strong hairy envelope which covers the skull j and, as the head is the noblest part of man, it is placed on a bony column (vertebral spine), which is articulated, and adapted to several motions j and thus, whilst the head is so much exposed to danger by its elevated position, the greatest care has been taken to guard the brain from injury by its various and curious coverings. But there is also another instance of prospective wisdom, which must not be overlooked. The brain is composed of two distinct sets of instruments, called hemispheres, each hemisphere being the seat of corresponding mental faculties, and constituting double organs, like the nerves of the senses ; so that in case of accident destroying the cerebral sub- stance of one entire hemisphere, the other side could * Technically speaking, " the inner and outer tables," which are not always of an uniform thickness : hence their want of parallelism is spoken of. 16 MENTAL CULTURE. act, and hence the innate faculties would not be entirely disturbed. The hemispheres are united together in the middle of the head, so that if an incision were made by an instrument, commencing between the eyes and carrying the hand vertically across the head to the middle of the neck, we should divide the brain into its two natural parts. Each hemisphere has three lateral divisions called lobes, and they are named, from their relative situations, the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. Each lobe is made up of masses of fibres which are formed into sepa- rate bundles, called convolutions, which are folded up in such a manner that they present a great surface, but are so disposed that each convolution occupies the smallest possible space. Before, however, we enter upon a statement of our view of the uses or functions of these convolutions, we will ex- plain certain laws called temperaments, which, as will be manifest from the most superficial examination, give more or less activity to the mental faculties themselves. MENTAL CULTURE. 17 CHAPTER II. THE TEMPERAMENTS, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON SIZE. THE preceding remarks on the general anatomy of the brain lead us to consider two important facts : first, that the difference in the size of the posterior, middle, and anterior lobes, and the very marked difference in the relative proportions of the convolutions composing the lobes, in every individual, will account for the great diversity of moral and intellectual capacity, through which each person becomes individualized. This pro- position is incontrovertible, as we shall subsequently prove in our analysis of the organs, and of the particular functions they manifest. Secondly, it is important to guard the tyro in physiology against a very common, but erroneous conclusion, when examining the relative proportions of a head or a skull, that the size alone (whether of the whole brain or of the separate organs) is the only condition of functional power. Phrenologists speak of the size of the head as indicating relative power, and of single extreme faculties after the same rule : but in this statement we do not consider that absolute size of the brain is the only necessary condition of power, because experience proves that some brains are coarser than others. In the same manner, and for the same reason, it does not follow that a large muscular man should invariably have a relative intensity of mus- 18 MENTAL CULTURE. cular strength, for the muscles may be flabby and not compact : but in neither case ought we to conclude these examples to be exceptions to an universal law, that size is the standard of power. For it is demonstrable that, both as regards the brain and nervous system, and the muscular system, if there is a healthy condition, and the temperament is naturally active, then the size of the organs in each system will be the measure of their absolute power. The way to judge of the truth of these remarks (in reference to the brain) is not by hasty and premature observations on character, " for in no science or art is perfection attained without incessant application, and patient investigation " much less can the profoundest of all knowledge, that of human nature, be acquired by reading a manual, or by attending a course of lectures. To proceed on a certain and rational plan, the intelligent student should in the first instance satisfy his mind upon the great fundamental principle of the science ; viz. that there are palpable differences to be observed in the configuration of heads, corresponding to the marked diversity in human character. Let him particularly pay attention to any extreme developement of a single faculty, and he will perceive by its expressive natural language a powerful physiognomical indication of its function, whether it is self-esteem (pride), or benevo- lence, or any other faculty. When he has in this man- ner become convinced both of general and particular views, he should carefully mark the physiognomical con- tour of the person he is silently scanning ;* whether the body is thin, spare, and active or whether the chest is broad and capacious, accompanied with great general * Sir George Mackenzie judiciously recommends the necessity of studying Phrenology in an unobtrusive manner. MENTAL CULTURE. 19 muscularity; or whether the subject is heavy, fat, and bloated; and he will find that the mental faculties will be influenced in their greater or less activity by these different states of the body ; and it is these states which we call " the temperaments." Dr. Spurzheim speaks of four, and which are similar to those spoken of by phy- siologists from the days of Hippocrates : these are, the NERVOUS, the BILIOUS, the SANGUINEOUS, and the LYM- PHATIC ; and their external indications are well defined. The NERVOUS temperament gives that kind of irri- tability which induces a tendency to be easily excit- ed : " the mind banquets and the body pines " and this renders an individual likeCassius, as the immortal Shake- speare describes him, with " his lean and hungry look:" and the same profound observer notices of men of this temperament, that " they think too much;" and, he might have added, feel too much. If the feelings or propensi- ties naturally predominate (and with this nervous, irri- table susceptibility they are liable to become boisterous and impetuous), they are continually hurrying an indivi- dual to acts of the most desperate and violent kinds, under the tempestuous gusts of sensual passions: if the moral and religious sentiments are large in proportion to the latter class of faculties, they impress their ennobling influence, and urge the gifted being to deeds generous and disinterested, and render him under all circumstances "a law unto himself:" and should the intellectual facul- ties predominate, there is manifested a quickness of per- ception, and a general vividness of ideas, which not unfrequently betray themselves by a hurried and rapid speech, as if the person aimed at giving verbal represen- tations, within the same short period of time that the vivid coruscations of thought occupy. We thus have marked the manner in which this tern- 20 MEXTAL CULTURE. perament affects either of the three classes of our innate powers ; viz. the feelings, moral sentiments, and reflective faculties; and it follows as a matter of course, that a similar influence would be conspicuous where any single faculty existed in extreme, since it would indicate greater energy than the neighbouring organs. When the head is very small (but accompanied with the nervous temperament), there is great general activity, but at the same time, we feel that there is a mental feebleness. On the contrary, if the head be very large, then, with the same temperament, there is a correspond- ing superiority: the individual is impressively profound, driving all before him by the strength and energy of his genius, sometimes like a hurricane carrying desolation whenever he appears, or, as the glorious sun, enlighten- ing and blessing mankind with the rays emanating from his moral and intellectual attributes: such a man was the great Lord Chatham. The BILIOUS temperament also disposes to great mental activity, and is known by the dark, oily, olive- coloured skin (bilious complexion), and dark hair and eyes, but is accompanied with less energy than the ner- vous temperament. The SANGUINEOUS temperament is accompanied with a broad chest (thorax) and great muscularity, which gives a tendency to athletic and gymnastic exercises, and hence disposes to great bodily exertion : the features are florid, and the body robust and healthy, but the brain is not so vividly affected as either of the last-mentioned temperaments. The LYMPHATIC temperament does not dispose to much mental exercise, but then it compensates for this in some measure, by giving a tendency for corporeal assimilation j the body is well nourished, and is generally MENTAL CULTURE. 21 large and protuberant the aldermanic abdomen ! The face is pale and livid, the motions of the body sluggish, and the mind's machinery moves slowly and tardily: in short, it is the lowest degree of functional activity. But there is rarely, if ever, a genuine lymphatic: sometimes the combination is thus lymphatic-nervous - } lymphatic- sanguineous ; &c. With even these preparatory considerations we may proceed safely on the path of our enquiry ; viz. to prove that the diversity in human temper, disposition, and intelligence is referable to certain laws : that no action takes place without a motive; and that no motive can be attributed to that unphilosophical non-entity, chance, it being demonstrable that all varieties of mind depend on the mental instrument (the brain), which indicates more or less positive power according to the great or small size of the whole brain, or a relative power from extremes in its separate parts ; but in both cases subject to great modification in the energy of its functions by the con- stitutional temperaments. Finally, there is another primary condition to be at- tended to, namely, that unless all the faculties receive proper cultivation, there will be great defects in the manifestation of their general functions, or excessive action from the unrestrained and undirected excitement of some particular feelings ; for, like weeds, they may grow with a rank luxuriance, and prove more injurious than useful. If we ignorantly expect that, because a brain is large, it therefore requires no education, we are mistaken. It is very true, that when the brain is accom- panied with a good temperament, and nearly equally balanced in its faculties, or possessed of a greater than ordinary portion of intellectuality, its better energies 22 MENTAL CULTURE. may be sometimes roused in spite of even the most un- favourable circumstances : but such cases are rare and almost isolated, forming those apparent exceptions to a general law which we call genius. It ought to be our universal rule to observe the laws of mind and attend to them, if we wish to develope all the faculties ; taking care neither to over-exercise the mental faculties, nor allow them too little action : in the first instance we exhaust the organic instruments before they are matured, and, in the last, we induce inactivity and torpor. To attain certain ends we must use the means provided by the Creator; and greatly responsible is that parent or tutor, who wilfully neglects to obtain the necessary information. Experience affirms, that the cerebral organs are sub- ject to the same conditions as the external senses and the muscular system : bind up the muscles of the arm from infancy, and there would be neither strength nor motion in it : shut up a child in the dark, or bandage the eyes for many years, and it would be blind. So it is with the mind : suffer the poor child to run about the streets and be a witness of crime and vice; neglect to give the proper stimuli to his moral and religious sentiments; abandon his perceptive faculties to the noxious influence of the dram-shop, the prison, or the abodes of craft and cunning, where, instead of being nourished with true and useful knowledge, he can only become acquainted with trickery and chicanery; and, lastly, let those noblest attributes, the reflective faculties (reason), be left to exercise themselves in the invention of mere schemes of dishonesty, and then ask whether, after being thus schooled in vice, the poor sinning crea- ture in whom all the Creator's laws have been violated, does not more demand our deepest sympathy, than our MENTAL CULTURE. 23 reprehension ? Let me then urge the true friends of man to study those laws, and we may anticipate a regen- erated state of society, in which, instead of crime dark- ening the moral atmosphere, all will be harmonious and serene. 24 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER III. EXPLANATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANS COMPOSING THE BRAIN. HAD one fact impressed itself on the mind of observers before the days of the illustrious Gall, viz., that in the animal economy no operation can take place without an organ, and that no single organ (whether nerve, gland, &c.) performs a double function, it would have been long since demonstrated that the various feelings, sentiments, and intellectual qualities of the mind could not be mani- fested in this life without material instruments : those that think otherwise should be prepared to prove that we might have seen without an eye, or possessed any other sense without its proper organ. The evidence for the plurality of the mental organs must be admitted to be both physiological and philosophical, and we shall now enter into a brief history of them, being confident that this discovery will one day be appreciated as the greatest boon conferred by Observation and Science on the human race. particular Uses (functions) of the Parts of the Brain. The faculties of man are divided into three classes. The first is that of the feelings or propensities (the genus Affective Faculties of Spurzheim), which we have in common with other animals. The second is that of the MENTAL CULTURE. 25 moral and religious sentiments, which are, strictly speak- ing, human attributes. The third class is that of the intellectual faculties. We shall explain these several faculties in the order above enumerated, and in this ex- planation our aim will be to give information, and not to make a verbal display. FEELINGS. Amativeness (cerebellum} . This organ (Physical Love) is situated at the base of the skull, and its breadth is indicated by drawing a line from one bony protuberance behind the ear (mastoid process) to the other on the opposite side, whilst its depth may be ascertained by the bony knob at the back of the head (occipital spine), and the greater or less thickness of the muscles of the neck. Innumerable facts prove the function of the cerebellum to be correctly ascertained. Philoprogenitiveness (Parental Instinct). This organ occupies the lower portion of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum (brain), and is generally larger in women than in men ; and hence by it the head of the female may be distinguished, as it gives a drooping ap- pearance to the back of the skull when viewed laterally, so that it is possible, as a general rule, to discriminate the crania (skulls) of females from those of males. The LOVE OF OFFSPRING seems to be a fundamental feeling, and it is experienced in greater or less intensity in proportion to the si^e of the organ. It is a very strong instinct in animals, many of them exercising most pro- digious labours, and devoting their whole lives, merely to prepare for the preservation of their offspring : this is the case with most of the insect tribes ; and all classes, C 26 MENTAL CULTURE. both of carnivora and berbivora, manifest it in different degrees, and frequently tbe roost savage display it in the greatest intensity. Its gratification seems to afford extreme pleasure, and that which gives it painful sensa- tions tends to rouse other faculties into activitity : for example, the swan, when sitting on her eggs, is usually guarded by her faithful mate, who is sure to dart with fury at an intruder, should he approach the object of his paternal solicitude. Many other examples might be cited. In our own species, who does not recognize a similar instinct ? The anxious mother, when her little offspring is in danger, feels an ineffable agony ; and who has not observed with delight her amiable solicitude in watching at the sick couch of her child without a murmur nay, apparently dissatisfied if another takes her place ? for, she derives a pleasure from her maternal cares, a pleasure of a peculiar kind, a sensation sui generis; one that is unlike any other of our attachments, whether of sex, friends, or country. It is not the same as benevolence, being manifested by the savage, by the cold-blooded murderer, and by animals of the most ferocious kind ; and yet, as all our feelings are modified by the moral qualities, it is possible that in the virtuous and cultivated this parental instinct is experienced in a more refined degree. Inhabitiveness* (Instinctive Love of Place.) The cerebral part now to be described is situated above the last organ, and occupies also the middle line of the back part of the head. The peculiar feeling of attach- * Our object is not to make long descriptions of the organs, nor do we intend to enter into the occasional difference to be found among even the most talented advocates of the science; but merely to give the views we have adopted. MENTAL CULTURE. 2" inent we have for our native place is induced by this instinct, and the love of country seems to be merely a modification of it. The general possession of this feeling evinces another proof of the wisdom of the Creator, who evidently intended by this provision, that the various parts of the earth should be inhabited. It is this feeling which induces those born under the in- tense heat of a tropical sun, to part reluctantly from their parched-up plains, even to exchange them for more fer- tile countries. The Arab wandering in the arid desert seems powerfully attached to it ; and although he suffers from the scantiness of its fruits, and numerous other pri- vations, there cannot be a doubt that to him there are charms there which overbalance the precariousness of his supplies, and compensate for the general sterility. And the poor shivering Icelander, with an atmosphere bleak and sullen, and with the occasional scarcity caused by the poverty of the soil, derives pleasure even from such sources, and prefers his barren prospects and unconge- nial climate to other countries more salubrious, and in which the earth yields its fruits almost spontaneously. It is obvious that without such a feeling the greater part of the world would have been an uninhabited desert, and not, as it now appears, the busy theatre of the numerous descendants of Adam, and the abode of vast multitudes of animals. This feeling remains to the close of life : and some men then betray their attachment to place with greater energy under particular circumstances, as when they are absent in a foreign land and feel death making his approach. They then turn towards the scene of their birth ; and although they experience certain associations which add to their mental gloom, yet to them it would be a source of con- solation to be assured that their bones should be laid in 28 MENTAL CULTURE. the hallowed tomb which contained their departed an- cestors. The patriarch Jacob desiring to be buried in the sepulchre of Abraham is a well-known instance. This instinct, when naturally strong, may become more intense from mere age, as the scenes of our childhood are then enhanced by distance and possess something of a magic charm in the picture which fancy gives them, and which warms the imagination with vivid ideas of home, even although some stray clouds of sorrow may shadow the prospect with the painful recollection, that many who enjoyed with us that soul-stirring scene are long since deposited in their last abode. Adhesiveness (Affection, Love, fyc.) The organic instruments for this instinct are situated laterally, and superior to Philoprogenitiveness, occupy- ing the convolutions on each side of it : hence, when these organs are large, the back of the head will be broad ; and as affection is stronger in women than in men, their crania are more amply developed in this place. It is called Adhesiveness, because it gives us general attachment : for, to this feeling must be attri- buted friendship, esteem, and platonic love ; and some- times, when it is strongly experienced, it will exert itself in a species of affection for all things animate or inani- mate, as, for example, for animals, plants, minerals, and every surrounding object of creative goodness.* We often read of devoted friendship in criminals, who have sometimes been known to manifest attachment so great that they would suffer torture, nay, even commit * It forms not part of our plan to enter into comparative Phrenolo- gy ; but we cannot omit to observe of animals that have Adhesiveness large (as the Dog for example), how strongly they repay kindness by extraordinary devotedness. MENTAL CULTURE. 29 suicide, rather than betray their companions. That men sunk almost below zero in the moral scale, should be capable of such friendship, must be a source of no small difficulty to the advocate of any system of philosophy, if the theory of the illustrious Gall be rejected j but admit an in- stinct of attachment, and that difficulty is easily removed. The organ may be large even in a low organization, and then the individual will feel a friendship, which, although active, will be little above that kind which is manifested by animals, very warm for a time, but liable to be ex- tinguished by every gust of passion. How different is the friendship of the virtuous and moral ! their attach- ment is first roused into energy by the noblest attributes of our nature, (the moral sentiments and intellect com- bined with Adhesiveness), and therefore remains the same in prosperity or adversity. It is a friendship of this kind which is capable of disinterested acts, which forsakes not its object either in sickness or in health, and which loses nothing of its intensity either with age or distance. It is this purer kind of friendship which is experienced by a virtuous woman, who brightens with the rays of her affections the domestic hearth, and throws a halo of serenity around her upon all occasions, render- ing our joys more perfect, and soothing the trials and pains to which man in the turmoils of life is subject ; and thus not only reconciling him to bear, but adding unspeakable charms to, that existence, which would have been insupportable without female society. The strongest proof of the innateness of this most valuable feeling is to be found by comparing its degrees of intensity in a large family, where it may be distinguished through the various grades, from almost absolute indifference up to an inordinate activity even of the most romantic kind. C3 30 MENTAL CULTURE. Combativeness (Instinct of Courage). That men differ iu temper, was of course known to Gall; and this fact induced him to examine numerous in- dividuals, in order to see whether there existed any cere- bral difference. Without detailing the manner of his proceeding, we find that he decided that the instinct of Courage was innate, and that it enlarged the posterior angle of the parietal bones, behind the mastoid process, (just past the bone felt behind the ear), a fact which is easily to be verified by comparing a courageous and a timid person at this part of the head : the contrast would convince even the most sceptical. Now this experiment having been repeated upon a vast number of individuals, and without a single exception to the rule, " that the courage is always in the ratio of size of the organ," (temperament of course being considered), what stronger evidence could be demanded ? If such palpable facts be rejected, we must at once reject all scientific knowledge ; for, the evidence of every other human science is of the same kind as that of the functions of the instruments of the cerebrum : all must be tried by the same test of experiment, and the inferences in all must be merely inductive. In reference to the instinct of Courage we might still find further corroboration, by examining the heads of dif- ferent nations ; and, even though ignorant of their history, we could still draw up a scale of their comparative courage, merely by the size of this organ. We are told that Pizarro, with a few Spaniards, con- quered the kingdom of Montezuma ; and it is a fact that the crania of the Peruvians have the organ of Comba- tiveness small, whilst in the heads of the Spaniards it is large. This phrenological test is further established by a MENTAL CULTURE. 31 similar comparison between the heads of the Mexicans and their conquerors.* On the other hand, we find that many of the natives who inhabit some of the Malacca Islands (the Caribbean Indians, for example) are notorious for their brutal courage, and their skulls form a striking contrast to those of the Lascars and Hindoos, both which people are proverbial for their timidity and cowardice. The organ of Combativeness is sometimes excited to such a degree as to constitute insanity, and that too, even when the organ is not very large, in persons of a ner- vous temperament, particularly in those who have suffered many of the ills of life, and whose cup has been nearly filled with the bitter dregs of disappointments. Such persons indicate the festered condition of this instinct by their petulance and uncontrolled pugnacity. This instinct is susceptible of various abused manifestations, such as a quarrelsome and contradictious habit, and an abruptness in conversation, partaking in some manner of insolent dogmatism. In the well-organized individual it is never- theless a feeling of great importance, infusing a moral courage which fits the possessor for the noblest acts, and urges him to make, if necessary, a sacrifice of personal ease, and even of life, in the cause of truth and virtue, from a stern sense of duty. Many bright examples might be cited of men who have unflinchingly faced persecution even unto death, because they fearlessly advocated the advancement of knowledge and the intellectual redemp- tion of their fellow-creatures. Destructiveness, The organ whose function we shall now investigate, was discovered by Dr. Gall in the heads of murderers ; * There are many Mexican and Peruvian skulls (Aborigines) in the excellent Museum of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society. 32 MENTAL CULTURE. and as it is probable that it was by instances of an extreme developement of the various organs in some persons, and their comparative deficiency in others, that our enlightened Philosopher was enabled to point out their particular func- tions, we ought to refrain from censuring with severity the error which he naturally fell into, of naming the organs of the propensities from their abused activity ; and should only recollect with gratitude his prodigious labours, and the subsequent utility of his vast and profound discovery. Every thinking being will deem it impossible that God should have given man an instinct to murder. But this crime, so revolting to humanity, has been committed in all ages ; and every page of history records long and sanguin- ary wars waged, and but too many instances of the most cruel torture inflicted, for slight differences of opinion : not unfrequently have the defenceless mother and inno- cent babe been immolated either to appease the insatiate fury of a brutal soldiery, or to glut the hellish rites of a senseless superstition - } and this species of murder has been of so wholesale a kind, that the heart sickens at the faintest reminiscence of the crimes of men acting under the fury of their low and selfish feelings. To what then, we ask, are to be attributed the various moral aberrations of mankind ? Is man a mere creature of accidental circumstances, or are not all his immode- rate actions to be traced to abuses of his natural instincts? The answers to these questions must be contradictory, unless we determine to decide on the evidence of facts - } and what, then, is the solution ? Why, that man has various faculties which, if used according to his moral sensations, are not only essential to him, but so essen- tial that he would have been an imperfect being without them ; and although in all ages there have been some noble specimens of our species, it is but too true that MENTAL CULTURE. 33 these examples have been greatly outnumbered by others of ferocity, revenge, murder, and various crimes degrad- ing to humanity. From these general remarks we con- clude, that man is endowed with an instinct to destroy, and shall submit many unanswerable considerations to prove, that in every instance in which this instinct de- generates into excesses, such as anger, fury, revenge, and their dreadful consequences, murder and cruelty in all its shapes, these excesses must be regarded as so many deviations from the proper function of this fundamental power. With a view to unfold the philosophy of this instinct, we must examine the economy of the animal kingdom ; and we shall be repaid with positive information on the subject. First, It is important to consider what specific difference there exists between animals which feed on grain, pulse, and herbs (herbivora), and those which de- vour other animals for their food (carnivora) ; and we shall soon perceive that they are strongly distinguished by the form of the brain and their general configuration. The herbivorous animals have teeth to cut (incisores), and others to grind the food (molares), a stomach pecu- liarly suited for the digestion of vegetable substances, and very imperfect instruments for defence : the latter being unnecessary to the greater number of this class, which browse or feed in quiet slothfulness. But the carnivorous class (birds excepted) are endowed with a masticatory apparatus evidently intended for tearing flesh, and with an alimentary canal fitted for assimilating it, and various weapons for offensive and defensive pur- poses. The brains of each class are equally well dis- criminated j and naturalists who will study comparative phrenology will be able to distinguish between the peaceful herbivorous animal, and the more courageous C5 34 MENTAL CULTURE. and sanguinary feeder on flesh, by their respective heads, even if deprived of teeth and jaws : and our inference is, that the organ of Destructiveness is the seat of the innate carnivorous instinct, an inference which is corroborated by the fact, that the size of this part of the brain is vari- ously developed in different species according to their nat- ural ferocity. Secondly, In examining the zoological rank of man, we find that his masticatory organs (teeth) are suited both to grind vegetable matter and to tear flesh, so that he holds a middle rank, and is called an omni- vorous animal, particularly as we find the digestive or- gans in harmony with this decision; and when we look at the brain, we find there an organic instrument which stimulates him to kill for the sake of animal food, so essential to him. If he had not been intended to eat flesh, why has he teeth and a stomach for the purpose ? And could he have procured it without an instinct to destroy? Hence the true function is obvious; and he who denies this to be the case, should be prepared with some strong reasons to prove that the dental and pelvic organs of man, being intermediate between the two great classes of animals, are merely an accidental occur- rence, and that a murderer kills " because he kills," with other such unphilosophical jargon. That there are many animals which seem to delight in beholding the agony of a writhing victim, even when they have satiated themselves with food, is true;* that there are some which merely kill when driven by hunger; and that there are others which, although feeding on flesh, never kill their prey, is also well known ;t so too, shall we find, in human society, similar instances recorded by the testimony of history. We read, that on the field * Tiger, Polecat, and Wolf. t Lammergyer, Vulture, and Carrion Crovr. MENTAL CULTURE. 35 of battle the murderous slaughter has been continued, and that biped tigers, deaf to the cries of the prostrate, have apparently derived even some pleasure from the bloody carnage, feeling neither pity for the sufferers, nor making an effort to mitigate their misery. The Romans, witnessing the deadly conflicts of the gladiators, must have been brutalized fi-om an active state of the destructive propensity; and those who lux- uriate even in relations of such hellish spectacles, and who delight in beholding, in imagination, such sanguin- ary dramas, gratify this feeling unmollified by the higher sentiments. Unless we admit the existence of an instinct of this kind acting with an animal energy, we must pause to account for instances of such human callousness as was manifested by the monsters who superintended the rack ; who could remain unmoved by the stifled groans of a lacerated victim, and seem to derive a savage pleasure from the infernal violence which was inflicted on the agonized and generally innocent sufferer ; and could stand indifferent spectators, when the bones of the arms and legs were cracking, the ligaments breaking, the eye-balls starting from their sockets, until violated nature put an end to this diabolical tragedy, and the in- dividual either fainted or expired. Contrasted with such extreme manifestations of this propensity, are those persons who will merely kill in self-defence, and who would not willingly inflict pain on anything. And, lastly, there are others with so very little of this carnivorous propensity, that they suffer almost torture in witnessing the slaughter even of animals.* * The Hindoos have Destructiveness moderate, and Benevolence large. Was it this organization which induced MENU to prohibit the destruction of animal life? We think it probable. 36 MENTAL CULTURE. In a moral point of view this feeling is important, for it gives great energy and, however largely de- veloped, if it be associated with naturally strong moral qualities and intelligence, it will not induce a desire for acts of cruelty, much less lead to that enormity against the laws, natural and revealed, the murdering of a fellow- creature ! Sometimes this organ, like others in the brain, is liable to diseased action, either induced by an unrestrained activity, or when under some sudden excitement. Fatal instances of the latter statement we read of, when individuals suddenly kill their dearest friends, fathers, mothers, wives, and children ; and afterwards, by a peculiar infatuation, deliver themselves up to the civil authorities. The natural language which this propensity imparts to the features when it is under excitement, cannot be misunderstood by even the tyro in physiognomical expres- sion : the scowling browj the inverted eye^ the teeth closed, and the lips half open j the face livid, and the nostrils distortedly distended, all these show the signs of the " savage man," without even looking at the clench- ed fist, and other such concomitant manifestations. Secretiveness (Instinct essential to Prudence.) Dr. Gall having observed much deceit and cunning among mankind, and being convinced from the evidence of facts that other feelings had cerebral organs, he thought it most probable there was one to indicate this feeling also. It would not answer our purpose to detail his proceedings j but as they were strictly philosophical, the results only may be very briefly stated. He mark- ed the conduct of sly, deceitful, and fraudulent men ; and found that there was a configuration, at the part of MENTAL CULTURE* 37 the head above Destructiveness, resembling in form, si- tuation, and proportion, the heads of subtle and cunning animals, however the individuals differed in the confor- mation of their heads in other respects. Hence it was that Gall, misled again by an abused manifestation of a fundamental instinct, mistook its tendency, and mis-nam- ed its function. To Spurzheim, his illustrious pupil, we are indebted for a better nomenclature j* and although Secretiveness is still a very imperfect word, yet it may serve to express the abstract idea of a power to conceal, which is felt by the human mind. It is often to be remarked, that cunning supplies in some measure the place of intelligence, inasmuch as its wariness enables an individual to conceal his purposes, to throw a veil over his actions, and so to simulate sen- sations, to the reality of which he is insensible. The cunning man will borrow all shapes in order to conceal his own. If piety be deemed the brightest ornament of our nature, he puts on an appearance of sanctity; if patriotism be considered most honourable, he ingeniously throws a specious covering over his real intentions, and, with seeming zealousness in the cause of civil liberty and the rights of man, makes his creed only a means to personal success. The abuses of this faculty are many; viz. lying, deceit, evasion, subtlety, and all the indescribable varieties of hypocrisy and villany. But this instinct, like all the preceding ones, was essential for our happiness ; for without Secretiveness all a man's thoughts are communicated, whether they have a good or an evil tendency. His brain seems to have a hole in it, and every vain conceit, instead of being corrected by reflection, is allowed to escape, not unfrequently causing * See subsequent remarks on the moral and philosophical prin- ciples. 38 MENTAL CULTURE. strife and misery, an effect which might take place even should an individual be otherwise too amiable to give the smallest portion of pain to any human being. From this latter view, it will be recognized that Secretiveness is an element essential to prudence. Our thoughts, dur- ing their busy wanderings, both awake and asleep, seem to be merely involuntary agents, receiving, through the different inlets of the external senses, a variety of mate- rials, sometimes forming incongruous compounds ; and it would be very absurd and mischievous to pour out these heterogeneous notions, like a perpetual current. A pru- dential reserve enables a man to reGne any improper sensations by moral precepts and reflection, before he gives them utterance. If then an individual had every other faculty, but was deficient in Secretiveness, he would be an object of pity, particularly in a state of civilization. He would be too transparent for the world, and might be seen through, and duped, by all who chose to act upon his unsuspicious nature. Not so with the reverse of this organization. Hence plots, dissimulation, and all that class of vices which, like pestilential diseases, are ravaging among society, sometimes breaking out in schemes of deepest villany, sometimes showing them- selves actively operating in the form of calumny and its blasting consequences. But under all its numerous ap- pearances, it is still characterized by a natural language, not easily mistaken. The eye of the secretive man is turned with a side-long glance 3 or he looks upwards with the upper lid contracted, as if in the act of direct- ing a careful glance at his own inward workings and the effects he is producing. The voice is low, rather than soft, and there is in it a sinister expression, a something disingenuous, and consequently repugnant to, a candid mind. MENTAL CULTURE. 39 In some cases, there may be observed an anxiety in the countenance, which has something ambiguous in the expression: either it may be supposed to mean, "7 know a secret;" or, "TIL tell you a secret " but, when the se- cretive man intends the latter, there is a rapid motion of the head, occasioned by looking round and sideways, as if to guard against being intruded upon by listeners ; in short, that expression which is understood by suspicion. Acquisitiveness. Furnished with all the preceding instincts, which con- stitute the social and domestic feelings, man would still have been imperfectly endowed had there not been placed within him an instinct to enable him to provide against the contingencies of poverty and want ; and nu- merous facts prove, that there is such an organ situated anterior to Secretiveness, being covered by the middle of the temporal bone,* and which is called by Dr. Spurz- heiru, the organ of Acquisitiveness, i.e. of an instinct to acquire. The specific things which different individuals will desire to hoard, depend on the local or geographical situation, the relative value attached to objects, the pro- duce of the country, the state of our necessities, and numerous other controlling circumstances. Hence the feeling will receive its direction from the other faculties of the mind. And who can observe this essential attri- bute of our nature, and not regret that it is so gener- ally misguided in the state of civilization ? that, instead of it simply exciting a provident disposition, it leads man to sacrifice comfort, honour, and peace of mind, to its own exclusive gratification, and is seemingly careless of all * The temporal bone is the place to which the muscle of the tem- ple is attached: hence, by moving the upper and lower jaws, the place is seen. 40 MENTAL CULTURE. the dictates of his moral nature ? The unfortunate slave of this passion will accumulate more than he wants j and not unfrequently his desire of gain is so inordinate, that he becomes the inmate of a mad-house or, under the painful consequence of a sudden loss, violates the law of self-preservation by an act of suicide. Should this feeling, on the contrary, be feebly mani- fested, the thoughtless being would take no care for the morrow, which might break upon him when he was almost destitute of common necessaries. At least, such would be the case in a state of nature, when the harvest might be blighted during the night by the storm, and the flocks of the fields be destroyed by lightning. In a state of civili- zation, the consequences of these and numerous other physical evils are rendered less disastrous by the granaries stored with plenty, and the advantages of commercial intercourse, which latter, in case of failure in our crops or other kinds of food, enables us to obtain supplies from neighbouring nations. There are many abuses of this instinct, besides those enumerated : it may lead to peculation, gambling, for- gery, and theft ; and its abuse is particularly conspicuous in all monopolists who combine their experience and in- telligence for the purpose of gratifying Acquisitiveness, even although thousands may be ruined by their success. Nevertheless it is essential to make a just discrimination between its fundamental tendency and its aberrations from various accidental circumstances its diseased ex- citements after fevers, and during the state of pregnancy j for it sometimes occurs, that persons even in opulent circumstances will steal, and this abuse will occasion- ally be the case during the fcetal gestation, when the brain and nervous system are under extraordinary excite- ment. Such instances as the latter may be deemed unfair MENTAL CULTURE. 41 examples to prove the innateness of this instinct ; but who will deny, that by admitting it to be a fundamental power we have a solution to occurrences otherwise inex- plicable ? Besides, it frequently happens that idiots ma- nifest a strong tendency to hoard, and in these cases it is curious for the philosophic observer to mark the animal exercise of the instinct when left without an intellectual direction. During Dr. Spurzheim's visit to Hull, we examined the head of a man in the Charity-Hall, in whom the acquisitive propensity was strongly marked : he was a perfect simpleton, but still felt an inordinate desire to accumulate what he deemed wealth, and this consisted of old rags, pieces of pipes, old chews of tobacco, &c., and he would stand and contemplate his fancied treasure with apparent satisfaction. And as all our notions are relative, is not this case a fine satire on those who seem only desirous to heap up riches, which are equally worthless, unless used for the advantage of mankind ? And there is little doubt but that the poor being we have just alluded to, suffered as much from the loss of the vast heaps of rubbish piled up in his room, when the superintendent forcibly ejected the motley accumula- tion, as the sordid man does when he loses some portion of his glittering gold, or any other species of wealth.* Constructiveness. A genius for mechanical pursuits, accompanied with an early tendency to invent, must depend on an innate impulse which impels the individual almost irresistibly to gratify it with something connected with manual dex- terity. This will be obvious to the most shallow thinker * It would be easy to prove the innateness of this instinct by tra- cing it in various animals that evince a strong sense of property ; but we avoid doing so, being anxious to confine ourselves to human Phre- nology. 42 MENTAL CULTURE. who permits himself to reflect on the cause of that mechanical precocity, which is sometimes conspicuously shown by individuals, before such talent could be suppo- sed to result from reflection or mere imitative influence. Neither can this talent be deemed accidental in its origin, because there is seldom any favourable disposition of ex- ternal circumstances to account for it on that supposition : frequently the young artist is born under the disadvanta- ges of poverty and its concomitants, and yet, by the force of this faculty and other mental qualities, he educates himself, and, bursting the bonds which might confine ordinary minds, he raises himself by the force of genius alone to the highest intellectual rank : whilst if genius were of artificial growth, the children of the wealthy would invariably excel, because they are surrounded with every thing calculated to call forth talent if it depended on imitation or habit, or if by an act of volition, by the mere desire, it were possible to obtain mental superiority. But how very few painters, sculptors, architects, and mechanics are born among the affluent ! On the con- trary, how many artists are found springing up in all ages, under the most adverse fortune : like certain spe- cimens in the vegetable kingdom, they seem to bid defi- ance to the cold soil in which they grow and to the humid clouds hovering around them, and, by the force of their inherent qualities, they shoot forth with luxuri- ant vigour. The very obstacles which would appeal- almost an insuperable barrier to the sons of poverty, tend to arouse their best energies, and give that exalted tone to their faculties, to which we owe most works of taste and utility works which remain immortal monuments of the indestructibility of genius ! The organ of Constructiveness is situated in the an- terior lobes, and appears to many reflecting phrenologists MENTAL CULTURE. 43 to belong rather to the order of the perceptive faculties than of the mere instincts.* It is found to be very large in all artists of great eminence, whether as mechanics, architects, painters, or sculptors ; in short, in all who exhibit ingenuity in contrivance and manual dexterity. The head has a squareness when viewed in front, and this is owing to the circumstance that Constructiveness is situated at the anterior part of the temples, and is to be demonstrated in all cases of great mechanic powers, although there may be a marked difference in the general configuration. With regard to this faculty, there is in every instance a concurrent developeraent of both the organ and the function ; that is to say, we never saw a case of a man famous for manipulations who had little Constructiveness : but, as it is possible for us to invent machinery without hands, it is clear that such inventions are independent of mere manual practice. On this faculty depend all our powers of contrivance, and, like the preceding instincts, this one receives strong illustra- tions from the animal kingdom for we 6nd in all animals that build or burrow, that their skill and inven- tion will be always in proportion to the large or small developement of the organ in which this instinct resides. Self-esteem. This cerebral organ is situated above the organ of ^SSS.-^- auwfPiS, and was supposed to give nobleness to thought, and consequently to infuse a kind of dignity into all our actions. It is difficult to avoid some error in analysing the various fundamental faculties, because most of our actions spring from a combination of different faculties, * This view is opposed to great authority: Dr. Spurzheim, Mr. Combe, aud others, place it with the Feelings; and we have not altered this arrangement. 44 MENTAL CULTURE. and in very few instances do we find one power acting singly. But the one under consideration may be seen exerting such a potent influence when very large, that it imparts to the features a natural language a language so powerful in its expression, that it can be read without difficulty or previous study. The position of the head, the tone of voice, the expression of the face, nay, the very gait, when Self-esteem is large, all seem to indicate " an exalted opinion of self." One proof of the existence of a fundamental power, like that we are investigating, may be drawn from the fact, that pride owes not its birth to either rank, wealth, or talent, but is to be found under all varieties of character and circumstance alike, in the rich or the high-born aristocrat, the man of genius, the beggar, and the idiot: nor can it be referred to education, as the little child will manifest it both in expression of countenance and tone of voice before he can comprehend the distinctions in society: and, on the other hand, we observe many, rich in worldly gear and in intellectual lore, with not a particle of pride! Finding, then, such marked distinctions in character from the presence or the absence of this quality, even in infancy, and in situations where we should not a priori expect to meet with it, we cannot avoid the natural conclusion, that it is innate; and observation demonstrates, that its greater or less intensity is (like that of all the preceding faculties) dependent on the size of the organ, and of course moderated or excited into more energetic action by the temperament. The organ, when controlled by moral sensations and guided by reason, does indeed infuse a dignity into the whole demeanour ; but when acting without these qualities, it degenerates into an inordinate selfishness ; and the man who is thus subject to its unmitigated MENTAL, CULTURE. 45 influence (whether he be rich or poor) roay be proud of himself, of his actions, of his productions however tri- fling ; he may be proud of his wife and children (merely because they are his) ; yet he will assuredly be grovelling in his thoughts, and ignoble in his actions. Love of Approbation. The Love of Approbation is situated on each side of the last organ;* and is, as is too well known, a very powerful motive. It manifests itself in all the different stages of life ; it causes the infant to smile when noticed, the more matured to obey their parents and teachers from a wish to be praised; and in manhood it may, according to the nature of the other controlling influ- ences, lead to criminal or to virtuous actions. If it be directed by the human faculties,t it may achieve the most exalted acts, and excite others to emulate them : but whenever it assumes the mastery of any individual, he will inevitably sink into the lowest depths of vice, if circumstances throw him into the society of profligate companions; and there is no doubt but many a youth has been betrayed into utter ruin by the influence of vanity alone of that excess of vanity which is only another term for the mere love of approbation : hence that rivalry in immorality which characterizes the mid- night revels of the bacchanalian the blaspheming oath * To avoid any mistake, we may here notice that all the organs are double except those situated at the union of the two hemispheres in the middle of the head, and are only marked with one number which takes in both organs. + The feelings we are discussing (such as Amativeness, &c.) man has in common with the lower animals; but the moral and religious sentiments are peculiar to him: hence we speak of them as " human faculties." 46 MENTAL CULTURE. the impious scoff the ribald song the indecent wit- ticism the lewd tale the drunken frolic the lavish- ness of expense the vanity in dress ; in short, the zealous pursuit of every thing degrading, and the systematic mockery of every thing ennobling to humanity: into all these evils, and their destructive consequences, the debauchee is urged by the fear of being ridiculed for not joining in the sports and excesses of his associates, or, in other words, by his love of approbation. Even in the well- organized being, if this instinct be too much cultivated, it becomes the main-spring of all his actions, and necessarily induces him to sacrifice truth, reason, every thing noble, at the shrine of vanity. He incessantly thirsts after praise, and feeds greedily on flattery ; to gratify this morbid appetite, he becomes literally " all things to all men :" nay, he will bear many privations, undergo the greatest fatigue, and en- dure hardships of a thousand kinds, to gain an applause, which his intelligence must despise, if he estimated the real value of the approbation as it merits. Look, for example, what the candidate for public fame frequently suffers in the pursuit of the wished-for boon : his ener- gies are destroyed by corroding care, and he abridges the span of life allotted him, consoled with the stale and unprofitable anticipation of posthumous fame ! When, however, this feeling is comparatively small, an individual is indifferent whether he has the good or the bad opinion of his associates 5 and such a person will be negligent, uncourteous, and selfish. The kind of influence which this particular feeling exercises over the conduct, depends very much on the general organiza- tion and the education which the feeling itself receives : it may induce a virtuous desire of praise, a laudable emulation, an uniform urbanity, and that suavity of MENTAL CULTURE. 47 manner which is so pleasing, because the possessor of it himself seems pleased with the happiness of others : or it may induce various abuses; a senseless ambition, extravagant boasting, and all the varieties of vanity, from the most childish and trifling, to the most morbid and insatiable. Therefore, like all our faculties, this one may become a source of good or evil, just according to the bias which circumstances and education may give it. Cautiousness. We have already investigated the evidence of a cere- bral organ through which Courage is experienced, and we shall also find equally valid proof of an instinct (Cau- tiousness) which, when excited, gives rise to different degrees of a sensation to which various terms have been applied Hesitation, Caution, Timidity, Fear, and Ter- ror. The organ occupies the lateral part of the head, rather backwards and in the middle of the parietal bones, and is connected with the convolutions of the last named organ. Some writers on the philosophy of mind have contended, that Fear and Courage were fundamental fa- culties; whilst other writers have denied this to be so, asserting that Fear is the negative of Courage, and vice versa; or, in other language, that the absence of the one presupposes the presence of the other. But, if nature had been consulted, if their own experience had been allowed to speak, a contrary inference (to the latter) must have resulted. The various degrees of each instinct noticed in different members of the same family ; the instinctive fear of a child who is positively ignorant of casualties, and of every species of danger; and the reck- less courage and daring of another, urged on without reflection, and unconscious of its own temerity, afford 48 MENTAL CULTURE. at least presumptive evidence that both Caution and Courage are innate ;* otherwise, how could they operate before habit or education had called them into action : It might prove instructive, if we were to examine the causes which produce sensations of real or imaginary danger, and all the various phenomena of fear. A real sensation of fear must be produced by external circum- stances, and the mind is affected through the senses : as, for instance, we observe an army coming with hostile preparations : we are alarmed for our own safety ; and when we hear the firing of the cannon we shudder at the consequences, whilst the smell of smoke and powder produce an extreme of terror ; yet we may be all the time, so situated as to be certain of being secure from danger : and all these analogous consequences might take place involuntarily, by our allowing the imagination to picture a similar train of occurrences, as it frequently does during sleep, under a morbid and diseased action of Cau- tiousness. And it is also evident, that Courage may be excited either by real or fancied provocation. Besides, the innateness of Cautiousness and Courage is further demonstrated by the fact of their sometimes alternating. Let us suppose a man stopped on the road by a thief, who demands his money, presents a pistol to the travel- ler's head, and at the same time swears that, unless his demands be complied with, he will blow out his brains. The traveller would be alarmed, however strong his nerves, because his life must be in jeopardy ; but if his * The organ of Courage is situated in man and in courageous animals at the posterior and inferior angle of the parietal bones; and most timid animals have their heads broad at the part corres- ponding with Cautiousness in man : surely this cannot be attributed to mere coincidence? If these uniform consequences be deemed accidental, we wish to know whether chemical results may not also be regarded as adventitious? MEXTAL CULTURE. 49 instinct of Courage be naturally strong, he will, at the same time, be roused by its impulse to seize the robber's arm, grasp the deadly weapon that menaces him, and escape from the impending threat, a consequence which could not be anticipated had Cautiousness alone been large : and if we could contemplate the quick and sudden transition in the expression of these alternating states of feeling, we should perceive that the natural language of both Fear and Courage was too strongly delineated to be considered as merely accidental : the tremulous voice, the difficult breathing, the anxious look, the violent palpitations of the heart, and the vibratory motions of the knees, are so many external indices of the first emotion ; and their impressions are scarcely obliterated, when the subsequent sensation of the rising courage drives the blood to crimson the cheek and brighten the eye, and prepares the individual for mortal defence. Finally, it is possible for Fear and Courage to be under simultaneous activity, a fact which may be satisfactorily verified by. an appeal to the casualties of life. In Mrs. Hemans's interesting poem of " The Mother and Child," this is well illustrated : the mother, observing her darling babe on the brow of a precipice, and in imminent danger, must have been agonized with terror (the highest excite- ment of Cautiousness); but still, actuated by an exalted courage, she cautiously proceeded to snatch the infant from death, to which the slightest sound of her voice would have instantly sent him : this last struggle of such conflicting emotions must have been directed by a pow- erful intelligence. We have been induced to enter into this full descrip- tion of the functions of these two fundamental powers, because they are both of them highly important, and both exert a salutary influence when they exist in due D 50 MENTAL CULTURE. proportions. When Cautiousness is too large, it induces irresolution, inquietude, and anxiety, and sometimes be- comes diseased, in which case it is called Melancholia and Hypochondriasis : when too small, the individual is not sufficiently guarded in his actions, his opinions, or his expressions : and if, in addition to this deficiency, he lacks a good natural intelligence, he is devoid of fore- sight, and is consequently exposed to innumerable incon- veniences and sufferings. We have now concluded our analysis of the first species (feelings) of the genus Affective Faculties ; and intend, in the next chapter, to explain the second species, called Moral and Religious Sentiments, which are the most important to us as responsible agents ; because the moral sentiments regulate the tendencies of the feelings, and prevent their degenerating into that inordinate selfish- ness to which they are liable wlien they act with uncon- trolled energy, and display themselves in the shape of foibles, follies, errors, vices, or deepest crimes, according to the degree of abuse which gives the characterising denomination to the conduct. MENTAL CULTURE. 51 CHAPTER IV. HAVING investigated the tendency of various faculties situated at the back and sides of the head (the occipital and basilar regions), we shall discuss the functions of the upper part of the head,, where the noblest attributes of man those which constitute him superior to all created beings, and even in this life are the sources of his highest and most unalloyed gratifications are located. Benevolence. This organ is situated at the superior and middle part of the frontal bone, a little anterior to ihefontanel,* and is the seat of a faculty so important to us, that it should be appealed to as a motive, and carefully regulated by judicious education. A superficial view of society will be sufficient to prove that the sentiment of Benevolence is instinctive, and cannot be attributed to education or any other accidental circumstance ; yet the influence of these latter may modify it in different individuals, and retard or stimulate it imperceptibly through the lapse of ages in various nations of the earth. Amongst the naked and shivering savages of the North, the swarthy tribes of Africa, the copper-coloured Americans, the natives of the vari- ous Islands of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, the numerous inhabitants of Europe, and, in short, in all * The opening felt at the upper part of a child's head. OZ MENTAL CULTURE. places where men associate, we can trace different de- grees of this noble sentiment, conspicuously distinguish- ing their laws, manners, and customs, their religious i institutions, their forms of government, their treatment of strangers, their modes of warfare, and their conduct towards their prisoners; so that, from an acquaintance Avith the laws and institutions of any people, we might infer the national developernent of their Benevolence. However, among all people there may be great extremes, and even in civilized Europe there will occasionally be found monsters who appear to delight in cruelty - } who seem deficient in all kindness and sympathy, or in \vhom the dictates of Benevolence, from having been in early life disregarded, at last become ineffective. Contrasted with these latter examples, are those instances of the noblest specimens of human nature, who seem to delight in doing good, and not only bless the country of their birth, but, as far as they may possess the means,* all other countries too. The benevolent man cannot feel happy as long as misery, famine, disease, bodily suffering, and mental misery, are the bitter portion of any of his fel- low-creatures. Of all the faculties of the mind, there is not one so completely disinterested as the sentiment of Benevolence, which is the spring of all actions that can mitigate distress, or ameliorate the condition of man; and, when strongly felt, it urges the possessor to the performance of humane actions, without thinking of the claims of the individual, and without calculating on present or future remuneration. It excites within us the emotion of pity, and tends to the exercise of mercy and forbearance even when injured in our person or possessions, and opposes itself to all vindictiveness by * As examples in this country, look at Howard, Granville Sharp, and Lord Chatham, men endeared by their philanthropy. MENTAL CULTURE. .).> the mildest demeanour and the most charitable beha- viour: in short, it is the source of all philanthropy and tenderness. When this faculty exists in but a moderate degree, it may exhibit merely indifference to the weal or woe of others; and if this deficiency be accompanied with a low organization, it gives rise to inveterate selfishness, un- kindness, malevolence, cruelty, which nature has marked by external signs of more or less intensity, the low forehead,* the coarse, scowling features, and a some- thing which seems to excite a certain kind of repugnance, and intimates that such a person feels no sympathy that may infringe upon his comforts even in the smallest degree. Veneration. The organ of Veneration is situated behind the latter, and occupies the middle of the head (fontanel), and when it is large, it gives an elevation in the centre of the head resembling the pyramidal termination of a primitive rock; and when this sentiment is very moderate, then we may observe a depression forming a kind of valley, if the adjacent organs are above the average, and, con- sequently, the degrees of natural veneration may be indicated by the cranial configuration. The sentiment of Veneration seems to endue us with an instinctive deferential feeling, but requires the assistance of reason to give this innate respect a proper direction : by itself, it may lead us to venerate every thing animate or inani- * It should be stated by the way of cautiop, in order to prevent an erroneous application of these views, that the hair of some persons grows very low, and consequently the forehead must commence at the seat of the organ of Benevolence, without at all noticing the fallacious boundary of the hairy covering. D3 54 MENTAL CULTURE. mate, just as circumstances of country, birth, and educa- tion, may influence the predilection. For instance, the Chaldean worshipped the serpent ; the Sabean, the stars ; the Persian, fire; the Egyptian, the Nile; and so forth: and in all these examples (and numerous others) we could trace the origin of each species of worship in some fancied good or evil influence which the serpent, the stars, the fire, and the Nile communicated to the people of each country, either directly or indirectly. It is, therefore, obvious that Gall was wrong in terming this cerebral part the "Organ of Theosophy," (religion), for, under the name of religion, man has practised the most senseless superstitions, the most sanguinary rites, the most absurd and indecent ceremonies, as well as the purest morals dictated and dignified by the most sacred truths, and refined by an exalted intelligence. Never- theless, in every system bearing the name of religion, we find the operation of the sentiment we are discussing, because in all of them something is actually venerated.* But, is the veneration of an idolater crouching before the serpent (or any other created object) to be compared to the delightful emotion which is experienced by the well- cultivated mind of him who bends his knees in worship to the living God, the Creator of ..all things? Certainly not ; and for this simple reason : in the first mentioned worshipper the sentiment acts blindly and passively, but in the last, it springs from principle, and a kind of mental gratitude for the blessings constantly dispensed to him. Finally, the innateness of Veneration may be inferred by observing the difference in the expression of this sen- timent in children: some will be naturally respectful, * Religion is a compound sentiment . see subsequent remarks on Hope and Marvellousness. MENTAL CULTURE. 55 and that, too, before education could have instilled into them any knowledge of the grades of society, or the deference due to rank or talent ; whilst others are proof against all instruction on this topic, and cannot be per- suaded or beaten into a sense of respect to superiors. Nature points out the cause of the difference by the size of the venerative faculty. This organ becomes, in its various abuses, the source of blind homage, crouching sycophancy, servility, and similar degrading vices and foibles. Firmness. The organ of Firmness is situated behind that of Ven- eration in the mesial line (middle of the head), thus occu- pying a place mid-way between the lower propensities (feelings) and the moral sentiments ; and it may act with the former or the latter, as either class predominates in the individual, and therefore it may urge the sensualist to persevere in his career of vice, and determine the mo- ral man to act undeviatingly in obedience to the higher motives of human action. In education, this quality may, if properly directed, be turned to a very useful account, or, if neglected and left to grow rank by its activity, it may induce the most baneful consequences. Firmness is essential in every situation of life, and no great object can be achieved without it, as it gives to those endued with good intellect what is called presence of mind, and a steady determination to overcome natural impediments. Its moral advantages are equally salutary, as it enables us to bear physical sufferings, and disposes us to support trials, disappointments, and all the afflicting dispensations of Providence to which mortality is liable, with a calm and unbending resignation, because our judgment decides on the impropriety of resisting that 56 MENTAL CULTURE. which is inevitable, or of impiously regretting that which is the fiat of our Creator. This faculty, when in excess, and acting without moral and intellectual control, may also lead to various abuses, such as stubbornness, obstinacy, and the like? and, when very moderate, it gives rise to consequences equally injurious, namely, fickleness and indecision of purpose. Conscientiousness (Instinctive Justice.) The organ of Conscientiousness is situated on each side of Firmness, and the two sentiments taken together may be compared to censors appointed by the Creator, to guard us against acting from the mere impulse of our lower feelings; or they may be regarded as a moral ba- lance by which we should weigh all our motives so that we may not infringe upon the rights of others, or gratify personal desires by compromising our dignity as moral and intelligent beings. It has been a subject of much difference of opinion among metaphysical writers, whether we have an in- stinctive sense of justice; some asserting that we have no such sentiment naturally, whilst others contend that various mental phenomena prove, by logical inferences, that we are endued with it. The latter opinion accord- ing with our views, and the subject itself being very important to the well-being of society, we shall discuss it rather more in detail than we have discussed any of the foregoing faculties. First, we shall endeavour to prove that this noble sentiment is not acquired ; Secondly, that it is not to be referred to education; and Lastly, that it cannot be attributed to the various institutions of man. The reasons we assign are these: 1st. It is ascertained bv facts and observations that there is a MENTAL CULTURE, 57 marked difference in reference to the exercise of this senti^ ment not only in children, but also in adults ; that, in children, this diversity is palpable, long before their jutlg^ ment can direct them to regard the dictates of justice, or ex- perience inform them that it is most politic to act rightly. 2nd. Education cannot create a single power, or confer a new principle : all that cultivation can effect is simply to modify, excite, or retard the fundamental faculties, to stimulate these embryo powers according to the mental laws, or to prevent by negative means their springing up too luxuriantly, and rankling into moral abuses. Now, if this be admitted, it will no longer seem para- doxical why children of the wealthy and the cultivated are sometimes guilty of moral delinquencies as well as the offspring of the needy and neglected; because, they being originally defective in strong Instinctive Justice, an education which was probably confined to precept could not nourish it into a more healthy condition. 3rd. As all institutions are the result of man's neces- sities, or induced by his desire for pleasure; and as they are all of them, whether directed to the one or the other object, suggested by his own ideas, which depend on the innate mental faculties; therefore all rules, laws, or en- actments, intended to secure his rights, or provide for his wants, must be regarded, not as accidental, but as immediately and necessarily dependent upon the nature of those faculties themselves. That there is an innate sense of justice, may also be inferred from the indifference with which some person> commit flagrant acts of dishonesty, invidious slander, perjury, and lying: whilst others suffer great compunc- tion for slight aberrations of duty, and the most corroding remorse for any thing partaking of the nature of crime. The greater or less conscientiousness of each may mauk D5 58 MENTAL CULTURE. the natural distinctions of character, yet sometimes the first conduct is induced by the potent force of early ex- ample, and by the entire neglect, on the part of parents, to adopt the means of stimulating the innate instrument. The opponents of these views state, " that it is absurd to suppose that we possess naturally a sense of right and wrong: that which we call Conscience, is produced by education and the laws; for, that which is called Justice has been materially different in different ages and coun- tries." It might as well be contended that the sense of smell is a mere result of circumstance, and that, because each person has some preference, there is no such thing as a positive law of smell; that odours are merely re- garded as pleasant or unpleasant by caprice; and that the words aromatic, perfume, effluvium, have no positive meaning, and should only be deemed arbitrary terms. If such unphilosophic principles be admitted, we must regard every operation of nature as accidental. But he who has observed the uniform order in the varied works of the Creator, must conclude that they are bound by fixed laws : hence, however modified the same laws may be in every individual of a species, the effects are consequential and definite. Now, the supposition that a principle (Justice) which is the strongest bond of society, is the product of caprice, involves a physical impossibility, and is in itself a moral absurdity. If man has abused his prerogative of moral liberty, and, in defiance of bis conscientious instinct, has given a preference to the de- grading abuses of his propensities for selfish gratification, it is a libel on his Maker, and in contradiction to expe- rience, to assert that he can contemplate a violation of rectitude in the same light as the performance of actions strictly just. As well might we suppose that cruelty can be deemed kindness, or that pain is pleasure ; for, Justice, MENTAL CULTURE, 59 like the unchangeable Being who has conferred that sen- timent upon us, is, like Him, immutable in its principles, although it has been perverted in all ages. Nero, Cali- gula, and others may furnish illustrative examples of a gross abuse of this principle} but, can we suppose that the Romans viewed the atrocities of those emperors as acts of justice? or that the virtuous decisions of Trajan and the Antonines were received by their subjects as something merely conventional? Finally, it must be admitted that, when Conscientious- ness acts in unison with the moral and intellectual qualities of man, the consequences in every age have been similar : " he has done unto others as he would they should do unto him" which beautiful aphorism is the emanation of the natural promptings of the organ of Conscientiousness. The converse of this has also in- variably resulted whenever men have sought their own gratification in defiance of the moral laws. It is to Dr. Spurzheim that we are indebted for the discovery of this organ, the existence of which is now established by a vast number of facts. Hope. The organ of Hope is situated anterior to Conscientious- ness, on each side of Veneration. The least reflection will prove it to be innate, as well as essential to happi- ness even in this life, and that it cannot be attributed to any thing adventitious, it being more or less experienced by all individuals, without reference to their rank, wealth, or mental acquirements, and sometimes even absenting itself from the abodes of splendour and extravagance, and remaining the constant companion of the poor and the unfortunate. 60 MENTAL, CULTURE. Hope is supposed to be most active in youth. It meets us on the very threshold of manhood, and urges us to the pursuit of some object. It is a bright beacon to guide us through the rugged paths of life ; nor is it dismayed by danger, or overwhelmed by disappoint- ments : 'tis most true, that in the mid-day of existence, painful realities or debilitating excesses may dim its brilliancy, but still it never altogether forsakes us. In old age it revives with a renovated energy, and, like the fabled Phrenix, rises bright and beautiful amidst the enervated ruins that are fast decaying around us, and, in our last moments, flutters round the bed of sickness, and, like a goodly spirit, beckons us away to another and a better world, " where the wicked cease from troubling, and the weary are at rest." This sentiment, however, which is so essential to make existence tolerable, which is so powerful in stimu- lating us to attempt extraordinary actions, and which renders the prospect of death far from gloomy, inspiring us with vivid thoughts on the beauties of the eternal country, is, nevertheless, liable to numerous aberrations when its organ is disproportionately large and active : it may then lead to aerial castle-building, and expose a man to the risk of losing the substantial blessings of life whilst he is pursuing the mere shadowy forms which float before his mental vision. A highly-excited state of this sentiment, when uncontrolled by the understanding, may induce a disposition for extravagant speculations, and many other mischievous abuses. A moderate developement is equally to be regretted, as it may induce lowness and dejection of spirits; and, the mind's eye being rendered morbidly distorted, the most trifling impediments to our pursuits will be mag- MENTAL CULTURE. 61 nified beyond all ordinary dimensions, and thus prevent our success in even the common occurrences of life. Hope, therefore, should be judiciously cultivated, if we wish to insure a healthy exercise of it, for its ex- tremes verge on the borders of disease, and may lead to aberration of mind ! The relative power of this senti- ment is in the ratio of its cerebral instrument ; for, when the sentiment is strongly manifested, this part of the brain is full, and when the sentiment is only imperfectly felt, there is a depression on each side. Marvellousness. The organ of Marvellousness is situated anterior to Hope, and gives a fulness to the superior and lateral parts of the frontal bone. This sentiment influences our ideas in matters of religion in a much greater degree than veneration does, as it induces within us emotions of faith. If belief in things invisible be an involuntary feeling, and not a result of any reasoning process, it must be dependent on some impulsive principle ; ami observation testifies that there is, even in infancy, much natural difference in this respect, some children being very credulous, whilst others evince an early scepticism, and frequently these opposite extremes may be found in the same family. At) appeal to the history of mankind will verify the conclusion that this sentiment (faith) is innate, and that we must refer to it all the religious notions of the early states of society, wherein every visible thing, and also their supposed occult qualities, were objects of worship. Hence, besides adoring the sun, moon, stars, trees, animals, and stones ; the bar* barian bowed down submissively to the spirit of the storm, of the wind, or of the tempestuous hurricane; 62 MENTAL CULTURE. and prostrated himself, when the sullen thunder-cloud roared in the distant prospect- and, in short, his unin- formed mind believed in the divinity of all things which might affect him directly or indirectly either for good or for evil, so that his faith presents the same contrast to the more consistent notions of civilized man, as does the credulity of childhood when compared to the more rational views of the intelligent adult. Some writers attribute the servile worship of Pagan- ism to fear. It is true that fear may lend her aid; but yet the mysterious dread of something unknown is principally owing to the marvellous instinct. If the idolater, or his oral teacher, had, for instance, observed a tree blasted by a stroke of lightning, or the same element destroying a fellow-creature, his cautiousness would be naturally excited. Now, supposing him to approach the corpse, and to see it scorched and black, that it had neither motion nor sensation, and did not answer him when he spoke to it, what could be his ideas respecting an effect so new to him? Why, that the invisible Being who could so suddenly destroy, must be angry, and therefore, the trembling idolater, instigated by an instinctive desire of self-preservation, would en- deavour to propitiate the supposed malignant spirit, either by presents or by personal adulation ; and when- ever afterwards he heard again the rolling of the distant thunder, or saw its fiery herald, he would, by association, think of its potency, and, prostrating himself, would repeat his homage to the supposed presence of the spirit of the storm. To similar instances of superstition, and ignorance of the operations of nature, may be traced the misguided worship of polytheism ; and even some of the ancient philosophers used to apeak of a soul in every thing, MENTAL CULTURE. 63 owing to want of information on the principles of attraction, and of the laws of chemistry, magnetism, and electricity. It is this very belief in occult causes which has induced poets to personify every part of animate and inanimate nature, a notion which is beautifully illus- trated in the following lines : " To every form of being is assigned ' An active principle, howe'er removed " From sense and observation ; it subsists " In all things ; in all natures ; in the stars " Of azure heaven ; the unenduring clouds; " In flower and tree, and every pebbly stone " That paves the brook ; the stationary rock, " The moving waters, and the invisible air." WORDSWORTH. In the present age, we have ample evidence that the abuse of the marvellous sentiment originates a belief in charms, talismans, magic omens, dreams, and many very absurd misconceptions of ordinary occurrences. Yet> when this sentiment is controlled by reason, it appears essential to give credence to what we regard as funda- mental truth. And, whether our philosophical con- viction be referred to objects of external nature or to their particular phenomena (for our knowledge of the natural laws is but the experience of their effects), we who are acquainted with secondary causes only, should be constantly doubting the recurrence of similar con- sequences, if there had not been an instinctive faith. But possessing this sentiment of natural belief, we are not now under the necessity of reconvincing ourselves that the operations of nature, which we observe, are uniform and constant : we feel certain that they are so. Besides, even in all our social and domestic relations, 64 MENTAL CULTURE. and in every ordinary transaction with our fellow-men, if we had been deprived of faith, our lives would have been chequered with vague anticipations, and distracted with constant doubts, destructive alike to the happiness of the individual, and to that confidence which is the very essence of friendship, and the best security to the commonwealth. It is however a faculty that re- quires great care in cultivating. Ideality. This organ is situated above the temples, rather back- wards, and nearly under the organ of Marvellousness. It was originally named by Gall " The Organ of Poesy," because he had observed that the heads of poets were very wide at this part. But, as poetry differs not only in subject, but also in style and manner of composition, it cannot be referred to a single mental faculty. We, therefore, think that the term Ideality, used by Spurz- heim, is most correct, as we shall soon perceive that this quality is essential to every kind of poetic com- position, and that it is the principle which mainly distinguishes between prose and poetry.* Although poetry may be divided into many kinds, yet they all require a certain degree of imagination not easily to be described, a thrilling enthusiastic some- thing, which must be felt. There may be a playfulness of the fancy, like flitting clouds dancing over the horizon before the tempest's approach, and which delight us from the variety of form, and other undefineable beauties, but which are too evanescent to leave any lasting impression * In discussing the nature of Ideality, as the essential ingredient in poetry, we shall use, as synonymous with it, the terms imagination, fancy, taste, and inspiration; for all these words correspond to the French term " beau-ideal." MENTAL GUI/TURK. 65 on the memory ; or the composition may be imbued with high sentiments, and with bold and rapturous flights soaring far above common-place things and common- place circumstances; and which at once delight us, by a certain elevation of thought, a richness of decoration, and a tasteful embellishment differing from all matter- of-fact associations. It is poetry of this kind which infuses over all objects that it contemplates a warmth of colouring and a depth of shadow, and produces a mental picture in which every sense and every emotion of the mind are interested : and yet the materials of the poet must be drawn from external nature. It is the Ideality which communicates its promethean power, which produces endless creations as if by magic, and revels in ecstacy upon their fancied beauties. Thus, let us examine a fine landscape and accurately describe it in good well-written prose, and it might please ; but, let Ideality add its more vivid touches, and our pleasure is changed into an exquisite delight. There is a soul- stirring rapture in the description: the very "words breathe:" a perfect picture is presented to the mind's eye, and the unclouded imagination sees in perspective every thing bright and beautiful. And, when Ideality assists in the delineation of human character, how ter- ribly grand does it pourtray the passions, and what sublimity does it give to the fine pencilling of the higher sentiments! an effect which results from its soaring above the ordinary level into a region of its own, where it bids defiance to time and space, and is enabled to view all things through a different medium, and to metamorphose their forms with an untrammelled and ever-varying caprice. The great requisite of poetry is, that Ideality should pervade it, and this without reference to style or subject ; 66 MENTAL CULTURE. so that in the amorous, the religious, the grave, or the gay, whether put into the form of hexameters or into any other shape, if there be not internal evidence that this delightful sentiment (Ideality) breathes throughout the whole composition, there may be rhyme and jingle, but there will not be poetry. The moral utility of this sentiment is obvious; it inspires us with a desire of perfection, and hence in- duces zeal and enthusiasm ; and, as no human being can actually attain to that standard of moral perfection which he may aim at, it seems most probable that Ideality, acting in conjunction with Hope, excites within us natural desires for a future state, which our imagina- tion represents as a state of perfection. Ideality, when large, renders music more enchanting, and throws a poetic glow over the works of the painter : and, to true eloquence it is absolutely indispensable. Dr. Spurzheim found it generally small in persons addicted to crime, and whose actions seemed to indicate a nearer approximation to the brute than to the nobler prerogative of man endowed with moral attributes. Wit. The word Wit being used to express various meanings, it is rendered liable to much ambiguity, unless we specify the kind of wit we allude io; because it is used indiffer- ently to express great intelligence, quickness in repartee, natural humour, and irony; and, not unfrequently, it is also applied to mere mimicry. Nor do we think the phrenological application of the term is one whit more definite; for which reason it is difficult to assign the fundamental use of the cerebral part bearing this name. In our opinion it should not be placed among the senti- MENTAL CULTURE. 67 ments, because it partakes of something of an intellectual quality; and this conclusion seems to be borne out by the fact that the convolutions of wit and causality are connected. The true function of an organ can only be ascertained by repeated observations, and by deliberating on its fitness for the office which we may suppose nature destined it to perform. It is, therefore, upon this ground that we shall venture to discuss certain notions in refer- ence to the elementary power of the organ called Wit.* It appeared to us, after having reflected upon the subject, that this cerebral part was bestowed upon mail as a moral censor; that it imparts a peculiar power which enables him to restrain the overacts of hypocrisy, injustice, and sensuality, when reason might fail to do so. Who is there that can bear merited ridicule? Who is there in- different to the biting epithets of caustic satire ? Or who is there, if guilty of moral infringements, that would not shrink from the scornful and contemptuous twinges of a cutting irony? Indeed there are very few men who do not writhe more under these mental scourges than they would under the infliction of the lash, because even the most obtunded intellects are sensitive whenever they have pictures of their own moral deformities presented to them, either a little exaggerated or in very vivid colours : under such circumstances the depraved may feel a sense of shame, which no reasoning could have aroused within them. The learned Dr. Isaac Barrow, in one of his excellent sermons against " Evil-speaking," has well de- fined the use of such a mental power as this we are speaking of; and the talented Akenside uses the follow- ing argument for its utility and existence : * I retain the name Wit, because I dislike innovation : for nothing is a more difficult task than to find an unobjectional term to denote any abstract quality of the mind. 68 MENTAL CULTURE. " Ask we for what the Almighty Sire " In mortals' bosoms wakes the gay contempt, " These grateful stings of laughter : from disgust " Educing pleasure? Wherefore but to aid " The tardy steps of reason, and at once " By this prompt impulse urge us to depress " The giddy aims of folly 1" It is reasonable to infer, a priori, that if there existed a necessity for such a faculty, we should be endowed with it; and actual observation is confirmatory of its innateness,. and that it. is experienced in proportion to the size of its organ. It is this power which enables us to contrast very dissimilar objects or very opposite men- tal qualities (in which there may be palpable differences), by placing them together so as to force upon the mind a sort of conviction of an actual resemblance ; it is this which calls forth a feeling of the ludicrous, because there is an incompatibility of any positive or natural association between the things or sentiments thus placed before the mind's eye in juxta-position : our risibility is irresistible on beholding such mental caricatures, and from the glar- ing contrariety and inconsistency of the subjects there are excited within us emotions of laughter or disgust.* Suffice it to have said, " Where'er the power of ridicule displays " Her quaint-ey'd visage, some incongruous form, " Some stubborn dissonance of things combined, " Strikes on the quick perception." AKENSIDE. This sense of the ridiculous in the human mind, as it has been called by some anonymous writer, seems to be * This view corresponds with some of the opinions ably expounded in the Edinburgh Phrenological Journal, particularly that of W. Scott, Esq., whicb gave me the first glimpse of the true fundamen- tal function of the organ of Wit. MENTAL CULTURE. 69 excited upon every occasion of any species of exaggerated speech or action ; as for example, should we, when be- holding an unprincipled sensualist, say, " that's a very honourable and virtuous man," the ironic phraseology would be generally comprehended, and be felt the strong- er in proportion as the contrast of character was the stronger: because, by opposing to villany and sensuality the qualities of justice and morality, these latter, by their acknowledged brilliancy and their intrinsic beauties, re- flect a light which renders the darkness of crime so very visible, that it appears the more hideous and 'disgusting. Similar remarks would apply to humour and carica- ture which are particularly directed to mannerism. The affectation in dress, or fashion in speaking, walking, &c., &c., need only to be represented a little exagge- rated, and it induces within us the sense of the ridicu- lous. In literary composition, or public speaking, this is well illustrated in the hyper-poetical running into mere hyperbole, and thus proving why " there is but one step from the sublime to the ridiculous." This faculty of Wit may be abused, as, for example, in turn- ing sacred truths into ridicule, or in parodying any thing sentimental. Imitation. When we reflect on the multiplicity of ideas which are acquired by children without any kind of direct tuition, we must conclude that there is an innate fa- culty of imitation, which acts with more or less natural energy, and educates itself (as most of our affective faculties do) from an inherent impulse. Imitation may be excited by all the feelings and sentiments; and we shall soon perceive, that however indispensible this 70 MENTAL CULTURE. faculty is, it is liable to certain aberrations, unless con- trolled by a good organization, or early regulated by education. The organ of Imitation is situated on each side of Benevolence, and, from its natural tendency, might be designated the " mimic power," as it is this same faculty which gives to children a language of natural expression long before they acquire the least knowledge of artificial sounds (verbal language) : and, in this manner, they comprehend certain physiognomical signs, even when they do not understand the words which orally represent them ; as, for example, the nod of the head, as an affir- mative j and the lateral shake, as meaning to express a negative. They also evidently distinguish between the frown of anger, and the smile of approbation, as they intuitively shrink back at the exhibition of the former, and are attracted by the pleasing impressions of the latter. It is also the Imitative instinct which enables the deaf and dumb to express, by the powerful aid of natural language, the various feelings and sentiments, and this with such a nice discrimination of the many shades of affections which the different faculties are susceptible of expressing, under various degrees of excitement, as is far superior to the parrot-like repetition of words with which most people express those same sentiments and feelings. As an example let us take the following: Nausea, Disgust, Loathing words which are used in- differently, but which, nevertheless, are accurately dis- tinguished by the speaking features of the deaf and dumb. They can also represent in significant signs, by a species of animated hieroglyphics, very excellent pictures of most tangible objects, of course with rel- ative degrees of correctness, in proportion to the natural MENTAL CULTURE. 71 intelligence of each individual acting with the imitative faculty variously developed. The utility of such a faculty as this must be obvious ; for, in every transaction between human beings, when the natural expression is exercised without dissimu- lation,* the mental faculties under excitement are more strongly delineated by the countenance and action, than they can possibly be by the evanescent sounds of arti- ficial language: because, in mere verbal language or composition, without the auxiliary assistance of physiog- nomical expression, there is a want of what might be called a living commentary, and which, although noiseless, speaks a universal language illustrative of our different emotions. The instruments used for this purpose, by imitation, are those of all the external organs j the head, and the features of the face the eyes, nose, mouth ; and the body, with its members the hands, arms, legs; which are moved with magic quickness, and by the varied action of these exterior indices we trace the fleeting changes of our innate faculties, each of which is marked with the most astonishing accuracy. There is a wide range taken by the faculty of Imi- tation, because it can act together with all our feelings and sentiments, and is, as might be anticipated, essential to the dramatic actor and the orator j and is also im- portant to the painter, the sculptor, and the musician, as it enables each artist to infuse an animation which gives to the figures upon canvass, to sculptured marble, and to the song, a living breath, a something which seems to move, or to possess or express sensation. Its utility in education will be a subsequent consideration : for the * Secretiveness. 72 MENTAL CULTURK. present we shall conclude with noticing briefly its abused activity. It gives a tendency, when in excess, to mere mimicry, a sort of monkey-like propensity to antics, often absurd, sometimes disgusting, and in per- sons who have little natural verbal language, there is, even in ordinary circumstances, too much gesticulation. In- stances of the latter kind may occasionally be met with in persons nearly idiotic. Concluding Remarks on the Affective Faculties. Experience and observation have long since partially convinced the friends of education, "that unless the feel- ings be constantly restrained by reason, they are liable to numerous abuses." But how, and in what manner, is this mental harmony to be effected ? Too much is left to accidental circumstances ; and whenever it is found that this mere empirical irode of moral culture fails in its operation, the individual is abandoned to his own stupidity or depravity ! We shall have occasion to refer again to this subject, when treating of the means of cul- tivating the affective faculties. Havingnow proved, by facts and by inductive reasoning, that, the feelings and sentiments have organic instruments in the brain, and that they each and severally act as in- nate impulses (instincts), when under excitement; we would, in concluding this chapter, impress upon the reader the importance of possessing correct knowledge respecting the affective faculties, which may become a blessing if early and properly educated, and a bane if exercised too much and too constantly. Thus, self- esteem may degenerate into pride and egotism ; the religious organs may excite a senseless superstition; and even benevolence may induce prodigality, and bring ruin MENTAL CULTURE. 73 and disgrace upon an individual. But, all excesses may be avoided, if the feelings and sentiments be regulated by the intellectual faculties: they then become the sources of our most refined pleasures as moral agents, and the means of the highest gratification to us as organized beings. 74 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER V. PRIOR to discussing the evidence for the different men- tal powers, commonly called perceptive and reflective faculties, it is essential to make a few general observa- tions on the functions of the external senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touch. Phrenologists regard the senses as sentinels, placed by the all-wise Creator to intimate to man all objects in the external world ; but they act as neutral agents; for, it is through the instrumentality of the innate faculties of the mind that we have consciousness of the existence of all the things in the material creation. The senses can only passively receive impressions : they do not form ideas of things seen or felt, or mark the kind and degree of sound, &c.; but they convey all such impressions to the different organs of the brain (perceptive faculties), and it is these recipient powers which take cognizance of those impressions, and through which we have separate ideas of form, size, colour, and all other qualities, and of the relation and order of all external objects. Now if it were true, as some philosophers have stated it is, that all our ideas are formed by the senses, it is an incontrovertible fact, that many animals would then excel us in intellectual pursuits, because there are many birds and quadrupeds whose vision, smell, and hearing are much more exquisitely intense, and consequently more perfect in their receptive capacities, than is to be found even in the most intelligent among mankind. A few MENTAL CULTURE. 75 examples will suffice to demonstrate the correctness of our views, and negative the latter proposition ; or, at least, they will show the fallacy of attributing to the perfection of the external senses the rank man holds as an intellectual agent. The eagle has a very large optic nerve, and it can see objects on the surface of the earth when it rises even to so great a height in the air as to be invisible to us. Now then, if ideas of colour, form, distance, &c., were depen- dent on vision, it cannot be denied that the eagle should excel man in a capacity for painting, modelling, &c., and all other ideas attributable to the eye. The hearing of some animals is also most acute, as, for instance, in the cat and the hare; and yet, they show no predilection for melody or harmony : but if this quality depended merely on a vivid perception of sound, the contrary might be expected : for, in man the sense of hearing is less perfect, and yet there exists within him an innate love of music. The olfactory nerve (sense of smell) is considerably- larger in the vulture, the pig, the horse, and the dog, than it is in man ; and yet none of them evinces his dis- criminative power in reference to aromatic substances, or the various kinds of effluvia. Nor can a tact in the mechanical arts be dependent on the sense of touch ; for there are many animals which possess a feeling more exquisitely sensitive than man, as, for instance, the cut- tle-fish, the lobster, and the elephant. But who ever heard of these animals inventing any machine ? Whilst it is an indisputable truth, that it is possible for man, if the faculties we are shortly to speak of, and constructive- ness also, be well developed, to form mentally, and without hands, a machine, and accurately to describe its parts and uses. 76 MENTAL CULTURE. If, then, we had no other faculties than the external senses, it is evident that all impressions made upon them must be evanescent, and could not be retained when the external objects which produced them were removed. On the contrary, however, we are endowed with facul- ties which preserve all the impressions derived through their agency. For instance, can we not recall the pic- tures of scenes after many years have elapsed ? And do we not concentrate a vast number of objects and circum- stances, which may often be reproduced involuntarily? Even in dreams we see landscapes, and seem to distin- guish the colour of trees and flowers, smell their perfu- med exhalations, taste the flavour of fruits and viands, and hear delightful music. Before any of these remin- iscences could take place, it is true that the senses must have been impressed with the various objects to which they refer; but without other faculties to take cognizance of objects and their qualities, all our ideas would have been shadowy nothings, impalpable and fleeting ; a pic- ture would have been a nonentity, for the next thing presented to the eye must have obliterated it.* Place a machine before you ; it is represented on the nervous curtain (retina) with the most perfect accuracy: let this object be removed, and another occupy its position, there will be then a picture of the latter, whilst the former one is altogether effaced; in precisely the same manner as we see the reflected objects change places in the magic lantern. But, being endowed with perceptive powers superadded to this most perfect but passive optical instrument (the eye), we are enabled to remember a vast number of objects, and to recall them into fancied * If any object is placed before an ox's eye within an hour after death, it will be accurately painted. Does not this prove it a passive agent? MENTAL CULTURE. 77 existence, and to see them (in the mind's eye) either in combinations, or in their separate parts, so as to retain a knowledge of them, and be thus enabled to describe things once seen, as correctly as if they were still be- fore us. Phrenologists, therefore, reject the theory which re- gards the intellectual faculties as resulting simply from the exercise of the external senses ; but we admit these organs to be essential to us in forming a correct know- ledge of the glorious works of creation ; and therefore Dr. Spurzheim ranks the senses as the first species of his genus reflective faculties, and designates them " the intermedia between these latter faculties and the external world 5" or, as we called them, neutral agents, receiving information of things without using it, but sending such supplies constantly and immediately to the perceptive faculties, which take especial care to register all the knowledge thus procured. E3 78 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER VI. PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. THE order of faculties now to be described is very important to man, as it is by their aid that he acquires positive knowledge of all things in the external world. They may be divided into four different classes, each indicating its peculiar office. 1st. Individuality, which perceives the existences of all objects. 2nd. Form, Size, Weight, Colour, which specify the palpable qualities of all material bodies. 3rd. Locality, Number, Order, which mark their relation, and take cognizance of their habitats, number, arrangement. 4th. Eventuality and Time, which regard their phenomena and duration. There are others not arranged with any of these classes, and which have not been ranked with those mental qua- lities which perceive the various properties of matter.* Therefore we commence with Individuality. Individuality. This organ is situated above the roots of the nose, its seat in the brain being in the middle of the lower part of the anterior lobes. It takes cognizance of all external * Sounds, which are perceived by melody, should in all probability be regarded as much a property of matter as Form, Size, &c., because sounds vary according to the sonorous nature of the substances which produce them, or the media through which they pass. MENTAL CULTURE. 79 objects ; as man, house, tree, rock, &c.; that is to say, it merely recognizes existence, and retains a knowledge of all things without any reference to their very different qualities. It gives us, for instance, a conception of a tree as a whole, the mere substantive itself, which is rather a generic phrase, and could with propriety be applied to any vegetable production with roots, ligneous trunk, branches, leaves, &c.; and therefore, when we discrim- inate a particular kind, we do so by distinguishing its qualities, as if it be thick or slender, high or short, &c.j or by some fact which may enable us to individualize it; as if we said, "I saw a tree: What tree? Why, it had red fruit upon it," &c. This organ has been called memory of things, that is, all objects, persons, and things of the external world; and upon this principle it is evident that Individuality supplies man with materials for all positive knowledge. Without this faculty, he would have beeu constantly liable to inconvenience and suffering ; be would not have known the difference between various objects, but by actual contact, even with the aid of all his other valuable faculties : and it would have been useless to attempt to reason upon the qualities of objects, if he had been ignorant of their existence. The mind would have exhibited precisely the same anomaly, as if a language were composed only of adjectives, without any substan- tives. Although Individuality is so essential to us at all times, yet it is sometimes annoying when too large and accompanied with moderate reasoning faculties : a person so endowed is tedious in minutiae, giving a vast number of unconnected trifles, without any apparent notion of their irrelevancy or disorder. On the other hand, persons deficient in this faculty, but still having strong intellect, may seize upon general 80 MENTAL CULTURE. views j and yet, in endeavouring to communicate their opinions, they are apt to neglect the minor links, and their matter appears like vast isolated masses wanting some intermediate substances to associate them into a comprehensive whole. Artists who have a large Indi- viduality pay great attention to details. Form. This organ is situated at the anterior part of the base of the frontal lobe (being separated by the crista galli), and consequently lies rather upon Individuality, at each side of it j and its size is easily marked by the width between the eyes. It is the first quality by which we distinguish objects : for instance, " I saw a tree : What kind of tree: Why, it was tapering and slender," &c. Hence the utility of Form in our studies of all visible objects, and for successfully copying all objects in the creation. It therefore aids the painter, sculptor, poet, orator, mechanician, and in short every one who has to delineate or describe the differences in created things. Size. It is obvious, that having correct knowledge of the different forms of external objects, we should still be deficient in marking another important quality of bodies, if we had not perceptions of Size; and observation proves, that the portion of brain situated laterally to the last organ, and which causes a rise in the eye-brow, bestows on man this perceptive faculty. The propor- tional difference in its developement is easily indicated by taking for a point the inner angle of the eye, and marking the relative fulness of the superior portion at MENTAL CULTURE. 81 the commencement of the superciliary ridge. It gives us perceptions of distance and of size ; is essential for perspective ; and has been found large in artists who excel in the latter quality; also in sailors, navigators, geometricians, and astronomers. When this organ is deficient in artists, they do not paint the features in due proportion, but generally make them a mere caricature. Weight. Immediately adjoining the last organ is situated that cerebral instrument which gives to man perceptions of gravity or weight. The senses could not inform him of this quality of objects, as there are many things, both solids and fluids, which resemble each other, but which, nevertheless, are proved to be very different in their absolute or relative weights (specific gravity) : hence it was deemed conclusive, even by the reasoning of Spurzheim, that there must exist an internal faculty to communicate to us ideas of momentum or resistance, and this inference has been subsequently demonstrated by a vast number of facts. There have been some interesting diseased cases, de- scribed in the Edinburgh Phrenological Journal, " of the loss of equilibrium," after fevers ; and these cases render it probable that this loss of equilibrium is attributable to an affection of the organ of Weight. Sometimes physiologists have deduced the function of an organ, by noticing what difference was to be observed in animals in which such organ was absent; and in studying the cerebral instruments, the same proceeding has been also adopted. We had the honour to commu- nicate an interesting case of a deficiency of the organ of Weight to the above Journal, in which case a fine E5 82 MENTAL CULTURE. healthy robust man, with excellent moral and intellectual faculties, was invariably affected with dizziness and a loss of equilibrium, whenever he went on the water. This peculiarity did not arise from any sense of danger or fear, nor was it occasioned by indisposition. He was inclined to fall the instant he was on water and felt its motion, and therefore, he used to overcome the sensation by lying flat on his back. In what is called sea-sickness, there is a derangement of the nervous power by which we preserve our equili- brium (weight) : the nausea is a secondary consequence. In this disease, there is a marked difference from inebri- ation ; for in the latter case the sickness takes place in the first instance from the stomach being overloaded, and the loss of equilibrium is a subsequent result. Some time back, during a sea-storm, we noticed that persons with the organ of Weight small, became soonest affected j and, although many who had a good natural develope- ment were also sick, the latter were the first to recover. The organ of Weight imparts to us that quality of matter, by which we have perception of hardness and density, and all ideas which stand in modified relation to these properties, or which are contrary to them. Colour. The organ of Colour is situated next to the last organ, and, when large, causes the middle of the eye-brow to be finely arched. The arguments in proof of the existence of such a faculty seem to be conclusive, particularly when it is known that there exists a palpable difference in the capacity of persons, though equally endued with excellent sight, for perceiving colours ; and it follows, as a con- sequence, that the eye alone cannot give us " perceptions MENTAL CULTURE. 83 of colour," for, if it did, all persons possessing excellent visual powers should alike appreciate the harmony of colours, and if they were improperly blended, should experience a sensation of a disagreeable feeling, an antipathy induced by the discrepancy of the unnatural tinting. But there are many, otherwise intelligent, persons, who are mentally incapable of distinguishing one colour from another ; and yet they have such perfect sight, that without an effort they will discriminate the difference in the form and size of the smallest objects most accurately. The organ of Colour is, probably, one of the least essential of the perceptive faculties ; but it is a source of our most refined pleasure, as it delights in the varied tints of the landscape, in the plumage of birds, the shading of flowers, the pencilling of shells, and in all the wonderful and varied combinations of colour with which all objects of creation are enriched. By this view it will be recognised, that a person with a large organ may exercise it without being a painter; but it is impossible that any one can excel in colouring, without having a good organ of colour. Locality. It is evident that man would require other faculties, besides those already enumerated, to enable him to make use of his acquired knowledge of things. Because, even after he had observed the numerous objects of the sur- rounding creation, and made himself acquainted with their modified difference of character as resulting from certain exterior qualities, such as form, size, comparative density, and colour; yet without the capacity of locating the various things which had been subject to his investiga- tion, his thoughts would have had nothing of regularity, 84 MENTAL CULTURE. but would have been like the fleeting and evanescent forms of passing clouds ; and it would have been im- possible for him to conceive the natural or accidental relations existing between the different objects of the universe on which he moves and dwells. But when his Individuality remembers any particular object, the other faculties which we have now to speak of enable him to bring before his mind's eye all the particular circumstan- ces of their relation, order, and number; and in this manner he can render his mental pictures fac-similes of those scenes which have long since passed away, and which would have been long forgotten, had he had no other intellectual organs but those we have named, and the external senses. The first organ of this interesting group is called Lo- cality, and is situated on each side of, and a little above, Individuality and Size, taking rather an oblique position in reference to these latter organs. It furnishes us with a knowledge of locality, and local memory is a modifica- tion of its function - } and is that power of the mind which informs us of the relation of one object to another. Hence it is of incalculable advantage to the landscape painter and the geographer, and to all persons who desire to re- member the localities of countries or districts, or of the various objects in a landscape. It is said to excite a love of travelling, but this can only result from the desire it induces when large to see countries of which an individ- ual may have heard or read verbal descriptions. Its defi- ciency is sure to perplex a person, by rendering him incapable of making definite ideas of localizations. He cannot place the things he has observed mentally before himself in their proper habitudes as they appear in their natural situations : the converse takes place whenever this organic instrument is large : every object is then placed MENTAL CULTURE. 85 by the individual in its proper locality, and that with such accuracy, that any one hearing the mere verbal descriptions may form nearly as correct notions of the things described as if a visible picture had been presented. Number. This cerebral organ is situated at the outer angle of the eye, and enables us to form conceptions of any num- ber of external objects. Although Locality recalls to our mental retrospection the relation of things impressed upon the brain through the instrumentality of our exter- nal senses and the other before-mentioned perceptive faculties, yet it is evident that we required another faculty to know whether the objects we may have ob- served were few or many. It is, then, the one we are now describing which gives perception of number ; and hence calculation and arithmetical rules are but its modes of action. There requires scarcely any reasoning to prove that there is an innate faculty for Number, because even from infancy there is to be observed a marked dif- ference in individuals, as to their perceptions of the value of numbers, a difference which is evinced by the greater or less difficulty in acquiring arithmetical knowledge. And in adults we may observe those who, without having had any instruction in this department, will frequently indicate a quickness in very complex calculations (off- hand, as it is termed), and much more accurately than other persons who have been well educated, and who have artiBcial rules for their guidance. It must therefore be evident, that the expertness of the former is attribu- table to a naturally strong perception of Number : and this capacity is invariably accompanied with a large 86 MENTAL CULTURE. cerebral developement in the situation above described : hence both reasoning and facts demonstrate the innate- ness of this faculty. Order. In tracing the natural processes of the mind, or what we term a succession of thoughts on any matter-of-fact subject, it is very evident that man is endowed with a faculty to conceive the order or arrangement of the various objects of external nature as they exist, and to which he may direct his observations. When the mind of an individual has once recalled objects which have been seen, and of which he remembers the local relations, the mental process would have been defective, had he been deprived of the power of recalling the natural order in which the objects were presented to him. This is still more obvious, whenever the reminis- cence refers to many things : there would have existed the greatest difficulty in systematizing our ideas, if we had not possessed the capacity of giving each object its proper physical arrangement. It is the cerebral organ (Order), situated between Colour and Number, which enables man to accomplish this. In contemplating the various productions of the earth, if he can recognise the fact of their appearing in order, this perception gives him some degree of satisfaction, even should he be utterly ignorant of the natures or properties of the things he is contemplating j whilst any disorder in the surrounding objects, if it does not give pain, causes, at least, dissatis- faction. Hence it will appear that the use of the faculty of Order relates to physical arrangement, and differs altogether from what is termed logical inferences. This latter MENTAL CULTURE. 87 distinction is made manifest by a single example; viz. that even the apparent disorders of nature may be traced to an unerring cause, which may be expressed, in other words, " that determinate results are the effects of some pre-arrangement." But this truth can only be ascertained by reflection. Now, we find no proportional uniformity between the ideas of cause and effect, and physical arrangement. For, persons may have the organ of Order and be very precise and methodical, but by no means intelligent ; and vice versa. When the organ is large, it disposes to system and arrangement; and when deficient, it occasions negligence and confusion, and an indifference about the manner in which things are placed. Eventuality. The knowledge of the existence of external objects, endowed with physical qualities, and standing in various relations to each other, is after all but a perception of certain entities; and although the beings or objects may be so diversified as to occupy the whole range of the visi- ble creation, yet we should have obtained very imperfect knowledge, if our powers had been thus limited. The mental faculties which give us the various perceptions above described are eminently useful; but still they merely endow us with the capacity to perceive existences, and to distinguish them by some exterior difference. But the mere observation of an object does not indicate its use, or inform us of any circumstance which may naturally be connected with it. If Individuality observes many different animals or vegetables, there is simply a retention of certain general associations; these are rendered rather more available by the powers of distin- 88 MENTAL CULTURE. guishing one species from another by its form, size, colour, &c.; but without Eventuality, we cannot become acquainted with the mode of action of any visible thing. Eventuality is situated immediately above Individu- ality, and acts the part of mental curator ; and not only urges us to know all things by experiment and obser- vation, but carefully stores up all our impressions as connected with the actions, events, or circumstances either induced by objects from without, or the emotions and sensations from within ourselves ; so that when an object is spoken of, or presented to us, whether in a tangible form or merely orally, in an instant this highly valuable faculty recalls all circumstances connected with it. Hence it is that the mere recollection of a word or a sentence enables Eventuality to reproduce a story or poem, &c., which seemed so far obliterated as to have been apparently forgotten. It is on this account that Dr. Spurzheim conceives, that to this faculty we are indebted for our knowledge of a personal identity, and the " association of ideas," so much commented upon and marvelled at by metaphysicians. When it is de- ficient, and Individuality large, there is only a desire simply to know the name of an object, as, " What is that?" But when both are proportionably developed, the following interrogatory would be sure to follow, " What is it used for?" &c. Hence its name Eventu- ality. Time. This organ is situated laterally on each side of the last mentioned faculty, rather above Locality, and gives us a perception of duration, so that its sphere of activity is uncircumscribed : it takes cognizance of the period in which any circumstance might have occurred, the time MENTAL CULTURE. 89 which is allotted to the first rudiment and existence of all things, and, although it cannot penetrate eternity, it gives us a notion of endless time. In its minor and more narrowed sphere of usefulness, it gives the pauses in literary composition, the time in musical sounds, and the stops in writing} and, lastly, to it we are indebted for all chronological details.* Melody, or Tune. The organ of Melody is situated in a lateral direc- tion on each side of Time, and rests over the organs of Number and Order, which are both essential to musi- cal ideas. The numerous facts which might be adduced to prove the innateness of this faculty would fill volumes, but we shall simply call attention to two or three. 1st. It is often manifested in infancy, thereby giving an indi- cation that the musician must be born as well as the poet ! No reasoning or metaphysical jargon can explain this precociousness, if such a faculty as Melody be denied. 2nd. That with the advantage of good professors, per- sons who have the organ of Melody small, however they may labour and persevere, will remain rather below mediocrity - } for it should be remembered, that there is a vast difference between playing an air or an overture mechanically, and that degree of talent which enables an individual to compose the one or the other. 3rd. It is equally demonstrable, that musical perception cannot depend exclusively on the sense of hearing, as we have known those, whose hearing has been rather obtuse, evince not only much science in their compositions, but * Dancing is beating time with the feet, and was practised in earliest times as a part of the religious ceremonies. This faculty also gives the rythm in poetical composition. 90 MENTAL CULTURE. that kind of beauty which has insured them the most unqualified approbation from their contemporaries, and which will shed upon their works a lasting celebrity. In reflecting on the various mental operations and their different degrees of intensity, great distinction should be made between the cause of each emotion or thought, and the subordinate aid furnished by the exter- nal senses. It is, upon this principle, an easy task to prove the innateness of the perception of Melody j for, the acoustic apparatus passively receives sounds, and al- though it is admirably constructed to modify them by the most curiously mechanical contrivance, yet it is evi- dent that the ear cannot be considered as the depository of musical ideas, since the instant the air ceases to be agitated by the rays of sound, all impression, as far as the ear is concerned, ceases ; yet, the recollection of the tones produced is equally vivid after the sounds have died away. The sense of hearing is affected in various degrees, according to the slowness or quickness of the successions of vibratory sounds which impinge upon its delicate or- ganization ; but the ear can only be considered as a pas- sive recipient of sounds, and therefore, the harmony or discordance of tones must be judged of by the mind. If it were otherwise, every person gifted with good hearing should be musical. This will be still more apparent, if we reflect on the sources of tones, and the effect on the acoustic apparatus. The ear is similarly acted upon (as far as its different parts are concerned), whether the external disturbing cause be the pulsations of air set in motion rapidly either by something passing through the atmosphere, or the atmospheric particles being suddenly condensed by a solid body; or whether it be the sounds produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body when struck. But the ear has not the power of recalling such MENTAL CULTURE. 01 fleeting tones, nor of judging of their musical or unmu- sical relations: both fact and observation confirm the truth, that the musical perception depends upon the in- nate faculty (Melody) which we are now discussing. 4thly. We may experience an involuntary activity of the organ of Melody* in delirium, insanity, and dream- ing, in which states it is not an unfrequent occurrence that persons sometimes hear the most melodious sounds, and are enraptured with the ecstatic sensations induced by the vividness of their own musical reminiscences ; and in these instances it is evident that there are not any sounds actually present. Therefore the phenomena must be referred to the involuntary activity of the organ of Melody itself. Language. As this organ was the first that was discovered by the illustrious Gall, it is always invested in the mind of a Phrenologist with a peculiar interest; for to this organ (as the nucleus of future observations on the elements of character) may be referred something not only important to the physiologist, but also of unbounded utility to the moralist, and to those entrusted with the education of children. The common error of the uninitiated in the science may be corrected in this place, " that verbal memory was said by its discoverer to depend on the eye." Now, as all the mental faculties are located in the brain, and as the anterior lobes rest upon an elevated sbelf which forms the ceiling of the socket (containing the eye), it follows, that when the portion of brain identified as the organ of Language is large, and pressing as it * In a similar manner we can recollect objects and places we have long since seen, but had apparently forgotten. 92 MENTAL CULTURE. does over the centre and superior part of the bony cham- ber of the eye, it forces the latter forwards and outwards : hence, as we cannot examine the base of the brain, the eye becomes an excellent index or scale to mark the relative size of the seat of verbal memory. That some men have a greater facility than others for verbally communicating their ideas, must be obvious to persons of even common penetration ; and this difference may be observed in written as well as in oral composi- tion. A strong verbal memory should not be regarded as the only characteristic of talent, for not unfrequently the most verbose speakers are the most shallow thinkers, and often profound men have the greatest difficulty to find words rapidly enough to express the vivid and rich succession of their thoughts. It is true, also, that an individual having a powerful memory of words, will sometimes mistake his retentive faculty for real know- ledge ; and he is more charmed with the varied sounds of a language, than instructed with the ideas which the words represent. Besides, such as have that easy address and that uninterrupted flow of words which gives them a facility in retailing the things said or written by others, frequently fall into the error of doing this so often and so parrot-like, that they ultimately conceive they have a right of property in the mental commodities of others, and they are apt to commit plagiarisms which can only be detected by one acquainted with the authors thus pillaged. It is not my object to enter at length into the interest- ing enquiry, " Whether artificial signs influence our ideas in a direct or indirect manner?"* but as this introduc- tion to the practical part of the work is intended to fur- * See Dr. Spurzheim's able article on this subject in his " Phre- nology, or Doctrine of Mind," MENTAL CULTURE. 93 nish the teacher with general views of the mental faculties, we maybe allowed to make some remarks on this inter- esting subject, premising, that it is now tacitly admitted that words, if merely acquired by rote, are useless, nay, sometimes the source of a positive injury, unless they are regarded as an artificial medium for communicating our various simple and compound thoughts. Two con- siderations present themselves for our investigation : 1 st. That the child expresses his wants by signs (natural lan- guage), which are significant and universal, and this language precedes the oral one : consequently it follows, 2ndly, That when the ideas of a child are more complex, when he has become acquainted with a variety of ob- jects, and wishes his imperfect conception of things to be more accurate, he either attempts to describe them by sounds of his own inventing, or he uses such terms as are applied to the objects of his curiosity by his parents or other adults with whom he associates. This self-evi- dent fact is generally admitted to be correct in reference to the gradual unfolding of the perceptive faculties of the child ; but still it is lost sight of in the subsequent rou- tine of scholastic education : hence the little positive knowledge acquired in the usual courses of intellectual cultivation ! If, however, the true value of words were estimated, we should endeavour to give the student a knowledge of things, and point out the uses of artificial signs to distinguish them : then individuals might have less verbosity, but more practical information, and not fall into the fatal error of storing up a vast number of words, and mistaking them for ideas ! It is obvious to all acquainted with the history of science, that whenever we acquire fresh knowledge of things, or new sources for reflection, we are obliged to invent terms to communicate these novelties j which is 94 MENTAL CULTURE. a convincing fact that language is artificial, and strictly conventional; and whilst it must be admitted that a knowledge of our vernacular tongue is of the highest importance, yet we deem it possible to acquire it with- out the usual drudgery of poring over a grammar. Let a child know the names of all things it sees, and how we express their qualities and modes of existence, and this plan, combined with a free intercourse with intelli- gent adults, will practically point out the natural mode of arranging words to give the order of our ideas. Words are, however, sometimes used without any precise meaning; as, for example, in allegorical and metaphorical descriptions ; nor could the sense of either kind of composition be understood, unless those to whom it is addressed had some knowledge of the sup- posed resemblance: all the primitive languages abound with figurative expressions. The mere acquaintance with many languages may be of little positive utility, unless an individual has stored his mind with real information ; for, if the linguist be enriched with words, but barren in his ideas on all such subjects as NATURAL HISTORY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, and other departments of knowledge, his great stock of terms will only give him the distinction of being learn- edly ignorant, of being in possession of a great many artificial materials without being able to use them; words being mere sounds, unless they are invariably associated with the ideas they were intended to represent. MENTAL CULTURE. 95 CHAPTER VII. REMARKS ON THE REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. WE have now to investigate the functions of the cerebral instruments through which the reasoning pro- cess is manifested; and as the Reflective Faculties should in some measure regulate and direct all our feelings and sentiments, it is important that persons placed in the responsible situation of parents or teachers should have some information as to the period at which they are developed, and the time they usually take to acquire a proper degree of tone and maturity.* There is no calculating how useful this knowledge may be rendered, particularly during the greater part of that interesting portion of life usually devoted to education; for, considering how imperfectly the reasoning process is exhibited in the actions of children, we may feel it more imperative to make a constant appeal to their moral and religious sentiments; and the pupil having exercised his human motives, is prepared to appreciate the valuable services of reason for regulating his animal desires: this " best gift of God" will insure ennobling results, and render such an educated being useful and happy: his intellect will discriminate between the motives pre- sented to him under unexpected circumstances, whilst he will be prevented taking a wrong bias by having * These faculties are perfectly developed about the age of puberty, and indicate the greatest energy between thirty and forty. 96 MENTAL CULTURE. always had his moral qualities appealed to, by whose dictates his actions will invariably be influenced. But in the present defective systems of education, the in- tellectual faculties and the moral attributes are too often separated, and hence the frequent failures and dis- appointment! Men thus trained are liable to be hurried on by impulsive feelings too often fatal to themselves and society : they rush with maddening career to various delusive pursuits, which sometimes prove injurious, but rarely useful. Some remain contented with ignorance ; whilst others, with an impious presumption, will, in the endeavour to explain all things, not unfrequently out- reason themselves. But when men shall acquire a knowledge of the mental laws (which include the laws of the reasoning and affect- ive faculties), they will no longer confound whimsical hypotheses with the dictates of reason, nor mistake the wild speculations of fancy for the true principles of moral science ; for, reason never ventures beyond the boundary of palpable objects, except to arrive by certain inductive processes at what may be deemed positive moral truths ; as, for instance, to demonstrate the necessary connection between God and his providence, a conclusion partly resulting from a survey of the harmony and beauty of the visible creation. Yet, even on this subject our reasoning can be only limited, inasmuch as we can scarcely pene- trate beyond secondary causes. Thus, whatever may be the number of objects, or the variety of the phenomena which result from them, it is obvious that we compare them either with some others with whose properties or peculiar natures we are previously acquainted, or else we endeavour to trace them to something which they resemble ; so that the process called comparison precedes that reflective operation which enquires into the causes MENTAL CULTURE. 97 of things. We shall therefore just give some few general remarks on the separate functions of these two most valuable faculties. Comparison. When we have perception of the existence of objects and of their qualities ; when we have become acquainted with the order of their arrangement and physical situa- tions ; and have informed ourselves of the circumstances in which such objects may be placed, and of the events which result from them ; we afterwards become naturally desirous of ascertaining " whether there be laws which induce particular modes of action in all objects, so as to render the various events certain consequences of particular existences?" To .obtain this knowledge we enter into another mental process, which we designate Reasoning. But, to reason, we must compare j and before we can compare, we should be acquainted (as far as perception enables us) with all the objects whose laws we desire to comprehend ; or we should be like a workman ignorant of the materials he wishes to fashion. The process of ratiocination is two-fold : the first is performed by the cerebral part we are speaking of, and it enables us to institute a comparison whenever there are numerous things presented to us, whether the differ- ences be positive or only apparent : or, if this reflective operation is directed to one object, the individual im- mediately compares that object with another to which it may bear some resemblance j but the inferential process (Causality) gives the cause of difference when there exists any. It will be easily seen what an extensive sphere of operation this faculty possesses, comparing as it does our F 98 MEXTAL CULTURE. feelings, sensations, and perception of things, as well as the various objects of the external world, and the diversities and modifications in the animal and vegetable entities, which abound on the earth we inhabit -. so that in this man- ner we may be said to judge of all things by comparison. All logical inferences are strictly inductive ; and what we term "laws of nature," are only certain positive results known and verified by repeated observations and experi- ments : hence the utility of comparison, whether applied to the facts we have ascertained, or to any new ones which may occur to us ; because it reflects on the anal- ogy or the difference between them, and in this manner enables us to know distinctive qualities ; but the cause of the difference we acquire by the next faculty ; viz. Causality. It is some proof of the correctness of the phrenological views as to the seat of the mental instruments by which we reflect and reason (Comparison and Causality), that the size of these organs is, cetera paribus, a certain indi- cation of the relative degree of the ratiocinating power : and it may be regarded as further evidence, that in IDIOTS these cerebral convolutions are more or less defective, invariably corresponding to the comparative deficiency of their logical incapacity. Facts so constant must be con- sidered as effects of some determinate cause. The special office of this logical faculty (Causality) appears to be very important. It investigates the origin of all tangible things, the uniformity of their individual or collective operations, and the changes which sub- sequently follow, with unerring certainty. It moreover takes cognizance of the physical laws which regulate the mathematical constancy of the form and properties of MENTAL CULTURE. 99 crystalline masses, as well as the more vast and stupen- dous of the Creator's works ; and it enters into the still more wonderful operations of the mental emotions and the causes of individual consciousness, and, finally, enables us to determine the accountability of man for all his actions. It is through the operation of Causality that we reason, judge, and decide on the facts of the external world, and the various sensations produced by our innate faculties when they are excited. But its highest direc- tion is in tracing the process of cause and effect through the whole range of creation, until, led by a chain of causes, we contemplate, with all the glow of moral sensation, nature's God! The superficial may talk of chance, and of the plastic powers of nature; but, a knowledge of the laws by which inorganic substances and organized beings are regulated, shews the fallacy of such deductions. The real philosopher is distinguished, not only by a highly- gifted mind which he has assiduously cultivated, but by a humility which prevents him from using his wisdom with arrogance, because he perceives, how very little is the amount of man's information ! On the other hand, he does not lose an opportunity for acquiring true know- ledge; and what an ample field for enquiry do the diversified works of the visible world present ! Let him examine the globe on which he dwells; the rich variety of vegetation on its surface ; and the numerous kinds of animated beings in the water, the air, and the land around him, and he will perceive that all is harmonious and beautiful, furnishing irrefragable evidence of the most astonishing design and prospective goodness in the Creator of all things. Thus, when he examines the substances forming the earth on which he stands, he not 100 MENTAL CULTURE. only recognizes the most surprising uniformity in its structure, arrangement of the strata, &c.; but he meets incontrovertible evidence of a benevolent providence, the various substances being so arranged as if to call the attention of man to their usefulness! For instance, wherever iron is found, there is in the same locality coal to smelt it and limestone to flux it! The structure and uses of plants inculcate another and a satisfactory lesson to him who seeks, through his Causality, to trace the power of God in his terrestrial productions : for, besides the verdure and beauty of vegetation, besides their uses as food for numerous animals, the vegetable kingdom is destined to pour ofi the great vital principle (oxygen)* into the atmosphere, and thus constantly supply the daily waste drawn from the surrounding reservoir by every living thing that breathes. What a contrivance of a Divine Mind ! Turning to the animal kingdom, still greater wonders are presented, myriads of created beings of endless forms and size, from the infusorial animalcule to the more perfect order of worms, reptiles, fishes, birds, and mammalia, all of them suited to particular elements and localities, and endowed with faculties commensurate to their wants. And lastly, when looking beyond the earth, the mind of a person thus informed contemplates the vast expanse around him studded with countless worlds j and whilst his thoughts become elevated, his moral and religious faculties manifest their most rap- turous and refined sensations, and he exclaims with the * The atmospheric air is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, and car- bonic gas ; the first being essential to sustain the breathing of animals (vital action), but the two last being destructive to life. But these phenomena are reversed in the vegetable kingdom, as the food of vegetables is the very gas (carbonic) given off by animals during respiration ! MENTAL CULTURE. 101 Psalmist, " Lord, how wonderful are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all!" Let, then, the friends of mankind educate all the faculties, for it is impossible to have such exalted notions of our Maker if we be ignorant of his works. F3 102 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER VIII. MORAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTIONS ON THE PRECEDING SECTIONS. BEFORE entering into a discussion of the practical Titility of the science of Education in the most extensive meaning of the word, we cannot resist offering a few general remarks on the moral views suggested by a con- sideration of the preceding sections. Who could read the brief analysis of the cerebral organs, and assert that Phrenology is unworthy of attention? A mere glimpse of the manner in which the mental faculties are collocated, will shew that the science is too perfect to be speculative, and too illustra- tive of the mental operations, to be the mere invention of a human being : like all the works of God, it bears indelible evidence of comprehensive design, and constant harmony. It is however a truth not to be evaded, that folly and ignorance are too prevalent to allow men to abandon the usual ephemeral trifles which amuse them and to seek the satisfaction and lasting pleasure which knowledge confers, particularly when directed to the contemplation of the excellence of their own organization. The men- tal operations, like those of the circulation of the blood, and the process of digestion, may, as long as their laws are obeyed, proceed on their undeviating courses from infancy to old age, although the individual may himself be ignorant of these wonderful contrivances of his own MENTAL CULTURE. 103 organic economy. But, as the instruments of the mind and those of the body are liable to temporary or per- manent derangement whenever their laws are violated, it would be well for all men (even in a selfish point of view) to study their own organization, and then they would ensure calmness of mind and bodily ease, and would be led to adore the Almighty Mind, by appreciating the noble gifts which He has given them. Presuming that those to whom these pages are ad- dressed have made themselves acquainted with the natural means to be employed for properly developing the bodily organs, we may premise, that the instruments of the mind (the brain) are subject to similar laws; nor can these, any more than the former, be violated with impunity. The muscular and nervous systems increase in energy of function in proportion as they are nourished by their physical stimuli, and cultivated according to their own inherent laws; and the faculties of the mind become relatively more intense and energetic, when the moral stimulus, suited to each particular organ, is used as a means of exciting it to a healthy exercise. Instead of this knowledge urging the thinking being to the brink of scepticism, it is more likely to call back the fugitive, and save him from the frightful chasm of a cheerless infidelity; because it affords him the most convincing evidence of his real nature and moral accountability, whilst his reflective faculties develope the various rela- tions of man, and the great capabilities which are bound up within him, giving him an encouraging assurance that, when he conforms his will to the divine laws of bis Creator, physical, moral, and intellectual, and regulates all his actions by the higher dictates of his nature, he will be virtuous and happy, and not suffer the inconve- niences of ignorance, vice, and immorality, by opposing 104 MENTAL CULTURE. his own preconceived opinions to the natural laws, and thus acting from caprice, instead of being guided by true knowledge. Fatalism of Actions. It would be too great a tax on the time and patience of our philosophical reader, if we were to attempt a particular and minute refutation of all that had been advanced against Phrenology by persons ignorant of its principles, who have in most instances exhibited more zeal than common sense, and substituted mere gratuitous assertion for rational argument j or who have speciously misstated our opinions, and confounded the abuses with what we state to be the fundamental uses of the different mental faculties, and thus, by implication, charged us with their own moral and philosophical heresies. Some have had a presentiment of their own logical weakness ; but then they did not hesitate to appeal to religious prejudices, vociferating those watch-words of persecution in all ages Materialism ! Fatalism ! Atheism ! What can be the motive of such unseemly and unjust pro- ceedings? Why, pride, vanity, and stupidity! Because the very men (Phrenologists) against whom these de- nunciations are directed are endeavouring to render mankind better, by obeying the natural as well as the revealed laws; and if they be in error, surely errors so venial should meet with more ingenuous treatment ! It appears to be highly prejudicial to the cause of truth, that the odium theologicnm should be hurled at even the scoffers of religion : because persecution and unkindness will not convince or soften those who are ignorant, or perverse. To shew the salutary influence of those doctrines which purify the heart, it is essential that the MENTAL CULTURE. 105 professors of them should live as patterns of integrity, candour, prudence, and intelligence, and prove, by actions as well as words, the humanizing and dignifying influence of a mild and true religion. We make no apology for this digression, as it is enough to excite in the mildest man something like a moral indignation, to hear or read, " that Phrenology is likely to be an apology for crimes j" when it is obvious that its philosophical principles tend to destroy the origin of all moral excrescences, by applying the natural caustic to the most exuberant parts, instead of allowing them to grow rankly luxuriant, and then empirically attempting a remedy. But the charge of its inculcating the Fatalism of Ac- tions demands some serious consideration, for it would be the most palpable absurdity in the Phrenologist to advocate the necessity of education, if men were bound to follow the impulses of certain natural predominant faculties. Why, in such a case, attempt to restrain them by exciting the morals and informing the reflective and perceptive powers? It is astonishing how much misery, persecution, and bloodshed have been occasioned by the use of some words; as, for instance, the mysterious word Fatalism ! It seems to exert a talismanic effect on weak minds : they repeat it timidly, then reiterate it, and are startled by the frightful sound it makes. Such persons never think what it really means, and that it has been ap- plied to many very different doctrines. We will instance a few : 1 st. Persons who asserted that all things existed by necessity, or that all objects mineral, vegetable, and animal possessed within their own elements the means of self-combination, were called Fatalists! 2nd. There are vast numbers (particularly in the East) who believe F5 106 MENTAL CULTURE. that all actions, events, and casualties are predestinated ; and these persons are in the strictest sense " Fatalists." There is a third kind of Fatalism, which differs altogether from the two latter, inasmuch as it merely inculcates that all effects, which take place with an invariable con- stancy, must be dependent on immutable causes. This last kind might be thus illustrated : a man ignorant of the laws of vegetation should observe a grain of wheat, accidentally placed by him in the earth, subsequently grow up a perfect plant : he would be led to suppose that the single grain contains the ear and all the subordinate parts: he repeats the experiment, and the plant grows again, thus continuing to return for his single grain a full ear containing many grains, as long as he obeys all the conditions which nature requires for the process of germination- such as a healthy seed, a good soil, and the proper season for planting. He would feel assured that this process, being constant, was to all intents and purposes a law of nature ; that is, an uniform effect resulting from a determinate cause. Therefore, if this be Fatalism, then Phrenology, being equally dependent on certain laws, like all other parts of the works of God, must be also included under that term. It will be shortly noticed how absurd even this admission would be, if some caviller should construe it into a Fatality of Action ; particularly when we shall prove that the re- flective and moral faculties, when properly cultivated, give us the power of chusing between different motives, and must not be confounded with the automatic functions of the lungs, heart, liver, stomach, intestines, and other vital organs, which act without any individual conscious- ness, and many of them quite independently of volition, continuing to perform their functions with the greatest MENTAL CULTURE. 1U/ regularity during health, and so involuntarily that many are totally ignorant of their having such instruments.* And if we direct our attention to another part of our economy, the nerves of sensation, volition, and respiration, (nerves originating in the spinal column), although they perform their varied functions with strictest constancy during health, yet they are more passive in their action than those of the external senses. But the external senses, although they are passive re- cipients of various impressions, are nevertheless so much under the influence of our voluntary powers, that we may direct them to certain objects, and use two or three of them simultaneously; as, for instance, in playing the piano-forte, when the senses of touch, hearing, and sight are all exercised together. Or, if we hear a sudden noise, we can turn our eyes to examine the body from whence it emanates, and feel it at the same time. In these, and similar instances, it is the intellectual faculties which use the senses; and we shall presently find, that they can also exercise a certain power in correcting any erroneous impression which may be experienced by a single sense ; as, for example, when we see objects through some im- perfect medium, so that they are diminished or magnified, we ascertain the illusion by examining them with the hands (touch); but in such an instance it is the mind which induces the experiment, and not the hand acting passively and automatically. Now, it should be remembered that there are certain specific differences between the feelings, the moral and religious sentiments, and the perceptive and reflective fa- culties; and although those of the affective class are lia- ble to involuntary excitement, yet, as the mental faculties * The heart ceasing to act a minute would produce death. 109 MENTAL CULTURE* can correct erroneous impressions of the external sen^ ses, so the reasoning powers may invariably correct the affections, or prevent them from manifesting specific actions, particularly if the whole brain has received pro- per cultivation. It appears to us, that the anti-phreno- logist, by denying the plurality of the mental instruments, is driven to a great extremity on the subject of Fatalism of Actions ; for, if the brain be an unit, but one faculty can use it at a time ; and whatever that may be, it must lead to some determinate action. Then there is another difficulty for our opponents : bow will they explain the indecision which sometimes makes an individual hesitate between two or three or more motives presenting themselves at one and the same time ? This latter very common occurrence affords a refutation of the doctrine, that necessity urges us to particular actions ; and the rationale is to be traced to the following facts ; viz., that the mental faculties have certain grades of importance : the propensities give us what are called the domestic and social feelings, and if they act without proper controul, are likely to lead to overacts of selfishness- and, there- fore, to avoid these consequences, we have bestowed upon us faculties* which impart to us motives of a nobler and more refined kind, which instinctively suggest ideas of our relation to God and our fellow-creatures ; and we have super-added, intelligence to act from their purer dictates ; and whenever we neglect the guidance of our highest faculties, this negligence results from the errors or the want of education. Nor is it a matter of indifference which class of facul- ties is exercised, any more than the consequences of that exercise are accidental. It should be remembered, that * Moral and religious sentiments. MEXTAL CULTURE. 109 the brain, composed of these diversified faculties, is nour- ished from the same material (blood) as all other parts of the body ; so that, if the whole is early and properly exercised, general activity may be expected ; and if par- ticular organs are cultivated, they will increase in the ratio, and manifest a corresponding intensity of function. The criminal who has acted from infancy under the in- fluence of selfish propensities, and whose higher faculties have never received their proper culture, deserves our pity; but yet we could not have expected the contrary from him : " can we gather grapes from thorns, or figs from thistles r" Let us not then confound the aberrations from the mental laws, and the penalties consequent upon their violation, with the want of a natural freedom of will, which the proper use and application of our intellect and moral sentiments confer upon us. All persons admit the deteriorating effects of crime, and the noxious results of bad example ; and yet, when the causes of these violations of the natural laws are explained, it is, forsooth, either impious or downright Fatalism ! But our answer as Phrenologists is, it is truth ; and, like every other truth, is confirmed by experience and observation, which uni- formly prove that the victims of passion, lust, and crime of all kinds, were not bound to act so ; and if their organization induced such acts, they were either aban- doned to unrestrained propensities in early life, or were idiotic or insane ; but in no healthy brain could such baneful results have taken place. And here we would guard against any misconception, by stating that a healthy condition of the cerebral instruments depends on their receiving proper cultivation, and on their being exercised in due harmony. It will be obvious, from the preceding observations, that we accurately distinguish between the agent and the actions ; that man has a free choice, and 110 MENTAL CULTURE. consequently is responsible for the manner of using his prerogative ; that good follows every proper direction of his moral nature ; and that whenever he acts contrary to the laws of mind, he cannot do so with impunity j but whether the act be premeditated or involuntary, every violation of the harmonious arrangement between the faculties of man and the moral government of God en- tails upon the principal actor the penalty assigned to his transgression. This position may be thus simply ex- plained and illustrated : If two men, differently organ- ized, commit a similar offence, the moral or physical punishment which may follow will be the same as regards the immediate consequences, although somewhat modi- fied in intensity. Suppose, for example, that one of these men be nearly idiotic, and possessing strong irascible feelings, but of course wanting intelligence to control them, and that under some sudden or extraordinary ex- citement he murders a fellow-creature ; and suppose another man, with very fair natural talents and moral capacity, but who from infancy has been indulged by parents unheeding of the consequences, and that instead of his higher motives being constantly appealed to, his feelings have been allowed an uncontrolled mastery over him : could we expect that he would manifest any thing else than selfishness ? Could we anticipate that the more matured being, who had thus at such an early period preferred his dark and grovelling animal desires to his human ones, until he had become a passive slave, bound by the fetters which time and habit had forged for him, and so sunk in sin that he had lost a relish for moral pleasures, would ever firmly resist the fury of evil pas- sions, or hesitate (under some sudden impulse) even to take the life of a companion ? The catastrophe in both these supposititious cases being similar, we naturally en- MENTAL CULTURE. 1 1 1 quire whether the moral turpitude is the same; but reason and our criminal laws decidedly make a great distinction between them. Although death is, in both instances, at first regarded as the legal consequence, the motive which led to either act is enquired into, and the moral responsi- bility of each investigated, when it is found that the one had scarcely a gleam of intelligence or moral sensation, and, therefore, not being able to discriminate, he is deemed a being without moral liberty; just in the same manner as if a blind man fall over some valuable piece of furniture and break it ; however we may regret the loss, we do not blame him for an accident occasioned through a physical defect, as we should do another person endued with good sight, and who either wilfully or from carelessness committed a similar fault. Now it is very obvious that there is some analogy between the latter position and the former examples, as the catastrophe in both instances was similar: the one case contemplates the violation of a divine law by two very different agents, and the other describes what is commonly called an ac- cident as occurring under very opposite circumstances; and we infer that there are degrees in the personal accountability in both cases. The two persons who may have destroyed human life are not, even in the eye of the law, regarded as equally culpable, and this dis- tinction between them is in accordance with reason and religion; for the moral turpitude must be greater in one person who was intelligent and might have been better, than in another who had not intelligence to control his very strong propensities, and therefore could scarcely be expected to act otherwise than in subjection to his animal selfishness. It is only by being able to draw the proper line of demarcation in applying the principle of man's free agency, and his consequent responsibility to different 1 12 MENTAL CULTURE. circumstances, that we can fully understand the distinc- tion which must sometimes be made between actions apparently the same, or which, in their results, really are the same; for, as regards the motive, it is obvious that in even a moderate organization the power of choosing between very opposite sensations exists, and therefore that the individual possessing that power can- not be said to be blindly urged to the perpetration of any specific action, and consequently is not to be regarded as the innocent victim of some overpowering necessity. On this principle, although death resulted both in the case of the idiot and of the other person giving way to passion, yet the moral delinquency was confined to the latter case only. It will appear almost a work of supererogation to insist upon the evident truth, that the brain is under the organic laws, as well as every other part of our curiously-contrived frames ; that it must be perfect in all its parts before the whole of its functions can be mani- fested,* and that the degrees of moral power and in- telligence are differently experienced in proportion to the size and perfection of the cerebral instruments; for this is precisely as if we asserted the generally-admitted fact, that the eye must be correct in all its various parts before vision can be so, and that if the instrument is congenitally weak or defective, sight is imperfect, or does not exist at all. Yet should the friends of man rejoice at Gall's discovery, which places a vast power in the hand of the tutor; because if judicious treatment will improve a weak sight, so also will proper exercise and moral nourishment strengthen the cerebral instru- ments. Surely then it is important to know them, and * Witness an idiot's brain. MENTAL CULTURE. 1 13 to comprehend their laws before we attempt to make them available for practical purposes. All, then, that the Phrenologist affirms of the brain and its functions resolves itself into this truth, that the mental laws form no exception to those unerring arrangements which the Almighty Mind hath imprinted on all the other numerous objects of His well-harmonized creation! And without this universal harmony, this uniform fixedness of consequence, as the mere effect of a pre-existing intelligence, we should not be enabled to speak of a determinate and all-ruling cause, so that the boasted reason of man, which is now directed to in- vestigate the nature of causes, would have been con- stantly pursuing shadows fleeting and evanescent as his observations. The stupendous universe and all its accordant parts must have appeared the results of ac- cidental circumstances, had we not had forced upon our notice the invariable connection of cause and effect, from even the form of the most minute atom up to that of a mighty world, and in the simplest mode of existence or of matter, as well as in the most complete objects. We never doubt the laws of vegetation or animalization, because we know that nothing is adventitious ; and surely, in reference to our own minds, we must reject the absurd anomaly of supposing that the mind is the only emana- tion from God devoid of any fixed laws,* because by observation and experiment we perceive that, in it, as in the undeviating order of the material universe, there are a harmony and a constancy of action which pronounce in the most emphatic language THERE is NO SUCH THING AS CHANCE! Can this knowledge dispose us * " Laws of nature" can only mean, that consequences are always to be predicated, since they are owing to the operation of unalterable causes ; therefore a law means simply an uniform effect. 1 14 MENTAL CULTURE. to the commission of crime, or induce us to apologise for acts of folly? No: it rather tends to awaken our highest faculties, and to call forth a silent thanksgiving to that Fountain of all goodness, power, and wisdom, the eternal and immutable Great Cause of all things, who pronounced His creation to be " good." Let those who possess an intuitive love of truth reflect on the great distinction which the science of Phrenology enables us to make between the innate tendencies and the actual manifestation of the desires which they in- duce, and on the resulting inference that there does not exist any thing like predeterminate actions, but that these are the effects of circumstances tending to excite, in various degrees, our different faculties. In the man of little intelligence or moral capacity, any circumstance may so affect his mere animal desires that he feels an urgent inclination to gratify them j whilst in the nobler organized being similar sensations may arise under similar situations, but the moral powers will be sufficient to control the exhibition of such emotions : hence, although the desires be equally powerful, yet the actions they suggest are avoided. This truth is, in point of fact, of great value in moral education : we might tell a child that, as it has the power of turning its head away from a scene of cruelty, so it may avoid looking on any thing degrading to a human being, or doing that which must in some measure lessen its moral rank ; as, for example, concealing the truth. It must be obvious, from these general views, that mental health can only be obtained by exercising all the feelings, sentiments, and faculties, both perceptive and reflective. And if, from ignorance, we neglect the proper means for the consummation of such a desirable end, we still must suffer the same penalty as if our MENTAL CULTURE. 115 aberrations had been voluntary: for, the consequences of violating the laws of mind are as certain as those which result when we injure any of the corporeal organs, in the first case producing those mental diseases follies, faults, and crimes ; and in the second lassitude, debility, pain, and suffering, in all their various degrees. But, there is a great and philosophical distinction between that fatal certainty of the punishment which follows each infringement of the mental laws, and the doctrine of the Fatalism of Man's Actions. Nor is the justice of the Creator impugned by this view of His moral govern- ment, and of the arrangement of our innate powers, any more than the wisdom displayed in the harmony of the physical laws is questionable, because wilful ignorance and voluntary debasement sometimes tend to a fatal loss of life and property;* and if man, in his folly and pre- sumption, will bid defiance to these truths, he must continue to suffer the penalty. Then let me urge the friends of mankind to reflect on the above observations, and remember that if the higher faculties are early neglected, they must become enfeebled, and that the lower propensities, from having received overmuch indulgence, become more and more importu- nate, and more powerful to command immediate gratifi- cation, ultimately inducing the following consequences, mental disquietude, bodily infirmity, premature old age, and a cheerless and miserable end! Whilst if an opposite system be adopted, the judgment will be acute, the morality the most ennobling, producing constant gratitude and veneration towards God and love to our * The loss of the Rothsay Castle steam-vessel, which was not in sea-trim, and which was commanded by a person in a state of intoxication, will be remembered, as furnishing a commentary upon the text. 116 MENTAL CULTURE. fellow- creatures, and securing to the individual a re- flected blessing, serenity of mind, a vigorous body, a happy old age, and a calmness and joy at being able to look back on the past without regret, and on the future with a lively hope of eternal happiness! But, before these invaluable privileges can become the common property of mankind, those persons who really may influence the moral and intellectual state of society, must think for themselves, must rationally investigate the doctrines, and properly appreciate the discovery, of the illustrious Gall; and, finally, must act in accordance with the laws of mind which that discovery has developed. To be led by prejudice; to place themselves in a sort of mental leading-strings; to hesitate, and crawl, and not dare to stand up in the erect posture of intelligent man; to sympathize with the false alarms of those contempti- ble creatures who take a peculiar delight in keeping i and many of the arts, the great diversity in forms and contrivances to be observed on 3 FlSHES. any large range of animal existence, must 4 REPTILES > P rove not on ty use f u l but instructive; me- ^ chanical skill may be continued to be exerted 5 INSECTS. 6 CRUSTACEA. and exercised by repeated fresh contrivances ; but if the models which God has set before ,_ _.. I men in the bodily structures of animals be / MOLLUSCA. J studied, they will suggest the most perfect improvements. A knowledge of the laws of animal life would prove useful for a thousand purposes : such laws, we mean, as the change of the nutritious parts of the food into blood ; that the blood is the material from which is formed brain, nerves, muscles, bone, and all other tissues of the body; that the circulation of the blood would cease, and life itself be destroyed, unless this fluid received the vitalizing property (oxygen) from the atmospheric air during every act of breathing : besides those that regulate the brain, the nervous system and the functions of the muscles for the diversified motions of walking, running, jumping, lifting, and so forth. The action of the heart and the circula- tion of the blood have furnished data in some of the branches of natural philosophy :* and the organs of vision and hearing have supplied hints upon the laws of optics and acoustics. Besides these and other lessons on the * Hydraulics, for example. MENTAL CULTURE. 273 animal organs, we may trace to their laws the ideas of many inventions which now form some of the arts of civilized society. We shall select a few of the most obvious facts, by way of proving that there is no specula- tion in these notions. 1. The various coverings of animals suggested to man different kinds of dresses suitable to particular climates. 2. The great diversity in the forms of animals, the motions of their limbs, and the varied means used for progressing, and their offensive and defensive weapons, have contributed many hints for mechanical contrivances. 3. The skull and the other parts of the body have fur- nished many architectural principles; as, for instance, the arch, as capable of bearing the greatest resistance. 4. In mechanics, the many useful applications of the various contrivances of the divine mind for preventing accidents, dislocations, &c., in complex joints, hinges, &c., have been imitated by man, either for his use, or his pleasures. 5. The excavations of barrows, the buildings of the beaver, and various forms of the nests of birds, have also contributed useful bints. 6. The peculiar varieties of the manner in which the outer or external ear of animals is attached, so as to catch the slightest pulsation of air, might have suggested sails for ships, mill-sails, &c. We could, in this manner, continue to make out a long list, particularly if it were possible to collect the first ideas that induced men to make a particular appli- cation of their discoveries. It is worthy of remark, however, that there is not any human invention which is not in point of fact indebted for its origin or its im- provements to some natural object. Man has obtained his first knowledge in every instance from some part of N5 274 MENTAL CULTURE. the endless contrivances of the great and Divine Architect of all things : and the only merit strictly due to him, is, in his having observed and imitated these models with promptitude and success. The inventor of the universal joint, for instance, no doubt, derived his first idea upon the subject from observing the ball and socket-joint of the thigh-bone. Catalogue of general Knowledge continued. Next to the knowledge of the laws of animal life, as a means of health and of promoting mechanical con- trivances, we deem the kindred sciences of geology, botany, and geography, to be essential, particularly in a commercial country. On the present plans of tuition, each of these sciences is taught merely theoretically (if studied at all), and generally each one is studied singly, or they are all alike neglected in a liberal education. If, however, a classification like the above were adopted, much proficiency might be made in these sciences, and with greater facility than is generally supposed; par- ticularly if models of mountains, rocks, and continents were procured as specimens of each, and the vegetation peculiar to them were used to illustrate each subject. The study of geology, for general purposes, need not be prosecuted in its details: but drawings of rocks, mountains, &c., with the order of their superposition, could be exhibited, not isolated, but so connected to- gether as to form a moveable diorama. By this plan, a very good general knowledge would be obtained of the nature of the earth, and the elevated portions upon the surface. Cabinets, containing specimens of the primitive and secondary rocks, with the substances (minerals) found in their veins and fissures, and also the organic MENTAL CULTURE. 275 remains, would fix the name and property of each rock upon the mind; and, a regular series of clays, sands, and soils should be arranged in their relative situations, by which means not only geological, but also geographical information would be imparted. It would, nevertheless, add to the advantages of such lecture-lessons, if the vegetable productions peculiar to each country were de- scribed, together with the particular localities, whether they were rock, mountain, or valley; in which way a student would, without fatigue to his mind, acquire a general outline of botanical science. He would become acquainted with the links of vegetation : the lichens and moss would be associated with the rock or mountain ; the fungi, with the damp muddy places; reed and ferns, with the beds of rivers, &c., &c. In this manner would be obtained a vast fund of knowledge on these very interesting subjects. Being acquainted with the native places of vegetable productions, and the peculiar classes located in different climates, the pupil would mentally apply the botanical indigenae to distinguish any country he was speaking or writing of, and vice versa. For the study of geography, these links would be found to be most important, if not altogether indispensable ; because, whenever the memory was tardy in re-produ- cing a mental picture of any particular tract of country, if we could only recollect the native plants, or the nature of the soil, or the kind of rock, mountain, or coast, we should have immediately a reminiscence of all the geographical features of a part or the whole of a continent, and every interesting fact which might be connected with the country. It must, certainly, be the most natural order (according to the laws of perception) that, when treating of conti- nents, we should divide them into particular tracts of 276 MENTAL CULTURE. countries, and describe each part according to these natural characteristics: the soils, rocks, mountains, &c., and the natural mineral productions of each ; the vege- tation peculiar to particular soils, &c.; the relative pro- portion between the primitive and secondary rocks, the rivers which issue from them, the names of the valleys they traverse ; besides, the names of the seas, their extent, and other peculiarities, and particularly the continents which they divide : by such helps (and any others which might be suggested) the mind would attain that kind of order and systematic arrangement of its thoughts and ideas, which are essential to the acquisition of clear and definite information. We therefore deem it necessary to connect the studies of geology, botany, and geography; for, when they are not associated, the pupil obtains only very confused notions, which he cannot apply in any practical manner. Thus far we have confined our observations to these combined sciences as intellectual studies; but we would conclude by just pointing out the advantages to which they might be turned. The extent of the trade carried on with China for tea, with the East and West Indies for sugar and coffee, and with the Havannah for tobacco, is well known. Now, if the merchant received an education which should practically acquaint him with the mineral and vegetable productions of countries, this knowledge would prove not only useful for his own gains, but might be made through him conducive to the national prosperity. The subject is too fertile to allow us to enter into details; yet it must be obvious that statistics, national arts and sciences, and political economy, are importantly connected with the descriptions of countries. It is a curious fact, however, thAt in most schools these sub- MENTAL CULTURE. 277 jects, which are so naturally united, are taught either separately or not at all. Yet every educated person, who has an extensive acquaintance with such subjects, must have experienced, that in thinking of a particular country, its produce, its natural and artificial curiosities, the habits of the people, their manufactures, their com- merce, and their customs and manners, are all intimately associated together. It is for the sake of pointing out the importance of using the power of association, that we have given this hasty sketch of those kindred sciences which would be mutually advantageous to the student in his acquisition of knowledge. This may be made more obvious by a single illustration. There is a substance called Labrador Felspar,* which was first discovered by Mr. Latrobe, a Moravian missionary, on the coast of Labrador. Now, whenever we see this beautiful substance, we associate with it the cheerless locality it is found in, the excellent man who first sent it to Europe, the habits of the people, the useful labours of the missionaries, and numerous other interesting facts. If, then, a single substance can thus, from mere association, become the source of so many ideas, what would not a more systematic education produce ? Catalogue of general Knowledge continued. Chemistry, being useful in many arts and indispensable to explain some of the other sciences, and being particu- larly useful in domestic economy, should be taught to all persons, whatever may be their future occupations. Not that we suppose it necessary for general purposes that * It has been also found in other localities very recently ; but the fact is still useful. 278 MENTAL CULTURE. students should, in practically acquiring this science (as part of a useful education), enter into the philosophy of chemistry : our wishes extend no further than merely to communicate the principles and some of the details, to- gether with the collateral sciences of electricity, galva- nism, magnetism, and electro-magnetism, according to the pursuits of each student. In many instances, chemistry must be taught with mineralogy: a knowledge of both is essential to the practitioner in medicine, to enable him to detect poisons and mix compounds. These sciences are also useful to the refiner, smelter, colour manufacturer, glass maker, and others. Chemistry is also important to the agricul- turist, to enable him to improve soils 5 and it possesses this advantage over mere empirical plans, namely, that as long as the natural laws which this excellent science developes are observed, certain results may be relied on as sure and invariable. The whole world is one vast laboratory; hence many of the functions of animal life are influenced by chemical phenomena. The circulation of the blood and respira- tion we have before alluded to, and shall only therefore remark in this place, that the state of respiration is modi- tied by the density or elasticity of gaseous media: ac- cordingly, when a man is upon a high mountain, the air being lighter there than it is at the level of the sea, the circulation of the blood is affected by the decreased mechanical action of air on the surface of the body; and, a similar effect takes place when we breathe in an atmosphere rather more specifically heavy than our own, whereby the blood is impeded in its circulation, the lungs gradually lose the power of action, and the vital flame is soon extinguished : this is the rationale of death by ignited charcoal. The gas which the charcoal gives MENTAL CULTURE. 279 off (carbonic gas) being known to the chemist as des- tructive of life under any circumstances, he would be enabled to guard against such a catastrophe, and to avoid many other physical contingencies. In cases where poisons have been taken by persons either from accident or design, the tyro of a chemist would be enabled to administer an antidote. If we attempted to treat of subjects that are indebted to chemi- cal action for their results, we should require volumes : we shall therefore urge the fact, that without general information on this important science, the condition of man would greatly deteriorate. Although a sudden ex- igency may arouse the inventive faculties of even the barbarian, still, without a theory, he would find it im- possible to overcome many evils of a novel kind. Diffi- culties, even with the aid of information, cannot always be avoided ; but by the total lack of knowledge they are rendered doubly prejudicial and inconvenient.* Catalogue of general Knowledge continued. Geometry, Algebra, and the various applications of mathematical science, could be communicated to those young men whose future pursuits might be aided and advanced by these sciences. English Grammar and Logic are indispensable, be- cause without them, however a man may be enriched with true knowledge, he would not be able to speak with propriety j and, without some regular order in stating his facts, the reasoning upon them would be im- * We often hear persons, who are considered well educated, com- plain in rainy weather, that the air is very heavy, when the reverse is the case, and their langour is occasioned by air not pressing heavily enough on the bodily organs. 280 MENTAL CULTURE. methodical and inconclusive. But, their principles could be better imparted at the fourth stage of education than at an earlier period - } because even the terms of these sciences require an intelligent mind to comprehend them. The usages of society and the advantages of conversation would have already inculcated some notion of the art of arranging sentences according to the idiomatic forms of the language, and then the philosophy of this collocation might be explained in familiar lectures upon the subject. And we think that by the practice of translating words and sentences of another language, after the pupil had become acquainted with his own, he would comprehend, by observing the analogy or difference between the two languages, the rules for grammatical composition in the foreign one, with much greater facility than by the usual methods. The study of Rhetoric might be added in some cases to the above course. By this art a youth would attain clearness of diction, and perspicuity and grace in his composition, and would learn to infuse an elegance of manner into the oral delivery of his sentiments. Historical reading is essential for obtaining a know- ledge of the laws of nations, and the occasions which gave rise to many statutes and customs otherwise in- explicable. History is also useful in the study of moral philosophy. Catalogue of general Knowledge continued. Drawing and Perspective would be essential to the architect and painter, and would also be of great assist- ance to the young naturalist, the mechanic, and all who might require skill in forming diagrams or patterns, and hence these accomplishments would prove useful in many MENTAL CULTURE. 281 of the arts. Yet we do not consider them as actually so important as chemistry, or any of the preceding branches of knowledge 5 and should not deem a national system of education to be defective without them, any more than if the science of music were also excluded.* There are many of the sciences not included in this catalogue, as, for example, pneumatics, hydraulics, hy- drostatics, and others - } but they could be introduced as necessity might dictate, the teacher taking care to ob- serve their natural connections, and thus to give the pupil clear and practical views of every subject to which his attention might be called. * The above catalogue is proposed merely with a view to point out the best and most useful knowledge for bettering the moral and intellectual character of all ranks of society. The fine arts might be pursued; but they are not indispensable. 282 MENTAL CULTURE. CHAPTER XIV. PRACTICAL REFLECTIONS. WE do not anticipate any objections being made to the practicability of our views of scientific education by those who have contemplated the advancement of pupils, when real knowledge is communicated instead of mere theoretical information. It may be said, that however such a system as we have sketched may be capable of being acted upon by the higher and most wealthy por- tions of the middling classes, the greater number of per- sons must necessarily be excluded by the necessity of devoting themselves to the labour of gaining a part of their living at the age we have fixed on for the fourth stage of education. We are aware of the fact that, at fourteen years old, boys are placed out to learn some handicraft or trade j and, although we do not anticipate that this practice will be dispensed with, yet we contend that some alterations may be made, so that, at this most interesting period of life, the individual may improve in moral worth and intelligence, instead of being abandon- ed to ignorance, in the strictest sense of the word. The custom of binding a youth for five or seven years to learn that which, in all probability, could be acquired in a few months, must be regarded as the selfish remains of a barbarous age :* it is a tax upon the period of life most * The first historical notice of the term of apprenticeship is found in the Bible : Jacob served his idolatrous father-in-law seven years for his wife, and after being cheated served another seven years. MENTAL CULTURE. 283 adapted for receiving instruction, and therefore is a grie- vous hindrance to the means of acquiring extensive and general mental improvement. It might be justifiable in former days, when a pupil was necessarily ignorant of all real knowledge, or when the cupidity of the master in- duced him to mystify his art, in order to make it more appreciated. But, when a youth is well informed by a practical education, the mere instruction in the process of an art or trade would not require any longer time than we have mentioned, particularly when the master shall feel it his duty and his interest to communicate every thing to his pupil, clearly and intelligibly. In this way ample time would be allowed to a youth for attending public schools of science, by which means he would not only improve in his particular art, but would also ensure respectability and moral satisfaction. Practicability of these Views, and the Reasons why they have hitherto partially failed, when tried. It will be easily proved by the evidence of facts, that man is capable of much greater advancement in morals and in intelligence, when he shall have his innate facul- ties trained according to their laws, and when he shall be fully instructed in the duties and obligations which these faculties impose upon him. There are two primary considerations which are essential, before we can hope to render the blessings of education universal. The first is, that man, although an intellectual being, requires to have his various powers called into action according to certain conditions ; and that this must be done (as we have be- fore intimated) according to a natural order established by the Creator himself. The second is, that he is en- 284 MENTAL CULTURE. (lowed with certain moral faculties which lead to the happiness of the individual and the welfare of the com- munity, if they be cultivated, but produce the opposite effects if they be neglected. This knowledge gives'us a clue to the reason why the progress of society towards a better state is so much obstructed : the two great ob- jects of man's existence have been generally separated : some aiming only at the moral advancement of man, whilst others have only laboured to make him more in- tellectual. It will be our present purpose to demonstrate that edu- cation ought to embrace every thing that may improve the health, morals, or understanding: we will begin by taking a hasty glance at what has been done towards this most interesting desideratum. For the sake of connect- ing the various circumstances which have produced par- tial failure in the attainments of the above advantages, we must allude again to the infant schools and mechanic institutions, because in them an attempt at teaching upon part of our plans has been tried. The children of infant schools, composed in most in- stances of the poorest classes, are taught a vast fund of information, consisting of numerous facts relating to the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; they also re- ceive moral instruction. The latter is not so effective as might be anticipated with minds so pliant, because it is either neglected at home, or discontinued in more ad- vanced schools. By this we mean, that moral culture does not constitute, as it should do, the main object of education. For it is the moral sentiments which alone confer dignity and respectability on man, and which give to his intellectual powers either a useful or an injurious direction. Nevertheless, the fact stands uncontroverted, that to render men intelligent, real knowledge must be MENTAL CULTURE. 285 communicated to them, and that this must be done during the time of childhood; and if in infant schools the chil- dren acquire such extensive information even before the age of seven years, what might not be realized if the system of teaching every thing practically were pursued through the subsequent stages of education? There is a well-known adage, that " for the mind to be healthy the body must be so," a truth which even the most superficial may verify. How then can we expect that elasticity of mind and vividness of ideas in children who have been placed in what are called the respectable schools, where they are not only cramped with lessons they do not understand, but are fixed to their forms or benches like statues, so that the seeds of disease are often thus unintentionally sown in the youthful constitution ? This is obviated in the infant schools, where they receive their lessons under the appearance of playfulness and pastime, by which their bodily health is improved and not injured; besides that they are allowed many hours of relaxation, during which their little minds have some- thing interesting to dwell upon, derived from their nu- merous and pleasing lessons, and therefore are not preyed upon and enervated by listlessness, as is the case with children at this age under any other system.* To the mind capable of analogical reasoning, it will appear that if so palpable a superiority have been ob- tained by children whose perceptive faculties have been addressed, every higher branch of knowledge is equally within the reach of youth. And, ought any effort to accomplish so desirable an end to be left untried ? Our motto expresses, " that the volume of nature is the book * We would advise those interested on this subject to read Mr. Wilderspin's highly-pleasing and benevolent work, entitled " Early Discipline," &c. 286 MENTAL CULTURE. of knowledge;" and as our faculties (perceptive) were intended to make us acquainted with all the ohjects of the external world, surely that end ought to be system- atically promoted. But, we do not regard an intellectual education as capable of producing its full effects, unless the sentiments of justice, love, piety, and the other moral attributes be simultaneously cultivated. By uniting the cultivation of both sets of faculties under one system, the social and domestic relations would become more refined, so that happiness and contentment would sweeten the meal of the humblest being, who would learn to appre- ciate the dignity of his moral nature as well as the more common advantages of knowledge ; and thus whenever he used his eyes and ears, to examine the wonders of the animate and inanimate world, a purer joy would gladden his heart than any that could possibly be derived from sensual gratifications : then, and not till then, will the moral and religious sentiments assert their proper in- fluence in regulating the actions of men, and in infusing harmony into the social state.* Remarks on the unfounded Prejudices against universal Education. It is objected to these views, that instead of education producing a moral effect upon the minds of the poor and humble portion of the middling classes, it has only so far tended to make them dissatisfied with their condition. This we deem either a subterfuge or a fallacy, origina- ting in prejudice, because we deny that there exists a system of education which comprehends the means of * DRAM-SHOPS might then be closed, and GAOLS converted into public lecture-rooms and museums. MENTAL CULTURE. 287 restraining the feelings, whilst it enlightens the intellect - } which fosters the moral qualities, and, at the same time, communicates the means of physical health. Can that be termed education, which teaches reading, but not the meaning of words ; and cyphering, without any real in- formation of the value of numbers; and which regards a good hand-writing as indicative of genius? We have shewn that education ought to take a much wider range ; that it should embrace not only a knowledge of ourselves and the things by which we are surrounded, but also develope the various relations which our diversified pow- ers bear to our fellow-creatures, to the external world, and to our Creator. Now then we would ask objectors to intellectual improvement if they consider the Lancas- terian, the National, and Sunday Schools to have taken such a range of man's various duties? whether they have addressed all his faculties ? If they have not (and we contend that they have not), then how can they con- found their imperfect measures with a more enlarged system, which would fully inform the intellect, and teach men to be moral, humble, and wise ? When the experiment shall have been tried of admin- istering knowledge to children, and of cultivating their moral nature, from the very time when they begin to walk to the sixth or seventh year; when this system shall have been pursued to the age of fourteen, and then the higher branches of knowledge shall have been imparted j and it shall have been found that persons so educated are alienated from justice, from mercy, from sympathy j that they have no relish for the delightful knowledge of God's works and his beneficent providence, and that they continue (like the unreclaimed boor) to prefer sensuality, intemperance, dishonesty, revenge, murder, and every irreligious act ; then, and not till then, let it be regarded 288 MENTAL CULTURE. as a tenable argument to maintain that man is worse for having his moral sentiments and his intellectual faculties cultivated ! But we will proceed to answer another objection equally unfounded. We have heard it stated, as a weighty argument against teaching the sciences to youth whose future occupations will be of a laborious kind, that in mechanics' institutions there may be observed amongst the members great self-conceit, arising from the superficial nature of their acquirements, a fault which is to be ascribed to the number of the subjects usually taught them, and which in most instances induces a scepticism fatal to their morals and their happiness. This is a grave charge, but it is one which is highly exaggerated j and as we feel deeply concerned for the welfare of these and similar institutions, we cannot re- sist pointing attention to the causes which originate such erroneous statements. We admit, then, that these institutions have not yet proved so useful as they might be made, because the friends and conductors of them have been unacquainted with the true theory of the fun- damental faculties of man; and therefore their plans have been somewhat defective in appliances for arousing into activity the moral attributes, and the improvement of the mere intellect has too exclusively engrossed atten- tion. But this defective system of partially cultivating the various faculties is not confined to mechanics' insti- tutions : it is the source of error in all others, and will remain so until laws and systems are framed in accordance with the laws of mind, instead of being founded upon the suggestions of caprice and uninformed experience.* * By uninformed experience, we mean that laws are made with- out any reference to the compound nature of man ; and this is owing to the want of a correct theory of mental philosophy. MENTAL CULTURE. 289 But many of these errors in tuition will be soon amended. The committees of the London, Edinburgh, Derby, Hull, and many other mechanics' institutions, have endeavoured to remedy this vital defect, by enter- taining lectures explanatory of the natural history of man. In these courses the nature of man's obligations has been unfolded, and the members have expressed satisfaction, and it may be hoped will have derived some moral advantages, from them. Yet we trust the time is not far distant when the moral sentiments will, in all these seats of instruction, be addressed in a direct and uniform manner, by systematic courses on the various duties of moral agents 5 and that the developement of those faculties will not only be regarded as the means of improvement, but as the object of all education. But, there is a charge made by some persons of super- ficiality in knowledge, on the part of young men who are members of mechanic and other similar institutions. The charge is not altogether unfounded, and it arises from this circumstance : the various lectures being upon so many subjects, are desultory in some instances, and too little systematized in others j and therefore they tend to produce a heterogeneous mixture of ideas, instead of clear and comprehensive conceptions, so essential to improve the intellectual and moral condition of the individual. These defects are easily corrected by grouping the sci- ences, and by connecting those of a kindred nature, and which mutually explain complex phenomena. But with all the disadvantages complained of, and admitted to exist, these institutions have done, and still are doing, incalculable good. They will oblige the higher grades of society to cultivate their minds, and not continue satisfied with mere shadows of knowledge, whilst the mechanic and artizan possess substantial in- O 290 MENTAL CULTURE. formation on the various branches of natural history and natural philosophy! Recapitulation of the Advantages of a. systematic Plan for Moral and Intellectual Education. The more we reflect on the capability of human nature for improvement, and that man is by his organization the most perfect of all created beings, the more we regret that the greater number of the race act so much under the controul of the lower propensities, and that, even among the educated classes, moral culture is too often left to the cold and heartless influence of precept. It will have been recognised, that according to the principles advocated in these pages, we deem the moral and religious sentiments as being the most important of all our faculties ; but this fact is too often lost sight of in education j or else teachers are not aware that the feelings may direct the application of the intellectual faculties, and that thus the dictates of man's moral qualities may become too feeble to restrain his selfishness. When, however, the moral powers have been early trained and appealed to as the motives for all actions, and the intellect is enriched by an acquaintance with the Creator's works, man becomes truly humanized. We have therefore endeavoured to prove the advantage of a system of education which should realize these views. In order that morality may be practically enforced, and that every kind of knowledge may be communicated in the simplest possible manner, we have shown the im- 'portance of illustrating every subject by specimens or experiments, of rendering descriptions clear and definite, and of recommending precept by example. But, the most important subject we have discussed is the application of MENTAL CULTURE. 291 the organic laws, which are the means of making human improvement certain : we shall therefore recapitulate the advantages to be derived from this latter kind of knowledge. If a system of education were organized according to the progressive developement of the mental faculties, much more would be realized than even our warmest speculations have anticipated. In the first and second stages of education would be imparted a knowledge of things in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and the names by which each object is distinguished : in the third stage, would be communicated all necessary information on the qualities and properties of all useful subjects; and in the fourth stage, the preceding divisions of knowledge would be arranged into their natural groups of genera and species, orders and classes. Besides this comprehensive classification, there would be also given a general acquaintance with the laws of animal life, and with all the mental phenomena; and thus instructed, a youth would be qualified to contemplate the great con- nection or relation between all parts of the visible crea- tion and his own valuable faculties. On the other hand it cannot be denied, that the effects of a contrary system are doubly prejudicial to an indi- vidual. For not only is the mind left a blank as regards true knowledge, but this very ignorance induces a specific deterioration of the moral character; because when a youth begins to feel the force of animal desires, he has no restraining principle, or at least it often operates too feebly to be effective. Another practical advantage may be derived from the plans we advocate : information would not only be useful when imparted according to the above arrangements, but would prove also agreeable, a quality which is highly O2 292 MENTAL CULTURE. essential for general purposes, and which could be se- cured by modifying the instruction according to the natural capacity and probable pursuits of the pupil. However restricted the mental capabilities of a youth may be, we still deem it important to direct his attention to some of the innumerable objects of the terrestrial world, which, like a mighty store-house, is filled with facts and phenomena, suitable to our wants, and capable of furnishing us with endless and refined pleasures. It is also evident, that information on the works of the Creator may be extensively applied to the arts. In the catalogue of general knowledge we have adduced some instances, but the following epitome will suffice for our present purpose. An individual who is acquainted with the different animals that inhabit the earth, the air, and the waters, and who studies their varied and beautiful forms, and their still more wonderful economy, will find some advantage, whatever his avocation, if it be con- nected with the mechanic arts. In every other portion of this stupendous world the student would find an impress of the Divine Mind, and fresh sources of know- ledge at once astonishing and delightful. The earth is filled with wonders! Its surface presents the richness of vegetation in endless forms, from the humble lichen, which covers with a skin-like substance the sides of rocks, to the stately oak, whose branches are spread out with peculiar luxuriance. Then, if the earth itself be ex- amined; its fissures, containing so many beautiful mineral substances ; its mountains, filled with metallic veins, and with marbles of every hue and colour its clays, essential to so many purposes; and its soils, suitable to such variety of vegetation; all conspire to attune the soul to hymn the Creator's praise, and fill the mind with endless sources of purest gratification. MENTAL CULTURE. 293 Besides these things, a knowledge of the connection between different sciences, and of the uses of mineral and vegetable substances in chemistry, natural philosophy, medicine, and the arts, afford so many fresh means of information and pleasure. It must therefore be evident, that for the well-being of society, it is essential to make education in every instance practical, and if that be done, we need not fear that it will not prove beneficial. But, in concluding these remarks on the advantages of knowledge, we cannot resist observing that a moral education (such as the one we have contemplated) might be rendered the hand-maid of pure religion. Justice, truth, love, and piety, would be the natural consequences of such instruction, because it would be accompanied with an intelligent consciousness of the infinite power of that great and good Being who framed the universe, and whose benign providence takes care of every living creature with more than a father's kindness and solici- tude. Finally, we must also regard the fraternizing con- sequences of such mental culture. There would be manifested a practical forbearance towards each other, because we should admit the fact of a diversity of natural gifts, and hence, although we should admire the noble and intelligent, we should pity the imbecile, and re- gret the foibles of a sinning brother. And let it be impressed as a truth naturally resulting from such a state of moral and intellectual cultivation, that by it the mind is ennobled, whilst the judgment remains un- clouded by prejudice : men are not esteemed for any thing so adventitious as wealth j but the good and intelligent are respected, whatever may be their rank or occupation. 03 294 MENTAL CULTURE. Concluding Remarks. Before parting with my Reader, I would urge upon his attention two errors, which are especially opposed to a system of natural education j but when these obstacles are* removed, the principle would be generally recognised and acted upon. First, teachers themselves must be better informed upon subjects of science and natural his- tory than they usually are, and they must be regarded as the most useful members of the commonwealth:* when this is the case, their labours will be more effective, and they will be respected as the most valuable contributors to human happiness, and to the peace and health of the community. Secondly, when teachers are scientific, they do not sufficiently depend upon the simplicity of truth, but tire their pupils with a variety of technicalities, and the frightful terras which they use form one of the bar- riers which must be removed, before society will make much advancement in real knowledge. On the pre- sent systems, the pupils in junior classes are taught by books to read concerning things they have never seen, and of curious processes which could not be compre- hended by any kind of description. They then come into lecture-rooms learnedly ignorant. We are glad that the principle begins to be recognised, that words cannot give ideas: hence an improvement in tuition may be anticipated. For words can never convey ideas, * The cultivation of all the various faculties being their province, they should be respected and rewarded ; but in England they are too often treated unworthily, and their high and responsible occupation is by no means appreciated. MENTAL CULTURE. 295 unless the things they represent are seen or known or unless they have some resemblance to others which have been seen before. But we repeat that true knowledge confers happiness as well as power; and therefore, to ensure the moral respectability of mankind, care should be taken to place within the reach of all classes the means of obtaining positive information respecting all external things, and respecting the various obligations springing from the dif- ferent mental faculties. Such an education, if it could not enable us to prevent or foresee casualties, would in some measure enable us to alleviate their effects. It should be remembered, that individuals, like nations, are subject to sudden vicissitudes and unexpected changes; but the man who has had all his faculties educated, will possess too many resources to suffer him to be depressed by any ordinary calamity, and will thus be enabled to preserve a consistency of conduct under all circumstan- ces : he will be neither insolent in prosperity, nor servile in misfortunes ; he will comprehend his true relations to the external world and to his fellow-creatures, and thus be always disposed to noble rather than grovelling ac- tions; because he will know the dignity inherent in him as a moral and intellectual agent, and (whatever may be his station) will endeavour to submit to all the natural laws, physical, organic, moral, and intellectual. If there are things he cannot comprehend, or exigencies which he cannot avert, he will regard them as the fiat of uner- ring Wisdom, and will never presumptuously speculate on the design of Providence, but continue to observe his various duties ; he will be temperate and frugal, and pre- serve his health by exercising his bodily and mental functions. He will delight in the active manifestation of his moral attributes, and will be continually increas- 296 MENTAL CULTURE. ing his knowledge and happiness by a more intimate acquaintance with the wonders and contrivances in the objects around him : these lessons he will read without tiring, and, in adding to his own improvement, will ren- der himself more useful to others. In this way, the man who has been properly educated will keep always in view the ends of his existence,^invariably striving to make all that occurs to him (whether he be buffeted by storm, or bask in the sunshine) subsidiary to his moral advance- ment ! This is a summary of the natural results which would be effected by a system of education based on a correct knowledge of mental philosophy, a philosophy which proves that the intellectual qualities of all men are es- sentially similar, and that the only difference necessary to be observed in the intellectual tuition of individuals is merely to modify the various branches of study suit- ably to their particular conditions and pursuits - } but that the moral culture of all should be universally the same, because the duties springing from the moral code, which is bound up in our organization, cannot be dispensed with, unless society can exist without the exercise of justice and benevolence. EXPLANATION OF TERMS tctlj) Cidjmcal, OR RENDERED SO BY BEING USED IN A PARTICULAR SENSE IN THIS WORK, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. Abdomen. Belly. Acoustics. Doctrine of sounds. In its more comprehensive mean- ing, it explains the structure of the ear, and its contrivances for receiving the pulsations of air; and also the manner in which sounds are modulated. (See Organ of Melody.) Acquisitiveness. Instinct to acquire. (See organ.) Adhesiveness. Instinctive affection. (See organ.) Affective Faculties. The feelings and sentiments which give us emotions and sensations. (See chapters III. and IV.) Alimentary Canal. The gullet, stomach, and intestines. Amativeness. Physical love. (See Function of the Cerebellum.) Anatotny. The doctrine of the structure of the various organs of the body, comprehending the situation and number of the bones ; the ligaments that connect them together ; the muscles which are attached to the bones; the situation of organs within the skull, brain, nerves, &c.; those contained within the chest, as the lungs, heart, <3cc.; and those contained within the abdo- men, as the stomach, liver, gall-bladder, intestines, &c., &c.; the courses and origin of the nerves, arteries, veins, &c.; the situation of the numerous glands that secrete tears, milk, &c.; and the situation and structure of the organs of the external senses, &c. Approbation (Love of). Desire of applause. (See organ.) Benevolence. Innate sense of kindness, mercy, sympathy. (See organ.) Bilious Temperament. (See Temperaments, and chapter II.) Brain. A compound organ enclosed within the skull. (See chap- ter I.) Carnivora. Animals which feed on flesh. (See Organ ofDestruc- tiveness.) Causality. Inferential faculty. (SeeReasoning Powers, chapter V.) 298 MENTAL CULTURE. Cautiousness. Instinctive fear. (See organ.) Cerebrum. Brain. Cerebral. Relating to the brain. Cerebellum. Little brain. (See chapter I.) Colour (Organ of). Perception of harmony or relation of colours. Combativeness. Instinctive courage. (See organ.) Comparison. Analogical faculty. (See Reasoning Powers, chap- ter V.) Congeries. An assemblage. Constructiveness. Instinct of contrivance. (See organ.) Conscientiousness. Sense of right and wrong. (See organ.) Convolution. The folding up or folds of any thing. (See Structure of the Brain, chapter I.) Cranium. Skull. Cranial. Relating to the skull. Crista Galli. A small elevated portion of bone, situated in the anterior and base of the skull, dividing it exactly into halves between the eyes. (See chapter I.) Dental. Relating to the teeth. (See Organ of Destructiveness.) Destructiveness. Carnivorous instinct. (See organ.) Eventuality. Memory of events, phenomena, &c. (See organ.) Firmness. Instinctive perseverance. (See organ.) Fontanelle. The opening on the top of an infant's head. (See Skull, chapter I.) Frontal Bone. The forehead from the temples. Form. Perception of symmetry and proportion. (See organ.) Function. The use of an organ. (See Physiology.) Hemisphere. Half-globe, used in this sense to denote the half of the brain, which is a double organ, and divided into two equal parts. (See Brain, chapter I.) Herbivora. Animals which feed on grain, pulse, and other vegetable matter. (See Organ of Destructiveness. ,) Heterogeneous. Made up of particles of dissimilar properties. Homogeneous. Composed of particles of similar properties. Hope. A sentiment which urges the mind to regard a future state. (See organ.) Ideality. Sentiment which gives imagination, fancy, taste, enthusi- asm. (See organ.) Imitation (Organ of). Source of expression and natural language. (See organ.) Indigence : Native. Individuality. Perception of existence and memory of facts. (See organ.) Inhabitiveness. Love of place, the feeling of amor patriot. (See organ.) Instincts. Impulsive sensations or emotions which urge to determi- nate actions ; in man, instincts result from the affective facul- ties being allowed to act without the control of the intellect. MENTAL CULTURE. 299 Intellectual Laws.' The laws according to which the understanding is developed, governed, or in any way influenced. Laminae. Leaves or layers. Laminated. Being in layers. (See Skull, chapter I.) Language (Organ of). Verbal memory. (See organ.) Locality. Memory of places. (See organ.) Lymphatic Temperament. (See Temperaments, and chapter II.) Marvellousness. Instinctive credulity. (See organ.) Masticatory Organs. (See Organ ofDestmctiveness, where allusion is made to the difference of the teeth in the two great orders of animals.) Mastoid Process. A bony protuberance behind the ear for the at- tachment of a muscle. Melody (Organ of). Innate perception of the harmony or the dis- cordance of sounds. (See organ.) Mesial Line. Middle line of the head. (See. chapter I.) Moral Laws. The obligations founded upon the innate moral and religious sentiments of man. (See chapters VI. and VIII.) Nervous Temperament. (See Temperaments, and chapter II.) Number (Organ of). Perception of quantity. (See organ.) Occipital Spine or Process. A protuberant bone at the lower part of the back of the head, for the attachment of muscles. (See chapter I.) Order (Organ of). Perception of arrangement. (See organ.) Organic Laws. Those laws by which the organs of vegetable and animal bodies increase. These laws also furnish us with the processes of increase, as, in the first instance, the nourishment is changed by the stomach and the other digestive organs into blood; and this result of dead matter is converted by each living organ into a part of itself, either by secretion or assimi- lation. Parietal Bones. Bony walls; i.e., the sides of the head from be- hind the ear (mastoid process) to the temples. Pelvic. From pelvis, the bony receptacle at the lower part of the abdomen, which contains the stomach, intestines, &c. (See Organ of Destructiveness.*) Philoprogenitiveness. Love of offspring. (See organ.) Phrenology. Discourse on mind. Phrenomatic Laws. Laws relating to the mind; namely, the feel- ings, sentiments, perceptive and reasoning powers. Physical Laws. These laws either comprehend the whole of the material universe (from physis, the Greek word for nature), or (as we have applied the terms, in a more restricted sense) the inorganic masses composing the globe, the gases, and other elements, not actually vegetable and animal. Physical Laws are also terms expressing the difference between the modes of increase in animal and in vegetable bodies, and in the mineral substances; the former adding to their bulk by assimilating 300 MENTAL CULTURE. the nutritious portions of food ; and the latter by deposition and increment. Physiology. Doctrine of the general principles of vitality; also comprehending particular and peculiar modifications of the vital actions; as, for example, the functions of the spinal nerves for sensation, volition, and respiration; the functions of the brain for feelings, sentiments, and intellectuality ; the different functions of the external senses, as the optic nerve to see with, &c.; the functions of the muscles for varied simple and compound motions ; the function of certain glands to se- crete tears, milk, &c., &c. Sanguineous Temperament. (See Temperaments, and chapter 11.) Secretiveness. Instinct of cunning and evasion : also an element in prudence. (See organ.) Self-esteem. In its good sense, the instinct of self-preservation, but generally used with a reference to its various abuses. (See organ.) Sensorium, The seat of all sensation. Physiologists consider the brain as the focus of all sensation attended with consciousness. Size (Organ of). Perception of distance and perspective. (See organ.) Sutures. The term given to the inimitable dove-tailing of the bones of the skull. (See chapter I.) Superciliary Ridge. Eye-brow ; which is more or less projecting in proportion to the size of the brain, at the anterior and infe- rior portion of this organ. (See chapter iy.) Temperaments. Constitutional peculiarities, which give greater or less activity to the bodily and mental functions. They are called nervous, bilious, sanguineous, and lymphatic. (See chapter II.) Time (Organ of). Perception of duration. (See organ.) Thorax. Chest. Veneration (Organ of). Innate sentiment of respect; also essential to religious notions. (See organ.) Weight (Organ of). Perception of momentum or resistance, gravity, &c. (See organ.) Wit (Organ of). Used to express the perception of contrast, and constitutes the antithetical faculty. (See organ.) THE END. J. AND J. JACKSON, PHINTERS, LOUTH.